Tracing Tangueros: Argentine Tango Instrumental Music [Illustrated] 0199348227, 9780199348220

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Title Pages

Tracing Tangueros: Argentine Tango Instrumental Music Kacey Link and Kristin Wendland

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780199348220 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: March 2016 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199348220.001.0001

Title Pages (p.i) Tracing Tangueros Series Information (p.iii) Tracing Tangueros (p.xiii) Tracing Tangueros (p.xiv) (p.ii)

Walter Clark, Series Editor Nor-tec Rifa! Electronic Dance Music from Tijuana to the World

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Title Pages Alejandro L. Madrid From Serra to Sancho: Music and Pageantry in the California Missions Craig H. Russell Colonial Counterpoint: Music in Early Modern Manila D. R. M. Irving Embodying Mexico: Tourism, Nationalism, & Performance Ruth Hellier-Tinoco Silent Music: Medieval Song and the Construction of History in Eighteenth-Century Spain Susan Boynton Whose Spain? Negotiating “Spanish Music” in Paris, 1908-1929 Samuel Llano Federico Moreno Torroba: A Musical Life in Three Acts Walter Aaron Clark and William Craig Krause Representing the Good Neighbor: Music, Difference, and the Pan American Dream Carol A. Hess Danzón: Circum-Caribbean Dialogues in Music and Dance Alejandro L. Madrid and Robin D. Moore Agustín Lara: Page 2 of 4

Title Pages A Cultural Biography Andrew G. Wood Tracing Tangueros: Argentine Tango Instrumental Music Kacey Link and Kristin Wendland

(p.iv)

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide.Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and certain other countries. Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America. © Oxford University Press 2016 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above. You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer. Cataloging-in-Publication Data is on file at the Library of Congress. Page 3 of 4

Title Pages ISBN 978–0–19–934823–7 (pbk) — 978–0–19–934822–0 (hbk) Cover image credits: 1. Julio De Caro playing his violin cornet. Undated photo from the Archivo General de la Nación, Dpto. Doc. Fotográficos, Buenos Aires, Argentina, #71339_A. Used by permission. 2. Sonia Possetti, 2013. Photo by Damián Bolotin. Used by permission. 3. Osvaldo Pugliese. From the personal collection of the authors. 4. Horacio Salgán in 2014. Photo by Cesár Salgán. Used by permission. 5. Astor Piazzolla in Paris in c. 1974. Photo used by permission from Georgina Ginastera. 6. Julián Plaza, undated. Used by permission from Diego Plaza. 7. Leopoldo Federico, in his office at AADI, 2013. Photo by the authors. 8. Damián Bolotin, 2013. Photograph by the authors. 9. Aníbal Troilo. 1967 photo from the Archivo General de la Nación, Dpto. Doc. Fotográficos, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 298123_A. Used by permission. 10. Juan Pablo, 2011. Photo taken by the authors. 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed by Webcom, Canada

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Dedication

Tracing Tangueros: Argentine Tango Instrumental Music Kacey Link and Kristin Wendland

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780199348220 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: March 2016 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199348220.001.0001

Dedication (p.v) To our mothers, the late Audrey Kvam Wendland and Brenda Groskinsky, for modeling strength, perseverance, and passion for writing and learning. (p.vi)

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Acknowledgments

Tracing Tangueros: Argentine Tango Instrumental Music Kacey Link and Kristin Wendland

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780199348220 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: March 2016 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199348220.001.0001

(p.ix) Acknowledgments Our first round of thanks goes to each other for being a true partner in this project, where we were able to share in the process of transcending the egocentered I/my to a collaborative entity of we/our. We entered into the world of Argentine tango separately, Wendland through the dance in the late 1990s and Link through the music of Piazzolla in the early 2000s. Because we were each fascinated with the art form and had the personal and artistic need to understand it more fully, we began going to Buenos Aires, tango’s source, in search of answers to such questions as how do you play, write, arrange, and understand tango? We met in 2007 in Buenos Aires and began collaborating on tango research in 2009. As we delved deeper into tango’s world together, our personal need expanded to one that involved sharing our findings with others. In an effort to transmit the specific sounds and qualities of Argentine tango music as we were experiencing them in Buenos Aires, we began to present our work and ideas at music conferences and academic music departments. We greatly appreciate the invaluable feedback and suggestions that we received from participants at these sessions, including those for the College Music Society; the Society for Ethnomusicology; the University of Miami; the University of California, Riverside; and the Music Teachers’ Association of California. We then decided to take the next step and create a useful resource for musicians and tango enthusiasts. This book represents our explorations with tango and our desire to share our journey of this captivating and dynamic art form. If, as they say, “it takes a village to raise a child,” it certainly took a city to write a book of this magnitude. The help from our network reached broadly and deeply. We name here many of the people who helped us along the path, yet there are many more in the world of tango who have communicated ideas and insights simply

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Acknowledgments through their transmission of the music, dance, and words. We give our sincere gratitude to: (p.x) Our academic institutions, Emory University, the University of Kansas, the University of Miami, and the University of California-Santa Barbara for research and travel support, and to the US Fulbright Scholar Program for its commitment to fostering international research and scholarly connections. Our colleagues, both inside and outside the academy, for unfailing encouragement of our research and for reading proposal and manuscript drafts: Allan Atlas, Lynn Bertrand, Juan Chattah, Stephen Crist, Yayoi Uno Everett, Howard Goldstein, Diana Hallman, Henry Hilbert, Dubravko Kakarigi, Kevin Karnes, Virginia Kron, Tong Soon Lee, John A. Lennon, Luis Nariño, Steve Newkirk, Deborah Schwartz-Kates, and Deborah Slover. Special thanks to Michael O’Brien for his invaluable comments on the final manuscript to strengthen and clarify many points. Walter Clark, OUP Currents in Latin American & Iberian Music series editor, and Suzanne Ryan, OUP Editor in Chief, Humanities, and Executive Editor, Music, for their advice and encouragement; the entire editorial staff at OUP; and Marcelo Gasio of Warner Chappell Music Argentina for help with permissions. All the tangueros in Buenos Aires, and specifically those who have graciously shared their time, talents, and knowledge for interviews, videos, and numerous email correspondences: Damián Bolotin, Horacio Cabarcos, Oscar De Elía, Nicolás Enrich, the late Leopoldo Federico, Julián Graciano, Néstor Marconi, Rodolfo Mederos, Juan Pablo Navarro, Sonia Possetti, César Salgán, and Diego Schissi; and many other tango musicians in Buenos Aires who generously helped us in our research, namely, Luciano Jungman, Rafael Orive, Diego Plaza, and Ignacio Varchausky. Those connected to the tango world that aided in score access, permissions, and translations: Jorge Strada from Fundación Papelnonos in Mar del Plata, Georgina Ginastera, and Laura Hamman. Our close friends in Buenos Aires, especially Inés Freixas for unflinching support of the research project and invaluable help with translations; the late Gabe Silverman for the use of his beautiful home where we crafted this book; and Julián Althabe, tango dancer, artist, and music lover whose friendship helped fan the flame of passion for tango. Finally, we extend deep gratitude to our friends and family members for their unconditional love and support, and for understanding the writers’ need to withdraw from family life to work, especially our sisters Karen Wendland Dix, Heidi Lee Burroughs, and Lexi Brady.

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About the Companion Website

Tracing Tangueros: Argentine Tango Instrumental Music Kacey Link and Kristin Wendland

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780199348220 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: March 2016 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199348220.001.0001

(p.xi) About the Companion Website http://www.oup.com/us/tracingtangueros Username: Music1 Password: Book5983 In conjunction with the print book, Tracing Tangueros offers a passwordprotected Companion Website to disseminate the sounds and images of Argentine tango. The website functions both as a repository for additional musical examples and photos from the printed book and as a gateway to the wealth of multimedia resources about Argentine tango on the Internet. We categorize the web materials into the following sets, signified by Oxford’s corresponding speaker symbol

or computer symbol

in the text:

• Web Audio (WA): Our own audio files streamed from the website • Web Examples (WE): Musical Examples • Web Figures (WF): Listening Charts and Form Diagrams • Web Links (WL): Links to Spotify recordings and YouTube videos (Note: these links were accurate at the time of writing.) • Web Photos (WP): Supplementary photos • Web Scores (WS): Supplementary full scores • Web Video (WV): Our own video files streamed from the website (p.xii)

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Argentine Tango

Tracing Tangueros: Argentine Tango Instrumental Music Kacey Link and Kristin Wendland

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780199348220 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: March 2016 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199348220.001.0001

Argentine Tango A Multidimensional Art Form Kacey Link Kristin Wendland

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199348220.003.0001

Abstract and Keywords This introduction seeks to meet the reader at a common point of reference by beginning with a discussion of popular conceptions of tango in all its dimensions of practice (music, poetry, and dance) throughout the world. It then narrows its scope to tango’s many faces in Argentina. It sets a context for analyzing Argentine tango music by discussing the birth of tango and the art form’s rise at the turn of the twentieth century. It then discusses the development of the art form in terms of poetry and the tango canción (tango song). It concludes by offering an overview of tango dance. Keywords:   Argentine tango, birth of tango, tango canción, tango dance

Tango. The word alone evokes feelings of passion, romance, and attraction while conjuring up images of brothels, dramatic encounters, and even sexual affairs. Many people first view tango as a seductive dance performed by a couple dressed in red and black risqué costumes. Yet, the art form is much broader than this perspective as it encompasses not one but three dimensions: dance, music, and poetry. Just as the dance strikes a pose in a sensual embrace, the music cries with the woeful sounds of the bandoneón, and the poetry laments a bygone time (Photo I.1).

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Argentine Tango Within its multiple dimensions, tango has had a past over a century long and has traveled throughout the world. As individuals experience tango during different moments in time and place, the art form develops multiple faces. Each face depends on an individual’s experiences and points of reference, ranging from Hollywood films to social dances in Buenos Aires. Thus, a person living in Santa Barbara, California, or Atlanta, Georgia, might be aware of tango as a dance and of famous icons such as Carlos Gardel (1890?–1935) and Astor Piazzolla (1921–1992) but might be unaware that tango is currently a living, dynamic, multidimensional art form in Buenos Aires. We therefore devote the introduction to

Photo I.1. The multiple dimensions of tango. From left to right: Esteban Falabella and Juan Pablo Navarro, La Orquesta de Salgán, Tango Festival y Mundial, August 19, 2011, photograph taken by authors; Couple Social Dancing, February 1936, #138013 from the Archivo General de la Nación, Dpto. Doc. Fotográficos, Buenos Aires, Argentina, used by permission; Jairo and the Camerata Argentina, Tango Festival y Mundial, August 18, 2011, photograph taken by authors.

broadly exploring tango’s many faces both

in the international arena and in Argentina, its country of origin. Then, we provide a historical foundation of the art form and a framework of its multiple dimensions to set the stage for a detailed study of Argentine tango instrumental music. (p.2)

The Faces of Tango throughout the World Tango Outside of Argentina

In the United States, Hollywood has painted stylized pictures of tango ever since the famous dance scene in Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (1921) featuring Rudolph Valentino as a stereotypical Argentine cowboy or gaucho figure ( WL 1). Al Pacino and Gabrielle Anwar in Scent of a Woman (1992) offer another classic image of tango while dancing in formal attire at a sophisticated restaurant to an elegant arrangement of Gardel’s “Por una cabeza” ( WL 2). The film Moulin Rouge! (2001) exhibits yet another face of tango when Jacek Koman’s rough and rugged character describes an ill-fated love affair to the tune of “Tanguera” by Mariano Mores (b. 1918) (

WL 3).1

If asked to name a tango composer or musician, most people in the United States cite Piazzolla, a figure that is almost synonymous with the genre. Classical musicians such as Yo-Yo Ma ( WL 4), Gidon Kramer, Emanuel Ax, and the Kronos Quartet, as well as jazz musicians such as Al Di Meola and Gary Page 2 of 20

Argentine Tango Burton, have all recorded the music of Piazzolla. Even Argentine tango musicians living in the United States frequently perform and record Piazzolla’s music, including bassist Pablo Aslan and pianist Pablo Ziegler. Additionally, Piazzolla’s compositions have been featured in works of various choreographers including Twyla Tharp’s “Waterbaby Bagatelles” (1994). (p.3) Tango concerts that intertwine instrumental music, singing, and dancing have become very popular in the United States during recent years. These concerts often feature danceable tango standards such as “La cumparsita” by Gerardo Matos Rodríguez (1897–1948) interspersed occasionally with Piazzolla tunes. Usually, local musicians, with perhaps one Argentine expatriate, make up the ensemble, and these events frequently offer preconcert dance lessons as a bonus for concert attendees. For example, one may have heard and danced tango on the Santa Monica Pier in August 2011 to Milongatron’s rendition of tango standards.2 On the other hand, Europeans usually have an entirely different perspective of tango. The genre traveled to Paris in the 1910s, radiated to points throughout Europe, and has since created its own history abroad.3 For example, the Danish composer Jacob Gade (1879–1963) wrote “Tango Jalousie,” and such famous musicians as classical violinist Yehudi Menuhin and jazz violinist Stéphane Grappelli performed it ( WL 5). Italian conductor Ettore Stratta has produced a number of tango recordings, such as Symphonic Tango with the Royal Philharmonic (1991). Finland annually hosts a large tango festival (Tangomarkkinat) ( WL 6).4 Additionally, many small tango ensembles regularly perform throughout Europe, such as Carel Kraayenhof and the Piazzolla-like sound of his Sexteto Canyengue ( WL 7). Individuals both in and outside of Europe are most likely acquainted with the electronic tango of Paris’s popular Gotan Project, whose music is featured in the Hollywood films Shall We Dance (2004) ( WL 8), Take the Lead (2006), and Knight and Day (2010). In addition, tango as a social dance is popular in communities throughout Europe, from the cosmopolitan cities of Berlin and Rome to the smaller towns of Graz and Parma. On the other side of the world, Japanese citizens have had a fascination with tango for decades. Since the 1930s, many Argentine musicians have traveled to Japan and performed tango, including Francisco Canaro (p.4) (1888–1964), Juan Canaro (1892–1977), Osvaldo Pugliese (1905–1995), Julián Plaza (1928– 2003), and Leopoldo Federico (1927–2014). Japan has even produced prominent tango singers such as Ranko Fujisawa (1925-2013) ( WL 9), as well as excellent dancers such as Kyoko Yamao and Hiroshi Yamao, who won first place in the Tango Salon competition at the VII Tango Dance World Championship in Buenos Aires in 2009.5

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Argentine Tango Tango Inside of Argentina

Even inside Argentina, tango has many different faces, depending on one’s point of entry. A tourist visiting Argentina may only see the face of tango intended for foreigners, or what locals call “tango for export,” at one of the many venues for tango dinner shows such as Tango Porteño ( WL 10), Esquina Homero Manzi, and Sabor a Tango. These shows generally entertain tourists with flashy dances and usually feature live music by traditional tango orchestras. In addition, free tango dance performances draw numerous spectators on the streets or in the plazas of Buenos Aires, such as on Calle Florida or in Plaza Dorego in San Telmo ( WL 11). Since 2009, tango orchestras such as Orquesta Típica El Afronte ( WL 12) have been performing on the street, too. Tango for porteños, people from the port city of Buenos Aires, is more difficult for the foreign visitor to find. Information about milongas, locations where people dance the social tango, and concerts is available via newspapers, such as La nación; special tango publications, such as El Tangauta and B.A. Tango; and Internet/email groups and distribution lists, such as Facebook invitations. These events for porteños may lack the splashy advertisements of the tango shows for tourists, yet they give an inside look at the tango that locals enjoy. Porteños today divide tango music into two categories: tango for dancing and tango for listening. Contrary to the United States, where one usually experiences the dance and the music simultaneously in a concert setting, one engages with tango music in Buenos Aires either as a social dance at a milonga or as a concert performance at a hall or small club/café. Milongas occur throughout the neighborhoods of Buenos Aires and at most times of day, beginning as early as 2 PM and ending as late as 6 AM. Popular venues include El Beso ( WL 13) and Salon Canning for older adults, (p.5) and La Viruta and Club Villa Malcolm for younger dancers. Notably, most milongas in Buenos Aires are for porteños. If a foreign visitor attends a porteño milonga, he or she may only dance once or twice as preference is always given to good, local dancers.6 However, a foreigner may take dance lessons, ranging from the milonguero and salon styles to the more fluid style of the tango nuevo,7 or he or she may go to a práctica (practice dance). To listen to tango, individuals may attend one of the numerous concerts throughout Buenos Aires, as tango performances of all musical styles are currently exploding in the city. Ensembles such as Orquesta Nacional de Música Argentina “Juan de Dios Filiberto,” Orquesta del Tango de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, and Orquesta Selección Nacional de Tango perform in a traditional tango style at venues such as the Teatro Colón, Buenos Aires’s famous opera house, and the Teatro Alvear. Smaller tango ensembles like Sexteto Mayor and the Quinteto Real perform at intimate venues such as Centro Cultural Torquato Tasso ( WL 14), while artists of TangoContempo perform a new, modern version of tango at Café Vinilo. Many concerts in both the large and small Page 4 of 20

Argentine Tango settings also feature some of the older tango maestros including bandoneonists Néstor Marconi (b. 1942) and Rodolfo Mederos (b. 1940). In addition to concert and social dance settings, tango pulsates throughout Buenos Aires in sight and sound. The most beloved and well-known tango singer in Argentina, Gardel ( WL 15), may still be seen in pictures and heard in recordings emanating from music shops throughout the city. Even a subte (subway) stop in the Abasto neighborhood on Avenida Corrientes is named after him ( WP 1). In barrios (neighborhoods) famous for tango, such as San Telmo, La Boca, and Almagro, cafés and street corners bear the names of such musical personalities as Aníbal Troilo, Osvaldo Pugliese, and Enrique Santos Discépolo, and outside murals and mosaics illustrate tango musicians and dancers in action ( WP 2). Further, a radio station completely devoted to tango, “2x4” (FM 92.7), plays the sounds of the tanguero maestros in homes and taxicabs. Argentine tango, while centered in Buenos Aires, exists throughout Argentina. Tangueros and milongueros (tango dancers) from Buenos Aires travel to many cities within the country to give concerts and dance clinics. The renowned Festival Nacional de Tango in La Falda, Córdoba, occurs (p.6) during the month of July. One may also attend a milonga in a city as far south as Ushuaia, Tierra del Fuego, or as far north as Salta. During the last two weeks of August, all of Argentina, as well as people throughout the world, gather in Buenos Aires to celebrate the art form at the Tango Festival y Mundial (referred to hereafter as Tango Festival, WL 16). This event honors what UNESCO declared in 2009 as Argentina and Uruguay’s “intangible cultural heritage of humanity.”8 At the festival, the famed international dance competition follows at least a dozen milongas, dance shows, and dance clinics/lessons. Over fifty concerts display tango’s panorama both historically and stylistically. Additionally, documentary films, exhibits, and lectures educate the public about the multiple dimensions of tango. The festival is sponsored by the Buenos Aires city government, and aside from a few special events, it is free and open to the public. As evidenced by any of these tango experiences, ranging from Hollywood films, Finnish tango festivals, and Japanese tango CDs outside of Argentina to tango shows, milongas, concerts, and festivals inside of Argentina, tango clearly wears many faces. Further, individuals shape each face according to their points for reference. Throughout the rest of this book, we discuss tango’s face and history in Argentina, specifically Buenos Aires, the city of its past and the capital of its present.

Tango Emerging from Argentina’s Cultural Melting Pot Tango developed from a fusion of art forms existing in the cultural melting pot of Argentina and, more broadly, the Río de la Plata region (the area surrounding the Río de la Plata estuary including Buenos Aires and Montevideo, Uruguay). Page 5 of 20

Argentine Tango During the middle of the nineteenth century, Argentina was a relatively new and undeveloped nation with fertile lands, new railroads, and a viable port city. Due to the country’s economic potential and the national labor shortage, a wave of mass immigration began a period of economic and cultural transformation. Between 1869 and 1914, Argentina increased its total population by seven million,9 while the capital and primary port city, Buenos Aires, went from 180,000 to 1.5 million (p.7) inhabitants.10 Most of these immigrants were from Italy, Spain, and Eastern Europe, the latter being of Jewish culture. A quick glance at the last names of Argentine tango musicians discussed in this book will reveal their Italian heritage (e.g., De Caro, Piazzolla, and Possetti) or Jewish ethnicity (e.g., Spitalnik, Lipesker, and Bolotin).11 With these waves of immigration, Buenos Aires evolved into a melting pot of cultures, or, as the Argentine historian and scholar José Luis Romero describes it, an “alluvial” society.12 New inhabitants functioned as deposited sediments, which ultimately changed the cultural landscape of the city. The capital went from a so-called “big village”13 with people of Spanish and African descent to a booming, displaced European metropolis with a marginalized Afro-Argentine population.14 In effect, the immigrants redefined the identity of the porteño during the late 1800s. Moreover, they practiced and blended their distinct music, dance, and poetic forms from their native cultures including the milonga, habanera, payada, candombe, and even klezmer influences. Over time, these art forms merged together to create what we know as the three dimensions of tango. Tango’s closest relative is the Argentine milonga. Variations of this genre existed in numerous areas along the Atlantic seaboard and date back to the early colonial period.15 The rhythmic pattern associated with the milonga is a dotted eighth note and a sixteenth note followed by two eighth notes in time, which is also the rhythmic pattern of the Cuban habanera (Example I.1). For our purposes in this book, we focus on the two main milonga types that relate to tango, namely, the milonga campera (country milonga) and the milonga ciudadana (city milonga). Often associated with the Pampas (the prairie, or countryside, outside of Buenos Aires), the milonga campera is a slow genre that features a descending melodic line in a minor key. (p.8) In contrast, the urban milonga ciudadana is a fast genre that was most likely being danced in the bordellos (brothels) of Buenos Aires around the turn of the nineteenth century. Related to the milonga is the payada, an improvised song duel. In this song form, a payador (folk singer/guitarist of the Pampas) engages in a competition with a fellow payador. The two payadores sing improvised stanzas Page 6 of 20

Argentine Tango alternating between question Example I.1. Milonga rhythmic pattern in and answer accompanied by a time signature. guitar. Payadores typically sing a descending melodic line, like in the milonga campera, and offer an expressive interpretation of their improvised poetry. Both characteristics influenced the composition and performance of tango, specifically the tango canción (sung tango). Two of the most distinguished payadores include Afro-Argentine Gabino Ezeiza (1858–1916) and José Bettinotti (1878–1915). Bettinotti’s life and tragically early death inspired the film El último payador (directed by Homero Manzi and Ralph Pappier, 1950) starring the famous tango singer Hugo del Carril (1912–1989) in the title role (

WL 17).

One noteworthy precursor to tango dance is the candombe, an Afro-Argentine/ Afro-Uruguayan dance that dates back to the colonial era ( WP 3). The unique features that tango borrowed from the candombe include quebradas and cortes.16 A quebrada is an improvised, jerky contortion, whereas the corte is a sudden suggestive pause. By incorporating quebradas and cortes while dancing together (as opposed to dancing apart in candombe), the tango was formed, although in a very rudimentary stage.17 Tango scholar Robert Farris Thompson also traces the pivoting dance step, la viborita (the little snake), to the “grapevine” of the Eastern European Jewish hora.18 Inhabitants of the Río de la Plata region began using the word “tango” in a number of different contexts at the end of the nineteenth century as (p.9) evidenced by scholars such as Thompson, Vicente Rossi, Simon Collier, and Carlos Vega. In its early uses, tango, as described by Thompson, referred to African dances, and specifically, the word “tanga” denoted the Congo dance that marked the end of a mourning period.19 Rossi notes that the word “tanga” could also mean a “drum,” “second funeral,” “festival,” or “dance” or reference various other percussion instruments of the Afro-Argentines.20 Vega discusses uses of the word “tango” in the context of the tango andaluz of zarzuelas, the Spanish theatrical form that was brought to Argentina by visiting Spanish theater troupes.21 Despite its varying early uses, the word “tango” emerged at the turn of the twentieth century to refer to an art form marked by the fusion of Argentine, Afro-Argentine, and European music and dance genres occurring in the Río de la Plata region. Porteños claimed this new art form as their own by calling it tango criollo or primitivo tango criollo.22 Scholars and the celebrated Argentine author Jorge Luis Borges (1899–1986) associate early tango with the underground lifestyle of the compadrito, an urban hoodlum figure.23 The compadrito possessed fierce independence and masculine pride, in addition to being a robber and, at times, a killer.24 In the impoverished, immigrant arrabales (outskirts) of Buenos Aires, he frequented one of the numerous bordellos where tango was danced and played. (Notably, the number Page 7 of 20

Argentine Tango of men exceeded that of women substantially during this period in Buenos Aires; with the rising economy (p.10) and subsequent free-flowing cash, bordellos were thriving and prostitution was rampant.25) In addition, he spoke a slang called Lunfardo, a rioplatense Spanish infused with Italian words.26 By the turn of the twentieth century, tango spread from the destitute arrabales to the cosmopolitan City Centre and became a part of popular culture in Buenos Aires. Porteños began dancing and singing this expressive art form not only in bordellos but also in cafés, theaters, and neighborhood courtyards. The first generation of tango musicians was born, known as the guardia vieja, and they created tango standards such as “El choclo” by Ángel Villoldo (1861–1919). Many early tangos established a precedent for playful titles with double meanings and Lunfardo words, like “Derecho viejo” by Eduardo Arolas (1892– 1924) and “Gallo ciego” by Agustín Bardi (1884–1941). During the 1910s, tango traveled across the Atlantic Ocean to France, where it captured the imagination of the Parisian aristocracy. Le grand monde (the Parisian upper class) refined the genre to a smoother style and renamed it tango argentino. By 1913, “Tangomania” had spread throughout Paris, Europe, and North America (specifically by such dancers as Irene and Vernon Castle). All classes of society throughout Europe were dancing tango, as well as purchasing clothing and perfume named after it.27 In essence, tango took on a new face, different from its lower-class origins, as it traveled to Paris and beyond. Once tango took over Europe, the gentry of Buenos Aires reclaimed the transformed risqué genre of the bordellos and catapulted the art form into the height of its popularity, known as the Golden Age. Tango became the cultural icon of Buenos Aires, at that time known as the Paris of South America. All members of society enjoyed it as a dance and as a musical art form in salones de baile (upper-class dance halls), milongas, clubes de barrio (neighborhood social clubs), and cabarets, as well as in cafés, bars, and silent-movie theaters and on the radio. From the 1920s on, tango matured into an art form that represents the people of Buenos Aires. In recent years, it has even evolved to represent (p.11) the entire nation. For example, La Camerata Argentina is an ensemble of young performers from different provinces in Argentina and supported by the government of the province of San Luis and directed by violinist Pablo Agri. At the 2010 Tango Festival, the famous tango singer Susana Rinaldi performed with the ensemble and discussed how Agri’s project demonstrates that tango “es para todo Argentina” (“is for all of Argentina”).28

Tango Poetry and the Tango canción The tango poet Enrique Santos Discépolo (1901–1951) captures tango’s multidimensional quality with his famous quote: “El tango es un pensamiento triste que se baila” (“Tango is a sad thought that is danced”).29 Unfortunately, Page 8 of 20

Argentine Tango the “sad thought” to which Discépolo referred and the dimension of tango poetry in general are often lost outside of the Spanish-speaking world. Due to the language barrier of people who do not speak, read, or understand Spanish, “tango for export” often only includes instrumental arrangements of standard repertory, for example, “Por una cabeza” in the film Scent of Women. In Buenos Aires, however, porteños always associate tango with words. It is common for a milonguero to sing the words quietly while dancing and remembering a time that once was, or even for a taxi cab driver to serenade you while driving. In short, poetry in Argentine tango and the prevalent themes of the tango canción form a second important dimension of the genre. Continuing in the tradition of the payadores with their emphasis on melody and words, the tango canción took shape in the 1910s. Various composers in the Río de la Plata region, including Alfredo Eusebio Gobbi (1877–1938, father of the younger Alfredo Gobbi) and Villoldo, began adding verses to well-known instrumental tangos.30 These early verses depicted the life of the bordellos and often portrayed light-hearted or superficial images; for example, “La morocha” by Saborido/Villoldo describes a happy yet sexually charged Argentine brunette. (p.12) Two of the most important figures associated with the establishment and development of the tango canción are the poet Pascual Contursi (1888–1932) and the great singer Carlos Gardel. With themes of abandonment, lost love, sadness, betrayal, and disappointment, Contursi infused his characters with intense human emotions and introduced the concept of an argument into tango poetry.31 His poetry went beyond a simple description such as the beautiful woman in “La morocha” to intense passion such as in the famous tango “Mi noche triste” by Samuel Castriota (1885–1932)/Contursi.32 Considered to be the first true tango canción, the lyrics of “Mi noche triste” recount a man’s unfortunate interaction with a woman, dramatize the man’s intense emotions, and lament the man’s fate. Some of Contursi’s other famous lyrics include those of “La cumparsita” (also known as “Si supieras”),33 “Bandoneón arrabalero,” and “Champagne tango.” Although the origins of Carlos Gardel’s birth are disputed (France?, Uruguay?),34 porteños claim him as one of their greatest singers ( WP 4). The famous Argentine saying is “Carlitos canta mejor cada día” (“Carlos sings better each day”). Gardel admired the songs of the payadores, and he first performed and recorded traditional Argentine folk songs in his late teens with guitar accompaniment. In 1917, he began incorporating tango into his repertory with guitarist José Ricardo (1888–1937), and together they performed and recorded “Mi noche triste” ( WA 1). Through live performances and recordings, as well as radio broadcast and the film industry, Gardel achieved enormous success and became the first international tango icon. Tragically, he died in 1935, when his plane crashed in Medellín, Colombia, during takeoff.

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Argentine Tango The sad lyrics of “Mi noche triste” set a precedent for generations to emulate (Figure I.1). In the 1920s, tango canción themes expanded to include other misfortunes in love, sadness of the immigrant in a hostile new world, and escapism (specifically, leaving reality and gaining solace in the brothels and cabarets).35 They were often portrayed by stock characters such as the compadrito, the milonguita (prostitute), and the ideal mother. In addition, (p.13) Contursi utilized the compadrito’s Lunfardo, which often functioned as code words for elicit sexual affairs. Like the payadores, Gardel’s performance employs a rubato that corresponds to the natural speaking patterns of poetic phrases and emphasizes the dramatic expression of Contursi’s poetry. These characteristics also established a precedent of vocal performance practices of the genre. Tango poet Horacio Ferrer (1933–2014) states: [Gardel] with absolute exclusivity, set all the rules … that were adopted in this type of tango: the way one approaches the lyrics … [and] the way to impose sentences; his way of singing music and lyrics remained perfectly in place for forty years after its first creative inception.36 With Constursi and Gardel’s standardization of the genre, the tango canción flourished during the 1930s and 1940s. Later composers paired with poets to create such famous songs as “Por una cabeza” by Gardel and Alfredo Le Pera (1900–1935) and “Malena” by Lucio Demare (1906–1974) and

Figure I.1. Excerpt of “Mi noche triste” by Castriota/Contursi (public domain). Lunfardo words are in bold.

Homero Manzi (1907–1951) ( WL 18). Poets also began writing both the music and the poetry, for example, “Canción desesperada” and “Yira yira” by Enrique Santos Discépolo. To reflect the economic and political turmoil of Argentina, lyrics in the 1930s included even deeper layers of sadness, disillusionment, fatalism, dramatic endings, and nostalgia.37 (p.14) As one of the most important poets of the Golden Age, Enrique Cadícamo (1900–1999) maintained a career that traversed seven decades, from the 1920s, when Gardel recorded a number of his tangos, through tango’s revival in the 1990s. Cadícamo often partnered with composer/pianist Juan Carlos Cobián (1896–1953), and their work together was especially fruitful in the 1930s and 1940s.38 One of the greatest examples of their collaboration is WL 19 for “Nostalgias,” illustrating the author’s poignant tango poetry (see the complete text and translation and WL 20 for audio). Nostalgia, or the

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Argentine Tango longing for a love and life that once was, is an ever-present theme in tango, and as Thompson observes: “If nostalgia is a country, tango is its capital.”39 As the tango canción heightened in popularity, so did tango singers. They joined with the large dance orchestras of the tango’s Golden Age and functioned as a means to express the themes and emotions of tango. In the 1940s, various orchestras individualized their style and gave rise to singer-orchestra pairings. Porteños would go to a milonga specifically to hear their favorite singer. Francisco Fiorentino (1905–1955) and Aníbal Troilo’s (1914–1975) orchestra formed one of the most famous of such collaborations. The tango canción tradition, with its emphasis on the declamation of the text, continues in Buenos Aires today. The Uruguayan poet Ferrer, one of the most prominent tango authors in contemporary times, collaborated with Piazzolla on such famous works as their tango operita, María de Buenos Aires (1968), and their tango canción, “Balada para un loco” (1969). Ferrer also sought to disseminate information about the style and history of the tango by acting as the president of the Academia Nacional del Tango in Buenos Aires, as well as by authoring a series of books about tango.40 Ferrer takes text declamation to the ultimate extreme with the use of pure recitation as exemplified in “Balada para un loco” ( WL 21). In this work, Ferrer paints surreal images of Buenos Aires WL 22). and a man’s fantastical flight with a lover (for complete lyrics, see (p.15) The persona of the tango singer as the dramatic channel for the meaning of tango words is an ongoing tradition in Buenos Aires. Prominent tango singers from the 1950s to the present include Tita Merello (1904–2002), Lágrima Ríos (1924–2006), Alberto Podestá (b. 1924), Julio Sosa (1926–1964), Roberto Goyeneche (1926–1994), Virginia Luque (b. 1927), Susana Rinaldi (b. 1935), Soledad Villamil (b. 1969), and Ariel Ardit (b. 1974). Today, singers appear as guests of specific orchestras, such as Miguel Suárez with Astillero, or as the headliners for their own concert, such as Amelita Baltar at the opening of the 2011 Tango Festival.

Tango Dance Of the three dimensions of tango—music, poetry, and dance—the dance often receives the most attention from both inside and outside of tango circles. Social tango dance communities exist all over the world, and images of show dancers are usually the first that come to mind when one simply hears the word “tango.” Any discussion of tango as a multidimensional art form must therefore at least touch on the dance. Tango dance, like the music, grew out of the confluence of the Argentine milonga, European traditions, and African-based dances and gestures from the candombe: cortes and quebradas. It emerged alongside the music in the arrabales, where compadritos probably improvised steps in shady dance halls, cafés, and brothels to form this new dance called tango. Additionally, it was not Page 11 of 20

Argentine Tango uncommon for men to dance with other men as a form of practicing while waiting their turn to dance with a milonguita.41 Such great early dancers as Ovidio José Bianquet (1885–1942), known as “El Cachafaz,” and his partner Carmencita Calderón (1905–2005) soon refined the dance. The 1933 Argentine film ¡Tango! illustrates their style within a milonga movie scene ( WL 23). As a dancer, “Cachafaz” is remembered for his pauses. Copes states in an interview with Thompson: “Cachafaz had a way of stopping short [parando], then flowing right back into motion.”42 After tango was popularized in the ballrooms and salons abroad, it became more fashionable and acceptable in all strata of Argentine society. (p.16) Tango became the primary social dance of Buenos Aires, and the dance reached its height of popularity during the 1940s. Large tango orchestras performed in halls to accommodate numerous milogueros. Another clip from the film ¡Tango! depicts a more “elegant milonga” of the upper class ( WL 24). By the 1960s, the dance craze subsided, and tango as a social dance did not become vastly popular again until the late 1980s. Juan Carlos Copes (b. 1931), one of the greatest tango dancers and choreographers and a living legend, helped keep tango alive following the dance craze. His wide view of tango dance points out that “there is no one—and there will never be anyone—who knows the ‘truth’ about tango dancing. Since it expresses feelings, it cannot acquire a particular form… . It is possible to offer some help, to aid and nurture this fondness for something so noble, so pure and so Argentine.”43 Copes came of age in the 1950s, learning how to dance in the milongas at the end of tango’s Golden Age, and quickly established a reputation as a milonguero both in Argentina and abroad. He appeared with his partner María Nieves (b. 1938) throughout Latin America during the 1950s. They collaborated with Piazzolla in Compañía Argentina Tangolandia in San Juan, Puerto Rico, and New York City in 1959, and they appeared on the Ed Sullivan Show in 1962.44 Copes played a huge role in the tango dance revival, also known as the tango renaissance, that began with the 1980s popular dance show Tango Argentino—a show designed, choreographed, and produced by an all-Argentine team with the intention to portray the true Argentine tango. It played to audiences first in Paris (premiering in 1983), New York City (Broadway 1985–1986), and London (1991) and finally opened in Buenos Aires in 1999. Other notable dance shows and theatrical pieces and films featuring Copes include Tango, Tango (1988) with Goyeneche and Atilio Stampone (b. 1926), a Brazilian revival of Piazzolla’s María de Buenos Aires (1989), La Pesada el Tango (1991), Entre Borges y Piazzolla (1997) without Nieves, Copes Tango Copes (2000), and Tango Porteño (2010). Copes is also featured in the film Tango (1998) by Carlos Saura. In this movie,

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Argentine Tango one can see the genius of Copes’s style, especially the natural musicality of his movements as he dances with his young partner Mia Maestro (

WL 25).

Another great dancer of recent years, Carlos Gavito (1942–2005), was a gifted show dancer and a true milonguero. He danced in the show Forever Tango during the 1990s, and he was also a permanent fixture in the (p.17) milongas of Buenos Aires such as El Beso, Niño Bien, and Salon Canning. Gavito exemplifies the passionate milonguero dance style with a strong connection to the music, as evidenced by his dancing with his last partner Maria Plazaola ( WL 26). In his classes, Gavito always emphasized the importance of the embrace and the walk in tango dance.45 He believed the true essence of tango dance was in the silence of the pauses, the slow moments, and the musical time and space between each step. In 2005, he gave one of his last demonstrations with dancer Geraldine Rojas to “Emancipación” played by Pugliese’s 1950s orchestra at La Viruta in Buenos Aires (

WL 27).

While tango show dance is perhaps the most popular representation of tango outside of Argentina, and inside Argentina for tourists, the essence of tango dance is best seen and experienced in the many milongas in Buenos Aires. Here, people come together to embrace each other, connect through the music, and express their passion for the art form. Most porteños do not converse while dancing, and many women close their eyes. While people are drawn to the milonga for many reasons, true milongueros/milongueras become absorbed in the music and their connection to each other.46 As milonguero Julián Altabe believes, the dance couple forms part of the tango texture as the partners respond in movement to the violins, bandoneones, and words of the singer.47 In short, true milongueros participate in the multidimensional art form of tango as they form part of its narrative.

Scope of the Book Argentina, specifically Buenos Aires, is tango’s “cultural center of gravity.”48 This country and city serve as tango’s point of origin and have sustained it for over a century. Both continue to promote the advancement of the art form. In tracing the development of the genre in Argentina, this book captures the very essence of tango. Further, we focus our examination of the art form on its musical dimension. This is not to say that our discussion of music is devoid of poetry or dance, but rather that it is an exploration of one particular dimension of (p.18) tango within the context of the art form as a whole. We specifically provide discussion and analysis of how the distinct performance, compositional, and arranging features of the music play out in practice over the art form’s historical and stylistic trajectory.

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Argentine Tango We organize the book into two parts. Part I focuses on the development of Argentine tango instrumental music. Divided into three chapters, this part establishes the musical elements that “make it a tango” (chapter 1); traces tango’s historical and stylistic musical trajectory in Argentina (chapter 2); and illustrates in detail how composers, arrangers, and performers, those known in Argentina as tangueros, execute tango musical elements and techniques (chapter 3). Part II provides ten in-depth case studies of representative tangueros within the genre’s historical and stylistic trajectory. We also offer four short profiles, which we call cafecitos, interludes stemming from the Argentine diminutive expression for engaging in meaningful discussion over coffee. Each case study and cafecito includes a biographical sketch and a discussion of performance, arranging, and compositional style. Then, the case studies narrow in on a close reading of one representative composition. With such organization, we seek to make the book useful to a diverse audience, ranging from a tango aficionado wishing to learn about the music of a specific tanguero to a professional musician seeking a detailed performance or theoretical analysis. We selected the tangueros of part II based on their significant contributions to the art form as performers, composers, and arrangers, in addition to their influence on each other. chapter 4 examines tangueros of tango’s Golden Age, namely, Julio De Caro, Aníbal Troilo, and Osvaldo Pugliese, as well as a short discussion of Juan D’Arienzo and Carlos Di Sarli. chapter 5 looks at tangueros of the post–Golden Age, including Horacio Salgán, Astor Piazzolla, Julián Plaza, and Leopoldo Federico, in addition to cafecitos on Néstor Marconi and Rodolfo Mederos. chapter 6 offers insight into tango today and the “Music of Buenos Aires,” profiling three of the most currently active voices in tango, specifically Damián Bolotin, Sonia Possetti, and Juan Pablo Navarro. We base our work on over a decade of experience with Argentine tango. Our research draws on primary sources currently unavailable outside of Argentina, including original scores and style manuals, as well as interviews and lessons with tangueros in Buenos Aires. In addition, we draw on live performances, demonstrations, and our personal engagement with tango in Argentina. On the Companion Website, we provide the reader with such footage, as well as links to numerous archival audio/video recordings. Through the transmission, discussion, examination, and analysis of these (p.19) primary sources, along with our own notated musical examples and transcriptions, we frame and define Argentine tango music as a distinct expression possessing its own musical legacy and characteristic musical elements. Tracing Tangueros offers an inside view of Argentine tango music in the context of the art form’s performance, compositional, and arranging practices. We aim to lay a strong foundation for further studies of tango music as, per the title, we Page 14 of 20

Argentine Tango trace the musical developments and innovations of the art form. We also hope to open the door for further tango studies that connect the genre’s three dimensions within other contexts, such as music and dance connections,49 Argentine culture and nationalism,50 and even the tracing of young tangueros into the future. (p.20) Notes:

(1.) The song in the movie is titled “El Tango de Roxanne” and is a fusion of Mores’s “Tanguera” and Sting’s “Roxanne.” (2.) Milongatron, Santa Monica Pier Twilight Dance Series, Santa Monica, California, August 25, 2011. For other examples of tango in the United States, see Carlos G. Groppa, The Tango in the United States: A History (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2004), and John Storm Roberts, The Latin Tinge: The Impact of Latin American Music on the United States, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999). (3.) For further discussion on tango in Europe, as well as in North America and Japan, see Ramón Pelinski, ed., El tango nómade: ensayos sobre la diáspora del tango (Buenos Aires: Ediciones Corregidor, 2000). (4.) For further discussion on Finnish tango, see Pekka Gronow, “Popular Music in Finland: A Preliminary Survey,” Ethnomusicology 17, no. 1 (January 1973): 52– 71, or one of the many articles published recently in the Finnish Music Quarterly, for example, Stuart Nicholson, “Ricky-Tick—Tango, Jazz and Dancing Finns,” Finnish Music Quarterly 4 (2010): 50–51, and Alfonso Padilla, “Two Sides of the Tango Coin,” Finnish Music Quarterly 2 (2009): 28–32. (5.) For further discussion on tango in Japan, see Marta E. Savigliano, Tango and the Political Economy of Passion (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995), 169–206, and Luis Alposta, El tango en Japón (Buenos Aires: Corregidor, 1987). (6.) Based on Wendland’s experience dancing in Buenos Aires, it takes time to establish oneself in a milonga. Milongueros/milongueras tend to dance with their favorite known partners and seldom invite or accept dances from strangers. (7.) In milonguero style, partners literally connect through a chest-to-chest, close embrace. Salon style utilizes a more fluid, open frame, which leaves space between the partners’ bodies, as does tango nuevo. (8.) Tango originated in the Río de la Plata region consisting of Argentina and Uruguay; therefore, UNESCO attributes the cultural heritage to both countries. However, we examine tango in Buenos Aires, Argentina, because this city represents the cultural hub of the art form.

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Argentine Tango (9.) Luis Alberto Romero, A History of Argentina in the Twentieth Century, trans. James P. Brennan (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State Press, 2002), 10. (10.) Ibid., and James A. Scobie, Buenos Aires: Plaza to Suburb, 1870-1910 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), 260. (11.) For further discussion of Italian heritage and tango, see María Susana Azzi, “Multicultural Tango: The Impact and Contribution of the Italian Immigration to the Tango in Argentina,” International Journal of Musicology 5 (1995): 437–453. For Jewish heritage and tango, see José Judkovski, El Tango: una historia con judíos (Buenos Aires: Fundación IWO, 1998), and Julio Nudler, Tango Judío: del ghetto de la milonga (Buenos Aires: Editorial Sudamericana, 1998). (12.) José Luis Romero, Breve historia de la Argentina (Caracas: El Libro Menor, Academia Nacional de la Historia, 1988), 133. (13.) George Reid Andrews, The Afro-Argentines of Buenos Aires, 1800-1900 (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1980), 20. (14.) Ibid., 178–200. (15.) Ercilio Moreno Chá, “Music in the Southern Cone: Chile, Argentina, and Uruguay,” Music in Latin American Culture: Regional Traditions, ed. John M. Schechter (New York: Schirmer, 1999), 265. (16.) Simon Collier, “The Tango Is Born: 1880s–1920s,” in ¡Tango! The Dance, the Song, and the Story, ed. Simon Collier (London: Thames and Hudson, 1995), 46. (17.) Ibid. (18.) Robert Farris Thompson, Tango: The Art History of Love (New York: Vintage Books, 2005), 136. Thompson also notes, “Jewish presence in tango is well documented,” 198, citing an interview with Pablo Aslan and published sources by Lloica Czackis, José Judkovski, and Julio Nudler. Although these sources thoroughly document the lives and activities of Jewish tangueros, the field remains wide open to document actual musical influences, such as the 3-3-2 rhythmic pattern and violin instrumental style and techniques. (19.) Ibid., 82. (20.) Vicente Rossi, Cosas de negros, 2nd ed. (Buenos Aires: Hachette, 1956), 143. (21.) For further discussion of tango andaluz as an antecedent of modern tango, see Carlos Vega, Danzas y canciones argentinas: teorías e investigaciones, un ensayo sobre el tango (Buenos Aires: Ricordi, 1936), 231–274, and Oscar Page 16 of 20

Argentine Tango Macchioni, The Tango in American Piano Music (Missoula, MT: College Music Society Cultural Expressions in Music Series, 2010), 7–10. For further discussion on tango in Argentine theater, see Héctor Luis Goyena, “El tango en la escena dramática de Buenos Aires durante la década del veinte,” Latin American Music Review/Revista de Música Latinoamericano 15, no. 1 (Spring–Summer 1994): 93–109. (22.) According to Vega, the adjective criollo indicated a local Argentine form adapted from a foreign one, molde extranjero, factura local (foreign mold, local form). He argues that just as porteños adapted the zarzuela española to zarzuela criolla, they also created tango criollo from the tango andaluz. He goes on to state that nothing is retained from this early tango; however, we disagree, as evidenced by this book. Carlos Vega, Danzas y canciones argentinas, 271–272. (23.) Jorge Luis Borges emphasizes tango’s scandalous roots in his historical essays on the tango and often describes the compadrito’s duelo criollo (knife fight). See Jorge Luis Borges, “History of the Tango,” in Selected Non-Fiction, ed. Eliot Wienberger, trans. Esther Allen, Suzanne Jill Levine, and Eliot Weinberger (New York: Penguin Books, 1999), 396. He also refers to the duelo criollo in his 1964 poem “El Tango.” (24.) Collier, “The Tango Is Born,” 37, and Julie M. Taylor, “Tango: Theme of Class and Nation,” Ethnomusicology 20 (1976): 276. (25.) For further cultural background on the arrabales and prostitution in Buenos Aires, see Simon Collier, “The Popular Roots of the Argentine Tango,” History Workshop 34 (Autumn 1992): 92–100; Marta E. Savigliano, “Whiny Ruffians and Rebellious Broads: Tango as a Spectacle of Erotized Social Tension,” Theatre Journal 47, no. 1 (March 1995), 83–104; Blas Matamoro, La ciudad del tango: tango histórico y sociedad (Buenos Aires: Editorial Galerna, 1982), 36–40; and Donna J. Guy, Sex and Danger in Buenos Aires: Prostitution, Family, and Nation in Argentina (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1991). (26.) For more information about Lunfardo, see the works of José Gobello, founding member and president of Academia Porteña del Lunfardo in Buenos Aires. (27.) Artemis Cooper, “Tangomania in Europe and North America,” in ¡Tango! The Dance, the Song, and the Story, ed. Simon Collier, 77. (28.) Susana Rinaldi with La Camerata Argentina, Tango Festival y Mundal 2010, Buenos Aires, Argentina, August 14, 2010. (29.) While this quote is always attributed to Discépolo by other tango scholars, such as Simon Collier, The Life, Music, and Times of Carlos Gardel (Pittsburg, PA: Pittsburg University Press, 1986), 160; Robert Farris Thompson, Tango: The Page 17 of 20

Argentine Tango Art History of Love, 26; and Julie M. Taylor, Paper Tangos (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999), in which the chapter title is “The Sad Thought Danced,” the authors have yet to find the actual original source. (30.) Simon Collier, The Life, Music, and Times of Carlos Gardel, 58. (31.) Ibid., 58–60, and Blas Matamoro, La ciudad del tango, 116. (32.) “Mi noche triste” was originally known as the tango “Lita” by Samuel Castriota, but it was renamed after the addition of lyrics of Contursi’s lyrics. (33.) In 1924, Contursi and Enrique Pedro Maroni added lyrics to Gerardo Matos Rodríquez’s “La cumparsita” and renamed the song “Si supieras.” This song is now recognized under both titles. For more information, see Ricardo García Blaya, “La Cumparsita,” Todotango, accessed August 15, 2011, http:// www.todotango.com/spanish/biblioteca/cronicas/la_cumparsita.asp. (34.) There has been a long controversy as to whether Gardel was born in Toulouse, France, on December 10, 1890, or in Tacuarembó, Uruguay, around 1893. For more information, see Todotango’s website for a compilation of articles debating his origins: accessed August 15, 2011, http:// www.todotango.com/spanish/gardel/cronicas/cronicas.asp. (35.) Julie M. Taylor, “Tango: Theme of Class and Nation,” 275–280. (36.) “A él corresponde, con absoluta exclusividad, fijar todas las normas—que en material de canto—se han de adoptar para esa especialidad dentro del tango: su manera de encarar la letra argumentada—desde sus primeras intervenciones como solista—el modo que él impuso para frasearla, su manera de decir música y letra siguen perfectamente vigentes cuarenta años después de su primicia creativa.” Translated by the authors. Horacio Ferrer, El tango: su historia y evolución (Buenos Aires: Ediciones Continente, 1990), 75. (37.) For more information about the poets and themes of early and Golden Age tango canción, see Noemí Ulla, Tango Rebelión y Nostalgia (Buenos Aires: Editorial Jorge Alvarez S.A., 1967). (38.) For more information, see Cadícamo’s published memoirs of Cobián, which chronicle the poet’s travels and work with the pianist/composer (including a description of a trip to New York City, where Cobián played jazz). Enrique Cadícamo, El desconocido Juan Carlos Cobián (Buenos Aires: SADAIC, 1972). (39.) Robert Farris Thompson, Tango: The Art History of Love, 25. (40.) The most notable examples are Horacio Ferrer, El siglo de oro del tango: compendio ilustrado de su historia (Buenos Aires: Academia Nacional del Tango, Manrique Zago Ediciones, 1998); El tango: su historia y evolución (Buenos Aires: Page 18 of 20

Argentine Tango Ediciones Continente, 1999); Los tangos de Piazzolla y Ferrer: 1967-1971; quereme así piantao (Buenos Aires: Ediciones Continente, 2000); and Los tangos de Piazzolla y Ferrer: 1972-1994; mi loco bandoneón (Buenos Aires: Ediciones Continente, 2000). (41.) Julie M. Taylor, Paper Tangos, 2; Robert Farris Thompson, Tango: The Art History of Love, 230–232. (42.) Robert Farris Thompson, Tango: The Art History of Love, 240. For further discussion of “Cachafaz’s” style, see also Francisco García Jiménez, Así nacieron los tangos (Buenos Aires: Editorial Losada S.A., 1965), 57–60. (43.) Juan Carlos Copes, accessed August 13, 2010, available from http:// www.juancarloscopes.com/ingles/clases/clases.html. (44.) María Susana Azzi and Simon Collier, Le Grand Tango: The Life and Works of Astor Piazzolla (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 74, and Robert Farris Thompson, Tango: The Art History of Love, 263. (45.) Wendland had the good fortune to take some of Gavito’s seminars in tango dance in Buenos Aires during 2003–2004. (46.) For discussion on the cultural aspects of tango dance, see Marta E. Savigliano, Tango and the Political Economy of Passion, and Julie M. Taylor, Paper Tangos. (47.) Julián Altabe in conversation with Wendland, Buenos Aires, July 2014. (48.) Pacini Hernandez uses the phrase “cultural center of gravity” in her discussion of the Dominican bachata. Deborah Pacini Hernandez, Oye como va!: Hybridity and Identity in Latino Popular Music (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2010), 92. (49.) Such as Kendra Stepputat, “The Art of Cortina: Tango DJing Between Service, Education and Performance,” paper read at the international conference, Tango: Creation, Identification, Circulation, October 26–29, 2011. Stepputat, an ethnomusicologist at the Institute of Ethnomusicology, University of Music and Performing Arts Graz (KUG), is currently working on a research project, “Why Dance Tango Argentino to Non-Tango Music? Tango-Danceablitiy of Music in European Perspective,” for the Austrian Science Fund (FWF)/Elise Richter Program. For a new feminist study on tango dance, see Kathy Davis, Dancing Tango: Passionate Encounters in a Globalizing World (New York: NYU Press, 2015). (50.) Such as Franco Barrionuevo Anzaldi, Politischer Tango (Bielefeld, Germany: Transcript Verlag, 2011).

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Argentine Tango

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What Makes It an Argentine Tango?

Tracing Tangueros: Argentine Tango Instrumental Music Kacey Link and Kristin Wendland

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780199348220 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: March 2016 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199348220.001.0001

What Makes It an Argentine Tango? Kacey Link Kristin Wendland

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199348220.003.0002

Abstract and Keywords This chapter establishes the fundamental musical elements that define tango. It focuses on texture, accompanimental rhythms, melody, instrumentation, form, and harmony. It establishes a vocabulary for tango rhythmic techniques such as marcato, síncopa, arrastre. It also establishes basic melodic techniques, such as enlaces, rellenos, adornos, and variaciones. Further, it describes the Argentine tango’s typical instrument, the bandoneón. Keywords:   marcato, síncopa, arrastre, bandoneón, instrumentation, musical elements

The lessons of history and the conclusions of experts tell us that two important elements must be present for a Musical Genre to materialize: 1) a common human feeling in a certain time and place, and 2) the labor of those who mold that feeling into their compositions. If we analyze the first point, we see how art, and in this case music, is a consequence of the lifestyle of people living in a specific place and time. Horacio Salgán, Tango Course1

Tango Music People always react when we tell them we work on Argentine tango. Most light up with a look of passion, and one colleague regularly strikes a dramatic ballroom tango pose. When people are introduced to the world of Argentine tango music, they have immediate responses. Years ago, when Wendland first started dancing tango, she brought a highly respected music theory colleague to Page 1 of 12

What Makes It an Argentine Tango? a milonga in Atlanta. After quietly listening to the music and watching the dancers, the colleague summarized her first impression: “It is like a memory.”2 A few years later, after Wendland began teaching her tango course, one student voiced his first impression upon (p.24) hearing the music by saying, “Tango is sadness.”3 Recently, Link was discussing Argentine tango and its wide range of styles with her neighbor, and after playing a handful of contemporary Argentine tango videos, she asked the bottom-line question, “What makes it a tango?” He quickly zeroed in on one primary element by responding, “It’s the rhythm.”4 Tango music developed on different paths as it radiated from Argentina to Paris and beyond in the 1910s. As tango music captivated the world abroad, many of the distinguishing Argentine features were washed out in its exported form. Most composers outside of Argentina simply appropriate basic tango elements in their own work, like the generic milonga rhythm heard in “Tango Jalousie” ( WL 5). The “art tango” works in Yvar Mikhashoff’s (1941–1993) International Tango Collection (1983) also incorporate some basic stylized musical gestures of the tango style born in Argentina one hundred years ago, like a steady marching or syncopated rhythm.5 While some Argentine tangos have secured a place in the foreigner’s ear through stylized arrangements heard in Hollywood films and Pops concerts, such as the famous “La cumparsita”6 and “Por una cabeza,”7 these American versions tend to stereotype tango musical elements, especially rhythm, and wash out the original Argentine style. In its native land, tango music has not only maintained its original characteristics as it has developed over the last century but has actually crystallized these definitive musical traits. However, what makes Argentine tango music so distinctive from tango outside of Argentina? This chapter establishes broad answers to this question. We provide here a basic “Tango 101” to outline the musical elements that define Argentine tango, such as driving rhythmic forces and distinct melodic styles. In defining these and other musical elements that make it an Argentine tango, including texture, instrumentation, harmony, and form, we follow standard names, terms, (p.25) and models of how tangueros themselves define these elements. We discuss these elements through the following works: “Comme il faut” ( WL 1.1), “El choclo” ( WA 1.1), “A fuego lento,” “Danzarín,” “La cumparsita,” “La trampera,” “Libertango,” “Maipo,” “Malena,” “Mal de amores,” “Milonga del ángel,” “Nostalgias,” “Por una cabeza,” “Qué solo estoy,” “Recuerdo,” “Romance de barrio,” and “Si soy así” ( WL 1.2). Then, the remaining chapters of this book provide discussion and analysis of how these distinct features have played out in composition, performance, and arranging practice over the art form’s historical and stylistic trajectory.

Tango Instrumentation

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What Makes It an Argentine Tango? Specific instrumental colors of Argentine tango ensembles define the musical sound. While early tango ensembles often included guitar, flute, violin, and bandoneón, the standard orquesta típica criolla (typical creole (p.26) orchestra)8 established in the 1920s by the school of Julio De Caro consisted of two violins, two bandoneones, piano, and double bass. From the 1930s to the 1950s, the standard sextet expanded to include an entire string section of up to four violins, perhaps viola and cello, and a fila (line) of four or more bandoneones, as in the orchestra of Pugliese. Toward the late 1950s and early 1960s, tango ensembles reduced in size, most notably to the 1960 quintet configurations of Piazzolla and Salgán, consisting of bandoneón, violin, guitar (acoustic or electric), piano, and bass. Tangueros today in Buenos Aires draw on the rich instrumental tradition of the various tango ensemble configurations over the past century. Ensembles may include wind instruments, such as flute in Raúl Garello’s sextet, saxophone in Bernardo Monk’s ensembles, and bass clarinet in Nicolás Guerschberg’s sextet and the newly reformed Orquesta de Salgán. Some tangueros form more novel ensembles, such as the classical string quartet Cuerdas poptemporaneas (play on words for contemporary/pop strings) of Bolotin and even trombone and percussion instruments in Possetti’s sextet. The Bandoneón

The bandoneón ( WP 1.1) alone evokes the essence of Argentine tango in a listener’s ear. Originally used as a portable organ in German parish churches during the midnineteenth century, this freereed concertina probably made its way to Argentina on an immigrant ship around the turn of the twentieth century. It gradually replaced the flute in tango ensembles,9 and by the 1930s and 1940s, bandoneón sections were staples of tango orchestras. During these two decades, the German luthier Alfred Arnold produced and exported the instrument to Argentina to supply the high demand (his instruments are referred to as doble A for his initials), but then production ceased during World War II as Page 3 of 12

Photo 1.1. Julio De Caro Sextet, c. 1926– 1928. Clockwise from left: Emilio De Caro, violin; Armando Blasco, bandoneón; Vincent Sciarretta, bass; Francisco De Caro, piano; Julio De Caro, violin-cornet; and Pedro Laurenz, bandoneón. Undated photo from the Archivo General de la Nación, Dpto. Doc. Fotográficos, Buenos Aires, Argentina, #71339_A. Used by permission.

What Makes It an Argentine Tango? his factory was converted for the German war effort. A devilishly difficult instrument to play, the bandoneón has seventy-one buttons, thirty-eight on the treble-range right side and thirty-three on the bass-range left side. With a pitch range from C2 to B6, the keys are scattered in pitch order, and most of them change pitches on the keyboard between opening and closing the bellows. Thus, a player must learn four keyboard patterns, two for each hand. In Web Video 1.1 , Nicolás Enrich (p.27) demonstrates and explains the basic techniques and mechanics of playing the bandoneón. Yeites

Surely the most unique way the instruments are used to color the musical palette in tango is the standard body of extended techniques and percussive effects tangueros often refer to as yeites (colloquially translated as “licks,” and a term we adopt throughout this book). Heard in varying degrees of weight and frequency in tango music throughout its history, these techniques have become a defining feature of Argentine tango instrumental style. Since tango yeites entail such precise performance skills and techniques, we explain and illustrate them in more detail in chapter 3.

Tango Texture and Instrumental Roles Like other popular music genres, tango musical texture is predominantly melody and accompaniment. The role each particular instrument plays in the texture points to another crucial aspect of what makes it a tango. Generally, the violins and bandoneones carry the melody in the instrumental narrative, while the piano and bass provide the harmonic and rhythmic accompaniment. Naturally, these are not hard-and-fast roles, and melody and accompaniment may cross over between instrumental groups and solos. With its warm, melancholy tone and its ability to project a strong, forceful sound, the bandoneón may function in melodic, rhythmic, or harmonic roles. The violins may also assume an accompanimental role as they balance and complement the bandoneones. At times, the two sections may double each other, or they may trade melodic, rhythmic, and harmonic roles. While the piano left hand and the bass typically double each other in the rhythm section, the piano may also take on melodic and solo passages. Although our study focuses on tango instrumental music, we must acknowledge how the popular music genre grew from song and its inherent melody and accompaniment texture. As in many other styles of music, the organic process of transferring vocal to instrumental melodic interpretation occurs in tango, whether in an instrumental arrangement of a tango canción or in a purely instrumental composition. All of the musical examples discussed next illustrate the primacy of the tango melody/accompaniment texture.

(p.28) Tango Meter and Rhythm

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What Makes It an Argentine Tango? Tango Meter

As the tango genre developed, it separated into three distinct musical characters that tangueros refer to as the tres ritmos (literally “three rhythms,” but referencing three meter types), namely, tango, milonga, and vals (waltz). Tango in general slowed down from quick early pieces in like Arolas’s recording of the famous tango “El choclo” to a slower meter in 4, such as “Malena.” The milonga, the main precursor to the tango, continued to develop on its own parallel path as it retained the characteristic dotted rhythm within the fast and slow tempo types. The milonga ciudadana in meter matured into such lively works as “La trampera.” The slower milonga campera developed into the expressive milonga lenta typically in 4, like “Milonga del ángel.” The vals in became especially popular in Buenos Aires during the 1940s, perhaps the result of gentrifying the tango genre with European dance forms. With its light spirit and fast tempo, the vals lends itself to continuous movements and turns in the dance, as opposed to dramatic pauses in the slower tango, such as “Romance de barrio.” Tango Accompanimental Rhythms

As the dotted milonga rhythm (see Introduction Example I.1) transferred to Argentine tango in the early twentieth century, fast pieces were often titled “Tango Milonga.” For example, the cover to the sheet music of “Boedo” by De Caro uses this term. The accompaniment pattern in these early tangos typically outlined arpeggios of the harmony in the characteristic milonga rhythm, as illustrated by the piano score of “El choclo” ( by Arolas (

WE 1.5a) and the 1913 recording

WA 1.1).

While the milonga rhythm remained a prominently fixed element in the milonga, it fell away in tango itself. Two more fluid and exaggerated patterns replaced it to define Argentine tango rhythm, namely, marcato and síncopa. The most basic marcato in 4 literally marks the beat, although styles of accentuation, register, and articulation vary according to the instrumentation and ensemble. Example 1.1 illustrates a possible marcato piano accompaniment in for the first eight measures of “El choclo,” and the Canaro recording clearly articulates such a steady, pulsing accompaniment in the orchestra.

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What Makes It an Argentine Tango? As its name suggests, the other basic accompanimental rhythmic figure in tango, síncopa, is a syncopated pattern. Among its many variations, the three basic types may begin a tierra (squarely on the downbeat of a measure, Example 1.2a), anticipada a tierra (anticipated in the preceding (p.29) measure on the weak part of beat 4 but the harmony still arrives on the Example 1.1. “El choclo” by Villoldo, mm. downbeat, Example 1.2b), and 1-4, with marcato piano accompaniment, anticipada and contratiempo arr. Wendland. (anticipated in the preceding measure on the weak part of beat 4 with the arrival of the harmony shifted to the weak part of beat 1, Example 1.2c). In any of these three cases, the syncopation stabilizes on the next strong beat, typically articulated with a tenuto. Arrastre

Either of the two basic accompanimental rhythms, marcato and síncopa, may be preceded by an anticipatory sliding instrumental technique Example 1.2. Síncopa accompanimental called (p.30) arrastre (from rhythms. the Spanish verb arrastrar, meaning “to drag”). Tangueros often describe this embellishment as the fundamental recurso (literally “resource,” but tangueros use this general term to include all distinctive tango compositional, arranging, and performing techniques)10 that gives tango its distinctive “swing.” Arrastre further accentuates tango accompaniment by creating an aural impression of yearning and striving as the music “drags” to the downbeat while at the same time providing forceful rhythmic momentum toward the punctuated arrival of the downbeat.11 Example 1.3 illustrates a typical tango bass line using three common methods for notating arrastre. The first (Example 1.3a), and probably most common, simply uses a glissando line (not the written indication of the word) to connect an upbeat to a downbeat; the second (Example 1.3b) notates appoggiaturas; and the third (Example 1.3c) notates a sixteenth-note chromatic upbeat leading to a downbeat in a síncopa pattern. This notated chromatic arrastre, used especially by Piazzolla and later tangueros, Page 6 of 12

What Makes It an Argentine Tango? may use two, four, or even a quintuplet of sixteenth notes.12 De Caro’s sextet version of “Maipo” illustrates the distinctive sonic effect in the opening melody played by the strings. Bordoneo, Milongeo, and 3-3-2

The stock habanera rhythm inherent in early tango and the milonga took another important Example 1.3. Three types of notated path in the tango genre as it arrastre. developed through bass lines and their elaborations, also called bordoneos referring to the three low bass strings of the guitar called la bordona, from the milonga campera. One typical (p.31) syncopated bordoneo pattern emphasizes a rising gesture from 1̂ to 6̂ and descends to 5̂ in minor keys ( WE 1.1a). This bass line is typically combined with an arpeggio fill above, and it is called milongueo when a tango shifts from regular marcato or síncopa to this more “rural sound” (

WE 1.1b).13

This early guitar syncopated bass-line pattern in the milonga campera further developed into another key rhythmic design in tango known as 3-3-2.14 In tango accompaniment, the 3-3-2 pattern in time is articulated in eighth-note groupings in each measure by a dotted quarter note (3), the eighth note tied to the quarter note (3), and the quarter note on beat 4 (2) ( WE. 1.2a). The pattern became Piazzolla’s signature rhythm ( WE 1.2b) as a faster accented meta-rhythm,15 such as in his famous “Libertango.” While this fundamental tango rhythm is widely associated with the music of Piazzolla and his tanguero descendants, it is heard throughout all periods of Argentine tango music. For example, as early as the 1920s, De Caro’s sextet performance of “Mal de amores” pulsates the rhythm percussively to accompany the melody in the bandoneones in the first phrase of the second section. While perhaps most obvious in the accompaniment, the 3-3-2 rhythm is also embedded in many tango melodies. In both the early “Comme il faut” and the later “Danzarín,” the respective composers Arolas and Plaza create 3-3-2 sixteenth-note groupings through repetition and articulation (

WE 1.2c and 1.2d).

Tango Anacrusis

Many tango phrases begin with an anacrusis (upbeat), which defines one of the genre’s most distinctive features of meter and rhythm. This pervasive and idiosyncratic upbeat-downbeat metric feature manifests both in melody and bass lines, and it is typically coupled with a weak-strong harmonic motion, such as VI. While this phenomenon will be pointed out throughout this book, Web Example 1.3 illustrates some of the anacrusis rhythms that occur in both melodies and bass lines. (p.32)

Tango Melody Page 7 of 12

What Makes It an Argentine Tango? Tango Melodic Styles

Melody reigns supreme in tango texture, and it falls into two broad contrasting styles. One, uniformly called rítmico (rhythmic) by tangueros, features two- and three-note groups sharply articulated by accents, staccatos, and neighbor tone (NT) ornaments. The motive-driven phrases are metronomic and measured with regular subdivisions of the beat in simple meter, although the rhythm is usually quite syncopated (not to be confused with the term síncopa, which refers to the distinct syncopated accompanimental rhythm). Both “Comme il faut” and “Danzarín” exemplify this style. The contrasting smooth, flowing, and lyrical melodic style has a number of names among tangueros, including cantando (singing), melódico (melodic), ligado (legato, or smooth and connected), and expresivo (expressive). We prefer to use the term cantando to describe this more singing and legato style. It employs a rhythmic technique called fraseo (meaning “phrasing,” as distinct from frase, meaning “phrase”) that treats the melody in a flexible, elastic, and loose rhythmic manner relative to the beat. Like the “swing” in jazz, where a musician plays two notated eighth notes as a softer triplet figure, a tango musician also knows a code to interpret four squarely notated eighth notes in (or four sixteenth notes in ) with its own swing. In the two most basic forms of fraseo, four eighth notes become either a syncopated figure or a triplet figure (Example 1.4). In either case, it is important to understand that fraseo does not mean rubato. The steady beat remains intact, and the fraseo creates an elastic internal flow that pushes forward to the next downbeat (see chapter 3). Tango Melodic Codes

Like their Tin Pan Alley counterparts who forged a distinctive popular music style Example 1.4. Two of types of notated nearly a century ago in the versus performed fraseo in cantando United States, tangueros in melodic style. Argentina synthesized some musical elements from their “old world” heritage into tango. Many of these tangueros were first-generation Italians, and their legacy of bel canto lyricism refined the Argentine speechlike payador melodic (p.33) tradition. Certain classical music melodic figures permeate Argentine tango melodies. One of the most poignant is the linear 5̂-6̂-5̂ figure, such as the opening six notes in the melody of “El choclo” (Example 1.1) that hover around A and B♭. The bordoneo pattern ( this melodic figure in the bass line.

WE 1.1a) also incorporates

For centuries, this descending 6̂-5̂ half-step figure in a minor key has signified a musical lament, often in association with texts that express grief and sadness.16 This musical code fits naturally in tango, since many lyrics deal with life’s Page 8 of 12

What Makes It an Argentine Tango? tragedies and dramas. In addition to “Mi noche triste” and “Nostalgias” mentioned in the introduction, “Malena” paints a sad portrayal of a milonguita who has the “pain of the bandoneón.” Discépolo’s famous definition of tango as “a sad thought that is danced” aptly describes its essential tristeza (sadness), and the lament figure captures this sadness in sound. One poignant example of this musical lament portraying tango’s tristeza appears in “Qué solo estoy,” where the haunting melody falls and rises around the half-step figure 6̂-5̂ (A♭-G), as the words express feelings of lost love. Tango Melodic Embellishments

Both types of tango melodies utilize adornos (ornaments), many of which are familiar from baroque and classical performance practice. Rítmico melodies especially feature appoggiaturas, turns, mordents, trills, and octave grace notes within their short rhythmic cells, as in “Danzarín” (

WE 1.2d), “El choclo” (

WE 1.5a), and “A fuego lento” ( WE 1.5d). Also similar to instrumental ornaments from classical music, many tango melodic embellishments like portamentos and slides in cantando melodies originate in tango vocal practice. For example, in his recording of “Qué solo estoy,” singer Raúl Berón subtly slides between the notes of the rising leap D to A♭ on the word perdía (lost) and even more dramatically later in the song on the descending fifth that sets the word solo (alone). Tango Variations

The variaciones (variations) are another key melodic feature that makes it a tango. Typically played by bandoneón solo or soli at the end of a tango, the variations reiterate the main melody within the original phrase and (p.34) harmonic framework, but embellished with running passagework (sixteenth notes in or thirty-second notes in ). Some of these cadenzalike finales were written by the composer of the tango, such as Laurenz’s “Mal de amores” and Pugliese’s “Recuerdo.” Other variations have been added to original tangos by arrangers, such as Luis Stazo’s 1958 arrangement of “Tres esquinas” (see chapter 3 for more details about this arrangement).

Tango Harmony Typical for a popular music genre, tango harmony draws on the functional major-minor tonal system. Yet, the development of tango harmony also parallels other popular music styles from the same time period, such as jazz and American popular songs. Early tangos like “El choclo” typically center on the tonal pillars of tonic, dominant, and subdominant chords in a slow harmonic rhythm ( WE 1.5a). Later tangos in the 1930s and 1940s contain expanded and refined harmonic language to include chromatic bass lines, such as in the opening of both “Qué solo estoy” ( WE 1.4) and “Nostalgias” ( WE 1.5b). One chromatic progression that retains tango’s tristeza signified by a descending half step in the bass is the sound of a German augmented sixth chord moving to the Page 9 of 12

What Makes It an Argentine Tango? dominant chord. Tangueros typically spell this chord derived from classical harmony enharmonically as ♭VI7, and they usually call it an apoyatura. (Since most readers are probably more familiar with the common names and sounds of specific augmented sixth chords, we will use the names Italian, German, and French for the sake of clarity and consistency [see chapter 3 for further discussion of the name and treatment of the apoyatura].) It typically precedes the dominant at cadences, such as in the B section of “Sur” ( WE 1.5c). Since the 1950s, tangueros have incorporated more chromatic harmonies and jazzinfluenced extended chords within an essentially functional diatonic framework, such as Salgán’s “A fuego lento” ( WE 1.5d). While some modern tango composers have pushed beyond the limits of common-practice tonality to include nonfunctional tonal harmonies and even post-tonal sounds, these exceptional practices lie outside the standard harmonic character of the tango genre.

Tango Form Tango Large-Scale Form

Certain formal designs, both on the level of large-scale sections and small-scale phrases, also characterize tango music. Early tangos often employed (p.35) European classical structures in three-part forms with corresponding contrasting key schemes. Since many tangos are in minor keys, a typical contrasting B section and trio move to the relative or parallel major key, as in many classical structures. The key scheme for these sections in “El choclo” provides a typical example, where the A section is in D minor (Example 1.1), the B section moves to the relative F major ( parallel D major ( WE 1.6b).

WE 1.6a), and the trio is in the

Sectional designs of later tangos from the 1940s and 1950s typically feature formal structures of two contrasting parts, cast in either binary form, such as “Qué solo estoy,” or da capo ternary structure, such as “Malena.” Later tango composers refined three-part ABA′ structures to include recomposed or varied returns, such as Salgán in his “A fuego lento” and Plaza in his “Danzarín.” As with experimental harmonies, some modern tango composers have pushed beyond formal norms to utilize more complex structures, such as Piazzolla in his contrapuntal “Fugata” (see chapter 5, Piazzolla case study). Tango Phrase and Period Structure

Like most popular music styles, tango phrases tend to fall into two-, four-, and eight-bar groups in classical antecedent-consequent or sentence structure to form eight- or sixteen-bar periods. Again, “El choclo” provides a classic example where the first eight-bar period divides into two 4-bar phrases in antecedentconsequent relationship ( WE 5.1a). Later tangos in the 1930s and 1940s follow the aaba phrase design found in so many Tin Pan Alley popular songs from the same period. While the A section of “Si soy así” sets up this design in

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What Makes It an Argentine Tango? straightforward four-bar phrases, the A section of “Malena” expands the design to an aabaa structure in regular four-bar groups (

WE 1.7).

Finally, one of the true hallmarks of Argentine tango is the resounding cadential tag following the end of the final phrase. It uses a V-I chord progression with scale steps 5̂-1̂ in the top line. Tango musicians, critics, and aficionados refer to it as the finale, or “chan-chan” for the onomatopoeia of the two sharply articulated chords.17 In performance practice, this practically obligatory final flourish typically accents the dominant while downplaying the last tonic chord, as articulated in the Stazo arrangement of “Tres esquinas” (

WE 1.8).

Notes:

(1.) “Las enseñanzas de la historia y las conclusiones de los estudiosos nos dicen que dos elementos vitals deben estar presentes para que cristalice un Género Musical: 1) El sentir de un grupo humano, en un lugar y en un tiempo determinados, y 2) La labor de los creadores que plasmen en su obra lo dicho en el punto uno. Ahora bien, si analizamos el primer punto, veremos que las obras artísticas, y en este caso la música, son un reflejo, una consecuencia de la manera de vivir de un grupo humano situado en un lugar y un tiempo determinados.” Horacio Salgán, Curso de Tango/Tango Course (Buenos Aires: Pablo J. Polidoro, 2001), 29. (2.) Severine Neff, in discussion with Kristin Wendland, Atlanta, GA, 2002. (3.) Spanish 309, “Contemporary Arts and Culture in Argentina, Tango: Argentina’s Art Form in Body, Mind, and Spirit,” Emory University Study Abroad Program, class discussion, Buenos Aires, 2006. (4.) Gérard Pigeon, in discussion with Kacey Link, Santa Barbara, CA, 2014. (5.) For further information about these pieces, see Kristin Wendland, “The Allure of Tango: Grafting Traditional Performance Practice and Style onto ArtTangos,” College Music Symposium 47 (2007): 1–11, and Oscar Macchioni, The Tango in American Piano Music: Selected Tangos by Thomson, Copland, Barber, Jaggard, Biscardi, and Bolcom (Missoula, MT: College Music Society, 2010). (6.) Heard in such films as Some Like It Hot (Wilder, 1959) and Anchors Aweigh (Sidney, 1945). (7.) Heard in such films as Scent of a Woman (Brest, 1992), True Lies (Cameron, 1994), and Schindler’s List (Spielberg, 1993), and in the 1997 Boston Pops concert with Itzhak Perlman, violin, and John Williams, conductor. Perlman also recorded it with the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra on Cinema Serenade, SONY 63005, 1997, CD.

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What Makes It an Argentine Tango? (8.) The literal English translation of orquesta típica criolla does not quite capture the essence of the term, which signifies the standard Argentine tango ensemble. (9.) Luis Adolfo Sierra, Historia de la orquesta típica: evolución instrumental del tango (Buenos Aires: Corregidor, 1966, reprinted 1984), 44. (10.) For example, Salgán states: “Various elements and resources [in Spanish, recursos] have been incorporated into the tango that help emphasize its rhythmic and expressive attributes.” Salgán, Curso de Tango/Tango Course, 40. (11.) See also Thompson’s reference to tango bassist Igancio Varchausky’s description of arrastre and how it creates a “feeling of expectation and desire.” Thompson, Tango: The Art History of Love, 183. (12.) According to Alejandro Drago, this pattern is “known generically among tango musicians as ‘cromático’ (chromatic).” Drago, “Instrumental Tango Idioms in the Symphonic Works and Orchestral Arrangements of Astor Piazzolla. Performance and Notational Problems: A Conductor’s Perspective” (DMA document, University of Southern Mississippi, 2008), 77. (13.) Julián Graciano, email message to authors, August 19, 2014. (14.) The 3-3-2 rhythmic grouping found in other Latin American music genres, such as the clave rhythm in Cuban son, is sometimes referred to as a tresillo. In Argentina, however, tangueros simply call this rhythm “3-3-2.” (15.) Edgardo Rodríguez, a composer, theorist, and guitarist at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, discussed the idea of 3-3-2 as a singular rhythmic unit with Wendland during one of their many musical discussions in cafés in Buenos Aires, complete with diagrams on little paper napkins! (16.) Raymond Monelle traces the lament (pianto), a weeping, descending, halfstep motive, back to late sixteenth-century Italian-style madrigals. Monelle, The Sense of Music: Semiotic Essays (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 67–68. (17.) While the authors have heard the term “chan-chan” used by many tangueros in Buenos Aires, they believe Oscar Macchioni is the first scholar to put this term in English print with a musical example. Macchioni, The Tango in American Piano Music, 15. Thompson theorizes that the tango “chan-chan” came from a blending of two Kongo rhythmic sounds rendered in speech as “tshiatshia” and “sya-sya.” Thompson, Tango: The Art History of Love, 90.

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Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music

Tracing Tangueros: Argentine Tango Instrumental Music Kacey Link and Kristin Wendland

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780199348220 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: March 2016 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199348220.001.0001

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music Kacey Link Kristin Wendland

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199348220.003.0003

Abstract and Keywords This chapter offers a historical trajectory of Argentine tango music and the genre’s stylistic development from its origins to today. The chapter frames the discussion of tango style into the accepted categories among tango musicians and historians of the guardia vieja (old guard), the guardia nueva (new guard), Golden Age (1925–1955), post–Golden Age (1955–1990), and the “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990–present). Each section offers a broad historical context. Then, it places tango within this context and discusses the development of tango orchestras and ensembles. Finally, it provides a brief analysis of defining tango musical elements. Keywords:   tango orchestras, tango style, guardia vieja, guardia nueva, Golden Age, post–Golden Age, Music of Buenos Aires

As Argentina progressed into a prospering nation with enormous potential at the turn of the twentieth century, tango developed into the popular art form. Tangueros first crystalized the genre’s musical traits and then created their own individual styles within the art form’s defining characteristics. During the mid-1900s, Argentina experienced turbulence both politically and economically, and tango saw a dramatic rise and subsequent decline. In spite of Argentina’s continued instability at the end of the century, tango’s popularity increased again during its rebirth at the end of the twentieth century. Presently, the art

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Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music form thrives, with tangueros embracing its dynamic past and looking forward into its future. In this chapter, we relay the history of Argentine tango instrumental music as shaped and formulated by our direct encounters with tangueros and their materials. Framing the story within Argentina’s larger political, economic, and social contexts, we trace the development of tango instrumental music in terms of “what makes it a tango” and its basic performance style, highlighting tangueros’ innovations and contributions. We structure our discussion of tango history and style into the accepted categories among tango musicians and historians of the guardia vieja (old guard), guardia nueva (new guard), Golden Age (1932–1955), post–Golden Age (1955–1990), and tango’s rebirth (1990– present). While our account of tango’s trajectory spans the 1920s to the present, we begin by describing the guardia vieja as background to the guardia nueva and forward. Following the guardia nueva of the 1920s, we divide our discussion into twenty-year segments as a means to simplify the conversation without the intent of periodization. Figure 2.1 (also from the guardia vieja to today.

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WF 2.1) lists key figures in Argentine tango

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music (p.37) (p.38) (p.39) (p.40) The guardia vieja

The wave of new immigrants looking for economic prosperity in Argentina at the turn of the twentieth century gave rise to the first generation of tango musicians and composers, known by tangueros as the guardia vieja. Growing up in immigrant households in Buenos Aires, many of the early tangueros lived modestly, or even in dismal poverty, during their youth. Despite some private lessons, they were often self-taught musicians who worked a variety of jobs and only played tango on the side. Around the early 1900s, amateur tango musicians began forming small ensembles in

Figure 2.1. Key figures in the creation of Argentine tango with known dates. (Note: from this point forth, only tangueros’s last names are cited.)

their neighborhoods and performed in the patios or courtyards of conventillos (tenement housing), salons (places to dance), casas del tango or bordellos (tango houses with prostitution), cabarets, confiterías

(confectioneries), and sophisticated cafés.1 Guardia vieja tanguero Vicente Greco fits the early tanguero stereotype as he grew up in a conventillo, sold newspapers on the street, taught himself how to play the bandoneón, and formed his first ensemble in 1903. These early tangueros also began crafting tangos that became standards of the repertory, including “Comme il faut” ( WL 2.1), “Derecho viejo,” and “Maipo” by bandoneonist Arolas (known as “El tigre del bandoneón,” The tiger of the bandoneón); “El choclo” ( WA 2.1) by guitarist, singer, and poet Villoldo; and “La cumparsita” by Matos Rodríguez. Other notable tangueros of the guardia vieja include pianist Mendizábal, bandoneonist Maglio, bandoneonist Bernstein, pianist and violinist Bardi, pianist Firpo, and violinist Canaro. As the art form grew in popularity, tango music also became more accessible to the masses as tangueros successfully published and recorded their pieces. For example, the piano score for “La morocha” sold more than 100,000 copies during the early 1900s ( Page 3 of 47

WP 2.1).2 Following the trend of United States record

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music companies of distributing Latin American music both nationally and abroad, Columbia Records signed Greco in 1911, as well as other bandleaders, to record in Buenos Aires.3 Both the piano scores and the phonograph created an acceptable environment—disconnected from the bordello setting of the earliest tangos—for people to appreciate the art (p.41) form. Moreover, tango became more than just music played at dances, but instrumental music to which people listened.4 What Makes It a Tango?

First-generation tangueros established key stylistic norms in the basic musical elements of instrumentation, melody, rhythm, harmony, and form that were developed and refined by their musical descendants. First, they established the norm for the tango instrumentation of piano, violin, and bandoneón, which may be heard clearly in Arolas’s 1913 recording of “El choclo.” (Note: this recording also includes guitar for the rhythmic and harmonic accompaniment.) In turn, this core trio set the “columna vertebral” (spinal column) for the future orquesta típica.5 In his memoirs titled Mis memorias, Canaro explains how he and Greco coined this descriptive name, initially orquesta típica criolla, to distinguish their tango instrumental groups from other bands that recorded different popular genres.6 Furthermore, Canaro credits himself for adding the bass to the tango ensemble when he enlisted Thompson in 1916 to enlarge his group to a quintet of two violins, bandoneón, piano, and bass. He says, “with this [addition] it enshrined the future of the bass in the ‘Orquesta Típica.’ This initiative is exclusively mine, for being the first to enrich our ensembles with this important instrument that I considered indispensable to achieve a good rhythm.”7 The large-scale ternary design of tango from the guardia vieja consists of three harmonically closed sections in AB trio form with a da capo A, such as “Comme il faut,” “Derecho viejo,” and “El choclo.” Phrases typically fall into two-, four-, and eight-bar groups to form sixteen-bar periods of two repeated or contrasting eight-bar phrases in each section.8 Harmonic (p.42) progressions move through the pillar I, IV, V chords, with occasional secondary dominants. Tonal centers shift to either the relative or parallel key in contrasting sections, such as in “El choclo,” which moves from D minor in the A section to F major in the B section and then to D major in the trio. Arolas’s recordings of both “El choclo” and “Comme il faut” demonstrate the fundamental tango melody/accompaniment texture and instrumental narrative. Although the groups continuously play tutti in both tangos without changing the orchestration between sections or phrases, clear instrumental roles emerge. The bandoneones and violins play the melody in unison, while the guitar articulates the milonga rhythm in the accompaniment.

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Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music These two early recordings also illustrate how sharp rhythmic and melodic motives generate melodies of the guardia vieja tangos. Simple melodies were played rhythmically smooth or with ritmo quebrado (broken rhythm) to incorporate silences, síncopas, and displaced accents.9 In Arolas’s recording of “El choclo,” for example, the melody in the A section is quite smooth and even, while the melodies in both the B section and the trio employ more syncopation. Even in the early tangos of the guardia vieja, unusual phrase rhythms occur, such as Arolas’s “Derecho viejo” ( WE 2.1). Since we discuss this standard in other arrangements by future tangueros, we analyze the phrase rhythm of the opening eight measures, along with the embellished melodic motive and harmonic progression. Its curious phrase design flows in 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 1 measure groupings, where m. 1 serves as an “upbeat” measure to a strong arrival on the “downbeat” of m. 2. Then, mm. 2–7 fall into three 2-bar groups defined by the repeated double-neighbor syncopated motivic design and the twobar harmonic rhythm V-I-V. Finally, m. 8 closes the phrase on the tonic and balances the single upbeat m. 1 with a relaxation of the main melodic-rhythmic motive. Basic Performance Style

Improvisation and personal creativity define the basic performance practices of the guardia vieja. Since many of the tangueros lacked formal musical training, they often did not read elaborate scores or execute virtuoso (p.43) passagework, but rather played from musical sketches (handwritten lead sheets) or from memory. They performed in an improvised style called a la parrilla (literally translating as “on the grill” or “grilled,” but in this case, tangueros use the term to mean “improvised” or “playing by ear”). In addition, tangueros performed according to personal tastes, which set a precedent for the practices of the next generation. Arolas often played the bandoneón in octaves, a technique called fraseos octavados, and in thirds in both hands, influencing Maffia and Ortiz.10 Bassist Thompson, who played with Arolas, Firpo, and Canaro, as well as later with Osvaldo Fresedo, Cobián, and Julio De Caro, set a model performance style for the next generation of tangueros particularly with his percussive rhythmic effect, known as canyengue (see chapter 3).11

The 1920s During the 1920s, Argentina experienced its first wave of democracy with the political leadership of the Unión Cívica Radical (UCR) under the presidencies of Hipólito Yrigoyen (1916–1922 and 1928–1930) and Marcelo T. de Alvear (1922– 1928).12 The UCR sought to transform Argentina’s oligarchic government by politically, economically, and socially mobilizing the middle class. Additionally, the decade saw significant technological advances, specifically in the realms of film, recorded music, and radio, allowing for mass cultural distribution. Page 5 of 47

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music For the first time, porteños could engage with tango, and specifically its music, in a variety of venues and through multiple transmitters. After tango came back from Paris in the 1910s, it began to spread from the bordello (these licensed houses were outlawed in 1919, even though prostitution was still legal) to more respectable locations. By the 1920s, tangueros performed in dance halls, cafés, and Parisian-inspired cabarets such as Royal Pigall, Armenonville, Montmartre, and Tabarín, as well as in new venues such as the elegant Chanteclair (opened in 1924). Carnivals in large theaters like the Teatro San Martin and the Teatro Opera (on Avenida Corrientes) were also popular for tango music and dancing. Interestingly, orchestras’ sizes increased substantially for these large venues because (p.44) microphone amplification was not utilized yet.13 In addition, tango concerts and events were advertised in the newspaper, a favorite of the newly literate public. Silent movies captivated the middle and upper classes by the early 1920s. Frequently, tango orchestras accompanied these films; for example in 1923, most of the 137 film houses in Buenos Aires employed resident tango orchestras.14 One notable theater was Max Glücksmann’s Teatro Grand Splendid (known today as the bookstore El Ateneo on Avenida Santa Fe), which opened in 1919 and shifted to a luxurious theater for film in the mid-1920s.15 Another popular theater was Cine 25 de Mayo (known today as Complejo Cultural 25 de Mayo on Avenida Triunvirato), which opened in 1927 and was nicknamed “El Petit Colón” (The Little Colón) due to its architectural resemblance to the Teatro Colón. Porteños also experienced the development of the radio in the 1920s. Numerous “broadcastings” (porteños used the English term) of events and concerts ranging from presidential inaugurations to Wagner operas to tango music occurred throughout the decade. One important station for tango was Radio Splendid, which began in 1923 and was housed in the upper floors of the Teatro Grand Splendid.16 The radio, in addition to the spread of the phonograph and sheet music from the previous decade, transported tango music into the homes of all. Argentine Tango in the 1920s: Two Streams

The spirit of growth and change in Argentina also brought innovations to tango as a new generation of tangueros came of age. Known as the guardia nueva, they mingled with the working tangueros of the guardia vieja, and their instrumental music took shape on two distinct paths. Various tango authors and scholars distinguish between the old and new styles as two corrientes (streams, or schools), one “traditional” and the other “evolutionary” or “renovator.”17 We continue this distinction between the old and new tango style, although we prefer to discuss the former in terms of (p.45) tangueros who continued the straightforward style of the guardia vieja and the latter in terms of tangueros

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Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music who initiated musical innovations, or the guardia nueva. Henceforth, we call these tangueros innovators. The two streams diverged in both style and function. Although naturally they overlapped in some stylistic features, a crucial distinction between the two streams is how they functioned. The orchestras of traditionalists such as Canaro and Firpo provided music suitable for dancing, whereas the innovators often pursued a refined tango suitable for listening. This division perhaps made tango more appealing to a musician in the 1920s, as the art form began to break away from its original dance function and to be disseminated through sheet music, the phonograph, the radio, and silent movies. The new music for listening and entertainment, with its elegant phrases and subtle rhythms, may have included trained dancers as part of the choreographed show, but it was most likely not intended for social dancing (and in fact to this day, one never hears it played in the milongas). In his final chapter on modern tango in Mis memorias,18 Canaro sounds the alarm for the very soul of tango being at risk in the hands of innovators. Although his book dates from 1956, it aptly describes the two diverging streams of the traditionalists, who link tango music to dance, and the innovators, who created tango for listening in the 1920s: Some “academic” musicians intend to blur its [tango’s] roots in the genuine expression of our most popular dance… . Are they not aware that the tango is a legitimate expression that comes from the very heart of the popular soul and so its notes, chords, and cadence interpret the most authentic vibration of its feelings?19 In the 1920s, tango further developed into three broad types utilized by both streams of tangueros, often described as the tango romanza, tango (p.46) milonga, and tango canción.20 We choose not to use these terms as three separate tango styles, because they mix apples with oranges—that is, modes of expression with performing forces. The descriptors tango milonga and tango romanza do refer to specific tango styles; the former is fast with dominant rítmico melodies, while the latter is slower with dominant cantando melodies. Conversely, the tango canción is really a vocal branch of the tango genre itself. For the purposes of our study, then, we simply distinguish between the instrumental and vocal tango,21 either of which may be in the tango milonga/ rítmico or tango romanza/cantando style. The guardia nueva

Innovative tangueros of the guardia nueva include Delfino, Cobián, Osvaldo Fresedo, Maffia, Laurenz, Julio De Caro, and Francisco De Caro. These musicians often received formal musical training, and some even came from upper-class families such as Fresedo, whose father was a wealthy businessman. Page 7 of 47

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music After achieving some level of proficiency on their respective instruments, most of these tangueros learned the art of the tango with masters of the previous generation including Firpo, Canaro, and Arolas at cabarets and cafés. They later formed their own ensembles and were committed to creating their own tangos as well as innovative arrangements of tangos by the former generation. Most of these musicians traveled and established themselves in an international market frequently under the patronage of elite sponsors or record companies. For instance, in 1920, Delfino, Fresedo, and violinist Roccatagliata recorded with Victor’s Orquesta Típica Select in the United States.22 The life of Cobián, particularly his foundational years playing both classical and tango music, provides an excellent example of a guardia nueva tanguero. He was a highly trained classical pianist, having studied at Conservatorio Williams in Bahía Blanca (south of Buenos Aires).23 Upon graduation, he moved to Buenos Aires and began his tango career in 1914 playing (p.47) with the quintet of Espósito. In 1916, he joined Arolas’s trio, which performed regularly at the Montmartre cabaret. Then, he joined a trio with Fresedo and Roccatagliata and worked with Fresedo’s sextet in 1922. Later that year, he formed his own sextet with bandoneonists Maffia and Petrucelli, violinists Julio De Caro and Ferrazzano, and bassist Constanzo. In line with his adventurous spirit,24 he moved to New York City in 1923 to pursue romantic relations and worked as a jazz pianist. In 1928, Cobián returned to Buenos Aires and participated in a variety of other ensembles including those with singers Fiorentino and Ortiz. Later in his career, he revisited New York, spent some months in Mexico,25 and returned to Argentina for his final years (1943–1953). Notably, when Cobián left for the United States the first time, Julio De Caro ascended in the tango scene and formed his own sextet based on that of Cobián. De Caro’s sextet received enormous fame, and De Caro himself became the “father of the guardia nueva.” Throughout his career, De Caro performed in the elite venues throughout Buenos Aires including the Teatro Colón, recorded extensively, and toured Europe (see chapter 4, De Caro case study). What Makes It a Tango?

The innovative tangueros of the guardia nueva crystalized the defining musical elements that make it a tango. They ventured into new musical frontiers of instrumentation/orchestration, melody, rhythm/meter, harmony, and form. We use the following tangos for the basis of our discussion of these elements: “Boedo,” “Flores negras,” “Maipo,” “Mal de amores,” “Recuerdo,” and “Shusheta” (

WL 2.2).

In the realm of instrumentation, the name orquesta típica criolla established by Greco and Canaro in 1915 was extended to describe the new standard sexteto típico of two violins, two bandoneones, piano, and bass—an ensemble whose “decisive influence and dilated dominance would extend to the longer and more Page 8 of 47

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music important period of the history of tango.”26 Guardia nueva tangueros embraced this sextet formation to make refined arrangements using a sophisticated instrumental narrative, where the violins and bandoneones (p.48) primarily carried the melody and the piano and bass formed the rhythm section. Cobián’s 1923 sextet recording of “Shusheta” illustrates the refined new instrumental music. For example, the elegant introductory phrase features counterpoint in the violins, one playing an outline of the main melody against the other’s faster pizzicato arpeggios, and the second tutti phrase contrasts instrumental colors and registration in a subtle call-and-response arrangement (De Caro incorporates this same arrangement and texture in the introduction to “Boedo”; see chapter 4, De Caro case study). The two core rítmico and cantando tango melodic styles also solidified in the hands of the innovative guardia nueva generation. For example, De Caro’s “Boedo” opening melody spins out from a neighbor-tone rhythmic motive, and Cobián’s “Shusheta” also features a motive-driven syncopated rítmico melody in the A section ( WE 2.2). Both of the B sections in these tangos flow in a contrasting romantic cantando style with fraseo. Other tangos of the period feature long and flowing melodic phrases played by instrumental soli and solos, such as the opening of De Caro’s recording of “Maipo” featuring the violins, and the opening of Francisco De Caro’s exquisitely romantic “Flores negras” played by the solo violin. Guardia nueva tangos often feature intricate countermelodies set against a main melody. In the first repeat of the B section of “Boedo,” for example, the violin plays a new lyrical countermelody against the quietly pulsing rítmico varied repetition of the original melody in the other instruments. Guardia nueva tangos also display virtuosic variations, typically executed by the bandoneones in counterpoint to the main melody. The bandoneón variations heard in “Mal de amores” and “Recuerdo” exemplify such brilliant melodic passagework with running sixteenth notes. The dimension of musical time in tango changed dramatically during the 1920s as the forces of rhythm, meter, and tempo interacted. As the duple milonga rhythm fell away in favor of the new marcato and síncopa, tango meter shifted to a quadruple organization, as clearly heard in the recordings of the guardia nueva composers discussed here. This metric organization in 4, to which, incidentally, the tango dancer steps, in turn slowed down the tempo.27 Other new rhythmic features in the 1920s include the 3-3-2 pattern, as in the pulsing rhythmic accompaniment in the beginning of the B section in “Mal de amores” and in the melodic rhythmic grouping at the beginning of the B section of “Boedo.” The new and more refined melodies of the guardia nueva also feature steady and syncopated rhythms, as seen and heard in the main tune of “Shusheta” (

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WE 2.2).

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music (p.49) Guardia nueva tangueros pushed tango harmonic language beyond simple diatonic chords. They incorporated more chromaticism in smoothed-out bass lines, created complex harmonic progressions, and refined tonal relationships between phrases, periods, and formal sections. For example, although the key relationships in “Shusheta” move from a minor key to the parallel major, the beginning of the B section approaches the tonic harmony through an unusual sequential progression that begins surprisingly on ♭VI. With its lush melodic and harmonic chromaticism, “Flores negras” even pushes beyond the new harmonic language forming in the 1920s. It utilizes added sixth chords, secondary chords, and linear chromatic chords. It also employs mode mixture both within harmonic progressions (like the ivadd6) and between the keys of the A and B sections (I and ♭VI). In the first part of the 1920s, composers mostly continued to cast tangos in the typical guardia vieja closed three-part form. Yet, even within the standard AB trio structure, they incorporated more distinct contrasts between melody/ accompaniment styles and instrumental forces to integrate the sections and to form a more organic composition that reflects a “summation of its parts.”28 Both “Shusheta” and “Recuerdo” illustrate the creative new approach that contrasts rítmico and cantando melodic styles within and between the three sections and changes in orchestration to coincide with new phrases. Phrase and period structure continued to largely conform to the standard two-, four-, and eight-bar groups forming sixteen-bar periods, although notable instances of phrase development occur. For example, Cobián’s elegant four-bar opening phrase in “Shusheta” returns to conclude and frame the entire A section. In the second half of the decade, composers began using a unified binary form—a design that would become the standard form of the Golden Age—such as the structures of “Flores negras” and “Boedo.” De Caro’s 1926 recording of “Recuerdo” illustrates the interplay of many subtle guardia nueva features that make it a tango. Furthermore, it beautifully models maps out the the new approach to instrumental tango. Web Figure 2.2 changes in the instrumental scoring, melodic styles, and accompanimental figures within and between phrases through the first statement of the complete form. Basic Performance Style

The performance style of the guardia nueva tangueros is as sophisticated and refined as their compositions and arrangements. Yet, these tangueros (p.50) maintained the essence of tango established by their predecessors. Of Fresedo’s trio with Cobián and Roccatagliata, tango historian Julio Nudler states: “The refined taste, legatos, soft nuances and fancy piano solos were targeted to the upper class ears, though embodying the deep ‘arrabal’ message of the suburbs, always present in Fresedo’s art.”29 As Sierra notes, Fresedo’s ensembles possessed a balanced sound in relationship to the articulations, dynamics, and Page 10 of 47

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music solo opportunities.30 Guardia nueva tangueros further demonstrate their sophistication through their virtuosic solos and variations. For example, bandoneonists Laurenz and Blasco exhibit superb passagework in De Caro’s sextet recording of “Mal de amores.” The guardia nueva also brought forth the use of a variety of instrumental techniques and effects. While some tangueros cite Arolas for inventing arrastre, contemporary tanguero Graciano cites the first recording of arrastre as “La huella” (1917), particularly in the left hand of Delfino.31 In any case, arrastre developed within the guardia nueva, as heard in De Caro’s recording of “Maipo,” and it eventually became a defining characteristic of Argentine tango. Playful yeites, or extended techniques, also color the guardia nueva’s performance practices. De Caro’s sextet provides an exceptional example of the use of yeites with its incorporation of chicharra, or playing behind the bridge on the violin, and even whistling. In particular, Cobián introduced a new, free style of playing the piano that not only marked the basic beat but also embellished the melody with fills and enlaces, as in “Shusheta.”32 When playing a solo, he regularly employed fraseo, which became a standard technique in tango melodic playing. His particular style influenced such pianists as Pugliese and Francisco De Caro, as heard in his expressive piano solos in “Flores negras.”

1930 through the 1940s The 1930s and 1940s brought political, economic, and social changes to Argentina. As the world entered the Great Depression, the country began a period known as the década infame (infamous decade), marked by a society disillusioned with high unemployment and government corruption. (p.51) On September 6, 1930, a military coup overthrew the democratic government of Yriogoyen, and General José Félix Uriburu assumed power, returning Argentina to an oligarchy. The coup initiated a long period of political unrest, and as the Argentine historian Luis Alberto Romero states, “It would be another sixty-one years before an elected president would peacefully transfer power to his successor.”33 Due to a society that was once again discontent with government corruption and being ruled by the elite few, another military transfer of power occurred in 1943. The army almost unanimously supported this coup, because, in the midst of World War II, it was facing strong pressure from the United States and Brazil to surrender the country’s position of neutrality and to join the Allied forces.34 This military coup instigated a three-year period of influx and transition. With the support of the working class, Juan Domingo Perón took office on June 4, 1946, with his wife Eva (“Evita”) beside him. Perón championed social justice, economic freedom, and political sovereignty, a three-tiered political platform that became the trademark of Peronism.35 During his first term, Perón sought to Page 11 of 47

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music make Argentina’s agro-industrial economy self-sufficient, to reduce foreign ownership of public services, and to increase benefits of public labor.36 Argentine Tango’s Golden Age

In the midst of multiple political upheavals, tango flourished in Argentina during the 1930s and 1940s, a period that scholars have since identified as tango’s Golden Age. The art form swept through society, as it became the most popular dance, music, and song of Argentina (Photo 2.1). Despite economic challenges, orchestras proliferated in number and expanded in size. Many orchestras were even paired with famous singers to meet the public’s demands. One could say that Argentine society found solace and escape from the political and economic hardships in tango’s movement, words, and sounds. As with most historic periods, scholars dispute the exact dates of tango’s Golden Age. Some choose to cite the 1920s as the beginning of the period (p.52) with the advent of the guardia nueva.37 While tango certainly was developing during the 1920s, the financial restrictions of the late 1920s and early 1930s limited the expansion and proliferation of orchestras. Other scholars link the beginning of the Golden Age with the formation of large, dance orchestras, namely, D’Arienzo’s orchestra in 1935,38 or with the undisputable popularity of these orchestras

Photo 2.1. Crowd social dancing on the inauguration of the Avenida 9 de Julio in Buenos Aires, October 12, 1937. Dated photo from the Archivo General de la Nación, Dpto. Doc. Fotográficos, Buenos Aires, Argentina, #138020_A. Used by permission.

by 1940.39 Our view of the beginning of the Golden Age corresponds to the expansion of tango orchestras established primarily for listening, such as those of Fresedo and De Caro, and the formation of orchestras that functioned primarily as dance bands, such as that of Caló. Both changes occurred in 1932. Moreover, we directly connect the height of the Golden Age with the dance craze and the explosion of tango orchestras throughout the late 1930s and 1940s. We, along with other scholars, view the end of Golden Age as occurring in 1955, when the dance craze died and Argentina entered into a politically unstable period with the ousting of Péron. (p.53)

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Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music During the 1930s and 1940s, many established tangueros began a process of musical expansion, while the younger tangueros began forming their own orchestras and ensembles. In the early 1930s, Canaro, Fresedo, and De Caro increased their ensemble’s size and instrumentation substantially, and De Caro’s orchestra had such a symphonic scope that it included harp! Young tangueros formed their own small ensembles, such as Vardaro and Pugliese’s sextet. After touring the United States with Fresedo, Caló created his long-standing orchestra in 1932. By the mid-1930s, the economic climate in Argentina had marginally stabilized, allowing for tango to prosper into its Golden Age. D’Agostino, D’Arienzo, and Troilo all formed orchestras in the mid-1930s. As tango pushed farther into its Golden Age, the number of tango orchestras skyrocketed. Famous orchestras that formed during the late 1930s and early 1940s include those of Demare, Di Sarli, Pugliese, De Angelis, and Gobbi. Even tangueros such as Salgán and Piazzolla, who we often associate with the next generation, formed ensembles during the Golden Age. Figure 2.2 lists popular Golden Age orchestras and their establishment dates. (p.54) Many of these famous orchestras often collaborated with particular singers to form celebrated partnerships. Di Sarli’s orchestra performed with Rufino and recorded the tango hit “Mañana zarpa un barco,” while Troilo’s famous partnership with Fiorentino produced such classic recordings as “Malena.” D’Agostino partnered with Figure 2.2. Popular Golden Age Vargas, creating the pair known orchestras and their establishment dates. as “los dos Angelitos” (the two little Angels), and recorded the famous remake of “Shusheta” titled “El aristocrato,” and their signature “Tres esquinas.” Other notable pairings include Demare with Berón, as heard in “Qué solo estoy,” and Caló with Podestá, as heard in “Percal.”40 While singers’ partnerships with orchestras were important during the 1930s and 1940s, singers did not steal the limelight from orchestras and, in fact, functioned more as another instrument of the orchestra. As tango flourished in the Golden Age, orchestras gained employment in a variety of venues throughout Buenos Aires. Since orchestras primarily operated as dance bands, many worked in large dance venues throughout the city. Tango orchestras also performed in cafés, confiterías, cabarets, and clubes de barrio (neighborhood clubs). Specific venues often housed particular orchestras, and porteños would go to a particular place to hear and dance to their favorite Page 13 of 47

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music orchestra. Piazzolla even received his break in the tango world by relentlessly going to Café Germinal every night to hear Troilo’s orchestra until one day he was asked to substitute.41 Other popular venues included Club Almagro, Club Atlanta, Café Nacional, Marabú Cabaret, and Chanteclair. In addition to being performed in venues for dancing, tango was broadcasted through the mass media, namely, radio. According to historian Matthew Karush, “During the 1930s, the radio emerged as a more important medium [as opposed to the phonograph], capable of reaching Argentines of virtually all classes in most of the country.”42 Three important radio stations emerged during this period: Radio Belgrano (owned by Jaime Yankelevich), Radio El Mundo (owned by Editorial Haynes—Don Alberto Haynes), and Radio Splendid (owned by Max Glücksmann). The owners devised formulas dividing airtime to draw in audiences, and music occupied approximately 70 percent, and of that time, tango filled (p.55) about 54 percent.43 As another means to outshine their competitors, radio stations even formed their own tango orchestras and hired individual orchestras for particular shows. For example, De Caro’s orchestra was featured on Radio Splendid and D’Arienzo’s orchestra was a staple on Radio El Mundo. While the emergence of sound in movies during the 1920s diminished employment opportunities for some tangueros, it afforded other tangueros screen time in films. The most famous tanguero on film during the period was, of course, Gardel; however, his films also included some instrumental tangueros such as De Caro in Lasluces de Buenos Aires (1931) and the young Piazzolla in El día que me quieres (1935). Troilo was featured in Los tres berretines (1933; berretine is a Lunfardo word for whim, caprice, or illusion), whose score is by Delfino. Canaro also worked in theater and film throughout the Golden Age. He collaborated with the famous Argentine playwright Ivo Pelay (1893–1959) in such famous musical comedies for the stage as El sentimiento gaucho (1942), and he worked with renowned singers in film, including Gardel in 1932 in a series of short films of musical performances and later the famous actress/singer Merello in Mercado de Abasto (1955).44 Tango was also disseminated through phonographs and piano scores. While the phonograph did not make it into the homes of all Argentines due to economic limitations, tangueros still recorded extensively. Further, the RCA Victor label had its own orchestra for recording purposes, and at one point, the label created a variety of orchestras under its umbrella, namely, Orquesta Típica Victor, Orquesta Victor Popular, Orquesta Típica Los Provincianos, and Orquesta Radio Victor Argentina. Additionally, the record orchestras were of the highest quality as many prominent tangueros, such as Laurenz, Ortiz, and Troilo, performed with them.45 Tangueros also spread music through piano scores. These easy

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Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music arrangements of tangos gave amateur musicians the opportunity to play their favorite tangos in their homes for family and friends. With a large number of orchestras performing throughout Buenos Aires and making numerous recordings, distinct individual styles emerged. This generation of orchestra leaders blurred and intermingled the two streams of tango established in the 1920s. Many of the tangueros, however, worked (p.56) with each other and grew up under the ranks of the older generation; therefore, many of the orchestras’ styles may be traced directly to one or the other. For example, D’Arienzo, D’Agostino, and De Angelis followed the more traditional stream of Canaro and Firpo with simple arrangements, strong dance rhythms, and clearly articulated melodies and harmonies. Pugliese and Gobbi went down the innovator path of the De Caro school with varying tempos and extended instrumental solos. Orchestras that synthesized a strong beat for dancing with an expressive, romantic sound include those of Troilo, Demare, Caló, and Di Sarli. Arrangers played another key role in the process of orchestral individuation during the Golden Age. They filled a practical and functional need as orchestras’ size increased, the level of playing improved, and the body of repertory exploded. Golden Age tangueros such as Artola and Galván systematically raised the bar of tango orchestral arrangements as they “carried the tango to the music stand.”46 Like jazz and other popular music genres, tango from this period exists in various versions rather than in a definitive score. Yet, even as the arrangers’ scores and parts helped keep tutti and soli sections together, soloists maintained the free, almost improvisatory expression of the cantando melody. Thus, even as tango became more systematically notated in the 1930s and 1940s, the aural tradition of its popular music roots remained. As the individual orchestral styles put their stamp on existing tangos from the guardia vieja and guardia nueva, they established a body of tango standards. For example, it seems as though almost every tango orchestra has performed and/or recorded the guardia vieja classic “La cumparsita.” D’Arienzo, Di Sarli, and Pugliese have all recorded “Derecho viejo” in their distinct styles. Tangueros also composed many new tangos, including such Golden Age classics as “Malena,” “La yumba,” and “Sur.” With these works, tangueros explored a romantic style of composition with their large orchestras. Many of these new tangos also became standards, and arrangers crafted them to suit particular styles of the orchestras. For example, Demare with Berón and Di Sarli with Podestá both famously recorded “Qué solo estoy.” One hallmark of the new Golden Age style is the collaboration of the composer with the poet. Contrasting the compositional process of the guardia vieja or guardia nueva, where poets would simply add words to previously composed tangos, composers and poets now labored closely together (p.57) to create a Page 15 of 47

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music unified work. Famous Golden Age poets include Cadícamo, Discépolo, Castillo, Manzi, Contursi, Sanguinetti, and Expósito. Notable collaborations include Troilo with Manzi creating such tangos as “Pa’ que balien los muchachos” and Mores with Discépolo writing such standards as “Uno” and “Cafetín Buenos Aires.” In addition to the established themes in tango poetry of nostalgia and the fallen woman, Golden Age tangos also offer political commentary. Discépolo’s “Cambalache” eloquently captures the public’s uncertainty and disenchantment with the early 1930s ( WL 2.3). He rather grotesquely describes how the world is rubbish or trash and that nobody is exempt from living at this low, “muddy” level. All men are the same now, even swindlers (Stavisky), Catholic priests (Don Bosco), lovers (La Mignon), mafia members (Don Chicho), military leaders and conquerors (Napoleon), famous boxers (Carnera), and patriot generals, including the exalted Argentine general San Martín. Society lacks morals and the “Bible is crying” in the closet, next to the water heater. In 1943, the new military government banned tango’s dialect, Lunfardo, causing some works to be prohibited. The story of “Shusheta” (Lunfardo for dandy) by Cobián and Cadícamo provides an interesting example of how tango poets dealt with censorship. Cobián originally composed the music in 1920, and in 1934, Cadícamo added Lunfardo lyrics that referenced brothels and pimps. In 1944, Cadícamo rewrote the lyrics and renamed the tango “El aristócrata,” retaining a toned-down theme of a dandy.47 What Makes It a Tango?

As orchestras increased in popularity during the Golden Age, tangueros polished the defining musical elements of the genre. With the expansion and individuation of the orchestras, many distinct voices emerged. We frame our discussion of “what makes it a tango” and performance style by the Golden Age recordings of “A Orlando Goñi,” “Derecho viejo,” “Inspiración,” “La yumba,” “Maipo,” “Malena,” “Milonguero viejo,” “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos,” “Percal,” “Qué solo estoy,” “Sans souci,” “Tres esquinas,” and “Vida mía” ( 2.4).

WL

(p.58) Instrumentation and Orchestration

The core instrumental narrative established by the De Caro Sextet and other guardia nueva tangueros remain intact in the larger Golden Age orchestras. Yet, how the various orchestras arrange and assimilate the interplay between the musical elements that make it a tango define their process of individuation. Diverse arranging styles within the expanded tango orchestras integrate such broad factors as division of labor among tutti, soli, and solo passages, drawing on various registral colors from the enlarged instrumental palette, and contrasting melodic and accompanimental roles in the texture.

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Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music The creative interplay and division of labor among performing forces signals one key distinction of the various orchestral styles. Some maintain the intimacy and virtuosic display of solo passages to contrast the tutti and soli sections, especially played by the orchestra leaders themselves like Troilo, Demare, and Di Sarli. Pugliese’s orchestral style, on the other hand, embodies his cooperative approach to making music by allowing soloists to take equal turns in the texture as they share melodic and accompanimental roles. Other orchestras maintain a symphonic texture of strings and bandoneones playing the melody, either doubled throughout in octaves or scored in parts. For example, Fresedo favors a delicate, equal balance between sections in parts sprinkled with only a few solos in “Vida mía,” and Di Sarli typically creates a thick string wall of sound in octaves only shaded by the bandoneones, as in the opening of “Milonguero viejo.” As the larger orchestras provide an expanded tonal palette, registral colors within sections also help define their unique sounds. Instrumental registers vary from Troilo’s dark colors in the lower strings and the bandoneones, as in “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos,” to Pugliese’s brighter sound in “La yumba,” where the bandoneones often double the strings in their upper register. Strings and bandoneones continue to function as the primary carriers of the melody, often in tutti at the beginning of the tango, while the piano and bass provide the accompaniment. Sections also exchange roles in the texture, especially the bandoneones and the strings. For example, the bandoneones accompany the strings’ rítmico melody in the opening of D’Arienzo’s version of “Derecho viejo,” whereas in the opening of “Qué solo estoy,” Di Sarli prefers to divide the strings into both melody and accompaniment while simply coloring the sound with the bandoneones. (p.59) Elaboration of Melodic and Accompanimental Elements

As crystalized by De Caro and his school, Golden Age orchestras perpetuate the same contrasting rítmico/cantando melodic styles and marcato/síncopa accompanimental patterns within sections and phrases. Yet, individual orchestra leaders and arrangers elaborate these core elements of melody and accompaniment with distinct features to further develop what makes it tango in their own style. The different ways melodic and accompanimental styles combine also distinguish the orchestras. Golden Age tangueros traversed the entire spectrum of tango melodic style, with D’Arienzo’s “El rey del compás” (“The King of Rhythm”) and Gobbi’s “El violín romántico del tango” (“The Romantic Violin of Tango”) at opposite ends. D’Arienzo’s predominantly sharp rítmico style incorporates contrasting cantando phrases, as in “Derecho viejo,” while Gobbi projects a mostly romantic cantando melodic style with contrasting heavy rítmico phrases, as in “A Orlando Goñi.” Troilo’s melodies mainly synthesize the two styles, even within phrases. For Page 17 of 47

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music example, the opening bar of “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos” first sounds a sharp syncopated rhythm in a neighbor-note figure, followed by a flowing cantando descending line. As De Caro expanded his orchestra, he especially exaggerated fraseo in his cantando melodies, as in the tutti A section opening and the soli bandoneón B section of “Maipo.” Orchestras continue the practice of incorporating countermelodies and other melodic passagework like rellenos and enlaces both in their new compositions and in the standard tunes they arranged. De Caro maintains the guardia nueva practice of scoring cantando countermelodies for the violins in his large orchestra recording of “Maipo.” Fresedo and Di Sarli incorporate long, legato countermelodies in slow, simple rhythms in the high strings in “Vida mía” and “Qué solo estoy,” respectively. Conversely, both Demare’s and Troilo’s versions of “Malena” integrate a luscious violin countermelody in the low register, although in different phrases of the A section (Demare in the penultimate phrase and Troilo in the last). Demare’s version of “Qué solo estoy” demonstrates a more intricate web of countermelodies, fills, and phrase links spread among the piano, bandoneones, and violins. Virtuosic bandoneón variations begun by Maffia and Laurenz in the 1920s continue into the Golden Age. Tangueros begin to experiment with the traditionally fixed position at the end of a tango. For example, both Caló and Gobbi utilize the technique briefly in the first return of the A section in “Sans souci” and “A Orlando Goñi,” respectively. (p.60) Elaboration of the rhythmic marcato/síncopa accompanimental patterns especially determines the “swing”48 of different Golden Age orchestras and, most important, distinguishes one from the other. Various elaborations of the standard marcato in 4 that drives the dance beat emerged in the 1930s and 1940s, especially in the more romantic orchestras. For example, Demare elaborates marcato to longer pulses in the cantando melodic passages in “Qué solo estoy,” and Gobbi sustains harmonies in marcato half notes and even whole notes in “A Orlando Goñi.” Pugliese exaggerates the basic marcato to create his signature yumba rhythmic accompaniment with forceful accents on beats 1 and 3. This now-standard accompanimental rhythm, named for his tango “La yumba,” is discussed in detail in chapter 3, along with other elaborations of marcato in 4. There are myriad ways to elaborate síncopa, and they vary from orchestra to orchestra. If used at all, the more traditional orchestras incorporate the simplest síncopa a tierra, such as in the accompaniment to the final violin solo of D’Agostino’s “Tres esquinas.” In “Qué solo estoy,” Demare uses a heavier and more complex anticipada/contratiempo elaboration of the figure in the accompaniment to each initial appearance of the B section in the violin solo, voice, and bandoneón solo, respectively. Gobbi favors a heavy síncopa anticipada Page 18 of 47

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music elaboration, and he elaborates the figure even further to use three in a row without pauses in the B section of “A Orlando Goñi.” Subtle distinctions among the individual styles may be discerned by how melodic and accompanimental styles combine. For example, even though D’Agostino mostly maintains a steady marcato for dancing, his opening cantando melody in “Tres esquinas” creates a romantic sound followed by a contrasting rítmico phrase. In his early period, Troilo, too, favored a pulsing marcato with alternating rítmico and cantando melodic styles. Yet, in the last phrase of the A section of “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos,” he offsets the steady marcato with sharp síncopa for an added rhythmic emphasis. Pugliese tends to combine his strong yumba with rítmico melodies and síncopa with cantando melodies, as in “La yumba.” Harmony

Harmonic language especially distinguishes the traditional Golden Age orchestras from those that followed the more innovative path of the (p.61) 1920s guardia nueva. For example, D’Arienzo stays close to the basic diatonic harmonies originally used by Arolas in “Derecho viejo,” whereas both Troilo and Caló incorporate more chromaticism in their arrangements of “Inspiración.” Furthermore, Caló’s signature added sixth in the final chord represents the lush harmonic language of the Golden Age, as heard at the end of “Inspiración.” True to the spirit of romanticism, most of the new tango compositions of the Golden Age utilize rich chromaticism in both the bass lines and harmonies, including augmented sixth chords, tritone substitution, linear diminished seventh chords, and chromatic descending fifth sequences. For example, both Troilo and Demare often build on the ♭6-5 element of tango’s tristeza in the bass to approach the cadential dominant through an augmented sixth chord, as in “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos” and “Qué solo estoy,” respectively. Pugliese incorporates the linear diminished seventh chord throughout “La yumba.” Gobbi’s “A Orlando Goñi” illustrates an example of rich chromaticism in the descending fifth progressions and in the enlaces. Golden Age tangueros continue to use standard tonal relationships between sections established by the guardia vieja, such as Demare’s “Malena” that moves from D minor to the relative key D major in the B section. They also build on the refined tonal relationships developed by guardia nueva tangueros that work out one main key area between phrases, periods, and formal sections. The beginning of the B section in Demare’s poignant “Qué solo estoy” illustrates the working out of the main key of C minor, as if to portray being trapped in loneliness ( WE 2.3). The first phrase (mm. 20–24) hovers around the iv, V, and i chords, while the second phrase moves more chromatically to include a tonicization of III and a German augmented sixth chord (enharmonically spelled as ♭VI⁷) preceding the cadential dominant. Page 19 of 47

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music Form

Two-part (AB) structures became the standard Golden Age form as the new generation of tangueros continued to strengthen the unified binary design begun by the guardia nueva. Phrase and period structures still mostly follow two-, fourand eight-bar groups to form sixteen-bar periods, although Demare’s famous “Malena” exhibits a strikingly new design of irregular phrases and sections. The A section encompasses twenty bars in five 4-bar phrases, and the B section encompasses twenty-one bars in a 6 + 3 + 5 bar phrase design. Troilo’s “Sur,” discussed in more detail in chapter 4, also uses an asymmetrical phrase design. (p.62) Even the presentation of form in the Golden Age points to the ensemble’s dance-band function and the equal status between the singer and the orchestra. In vocal tangos recorded in the 1930s and 1940s, orchestras typically play through the entire form first, presumably to allow time for the dancers to assemble on the floor, before the singer enters. Then, following the singer’s rendition of the entire structure, the orchestra usually repeats the A section with various instrumental solos. The singer typically rejoins the ensemble for the last few phrases to conclude the tango, as in “Tres esquinas,” “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos,” “Qué solo estoy,” “Percal,” and both the Troilo and Demare versions of “Malena.” In “Vida mía,” however, Fresedo’s orchestra repeats the A section alone to end without the singer. Finally, some orchestras established signature “chan-chan” tags. While the big dance orchestras of D’Arienzo, D’Agostino, and Troilo typically play the two chords with equal dynamic levels on the strong beats 1 and 3, others, like Pugliese and Gobbi, emphasize the first chord with a forte dynamic and a longer duration, then dissolve into a piano and staccato final chord. Caló omits the normally obligatory tag altogether after the dramatic rallentando in “Sans souci.” Basic Performance Style

Just as the compositions and arrangements contributed to the processes of individuation during the Golden Age, the performance practices of the period delineate specific styles as well. Tempo is one important style characteristic, such as D’Arienzo’s energetic tempos for dancing compared to Di Sarli’s more languid ones. Two other key characteristics that define an orchestra’s individual practices include degrees of articulation and levels of accentuation. For example, each orchestra has a particular style of marcato. D’Arienzo’s orchestra plays an extremely short marcato in 4 with accents on every beat, as in “Derecho viejo,” whereas Fresedo softly pulses marcato in 4, as in “Vida mía.” Gobbi’s orchestra, on the other hand, emphasizes beats 1 and 3 with accentuations and arrastres as in “A Orlando Goñi.” In “La yumba,” Pugliese’s orchestra extends the basic marcato practices with his yumba technique by leading heavily into beats 1 and 3 with strong arrastres (see chapter 3 for execution techniques of Page 20 of 47

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music yumba). Further, the articulation of rítmico melodies also varies in degrees of shortness. For example, the staccato of De Caro’s large orchestra is much longer than that of D’Arienzo’s orchestra. Troilo’s orchestra also plays longer staccato notes, for example, in the opening of “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos.” The orchestras of the Golden Age typically heighten the dramatic expression of the music, particularly through cantando melodies. The strings are (p.63) notorious for playing these lyrical lines with legato bow strokes, expressive melodic slides, and wide vibrato. Fresedo’s “Vida mía” and Di Sarli’s “Milonguero viejo” recordings both demonstrate lush, expressive string sounds. Moreover, all of the cantando melodic lines employ a type of fraseo either in solos, solis, or tuttis. For example, Caló’s orchestra employs a lilting fraseo in “Sans souci” to imply a carefree nature as the French title suggests. The tanguero’s instrument also affects the overall style of the ensemble. For example, Di Sarli, as a pianist, is the driving force behind his ensemble, and he constantly adds melodic and percussive fills while performing, as exemplified in the recordings of “Qué solo estoy” and “Milonguero viejo.” Demare, also a pianist, steers his ensemble with his dominating marcato, as in “Malena.” Troilo’s arrangements frequently feature his own bandoneón solos, in which he indulges in cantando melodic lines by employing fraseo, as in “Inspiración.”

1950 through the 1960s When the Peronistas first took office in 1946, they created a radical program of social reform and industrialization supported by the trade unions and the urban working class.49 In 1952, Perón was elected for a second term; however, his decline was eminent as the administration encountered increased tensions with the military and the Catholic Church. Moreover, Eva Perón, his wife and central figure in the Peronist movement, died of cancer shortly after his election. By 1955, the country proved unsuccessful at recovering from recurrent cycles of recession, and social and political conflicts were leading to violence.50 In June of that year, when Perón assembled thousands of workers and trade unionists in the Plaza de Mayo for a rally against the Catholic Church, the navy attacked the gathering with an air strike and killed hundreds of demonstrators. In September 1955, Revolución Libertadora (Revolution of Liberation), a military and civilian uprising, ousted Perón and sent him into exile. Facing economic troubles during the international Cold War climate, Argentina constantly fluctuated between military and civilian governments following Perón’s administration. In September 1955, General Eduardo Lonardi took office, but was quickly succeeded by General Pedro E. Aramburu in November 1955. Aramburu banished Peronisim and led the José León Suárez massacre, killing militant Peronists. Between 1958 (p.64) and 1962, Aruturo Frondizi served as president and received support from Perón in exile. The military overthrew his government in 1962, and José María Guido assumed power until Page 21 of 47

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music 1963. Argentines then elected Arturo Illia to the presidency; however, the election was unrepresentative of the population, as Peronists and communists were not allowed to vote. In 1966, another coup led by General Juan Carlos Onganía instigated a sevenyear period of military dictatorship and a program of national regeneration that he called La Revolución Argentina (The Revolution Argentina). Onganía quickly outlawed all political parties and activities, as well as removed universities’ academic autonomy (granted in 1918). As Romero notes, “Censorship was extended to all manifestations of new fashions, from the miniskirt to long hair, all expressions of the evils that according to the Catholic Church were a prelude to Communism: free love, pornography, and divorce.”51 End of the Golden Age and Transition to Post–Golden Age

While Perón may not have been the largest supporter of tango (as many tangueros struggled with labor laws and political conflicts of interest),52 his ousting from office and the subsequent government fluctuations did not bode well for Argentina’s economic stability or the prospering of tango. Further, the immigrant community of the first decades of the twentieth century, which was once brought together by tango, had assimilated by the 1950s and no longer needed tango as a means for integration and unification.53 Tangueros, therefore, faced many challenges during the 1950s and 1960s, namely, renewing public interest in an art form that was becoming passé in the midst of political chaos. As tango transitioned out of its Golden Age, many of the orchestras shifted their function to create music for listening. Tango music, in a sense, returned to its concert music purpose established by the guardia nueva. In addition, many of the venues where society danced tango closed or went out of business. The music then moved from being performed in grand salones de baile to intimate nightclubs. In this dim climate, tangueros progressed down one of two paths: playing in large orchestras or working in small chamber ensembles. Large (p.65) orchestras, such as those of Di Sarli, Pugliese, and Troilo, continued to play after tango’s Golden Age and developed a concert style with a large, lush, and romantic sound. Gobbi’s orchestra even reached its artistic climax during the 1950s, particularly with its 1947–1957 recordings with RCA Victor. Following in Canaro’s traditionalist stream, Mores (Canaro’s pianist from 1939 to 1948) formed his own orchestra for shows and concerts rather than for dancing. Many large orchestras also worked with singers, for example, Federico’s orchestra with Sosa, known as “El Varón del Tango” (The Male of Tango). Contrary to the 1930s and 1940s, where the singer shared the stage with the orchestra, the singer became the superstar during the 1950s and 1960s.

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Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music Other tangueros either abandoned their large orchestras or pursued chamber ensembles alongside their orchestra. Troilo, for example, maintained his large orchestra yet also formed a quartet in 1953 with guitarist Grela, as well as the Cuarteto Aníbal Troilo in 1968. Piazzolla disassembled his orchestra in pursuit of the vanguardia (avant-garde) and formed his Octeto Buenos Aires in 1955. Notably, the Octet began Piazzolla’s subgenre of nuevo tango, and he explored a variety of chamber ensembles thereafter (see chapter 5, Piazzolla case study). Salgán created his famous Quinteto Real, which debuted in 1960 on Radio El Mundo (see chapter 5, Salgán case study). Bandoneonist Rovira experimented with numerous chamber ensembles in addition to being a prolific composer. His trio with pianist Stampone and violinist Nichele performed regularly in Buenos Aires between 1965 and 1970. Further, when Pugliese fell ill and cancelled some of his orchestra’s engagements, some members formed their own ensemble, called Sexteto Tango, in 1968 (notably, with Pugliese’s blessing). This ensemble included bandoneonists Ruggiero and Lavallén, violinists Balcarce and Herrero, pianist Plaza (who formerly played bandoneón with Pugliese), bassist Rossi, and occasionally the singer Maciel. Dissemination of tango during the 1950s and 1960s proved to be a complicated process. Radio stations, which were once independently owned, were now under state control54 and faced censorship of programs, as well as obligatory airing of political propaganda. Further, blacklists circulated throughout the community, and producers would deny work to musicians whose fidelity was questioned.55 Pugliese especially suffered because of his political affiliation with the Communist Party and was frequently (p.66) incarcerated. In a sense, the radio was a catch twenty-two for many tangueros. It was a gateway into the clubs and cafés, as many of the performing venues would not hire an ensemble unless it played on the radio;56 however, it was difficult to get an initial gig on the radio. Moreover, as the government fluctuated during the 1950s and 1960s, it forced tangueros either to shift their allegiances to the ruling power or to remain neutral—and both options created challenges for working tangueros. Fighting the restraints of the times, Stampone, along with former soccer player Rinaldo Martino and actor Pedro Aleandro, opened the celebrated club Caño 14 in 1964. It functioned as a place for tangueros to explore new music and for aficionados to experience the genre. Of the club, tango historian and tanguero advocate Nélida Rouchetto states: There, Atilio had the possibility of making his musical conceptions be heard and to find the channel to express his own musical language, whose achievement had become an obsession … breaking the rigid structure of playing, surprising with his solos and the string writing, and definitively saying adieu to the danceable music that hindered his flight.57

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Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music Other popular clubs of the period include singer Rivero’s El Viejo Almacén (opening in 1969) and Michelangelo, where in 1969 Amelita Baltar premiered Piazzolla and Ferrer’s “Balada para mi muerte,” “Balada para él,” and “Balada para un loco.” Piazzolla also pays tribute to this club with his “Michelangelo 70.”58 Tangueros continued to make numerous recordings and to work in film and television. With Sosa, Federico made legendary recordings with CBS Columbia between 1962 and 1964. Troilo and his music were featured in late the Golden Age films Mi noche triste (1952), Vida nocturna (1955), and Buenas noches, Buenos Aires (1964).59 Television began in Argentina in 1951, although channel choices were limited to only one station that was under government control. After the Perón regime, more channel licenses were granted, and tangueros gradually became more visible on television. For (p.67) example, Sexteto Tango had their 1968 debut not only on stage at Caño 14 but also on the television show Sábados Circulares on Channel 13.60 Beginning in the mid-1940s and into the 1950s, larger music publishing houses (editorials) like Juio Korn, Musical Record/Perrotti, and Ricordi Americana expanded their dissemination of simple sheet music to orquestaciones (orchestrations). These basic orchestral arrangements, typically for three violins, three bandoneones, piano, and bass, were targeted for the multitude of neighborhood or semiprofessional tango orchestras that proliferated in the Golden Age. While many of these arrangements are unsigned, some of the orquestaciones are credited to the arranger, such as “La trampera” by Galván and published by Korn in 1950; “Danzarín,” orchestrated by Plaza himself and published by Ricordi in 1958; and “Si soy así” orchestrated by “Toto” Damario and published by Perrotti in 1959. What Makes It a Tango?

As orchestral tango moved beyond music for dancing, tangueros further refined the musical elements of the art form during the post–Golden Age. These musicians also increased their level of sophistication in their performance styles. In discussing these features, we examine “A fuego lento,” “Danzarín,” “Gallo ciego,” “La cumparsita/Porque canto así,” “La bordona,” “Los mareados,” “Marrón y azul,” “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos,” and “Sónico” (

WL 2.5).

Quick changes in contrasting melodic and rhythmic styles and orchestration became such standard practice that we simply identify them in the larger context of arranging and instrumentation. Troilo’s big symphonic sound, especially heard in Plaza’s masterful arrangements from the late 1950s and the 1960s like “Danzarín,”61 exemplifies the refined instrumental genre. Pugliese’s large orchestra, too, continued with ever-more refined arrangements, such as “Gallo ciego,” which features quick contrasts in orchestration along with pushand-pull tempo fluctuations. Federico’s orchestra with Sosa also features fast Page 24 of 47

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music mood changes due to fluid solo, soli, and tutti instrumental roles; dramatic dynamic contrasts; and shifts in instrumental registers, as heard in “La cumparsita.” Salgán’s original tango (p.68) “A fuego lento” illustrates how established Golden Age melodic and accompanimental styles became organically entrenched in the post–Golden Age, as fast and fluid changing contrasts became the norm (see chapter 5, Salgán case study). Tangueros retained essential musical elements that define the genre as they explored new realms in composition and arranging. Similar to the innovator and traditional streams of the 1920s, a new vanguardia style emerged in the late 1950s and the 1960s alongside the continuation of a more traditional tango style during this period of transition. Rovira and Piazzolla stand out as two towering figures of the vanguardia who experimented with rhythm, harmony, instrumentation, and form, while Salgán, Plaza, and Balcarce incorporated some modern elements of harmony, counterpoint, and form within a more traditional pathway. Naturally, the two instrumental trends crossed over. While the older maestros like Troilo and Pugliese set a model for those coming of age, the younger tangueros, or the “Generation of ’55,” including Plaza, Stampone, Berlingieri, Federico, and Requena,62 also moved forward in new directions. Federico especially bridged traditional and new tango, as he played with numerous Golden Age orchestras and then formed his own orchestra and chamber groups. In both traditional and modern stylistic realms, tangueros placed an increased emphasis on original compositions, and they began to synthesize the three musical activities of composer/arranger/performer into one persona. With these multifaced tangueros, the concept of individuation continued from the Golden Age into the 1950s and 1960s. Balcarce’s famous “La bordona” strikes a delicate balance between traditional and modern elements that make it a tango. Following a lush extended introductory chord in the Sexteto Tango recording, the opening measures sonically illustrate the title of the tango. The bass melody fills in the traditional milonga campera rising 1̂-♭6̂-5̂ figure by step, then descends stepwise in a 3-3-2 grouping ( WE 2.4, mm. 1–2), while the pizzicato violins evoke the bordoneo of the guitar arpeggios. Throughout the tango, Balcarce maintains the lush romantic harmony of the opening chord while he calls on 3-3-2 and heavy marcato accompaniment patterns, contrasting cantando and rítmico melodic styles, and a short variation passage for the bandoneones. Within their chamber formations, tangueros were even freer to experiment with music for listening. Salgán’s Quinteto Real features a new expanded role of the guitar in the hands of De Lío to add percussive elements and emphasize syncopated off beats (see “umpa-umpa” in chapter 3), (p.69) in addition to oscillating between melody and accompaniment in the instrumental narrative.

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Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music Piazzolla’s octet portrays an even more contemporary instrumentation, as heard in “Marrón y azul” and the super-stylized arrangement of “Los mareados.” Perhaps less well known but equally remarkable, Rovira experimented with even more contemporary musical elements. His famous tango “Sónico” was first recorded in 1960 with an unusual septet of string quartet plus bandoneón, piano, and bass. The vanguardia polyrhythms, as heard between the bass-line accompaniment and the first statement of the melody, contrast with more typical pulsing 3-3-2 rhythmic groupings. The work also draws on nonfunctional harmonies, like the sequential passages in parallel fourths, and rapid chromatic melodic lines. Perhaps the most contemporary of all Rovira’s compositions, “Serial dodecafónico” experimented with twelve-tone composition to “create a perfect synthesis without ever losing the narrative and coherence of the music.”63 Post–Golden Age tangos feature advanced chromaticism, jazz influences,64 and new formal designs. For example, Piazzolla uses a striking Neapolitan sixth chord in the opening of “Marrón y azul.” Plaza and Salgán often incorporate chromatic extensions and altered notes to core diatonic harmonies, such as the iv9 in the cantando C section and closing cadential V♯9 in “Danzarín,” and the V13 and V♯5 chords in the B section of “A fuego lento” (see chapter 5, Close Reading of each tango). Sequences of chromatic descending fifths become more common, as in the B section and the final variations of “A fuego lento.” Composers and arrangers also pushed the limits of the standard tango two- (AB) and three- (AB with trio) part forms to create closed ternary structures, such as “A fuego lento” and “Sónico.” Basic Performance Style

As tango progressed out of the Golden Age and into the post–Golden Age, the overall level of virtuosity increased. The sectional playing of large orchestras demanded clear arrangements and musicians with excellent (p.70) reading skills. In an interview with tango scholar María Susana Azzi, bandoneonist and arranger Spitalnik describes the new advances: The demand for greater responsibility and the discipline imposed by the music stand—the need to be able to read music—raised the average professional capacity of the musicians… . From a musical point of view, we stood in opposition to the so-called classical musicians who looked down on us and despised us like rats. But later on the violinists who had mastered the tango played in symphony orchestras—the professional quality had improved that much.65 In the smaller ensembles, tangueros demonstrate not only their increased level of playing, as in Rovira’s fast passagework in “Sónico,” but also their ability to respond to another’s playing, similar to De Caro’s sextet of the 1920s. For Page 26 of 47

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music example, Troilo plays with an enormous amount of musical freedom in his recording of “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos” with Grela. This style contrasts his orchestral recording of “Danzarín,” which maintains a streamlined approach to executing accompanimental rhythms and melodic lines. Piazzolla’s “Marrón y azul” features an uninhibited bandoneón solo in the B section, accompanied by a flexible countermelody in the violin.

1970 through the 1980s With many Argentines rejecting the oppressive legislation of Onganía’s Revolución Argentina, increased tension between opposing sides led to strikes throughout the country and the emergence of guerrilla warfare groups. The famous Cordobazo of May 1969, in which the citizens of Córdoba held riots and even burned buildings in response to the government’s policies, became the catalyst for numerous violent eruptions. In the 1970s, two prominent guerrilla organizations emerged: Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo (ERP, People’s Revolutionary Army formed from a wing of the Communist Party) and Montoneros (a left-wing Peronist group). Both organizations gained financial resources by kidnapping wealthy executives for ransom and made political statements by executing high-powered officials. (p.71) After Onganía, the militant government of Revolución Argentina continued under the leadership of General Roberto M. Levingston (1970–1971) and General Alejandro Lanusse (1971–1973). Growing more powerful during the reign of the military government, Peronistas forced general elections to be held again after ten years, and in 1973, Dr. Héctor Cámpora became president. Péron then returned from exile in June of 1973, and millions of citizens gathered at Ezeiza International Airport to greet him. His arrival, however, did not bring elation to all, and fighting broke out, killing approximately thirteen and injuring hundreds. Following what became known as the Ezeiza massacre, Raúl Lastiri took over the presidency. Finally, in October of 1973, Argentines elected Péron for his third term as president and his new wife, Isabel Péron, as vice president. Juan Domingo Péron, suffering from a heart attack, died in 1974, and his wife Isabel assumed the presidency. In 1976, another coup overthrew the government, and Argentina entered into perhaps its darkest historical hour with the Proceso de Reorganización Nacional (or commonly called the Proceso, National Reorganization Process). Ruled by military leaders General Jorge Videla, General Roberto Viola, General Leopoldo Galtieri, and General Reynaldo Bignone, the government sought to eliminate the social base of insurgency, or as Romero describes it, “the military had come to cut the Gordian knot with a sword.”66 The military abducted, tortured, arrested, and executed any persons suspected of antigovernment activity, targeting civilians of the middle class and/or with intellectual standing. The military left no trace of the dead by burning or casting to sea the bodies. Human rights

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Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music organizations claim that during this period, known as the Guerra sucia (Dirty War), as many as 30,000 people “disappeared.” In 1982, Argentina commenced a ten-week war with Great Britain disputing the ownership of the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas in Argentina), an archipelago off the coast of Argentina’s southern tip. While Great Britain defeated Argentina and the conflict remains a source of tension, the war advantageously diminished the strength of the oppressive military government. In 1983, Argentines elected Unión Cívica Radical (UCR, Radical Civic Union) leader Raúl Alfonsín to be president. Unfortunately, Alfonsín inherited a nation that had never truly recovered from decades of cyclic recession where inflation, national debt, and unemployment were high. (p.72) Retrenching, Survival, and Exploration

During the oppressive regimes of the 1970s and early 1980s, tango underwent a period of retrenching and survival. While some tangueros remained active with recording projects and concerts abroad, such as Piazzolla with jazz saxophonist Gerry Mulligan, others hunkered down to ride out the storm of the military junta, such as Pugliese. Some immigrated to Europe, such as bandoneonist Mosalini and pianist Beytelmann, based in Paris and Rotterdam, respectively. Of the climate under the military junta, Mosalini states, “We put together a large number of groups that were aborted, the environment was hostile for anything connected with art. I was a leading member of the musicians’ union and we were persecuted because we had a presence.”67 In addition to the challenges posed by the government, tango confronted competition with other popular genres, namely, with the youthful, antiestablishment rock nacional that gained an enormous presence during the 1970s. With the end of the dictatorship in 1983 and Alfonsín’s subsequent presidency, tangueros found renewed creative freedoms and began exploring other facets of tango. Tangueros formed a variety of different, and often innovative, chamber ensembles while at the same time preserving traditional ensembles of the previous decades. For example, Pugliese’s famous orchestra sustained alongside Piazzolla’s numerous eclectic ensembles, including the Nonet, Electronic Octet, and Second Quintet. Salgán continued to work with De Lío throughout the 1970s and 1980s while also bringing back his large orchestra in 1976 and his reorganized quintet, the Nuevo Quinteto Real, in the 1980s.68 Similarly, Federico worked in trios, first with pianist Berlingieri and bassist Fernando Cabarcos in the early 1970s and then with pianist Colángelo and bassist Horacio Cabarcos in the 1980s. Federico also re-established his large orchestra in the early 1970s. Bandoneonist and arranger Garello, who worked with Troilo’s famous orchestra until the maestro passed in 1975, created his own sextet in 1974 and later an orchestra in 1977. Other notable ensembles of the period include Sexteto Tango, Sexteto Mayor (formed in 1973 by bandoneonists Stazo and Libertella), and Generación Cero (Generation Zero), formed by Mederos in 1976 as a tango, Page 28 of 47

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music rock, and jazz fusion group. Other prominent tangueros who worked with a variety of ensembles during the period include bandoneonists Marconi, Binelli, and Mosalini and pianists Stampone and Tarantino. (p.73) Similar to the late 1950s and 1960s, tango primarily functioned within society as concert music for listening during the 1970s and 1980s. Tangueros continued to play in nightclubs, including Michelangelo, Caño 14, and El Viejo Almacén, as well as larger concert venues, such as the prestigious Teatro Colón. For example, Troilo and his orchestra played at the famous opera house in 1972, followed by Piazzolla’s Nonet with the Buenos Aires Philharmonic in 1983 and Pugliese’s orchestra in 1985. In addition to presenting live music, tangueros continued to disseminate their music for listening first through LP recordings and then transitioned into the digital age from cassette tapes to compact discs. Many tangueros found additional and financial support by touring and recording internationally.69 Piazzolla perhaps attained the largest international success (see chapter 5, Piazzolla case study). Sexteto Tango toured throughout the Americas in the 1970s, as well as later in Europe and Japan. Pugliese, who had already begun his international tours in the late 1950s, continued with trips to Cuba and Japan. Along with its international performances, Sexteto Mayor maintained a regular gig in New York City with the Broadway show Tango Argentino in 1985. In terms of repertory, tangueros created many new tangos while continuing to arrange tangos of the past. For example, Mederos and Piazzolla wrote such progressive pieces as “De todas maneras” and “Twenty Years After,” respectively. Also, Federico wrote his own nostalgic “Éramos tan jóvenes” yet continued to arrange and record such classics as Troilo’s “Ché, bandoneón.” Meanwhile, new tangos from the 1950s and 1960s made their way into the tango canon, such as Piazzolla’s “Adiós Nonino,” Salgán’s “A fuego lento,” and Plaza’s “Danzarín.” In addition, many tangueros worked in the movie industry by writing film scores. Plaza wrote a handful of scores including La tregua (1974), Solamente ella (1975), Sentimental (1981), and Chau, papá (1987). Stampone wrote the score to Marcos Zurinaga’s Tango Bar (1987). Piazzolla also wrote numerous film scores, most notably Sur, which premiered at the 1988 Cannes Film Festival. What Makes It a Tango?

The trend of emerging individual compositional and arranging tango voices from the late 1950s and 1960s continued in these next two decades. While at times tangueros transferred recognizable and traditional musical (p.74) elements that make it tango, they also synthesized them with other styles or omitted them altogether. In short, the 1970s and 1980s reflect both the old and the new in tango’s history. Examples of composed works and newly recorded standards that we discuss from these two decades include “Adiós Nonino,” “A fuego lento,” Page 29 of 47

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music “Bandola zurdo,” “Boedo,” “Camorra I,” “Che, bandoneón,” “Danzarín,” “De todas maneras,” “El choclo,” “Éramos tan jóvenes,” “Michelangelo 70,” “Nostalgias,” “Para el recorrido,” “Selección de Carlos Di Sarli,” “Twenty Years After,” “Vida mía,” and “Zum” (

WL 2.6).

The most traditional sounds coming from tangueros of this time may be heard in the continuing orchestral style of Pugliese. He maintained his essential instrumentation and identifying melodic and rhythmic style even as he incorporated contemporary compositions. For example, in his recording of Piazzolla’s “Zum,” sharp rítmico melodies dominated by the bandoneones in the A section contrast with cantando string melodies in the B section, even as his signature yumba comes and goes in the accompaniment. Both Federico and Salgán continued to transmit traditional tango elements during these difficult years. For example, Federico’s “Selección de Carlos Di Sarli” captures the elegantly weighted and rich string and piano orchestration of the Golden Age maestro through a medley of his most famous tangos. Federico’s solo arrangement of “Che, bandoneón” remains faithful to Troilo’s melody with contrasting cantando and rítmico passages while elaborating the structure with his own intensely chromatic introduction and coda. Even in his original tangos, Federico transmits essential elements that define tango, such as the opening cry of the bandoneón in “Éramos tan jóvenes” and the later driving 3-3-2 rhythms (see chapter 5, Federico case study). Salgán, in duo with De Lío, also carried his refined yet rhythmically vibrant arrangements of traditional tangos forward, such as heard in the fraseo melodies of “Vida mía” and the rítmico melodies of “Boedo.” Salgán regularly played his own compositions alongside his arrangements of tango standards, such as the breathlessly racing 1976 version of “A fuego lento” (see chapter 5, Salgán case study). Sexteto Mayor and Sexteto Tango also perpetuated core features of tango style, both in their sexteto típico formation of two bandoneones, two violins, piano, and bass and in their stylized arrangements of tango melodies and rhythms. For example, Sexteto Mayor’s arrangement of “El choclo” first features a stylized milonga rhythm to accompany the slow bandoneón fraseo melody, and then it switches to a forceful síncopa with arrastre and rítmico melody to dramatically propel the tempo forward. The opening of Plaza’s arrangement of “Danzarín” for Sexteto Tango combines a sustained chromatic chordal accompaniment in the strings, as the piano introduces the main melody fortified by percussive tapping on the bass to accentuate the embedded 3-3-2 melodic groupings. (p.75) As tangueros managed to maintain orchestras during the 1970s and 1980s, they carried traditional elements along with exciting new innovations in tango instrumental music. For example, Federico’s orchestra in the recording Buenos Aires Today (1973) features mostly traditional instrumentation, yet all new compositions. Many of these pieces explore jazz and classical crossovers, Page 30 of 47

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music such as Federico’s addition of alto saxophone and percussion in “Cautivante,” Garello’s fugue in “Margarita de agosto,” and Requena’s symphonic clusters in “Extravío.” “Bandola zurdo” evokes both tango’s tristeza through the bandoneón’s sweeping introductory rhapsodic arpeggios and a more complex tonal language with rich linear chromatic harmonies (see chapter 5, Federico case study). Other tangueros further expanded their compositional palates to fuse tango with other genres. Both Piazzolla and Mederos experimented with tango-rock fusion that weighs more on the rock side than tango. Within Argentina, Mederos and his Generación Cero created such pieces as “De todas maneras” that only capture a bit of tango through the central melodic role of the bandoneón and some of its characteristic arrastre sounds. Otherwise, the heavy drums, electric guitar, electric bass, and synthesizer dominate the texture with rock elements of rhythmic patterns, wailing melodic licks, and power chords. Working outside the reaches of the political turmoil in Argentina in the early 1970s, Piazzolla explored tango-jazz fusion with saxophonist Gerry Mulligan in Italy. His “Twenty Years After” also shuns traditional tango instrumentation and contrasting rítmico /cantando melodic and marcato/síncopa rhythmic elements. Instead, he incorporates percussion and electronic instruments alongside the strings, melodic jazz riffs in the bandoneón and saxophone, and the quintessential Piazzolla combination of walking bass marcato and 3-3-2 in the rhythmic accompaniment. Piazzolla pursued a more tanguero sound while still synthesizing elements from other musical styles in this period, too. For example, “Michelangelo 70” features melodies built on short rítmico motivic ideas, walking marcato bass lines, and driving 3-3-2 rhythms within an expanded chromatic and even quartal harmonic language and refined three-part formal design (see the Close Reading in chapter 5). “Camorra I” represents Piazzolla’s mature style of the late 1980s with its dark and driving rhythm and heavy arrastres. Basic Performance Style

As tangueros of the 1970s and 1980s fused musical genres through compositional and arranging practices, they also explored the performance practices of these genres. Most notably, tangueros began incorporating sections (p.76) for improvisation similar to jazz performance practices. For example, in Piazzolla’s collaboration with Mulligan, scores may have been notated, but Mulligan extends musical ideas beyond the score, as in “Twenty Years Ago.” Marconi’s “Para el recorrido” (see Cafecito in chapter 5) includes clear solo passages, where the tangueros add ornamentations beyond the typical tango practices. Specifically, Marconi’s solo includes so many runs and fills that the melody is almost obscured, a practice more common with jazz than tango. Other tangueros experimented with jazz and rock, like Mederos in his “De todas

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Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music maneras,” where basic tango rhythmic and accent structures take a stylistic tour of multiple genres. In addition, tangueros continue to push the boundaries of technical virtuosity and the tightness of ensemble playing. Federico executes beautiful solos in “Bandola zurdo” that demonstrate his command of the bandoneón’s multiple keyboard layouts. In the Salgán–De Lío duo, both tangueros perform brilliant passagework and lock into each other’s playing at the highest level. Even though Sexteto Mayor’s repertory centers on tango standards, the ensemble offers a fresh interpretation with virtuosic solos, tempo changes, and special effects, as in “El choclo” and “Nostaglias.”

1990 through the Present In 1989, Argentines elected Carlos Menem as president. To overcome a bankrupt state, poverty, and social violence, Menem instituted drastic government reform in his two terms as president. Contrasting to Perón’s policies, Menem privatized all major utilities, including gas, electric, telephone, airline, and even YPF (Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales, Argentina’s major oil and gas company). He also enacted his Convertibility Plan, which most notably pegged the Argentine peso to the US dollar and limited the Central Bank from printing money. While Menem’s policies proved to be profitable during the 1990s, they did not offer Argentina long-term stability. In 2001, under the presidency of Fernando de la Rúa, the country defaulted on international debts, causing the devaluation of the Argentine peso. To prevent Argentines from converting their Argentine pesos to US dollars, the government instituted the corralito (a monetary “little corral”), restricting cash withdrawals. In December 2001, the citizens protested in the streets of Buenos Aires, forcing de la Rúa to flee the Casa Rosada and resign. Congress then appointed Eduardo Duhalde to the presidency. Throughout the next year, the ramifications of (p.77) Argentina’s economic crisis revealed themselves with unemployment rising above 20 percent and inflation peaking at 10 percent.70 In 2003, Néstor Kirchner became president and began a new era of Argentine policy known as kirchnerismo. Assuming the responsibility of rebuilding Argentina, Kirchner sought to stimulate the economy by introducing macroeconomic policies such as the stabilization of a real exchange rate.71 Kirchner’s wife, Senator Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, then became president in 2007, creating what the press called a “presidential marriage.” Tragically, however, the former president died from a heart attack in 2010. Upon writing this, the legacy of Cristina Fernández de Kirchner’s presidency cannot yet be determined. To this day, however, it appears as though Argentina’s economy is still experiencing volatility as the country struggles to manage foreign debt and maintain the peso’s competitive value.72 Page 32 of 47

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music Tango’s Rebirth

Despite the many challenges imposed by Argentina’s economic pendulum since the 1990s, tango has experienced a rebirth in recent years both as a musical genre and as a dance. As demonstrated in the introduction, tango’s renewed vitality reveals itself throughout Buenos Aires on the radio, in subways, and through street performances. Nightclubs and cafés such as Café Velma, Café Tortoni, and the Centro Cultural Torquato Tasso regularly feature tango concerts. Even the Broadway show Tango Argentino experienced a triumphant revival in 1999 when it finally came home to play in Buenos Aires. French journalist Michel Bolasell calls this revival period in tango the “new Golden Age” in his book, La revolución del tango: la nueva edad de oro (The Revolution of Tango: The New Golden Age), and he further describes it as a “constant laboratory of energy and creativity.”73 (p.78) Tango’s history and style are perhaps the most vibrant in Buenos Aires during the Tango Festival, which began in the late 1990s. During this city government–sponsored, two-week event in August, tango infiltrates Buenos Aires with a famous international dance competition and over fifty concerts displaying tango’s panorama. In addition, numerous milongas, dance shows, and dance clinics, as well as documentary films, exhibits, and lectures, educate the public about the multiple dimensions of tango. Most events are free and open to the public. Along with concerts and festivals, tango’s rebirth is also evidenced through the numerous schools and training programs in tango that have opened in the last twenty-five years. The Escuela de Música Popular de Avellanda (EMPA) opened in the late 1980s and has given rise to prominent young tangueros such as pianists Sonia Possetti and Peralta and flutist Fain. The Orquesta Escuela de Tango Emilio Balcarce, a two-year training orchestra, began its first season in 2000 when aspiring young tangueros like Varchausky, Gallo, and Romo recruited Balcarce to lead it;74 it was later directed by Marconi and is now led by Lavallén.75 Other notable tango schools include the Escuela de Tango Orlando Goñi, directed by Peralta, and the “Folclore y tango” track at the classical Conservatorio Superior de Manuel de Falla. Most recently, tango workshops began offering intense training to Argentines and foreigners, such as the 2014 Internacional Encuentro Tango para Músicos (Tango for Musicians International Meeting). Tangueros have also begun writing performance and arranging manuals to preserve and transmit the essential tango style (see chapter 3). Additionally, tangueros have begun forming and working for organizations whose mission is to preserve and/or disseminate tango. In 1990, Ferrer created the Academia Nacional del Tango (National Academy of the Tango), which functions primarily as a museum for tango scores, photos, and memorabilia. At one time, it also housed the Conservatorio de Estilos Tangueros Argentino Galván, a threeyear training program for aspiring tangueros. As the director of the Archivo Page 33 of 47

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music Música de Cámara (Chamber Music Archive) in the Sociedad Argentina de Autores y Compositores de Música (SADAIC, Argentina Society of Authors and Composers of Music), Bragato labored in the service of preserving tango music as he copied many Piazzolla scores, Mamone’s string quartets, and numerous arrangements for solo bandoneón—all with his humorous signature “Bra” plus (p.79) a cat face drawing to represent gato (cat).76 Varchausky runs TangoVia, a nonprofit organization seeking to “contribute to the preservation, development and promotion of tango as an art form in Buenos Aires and the world.”77 In addition, the Orquesta Escuela now resides under the umbrella of TangoVia. In the mid-2000s, young tangueros joined together to create a collective TangoContempo to promote new tango music. Most recently, the Almagro Tango Club opened, which is not only a place for concerts but also houses the Escuela de Tango Osvaldo Ruggiero and promotes young tangueros. Various theories purport the causes of tango’s rebirth, and some open the door to further study. Tango’s renaissance could be linked to the new cultural freedom gained in the 1990s after decades of militaristic repression. Moreover, the economy in the 1990s provided the means to financially support culture, and specifically tango. Tango’s rebirth may also be connected to the international explosion of Piazzolla’s posthumous reputation, causing Argentines to reclaim tango as they did in the 1920s after the art form took over France. Additionally, some scholars cite tango as a source of national identity after the 2001 crisis. For example, in his dissertation, Morgan James Luker quotes Sonia Possetti: “With the crisis we thought the curtain was coming down on Argentina for good; that was it, the end of the show. After that [the crisis], people asked who am I? Who are we?”78 In short, many Argentines like Possetti looked to tango as a means of clarifying their national identity; tango gave them a past to connect to the present and a means to work toward the future. Two Streams: Revitalizing Traditions and Forging New Directions

Since the 1990s, tango has exploded in many directions, and the breadth of the creative force is enormous. As new ensembles are constantly forming, it is impossible to include everyone in our discussion here. We, however, believe that tangueros have yet again divided into two streams of artistic pursuit: one revitalizes traditions and the other forges new directions within the art form. Some revitalists look backward to the art form’s Golden Age and regenerate the sounds and function of the 1940s and 1950s. For (p.80) example, the ensemble Los Reyes del Tango (The Kings of Tango) recreates the sound and repertory of D’Arienzo’s orchestra and cleverly names their ensemble after the “King of Rhythm.” Gente de Tango interprets “with maximum respect” the style of Di Sarli.79 The Orquesta Típica Sans Souci restores the style of Caló and thus names the orchestra after one of the maestro’s great tango recordings of the 1940s. Álvarez, a former bandoneonist of Pugliese’s orchestra, revitalizes the older maestro’s unique sound in the ensemble Color Tango. Since tango dance too has followed a parallel revival path to the music, these four Golden Age–style Page 34 of 47

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music orchestras are especially popular with tango dancers, as they provide live music for the many milongas in Buenos Aires. In contrast, other revitalist groups perform music more suitable for just listening. For example, the Sexteto Meridional, formed in 2011, seeks to recreate the concert sounds of Sexteto Tango with such young bandoneón players as Enrich, who is now one of the most sought-after players of the young generation. Other ensembles revitalize traditions by playing either tango standards or new compositions within a homogenized Golden Age sound. For example, Mederos’s orquesta típica on the CD Comunidad (2007) combines classics such as “Comme il faut” with new compositions such as “Abran cancha” in a traditional milonga style. Similarly, Ledesma’s romantic orchestra highlights his Lisztian style of piano playing in repertory that ranges from “Mi Buenos Aires querido” to his original “Vos, Buenos Aires” (Meridiano Buenos Aires, 2008). Some orchestras feature their original compositions within a traditional arranging and performance style, such as the recent work of Orquesta El Arranque, while other ensembles perform mostly standard repertory within established norms, such as Pablo Agri’s various ensembles. Some ensembles also fit into this revitalist stream because they carry on their own style from previous decades. For example, the Quinteto Real currently performs regularly in Buenos Aires, although now with new members under the directorship of Horacio Salgán’s son, César Salgán, at the piano. Yet, the ensemble continues both the repertory choices and arranging/performance practices established earlier in the 1960s (see chapter 5, Salgán case study). Similarly, Plaza created a large orchestra for his 1996 tour in Japan that resulted in the live CD Japón 96, yet his stylistic stamp, heard through his arranging techniques and performance style, remains intact (see chapter 5, Plaza case study). Likewise, Sexteto Mayor, also with new musicians, and Garello, continue to perform in the same styles established (p.81) in previous decades. Some older-generation tangueros help perpetuate and promote the tango genre by recording with younger-generation tangueros to endorse their new style. For example, Federico did both for Sonia Possetti and Bolotin on the CDs Entre nosotros (1998) and Ida y vuelta (2001). The national and city governments also encourage the renaissance of tango with their financial support. The national government backs the Orquesta Nacional de Música Argentina Juan de Dios Filiberto, under the direction of Stampone and assistant director De Elía. Although the orchestra was founded in 1948, its repertory at present focuses on tango. In addition to the two tanguero directors, the orchestra highlights younger tangueros, such as Sonia Possetti, Bolotin, and the Greco brothers Emiliano and Lautaro, in its 2013 season. The national government also funds the Selección Nacional de Tango Orchestra, which features the best tangueros of Argentina to culturally represent the country on tours abroad (China in 2010) and to record CDs (En Vivo, 2005). Funded by the Page 35 of 47

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music city government, the Orquesta Tango de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires solely devotes its repertory to tango music. The orchestra was originally led by García and Garello, and Garello continues to conduct the orchestra along with Marconi and Juan Carlos Cuacci. Other tangueros seek to find their own voice by forging new paths within tango rather than reviving the past. Guitarist and cofounder of TangoContempo Falabella writes: I was born in 1975 and I realized that I cannot devote myself only to revisionism [or recreating the past]. You cannot ignore that which was before and, therefore, this is a generation of my studies in which I learned to play in almost all of the styles. I was lucky enough to record with Aníbal Arias or recreate the style of Ubaldo De Lío. This was an honor for me, but I also have things to say. I know other languages; I know the new creators and I want to be an instrument of this new music. It is now the time that our generation finds its own way of speaking.80 After speaking and listening to countless young tangueros over the past decade, we encountered many who share Falabella’s vision. Yet actually discovering that path proves challenging for the new generation, as (p.82) the shadow of Piazzolla’s nuevo tango looms over them through concerts, memorabilia, and even scholarly literature. Many tangueros and even tango aficionados ask: what could one possibly do with tango after Piazzolla? This question poses the same issues as asking: what can a composer do with the symphony after Beethoven or a jazz player with bebop after Coltrane? As many tangueros struggle to find their voice, some compose, arrange, and perform in a stylistic line that descends from Piazzolla, such as Quinteto Viceversa. Other tangueros believe that Piazzolla’s presence in tango is not a hindrance but rather a liberation as the tanguero broke down traditions to forge new directions. Pianist and composer Schissi describes in an interview that “Piazzolla opened the door to the forest” and musicians are now free to explore.81 One fork in this larger tributary of new directions is the “Music of Buenos Aires,” which we consider “high art” tango music. Piazzolla was perhaps the first to coin this term in response to those who questioned the authenticity of his tango music. In a 1963 radio interview, he stated: “I am sick of the whole world telling me that my [music] is not tango. As such I am tired, I say to them that, well, that my [music], if you will, is the music of Buenos Aires.”82 On the CD of the 1988 Central Park Concert, he also describes his work as the “Music of Buenos Aires” ( WL 2.7). Since Piazzolla, other musicians have used this term or similar descriptions such as la música ciudadana (city music) and la música urbana (urban music) to describe their new tango music. For example, Possetti Page 36 of 47

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music subtitles her CD, Cayó la ficha (2010), with “La música de Buenos Aires, composiciones originales de Sonia Possetti.” Other tangueros often use these terms to identify their pieces at the opening of concerts. Authors also deploy this term when discussing tango, as in Gustavo Varela’s book, Mal de tango: historia y genealogía moral de la música ciudadana.83 With the use of all of these terms, tangueros differentiate their art form from that of the countryside and specifically link their music to the current urban music of Buenos Aires. Tangueros who create tangos under the rubric of the “Music of Buenos Aires” have some common characteristics. First, many of them studied classical music during their formative years and received tango training on the bandstand. After solid foundations in classical music, tango, and in some cases jazz, these tangueros sought to find their own (p.83) compositional voice within the broad tango genre. Additionally, these tangueros are shifting away from performing the “Music of Buenos Aires” in nightclubs with amplification to classical concert halls without amplification. For example, under the title “Acoustic at Usina del Arte,” the 2012 Tango Festival featured a series of seventeen concerts at the new performing arts hall, Usina del Arte, which continues to be a venue for tango and the festival. In the case studies of this book, we focus on three tangueros creating the “Music of Buenos Aires,” namely, pianist Sonia Possetti, violinist Bolotin, and bassist Navarro; however, many tangueros in Buenos Aires are also exploring their own compositional voices in such groups as those of Gallo, Guershberg, Motta, and Abel Rogantini, as well as 34 Puñalades. One remarkable tanguero working in this vein is pianist, composer, and pedagogue Schissi. During his developmental years, Schissi studied tango, jazz, and classical music and performed in both Argentina and the United States. His Quinteto Urbano received the Konex Award in 2005, and his most recent quintet (including Navarro) devotes itself to tango. Diego Schissi Quinteto, Tipas y tipos: En vivo en Café Vinilo (2012) won the Gardel Award for “Best CD of Alternative Tango.” Like many tangueros of the “Music of Buenos Aires,” Schissi has searched deeply for his personal voice within tango. In the line of the tango tres ritmos (tango, milonga, and vals), he created his own three characters, which he describes as tongo, líquido, and canción on the CD Tongo: Tangos improbables (2010). The first two characters are highly rhythmic and the last is lyrical. Other ensembles diverge onto different forks of the new direction path by fusing tango with jazz, rock, classical, and even electronic music. For example, Graciano’s Tango en tres, named after the Rovira tango of the same title, is heavily weighted toward jazz in terms of composition and performance styles. Other ensembles such as Peralta’s Astillero and the Orquesta Típica Fernández Fierro emphasize a rock influence not only in their overall driving sound but also visually with smoke and sophisticated lighting designs in concerts. Some

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Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music tangueros combine tango with post-tonal classical music, such as Gerardo Gandini, while others fuse the art form with electronic music such as Bajofondo. What Makes It a Tango?

As tango radiates in multiple directions today, tangueros revitalize the musical elements and performance styles of the past while forging new pathways for the art form. Tangueros not only receive inspiration from (p.84) their past but also synthesize tango with other genres such as jazz, rock, and classical music. We discuss this new sound of tango in recently composed works and newly recorded standards including “Caminos,” “Camorra 1,” “Che, Buenos Aires,” “Comme il faut,” “Contra todos los que rayen,” “Dalo por hecho,” “El choclo,” “Gallo ciego,” “Grand Guignol,” “La cumparsita,” “Líquido 5,” “Madrugón,” “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos,” “Soniada,” and “Viceversa” (

WL 2.8).

Older tangueros like Plaza and Federico continued their stylized orchestral sound from the post–Golden Age that communicates tango’s essential melodic and rhythmic elements through fluidly changing styles and orchestration. For example, the very opening of Plaza’s arrangement of “El choclo” divides the rítmico melody like a question-and-answer dialogue between the low strings and the higher bandoneones, and Federico’s “La cumparsita” features the fast rítmico melody played tutti and a strong bass marcato with arrastre. Salgán continued his elegant chamber style with the Nuevo Quinteto Real as heard in the first crisp rítmico phrase of “Gallo ciego.” Marconi and Mederos take divergent approaches to arranging tango standards as they both imprint their distinctive styles and maintain tango-defining characteristics. For example, the opening of Marconi’s arrangement of “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos” reflects his modern tango voice through the full symphonic instrumentation and angular rhythm of Troilo’s original cantando melody, yet it maintains a traditional pedal-point marcato accompaniment. On the other hand, in accordance with his mission to restore tango in the cultural memory, Mederos reverts back to the standard orquesta típica formation and guardia vieja repertory in his arrangement of “Comme il faut.” Following the bandoneón solo that slowly recalls the first phrase of Arolas’s tune, Mederos clearly presents the second phrase a tempo in a rítmico arrangement with first a síncopa and then a marcato accompaniment. Like his work from the early 1970s, Garello has continued to compose and arrange into the new millennium in his clean linear style that evokes the spirit of tango melody. In addition to chamber works for his sextet, his recent compositions include extended works like “Tango lungo,” a concerto for bandoneón and orchestra, and Arlequín porteño, a fantasia in three movements for violin and orchestra. His energetic “Che, Buenos Aires” follows a more standard repeated two-part form with a short introduction and coda. Even within his expanded orchestra that includes flute and harp along with a variety of Page 38 of 47

Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music percussion instruments like drums, güiro, and bells, Garello builds on standard tango elements. For example, the A section features a straightforward and ornamented rítmico melody accompanied by a walking bass marcato ( WE 2.5a), while the B section contrasts (p.85) with a cantando melody, first accompanied marcato in the piano solo ( WE 2.5b), then síncopa in the violin solo. Note in WE 2.5b how Garello writes the B melody in square eighth notes in the score yet assumes the player will know how to interpret with fraseo and adornos with his instruction “Fraseo, ad. lib.” Those tangueros forging new directions in the past twenty years have further forked into various paths carrying their individual tango voices along with them. Some follow a Piazzolla-influenced style, like the music of the Quinteto Viceversa, which emphasizes Piazzolla’s signature repeated 3-3-2 in “Viceversa” and a short rhythmic melodic motive above a walking bass marcato in “A todo trapo.” Daniel “Pepi” Piazzolla reinterprets his grandfather’s “La camorra I” in “Camorra 1” within an electronic jazz instrumentation of drums, saxophones, and even a bass clarinet, as he maintains Astor’s heavy arrastre element. Many compositions of the new “Music of Buenos Aires” retain clear tango elements even as they explore new instrumental formations. For example, Possetti’s “Dalo por hecho,” for a sextet that includes piano, violin, bandoneón, bass, vibes, and trombone, alternates between clearly identifiable rítmico/ cantando melodies and marcato/síncopa accompaniments. Bolotin’s string quartet “Soniada” features an introduction with extended yeites grounded by a repeated two-bar walking bass pattern that alternates 3-3-2 and síncopa patterns. Navarro’s duo for bass and piano, “Contra todos los que rayen,” incorporates first classic tango rítmico articulations in the opening bass melody and later traditional bass accompanimental rhythms and articulations, yet the piano part overlays a jazz element with its extended harmonies and improvised sections. Other composers incorporate echoes and shadows of what makes it a tango within a more distinct jazz style. For example, Schissi’s group replicates Piazzolla’s quintet configuration of piano, violin, bandoneón, guitar, and bass, while his compositions such as “Líquido 5” pulse with jaunty melodic rhythms, scalar runs, and syncopated accompaniments more characteristic of jazz. Although he draws on jazz modes and scales, Schissi likes to keep his chords clear to avoid sounding like jazz.84 Graciano’s trio emits a jazz sound through its guitar, bass, and drums instrumentation and the composer’s prevailing guitar licks and bends. Yet, in works such as “Caminos,” the underlying bass rhythm pulses a steady marcato, and phrases end with a “chan-chan” (albeit with an added ninth in the final chord). Peralta’s Astillero follows a different hybrid path (p.86) that takes Pugliese’s yumba to a whole new level, as heard in the exaggerated and dark marcato in “Madrugón.”

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Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music For other recent music that seemingly follows the tango style, actually calling it a “tango” is a stretch. Such arguably controversial compositions do not even use tango-defining melodic and rhythmic elements, or they barely whisper them through other overpowering and clearly identifiable musical languages. For example, while the tango electrónico piece “Grand Guignol” by Bajofondo loops a bass milonga rhythm like a Piazzolla-esque ostinato and features a bandoneón in the melody, the repeated drum rhythm overpowers these tango elements with an even heavier dance beat. Finally, Gandini’s solo piano work “El choclo,” part of his “Postangos” series, utilizes a distinctly dissonant post-tonal language and highly disjointed rhythms, allowing for Villoldo’s melody only to seep through the texture. Basic Performance Style

As tango has moved into the twenty-first century, performance practice demands have increased exponentially. Tangueros now have to possess an enormous range of knowledge in both repertory and styles. When revitalizing traditions, tangueros are responsible for the utmost knowledge of a particular style; for example, Color Tango has to be the authority on Pugliese’s style. When recreating a standard, tangueros generally rely on technical virtuosity to suit their own style, as in Ledesma’s virtuosic piano parts heard in his rendition of “La cumparsita.” Tangueros who search for their own voice by forging new directions by fusing genres must have knowledge of those distinct genres. For example, Graciano, who trained in tango, jazz, and classical music, combines tango with jazz in his ensemble Tango en tres and therefore displays his synthesis of the two styles through a crisp bass marcato and jazz guitar riffs, as in “Caminos.” Others composing in the “Music of Buenos Aires” push the technical boundaries of tango, as Navarro does with his complex rhythms, detailed articulations, and soloist approach to tango bass playing in “Contra todos los que rayen.” In line with more demanding performance practices, tangueros now play from meticulously detailed scores. Yet, they also incorporate their own ornamentation and fraseo and sometimes improvise on melodies during solos. For example, Plaza’s large orchestra demands clearly notated parts, yet his arrangement of “El choclo” features a violin solo by Bolotin played freely with elements of ornamentation, fraseo, and improvisation. Notes:

(1.) For a list of early ensembles, see Horacio Ferrer, El tango: su historia y evolución (Buenos Aires: Ediciones Continente, 1999), 61; for a list of early tango music and dance venues, see Jorge Novati, Inés Cuello, Irma Ruiz, and Néstor Ceñal, Antología del tango rioplatense, vol. 1: Desde sus comienzos hasta 1920 (Buenos Aires: Instituto Nacional del Musicología “Carlos Vega,” 1980), appendix 3.

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Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music (2.) Simon Collier, “The Tango Is Born: 1880s–1920s,” in ¡Tango!: The Dance, the Song, and the Story (London: Thames and Hudson, 1995), 59. (3.) For a discussion of the early recording industry in the United States, see Deborah Pacini Hernandez, Oye Como Va!: Hybridity and Identity in Latino Popular Music (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2010), 18. (4.) Novati, et. al., Antología, 43. (5.) Luis Adolfo Sierra, Historia de la orquesta típica: evolución instrumental del tango (Buenos Aires: Corregidor, 1984), 44. (6.) Francisco Canaro, Mis memorias: mis bodas de oro con el tango (Buenos Aires: Corregidor, 1957), 65. Sierra confirms Greco first used the term orquesta típica criolla for his group consisting of two bandoneones, two violins, guitar doubling piano, and flute to signify it only played tango music, as opposed to other genres of popular dance music such as the polka, waltz, schottische, mazurka, tarantela, and pasodoble. Sierra, Historia de la orquesta típica, 52. According to Novati, the name orquesta típica appeared around 1915 in the advertisements for dances in the carnivals. Novati et. al., Antologia, 42. (7.) “con esto quedó consagrado para el futuro contrabajo en la ‘Orquesta Típica.’ Esta iniciativa es exclusivamente de mi pertenencía por haber sido el primero en enriquecer nuestros conjuntos típicos con ese importante instrumento que lo consideré indispensable para lograr un buen ritmo.” Canaro, Mis memorias, 70. (8.) Ruiz and Ceñal use the term cláusula to refer to divisions within the larger sections, Antologia, 51–53; and Kohan continues the term for sake of continuity in scholarship, Estudios sobre los estilos compositivos del tango (1920-1935) (Buenos Aires: Gourmet Musical Ediciones, 2010), 35–36, fn. 17. To avoid any confusion with other meanings (e.g., polyphonic sections in the compositions of the medieval Notre Dame school of Léonin and Pérotin), we use the standard term “period” for phrases in combination. (9.) Novati, et. al., Antologia, 23. (10.) Sierra, Historia de la orquesta típica, 79. (11.) Canaro, Mis memorias, 72–73. (12.) For further information, see Joel Horowitz, Argentina’s Radical Party and Popular Mobilization, 1916-1930 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2008). (13.) Sierra, Historia de la orquesta típica, 85.

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Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music (14.) Richard J. Walter, Politics and Urban Growth in Buenos Aires, 1910-1942 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 95. (15.) Max Glücksmann (1875–1946, Mordechai David Glücksmann) was a Jewish businessman in the music and film industries and an advocate of tango. (16.) Roberto Selles, “Tango on Radio,” Todotango, accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.todotango.com/english/history/chronicle/108/Tango-on-Radio/. (17.) Sierra uses the terms la corriente evolutionista and la corriente tradicional, Historia de la orquesta típica, 99; María Susana Azzi et al. adopted the terms as “evolutionary” and “traditional” schools, ¡Tango!: The Dance, the Song, the Story (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997), 119; Kohan defines the two distinct compositional styles as la corriente tradicionalista and la corriente renovadora (the traditionalist stream and the renovator stream, respectively), Estudios, 23. Within the renovator stream, Kohan further distinguishes two aspects of compositional style, namely, la renovación melodista (the renewal melodist), conveying a clear cantable style, and la renovación integradora (the renewal integrator), synthesizing a wide range of musical elements within an instrumental, rather than vocal, concept, Estudios, 25–31. (18.) Canaro, Mis memorias, 407–410. (19.) “algunos músicos ‘académicos’ pretenden desdibujar en sus propias raíces la genuine expresión de nuestra danza más popular…¿Ignoran que el tango es una legítima expresión que brota de la entraña misma del alma popular y por eso sus notas, su cadencia y sus acordes interpretan la más auténtica vibración de sus sentimientos?” Canaro, Mis memorias, 407–408. (20.) Gerard Béhague categorizes tango with the three terms tango milonga, tango romanza, and tango canción, “Tango,” The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, paperback edition, ed. Stanley Sadie (London: Macmillan, 1995), xviii: 563–565; Sierra, who may have actually coined the term tango romanza, used it in relation to the new style of Cobián, Delfino, and Fresedo, Historia de la orquesta típica, 96. (21.) Kohan, too, prefers to call tango with words simply tango vocal, in contrast to tango instrumental, Estudios, 20. (22.) Sierra, Historia de la orquesta típica, 90–91. (23.) Roberto Selles, “Juan Carlos Cobián,” Todotango, accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.todotango.com/english/creadores/jcobian.html. (24.) For more information about Cobián’s life, especially his time in New York, see Cadícamo, Mis memorias, (Buenos Aires: Corregidor, 1999), 162–169.

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Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music (25.) Cadícamo mentions receiving two letters from Cobián written in Mexico, but no years. Cadícamo, Mis memorias, 173 and 175. (26.) “cuya decisivo influencia y dilatado predominio habrían de extenderse al perído más prolongado e importante de toda la historia del tango.” Sierra, Historia de la orquesta típica, 52. (27.) Thompson also notes how tango slowed down in the guardia nueva style. Thompson, Tango: The Art History of Love, 174–175. (28.) Kohan, Estudios, 30. (29.) Julio Nudler, “Osvaldo Fresedo,” Todotango, accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.todotango.com/english/artists/biography/41/Osvaldo-Fresedo/. (30.) Sierra, Historia de la orquesta típica, 93–94. (31.) Julián Graciano, email message to authors, January 15, 2014. (32.) Sierra discusses Cobián’s heightened level of marcato and uses the term acompañamiento armonizado (harmonized accompaniment) as a style of his playing. Sierra, Historia de la orquesta típica, 95. (33.) Luis Alberto Romero, A History of Argentina in the Twentieth Century, trans. James P. Brennan (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002), 27. (34.) David Rock, Argentina 1516-1987, From Spanish Colonization to Alfonsín, rev. ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 247. (35.) Jill Hedges, Argentina: A Modern History (New York: I. B. Tauris, 2011), 135. (36.) Rock, Argentina 1516-1987, 275–276. (37.) Azzi et al., ¡Tango!, 198. (38.) Graciano, Catédra de análisis musical (unpublished manuscript, 2003), 6. (39.) Omar García Brunelli, “Tango,” Diccionario de Música Española e Hispanoamericana, ed. Emilio Casares Rodicio (Madrid, Spain: Sociedad General de Autores y Editores, 1999), x: 142–154. (40.) For more information on tango singers and lyrics, see Oscar Del Priore, Cien tangos fundamentals (Buenos Aires: Aguilar, 1998). (41.) Natalio Gorin, Astor Piazzolla: A Memoir, trans., annotated, and expanded by Fernando González (Portland, OR: Amadeus Press, 2001), 59.

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Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music (42.) Matthew B. Karush, Culture of Class: Radio and Cinema in the Making of a Divided Argentina, 1920-1946, (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2012), 60. (43.) Andrea Matallana, Locos por la radio: una historia social de la radiofonía en la Argentina, 1923-1947 (Buenos Aires: Prometeo Libros, 2006), 101. (44.) Canaro, Mis memorias, 201, 212. (45.) Néstor Pinsón, “Orquesta Típica Victor,” Todotango, accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.todotango.com/english/artists/biography/648/Tipica-Victor/. (46.) “Artola y Galván llevaron el tango al atril,” Sierra, Historia de la orquesta típica, 128. (47.) Verónica H. Carreras Venturini and José Pedro Aresi, “‘Shusheta’ y su inspiración,” Todotango, accessed August 13, 2010, http://www.todotango.com/ spanish/biblioteca/cronicas/shusheta.asp. (48.) Many tangueros actually use this English term, including Julián Peralta in his lecture “Clínicas de estilo orquestal: El estilo Aníbal Troilo,” 2009 Tango Festival, August 17, 2009, and Possetti in lessons with the authors. (49.) Rock, Argentina 1516-1987, 214. (50.) Ibid., 320. (51.) Romero, A History of Argentina, 175. (52.) For further discussion of Perón and tango, see María Susana Azzi, “The Tango, Peronism, and Astor Piazzolla during the 1940s and ’50s,” in From Tejano to Tango: Latin American Popular Music, ed. Walter Aaron Clark (New York: Routledge, 2002), 25–40; and Donald S. Castro, The Argentine Tango as Social History, 1880-1955: The Soul of the People (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1991), 205–252. (53.) Azzi et al., ¡Tango!, 156. (54.) Karush, Culture of Class, 185. (55.) Ibid., 187. (56.) Marta Merkin et al., Días de los radios: historia de la radio argentina, 4th ed. (Buenos Aires: Compañia Editora Espasa Calpa Argentina S.A., 1996), 170. (57.) Ricardo García Blaya, “Atilio Stampone,” Todotango, accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.todotango.com/english/artists/biography/715/Atilio-Stampone/.

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Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music (58.) Azzi also notes that Piazzolla perhaps attributed the piece to the famous Italian artist. María Susana Azzi and Simon Collier, Le Grand Tango: The Life and Music of Astor Piazzolla (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 111. (59.) Néstor Pinsón, “Aníbal Troilo and His Appearances in the Movies and at the Theater,” Todotango, accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.todotango.com/ english/history/chronicle/275/Anibal-Troilo-and-his-appearances-in-the-moviesand-at-theater/. (60.) Ricardo García Blaya, “Sexteto Tango,” Todotango, accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.todotango.com/creadores/biografia/785/Sexteto-Tango/. (61.) Bassist Horacio Cabarcos commented on how it was Plaza who really transformed Troilo’s orchestra in the late 1950s into the modern style. Interview by Wendland in Buenos Aires, July 29, 2014. (62.) Gaspar Astarita, “Julián Plaza,” Todotango, http://www.todotango.com/ creadores/biografia/45/Julian-Plaza/. (63.) Julián Graciano, “Eduardo Rovira: de su estética, estilo e idea” (unpublished manuscript, 2006), 4. Graciano is probably the leading expert today on Rovira’s music. He was entrusted by the composer’s widow, Mabel Rodríguez, with Rovira’s complete works, over five hundred manuscripts including tango, folklórico, symphonic, and chamber music, which Graciano copiously catalogued and recently returned to the family upon her death. (64.) Some tangueros personally cross-fertilized with North American jazz musicians, such as Fresedo with Dizzy Gillespie while the jazz master was on his “Musical Ambassador Tour” of Latin America in 1956. Gillespie joined Fresedo’s orchestra in Buenos Aires to record “Vida mía” and other tracks on Rendez-vous porteño (1956). (65.) Azzi, “The Tango, Peronism, and Astor Piazzolla during the 1940s and ’50s,” 34. (66.) Romero, A History of Argentina, 216. (67.) Néstor Pinsón, “Juan José Mosalini,” Todotango, accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.todotango.com/english/artists/biography/923/Juan-JoseMosalini/. (68.) “Quinteto Real,” accessed September 3, 2014, http:// www.quintetoreal.com/Quinteto_Real/Home.html. (69.) Tanguero Julián Graciano considers this to be a “tango for export” period, interview by Wendland in Buenos Aires, July 17, 2014.

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Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music (70.) Christina Daseking et al., Lessons from the Crisis in Argentina (Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund, 2004), 38. (71.) Mark Weibrot and Luis Sandoval, “Argentina’s Economic Recovery: Policy Choices and Implications” (Washington, DC: Center for Economic Policy and Research, October 2007), accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.cepr.net/ documents/publications/argentina_recovery_2007_10.pdf. (72.) In January 2014, the Argentine peso was devalued, and in July 2014, Argentina defaulted on international debts. (73.) chapter 3 is titled “El tango entre 1990 y 2010: un laboratorio constant de energía y creatividad.” Michel Bolasell, La revolución del tango: la nueva edad de oro (Buenos Aires: Corregidor, 2011). (74.) For the story of the Orquesta Escuela’s formation, see the documentary film Si sos brujo: una historia de tango, dir. Caroline Neal (Buenos Aires: Instituto Nacional de Cine y Artes Audiovisuales, 2005). (75.) See also “Orquesta Escuela de Tango Emilio Balcarce,” accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.tangovia.org/ingles/orquesta.htm. (76.) Photocopies of such scores are available from SADAIC. (77.) See also “TangoVia,” accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.tangovia.org/ ingles/quienes.htm. (78.) James Morgan Luker, “The Tango Machine: Musical Practice and Cultural Policy in Post-Crisis Buenos Aires” (PhD dissertation, Columbia University, 2009), 18. (79.) “Gente de Tango,” accessed September 3, 2014, http:// www.gentedetango.com.ar/inicio.htm. (80.) “Yo nací en 1975 y me doy cuenta de que no puedo dedicarme solo al revisionismo. No podés obviar lo de antes y, por eso, ésta es una generación mi estudiosa, que pudo aprender a tocar casi todos los estilos. Yo tuve la suerte de grabar con Aníbal Arias o recrear el estilo de Ubaldo De Lío. Eso es un orgullo para mí, pero también tengo cosas para decir. Conozco otros lenguajes, conozco a los nuevos creadores y quiero ser un instrumento de esta música nueva. Es momento que nuestra generación encuentra su propia forma de hablar.” Esteban Falabella, “Tangocontempo,” accessed August 15, 2011, http:// www.tangocontempo.com.ar. (81.) Diego Schissi, interview by authors, August 18, 2012, Buenos Aires, Argentina.

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Trajectory of Argentine Tango Instrumental Music (82.) “Estoy harto de que todo el mundo me diga que lo mío no es tango. Como estoy cansado, les digo que, bueno, que lo mío, si quieren, es música de Buenos Aires.” Michel Bolasell, La revolución del tango, 30. (83.) Gustavo Varela, Mal de tango: historia y genealogía moral de la música ciudadana (Buenos Aires: Paidós, 2005). (84.) Schissi’s own description of his music in the Tango para músicos composition class, July 25, 2014.

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Arranging and Performance Techniques

Tracing Tangueros: Argentine Tango Instrumental Music Kacey Link and Kristin Wendland

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780199348220 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: March 2016 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199348220.001.0001

Arranging and Performance Techniques Kacey Link Kristin Wendland

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199348220.003.0004

Abstract and Keywords This chapter expands upon the basic musical elements that define the Argentine tango style discussed in chapter I. It discusses how tangueros themselves define and frame Argentine tango musical elements. Through narration, score excerpts, and notated musical examples, it illustrates tango orchestration/arranging techniques. It demonstrates performances practices of how tangueros execute accompanimental rhythms, melodic styles, and special instrumental techniques through audio files and video clips. Through both arranging and performance techniques, the following topics are discussed: marcato, síncopa, arrastre, yumba, rítmico, cantando, fraseo and yeites. Keywords:   tango orchestration/arranging techniques instrumental techniques, yumba, rítmico, cantando, fraseo, yeites

In 1997, nuevo tango pianist Pablo Zinger published a scathing review in the New York Times of then-recent tango CDs by classical musicians of international stature.1 Of pianist and conductor Daniel Barenboim’s Mi Buenos Aires querido (1996), he states, “There is obvious love for the material, but the emotional range is limited: not much sex and death here; more like ‘tango lite.’”2 For Yo-Yo Ma’s Soul of the Tango (1997), he criticizes the renowned cellist for sounding “eminently Baroque and detached” and lacking the “soul of the tango.”3 Zinger even goes on to condemn the collaboration between Pablo Ziegler, the pianist in Piazzolla’s second quintet, and Emanuel Ax on Los Tangueros (1997) by declaring, “Mr. Ziegler is a superb pianist who plays tango; Mr. Ax, a superb pianist who doesn’t.”4 While Zinger’s review was perhaps over the top, the Page 1 of 42

Arranging and Performance Techniques question still remains: If international musical stars are “not playing tango,” then how does one play tango? Moreover, how does one take a tango standard, such as “El choclo,” arrange it for a particular ensemble, and then perform it in an “Argentine tango style”? In this chapter, we seek to answer these questions by exploring the arranging and performing techniques of Argentine tangueros. Through the lens of their own practice, we expand on the art form’s fundamental musical elements that define Argentine tango instrumental style presented in our “Tango 101” (chapter 1) and the basic examples of arranging and performance techniques touched on in chapter 2. Drawing upon original (p.88) sources including arranging/ performance manuals, score and audio examples, live video demonstrations, and our fieldwork in Buenos Aires since 2002,5 we examine how tangueros themselves frame these musical concepts to define tango, and how they transmit the essential tango style informed by tango’s past and present. We draw upon the recordings of “A fuego lento,” “Aquellos tangos camperos,” “Adiós Nonino,” “Danzarín,” “Derecho viejo,” “Desde aquí,” “Don Agustín Bardi,” “El amanecer,” “El choclo,” “El monito,” “Escualo,” “Gallo ciego,” “La camorra I,” “La cumparsita,” “La mesa dulce,” “La yumba,” “Mala junta,” “Mal de amores,” “Malena,” “Michelangelo 70,” “Milonga del ángel,” “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos,” “Payadora,” “Río sena,” “Romance de barrio,” “Sólo por hoy,” “Soniada,” “Tanguedia III,” “Un placer,” and “Verano porteño” (

WL 3.1).

Working within an age-old musical tradition of creating “how to” manuals, tangueros themselves have begun to codify, preserve, and transmit their essential musical style, similar to how jazz scholars and musicians have systematized the genre for academic study. A number of style manuals, both unpublished and published, circulate inside and outside of Argentina. Elder statesmen authors include Salgán (Curso de tango/Tango Course), Mamone (Tratado de orquestación en estilios tangueros), and Mederos (El lenguaje del tango), while manuals by younger tangueros include those of Peralta (La orquesta típica: mecánica y aplicación de los fundamentos técnicos del tango), Graciano (Tango Guitar Method), and Monk (El saxofón en el tango: primer método para la inclusion del saxofón en nuestra música ciudadana).6 Additionally, Fain and Gallo have written separate volumes on (p.89) flute and violin playing, respectively, in a new bilingual series in Spanish and English edited by Fain, Método fundamental para apprender a tocar tango/Fundamental Method for Playing Tango Music.7 Each of these authors engages in multiple musical activities, reflecting our essential portrayal of a tanguero as a musical performer and a composer/arranger. Accordingly, the order and emphases of ideas vary and at times cross over in their manuals. The younger authors also add the perspective of time from the older authors. Pianist and composer Peralta in particular takes a more analytical and theoretical view. Fain, Gallo, Graciano, and Monk provide details of how their individual instruments (flute, violin,

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Arranging and Performance Techniques guitar, and saxophone, respectively) have functioned stylistically over time within the tango genre.

Arranging Techniques Working with the Musical Elements

Any arranger works with musical elements and orchestration strategies like pieces of a puzzle.8 Tangueros mostly identify their puzzle pieces by the same terminology as they organize essential concepts of what makes it a tango. To further support the primacy of the melody and accompaniment texture, most tangueros first divide the tango elements into rhythm, meaning accompanimental rhythms, and melody. Then, depending on their primary perspective of performer or arranger, they vary their (p.90) treatment and emphasis of the other elements such as harmony, form, and orchestration. Mederos succinctly organizes his arranging pedagogy, which he quickly sketched out into a simple chart during a lesson with Wendland (Photo 3.1).9 He first broadly divides the arreglo (arrangement) into elementos (elements) and orquestación (orchestration). Then, he breaks down tango elements into the two aspects of tango’s primary texture, (I) melodía principal (principal melody) and (II) acompanamiento (accompaniment). He divides orquestación into its main performing forces, todos (all)/tutti, algunos (some)/soli, and uno (one)/solo. In turn, Mederos identifies the two main melodic styles as tipo melódico, which he qualifies as legato cantabile, and tipo rítmico. The arrow pointing downward on the chart from the first to the second melodic style with the annotation transformación (transformation) identifies ways to change melódico to rítmico by (1) cambio de articulación (change of articulation), (2) grupos acéfalos sin cabaza [sic] (literally “headless groups,” but refers to short rhythmic cells beginning on the offbeat), (3) síncopas (referring to melodic syncopation), and (4) ornamentación (ornamentation). Mederos identifies the essential components of the accompaniment category first with an arrow pointing from armonía (harmony) up to acompanamiento. Then, he systematically breaks down the accompaniment into (1) modelos (models) (a) marcato, which he further displays in 4 with a diagram of the piano right hand jumping chord positions and three possible bass lines of arpegio, escala, and 8/3a (arpeggio, scale, and octave/ third), (b) síncopa, and (c) en dos (in 2); (2) polirritmia/3-3-2 (polyrhythmic/ 3-3-2); (3) nota larga/pedal (long note values/pedals); (4) pasajes[/]enlaces (passages/links); and (5) etc., which implies other aspects such as countermelodies. The note “X-Troilo” in the lower right-hand corner of the chart refers up to transformación, and it points to how Troilo in particular transformed one melodic type to the other.

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Arranging and Performance Techniques Tango Meter and Rhythm

More on the Tres Ritmos

As the stock milonga rhythm of early tango accompaniment gave way to the two more complex and flexible rhythms of marcato and síncopa, (p.91) (p.92) melodies smoothed out. Even in the new tango liso (smooth tango), a term we adopt from scholars who discuss the development of

Photo 3.1. Schematic diagram handwritten by Rodolfo Mederos, outlining the core elements of making a tango arrangement. Used by permission.

tango dance,10 guardia nueva tangueros kept the spirit of the early tango rhythm, embedded in fast and syncopated melodies like “Derecho viejo,” in the new rhythmic accompaniments. Pulsing síncopa and marcato accompaniments support such lyrical melodies as the B section of Pugliese’s “Recuerdo” and many of De Caro’s B section singing violin solos, like those of “Boedo,” “Todo corazón,” and “Tierra querida.” Tango meter also changed from duple meter to quadruple.11 Despite the continuance of the traditional signatures, the essential marcato rhythmic accompaniment articulated two strong beats (1 and 3) per measure. To a musician, a conflict may time signatures in the tangos para piano scores arise between the notated versus the performed meter in 4 as accentuated by the marcato and síncopa accompanimental rhythms. It is important to understand how the subdivided beat in , that is, the eighth note, became the actual beat producing 48 meter. Some tango scores reflect the change to quadruple meter with a 48  , signature, such as Plaza’s piano and orchestrated versions of “Danzarín.” Eventually, composers and arrangers began to notate tango in , as seen in most modern tango scores today, so the notated and performed meters agree. Even though tango accompaniments favored marcato and síncopa as the art form progressed, the milonga continued in its two distinct styles of the fast milonga ciudadana and the slow milonga campera. Mederos codified these terms in his manual “Modelos rítmicos,” and Peralta and Fain adopt them as common usage. Monk illustrates different rhythmic approaches to the final “chan-chan” in the fast milonga, including dotted, evenly divided, and syncopated models ( 3.1).

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WE

Arranging and Performance Techniques The popular and light-hearted vals also crystalized distinct musical characteristics, perhaps a result of the meter-dance connection. With the fast (p.93) tempo yet slow harmonic rhythm, the dancers’ marcato steps fall on the downbeats of each measure, rather than the individual “1-2-3” of the ballroom waltz. Thus, like a Baroque minuet, the larger meter in tango vals is really a compound duple of 64 . Each two-bar group maps onto one bar of tango in . This results in twice the standard length of phrases and sections, such as the eight-bar phrases and thirty-two-bar sections of “Romance de barrio.” Golden Age tangueros experimented with rhythmic variations within the slow harmonic rhythm that did not disrupt the dancers’ regular slow steps on each downbeat, especially in the two bars preceding a cadence. Troilo uses an especially playful hemiola variation that drives to the final cadence in his orchestral recording of “Un placer” by Romeo. The last two bars of the trio section of this vals incorporate another rhythmic flourish sometimes referred to as peruano (Peruvian), which offsets the regular pulsing of the quarter note to a dotted rhythm building to the “chan-chan” tag.12 Troilo also switches to peruano leading into the final “chan-chan” of “Romance de barrio” ( WE 3.2a). Peralta defines the vals peruano as a syncopated rhythm and specifies that its “application is reserved almost exclusively for the finals.”13 ( WE 3.2b). Monk illustrates different rhythmic models in the vals piano accompaniment, ranging from steady quarter-note pulses to syncopated patterns (

WE 3.2c), and various rhythmic approaches in the last two bars leading to the final ( WE 3.2d). Note that Monk’s last example of the accompaniment models and last two examples of the finals create hemiolas, which he identifies as shifting to 68 . Further, the rhythm in Web Example 3.2c is the same as Peralta’s vals peruano, although he does not specify this term. Tango Accompanimental Rhythms

All tangueros acknowledge the basic accompanimental rhythmic models outlined in chapter 1 of marcato (Example 1.1), síncopa (Example 1.2), bordoneo ( WE. 1.1a), and 3-3-2 ( WE 1.2a and WE 1.2b), and they typically illustrate and explain them in separate sections within chapters on the accompaniment or rhythmic models. Standard tango notation simply indicates marcato with noteless stems. Typically piano and bandoneón parts include chord symbols for the player to realize in a voicing, position, (p.94) and register of his or her own choosing. The written piano left-hand part doubles the bass. Bass lines typically follow smooth stepwise motion, oscillate between the root and fifth of the chord, or trace arpeggio designs (Examples 3.1a, 3.1b, and 3.1c, respectively).

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Arranging and Performance Techniques While the fundamental marcato accompaniment exists in all three ritmos of the art form to mark the beat, the basic tango marcato in 4 may be elaborated in various ways. Marcato in 2 uses heavy accents on beats 1 and 3 with or without rests on beats 2 and 4 ( WE 3.3a); pesante (heavy, (p.95) i.e., with tenuto, or sometimes called legato marcato) typically accompanies soft and calm passages in either 2 or 4 ( WE 3.3b); and blancas or coral (half notes or choral) features a succession of half-note chords that may repeat, or more typically change, harmony ( WE 3.3c). Some tangueros, including Hernán Possetti and Gallo, also identify a less common variation they call marcato en 2 invertido (inverted marcato in 2), where the

Example 3.1. Three bass-line possibilities for marcato in 4.

accents shift to beats 2 and 4 ( WE 3.3d).14 Graciano further points out how this type of weak-beat accentuated marcato first appeared with De Caro’s sextet in 1928, and he further suggests using it with two cadential chords in the bar preceding the arrival of a tonic chord.15 Arrastre

Many tangueros credit Arolas with “inventing” arrastre, and, according to Peralta, Firpo first used it as the pianist with Arolas’s orchestra, perhaps in imitation of the bandoneón.16 Most view it as a rhythmic anticipation in marcato and síncopa accompanimental patterns. Salgán dedicates a separate chapter to it, sandwiched between his chapters on the strings and the bandoneón. Noting that Troilo’s orchestra used this practice beginning in 1943,17 he defines the technique: “In tango music, we call arrastre the ‘slide’ or ‘drag’ effect at the beginning of either a síncopa or a marcato in ‘four’ or ‘two’ pattern, anticipating its attack.”18 Salgán further states that only the bass line and chord tones should be anticipated, and then he clearly frames arrastre as a rhythmic element: “The slide may almost be considered a percussion effect, given that it does not

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Arranging and Performance Techniques require tonal clarity, but rather, on the contrary, [it] is a rhythmical effect of an imprecise sound.”19 (p.96) Yumba

Along with Pugliese’s famous tango “La yumba” came his equally well-known rhythmic technique called yumba. The onomatopoeic name describes the heavy accentuation of marcato in 2 (YUM-ba, with the “y” pronounced like a French “j” in Rioplatense Spanish, International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]: ʒum’ bɑ). Typically, though not always, it first drags up from an indeterminate low note or cluster to the strong beats like arrastre on steroids (YU-). It lands squarely on the strong beat (-m), then lightly releases on the weak beat (-ba) (Example 3.2). Since Pugliese’s establishment of this technique, tangueros have since added it to the list of standard accompanimental rhythms. Elaborations of Síncopa

Either the basic síncopa a tierra or síncopa anticipada may be elaborated as doble (double) or sucesiva (successive, or sometimes called consecutivo, consecutive) ( WE 3.4a). In Example 3.2. Rhythmic notation of his discussion of rhythmic yumba, illustrating the onomatopoeia of models, Mederos alludes to dragging and accentuation. síncopa a tierra as another common accented rhythm that simply subdivides beat 1, then articulates beat 3. Yet, he does not consider it to be a type of síncopa because it does not actually displace the accent (

WE 3.4b).

Tangueros identify a number of other accompanimental rhythms that combine the standard marcato, síncopa, and 3-3-2 patterns in various ways. One known as umpa-umpa accentuates the “&” of beats 2 and 3 in marcato in 4, then accents beat 4, typically with an arrastre leading into the next downbeat ( WE 3.5a). While most tangueros reference the syncopated (p.97) onomatopoeic name of the rhythm in relation to Salgán, who is credited with its creation, they view it differently. Peralta and Possetti frame it as a distinct variation of marcato, probably owing to how Salgán jumps octaves as he plays the offbeat right-hand chords over a marcato left hand;20 Graciano and Gallo present it as a type of síncopa, probably owing to how De Lío typically emphasizes the syncopation by jumping octaves to play the offbeat guitar chords and muting the strings after the chords have been struck.21 In addition to elevating 3-3-2 to the status of a meta-rhythm, Piazzolla established another accompanimental rhythm by combining 3-3-2 in the piano right hand against marcato in the bass ( WE 3.5b). This resulting cross-rhythm occurs in the beginning of his “Michelangelo Page 7 of 42

Arranging and Performance Techniques 70.” Mederos and other tangueros refer to a polirritmia model where the bass plays marcato in 4 while the chord sounds on the offbeat ( WE 3.5c). While Peralta illustrates this rhythmic pattern as a variant of marcato without naming it, Mamone calls it contratiempo (offbeat), the term we prefer to use.22 Graciano translates contratiempo as a “backbeat and syncopation.”23 He further places its appearance in the early 1950s in Troilo’s orchestra, such as his 1952 recording of “Contratiempo”24 by Piazzolla and many arrangements by Plaza.25 Tango Anacrusis

Before Salgán illustrates how to produce an arrastre, he first establishes it as a rhythmic phenomenon by explaining it in relation to the anticipada of either síncopa or marcato in four or two in the bass.26 By linking the anticipation and arrastre together, Salgán implies that arrastre is essentially a performance technique to execute the upbeat rhythmic element of tango. Similarly, Peralta points out how the bass line will often anticipate the downbeat in a marcato pattern (

WE 3.6).

(p.98) We build on these examples, along with the common references tangueros make to the levare (upbeat), to explicitly isolate the upbeat-downbeat anacrusis as a distinct tango metric feature. It is not only evident in the bass accompaniment, as Salgán and Peralta point out, but also saturates tango melodies in such rhythms as illustrated in chapter 1 ( WE 1.3). This metric feature in tango goes beyond a simple rhythmic anacrusis to deeper metric levels, as in the 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 1 phrase rhythm in the opening of Arolas’s “Derecho viejo” (

WE 2.1) and the weak-strong hypermeter in the opening of the B section of De Caro’s “Boedo” ( WE 4.9). Furthermore, the elements couple with V-I harmonic motion to create a weak-strong harmonic rhythm in many tango openings, like Pugliese’s “La yumba,” Gobbi’s “A Orlando Goñi,” and Salgán’s “A fuego lento.” Tango Melody

More on Tango Melodic Styles

Tangueros distinguish between two basic melodic styles that date back to De Caro’s innovative style of playing and arranging melodies. We defined them in chapter 1 as rítmico and cantando, although the latter assumes different names among various tangueros.27 Salgán believes that melody is the primary musical element in tango, and he bases his criteria of the “different types of tango” on the two core melodic styles, “melodic tango” and “rhythmic tango.”28 He acknowledges that these two types may be mixed both within and between sections, and he cites a third type of “fantasia” tango in a freer rhythm that may be used as an introduction.29 Salgán further emphasizes the importance of maintaining melodic coherence, and he admonishes the arranger not to cloud or to distort it. He frames the “melodic tango” in relation to other elements like the accompaniment, adornos, pasajes, harmony, rhythm, and variations. He further Page 8 of 42

Arranging and Performance Techniques highlights the lyrical nature of the cantando style and how it is inspired by poetic texts. Interestingly, Salgán contrasts melody in tango to improvisation practices in jazz, again emphasizing how tango melody must always be present and discernible, even when varying it after its initial presentation. He then simply describes “rhythmic tango” as characterized by accents and staccatos, also referring to it as the “Tango-Milonga.”30 (p.99) Other tangueros follow Salgán’s divisions in one way or another. We particularly highlight Fain’s treatment of tango melody. In her tango flute manual, Fain echoes Salgán’s connection between the “expressive” style and tango lyrics.31 She further codifies and defines fraseo as two types: fraseo básico (basic fraseo) and fraseo extendido (extended fraseo), two terms used throughout her edited tango series.32 Fain’s fraseo básico describes our Example 1.4 that modifies four eighth notes in either into a syncopated division of the beats or a looser triplet division, and she further applies the terms cerrado (closed) to the former and abierto (open) to the latter.33 The second type, fraseo extendido, arches through the strong beats and arrives either early or late with respect to the harmonic changes. Fain illustrated this technique in a flute workshop class, where she specifically linked it to the solo melodic style of Pugliese.34 Rather than simply indicating fraseado in a score to leave the interpretation up to a performer’s discretion, many modern tango arrangements actually notate the fraseo básico types. For example, Lomuto’s arrangement of “Qué solo estoy” notates fraseo abierto in the piano solo (

WE 3.7a) and fraseo cerrado in the tutti melody ( WE 3.7b). On the other hand, fraseo extendido lies in the realm of a soloist’s free interpretation of a notated standard melody, and so we reserve details of this specific performance practice to the discussion later. Salgán devotes a section to “El fraseo” (“Phrasing”) that also seems to encompass the expression of a longer phrase beyond what tangueros refer to as the basic fraseo. Here, Salgán describes two different components of the term in relation to the melody: The first distinction refers to the theme’s exposition, or more precisely “statement,” which makes use of rubato, appoggiatura, and any other subtlety which contributes to the expression of the phrase… . Another example of the term “phrasing” in the language of tango makes an allusion to a variant in which the phrase is exposed intermittently, somewhat modifying the notes of the melody and its imagination, but always being recognizable (boldfaced Salgán’s).35

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Arranging and Performance Techniques (p.100) Other Aspects of the Musical Line

Tangueros methodically utilize, categorize, and discuss other aspects of the musical line in terms of countermelodies, enlaces (connecting links), adornos, variations, and thematic transformations, although at times in vastly divergent ways. For example, Monk groups enlaces and adornos together in his melody section yet frames countermelodies within his harmony section.36 Countermelodies, either written by the original composer or added by the arranger, typically appear as slower-moving lines set against restatements of the main melody. Salgán frames them within “Frequently-Used Elements in the Tango.” Reflecting his more linear concept of texture, Salgán specifically notes that they are “commonly mislabeled as ‘harmony’” and cites as examples “the beautiful counter-melodies that Julio De Caro composed for his own tangos such as ‘Boedo,’ ‘Orgullo criollo,’ [and] ‘Mala junta.’”37 In contrast, Mamone devotes a separate chapter to “Escritura de contracantos” (“Writing Countermelodies”),38 where he first defines the elements of melody, countermelody, counterpoint, and musical texture, then breaks down countermelodies into types.39 He calls the first type “passive,” and, like Mederos’s nota larga/pedal, it includes longer durations derived from the prevailing chord tones. He calls more lively countermelodies “active” and illustrates how they may be derived rhythmically from the principal motive or may be new material. Peralta seems to follow both Mederos’s and Mamone’s approach in his unique “Elementos contrapuntísticos” (“Contrapuntal Elements”) chapter, where he addresses linear textures in tango through his discussion of secondary melodies and contrapuntal bass lines.40 He also delves into deeper analytical and structural issues of how such “long-note” or “passive” countermelodies and linear basses extract slow-moving musical lines from the harmonic progression to support the voice leading.41 Longer notated enlaces, pasajes, and rellenos (fills) flow between the main notes within a tango musical line. Salgán treats pasajes along with embellishments as part of the accompaniment to melodic tango, and he describes (p.101) how they both provide the rhythm and fill in the “empty spaces.”42 Mamone treats enlaces separately in his section “Pasajes para conectar frases melódicas” (“Passages to Connect Melodic Phrases”), where he thinks about them as connecting harmonic areas within a phrase and also refers to their contrapuntal possibilities as he cites the classical masters Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven.43 Peralta, too, frames pasajes as a contrapuntal element in his section “Elementos contrapuntísticos,” while Graciano calls them rellenos, which is also the title of his chapter 3.44 Written adornos from standard baroque and classical ornaments, including appoggiaturas, mordents, trills, and turns, decorate tango melodies. Fain and Gallo compare the written to executed practice in their detailed chapters on adornos,45 and we discuss specifics of tango performance practice through our Page 10 of 42

Arranging and Performance Techniques own examples that follow. While embellishments may have been freely improvised in early tango, arrangers became more methodical about how and where to add adornos to a standard melody. Lomuto’s orchestral arrangement of “Qué solo estoy” exemplifies how tangueros transfer the essence of a sung melodic line even as they meticulously notate enlaces and adornos (see WE 1.4 of the original melody to compare his arrangement). Lomuto incorporates a number of such tango melodic techniques to soften square divisions between phrases, elide phrases or subphrases together, and decorate the melody. He joins the end of the first phrase (a) in the piano solo to the second-phrase (b) melody in the strings with a typical scalar link in the otherwise barren half cadence (

WE 3.7a). Then, he includes fills and adornos in the repetition of the main melody ( WE 3.7b). Bandoneón I anticipates the initial A♭ with an ascending arpeggio fill in the two-bar tutti and rítmico presentation. As the style changes to cantando, the bandoneón solo incorporates a scalar fill, trills, and a slide to intensify the melody as it pushes to the cadence. As discussed in chapter 1, tango variaciones typically embellish the original melody in diminution at the end of a composition. Salgán discusses this standard melodic feature in “Frequently-Used Elements in the Tango” after countermelodies, where he notes how variations can either be original to the tango or can be written by another composer/arranger, and how the two elements can be combined to good effect. Mamone devotes a separate chapter to the “Composición de variaciones” (“Composition of Variations”). (p.102) He suggests specific instrumental combinations of bandoneón and piano, two bandoneones, two guitars, and bandoneón and violin, and he illustrates examples from the repertory that set variations against a restatement of the original melody.46 Peralta describes the variation technique in his melody chapter as “inherited from classical music,”47 and he analyzes how it embellishes notes from the principal melody in an excerpt from Troilo’s “Responso” ( WE 3.8a). Bandoneonist Stazo composed his own set of virtuosic bandoneón variations in his 1958 arrangement of “Tres esquinas” ( WE 3.8b). Here, rather than the typical final phrase, the bandoneón passage embellishes the original melody before the return of the final tutti phrase in diminution alternating marcato in 2 and 4 in the piano accompaniment. Tangueros also deeply consider the importance of thematic transformation in tango melody and offer practical models for an aspiring arranger. In his appendix, Salgán includes examples of his own thematic transformations, introductions, and solos he composed for various tangos, in addition to numerous examples of countermelodies and variations.48 Peralta further elaborates on ornamentation with examples of his melodic transformations. He provides models of how to combine an elaboration into two, three, and four voces (parts); instructions for maintaining clarity of the melody and harmony if Page 11 of 42

Arranging and Performance Techniques using passing tones (PTs) or neighbor tones (NTs); and an admonition to avoid crossing parts. In his chapter 14, “Transformación de motivos melódico a rítmicos” (“Transformation of Melodic Motives to Rhythmic”), Mamone likens the melody to a “leitmotif” and philosophically describes how its transformations serve the proposition of “unity in diversity” in the same architectural role as the sonata form of the classical period.49 He explains how to effect a transformation in the melody: The technique involves the addition or displacement of auxiliary notes to transform the phrase, usually adding legato values of 2 and offbeat values. When we find long notes on the main melody we can shorten them and add auxiliary notes and ornaments.50 (p.103) After offering eight models of how arrangers frequently transform melodic motives, Mamone goes on to illustrate the concept with short excerpts from the repertory. His first example transforms the legato opening of “Mal de amores” to a rítmico style by meticulously articulating the melody with accents, staccatos, and slurs, as well as shifting to the offbeats (

WE 3.9).

Graciano presents yet another unique perspective on transforming tango melody, clearly influenced by his jazz studies at Berklee in Boston and techniques he employs in his own music. Topics in his chapter 7 on tango improvisation include fraseo, building on the scale and chord, tango chromaticism, blue notes, tonal guides, and melodic patterns.51 Similarly, Monk’s entire third section of his manual for the saxophone covers improvisation in the tango language.52 Phrasing and Language

Tango melodic phrasing also mirrors rhythmic and metric nuances of Rioplatense Spanish, which uses vos in place of tú for the informal second-person singular pronoun (“you,” not to be confused with vosotros, the informal secondperson plural pronoun “you” commonly used in Spain). This pronoun receives a different set of conjugated verbs, which often creates an end accent, such as hablás (you talk), tenés (you have), and querés (you want). Thus, a conversation among friends tends to flow in end-accented spoken phrases, like a tango melody that typically gathers an upbeat momentum to a strong downbeat. Just walking on the streets in Buenos Aires, one hears an upbeat-downbeat rhythmic flow in porteño speech that conveys an exaggerated sense of urgency and momentum in end-accented sentences, like an arrival on a downbeat in fraseo or arrastre. This intriguing connection between Castellano (as Argentines call their language) and tango melodic phrasing begs for further analysis and research. Yet, this important key may help unlock the door to understanding the holding back and rushing to the next downbeat of the fraseado melodic flow to non-Castellano speakers.

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Arranging and Performance Techniques To help communicate this phrasing style, tangueros uniformly emphasize the importance of correct notation and execution of staccatos, accents, and slurs in the rítmico melodic style. Most modern tango compositions, arrangements, and transcriptions incorporate clear articulations. Salgán makes the point in the introductory comments to his published piano arrangements, “El tango: Consideraciones sobre (p.104) algunas de su características” (“Tango: Considerations About Some of Its Characteristics”), how the staccato in particular conveys a tanguístico character in performance.53 Salgán further points to the necessity of notating and executing details of articulation, accents, and staccatos in tango performance in his Tango Course section on “Accents, Ties, and Typical Tango Phrasing.”54 As mentioned earlier, both Salgán and Fain specifically emphasize a correlation between tango lyrics and cantando melodic style in their manuals. Yet, it is safe to say that all tangueros relate the musical expression of cantando melodic style, even in purely instrumental arrangements, to the accentuation, pauses, and breath breaks in tango lyrics. Such details of notation in fraseo became increasingly common in post–Golden Age arrangements, such as Lomuto’s arrangement of “Qué solo estoy” discussed previously, where the piano solo’s notated fraseo corresponds to the fluid and expressive accentuation of the text “có-mo te dejé par-tir” ( WE 3.7a; compare to the steady sixteenth-note WE 1.4). notation in the piano vocal score in Tango Harmony

The development of common-practice harmony in Argentine tango is especially relevant to specific composers, arrangers, and style periods. Peralta further frames the developmental line of tango as being “sustained in the tonal classicalromantic harmony.”55 The change from the milonga rhythmic pattern to marcato also opened the door for faster harmonic rhythm and richer harmonies beyond I, IV, V, and V/IV.56 Salgán traces a bit of his own historic overview of harmony in tango, noting how early tangueros only used simple harmonies to support the primacy of melody and rhythm and how the Decarean period brought wider harmonic practices. He further cites how US film music introduced extended harmonies and jazz chords (which he calls “American chords”), yet he cautions the arranger against overuse of such chords to avoid creating hybrids and losing the essence of tango style.57 (p.105) Within the broad category of harmony, which we define as two or more parts sounding together, tangueros break down divisions of tango harmony into chords, bass lines, nonharmonic tones, reharmonizing standard tango melodies, and scoring the melody in voces (voices), or parts, which crosses back over into the realm of melody. Most dedicate separate chapters to harmony and scatter related concepts as they pertain to other elements. For example, Salgán first touches on the cross-over concept of scoring in voices in his “Frequently-Used Elements in the Tango” chapter when he illustrates how the melody may be Page 13 of 42

Arranging and Performance Techniques scored in parts and how the bass line supports the melody.58 Then, in his “Final Notes,” Salgán specifically outlines good and permissible voicing in two and three parts in tango that allow for “parallels and doublings in a progression that are considered incorrect in scholarly music harmony.”59 Even so, his models reflect the standard preference in tango arrangements for the more classical two-part voicing in parallel thirds and sixths and three-part voicing in parallel 6/3 chords.60 Peralta again demonstrates his intensely analytical perspective of tango music as he delves into details of tonal functions, structural harmonies, nonharmonic tones, chromatic practices, and reharmonization of a melody in his lengthy chapter on harmony.61 For example, Peralta details the function and voice leading of the augmented sixth chord, which he also calls the apoyatura,62 the name commonly used by tangueros.63 Peralta illustrates the three types of augmented sixth chords classified in classical theory, the French, German, and Italian, and points out how the German augmented sixth is commonly represented with a dominant seventh-chord symbol (cifrado) to simplify the reading. Peralta even illustrates with an example that shows the enharmonic spelling between a German augmented sixth and a ♭VI7 in C minor, where the F♯ is replaced by a G♭. Although he insists that this simplified notation of the chord functions like a classical German augmented sixth by resolving to the dominant in tango, he does not quite address how composers typically handle the voice leading. Tangueros usually depart from common-practice harmony by moving the two minor sevenths embedded in the ♭VI7 and V7 directly in parallel motion rather (p.106) than out to the octave of first the cadential 6/4 chord followed by the V7 (Example 3.3). Most important, though, the bass line retains the classic approach to V by a descending half step, capturing tango’s tristeza in the bassline ♭6̂–5̂. Since this motion replicates a melodic appoggiatura resolving downward by step, we speculate that it accounts for the peculiar name of this chord of apoyatura. Graciano and Monk put a distinctively jazz spin on their harmony sections. For example, Graciano details methods of reharmonizing melodies by the circle of fifths, tritone substitution, and the diminished chord under the topic “Harmonic turns.” Monk, who also studied at Berklee, instructs the player in using lead sheets for harmonic guide tones.64 Page 14 of 42

Example 3.3. Common-practice voice leading in the German augmented sixth chord, versus the typical spelling and resolution of the apoyatura by tangueros.

Arranging and Performance Techniques While we discuss bass lines within the realm of harmony because of their harmonic support, not all tangueros do. Yet, they all address the broad array of bass-line possibilities ranging from simple arpeggiations to walking basses in marcato to the many variations of the anticipation in síncopa. Within the various manuals, such discussions appear framed in the context of counterpoint, countermelodies, or harmony. Tango Form

Of all the musical parameters under discussion of what makes it a tango, form receives the least attention from the tango manuals.65 As a popular music genre, tangueros mostly assume that phrases typically fall into two-, (p.107) four-, and eight-bar groups, forming sixteen-bar periods that in turn make two- and threepart large-scale formal designs. Salgán simply notes that tango is usually in two or three parts, largely delineated by the contrasting melodic styles.66 While he incorporates a fugato in his arrangement of De Caro’s “Chiclana,” Salgán considers this to be an exception to the genre and warns that it should be used “very prudently.”67 Peralta, who places “Estructura” (“Form”) first in his book, provides the most detailed discussion about this element as he analyzes and demonstrates tango motives, semiphrases, phrases, and parts. He also illustrates examples of introductions, bridges, and codas as extensions to a basic structure, and he cites some exceptions to the standard sixteen-bar section, such as “Malena,” “Gallo ciego,” “Ojos negros,” and “El abrojito.” He details motivic development in “La yumba,” and he names Piazzolla’s “Fuga y misterio” and “Fugata” as examples of contrapuntal forms. Finally, he cites large-scale tango works to include Concierto para bandoneón (Piazzolla), the tango operita, María de Buenos Aires (Piazzolla/Ferrer), and Oratorio Carlos Gardel (Salgán/Ferrer). Tangueros discuss how to arrange finales, or the “chan-chan” tag in various categories. For example, at the end of his “Harmony” chapter, Salgán details the classic tango V-I cadential flourish under the subheading “Closing Chords of a Part or the Composition; Transitional Chords,” and he specifically names them “Ending.”68 While the elder Salgán states that finales are often articulated staccato, the younger Cesár Salgán demonstrated in an interview how Salgán arranged “chan-chans” differently.69 He pointed out how his father’s style keeps the “chan-chan” of section endings legato to continue the forward motion and not to confuse them with the end of the piece, whereas the last “chan-chan” always contains a more emphatic staccato articulation. Such interior legato “chan-chan” articulations may be heard between the B and C sections in Salgán’s “Aquellos tangos camperos” and between the B section and the trio in his arrangement of “Gallo ciego.” Monk illustrates numerous examples of this key element in various tango orchestral styles, including De Caro, Pugliese, Di Sarli, Stampone, and Marconi; its possible rhythmic settings in 3-3-2 and síncopa doble;70 and finales in milonga ( Page 15 of 42

WE 3.1) and vals (

WE 3.2c). In

Web Video

Arranging and Performance Techniques 3.1, (p.108) Possetti demonstrates various arrangement possibilities of the final “chan-chan” at the piano, including various dynamic and strong-weak rhythmic combinations. Mamone illustrates various models of the “chan-chan” finale in his chapter on accompanying singers.71 The two most basic are “closed” (without a rest in between V and I) and “open” (with a rest between V and I, à la Pugliese). Mamone also illustrates more elaborate models. He includes an approach to the dominant through a ♭VI chord, both on the beat and with síncopas, and plagal IVI possibilities in major and minor. He further points to an ascending 5̂-6̂-7̂-8̂ topline variation harmonized by I-V7/V-V7-I, as illustrated in Web Example 3.10a. This variation, which both prolongs the tonic of the final cadence and dramatizes the approach to the “chan-chan,” may also be harmonized with a chromatic bass line. An unsigned arrangement of “Nada” that Wendland received from bandoneonist Osvaldo Barrios illustrates such an example (

WE 3.10b).

Orchestration How the Instruments Are Used

chapter 1 simply identified the standard instrumental forces within tango texture, where typically the violins and bandoneones carry the melody while the piano and bass provide harmonic and rhythmic accompaniment. Of course, the strands of the instrumental narrative interact in a much more complex way as the tutti, soli, and solo instrumental roles flow between the melody, accompaniment, countermelody, and enlaces. In their manuals, tangueros go beyond simply codifying musical elements that define the tango genre to systematically discussing details of orchestration, that is, how to manage the instrumental forces within the texture. In addition to covering the core tango elements, the performance-oriented method books by Fain, Gallo, Graciano, and Monk address past and current practices of how their particular instrument functions in the tango instrumental narrative, while the manuals of Salgán, Mamone, and Peralta provide examples, instructions, and models for tango arranging and orchestration. Salgán titles the entire second section of his Tango Course “Instrumentation,” where he first defines his terms: “To arrange means to clearly show new ideas by the arranger. To orchestrate means redistributing the original (p.109) material to other instruments within the orchestra.”72 He then proceeds to extensively illustrate with examples of his own arrangements.73 Salgán, Mamone, and Peralta organize their orchestration material into sections according to instrument, which typically mix concepts of how to use them in the texture with examples of specific performance techniques. For example, as a master pianist himself, Salgán covers the essential function and use of the piano in tango.74 He delineates the instrument’s roles in the accompaniment, melody, countermelody, transitional passages, and variations; shows how to orchestrate for the piano in distinct registers, including solos in the octave below middle C,

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Arranging and Performance Techniques fills spaced one octave apart, and combinations with the bass; and highlights such special effects as campanas and seconds with ♯4̂/5̂ in síncopa. The tangueros address all facets of how to use the strings as a principal section in the tango orchestra. Salgán lays out details of the entire section,75 beginning with the ranges of violin, viola, cello, and bass. He shows with score examples how to employ them in melodic roles, either as a soloist, together in octaves, or divided into parts. Then, he highlights other uses of the strings to include playing a slow-moving countermelody that reinforces chord tones, rhythmic motives, and variations. He finally touches on their alternate function to provide harmonic background in the accompaniment. Mamone uniquely addresses how to arrange for the classical string quartet, illustrating various síncopa and marcato possibilities and tutti scorings.76 He further exemplifies tutti scorings for small ensembles incorporating standard tango instruments, including for trio (bandoneón, guitar, and bass; bandoneón, piano, and bass), quartet (violin, bandoneón, piano, and bass), and quintet (violin, bandoneón, piano, guitar, and bass).77 According to Salgán, when the bandoneón arrived in Argentina from Germany, it “was somehow transformed into the instrument and image of the tango.”78 He notes its versatility in various melodic roles, scored as a single line or in parts, and its function in sustaining the harmonic background. He explains the common indication in tango scores of canto y bajo, (p.110) abbreviated as “C. y B.,” that signifies playing with two hands, or dos manos. Salgán illustrates its particularly effective role in executing variations, both as a solo and in four parts. He points out the unique colors of the instrument, including the middle register, played on the left hand in the octave above middle C that he compares to the bassoon in the same register,79 and the brilliant and expressive upper register. Treating the entire tango orchestra as a whole requires skill and artistry, and tangueros forge a how-to path in their manuals and arrangements. Salgán’s chart of four common arrangements for scoring high, middle, and low registers of the strings and bandoneones provides an excellent schematic overview of how to handle a tutti arrangement ( WE 3.11). The reader may see how he favors version C in the detailed case study on the maestro (see chapter 5). Both Mamone and Peralta begin their orchestration sections with an overview of the typical tango instruments, including flute and guitar, and they illustrate characteristic instrumental registers, functions, and roles in the texture with famous formations ranging from duos to orquesta típicas.80 Building on concepts in earlier manuals, Peralta’s thorough chapter on orchestration illustrates techniques with many examples from the tango repertory. Like Mederos’s chart, Peralta frames this chapter within the three main performing forces of tutti, soli, and solo. His section on tutti expands Salgán’s general orchestration overview by Page 17 of 42

Arranging and Performance Techniques adding an additional layer of graphic analysis to show characteristic registers, voicings, and instrumental combinations. For example, after he shows numerous possibilities for scoring a four-bar phrase from De Caro’s “Tierra querida” separately for the string and bandoneón sections, Peralta then summarizes possible combinations in graphic form.81 With the same eye for detail and examples from the repertory, Peralta also illustrates soli passages for strings, bandoneones, and the rhythmic base, and solo passages for violin, cello, bandoneón, piano, bass, and guitar. Tangueros have been experimenting with innovative and new tango instrumentation since the Golden Age, while keeping the fundamental musical elements that define the genre intact. For example, enchanted by the bass clarinet, Salgán both incorporated it in his orchestra in the late 1960s (as in “Siga el corso,” “La última curda,” and “Aquellos tangos camperos”) and dedicated a chapter to its uses in his manual. He explains how it can sustain bass notes that may get lost in the bandoneón, reinforce the (p.111) piano left hand, and free up the low string instruments to perform other functions, such as the cello to play with upper strings and the bass to play pizzicato.82 Young tangueros further experiment with new instruments to execute traditional tango techniques. Monk’s detailed saxophone manual makes a strong case for how the instrument can fit into tango ensembles ranging from various chamber formations to the orquesta típica, while the trombone in Possetti’s sextet adds a new sliding arrastre sound to her music. Since De Caro’s symphonic orchestra experiments in the 1930s, tangueros have continued to explore large ensembles to include winds, brass, and percussion. Other tangueros who expanded the standard tango orchestra, as discussed in chapter 2 and later case studies, include Canaro, Fresedo, and Plaza. Today, large multisection orchestras, such as the Orquesta del Tango de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires and the Orquesta Nacional de Música Argentina Juan de Dios Filiberto, perform regularly. Furthermore, since Piazzolla’s first experiment with his Buenos Aires Octet in the 1950s, tangueros have continued to explore alternate chamber ensemble formations, such as clarinetist/saxophonist Gustavo Hunt’s all-saxophone quartet D´Coté and Possetti’s sextet that includes trombone. While forming new instrumental ensembles may be experimental for tangueros in Buenos Aires, it is often necessary to arrange tangos without a bandoneón for ensembles outside of Argentina. In the absence of skilled bandoneón players, arrangers often incorporate a variety of wind instruments. For example, while working with American students in an ensemble without bandoneón, Bolotin creatively adapted Plaza’s original arrangement of “Danzarín” to combine tenor saxophone, oboe, clarinet, and bassoon in addition to the standard tango instruments (

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WE 3.12).

Arranging and Performance Techniques Instrumental Techniques

All tangueros study and utilize special instrumental techniques, or yeites, in performance, composition, and arranging, and all the tango manuals account for them in various ways. For example, within his core “Frequently-Used Elements in the Tango” chapter, Salgán identifies and explains the techniques of three fundamental “percussion effects.”83 First, he describes two important effects for the violin: a “drum” that uses the milonga campera 3-3-2 rhythm and chicharra (cicada). The third effect is a kind of “other” category he simply names “Freestyle Percussion Effects” on the instruments (p.112) commonly used in the orquesta típica, where each player strikes his or her instrument “rhythmically and freely.” Later in his string chapter, after pointing out how the more traditional pizzicato effect adds color to an arrangement, Salgán explains the special strumming guitarra effect that mimics the mandolin.84 Mamone takes a broader view of special instrumental techniques. He groups all string techniques and efectos (effects) together, like pizzicato, double stops, tremolo, and portamento, along with specific tango yeites of chicharra and tambor (drum).85 Peralta simply lists and defines the special effects by instrument like an encyclopedic reference at the end of his chapter on orchestration as miscellaneous items, as if they are common knowledge and need no further explanation.86 Like Salgán, he describes the important percussive golpe (hitting) effects possible on all the instruments. Yeites reside in both realms of tango arranging and performance practice, since they may or may not be actually notated in a score. For example, in the manuscript score of “A fuego lento,” Salgán simply writes the words chicharra and ritmos, etc. for the violinists to interpret freely, while he actually notates the rhythm for madera (wood) with an x notehead to indicate the nonpitched sound.87 Since Piazzolla, however, most compositions and arrangements notate the actual rhythms of yeites and write the name of the effect above the staff, such as Bolotín’s arrangement of “Danzarín” (

WE 3.12).

The Art of Tango Arranging

Importance of the Arranger

In addition to Artola and Galván, other Golden Age tangueros specialized in arranging. They not only filled the necessary function to notate scores and parts for the expanded orchestras and skilled players but also added their own personal stamp and interpretative layer as they managed the musical elements and instrumental forces. Original scores are scarce from the Golden Age, and since many of these arrangers worked anonymously, it is hard to know exactly who did what. However, through old published orquestaciones still circulating in Buenos Aires today and transcriptions of (p.113) historic recordings such as those in the archives of the Orquesta Escuela de Tango Emilio Balcarce, it is possible to assess and study the craft of some early arrangers. Additionally, the scholarship of such published authors as Adolfo Sierra, Federico de Silva, and Page 19 of 42

Arranging and Performance Techniques Oscar Del Priore, along with numerous articles on todotango.com, furnish more information about these important tangueros.88 As the tango art form developed beyond the Golden Age, arrangers creatively refined the core tango melodic, rhythmic, and harmonic elements, along with the characteristic instrumental techniques and yeites. Some of the key arrangers relevant to the case studies in this book include Spitalnik, Piazzolla, Plaza, and Stamponi, while other famous arrangers include Balcarce, Mamone, and Maderna.89 Combining the Elements

Most tangueros follow Salgán’s premise that the melody is the most important element in tango. When posed with the question “What is an arrangement?”, pianist, composer, director, and arranger Requena, who collaborated with Federico, considers other musical elements in relation to the all-important melody. He reflects: It is an attempt to embellish and to highlight the melody, without distorting it, on the contrary, always trying to respect it as much as you can. First comes the melody, later you have to write a variation of it and then, as it is popularly called, you have to introduce a violin harmony (counterline) inside it. Otherwise you are destroying the composer’s concept. You always have to respect the melodic line… . The arranger is a creator too, because there are so many harmonies as you can think of. But you never have to miss the tango essence.90 As the chart by Mederos shows (Photo 3.1), a tango arrangement essentially combines musical elements with orchestration. While Mederos possesses the gift of breaking down complex concepts into clear parts on a (p.114) chart, the actual art of tango arranging entails countless possibilities of how the musical elements of melody and accompaniment combine within the instrumental performing forces. The authors of tango arranging manuals offer guidance and examples for an arranger about subtle and creative nuances of style and technique. For example, Salgán provides directions and models about how the accompaniment must support the melody, provide a framework, prepare for the next phrase, set up changes between melodic and rhythmic sections, and anchor the harmony in the bass.91 Reflecting his years of experience as a composer and arranger, Salgán’s final list of guidelines advise the would-be arranger to decide if the style is rhythmic or melodic, to state the theme clearly, to express accurately the character of the lyrics, and to avoid making a “grand arrangement” in the beginning.92 Mamone provides a clear model of how one might design and execute an accompaniment for “Malena” that first maps out a scheme on a lead sheet and then realizes it for bandoneón, piano, and bass trio.93 In the same how-to vein, Graciano presents five practical models that match various rhythmic accompanimental patterns with melodies in lead-sheet notation.94 He succinctly Page 20 of 42

Arranging and Performance Techniques outlines a procedure on how to choose a rhythm based on the style, the type of melody, and the harmonic rhythm. He expressly notes how marcato and síncopa are the most common choices with one chord per bar; he suggests pesante or síncopa doble with two chords; he prefers marcato grouped into 3-3-2 with three chords; and he notes in the uncommon case of four chords to use marcato. Web Example 3.13 reproduces his approach to combining accompaniment patterns to the first phrase of Salgán’s “A fuego lento.” Peralta combines the chart approach of Mederos with Salgán’s directions as he systematically illustrates and explains how to generate a plan, make creative decisions, and combine the elements.95 Based on abstract schematic models that combine different possibilities of repetition and contrast within a phrase, he illustrates musical direction and development in the arrangement over time through numerous analytical graphs mapped onto an x/y axis. Then, returning to the all-important “essential motive” he established in the first chapter, Peralta delves into how to treat a fragmento (fragment) in three stages: first, to establish a clear character of (p.115) the melodic style as cantando or rítmico with a proper tempo, register, and marks of expression; second, to manage the other elements like the rhythmic accompaniment, harmonies, and countermelodies; and finally, to close, connect, and extend the fragment with enlaces. Peralta concludes with his crowning achievement and contribution to tango analysis, “Análisis de fragmentación” (“Analysis of fragmentation”), where he presents a graph of all these forces at play in Di Sarli’s arrangement of Firpo’s “El amanecer” (

WE 3.14a and WE 3.14b).

Finally, we illustrate the art of combining orchestration and tango musical elements of melody, accompaniment, enlaces, and yeites in Stazo’s lush and creative arrangement of “Tres esquinas,” scored for four violins, viola, cello, three bandoneones, piano, and bass ( WE 3.15a). The piano begins with an anticipatory octave grace-note call, followed by a clear tutti presentation of the melody in a cantando style. Stazo uses a classic tango scoring that exactly illustrates Salgán’s orchestration model C ( WE 3.11). The warm middle-string register dominates the sound with unison violins and viola doubled an octave below in the cello, while the bandoneones double an octave above in parts to brighten the tone and enrich the texture. The piano and bass accompany the melody with síncopa a tierra preceded by measured arrastres. As typical for the late Golden Age and beyond, Stazo quickly contrasts elements in the instrumental narrative in each of the three 4-bar groups in mm. 1–12 ( WE 3.15b). In the second phrase, mm. 5–8, the violins continue the melody soli, while the lower strings and the bandoneones join the piano and bass on the marcato in 4 accompaniment. Then, the piano signals the approach to the end of the phrase with a chromatic fill and links to the third phrase (mm. 9–12) with minor second percussive accents. Stazo continues this heightened rhythmic charge by changing the melody to a rítmico style, again scored tutti. Furthermore, he accelerates the rhythmic changes in the accompaniment to twoPage 21 of 42

Arranging and Performance Techniques bar groups, first síncopa anticipada/contratiempo in mm. 9–10 and then back to marcato in 4 in mm. 11–12. A bass enlace elaborates the 5̂-1̂ at the cadence, linking to the upbeat of the next phrase.

Performance Techniques and Practices After closely examining how tangueros understand and disseminate the notational form of tango, we next analyze how tangueros play tango. In other words, how do the notes on the page translate to physical motions that in turn create the sounds of Argentine tango? This was one of our most pressing questions as we began our study of tango. In this section, we (p.116) present our findings on performance techniques and practices conveyed to us in lessons, concerts, and recordings. We further support our analysis by video demonstrations by violinist Bolotin, pianist Sonia Possetti, bassist Navarro, bandoneonist Enrich, and guitarist Graciano. We feature the first three of these tangueros later in this book with in-depth case studies (see chapter 6). Enrich is a rising star in the tango field and plays with many major ensembles in Buenos Aires, including Possetti’s sextet. Graciano is a prominent guitarist in Buenos Aires, and in addition to teaching and writing his tango manual, he composes, arranges, and plays with his trio ensemble Tango en tres. Role within the Instrumental Narrative

First and foremost when playing tango, it is necessary to understand one’s role within the ensemble. This was one of many important concepts gleaned from our lessons with De Elía, and other tangueros such as Fain and Gallo have since documented this topic. Specifically, and rather basically, is one playing the accompaniment or the melody? While one’s role may change multiple times throughout a single tango, it is crucial to understand one’s position within the instrumental narrative at any given time, as both the execution of the accompaniment and the execution of the melody lend themselves to specific performance techniques and practices. Further, one may also be supplying percussive effects or yeites, which add another layer to the narrative. Execution of the Accompaniment

In Argentine tango, the accompaniment is the foundation of the texture. Since it provides harmonic support and the rhythmic framework for the melody, how one plays an accompaniment shapes the overall atmosphere of the tango. We examine the basic accompanimental techniques of marcato, arrastre, yumba, síncopa, umpa-umpa, bordoneo, milonga, and 3-3-2 on the standard tango instruments of violin, piano, bass, bandoneón, and guitar. Marcato

Tangueros play marcato crisply and staccato; however, the degree of the staccato and the accentuation of each quarter-note attack depend on the (p.117) particular performance style of the ensemble. For example, D’Arienzo’s orchestra plays marcato extremely short with accents on every beat (marcato in Page 22 of 42

Arranging and Performance Techniques 4), whereas Pugliese’s orchestra plays a longer marcato with accents only on beats 1 and 3 (marcato in 2). In his description of marcato, Peralta offers an excellent pictorial representation of the varying degrees of accentuation in various tango orchestras (

WE 3.16).

On the violin, tangueros play marcato with down bows, close to the frog. They often use a small amount of bow and retake the bow for each quarter note. Additionally, they apply pressure to the bow with their index finger before pulling the stroke to create a gritty sound. In Web Video 3.2 demonstrates marcato and accents beats 1 and 3.

, Bolotin

Marcato on the piano is slightly more complicated due to the involvement of both hands performing separate tasks. Pianists mark the beat in the left hand in a legato style with single notes, typically in stepwise motion or outlining a chord. Marking the right-hand chords can take various forms and degrees of staccato, depending on the pianist’s style. Typically the right hand jumps registers and changes chord positions with the right arm flying in the air. Sometimes pianists leap to the upper register on beat 2 and descend on beats 3 and 4, while other times they gradually ascend to the upper register and reach the peak by beat 4 ( WE 3.17 a and b, respectively). Since the articulation of the left hand does not match the articulation of the right hand, pianists must maintain independence of the two marcato components. In addition, tangueros typically use no pedal when playing marcato so as not to blur the articulation. Further, depending on the ensemble, marcato may be clearly notated, but usually the right-hand chord inversions are the choice of the individual pianist. Possetti demonstrates two types of marcato: accenting all four beats and then accenting beats 1 and 3 ( WV 3.3 and

WV 3.4).

In a variation of marcato known as pesante, pianists simply mark the beat by playing detached chords. In this case, pianists do not use legato fingering, but they do use the pedal judiciously. Possetti provides examples for pesante with chord changes on every beat and then with chord changes on every measure ( WV 3.5 and WV 3.6). In the opening of Federico’s 1996 recording of “La cumparsita,” Ledesma plays a clear pesante with chord changes on the piano. Possetti’s “Desde aquí” from Mano de obra offers an example of a slow pesante with less frequent chord changes. Bassists play marcato similar to violinists. Typically playing on a French-style bow, they retake the bow with each quarter note and apply pressure to create a gritty sound at the beginning of the note. In addition, bassists only use a small amount of bow and often pull it quickly with the wrist, as demonstrated by Navarro in Web Video 3.7 . In some styles, tangueros (p.118) play entire bass marcato patterns pizzicato, as in D’Arienzo’s style. Or, as in Salgán’s style, they alternate between arco and pizzicato, where they sometimes play arco on beats 1 and 4, accenting both the downbeat and the levare, and pizzicato on beats 2 Page 23 of 42

Arranging and Performance Techniques and 3 ( WV 3.8). The heaviness of the arco stroke or pizzicato depends on the style of the individual ensemble. For example, Piazzolla’s performance style uses a heavy pizzicato, whereas Salgán’s style incorporates an airy pizzicato.96 Further, some styles of pizzicato incorporate a more percussive “snap” pizzicato. Throughout Web Link 3.2 , Navarro demonstrates a variety of marcato techniques with both an arco stroke and pizzicato in different orchestral styles. Bandoneonists typically play marcato by bouncing the instrument on their leg and opening the bellows with each marking of the beat. This motion produces a very short sound and requires a minimal amount of effort for the musician to push or pull the bellows. Marcato on the bandoneón, however, differs greatly depending on the individual performance style. With heavier marcatos, as in Pugliese’s style, the articulation is slightly longer and bandoneonists pull the bellows to create a louder sound. Bandoneonists also distribute the notes of the marcato chords in various ways. They can play single notes in the left hand and chords in the right hand, or chords in both hands with possibly the left hand crossing registers with the right hand.97 Another option is for the left hand to play a bass line similar to that of the left hand of the pianist and for the right hand to play chords.98 Like pianists, bandoneonists also play pesante, in which case they use one motion (either opening or closing) for each measure and detach each marking of the beat. In Web Video 3.9 variety of marcato techniques.

, Enrich demonstrates a

On the guitar, tangueros strum chords to create marcato. The length of the strum and the number of strings used vary according to the style. In a staccato style of marcato, the guitarist strums all the chord tones on beats 1 and 3 but only the essential chord tones, such as the root and third, on beats 2 and 4. This differentiation between strong and weak beats creates a marcato in 2. Similar to the other instruments, the guitar executes variations to the basic marcato technique, such as the occasional legato strum or letting the strings ring on beats 2 and 4. Guitarists also employ marcato in 2 by only marking beats 1 and 3 or a pesante style by playing half notes. Sometimes guitarists even add the flamenco guitar technique of abanico (fan), the strumming of the strings with the backside of the hand and the (p.119) full fingernail, to beats 1 and 3. In Web Videos 3.10

and 3.11

, Graciano demonstrates basic marcato and marcato

99

variations. Arrastre

Just as the Argentines spice their grilled meat with chimichurri, arrastre adds the essential sauce of tango accompaniments; it makes tango “swing.” Knowing how and when to insert this slide into the strong beat is crucial to understanding the execution of the accompaniment. Arrastre comes so naturally to tangueros that, when we made the video demonstrations for this chapter, it was difficult for

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Arranging and Performance Techniques the players to omit it from the basic accompanimental patterns. It was as if the accompaniments were missing a key ingredient. To play a glissando arrastre, one slides into the downbeat without clearly defining the pitches. The length of the glissando depends on the individual player and how accentuated the arrastre is in a particular style. Dynamically, tangueros typically begin arrastre strongly, then reduce the sound level, and ultimately end with a crescendo into beat 1. Thus, there is force, then tension holding the sound back, and finally a release into beat 1. As noted earlier, Salgán states that arrastres do not require “tonal clarity,” but rather demand an “imprecise sound.”100 From a basic perspective, on the violin or bass, one begins at the frog with an accent and plays a glissando in the left hand to arrive at the downbeat ( WV 3.12). Occasionally, bassists simply play arrastre without changing pitches yet dynamically imply arrastre ( WL 3.2 [8:00–8:35]). On the bandoneón, tangueros forcefully pull the bellows of the instrument on a chord or a single note and end on the principal note or chord of the downbeat ( WV 3.13). On guitar, they play a long glissando on two or three strings and end by arriving on the principal chord on the downbeat (

WV 3.14).

As noted in chapter 1, arrastres can also be measured, as when played on the piano. In this case, pianists incorporate the same dynamic contour as the glissando version and begin with a particularly strong accent. In addition, tangueros frequently play a measured arrastre slightly unevenly by elongating the beginning notes and rushing the notes at the end ( WV 3.15). Also note, pianists do not use the pedal when playing arrastre so as (p.120) not to create a muddy sound. Occasionally, some players, such as bassists, end a glissando arrastre with a few defined pitches, thus combining a glissando arrastre with a measured arrastre (

WL 3.2 [9:37–10:10]).

Tangueros add arrastre to accompanimental patterns often at the beginnings of phrases, subphrases, or measures ( WV 3.16). It also can be sprinkled in other places for a special effect or even at the beginning of every beat. Web Videos 3.17 and 3.18 demonstrate two examples of arrastre plus marcato on bandoneón and bass, respectively. Yumba

Being a pianist himself, Pugliese developed yumba on the piano, and contrary to arrastre, the secret to playing it lies in the use of the pedal. To execute yumba on the piano, pianists play a short, accented chord in both hands and follow with a cluster in the lowest register in the left hand with the damper pedal down. Then, the left hand swings up to the middle register and joins the right hand in another short, accented chord, while the right foot lifts up on the pedal ( WV 3.19). This anticipatory drag can have varying degrees of weight depending on the

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Arranging and Performance Techniques ensemble; however, the most important aspect of the technique is the marked arrival to the strong beat. Other instruments imitate the piano technique when in accompanimental roles. As Navarro demonstrates, bassists recreate the piano sound by playing a forceful glissando with a down bow ( WV 3.20). He also notes that some tangueros, like Piazzolla, even extend the yumba technique on the bass by adding a golpe on beat 3 ( WV 3.21). Bandoneonists typically execute yumba in one single closing motion. In his demonstration, Enrich first plays a cluster in the left hand and a chord in the right hand and then ends with a staccato chord in the right hand ( WV 3.22). Enrich also notes how, when playing marcato in the yumba style, the motion is more forceful ( WV 3.23). Graciano plays yumba on the guitar by playing a chord on the strong beat and then all open strings on the weak beat ( WV 3.24). He notes how the left arm must swing up to the strong beats to imitate the swing of the left arm on the piano. Síncopa

When playing síncopa and all its variations, tangueros employ a variety of practices. With síncopa a tierra (Example 1.2.), tangueros vary the accentuation by sometimes placing the accent squarely on beat 1 and other times (p.121) placing the accent on the weak part of beat 1 or the “& of 1.” In Web Video 3.25 , Bolotin demonstrates this basic síncopa, accenting both beats 1 and 3, as well as preceding beat 3 with an anacrusis. Notably, he plays beats 1 and 3 with down bows and the unaccented weak part of beats 1 and 3 with small up bows. In Web Video 3.26 , Graciano demonstrates the opposite in his basic síncopa, thus placing an accent on the weak part of beat 1. He achieves this by playing a single low staccato bass note on beat 1 and a full chord above on the “& of 1” ( WE 3.18a). In Web Video 3.26, Graciano also points out verbally that guitarists sometimes change registers within the pattern, as notated in Web Example 3.18b . Luckily, tangueros today usually clearly mark the accentuation in arrangements, so one does not struggle with where to place the accent. Tangueros sometimes precede the síncopa a tierra pattern with an arrastre or an eighth-note anacrusis. Bolotin demonstrates this possibility on the violin just using the bow, not a glissando, in the left hand ( WV 3.27). Enrich displays the síncopa a tierra with arrastre on the bandoneón, showing how beat 3 functions as a rebote (rebound) that continues from the initial síncopa ( WV 3.28). To create this effect, he plays the entire measure in one smooth motion opening the bellows in a forte attack on the síncopa and playing the rebote softly. Possetti demonstrates síncopa a tierra on the piano with an eighth-note anacrusis in the bass, which functions as a type of arrastre ( WV 3.29). Her variation of the consecutive síncopa a tierra group resembles Enrich’s demonstration, where she plays the accented síncopa forte and the rebote piano ( WV 3.30). Further, to achieve a forte sound, she uses the weight of her arm. As with many of these

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Arranging and Performance Techniques accompanimental patterns, how one plays the rebote depends on the individual style, and Gallo offers a comprehensive list of possibilities in his manual.101 With síncopa anticipada, tangueros generally highlight the anticipation on the “& of 4” with a strong, heavy accent coupled with an arrastre. They then either play the downbeat staccato (a tierra) or shift to the offbeat (contratiempo). Bolotin demonstrates síncopa anticipada with an a tierra staccato downbeat ( WV 3.31), while Possetti shows the other possibility by hiding the downbeat inside of the tie ( WV 3.32). Since beat 3 stabilizes the meter, Possetti plays it tenuto to settle on the rhythmic anchor. In addition, she precedes beat 3 with an eighth note played softly. She also demonstrates this same type of síncopa anticipada, but consecutively ( WV 3.33). On the bass, Navarro demonstrates a similar type of síncopa anticipada by strongly accenting the “& of 4” and sliding into a staccato downbeat ( WV 3.34). In his work to codify these subtle techniques, Peralta ingeniously graphs (p.122) the sound of various types síncopa, which enormously aided our understanding of the refinement of its accentuation, tension, and release (

WE 3.19).

Umpa-umpa

Typical in the performance practices of the duo of Salgán and De Lió is the umpa-umpa accompanimental rhythm. As notated in Web Example 3.20 , the guitarist plays a chord on beat 1, then two sets of eighth notes with the pattern bass note/chord. It ends with an arrastre on beat 4 leading to beat 1 of the next measure. By striking a full chord on the “& of 2” and the “& of 3,” guitarists strongly accent the offbeats. Graciano demonstrates umpa-umpa, where one can clearly hear the accented offbeats (

WV 3.35).

Bordoneo, Milonga, and 3-3-2

The bordoneo style of playing stems from the early guitar practices in the milonga campera, where the three lowest strings of the guitar, or the bordonas, provided both bass harmonic notes and linear embellishments. In practice today, guitarists continue to accent the bass line and play the arpeggio milongueo fills (or rellenos) softly ( WV 3.36). Pianists translate this style of playing to their instrument, as in Plaza’s arrangement of “Payadora,” which includes this accompanimental style in both the piano and the guitar. The milonga has become popular in recent years in both its slow and fast styles, such as in the works of Piazzolla and Possetti, with its own attendant performance techniques. In the case of Piazzolla’s milongas lentas like “Milonga del ángel,” bassists often play the milonga rhythm pizzicato and accent the downbeat. With faster milongas like Possetti’s “Bailarina,” bassists play the rhythmic accompaniment arco on separate bows. Further, Possetti doubles the bass line in her left hand, playing each measure as one motion and throwing her

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Arranging and Performance Techniques arm to accent the downbeat ( WL 3.3). Notably, while Possetti’s left plays the milonga rhythmic pattern, her right hand plays marcato-in-2 jumping registers.

The accompanimental 3-3-2 rhythmic pattern, commonly written in , creates the aural impression of an88 asymmetrical meter containing the 3-3-2 metarhythm. Rather then counting “1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &” in performance, one should count “123 123 12” to achieve how tangueros strongly accent the first “beat” of the meta-rhythm and continue the momentum (p.123) of the third “beat” to the next downbeat ( WV 3.37). When playing on a string instrument, such as the violin, each “beat” of the meta-rhythm begins with a down bow, as in marcato, and the subdivisions of the “beat” are up bows (

WV 3.38).

Combination

As noted previously, one rarely plays a single accompaniment style throughout an entire tango. Bolotin offers an example of a typical accompaniment for “La cumparsita” on the violin by combining marcato and síncopa ( WV 3.39). In Web Video 3.40 , Navarro displays his creative talents though an improvisation of accompaniment styles, in what he calls “free style.” Execution of the Melody

While the accompaniment in tango shapes the atmosphere of the music, the melody determines the mood. Within tango melodies, the two distinct types of rítmico and cantando call for specific performance practices. However, one’s choice of how to execute the melody within these basic practices offers a personal form of expression. Rítmico

Tangueros play rítmico melodies, typically composed of short eighth-note motives, accented and staccato. The degree of both the accent and staccato varies according to the individual style, but generally speaking, accents are strong and staccatos are crisp. Fain states in her manual on tango flute playing that the accented note in a group of eighth notes is the most important and all other notes must fall into the “shadow” of the accent.102 She also points out that when a long note is accented, such as a half note, tangueros play it with a forceful attack and then employ a dramatic decrescendo.103 Thus, a note written as an accented half note sounds more like an accented dotted quarter note. Further, many rítimco melodies contain two-note slurs, for example, Plaza’s “Danzarín.” Tangueros execute this notation with a strong accent on the first note, followed by a decrescendo, and end (p.124) with a staccato on the second note. This contrasts with a classical two-note slur, which highlights tension and release with emphasis on the first note followed by a decrescendo to the second note.

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Arranging and Performance Techniques In playing rítmico melodies, tangueros employ techniques that create the sharpest and strongest sound possible. String players stay extremely close to the frog, apply pressure with the bow to create a gritty sound, and use a miniscule amount of bow. In addition, they generally create all accents with a fast downbow stroke ( WV 3.41). Bandoneonists generally bounce the instrument on their knee similar to the technique in marcato, as seen in a video of D’Arienzo’s large orchestra performing “La cumparsita” ( WL 3.4). Pianists frequently use wrist staccato, which allows for some force but also suppleness to play at a rapid tempo. Horacio Salgán illustrates this technique in a video of the Quinteto Real performing “A fuego lento” (

WL 3.5).

Additionally, tangueros often add forceful melodic slides in rítmico melodies to exaggerate and accentuate the phrasing. Personal performing practices determine the starting pitch of the slide and the overall length of the slide. In Web Video 3.42 , Enrich discusses and demonstrates melodic slides. Note, he calls this melodic slide an arrastre; however, we prefer to reserve the term arrastre for the anticipatory drag in the accompaniment and to think of this concept as a forceful melodic slide. Cantando

Cantando melodies offer a distinct contrast to their rhythmic counterpart. Tangueros highlight this difference by playing legato and employing fraseo. When approaching tango from a classical background, fraseo is perhaps the most enigmatic performing practice of Argentine tango. In addition to Fain’s open and closed fraseo, Peralta notes that fraseo can translate four eighth-notes to a quintuplet variation, or it even can resemble the bouncing pattern of a pelotita (little ball, WE 3.21).104 In this analogy, as the bounces of the ball decrease in height in the illustration, they get closer together just as the eighth notes get faster. In Web Video 3.43 , Enrich describes the pelotita in relationship to Pugliese’s style and the challenges that this creates. Fraseo also links directly to the vocal performing practice of heightening the dramatic expression of the text. For example, in Troilo and Fiorentino’s recording of “Malena,” Fiorentino emphasizes dramatic words like canta (p.125) (sings), ninguna (no one), and pena (pain) by stretching the melodic line and then accelerating it on less important words ( WE 1.7). In his interview, Enrich describes the importance of sounding like a singer and relays a Piazzolla anecdote ( WV 3.44). Such style of singing, and playing, melodic lines dates back to Gardel and the payadores. Kutnowski notes that Gardel, as well as other singers of that generation, lacked formal musical education, which allowed him and others “to improvise in such a way that, in expressing the weight and meaning of the words, justified distorting the original scores.”105 In other words, freed from notational confines, Gardel expressed the melodic rhythm according to the dictates of the text.

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Arranging and Performance Techniques Bolotin demonstrates two versions of playing the melody of “Tres esquinas,” one as notated and the other with the standard employment of fraseo ( WV 3.45). Corresponding to Web Example 3.15a , Bolotin first plays the notated version of the melody in straight quarter notes and even simplifies the melody further by discarding the syncopation at the end of the phrase. Then, in the second half of the video, Bolotin elongates some notes while reducing the value of others, and he stretches time in accordance with the traditional practice of this tango made popular by singer Vargas. Also, just like most tangueros naturally add arrastre when playing marcato, Bolotin unconsciously added adornos and melodic slides in his rendition of the fraseo melody. Both of these other melodic practices are discussed later. In performance, tangueros also employ the broader concept of fraseo extendido discussed and illustrated previously. Since a player is not obligated to always arrive on the strong beats in the melody, he or she is free to decide where to place the “nota de destino (note of destination)”.106 The purpose of fraseo extendido is to expressively emphasize these particular target notes within the larger phrase.107 For example, in the solos of “Adiós Nonino” on the Central Park recording, both Piazzolla and Suárez Paz regularly employ fraseo extendido in addition to embellishing the melody (or see also Enrich’s solo rendition in

WL

108

3.6). In Web Video 3.46 , Enrich describes the typical playing of “Verano of Laurenz’s “Mal de amores” offers another porteño.” Web Example 3.22 example of typical cantando melody with fraseo dating back to the guardia nueva. Web Example 3.22a (p.126) illustrates the squarely notated piano score, and Web Example 3.22b transcribes the actual expressive performance of De Caro’s sextet 1928 recording. Within cantando melodies, string players typically include melodic slides and portamentos as another layer of personal expression. These portamentos range in size from a half step to an octave span. While this technique is often notated in modern scores with a glissando line, tangueros frequently employ the technique as part of their individual performance practice. For example, Bolotin frequently adds melodic slides to his interpretation of the melody in “Tres esquinas” (

WV 3.45).

Other Techniques Used with the Melody

Bolotin’s expressive performance of “Tres esquinas” with fraseo ( WV 3.45) also demonstrates how tangueros typically add adornos, melodic slides or portamentos, and scalar fills ( WV 3.47 offers another example of adornos). Adding adornos beyond those notated in a score is part of one’s personal expression, and there is not a prescribed method of where or how to add them. Tangueros, however, tend to incorporate adornos in notes with small values, such as eighth notes, over long values, such as dotted half notes. Generally, long note values in cantando melodies display one’s beautiful tone and often portray the ever-present pain in tango’s lament. Therefore, if one adds an adorno to a Page 30 of 42

Arranging and Performance Techniques long note value, he or she usually places it at the beginning or end of the note to either highlight it or create a transition to the next note. For example, in the Central Park recording of Piazzolla’s “Adiós Nonino,” Suárez Paz adds numerous mordents in his B section solo, yet uses long note values to yearn for a lost loved one. Possetti often notates adornos and enlaces in the piano, as in her “Dalo por hecho” (see chapter 6, Possetti case study). Many arrangements offer opportunities for tangueros to demonstrate their virtuosity. These moments arise with variations, solo cadenzas, or enlaces. For example, “Adiós Nonino” contains a famous opening piano cadenza that Piazzolla altered depending on his pianist. In the case of the Central Park recording, pianist Pablo Ziegler plays scalar filigree and chordal passages spanning the instrument’s range. In Web Video 3.48 , Bolotin offers an improvised solo on “Los mareados” that virtuosically spans the entire range of the instrument, including double stops and adornos. Bandoneonists frequently showcase their talent in virtuosic variations by playing the beginning of a fast passage while opening the bellows, then closing them in for the second half of the passage. (p. 127) Since the layout of pitches on the keyboards differs in the opening and closing actions, this practice demonstrates not only one’s ability to pace the airflow through the bellows but also one’s mastery of these complex keyboards. A video of a recording session by the legendary Arias–Montes duo demonstrates such mastery of the bandoneón keyboard (WL 3.7; see also Enrich’s demonstration in WV 1.1 ). Web Videos 3.49, 3.50, and 3.51 of solos on the piano, guitar, and bandoneón, respectively.

offer examples

Yeites

The vocabulary of yeites is unique to the Argentine tango, and the execution of yeites is often elusive to the non-tanguero. In an interview with BBC, Suárez Paz tells the story of his work with Piazzolla and the Kronos Quartet. He states: He [Piazzolla] rang me from San Francisco and said, “Come here, these people don’t know how to play.” The Kronos Quartet [is] one of the best in the world. I said, “How is that possible? They play beautifully.” He said, “They don’t know how to play!” The problem was that he wrote the way you see it here. He’d write “lija,” “figuración,” “tambor.” But how would any one know that “lija” sounds like this? There are percussion effects, for example “tambor.” They’re percussive effects not written conventionally, but written Piazzolla’s way.109 David Harringon of the Kronos Quartet goes on to say, “He [Suárez Paz] said, ‘You just do it.’ I said, ‘Fernando, not all of us just do it. We need to learn how.’”110 Each of the instruments within the tango ensemble plays a set of characteristic yeites. Some yeites cross over to multiple instruments, and sometimes Page 31 of 42

Arranging and Performance Techniques instruments imitate a yeite that is typical for another instrument. In our discussion that follows, we describe the common yeites for each typical instrument in tango, namely, the violin, bass, piano, bandoneón, and guitar. Figure 3.1 summarizes each technique by instrument, and it includes a brief description, the standard notation, and reference to the corresponding video on the Companion Website. (p.128) (p.129) (p.130) Violin

Of all the instruments in the tango ensemble, the violin has the largest repertory of yeites (listed in alphabetical order in Figure 3.1). This is perhaps due to the influence of De Caro, who frequently incorporated percussive effects into his performance practices. Violin yeites fall into three basic categories: special effects with the bow, various types of glissandos, and special pizzicatos. Perhaps the most common violin yeite is chicharra /lija. In this percussive technique, violinists play with Figure 3.1. Tango yeites. the bow behind the bridge, or between the bridge and the winding of the string, in a position that is as close as possible to the frog. Further, they abandon the classical bow hold, gripping the bow with the fist and applying pressure with the index finger. Playing the violin in this manner creates a harsh sound that resembles its name of cicada/sandpaper. Tangueros commonly use this technique as a repeated rhythmic cell. While this effect can be played on other string instruments, such as the viola, tangueros typically write it exclusively for the violin. The use of chicharra dates back to De Caro, such as in his 1928 recording of “El monito,” and it has continued throughout tango’s history, for example, in the openings of Salgán’s 1950 recording of “Don Agustín Bardi,” Plaza’s 1996 recording of Villoldo’s “El choclo,” and Possetti’s “Sólo por hoy.” Also calling for the nontraditional use of the bow, escoba imitates the sound of a broom sweeping the floor. It is typically played on the violin; however, it can be easily played on other string instruments, namely, the viola, cello, and bass. In this technique, the bow hairs brush the string in a motion that is parallel to the string. (Normally string players create sound by moving the bow perpendicular Page 32 of 42

Arranging and Performance Techniques to the string; thus, escoba requires the opposite motion.) In a position that is close to the frog, the bow moves on the D string (but other strings may be struck) from the bottom of the fingerboard toward the bridge, gradually increasing speed. To help create a gritty sound, violinists must apply a significant amount of pressure with the index finger of the right hand. De Caro’s 1926 recording of “Derecho viejo” provides a classic example of escoba, and Pugliese replicates the style in his 1943 recording of De Caro’s “Mala junta.” Bolotin also employs escoba for the entire string quartet in his recording of Piazzolla’s “Río sena.” Glissandos make up the second category of yeites on the violin. The most common glissando is látigo. In this technique, violinists play a fast ascending glissando on the E string with an up bow, imitating the sound of a whip. This particular yeite was a favorite of Piazzolla, and he used it frequently to accent downbeats, such as in the opening of “Michelangelo 70.” Bolotin also composes with this effect, as in his introduction to “Soniada.” (p.131) Occasionally, violinists will play a fast, descending glissando on the A string with a down bow, and this is called perro, for a yapping dog sound. Salgán’s Quinteto Real version of “A fuego lento” and the end of Bolotin’s quartet arrangement of Piazzolla’s “Escualo” features this yeite. Similar to perro is látigo reverso, which effects a descending glissando on both the A and the E strings. Sirena, another common glissando effect, slowly descends on one or two strings, usually the A or D string, with a down bow. The end of Piazzolla’s “Tanguedia III” features a sirena that represents a siren, as the name suggests. Possetti’s “Desde aquí” concludes with a melancholic sirena that dissolves into the final tutti pianissimo. All of these glissando variations are easily and frequently translated to other string instruments. The third category of violin percussive effects includes special types of pizzicato. Of these yeites, tangueros regularly use the snare drum effect of tambor. In this case, violinists pluck the G string with their right hand while the left-hand middle finger rests between the D and G string with the nail adjacent to the G string. When the G string is plucked, it vibrates against the nail and thus creates the snare drum–like sound. One can execute this technique simply as a single pizzicato note or in a rhythmic pattern mimicking a snare drum roll. Both De Caro’s 1926 recording of “Derecho viejo” and Piazzolla’s “Michelangelo 70” from the Central Park recording feature tambor. The second type of pizzicato yeite is gota, which is a soft pizzicato resembling raindrops. In this technique, violinists touch the strings with the left hand (without depressing them) and pluck the same strings with the right hand. The third type of pizzicato is guitarra, which is strumming the strings in a similar manner as the guitar. Many of the instruments tap the body of the instrument to create a percussive drum sound; in the case of the violin, it is called golpe or caja (knock or [strike on the] box). With this effect, violinists tap the body of the instrument with the Page 33 of 42

Arranging and Performance Techniques right hand, with the left hand, or alternating between the two hands. Bolotin’s quartet recording of “La mesa dulce” features a complex percussive passage of golpe sobre la caja on multiple instruments. Bass

While the bass occasionally incorporates some violin yeites, such as chicharra and escoba, its two most common special effects are golpe and strappata (Figure 3.1). In golpe, bassists strike the body of the instrument, hitting it like a drum. This yeite is frequently used in conjunction with a yumba technique, creating what Navarro calls “Piazzolla’s yumba” ( WV 3.21). In such examples as Piazzolla’s “Verano porteño” (p.132) from the Central Park recording, bassists play a strong arrastre to beats 1 and 3 and slap the back of the bass on beats 2 and 4. Stemming from Thompson’s early percussive style of bass playing known as canyengue, the percussive effect of strappata is unique to tango. Tangueros commonly use it to close a section or instigate a new section. In this two- or three-step technique, bassists first bounce the wood of the bow on the strings (col legno) in a down-bow motion before the beat. Then, they stop the vibration of the strings with a percussive slap on the fingerboard on the beat. If it is a three-part strappata, bassists slap the back of the instrument on the next beat. The opening of Piazzolla’s “La camorra I” features a clear example of strappata. The end of Bolotin’s introduction to “Soniada” offers another example, except here the cello functions as the bass and plays strappata. Piano

In comparison to the violin, the piano’s yeites are simpler and slightly more standard (Figure 3.1). Like all tangueros, pianists may percussively tap the instrument on the fallboard or music rack, employing golpe. Peralta considers glissando, either up or down with the damper pedal depressed or not, a piano yeite.111 Plaza’s later orchestra often used glissandos both ascending and descending, as in the 1996 recording of “Danzarín.” Pianists sometimes incorporate clusters, usually in the lower register to imitate the anticipatory slide in Pugliese’s yumba technique. Other times, pianists may use descending octave minor seconds as a percussive fill to link phrases. The bell-like campanas are another typical piano technique. Recently, tangueros began exploring the inside of the instrument, as in the string piano techniques of classical composer Henry Cowell. For example, in Navarro’s “Contra todos los que rayen,” the pianist strums the strings from the inside of the piano with his or her nail. Bandoneón

Bandoneonists also employ a few common yeites (Figure 3.1). They frequently perform golpe by tapping the instrument on the sides to create a bongo-like sound, or they scrape the keys like a güiro in a technique called (p.133) raspado (scraping). Enrich notes in our demonstration videos that even when Page 34 of 42

Arranging and Performance Techniques playing Pugliese’s “La yumba,” it is common to make extra noise with keys. Like pianists, bandoneonists also occasionally play clusters. If the cluster is in conjunction with a strong arrastre, as in Piazzolla’s “La camorra I,” it is called vómito or violento. Lastly, bandoneonists occasionally employ vibrato techniques. In the most common type, they shake the bellows to imitate violinists’ vibrato. The other, more refined type calls for bandoneonists to shake their finger creating a faster vibrato. The great bandoneonist Troilo frequently employed vibrato in his solos, as in the 1942 recording of “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos.” Guitar

Guitarists employ similar yeites to the other instruments (Figure 3.1). For example, the guitarists in both Piazzolla’s and Salgán’s ensembles (Malvicino and De Lío, respectively) commonly employed látigo and perro, like the violinists. Guitarists can also scratch the strings with their fingernails to create a similar sound to chicharra. Occasionally, guitarists will mute strings as in umpa-umpa or also hit the body of the instrument. (p.134) (p.135) Notes:

(1.) Pablo Zinger, “It Took One to Tango: Piazzolla,” New York Times, December 7, 1997, AR36. (2.) Ibid. (3.) Ibid. (4.) Ibid. (5.) During their research and study in Buenos Aires, the authors worked with Rodolfo Mederos for an arranging lesson in 2005; Sonia Possetti for private piano and arranging lessons in 2002–2005; Damián Bolotin for private string lessons in 2007; Possetti and Bolotin for ensemble workshops in 2007, 2009, and 2011; and Oscar de Elía for piano and ensemble classes in 2007. They attended lectures by Julián Peralta at the former Conservatorio Argentino Galván in 2005 and at the 2010 Tango Festival, and they observed many rehearsals of the Orquesta Escuela de Tango Emilio Balcarce at La casa del tango annually 2002– 2014. They also attended seminars and concerts at the Tango Festivals in 2008– 2012 and countless tango concerts since 2000. Link also studied with Pablo Ziegler in New York in 2006. (6.) Horacio Salgán, Curso de tango (Buenos Aires: Pablo J. Polidoro, 2001), trans. into English by Will Genz and Marisa Hurtado as Tango Course, 2nd ed. (Buenos Aires: Pablo J. Polidoro, 2001); Pascual “Cholo” Mamone, with Diego Sauchelli and Julián Hasse, Tratado de orquestación en estilos tangueros (Buenos Aires: Altavoz Ediciones Musicales, 2011), available for download in PDF, accessed September 14, 2014, http://www.diegosauchelli.com.ar/index.php/ en/books-and-editions/9-sin-categoria; Rodolfo Mederos, El lenguaje del tango Page 35 of 42

Arranging and Performance Techniques (unpublished manuscript, 2005); Julián Peralta, La orquesta típica: mecánica y aplicación de los fundamentos técnicos del tango (Buenos Aires: Departamento de Impresiones de la H.C.D de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, 2008); Julián Graciano, Tango Guitar Method (unpublished manuscript, 2010; only chapter 1, “Rhythmic Accompaniment,” has been translated into English by Graciano from his complete unpublished manuscript Método de guitarra tango); and Bernardo Monk, El saxofón en el tango: primer método para la inclusión del saxofón en nuestra música ciudadana (Buenos Aires: Melos, 2009). (7.) Paulina Fain, Método fundamental para apprender a tocar tango/ Fundamental Method for Playing Tango Music: La flauta en el tango/The Flute in Tango, bilingual, ed. by Fain (Munich: Ricordi, 2010); and Ramiro Gallo, Método fundamental para apprender a tocar tango/Fundamental Method for Playing Tango Music: El violín en el tango/The Violin in the Tango, bilingual, ed. by Fain (Munich: Ricordi, 2011). Since this writing, a new volume in the series has appeared by Hernán Possetti, Método fundamental para apprender a tocar tango/Fundamental Method for Playing Tango Music: El piano en el tango/The Piano in the Tango (Buenos Aires: Fondo Nacional de las Artes, 2014). A volume for bass by Ignacio Varchausky is in process, and plans are underway to complete the series with volumes for bandoneón and guitar. (8.) A note about terminology: sometimes tangueros use the terms orquestación (orchestration) and arreglo (arrangement) interchangeably. We define “arranging” to include how imagination and skill are applied to the treatment of the musical elements (melody, rhythm, harmony, texture, and form), the creative overlay of new ideas on existing tangos, the reworking of a piece by the same composer for different ensembles, and the instrumental formations used. We define “orchestration” to include how the instruments are used, including register, color combinations, and contrasting performing forces of tutti/soli/solo. “Instrumentation” simply refers to what instruments are used. (9.) Mederos developed his complex and systematic tango arranging pedagogy when he taught at the Escuela de Música Popular Avelleneda. In turn, many of his ideas have been transmitted by younger tangueros such as Fain, Peralta, and Possetti, who studied there. (10.) Inés Cuello uses this term as she points out how tango dance adapted from its early roots in her chapter “La coreografía del tango” in Jorge Novati, Inés Cuello, Irma Ruiz, and Néstor Ceñal, Antología del tango Rioplatense, vol. 1: Desde sus comienzas hasta 1920 (Buenos Aires: Instituto Nacional de Musicología “Carlos Vega,” 1980), 90. Collier uses this term in reference to the “Italianization” of tango dance as the rough cortes and quebradas were “toned down;” Collier also notes how new instruments were introduced to the tango

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Arranging and Performance Techniques ensemble like “accordions and mandolins,” ¡Tango! The Dance, the Song, and the Story, ed. Simon Collier (London: Thames and Hudson, 1995), 50–51. (11.) Salgán holds that “this fundamental change allowed tango to reach a musical plateau filled with rhythmic and melodic possibilities, which place it among the world’s greatest musical achievements.” He later emphasizes their utmost importance: “These rhythmic schemes function to center the tango, and thereby set and define the genre” [boldface Salgán’s]. Salgán, Tango Course, 23, 25. Kohan references the year 1915 as the beginning of the change in Estudios sobre los estilos compositivos del tango (Buenos Aires: Gourmet Musical, 2010), 41, fn. 22. (12.) Wendland learned that some tangueros call this rhythmic shift peruano from bandoneonist Osvaldo Barrios. (13.) “Su aplicación está reservada casi exclusivamenta para los finales.” Peralta, La orquesta típica, 218. (14.) H. Possetti, piano materials for Tango para músicos workshop, Buenos Aires, July 2014, and Gallo, El violín en el tango, 91. (15.) Graciano, Tango Guitar Method, “Rhythmic Accompaniment,” 1. (16.) Peralta also suggests that Firpo was the first pianist to use an equal fourbeat left-hand rhythm. Peralta, “Clínicas de estilo orquestal: El estilo Aníbal Troilo” (lecture, 2009 Tango Festival, Buenos Aires, August 17, 2009). (17.) We interpret this comment to refer to how the pianist Goñi built on De Caro’s arrastre by adding bass weight to establish it as a core rhythmic element in tango. Salgán, Tango Course, 87. (18.) “Se llama ‘Arrastre,’ dentro del género Tango, al hecho de dar comienzo a una Síncopa o a un marcado en ‘Cuatro’ o en ‘Dos’ anticipando su ataque… .” Salgán, Curso de tango, 86. The English version of this book uses “anticipation” rather than “drag” for the Spanish arrastre. We avoid using “anticipation” as a synonym for arrastre, since we consider this to be a larger rhythmic effect related to the concept of anacrusis, and the “drag” is a specific way to execute it. (19.) Salgán, Tango Course, 87–88. (20.) Peralta, La orquesta típica, 67–68, and H. Possetti, piano materials for Tango para músicos workshop. (21.) Graciano, Tango Guitar Method, “Rhythmic Accompaniment,” 6–7, and Gallo, El violín en el tango, 95.

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Arranging and Performance Techniques (22.) Mamone, Tratado de orquestación, 35–37. (23.) Graciano, Tango Guitar Method, “Rhythmic Accompaniment,” 5–6. (24.) Federico Silva, Informe sobre Troilo (Buenos Aires: Editorial Plus Ultra, 1978), 65. (25.) Conversation on July 16, 2014, with Wendland in Buenos Aires. (26.) Salgán, Curso de tango, 86. (27.) Salgán, Mederos, and Graciano call this style melódico (melodic); Mamone and Peralta call it ligado (legato); Fain calls it expresiva (expressive); and Possetti calls it cantando. (28.) Salgán, Tango Course, 32–39. (29.) Ibid., 32. (30.) Ibid., 37. (31.) Fain, La flauta en el tango, 23–24. (32.) Ibid., 17, and Gallo, El violín en el tango, 61, 69. (33.) Fain, La flauta en el tango, 19. (34.) Fain, Tango para músicos workshop, Buenos Aires, July 24, 2014. (35.) Salgán also cites here Laurenz, Ortiz, and Troilo as examples of masters at “stating” the tango, as well as later recordings of Federico with Grela, Baffa with his orchestra, and Marconi with his Quinteto Real; then he specifically cites the “bravura style of playing” by Laurenz and other performers of that era as an example of the second style. Salgán, Tango Course, 41. (36.) Monk, El saxofón en el tango, 43–45 and 47, respectively. (37.) Salgán, Tango Course, 40. (38.) Mamone also refers to Salgán’s Curso de tango and the maestro’s confession of how he got the melodic material for “Motivo de vals” from another composition’s countermelody—it is really most interesting to see this reference, indicating a flicker of community among arrangers. Mamone, Tratado de orquestación, 90–93. (39.) Mamone, Tratado de orquestación, 90–93. (40.) Peralta, La orquesta típica, 95–98.

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Arranging and Performance Techniques (41.) Ibid., 97–98. (42.) Salgán, Tango Course, p. 35. (43.) Mamone, Tratado de orquestación, 142–143. (44.) Peralta, Orquesta típica, 95, and Graciano, Método de guitarra tango, table of contents, 1. (45.) Fain, La flauta en el tango, 70–77; Gallo, El violín en el tango, 102–113. (46.) Mamone, Tratado de orquestación, 97–99; examples include excerpts from “Organito de la tarde” (C. Castillo/J. G. Castillo), “El amanecer” (Firpo), “Romance de barrio” (Troilo/Manzi), and “Silbando” (Piana/C. Castillo). (47.) Peralta, La orquesta típica, 45. (48.) Salgán, Tango Course, 138–148. (49.) Mamone, Tratado de orquestación, 122. (50.) “La técnica consiste en el agregado o desplazamiento de notas auxiliares de la frase a transformar, sumando habitualmente el legato de a 2 y valores a contratiempo. Cuando encontramos notas largas en la melodia principal podremos acortar las mismas y agregar notas auxiliares y ornamentos.” Mamone, Tratado de orquestación, 123. (51.) Graciano, Método de guitarra tango, table of contents, 1. (52.) Monk, El saxofón en el tango, 64–78. (53.) Salgán, introductory comments to Griseta, La cumparsita, Gallo ciego, Versíon para piano (Buenos Aires: Ricordi/Melos, 1987/2000), 5. (54.) Salgán, Tango Course, 59. (55.) “El desarrollo troncal del tango se sustenta en la armonía tonal clásicoromántica.” Peralta, La orquesta típica, 101. (56.) Kohan alludes to this connection in his discussion of Cobián’s faster harmonic rhythm in “Mosca muerte,” Estudios sobre los estilos compositivos del tango, 41. (57.) Salgán, Tango Course, 52. (58.) Ibid., 36–37. (59.) Ibid., 134.

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Arranging and Performance Techniques (60.) Ibid., 134–135. (61.) Peralta, La orquesta típica, 101–140. (62.) Ibid., 135–137. (63.) Sonia Possetti confirms that most tangueros call this chord the apoyatura. Interestingly, while both Peralta and Possetti think the chord’s main use is to move to the dominant, Possetti thinks “the way to resolve this chord is not so simple [and] it can also move to different chords [as] a good tool to modulate.” E-mail correspondence with Wendland, January 23, 2015. (64.) Monk, El saxofón en el tango, 45–46. (65.) Julián Graciano’s unpublished Cátedra de Análisis Musical, however, systematically covers form on all levels in the works he analyzes. He has expressly authorized us to include his email address ([email protected]) for interested readers to obtain a PDF of his unpublished work. Already, it has become a standard for tango analysis at the Escuela de Música Popular Avellaneda. (66.) Salgán, Tango Course, 32. (67.) Ibid., 133. (68.) Ibid., 53. (69.) Interview by Wendland in Buenos Aires, July 16, 2014. (70.) Monk, El saxofón en el tango, 25–26. (71.) Mamone, Tratado de orquestación, 148–149. (72.) Salgán, Tango Course, 59. (73.) Graciano compared Salgán’s book to Rimsky-Korsakov’s Principles of Orchestration—an excellent source—while using the composer’s own music as examples. Conversation in Buenos Aires, July 16, 2014. (74.) Salgán, Tango Course, 60–66. (75.) Ibid., 67–86. (76.) Mamone, Tratado de orquestación, 134–139. Mamone made numerous tango arrangements in the 1960s for this classical formation, many of which are available in manuscript in the chamber music division of SADAIC. (77.) Mamone, Tratado de orquestación, 108–113.

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Arranging and Performance Techniques (78.) Salgán, Tango Course, 91. (79.) Ibid. (80.) Mamone, Tratado de orquestación, 102–105; Peralta, La orquesta típica, 143–193. (81.) Peralta, La orquesta típica, 159–164. (82.) Salgán, Tango Course, 105–107. (83.) Ibid., 45–46. (84.) Ibid., 84–85. (85.) Mamone, Tratado de orquestación, 130–131. (86.) Peralta, La orquesta típica, 189–190. (87.) Salgán, Arreglos para orquesta típica (Buenos Aires: Biblioteca Nacional and TangoVia, 2008), 173 and 171, respectively. (88.) Sierra, Historia de la orquesta típica: evolución instrumental del tango (Buenos Aires: Corregidor, 1984), 128–130; Silva, Informe sobre Troilo, 84; Oscar Del Priore, Osvaldo Pugliese: Una vida en el tango (Buenos Aires: Editorial Losada, 2008), 169–211. (89.) Tango enthusiasts celebrated the contributions of key arrangers Spitalnik, Piazzolla, Plaza, Balcarce, Galván, Mamone, and Maderna during “Los Arregladores-Producciones Especiales” (lecture/video presentation, 2011 Tango Festival, Buenos Aires, August 17, 2011). (90.) Néstor Pinson, “Interview with Osvaldo Requena,” Todotango, accessed September 16, 2014, http://www.todotango.com/historias/cronica/180/RequenaEntrevista-a-Osvaldo-Requena/. (91.) Salgán’s model arrangements include “Sobre el pucho” (Sebastián Piana and González Castillo), “Soy del ‘90” (Tito Ribero), “Trenzas” (Armando Pontier and Homero Expósito), and “El motive” (Cobián and José María Contursi). Salgán, Tango Course, 34–37. (92.) Salgán, Tango Course, 135. (93.) Mamone, Tratado de orquestación, 150–157. (94.) Graciano, Tango Guitar Method, “Technical Use of the Accompaniment,” 11–13. (95.) Peralta, La orquesta típica, 197–210. Page 41 of 42

Arranging and Performance Techniques (96.) Conversation with Navarro following the “Estilo de Salgán” (Tango Festival, Buenos Aires, August 17, 2010). (97.) Peralta, La orquesta típica, 61–62. (98.) Ibid., 62. (99.) In his manual on guitar techniques, Graciano goes into further marcato variations, such as those used by Gardel’s guitarists. Graciano, “Technical Use of the Accompaniment,” 9. (100.) Salgán, Tango Course, 88. (101.) Gallo, El violín en el tango, 93–94. (102.) Fain, La flauta en el tango, 44. (103.) Ibid., 48. (104.) Peralta, La orquesta típica, 33. (105.) “le permitía improviser de manera tal que la distorsión de las partituras originales quedara justificada por la expresión del peso y el sentido de las palabras.” Martín Kutnowski, “Rubato instrumental y estructura de la frase en la música de Astor Piazzolla,” in Estudios sobre la obra de Astor Piazzolla, ed. Omar García Brunelli (Buenos Aires: Gourmet Musical Ediciones, 2008), 99–108. (106.) Gallo, El violín en el tango, 69. (107.) From a conversation with Fain on July 22, 2014 in Buenos Aires. (108.) See also Gallo, El violín en el tango, 71. (109.) Mike Dibb, Astor Piazzolla: In Portrait, directed and produced by Mike Dibb and Tony Staveacre, 213 min., Opus Arte, BBC, 2005, DVD. (110.) Ibid. (111.) Peralta, La orquesta típica, 189.

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955)

Tracing Tangueros: Argentine Tango Instrumental Music Kacey Link and Kristin Wendland

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780199348220 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: March 2016 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199348220.001.0001

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932– 1955) Kacey Link Kristin Wendland

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199348220.003.0005

Abstract and Keywords This chapter begins the second portion of the book. It contains in-depth profiles of three key tangueros of the Golden Age: Julio De Caro, Aníbal Troilo, and Osvaldo Pugliese. It traces how these tangueros established and developed essential tango style elements. It also offers a short interlude, in this book called a cafecito. Here, the chapter discusses Juan D’Arienzo and Carlos Di Sarli, two other prominent tangueros of the Golden Age. Keywords:   Julio De Caro, Aníbal Troilo, Osvaldo Pugliese, Juan D’Arienzo, Carlos Di Sarli, Golden Age, tango style elements

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) (p.138) Julio De Caro (1899–1980) Violinist and bandleader Julio De Caro, called the “father of the guardia nueva,” established a style of composing, arranging, and playing that has influenced tangueros for over one hundred years. His style, commonly referred to as the escuela decareana (De Caro school), stems from the tango innovator stream of the early 1920s and was solidified by the famous Sexteto de Julio De Caro. Piazzolla describes how this ensemble set a precedent for “tango swing,” through the core elements of rhythm, percussion, and accentuation, which for him is “the most important in the interpretation of tango; it gives it the swing.”1 In this case study, we provide a biographical sketch of De Caro, tracing his beginnings in classical music to his thriving career in tango. Then, we examine his foundational and influential performance, arranging, and compositional styles. Finally, we analyze his celebrated tango “Boedo.”

Biographical Background

Photo 4.1. Julio De Caro playing his violin-cornet. Undated photo from the Archivo General de la Nación, Dpto. Doc. Fotográficos, Buenos Aires, Argentina, #71339_A. Used by permission.

Like many first-generation Argentines at the turn of the twentieth century, De Caro was born into an Italian immigrant family on December 11, 1899, in the tango neighborhood of Balvanera in Buenos Aires. He grew up in a highly musical family with his father, José De Caro De Sica, being a former professor at the Milan Conservatory and head of his own conservatory in San Telmo.2 Due to José’s musical connections, many distinguished artists frequented their house, and Julio describes how he was raised in the company of notable Argentine musicians, including the esteemed composer Alberto Williams.3 Under the direction of his father, De Caro began his musical training at a very early age on the piano, while his brothers Francisco and Emilio played the violin. Julio, however, switched instruments with Francisco around the age of eight and commenced on the path of his “true passion.”4

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) As a classical musician, De Caro demonstrated enormous potential. He performed regularly in venues throughout Buenos Aires including the prestigious Prince George’s Hall. At age thirteen, he helped his father teach at (p.139) the conservatory in the areas of theory, solfège, and violin. He also pursued popular genres, and at age fifteen, he performed in a local zarzuela. De Caro broke into the tango scene at age seventeen spontaneously debuting with Firpo’s orchestra. Friends convinced De Caro to attend Firpo’s concert at the Palais de Glace, and at that time, De Caro considered Firpo to be the “Greatest of the Greats.”5 With a small amount of strategizing by De Caro’s friends, Firpo gave De Caro the opportunity to play “La cumparsita” with the orchestra. De Caro’s impromptu performance won the applause of all, including Arolas, who was also present that evening. Arolas was so impressed with De Caro’s playing that he immediately offered the young violinist a seat in his orchestra. At first, De Caro declined Arolas’s offer, because his father, while encouraging his musical training, wanted him to become a doctor. By the next day, however, De Caro changed his mind—a decision that would ultimately shape the history of tango—and he joined the ensemble. Sadly, his father disapproved of his ventures in the popular art form and banished him from the house.6 For the next seven years, De Caro developed his tango style on the bandstand. He performed with some of the most important tango ensembles of the period including those of Fresedo, Minotto Di Cicco, and Cobián. In 1921, De Caro had the idea of creating his own ensemble when he assembled a small group, based on Cobián’s sextet, for a carnival performance at the Teatro San Martín. His brothers Francisco and Emilio, playing piano and violin, respectively, joined him along with bandoneonists Maffia and Petrucelli and bassist Thompson (nicknamed “El negro”). At this event, when the audience stopped dancing and encored for more music, De Caro had an epiphany as he learned the power of playing tango just for listening.7 With the goal of recreating this carnival experience, De Caro formed his famous sextet in 1923, notably, just on the heels of Cobián disbanding his ensemble.8 Consisting of the same members as his former ensemble, De Caro’s sextet became an archetype of tango style. When describing his intentions for the ensemble, he states: I desired for tango to be the best in terms of music, colorful and with the right interpretation, fraseos, and octaves in the bandoneones, violin and piano solos (p.140) for each piece; in the end, something very special, that ennobles tango, respecting the authenticity and creation of the author.9 Throughout the rest of the 1920s, the Sextet performed in cafés, clubs, theaters, and carnivals in Buenos Aires and Montevideo. They made their official debut in Page 3 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) 1924 at the Café Colón and later performed at Palais de Glace and Chanteclair. In 1926, the Sextet began performing for silent films in theaters such as Renacimiento, Real, and Select Lavalle, and the Sextet earned such a reputation that people would go to the movies just to hear them.10 Following their debut, the Sextet began making a series of legendary recordings for Victor. The first set of acoustic recordings dates from 1924 to 1926, and the second series from 1926 to 1928 features new electronic technology (such as early microphones and electronic amplification) and the name Orquesta Típica de Julio De Caro. They include famous tangos such as “Boedo,” “Derecho viejo,” “Flores negras,” “Mala junta,” “Maipo,” “Tierra querida,” “Recuerdo,” and “Todo corazón.” Also with these recordings, De Caro began playing his iconic Stroh violin. This violin-cornet served as an amplification tool during the recording process.11 Then, between 1928 and 1932, his orchestra made a third set of recordings with Brunswick, and these recordings, unlike the early Victor recordings, included singers Luis Díaz and Pedro Lauga.12 The personnel of the Sextet changed frequently during its early years. In 1925, Laurenz replaced Petrucelli. The combination of Laurenz and Maffia created the famous “Pedro y Pedro” bandoneón section, which inspired Piazzolla to write his 1981 tango named for the duo. Unfortunately, Thompson died of hepatitis in 1925, and a series of bass players followed including Enrique Kraus, Hugo Baralis, Olindo Sinibaldi, and Vicente Sciarretta. In 1926, Blasco (nicknamed “El cieguito” for his poor vision) replaced Maffia. By the end of the 1920s, De Caro’s orchestra was traveling internationally and performing in elite venues for the upper echelons of society. They (p.141) went to Rio de Janeiro in 1927 and played at the Copacabana Hotel, giving rise to De Caro’s tango of that name. In 1931, his ensemble embarked on a tour of Europe, which inspired such tangos as “Côte d’azur” and “Moulin Rouge.” While abroad, De Caro encountered a number of famed performing artists, royals, and political leaders, such as Prince Umberto di Savoia, Charlie Chaplin, the Rothchild family, Mussolini, and Toscanini. He even serendipitously met the legendary tango singer Gardel in France, and his ensemble, including his stylistically incongruent zapateadores (dancers known for shoe tapping), was given the opportunity to star in a scene from Gardel’s film Las luces de Buenos Aires (1931,

WL 4.1).

When he returned from Europe in the early 1930s, De Caro encountered a new tango scene in Buenos Aires, with an increased number of dance bands and the advent of recorded sound in theaters. Following the trend of larger ensembles, he expanded his orchestra in 1932 and increased the bandoneón section to five, including the young Troilo; the violin section to four; and the bass and piano section to two each, as well as adding singers and zapateadores. They performed regularly in cinemas, in casinos, and on the radio.

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) Upon request from the directors of Radio Splendid, De Caro further experimented with his orchestral expansion later in 1932. He created what he called “the first symphonic tango orchestra,” which included winds, brass, and even harp ( WL 4.2).13 With this expanded orchestra, De Caro wanted to demonstrate that música popular (popular music, i.e., tango) could be raised to a higher level like the waltz and jazz.14 Yet, he describes this new musical journey as a rather difficult time. He lost most of his personnel, including Laurenz and Blasco, due to a “misunderstanding,” and he faced the daunting task of organizing and arranging for a very large ensemble. He states: After this catastrophe [losing Laurenz and Blasco], we had to again organize the orchestra where once more my brother Francisco lent a hand, helping me to write, edit and fine tune the symphony orchestra, studying hard at the same time, all instrumental registers and, in the end, not being able to count on my former orchestra, which totally demoralized me, and why not say it? … It saddened me enormously.15 (p.142) Notably, he had a very strong connection with Francisco, and the brothers stood by each other’s side throughout their careers. Despite the challenge, De Caro’s expanded orchestra introduced new instrumental roles and opportunities to tangueros. Félix Lipesker, bandoneón pedagogue and later teacher of Federico, joined De Caro’s larger orchestra in 1934. While De Caro and his brother did some arranging, the expanded orchestra also created the need for the professional arranger/orchestrator. In his memoirs, De Caro eulogizes classically trained organist and composer Julio Perceval as the orchestrator of “Flores negras” and “Copacabana,” among others.16 He additionally refers to Perceval, Julio Rosemberg [sic], and Alejandro Gutiérrez del Barrio as master orchestrators.17 With this symphonic orchestra, De Caro demonstrated his innovative and adventurous spirit. He opened the door not only for the arranger’s voice to enter into the tango sound, a role that continued throughout the Golden Age, but also for other tangueros to experiment with new orchestral colors, namely, Fresedo and Sassone and later Piazzolla and Plaza. Following his symphonic experiment, De Caro formed another orchestra of standard tango instruments including four bandoneones, three violins, piano, and bass.18 Throughout the next two decades, De Caro sustained his career by performing on the radio and at various venues in Buenos Aires, as well as traveling within Argentina and South America. His orchestra continued to make recordings, changing labels to Odeon (1935–1942), RCA Victor (1943–1944), and lastly both Odeon and Pathé (1949–1953).19 Many of these are rerecordings of older tangos, but with a larger ensemble and slightly different instrumentation and orchestration.

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) In 1954, De Caro retired from his orchestra and artistic activity. He did, however, write an autobiography and history of tango, as cited throughout this narrative, titled El tango en mis recuerdos (The Tango in My Memories). De Caro’s book provides deep insight into his perspective on the art form, (p.143) and it includes four sections. The first three sections consist of an autobiography, a historical narrative on tango, and biographies of eleven tangueros from the guardia vieja to Cobián. The concluding fourth section is a biography of De Caro by Luis Rey. De Caro passed away on March 11, 1980, in Mar del Plata (a beach city south of Buenos Aires). He is buried in El Cementerio de la Chacarita in Buenos Aires alongside Francisco, who died a few years earlier. They share a tombstone, perhaps representing Julio’s quote: “We are, not only brothers of blood, but also of spirit; we are committed to the dignity of the native music [tango music], complementing each other wonderfully. Neither one of us could live without the other.”20 Argentines celebrate Julio’s life and legacy in tango on his birthday, December 11, shared with Gardel, as “El día del tango,” the national Day of Tango.

De Caro’s Tango Style Overview

As the “father of the guardia nueva,” De Caro and his school established a model for instrumental tango in the musical arenas of performance, arranging, and composition. He judiciously incorporated virtuosic variations and playful yeites in his performance practices. His arranging techniques exquisitely contrasted changes in orchestration. De Caro’s compositions reveal his formal musical training by advancing tango musical structures and motivic coherence. These innovations of De Caro best represent what was “new” of the guardia nueva. They catapulted the genre into a new era of artistic refinement and influenced Troilo, Pugliese, Salgán, Piazzolla, and even tangueros of the “Music of Buenos Aires.” Our discussion of De Caro focuses on the 1920s sextet style framed by Julio De Caro’s tangos “Boedo,” “El monito,” “Guardia vieja,” “La rayuela,” “Tierra querida,” and “Todo corazón,” as well as tangos by others including “Derecho viejo,” “Flores negras,” “Maipo,” “Mala junta,” and “Recuerdo” ( WL 4.3; for available piano scores online, see WL 4.4). We limit our discussion to these tangos because, despite his midcareer orchestral expansions, De Caro continued in the same core instrumental style he established with his 1920s sextet. (p.144) De Caro’s Performance Style

De Caro’s sextet performed in the elite venues throughout Buenos Aires and Europe with an elegant and intelligently witty performance style. As evidenced by the recordings of the 1920s, the ensemble had a tight, refined connection and interaction between parts while including freedom and gaiety with improvised yeites, whistling, and even laughing. Further, members of the Sextet dressed the Page 6 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) part for the upper class, consistently wearing tuxedos, to create an image as sophisticated as their tango style. Generally, De Caro’s sextet had a lightness of sound. The bandoneones and violins dominated the texture by performing melodies and countermelodies with legato phrasing, expressive portamentos, and nuanced dynamics. The piano and the bass worked together to create a solid harmonic and rhythmic foundation that provided a steady momentum in support of the melodic line. The exceptional technical level of the tangueros allowed for virtuosic variations and enlaces. The sound created by the Sextet was in part due to the individual performance practices of the various members. Even though personnel changed during the early years, the ensemble consisted of tangueros who contributed their personal performing traits to the creation of the larger escuela decareana. We therefore examine the performance practices of prominent individual members of the Sextet. Bandoneones

Bandoneonists and historians credit Maffia, an original member of the Sextet, for his soft and legato style of playing.21 Despite his tumultuous childhood of physical abuse by his father and poverty, his training at Williams Conservatorio and general perseverance allowed him to become one the most exceptional bandoneonists of his generation. In addition to his expressive melodic playing, he possessed technical velocity and, in partnership with Laurenz, created an aggressive arrastre. Maffia left De Caro’s sextet in 1926 to form his own sextet, which included the young Pugliese. Shortly after the initial establishment of De Caro’s sextet, Laurenz joined the ensemble. Laurenz began his musical studies on violin and then switched to bandoneón.22 He, like Maffia, possessed technical mastery on (p.145) both sides of the bandoneón, which allowed him to play melodic lines in the right hand and accompanimental patterns in the left hand. Such facility may be heard in the solo of “Recuerdo,”23 where he even switches registers with ease. In addition, he employs a strong arrastre, a technique that may have been invented by Arolas but that is heightened to a new, heavier level in the Sextet. Laurenz left De Caro’s ensemble in 1934 and formed his own ensemble, which also included Pugliese. Blasco joined the Sextet in 1926. He, like Laurenz, began his musical studies on the violin but was encouraged by Minotto Di Cicco to switch to bandoneón.24 He quickly demonstrated technical facility and was recruited by Laurenz to join the ensemble. As evidenced, the two create a solid bandoneón section with strong arrastres, as in “Derecho viejo”; interlocking solos as in “Boedo”; and virtuosic

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) variations, as in the set at the end of “Mala junta.” In 1934, Blasco left De Caro’s orchestra and joined Laurenz’s new orchestra. Violins

Inventive performance practices define the style of De Caro’s sextet. He and his brother Emilio employ a large spectrum of yeites that sound to the listener like improvised rhythmic accents ranging from chicharra to tongue-and-cheek vocal effects. For example, “Derecho viejo” includes escoba, chicharra, long ascending and descending glissandos, long trills (à la Beethoven), tambor, and whistling. “El monito” offers another excellent display of yeites with glissandos (and even a bass glissando is audible!), chicharra, and whistling. Another characteristic trait of the De Caro brothers’ performance style is their use of arrastres and portamentos. Similar to the style of the bandoneones, the brothers employ a very strong, heavy arrastre that slides into the downbeat of subphrases, as heard in “Boedo.” Also, as the listener may notice in the violin solo of “Boedo,” Julio incorporates portamentos regularly, often melodically sliding from a lower note to a higher note. Other traits that distinguish Julio’s performance style include ornamentation and vibrato, characteristics more linked to his early classical training. Julio occasionally ornaments melodic lines with an upper or lower neighbor; for example, the violin solo of “Tierra querida” contains subtle (p.146) upperneighbor mordents in the first and second phrases. While difficult to discern on early recordings, he most likely employs an expressive, wide vibrato, similar to classical playing of the time. Additionally, Julio consistently performs on the violin-cornet (

WL 4.5).

Piano

Francisco De Caro, who played with Julio throughout his life, follows in the line of Cobián and epitomizes a romantic tango style or the tango romanza, as exemplified by his own tango “Flores negras.” This piece demonstrates his ability to play virtuosic full chords and octave passagework, as well as fluid melodic lines employing fraseo. While his style provides a foundational harmonic and rhythmic structure in the accompaniment pattern, his marcato does not drive the ensemble, like later pianists such as Goñi or Possetti. Rather, he elegantly supports the melodic line, as heard in “Boedo” and “Derecho viejo.” He also illustrates his musical creativity and technical ability through his introductions, as in “Mala junta” and “Tierra querida,” and enlaces, as in “Maipo” and “Guardia vieja.” Bass

When discussing tango technique of the string bass, almost every tanguero or scholar begins with Thompson, as his style of playing set the standard for future generations to emulate and develop. His most significant contributions are his percussive uses of the instrument that most likely laid the foundation for the Page 8 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) technique known today as strappata. In his memoirs, De Caro describes Thompson’s intensely rhythmic approach: All fit within that alluvium: salteallatos [or fast bouncing] in the bow, pizzicato, glizzattos, candombes and other flourishes, and he was moving his hand across the back cover of the instrument, from top to bottom or vice versa, in very special effects, morphing the instrument as [if] it [were] a tambourine, when struck, emitting these diverse opaque tones.25 (p.147) Thompson worked with most of the major tango figures at the turn of the century, including Arolas, Fresedo, and Cobián, and eventually settled with De Caro. Unfortunately, it is almost impossible to hear the bass sound on the early recordings, and readily available recordings do not include Thompson. We therefore must rely on the word of tangueros and, specifically, De Caro to identify his style. De Caro’s Arranging Style

The escuela decareana’s instrumental narrative set the arranging model for future generations of tangueros, where the ensemble exquisitely contrasted changes in orchestration, melodic styles, and rhythmic patterns. To illustrate the De Caro sextet’s arranging style, we focus here on tangos by other composers, namely, “Derecho viejo” and “Maipo” by Arolas, “Flores negras” by Francisco De Caro, and “Recuerdo” by Pugliese. The discussion draws on available piano scores as a resource for the melodic, harmonic, and formal structure used in the sextet’s arrangements. Without access to the Sextet’s scores or manuscripts, it is impossible to determine with complete authority that De Caro made the arrangements. We assume he had the ultimate say in the final sound of the ensemble, even as the individual players contributed their own styles. Lastly, we identify some important changes and similarities in arranging style over time, between the recordings of the 1920s and the later recordings (1949–1953). De Caro’s sextet largely adheres to the standard roles of the instruments established by Cobían, where the violins and bandoneones carry the melody and the piano and bass form the rhythm section. The orchestration in the opening melody of “Recuerdo” provides a good example of the melodic role of the violins, while the call-and-response B section and the variations in the trio illustrate the melodic role of the bandoneones. At times, De Caro assigns the piano an added role of providing enlaces between phrases and sections and allows Francisco to exert an influence on the Sextet’s more lush sound, such as the romantic piano solos in his “Flores negras.” De Caro built on and stabilized the smooth tango romanza melodic styles begun by Cobián, Delfino, and Fresedo. The Sextet arrangements highlight the melody by contrasting rítmico and cantando styles, where typically (but not always) the former utilizes staccato articulation and sharp accents while the latter employs a Page 9 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) legato phrasing. The rítmico melodic arrangement of “Derecho viejo” initially retains the sense of Arolas’s dotted eighth-sixteenth note rhythm on the first beat of m. 2, but then immediately shifts (p.148) to steady, light staccato notes in the violin interspersed with sharp accents on beats 1 and 2 and chicharra ( WE 4.1). “Flores negras” provides an exceptionally romantic illustration of cantando melodies in De Caro’s sextet, since practically the entire tango is arranged in the fluid style. Only the beginning of the final phrase of the A section employs a contrasting rítmico setting, but then the melody immediately reverts back to cantando. Additionally, the arrangement of “Maipo” illustrates how the Sextet incorporates quick and subtle contrasting changes between cantando and rítmico styles in the first two phrases, respectively. By incorporating secondary melodies in counterpoint to the primary melody, the instrumental texture of De Caro’s sextet moved beyond typical melodic fills and enlaces. Countermelodies usually superimpose rítmico and cantando styles in a B section or a trio. For example, in the trio section of “Maipo,” De Caro highlights the lyrical fraseo solo countermelody in the cornet violin, while the second violin plays the main melody with light staccato in the background. While discerning the bass on the 1920s recordings poses a challenge, the accompaniment figures in the other instruments audibly outline marcato in 2 and 4 and síncopa rhythmic patterns. A strong marcato usually pushes the rítmico melodies, such as in “Derecho viejo.” De Caro also pulses marcato with intermittent síncopa to support cantando melodies, such as in the A section of “Maipo.” He continues this pattern in the trio, where the accompaniment pulses marcato in 2, usually with síncopa, at the beginning of each two-bar subphrase. “Flores negras” features all marcato accompaniment in a stride-like left-hand piano part to support the romantic fraseo melody. “Recuerdo” especially emphasizes downbeats of measures through a strong marcato in both 2 and 4 and síncopa. De Caro regularly incorporates the “chan-chan” cadential tag. It tends to be in time with equal durations at the end of A sections, as in “Maipo.” He typically executes his signature final “chan-chan” in a long/forte–short/piano setting. One of the subtlest features of De Caro’s sextet arrangements is how the melody and accompaniment patterns contrast to coincide with phrase and formal structure. For example, the arrangement of “Maipo” highlights both phrase structure and formal divisions through changes in the instrumental narrative. The tutti A section delineates the four-bar phrases by changing from cantando to síncopa. Sectional contrasts feature a change in the two statements of the B section, played first by the bandoneón and then by the violins soli, as well as a violin countermelody solo in the trio. Page 10 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) (p.149) Expansion of the Sextet

Even as De Caro’s later recordings retain the core tango arranging techniques of the Sextet, they become more pronounced within a colorful orchestral palette. Portamento continues to enhance cantando melodies in an even more fluid legato line, such as in “Flores negras,” and rítmico melodies become sharper with dynamic swells to accentuate downbeats, such as in “Maipo.” A heavy and sonorous rhythm section forcefully drives marcato and síncopa patterns, often pushing with a yumba-like accented FOUR-one, as in “Derecho viejo.” Arrangements in the later recordings often exaggerate yeites, as in the bass tambor and yumba in “Tierra querida,” and enlaces explore more adventurous techniques, such as the chromatic fill resembling the “planning” technique of Debussy in “Recuerdo.” In short, De Caro’s later recordings offer clarity in parts compared to the 1920 recordings, yet his sound homogenizes into a more typical 1950s orchestra. The slower tempos and heavier quality diminish the rhythmic spunk and urgency of the earlier recordings, and they temper the intimacy, lightness, and playfulness of the 1920s sextet—the heart of De Caro’s true legacy. De Caro’s Compositional Style

As “the father of the guardia nueva,” De Caro’s original works define a new and refined tango style. They exhibit a clear instrumental narrative with a tight motive-to-melody construction, complex contrapuntal textures, contrasting accompanimental rhythms, sophisticated chromaticism within diatonic frameworks, and elegant phrase and formal structures. In addition, he utilizes many of the instrumental yeites discussed earlier and a variety of special effects, like whistling and laughing in “Mala junta” and speaking in “Guardia vieja.” Even De Caro’s titles reflect the new spirit of tango in the 1920s. Some are lighthearted and tongue-in-cheek (“La rayuela” and “Mala junta”), others reflect his travels and work abroad (“Copacabana” and “Moulin Rouge”), while a few perpetuate the more nostalgic sentiments and connections to place (“Todo corazón,” “Tierra querida,” and “Boedo”).26 (p.150) De Caro bases many of his motives on neighbor tone (NT) figures, such as the main rítmico melody in the A section of “Tierra querida” (Example 4.1a). De Caro’s melodies typically spin such motives to create complete phrases. The transcription of the first phrase of “Tierra querida” (Example 4.1b) demonstrates how De Caro works out the opening short NT motive into the main melody. Neighbor tones also appear in De Caro’s lyrical melodies. The first phrase of “Todo corazón” represents a good example, where its long and arching fraseo line ornamented with mostly accented NTs expresses the title of the tango like a full heart (

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WE 4.3).

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) While other innovative composers of De Caro’s generation, namely, Cobián, incorporated contrapuntal Example 4.1. “Tierra querida,” motivic interplay between their construction of opening melody. a. NT melodies, De Caro added long, motive around A in introduction. b. lyrical countermelodies that Spinning out of the NT motive in the first assume a prominent place in phrase, mm. 4–8, transcribed from the the texture and often upstage 1927 recording. the primary melody itself. Such masterful contrapuntal textures typically occur in the contrasting B section, where the solo violin plays against a softer and more rhythmically steady part. For example, in the final phrase of “Todo corazón,” the legato violin countermelody soars above the primary melody reduced to pizzicato in the second violin. De Caro employs some notable exceptions to the standard marcato in 4 and síncopa rhythms in the accompaniment. For example, in the B section of “Boedo,” the strings pulse a 3-3-2 grouping in pizzicato ( WE 4.10). “Todo corazón” utilizes a quiet marcato in 2 in the first phrase of the B section in the piano, and later in the second phrase the piano emulates a similar “stride” pattern as in “Flores negras,” mentioned previously. De Caro’s harmonic language is framed in standard common-practice tonality, yet he favors elegant and subtle progressions. Many of his tangos begin with auxiliary cadences, that is, nontonic openings such as ii-V-I in “Mala junta” ( WE 4.2). “Tierra querida” presents a most remarkable example, where the opening harmony in the three-bar introduction takes the “tango upbeat” to a whole new level harmonically as it postpones the tonic through a repeated V/V-V progression. De Caro’s harmonic rhythm tends to be slow; for example, in the B section of “Todo corazón,” he frames the sequential melody in parallel tenths rather than with a strong, functional progression. (p.151) De Caro sprinkles chromaticism in his diatonic tonal frameworks. Most common are secondary chords, such as in the opening of “Tierra querida” mentioned earlier. “Mala junta” additionally incorporates chromatic stepwise lines moving in contrary motion to the cadence in the final phrase of the B section. More advanced elements from romanticism include mixture chords and chords with the added sixth. “Todo corazón” uses both, first mixture chords in mm. 7–8 (see arrows in WE 4.3) and a Vadd6 -I cadence at the end of the A section. Additionally, De Caro incorporates V+5 in the final “chan-chan,” typically with the forte/long to piano/short pattern, as in the later recordings of “Boedo,” “La rayuela,” “Mala junta,” and “Todo corazón.”27

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) De Caro’s formal designs reflect his higher level of compositional sophistication. As evidenced by all the compositions discussed here, his large-scale formal structures typically fall into sectional two-part designs of eight- or sixteen-bar periods rather than the older three-part designs with a trio. Although De Caro’s B sections present contrasting melodies, they are not always in a contrasting key. Some follow a more sophisticated harmonic design similar to a classical binary form at the beginning of the B section. “Boedo” and “Mala junta,” for example, prolong the dominant area, while “Todo corazón” wanders tonally around the supertonic area. If there is a contrasting key in the B section, De Caro often moves to the parallel mode, as in “Tierra querida,” “La rayuela,” and “Guardia vieja.” Furthermore, tonal relationships within sections may contrast, such as in the A section of “Guardia vieja,” which moves from the minor tonic to the relative major. De Caro’s phrases tend to fall into standard 2 + 2 or 4 + 4 groups. An exceptional example occurs in “Mala junta,” where all the internal phrase designs form the more classical sentence structure.28 Interestingly, De Caro varies the initial sentence, illustrated in Web Example 4.2 , three times. First it is whistled, then it is repeated in the parallel minor in double time by the bandoneones, and finally it returns to major reorchestrated for piano solo followed by violins and bandoneones. The A section of “Todo corazón” presents an even more sophisticated sentence structure framed in a sixteen-bar period, where two sentences form an antecedent-consequent pair ( WE 4.3 illustrates the first part). In contrast to “Mala junta,” which features exact repetition in the 2 + 2 part of the sentence, De Caro creates two sequential two-bar subphrases (mm. (p.152) 1–2 and mm. 3–4). Then, the next four-bar subphrase begins with the same motive and continues to the half cadence (mm. 5–8). The eight-bar consequent phrase follows essentially the same 2 + 2 + 4 sentence structure yet moves to an authentic cadence to close the period.

Analysis: “Boedo” (1927) by Julio De Caro Overview

“Boedo” ranks as one of De Caro’s most well-known tangos. The subtitle “Tango Milonga” and the inscription “I dedicate this little memory of my childhood companions neighborhood boys from the neighborhood of ‘Boedo’” on the piano score capture the tango’s light-hearted yet nostalgic tone,29 as does the playful WL image of the Sextet positioned on the musical staff (see the piano score in 4.4). De Caro and his orquesta típica premiered “Boedo” on October 8, 1928, in the Cine Renacimiento on Lavalle 925, and they recorded it four more times—in 1928, 1939 with the second stanza of the lyrics by Dante Linyera recited by Héctor Farrell,30 1950, and 1952.

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) De Caro presents two tightly composed contrasting melodies within each main section of “Boedo.” Each exemplifies one of the primary tango melodic styles— the first section demonstrates a rítmico melody in a restricted melodic range, and the second section displays a cantando melody in fluid scalar passages. Both incorporate detailed melodic adornos of turns, mordents, and NT figures. The melodic development in “Boedo” moves in two durational directions: one in diminution with variations in the first section and the other with a long, lyrical countermelody in the second section. De Caro actually reverses the typical order of main melody followed later by variations in the second section of “Boedo,” where he writes an elaborated version first, then the simplified version in long lyrical gestures. Typical for tangos in the guardia nueva, “Boedo” favors síncopa and marcato patterns in the rhythmic accompaniment rather than the habanera rhythm of the guardia vieja. While a melody and accompaniment texture predominates in the first section, counterpoint weaves throughout the second section. The harmony follows standard tonal practice with diatonic (p.153) progressions, yet it also includes some chromaticism in the second section with secondary dominants and a linear diminished seventh chord. De Caro employs his refined orchestration techniques and innovative yeites in “Boedo.” The bandoneones and the violin carry the melody, while the piano and bass pulse the rhythm section. Additionally, the piano provides enlaces and fills. The violin dominates in opening rítmico tutti melody in the 1928 recording, while the 1950 recording presents a more blended sound of the instruments. De Caro gives the violin an especially poignant countermelody in long notes against the faster bandoneón melody in the second section. “Boedo” opens with delicate pizzicato in the violins, arrastre always leads to downbeats of subphrases, and other yeites include caja, tambor, golpe, and chicharra. In place of the guardia vieja tangos that typically feature an AB trio form, De Caro casts “Boedo” in modified two-part form. It resembles a finely crafted classical sectional binary piece, where the first phrase of the B section moves through a harmonic sequence moving from I to a tonicized vi. De Caro recomposes the B section with a new melody over the same phrase and harmonic structure. In different recordings, he varies the return of sections. For example, the 1928 recording repeats the A section, the B section, and then the entire A section again. In the 1950 recording, De Caro creates more of a true binary form by repeating both the A and B sections. (See the Companion Website for the “Boedo” Listening Chart and corresponding audio link,

WF 4.1).

Close Reading

The following analysis takes the reader through each section of “Boedo’s” form and highlights specific examples of De Caro’s new tango compositional style that represents the 1920s guardia nueva. The analytical examples are based on the Page 14 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) piano score ( WL 4.4), the Listening Chart, and/or the two recordings referred to here as “Boedo” 1928 and “Boedo” 1950. Figure 4.2 illustrates the overall two-part form and phrase structure. (p.154) A Section (mm. 1–20)

The A section of “Boedo” presents a unique structure of five phrases that become increasingly complex harmonically. Although the Figure 4.2. Overall form and phrase phrases themselves conform to structure of “Boedo.” the standard four-bar design, the first phrase presents a kind of introduction to the tango, while the next four elaborate the main musical idea of the A section in varied repetition. Web Figure 4.2 the entire A section.

illustrates the phrase and harmonic structure of

The very first phrase of “Boedo” immediately calls attention to a new refined sound in tango written by a well-trained composer. Similar in texture and technique to the introduction of Cobián’s “Shusheta,” the violins play the opening phrase soli in pizzicato, articulating a stream of descending parallel 6/3 chords. Beginning with an upbeat 7̂, the first violin arpeggiates each chord in steady sixteenth notes, while the second violin provides a solid counterpoint below in quarter notes. Web Example 4.4 illustrates the perfect one-to-one counterpoint that outlines parallel sixths and leads to a 5-1 cadence. The introductory phrase finishes with a solo bandoneón flourish (marked “Solo de bandoneón” in the piano score), which sets up the main motive of the entire section—an embellished rítmico double neighbor tone (DNT) figure (

WE 4.5).

The motivic working out and saturation on multiple levels of this main musical idea in the A section of “Boedo” illustrate Sierra’s summation that De Caro’s work represents how “tango is also music.”31 The detailed analysis that follows of the main motive and its composing out reveals the highly refined composer at work. Marked Tutti in the piano score, the first a phrase spins out the rítmico DNT motive in a melody based around 5̂ organized in two 2-bar sequential subphrases ( WE 4.6). The melody prolongs 5̂ by composing out a DNT A-B-G-A, one pitch per measure (note the figure moves first to the upper NT rather than the lower NT as in its initial presentation). In turn, each of these notes is embellished in diminution by its own DNT. Even more intriguing is the implied inner voice articulating the lower fifth of B and A, each embellished by an incomplete DNT.

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) The analytical reduction in Web Example 4.7 analysis.

maps out these two levels of

The bandoneón initiates the a′ phrase with the DNT figure around 3̂. The piano suddenly interrupts with a scalar melody, first in sixteenth-note octaves, then with a síncopa figure that expands V. The bandoneón (p.155) finishes the phrase with the same flourish that concludes the introductory phrase. The third phrase of the A section, a′′, simply repeats a. The bandoneón initiates the final phrase of the section, a′′′, again with the DNT figure around 3̂, yet now the phrase completes what the piano interrupted before in a′. Following the same síncopa and rítmico patterns already established, the concluding legato phrase of A, a′′′, takes a subtle new turn as it smoothes out the melodic line with NTs and passing tones (PTs), pushes forward with a faster harmonic rhythm and new harmonies, and ends with an emphatic “chan-chan” (

WE 4.8).

B Section (mm. 21–36)

The contrasting B section of “Boedo” contains two 8-bar repeated phrases ( WF 4.3). Beginning with an upbeat enlace from the “chan-chan” at the end of the A section, the b melody spins out in fast scalar runs weaving up and down throughout the bandoneón’s treble register in the manner of variations (marked Solo de bandoneón in the piano score). The eight-bar phrase divides into two 4bar subphrases. In a manner similar to many classical binary forms, the beginning of the B section is tonally unstable and sequential. The first subphrase elaborates a descending third progression I-vi. An applied dominant precedes each chord in a harmonic/melodic sequence, creating an unusual weak-strong hypermeter that takes the tango anacrusis feature to an even deeper metric level. The bass line descends another third to initiate the second subphrase, which changes to the more usual strong-weak hypermeter. A ii6-V-I progression leads to the cadence, with a passing diminished seventh chord chromatically connecting the ii6 to the cadential 6/4. The graphic reduction in Web Example 4.9 illustrates this reading of De Caro’s complete eight-bar b phrase, where each quarter note represents a measure in the phrase and the bar line divides the two subphrases. Even as a steady harmonic rhythm of one chord per measure anchors the agile eight-bar melody, the accompaniment pattern fluctuates. In both the piano score and the 1928 recording, it begins with a 3-3-2 rhythmic grouping of the sixteenth notes in the left hand as they outline V ( WE 4.10). Note how the added caja in the bass and the tambor in the violins in the 1950 recording even further accentuate the 3-3-2. In the next three measures of the sequential first subphrase, the accompaniment changes to a sixteenth-note countermelody. The accompaniment changes to marcato in the second subphrase to emphasize the ii6 and the (p.156) Page 16 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) chromatic PT leading to the cadential 6/4. Then, it goes back to a sixteenth-note countermelody when the cadential 6/4 moves to V and I. The second phrase of the B section, b′, repeats the first and adds a gentle and legato “chan-chan” of equal durations after the cadence. B′ Section (mm. 37–52)

The piano score reflects how De Caro recomposes the B′ section. Throughout both repetitions of the phrase, a simplified version of the florid bandoneón b melody is notated in steady sixteenth notes in the right hand, while the rhythmic accompaniment shifts between marcato and síncopa in the left hand. The new lyrical melody is notated on a third treble line above the piano staff. While the piano score maintains the same basic harmonic structure of B, it incorporates a slightly different harmonic progression leading to the cadence in the second subphrase. As Web Figure 4.4 shows, a root-position ii replaces the ii6, and a repeated V7-I progression replaces the V6/4-5/3-I cadence. The sequential progression in the first subphrase remains the same. In the 1928 recording, De Caro reorchestrates and replaces the fast variationlike bandoneón melody with a lyrical, slower melody in the violin. Heard more as a new melody than simply a countermelody indicated by the piano score, the violin part actually follows the same linear path of the original a′′′ florid bandoneón line reduced in Web Example 4.8 . The connection between the end of the repeated B section and return to A illustrates an elegant phrase development technique. In place of “chan-chan” at the conclusion of B, the piano extends the cadence with syncopated figures in the upper octave while the violins overlap with the pizzicato return of A. (p.157) Aníbal Troilo (1914–1975)

(p.158)

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) Aníbal Troilo, known as “Pichuco” (Lunfardo for “little dog”)32 and endearingly as “El Gordo” (“Chubby”), established a classic Golden Age tango style as both a bandoneonist and a bandleader. His solo and orchestral sound epitomizes tango’s tristeza of the 1940s and 1950s tango with lamenting melodies, romantic harmonies, and soulful playing. Tango author Natalio Gorin beautifully captures Troilo’s essence as “a character larger than life, a man seen as embodying the tango ethos.”33 In this case study, we provide a biographical sketch that illustrates Troilo’s coming of age with De Caro and Pugliese and his influence on future tangueros such as Piazzolla. We then examine his expressive performance practices, fluent arranging techniques, and quintessential Golden Age compositional style. We conclude with an analysis of his famous tango standard “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos.”

Biographical Background

Photo 4.2. Aníbal Troilo. 1967 photo from the Archivo General de la Nación, Dpto. Doc. Fotográficos, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 298123_A. Used by permission.

Troilo, the youngest of three children, was born in the Almagro neighborhood of Buenos Aires on July 11, 1914, to Don Aníbal Carmelo Troilo and Felisa Bagnolo. His father loved to play guitar and sing, but sadly died in

1922 when young Pichuco was eight years old.34 In addition to his father’s music, Troilo grew up with the neighborhood sounds of the bandoneón and convinced his mother to buy him an instrument at age ten, as described by his brother Marquito in a TV interview: “He sat mesmerized, at the picnics and parties in the neighborhood next to the bandoneonists of the time. I think there was where his early vocation was born … and then he convinced Mom to buy him a bandoneón. He was ten years old.”35 He began learning the art of the bandoneón with Juan Amendolaro, and at age eleven, Troilo began his career in tango with his public debut in a silent film orchestra at the Petit Colón.36

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) By age sixteen, Troilo was a budding tanguero in Buenos Aires and spent his late adolescent years developing his art form on the bandstand with tangueros of both the guardia vieja and guardia nueva. In 1930, he joined the VardaroPugliese Sextet, which included violinists Vardaro and Gobbi, (p.159) pianist Pugliese, bandoneonist Ortiz, and bassist Luis Sebastián Adesso. In 1931, he became a member of Maglio’s orchestra and later joined the Los Provincianos orchestra, which recorded for Victor. He played with De Caro’s expanded orchestra in 1932 and then Vardaro’s (new) sextet in 1933. During this period, he also was a member of the orchestras of D’Arienzo, D’Agostino, Petrucelli, and Cobián, as well as the Típica Victor orchestra, led by bandoneonist Scorticati. In 1933, he composed his first tango, “Flor de amor.” In 1937, Troilo formed his own orchestra, and it premiered on July 1 at the Marabú cabaret.37 His early orchestra included such prominent tangueros as bandoneonists Rodríguez and the young Piazzolla (who also arranged), violinists Baralis and David Díaz, pianist Goñi, bassist Kicho Díaz, and arrangers Artola and Galván. In addition, it included singer Fiorentino, whose involvement with Troilo’s early orchestra helped establish the central role for the singer within the Golden Age tango orchestra. Troilo’s early orchestra was a huge success, especially with the large, dance-craze audiences of the late 1930s and early 1940s. As Azzi notes, “No band of the 1940s was more highly regarded than Troilo’s.”38 They performed more than thirty times a month in the dance halls and cabarets of Buenos Aires, such as Café Germinal or the Tibidabo café, and they played on Radio Splendid and Radio El Mundo.39 In 1938, the orchestra recorded its first tangos with Odeon, “Comme il faut” and “Tinta verde.” In addition, Troilo married his beloved Greek wife, Ida Dudú Calachi, known as “Zita,” in 1938.40 With his early orchestra, Troilo established a style in terms of performance, composition, and arranging that made him and his ensemble icons of Golden Age tango. The orchestra began recording for Victor in 1941 and released 188 legendary tango recordings through 1949. This body of recorded works best represents the “dance-orchestra period,” with such standards as “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos,” “Malena,” and “Inspiración.” During the mid-1940s, the orchestra endured a striking personnel shift when many of the tangueros who helped shape his early style left. In 1943, Troilo lost his premiere violinist Baralis and foundational pianist Goñi, who was replaced by Basso. In 1944, his young hotshot Piazzolla and his passionate singer Fiorentino also left. Goñi and Fiorentino then formed their own ensemble and recruited Piazzolla and violinist Baralis. Unfortunately, (p.160) their newly formed ensemble dissolved after Goñi’s infamous lifestyle led to his tragic, premature death in 1945.

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) Beginning in the late 1940s and continuing until the 1960s, Troilo’s orchestra progressed through its “middle period” as it transitioned from providing “music for dancing” to “music for listening.” For example, the orchestra participated in productions for movies, theater shows, and radio.41 While Troilo himself performed in a few movies during the 1930s (including the early Los tres berretines

WL 4.6), his orchestra was featured in such films as El tango vuelve a París (1947), Mi noche triste, Vida nocturna ( WL 4.7), and Ésta es mi Argentina (1974), and his Troilo–Grela Quartet was featured in Buenas noches, Buenos Aires. His theater credits include El patio de la morocha (1953), Caramelos surtidos (1960), Tango (1963), and Troilo 69 (1969). In 1959, he was featured on Radio El Mundo’s La hora del tango, and in 1961, he had the show titled El show de Aníbal Troilo on Radio del Pueblo every Sunday afternoon. He also continued to record vigorously, again with Odeon, between 1957 and 1959. Distinguished new personnel of the “middle period” included bandoneonists Baffa and Garello; violist Simón Zlotnik; cellist Bragato; bassist Rossi; pianists Figari, Manzi, and Berlingieri; singers Berón, Goyeneche, Marino, Rivero, and Ruiz; and arrangers Plaza and Spitalnik. Troilo collaborated with many poets throughout his life, including Contursi, Cadícamo, and Castillo, creating such famous tangos as “Toda mi vida,” “Garua,” and “La última curda,” respectively. However, Troilo held Manzi in the highest regard. He states: “Manzi is a separate question, and if my presence in the tango must be put into chapters, one of the most beautiful and important chapters, I think, has to come from my link with Homero Manzi.”42 While they first joined forces in 1942 with “Barrio de tango,” their most celebrated tango is “Sur.” Thompson points out how “Sur” “invents a grammar of nostalgia,”43 and Nudler describes it as “possibly the most superb work in the genre of that glamorous decade.”44 The renowned composer/poet duo memorably went on to create “Che, bandoneón” and “Discepolín.” When Manzi died in 1951 at the early age of forty-four, Troilo commemorated him with his famous “Responso.” He (p.161) recounts his compositional inspiration: “ ‘Responso’ came out one night when we were at my house; there were people there playing baccarat and, I don’t know… . I did not feel that I was there. It was four in the morning, and suddenly something grabbed me, I went to my room and started to play a few notes, until ‘Responso’ came out. I believe it was the best tribute we could make to Homero.”45 In 1953, Troilo began another remarkable partnership with guitarist Grela. Shortly after working together on El patio de la morocha, they formed the famous Troilo–Grela Quartet, including Zaldívar on guitarrón and Díaz on bass. The ensemble made two sets of legendary recordings, one for TK (1953–1955) and the other for RCA Victor (1962). The 1962 recordings included a personnel change and feature such pieces as “Mi noche triste,” “Maipo,” “La trampera,” and “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos.”46

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) Troilo settled into his “late period” during the 1960s and 1970s, when his ensembles regularly performed concert music. His orchestra played in a variety of prominent festivals and concert venues, such as at the Teatro Colón in 1972 ( WL 4.8). It continued to record, now with RCA Victor (1962–1972), and to appear regularly on television. Well-regarded new personnel of the “late period” include pianist Colángelo, violinist Suárez Paz, and singer Vázquez. Concurrently, Troilo continued to explore chamber music with his reformed quartet, now including piano rather than guitarrón and occasionally electric instead of acoustic guitar. It released a set of recordings with RCA Victor in 1968 with various players, including guitarists De Lío and Arias, pianists Berlingieri and Colángelo, and bassist Del Bagno ( WL 4.9). In 1970, Troilo reunited with Piazzolla and produced the famous duo recordings of Cobián’s “El motivo” and Gardel’s “Volver” (

WL 4.10).

In April 1975, Troilo began the project Simplemente…Pichuco, a theatrical show at the Odeon Theater with poetry by Ferrer and choreography by Copes and Nieves. After a short run of shows, he played his last note, and, as the famous saying goes, “the bandoneón fell from his hands.”47 He passed away on May 18, 1975, from a cerebral hemorrhage, yet his legacy lives on in Buenos Aires.48 His recordings are played in milongas, and (p.162) contemporary tangueros perform his works regularly. Piazzolla commemorated the maestro with Suite Troileana and even the Buenos Aires restaurant La Esquina de Aníbal Troilo memorializes him. Porteños celebrate his birthday every year on July 11 as “El día del bandoneón” (The Day of the Bandoneón).

Troilo’s Tango Style Overview

Troilo synthesized the tango traits of the guardia vieja and the guardia nueva to shape a consistent troileana style in the areas of instrumentation/arranging, performance, and composition. Combining strong, danceable rhythms with fluid, romantic melodies, Troilo created a distinct voice of tristeza through his warm orchestral sound, soulful bandoneón playing, and melancholic compositions. We examine Troilo’s style first through the lens of his instrumentation/arranging and performance styles, and then through his compositional style. Furthermore, we divide the former category into three periods based on his ensemble’s function: (1) playing music for dancing in the late 1930s and early 1940s, illustrated by the works “Cachirulo,” “Comme il faut,” “Inspiración,” “Malena,” “Milongueando en el 40,” and “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos”; (2) transitioning to music for listening in the late 1940s and 1950s, illustrated by the works “Che, bandoneón,” “La revancha,” “La trampera,” “Patético,” “Responso,” “Romance de barrio,” “Selección de tangos de Julio De Caro,” and “Sur”; and (3) creating concert music in the late 1950s until the end of his life, illustrated by the works “Danzarín,” “La trampera,” “Maipo,” and “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos” (see WL 4.11 for all audio files; see WL 4.12 for piano scores available online). Conversely, the majority of Troilo’s compositional output comes from the Golden Page 21 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) Age and did not undergo such a transformative process; therefore, we discuss it as a whole. Troilo’s Arranging and Performance Styles Late 1930s to Mid-1940s: Music for Dancing

Arranging Style

Troilo’s 1937 orchestra of three violins, three bandoneones, piano, bass, and vocalist crystallized a driving, danceable instrumental narrative, featuring a predominantly rítmico melody and a crisp marcato accompaniment. (p.163) The quintessential Troilo orchestra sound of the early 1940s, such as in “Cachirulo” and “Milongueando en el 40,” features a mostly pointed marcato accompaniment and rítmico melodic style played by either tutti or the violins. Yet, they also incorporate contrasting fraseo solo or soli sections in the strings, bandoneones, or piano. Even in the early recordings, subtle changes in orchestration occur in rapid succession. For example, the opening phrase of “Comme il faut” begins tutti, but then the violins immediately answer in pizzicato. While Troilo’s singers helped attract large audiences, they largely constituted another equal member in the texture of his dance-era orchestra. “Malena” and “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos” demonstrate how a singer highlights Troilo’s cantando melodic style in the fabric of countermelodies and standard accompanimental rhythms. Adhering to the common Golden Age practice, the orchestra in both of these tangos plays through the entire form before Fiorentino enters. Troilo frequently delegated the task of orchestration to expert arrangers, yet he always had the final word. Although Galván and Artola were Troilo’s first and most important arrangers during the 1940s dance craze, the young Piazzolla also helped establish the essential orchestral sound. The 1943 recording of “Inspiración” illustrates Troilo’s orchestral sound and Piazzolla’s arranging techniques. It features different solos, each with a contrasting accompaniment in the three reiterations of the trio. The first solo showcases Goñi in the piano’s warm, middle register accompanied by a bass marcato and a swifter pizzicato violin countermelody. The second solo features the cello, a new addition to Troilo’s orchestra, with a bass/piano marcato accompaniment and a legato violin countermelody. In the final solo, Troilo plays in a free, improvisatory style supported by alternating marcato in 2 and 4. Performance Style

Energetic tempos and crisp articulation dominate Troilo’s dance-band period, as in “Milongueando en el 40.” To create this short style of marcato, the strings use successive down-bow strokes, the pianist incorporates little to no pedal, and the bandoneonists bounce the instrument on their thighs. With the characteristic rítmico melody, such as in the opening of “Comme il faut,” the violins employ a Page 22 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) spiccato bow stroke while the bandoneones use the same bouncing marcato technique. Both instrument groups sprinkle the melodic line with strong accents, and the strings occasionally incorporate chicharra and guitarra, as in “Cachirulo.” In contrast, when the melodic (p.164) line is cantando, the violins and bandoneones emulate the highly legato and expressive nature of the voice. For example, in “Malena,” the instrumental rendition of the melody imitates how Fiorentino seamlessly connects each note with portamentos and interprets the line with fraseo. As a bandoneonist, Troilo is known for his sensitive cantando style of playing that emotes tristeza. Bandoneonist Garello notes: “He used to say, ‘If I hadn’t chosen to play the bandoneón and if I hadn’t this sandpaper voice, I’d have been a singer.’”49 For example, his solo in “Malena” expresses the lyrics “pena de bandoneón” (“pain of the bandoneón”) as it yearns in the upper register. As Sierra points out, Troilo combined the delicate sound of Maffia with the brilliance of Laurenz and the fraseo octavado of Ortiz.50 Additionally, Troilo barely moved during performances and often played with his eyes closed or staring intently ahead (

WL 4.13).

Aside from Troilo, pianist Goñi contributed the most to the performance practices of Troilo’s early orchestra. Based on our experience in Buenos Aires, many tangueros insist on studying the sound and craft of Goñi to understand how to play tango on the piano.51 His steady, detached marcato style characteristically transfers octaves in the right hand. Yet, he also pushes the ensemble with his energetic arrastre or lead-in appogiaturas in his left hand, as in “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos.” He sometimes even plays ahead of the beat, as in the beginning of “Cachirulo.” His left hand particularly produces momentum by combining a swift physical motion with an aural change of register; for example, in “Cachirulo,” he first strikes a low bass note in the left hand on the upbeat, then quickly shifts to the middle register playing a chord in both hands on the downbeat. In contrast to many orchestras of the time, he plays his accompanimental bass lines legato and in descending motion, as in “Malena” ( WE 4.11).52 Even though Goñi performed in a driving style, he also stretches time, as heard in “Inspiración,” through his smooth melodic enlaces and sensitive cantando solos in the middle register. Similar to Goñi, bassist Díaz also contributed substantially to the accompanying style of Troilo’s orchestra; however, his playing is difficult to hear on the recordings. Matching Goñi’s legato left-hand accompanimental (p.165) style, Díaz is known for using the bow as opposed to playing pizzicato. Bassist Pablo Aslan writes, “Kicho [Díaz] developed the sharp attack with the bow that is now characteristic, as well as the broad glissandos [arrastre] into the first note of each bar.”53 Late 1940s to 1950s: Moving into Music for Listening Page 23 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) Arranging Style

Troilo’s orchestra gradually transitioned from pure dance music to a stylized sound during the late 1940s into the 1950s. While still danceable, many of these works recorded in the late 1940s now begin to incorporate finer nuances of orchestration. Síncopa, often reinforced with the bandoneones, regularly alternates with steady marcato in the piano and bass. Further, the predominately cantando melodic style rises to the forefront of the texture, often played tutti or alternating between violins or bandoneones soli. Galván’s arrangement of “La revancha” provides an excellent example of this transitional style as it rapidly contrasts rítmico/cantando melodic styles over alternating marcato/síncopa accompaniments. As the orchestra’s style progresses further away from the relentless dance beat, the core accompanimental elements of marcato, síncopa, and arrastre provide more of a balanced metric and rhythmic framework, while individual players emerge occasionally with cantando solos, as in “Sur” and “Patético.” With “Responso,” Troilo seems to dissolve the dance beat completely in favor of tutti and solo cantando sections. Troilo’s arrangers create a distinctly dark and rich color in this period by blending instrumental sections in characteristic registers. For example, the dramatic introduction in Galván’s “Selección de tangos de Julio De Caro” first combines the bandoneones and strings in their low ranges and then climbs through the orchestra to higher registers. Spitalnik’s arrangement of “Patético” utilizes the dark colors of the cello and viola by poignantly coupling the melody in multiple octaves throughout the strings in the B melody. A violinist himself, Galván especially left his mark on Troilo’s sound with orchestral nuances in the string section. For example, “Sur” incorporates rich string soli passages, countermelodies against the vocal line, and clean pizzicato accompaniment. Galván’s arrangement of Troilo’s milonga (p.166) “La trampera” exhibits both playful pizzicato and portamento ( WL 4.7).

WE 4.12, see also

Performance Style

Troilo’s 1950s orchestra sounds more lush, expressive, and romantic than the orchestra of the “early period.” While the typical marcato and síncopa accompaniment patterns still exist, the orchestra romanticizes them, such as the exaggerated arrastres in “Selección de tangos de Julio De Caro” and the piano glissandos in “Patético.” The orchestra, especially the string section, indulges in cantando melodies with extreme legato phrasing that contain portamentos and wide vibrato, as in “Sur.” At the same time, staccato articulations characterize rítmico melodies even more crisply, such as in the successive up-bow strokes of “La trampera.” While not a common performance practice, yeites, such as chicharra, appear judiciously, as in “Selección de tangos de Julio De Caro.”

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) Within this more romantic style transitioning into music for listening, the orchestra exhibits a more elastic concept of time, with rubato and relaxed tempos. Fraseo saturates cantando melodies, as in the opening tutti of “Che, bandoneón.” Troilo must have rehearsed his orchestra to the highest standard to achieve this unified fraseo. The opening melody of “Romance de barrio” provides another example of stylized rhythms in precise unison, especially by shortening note values to expand rests. “Responso” provides an excellent illustration of how Troilo suspends time with both fraseo and rubato. While Troilo dominates most solo opportunities, other players aurally “step into the spotlight” to demonstrate virtuosity and personal expression. “Sur” and “Patético” feature short piano solos that embellish the main melodic line. “Responso” features solos in the bandoneón, piano, and violin, where players display individual interpretation and incorporate fraseo, portamentos, ornamentation, and even registration shifts. Late 1950s to 1972: Stylized Music for Listening

Arranging Style

Troilo kept pace with the receding dance craze as tango transitioned into highly stylized music for listening. His arranging and performance styles branched out in two distinct paths in his late period. One continued with (p.167) arrangements for large orchestra, and the other pulled inward with chamber formations. In his stylized arrangement for large orchestra, Troilo extended his established instrumental and arranging techniques in such standards as “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos” and “Quejas de bandoneón” ( WL 4.13). He also championed new works by younger tangueros, such as Balcarce’s “La bordona”; Garello’s “Bandola triste” and “Che, Buenos Aires”; Piazzolla’s “Lo que vendrá,” “Verano porteño,” and “Adiós Nonino”; and Plaza’s “Danzarín,” “Nocturna,” and “Nostálgico.” The arrangement of “Danzarín,” presumably by Plaza himself, exemplifies Troilo’s late stylized instrumental sound through its masterful changes in orchestration spotlighting individual players and sections ( WL 4.8). Nearly every phrase changes orchestration. For example, the widely divided string section first plays the opening lush cantando melody as the piano, bass, and bandoneones firmly ground the accompaniment with síncopa and arrastre. The melody immediately repeats tutti, with the piano jumping octaves in the marcato accompaniment. Additionally, intense tempo fluctuations often frame these contrasts in orchestration. For example, Troilo’s B section cantando solo, accompanied by a slow marcato in 2, relaxes the tempo; then the bandoneones and strings, accompanied by a marcato-síncopa accompaniment, answer with a driving rítmico melody.

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) Troilo’s famous 1962 recordings with his Troilo–Grela Quartet best represent the close give-and-take conversation of his late stylized chamber sound. Works such as “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos,” “La trampera,” and “Maipo” retain a nostalgic imprint of the melodic and rhythmic features from earlier recordings. Yet, Troilo and Grela expertly manage the ebb and flow of tempo oscillations as they alternate between solo melodies, countermelodies, and accompanimental patterns, as in the opening section of “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos.” Performance Style

Troilo’s late orchestra amplifies the romantic expression of the orchestra of the “middle period,” as exemplified in “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos” and “Danzarín.” The entire orchestra plays marcato crisply and arrastre forcefully. In these later recordings, one can actually hear the bass (as opposed to earlier with Fiorentino) to discern how it matches the piano’s articulation and aids in driving the ensemble. Troilo’s two pianists, Berlingieri in “Danzarín” and Colángelo in “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos,” execute numerous glissandos and enlaces with exciting virtuosity. Both recordings (p.168) contain soulful solos evoking tristeza by Troilo. In “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos,” he expressively shakes the bellows—a perfect example of Mamone’s description: “He would play one note and it would make your heart flutter.”54 Troilo’s chamber groups in the 1960s, and especially his quartet with Grela, returned to the intimacy and playfulness of De Caro’s 1920s sextet. Extreme flexibility in phrasing heightens the individual expression, as in “Maipo,” where Troilo sneaks in with the melody like a memory. In “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos,” Troilo and Grela respond to each other’s musical phrasing nuances like one responds to physical subtleties of a dance partner. Additionally, the quartet employs numerous yeites in the same manner as De Caro. “La trampera” opens with percussive tapping within the quartet and also features short downward glissandos in the guitar. In the opening of “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos,” Troilo shakes the bellows, creating the same vibrato-like sound that he used in his later orchestral recording of the same piece. “Maipo” even features a strappata-like effect in the guitarrón and guitar. Troilo’s Compositional Style

Troilo wrote the majority of his compositions during the Golden Age, and these works have since become standards in the Argentine tango repertory. While Troilo did write a number of pieces during the 1960s and 1970s, notably “Milonguero triste” and “Nocturno a mi barrio,” we focus here on six Golden Age works as a basis to discuss his compositional style: “Che, bandoneón,” “La trampera,” “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos,” “Responso,” “Romance de barrio,” and “Sur.”

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) While this study focuses on instrumental tango music, we must briefly consider how extramusical elements impact Troilo’s compositions, as two of his own favorite tangos stem from extramusical influences. He states: “There are some tunes that are my favorites, better said, the ones I love most: ‘Sur’ and ‘Responso.’”55 In “Sur,” Troilo credits Manzi’s colorful and expressive poem as his inspiration: “Clearly the exceptional painting of the mood—a watercolor of warm, deep ranges that the poet has achieved in ‘Sur’—dictated the tonality and ensemble of harmonies to me… . The notes (p.169) and chords flow with the beauty of the poetic message.”56 “Responso” shows Troilo’s most astute and expressive compositional powers. In our discussion that follows, we point out how text and life experiences impact melody and harmony specifically in “Che, bandoneón,” “Responso,” and “Sur.” Troilo’s predominantly cantando melodic style captures the Golden Age tango expression, as illustrated in the long, smooth opening melody of “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos” ( WE 4.14). In “Che, bandoneón,” where Manzi’s poetry uses the bandoneón as a symbol for pain, Troilo expressively captures the essence of text in his melodic setting. In the second phrase of the hook, his fraseo melody repeatedly cries on a falling minor third to emphasize the protagonist’s suffering expressed by the heart-wrenching words: “copa a copa, pena a pena, tango a tango” (“drink after drink, sadness after sadness, tango after tango”). Then the melodic lament spirals in descending chromatic gestures to the end of the phrase, as the narrator abandons hope and falls into the abyss of madness and alcohol ( WL 4.14). In another example, “Responso” uses a cantando melody throughout ( WE 4.13), where the instrumental lament first swells upward by step like a beseeching prayer and then heaves mournful sobs as it slowly descends chromatically.57 Troilo continued De Caro’s incorporation of lyrical countermelodies, yet he tends to weave them throughout the entire form rather than only in the B section. “Romance de barrio,” for example, sets up a slower-moving countermelody immediately in the strings against the first restatement of the main melody. This smooth vals melody also reveals a subtle motivic connection between phrases, where the initial descending stepwise line inverts to an ascending scalar gesture as it brings the A section to a dramatic close. Troilo also produced highly rítmico tango compositions, particularly in his more upbeat milongas. “La trampera,” for example, skips and trips along throughout as befitting the title of this milonga ( WE 4.12). Troilo contrasts the predominately cantando melody of “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos” with an emphatic rítmico melody to close the A section. Rooted in the driving beat for dancers, Troilo’s signature accompanimental rhythms feature marcato and síncopa preceded by heavy arrastre. They provide a firm foundation for the fluid melodies in “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos,” “Sur,” Page 27 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) “Che, bandoneón,” and “Responso.” Even in the pieces (p.170) intended originally for dancing, Troilo plays with the stock rhythms. The vals “Romance de barrio” features a steady downbeat for the dancers to walk the “slow” steps, but Troilo also incorporates the “Peruano” vals rhythmic flourish in the two bars preceding the final “chan-chan.” In “La trampera,” Troilo relieves the incessantly playful milonga and marcato rhythms in the A section first with rising eighth-note octaves in the B section and then with a slower quarter-note marcato in the C section. Furthermore, the Galván arrangement and the 1969 quartet recording incorporate the 3-3-2 bordoneo figure in the C section at the tonal shift to D minor. Troilo’s tonal palette epitomizes the lush and romantic Golden Age tango harmony. It incorporates chromaticism through modal mixture, augmented sixth chords (sometimes with added ninths), extended ninth and eleventh chords, descending fifth progressions, descending bass lines, linear diminished seventh chords, and even the jazz technique of “tritone substitution.”58 He particularly favors the German augmented sixth chord (spelled enharmonically as ♭VI7) to V progression to invoke the ♭6̂-5̂-1̂ “lament” figure in the bass. “Responso” contains some of these chromatic features to mournfully lament Manzi with its chromatic bass line, tritone substitution, German augmented sixth chords, and linear diminished seventh chords. “Sur” highlights many chromatic elements, including mixture in the A section (D major/D minor). Even more strikingly, the B section features tritone substitution, a French augmented sixth-V progression in a tonicization to G minor (iv), followed by a descending fifth progression (Example 4.2). The hook in “Sur” also exemplifies Troilo’s interpretation of this nostalgic text by the languid harmonic rhythm on the word “Sur” and the sorrowful German augmented sixth-V half cadence, signaling the sentimental lament for the old neighborhood.

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) All the representative compositions discussed here except “La trampera,” a modified construction of the older three-part form, reflect Troilo’s preference for the nowstandard two-part formal structure. Rather than present tonally closed contrasting sections, Troilo typically works out the main tonality of the tango in his B sections with tonal instability, such as the descending fifth progressions in “La trampera,” “Sur,” and “Che, bandoneón,” and the sequential passage leading to tonicization of III in “Romance de barrio.” Troilo’s phrase and period structures mostly adhere to Example 4.2. “Sur,” harmonic reduction four- and eight-bar groups and of the B section, c and d phrases, mm. 17– sixteen- or thirty-two-bar 26, illustrating phrase and harmonic sections in (p.171) various structure. period structures. For example, the A section of “Romance de barrio” forms a standard thirtytwo-bar section of four 8-bar phrases cast in a double period. While the A section of “Sur” follows a standard sixteen-bar double parallel period, the B section forms an asymmetrical contrasting period. Troilo’s compositions contain sophisticated phrase development techniques. For example, “Che, bandoneón” and “Sur” incorporate asymmetrical phrases in the “hook” of the B section. Example 4.2 illustrates the first two phrases of the contrasting eighteen-bar period in the B section of (p.172) “Sur,” where the initial six-bar asymmetrical phrase moves through a four-bar sequence of descending fifths. “Responso” presents remarkably flexible phrase designs throughout. The asymmetrical eleven-bar introduction illustrates the almost improvisatory flow of the composition as it bursts out in two gestures, first a six-bar embellished rising scale from G-G, followed by a five-bar group of rushing chords that support a slower stepwise ascent G-A-B♭ ( WE 4.13). Further exemplifying complex phrase design, the B section incorporates both an elision between the first and second phrase and an extension in the final phrase.

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) Analysis: “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos” (1942) by Aníbal Troilo Overview

“Pa’ que bailen los muchachos” exemplifies Troilo’s Golden Age compositional style, and the tango remains a standard in the Argentine tango repertory today. Pichuco recorded “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos” four times throughout his lifetime, two vocal versions (1942 with Fiorentino and 1963 with Goyeneche) and two instrumental arrangements (1962 with the Troilo–Grela Quartet and 1970 for large orchestra). It features a syncopated fraseo melody; driving marcato and síncopa accompanimental rhythms, both preceded by strong arrastres; diatonic harmonies offset by tonal motions to the relative major; and the standard two-part formal structure. Most remarkably, Troilo employs ingenious musical devices to express textual themes, such as the recurring motive that seems to call the dancers to the floor as the title suggests. Even the dark orchestration in Troilo’s various arrangements conveys a sense of sadness and resignation that signify Cadícamo’s words “¡La vida es una milonga!” (“Life is a milonga!”). (See the Companion Website for the “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos” Listening Chart and corresponding audio link,

WF 4.5.)

Close Reading

The following analysis takes the reader through each section of the tango’s form and highlights specific examples of Troilo’s tango compositional style that represents the tango of the Golden Age. The analytical examples are based on the piano score (

WL 4.12), the manuscript arrangement by (p.173)

59

Stamponi, and the 1970 recording. Figure 4.3 illustrates the overall two-part form and phrase structure. A Section (mm. 1–21)

The A section of “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos” contains five 4bar phrases, where, similar to De Caro’s “Boedo,” the a phrase stands alone as an introduction. In “Pa’ que bailen,” the opening five-bar phrase returns as a coda and frames the entire

Figure 4.3. Overall form and phrase structure of “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos.”

tango. Web Figure 4.6 illustrates the phrase and harmonic structure of the entire A section. The opening a phrase bursts forth dramatically. Indeed, the framing of the tango by the same opening and closing five-bar phrase seems both to call the dancers out onto the floor and to send them back to their tables when the three-minute drama ends. In the first measure, the low bass sounds the tonic note alone on the downbeat, the full orchestra explodes throughout its range on the complete tonic chord on the offbeat, and the orchestra holds the chord with a fermata. Similar to De Caro’s “Boedo,” the ensuing melody outlines a one-to-one Page 30 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) counterpoint in parts and in parallel 6/3 chords. In the 1970 recording, the full orchestra paints a dark sound as it spans the bottom to top registers, with the strings dominating and the bandoneones more muted in the middle of the texture. Even in this instrumental arrangement, Troilo’s connection to texts plays out in his fraseo articulation of the opening cantando melody. The opening line of this tango would be spoken with the following syllables accented in boldface: “Pa’quebailen los muchachos, via’ tocarte, bandoneón” (“So that the boys dance, I’m going to play you, bandoneón”). Troilo’s fraseo exactly corresponds to this accentuation, from the first fermata to the accented notes, as if the orchestra itself was singing the words (

WE 4.14).

(p.174) The distinct opening figure weaves an instrumental thread throughout the entire tango. The first part of the fraseo melody descends through the octave down to the leading tone in three stepwise gestures, where the first two outline a descending third embellished by a NT, and the third moves straight through a stepwise descending fifth. A rising arpeggio enlace in the bass provides a onebar expansion in the middle of the phrase (notated fraseo in both score sources and performed as such in all the various recordings), which presents another motive that recurs throughout the tango. The second part of the phrase, played by Troilo as a bandoneón solo, works out the motivic thirds of mm. 1–2 by embedding them in a descending step progression from the G to D as it leads to the cadence. Web Example 4.15 shows the entire opening five-bar phrase from the piano score. Note the simple notation in sixteenth notes, rather than fraseo on beat 2 in the actual performance. Following the introduction, the next four 4-bar phrases in mm. 6–21 form a standard sixteen-bar group, where the only strong conclusive cadence occurs in the final phrase. Troilo creates coherence in the period by beginning the first measure of each phrase with the same rhythm from m. 1: syncopation on beat 1 and fraseo on beat 2 ( WE 4.16). While this first phrase proceeds harmonically through a basic tonic-dominant-tonic progression, it melodically works out the descending third motive from the opening introductory phrase in the next two bars with a dotted rhythm. The rising arpeggio motto presented in the bass in m. 3 creates even more melodic coherence in the A section. It recurs throughout, linking each phrase to the next in various guises. Yet, the figure always moves with an ascending gesture leading to the downbeat of the next phrase (

WE 4.17).

B Section (mm. 22–37)

Troilo structures the contrasting B section of “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos” as an asymmetrical group of three varied four-bar phrases. Upon repetition of the entire form, the tango closes with a five-bar coda that repeats the opening fivePage 31 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) bar introduction. Web Figure 4.7 structure of the entire section.

illustrates the phrase and harmonic

Troilo casts each repeated phrase in a two-bar call-and-response design, where the same variation of the rising arpeggio motto (mm. 21–22) links the subphrases in e (mm. 23–24a) and e′′ (mm. 31–32a). Only the middle phrase e′ omits the motto between the subphrases and employs a descending stepwise bass line instead to connect the III6 of m. 27 to the V4/3 of m. 28a. The arpeggio motto also links each phrase, where the variation in (p.175) m. 25 carries the tonicization to the e′ and e′′ phrases (mm. 29–30a). A fraseo variation links the e and e′ phrases (mm. 25–26a). While on the surface the B section melody contrasts the A section in tone, register, and range, a closer analysis reveals how Troilo works out both the unfolding third motive and the initial rhythm of each phrase. Rising thirds structure the melody in each two-bar subphrase connected by PTs and in parallel harmonic thirds. Although the notated rhythm in the piano score continuously reiterates six steady sixteenth notes in each two-bar group, Troilo’s orchestra performs a syncopation-fraseo rendition. Troilo’s harmonic rhythm of one chord per bar in the classic tango weak-strong/dominant-tonic progression also repeats in every two-bar subphrase ( WE 4.18). Each subphrase throughout the entire B section essentially repeats this same design, even as the middle phrase tonicizes III. In performance, Troilo repeats the entire form. While he retraces the same material in the A section, he introduces a new lush melody in the B section. As outlined in the Listening Chart of the 1970 recording, the bandoneones and strings play the melody in octaves throughout the repeated section (2:17–2:42) over the same harmonic progression as the first time through. Web Example 4.19

illustrates the new melody in the first phrase of the section.60

Finally, Troilo rounds out the entire tango, as the end of the third phrase in the B section elides into a return of the opening introductory phrase. The end becomes the beginning. Then a final rítmico melody drives to the cadence and the emphatic “chan-chan” tag on the strong beats. (p.176) Osvaldo Pugliese (1905–1995)

(p.177)

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) Pianist and bandleader Osvaldo Pugliese represents the culmination of the Golden Age style. Referred to as “el hombre de pueblo” (the man of the people) by Casa del Tango general secretary and guardian Nélida Rouchetto, Pugliese’s long-lasting career touched the lives of multiple generations.61 In 1939, he founded his enduring cooperative orchestra known for its iconic style contrasting between heavily accented rítmico sections and lush cantando sections. By the end of his life, Pugliese stood as an emblem for tango, and after his passing, porteños canonized him as “San Pugliese, protector de los músicos” (Saint Pugliese, protector of the musicians). In this case study, we discuss the tanguero’s life as it traversed many political upheavals, economical changes, and artistic transformations. We analyze his orchestra’s prototypical performance practices, collaborative arranging methods, and progressive compositional style. Lastly, we examine his famous tango, “La yumba,” named after his signature rhythmic technique.

Photo 4.3. Osvaldo Pugliese. Card from the December 2005 Pugliese Centennial Celebration in Buenos Aires. From the personal collection of the authors.

Biographical Background Osvaldo Pugliese was born December 2, 1905, in the tango neighborhood of Villa Crespo to father Don Adolfo Pugliese and mother Aurelia Terragno. His family was highly musical as his father played the flute and his two brothers, Adolfo Vicente and Alberto Roque, played the violin. In fact, all three brothers (including Osvaldo) played the violin until his father bought a piano for Osvaldo. His father told the young Osvaldo, “It is for you. Three violinists in the family are too many.”62 As a budding musician, he studied piano with Antonio D’Agostino at the Conservatorio Odeon and later studied with Isaac Tenensoff and took classes with Pedro Rubione and Vicente Scaramuzza. Pugliese began his tango career accompanying silent films and played his first gig at Café de la Chancha (“Café of the Pig,” or so was its nickname due to the owner’s lack of hygiene).63 In 1921, he began playing in bars and cafés with Page 33 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) other developing tangueros, such as the Sextet of Bernardo, the first female bandoneonist. The ensemble included Bernardo, violin; Pugliese, piano; Alcides Palvecino and Vardaro, violins; Miguel Loduca, (p.178) flute; and Arturo Benardo, percussion. In addition to Pugliese’s performing gigs, the adolescent tanguero listened to the sounds of the leading guardia vieja orchestras and the up-and-coming tangueros of the guardia nueva, including pianists Cobián and Francisco De Caro. During these early years, Pugliese also began exploring composition and wrote his renowned tango, “Recuerdo.” The now-popular standard came to the tanguero in stages. The opening music of the tango occurred to him on a train ride to Café de la Chancha, and then a few years later he composed the trio section.64 He describes this compositional process in an interview with Arturo Lozza: “One composes a motive, leaves it, then eventually, grabs it another time and gives it another turn, and so it goes spinning, making the dough.”65 Although the tango was originally published in 1924 under his father’s name, the true authorship is always credited to Osvaldo Pugliese.66 A few months after the initial publication, Moreno added lyrics, and in 1926, Julio De Caro’s sextet first recorded the tango. As tango increased in popularity, Pugliese established himself as a promising young tanguero with many of the prominent orchestras during 1920s and 1930s. He performed and/or recorded with Enrique Pollet’s quartet and with orchestras such as those of Firpo, Maffia, Laurenz, and Caló. Meanwhile, he also started his own professional groups. In 1929, he created the Vardaro–Pugliese Sextet and the ensemble debuted at Café Nacional. In 1930, they briefly expanded the ensemble to include rising stars such as Gobbi, Ortiz, and Troilo. Pugliese even performed in duos with Gobbi and later Vardaro in the early 1930s. Then in 1936, Pugliese formed a short-lived orchestra to perform at Café Germinal. The year 1936 additionally marks the public beginning of Pugliese’s political activism. In response to Francisco Franco’s revolt against the Republic of Spain and the beginning of the Spanish Civil War, Pugliese and violinist friend Enrique Cantore joined the Partido Comunista Argentino (Argentina’s Communist Party). Pugliese believed in cooperative societies, in which individuals work together to serve the whole, rather than the fascist government that was taking over Spain. He expresses his idealistic views to Lozza: “The communist is selfless, who must always be at the (p.179) service of his people, of the workers, [and] who does not compromise; for me, the party is the daily breath.”67 Under Argentina’s strongly militaristic and oppressive government, Pugliese suffered the first of what would be many incarcerations for his views.68 Also in 1936, Pugliese helped organize a union of musicians and artists called the Sociedad de Músicos y Artistas Afines to increase job stability and wages and married his first wife, María Concepción Florio “Choli.”

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) The year 1939 witnessed both the birth of his daughter Lucila Delma “Beba” Pugliese, who became a tango pianist, and his hugely successful orchestra that lasted for fifty-six years. Similar to the Vardaro–Pugliese Sextet, the orchestra premiered at the Café Nacional, known as the “Cathedral of Tango,” on August 11, 1939. Remarkably, the orchestra personnel seldom changed as individual members remained loyal to Pugliese for many years, including bandoneonists Ruggiero, Lavallén, Spitalnik, Plaza, and Penón; violinists Herrero, Jamie Tursky, and Balcarce; bassists Aniceto Rossi (father) and Alcides Rossi (son); and singers Chanel, Morán, and Maciel. Most interestingly, Pugliese’s orchestra functioned as a cooperative. Unlike any orchestra before or of its time, it systematically rated and paid individuals according their contributions.69 Perhaps the members remained steadfast with Pugliese because of the orchestra’s collective nature, which personified the political ideals of the man himself. In 1963, Pugliese reflects on his orchestra with Del Priore: We all participate and we all put in our grain of sand, whether it be in the arrangement, whether it be in the interpretation, in short, in all the concerns to prepare a work… . Internally, we all have the same opportunity, everyone from top to bottom, from which is responsible for the orchestra to the last fellow… . In short, most are great composers, arrangers, [and] performers.70 Unlike many orchestras that recorded soon after their initial formation, Pugliese’s orchestra waited until 1943. Its first body of recordings, dating through the 1950s with Odeon, represents the “coming out” of Pugliese’s (p. 180) orchestral style. It includes such standards as “La yumba,” “Negracha,” and “Malandraca.” The orchestra continued recording throughout its existence and created approximately seven hundred tracks. Even though Pugliese’s orchestra was highly successful during the 1940s and 1950s, this period was fraught with political conflicts for the tanguero. Perón, who took office in 1943, disagreed with Pugliese’s politics and had him arrested and even blacklisted from performing. When Pugliese was detained and could not appear with the orchestra, a single red rose or carnation was placed on the piano in his honor. In one famous story, the police entered a club and demanded to the owners that Pugliese’s orchestra cease playing. The owners refused to disrupt the dancing by stopping the orchestra in the middle of a tango. When Pugliese heard of the commotion, he instructed the musicians to keep playing “La cumparsita” in a continuous loop. Finally, the police left, but the result of this standoff was perhaps the longest “La cumparsita” in the history of tango.71 In the late 1950s and 1960s, the orchestra embarked on new adventures with travel and television. Pugliese believed strongly in sharing tango with other Page 35 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) cultures. He states: “It opens the gap so that all men can pass, grouped around the tango, and that they have faith in the cultural future of our music.”72 In 1959, the orchestra toured China and the USSR for four months, and in 1965, it performed 135 concerts in Japan. The orchestra spread to an even larger audience in Argentina as it was featured on television, such as in the 1967 Comienza el show on Canal 11.73 Despite the decline of the dance craze in the 1960s and the resulting economic challenges, Pugliese and his orchestra persevered. In 1968, however, the tanguero fell ill and cancelled some gigs. Due to lack of work, Ruggiero, Lavallén, Herrero, Balcarce, Rossi, and Plaza (switching to piano) left the orchestra to form their own ensemble, Sexteto Tango.74 Following the mass exodus, Pugliese regrouped his larger orchestra including new recruits violinist Peressini and bandoneonists Binelli and Mederos. Pugliese continued to achieve success both nationally and internationally throughout the remainder of his career. His orchestra toured Japan, the (p.181) United States, and Cuba. In 1985, it performed in the Teatro Colón, finally actualizing the fans’ relentless cry, “¡Al Colón!” ( WL 4.15). Pugliese joined Piazzolla’s sextet for a famous concert in Amsterdam in 1989 ( WL 4.16). Furthermore, he received numerous awards such as the Ciudadano Ilustre de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires (Illustrious Citizen of Buenos Aires) in 1986, an honorary plaque placed by the Sociedad Argentina de Autores y Compositores de Música (SADAIC, the Argentina Society of Authors and Composers of Music) at the former location of Café Nacional (Av. Corrientes 980) in 1989, and the Orden Alejo Carpentier given by the Cuban government. Pugliese died on July 25, 1995, in Buenos Aires at age ninety. The entire city of Buenos Aires gathered for his funeral at the Cementerio de la Chacarita as musicians played “La yumba.” His legacy lives on in Buenos Aires through La Casa del Tango (The House of Tango), a space he created to promote the teaching and performance of tango. Some tango groups today recreate Pugliese’s style, such as Color Tango led by bandoneonist Álvarez, and others build on it for their own style, such as the Orquesta Típica Fernández Fierro.75

Pugliese’s Tango Style Overview

After working with musicians of the escuela decareana, Pugliese first carried on the legacy of De Caro, and then he expanded it to create an iconic sound in terms of instrumental/arranging, performance, and compositional styles. We frame our discussion of the earlier style with the tangos “El monito,” “Mala junta,” “Recuerdo,” and “Tierra querida,” and we concentrate on the mature style with the tangos “A mis compañeros,” “Emancipación,” “Gallo ciego,” “La mariposa,” “La rayuela,” “La yumba,” “Malandraca,” “Negracha,” “Nochero soy,” “Pata ancha,” and “Zum” ( Page 36 of 58

WL 4.17; for Pugliese piano scores available

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) online, see WL 4.18). “La yumba,” first recorded in 1946, initiated this mature sound. Rouchetto describes Pugliese’s unique voice: “With ‘La yumba,’ without modifying the decareana creation in its interpretation, [Pugliese] continues the synthesis of his tango conception by unifying composition, arranging, and orchestral performance.”76 Other (p.182) key trademarks of his progressive style include the juxtaposition of his yumba technique with fluid tempos and melodies, and the unified sound of his cooperative orchestra, where members contributed their own compositions, arrangements, and solos. Pugliese’s Arranging Style

In the early 1940s, Pugliese’s sound emulated and crystalized the essential style of De Caro’s sextet. Yet, he expanded the ensemble to four bandoneones, three violins, piano, and bass. In addition to his own “Recuerdo,” Pugliese recorded many of De Caro’s tangos, such as “Mala junta,” “Tierra querida,” “El monito,” and “Boedo,” using the same arrangements. Pugliese’s mature voice reached its apex in the 1950s represented by such arrangements as “Emancipación.” Although many of these tangos were for dancing, Pugliese experimented with new tangos for listening and continued to expand the orchestra to include viola and cello. His cooperative orchestra gave the musicians a voice in the total instrumental sound by allowing them to contribute their own compositions and arrangements to the repertory. The collaborative arrangement of “Gallo ciego” between Plaza, Lavallén, Balcarce, Spitalnik, and Ruggiero demonstrates this collective approach and represents one of the orchestra’s most famous recordings. Even later versions of De Caro tangos adhere to Pugliese’s distinctively new sound, such as Balcarce’s arrangement of “La rayuela.” As new musicians came into the orchestra during the 1960s and 1970s, Pugliese’s core style remained intact, as heard in Plaza’s arrangement of “La mariposa” and Mosalini, Penón, and Pugliese’s collaborative arrangement of “Zum.” Pugliese continued the essential tango narrative established by De Caro and furthered by Troilo. Yet, even as the strings and bandoneones primarily carry the melody supported by the piano/bass rhythm section, Pugliese’s sound descends more from De Caro’s light-hearted and playful moods than Troilo’s distinctly dark colors and atmosphere of tristeza. Pugliese’s expanded string section forms a thick wall of sound as the backbone of his orchestra. He thought the “brilliant” sound of the bandoneones could “plug” the strings and so positioned them in a supportive role.77 Yet, Pugliese also features the bandoneones in spirited solo or soli passages, especially with quick changes in register. For example, in “Emancipación,” the bandoneón repeats playful descending and (p.183) ascending flourishes throughout four octaves to lead to the return of the A section. Overall, Pugliese’s orchestra projects a bright, energetic, and at times

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) joyful sound through seamless quick changes in the orchestration, as evident not only in “Emancipación” but also in “La mariposa”78 and “Malandraca.” Pugliese’s dramatic treatment of the melody oscillates between rítmico and cantando extremes. Often the bandoneones articulate forceful rítmico gestures such as the heraldic openings of “Emancipación” and “La rayuela” and the first presentations of the main melody in “A mis compañeros” and “Gallo ciego.” Other orchestral combinations also sound the main rítmico melody, such as the strings in “Nochero soy” and the tutti in “Pata ancha.” The strings often play arching legato cantando melodies to contrast the predominant rítmico drive, as in “La yumba” (B section), “Pata ancha” (A and B sections), and “La mariposa” (A and B sections). Pugliese also scores cantando melodies in the low, romantic register of the solo violin, as in “Gallo ciego,” “A mis compañeros,” “Pata ancha,” “Emancipación,” and “La yumba.” Sometimes the instruments exchange their primary melodic roles; for example, the bandoneones play cantando style in “A mis compañeros” and the violins play rítmico in “Nochero soy.” “Gallo ciego” offers an excellent illustration of balanced melodic styles, as scored between the solo bandoneón and violin in Example 4.3.79 After a dramatic tutti introduction, the bandoneón crisply presents the main rítmico tune ornamented with mordents (Example 4.3a). Later in the B section, the bandoneón and the violin play rítmico counterpoint, while the reduced trio texture begins with a bandoneón rítmico solo. In the recomposed return of the A section, the violin solo first swoops upward to a new arching romantic cantando melody (Example 4.3b). Then, the bandoneón solo repeats the melody in breathless turn figures breaking Bardi’s original motive apart. It leads to the coda and trails off into the final “chan-chan.”

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) Pugliese builds on contrapuntal advances made by the guardia nueva. He expertly sets rítmico and cantando melodic styles against each other contrapuntally, rather than simply alternating between the two. One especially (p.184) glorious example occurs in the B section of “Pata ancha,” where the strings momentarily suspend time with a sustained high F♯. The piano then unfolds a soft but rítmico countermelody that the bandoneones energetically take over, and then they charge the strings into a moving cantando line. Pugliese also heightens Laurenz and Maffia’s characteristic variations—a tango (p.185) section he considered to be a “structure complete and homogenous”80— by adding contrapuntal lines. For example, solo virtuosic bandoneón variations with cantando string countermelodies conclude “A mis compañeros” and “Pata ancha.”

Example 4.3. “Gallo ciego,” A section melody in rítmico and cantando styles (transcribed by Wendland). a. Rítmico in first presentation. b. Cantando violin solo with accompaniment rhythms in first varied return of A.

Pugliese’s signature yumba accompanimental rhythm creates the primal, pulsing, and exuberant energy of his orchestra. It exaggerates marcato in 2 and predominately, though not exclusively, accompanies rítmico melodies. Naturally, the yumba pattern begins immediately in Pugliese’s famous tango named for the technique ( WE 4.20). In the second phrase of “Gallo ciego” (Example 4.3a), it intensifies the opening marcato. Sudden contrasts in accompanimental patterns also characterize Pugliese’s sound. For example, in “Emancipación,” Pugliese quickly shifts between síncopa and a legato marcato to support cantando piano and violin solos. In addition, Example 4.3b illustrates the changing accompaniment pattern between síncopa, silence, and marcato in 4 in the recomposed return of the A section cantando violin melody in “Gallo ciego.” Pugliese also uses this same technique in the B

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) section of “A mis compañeros,” but first yumba alternates with síncopa before the quiet marcato in 2. In addition to his signature yumba technique and the occasionally contrasting síncopa pattern, Pugliese employs 3-3-2 groupings in reference to the older milonga campera. For example, in the second part of the A section in “Negracha,” rhythmic accents reinforce this grouping in the sequential rising melodic line (0:39-0:54). Surely, since Piazzolla admired Pugliese as an innovative tanguero, he built on such references as it became his quintessential driving rhythm. Finally, like De Caro, Pugliese typically sets his final “chan-chan” forte-piano, which is often separated by silence. For example, “La yumba” builds to a climatic halt and ends highlighting a violin pizzicato, whereas “A mis compañeros” concludes by emphasizing the whisper of the bandoneón. True to its collaborative arrangement, “Gallo ciego” closes with a balanced tutti fortepiano. Pugliese’s Performance Style

In accordance with Pugliese’s conception of stylistic synthesis, his yumba technique lies at the forefront of his performance practices. This technique employs a strong arrastre leading into the strong beats, and the (p.186) term conveys this onomatopoetic effect. (For a detailed description on how to play the yumba technique on the piano and other instruments, see chapter 3). In his interview with Lozza, Pugliese discusses a variety of influences that led to the creation of yumba.81 He explains it as developing from his work with various early orchestras, where he absorbed the strong marking of beats 1 and 3. Then, as his orchestra exaggerated the arrastre practices of De Caro and Di Sarli, the yumba technique emerged. Notably, Pugliese believed that arrastre came from folclore pampeano (pampas folklore), reflecting his connection to the pueblo. Additionally, he points to his experience during the 1930s of playing four-hand piano duets with an Afro-Argentine pianist, who assumedly incorporated a canyengue style. He also describes the influence of the dance. Following a conversation with the famous dancer Cachafaz, who identified the caminando (walking) as the key element of tango dance, Pugliese deduced that yumba could propel the walk forward. The other distinct feature of Pugliese’s performance style is his use of time, or colloquially, “playing with time.” As Álvarez notes, rubato poses the most difficult challenge in the estilo puglieseano (Pugliese style), because the orchestra must play together like a unified solo.82 Pugliese classically ends tangos with a ritardando, as dramatically heard in “Zum.” Perhaps the most striking way Pugliese plays with time is how he creates the illusion of temporal changes when the yumba disappears. For example, when the strongly accented, Page 40 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) metronomical A section of “La yumba” dissolves into the lush, romantic B section, there is, in fact, no tempo change. Rather, in the absence of the yumba, the bottom drops from the musical texture, conveying the impression of rubato. Interestingly, some dancers find such moments challenging, while others often interpret them as pauses.83 The B section solos of “Negracha” also demonstrate the softening of the emphatic beat into lyrical lines while sustaining the fundamental ratio of beats per minute. Regarding articulation, Pugliese’s orchestra gravitates more to extremes than Troilo’s. The players, in all the instruments, execute both marcato (p.187) accompaniments and rítmico melodies with exceedingly crisp and short articulation, such as in “Malandraca.” In conjunction with the yumba technique, the bass, piano, and bandoneones strongly accent the arrastres, as in “La rayuela” and “Emancipación.” The latter also excellently displays Ruggiero’s energetic accompaniments and intense rítmico melodies. Soupy legato lines, à la escuela decareana, prevail in string cantando melodies, as in the B section of “Negracha,” where the strings employ fluid bow strokes, glissandos, portamentos, and fraseos. The violin solo in “Gallo ciego,” illustrated in Example 4.3b, also demonstrates extreme legato playing. The players demonstrate passionate musical expression and spirited virtuosity in the numerous solo and soli sections. With the later recordings, the length of the solo sections often increased along with the level of technical difficulty. For example, “Zum” contains a virtuosic bandoneón solo by Penón that expands from a single line to mostly thirds and sixths. It also contains an expressive violin solo by Marcelli that soars in the instrument’s upper register. Other pieces allow for the entire section to demonstrate virtuosic technique as a unit, for example, the ending variations in the bandoneón section of “Pata ancha.” Similar to De Caro’s ensemble, Pugliese’s orchestra incorporates a variety of yeites. The bass players of the ensemble regularly employ golpe and strappata, and the latter is exemplified in “La yumba.” The violins utilize tambor in “Emancipación,” chicharra in “A mis compañeros,” and guitarra in “La yumba.” The bandoneones even incorporate vómito. When playing De Caro’s arrangements, the orchestra reproduces his distinctive yeites of chicharra and even laughing and whistling, while also extending yeites, such as combining escoba with arrastre in “Mala junta.” As a pianist, Pugliese stylistically followed in the line of guardia nueva pianists, including Cobián and Fransicso De Caro. His sound demonstrates clean passagework with articulate fingers, crisp articulation with loose and supple WL wrists, and lush chords with relaxed arms, such as in “El monito” (see also 4.16). He possesses a leading style that emphasizes foundational sustenance in the lower register rather than a driving style like Goñi. The trilogy of “La

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) yumba,” “Negracha,” and “Malandraca” exemplifies his supportive performance practices. According to Plaza, bandoneonist Ruggiero stood alongside Pugliese as the other balancing pillar of the orchestra’s energetic style.84 Ruggiero’s heavy arrastres dominate and drive the orchestra with their power. Even (p.188) in solos, Ruggiero displays excitement over sentimentality and joy over tristeza, as in the virtuosic solos at the end of “A mis compañeros” and “Emacipación.” Interestingly, Ruggiero, who began playing in Pugliese’s orchestra at age seventeen, credits the maestro with shaping his sound.85 Perhaps because he came of age with Pugliese, Ruggiero maintained his youthful energy and forceful style throughout his career. Pugliese’s Compositional Style

Pugliese praises De Caro as the mejor sintetizador (best synthesizer) of the musical advances made by the guardia nueva tangueros,86 and, as the most important musical descendant of De Caro, he expertly fuses various musical elements in his original tango compositions. His innovative compositional style synthesizes motive and melody; organization of musical time; interplay of contrapuntal and homophonic textures; harmonic techniques; and phrase and formal structures. While Del Priore lists 123 compositions by Pugliese,87 we focus here on four representative works: the De Caro–style “Recuerdo” and his trilogy of mature works of “La yumba,” “Negracha,” and “Malandraca.” The three later tangos particularly exhibit Pugliese’s mastery of compositional synthesis and progressive musical language. Garello cites “Negracha” as a foundational work of the corrientes renovadoras (renovators stream) or avantgarde of contemporary instrumental tango, and Piazzolla describes “Malandraca” as the most modern tango of its time.88 Pugliese continues the sharp motive-driven rítmico melodies crystalized by De Caro and typically contrasts with arching cantando melodies in B sections, as heard in his mature trilogy. Specifically, “Negracha” juxtaposes the two melodic styles immediately. First, a solo violin introduces the tango with four stepwise rising and falling fraseo gestures that sweep to long-held upper NTs ( WE 4.21a), and then a sharp rítmico second phrase works out the same NT idea in accented two-note groups ( WE 4.21b). Pugliese continues with a second rítmico melody that traces a similar rising stepwise (p.189) line as the introductory phrase, and this steadily pulsing rhythm becomes the primary melody worked out in “Negracha” (

WE 4.21c).

Pugliese’s organization of musical time is a fundamental hallmark of his style.89 Indeed, Pugliese uses rhythm as a core constructional element, as heard especially in the blocks of rhythmic patterns throughout “La yumba” and the dissolution into pure rhythm at the end of “Negracha.” As his signature yumba technique replaced the earlier alteration of marcato and síncopa, such as in Page 42 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) “Recuerdo,” he began to accentuate key syncopated rhythmic patterns with percussive instrumental techniques. For example, the gritty strings emphasize the 3-3-2 in “Negracha,” and the piano accentuates the syncopated accompaniment in “Malandraca” with dissonant seconds. Finally, Pugliese often calls on the quintessential tango upbeat-downbeat or weak-strong phrase beginnings, as in the opening of “La yumba” and the design in the main rítmico a melody in “Negracha” (

WE 4.21b).

Pugliese intertwines textural changes with his core yumba rhythm in the accompaniment. Typically a homophonic texture pulses a slow harmonic rhythm to help drive the yumba, as in “La yumba” ( WE 4.20), “Negracha,” and “Malandraca.” Contrapuntal textures tend to take over when the yumba subsides, such as the interplay between the bandoneones, strings, and piano in the B section of “Malandraca.” Pugliese embeds chromaticism and dissonances in his diatonic-based harmonic language, including applied chords, augmented sixth chords, and extended chords. His preference for the diminished seventh chord began early in his compositional output, especially to support expressive cantando melodies in fraseo, such as in “Recuerdo” ( WE 4.22). His mature works continue to use the diminished seventh chord in both harmonic and linear roles, and it is especially prevalent in “La yumba” (see Close Reading). His mature harmonic style also includes sophisticated techniques, like pedal points, chromatic descending bass lines, and more complex progressions beyond the standard “pillar” chords centering around I, IV, and V. Linear chromatic harmonies especially occur in the lyrical B sections of “Negracha” and “La yumba” ( 4.26).

WE

Pugliese often organizes phrases that fall into standard two-, four-, and eight-bar groups and sixteen-bar periods, yet he also integrates more sophisticated phrase designs. Throughout his compositional output from “Recuerdo” to “Malandraca,” he juxtaposes contrasting ideas in musical blocks that overlap and elide to create irregular phrase rhythms. Such (p.190) phrase designs flow throughout Pugliese’s trilogy, such as the phrase overlap in the B section of “La yumba” ( WE 4.26). Pugliese’s early “Recuerdo” follows the older three-part AB trio form with concluding variations, while his mature works explore more classical forms often ending with codas. “La yumba” and “Malandraca” are both in sophisticated binary forms. “La yumba” rounds out the form by briefly restating the a melody (Figure 4.4) and concludes with a coda. “Malandraca” offers a varied repetition of both sections but truncates the final phrase of the B section. Pugliese casts “Negracha” in an outright ABA plus coda form, where the solo violin

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) introductory phrase foreshadows the cantando B melody. Additionally, Pugliese consistently adheres to his dramatic ff–silence–pp “chan-chan” tag.

Analysis: “La yumba” (1946) by Osvaldo Pugliese Overview

Porteños explode with enthusiasm when they hear their tango himno (anthem),90 “La yumba,” played in concerts and milongas, as it symbolizes “the expression of the city and its people.”91 Plaza said years later, “It is the total expression of the maestro. This work concentrated all of Osvaldo’s creativity and it launched the path of the true Pugliese.”92 Pugliese recorded “La yumba” five times, first in 1946 and subsequently in 1952, 1985, 1987, and, lastly, in 1989 with Piazzolla.93 We base our analysis on the 1952 version, because it illustrates his mature sound, complete with an expanded orchestra including the viola, a strong bass line, a powerful presence of the bandoneones, and prominent yeites. A close reading of “La yumba” reveals astonishing cohesion within all musical parameters. Peralta points out how Pugliese elevates the composition to be on par with classical music.94 Within his cohesive instrumental narrative, Pugliese creates organic unity through principles of development and continuous variation in sharp rítmico motives and dramatically contrasting cantando melodies. His characteristic yumba technique drives the (p.191) rhythm, yet its sporadic disappearance seems to suspend time. Although the harmonies primarily oscillate slowly between dominant and tonic, they also work out the diminished seventh chord both vertically and horizontally. Building on De Caro’s binary structures, Pugliese creates a sectional rounded binary form (ABa′) plus a coda. Within the sections, Pugliese juxtaposes the primary musical ideas in Stravinsky-like blocks of sound and disrupts regular phrases’ rhythms through extensions, elisions, and overlaps. (See the Companion Website for the “La yumba” Listening Chart and corresponding audio link,

WF 4.8).

Close Reading

The following analysis takes the reader through each section of “La yumba” to highlight how it represents Pugliese’s coherent tango compositional style. The analytical examples are drawn from the piano score ( WL 4.18) and/or excerpts from Wendland’s sextet arrangement for violin, viola, cello, bandoneón, piano, and bass adapted from the 1952 recording, as well as unpublished arrangements by the Orquesta Escuela de Tango and Mederos.95 Figure 4.4 illustrates the overall form and phrase structure.

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) A Section

Figure 4.4. Overall form and phrase The A section of “La yumba” structure of “La yumba.” essentially works out the main rítmico motive in continuous variation. The opening motive x spins out into melody and (p.192) saturates “La yumba” in transposition and inversion. Web Figure 4.9 illustrates the five varied phrases of different lengths and the harmonic structure of the A section. Pugliese announces “La yumba” with the sharp, staccato five-note rítmico motive x in parts outlining parallel diminished 6/4 chords in the strings ( WE 4.23a). It serves as an upbeat measure in the a phrase, mm. 1–9, which falls into a 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 grouping. Next, Pugliese expands the x motive to seven notes with an added lower NT figure, repeats it exactly, and then spins out this pattern sequentially down a step in mm. 2–5. Meanwhile, the harmony changes from dominant to tonic in the heavy yumba accompaniment ( WE 4.23b). Then, a new sequential pattern spins out the lower NT feature of motive x into a two-bar ascending stepwise melodic line in mm. 6–7. This sequence illustrates Pugliese’s masterful use of elisions, as the PT connecting each statement together simultaneously becomes the NT of the next main note. Additionally, the rising line of the accented main notes by minor thirds outlines a horizontal expression of the diminished seventh chord ( WE 4.23c). The skip of a third to the last note in the line breaks the stepwise motion, as it reiterates the B from the initial main note an octave higher. In the final two-bar group, mm. 8–10a, a new contrasting motive y dissipates the incessant yumba drive momentarily with a new, although still syncopated, rhythm that reverses the melodic direction in a descending scalar line from A to B elaborated with descending arpeggio figures of 6/3 chords in diminution ( WE 4.23d). In the span of these short nine measures, Pugliese demonstrates his compositional prowess in unifying motive, pitch organization, and phrase structure. The next four phrases in the A section continue with these ideas in either exact repetition or variation as the phrase rhythm flows in two-bar groups. In the beginning of the a′ phrase, mm. 10–18a, Pugliese creates a new collapsed twobar group in mm. 10–11 by merging the one-bar annunciatory motive x (m. 1) with one measure of the first sequential group ( WE 4.24a). The next two 2-bar groups, mm. 12–13 and 14–15, repeat mm. 4–5 and 6–7, respectively. Pugliese concludes the phrase with a variation of motive y′ again in mm. 16–18a. He retains the syncopated descending line and respite of the yumba but now varies the motive by contracting the span to A-D and changing the harmonic direction to tonicize III, the relative major key of A minor (

WE 4.24b).

The a′′ phrase, mm. 18–26a, continues in C major with the same 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 groupings as a′. Beginning with the collapsed two-bar group, however, a new harmonic motion begins on ii, moves through a passing diminished seventh chord, and arrives on a I6 that initiates the first of two sequential statements on I Page 45 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) an V, respectively. Yet another incarnation of (p.193) motive y follows in mm. 24–25, where y′′ sustains a bright Cmaj7 chord with the same syncopated rhythm as in mm. 8–9. In m. 25, another passing diminished seventh chord moves to the ii harmony in m. 26, which initiates the next phrase. The fourth phrase of the A section, a′′′ in mm. 26–37a, heightens the previous phrase in a number of ways. While mm. 26–32a essentially repeats the same phrase and harmonic structure of mm. 18–24a, Pugliese intensifies the rhythmic drive in the piano with syncopated accents in eighth-note motion. The piano continues a syncopated rhythm with motive y′′′ in mm. 32–33, again sustaining Cmaj7 harmony, while the strings heighten the rhythmic push with a guitarra effect and the dramatic bass strappata. A new inverted variation of motive x concludes the phrase in a sequential four-bar group in mm. 34–37a, where the violins spin out a descending melodic line in pizzicato ( WE 4.25). Like the ascending scalar version in mm. 6–7, lower NTs embellish the motive and PTs connect each statement together, yet the descending sequence carries the harmony from C major back to A minor through the descending thirds E-C-A-FD-B-G♯.96 The final phrase of the A section, a′′′′ in mm. 37–43a, at first follows an exact 2 + 2 + 2 repetition of a′ (mm. 10–15). Then, rather than moving to the y motive, Pugliese elides into the dramatic contrasting B section. B Section

The B section features a lush cantando melody in fraseo, even as motive x reappears in varied form. Web Figure 4.10 illustrates the three irregular contrasting phrases, the return of the a′ phrase, and the coda. The first three phrases of the B section, mm. 43–66, exemplify Pugliese’s progressive compositional style. They function like a fantasia on the diminished seventh chord, and the attendant tonal instability and irregular phrases seem more characteristic of development passages in classical music97 than typical popular music forms. The first phrase (b, mm. 43–47), dissolves the yumba accompaniment into a low fraseo gesture in the bass and piano left hand. It first rises by step from low A to F♯ then falls back downward through an F♯ halfdiminished seventh chord arpeggio as the (p.194) rest of the orchestra sustains the minor tonic chord. The strings and bandoneones continue the cantando melody in the upper register with the repeated note A that pushes forward in a fraseo rhythm. Then, the bandoneón solo breaks out of the limited melodic range to finish the phrase. A sophisticated combination of phrase extensions and overlaps links the b and c phrases together and creates a disruption in the regular phrase rhythm. Pugliese reharmonizes the last note of the b phrase, the E in the bandoneón solo in m. 47, with a C♯ diminished seventh chord instead of sustaining the E minor Page 46 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) harmony. This viio7/iv, further dramatized by the entire bandoneón section joining in the harmony, extends the b phrase and resolves to iv in m. 48. In turn, m. 48 becomes the first bar of the c phrase as an upbeat measure to m. 49, moving in plagal motion. Web Example 4.26 development.

illustrates this complex phrase

The surging marcato chords in m. 48 also prepare for a varied reappearance of motive x in the divided bandoneones for the remainder of the c phrase (mm. 49– 54). As in the A section, Pugliese organizes the motive in two 2-bar sequential statements while the pulsing yumba accompaniment anchors the pulse. Then, in mm. 53–54, motive x spins out an ascending melodic line sequentially in thirds that outline A minor harmony, while the accompaniment changes to marcato in 2. Meanwhile, the violins and other bandoneones continue the romantic cantando melody in counterpoint above with mostly descending fraseo gestures outlining vii°7-i. The next twelve-bar group phrase, d, in mm. 55–66, flows seamlessly in a stream of three gestures. A fortissimo diminished seventh chord dramatically breaks through and replaces the yumba accompaniment and motive x with the initiation of the first fraseo gesture, mm. 55–57 ( WE 4.27). Within the vii°7/iv-iv progression, cascading descending arpeggio fills played by the piano alternate with the tutti cantando melody. In the next gesture, mm. 58–63a, the strings and bandoneones surge upward and crescendo in fraseo within a prolonged predominant harmony (first iv, then iiø6/5). The solo bandoneón finishes the gesture in diminuendo, while the harmony moves through a German augmented sixth chord to a half cadence. Upon the arrival of the dominant harmony and the last G♯ of the bandonéon melody on the downbeat of m. 63, another phrase overlap occurs. In the third gesture, mm. 63b–66, the pulsing yumba accompaniment returns in the piano and bass, and another variation of motive x quietly emerges in the bandoneones. Meanwhile, the phrase organization stabilizes back to regular two-bar groups oscillating between V7 and i. The strings continue the cantando melody in descending fraseo gestures outlining the (p.195) diminished seventh chord, while varied motive x pulses below. Finally, a vómito in the bandoneones signals the end of the section. An exact return of the three 2-bar sequential statements of motive x in a′ (mm. 10–15) follows in mm. 67–72. Then, in place of motive y (or the final cadence in the piano score), Pugliese adds the coda (mm. 73–81) to summarize and combine the main ideas from the two main sections. First, the unaccompanied solo violin initiates an expressive 2-bar cantando melody, based on the c and d phrases, that outlines descending thirds with downward fraseo gestures. As it arrives on the low G♯, the bandoneones, piano, and bass resume the pulsing yumba Page 47 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) accompaniment (bandoneones with vómito), and the strings continue the cantando melody above. Finally, motive x returns in the bandoneones in m. 79 to spin out a sequential ascending line in minor thirds that shadows in diminution the slower, syncopated rising line in the strings—a last gasp of the ubiquitous diminished seventh chord. A dramatic ritardando dissipates the driving rhythm and leads to the final cadence. The tango concludes with “chan-chan” played f-pp on the offbeats 2 and 4. (p.196) Cafecito Interlude: Juan D’Arienzo and Carlos Di Sarli

Juan D’Arienzo and Carlos Di Sarli are two towering figures of the dance era. Even Pugliese cites them together as two important orchestras of the period.98 While neither made striking innovations in tango’s instrumental development, each crystallized his own distinct yet quite different voice in the Golden Age— D’Arienzo in the traditional line of the guardia vieja and Di Sarli with the romantic sound of the 1940s. Both achieved clarity of expression that made their music especially appealing to dancers as they crystalized core tango musical elements and sharpened distinctive performance practices. We discuss the style of these two tangueros in terms of D’Arienzo’s recording of “Derecho viejo” and Di Sarli’s “Milonguero viejo” (

WL 4.19).

Juan D’Arienzo (1900–1976) Tangueros refer to violinist and bandleader D’Arienzo as “El rey del compás” (The King of Rhythm) for creating an exciting and highly danceable tango style. D’Arienzo was born on December 14, 1900, and was raised by a middle-class family in the Balvanera neighborhood of Buenos Aires. Beginning his musical studies at age eight, he explored a variety of musical forms during his youth including performing at theaters with D’Agostino.99 In 1935, with pianist Biagi, he formed his own tango (p.197) orchestra that, as bandoneonist Balcarce notes, had everyone dancing in just three or four months.100 His orchestra went on to record 952 tangos for RCA Victor between 1935 and 1975.101 While not well known for his composing, D’Arienzo did write some notable tangos including “Paciencia,” “Nada más,” and “Cartón junao.” Essentially, D’Arienzo ignited the dance craze of the Golden Age, and as Pugliese states, he set the public on “fire” with his “vibration” for tango.102 D’Arienzo died January 14, 1976, and is buried alongside fellow tango maestros at Cementerio de la Chacarita in Buenos Aires. The transcription of mm. 1–8 of D’Arienzo’s 1937 recording of “Derecho viejo” ( WE 4.28) illustrates his driving tango instrumental style that preserves the guardia vieja’s “beat, nerve, strength and character.”103 His edgy rhythmic energy results from a predominantly rítmico melodic style and an incessant marcato in 4 accompaniment, punctuated by staccato chords in the bandoneones. Even D’Arienzo’s contrasting cantando melodies tend to be more measured than freely employing fraseo, as in the violin soli at the beginning of the B section. D’Arienzo’s instrumentation reflects clarity of parts and divisions Page 48 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) between mostly tutti and violin soli sections throughout. He contrasts with a solo violin countermelody in the low register in the B section and the return of A. He also features the bandoneones soli and cantando in the trio. Most dramatically, the bandoneones close the tango in a flurry of variations in the final phrase. As exemplified in “Derecho viejo,” energetic, fast tempos dominate D’Arienzo’s performance style with a lively, “staccatisimo” marcato in the strings, bandoneones, and piano, as well as an animated pizzicato bass line. Unlike many tangueros, D’Arienzo did not play in his orchestra himself, but rather just conducted—a choice that definitely propelled the excitement of his style ( WL 4.21). The piano, as D’Arienzo notes, is the base of his 4.20 and

WL

orchestra,104 and pianists, like Biagi, established distinct practices such as a driving marcato and vivacious enlaces. D’Arienzo’s arrangements often included soli bandoneón variations, which demonstrate not only the section’s (often including five players) virtuosity but also superb ensemble playing.

(p.198) Carlos Di Sarli (1903–1960) Pianist and bandleader Di Sarli, known as “El Señor del Tango” (The Gentleman of Tango), established a style that exemplifies the romantic sound of the 1940s. Di Sarli was born January 7, 1903, in Bahía Blanca, a city in southern Argentina. Growing up in a highly musical family, he demonstrated early talent by touring as a pianist in a zarzuela company at age thirteen and forming his own orchestra at age sixteen. After moving to Buenos Aires in 1923 and working with a variety of ensembles, Di Sarli created his own sextet in 1927 and finally his famous orchestra in 1938. Between 1939 and 1948, Di Sarli and his orchestra recorded 158 tangos for Victor, and this body of recordings, as García Brunelli notes, represents his “most rich and famous period.”105 In 1948, the young Federico briefly played with Di Sarli’s orchestra. He remembers how challenging it was to play with the group because the parts were not well written, yet, in the end, he sums up his experience as being “the greatest mystery of my life how it sounded so good. What Di Sarli was doing on the piano amazed me.”106 Di Sarli’s orchestra continued to perform and record until the tanguero’s death on January 12, 1960. Di Sarli, too, is buried at Cementerio de la Chacarita with a statue of him at the piano. His notable compositions include “Milonguero viejo,” “Bahía Blanca,” and “Verdemar.” “Milonguero viejo” illustrates what Pugliese described as Di Sarli’s “extraordinary structure of interpretation.”107 Dedicated to Fresedo, it honors the older tanguero with its elegantly weighted salon style, leisurely yet steady tempo, lush harmonies, long expressive melodic lines, and dominating tutti sections.108 Di Sarli’s simple yet effective instrumental style emphasizes the romantic melody with a heavy rhythmic component including arrastre. Frequent changes in the accompaniment move quickly between marcato and síncopa. Di Sarli’s rich string section, typically scored in wide octaves and colored by the bandoneones, forms the backbone of his orchestra. Even as the strings serve as Page 49 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) the primary carriers of the melody, both in the romantic cantando and weighty rítmico styles, the entire section also functions as a rhythmic unit. (p.199) Di Sarli’s piano playing drives the performing practices of his orchestra. His style of marcato is clear and often in a stride-like pattern, similar to that of Francisco De Caro ( WE 4.29a).109 He often fills melodic gaps with enlaces, as evidenced in “Milonguero viejo” ( WE 4.29b). Further, if the arrangement includes a solo, it is often a piano solo demonstrating his full, chordal, and romantic style of playing. The strings and the bandoneones play a crisp, clean staccato in rítmico melodies, and they accentuate their marcato with a strong, gritty arrastre. Notes:

(1.) “que para mí es lo más importante de la interpretación del tango, lo que le da ‘swing.’” Alberto Speratti, Con Piazzolla (Buenos Aires: Galerna, Colección Testimonios, 1969), 97. (2.) Julio De Caro, El tango en mis recuerdos (Buenos Aires: Ediciones Centurion, 1964), 13. (3.) Ibid., 13–14. (4.) “Mi verdadera pasión.” De Caro, El tango en mis recuerdos, 14. (5.) Ibid., 20. (6.) Ibid., 20–24. (7.) “Cuarto y cinco veces le hacían bisar cada tango, dejando la concurrencia de bailar para eschucharlo.” Luis Rey, “Biografía,” in El tango en mis recuerdos, 356. (8.) De Caro, El tango en mis recuerdos, 35. (9.) “Deseaba para el tango lo mejor en categoria musical, colorido e interpretación adecuada, fraseos y octavados en los bandoneones, solos de violin y piano para cada pieza; en fin, algo muy especial, que ennobleciese al tango, respetando la autenticidad y la creación de autor.” De Caro, El tango en mis recuerdos, 35. (10.) Jorge Finkielman, The Film Industry in Argentina: An Illustrated Cultural History (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2003), 91. (11.) De Caro, El tango en mis recuerdos, 52–53. (12.) For a detailed description of De Caro’s recordings, see García Brunelli’s entry on De Caro in his book Discografía básica del tango, 1905-2010: su historia

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) a través de las grabaciones (Buenos Aires: Gourmet Musical Ediciones, 2010), 62–64. (13.) De Caro, El tango en mis recuerdos, 98. (14.) Ibid. (15.) “De nuevo con esta catástrofe, a organizar la orquesta, en donde una vez más mi hermano Francisco ‘puso el hombro,’ ayudándome compañeros, por un malentendido. De nuevo con esta catastrophe, a organizer la orquesta, en donde una vez más mi hermano ‘puso el hombre,’ ayudándome también a escribir, corregir y condicionar para la orquesta sinfónica, estudiando mucho a la vez, todos los registros instrumentales y, a la postre, no poder contar con mi anterior orquesta, lo que me desmoralizó totalmente y, ¿por qué no decirlo? … enorme pena.” Ibid. (16.) Ibid., 99. (17.) Ibid., 101–102. Sierra also points to Julio Perceval and Julio Rosenberg as arrangers for De Caro’s symphonic orchestra, along with Mateo La Ferla and Francisco De Caro. Luis Adolfo Sierra, Historia de la orquesta típica: evolución instrumental del tango (Buenos Aires: Corregidor, 1985), 126. (18.) Bandoneones: Carlos and Romualdo Marucci and Gabriel Clausi and Félix Lipesker; violins: himself, Luis Gutiérrez del Barrio, and Saiovich [sic, no last name given]; piano: Francisco De Caro; and bass: De Lorenzo. De Caro, El tango en mis recuerdos, 102. (19.) García Brunelli, Discografía básica del tango, 63. (20.) “Somos, no sólo hermanos de sangre, sino también de espíritu, estamos empeñados en la dignidad de la música nativa, complementándonos maravillosamente. Ninguno de los dos podría vivir sin el otro.” De Caro, El tango en mis recuerdos, 405. (21.) For an exhaustive study of tango bandoneonists, see Oscar Zucchi, El Tango, el Bandoneón, y sus Intérpretes (Buenos Aires: Ediciones Corregidor, 2001). (22.) Julio Nudler, “Pedro Laurenz,” Todotango, accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.todotango.com/english/creadores/laurenz.html. (23.) While there is not access to the score, the authors are assuming that Laurenz is playing the solo and Blasco is comping. (24.) Luis Adolfo Sierra, “Armando Blasco,” Todotango, accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.todotango.com/english/creadores/ablasco.asp. Page 51 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) (25.) “Todo cabía dentro de ese aluvión: saltellatos en el arco, pizzicatos, glizzattos, candombes y demás fiorituras, y fuese pasar su mano por la tapa trasera del instrument, de arriba a abajo o viceversa; en efectos muy especiales, metamorfoseando el instrument tal cual un tamboril, al golpearlo, emitiendo éste diversas tonalidades opacas.” De Caro, El tango en mis recuerdos, 62. (26.) Although De Caro did not actually grow up in the barrio “Boedo,” the title elicits images of a real neighborhood on the south side of Buenos Aires and a memory of the young artists and writers active there in the 1920s. For details about the literary background of “Boedo” and the artistic environment of the tango neighborhood, see Oscar Del Priore, “Story of the Tango ‘Boedo,’” Todotango, accessed September 29, 2015, http://www.todotango.com/english/history/chronicle/337/Boedo-Story-of-thetango-Boedo/, which is an English translation of Oscar Del Priore, Cien tangos fundamentales (Buenos Aires: Aguilar, 1998), 138–139. (27.) Kohan also notes how Cobián used the V+5 and suggests its origins come from the tanguero’s Liszt studies in the Conservatorio Williams. Pablo Kohan, Estudios sobre los estilos compositivos del tango (1920-1935) (Buenos Aires: Gourmet Musical Ediciones, 2010), 43. (28.) A design also used later by Bolotin in “Soniada.” (29.) “Dedico este pequeño recuerdo a mis compañeros de infancia los muchachos del barrio de ‘Boedo.’” (30.) Néstor Pinsón, “Héctor Farrel,” Todotango, accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.todotango.com/english/creadores/hfarrel.asp. (31.) “Todo el desarrollo de la labor interpretativa de la orquesta de Julio De Caro se condensa en la consabida fórmula de que “el tango es también música.” Sierra, Historia de la orquesta típica, 98. (32.) Héctor Romay, Diccionario de Lunfardo y terminología popular (Buenos Aires: Bureau Editor, 2005), 69. Also, Thompson notes that “Pichuco” is a 1940s Argentine comic strip character. Robert Farris Thompson, Tango: The Art History of Love (New York: Vintage Books, 2005), 192. (33.) Natalio Gorin, Astor Piazzolla: A Memoir, trans. Fernando González (Portland, OR: Amadeus Press, 2001), 63. (34.) Federico Silva, Informe sobre Troilo (Buenos Aires: Editorial Plus Ultra, 1978), 23.

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) (35.) “Se sentaba como hipnotizado, en los picnics y fiestas del club del barrio, al lado de los bandoneonistas de aquella época. Allí creo que fue donde nació su temprana vocación … y después convenció a mama para que le comprara un fueye. Tenía 10 años.” Ibid., 24. (36.) Ibid., 25. (37.) López describes how Troilo formed his orchestra using the members of Ortiz’s recently disbanded orchestra. Héctor López, “Aníbal Troilo, apuntes para una biografía,” in La historia del tango, Tomo 16: Aníbal Troilo (Buenos Aires: Corregidor, 1999), 2884. (38.) María Susana Azzi, “The Golden Age and After: 1920s-1990s,” in ¡Tango! The Dance, the Song, the Story, ed. Simon Collier (London: Thames and Hudson, 1995), 31. (39.) Ibid.; see also López, “Aníbal Troilo,” 2885–2886. (40.) Piazzolla wrote “Zita,” a movement in Suite Troileana (1975), in her honor. (41.) For more information, see Néstor Pinsón, “Aníbal Troilo and his appearances at the movies and at the theater,” Todotango, accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.todotango.com/english/biblioteca/CRONICAS/ troilo_cine_y_teatro.asp. (42.) “Manzi es cuestión aparte, y si mi presencia en el tango debe capitulizarse [sic], uno de los más hermosos e importantes capítulos creo que ha de obtenerse de mi vinculación con Homer Manzi.” Julián Centeya, “El bandoneón mayor de Buenos Aires,” in La historia del tango, Tomo 16: Aníbal Troilo (Buenos Aires: Corregidor, 1999), 3045. (43.) Thompson, Tango, 41. (44.) Julio Nudler, “Homero Manzi,” Todotango, accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.todotango.com/english/creadores/manzi.asp. (45.) “Hay algunos temas que son mis preferidos, mejor dicho los que más quiero: Sur y Responso… . Responso salió una noche que estábamos en mi casa; había una gente ahí jugando al bacará y yo, no sé … no sentía que estaba ahí. Eran las 4 de la madrugada, y de repente agarré, me fui a mi habitación y empecé a tocar unas notas, así hasta que salió Responso. Creo que era el mejor homenaje que podíamos hacerle a Homero.” Aníbal Pichuco Troilo, accessed September 29, 2015, http://www.troilo.com.ar/anecdotas.htm. (46.) Aside from Troilo and Grela, the 1962 ensemble included Ernesto Báez (guitarrón) and Eugenio Pró (bass).

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) (47.) “El bandoneón se le cayó de las manos.” (48.) López, “Aníbal Troilo,” 2962. (49.) Gabriel Sora, dir., Los Capos del Tango: Aníbal Troilo (Buenos Aires: Discos Magenta, 2005), DVD. (50.) Sierra, La historia de la orquesta típica, 140. (51.) In the authors’ studies with De Elía, he continuously referenced Goñi as a model to emulate and cited him as his favorite pianist. Additionally, Peralta named his tango school after the great tanguero, Escuela de Tango Orlando Goñi. (52.) Julián Peralta, “Clínicas de estilo orquestal: El estilo de Aníbal Troilo” (lecture, Tango Festival, Buenos Aires, August 17, 2009). (53.) Pablo Aslan, “Tango: Stylistic Evolution and Innovation” (Master’s thesis, University of California at Los Angeles, 1990), 18. (54.) Sora, Los Capos del Tango: Aníbal Troilo, DVD. (55.) “Hay algunos temas que son mis preferidos, mejor dicho los que más quiero: Sur y Responso.” “Historias que hacen historias,” Aníbal Pichuco Troilo, accessed September 29, 2015, http://www.troilo.com.ar/anecdotas.htm. (56.) “Es evidente que la excepcional pintura de ambientes—una acuarela de gamas cálidas y profundas—que el poeta ha logrado en ‘Sur’ me dictó la tonalidad y el ensamble de armonías … las notas y los acordes fluyen con la belleza de mensaje poética.” Del Priore, Cien tangos, 227. (57.) Such details of the composition may have captivated the contemporary composer Osvaldo Golijov (b. 1960) to arrange “Responso” for the Kronos Quartet. (58.) The technique essentially replaces a dominant seventh chord with an augmented sixth chord, where the two chords share a common tritone. (59.) We are grateful to Rafael Ortiz for allowing us access to the Korn manuscript archives and Stamponi’s arrangement. (60.) In the vocal recording with Fiorentino, only the strings play the melody in parallel sixths. (61.) Nélida Rouchetto, “Osvaldo Pugliese, su trayectoria,” in La historia del tango, vol. 14 (Buenos Aires: Ediciones Corregidor, 1979), 2493.

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) (62.) “Es para vos. Tres violinistas en la familia son demasiados.” Oscar Del Priore, Osvaldo Pugliese: Una vida en el tango (Buenos Aires: Editorial Losada, 2008), 22. (63.) Néstor Pinsón, “Osvaldo Pugliese,” Todotango, accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.todotango.com/english/creadores/opugliese.asp. (64.) Arturo M. Lozza, Osvaldo Pugliese al Colón: El maestro habla de su vida y sus luchas, 2nd ed. (Buenos Aires: Ediciones Instituto Movilizador de Fondos Cooperativos, 2003), 70. (65.) “Uno compone un motivo, lo deja, después, a la larga, lo agarra otra vez y le da otra vuelta, y así lo va hilando, haciéndole la masa.” Ibid. (66.) For more information about the original publication, See Ricardo García Blaya, “The Tango Piece ‘Recuerdo,’ a Family Secret,” Todotango, accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.todotango.com/english/biblioteca/cronicas/ recuerdo.asp. (67.) “El comunista es el abnegado, el que tiene que estar siempre al servicio de su pueblo, de los obreros, el que no claudica; para mí, el Partido es la respiración diaria.” Lozza, Osvaldo Pugliese al Colón, 59. (68.) Del Priore, Osvaldo Pugliese, 47. (69.) Ibid., 54–55. (70.) “todos participamos y todos ponemos nuestro grano de arena, tanto sea en al arreglo, tanto sea en la interpretación, en fin, en todo lo concerniente a preparar una obra… . Internamente, todos tenemos la misma oportunidad, todos, desde arriba hasta abajo, desde el que tiene la responsabilidad de la orquesta hasta el último compañero … en fin, la mayoría son grandes compositores, arregladores, intérpretes.” Del Priore, Osvaldo Pugliese, 63. (71.) Lozza, Osvaldo Pugliese al Colón, 85–86. (72.) “Queda abierta la brecha para que pasen todos los hombres que se agrupan alrededor del tango y que tengan fe en el futuro cultural de nuestra música.” Del Priore, Osvaldo Pugliese, 99. (73.) Ibid., 107. (74.) Ricardo García Blaya, “Sexteto Tango,” Todotango, accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.todotango.com/english/creadores/sexteto_tango.asp. (75.) For further study, see also María Mercedes Liska, Sembrando al viento: el estilo de Osvaldo Pugliese y la construcción de subjetividad desde el interior del tango (Buenos Aires: Centro Cultural de la Cooperación Floreal Gorini, 2005). Page 55 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) (76.) “Con ‘La yumba,’ sin modificar la creación decareana en la interpretación … consigue la síntesis de su concepción tanguística unificando composición, arreglo e interpretación orquestal.” Rouchetto, “Osvaldo Pugliese, su trayectoria,” 2518. (77.) Pugliese uses the verb se enchufan. Lozza, Osvaldo Pugliese al Colón, 99. (78.) Del Priore cites two opposite opinions about Plaza’s famous arrangement of “La mariposa” by Maffia. Piazzolla praised its musical advances, while Maffia disliked how Plaza altered his phrases from legato to cortado (cut), Del Priore, Osvaldo Pugliese, 67 and 106 respectively. ) (79.) See also Liska for a general descriptive analysis of “Gallo ciego.” Liska, Sembrando al viento, 39. (80.) “una estructura bastante más completa, más homogénea.” Lozza, Osvaldo Pugliese al Colón, 79. (81.) Ibid., 95–98. (82.) Ibid., 31. (83.) For a masterful interpretation of the appearance and disappearance of the WL 27 video of Carlos Gavito and driving yumba, see the introduction Geraldine Rojas dancing to Pugliese’s recording of “Emancipación,” particularly at 0:55. Here, as the yumba dissipates into a fraseo melodic passage, Gavito leads Rojas into a deep forward lean, pauses, and then slowly turns around on the beat as the yumba returns (called a calisita, or carousel, figure in tango dance). (84.) Julián Plaza, interviewed by Julio Keselman and Marta García Falcó between 2002 and 2003, Osvaldo Pugliese (Buenos Aires: Centro Cultural Osvaldo Pugliese, 2005), 203. (85.) Eduardo Rafael, “Osvaldo Ruggiero and His Confidences,” Todotango, accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.todotango.com/english/biblioteca/ cronicas/entrevista_oruggiero.asp. (86.) “Posiblemente hayan sido muchos los que estaban en la corriente de hacer avanzar musicalmente al tango, pero el mejor sintetizador de esa aspiración fue el sexteto de Julio De Caro.” Possibly there have been many who were in the stream who musically advanced tango, but the best synthesizer of that aspiration was the Sexteto de Julio De Caro.” Lozza, Osvaldo Pugliese al Colón 79. (87.) Del Priore, Osvaldo Pugliese, appendix I, 137–156. (88.) Ibid., 75–76. Page 56 of 58

The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) (89.) See also Liska for a penetrating discussion of Pugliese and musical time. Liska, Sembrando al viento, 45. (90.) Lozza, Osvaldo Pugliese al Colón, 39. (91.) “la expresión de la ciudad y su gente.” Del Priore, Osvaldo Pugliese, 61. (92.) “Es la expresión total del maestro. Esa obra concentró toda la creatividad de Osvaldo y lo lanzó al camino del verdadero Pugliese.” Plaza interview with Del Priore. Ibid., 72. (93.) Del Priore, Osvaldo Pugliese, appendix IV, 169–211. (94.) Julián Peralta, “Clínicas de estilo orquestal: El estilo Pugliese” (lecture, 2009 Tango Festival, Buenos Aires, August 19, 2009); and La orquesta típica: mecánica y aplicación de los fundamentos técnicos del Tango (Buenos Aires: Departamento de Impresiones de la H.C.D de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, 2008) 26; see also illustrations of motivic development on pp. 27–28. (95.) The measure numbers in the analysis correspond to the piano score available on todotango.com up to the sign following m. 37 that indicates the return to m. 2. From there, continue to count measures as m. 38, but omit m. 3 and count m. 4 as m. 39 (makes the “collapsed two-bar phrase”). At the end of m. 73, the violin cadenza initiates a nine-bar coda, so, whereas the piano score ends in m. 74, this analysis counts a total of 81 measures. (96.) Graciano calls this passage a puente transitivo (transitional bridge) in his analysis of “La yumba” in his Cátedra de análisis musical (unpublished manuscript, 2003), 39. (97.) Both Peralta (in La orquesta típica, 26, and his 2009 lecture “Clínicas de estilo orquestal”) and Graciano (in Cátedra de análisis musical, 39) actually call this a “development” section and use other terms associated with classical sonata form in their discussions of “La yumba.” (98.) Lozza, Osvaldo Pugliese al Colón, 97. (99.) Los Capos del Tango: Juan D’Arienzo (Buenos Aires: BGM Industrias del Discos S.A. Discos Magenta, 2005). (100.) Ibid. (101.) Omar García Brunelli, Discografía básica del tango: su historia a través de las grabaciones (Buenos Aires: Gourmet Musical Ediciones, 2010), 61. (102.) Lozza, Osvaldo Pugliese al Colón, 97.

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The Guardia Nueva and the Golden Age (1932–1955) (103.) José Gobello, “Juan D’Arienzo,” Todotango, accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.todotango.com/creadores/biografia/32/Juan-DArienzo/ (104.) Ibid. (105.) García Brunelli, Discografía báscia del tango, 66. (106.) “Es el misterio más grande de mi vida cómo sonaba tan bien. Lo que hacía Di Sarli en el piano me asombraba.” Jorge Dimov and Esther Echenbaum Jonisz, Leopoldo Federico: el inefable bandoneón del tango (Buenos Aires: Gourmet Musical Ediciones, 2009), 42. (107.) “una estructura de interpretación extraorinario.” Lozza, Osvaldo Pugliese al Colón, 97. (108.) Many tango scholars attribute Di Sarli’s style to Fresedo, including García Brunelli, Discografía báscia del tango, 66, and Sierra, Historia de la Orquesta Típica, 144. (109.) Julián Peralta, “Clínicas de estilo orquestal: El estilo de Di Sarli” (lecture, Tango Festival, Buenos Aires, August 18, 2009).

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990)

Tracing Tangueros: Argentine Tango Instrumental Music Kacey Link and Kristin Wendland

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780199348220 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: March 2016 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199348220.001.0001

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) Kacey Link Kristin Wendland

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199348220.003.0006

Abstract and Keywords This chapter continues tracing the trajectory of tango’s stylistic development. It discusses four towering tangueros of the post–Golden Age: Horacio Salgán, Astor Piazzolla, Julián Plaza, and Leopoldo Federico. It illustrates how these tangueros moved tango out of the dance hall and into the concert hall for listening. The chapter then offers another cafecito to discuss Rodolfo Mederos and Néstor Marconi. These two influential bandoneonists transitioned the tango from the post–Golden Age to the “Music of Buenos Aires.” Keywords:   Horacio Salgán, Astor Piazzolla, Julián Plaza, Leopoldo Federico, Rodolfo Mederos, Néstor Marconi, post–Golden Age

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) Horacio Salgán (b. 1916) Pianist, composer, and arranger Horacio Salgán captures the Golden Age sound and refines it into his elegant post–Golden Age style. Viewing himself humbly as simply one in the line of tango’s history, he arranges tango standards alongside creating original compositions. In both categories, Salgán encapsulates core melodic, rhythmic, (p.201) and instrumental elements from tango’s roots to create a polished instrumental style. Like De Caro, Salgán’s classical training informs his nuanced and playful aesthetic, and his style contrasts the heavily grounded Golden Age tone emphasizing tristeza. In this case study, we offer a brief biographical sketch and examine his performance, arranging, and compositional style. Then, we analyze his “A fuego lento” to represent his style.

Biographical Background

Photo 5.1. Horacio Salgán in 2014. Photo by Cesár Salgán. Used by permission.

Salgán was born June 15, 1916, in the Abasto neighborhood of Buenos Aires. His parents, Don Adolfo Cecilio Salgán and Doña Emma Méndez de Salgán, had a love of music and his father played both guitar and piano. As a child, Salgán had an affinity for anything that produced sound and at age six he began playing piano.1 Salgán demonstrated exceptional talent as a musician, and at age thirteen, he entered the Conservatorio Municipal to study classical music. As a student, he progressed rapidly and received the highest honors for his playing. Also at the conservatory, Salgán became intrigued by popular music, specifically tango, and he went to silent movie theaters just to hear such musicians as De Caro perform.2 At age fourteen, Salgán himself began playing for silent films to finance his musical studies.3 Playing tango and other popular genres, Salgán performed solo for the matinee film and with a small ensemble consisting of violin, bandoneón, and occasionally saxophone for the evening film. He also played at the café El Gato Negro, and at age sixteen, he even worked as an organist at the Iglesia de San Antonio.

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) By age eighteen, Salgán began to make waves in the tango world by playing for popular radio stations including the famous Radio Belgrano, as well as Excelsior, Prieto, Fénix, and Stentor. On the radio, he performed both as a soloist and as an accompanist to singers in a variety of musical styles including tango, waltzes, folklórico, tropical and Brazilian rhythms, and jazz.4 Firpo heard the rising star on Radio Belgrano and asked the twenty-year-old Salgán to join his orchestra. Firpo’s orchestra played regularly on Radio Belgrano, as well as at various clubs throughout Buenos Aires. With (p.202) Firpo, Salgán learned to internalize the musical elements of tango as the orchestra did not use concrete arrangements and each player had to understand his role within the orchestra.5 During Salgán’s early adulthood, he performed and arranged with a variety of other ensembles. For Caló’s orchestra, he arranged Canaro’s “Los indios,” notably his first professional arrangement. He also played with Alberto Cima’s orchestra in the cabaret “Bambú.” In 1942, he recorded his piano solo “Choro en fa sostenido” for the Simar label. Despite his early success in tango, Salgán never identified himself solely as a tanguero. He states in Ursini’s biography, “I never felt like a composer. I dreamed of being a classical pianist. But, evidently the other was my destiny.”6 In 1944, Salgán assembled his first orchestra, which debuted on Radio Belgrano. It consisted of four bandoneones, four violins, viola, cello, bass, piano, and voice. With this orchestra, he composed and arranged the repertory, as well as directed and played the piano. His creative drive to play in his own tango style was the impetus to form his own ensemble: I began composing because I wanted to make tango a certain way. Not with the idea of being a composer but with playing tangos the way I liked. The same happened with the orchestra… . To me I was interested in this: my vocation is purely pianistic. Without any pretense to create something. Only to play in my way, that is a necessity.7 Unlike many orchestras of the time, Salgán’s ensemble was not a dance band; rather, it presented music for listening through a diverse repertory of tango.8 This early orchestra lasted for only about three years, and unfortunately, there are no recordings of it. Salgán formed his second orchestra in 1950. Unlike the first orchestra, the second orchestra made recordings with RCA Victor, Music Hall, the Uruguayan label Antar Telefunken, and Phillips.9 The orchestra’s repertory featured tangos of the previous generations such as Bardi’s “Gallo (p.203) ciego” and De Caro’s “Boedo,” as well as Salgán’s own compositions “A fuego lento,” “Don Agustín Bardi,” “La llamo silbando,” and “Grillito.”

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) Notable members of both the 1940s and 1950s orchestras include bandoneonists Abelardo Alfonsín, Baffa, Federico, and Rodríguez; violinists Carmelo Cavalaro and Víctor Felice; cellist Adriano Fanelli; bassist Ángel Alegre; and singers Ángel Díaz, Goyeneche, and Rivero. Many members of Salgán’s orchestras came from or went on to other ensembles, probably carrying elements of the maestro’s tango style with them. For example, Rivero sang with De Caro’s orchestra before joining Salgán’s ensemble and later sang with Troilo. Goyeneche later sang with both Troilo’s and Piazzolla’s ensembles, while Rodríguez was a staple in Troilo’s first orchestra. Federico played in the orchestras of Cobián, Gobbi, Di Sarli, Troilo, and Piazzolla and ultimately created an iconic orchestra of his own. When tango’s Golden Age ended in the mid-1950s, Salgán’s large orchestra disbanded and he formed two exquisite smaller ensembles: a duo with guitarist De Lío (who was later a part of Troilo’s quartet) and the Quinteto Real. De Lío and Salgán created their partnership in 1959, premiering at the club Jamaica. The duo achieved much success and recorded for Phillips; it also toured internationally including the United States, France, and Italy. In 1960, Salgán formed his famous Quinteto Real, which debuted on Radio El Mundo. The ensemble combined the Salgán–De Lío Duo with the Enrique Mario Francini–Rafael Ferro violin/bass duo and added bandoneonist Laurenz. With this ensemble, Salgán created a strong connection with De Caro by incorporating Laurenz, a member of De Caro’s famous sextet, into his own chamber ensemble. There was one major personnel change, in 1962, when bassist Kicho Díaz replaced Ferro. During the 1960s, the ensemble performed regularly throughout Buenos Aires and even toured Japan and Europe. The ensemble recorded thirty-five tangos between 1960 and 196110 and also released the two-volume LP Quinteto Real en Japón.11 As with many tangueros, the 1970s were very quiet for Salgán most likely due to the political climate; however, Salgán persevered and prospered through the 1980s and 1990s. After a short hiatus with his quintet, Salgán created the Nuevo Quinteto Real in the 1980s. Federico replaced Laurenz and Antonio Agri took the place of Francini in this ensemble. This group recorded another album in Japan. Then, in the 1990s, there was yet another personnel shift to include bandoneonist Marconi, violinist Peressini, and bassist Giunta. This ensemble achieved great success in Argentina, performing at such venues as the Club del Vino in Buenos Aires, and Carlos (p.204) Saura featured it in his 1998 film Tango. Also in the 1990s, Salgán composed the eight-movement Oratorio Carlos Gardel with text by Ferrer for orchestra, piano, bandoneón, mixed chorus, soloists, and speaker. In 2003, Salgán retired from the stage; however, his ensembles continue to carry on his legacy under the direction of his pianist son César Salgán. The Orquesta de Salgán plays for many large events in Buenos Aires, including its legendary Page 4 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) performance at the 2011 Tango Festival with guest bandoneonists Marconi, Mosalini, Pane, and Federico ( WV 5.1). In 2012, the city of Buenos Aires honored Salgán and his orchestra with a tribute at the Teatro Colón, again featuring notable bandoneonists. The duo, now composed of César and guitarist Esteban Falabella, performs frequently and tours internationally in Europe, South America, and Asia. The Quinteto Real also performs regularly and toured Brazil, Colombia, and China in 2010 to celebrate its fiftieth anniversary. The ensemble now consists of bandoneonist Corrales, violinist Peressini, guitarist Falabella, bassist Navarro, and pianist César Salgán.

Salgán’s Tango Style Overview

Salgan’s style strikes a brilliant balance between tradition and innovation. He represents how post–Golden Age tangueros synthesized their musical activities as performers, arrangers, and, most significantly, composers to create their own distinct voice. According to him, the roles of tango arranger and composer merge into one creative act: “You have to consider that the arranger is actually a multiple composer, as above the base of a melody, one should develop other melodies, other rhythms, other things to really justify the arrangement.”12 In contrast to Golden Age tangueros like De Caro, Troilo, and Pugliese, Salgán either composed or arranged all of the tangos in his repertory. We focus here on the traits of Salgán’s instrumental tango style as represented by “A fuego lento,” “Aquellos tangos camperos,” “Boedo,” “Don Agustín Bardi,” “Gallo ciego,” “Grillito,” “La llamo silbando,” and “Vida mía” ( WL 5.1).13 We largely draw on Salgán’s early recordings and scores (see WL 5.2 for Salgán piano scores available (p.205) online) from the 1950s for orchestra, as they are the most accessible to the reader on the Internet and in print. Since Salgán’s arranging, composition, and performing style remained consistent throughout his long career, the features in his orchestral works transfer to his chamber arrangements, as heard in the two versions of “Gallo ciego” and “A fuego lento.” Salgán’s Arranging Style and Instrumentation

As a post–Golden Age tanguero, Salgán experimented with new instruments in his orchestra even as he expanded the standard tango ensemble. In addition to incorporating viola, cello, and guitar, he experimented with blending orchestral and percussive timbres. He sought to “enrich the rhythm of tango” like jazz, specifically in the 1963 recordings of the two pieces “Con bombo legüero” and “Tango del balanceo.”14 Salgán was especially enamored with the bass clarinet. He included it in his manuscript score for “Aquellos tangos camperos” and in such 1960s orchestral recordings as “Siga el corso” and “La última curda.” On the other side of the instrumental spectrum, Salgán also formed smaller ensembles, most notably his Quinteto Real and long-standing duo with De Lío.

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) Salgán’s arranging style moves beyond the standard tango instrumental narrative divisions of the bandoneones/strings carrying the melody and the piano/bass forming the rhythm section. The instruments fluidly change roles, as Salgán seamlessly moves between melodic and accompanimental styles. The master tanguero describes how emphasizing the melody is his primary arranging concern: “When I make an arrangement, I first keep a deep and abiding respect for melody and never neglect the leitmotif of the work, which has to be identifiable.”15 Sharply articulated rítmico melodies predominate. They typically begin his tangos, as heard in all of the arrangements discussed here except for “Vida mía,” which honors Fresedo’s romantic melody. Salgán incorporates a cantando style to offset his preponderance of rítmico tunes, often even within the same phrase. For example, the first phrase of the B section of “Gallo ciego” begins rítmico and then contrasts to cantando, and the second phrase reverses the order. Salgán employs the standard marcato and síncopa accompanimental rhythms, yet, freed from the need to drive dancers, they take a back seat (p. 206) to the all-important melody. In the A section of “Don Agustín Bardi,” for example, the bass provides a light síncopa accompaniment to the rítmico melody in the piano, yet it sounds more like a contrapuntal dialogue than a heavy rhythmic support. In keeping with his belief in the supremacy of the melody, Salgán’s prevailing contrapuntal texture also reflects his mastery of multiple melodic lines. For example, in the final return of the A section in “Gallo ciego,” he adds a new cantando violin countermelody as the bandoneones quietly pulse a skeleton of the main rítmico tune. Then, after beginning the coda with bandoneón variations, he adds a varied reprise of the main rítmico motive played in counterpoint by the violins (arranged as single parts in the quintet version). Quick changes in orchestration, both between and within phrases, also contribute to Salgán’s cool and airy sound. He treats the instruments in his ensembles with seemingly effortless and ever-shifting roles between melody, countermelody, accompanimental rhythm, or fills. First and foremost, the piano forms the backbone of his various tango formations. Throughout his long career, the maestro’s ever-present piano sound consistently identifies his instrumental style as it weaves constantly through the texture in various roles. Salgán treats the bandoneones like a second piano, casting melodies in bright, high registers to produce his characteristic light and airy tone color. In the opening of “Don Agustín Bardi,” for example, the piano first presents the melody in the upper treble octave, and then the bandoneones repeat in voices in the same register. Salgán tends to score the strings below the piano and bandoneones to color tutti sections and to accentuate rhythms with percussive yeites, as in the tambor and chicharra in the opening of “Don Agustín Bardi.” In addition, the warm strings usually carry cantando melodies to contrast the brighter tone of the piano and bandoneones on rítmico melodies, as in the C section of “Boedo.”

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) In his orchestral arrangements, where he carefully notates exact fraseos, adornos, and arrastres, Salgán manages his performing forces to playfully trade off between tutti, soli, and solo passages. His masterful and quick changes in orchestration in “Gallo ciego,” for example, begin with the traditional tutti, but the piano soon emerges with a high countermelody. Salgán then features a piano solo in the B section, and he assigns equal interplay among the soli bandoneones and strings in the trio as they exchange roles between melody and countermelody. In the introduction to “Boedo,” Salgán employs an elegant additive orchestration in lieu of De Caro’s string soli pizzicato, where the piano begins in the upper register, then the strings join in pizzicato, and finally the bandoneones end the phrase with a final flourish. In place of De Caro’s bandoneón duet in the B section, Salgán (p.207) arranges a brilliant piano solo, complete with melody, countermelody, and a linear bass line, then features the traditional cantando violin solo in the B′ section. The 1964 orchestral recording of “A fuego lento” illustrates many subtle nuances of how Salgán manages his performing forces, especially the final variations featuring each major instrumental color in order of piano, violins, and bandoneones. The intimacy of Salgán’s chamber arrangements especially highlights playful shifts of instrumental roles and orchestration. For example, although the bandoneón begins with the melody in the soundtrack version of “A fuego lento,” Salgán initiates the melody on the piano in the 1960 Quinteto Real recording and then continues to weave it throughout the texture in the prominent upper register. The sparkling call-and-response passage between the piano and bandoneón in the B section is another example of how he treats the two keyboard instruments almost equally. The guitar forms an integral part of Salgán’s rhythm section in the quintet arrangements, yet will join on the melody in tutti passages, as heard in the quintet versions of both “A fuego lento” ( WL 5.3) and “Gallo ciego” ( WL 5.4), Salgán’s intimate duo recordings with De Lío feature a much more equal give and take between melody and accompanimental roles, as heard in “Vida mía” and “Aquellos tangos camperos.” Salgán’s Compositional Style

Salgán’s elegant compositional style demonstrates De Caro’s axiom that “tango is also music.” Framed in predominantly baroquelike contrapuntal textures, Salgán’s compositions feature finely crafted melodic lines, crisply articulated rhythms, innovative chromatic harmonies, and expanded three-part formal structures. Like Pugliese, Salgán adapted musical elements from Argentine folkloric style in his tangos, and he composed numerous works outside the genre including Argentine zambas, Brazilian choros, and the eight-movement work titled Oratorio Carlos Gardel. We base our discussion here on five of his representative tango compositions. Like De Caro, some of Salgán’s titles describe playful themes, such as “A fuego lento,” “Grillito,” and “La llamo

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) silbando,” while others directly relate to the history and culture of tango itself, such as “Don Agustín Bardi” and “Aquellos tangos camperos.” Traditional rítmico and cantando tango melodic styles contrast in Salgán’s compositions, yet, as in his arrangements, he noticeably favors lively syncopated rítmico tunes. Many spin out from short motivic cells, like the A melody of “Don Agustín Bardi.” This particular melody harkens back to typical guardia (p.208) vieja neighbor tone (NT) motive-driven melodies by Bardi himself. Salgán’s opening two-bar melody begins with a written-out chromatic NT figure around 5̂, arpeggiates the pitches of the tonic triad, and then spins around them chromatically with passing tones (PTs) and NTs ( WE 5.1). Such chromatically elaborated motives drive many of Salgán’s rítmico tangos, such as the ascending motive in “A fuego lento,” the descending motive in “La llamo silbando,” and the simple yet playful chirping motive in “Grillito.” Salgán also punctuates ends of phrases and sections with motivic rítmico cadential patterns, such as the practically identical cadential spin around 5̂ ascending to 1̂ at the close of the A sections in “Don Agustín Bardi” and “Grillito.” Salgán most often uses contrasting cantando melodies in his B sections, as in “Don Agustín Bardi,” “Grillito,” and “A fuego lento” ( WE 5.5). In each of these tangos, however, the lyrical style quickly gives way to rítmico restatements of the B melody. Similarly, both the B and D sections in “Aquellos tangos camperos” feature cantando melodies as they invoke the memory of early tango “from the country,” yet they too are immediately followed by chromatically embellished rítmico contrasts. As a master of melody, Salgán weaves intricate contrapuntal strands to create predominantly linear, rather than chordal, textures. He frequently adds new countermelodies to the return of a main melodic idea, as in the violin cantando lines in “La llamo silbando” and “Don Agustín Bardi.” His more refined linear techniques elaborate a main melodic idea through inversion and imitation. For example, in the A section of “A fuego lento,” he sets the main melody in counterpoint to its inversion ( WE 5.4a), while in “Grillito,” he incorporates fragments of exact imitation between the piano and the bandoneón ( WE 5.2). Salgán creates contrapuntal textures in his variations, as in “Don Agustín Bardi,” where the strings play a new chromatic cantando countermelody against the final variation phrase in the bandoneones. While Salgán’s accompaniment patterns quickly alternate between marcato and síncopa, his original signature umpa-umpa rhythm stamps his style. Salgán first coined the term ritmo del balanceo for this technique, alluding to the sound of “clacking coconuts,” in his “Tango del balanceo.”16 Inspired by a sound he first heard in a Buddhist temple in Japan, he also calls it la gota de agua (the drop of water).17 In this book, we refer to the technique as umpa-umpa as commonly accepted by tangueros. Salgán also draws on the 3-3-2 milonga campera pattern, Page 8 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) as in the opening of “Aquellos tangos camperos” that accompanies the melody based on the bordoneo figure to invoke the “tango of the country.” Another key feature of rhythm in Salgán’s compositional style (p.209) is the prevalence of the classic tango upbeat-downbeat metric phrase beginnings coupled with a weak-strong harmonic rhythm, as in “Grillito,” “Don Agustín Bardi,” and “A fuego lento.” Within the core diatonic framework of popular music harmonic language, Salgán expands his harmonic palette to include jazzy augmented and extended chords, mixture chords, chromatic predominants, and even abrupt tonal shifts. Colorful passing chords and transitions between sections exhibit his masterful control of chromaticism, as in “Aquellos tangos camperos,” “Grillito,” and “A fuego lento” ( WE 5.5). “Grillito” illustrates many instances of Salgán’s rich chromatic harmony, including mode mixture, chromatic neighbor chords, chromatic descending fifths, augmented chords, Neapolitan sixth chords, and chords with the added sixth. It also incorporates an unusual tango key scheme between the tonic and submediant in both the B and C sections (G minor to E♭ major). An even more remarkable tonal shift occurs in the B section of “La llamo silbando,” where Salgán suddenly moves between the chromatic thirds G major and B major. While not as tonally surprising, “A fuego lento” modulates to the key of the subdominant in the final section of variations, never to return to the original tonic. In all of his compositions, Salgán rarely strays from the standard two-, four-, and eight-bar groups forming sixteen-, twenty-four-, or even thirty-two-bar sections so typical in tango. Salgán claims, “I never write with a preconceived plan or a mold or ‘form.’ The form arises from the creation of the parts.”18 Regardless of large-scale design, Salgán’s A sections typically contain two or three repeated eight-bar phrases, either exact or varied, to establish the main musical idea of the composition. “Aquellos tangos camperos” perhaps best represents his intuitive approach to form. The set is structured like a selección (medley) of tango melodies, where five distinct sections of repeated or double periods are smoothly linked together by transitions. His other compositions, however, are cast in various types of three-part structures. “Don Agustín Bardi” reimagines the guardia vieja A B trio design as an arch form ABCBA followed by a coda with bandoneón variations. “Grillito,” another elaborated three-part design, conflates a return of both B and C. After a standard da capo return, Salgán writes out the first four-bar phrase of B, cuts to a final four-bar phrase of C, and then follows with a coda that develops the octave motive from C with campanas and the chromatic descending fifth sequences. Salgán’s refined compositional craft advances tango to a new level of finesse. A more detailed look at “La llamo silbando” presents a remarkable (p.210) example of his compositional economy of means, where he unifies a musical idea across multiple elements of melody, harmony, rhythm, and orchestration Page 9 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) (Example 5.1). A distinctive two-note “whistle motive,”19 scored high in the violin as a sixteenth-note rising fourth, initiates the tango with a chromatic sequence outlining a descending step E-E♭. Then the bandoneón answers with a chromatic turning figure that spins around D and carries the line back to E. Salgán frames this playful call-and-answer figure into a two-bar phrase, where the piano traces the essential chromatic descending E-E♭-D line in a legato melody supported by chromatic descending A-A♭-G progression. This chromatic melodic idea saturates the A section and recurs throughout the entire tango. In the A section, Salgán works out the legato descending motive through a chromatic descending fifths sequence, while he weaves the rising fourth violin “whistle” motive high above in counterpoint. The two-bar chromatic “whistle” motive reappears in the B section as an answer to the contrasting cantando melody. In the variations, the bandoneones first trace the motive in diminution, and then the strings add a reprise of the main legato line as a countermelody. Salgán pushes the (p.211) tutti forward to conclude the tango and tags on a coda to slow the tempo and extend the phrase. He concludes with his typical “chan-chan” sounding squarely on the strong beats 1 and 3 with forte-piano dynamics. Salgán’s Performance Style

From the formal attire of his ensembles (including his signature white shoes) to the refined quality of his sound, Salgán’s performance style is as elegant as his compositions and arrangements.20 Further, he inextricably links his performance style to his compositional ideas and arranging techniques. Within his works, he often creates complex textures with melodies, countermelodies, accompaniment patterns, and even percussive effects. The

Example 5.1. “La llamo silbando,” mm. 1–2, whistle motive and chromatic harmony (copied from the manuscript score in Arreglos para orquesta, 87). Note, in the 1952 recording, Salgán only plays the chromatic motive in the lower left-hand octave, and the violins play harmonics.

different instruments exchange textural roles regularly, and an individual instrument or instrument section’s prominence within the overall texture fluctuates accordingly. Thus, understanding each instrument’s role and how it fits within the texture at any given time is an important aspect of Salgán’s performance style. Additionally, since Salgán believes that melody is of the utmost importance in composition and arranging, melodies and/or Page 10 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) countermelodies carry the most dynamic weight in performance. For example, in “Don Agustín Bardi,” the piano opens with the melody at a mezzo forte dynamic level. Then, the bandoneones take over the melody, and the piano subsides to an accompanimental role at a lower dynamic level. While this is a very basic example of “bringing out the melody,” the piece continues as the various instruments constantly change dynamic levels as they weave in and out of prominent roles within the texture. The second concept of performance practice related to Salgán’s composition and arranging style is the contrast of articulations, specifically between staccato and legato in melodic lines. Salgán’s ensembles play rítmico melodies with a crisp, airy staccato as in “A fuego lento” ( WL 5.3). Salgán himself employs wrist and/ or finger staccato technique, while the violinists often use a spiccato stroke and the bandoneonists spring the instrument on their lap. Navarro links the light pizzicato of the bass to bouncing a ball with the right hand.21 Salgán’s ensembles play cantando melodies with a (p.212) legato technique that creates a lush, romantic sound, as in “La llamo silbando.” In this tango, the violinists also exaggerate the legato stroke with numerous portamentos and slides. In addition to articulations, accents are integral to Salgán and his ensemble’s performance practices. Just like Salgán sprinkles accents throughout his rítmico melodies as a composer and arranger, he plays accents in the same light character in rítmico melodies as a performer. Thus, Salgán’s accents offer heightened buoyancy to the melodic line by functioning as a springboard in his ensembles. This style directly contrasts that of Pugliese or Piazzolla, which emphasizes heaviness. While all of the examples discussed here demonstrate the execution of accents, it is the easiest to hear the refined quality of his performance practices in the Nuevo Quinteto Real version of “A fuego lento.” Salgán’s ensembles perform accompanimental patterns in support of the leggiero (light) quality of the melodies. Salgán himself employs a marcato where his right arm flies in the air as he changes chord inversions moving down in register (notably, a style that he passes on to Possetti). Arrastres are present, as in “Boedo,” yet like the tanguero’s accents, they are not overpowering. Salgán’s signature rhythmic technique umpa-umpa also contributes to the tanguero’s buoyant style as the ensemble, particularly De Lío, emphasizes the offbeats with an accented staccato sound. Further, while the accompanimental patterns provide foundational support, they do have as much presence as the melody. In terms of dynamics, Salgán balances the accompaniment substantially underneath the melody. Salgán also incorporates numerous special effects throughout his compositions and arrangements. As evidenced in “Don Agustín Bardi” and “A fuego lento,” the violinists use a variety of yeites ranging from chicharra to perro. In “La llamo silbando,” they even perform the “whistle” motive in false harmonics (although Page 11 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) not specified in the manuscript score). The bassists and the bandoneonists also create percussive sounds by tapping on the instrument. In “A fuego lento,” the bassist employs another technique where he slides his hand on the body of the instrument, creating a squeaking sound. The bandoneones and the violins combine yeites of tapping on the keys and chicharra, respectively, to make a lightly brushed drum sound in the opening of “Grillito.”22 While Salgán meticulously notates many of his desired performance practices, such as dynamics, articulation, and yeites, his unique use of time is not a notated practice. Despite Salgán’s frequent upbeat tempos, his (p.213) performances frequently do not drive forward. This is due to a performance practice described by Navarro as tempo relajado, literally meaning relaxed tempo.23 With this practice, the beat remains constant, but where one plays within the beat changes. Thus, one can essentially play on the beat, on the back of the beat, or ahead of the beat. For example, in “Aquellos tangos camperos,” Salgán switches between playing on the back of the beat and ahead of the beat, while maintaining a fairly consistent tempo. Navarro maintains that tempo relajado presents one of the most challenging traits of Salgán’s performance style.24 Lastly, while all of the instruments play significant roles in Salgán’s ensembles, the piano is at the core of the Salgán sound. In a discussion about Salgán’s style at the 2010 Tango Festival, Corrales stated that while the solos were equally distributed among the instruments, the piano was of the utmost importance.25 He went on to state that Salgán’s quintet, in particular, centers around the piano while the other instruments support it.26 As such, Salgán offers numerous opportunities in his compositions and arrangements to showcase the piano. In both solo and cadenzalike sections, he demonstrates his strong background in classical music with superb technique. He exhibits his dexterity with refined articulations and passagework, such as in his solo in “Boedo.” In “A fuego lento,” his solo demonstrates bravura with the virtuosic alternation of hands. Further, while not apparent on all of the recordings due to technology limitations, Salgán plays with a warm, round sound that again reflects the elegance of his compositions and arrangements.

Analysis: “A fuego lento” (1951) by Horacio Salgán Overview

“A fuego lento,” one of Salgán’s most famous tangos and a standard in the “modern” tango repertory, nearly fell into oblivion. The composer states it is “possibly the most ‘vanguardist’ of all my tangos,”27 and for this reason he would have omitted it from his regular concert list. Fortunately, after an audience member requested him to play it at a concert, the piece (p.214) was so well received that Salgán kept it in his working repertory.28 Salgán credits Rossini’s famous bass aria “La calunnia è un venticello” from Il barbiere di Siviglia he heard as a young boy in the Teatro Colón as inspiring the idea that “something happens without interruption—and in crescendo.”29 Just as a “little Page 12 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) wind” builds to a huge force accompanied by a great crescendo in “La calunnia,” “A fuego lento” builds a “slow fire,” as the title suggests, with incessant motivic development and transformation. Salgán arranged “A fuego lento” for orchestra, quintet, piano-guitar duo, two pianos, and piano solo. He recalls its orchestra premiere in 1953 and subsequent recordings in 1955 and 1964, a recording with Quinteto Real in 1960, and a duo recording with De Lío in 1976.30 Salgán performed the quintet version in Saura’s film Tango, and “A fuego lento” remains a staple in the reformed Quinteto Real and Orquesta Salgán repertory. Many other musicians have arranged and recorded the famous tango. It has even crossed over into the classical realm in the hands of pianist Daniel Barenboim (on CD Mi Buenos Aires querido (1996) with bandoneonist Mederos and bassist Console) and conductor Gustavo Dudamel with the Berlin Philharmonic. Web Link 5.3

offers a sampling of various performances of “A fuego lento.”

A detailed analysis of “A fuego lento” both exemplifies Salgán’s elegant compositional style and illustrates his core tanguero musical philosophy that the melody must be clearly articulated. Whether expressed in a rítmico or cantando style, Salgán’s light and airy melodic lines build from coherent motives masterfully worked out through disguised and varied repetition. Within the predominantly contrapuntal texture, clean marcato, síncopa, and his characteristic umpa-umpa accompanimental patterns with pronounced arrastre provide a supporting role. In the manuscript score, Salgán carefully notates chicharra and tambor and annotates other techniques such as madera (wood, as in the Italian instruction col legno) and ritmos, etc. to reinforce percussive and rhythmic elements. Salgán draws from a richly chromatic and somewhat jazzy tonal palette to include extended chords, augmented chords, altered dominants, Neapolitan and augmented sixth chords, and chromatic melodic embellishments. While phrases flow in standard two-, four-, and eight-bar groups, Salgán expands the standard Golden Age tango two-part form to a true ternary ABA form delineated by the tonal key relations and distinctly contrasting melodic idea. (See (p.215) the Companion Website for the “A fuego lento” Listening Chart and corresponding audio link,

WF 5.1).

Close Reading

The following analysis of “A fuego lento” takes the reader through each section of the tango’s form and highlights specific examples of Salgán’s polished compositional style. The analytical examples are drawn from Salgán’s manuscript arrangement for orchestra,31 which the Listening Chart of the 1964 recording follows almost exactly, and the published piano score ( WL 5.2). Figure 5.1 illustrates the overall ternary form and the phrase structure within each section of “A fuego lento.” Measure numbers correspond to the piano score, since it is more readily available for reference than the manuscript, with the following changes: the A section includes a third phrase of varied repetition of

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) mm. 9–17 and counted as mm. 17–25 (written out in the orchestra arrangement), and the B section begins to be counted as m. 26. A Section (mm. 1–25)

Salgán constructs the A section of “A fuego lento” in three varied eight-bar phrases, a, a′, and a′′. Each phrase follows the same harmonic structure as it works out the tango’s main motive x in three two-bar subphrases, followed by a contrasting two-bar cadential

Figure 5.1. Overall form and phrase structure of “A fuego lento.”

pattern on a new motive y ( WF 5.2). (p.216) Salgán initiates the first phrase ( WE 5.3) with only the tense rítmico motive (x) played tutti, and then the accompaniment joins to anchor it with steady marcato accompaniment. From the ornamented rising stepwise figure, the melody spins out in three two-bar gestures. The first two gestures span a rising third from B♭ to D and include the jazzy ♯4̂ passing tone. The third gesture expands the line to a rising fourth B♭ to E♭ over the harmonic change to iv. Salgán designs the hypermeter in each two-bar group in the classic tango upbeat-downbeat metric organization coupled with weak-strong harmonic motion. On the third reiteration, Salgán subtly changes the pattern to span a rising step B♭ to C, which in turn sets up the contrasting and syncopated y motive. He immediately repeats this sequentially to create a two-bar cadential pattern, leading to a strong conclusion. In a′ (mm. 9–17a), Salgán introduces a new countermelody based on motive x in inversion played by the bandoneones in counterpoint to the original motive x in the violins ( WE 5.4a). In the second and more emphatic a′′ (mm. 17–25a), Salgán fortifies the orchestration by doubling the inverted motive x in the piano an octave above in the first two subphrases. Then, in the third subphrase (mm. 21–22), only the inverted motive x sounds in the bandoneones while the violins subtly add the umpa-umpa rhythm in tambor (

WE 5.4b).

B Section (mm. 26–57a)

The B section of “A fuego lento” presents a more complex formal and harmonic organization of four varied four-bar phrases, b, b′, b′′, and b′′′, followed by two 8bar phrases, c and c′ ( WF 5.3). Salgán elegantly links the keys of the A and B sections, G minor and B♭ major, through a chromatically descending top-line GG♭-F, supported by a Gm-G♭7-F7 progression (note the G♭7 is an enharmonic German augmented sixth chord in B♭). Then, a new and expansive fraseo motive z played tutti sweeps upward to span a sixth and turns around in a descending “sighing” gesture through an accented NT. As in the a phrase, Salgán initiates the b phrase with the classic tango upbeat-downbeat phrase rhythm. He Page 14 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) continues the accented melodic dissonance in the “sigh” gesture sequentially as a three-note group to the end of the phrase. Web Example 5.5 illustrates the transition between the first and second section and the b phrase of the B section. The next three phrases (b′, b′′, and b′′′) work out motive z as Salgán develops both the rising scale and “sigh” gestures in the melody ( WE 5.6). Even as he oscillates between the tonal centers of B♭ and G minor, Salgán maintains tonal coherence by beginning each phrase with a C minor (p.217) harmony to function as either a ii or iv chord. First, a descending chromatic fill in parallel tenths in the piano links the b to b′ phrase (mm. 30–33) and carries the harmony back to G minor via a ii6-V7-I progression. In b′, Salgán expands the fraseo z motive to span a m7 and again reharmonizes the sequential “sigh” motive with a harmonic sequence of chromatic descending fifths (E♭7-A♭-D7-Gm). Surprisingly, motive x from the A section appears in the inner voices in m. 33 as a chromatic enlace played by the strings, which charges the next two phrases with contrasting rítmico energy. The b′′ phrase (mm. 34–37) again expands motive z to span a m7, yet redirects the tonal center back to B♭. Once more, Salgán ingeniously alludes to the rhythm and articulation of motive x in the chromatic NT figure embellishing the “sigh” gesture as it spins out sequentially. A deceptive resolution of the F7 concludes b′′, producing yet another reference to G minor, while a rhythmic umpa-umpa enlace chromaticizes the harmony to V7/iiin the piano and links to the b′′′ phrase (mm. 38–41). In this fourth iteration, Salgán prolongs the initial C minor harmony, adds a new layer of rhythmic variation, and alludes to the cadential motive y rhythm from the A section. A playful call and response shifts registers as motive z ascends in diminution answered by syncopated descending chords. Finally, Salgán concludes the phrase and the entire sixteen-bar group with a strong cadential flourish that incorporates a V13- I progression in B♭. In the next two 8-bar phrases (c and c′, mm. 41–57a),32 Salgán ingeniously transforms the rising and falling gestures of motive z as he stays in B♭ major. Although the surface melodic details vary, each phrase maintains the same underlying slow harmonic progression. In the first part of the c phrase over a prolonged tonic harmony, the rising scalar gesture playfully expands to sweeping sequential arpeggios in diminution (mm. 41–42) spanning a P11 and P12, and then it inverts to span a M9. Next, a new sequential design for the “sigh” gesture sounds three times as the harmony moves from the prolonged tonic to V7/♯5/IV-IV (mm. 43–44). The sweeping ascending and descending arpeggios return within the prolonged predominant harmony (mm. 45–48), first IV7 and then ii, and then the phrase quickly proceeds to the V-I cadence. The first part of the c′ phrase retraces the motivic interplay as c; however, Salgán changes the melodic design in the second part of the phrase. He first transforms the threenote “sigh” gesture to initiate a rushing descent of scalar fraseo triplets as the harmony moves through V7/IV-IV. Then the melody triumphantly pushes forward with a new rítmico cadential melody (but derived from the x motive!) supported Page 15 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) by two (p.218) umpa-umpa chords in the piano, and it concludes the phrase with the same ornamented flourish from the end of b′′′ that incorporates a V13- I. Salgán’s working out of the rising scale plus the descending step “sigh” of motive z in the B section illustrates his astonishing compositional economy of means. Web Examples 5.7a, 5.7b, and 5.7c compare the initial motive z and its spinning out of the “sigh” in the b phrase with two of its transformations. The b′′ phrase shows the change to rítmico style, and the c phrase shows the change to arpeggio figuration, diminution, and interval expansion. A′ and Variations

Salgán rounds out the ternary form of “A fuego lento” with a complete return of the A section. The piano score simply indicates da capo at the end of the B section and a second final ending at the end of A. In the orchestra manuscript arrangement, however, Salgán indicates da capo after m. 57 back to m. 2 for the a phrase only. Then at m. 8, he signals a jump forward to m. 58 and writes out the remaining bars of the composition (mm. 58–109). He first completes the full return of A with only slightly varied restatements of a′ and a′′, including a slowermoving outline of the inverted motive x countermelody. Four variation phrases over the structural outline of the a phrase follow, grouped into pairs through figuration and orchestration, and here Salgán demonstrates his extraordinary mastery of disguised repetition and motivic transformation. In the first two variation phrases, he chromatically embellishes the melodic and harmonic framework of the a and a′ phrases (mm. 1–17a in the piano score; mm. 74–90a in the orchestra arrangement). First he elaborates the inverted chromatic motive x with fast cascading offbeat octaves and the motive y cadential figure in double time, as a light marcato bass accompanies, offset by violin tambor in umpa-umpa rhythm. He continues the same figuration in the upper octave in the second phrase of the pair, as the strings play the main melody in counterpoint. The strings initiate the final two variation phrases with a new baroque-like fortspinnung figure that whirls in perpetual motion to build even more rhythmic and melodic momentum.33 The third eight-bar group essentially follows the phrase rhythm of mm. 1–9a with the same marcato then síncopa accompaniment, but intensifies the harmonic structure with more (p.219) chromaticism like the ♭2̂-5̂-1̂ bass line, chromatic PTs, and an augmented sixth chord. Then, Salgán goes all out in the final a′ variation phrase. He changes key, intensifies the harmony into more chromatic realms, and expands the phrase to twelve bars with a one-bar lead-in (m. 98) and two-bar cadential expansion (mm. 107–108). The bandoneones first take over the strings’ turning figure and transform it to spinning arpeggios, while the bass redirects the initial ♭2̂ via tritone substitution to become a Fr4/3-V-i progression in C minor (he actually changes key signatures in m. 100). The violins play the main rítmico melody in counterpoint to the Page 16 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) whirling perpetual motion. Salgán prolongs the new tonic through a sequence of descending fifths, expanding F minor harmony in the middle with chromatic NTs in both the bass line and top line of the piano part (another subtle reference to the “sigh” from the B section).34 Upon the arrival of the established cadential pattern, Salgán thwarts the arrival of the dominant through a two-bar extension on motive y within a harmonic turn to iv and ii (mm. 107–108). A dramatic rallentando slows the tempo as the harmony finally progresses on to V-i, followed by the final “chan-chan” on beats 2 and 3 of the final measure. Web Example 5.8 illustrates the harmonic structure of the final 12 bars of “A fuego lento,” with descriptions of the melodic overlay. (p.220) Astor Piazzolla (1921–1992)

Bandoneonist, bandleader, and composer Astor Piazzolla catapulted tango into the post– Golden Age with his cutting-edge nuevo tango, a fusion of tango, jazz, and classical music. Growing up in both Argentina and the United States with Italian parents, he sought to capture North and South American and European markets with his music. Yet, he achieved (p.221) his greatest fame posthumously with international musicians and audiences. Within the trajectory of Argentine tango, Piazzolla was influenced by tangueros such as De Caro, Troilo, and Pugliese, and he opened the door of experimentation in tango for the next generation to find their own voices within the genre. In this case study, we discuss Piazzolla’s life and works beginning with his early years in Troilo’s orchestra, moving through his experimental phase, and culminating with his mature voice in his second quintet. Lastly, as a representation of his style, we offer a close reading of “Michelangelo 70.”

Photo 5.2. Astor Piazzolla in Paris c. 1974. Photo used by permission from Georgina Ginastera.

Biographical Background Piazzolla was born in the Argentine beach city of Mar del Plata on March 11, 1921, to Italian immigrants Vicente (“Nonino”) Piazzolla and Asunta (“Nonina”) Manetti.35 Seeking a better life, the family moved to the United States in 1925 Page 17 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) and settled in the Lower East Side of Manhattan. In his memoirs, Piazzolla recalls his childhood neighborhood’s cultural discordance and influence on him: In that neighborhood, the clash was between gangster gangs, and they came from every kind: Italians, Jews, Irish. I grew up in that violent climate. That’s why I became a fighter. Perhaps that also marked my music. That kind of stuff gets under your skin.36 Despite living in the United States, Piazzolla grew up in a household that emitted the sounds of Argentine tango. His father had affection for the tangos of Gardel and De Caro and bought young Astor a bandoneón at age eight.37 In 1934, Piazzolla had the privileged opportunity to meet and work with Gardel, who was filming in New York City. In addition to translating for the international tango star, Piazzolla accompanied Gardel on the bandoneón and played a small role in his film, El día que me quieras (1935). (p.222) In 1936, the family returned to Mar del Plata, and upon arrival, Piazzolla became infatuated with tango. Famous tangueros such as Laurenz, Maffia, Vardaro, and Troilo influenced the young tanguero and inspired such tributes as “Pedro y Pedro” (1981) and Suite Troileana (1975). In 1938, Pizzolla even wrote a fan letter to Vardaro stating, “I admire not only your orchestra as my favorite but also you as a violinist… . I like your orchestra for the fraseos and the arrangements for the bandoneones and that orchestration, and the harmonies of the violin.”38 At age eighteen, Piazzolla moved to Buenos Aires to pursue tango. After working without pay in Caló’s orchestra and a few failed attempts at forming his own ensemble, Piazzolla received a break, or what he describes as a “tango baptism,” when he subbed for Rodríguez in Troilo’s orchestra.39 Having learned Troilo’s entire repertoire by ear, Piazzolla quickly impressed “El Gordo” and won a permanent seat in the famous orchestra.40 In addition to playing bandoneón alongside the maestro, Piazzolla eventually arranged for the ensemble too. During this period, Piazzolla also became captivated by classical music, an interest inspired by pianist Arthur Rubinstein.41 In 1941, he began formal composition studies with the celebrated Argentine composer Alberto Ginastera (1916–1983) and remained under his tutelage for six years. Piazzolla attributes much of his formal musical training to Ginastera. He states in an interview, “Thanks to this musical instruction [with Ginastera], I began to do new arrangements. I got to know the orchestra and I started to compose string quartets for tango orchestras.”42 By the mid-1940s, Piazzolla yearned to have more artistic freedom, and at age twenty-three, Piazzolla left Troilo’s orchestra. His resignation shocked the tango world, and the public almost considered it an act of betrayal.43 In his memoirs, he describes his rationale for leaving by stating, “In truth I wanted to play my Page 18 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) music. I was fed up with his crossing out my arrangements and with the cabaret life.”44 Piazzolla went on to join the (p.223) orchestra of Goñi and Fiorentino, who also had recently left Troilo’s orchestra. Goñi passed away shortly after the orchestra’s formation, and Piazzolla then took over the ensemble. Between 1945 and 1949, Piazzolla’s orchestra performed regularly both with and without Fiorentino and recorded on the Odeon label. Due to political clashes with the Perón government, Piazzolla disbanded his orchestra in 1949,45 and he began a period of introspection, composing the tangos “Prepárense,” “Triunfal,” “Contratiempo,” and “Contrabajeando.” Yet, the orchestra rejoined briefly to record a few tangos between 1950 and 1951. With his orchestral work Sinfonía Buenos Aires, Piazzolla won the 1953 Fabián Sevitzky Prize to study for one year in Paris with the internationally renowned composition pedagogue Nadia Boulanger (1887–1979). Piazzolla’s encounter with Boulanger is similar to that of her other young protégés: Boulanger helped Piazzolla find his voice. The famous story goes that after looking at numerous scores, Boulanger asked Piazzolla to play the music of his country. He then played “Triunfal,” and she replied: “Astor, this is beautiful. I like it a lot. Here is the true Piazzolla—do not ever leave him.”46 In 1955, Piazzolla returned to Buenos Aires and embarked on a journey to discover his own voice within tango. The first ensemble along his new artistic path, referred to as nuevo tango, was the Buenos Aires Octet. The ensemble consisted of himself and bandoneonist Roberto Pansera (replaced by Federico), violinists Enrique Marco Francini and Hugo Baralis, cellist Bragato, bassist Aldo Nicolino (replaced by Juan Vasallo), pianist Stampone, and electric guitarist Malvicino. This instrumentation, which Piazzolla modeled after Gerry Mulligan’s octet, resembled that of the sexteto típico but included the addition of the cello and the electric guitar, a completely new, and at times controversial, instrument to the genre. In the liner notes of the ensemble’s inaugural LP, he stated: As a result of this experience [listening to Gerry Mulligan’s octet, Paris 1954], I had the idea of forming the Buenos Aires Octet… . In a few words, [I wanted to] achieve a tango that would excite, without tiring the performer or the listener. It would still be tango, and, more than anything it would be music.47 (p.224) Unfortunately, Piazzolla did not achieve great success with the Octet and he quickly disbanded it. He equated the public’s reception of the ensemble to changing religions: “In Argentina, you could change anything, except the tango. It was like converting to another religion. As if, from being a Christian, I’d become a Buddhist or Muslim.”48 With the hopes of achieving better success, Piazzolla relocated with his family, including his wife, Dedé, and his two children, Diana and Daniel, to New York City in 1958.

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) In 1959, Piazzolla toured with the dancers Copes and Nieves in Puerto Rico. Piazzolla tragically learned of his father’s death during the middle of a show. From that evening, Copes recalls, “We plucked up the courage and went on working. It was the only time I ever saw him cry.”49 When he returned to his apartment in New York, Piazzolla composed his famous “Adiós Nonino.” Dedé remembers that he went into a room by himself and as solace began playing his tango “Nonino,” a previously composed, upbeat tango written in honor of his father.50 Then, he stopped and began playing a new, soulful tune, which he later titled “Adiós Nonino.” In an interview in the 1980s, Piazzolla stated, “Perhaps I was surrounded by angels. I was able to write the finest tune I have written.”51 “Adiós Nonino” remained in Piazzolla’s performing repertory throughout his life, and the tanguero made over thirty recordings of it. In 1960, Piazzolla and his family returned to Buenos Aires, and he formed his second major ensemble, the Nuevo Tango Quinteto. This ensemble, today referred to as the First Quintet, consisted of violinist Símon Bajour (replaced by Antonio Agri), pianist Gosis, electric guitarist Malvicino (replaced by López Ruíz), bassist Kicho Díaz, and himself on the bandoneón. The First Quintet recorded classic tangos by musicians of the guardia nueva, as well as the 1961 album, Piazzolla interpreta a Piazzolla, featuring only Piazzolla’s compositions. The latter included the first recording of “Adiós Nonino” and his tribute to De Caro, “Decarísimo.” In 1965, the First Quintet toured the United States and Brazil as part of an Argentine cultural tour promoted by the government. Also in the 1960s, Piazzolla collaborated with notable poets of the time, including the celebrated Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges and tango poet Ferrer. In 1965, Piazzolla recorded the album El tango: Jorge Luis Borges—Astor Piazzolla. While Borges did not appreciate the nuevo tango of Piazzolla and preferred the music of the guardia vieja, Piazzolla had much admiration (p.225) for Borges and respected his literary talents.52 Piazzolla, however, had a more fruitful artistic partnership with his lifelong friend, Ferrer. Their collaboration created famous tangos such as “Balada para un loco” and “Chiquilín de Bachín,” as well as a unique tango operita, María de Buenos Aires, which starred Piazzolla’s love interest, Amelita Baltar. As with the Buenos Aires Octet, Piazzolla assumed tremendous economic distress to produce this work. He states: I sold an apartment and a car to put it [María de Buenos Aires] on stage and was left with nothing. It was a total loss. But I enjoyed myself, and that operita I wrote with Horacio Ferrer was among the most important pieces I’ve ever composed. It was colossal for its time.53 During the 1970s, Piazzolla embarked on a variety of experimental ensembles. He formed his short-lived nonet, Conjunto 9 (Ensemble 9), in 1971 with the support of the City of Buenos Aires. This ensemble included two violins, viola, Page 20 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) cello, bass, bandoneón, piano, electric guitar, and percussion, another unique instrument for tango. With the ensemble, Piazzolla experimented with a fusion of tango, jazz, and rock. Conjunto 9 recorded a two-album set, titled Música popular contemporánea de la ciudad de Buenos Aires, volumes 1 and 2. In 1973, Piazzolla began collaborating with cool-jazz legend Gerry Mulligan, a musician that he had idolized since his days in Paris. Together they recorded the album Summit (1974) featuring the pieces “Twenty Years Ago” and “Twenty Years After,” respectively representing Piazzolla’s desire to play with Mulligan and his dream fulfilled by recording Summit. The ensemble consisted of violin, viola, cello, two electric guitars, electric bass, keyboard (piano, electric piano— specified as the new Fender Rhodes 73—and organ), electric bass, marimba, and drums. In 1975, Piazzolla formed another experimental group, the Electronic Octet, consisting of bandoneón, piano, bass, electric guitar, percussion, organ, synthesizer (played by his son Daniel), and flute/saxophone. In contrast to the other groups, the Electronic Octet’s repertoire featured a tremendous amount of improvisation, and the ensemble’s sound resembled popular rock of the period more than tango. In 1978, Piazzolla formed the renowned Second Quintet, the ensemble with which he achieved his greatest success. With the same instrumentation as the First Quintet, the ensemble included violinist Suárez Paz, pianist Ziegler, electric guitarist Malvicino, bassist Console, and (p.226) Piazzolla playing bandoneón. This ensemble toured the world for eleven years and, with the New York jazz/ avant-garde producer Kip Hanrahan, created two notable albums, Tango: Zero Hour (1986) and La camorra (referencing the Neapolitan mafia, 1989), as well as numerous recordings of live performances including those at the 1984 Montreal Jazz Festival, at the 1986 Montreux Jazz Festival, and in Central Park in 1987. The Second Quintet and the CD Tango: Zero Hour mark an important turning point from the end of Piazzolla’s experimental period to the beginning his mature sound. The title of the CD refers to the time after midnight, which Piazzolla describes as “an hour of absolute ending and absolute beginning,”54 and it returns full circle to one of his first compositions in the nuevo tango style “Buenos Aires Hora Cero.” Thus, Tango: Zero Hour reincarnates the new tango theme that initiated Piazzolla’s first tango experiments. In the midst of touring with the Second Quintet, Piazzolla also completed four other major projects. In 1986, he wrote the film score to El exilio de Gardel, for which he won the César Award for Best Film Music. He recorded his Concerto for Bandoneón in 1987. Piazzolla and Ferrer also revived an unsuccessful French version of María de Buenos Aires in 1987.55 Then in 1988, Piazzolla recorded the score to the Broadway show Tango apasionado with the album, The Rough Dancer and the Cyclical Night.

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) The momentum of the Second Quintet ended in 1988 when Piazzolla suffered a heart attack. Following his quadruple bypass surgery, he undertook two smaller projects: the Sextet and his collaboration with the Kronos Quartet. With the Sextet, Piazzolla created a deeper sonority by replacing violinist Suárez Paz with cellist Bragato. He also added a second bandoneón, which had not occurred since the Buenos Aires Octet. Azzi and Collier assert that Piazzolla introduced the second bandoneón to reduce his strain and fatigue after the surgery;56 however, it should be noted that Piazzolla performed with the same vigor and was never pleased with the addition. Further, Piazzolla hired Gerardo Gandini, an Argentine contemporary classical pianist/composer who also had studied with Ginastera. While the Sextet never recorded an album, the ensemble can be heard on the CD The Lausanne Concert (recorded in 1989 and released in 1993). Piazzolla’s final artistic endeavor was the album Five Tango Sensations (1991), performed and recorded with the Kronos Quartet. Notably, the (p.227) ensemble previously recorded Piazzolla’s “Four, for Tango” on the CD Winter Was Hard (1988). Piazzolla suffered from a cerebral hemorrhage in 1990. He passed away on July 4, 1992, and is buried in the private Cementerio Jardín de Paz (Garden of Peace Cemetery) north of Buenos Aires. His legacy, however, endures to the present day, and he has perhaps posthumously achieved the fame he had always wanted. Tangueros such as Suárez Paz, Ziegler, Marconi, Federico, and even Bolotin and Navarro regularly perform the works of Piazzolla. Piazzolla’s grandson, Daniel “Pipi” Piazzolla, created the ensemble Escalandrum and recorded the CD Piazzolla Plays Piazzolla (2011) in his honor. Laura Escalada de Piazzolla, the tanguero’s second wife, serves as president of the Fundación Astor Piazzolla, which promotes the music of the maestro. Further, Piazzolla’s music continues to be heard in live performances and recordings throughout the world as it inspires classical, jazz, and tango musicians and audience members alike.

Piazzolla’s Tango Style Overview

Combining his musical heritage in tango, jazz, and classical music, Piazzolla sought to create a new type of tango music. He describes this new style as nuevo tango and states his musical intentions for the Buenos Aires Octet in the liner notes: “The sole purpose of the Buenos Aires Octet is to renovate popular tango, to maintain its essence, to introduce new rhythms, new harmonies, new melodies, new tone colors, and forms.”57 Yet, despite Piazzolla’s experimentations fusing other genres with tango, his music beginning with the Buenos Aires Octet is fundamentally rooted in tango. We therefore frame our discussion of Piazzolla’s style around examining what is “new” about nuevo tango and what Piazzolla draws from his predecessors. We focus on the representative tangos composed and recorded by Piazzolla: “Adiós Nonino,” “A fuego lento,” “Balada para un loco,” “Fugata,” “La camorra I,” “La cumparsita,” “Los mareados,” “Marrón y azul,” “Michelangelo 70,” “Milonga del ángel,” Page 22 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) “Tanguedia III,” “Twenty Years After,” and “Verano porteño” ( Piazzolla piano scores available online, see WL 5.6).

WL 5.5; for

(p.228) Piazzolla’s Arranging Style and Instrumentation

Piazzolla’s early lush arrangements reflect his mastery of orchestration, along with seeds of his distinctive style. For example, the introduction to his early arrangement of “La cumparsita” begins with a languid bandoneón solo supported by rich and sustained harmonies in the strings. Then, a combination of 3-3-2 rhythmic grouping in the piano chords and a marcato in 4 walking bass establishes his characteristic accompaniment. Finally, the strings enter with a syncopated rhythmic outline of the melody in pizzicato, taking a back seat to the strong rhythmic accompaniment. In the Buenos Aires Octet, Piazzolla experimented with new instrumental and arranging ideas, while the music itself remained firmly anchored in tango’s essence. Piazzolla maintained the traditional tango instrumental narrative, with the bandoneones dominating the sound, the violin carrying the cantando melodies, and the bass and piano forming the core rhythm section. Yet, he points to the new central role of the electric guitar in the ensemble as it shifts between the accompanimental and melodic roles. For example, in “Marrón y azul,” the guitar accentuates the strong marcato chords, provides running countermelodies, and, most radically, improvises over the repeated harmonic progression in lieu of the traditional variations in the final A section. Piazzolla also continued the tradition of arranging works by other tangueros, yet he found new ways to express them. For example, in Cobián’s “Los mareados,” he breaks away from the traditional tutti opening by beginning with a rhapsodic violin solo, and then the bandoneón strongly spins out the melody over a new harmonization of descending fifths. In his arrangement of the contemporary “A fuego lento,” Piazzolla’s bandoneón dominates the melody in place of Salgán’s WE piano, as heard in his rapid chromatic runs of the inverted motive x (see 5.4a for Salgán’s notation of this inverted motive). Piazzolla also substantially recomposes sections. The transition between the A and B sections shifts to a romantic tone in the strings. The B section mostly maintains the warm scoring for bandoneón and violin, slower tempo, and legato phrasing in contrast to Salgán’s return to a sharp rítmico melody. Like Salgán, Piazzolla incorporates four final variation phrases, but he scores the first variation contrapuntally for bandoneón and guitar. Finally, Piazzolla closes with a new, syncopated, and highly chromatic coda. Over the next four decades, Piazzolla continued to experiment with instrumentation and, more broadly, tango fusion with other genres. “Balada para un loco,” written for and premiered by Baltar, exemplifies an exploration into a new tango vocal style where the voice recites the words (p.229) in a distinctive speech-song style. In Piazzolla’s recording with Goyeneche, the singer applies Page 23 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) this technique in the A section and then sings the text in the B section. Piazzolla heightens the drama of the song with an additive orchestration that moves from a simple piano accompaniment to a full string ensemble with percussion. In the jazz realm with Mulligan, as García Brunelli notes, “Musically there is nothing new. What changed is the instrumental clothing and it’s treatment as fusion music.”58 In the A section of “Twenty Years After,” for example, while the bandoneón and saxophone weave jazz riffs in the melody and the lyrical contrasting B section features imitation between the two instruments, most passages evoke a typical Piazzollean tango style with the walking bass marcato, 3-3-2 rhythms, and descending fifth sequences. Even in his last years, Piazzolla continued to add instruments to his core quintet formation, as with the addition of Paquito D’Rivera on alto saxophone and clarinet for the 1988 recording of Rough Dancer and the Cyclic Night and the switch from violin to cello in the Sextet. Piazzolla’s mastery of instrumental writing is perhaps best heard in his quintet formations. First and foremost, the tanguero dominates an underlying traditional tango melody and accompaniment texture on the bandoneón. He features the violin as the next most important solo instrument, while the piano, bass, and guitar form the rhythm section even as he features them in solo passages (such as the elaborate piano cadenza of “Adiós Nonino”). Piazzolla’s music, in general, features wide and extreme dynamic fluctuations, and he favors a large tutti sound. In “Michelangelo 70,” for example, all the instruments play constantly, but only the bandoneón and violin play the melody. Piazzolla’s Performance Style

With this analysis of performance style, we focus on the recordings of the Second Quintet, namely, Tango: Zero Hour, La camorra, and The Central Park Concert. Both Piazzolla and reception history viewed these recordings as the pinnacle of his career.59 Piazzolla states in the liner notes accompanying (p. 230) Tango: Zero Hour: “[Tango: Zero Hour is] the greatest record I’ve made in my entire life. We gave our souls to [it]. This is the record I can give to my grandchildren and say, ‘This is what we did with our lives.’”60 Piazzolla later states that La camorra is his favorite recording.61 We first discuss the Second Quintet as a whole, and then the performance practices of individual members. The performance practices of the Second Quintet evoke the dark, underground origins of tango and perhaps even the tanguero’s childhood roots in New York. “Tanguedia III,” the opening track of Tango: Zero Hour, begins with the chanting of “Tango, Tragedy, Comedy, Kilombo,” referencing Piazzolla’s four-part formula for his nuevo tango as listed in the CD’s liner notes. Interestingly, Piazzolla chooses the word kilombo, which has a double meaning. In early Lunfardo the word references a brothel, but to the contemporary porteño it signifies a vulgar expression for a messy situation. The tango titled “La camorra I” includes a male grunt that explicitly depicts a sexual act. It is also possible to infer that many of Page 24 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) the pieces from Tango: Zero Hour and La camorra are re-enactments of a duelo criollo, a knife fight of the early milongas as referenced by Borges.62 For example, “La camorra I” begins moderato and gradually the tempo increases. This increase occurs simultaneously with an increase in volume and textural density, suggesting the progressive entanglement of the fighters, along with the growing complexity of the piece. Using similar aural imagery, “Tanguedia III” portrays a woman screaming by ending with a shrill, descending double-stop glissando in the violin. Further, the members of the Second Quintet visually represented a gangster image by dressing in all black and wearing gold chains. Astor Piazzolla, Bandoneón

Classic images of Piazzolla portray him towering over an elongated bandoneón, as the tanguero strikingly stands to play his instrument. This performance practice exhibits enormous physical strength and endurance as (p.231) a bandoneón can weigh between twenty-two and thirty-two pounds, and concerts range in length between one and two hours. Notably, Piazzolla did rest the instrument on a propped knee to relieve the physical pressure from standing and to aid in the execution of accompanimental patterns as he forcefully pushed the air through the bellows. In Piazzolla’s memoirs, Gorin attributes Piazzolla’s physical stance to the tanguero’s desire to be different, as well as to his sheer stamina.63 In a melodic role, Piazzolla often played with the bellows open and in an extended position. This style of playing requires substantial control of the airflow through the bellows. It is similar to a singer sustaining a melodic phrase over one breath or a violinist playing with one bow. In Piazzolla’s “Adiós Nonino” solo, for example, it is easy to hear and see the single “breath” of the bandoneón ( WL 5.7). While Piazzolla characteristically sustained notes à la Troilo, he employed fraseo to push the smaller note values forward, such as in “Milonga del ángel.” Also similar to Troilo, Piazzolla created a type of bandoneón vibrato by shaking the bellows, as seen in his performance of “Verano porteño” ( WL 5.8). In addition, he regularly improvised ornamentation such as mordents, turns, and scalar figures to melodic lines, as in “Adiós Nonino” ( WE 5.9). As with most improvised passages, these ornaments frequently changed depending on the performance and the ensemble with which he was playing.64 When playing rítmico melodies or accompaniment patterns, Piazzolla heightened the intensity of the music with loud dynamics and forceful accents. His characteristic two-note slurs begin with an accent and end with a staccato, as in “Adiós Nonino” and “Verano porteño.” Weight and vigor mark the qualities of his signature 3-3-2 rhythmic pattern exemplified in “Tanguedia III.” Exaggerating Pugliese’s yumba technique, Piazzolla’s arrastres are heavy, accented, and full of the grittiness that pervaded the bordellos a century ago. “La camorra I” offers a perfect example of this aural description.

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) Lastly, Piazzolla had full command over the multiple keyboards of the bandoneón. His technical wizardry affords him the status as one of the premiere bandoneonists of the twentieth century. “Fugata” is a prime example of his finger velocity and general mastery over the instrument. Moreover, “Fugata” displays Piazzolla’s daredevil approach to performance by his pushing of the sixteenth notes forward in a contrapuntal piece. (p.232) Fernando Suárez Paz, Violin

At the time of joining the Second Quintet, Suárez Paz was thirty-five years old and had experience playing in the Orquesta Filarmónica de Buenos Aires and the tango orchestras of Troilo, Salgán, Marconi, and Garello. In addition to possessing classical technique with respect to bowing and ornamentation, he played in a style derived from the escuela decareana. In his memoirs, Piazzolla describes Suárez Paz as the best violinist with whom he played, and stated: “[He] not only plays well; he is very expressive. He is intuitive about adding things; his phrasing enhanced my music.”65 As a violinist in the Second Quintet, Suárez Paz primarily played one of two roles: executing the melody or percussive yeites. Piazzolla often highlighted Suárez Paz in cantando melodies, as in “Milonga del ángel.” In these instances, he used a legato bow stroke with numerous glissandos and portamentos. Similar to Piazzolla, Suárez Paz frequently ornamented melodies by adding his own turns and mordents. In addition, he played with a fast, wide vibrato. Piazzolla wrote the entire gamut of percussive yeites for Suárez Paz including tambor, chicharra, perro, and látigo. “Michelangelo 70,” “La camorra I,” and “Verano porteño” all demonstrate such violin yeites. Horacio Malvicino, Electric Guitar

Malvicino and Piazzolla first established an artistic collaboration in the Buenos Aires Octet. At that time, Malvicino, playing electric guitar, was the most controversial member of the ensemble from the perspective of the Argentine public. In addition to playing an instrument that was uncommon in a tango ensemble, Malvicino created passages and entire pieces, such as “Tangology,” that were largely devoted to improvisation. When Malvicino became a member of the Second Quintet, he did not compose any of his own music; however, Piazzolla created many passages that featured him in an improvisatory role.66 For example, in “La camorra I,” there is a large section at the end of the piece for improvised electric guitar. Malvicino also performed yeites on the electric guitar that were similar to those on the violin. While the electric guitar did not use as many special effects and was limited to plucking the strings, it often doubled the violin (p.233) in glissandos and látigos, as in “La camorra I.” In this case, Malvicino played a

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) glissando and sustained the plucked tone for a slightly longer duration. Piazzolla also notated golpes and tambor for the instrument. Pablo Ziegler, Piano

Ziegler received training in both classical and jazz styles. When he joined the Second Quintet, he incorporated this background into the performance practices of the ensemble. Piazzolla included passages for piano improvisation, such as in “La camorra I.” He also included cadenzas and extended solos to display Ziegler’s virtuosic technique, the most famous of which comes from the opening of “Adiós Nonino.” Despite Ziegler’s ability to display solo virtuosity, his primary role within the Second Quintet was to provide harmonic and rhythmic support. His performance practices, therefore, utilized techniques that are inherent in the tango tradition. For example, in “La camorra I,” Piazzolla writes a marcato en dos passage with the instructions Pesante e molto Tanguissimo (Italian for “Heavy and very Tangolike”). In the recording, Ziegler plays with a heavy attack and extra use of the damper pedal, perhaps inspired by Pugliese and/or tango’s dark origins. In addition, Ziegler frequently included heavy arrastres, perhaps emulating Piazzolla’s style of playing. Rather than using a predominance of finger and wrist technique (similar to Salgán), Ziegler often played with his arms and back, creating a heavier, more percussive sound. Héctor Console, Bass

While Piazzolla did feature the bass in a few solos, he generally gave the bass an accompanimental role within the ensemble. Emulating Piazzolla’s robust yet driving performance practices, Console plays marcato and 3-3-2 in a heavy style to provide foundational support for the ensemble. Even his pizzicato accompaniment patterns are heavy and, according to Navarro, resemble more of a jazz-style pizzicato than the light, airy pizzicato of Salgán.67 In addition, he employs forceful arrastres that emphasize his portamentos and accentuate his strappata, as in “La camorra I.” (p.234) In contrast to Piazzolla’s previous bass player Kicho Díaz, who was known for his metronomic playing, Console plays with a fluid sense of rhythm.68 In gentle pieces, such as “Milonga del ángel,” Console creates a sense of expansion by displacing beat 4 of the milonga pattern by a fraction of a second. This displacement combined with Piazzolla’s typical pushing forward at the end of measures creates a temporal layer of tension. Piazzolla’s Compositional Style

While the discussion continues to rage among tango enthusiasts about whether Piazzolla’s music is or is not tango, we frame our discussion of his compositional style by following the terms he used himself to define his music—nuevo tango. It is new for incorporating elements from other musical styles, and it is tango for essentially building on established elements he inherited from tangueros of the Page 27 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) guardia vieja, guardia nueva, and Golden Age. Piazzolla controls musical material and synthesizes styles, evident in the linear relationship between the bass line and upper voices of chords, a mostly jazz harmonic framework, and a base of clear tango rhythms. He produced a broad spectrum of compositions, including dramatic music (María de Buenos Aires and The Rough Dancer and the Cyclical Night), symphonic music (Concerto for Bandoneón), and cyclic collections (his famous Las cuatro estaciones porteñas/The Four Porteño [Buenos Aires] Seasons, “La camorra I, II, and III,” and Five Tango Sensations). Scholars have yet to catalog his works, but the “general consensus brings them close to 2,200 titles.”69 We base our discussion here on nine of his representative tango compositions: “Adiós Nonino,” “Balada para un loco,” “Fugata,” “La camorra I,” “Marrón y azul,” “Michelangelo 70” “Milonga del angel,” “Tanguedia III,” and “Verano porteño.” Although some of Piazzolla’s scores are published and available for study and performance, we obtained numerous manuscripts copied by Bragato, both from meeting with him in his home in Buenos Aires in 2005 and in the Piazzolla library founded by Jorge Strada in Mar del Plata in 2008. (p.235) Rhythm

Rhythm dominates Piazzolla’s style. He retains the essence of tango accompanimental patterns in his signature marcato and 3-3-2, and he also creates more complex rhythmic ostinatos, layers, and patterns. Piazzolla’s heavy bass lines were influenced by his early years in Troilo’s orchestra, where he consciously copied Goñi’s strong legato left-hand piano style that emphasized the low register and incorporated short scalar lines.70 They generally fall into three rhythmic types of marcato, 3-3-2, and milonga campera. Piazzolla’s music rarely uses the traditional síncopa, however. When síncopa appears alone, it tends to simply enliven a repeated bass note without jumping to 5̂ on the “&” of beat 2, as in the return of the A section in “Balada para un loco.” Legato marcato bass lines permeate Piazzolla’s music like a “walking bass milonguero.”71 They typically outline stepwise rising thirds and descending fourths, as heard in the opening of “Michelangelo 70,” or a chord, as heard in the coda of “La camorra I.” A pulsing marcato in 4 also supports Piazzolla’s lyrical melodies, typically with a descending bass line on repeated notes in each measure, as in the B sections of “Adiós Nonino,” “Balada para un loco,” and “Verano porteño.” These five examples illustrate another important characteristic of Piazzolla’s marcato in both his rhythmic and his lyrical tangos, which features repeated piano chords in the same register in lieu of the traditional right hand jumping in octaves. Many authors point to how Piazzolla utilized and expanded the 3-3-2 pattern.72 Piazzolla describes his approach, even as he credits himself for establishing the pattern: “Tango is [in] four beats… . I used three beats tucked in those four. It was I who started this [pattern] that is now used frequently.”73 While Piazzolla was most certainly not the first to use the (p.236) 3-3-2 pattern, he was the Page 28 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) first to codify it into a regular, repeated rhythmic pattern, as heard in the openings of “Michelangelo 70” and “Tanguedia III.” Piazzolla also cites klezmer influences on the rhythmic accents in his 3-3-2 as “similar to those of the popular Jewish music I heard at their weddings.”74 Piazzolla’s milonga lenta subgenre reimagines the classic 3-3-2 rhythmic pattern of tango’s roots. He slows the tempo even more to highlight the poignant melodies, as in “Milonga del ángel,” where the bandoneón solo hauntingly sneaks in as the violin weaves a slow countermelody and the bass articulates the straight, not syncopated milonga rhythm. Later in the B section, with the violin solo, the bass rhythm shifts to a syncopated milonga campera. Piazzolla further develops core tango rhythmic elements in his innovative nuevo tango. One key hallmark of his style often combines rhythmic cells into two-bar ostinatos. He either typically repeats the patterns exactly, as in “La camorra I,” or works them out in varied repetition, as in “Verano porteño” and “Michelangelo 70.” Piazzolla also creates complex layers that integrate syncopated strata anchored in the traditional meter. In the accompaniment, he often combines a marcato bass line with 3-3-2 repeated chords, as in the “Fugata” B section ( WE 5.13b). More intricately, he layers 3-3-2 and síncopa rhythms to heighten tension that conflate the two patterns into one, as in “Michelangelo 70” ( WE 5.17). The introduction in “La camorra I” utilizes a more complex rhythmic layering. It intensifies the drive to the cadence with cross-rhythms between the steady sixteenth notes in the melody and the 3-3-2 and síncopa layers in the accompaniment (Example 5.2). Piazzolla immediately stabilizes these cross-rhythms in the next measure by marking each regular beat grounded in a rapid descending fifth progression. Piazzolla builds on another key rhythmic element from his tanguero predecessor Pugliese, that is, the yumba. For example, in “Milonga del ángel,” a heavy tutti arrastre of sound prepares for the drastic mood change in the final repetition of the main tune in the bandoneón. This intensification of Pugliese’s yumba to a block of sound lends even more weight to Piazzolla’s rhythmic drive.75 The opening of “Verano porteño” and “La camorra I” also illustrate such forceful tutti scoring. (p.237)

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Example 5.2. “La camorra I,” mm. 9–11, cross-rhythms between melody and accompaniment, conflating 3-3-2 and síncopa rhythmic patterns, from the

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) Melody

Bragato manuscript in the Piazzolla Rhythm is such a core feature of library in Mar del Plata. Piazzolla’s music that it even generates many of his melodies rather than scale or line. Piazzolla’s melodies adhere to the spirit of contrasting traditional rítmico and cantando styles, yet they each expand their respective roots. His approach to rítmico melodies incorporates jazz-like short syncopated motives and rapid scalar fills. While rítmico melodies in his early tangos like “Marrón y azul” and “Adiós Nonino” follow more traditional articulations and lines, over time they became less “melodic” and more purely rhythmic, such as the openings of “Tanguedia III,” “Michelangelo 70,” “Verano porteño,” and “La camorra I.” “Marrón y azul,” for example, resembles a guardia nueva melody as it unfolds a classic two-bar motivic idea spinning around a m3 in jagged accents and two-note groups that in turn sequences up a step ( WE 5.10a). The two-bar motive of “Adiós Nonino” also follows a more regular melodic contour by rising through an arpeggio with an accented jazzy ♯4̂, then falling back by step ( WE 5.10b). Furthermore, in the outline of the essential tango tristeza 5̂-♭6̂, the motive expresses the loss of his father. In his later tangos, however, Piazzolla seems to simply hang pitches on his forceful rhythms, like (p.238) the repeated chromatic descending scale in “Tanguedia III.” Furthermore, the repeated twobar group in “Verano porteño” ( WE 5.10c) frames an essential linear 5-6 in a syncopated rhythm more like a síncopa accompaniment pattern than a typical rítmico melody, while the sharp harmonic m2s in the introduction of “La camorra I” emit pure rhythm ( WE 5.10d). To relieve such tersely syncopated melodic rhythms, Piazzolla typically spins out fast, scalar runs like improvisational jazz licks, as heard immediately after the emergence of the rhythmic melodic motive in “La camorra I.” Piazzolla’s cantando melodies take on a more classic lyricism with long sustained notes and adornos as they reflect his softer side or express tango’s tristeza. They also typically follow tango tradition by beginning contrasting sections. As with his rítmico melodies, Piazzolla moved the traditional cantando style forward over time. The B melody in “Marrón y azul,” for example, adheres to a more traditional cantando style with its arching fraseo shape and line ( WE 5.11a). Yet, his newer approach to cantando melodies already appears in the famously soulful B melody of “Adiós Nonino” ( WE 5.11b), where adornos and fills decorate the long sustained notes. Mournful 9-8 suspensions and appogiaturas in the melody above a chromatic descending bass further enhance tango’s tristeza.76 The slow section of “Verano porteño” also hinges on half-note descending wide intervals over a similarly slow descending bass line ( WE 5.11c). “Milonga del ángel” and other milongas lentas like “Oblivion” also illustrate Piazzolla’s slow and expressive melodic style framed around long sustained notes.

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) Harmony

Rhythm also interacts with Piazzolla’s harmonic practices. Juxtaposed blocks of sound typically pulse a slow, sometimes static, harmonic rhythm in his signature 3-3-2 and marcato rhythms, as heard most dramatically in the powerful openings of “Tanguedia III” and “La camorra I,” respectively. Then, Piazzolla typically contrasts such harmonic stasis by moving through harmonic sequences supported by his marcato bass lines on repeated notes. Piazzolla also uses his pulsing marcato walking bass in chromatic descending sequential lines to support the slow lyrical melodies, as in “Adiós (p.239) Nonino” ( WE 5.11b) and the B sections in “Verano porteño,” “Balada para un loco,” and “La camorra I.” Piazzolla’s harmonic language retains tango’s essential diatonic framework, and, like the music of Salgán, Plaza, and Federico, it regularly incorporates chord extensions and added notes. He expands the use of chromatic predominant chords, such as the surprising Neapolitan sixth in “Marrón y azul” and “Balada para un loco.” Although “La camorra I” incorporates a ♭6̂-5̂-1̂ bass line in sequential passages in the A section and in the coda, Piazzolla avoids the quintessential tango augmented sixth chord to V cadential progression. Standard descending fifth harmonic sequences, however, abound in his music, as heard in “Adiós Nonino,” “Michelangelo 70,” and “La camorra I” (Example 5.2). Piazzolla also incorporates more classical harmonic sequences, such as descending thirds (aka “Pachelbel canon” progression) in the final section of “Invierno porteño” and ascending steps in the surging second melody of the B section in “La camorra I.” Drawing on his classical training, Piazzolla pushed the tonal envelope in his nuevo tango with sudden tonal shifts and even nonfunctional chords. “Michelangelo 70,” “La camorra I,” and “Milonga del ángel” all abruptly shift to unrelated keys by step, and “Michelangelo 70” further uses a “planing” technique of parallel nonfunctional triads à la Debussy ( WE 5.18). Other advanced harmonic techniques draw on Bartókian fourth chords, modes, and exotic scales. “Michelangelo 70” illustrates all three with instances of quartal harmony (

WE 5.16b), Dorian inflection (

WE 5.17), and a pentatonic scale (

77

WE 5.18). Most remarkably, Piazzolla’s harmonic resources extend to dissonant polychords. For example, “Michelangelo 70” superposes two triads a tritone apart (à la Stravinsky’s famous “Petrushka chord”) to release tension after the climax of the piece (

WE 5.18).

The last section of “Fugata” presents an excellent example of Piazzolla’s expanded tonal palette. The rhythm calms down to dissipate tension, yet the harmony becomes increasingly dissonant. Piazzolla finally settles on a B♭/E polychord ( WE 5.12a), which he prolongs in the Quintet score between mm. 70 and 81 and throughout the improvisation section in the recording. Then, in the final measures of the piece, the harmony completely dissolves all rhythmic Page 31 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) and harmonic tension into a sustained cluster ( WE 5.12b). The piece concludes in E minor rather than the original key (p.240) of A minor, grounded by an E pedal elaborated by Piazzolla’s quintessential walking bass rising third. Form

Piazzolla’s treatment of form evolved to become one of the most progressive parameters in his nuevo tango. While his early pieces like “Marrón y azul” adhere to traditional tango phrase, period, and two-part formal structure found in tango from De Caro to Salgán, his later works use continuous variations on repeated progressions and bass lines to form larger contrasting sections that belong more to the realm of popular styles like jazz. The compositional principle of a repeated fixed harmonic element appears in both the first section of “La camorra I” and the second section of “Fugata,” and “Michelangelo 70” extends the technique to the baroque-like continuous variations throughout. Piazzolla’s use of imitative counterpoint was even more innovative to tango. He drew on another baroque contrapuntal process to incorporate a “fugato,” or a fugue exposition, in the B section of “La camorra I.” The entire A section of “Fugata” systematically works out an eight-bar “subject” spinning out from a two-bar motive ( WE 5.13a), presented by the bandoneón in order of violin, guitar, and piano/bass moving through keys by descending fifths with a consistent countermelody. Once all the parts have entered, the “fugato” dissolves into the contrasting B section (

WE 5.13b).

Although Piazzolla’s phrases still generally span four- or eight-bar groups, they occasionally deviate from the norm by employing advanced phrase development techniques. Even the early “Adiós Nonino” adds two two-bar extensions to the repeated four-bar phrases in the A section, and “Michelangelo 70” incorporates the technique at the changes to 68 meter in the A section. Sophisticated and irregular phrase rhythms in the first section of “La camorra I” result from phrase expansions and sequential extensions that elaborate the repeated twobar rhythmic pattern established in opening. As he moved away from standard Golden Age structures, Piazzolla also used extended three-part forms of fast-slow-fast, such as “Tanguedia III,” “Verano porteño,” and “La camorra I.” “Balada para un loco” follows a classical art song ABA′ design. Some of Piazzolla’s later compositions add lengthy introductions with cadenzas, as heard in the Central Park recording of “Adiós Nonino,” and others append extended improvisational codas, such as “La camorra I” and “Fugata.” Finally, Piazzolla eschewed the (p.241) traditional tango “chan-chan” in favor of dramatic glissandos to the final chord, as in “La camorra I,” or heavily accented and repeated chords, as in “Fugata.”

Analysis: “Michelangelo 70” (1969) by Astor Piazzolla

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) Overview

Named for the Michelangelo nightclub in San Telmo, “Michelangelo 70” embodies many quintessential features of Piazzolla’s compositional style and technique. Framed in a crystal-clear structure, it features terse melodic and rhythmic ostinatos stratified in layers of the texture. Marcato and 3-3-2 patterns primarily drive the accompaniment, accentuated by violin yeites, as the relentless syncopated melody never abates into a contrasting cantando style. Piazzolla’s prevailing tertian harmonies include dissonant added notes, extended chords, nonfunctional “planing,” modal inflections, and even polychords, yet he also draws on quartal harmonies. The formal design is perhaps the most intriguing feature of the tango. It parallels a baroque chaconne, which is a continuous variation form on a short theme, typically presented as a repeated harmonic pattern or bass line. Piazzolla organizes the theme and its thirteen continuous variations into an ABA′ design. Within each part, he builds waves of tension and release in the musical motion through motivic and phrase development, harmonic shifts, and contrasts in key, texture, tempo, and dynamics. Piazzolla first recorded “Michelangelo 70” in 1969. He brought the showstopping tango back into his working repertory in the 1980s for numerous live performances with his second quintet (

WL 5.9). He also recorded it in 1984,

1986, and 1987, and finally in 1989 with the Sextet.78 (See the Companion Website for the “Michelangelo 70” Listening Chart and corresponding audio link, WF 5.4). Close Reading

The following analysis of “Michelangelo 70” takes the reader through each section of the tango’s form and highlights specific examples of Piazzolla’s (p. 242) nuevo tango compositional style. We base our analysis on the 1969 quintet score published in Buenos Aires by Editorial Lagos/Melos, and the 1987 Central Park recording, which closely follows this score with some minor changes in orchestration. Figure 5.2 illustrates how the three-part form organizes the fourteen statements of the main eight-bar theme. A Section (mm. 1–41)

The A section of “Michelangelo 70” comprises statements 1 through 5 of the continuously repeated theme ( WF 5.5). Piazzolla’s explosive opening two-bar rhythmic and melodic ostinato motive (x) in the bandoneón contains the core

Figure 5.2. Overall form and phrase structure of “Michelangelo 70.”

rhythmic and melodic features of the entire composition ( WE 5.14a). The first bar establishes the driving 3-3-2 rhythm on an incessantly repeated fixed tonic Page 33 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) note. Then, in m. 2, an elaborated síncopa rhythm on a rising melodic third on beat 3, where síncopa typically stabilizes to align with the beat, embellishes the tonic note. To help unite this 3-3-2 plus síncopa rhythmic pattern, the violin accentuates with tambor. Meanwhile, the walking bass line anchors the syncopated motive x with a rhythmic layer of marcato in 4 that first outlines a rising third and then a descending fourth to trace a i-V progression. More subtly, Piazzolla embeds an implicit 68 meter in motive x, where four equal dotted quarter-note durations on the repeated tonic note form two bars, followed by one bar of on the rising third ( WE 5.14b). This second perspective suggests a polymeter between motive x and the steady marcato in 4 bass line. It also foreshadows Piazzolla’s later three strategically placed metric shifts to 68, where he dispels the síncopa element entirely. The overall shape of the A section forms a rising and falling arc of tension and release through transformations of motive x, intensification of the harmony, varying layers of the texture, and changes in orchestration. Piazzolla states the core two-bar motive x four times to build the main eight-bar rítmico theme of the tango within a prolonged tonic harmony. (p.243) Only the chromatic countermelody slowly rising from 5̂ to 7̂ in each two-bar group accompanies motive x in the guitar and piano right hand (

WE 5.15a).

The texture thickens in the more emphatic statement 2 (mm. 9–16), and the harmonic rhythm accelerates ( WE 5.15b). Piazzolla changes the orchestration to the bandoneón and piano up an octave, adds a new layer of one-to-one counterpoint in parallel fourths in the violin that elaborates motive x by oscillating steps, and quickens the harmonic motion with a descending fifth progression beginning with the subdominant. Tension continues to build and intensify in statement 3 (mm. 17–24), where a transformation of motive x by chromatic inversion sounds in parts up yet another octave in the piano right hand and violin, the slow-moving rising countermelody returns in the bandoneón,79 and the bass line again prolongs the tonic harmony (

WE 5.15c).

In statement 4 (mm. 25–31), Piazzolla again moves the harmony to the subdominant and temporarily reduces the pent-up tension as the grounding marcato bass line becomes absorbed into the motive x rhythm. The dynamic level softens; the bandoneón and violin drop back to a low register; a subtle rhythmic transformation of motive x elaborates the rising third with steady eighth notes; and the other parts maintain the parallel one-to-one counterpoint on the chromatic inversion of motive x ( WE 5.15d). Piazzolla further diffuses the energy by only stating motive x twice as the counterpoint moves sequentially down a step from Bm to Am, then by truncating the rest of the phrase in his first strategic metric shift to68 for three bars (mm. 29–31). The fixed tonic pedal F♯ in the bandoneón and violin extends to six dotted quarter-note repetitions that dispel the síncopa element entirely, as the bass line supports parallel chromatic Page 34 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) descending passing chords in continued one-to-one counterpoint (Gm7-F♯m7-Fm7-Em7-DM7-C♯M7). A sharp látigo in the violin sets the driving energy back in motion for statement 5 (mm. 32–41) that rounds out the A section. After an exact return of mm. 1–4, Piazzolla closes the section by again softening the dynamic level, maintaining a static 5̂-6̂-5̂ motion in the slow-moving countermelody, and changing the meter to three bars of 68 . Meanwhile, the harmony descends chromatically in parallel tenths from i to V against pedal tone C♯ in dotted quarter notes. The quietude is short-lived, however, as the bass links into the next section with a rising 5̂-♮6-♯7̂-8 crescendo to set up the key change to G minor. (p.244) B Section (mm. 42–82)

Statements 6 through 10 of the theme group form a contrasting B section ( WF 5.6). Piazzolla works out the rhythmic, melodic, and harmonic ideas from the A section in two waves that lead to the climax of the tango. Statement 6 launches the first wave with a crashing ff (not p as marked in the score). Piazzolla expands the tutti texture to three contrapuntal strands supported by steady marcato in the bass and piano left hand that prolong the new tonal center of G minor ( WE 5.16a). In one strand, the bandoneón solo works out a variation of the theme based on four transformations of motive x. While each transformation elaborates the síncopa bar with steady eighth notes, the intervals in the melody gradually expand. First a NT and PT elaborate the ascending melodic third, and then the melody soars sequentially by ascending fifths G-D-A. The two new, but very similar, contrapuntal lines flow in syncopated and accented rhythms against the bandoneón. One lies above the bandoneón in the high register of the piano. The other, more modally inflected, strand lies below in the violin and guitar in parallel voices. All the parts converge in ff octaves to extend the fourth reiteration of motive x by two bars with a sequence on the elaborated síncopa bar. The extension dramatically descends back down sequentially by fifths, each in turn elaborated by descending fifths that evoke a Bartókian quartal sonority ( WE 5.16b). A rising stepwise pick-up in the violin links to the next phrase. As the first wave of the B section subsides in statement 7, the dynamic level drops and the texture thins out. The violin plays this variation in its low register and sharply accents each interval expansion of the rising third with a short glissando. Piazzolla emphasizes the modal coloring foreshadowed in the previous variation by replacing the repeated 5̂ in motive x with a Dorian-inflected ♮6 (E♮). Meanwhile, the other instruments accompany with a Gm9 harmonic pedal. A new subtle cross-rhythm arises between the bass 3-3-2 in every bar and the motive x two-bar rhythm of 3-3-2 plus síncopa in the other bandoneón and piano right hand. With one final push on the incessantly repeated E♮4, the violin links to next phrase.

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) Statement 8 shifts back down a half step to F♯ minor, and Piazzolla effects a smooth common-tone chromatic modulation as the previously Dorian-inflected E♮4 becomes the seventh of the tonic harmony. The texture becomes more layered and dynamic as the second wave takes shape. The violin solo continues the main melody with a transformation of motive x similar to the bandoneón’s statement 6. Now the violin soars upward in a melodic sequence by thirds (E-G♯-B-D♯) in each two-bar group, terminates on E5, and in turn initiates an E major scalar fill with a crescendo to link to (p.245) the next phrase beginning on E6. Meanwhile, the bandoneón plays a contrapuntal strand that elaborates a repeated E4 in subtle eighth-note rítmico downward skips, and the other instruments pulse a 3-3-2 rhythm in each bar on the repeated F♯m9/7 harmony. The second wave of energy builds more momentum in statement 9. As the most complex variation in the entire piece, it drives to the climax by expanding the instrumental ranges, building thicker rhythmic layers, and incorporating harmonic dissonance ( WE 5.17). The solo violin continues motive x high above the texture on the Dorian-inflected E6, doubled by the bandoneón an octave below playing in parallel fourths. Each other instrument in the accompaniment has its own distinct rhythmic strand in the texture. The piano pushes the momentum forward with 3-3-2 groupings in steady eighth notes dispersed throughout its low to midranges, the guitar punctuates the last note of each 3-3-2 group with a single note, and, for the first time in the tango, the bass shifts to a síncopa rhythm. Piazzolla actually uses a modified pattern here to reinforce the 3-3-2 in the piano. By repeating the pedal D in síncopa twice against the 3-3 (rather than jumping to the more characteristic fourth below) and then rising upward on “4&” with the -2, he ingeniously conflates the two patterns into one and reveals their common syncopated grouping. Furthermore, within the prolonged D harmony, Piazzolla incorporates some of the most intense dissonance of the entire tango. Added notes and extended chords oscillate from the root movement D-F and D-G that recalls the embedded melodic third and fourth in the original walking bass line to motive x. The momentum builds as motive x ascends a third to G6, the highest note in the piece, for the third and fourth iterations while the accompaniment remains fixed on the same two-bar pattern. The climax explodes in statement 10 at m. 75, which coincides with the Golden Mean, or .618, of the piece ( WE 5.18). All the parts converge into a tutti and sff homophonic wall of sound, and the meter again briefly changes to 68 to dispel the síncopa element. The harmony strays the farthest afield from a tonal center here. Piazzolla suddenly shifts down a half step to D♭M7, the enharmonic spelling of the C♯ anticipating the V of the home key of F♯. He prolongs this harmony in mm. 75–77 by composing out the rising bass-line idea in two segments of a D♭ pentatonic scale, first the rising third (D♭-E♭-F), then the rising fourth (A♭-B♭m-D♭). Meanwhile, the bass, guitar, bandoneón, and piano push upward in parallel “power chords” on each chord root of the rising bass. Above Page 36 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) this wall of sound, motive x undergoes its most dramatic transformation and only sounds once. As in statement 4, it first extends to six repetitions of dotted quarter notes, now on pounding C octaves in the upper registers of the violin, bandoneón, and (p.246) piano. Then it drops to the lower octave to complete the rising third segment squarely on the downbeat of m. 78. Here the meter changes back to , as the harmony also descends from D♭ to C. Piazzolla releases the forceful melodic tension with a long descending slide in the violin over the next four bars (mm. 77–81), supported by the same 3-3-2/síncopa conflated rhythm in the piano and bass as statement 9. The harmony, however, sustains a dissonant polychord whose roots are a tritone apart (G♭ major/C), as the bass maintains a C pedal and the wave subsides in a diminuendo. While the G♭ half of the polychord enharmonically anticipates the return to the tonic F#, the bass finally catches up in m. 82. It reinterprets the D♭ from mm. 75–77 as C♯ and then ascends chromatically to F♯ and the return of the A section. A′ Section and Coda (mm. 83–118)

Statements 11–14 of the theme form a varied return of the A section followed by a coda ( WF 5.7). Piazzolla reorchestrates the opening phrase in statement 11, where the piano and guitar play the main theme, the bandoneón elaborates with new counterpoint (not in the score, so probably improvised), and the violin plays the slow-moving rising countermelody interspersed with chicharra enlaces. Statement 12 also slightly varies statement 2 as the violin doubles the bandoneón on the melody, while the guitar sounds a new and more chromatic countermelody. While statement 13 exactly repeats statement 3, the final dramatic ff statement 14 varies statement 4. Piazzolla transposes the first two iterations of motive x in parallel one-to-one counterpoint up an octave, where the strident chromatic inversion dominates in the violin. The shift to 68 meter elaborates the dotted quarter-note rhythm of the descending parallel chords with pulsing eighth notes. A long glissando in the piano, reinforced by a big crescendo, leads to the coda. Piazzolla holds back the tempo to give one last tutti statement of his relentless motive x in parts forming parallel chords. He emphasizes the final rising third in augmentation and replaces the usual E♯ with E♮ on the penultimate note. Another piano glissando reinforced by tutti crescendo leads to the final ff chord, and the violin látigo falls away in place of the traditional “chan-chan.” (p.247) Julián Plaza (1928–2003)

(p.248)

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) Julián Plaza made his mark in tango as one of the foremost composers and arrangers in tango. Although he played both piano and bandoneón, he maintained what his son, Diego, describes as a bajo perfil (low profile) rather than projecting the typical tango showman personaje (character).80 Even bassist Cabarcos described how Plaza thought of himself as just “one of the guys” despite his exceptional talent.81 As a player, arranger, and composer, Plaza worked with maestros of the Golden Age and post–Golden Age including Caló, Pugliese, and members of Sexteto Tango, in addition to forming his own orchestra later in life. In this case study, we provide a biographical sketch of Plaza, examine his late orchestral style in terms of performance and arranging, and explore his romantic compositional voice. Finally, we analyze his renowned composition “Danzarín.”

Photo 5.3. Julián Plaza, undated. Used by permission from Diego Plaza.

Biographical Background Plaza was born July 9, 1928, in General Manuel Campos, a small town in the province of La Pampa located in central Argentina. His father learned to play the accordion through a correspondence course with a teacher in Spain, and in turn taught Julián the rudimentary practices of the instrument.82 At age eleven, Plaza’s family moved to Buenos Aires, and the young Plaza began his formal studies with bandoneonist and composer Félix Lipseker. In 1943, Plaza entered into the professional tango scene and began playing with Donato’s orchestra. He shortly after worked in Rodio’s ensemble. Then, in 1949, Plaza became a bandoneonist and arranger in Caló’s orchestra, a group that he stayed in for almost ten years. During the 1950s, he also toured with Eduardo Bianco in the Mediterranean and Middle East. Additionally, he played with Di Sarli’s orchestra and arranged for Troilo’s orchestra. Plaza joined Pugliese’s cooperative orchestra in 1959. With the orchestra, he played the bandoneón in addition to composing and arranging. While a member of the ensemble, the orchestra toured the former Soviet Union, China, and Japan

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) in addition to performing throughout Buenos Aires in theaters and cabarets, as well as on radio and television. (p.249) Then, in 1968, when Pugliese’s orchestra had temporarily paused due to the maestro’s illness, Plaza and five other members of the orchestra formed Sexteto Tango following in the footsteps of De Caro. Plaza notably switched instruments and played piano in the sextet. Shadowing the cooperative approach from their work with Pugliese, Plaza, Lavallén, Ruggiero, and Balcarce all arranged and/or composed for the ensemble. Sexteto Tango made its debut at Caño 14 and shortly after appeared on the Sábados Circulares television show. During the 1970s, Sexteto Tango toured the Americas, and during the 1980s, the ensemble toured Europe and Japan. In 1974, the ensemble performed at the Teatro Colón alongside the orchestras of Troilo, Salgán, and Sassone. The ensemble also successfully recorded eleven albums for RCA Victor and one album for CBS (present-day Columbia Records) in Japan. In 1991, Sexteto Tango retired and stopped recording and performing. After Sexteto Tango, Plaza embarked on another performing endeavor to establish a large orchestra for a Japan tour. While there, the orchestra recorded the CD Japón 96 (presently released on the EPSA label). The personnel of the orchestra included many young players, including Bolotin, who is featured in the violin solo of “El choclo.” Bolotin described in a conversation how Plaza recruited him by personally calling him while in a taxicab in his typical, unassuming manner.83 In addition to working as a performer, Plaza arranged and composed throughout his life. His son Diego Plaza remembers his father arranging by simultaneously singing and playing piano with his right hand and bandoneón with his left hand.84 As aforementioned, Plaza arranged for Pugliese, as well as for Troilo, Stampone, and Enrique Francini. He worked for Editorial Julio Korn arranging tango standards. As a composer, he wrote many renowned tangos, the most famous being “Danzarín,” that have been recorded by prominent tangueros such as Troilo and Federico-Grela Quartet (aka San Telmo Cuarteto). In addition to tangos, Plaza wrote film scores and composed the music to Gotán (1965), La tregua (1974), Solamente ella (1975), Sentimental (1981), and Chau, papá (1987). He also was very involved with the Sociedad Argentina de Autores y Compositores de Música (SADAIC, the Argentina Society of Authors and Composers of Music) and served as treasurer from 1985 until his death. Plaza passed away on April 19, 2003, and is buried at Cementerio de la Chacarita. Despite his relatively low profile throughout his life, Plaza is (p.250) still revered as one of the great tango composers and arrangers. Caroline Neal’s 2005 tango documentary Si sos brujo: una historia de tango (Si sos brujo: A Tango Story85) features him sitting at the table and discussing the formation of a

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) training tango orchestra with many of the tango greats, including Balcarce, Federico, Garcia, and Garello.

Plaza’s Tango Style Overview

As a man from el campo (the country), Plaza’s tango voice emanates an essential simplicity and clarity, yet his romantic sensibility resounds in the deep emotional connection to his music. Plaza’s orchestral colors, heighted by dramatic tempo and dynamic fluctuations, build on the influence of earlier tango romantics like Caló and Di Sarli to create a precedent for the big, lush post–Golden Age tango orchestral sound. His style especially appealed to the great Pichuco, who recorded a number of Plaza’s original compositions, such as “Danzarín,” “Nocturna,” and “Nostálgico” in the 1950s and 1960s. Although the tanguero continuously worked as a performer, arranger, and composer in his later years after the dissolution of Sexteto Tango, his muy a dentro (very internal)86 personality pulled him inward to concentrate on his own arrangements and compositions. For this reason, we focus here on the traits of Plaza’s late orchestral tango style as represented in selections from his 1996 Japan recording, including “Caminito,” “Danzarín,” “El choclo,” “La cumparsita,” “La tregua,” “Melancólico,” “Nocturna,” “Nostálgico,” “Organito de la tarde,” and “Payadora” (

WL 5.10; for Plaza piano scores available online, see

WL 5.11).

Plaza’s Arranging Style and Instrumentation

Learning the art of arranging as a member of Pugliese’s orchestra and honing his craft while working with Sexteto Tango, Plaza produced his most original work later in life with his symphonic orchestra concert music. His (p.251) meticulous attention to notational details of exact rhythms, articulations, and dynamics testifies to Plaza’s mastery of the tango style. Drawing on his own compositions and Golden Age standards, he made new arrangements for orquesta grande (large orchestra) that included up to six violins, two violas, two cellos, bass, five bandoneones, electric guitar, and percussion. The bandoneones are the real stars of Plaza’s orchestra as they constantly switch between the melody and pulsing chordal accompaniment. Plaza mostly uses the strings in melodic roles, either to double the bandoneones in upper octaves for added color on the principal tune, as in the B section of “La cumparsita,” or on legato countermelodies against rítmico melodies in the bandoneones, such as the low countermelody in the last phrase of the A section in “El choclo” and the high sustained countermelody at the end of the A section of “Nostálgico.” The piano crosses over between melody and accompaniment roles in the texture, where solos lie in the warm middle register and accompaniments feature accented and syncopated m2s and frequent glissandos (“Nocturna” and “Danzarín”). Plaza also incorporates a guitar in his large orchestra in both solo and accompanimental roles in “Payadora,” as well as percussion in “Nostálgico.”

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) As a master of orchestration, Plaza’s rich orchestral sound features varying moods and tone colors. In fact, although Plaza played both the bandoneón and piano, his real instrument was the orchestra. Like the “Ellington effect,” as Billy Strayhorn described the jazz master’s use of instrumental colors,87 Plaza’s music blends distinct timbres and registrations in his tango instrumental palette. In essence, Plaza is the Duke Ellington of tango as he skillfully manages seamless changes in his instrumental narrative of contrasting tango melodic styles and rhythmic patterns within his tutti, soli, and solo performing forces. Furthermore, as he continued the tradition of arranging concert music for listening rather than for dancing, Plaza creatively overlaid his creative voice on the essential melody, harmony, rhythm, form, and phrase structure of tango standards. Plaza’s instrumental narrative weaves tutti, soli, and solo performing forces in fluidly changing roles of melody, countermelody, and accompaniment. The A section of “El choclo” illustrates his rapid-fire changes, where Plaza sets the mainly rítmico melody in the bandoneones but dramatically shifts briefly to a tutti cantando to highlight the harmonic shift of V♭9/iv-iv. Meanwhile, the accompanimental patterns effortlessly change from a 3-3-2 pattern in the first phrase to síncopa doble in the beginning of the second phrase, and then change to marcato to accompany the brief change to cantando. (p.252) One hallmark of his warm and lush tango style is dramatic shifts of registers and colors between soli performing forces in a back-and-forth dialogue. For example, in place of typical tutti openings in two tango standards, he shifts between low strings to higher bandoneones. In “El choclo,” where he also reharmonizes the rítmico tune, Plaza divides the sections into subphrases through such registral shifts. In “La cumparsita,” he divides the tune into its shorter rhythmic motives, where the violins play the melodic turn and the bandoneones take over the descending skips. Plaza uses this same dialogue technique in his own compositions, such as the opening phrase of “Nocturna” that alternates between low strings and higher bandoneones, saving the tutti for the cadence. He also plays with a call-and-response dialogue between the melody and countermelody in the “Melancólico” B section, which first shifts between piano solo and strings soli and then changes orchestration in the repeat to bandoneón and piano solos. Finer levels of Plaza’s mastery of arranging feature a subtle additive orchestration process that builds to incredible climaxes. An excellent example may be heard in the variations of “Melancólico,” where the bandoneones begin in octaves, the strings join, and then a massive tutti concludes. A wonderful detail of melodic scoring that employs this additive technique occurs within the last phrase of the B section in “El choclo,” where the bandoneón solo shifts to the low strings and then a forceful tutti crescendos to the half cadence.

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) Smooth changes in the size and color of performing forces highlight a key hallmark of Plaza’s arranging style. In general, Plaza’s arrangements favor full tutti and soli passages, with intermittent solo phrases to contrast. For example, following the short introduction of “Nostálgico,” the A section features first bandoneón soli, then tutti with violins doubling in the upper octave ( WE 5.19a and 5.19b), followed by a bandoneón solo flourish, then finally bandoneón soli with a string countermelody to conclude the last phrase. Plaza features instrumental solos to contrast the soli and tutti sections. In “El choclo,” Plaza highlights a trade-off between the bandoneón and the piano in the trio. Similarly, while the trio of “La cumparsita” begins with a determined tutti in fraseo, it immediately softens with a solo bandoneón flourish, sounds another tutti phrase, then features a longer lyrical cello solo in the last phrase. Finally, the master arranger overlays his own musical ideas onto tango standards as he expands and at times even recomposes them. In the trio to “El choclo,” for example, he plays with phrase expansions and adds a big coda that first repeats the last phrase of variations, then elaborates the main melody. His original introduction to “La cumparsita” builds on (p.253) a chromatically rising and falling chord progression on the 3-3-2 rhythmic pattern, while the ethereal introduction of “Caminito” comes back full circle in the dramatic coda. Plaza creatively mixes ritmos within pieces, such as when “La cumparsita” breaks into a romping milonga for the final return of A with variations. Plaza even occasionally calls on the old milonga rhythm, as in the bass pizzicato that supports the piano solo in the opening of “Organito de la tarde.”

Plaza’s Compositional Style Plaza emerged as a leading tango composer in the 1950s with such famous instrumental tangos as “Danzarín,” “Melancólico,” and “Nostálgico.” His scores are relatively accessible, and some of his Korn orquestaciones from the late 1950s continue to circulate among tangueros, such as “Danzarín,” “Disonante,” and “Nocturna,” as do a number of his piano scores. Plaza’s distinctly personal compositional style features intense mood changes that result from contrasting sharp rítmico and arching cantando melodies and quickly shifting accompanimental rhythms that, like Piazzolla, often layer and synthesize marcato, síncopa, and 3-3-2 groupings. Plaza’s thick, romantic homophonic textures frame clearly articulated melodies and countermelodies, while intense arrastres and piano glissandos often seamlessly connect phrases and sections. His skillful recomposition of repeated sections through varied repetition of musical ideas and changes in orchestration especially demonstrate his artistry. We focus here on Plaza’s compositional traits in six representative works: four tangos, “Danzarín,” “Melancólico,” “Nostálgico,” and “La tregua,” and two milongas, “Nocturna” and “Payadora.”

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) In contrast to Salgán’s guardia vieja–like cell-driven melodies, Plaza’s romantic melodies sweep in broader gestures and leaner filigree that typically span twobar groups. While he may sustain one melodic style throughout an entire section, such as the “Danzarín” rítmico A and cantando C sections, his melodies more often move effortlessly between the two. For example, Plaza juxtaposes rítmico and cantando within the first phrase of both the A and C sections in “Melancólico.” The first two phrases of “Nostálgico” exemplify Plaza’s contrasting melodic styles. The rítmico a phrase essentially prolongs the fifth (G) of the C minor tonic triad with upper and lower NTs ( WE 5.19a), while the lush and chromatic cantando b phrase initiates a descending fifth sequence ( WE 5.19b). His melodies, whether rítmico or cantando, economically incorporate adornos, either as NTs or PTs embedded in the line or with notated ornaments. In (p.254) his milongas, Plaza spins out melodic ideas in perpetual sixteenthnote motion. For example, swirling chromatic turns generate the melody in the A section of “Nocturna,” while “Payadora” gallops in bordoneo arpeggios. Plaza’s arrangement of the cantando b phrase of “Nostálgico” ( WE 5.19b) illustrates an important tutti feature of his melodic style. He creates a similarly strident and dramatic melody in note-against-note style in the sharp marcato-like chromatic descending melody in the B section of “Danzarín” ( WE 5.22). Plaza also uses this forceful tutti effect to push to the coda in the final B section of “Payadora,” heightening the intensity with syncopation and chromaticism ( 5.20).

WE

Also in the realm of melody, Plaza draws on tango elements of countermelodies and variations in his own romantic voice. Simple countermelodies typically arch in long and slow string lines, as in both “Melancólico” (B section) and “Danzarín” (return of C section), set against the piano solos. In “Payadora,” Plaza ingeniously recomposes the slow chromatic descending bass to a chromatic descending counterpoint high in the strings against the bandoneones in the first return of A. Such a typical Plazian countermelody actually becomes the intense main melody of the entire B section in “Nocturna” as it soars above the pulsing milonga rhythm. In place of full-length variations on the entire main phrase, Plaza tends to incorporate shorter passages, as in the bandoneón flourish at the end of “Nostálgico,” or to use an additive orchestration of first bandoneones joined by the strings, as in “Melancólico” and “Danzarín.” Fluidly changing accompanimental rhythms ground Plaza’s romantic style. The contratiempo pattern that layers offbeat chords above a marcato bass is a hallmark of his rhythmic accompaniment. Such rhythmic layering may be heard between the bandoneones and bass line in the C section of “Danzarín” and in the repetition of the cantando melody in the B section of “Melancólico” (Example 5.3).

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) Plaza ingeniously uses the 3-3-2 pattern on two rhythmic levels in the slow return of the B section in “Nocturna,” where the piano arpeggios subdivide the groupings and the legato string melody and pizzicato bass line pulse the slower durations. Plaza also emphasizes this rhythmic pattern just in melodic groupings, as in the octave leaps in the opening of “Danzarín’s” A melody ( 5.21).

WE

Example 5.3. “Melancólico,” mm. 34–35, from the orquesta grande manuscript arrangement, violin and bandoneón parts, illustrating contratiempo accompaniment to the cantando C melody.

Strongly grounded in standard diatonic progressions, Plaza’s Gift of Diego Plaza and used by romantic harmonic language permission, Warner/Chappell Music. regularly includes chromatic elaborations such as seventh chords, extended chords, and added notes. For example, lush seventh and ninth chords permeate and enrich the B section of “Nostálgico.” Plaza especially favors the V♯9, as heard at the final cadence of “Danzarín” and in the introduction of “La tregua.” He builds on the common practice of (p.255) changing to parallel keys between sections to effect modal shifts as transitional passages, such as in the sustained chords between the B and C sections of “Danzarín” and minor plagal cadence linking the A to the B section in “Melancólico.” Chromatic bass lines abound in Plaza’s harmonic style, both descending and ascending, again heard in a chromatic sequence in “Nostálgico’s” B section. More in a Piazzolla style, “La tregua” features a chromatically descending bass line pulsing 3-3-2 in the B section’s syncopated and sequential bandoneón melody. Plaza uses blocks of linear chords moving chromatically in the dramatic conclusions of “Nocturna” and “Payadora.” Web illustrates the final two reiterations of the two-bar descending Example 5.20 group in “Payadora,” where Plaza builds to the entire orchestra playing the chromatic wave of sound. While certainly not a new texture to the genre, Plaza capitalizes on the antecedents of pure homophony in tango, as heard in the opening of De Caro’s “Boedo,” Troilo’s “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos,” and Pugliese’s “La yumba,” to create even thicker walls of sound. In contrast to Salgán, whose textures weave intricate and cool baroque-like polyphony, Plaza’s romantic homophony especially characterizes his warm, full sound. In addition to the linear chords and the tutti melody scored in parts in the examples illustrated in “Payadora” ( Page 44 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) WE 5.20), “Nostálgico” ( WE 5.19b), and “Danzarín” ( WE 5.22), Plaza also employs homophony to create powerful tutti arrastres to connect sections, as in “Danzarín” between the A and B sections. (p.256) Perhaps form is the most traditional musical parameter of Plaza’s compositional style. His regular two-, four-, and eight-bar phrases form sections of parallel or double periods. He often spins out two-bar groups into classical sentence-structure phrases, as in “Danzarín” (A and C sections) and “Melancólico” (A, B, and C sections). Although he casts both of these tangos in the older tango three-part form, he does not actually indicate the traditional trio in the scores. He casts “Nostálgico,” “Payadora,” and “Nocturna” in two-part structures, yet still references a short third part by incorporating four- and eight-bar transitional phrases between the A and B sections. Working within such standard formal structures, Plaza’s compositional brilliance shines in his varied repetition of sections. For example, the second B section in “Melancólico” features a mournful bandoneón solo in place of the original string melody. Plaza not only softens the bright mood of the milongas “Nocturna” and “Payadora” in their recomposed sections with slower tempos and contrasting cantando melodic style but also mixes the standard ritmos. In the slow return of B in “Nocturna” mentioned earlier, he actually marks “Tango” in the parts. Similarly, in “Payadora,” he changes to a slow 3-3-2 milonga campera rhythm in the return of the B section. Even more dramatically, at the end of the A section’s return, he inserts four bars of the a tempo.

meter to evoke a vals, then marks “milonga” at

Plaza also expands the standard forms with introductions and codas. He begins “Nostálgico” with an introduction on the main rítmico A melody and then adds an extensive coda, while he foreshadows the B sections in the introductions to both “Danzarín” and “Melancólico.” Plaza playfully sets the stage with music outside the formal frame in “Payadora,” where two bandoneones take each other on for size as if beginning a payada contest, and concludes with a brilliant coda. Finally, after his heightened and dramatic endings, Plaza typically concludes with standard “chan-chan” flourishes of equal durations. Plaza’s Performance Style

While Plaza’s talents were diverse as a performer playing both bandoneón and piano in various orchestras and ensembles, he waited until the end of his life to create his own orchestra. Through this medium, he solidified his individual performance style with the orchestra as a whole. This discussion, therefore, focuses on the performance style of Plaza’s large orchestra of the 1990s. In addition to making all of the arrangements, Plaza returned to his first instrument, the bandoneón, as a performer while he also continued to play the piano. Page 45 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) (p.257) The most striking feature of Plaza’s sound with this large orchestra of the 1990s is its lush, romantic quality. With eight members in the Japón 96 recording (two bandoneones, two violins, viola, cello, piano, and bass), the orchestra produces a fullness of sound that is only achieved by strong string and bandoneón sections. The orchestra adds to this plump sound by playing with weight, achieved by heavy bow and piano arms and a forceful bandoneón technique. This quality in sound and the techniques applied stem more from the style of Pugliese than the light style of Salgán. Plaza’s arrangements of guardia vieja tangos, such as “El choclo” and “La cumparsita,” especially exemplify his romantic sound as one can easily contrast the style of playing with the earlier versions of these standards. Along with the romantic quality of sound, energetic tempos and a general feeling of forward motion dominate the late orchestra’s performance style. For example, the 1996 recording of “Danzarín” is in a sprightlier tempo than the earlier recording by Sexteto Tango. To propel the excitement of the music forward, Plaza saturates the arrangements with piano glissandos and fills, which are often played with a slight accelerando. For example, “Danzarín,” “La cumparsita,” and “Nocturna” (especially at the end) feature numerous swooping piano glissandos and fills. Interestingly, Plaza often writes a fast ascending and descending glissando at the end of pieces to slow down or halt the motion for a final concluding statement or “chan-chan,” as in “Danzarín,” “Melancólico,” and “El choclo.” The piano and bass’s style of playing rhythmic accompaniments also aids in this overall forward motion. Generally, the two instruments play marcato or síncopa on the front side of the beat. Strong arrastres, such as those in “Melancólico,” drive the music as well. In this case, the style of playing arrastre is similar that of Pugliese’s orchestra, in which there is a heavy, powerful, yet energetic push to the downbeat. Even Plaza’s bordoneo accompaniment figure vitalizes the music, as in “Payadora.” Further, the bandoneones also play forceful arrastres that fortify síncopa accompaniment patterns and drive his characteristic tutti. To further accent the rhythm, Plaza fills his arrangements with a variety of yeites in various instrument groups. For example, “El choclo” and “La cumparsita” both incorporate chicharra in the violins, and “Danzarín” includes escoba, tambor, and chicharra in the violins and golpes on various other instruments. The string and bandoneón sections, typically playing the melody or countermelody, perform with clear articulation, highlighting the staccato or legato characteristics of the respective rítmico or cantando melodies. “Nostálgico” exceptionally exemplifies the contrast between these (p.258) two articulations. Similar to the weightiness of Plaza’s accompaniments, the staccatos of his melodies are slightly longer and heavier than those in the style of Salgán. The accents follow a similar suit and contain a quality similar to that of Pugliese. In correlation with the romantic sound quality described earlier, the Page 46 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) bandoneones and strings play with a very soupy legato augmented by slides and lush vibrato. Following the practices of Pugliese’s orchestra, Plaza distributes solos evenly among the players. At times they simply function as an expressive moment in the phrase that demonstrates a singing tone quality as opposed to fast passagework, while at other times they give the performer freedom of expression to elaborate the melody or display technical virtuosity. “La cumparsita,” for example, contains a cello solo that concludes the phrase at the end of the trio, but the piano, violin, and bandoneón have freer solos in the return of the A section in the expressive “Si superias” melody. The slow return of the A section of “Payadora” also features freer solos played in turn by piano, bandoneón, and violin accompanied by the milonga campera rhythm. Unlike Salgán, Plaza rarely focuses just on the piano, but notable exceptions may be heard in the quiet piano solos at the beginning of both the A and B sections of “Organito de la tarde.” “Caminito,” which is like a little piano concerto, opens with a sensitive piano solo that emphasizes an indulgent, nuanced fraseo and a beautiful tone quality in the characteristic middle register. Even Plaza’s bandoneón solos, as in “Danzarín,” are expressive moments to highlight the sound of the instrument, reminiscent of Troilo’s soulful style. Bolotin’s violin solos in “La cumparsita” and “El choclo” display his typical style of freely adding many mordents and ornaments to create a more virtuosic passage.

Analysis: “Danzarín” (1958) by Julián Plaza Overview

If, as Plaza said, “a given compositional work ends up being a kind of summary of the author’s artistic personality,”88 then “Danzarín” reflects his polished control of a romantic sensibility given to sudden mood changes. Perhaps the most often performed of Plaza’s tangos, “Danzarín” exists (p.259) in multiple print sources, including the composer’s own orquestación and a piano score (both published by Korn, 1958), a transcription of Plaza’s 1958 arrangement for Troilo’s orchestra held in the Orquesta Escuela de Tango archive,89 and Plaza’s 1993 arrangement for orquesta grande (large orchestra).90 In addition to the orchestral recordings by Troilo and Plaza, “Danzarín” has been recorded by the Orquesta del Tango de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires and the Orquesta Escuela de Tango Emilio Balcarce, and Sexteto Tango and Sexteto Mayor have recorded WL 5.12 for a video of the maestro himself performing chamber versions. (See in El Viejo Almacén in 2000.) Now a fixture in the tango repertory, “Danzarín” has been arranged and recorded by many other tangueros, including Federico/ Grela, Arias/Montes, Luis Salinas, Juan Esteban Cuacci, and Osvaldo Piro. A close reading of “Danzarín” reveals Plaza’s crisply articulated rítmico melodies contrasting with warm cantando lines. Although rooted in core diatonic harmonies, Plaza’s lush harmonic style and thick homophonic textures incorporate extended chords, added notes, and linear chromaticism. In addition Page 47 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) to quick alterations between the standard marcato and síncopa, his music also uses contratiempo in the accompaniment. Furthermore, it calls on 3-3-2 patterns both in melodic groupings and in pulsing chordal accompanimental passages, accentuated with percussive yeites. Plaza’s mood changes are especially evident in rapid shifts in orchestration and expressive tempo fluctuations. His standard two-, four-, and eight-bar groups form sixteen-bar sections within “Danzarín’s” traditional three-part tango form. (See the Companion Website for the “Danzarín” Listening Chart and corresponding audio link,

WF 5.8.)

Close Reading

The following analysis of “Danzarín” takes the reader through each section of the tango’s form and highlights specific examples of Plaza’s romantic post– Golden Age tango compositional style. The analytical examples are based on Plaza’s arrangement for orquesta grande, which the 1996 orchestra recording closely follows, and the Korn piano score ( WL 5.11). Measure numbers in the analysis correspond to the Korn piano score, since it is the most readily available source for reference, so the introduction and five phrase extensions in the orchestral arrangement remain outside the (p.260) formal frame. Figure 5.3 illustrates the overall three-part form and the phrase structure within each section of “Danzarín.” A Section (mm. 1–16)

Plaza constructs the A section of “Danzarín” in two repeated eight-bar sentences, a, a′, and b ( WF 5.9). The sonorous tutti Figure 5.3. Overall form and phrase introduction references the first structure of “Danzarín.” two bars of the C section, and it tags on a two-bar extension as the melody sustains above the chromatic descending bass and a forte glissando in the piano reinforces a big crescendo.91 After a short pause, the mood changes as lively octaves leap on 5̂ and delineate a 3-3-2 rhythm. This pattern spins out to create the 2 + 2 (a a′) sequential group of the rítmico eight-bar melody in the solo bandoneón, colored by the characteristic ♯4̂/5̂ m2 and punctuated by violin chicharra. The contrasting four-bar subphrase b continues in rítmico melodic style, first in a descending scalar motion with chromatic PTs, then arching back upward to the half cadence. The accompaniment supports the melody with steady marcato in the 2 + 2 group, shifts to síncopa then briefly back to marcato in the four-bar group, and finally links to the repeated phrase with a staccato rising line ( 5.21).

WE

Plaza reorchestrates the varied repetition of the sentence, first with tutti and then strings soli. Furthermore, in the orchestra arrangement and 1996 recording, he elaborates the harmony with a new chromatic descending bass Page 48 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) line in the 2 + 2 subphrases and extended chords throughout the repetition. He also momentarily disrupts the regular phrase rhythm with a bar extension in m. 12 at the end of a′, where an arrastre enlace in the piano left hand sets up the final phrase of the section. Despite the subtle “chan-chan” at the conclusion of the A section, Plaza seamlessly moves on (p.261) to the downbeat of the B section with a glissando in the piano, a crescendo on the held tonic chord, and a big tutti arrastre. B Section (mm. 17–32)

Plaza lays out another standard sixteen-bar section in the second part of “Danzarín,” now cast in two parallel eight-bar periods of four 4-bar phrases, c, c′, d, and d′ ( WF 5.10). The first period continues in rítmico energy as the c melody descends chromatically from 1̂-5̂ twice in pure accented and staccato marcato. In typical Plazian homophony, the entire orchestra plays stridently, first marching in quarter-note durations, then becoming more syncopated toward the end of the phrase ( WE 5.22). After the first bar, however, the piano, left-hand bandoneones, and bass fall back to an accompaniment role in síncopa. Plaza varies the repetition of the phrase by shaping c′ into a more ornamented rítmico style and by changing the orchestration. The elaborated melody begins in the lower string register as the bass and piano accompany in marcato, and then it shifts to the bandoneones in the upper register as the strings shadow in steady quarter notes parallel sixths. Finally, the melody concludes tutti in parts as the tempo slightly ritards. The warm contrasting d phrase (mm. 25–28) begins cantando scored tutti in wide octaves, while the accompaniment combines marcato in 2 with sustained chords IV-I6 in the piano and bandoneones and a legato marcato 4 in the bass. A quick mood change shifts the melody to sharp rítmico played in the lower strings as the harmony pushes to the ii-V-I cadence. An enlace of syncopated m2s (♯7̂/1̂) in the piano and a bass arrastre lead to the next phrase. Again, Plaza demonstrates his mastery of orchestration in d′ (mm. 29–32), where the bandoneones play the melody rítmico, the violins add a warm new cantando countermelody, and the bass accompanies in síncopa with heavy arrastre followed by marcato in 4 as the tempo slows down to end the phrase. Plaza sustains the orchestra on a lush major tonic chord with an added sixth, and he extends the phrase one bar while changing to the minor mode in anticipation of the next section. C Section (mm. 33–48)

The complete melancholic G minor cantando melody hinted at in the introduction of “Danzarín” plays out in the C section, and Plaza returns to the sentence design for this sixteen-bar section ( WF 5.11). He draws inward (p.262) from the mostly tutti A and B sections by scoring the first sentence as a fraseo call and response for two solo bandoneones. A slower harmonic rhythm further quiets the mood and allows tonal space for the yearning melody and countermelody to Page 49 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) evoke Troilo-esque tristeza in a duet of rising and accented incomplete neighbor tones ( INTs). In the 2 + 2 group (e e′), the bass softly pulses a síncopa accompaniment as the harmony sustains the G minor tonic chord for three bars before moving to the subdominant. By holding the last pitch in each bandoneón part’s two-bar group, Plaza creates lush extended chords with the added ninth and sixth ( WE 5.23). The call and response builds as the bandoneón lines become more florid in the four-bar subphrase, marked tranq (for tranquilo) in the parts. They finally merge into parallel thirds to conclude the phrase, while the rhythmic accompaniment changes to marcato in 2 with softly rolled chords in the piano right hand. An arrastre wedge in contrary motion between the bandoneones and the bass pushes a crescendo link between the end of the phrase to the downbeat of the next phrase. In classic Plazian fashion, the second repeated sentence drastically changes mood and color through orchestration and scoring. Now the strings take the spotlight to play the main cantando melody forte in octaves. In the 2 + 2 group, the bandoneones drop back to accompany with an elaborated síncopa rhythm, while the bass and piano drive the momentum forward with marcato in 4. Then, in the four-bar subphrase (f), the bandoneones fortify the strings on the melody, the bass plays marcato as the left-hand piano elaborates síncopa in the accompaniment, and the section closes with a sharp “chan-chan.” Return of B and C Sections

Whereas the Korn piano score simply inserts a da capo sign indicating a return back to the A section to repeat the entire tango, Plaza’s published instrumentation places the corresponding da capo sign at the head of the B section. Then, at the end of B, he inserts the coda symbol to cut to the recomposed C section. In this varied return, the strings play the lush cantando melody in the first sentence, the bandoneones spin out variations against the repeat of the 2 + 2 group in the second sentence, and the strings join the bandoneones in the final four-bar subphrase driving to the final cadence. In the arrangement for large orchestra, Plaza writes out the complete returns of the B and C sections and incorporates extensive varied repetitions, elaborations, and variations. Although the return of the c phrase in (p.263) the B section presents an exact return of the strident chromatic descending tune in homophonic style from mm. 17 to 21, c′ assumes a more ornamented and heightened rítmico setting with different quick changes in orchestration. Additionally, the tone softens in the cantando d melody as the bandoneón solo replaces the forceful tutti first heard in mm. 25–28, softly accompanied by bass marcato in 2 and delicate piano arpeggios. Then, Plaza repeats d′ exactly as mm. 29–32, including the one-bar extension to shift to minor mode.

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) Plaza completely transforms the return of the C section. In place of the bandoneón duet of the original 2 + 2 group in the first sentence, the solo piano plays the melancholic cantando melody in its warm, middle register so characteristic of Golden Age arrangements, and the violins answer with a sighing portamento version of the countermelody. The piano solo becomes increasingly rhapsodic in the following four-bar subphrase, and the strings first answer stridently with forte syncopated chords on an abrupt harmonic turn to the Neapolitan, then soften on a sustained dominant chord. Here Plaza writes a three-bar cadenza (indicated in the music) that turns around the rising INT gestures of the e melody. The piano fantasia builds to a grand pause, and then it dramatically announces the final section with a forte and accented octave jump in left hand. The strings and bandoneones initiate the final cantando 2 + 2 (e e′) group forte in octaves, while the bass and piano drive the accompaniment with marcato in 4. Plaza scores an intense piano glissando, fortified by a crescendo in the bandoneones in a bar extension, to abruptly end the group with another short pause. After quickly catching his breath, Plaza launches into the final four-bar subphrase (f) briefly with variations beginning in the bandoneones and then joined by the strings. Then, a tutti and forte harmonic wall of sound pulses the skeleton of the melody in 3-3-2, followed by a syncopated flourish to the end of the phrase. A three-bar extension on the sustained tonic harmony pulses 3-3-2 groupings with chordal articulations in the bandoneones and octave leaps in the bass, recalling the very opening of the tango. The final “chan-chan” sounds in double time as a piano glissando quickly ascends and descends. Web Example 5.24

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illustrates the dramatic finale of “Danzarín.” (p.264)

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) Leopoldo Federico (1927–2014)

Bandoneonist, bandleader, composer, and arranger Leopoldo Federico bridged the tango of the Golden Age to the post–Golden Age and finally to the “Music of Buenos Aires.” He transformed the 1940s arranging and performing styles into contemporary stylized concert music while preserving tango’s defining musical elements. We look at his career first (p.265) as it began with maestros such as Di Sarli and Demare, then as it matured with Salgán and Piazzolla, and finally as it peaked with his own orchestra that is still in existence today. We then examine his style through his performing, arranging, and compositional practices. We conclude with analysis of his beautiful, nostalgic “Éramos tan jóvenes,” representing his romantic yet contemporary compositional style.

Biographical Background

Photo 5.4. Leopoldo Federico, in his office at Asociación Argentina de Intérpretes (AADI), 2013.

Federico was born January 12, Photo by the authors. 1927, in the northern part of the Balvanera neighborhood in Buenos Aires. He grew up listening to the neighborhood sounds of tango and the bandoneón playing of his father, Luis Federico.92 Leopoldo began playing the bandoneón at an early age by secretly pushing the keys of his father’s instrument, and around the age of six, his parents gave Leopoldo a small, threebuttoned concertina for his birthday.93 As a child growing up at the beginning of tango’s Golden Age, Leopoldo vividly remembers Gardel’s death in 1935: … the funeral procession of Gardel passed on Corrientes Street, one block from my house, which was on Sarmiento. I do not know how I decided to go, because at that time boys did not do what they wanted. The thing was that I crossed the street, turned around and arrived at Corrientes; I got into the procession behind the hearse with all these people. I must have walked a block and my aunt found me in the crowd and almost took off my ear. The whole family was desperately looking for me. I did not know who Gardel was, but I was infected and [it] got me there.94

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) Federico’s uncle, Francisco José “Chilo” Rainone, helped him begin his studies in tango. His uncle insisted that he study the sounds of Maffia and watch him play at the Select Lavalle, a silent film theater.95 Federico also (p.266) listened to Laurenz play on the radio and played along with him.96 In 1939, Federico began bandoneón studies with Nicolás Ingratta. In 1940, he furthered his musical studies with bandoneonist and composer Félix Lipseker (notably, a former member of the orchestras of De Caro and Caló, and also the teacher of Plaza) and with Francisco “Paquito” Requena between 1942 and 1943.97 He also studied harmony and composition with Juan Carlos Cirigliano at the musicians’ union headquarters (El Sindicato de Músicos).98 In 1944, upon the recommendation of Requena,99 Federico launched his tango career when he joined the orchestra of pianist Felipe Di Adamo and violinist Aníbal Flores. With the Golden Age in full swing during the next decade, Federico came of age by playing on the bandstand with many prominent tangueros as he quickly moved from one orchestra to another. He briefly joined Cobián’s orchestra at the Cabaret Empire in 1944. Then, in 1945, he played with Gobbi’s orchestra that was in such high demand the players had to play at multiple venues throughout the day and into the early morning hours. Federico describes how busy he was in an interview: “Everything was so rushed that we went running from each place with blanket and bandoneón in hand. There was no time to keep the instrument in its case.”100 Then, he joined Maderna’s orchestra in 1946, Balcarce’s orchestra in 1947, and Stamponi’s orchestra as well as Di Sarli’s orchestra in 1948. In addition, Federico worked with Mores in two musical comedies at the Teatro Alvear, El otro yo de Marcela and Bésame Petronila, and as a member of Mores’s Sexteto Rítmico Moderno, which included percussion, bass, organ, and electric guitar. He continued to move around during the late 1940s and early 1950s, playing with numerous other orchestras including those of Piazzolla, Caló, Mario Brugni, Ricardo Malerba, Manzi, Sassone, Demare, and Salgán. After his intensive training years in diverse tango orchestras, Federico struck out on his own. He created an orchestra with pianist Stampone at the end of 1952. Using the arrangements of Galván, the orchestra played at the Tibidabo cabaret and on Radio El Mundo.101 In 1953, the Orquesta Stampone–Federico recorded two tangos, “Tierrita” and “Criolla linda,” with TK. Then, at the end of 1953, Federico became the director of the (p.267) Orquesta Estable de Radio Belgrano, a regular position he maintained until 1967. While running the Radio Belgrano orchestra, Federico continued to play with smaller ensembles during the late 1950s, including Piazzolla’s famous Buenos Aires Octet and the Cuarteto Pa’ que bailen los muchachos with flautist Domingo Rulio and guitarists De Lío and Héctor Davis.

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) In 1958, Federico formed his own orchestra, which recorded three albums for the Music Hall label and one album for Tono. In 1961, Federico’s orchestra transformed its function and began accompanying the famous and charismatic tango singer Julio Sosa. Federico’s partnership with Sosa proved to be very profitable during this post–Golden Age period when orchestras were struggling to work as dance bands. They recorded eight albums for CBS (present-day Columbia Records). Federico, in addition to being the director of the orchestra, was the principal arranger. Notable recordings include the famous “Cambalache,” “En esta tarde gris,” “Sus ojos se cerraron,” and “La cumparsita/ Por que canto así.” Tragically, Sosa died in car crash in 1964, prematurely ending their partnership and bringing the fear of survival to the orchestra and Federico.102 During the mid- to late 1960s and early 1970s, Federico managed even during the tough economic times for tango. With the dissolution of the Radio Belgrano Orchestra in 1967 (the “Law of 1967” consolidated stations and cut salaries), Federico’s orchestra went dormant for a small period, but he re-established it in the early 1970s. In 1973, they made two recordings on the Music Hall label: Leopoldo Federico y su orquesta: A gran orquesta, containing an eclectic mix of old and new tangos, and Leopoldo Federico: Buenos Aires hoy, featuring all contemporary tangos including three of his own compositions. In 1976, Federico’s orchestra traveled to Japan, the first of seven trips to the Asian country. Horacio Cabarcos, son of Fernando, joined the orchestra on bass in 1979 and continued to play with Federico for thirty-five years. Japanese bandoneonist Yoshinori Yoneyama also became a member of the orchestra in 1979 and even scouted the young violinist Bolotin to join the orchestra in 1991.103 While the orchestra was not very active during the oppressive military regime of the 1980s, it persevered and came to maintain a prominent stature in Buenos Aires. In addition to its tours and recordings in Japan, the orchestra has toured Europe and South America and has recorded numerous albums on the Music Hall and Phillips labels. Regular members of Federico’s last orchestra included pianist Ledesma; bandoneonists Corrales, Federico Pereiro, and Romo; violinists Bolotin, Brigitta Danko, Pablo (p.268) Agri, and Mauricio Svidovsky; cellist Diego Sánchez; and bassist Cabarcos. Further, singers often joined the orchestra, most famously Rinaldi, who created the LP De otros tiempos (1980) with the orchestra, and who performed in duo with Federico, as in their CD Vos y Yo (2011). In addition to maintaining his orchestra, Federico played in chamber formations. He participated in two major chamber ensembles beginning in the 1960s. One was the Cuarteto San Telmo with Grela, who notably had separated with Troilo, and thus it resembled the quartet of Troilo and Grela. The ensemble recorded three albums together between 1965 and 1969 on the CBS and Music Hall Page 54 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) labels. The other, a trio formed in 1970 with pianist Berlingieri and bassist Cabarcos, recorded three albums between 1970 and 1975 on the RCA Victor, RCA Camden, and Music Hall labels. After the trio with Berlingieri and Cabarcos, Federico continued to pursue chamber formations and even solo bandoneón. In 1979, he released the solo bandoneón cassette Solos de bandoneón which spans the gamut of tango styles. It includes arrangements from the guardia vieja, such as Arolas’s “El marne”; the Golden Age, such as Troilo’s “Che, bandoneón”; and his own compositions, such as “Bandola zurdo” and “Capricho otoñal.” This important cassette was remastered and released on CD by RGS Music in 2013. Federico created a quartet, which recorded with singer Carlos Barral in 1986–1987 to create the record Balada del alba on the Redonel label. In 1995, he experimented with tango-jazz fusion with Piazzolla’s electric guitarist Malvicino, bassist Adalberto Cevasco, and percussionist José Corriale for the CD Made in Buenos Aires (1995). The recording was rereleased in 2001 on the EPSA label with the title A Piazzolla and includes additional tracks of tangos by Piazzolla such as “Pedro y Pedro.” In addition to directing and arranging for his large orchestra and releasing solo and chamber CDs, Federico has composed many tangos. “Éramos tan jóvenes” is perhaps his most famous composition, and he performed it regularly in chamber and orchestral arrangements. The CD Coincidencias (EPSA, 2002) with pianist Osvaldo Requena (nephew of “Paquito”) and his orchestra contains tangos solely written by Federico and Requena. In 2008, Federico recorded the bandoneón solo album Mi fueye querido, which includes his own works, as well as those by Piazzolla, Julio De Caro, and Arolas, and won the 2009 Latin Grammy for Best Tango Album. He also presided over the Asociación Argentina de Intérpretes (AADI, Argentina Association of Interpreters), a position he assumed in 1986. Today, Federico is a legend in Buenos Aires. He performed regularly with his orchestra and in chamber formations (including a trio with Ledesma and Cabarcos) until his passing in 2014. He was even a member of the 2005 all-star orchestra Selección Nacional de Tango, which made the CD En vivo. (p.269) He has received numerous awards attesting to his grand status, including the Illustrious Citizen of Buenos Aires (Ciudadano Ilustre de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires) in 2002, the National Congress in 2004 for his great contribution to culture (Congresso de la Nación por su gran aporte a la cultura), and numerous Konex Foundation awards including the 2005 Platinum Award for Tango Ensemble. In his later years, Federico formed a bridge to the younger generations of tangueros, including Bolotín and Possetti, by graciously extending his experience, support, and endorsement. Attesting to the love and admiration that porteños have for Federico, García Blaya ends his biography on the tanguero by stating:

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) What more is there to say about this magnificent artist who represents the best of tango always and that unites his musical gifts [with] remarkable human qualities. Simply, we wish you continued success and we are very grateful for giving us so much music and so much beauty.104

Federico’s Tango Style Overview

Federico’s sound itself bridges traditional to modern tango. Since his long career has spanned the Golden Age to today, Federico’s style has both adapted to the changing times and remained grounded in his romantic roots. He particularly “caught” the way to play and the sound of Caló’s romantic Orquesta de las Estrellas (Orchestra of the Stars),105 as heard in his lush orchestration, rich chromaticism, and driving rhythm section. Yet, he blends in Piazzolla-esque innovations in phrase structure, walking basses, repeated 3-3-2 rhythmic groupings, and bandoneón flights of fancy. Although musicians in his group have changed throughout the years, his essential tanguero sound of stylized concert music has remained constant. We frame our discussion of his arranging, performance, and compositional style with a representative overview of his recorded creative output since 1961, including “Bandola zurdo,” “Capricho otoñal,” “Éramos tan jóvenes,” “La cumparsita/Por que canto así,” “Mi fueye querido,” “Milongueando (p.270) en el 40,” “Pedro y Pedro,” “Responso,” “Selección de Carlos Di Sarli,” “Sentimiento tanguero,” “Sus ojos se cerraron,” “Tango del ángel,” and “Un fueye en Paris” ( WL 5.14). scores available online, see

WL 5.13; for Federico piano

Federico’s Arranging Style and Instrumentation

Federico was on the ascendant in the early 1960s when he joined forces with Sosa. His large orchestra arrangements, with four bandoneones, eight violins, viola, cello, contrabass, and piano, match the power and charisma of the famous singer. They display Federico’s full orchestral sound that, like Plaza’s style, features equanimity among parts and sections, rather then showcasing the leader. He creates fast mood changes with fluid instrumental roles on the melody, countermelody, and accompaniment. Giving equal weight to solos, soli, and tutti, he also quickly changes melodic and accompanimental styles, makes sudden dynamic contrasts, and shifts instrumental registers. For example, the introduction to “La cumparsita/Por que canto así” opens with a new sharp rítmico melody played tutti with weighted marcato accompaniment. Then, a short bandoneón enlace quickly shifts to a quiet and yearning cantando presentation of the B section’s second phrase in the violins. Meanwhile, the accompaniment pattern changes to heavy síncopa as Sosa takes center stage. “Sus ojos se cerraron” also illustrates Federico’s early romantic yet experimental sound, where an unusual clarinet solo begins the introduction offset with lush and strident string chords.

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) Federico has continued to use the same basic 1961 arrangement of “La cumparsita,” as heard in the Japan live recording and the 2013 Tango Festival performance ( WL 5.15). Passages that remain consistent include the virtuosic violin solo in the return of A; the bandoneón alternating vigorous rítmico and fluid cantando solo in the return of B (he later adds similar solos for cello and bass); and the concluding brilliant bandoneón variations in counterpoint to the cantando “Si supieras” melody in the strings, accompanied by a driving marcato rhythm alternating with síncopa. The new opening of the purely instrumental arrangement of “La cumparsita” illustrates how Federico treats a standard tune, as he invigorates its rhythm, reharmonizes it with added chromaticism, and scores it in shifting registers, especially in the strings. While the 1961 version concludes after the variations with a traditional “chan-chan” in even rhythm and f-p dynamics, the later version omits the “chan-chan” altogether. Instead, Federico’s characteristic cadential extension, dramatized with a pulsing 3-3-2 rhythm and a piano glissando, lead to the final forte chord. (p.271) Outside of his work with Sosa, Federico advanced his own orchestral style and repertory in the 1960s. He continued the practice of performing both tango standards and new works, as on the recording Tango Puro, endorsed by Sosa as “modern but faithful.”106 With a reduced string section to four violins, it includes his arrangement of the Troilo orchestra classic, “Milongueando en el 40,” that retains the characteristically pointed marcato accompaniment and rítmico melodic style, yet also quickly switches to fraseo within the phrases more characteristic of later arranging techniques. Federico’s arrangement of “Tango del ángel” remains faithful to Piazzolla’s quickly syncopated melodic flourishes and walking marcato bass line, and incorporates the signature 3-3-2 groupings leading to the final cadence. The contrasting lyrical melody played by the bandoneón first uses the more traditional síncopa accompaniment, and then it switches to a pizzicato string countermelody. During the 1970s, perhaps in response to the economic imperative to perform new tangos so the composers could collect the fees,107 Federico recorded more contemporary pieces. His own works on the 1973 recording Buenos Aires hoy expand instrumentation to include percussion (“Bandola zurdo”) and soprano sax (“Cautivante”), and he also features tangos by Balcarce, Berlingieri, Garello, Mamone, Requena, and Stampone. Federico and Berlingieri even show their respect for jazz in their coarranged “El tango recuerda a un grande del jazz” (rereleased as “Homenaje a Glenn Miller,” 2013) that includes a smooth saxophone section and a quote from Miller’s “Moonlight Serenade.” Concurrently, Federico recorded traditional Golden Age standards, such as Troilo’s masterpiece “Responso,” which essentially follows Pichuco’s arrangement, and an album in homage to Di Sarli. In his “Selección de Carlos Di Sarli,” which he performed until his death, Federico honors Di Sarli’s sound with the weighted piano and heavy string section, yet adds his characteristic vigorous

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) rhythmic accompaniments, tempo fluctuations, chromatic reharmonizations, and solo flourishes. Like many of his post–Golden Age contemporaries, Federico reduced his performing forces to work in chamber groups and as a soloist. Yet, even in his first trio with Fernando Cabarcos and Berlingieri, Federico’s essential style remains intact. His arrangement of “Sentimiento tanguero,” for example, builds on a forceful rhythmic foundation to create fast mood changes with robust tempo fluctuations and alternating melody (p.272) and accompaniment instrumental roles. As he incorporated younger players into his groups, like Horacio Cabarcos, Ledesma, and Bolotin, Federico’s distinct blend of traditional and modern tango continued, as heard in the trio performance of “De tal palo” ( WL 5.16) and the quartet arrangement of “Éramos tan jóvenes” ( WL 5.17). Federico’s unique 1995 trio formation with Malvicino and Cevasco further points to his diverse tango interests, as the recording features mostly all Piazzolla and Malvicino jazz-tango pieces. Finally, Federico’s numerous arrangements for solo bandoneón embody his most intimate connection to tango. He honed the craft in the 1950s when he collaborated with his teacher and mentor Félix Lipesker to publish a series of tango standards arranged for solo bandoneón for Korn. Federico’s later signature solo arrangement of “Caminito” ( WV 5.2) illustrates his masterful techniques, where he treats the melody with soulful nuances of fraseo, embellished by characteristic fills and adornos, accompanied by intricate countermelodies, and harmonized with rich chromatic and linear chords. Federico’s Compositional Style

Federico notes with his characteristic humility that some of his nearly seventy compositions have “had good luck.”108 Working both on his own and in collaboration with other tangueros, Federico admits he “prefers to stay in the mold.”109 Yet, Federico’s original compositions bridge the tango style between the Golden Age and the “Music of Buenos Aires” as they synthesize traditional and new tango elements. Here we use six tangos as a basis for discussing the maestro’s compositional style and technique: “Bandola zurdo,” “Éramos tan jóvenes,” “Capricho otoñal,” “De tal palo,” “Mi fueye querido,”110 and “Un fueye en Paris.” Federico’s melodies, laden with traditional tango adornos and arpeggio flourishes, seem to spring from the bandoneón itself. “Bandola zurdo,” written for the left hand alone, evokes the tango tristeza of the bandoneón in the introductory rhapsodic arpeggios sweeping from low to middle register as the melody grows. Federico seamlessly moves between classic fraseo and rítmico styles, yet he also switches between them to mark new phrases. (p.273) The melody of “Capricho otoñal,” for example, begins after the introductory arpeggios, with a slow and nostalgic cantando melody lilting in dotted and fraseo rhythms, followed by varied repetition in sharply articulated rítmico style ( WE 5.25a and WE 5.25b). The main rítmico melody in “De tal palo” ( WL 5.16), Page 58 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) written for Horacio Cabarcos in honor of his father Fernando, uniquely features a virtuoso bass part in sharply articulated Piazzolla-esque driving eighth notes, which later returns in pizzicato after the slow contrasting lyrical middle section. As in his arrangements, Federico’s tango compositions effortlessly move between foundational marcato and síncopa accompanimental rhythms. He especially favors the more modern 3-3-2 rhythmic grouping to drive to final cadences, such as the conclusion of “Mi fueye querido,” “Un fueye en Paris,” and “Éramos tan jóvenes” ( WE 5.30 and WE 5.34). Federico uses percussive rhythmic effects sparingly in his instrumental music, although the score for “Éramos tan jóvenes” specifically indicates tambor in the violin in the transition between the first and second sections. Tempo fluctuations also prevail in his tangos, making certain this is concert music for listening rather than dancing. Federico’s modern voice is heard through the rich colors in his harmonic palette. Like Plaza, his harmonic language is full of lush chromaticism, including mode mixture and extended chords. “Bandola zurdo” especially illustrates a rich harmonic style. The introduction concludes with a chromatic descending bass line supporting a high-sustained dominant. It culminates in a dissonant A♭9 chord, where the ninth in the bass produces a cluster-like sound (Example 5.4a) (Federico returns to and expands this chord at the end of the A section in the solo version). Then, beginning with a quintessential measured arrastre pickup, the main A section features extended chords harmonizing the sharply articulated rítmico melody in the bass line (Example 5.4b). Federico favors thirteenth chords, as in “Bandola zurdo,” and he particularly uses them for dramatic endings on final tonic harmonies, as in “De tal palo” and “Éramos tan jóvenes” ( WE 5.34). Federico’s other favorite chromatic chords include the dominant seventh with the flat fifth in the bass moving to the tonic, as heard in “Un fueye en Paris” and “Éramos tan jóvenes.” While such lush chromatic harmonies permeate Federico’s tonal language, he frames them in standard functional progressions and employs mostly diatonic tonal areas. He uses standard ii-V-i progressions in the beginnings of both “Capricho otoñal” ( WE 5.25a) and “Un fueye en Paris,” while “Bandola zurdo” opens with a iVI-V progression. Federico often emphasizes the subdominant, both in harmonic progressions and as a tonal area. For Page 59 of 77

Example 5.4. “Bandola zurdo” chromatic harmonies. a. End of introduction. b. Beginning of A section melody.

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) example, the melody emerges in the A section of (p.274) “Mi fueye querido” within the subdominant G minor, and, in a more blues way, “Capricho otoñal” sequences from tonic to subdominant in the opening section. While Federico invokes the hymn-like plagal cadence at the end of the first phrase in “Bandola zurda,” a more striking emphasis of the subdominant incorporates mixture in a plagal cadence at the end of “Mi fueye querido.” An even more colorful use of mixture occurs in “Un fueye en Paris,” where E♭ and A♭ extended chords conclude the A section and pave the way to the transition from G major to G minor in the contrasting B section. Federico also uses traditional tango progressions and bass lines to create characteristic tango lament codes. For example, a descending ♭6̂-5̂-1̂ milonga campera bass line at the end of the B section of “Un fueye en Paris” invokes the tango tristeza, while the chromatic descending basses heard in the B section of “Bandola zurdo,” the A section of “Mi fueye querido,” and throughout “Éramos tan jóvenes” symbolize a more classical lament figure. In terms of form, Federico favors classic four-bar phrases framed in a repeated two-part contrasting structures, often with an introduction and/or coda. He typically moves from minor to major keys between contrasting sections, although not always closely related, as in “Bandola zurdo,” “Mi fueye querido,” “Éramos tan jóvenes,” and “Capricho otoñal.” “Un fueye en Paris” presents an unusual key contrast. Beginning in the upbeat key of G major to portray a playful mood in Paris, it shifts to a more somber melody in the parallel minor. Rather than rounding out the form with a return to A, the tango ends with a repeat of this B section, evoking the fueye’s sadness and nostalgia for home. Federico often holds back the initial presentation of the melody in favor of introductory passages with fluid arpeggio figures, such as in “Mi fueye querido” and the first phrase of “Éramos (p.275) tan jóvenes” ( WE 5.26). “Capricho otoñal” features an unusual coda that first reharmonizes the last phrase of the B section with a descending third progression in pulsating 3-3-2 eighth-note groups (reminiscent of the coda in Piazzolla’s “Invierno porteño”), then transforms the opening melody to a driving rhythmic conclusion. Federico’s Performance Style

In line with Laurenz, Maffia, Troilo, and Piazzolla, Federico was one of the great bandoneonists of all time. His performance style, especially evident in his large body of solo bandoneón recordings, demonstrated a technical mastery of the fiendishly difficult instrument, as well as a soulful approach to playing tango music. Piazzolla, in fact, honored Federico’s technical skill and musical expression when describing his difficult solo bandoneón work “Pedro y Pedro” (written in honor of Laurenz and Maffia) by stating, “El gordo Federico is the only one that can play it.”111 By listening to Federico’s 1995 recording of this work, one can clearly understand Piazzolla’s comment and Federico’s enormous talent. The recording demonstrates the maestro’s ability to expressively play

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) ornamented, virtuosic melodies while simultaneously providing full, harmonic accompaniments. During the early years of his career, Federico established a heavy, romantic performance style in his orchestral work with Sosa. Following suit with Sosa’s dramatic expression of the text, the orchestra employed an expressive fraseo to melodic lines and energetic marcato accompaniments. For example, in the Gardel classic “Sus ojos se cerraron,” the orchestra announces the tragedy of losing a lover with the lamenting fraseo clarinet solo over a detached string accompaniment. Then, Sosa enters to unfold the grief of the protagonist, who mournfully describes the closed eyes. The orchestra respectively accompanies Sosa with a slow descending violin countermelody, only employing a slight fraseo; then, as the heartache builds, the marcato becomes stronger and the tempo increases. After Sosa passed in 1964, Federico continued a romantic performance style with this orchestra. As in “Milongueando en el 40” and “Tango del ángel,” strong arrastres and heavy marcato dominate the style. Yet, there are also moments for emotional solos. Both the violin solos in “Milongueando en el 40” and “Tango del ángel” contain expressive glissandos and ornamentation, as well as virtuosic scalar fills and changes of (p.276) registers. Unfortunately, the bandoneón solo in “Tango del ángel” does not show Federico’s true virtuosity, but it does feature the bandoneón vibrato à la Troilo and Piazzolla. Further, these arrangements feature yeites such as chicharra in “Milongueando en el 40.” With his chamber formations during the late 1960s and 1970s, especially his trio with Berlingieri and Cabarcos, Federico’s performance style explored heightened virtuosity and expressive freedom. “Sentimiento Tango,” for example, opens with a rítmico melody, in which Federico adds a difficult fast measured arrastre (usually an accompaniment figure) and mordents. Cabarcos, meanwhile, plays a repeated strappata-like stroke in the opening. The tango begins in a fast tempo and gradually ritards to the end of the first phrase with a weeping bandoneón solo. As the work progresses, the tangueros continue to explore a variety of tempos and moods, while the solos evolve into complex demonstrations of bravura, such as the final piano and bandoneón solos. The orchestra of the 1970s performed in a similar heavy, romantic style. In “Responso” and “Selección de Carlos Di Sarli,” Federico’s orchestra pushes the performance style boundaries brought forth by his predecessors (to whom these works pay homage). For example, in the beginning of “Responso,” accents are stronger and the tempo is more forward. Also, in contrast to Troilo’s 1950s recording that plays one long opening phrase, Federico’s orchestra breaks the phrasing into smaller sections through stair-stepped dynamics. “Selección de Carlos Di Sarli” contains a variety of expressive and virtuosic solos for bandoneón, piano, and violin, which was not a typical performing or arranging Page 61 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) practice of Di Sarli. Then, in his own composition, “Bandola zurdo,” Federico begins with a bandoneón cadenza-like opening exploring the lower register of the instrument both melodically and harmonically. Here again, Federico displays his interpretive and technical talent by contrasting fast melodic filigree with clear sustained notes and/or chords, as well as phrasing multiple voices with nuanced dynamics. Also noteworthy from this recording are the violin solos by Suárez Paz, which display his typical singing style with wide vibrato and glissandos—a style that he later transfers to the Second Quintet. As with many tangueros facing tough times in Argentina during the 1980s, Federico’s output declined; therefore, we jump in our examination of his performance style to the 1990s. With his orchestra’s 1996 Japan recording, Federico continues to push the boundaries of performance style by advancing virtuosity among all instruments and heightening the music’s dramatic expression. The latter stylistic trait, a performance style first established in his work with Sosa, attains remarkable maturity through time. For example, in “La cumparsita,” Federico extends the (p.277) traditional marking of the beat by opening with an exceptionally strong marcato accentuated by a heavy arrastre. Then, he suspends time to offer a sense of relief from the driving beat with a series of expressive solos. Bolotin, who plays the first of these solos, travels through the registers of the violin augmenting the melodic line with virtuosic ornamentation and scalar fills, while maintaining a sense of relaxed liberation from the driving beat. Then, Federico offers a solo in a similar style followed by Sánchez’s cello solo. Last, Cabarcos (son) plays a rare bass solo beginning with a jazz-style pizzicato and moving to an expressive yet simplistic arco melody with a beautiful tone quality. The tango ends with an explosive finish at a presto tempo with rapid bandoneón passagework—another example of Federico’s technical brilliance. During these later years of his career, Federico’s solo and chamber endeavors, once again, continue to attest to the maestro’s phenomenal musical ability. The opening of “Éramos tan jóvenes” begins with a notated basic eighth-, twosixteenth-note melody; however, Federico cleverly employs fraseo within each measure and a larger phrase rubato to make a basic melody emote the nostalgia of the past. In this tango, Federico also employs an innovative technique on the bandoneón that imitates the violin louré stroke, which detaches a series of notes on the same pitch without changing the motion of the bellows (similar to a violinist not changing the bow direction).

Analysis: “Éramos tan jóvenes” (1986) by Leopoldo Federico Overview

The title “Éramos tan jóvenes” comes from the name of the Canal 13 television series for which Federico composed the tango and first performed it in a trio arrangement with Cabarcos, bass, and Colángelo, piano.112 Federico first recorded the work in 1987.113 Subsequent recordings include a trio version with Page 62 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) Antonio Agri, violin, and Cabarcos, bass (1995); a solo bandoneón arrangement (1995/2001); another trio arrangement with Possetti, piano, and Bolotin, violin (2001); and another solo version with narration by Rinaldi (2011). The Pablo Agri Cuarteto recorded it in 2011, and the tango (p.278) became Federico’s signature piece in concert performances, including the 2011 Tango Festival ( WV 5.3). “Éramos tan jóvenes” epitomizes Federico as a bridge between Golden Age and post–Golden Age tango, since it encapsulates key tango traits from both periods. As the nostalgic title implies, tristeza permeates the tango. Its mostly cantando melodic style ornaments the lament 5̂-6̂-5̂ figure and constricted step progressions. Repeated chromatic descending bass lines further express a lament code. Federico’s sophisticated romantic harmonies include augmented sixth chords, Phrygian inflections, altered dominants, and extended chords. His dramatic tempo fluctuations and driving marcato or 3-3-2 patterns create wide mood swings. Typical for the tango popular music style, Federico’s phrases tend to fall into regular four-bar groups within the standard tango repeated two-part form, although he elaborates these structures with phrase extensions, transitions, and written-out varied repeated sections. (See the Companion Website for the “Éramos tan jóvenes” Listening Chart and corresponding audio link,

WF 5.12).

Close Reading

A close reading of “Éramos tan jóvenes” reveals Federico’s key compositional techniques at work, including many that render the tango’s tristeza and nostalgic qualities. We base the following analysis on Federico’s trio arrangement for bandoneón, violin, and bass ( WL 5.14) and the 1995 trio recording. We take the reader through each section of the tango’s form with annotated examples from Federico’s score. Figure 5.4 shows the overall form and phrase structure. (p.279) A Section (mm. 1–23)

The four-phrase design of the A section ( WF 5.13) spans an expressive arc, where the first and fourth phrases (a and d, respectively) frame the section with a mood of tristeza, while Figure 5.4. Overall form and phrase the two interior phrases (b and structure of “Éramos tan jóvenes.” c) brighten in tone and color. The outer phrases also frame the A section tonally, as the final phrase completes a harmonic motion to the tonic thwarted in the first phrase. Additionally, it completes the two half cadences of the middle phrases.

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) The opening a phrase sets the tone of tristeza in “Éramos tan jóvenes,” marked tristemente (sadly) in the score, by incorporating two fundamental lament figures ( WE 5.26). First, following a measured arrastre lead-in by the bass and violin in parallel tenths, the bandoneón sobs a static melodic 5̂-6̂-5̂ (F♯-G-F♯) line ornamented by cascades of descending arpeggios, while the bass and violin continue in parallel tenths with a slow, chromatically descending countermelody. Rather than a typical downward pull to the dominant, the slow harmonic rhythm halts on the V/iv in m. 5. The solo bandoneón extends the phrase by three bars, first by ascending through an E major arpeggio poignantly ornamented by incomplete neighbor tones, then by trailing off on a repeated lonely high B5 as the tempo slows. The mood of tristeza brightens temporarily in the middle two 4-bar phrases ( WE 5.27), the most animated passage in the entire tango, as the harmonic motion in each phrase tonicizes the relative major (D). First, in mm. 8–12, a fluid fraseo and ornamented melody emerges in the b phrase in the bandoneón, while the violin plays a countermelody and the bass maintains a soft marcato accompaniment. The sequential c phrase (mm. 13–15) moves forward as measured arrastres, first ascending and then descending, initiate each two-bar group. Meanwhile, the bass maintains a quiet marcato in 4, and the violin continues the countermelody. Yet, a tinge of sadness remains, as the Phrygian inflection of the harmonic sequence of iv6-V-I sounds the same 6̂-5̂ lament in the bass as the opening melody. The concluding d phrase (mm. 16–20) returns to a mood of tristeza like a cloud of depression ( WE 5.28). The bandoneón melody, doubled an octave above in the violin, wails and circles around an isolated C♯5 as the added ninth in a prolonged tonic harmony, first as strident rítmico (mm. 16–17) and then in fraseo triplets (m. 18). Again, a descending chromatic bass accompanies the tight melody, but now in shorter durations than the first phrase. More important, it completes the downward motion from the tonic to the dominant. Federico poignantly savors the last two pitches in the descent from 6̂-5̂ by harmonizing the expressive chromatic progression (p.280) with a French augmented sixth-V13, as C♯ moves to the incomplete upper neighbor D before finally descending to the tonic B. Federico pushes the harmony onward to the tonic and elides into a four-bar transition between the A and B sections (mm. 20–23). Marked bien marcato, the contratiempo accompaniment pulses offbeat bandoneón chords that support a rítmico melodic figure 1̂ -2̂ -1̂-♯7̂, as the bass marcato retraces the descending line from tonic to dominant twice in two-bar groups and the violin accents with chicharra.

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) B Section (mm. 24–37)

Federico employs a ternary design in the shorter, contrasting B section of statement–digression–varied restatement ( WF 5.14). Like three sad downward-pulling weights, each phrase outlines melodic descending steps in increasing-interval spans. The final phrase again tonally completes the openended first and second phrases as it dramatically closes the section. Federico sustains the essential quality of the tango’s tristeza in the B section. The e phrase ( WE 5.29, mm. 24–27) in the solo bandoneón slowly outlines a 5̂– 4̂ descending step, ornamented with a double neighbor figure, scalar fill, and measured trill and simply harmonized by alternating tonic and dominant chords. As the bandoneón continues the melody in the f phrase, the violin joins with a countermelody ( WE 5.29, mm. 28–31). The marcato bass pushes the harmonic rhythm forward with the same harmonic sequence as the c phrase (mm. 12–15). In this phrase, however, Federico disguises the repetition with a different melodic line by continuing the ornamented descending step idea with a melodic sequence of A-G and G-F♯ within the frame of the harmonic sequence. Similar to the end of the c phrase, the tonicized III at the end of the harmonic sequence moves to the dominant, but now Federico intensifies the progression with a chromatic descending bass to C♮, resulting in a more dissonant and painful dominant with a ♭5̂. The B section concludes with a dramatically varied repetition of the e phrase that completely changes the tone and mood in a number of ways. Web Example illustrates the annotated score of this final phrase of the B section (see 5.30 WE 5.29 for beginning of phrase in m. 32). The texture thickens and the dynamic level increases as the bandoneón plays full chords below the transformed rítmico melody while the violin doubles an octave above. Furthermore, Federico reharmonizes the melody. After the initial tonic, an E7 supports the first descending step to E instead of the earlier V7. Then a G7 (enharmonic German augmented sixth chord)-F♯7- progression (p.281) supports the descending line E-D-C♯-B. Furthermore, the descending stepwise bass infuses the closing phrase with a rhythmic vitality, first with steady marcato in mm. 32–33 and then with a 3-3-2 pattern in mm. 34–35 as it drives to the cadence in m. 36. This e′ phrase not only rounds out the B section but also completes the harmonic motion thwarted in the very opening phrase of the tango. Here, Federico finally moves the unresolved V/iv from m. 5 downward chromatically to the quintessential A6V7-I cadence (note both the A6 and V7 include a ninth so typical of post–Golden Age harmonic style), while the melodic line now makes a full step descent from F♯ to B. The cadence elides into a two-bar extension and prolongs the energy from the dramatic arrival. While the bandoneón and violin sustain the tonic harmony, the bass retraces the 6̂- 5̂ lament figure as part of a downward marcato arpeggio.

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) Return of A Section (mm. 38–63)

Federico substantially varies the completely written-out repetition of the twopart structure in mood, orchestration, and meter ( WF 5.15 and WF 5.16). The return of the opening lament rides on the heels of the driving close of the B section. While the notes in the a phrase (mm. 38–42a) are identical to the opening, the expressive text marking Enérico y más agile (Energetically and more agile) completely changes their interpretation. Federico dissipates this forceful energy with a gradual rallentando and diminuendo throughout the phrase, which in turn paves the way for the two interior lyrical phrases, b and c ( WE 5.31). In place of the repeated B5 in the phrase extension, Federico scores a sweeping two-octave fraseo scalar fill in the violin to the high note, marked violin a piaccere, lento, and poco rit. in the score, which then glides into the c phrase with a chromatic fill. To further vary and sweeten the restatement of these next two phrases, Federico scores them fraseo for the solo violin. The return of the closing d phrase takes an unexpected turn as it circles around the isolated C♯5 above a prolonged tonic harmony. While Federico again savors the last two chords of the descending bass line leading to the cadence with the expressive French augmented sixth-V13 chromatic progression, he now changes the meter to . The resolution to the tonic elides into a recomposed transition, where now an eight-bar extension vamps on the d phrase descending bass line illustrates the shift of meter from tonic to dominant twice. Web Example 5.30 from the end of the d phrase into the beginning of the transition. (p.282) Return of B Section (mm. 64–85) and Coda (mm. 85–91)

The cantando melody in the varied return of phrases e and f continues in the violin, and the change in orchestration adds a bittersweet color to the nostalgic, almost dream-like memory of a vals. The bass continues a step descent between tonic and dominant to support the embellished 5̂–4̂ melodic line in the e phrase, while the bandoneón continues the vamping pattern established in the transition. The momentum builds in the sequential f phrase, where the bandoneón pulses a slightly reharmonized progression with melodic fills in a steady eighth-note rhythm. As the phrase draws to a close through a dramatic rallentando and one-bar phrase extension on the dominant chord, reality crashes back when the meter returns to

(

WE 5.33).

The e′ phrase exactly repeats the driving music from mm. 32–36, and the cadence elides into the coda. Repeated glissando fills between ascending 5̂-1̂ create a linear “chan-chan,” supported by one last descending chromatic bass progression. The harmonic motion halts, however, on the G♮ and sustains a GM7 chord (for the earlier Ger A6 chord, as the 6̂ assumes its own harmonic identity). Then, skipping the V after the dramatic rest, the tango concludes directly on the tonic harmony, full of chordal extensions ( Page 66 of 77

WE 5.34).

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) (p.283) Cafecito Interlude: Néstor Marconi and Rodolfo Mederos

Combining the three personas of bandoneonist, composer, and arranger, Marconi and Mederos are two driving forces propelling tango into the twentyfirst century. Both worked with prominent tangueros of the 1970s and 1980s, namely, Pugliese, Salgán, and Piazzolla, and have since formed their own ensembles projecting their individual voices within tango. Both tangueros stand as pillars within the tango community of Buenos Aires today. We discuss their styles as exemplified by Marconi’s “Para el recorrido” and Mederos’s recording of “Mal de amores” (

WL 5.18).

Néstor Marconi (b. 1942) Marconi was born in Álvarez (near Rosario) on June 15, 1942. He began studying piano at age eleven and later switched to the bandoneón, idolizing Laurenz, Troilo, and Piazzolla.114 As a teenager, he subbed in the José Basso Orchestra, which prompted him to move to Buenos Aires and begin a career in tango. During the 1970s and 1980s, Marconi worked with Enrique Mario Francini’s sextet, his own Vanguatrío, and various pop up groups at Caño 14 and Café Homero. Between 1988 and 1991, he played with his octet in Japan with the show Tanguísimo. Upon returning to Buenos Aires, Marconi joined Salgán’s Nuevo Quinteto Real, which performed regularly in the Club de Vino and was featured in Saura’s film Tango. He also recorded with classical (p.284) cellist Yo-Yo Ma on the Grammy Award–winning CD Soul of the Tango (1997) featuring the music of Piazzolla. Currently, Marconi codirects the Orquesta del Tango de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires. He maintains the Néstor Marconi Trio with his son Leonardo Marconi on piano and Navarro on bass, and he concertizes internationally as a soloist. His recent CDs include Sobre imagines (2001), Tiempo esperado (2008), and Homenaje a Piazzolla (2014), a live concert recording with classical pianist Martha Argerich. In addition to his own compositions, Marconi has produced many arrangements of tango standards for orchestra, chamber ensembles, and solo bandoneón. While Marconi draws on both traditional and modern tango elements in his music, “Para el recorrido” illustrates how he leans toward a distinctively Piazzolla-influenced compositional style. He incorporates elements drawn from jazz and classical music, such as the drums, ascending stepwise harmonic sequences, extended chords, and melodic riffs framed in an AB form bookended with an introduction and a coda. Not only does each instrument get its own solo, but also the guitar and bandoneón actually improvise in the first return of A over chord symbols à la jazz. Marconi also puts his distinctive spin on traditional tango codes. For example, he expresses tango’s classic half-step tristeza first harmonically in the opening A minor chord with the added sixth, then through the linear 6-5 as the first note of the main melody (F) moves to the fifth (E) two bars later ( WE 5.35). Furthermore, he divides the motives embedded in the tune between the tutti Page 67 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) held note and solo guitar arpeggio (note, on the recording Marconi does not play with the guitar in m. 12). Marconi uses traditional tango accompaniment rhythms, yet he favors the more modern 3-3-2 and contratiempo in the transitional descending fifth progressions. A walking bass marcato alternates with síncopa and marcato to support each statement of the contrasting lyrical cantando B section, featuring first the violin solo and second a bandoneón solo and slow violin countermelody. Most traditional of all, Marconi concludes the composition with a big “chan-chan” final. Throughout Buenos Aires and in the broader international tango community, Marconi is known as “El monstruo” (translated as “monster,” but in a positive sense) due to his technical wizardry on the bandoneón. His fast passagework is impeccable as he demonstrates regularly by performing Piazzolla’s Concerto for Bandoneón. He also exhibits such virtuosity with his rapid melodic riffs in his solos, such as that of “Para el recorrido.” As noted earlier, much of his solo passagework is improvised in a jazz style and changes with each performance. Yet, he also maintains the traditional tango practices of crisp articulation and strong accentuation stemming from Salgán and Piazzolla, respectively.

(p.285) Rodolfo Mederos (b. 1940) Mederos was born on March 25, 1940, in the Constitución neighborhood of Buenos Aires. In his youth, he studied both bandoneón and science, and he moved to Córdoba to pursue a university degree in biology. After Piazzolla heard the young Mederos in Córdoba, the older maestro invited the young tanguero to open shows for him and advised he move to Buenos Aires.115 In 1969, Mederos joined Pugliese’s orchestra, which was in need of new members following the formation of Sexteto Tango. Then, in 1974, he formed his experimental group Generación Cero, which performed and recorded throughout the 1980s. Mederos continued to explore new horizons within tango in the 1990s and recorded a variety of different CDs, including Mi Buenos Aires querido (1995) with classical pianist Daniel Barenboim and Eterno Buenos Aires (1999) with violinist Bolotin, pianist Hernán Possetti, guitarist Armando de la Vega, and bassist Sergio Rivas. The latter was nominated for a Latin Grammy Award in 2000. Mederos has also dedicated himself to teaching, which in turn has perhaps influenced his artistic change of course from experimental music to traditional. In 1984, he cofounded the Escuela de Música Popular de Avellanda (EMPA), where he taught instrumental arranging. More recently, Mederos has also dedicated himself to performing in a more traditional tango style as a means to retain tango’s memoria (memory).116 He states in a 2005 interview: I believe that [this] is an action, [or mission,] that I have to develop, [for] society, because it is my activism… . I believe [my orquesta típica] is a way

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) [to contribute] to the attempts to recover visually a formation that has been lost since 1950. They exist no more.117 With this concept, Mederos produced a CD trilogy that reflects his three main performing forces, Communidad (for orquesta típica, 2007), Intimida (for trio, 2007), and Soledad (for solo, 2008). Mederos achieves his goal to both reinvigorate tango’s memoria and to reach regular listeners with clear and accessible arrangements. The sensual essence of tango emanates from his clear and refined orquesta típica (p.286) arrangements, and, unlike the highly stylized arrangements of the post–Golden Age, they are almost danceable.118 The intimate trio formation of bandoneón, guitar, and bass has “another intention, to recover [a] more human, intimate personal connection when playing, with the function to play at home, for music in the patio.”119 Mederos’s trio arrangement of “Mal de amores” (2007) presents an ideal example of an intimate arrangement of a traditional tango. The slow introduction dramatically sets the musical stage. Beginning with a bass solo accompanied by a guitar countermelody, each player enters by moving from the accompaniment to the cantando melody. The bandoneón’s final entrance changes to rítmico, pushing the tempo forward. Despite his ideal to return to tango’s roots, Mederos still overlays Laurenz’s tango with many updates, such as quick harmonic shifts and fluctuating tempos. The return of the A section demonstrates Mederos’s harmonic savvy and arranging expertise, where the guitar reharmonizes the cantando melody in the bandoneón with changing marcato chords on every beat. The final variations present another unique sound, where the bandoneón begins in its low register and then repeats the variations in upper register doubled in thirds by the guitar. Even though Mederos worked with Pugliese and Piazzolla, two players known for strong arrastres, Mederos takes a soulful, cantando approach to his recent playing that resembles that of Troilo as demonstrated in “Mal de amores.” One characteristic of Mederos’s singing style is his ability to crescendo and decrescendo both phrases and single notes. In addition, “Mal de amores,” and particularly its difficult variations in the bandoneón and guitar, demonstrates Mederos’s command over his instrument and the Trio’s superb ensemble playing. Notes:

(1.) Sonia Ursini, Horacio Salgán: La supervivencia de un artista en el tiempo (Buenos Aires: Corregidor, 1993), 19. (2.) Ibid., 25. (3.) Ibid., 25. (4.) Ibid., 28. Page 69 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) (5.) Ibid., 34. (6.) “Nunca me sentí compositor. Soñaba con ser pinaista clásico. Pero evidentemente era otro mi destino.” Ibid., 30. (7.) “Empecé a componer porque quería hacer un Tango de una manera determinada. No con la idea de ser compositor sino con la de tocar tangos como a mí me gustaba. Lo mismo sucedió con la orquesta… . A mí me interesó esto: mi vocación es netamente pianística. Sin ninguna pretensión de crear nada, de inventor nada. Solamente la de tocar a mi manera, que es una necesidad.” Ibid., 46. (8.) Ibid., 49. (9.) García Brunelli, Discografía básica del tango, 127. (10.) Ibid., 127. (11.) Ursini, Horacio Salgán, 86. (12.) “Hay que considerar que el arreglador en realidad en un múltiple compositor, ya que sobre la base de una melodía, debe desarrollar otras melodías, otros ritmos, otras cosas para que realmente se justifique ese arreglo.” Salgán, Arreglos para orquesta típcica (Buenos Aires: Biblioteca Nacional and TangoVia, 2008), 9 (13.) For a complete discography, see Salgán, Arreglos para orquesta típica, 233– 240. (14.) Ursini, Horacio Salgán, 147–148. (15.) “Cuando hago un arreglo, en primer lugar mantengo un profundo y permanente respect por la melodía y nunca descuido el leitmotiv de la obra, que tiene ser identificable.” Salgán, Arreglos para orquesta típica, 9. (16.) Ursini, Horacio Salgán, 148. (17.) Ibid. (18.) “… nunca escribo con un plan preconcebido o sobre un molde o ‘Forme.’ La Forme surge como consecuencia de la creación de las partes.” Ibid., 142 (19.) According to Cesár Salgán, Horacio used this whistle to signal to his wife that he was awake. Interview by authors, Buenos Aires, July 16, 2014. (20.) Fellow tango scholar Michael O’Brien recalls reading press accounts that further describe Salgán’s elegant and sophisticated image, such as in Salgán’s decades-long relationship with De Lío, where the two tangueros always Page 70 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) addressed each other properly with usted (“you” formal) and never switched, as most people do, to tú (“you” informal). Correspondence in the manuscript review, January 9, 2015. (21.) “Clínicas de estilo orquestal: El estilo Horacio Salgán” (lecture, 2010 Tango Festival, Buenos Aires, August 17, 2010). (22.) Damián Bolotin, email correspondence, May 13, 2014. (23.) “Clínicas de estilo orquestal: El estilo Horacio Salgán” (lecture, 2010 Tango Festival, Buenos Aires, August 17, 2010). (24.) Ibid. (25.) Ibid. (26.) Ibid. (27.) “Posiblemente el más “vanguardista” de todos mis tangos.” Urisini, Horacio Salgán, 141. (28.) Cesár Salgán, interview, July 16, 2014. (29.) “esta idea de algo que se sucede sin interrupción—y en ‘cresecendo’ gravitó notablemente en mí.” Ursini, Horacio Salgán, 141. (30.) Ibid., 143. The Discography in Salgán, Arreglos para orquesta típica, also lists a 1966 quintet recording, 239, and a 1963 duo recording, 235. (31.) Salgán, Arreglos para orquesta típica, 163–197. (32.) Salgán abbreviates this section to the c′ phrase only in the quintet arrangement. (33.) Salgán only runs this two-phrase group of variations in the quintet arrangement. (34.) In the quintet version, Salgán chromatically intensifies the descending fifth sequence to support the NTs and escalates the harmonic rhythm upon the arrival of the E♭ harmony to each beat as he moves through E♭-A♭-D♭-G7 before circling back to Cm. (35.) Nonino is a derivation of the Italian word nonno, which translates to “grandfather” in English. Referring to his parents in the same manner as his children, Piazzolla called his parents “Nonino” and “Nonina.” María Susanna Azzi and Simon Collier, Le Grand Tango: The Life and Music of Astor Piazzolla (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 43–44.

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) (36.) Natalio Gorin, Astor Piazzolla: A Memoir, trans. Fernando González (Portland, OR: Amadeus Press, 2001), 30. (37.) Azzi, Le Grand Tango, 8. (38.) “admiro no solo a su orquesta como mi favorita, pero usted como violinista … me gusta su orquesta por los fraseos y los arreglos para los bandoneones y esa orquestación, y las armonías de violin.” Diana Piazzolla, Astor (Buenos Aires: Ediciones Corregidor, 2005), 38. (39.) Gorin, Piazzolla, 61. (40.) Ibid., 59–61. (41.) José Montes-Baquer, Astor Piazzolla in Conversation and Concert: The Next Tango, directed by José Montes-Baquer, produced by Harald Gericke, 88 min., Deutsche Grammophon, 2007, DVD. (42.) Ibid. (43.) Gorin, Piazzolla, 67. (44.) Ibid. (45.) Azzi, Le Grand Tango, 41. (46.) Gorin, Piazzolla, 71. (47.) “Como resultado de esta experiencia nació en mí la idea de formar el Octeto Buenos Aires … en dos palabras, lograr que el tango entusiasme y no canse al ejecutante ni al oyente, sin que deje de ser tango, y que sea mas que nunca, música.” Liner Notes, Astor Piazzolla, Astor Piazzolla-Octeto Buenos Aires, Disc Jockey DIS 15001, 1957, LP. (48.) Montes-Baquer, The Next Tango, DVD. (49.) Azzi, Le grand tango, 75. (50.) Ibid., 76. (51.) Ibid. (52.) Gorin, Piazzolla, 103–105. (53.) Ibid., 137. (54.) Astor Piazzolla, Tango: Zero Hour, American Clavé, AMCL 1013, 1986, CD; Nonesuch, 79469–2, 1998.

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) (55.) Azzi, Le Grand Tango, 255. (56.) Ibid., 264. (57.) “El único propósito del Octeto Buenos Aires es renovar el tango popular, mantener su esencia, introducir nuevos ritmos, nuevas armonías, melodías, timbres y formas.” Liner Notes, Piazzolla, Astor Piazzolla-Octeto Buenos Aires, LP. (58.) “Musicalmente no hay nada nuevo. Lo que cambi es el ropaje instrumental y que se trata de música de fusion.” Omar García Brunelli, “La obra de Astor Piazzolla y su relación con el tango como especie de música popular urbana,” Revista del Instituto de Investigación Musicológica “Carlos Vega” 12 (1992): 216. (59.) For a discussion of reception history of the Second Quintet, see David Butler Cannata, “Making It There: Piazzolla’s New York Concerts,” Latin American Music Review 26, no. 1 (2005): 57–87. (60.) Astor Piazzolla, Tango: Zero Hour, American Clave AMCL 1013, 1986, CD. (61.) Gorin, Astor Piazzolla, 82. (62.) See Jorge Luis Borges, “History of Tango,” Selected Non-Fiction, ed. Eliot Wienberger, trans. Esther Allen, Suzanne Jill Levine, and Eliot Weinberger (New York: Penguin Books, 1999), 394–404; and “El Tango,” Obra poética (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1975), 152. For information on Borges and tango, see Monica Fumagalli, Jorge Luis Borges y el tango (Buenos Aires: Abrazos, 2004), or on the duelo criollo, see Jeffery Tobin, “Tango and the Scandal of Homosocial Desire,” in The Passion of Music and Dance: Body, Gender and Sexuality, ed. William Washabaugh (New York: Berg, 1998), 79–102. (63.) Gorin, Astor Piazzolla, 211. (64.) To compare Piazzolla’s ornamentation of the B melody in “Adiós Nonino,” refer to the bandoneón solos recorded in the 1959 quintet version (2:40) and the live 1984 Milan version (4:40). (65.) Gorin, Astor Piazzolla, 79–80. (66.) Malvicino was also briefly a member of the First Quintet; however, López Ruíz replaced him. (67.) “Clínicas de estilo orquestal: El estilo Horacio Salgán” (lecture, 2010 Tango Festival, Buenos Aires, August 17, 2010). (68.) Azzi, Le Grand Tango, 205.

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) (69.) Alejandro Marcelo Drago, “Instrumental tango idioms in the symphonic works and orchestral arrangements of Astor Piazzolla. Performance and notational problems: A conductor’s perspective” (DMA document, University of Southern Mississippi, 2008), 103, n. 91. (70.) García Brunelli, “La obra de Astor Piazzolla y su relación con el tango como especie de música popular urbana,” 164–165. (71.) Omar García Brunelli, “De Woodstock a B.A.: análisis de Camorra I, II, y III,” in Estudios sobre la obra de Astor Piazzolla, ed. Omar García Brunelli (Buenos Aires: Gourmet Musical, 2008), 118. (72.) Such authors include García Brunelli, “La obra de Astor Piazzolla y su relación con el tango como especie de música popular urbana,” 172; Ramón Pelinksi, “Astor Piazzolla: entre tango y fuga, en busca de una identidad estilística,” in Estudios sobre la obra de Astor Piazzolla, ed. Omar García Brunelli (Buenos Aires: Gourmet Musical, 2008), 43; Drago, “Instrumental tango idioms in the symphonic works and orchestral arrangements of Astor Piazzolla. Performance and notational problems: A conductor’s perspective,” 83. (73.) “El tango es cuatro tiempo … usaba tres tiempos metidos en esos cuatro. Fuí yo el que inició esto que ahora es usado con frecuencia.” García Brunelli, “La obra de Astor Piazzolla y su relación con el tango como especie de música popular urbana,” 171–172. (74.) Gorin, Astor Piazzolla, 30. (75.) Gabriela Mauriño discusses this connection in detail in “Raíces tangueras de la obra de Astor Piazzolla,” in Estudios sobre la obra de Astor Piazzolla, ed. Omar García Brunelli, 28–30; she also notes that Piazzolla dedicated “Zum,” which incorporates heavy yumba, to Pugliese. (76.) Allan Atlas refers to these expressive chromatic dissonances as he traces extramusical associations about death in “Adiós Nonino” in his article “Astor Piazzolla: Tangos, Funerals, and ‘Blue Notes,’” in Essays on Music and Culture in Honor of Herbert Kellman, ed. Barbara Haggh (Paris: Minerve, 2001), 538–548; also in Spanish, “Astor Piazzolla: tangos, funerales, y blue notes,” in Estudios sobre la obra de Astor Piazzolla, ed. Omar García Brunelli, 77–88. (77.) Malena Kuss points out octatonic unfoldings in “Tres minutos con la realidad” (1957) and “Adiós Nonino” in “La poética referencial de Astor Piazzolla,” Estudios sobre la obra de Astor Piazzolla, ed. Omar García Brunelli, 65–68; Graciano points out Dorian inflections and fourth chords in “Buenos Aires hora zero” in Cátedra de Análisis, 49. (78.) Mitsumasa Saito, “Discografía completa de Astor Piazzolla,” in Estudios sobre la obra de Astor Piazzolla, ed. Omar García Brunelli, 263–300. Page 74 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) (79.) In the score, the bandoneón has the original motive x, but not in this recording. (80.) Diego Plaza, interview by authors, Buenos Aires, July 29, 2014. (81.) Horacio Cabarcos, interview by authors, Buenos Aires, July 29, 2014. (82.) Diego Plaza, interview, July 29, 2014. (83.) Damián Bolotin, in conversation with Wendland, Atlanta, GA, June 2, 2014. (84.) Diego Plaza, interview, July 29, 2014. (85.) Director Caroline Neal chose to translate only the second part of the title into English. The first part of the title, “Si sos brujo,” is a tango composed by Balcarce. According to Neal, it is an idiomatic expression that loosely translates to “when pigs fly” and is used “to express that something could only happen if the person proposing it were a warlock. Without magic, it would be impossible.” Email correspondence with Neal, February 3, 2015. (86.) Bolotin conversation, June 2, 2014. (87.) Scott DeVeaux and Gary Giddins, Jazz (New York: W. W. Norton, 2009), 213. (88.) “un determinado trabajo de composición concluye siendo para su autor una especie de resumen de su personalidad artística.” Gaspar Astarita, “Julián Plaza,” Todotango, accessed September 20, 2014, http://www.todotango.com/ Creadores/Biografia.aspx?id=45. (89.) Thank you to Ignacio Varchausky for the study copy. (90.) Thank you to Diego Plaza for the manuscript gift of the parts. (91.) Plaza switched the order of the complete C and A sections in his earlier arrangement for Troilo and incorporated a different melody in the first phrase of A. (92.) Jorge Dimov and Esther Echenbaum Jonisz, Leopoldo Federico: el inefable bandoneón del tango (Buenos Aires: Gourmet Musical Ediciones, 2009), 27. (93.) Ibid. (94.) “…el cortejo fúnebre de Gardel pasó por la calle Corrientes, a una cuadra de mi casa, que estaba en Sarmiento. No sé cómo me animé a ir, porque en esa época los chicos no hacían lo que querían. La cosa fue que crucé la calle, de la vuelta y llegué a Corrientes… . Me metí en el cortejo detrás del coche fúnebre con toda esa gente. Habré caminado un cuadra y una tía me encontró en medio del gentío y casi me saca de un orjea. Toda la familia estaba desesperada Page 75 of 77

The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) buscándome. Yo no sabía quién era Gardel, pero me contagié y me metí ahí.”Ibid., 27. (95.) Julio Nudler, “Leopoldo Federico, a 40 años de haber formado su primera orquesta,” Pagina 12, 1998, accessed October 5, 2014, http:// www.pagina12.com.ar/1998/98-06/98-06-15/pag12.htm. (96.) Ibid. (97.) Dimov, Leopoldo Federico, 29. (98.) Ibid., 32. (99.) Ibid., 31. (100.) “Era tan apurado todo que salíamos corriendo de cada lugar con la manta y el bandoneón en la mano. No había tiempo de guardar el instrumento en el estuche.” Nudler, “Leopoldo Federico, a 40 años de haber formado su primera orquesta.” (101.) Dimov, Leopoldo Federico, 69. (102.) Ibid., 87. (103.) Damián Bolotin, interview by authors, Buenos Aires, August 19, 2012. (104.) “Que más decir de este magnífico artista que representa el mejor tango de siempre y que une a sus dotes musicales, una notable calidad humana. Simplemente desearle que continúen los éxitos y que estamos muy agradecidos por darnos tanta música y tanta belleza.” Ricardo García Blaya, “Leopoldo Federico,” Todotango, accessed October 6, 2014, http://www.todotango.com/ Creadores/Biografia.aspx?id=765. (105.) “Me atrapó esa forma de tocar, el sonido de esa orquesta.” Dimov, Leopoldo Federico, 39. (106.) “moderno pero fiel,” Liner notes, Tango puro, Sony/BMG CD 88697117352, 2007 Sony. (107.) Dimov, Leopoldo Federico, 85. (108.) “tengo como sesenta obras, y pienso que algunos títulos míos pudieron haber tenido mejor suerte.” Julio Nudler, “No toca botón,” Pagina 12, accessed October 6, 2014, http://www.pagina12.com.ar/2001/suple/Radar/01-12/01-12-16/ NOTA1.HTM. (109.) “Preferí quedarme en el molde.” Ibid.

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The Post–Golden Age (1955–1990) (110.) Leopoldo Federico, “Mi fueye querido,” with fingerings by Juan José Mosalini (Paris: Editions Henry Lemoine, 1988). (111.) “El gordo Federico que se el único que lo va poder tocar.” “Palabras de Astor Piazzolla,” Leopoldo Federico Trio, a Piazzolla, EPSA, 2001. (112.) Leopoldo Federico, interview by Wendland, Buenos Aires, June 11, 2013, and follow-up email correspondence, July 29, 2013. (113.) Oscar del Priore, “Aportes para una discografía de Leopoldo Federico,” in Dinmov, Leopoldo Federico, 236. (114.) Ricardo García Blaya, “Néstor Marconi,” Todotango, accessed September 3, 2014, http://www.todotango.com/creadores/biografia/825/Nestor-Marconi/. (115.) Rodolfo Mederos, accessed September 3, 2014, http:// www.rodolfomederos.com.ar/en/comienzos/index.htm. (116.) The concept of memory is important to Mederos as evidenced by his personal website, concert dialogues, and personal conversations. Ibid. (117.) “Creo que es una acción que yo tengo que desarrollar, sociál, porque es mi militancia … mi aporte al intento de recuperar visualmente una formación que está perdida desde el año 50—no existen más.” Interview by Wendland in Buenos Aires, September 20, 2005, trans. by Inés Freixas. (118.) In fact, Mederos wants to connect with dancers. Wendland heard him play a concert at Torquato Tasso in Buenos Aires in September 2005, where he played a milonga para bailar (milonga for dancing) with his orquesta típica and called it “un encuentro entre los bailarines y músicos” (an encounter between dancers and musicians). (119.) “Y el Trio tiene otra intención también con ese sentido, pero quizás la intención de recuperar esta cosa humana, más humana, más íntima, más del contacto más personal de tocar, como yo digo, de tocar en casa, tocar en el hogar, en el patio; son las músicas de patio.” Interview by Wendland in Buenos Aires, September 20, 2005, trans. by Inés Freixas.

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The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present)

Tracing Tangueros: Argentine Tango Instrumental Music Kacey Link and Kristin Wendland

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780199348220 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: March 2016 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199348220.001.0001

The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) Kacey Link Kristin Wendland

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199348220.003.0007

Abstract and Keywords This final chapter discusses the “Music of Buenos Aires.” It looks at three prominent tangueros flourishing and creating tango music today: Damián Bolotin, Sonia Possetti, and Juan Pablo Navarro. The authors and contemporary tango musicians call this music the “Music of Buenos Aires.” This style embraces tango fusions with jazz and classical music. The chapter concludes with a postre, an Argentine dessert, to summarize the case studies of the trajectory of Argentine tango. Keywords:   Damián Bolotin, Sonia Possetti, Juan Pablo Navarro, Music of Buenos Aires, contemporary tango

Damián Bolotin (b. 1965): “The Renaissance Man” (p.288)

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The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) Damián Bolotin is a musical Renaissance man who, as a violinist, composer, and arranger, traverses all sectors of music today, including tango, classical, folklórico, jazz, klezmer, contemporary, and film music. Bolotin learned and mastered this wide spectrum of musical styles through classical lessons in childhood and then later on the bandstand playing with such maestros as Federico, Mederos, Plaza, and Suárez Paz. His performance style exudes technical facility and adaptability, while his compositions demonstrate a classically infused tango style that reflects his affinity for Piazzolla and features tango yeites in a Bartókian fashion. This case study looks at how Bolotin synthesizes his diverse musical background and interests to Photo 6.1. Damián Bolotin, 2013. create his version of the “Music of Photograph by the authors. Buenos Aires.” Following a biographical sketch, the authors examine what characteristics define his performing and compositional styles, then analyze his piece “Soniada” as performed by his string quartet Cuerdas pop-temporáneas.

Biographical Background Born on May 1, 1965, to father Enrique Bolotin and mother Celia Bolotin, Bolotin was raised by a Jewish family in Buenos Aires. He began studying classical violin at age eight with Ljerko Spiller, an accomplished Croatian violinist. Bolotin notes in an interview that for the first year with Spiller, he waved broomsticks to master the physicality of holding the instrument and the fluidity of the bow arm.1 From Spiller’s wife, Carola, he received solfège training—a contributing factor to his incredible ear. Chasing a youthful rock-and-roll dream, he also began playing guitar at age fourteen. While Bolotin sought a collegiate degree in economics from Universidad de Buenos Aires, he decided at age twenty-one to pursue a career as a professional violinist. Capitalizing on his heritage, Bolotin’s first gigs were playing klezmer music for weddings and parties. Shortly thereafter, he expanded into the realm of jazz improvisation and worked with electric bassist Cevasco (who played with Piazzolla), jazz saxophonist Gato Barbieri, jazz trumpeter Ruben Barbieri, and

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The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) jazz pianist and composer Gustavo Moretto. During this period, he also took classical violin lessons from Alberto Varady. In the late 1980s, Bolotin emerged onto the tango scene. Due to Bolotin’s experience in jazz, Mederos asked Bolotin to play in his electronic tango (p. 289) quintet in 1988. During his eleven years with Mederos’s quintet, Bolotin participated in several CDs released by the ensemble including Eterno Buenos Aires (Eternal Buenos Aires, 1999), which was nominated for a 2000 Latin Grammy Award. Also during this period, Bolotin had a steady gig working with Suárez Paz and bandoneonist Binelli in Miguel Zotto’s show Tango x 2. In 1991, during the show’s run, Federico scouted Bolotin, and the story provides an interesting anecdote.2 Federico sent his friend and member of his orchestra, Japanese bandoneonist Yoshinori Yoneyama, to listen to Bolotin play in Tango x 2 and to interview him, later, over coffee. Following Bolotin’s successful show and positive coffee outing with Yoneyama, Federico asked Bolotin to join his orchestra. Bolotin played with the orchestra until the maestro’s passing in 2014 and has been a part of numerous concerts, recordings, and awards (see Federico case study). During the 1990s, Bolotin also performed and recorded with other notable tango ensembles. In 1992, he joined the Orquesta Nacional de Música Argentina Juan de Dios Filiberto, whose repertoire focuses on folklórico and tango, and currently, Bolotin resides as principal second violinist. In 1996, Bolotin toured Japan with both Federico and Plaza, and each orchestra recorded a live CD from the trip. In addition, he toured Spain with Plaza in 1999. Bolotin also had the privilege to play with Salgán in Saura’s film Tango (1998) and to perform in Stampone’s legendary tango club, Caño 14, with the Carlos Buono Quintet in the late 1990s. In short, the 1990s served as Bolotin’s tango training period, in which he learned the art form’s musical language and performance practices by working with a wide array of tanguero maestros. Bolotin began a more personal journey in 1996 by forming a violin-piano tango duo with Sonia Possetti, the woman whom he later married. By excluding the bandoneón and reducing the traditional ensemble size, the duo brought a new, intimate sound to tango. In 1998, they released the CD Entre nosotros (Between Us), featuring tangos, waltzes, and milongas from eras that range from the 1920s to the present. Endorsed with liner notes by Stampone, the CD includes Bolotin’s original composition, “Entre nosotros,” as well as tangos by Mederos and Federico. Featuring the elder renowned bandoneonist as a guest artist, the CD includes arrangements by Salgán, Trípodi, Possetti, and Hernán Possetti (Sonia’s brother). It was selected by the newspaper La nación as one of the 100 Most Important CDs Representing the Tango Genre in 2000.

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The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) (p.290) The duo’s second CD, Ida y vuelta (Roundtrip, 2001), was sponsored by the Music Department of the City of Buenos Aires Government and chosen in August 2002 by Fundación Encuentros to represent Argentina in a Latin American music forum in Mexico. It was also endorsed by Federico and featured him as a guest artist. Throughout the years, the duo has performed in Buenos Aires and in other cities in Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, Europe, and the United States. Following Ida y vuelta, Possetti forged a new path by forming her own ensembles devoted to her compositions, and Bolotin remains an integral member of her groups (see Possetti case study). In October 2013, the duo was featured with Orquesta Nacional Música Argentina, with Bolotin conducting and Possetti playing piano, and they performed new orchestral arrangements of their works ( WP 6.1). Bolotin began cultivating his own musical projects in 2005 by commencing a two-year term of composition lessons with Daniel Montes, a pedagogue of contemporary composition, and establishing his own string quartet, Cuerdas pop-temporáneas. In a classical formation, this ensemble seeks to bring “an updated vision of the music of Buenos Aires with a new cultural projection of its urban folklore.”3 Their CD Hora pico (Peak Hour, 2006), with members Bolotin, violin I; Sebastián Prusak, violin II; Pablo Clavijo, viola; and Nicolás Rossi, cello features compositions by Bolotin and Possetti in addition to Bolotin’s arrangements of Piazzolla’s works. The group performs regularly in Buenos Aires and was a part of the 2009 and 2012 Tango Festivals. In addition to his regular work with Federico’s orchestra, the Filiberto orchestra, Possetti’s sextet, and his own quartet, Bolotin exhibits “Renaissance man” traits by participating in a variety of award-wining tango, classical, and jazz projects. He performed in the 2004 production of Kurt Weill’s The Three Penny Opera, which won a Clarín Award for Best Musical Show. In 2005, he was invited to perform with the prestigious Selección Nacional de Tango, and in 2010 the orchestra performed in Shanghai for the World Expo. He worked with jazz trumpeter Arturo Sandoval on the CD Tango como yo te siento, which won a 2012 Latin Grammy Award. Furthermore, Bolotin has provided live music for theatrical productions in Buenos Aires. For example, he utilized Bartók’s string quartets for his performance in Matias Feldman’s 2011 Hacia donde caen las cosas and played in an ensemble for the 2013 play about the life of Homero Manzi titled Manzi, la vida en orsai by Betty Gambartes, Diego Vila, and Bernardo Carey. Recently, Bolotin has been working with the (p.291) Fernando Tarrés Sextet, a group that offers a jazz interpretation of Piazzolla’s music. Bolotin also teaches private tango lessons and group classes to students from Argentina and abroad. He gave a master class to the Emory Tango Ensemble in 2009 and coached ensembles at the 2009 College Music Society Tango Institute. Along with Possetti, he taught at the 2011 Emory Study Abroad Program in

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The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) Buenos Aires and gave a three-day workshop and performance at Emory in June 2014 while they were on tour in the United States.

Bolotin’s Tango Style Overview

Bolotin utilizes his diverse and extensive background in multiple styles of music to create his individual tango performance and compositional style within the “Music of Buenos Aires.” He brings all aspects of his classical training to tango, rather than incorporating tango into classical music, and his training informs his writing, arranging, orchestration, and violin playing. At the same time, his tango experience on the bandstand with tango maestros such as Federico, Mederos, and Plaza infuses his music with tango swing, accentuating rhythms, and yeites. Yet, Bolotin also incorporates a sense of jazz-like freedom into his writing and performances. As the reader/viewer may have noticed in the video examples of violin yeites (see chapter 3), it is rare for Bolotin to demonstrate a yeite without expanding and improvising on it musically. The following sections describe the performance and compositional style of the diverse individual we call the “Renaissance man.” We base our discussion on Bolotin’s recordings with his own string quartet, including “Dora,” “Escualo,” “Hora pico,” “La mesa dulce,” “Mistonga,” “Perfume evocador,” “Río sena,” “Soniada,” and “Tres minutos con realidad;” his recordings with other ensembles, including “Agua de tango,” “Desde aquí,” “El choclo,” “Entre nosotros,” “La cumparsita,” and “Sepia” ( WL 6.1); and we focus on his composition “Soniada” (for the score, see WS 6.1). Bolotin’s Performance Style

Bolotin’s performance style is characterized by his strong foundation in classical technique and his artistic freedom gained through his work in tango and jazz. While his recent performing career has centered on tango music, his keen ability to cross and synthesize genres makes him (p.292) an extremely versatile and talented violinist. This performance style is evident in his own work with his string quartet, as well as with his work with Possetti and other ensembles such as those of Federico and Plaza. The striking characteristic that separates Bolotin from other tango violinists is his tone quality. Having studied with Spiller, Bolotin has a darker, edgier tone than other tango violinists who tend to have a sweeter, more bel canto sound— for example, Pablo Agri. Ultimately, what creates Bolotin’s individual tone quality is how he uses his right arm and the bow—to generalize, he utilizes arm weight rather than bow speed to produce sound. Further, he does not tilt his bow to the same degree as others; thus, the hairs of his bow have more direct contact with the string. After some study, it is possible to identify Bolotin’s unique sound in the violin solo of “La cumparsita” or “El choclo” from the 1996 recording of Plaza’s orchestra in Japan.

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The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) Bolotin not only plays with a beautiful tone quality but also possesses a wide repertoire of bow strokes. His arrangements and compositions highlight his superb bow technique by incorporating the entire spectrum of classical and tango bow techniques such as staccato, spiccato, legato, ricochet, látigo, and chicharra, to name a few. “Soniada” is an excellent example of Bolotin’s (and members of his quartet’s) mastery of the bow as the piece opens with a study in tango yeites and continues on to demonstrate staccato, legato, and détaché. In terms of specific strokes, when Bolotin plays staccato, he exaggerates the crispness of every note, as in the title track of Hora pico. In addition, his bow frequently comes off the string for a bouncing, spiccato-like effect. When accenting notes, he creates a heavy, gritty sound, which is evocative of the darker side of tango, for example, his string quartet arrangement of Piazzolla’s “Tres minutes con la realidad.” However, in legato passages, he allows his right arm to move with absolute fluidity, as in “Perfume evocador,” or he even creates a seamless stream of sound, as in “Sepia.” In terms of the left hand, Bolotin has complete mastery of the entire range of the instrument, which is required by his technically demanding compositions and arrangements. His strong foundation in classical technique affords him the dexterity to move along the fingerboard with speed and ease in single notes and double stops. Almost all of the compositions and arrangements of Hora pico demonstrate Bolotin’s technical prowess, but “Escualo” is an exceptional example. As the composer, Piazzolla often arranged the piece as a violin show piece for Suaréz Paz. Bolotin’s arrangement for string quartet increases the level of difficulty, especially for the first violinist, and accentuates his technical facility with added yeites, ornaments, passagework, and double stops. In much of his work with Possetti, Bolotin takes artistic freedom when playing melodic lines. He incorporates a variety of unwritten ornamentation (p.293) including trills and mordents in addition to various scalar lead-in passages and portamentos, for example, in his solo in Possetti’s “Desde aquí.” Similar to most tangueros, he applies fraseo and rhythmic flexibility to melodic lines, as demonstrated in the aforementioned solo or in “Agua de tango.” Furthermore, Bolotin uses vibrato on almost all occasions; however, it is always used expressively and the speed varies depending on the musical mood. In “Sepia,” for example, Bolotin’s opening transparent sound with no vibrato evokes the neutral color of the title, and then he moves to a richer sound with slow, wide vibrato. When performing with other ensembles, Bolotin has the ability to blend with other instruments in addition to providing leadership to violin sections. For example, he convincingly blends his sound with other violinists to create a unified violin sound in Federico’s orchestra. In the Filiberto Orchestra, Bolotin successfully provides leadership to the second violin section through gestures and sound. In any performing or recording situation, Bolotin has demonstrated Page 6 of 37

The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) himself as a gifted musician with the talent to absorb and synthesize a variety of musical styles, yet at the same time, he has developed and established his individual tanguero sound within the “Music of Buenos Aires.” Bolotin’s Compositional and Arranging Style

As a musical “Renaissance man,” Bolotin draws on his experiences from the diverse musical spheres in which he moves. Imprints from the worlds of tango, classical, jazz, and folklórico especially work their way into his original compositions. For example, his early “Entre nosotros” juxtaposes classical and jazz elements within the tango genre with Bolotin’s rhapsodic and virtuosic violin cadenza, Possetti’s more jazz-like piano solo, and the slow tango-vals played by the duo together in a standard melody/accompaniment texture. His later compositions, as represented on the CD Hora pico, place him squarely in the contemporary tango style of the “Music of Buenos Aires.” “La mesa dulce,” subtitled “Aire de cueca” in reference to Chile’s national dance, not only incorporates the contemporary tango percussive techniques of tambor, caja, and chicharra but also hints at Bolotin’s more traditional folkloric influences. And while his scores are notated in detail, Bolotin still embellishes with yeites, drawing from his years of jazz improvisation. Furthermore, many of Bolotin’s composition titles form made-up and play-on words, like “Soniada” and “Mistonga,” reflecting his quick wit. In the realms of instrumental effects and rhythm, which often go hand in hand, Bolotin integrates classical and tango special techniques to exploit (p.294) the wide range of percussive possibilities in his string quartet. Especially drawing on the legacies of Piazzolla and Bartók, Bolotin utilizes not only modern tango yeites such as tambor, caja, and chicharra but also incorporates the classical effects of col legno, sul ponticello, and snap pizzicato. The energetic introduction to “Mistonga,” where all the players use a heavy col legno battuto like in Bartók’s Third String Quartet, especially suggests Bolotin’s strong affinity for the Hungarian master. Yet influences from Piazzolla are also heard toward the end of the introduction of this same tango, where the cello drives the rhythm in the Piazzollian 3-3-2 pattern while the upper strings play tremelos sul ponticello. In fact, while Bolotin regularly employs the standard tango rhythmic elements of marcato, síncopa, and fraseo, he tends to prefer sharp rhythms like the 3-3-2. He also favors driving perpetual motion patterns, as in the incessant repetition of melodic and rhythmic fragments in “Hora pico.” The score of Bolotin’s “Soniada,” which is examined in more detail later in the Close Reading, especially exemplifies his use of string instrumental effects and rhythm. Indeed, studying Bolotin’s tango compositions yields even deeper insight into how instrumental effects and rhythm work together in contemporary tango. While Bolotin’s harmonies incorporate elements from both tonal and post-tonal styles, they tend more toward classical contemporary language than standard popular music. For example, the first part of “Dora” uses additive layering to Page 7 of 37

The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) build clusters in an intensely chromatic framework well beyond the realm of common-practice tonality, while the second part uses more traditional tonal language as it moves into the vals. Bolotin especially shows a contemporary classical influence in his melodies. They tend to incorporate either fragmented motives, such as the introductions to “Mistonga” and “Hora pico,” or long rhapsodic lines, such as the flourishing melodies heard later in each of these two respective tangos. The main melody of the nostalgic “Perfume evocador” is a notable exception, as it spins out a more vocal-like line. As we show later, “Soniada” also incorporates a more regular cantabile tango melody in two- and four-bar groups (see Close Reading). Bolotin’s controlled facility with the traditional string quartet, as only one who has diligently studied the art-music masters could acquire, further points to his classically infused tango compositional style. Following the refined tradition of this formation, his string quartet achieves one unified sound as Bolotin adapts his medium of expression to tango. Primarily, he assigns the cello part the allimportant role of the double bass to execute accompanimental elements, such as arrastre, marcato, and síncopa (see “Soniada” in Close Reading). (p.295) As an arranger, Bolotin clearly favors the work of Piazzolla (whom he fondly calls “Astor”). His transcription of “Escualo” rocks with the tango swing, as does his adaptation of Bragato’s transcription of “Tres minutos con la realidad.” The performance of the well-known “Río Sena,” based on Piazzolla’s own score for string quartet, interprets the squarely notated melody with arching fraseo.

Analysis: “Soniada” (2006) by Damián Bolotin Overview

The title of Bolotin’s tango “Soniada” has a double meaning that refers both to dreaming (soñar) and Sonia, his wife and musical partner. It is the first track on the CD Hora pico, and the video of a live performance may be viewed on Web Link 6.2 . “Soniada” serves as an excellent example of Bolotin’s mastery of tango style and instrumental technique in his contributions to the “Music of Buenos Aires.” The opening fourteen measures alone present a veritable encyclopedia of string tango techniques, including chicharra, tambor, caja, látigo, and strappata, and the brilliant variations toward the end of the tango played by the two violins puts a modern spin on the traditional closing section. Throughout “Soniada,” Bolotin establishes a steady tango rhythmic foundation with standard accompanimental patterns, and the cello functions like the foundational double bass as it steadily marks the time in marcato, 3-3-2, and síncopa. Bolotin’s syncopated and sharply articulated melodic phrases and subphrases swing in the upper parts, decorated with adornos, and they seamlessly flow together with enlaces, one of the hallmarks of tango melodic style that especially abound in Bolotin’s music. His harmonies incorporate Page 8 of 37

The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) elements from tonal, jazz, and post-tonal styles, including streams of parallel 6/3 harmonies; progressions anchored in tonic, subdominant, and dominant harmonies; extended chords; and layers of dissonances. Within an ABA coda formal structure, Bolotin shapes his phrases in both the classical sentence structure of 2 + 2 + 4 and standard four-bar groups (see “Soniada” Listening Chart and corresponding audio link).

WF 6.1 for the

Close Reading

The following analysis takes the reader through each section of the tango’s form while highlighting specific examples of Bolotin’s eclectic tango (p.296) compositional style that represents the “Music of Buenos Aires.” Figure 6.1 summarizes the overall form and phrase structure of “Soniada.” Introduction (mm. 1–17)

The very opening of “Soniada” exemplifies how Bolotin’s compositional tango style synthesizes his classical, jazz, and tango roots. Quick threenote descending stepwise flourishes in staggered entries evoke Bartók as they build a dissonant wall of sound through

Figure 6.1. Overall form and phrase structure of “Soniada.”

overlapping seconds/sevenths. The initial rush of motion arrives on a thick, extended E♭ jazz chord in double stops in m. 2. Then, the cello drops to D with a classic tango dominant upbeat leading to the tonic on the downbeat of m. 3. Bolotin grounds this highly dissonant two-bar opening in tonal harmony and a classic tango cadence. Each attack point in m. 1 outlines an A Mm4/2 chord, or V7/V in the tonic key of G minor,4 and the tonal goal is circumvented via a tritone progression as it lands on a VI11/9/7/♯5 in m. 2, but then proceeds in a classic tango VI-V-I cadential progression (see Example 6.1, mm. 1–3). The cello dissipates the thick wall of sound by initiating a repeated two-bar walking-bass pattern in a tango groove that spans a tonic-dominant motion preceded by a characteristically syncopated upbeat. The first group ascends by diatonic step from 1̂ to 5̂, and the second group descends chromatically from 1̂ to 5̂, which in turn overlaps into the upbeat of the third group. In addition to providing the tonal foundation for the introduction (and indeed for the entire tango), the cello’s bass line alternates tango (p.297) accompanimental rhythmic patterns of 3-3-2 and síncopa in the two-bar groups. The viola adds a second layer to the cello line with a repeated syncopated rhythm in parallel tenths.

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The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) Anchored in the cello/viola tonal and rhythmic foundation, the two violins present the virtual compendium of string yeites above ( WE 6.1). First they play chicharra and tambor in mm. 2–3. Then violin I continues with caja and látigo in mm. 4–5 as violin II whirls throughout the texture in a kaleidoscope of arpeggiated ascending and descending nonfunctional major, minor, diminished, and augmented triads in sixteenth-note triplet figures. The first violin joins the flurry of triplet arpeggios, and the two upper parts continue to weave a texture of color chords with spinning energy. Bolotin reiterates the two-bar bass pattern two more times in the introduction with variations. First, the cello initiates the descending motion with an upbeat 4̂-1̂ (C-G) in mm. 8–9, foreshadowing the importance of the subdominant later in the tango. Then Bolotin expands the fifth and final segment. It begins with an accented chord in m. 11 that refers back to m. 2, but now with a more functional dominant harmony (D7 with added M6 and m6). Rather than return to the tonic, this dominant harmony is prolonged in the cello/viola foundation while the violins continue another measure of the kaleidoscope texture. Finally, a two-bar extension features a frenzy of yeites in all the instruments—strappata in the cello (the instructions in parenthesis for caja indicate to “hit in the middle of the backside”);5 tambor and chicharra in the viola and second violin, respectively; and látigo followed by caja in violin I—leading to the main melody of the A section ( WE 6.2). A Section (mm. 13–38)

The A section’s architecture ( WF 6.2) further demonstrates how Bolotin synthesizes classical and jazz influences in his unique tango compositional style. The section spans three reiterations of an eight-bar sentence and the main melody sounds in streams of parallel 6/3 chords, an age-old voicing-leading technique dating back to fifteenth-century fauxbourdon. The walking tango bass line supports the upper voices by outlining harmonies that oscillate between tonic and subdominant, and a functional V9/V-V9-i cadential pattern concludes each sentence with extended jazz chords. (p.298) Bolotin frames these classical melodic and jazz harmonic elements in his distinctive tango rhythmic swing alternating between síncopa and marcato, while his syncopated and sharply articulated melodic phrases and subphrases seamlessly flow together with enlaces. In the first eight-bar sentence (Example 6.1), the two violins and the viola play the rítmico melody in parts to produce the parallel 6/3 chords, while the cello continues the rhythmic walking bass-line accompaniment established in the introduction. Bolotin continues to draw on the idiosyncratic tango weak-strong harmonic motion framed in an upbeat-downbeat metric pattern he set up (p.299) in the introduction, but now he maps a iv-i progression in each of the two-bar groups. The concluding four-bar group of the first A phrase, mm. 19–22, begins with the same iv-i progression for the first two bars but then moves to cadence via a V9/V-V9-i progression. Bolotin connects his Page 10 of 37

The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) subphrases with fills and enlaces in various guises. First, he decorates the upper-octave echo of the G-D descending fourth in m. 16 with a stepwise thirtysecond note-triplet fill ascending to the G, followed by a fill of two thirty-second notes descending to D. Then, in mm. 18–19a, he switches to an arpeggio fill of steady sixteenth notes to connect the inversion of the descending fourth to an ascending fifth G to D. The second sentence, mm. 23– 30, presents a varied repetition of the first detailed previously, with new adornos, enlaces, and tonal motions. Bolotin recomposes the second two-bar group, a′, in mm. 25–26, to tonicize the relative major B♭, while a soaring new countermelody in violin I sounds sequentially in the first two measures of the four-bar group in mm. 27–28 over a prolonged submediant E♭ harmony. The second sentence concludes with the same V9/VV9-i cadence pattern in mm. 29– 30. The third sentence, mm. 31–38, presents another varied Example 6.1. “Soniada,” reduction A repetition of the first. Although section phrase 1, mm. 15–23, illustrating it incorporates more phrase structure, harmony, melody, and chromaticism, especially in the fills. enlaces and the bass line, the Used by permission of the composer. third sentence retains the essential melodic and harmonic structure of the first sentence. The initial two-bar segment, mm. 31–32, presents the most striking varied repetition. It features a dramatic registral shift as the first violin plays the melody in the higher octave and finishes with a perro effect ( WE 6.3), here notated in double stops and coupled by violin II and viola. This especially favorite yeite of Bolotin’s reappears in violin I and II in the cadential V9 in m. 46 and again in the final chord of the “chan-chan” tag in m. 81. B Section (mm. 39–54)

The musical details within the contrasting B section of “Soniada” again illustrate Bolotin’s distinct tango style framed in classical phrase and harmonic structures ( Page 11 of 37

WF 6.3). The phrase design features four 4-bar phrases, while the overall

The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) harmonic motion centers on the same core harmonies of subdominant (first with mode mixture), dominant, and tonic. The first phrase of the B section (c), mm. 39–42 ( WE 6.4), incorporates modal mixture as it tonicizes C major, the major subdominant. Bolotin again draws on the particular idiosyncratic weak-strong harmonic motion in tango with an initial dominant upbeat leading to a tonic downbeat. All four instruments present a contrasting, yet still highly rhythmic, (p.300) melody in parts. In its initial attack in m. 39, the tune retains the síncopa rhythm of main melody of the A section, but then it changes to a more rítmico regularity as it rises chromatically and marches to a half-cadence in mm. 41–42. A measured arrastre in the cello on beat 4 of m. 42 leads the G7 to the minor subdominant C and elides into a contrasting four-bar phrase in mm. 43–46 (d) ( WE 6.4). The upper strings continue to play the melody in voices as parallel chords while the cello drives in marcato. The strong cadence in C minor on the downbeat of m. 46 immediately moves to the dominant of G minor in a one-bar phrase extension punctuated by descending slides in the violins. The third phrase of the B section (e) re-establishes the tonic G minor. The melody begins with the familiar syncopated rhythm, and then it loosens into fraseo triplets. The final phrase (f), mm. 51–54, spins out faster rhythms of mostly sixteenth notes and triplets in the upper strings. This transitional passage builds to a half cadence, setting up the return to the A section in m. 55. Return of A (mm. 55–70a), Return of B (mm. 70–77), and Coda (mm. 78–81)

Other than a slight change in the fill of the G-D echo in m. 56 and a stepwise descent to the cadence in the bass line, the first sentence in the return A is an exact repetition of mm. 15–22a. The second sentence, however, takes off in variations on the second statement of the sentence structure ( WE 6.5). With the harmonic motion intact and the cello and viola providing a rhythmic foundation in marcato and síncopa, the two violins elaborate the repetition of the sentence in breathless perpetual motion in sixteenth notes, including an extension in m. 69 leading to the conclusion of the variations in m. 70a. A surprise varied return of music from the B section follows the variations in mm. 70–77, the first phrase (c) in C major and then the beginning of the second phrase (d) melody in C minor. The phrase turns back to the A material with syncopated rhythm in the cello in m. 75 and the V9/V-V-i cadential pattern. A short extension in mm. 76–77 leads back to a dominant chord that abruptly stops the forward motion in a short

bar and sets up the coda.

The kaleidoscope of ascending and descending arpeggio triplet figures from the introduction returns in mm. 78–79 in the violins, while the viola and cello add support with steady eighth-note pulses. The music rushes to a forte-piano extended dominant chord, strikingly dissonant with the major and minor Page 12 of 37

The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) thirteenth. Finally, a measured arrastre in octaves in all (p.301) the parts leads to the final close ( WE 6.6). Perhaps as a reference back to the emphasis on the subdominant harmonies heard earlier in “Soniada,” Bolotin punctuates his “chan-chan” tag with a new harmonic twist of iv-i rather than V-I, and he decorates the final chord with his signature perro yeite. (p.302) Sonia Possetti (b. 1973): “Fresh Air”

Composer, pianist, and bandleader Sonia Possetti breathes fresh air into the world of tango and the “Music of Buenos Aires.” She revitalizes the traditional tango ritmos and even re-forms the typical tango ensemble to include such instruments as the trombone and vibraphone. Her tight, motive-driven compositional style is complemented by her vibrant, crisp (p.303) tanguera piano technique. She is also one of the only female tangueras to form her own ensemble devoted solely to performing her works. In this case study, the authors discuss how Possetti entered into the tango arena, investigate how she identifies herself in and with the “Music of Buenos Aires,” define what characteristics make up her performance and compositional styles, and examine “Dalo por hecho” from her sextet’s CD Cayó la ficha (2010).

Biographical Background Possetti was born on May 24, 1973, in the town of Chascomús, approximately eighty miles south of Buenos Aires. Despite being raised outside of Argentina’s capital city, one might say that tango is in her blood—her father, Hugo Abelardo Possetti, sang, played guitar, and ran a small, amateur tango orchestra; her mother, Carmen Noemi López, currently explores her creative side through dancing; and her siblings, Hernán and Betiana, are both notable tango pianists. Sonia began playing piano at age eight and studied classical music at the Conservatorio Provincial in Chascomús for nine years. At age seventeen, she moved to Buenos Aires to pursue a career in tango and entered the Escuela de Música Popular de Avellaneda (EMPA). Page 13 of 37

Photo 6.2. Sonia Possetti, 2013. Photo by Damián Bolotin. Used by permission.

The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) She studied piano, arranging, composition, and ensemble playing with such illustrious tango maestros as Trípodi, Mederos, Arias, Kelo Palacios, and Carlos Rivero. After Possetti received her certificate in “Piano Tango” and “Piano Folklore” from EMPA in 1994, the maestros in Buenos Aires quickly regarded her as a promising young tanguera. She performed in a folklórico duo with former EMPA teacher and percussionist Rivero. From 1995 to 1996, she was a member of Tangata Rea, an ensemble of former EMPA students who performed simple arrangements for the milongas. During this period, she also performed regularly in Caño 14 with the Carlos Buono Sextet and accompanied singers such as Guillermo Fernández, Baltar, and Podestá. In addition, she played with older renowned tangueros including Baffa, Berlingieri, and Stampone. She even played with Federico’s prestigious orchestra at age twenty-four as a substitute pianist. Even though Possetti was performing regularly, she continued to pursue training in tango performance, arranging, and composition. Between 1996 and 1997, she had the rare opportunity to study with Salgán to further capture the “tango sound and style.”6 Then in 2001, she began working (p.304) with the reclusive although esteemed Argentine composer and pedagogue Daniel Montes. and continued to study composition, counterpoint, harmony, and orchestration with him for eight years. She also studied jazz improvisation briefly with Schissi. In 1996, Possetti formed a tango piano-violin duo with friend, and later husband, Bolotin. With the duo, Possetti introduced her original core sound of violin and piano, breaking away from the conventional formations that centered on the bandoneón. The duo’s first CD Entre nosotros (1998) included her own arrangements of tangos from all decades, from those of the guardia vieja by Arolas to more contemporary tangos by Federico and Mederos. Possetti describes in an interview how she rode the streets of Buenos Aires on her bike from her apartment in Almagro to the downtown office of EPSA to hand-deliver a demo recording to director Gustavo Mozzi. Possetti and the duo impressed Mozzi so much that he offered them a recording contract the next day for Entre nosotros.7 This story testifies to her strong and determined spirit—the same tenacity that drives her compositional output. With the duo’s second CD, Ida y vuelta (2001), Possetti began to cultivate her distinctive compositional voice. The CD contains seven of her original compositions. Two titles notably reflect personal connections, “Bailarina” in honor of her dancer mother and “Para Bioy” in remembrance of the Argentine author Adolfo Bioy Casares (1914–1999), from whose estate she acquired her Mason & Hamlin piano. In addition, Possetti began expanding the duo by

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The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) including percussion in “Bailarina” and bandoneón (featuring Federico) in “Mientras tanto” and “Violeta.” In 2002, Possetti formed a quintet with which she forged a fresh voice into the “Music of Buenos Aires.” The ensemble innovatively included vibraphone and percussion and had the members Bolotin, violin; Federico Pereiro, bandoneón; Fabián Keoroglanian, vibraphone and percussion; Adriana González, bass; and Possetti, piano. Additionally, she devoted the ensemble to performing entirely her own compositions. While this phenomenon was common with such earlier tangueros as Piazzolla, it was a rarity for tangueros of her generation—let alone female tangueras—who primarily played and recorded their own arrangements of tango standards. In 2003, the quintet released the CD Mano de obra (Made by Hand), which was supported by testimonials from Federico, Eduardo Lagos, and Egberto Gismonti in the CD liner notes. With this quintet and CD, Possetti made her first substantial mark in tango, and Clarín nominated her in 2003 (p.305) as a Tango Revelation Artist. In 2004, she was awarded the “Madrina de honor” (Honorary Godmother) of the VI Buenos Aires Tango Festival, and in 2005, the quintet received a Konex Merit Diploma in the category of Tango Ensemble. In 2008, Possetti expanded and solidified her voice even further with her new sextet. In this formation, Possetti, Bolotin, and González continue on their respective instruments; however, she changed the bandoneonist to Victor Villena (and most recently to Nicolás Enrich, because Villena resides in Paris) and the vibraphonist/percussionist to Gonzalo Pérez Terranova. With a stroke of originality, she added the trombonist Pablo Fenoglio. As in her quintet, the ensemble continues to perform solely her compositions. It has been featured in both the 2010 and 2012 Tango Festival, and it released its first CD, Cayó la ficha, in 2010. The magazine Jazziz named the CD as one of the ten best discs of 2013. Notably, during the time lapse between the two latest CDs, Possetti gave birth to her and Bolotin’s two daughters, Sofía and Zoe, born in 2005 and 2010, respectively. In addition to performing in her own ensembles, Possetti regularly teaches tango music. In 1996, she began teaching repertory and practices at EMPA, which she continues presently. She coaches singers on expression and works with them to analyze form, melody, motives, and harmony, in a format that simulates a professional rehearsal. She also teaches private lessons in tango piano and arranging (with the authors being some of her students). Along with Bolotin, she has conducted seminars for North American students in Buenos Aires, notably the 2009 College Music Society’s Summer Tango Institute, the 2011 Emory Study Abroad Program, and the 2013 College Music Society International Conference, and in the United States, most recently the 2014 Emory Tango Workshop.

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The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) Possetti also has numerous other musical accomplishments as a pianist and composer both in Argentina and abroad. She performed with the folklórico group “Los Chalchaleros,” the Rodolfo Mederos Quintet, and the Walter Ríos Sextet. She accompanied actress and singer Nacha Guervara on tour of her show Nacha canta a Discépolo in Spain, in addition to tango singers such as Jairo and Guillermo Fernández. Her compositions have been performed by the BBC Symphony Orchestra, Orquesta Típica Rotterdam, Orquesta Nacional de Música Argentina Juan de Dios Filiberto, and Orquesta del Tango de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires. Her music has also been featured in films such as Ramón Carrillo, el médico del pueblo (2006), Tango, una historia con judíos (2008), and Argentina Fútbol Club (2010). In 2014, she even directed the Orquesta de Juan Dios Filiberto, performing her music for El día del tango (The Day of Tango).

(p.306) Possetti’s Tango Style Possetti’s unique style reinvigorates tango with her fresh voice in the “Music of Buenos Aires.” Her dual activities as composer and performer create a new vitality within tango and uniquely position her as a key tanguera today. As a pianist, she propels her ensembles forward with her energetic tango swing while also languishing in beautiful fraseo melodies. Her compositions reflect a sophistication only achieved by years of cultivating the craft. The following sections examine Possetti’s performance style and compositional voice in light of her compositions on Mano de obra, including “Ahora sí!,” “Bailarina,” “Bullanguera,” “Desde aquí,” “Dulce casero,” “Posdata,” and “Somos tango;” and on Cayó la ficha, including “Agua de tango,” “Aire de tango,” “Ausencia en tus ojos,” “Cayó la ficha,” and “Dalo por hecho” ( WL 6.3; for Possetti scores available online, see WL 6.4, and for the score to “Dalo por hecho,” see WS 6.2). Possetti’s Performance Style

Clarity and strength are the hallmarks of Possetti’s pianistic style, a reflection of her serious classical and tango training. In contrast to her early duo recordings, where her piano playing weaved in and out of the violin line with rhapsodic freedom, the two latest CDs, Mano de obra and Cayó la ficha, represent a mature style in which she is the leader and the driving force behind the ensemble. Similar to the playing of Di Sarli or her teacher Trípodi, she establishes a clear, strong, yet energetic foundation with a grounded and well-articulated left hand and a full, often chordal right hand. Additionally, she plays her bass lines in a manner that allows sonic space to emerge above; thus, other instruments can develop melodies and “fit in” or blend within her foundational sound. One correlation to this feature in her style is perhaps her affection for her Mason & Hamlin piano, an instrument known for its resonant bass register. Examples of utilizing los graves (the lowest notes) include passages in “Somos tango” and “Dalo por hecho” (

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WL 6.5).

The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) When employing rhythmic accompanimental patterns such as marcato and síncopa, she creates a deep, penetrating tone by using the weight of the arm and by allowing gravity to drop her hands into the keys. At the same time, she never has a forced sound as her arms, and specifically her forearms, are always relaxed, loose, and flexible. In lessons, she often comments to play suelto (loose) and liviano (light).8 As described by Possetti, a (p.307) good arrastre, and her arrastre, is slightly held back and not overly powerful, similar to “putting on the brakes.” Possetti’s style of playing melodies is characterized by either brilliant passagework or lyrical melodies, both of which exemplify her classical training. Many of her lively milongas, for example, “Bailarina” ( WL 6.6) and “Dulce casero,” feature rapid sixteenth notes that are played cleanly with light, articulate fingers, often creating a buoyant sound resembling that of Salgán (e.g., “A fuego lento” and “Don Agustín Bardi”). Her slower more lyrical milongas lentas such as “Desde aquí” demonstrate her employment of fraseo and a rich, cantabile tone quality; both are influences from working with singers for many years. Additionally, in solo passages such as the cadenza in “Ausencia en tus ojos” and “Posdata,” she does not incorporate extensive improvisational filigree as many other contemporary tango pianists do, but rather performs how she notates her scores, as in “Dalo por hecho” (

WE 6.11).

Possetti uses the damper pedal judiciously throughout her works. In rhythmic accompaniment patterns or fast passagework, Possetti applies the pedal sparingly so as not to blur the sixteenth notes or the crisp articulation. In these sections, such as the opening to “Bullanguera,” she depresses the pedal percussively on downbeats to increase resonance and give an accented emphasis to the first beat of the measure. However, in forceful arrastres that could resemble the yumba technique, she employs the pedal to create resonance and slightly blurs the sound, for example, in the title track of Cayó la ficha. Lyrical passages and fraseo solos always incorporate the pedal to add color or even a type of “piano vibrato,” such as in “Desde aquí” or even the lyrical accompaniment in “Agua de tango.” Possetti’s Compositional and Arranging Style

Possetti’s distinctive tango compositional style synthesizes elements from both popular and art music. As in Salgán’s style, Possetti’s music features tight motive-driven melodies, yet she enhances her textures with the sophisticated use of imitation, new instrumental colors, a rich harmonic language, and expanded forms. Possetti’s scores impeccably notate details of tempo fluctuations and articulations, while they convey seemingly improvised tango stylistic gestures such as runs, fills, enlaces, and fraseo. “Todo escrito” (“Everything is written”), she said when asked about improvisation in her music the first time Wendland met her in 2002.

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The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) In her quintet and sextet recordings, Possetti reinvigorates the tango and milonga ritmos (she seems to have abandoned the vals after “Noche de (p.308) Abril” and “Violeta” on the earlier CD Ida y vuelta). Her more evolved tango compositions tend to fall into two types—described here as “driving” and “light.” Her intense and driving tangos like “Somos tango” and “Dalo por hecho” feature dark instrumental colors in low registers and strong marcato and síncopa rhythms with heavy accentuations on tango’s classic upbeat-downbeat metric element. Lighter tangos like “Ahora sí!” feature an airy sound with a softer marcato and a higher registration. Possetti continues the tradition of slow and fast styles within the milonga ritmo, yet she infuses them with novel approaches. Her rhythmic exuberance especially shines in the fast milongas with the innovative use of percussion, such as in the perpetual motion in “Bailarina” and the breathless “Bullanguera.” These milongas, as well as “Dulce casero,” radiate a certain tropicál (a term Argentines often use to describe “Latin” music in general) feel, created with various crossrhythms such as the clave, 3-3-2, and síncopa patterns. In her milonga lenta “Desde aquí,” the vibraphone adds another layer of color to the traditional underlying 3-3-2 accompanimental rhythm in the piano and bass, whereas “Ausencia en tus ojos” moves into more rhythmically free and lyrical realms. Following the tradition that holds melody as the primary tango element, Possetti uses it as a point of departure for her compositions. She states, “I try to free my unconscious. And it comes, melodies just come to me, all of the [sic] sudden I’m sitting here, and a melody comes to me.”9 Her melodies clearly articulate rítmico and cantando contrasting tango styles, and they often define contrasting formal sections. Many of Possetti’s “light” tango melodies update the tristeza of traditional tango melodies with happiness and humor, such as the cheerful pentatonic opening of “Dulce casero.” Yet, Possetti also has a melancholic and nostalgic voice, as heard in “Ausencia en tus ojos” and “Desde aquí,” respectively.10 By breaking out of the standard post-1950s quintet formation of piano, bandoneón, violin, bass, and guitar established by Salgán and Piazzolla, Possetti achieves a unique sound color in her music. Yet, even as she expanded her initial violin duo with Bolotin, her music continues to be anchored in their two instruments. The bass adds to her driving force at the piano to form the traditional tango rhythm section in accompanimental (p.309) marcato and síncopa passages, while it accents with heavy arrastre and standard yeites. Drawing on Bolotin’s wide spectrum of shades, colors, and instrumental techniques, Possetti often scores her melodies for the violin, from the mysterious “Ausencia de tus ojos” to the bravura “Bullanguera.” Furthermore, while Possetti notates standard violin yeites such as látigo and chicharra, she gives Bolotin the freedom to elaborate with his own virtuosic bowings and techniques.

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The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) The other three instruments of the sextet fill out the piano/bass and violin core. The vibraphone adds a rich and resonant color to the ensemble, such as the opening floating solo in “Agua del tango,” and percussive accents in melodic roles, such as in “Ahora sí!” Possetti incorporates other percussion instruments, such as bongos, djembe, and wood block, to add rhythmic vitality to her fast milongas and tangos. She releases the bandoneón from a standard marcato accompaniment role, typically played by the piano and bass in her music, and uses it more to color síncopa accompaniments, such as in “Dalo por hecho.” In melodic roles, she primarily uses the bandoneón to contrast the violin, as in the rhapsodic solo passage in “Posdata,” or to initiate variations, as in “Dalo por hecho.” One notable exception is the lengthy bandoneón solo forming the introduction to “Cayó la ficha.” Possetti’s addition of the trombone puts the finishing touches on her original sound. In her own words: The trombone appeared like an expressive need without knowing if I was going to find the person who could make it work… . There is a lot of rhythm in my music, but I believed that it lacked another way to channel humor. The trombone can be very melodic, very rhythmic and it has an irony in its tone that I love, and, in some way, forms a part of my personality.11 Its characteristic sliding technique creates new possibilities for arrastre, while its rich bass and baritone registers add warmth and color in solo passages, such as in “Aire de tango.” In this piece, Possetti also showcases Fenoglio’s trombone on the playfully rhythmic melody and evokes the “air” in the title with soft blowing effects. (p.310) In keeping with the tango popular music genre, Possetti’s underlying harmonic language follows functional progressions and cadences, yet she incorporates jazz-like extended chords and added notes, as in “Bailarina,” as well as fourth and fifth chords, as in “Dalo por hecho.” Progressions in the middle of phrases often move through descending fifths, and half cadences tend to utilize a classic tango approach to the dominant via an augmented sixth chord, as in “Dalo por hecho.” Possetti often uses ABAB formal designs, combining mostly two- and four-bar phrases. Yet, she has expanded her compositional scope to large-scale, unified sets like the innovative Suite de los elementos of four tangos for each element: earth, air, water, and fire. Possetti demonstrates other refined compositional techniques, such as her preference for extended introductions that play with short melodic and rhythmic motives, which in turn lead to full driving tango swing that works out these fragmented ideas (see Close Reading of “Dalo por hecho”).

Analysis: “Dalo por hecho” (“Consider It Done” or “It’s a Deal,” 2004) by Sonia Possetti Page 19 of 37

The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) Overview

“Dalo por hecho” represents Possetti’s strong tanguera voice as it blends elements of popular music with sophisticated compositional techniques to elevate the “Music of Buenos Aires” to a high artistic level. As typical for her compositional style, the melody predominates in the texture, shaped by sharp rhythmic motives and fluid fraseo lines. Passages strongly contrast between driving rhythms and dissolving meters, à la Pugliese, and, like Plaza, quick changes in orchestration signal phrase beginnings and endings. Possetti incorporates specific string yeites and instrumental effects, such as tremolo, látigo, and strappata, while she exploits idiomatic piano tango colors in the middle and low registers. She incorporates extensive variations twice in the piece, once in the piano at the first return of the main melody, and then in the bandoneón in the coda. The tango utilizes sophisticated chromatic harmonies and extended chords anchored in common-practice progressions such as ii-V-I and sequences of descending fifths. Classic and elegant phrases of mostly two and four bars combine to form one of Possetti’s favorite architectural plans: introduction ABAB coda. Possetti elaborates this otherwise predictable form with transitions between sections, and she initiates each B section with a lyrical solo WF 6.4 for the “Dalo por hecho” in the piano and violin, respectively (see Listening Chart and corresponding audio link). (p.311) Close Reading

A closer examination of Possetti’s “Dalo por hecho” yields even more insight into her fresh tango voice. The following analysis takes the reader through each section of the tango’s form while highlighting specific examples of Possetti’s compositional and arranging techniques. Figure 6.2 maps the overall form of the composition. Introduction (mm. 1–17)

True to Possetti’s tight and motive-driven compositional style, the introduction juxtaposes two contrasting Figure 6.2. Overall form and phrase melodic ideas heard throughout structure of “Dalo por hecho.” “Dalo por hecho”—a sharp rhythmic gesture followed by a loose, flowing gesture three times. The full ensemble explodes at the beginning of the introduction with the seed of the tango’s primary musical idea in parts. This four-note figure outlines the interval of an ascending fourth in a crisp, syncopated rhythm, creating a homophonic wall of thick, dissonant chords built in fourths, fifths, and seconds ( WE 6.7a). Then, syncopated piano chords punctuate the tonally ambiguous opening flourish with an E pedal, hinting at the tango’s ultimate tonal center, and upon repetition in m. 4, these grounding chords are reinforced and colored by the trombone and bass. Forward motion of the opening dissolves immediately in the second measure into a short, fantasiaPage 20 of 37

The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) like passage of triplet and quintuplet sixteenth-note runs played by the vibes, violin, and piano (

WE 6.7b).

Each subsequent varied occurrence of these two juxtaposed melodic ideas seems to beg more and more for completion. First, in mm. 5–13, the four-note rhythmic motive expands to five notes in the trombone and bandoneón in a stepwise ascending P4, and melodic riffs overlap in the violin and vibes before the motive is completely stated. This second statement reiterates the syncopated chords a number of times in mm. 6–13, over first an E♭ pedal and then an E♮ pedal. In the third statement, mm. 14–17, the initial note is lengthened in a syncopated rhythm, while the punctuated chords sound simultaneously. Quintuplet riffs follow in m. 15 in the trombone, violin, vibes, and bandoneón. A Section (mm. 18–32)

Possetti launches into the A section full throttle, as if to actualize the title of this tango and complete the phrase groups of the introduction by (p.312) (p.313) saying, “Consider it done.” She constructs the section in three contrasting phrases, a, b, and c, where the first two recur in varied repetition ( WF 6.5). The opening ascending fourth rhythmic flourish from the introduction spins out into a complete rítmico melody (a) in two elegant gestures played by the violin, trombone, and bandoneón, grounded by a powerful síncopa accompaniment in the bass, piano left hand, and vibes ( WE 6.8). Even Possetti’s supporting harmonic progression here suggests the title by saving the arrival of the tonic for the end of the phrase. Beginning with the classic tango upbeat on V, the harmony moves to V/iv in the first gesture, then through a iv-V-i progression in the second gesture. No sooner does the harmony arrive on the tonic than the b phrase (mm. 20c–22) immediately moves to the relative major. Although similar in interval construction to the a phrase with a rising fourth, the b phrase (played by the violin, vibes, bandoneón, and piano in parts) contrasts with a loose fraseo swing supported by strong marcato in the bass and piano left hand. Possetti’s elegant phrase structure continues in the third phrase (c), as the solo violin spins out the fraseo motive in mm. 22c–26a through a harmonic sequence of descending fifths to push the phrase to a half cadence ( WE 6.9). Though meticulously notated with fluid fills and arpeggios, Possetti’s cantando melody sounds practically improvised in Bolotin’s lyrical performance on the recording. Possetti then interrupts the final root progression of F♯ to B in the descending fifths by returning to C and then moving to the B7 chord via a descending half step in the bass. While this motion outlines a typical bass-line approach to a cadential dominant in tango, Possetti alternatively uses a CM7 chord in place of a more traditional iv6 or augmented sixth chord.

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The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) Possetti brings back the first two phrases, a and b, in varied repetition ( WE 6.10). Although the a′ phrase begins with the same crisp rhythm as in the first gesture, it now takes a fraseo rhythm in the second gesture. Then, Possetti dramatically recomposes the fraseo b′ phrase to create a smooth transition to the B section. Within a well-paced rallentando, she gives the inverted melody to the bandoneón and harmonizes it in the piano and bass with a iv6 rather than the brighter VI.12 Upon arrival on the root-position subdominant in m. 29, the harmony moves to V rather than III, and it takes a chromatic detour through a phrase extension before finally settling on the tonic in mm. 31–32. (p.314) B Section (mm. 32–48)

The contrasting B section of “Dalo por hecho” contains four 4-bar phrases, all in cantando style, and the harmonic structure centers on the same fundamental harmonies of subdominant, dominant, and tonic yet incorporates more chromaticism ( WF 6.6). Possetti initiates the first phrase, d, with a lyrical piano solo scored in the warm middle register and marked parlando to ensure an especially expressive interpretation, while a mostly marcato bass line quietly anchors the fluid rhythm and tempo ( WE 6.11). Fills and arpeggios embellish the speech-like melody with yearning 6-5 retardations and 9-8 suspensions in the underlying counterpoint. Toward the end of the phrase, the violin softly doubles the piano, while the harmony takes a surprising turn to the Neapolitan and approaches the tonic at the end of the phrase by a descending half step—one of Possetti’s favorite cadential devices. In the e phrase, mm. 37–40 ( WE 6.11), the piano solo becomes more forceful as it climbs in register, while the trombone, vibes, and bandoneón build momentum with síncopa and arrastre to the half cadence at the end of the phrase. A chordal chromatic fill links the end of this phrase to the beginning of the next (f), where the solo bandoneón launches into a strident variation of the d phrase piano solo, colored by the trombone. While many of the examples discussed previously demonstrate Possetti’s artfully crafted tango rhythms in “Dalo por hecho,” the d and e phrases of the B section illustrate how she masterfully handles harmony, counterpoint, and phrase structure. Furthermore, they demonstrate how classical compositional techniques, such as intense chromaticism and hidden variation, inform her “Music of Buenos Aires.” The reduction in Example 6.2 shows the underlying counterpoint and harmony for these two phrases, where each encompasses a basic diatonic progression infused with mixture. Beginning with a i-iv motion, the d phrase then traces a linear melodic descending-step sequence of first two 6-5 retardations followed by a 9-8 suspensions framed in a descending fifth progression III-VI-♮II7. As soon as the harmony lands on the Neapolitan, it pushes through another descending fifth progression in diminution, F-B-E, that prolongs the Phrygian-inflected F7 chord moving to the tonic E at the cadence. A twochord chromatic link quickly moves away from the tonic through a French augmented sixth chord to V7/VI, which resolves to the striking vi7 mixture Page 22 of 37

The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) harmony and initiates the second phrase (e) (note how Possetti foreshadows the first melody note E♭ in the vi7 with the F7 chord in m. 35!). From the vi7, Possetti recomposes the iv-III progression in the first part of the d phrase by (p.315) reharmonizing the A♭ passing tone in the bass with another augmented sixth chord leading to III7—a reference back to the G7 in the link between the two phrases—then settles down to a strong directed diatonic i-VI-iiØ7-V progression to the half cadence. Possetti again exhibits her artful use of disguised repetition in the next two phrases ( WE 6.12). The f phrase, mm. 40d–44c, essentially recomposes the piano solo from mm. 32c–36, where it is hidden in three ways: a reorchestrated solo in the bandoneón colored by the trombone, a driving forward Example 6.2. “Dalo por hecho,” motion with síncopa reduction of B section, mm. 32–40, d and accompaniment in the piano e phrases. and bass, and a harmonic detour to prolong the Used by permission of the composer. subdominant before quickly moving to a V-i cadence. In mm. 44d–48a, the g phrase continues to build the momentum as the violin joins the bandoneón on the melody, the accompaniment changes to strong marcato then síncopa, and the harmonic progression from the e phrase compresses to arrive on the dominant a half bar early in m. 47c. Possetti moves to a deceptive resolution rather than the expected tonic as she brings back the main rítmico motive in the tutti return of the A section in m. 48. Return of A (mm. 48–66), Return of B (mm. 66–85), and Coda (mm. 85–91)

Possetti brings back the head of the A melody in its original rítmico shape played tutti, but then she immediately reduces the instrumental forces to (p.316) spin out right-hand piano variations on the a and b phrases (mm. 49–53b). Although basically a piano solo, the vibes color the left-hand síncopa accompaniment (and Bolotin punctuates with látigo in the recording), and the bass and violin join in toward the end of the variations. Then the violin’s high D6 sweeps down through a descending fill to head into the varied c phrase (mm. 53c–57a), initially doubled by the vibes, bandoneón, and piano but then soaring on alone supported by strident marcato in the piano. As the violin builds to a dramatic high trill, the harmony moves to the half cadence in m. 57 through the classic descending tango bass line 6̂–5̂, now supporting a German augmented sixth chord (spelled enharmonically as a C7 apoyatura) moving to V. Possetti then reiterates the Page 23 of 37

The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) varied return of the first two phrases of the A section, beginning with a humorous false start in a′ in m. 57 and assigning b′ (mm. 60–64) to the trombone solo as it makes the transition to the return of the B section. A two-bar cadenza for the violin, mm. 65–66, evokes the fantasia gestures from the introduction and links to the restatement of the lyrical B section. The violin continues as the solo instrument in the d and e phrases, balancing the piano solo heard earlier in mm. 32–40, as the harmony essentially retraces the same path. Possetti recomposes the f (mm. 75–78) and g (mm. 79–84) phrases considerably, however. As the tempo moves forward, both phrases hover around the subdominant A minor, perhaps in reference to the opening tonicization of iv. Most dramatically, Possetti builds to a climax in m. 85 in a three-bar extension based on the rítmico motive played tutti over an A pedal in the bass. The melody gives way to ascending tremelos on a V9 arpeggio in the vibes, along with sustained tremelos in the trombone, violin, and bass. Possetti puts the brakes on the tempo in the piano with heavily accented left-hand syncopated ♯4̂-5̂ seconds descending in octaves and a right-hand descending glissando (in the recording, the glissando is completely overpowered by Possetti’s accented left-hand notes). A final return of the opening four-note rítmico motive initiates the coda in m. 85 ( WE 6.13), where Possetti first retraces the full statement of the a phrase but then moves in a new direction. The bandoneón launches into variations on the complete a phrase, beginning with the four-note motive in diminution in m. 85 and joined by the violin and vibes in m. 87. A deceptive motion to VI postpones the cadence, and a forceful strappata in the bass (on the recording, not in the score) initiates a two-bar prolongation of the C major harmony. Coupled by the piano left hand, the descending bass line in syncopated and marcato rhythms anchors a flurry of whirling chromatic sixteenth-note figures above in the violin, vibes, bandoneón, and (p.317) trombone (mm. 87–88). As the harmony finally moves to the dominant, the tempo ritards in m. 89, and the whirling riffs settle into trills. After the final push to the cadence, the tango concludes with an exuberant “chan-chan” tag, where, on the recording, Possetti anticipates the final tonic with an offbeat low E1. (p.318)

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The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) Juan Pablo Navarro (b. 1971): “The Rock Star”

Between his acoustic and even electric bass performances, Juan Pablo Navarro is the rock star of the “Music of Buenos Aires.” In true popular fashion, Navarro exploded into the tango scene in Buenos Aires in 2007 and is now one of the most in-demand players, most notably performing with the Néstor Marconi Trio, Quinteto Real, Diego Schissi Quintet, Orquesta (p.319) Tango de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, and currently his own Orquesta Típica Juan Pablo Navarro. In 2010, he released the CD Contratangos featuring his own tango compositions for bass duos that explore his eclectic background in tango, jazz, classical, and even rock music. Navarro also teaches and gives seminars both nationally and internationally on tango bass performance practices and, most Photo 6.3. Juan Pablo Navarro at the recently, for string ensembles. In 2011 Tango Festival, Buenos Aires. this case study, the authors Photo taken by the authors. discuss how Navarro quickly became one of the most soughtafter tangueros, describe his relationship with the “Music of Buenos Aires,” examine his compositional and performance styles, and analyze “Contra todos los que rayen,” a representative piece for acoustic bass and piano.

Biographical Background Navarro was born on April 9, 1971, in the outskirts of Buenos Aires in Avellaneda. Due to his father’s employment, the family moved to Rosario in 1977 for two years and then finally settled in Mar de Plata, a city approximately 250 miles south of Buenos Aires and the birthplace of Piazzolla. At six years old, Navarro began studying the acoustic guitar and learning easy classical, folklórico, and tango music. To pursue his interest in rock music, he started to play the electric bass at age twelve. In 1989, at eighteen years of age, Navarro entered the Conservatorio Provincial de Musica Luis Gianneo to study acoustic bass. He worked with bassist Sergio Gugliotta and composer/theorist Marcelo Perticone, and he graduated in 1992 with a degree in double bass performance and pedagogy. He also simultaneously studied guitar performance and pedagogy at Instituto de Ensenanza Integral de Page 25 of 37

The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) Mar del Plata with Margarita Gallego and graduated with a certificate in 1991. Following the completion of his formal studies, Navarro began playing with the Orquesta Sinfónica de Mar del Plata. In addition, he commuted to Buenos Aires twice a month for the next five years to further his classical music studies through private lessons and small courses with bassists Ricardo Planas and Oscar Carnero and theorist Fermina Casanova. During the 1990s, Navarro also explored tango and jazz by playing regularly with Armando Blumetti, a marplatense jazz pianist who had played with Piazzolla.13 In 2000, he won a scholarship from the Antorchas Foundation (Argentina) to study with maestro Anthony Bianco at Carnegie Mellon (p.320) University (CMU). Navarro saw this opportunity in the United States as a chance to have new experiences both musically and culturally.14 While at CMU, he sat as principal bassist in the Carnegie Mellon Philharmonic Orchestra and played in the contemporary ensemble. Navarro also explored jazz at CMU and frequently was invited to perform with the jazz ensemble. Upon returning to Argentina, Navarro and his wife Bettina settled in the Barracas neighborhood on the south side of Buenos Aires, and the tanguero commenced a work life with breathtaking energy. In 2005, he began playing with the tango-jazz artist Schissi, whose ensembles have recorded two CDs and also perform nationally and internationally. Other tangueros discovered Navarro while working with Schissi, and he burst onto the tango scene in 2007. He performed with the Walter Ríos Trio on the 2007 Tango Festival, and he substituted for renowned bassist Giunta in the Néstor Marconi Trio. Then, in 2008, he became a permanent member of Marconi’s ensembles and has since regularly performed and toured with the elder tanguero in Argentina and abroad. That same banner year of Navarro’s career, he won a seat in the Orquesta del Tango de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires and became a permanent member of the Quinteto Real. In 2009, Navarro launched the TangoContempo project to promote the creation and performance of new tango music with fellow tangueros Falabella, Emiliano Greco, Guerschberg, Sebastián Prusak, Daniel Ruggiero, and Schissi. This organization, under the leadership of Falabella, has been highly successful, and its ensembles are featured every year at the Tango Festival, most notably at the 2012 festival with a concert at the Teatro Colón. In addition to being a founding member, Navarro performs with many ensembles associated with this group, including the Nicolás Guerschberg Sextet and the Pablo Agri Quartet. Since 2010, Navarro has struck out on his own creative tango path. As a solo artist, he released the CD Contratangos (Bass Tangos, EPSA Music, 2010), a recording solely featuring duos for bass, a revolutionary concept in tango. A truly collaborative achievement, the CD includes six original compositions by Navarro (discussed later) and seven tracks by other composer/performers Page 26 of 37

The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) including Guerschberg, Abel Rogantini, Cristián Zárate, Juan Carlos Cirigliano, Marconi, Schissi, and Juan Esteban Cuacci. Navarro presented this CD at the Tango Festival in 2011 (see

WL 6.7 for the Contratangos promotional video).

In 2013, following in the footsteps of many of his tanguero predecessors, Navarro formed his own Orquesta Típica Juan Pablo Navarro. A large ensemble of four bandoneones, four violins, viola, cello, clarinet/bass clarinet, (p.321) piano, and bass, the orchestra is dedicated to playing contemporary tango repertory, including works by Navarro and by other composers such as Schissi and Emiliano Greco.15 The group performed twice in 2013, at the Almagro Tango Club and Café Vinílo, respectively, and most recently it performed in the Almagro Tango Club in July 2014 ( WL 6.8). As of this writing, Navarro and his orchestra are recording their first CD. Seeking to bring his early training in pedagogy to fruition, Navarro also shares his knowledge and playing expertise with others through teaching, master classes, and seminars. He participated in the “Style of Salgán Clinic” at the 2010 Tango Festival with two other members of the Quinteto Real, Falabella and Corrales.16 He has given master classes in Paris (July 2011), and recently gave a workshop on “The Tango: A Secret Code” at the 2013 International Bass Convention at the Eastman School of Music in Rochester, New York ( WL 6.9). He also currently teaches private bass lessons in Buenos Aires and internationally on Skype. As of this writing, Navarro has initiated a series of string workshops (October 2014), “Agarrate de las cuerdas,” to focus on rhythmic and melodic interpretation in the popular music of Argentina.

Navarro’s Tango Style Overview

Combining his background in tango, jazz, classical, and even rock styles, Navarro provides an eclectic backdrop for his tango performance and compositional styles. Through playing with Marconi and the Quinteto Real, he has absorbed the language of post–Golden Age tango styles. Navarro’s stylistic connections to Piazzolla are also very strong, due to him growing up in Mar del Plata and playing with Blumetti regularly. Like Piazzolla, Navarro is always willing to try innovative projects that explore new areas of tango. He challenges himself to “go against the grain,” or, as the title of “Contra todos los que rayen” might imply, he is seeking to “blur boundaries.” Yet, despite any borders or genres that he may cross, the tanguero explained to us that his voice is ultimately one of tango.17 We discuss (p.322) his tango voice through his works “Canción para Betty,” “Candombass,” “Contratango,” “Contra todos los que rayen,” “Incompatible,” “Para volverse loco,” and “Tanguito para Néstor” ( 6.10; for Navarro scores available online, see WL 6.12; for the score to “Contra todos los que rayen,” see WS 6.3).

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WL

The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) Navarro’s Performance Style

Navarro is truly the driving force behind many of the ensembles with which he performs, whether it is with the Quinteto Real, the Néstor Marconi Trio, or his own duos and orquesta típica. His playing always has a clear direction in terms of phrasing, and each bow stroke is full of energy. He successfully provides the foundation over which the other instruments can sound or he shines as a virtuosic and expressive soloist. Navarro’s playing can be divided into two categories: rhythmical and lyrical. When playing rhythmically, Navarro is extremely articulate in terms of both attack and length. Accented notes are clearly emphasized and staccato notes are crisp. To achieve this articulation, Navarro often uses down bows and often retakes the bow. He also frequently allows the bow to bounce with a spiccato stroke to create a degree of shortness in articulation. “Contratango” and “Contra todos los que rayen” demonstrate this style of playing. Navarro’s accompanimental patterns and arrastres are equally articulate and full of intensity. With specifically his arrastres or even his strappatas, Navarro uses his entire body, not just his arms, to create weight and momentum. This style of playing stands out in the ensemble and ultimately pushes the music forward, as evidenced with the work with Salgán’s orchestra (

WV 6.1).

When playing pizzicato, Navarro also maintains a high level of energy and drive. For example, “Para el recorrido,” as performed with the Néstor Marconi Trio ( WV 6.2), features a flashy bass pizzicato cadenza in the opening. The piece continues with Navarro supplying accompanimental rhythms switching between pizzicato and arco strokes, and with each switch there is never a loss of forward momentum. “Contra todos los que rayen” also features a small section of pizzicato (after the opening bass solo and in the middle during the piano solo) that demonstrates Navarro’s strong and rhythmic style of pizzicato. Navarro’s lyrical playing is very expressive, legato, and flexible. To aid in his personal expression, he employs fraseo, incorporates ornamental notes, and uses vibrato. “Canción para Betty,” a milonga lenta in honor of his wife, (p.323) is perhaps the best example of his lyrical style of playing and demonstrates a softer, gentler side of him. The piece demands the use of fraseo due to the contour and intervallic leaps in the melodic line. The melodic writing also begs for the performer to expressively ornament and use vibrato, both of which Navarro does exquisitely.18 Thus, the score of this particular tango is more of a guideline to the music than a specific notation. This piece also demonstrates Navarro’s supreme technical mastery of the instrument. With its use of extreme registers, maintaining good intonation and beautiful tone quality is very difficult, but Navarro does this with ease both in recordings and in live performances.

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The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) Navarro’s Compositional and Arranging Style

Navarro’s six pieces on Contratangos display his eclectic compositional style that draws on tango, jazz, and classical genres ( WL 6.12). These duo compositions are written for bass and piano, with the exception of “Tanguito para Néstor,” which is for bass and guitar. The accompanimental instruments evoke a jazz style in the harmonic supporting role through extended chords, perhaps due to the influence of the primarily jazz pianists he works with such as Schissi, Guerschberg, and Rogantini. However, the strident tango sounds in these compositions stem mostly from Navarro himself as he provides the core elements of marcato, síncopa, and arrastre. Navarro crafts his rítmico tango melodies in syncopated rhythms built on motivic cells, usually heard first in the bass line, such as in “Incompatible,” where the piano left hand supplies the marcato walking bass, and “Contra todos los que rayen.” Yet, long and lyrical cantando lines equally reflect Navarro’s tango voice. For example, the bass fraseo melodies in the opening of “Para volverse loco” and in the beautiful love song “Canción para Betty” mark “con fraseo tanguero” in the representative scores. Often Navarro allows the piano to improvise within a set of chord changes, such as in the jazz sections of “Incompatible” with Guerschberg, “Para volverse loco” with Rogantini, and “Contra todos los que rayen” with Zárate (see Close Reading). Other times, he creates flowing extended rhapsodic sections to feature the piano, such as in “Incompatible,” or uses perpetual motion figures in the piano, such as the opening of “Para volverse loco,” to support the bass fraseo melody. (p.324) Navarro’s technical mastery of instrumentation works its way organically into his compositions. For example, the bass plays a calm melody completely in harmonics in the slow middle section of “Para volverse loco,” while the piano accompanies in a filigree of arpeggios in the upper register. The virtuoso bass solo “Candombass” best illustrates the composer’s technical wizardry. Evoking the candombe drums from the Río de la Plata’s African ancestors, “Candombass” exudes rhythmically charged effects of pizzicato, repeated syncopated patterns, and extended passages of strappata. As these effects often occur simultaneously, the listener may wonder if Navarro could have really recorded this in one track! The authors have heard a number of Navarro’s recent, though as of this writing not yet recorded, orchestral compositions performed in Buenos Aires for his newly formed orquesta típica. The energetic “Barracas” and the driving candombe “Pa’ el Agus y el Uli,” dedicated to his two sons, both illustrate his robust rhythmic style and personal expression. Finally, Navarro’s “Fantasia ContraPiazzollissimo,” arranged in two versions for bass solo and strings and bass solo with his orquesta típica ( Page 29 of 37

WL 6.13), pays tribute to Piazzolla by

The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) building on the elder tanguero’s three virtuoso bass works, “Contrabajissimo,” “Kicho,” and “Contrabajando,” with all the attendant special bass instrumental effects.

Analysis: “Contra todos los que rayen” (2010) by Juan Pablo Navarro Overview

Navarro himself asked the authors to focus on “Contra todos los que rayen” as an example of his compositional style. Wendland proposed another view of the title to Navarro that takes a more literal translation like “Against all the ones that border,” and the composer liked it.19 It seems as if Navarro opposes those who create boundaries, since this tango composition blurs boundaries between tango, jazz, and contemporary styles to synthesize his expression of the “Music of Buenos Aires.” In addition to the listening cited here, the reader may also view a live performance of Navarro with pianist Octavio Brunetti ( filmed in New York in 2011.

WL 6.11)

Clearly composed with Navarro’s own virtuosic technique in mind, “Contra todos los que rayen” features the bass in a melodic capacity. Scored in the typical tango middle to low range, the piano primarily provides a (p.325) chordal or contrapuntal accompaniment to the bass. Navarro separates the roles of the piano left and right hands, where the left hand may double the bass melody in octaves or provide a marcato bass line, while the right hand typically plays chordal or arpeggio textures. Navarro crosses many musical boundaries in “Contra todos los que rayen,” especially in pitch organization. While he organizes notes around pitch centers, mostly in third relationships, he rarely uses functional progressions or V-I cadences. His harmonic palette also crosses borders between tonal and posttonal practices to incorporate fourth chords, extended chords with added tones, and clusters. His melodic writing, more modal than tonal, builds on sharp tango rhythmic cells and contrasting arpeggio figures. “Contra todos” lies on the more traditional side of the formal divide. Structured in three contrasting sections of ABCA with a coda, it features regular four- and eight-bar groups so typical of WF 6.7 for the “Contratodos los que rayen” tango phrase structure (see Listening Chart and corresponding audio link). Close Reading

Taking a cue from both Navarro’s title and his eclectic compositional style, the Close Reading of “Contra todos los que rayen” employs a variety of analytical techniques. Since the music itself crosses boundaries between tonal and posttonal pitch organization, we utilize analytical techniques to show pitch sources that include scales, modes, and even pitch-class sets. The following analysis takes the reader through each section of the tango’s form while highlighting how Navarro’s compositional techniques economically work out motivic ideas

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The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) within a mostly nonfunctional but tonally coherent pitch organization. Figure 6.3 illustrates the overall formal divisions of this tango. A Section (mm. 1–17)

The A section consists of four varied four-bar phrases, a, a′, a, and a′, that alternately center around F and D ( WF 6.8). Navarro begins “Contra (p. 326) todos los que rayen” with a virtuoso bass solo in rítmico

Figure 6.3. Overall form of “Contra todos los que rayen.”

melodic style ( WE 6.14, mm. 1–4). True to typical tango popular music phrase structures, the a phrase falls into two 2-bar subphrases repeated with slight variation. The first subphrase establishes the primary motivic ideas of the tango in two gestures. First, two rising staccato fifths, F-C-G, span a broad and open harmonic space. Then, slurred three- and four-note groups fill in the space with an embellished descending stepwise motion from F to A♭ and establish F as the pitch center with a minor-mode inflection. A measured arrastre leading to F initiates the second subphrase, which varies the two gestures of mm. 1–2 but halts the motion on B♭. The a′ phrase varies the rhythmic and melodic motives of the first phrase ( WE 6.14, mm. 5–8). A measured arrastre begins an octave below the B♭ interrupted step descent in m. 4 and leads to the new pitch center D on the downbeat of m. 5. Two rising fourths, A-D-G, contract the opening rising fifth motive and reinforce the tonal shift. While Navarro retains similar rhythmic and melodic patterns from the a phrase, he creates more syncopation by shifting the metric and rhythmic accents to offbeats and inverts some of the downward motion to rising motion in the slurred gestures. The bass solo repeats the melody of a and a′ in mm. 9–16 in pizzicato. As the piano joins to accompany with sustained chromatic clusters ( WE 6.14, mm. 9– 10), it adds another layer of blurred tonal musical boundaries and fills in harmonic space between the rising fifth motive in the bass. Example 6.3 illustrates how Navarro expands his pitch clusters in the piano accompaniment. First, these clusters shift between a D5 and P5 span above a fixed G in a (mm. 9– 12), and then they expand to encompass larger intervals of sixths and sevenths above shifting low notes in a′ (mm. 13–16). The last two clusters span a wide M7, as if to finally transform into F and D♭ jazz chords with added notes. At the same time, the harmonic rhythm quickens and the note values shorten in the piano clusters of mm. 15–16 to push the phrase to its abrupt end.

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The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) B Section (mm. 18–47) and Transition (mm. 48–50)

Like a silent border, a notated grand pause in m. 17 divides the first two main sections of the tango. Again, Navarro casts the B section in varied four-bar phrases, b, b, b′, and b′′, but now repeats the 16-bar group and adds an extension to create the longest section of the composition (

WF 6.9).

Example 6.3. “Contra todos los que rayen,” reduction of piano clusters in prime form, mm. 9–16.

Navarro blurs both modal and Used by permission of the composer. tonal boundaries in the B section. While still in the bass but now played pizzicato, the B section melody contrasts (p.327) the broad and sweeping range of the A melody to only span a descending D5 between B♭ and E (the last eighth note B in m. 18 should be a B♭ in the score, as Navarro plays in the recording). Within this restricted range, B♭ and G emerge as two axis notes. As A♭ and F turn around them in short Bartókian syncopated gestures, Navarro’s four-note collection creates a key/mode ambiguity between B♭ tinged with Mixolydian and G with a Phrygian inflection ( WE 6.15a). In m. 19, the melody dips down to the lowest-sounding note in the phrase, E. While E lies outside both suggested modes, it combines with the two axis notes to form the unstable diminished triad E-G-B♭. Thus, with this dissonant harmonic weight, Navarro blurs not only the pitch centers of B♭ and G but also any sense of a tonic triad. The phrase concludes abruptly in m. 22 on an accented B♮, another note foreign to the B♭ /G modal collections.20 Curiously, although Navarro does not explicitly connect these two outside pitches adjacently, the P5 between B and E harkens back to the very opening fifths motive of the tango. Web Example 6.15b provides an analytical sketch of the relationships in the pitch collection of the first phrase of the B section in scalar formation (E, F, G, A♭, B♭, B♮) and pitchclass notation (0,1,3,4,6,7). Navarro intensifies the bass solo melody b in the varied repetition of the next three phrases. First, the piano joins the bass in the repeated b phrase (p.328) in low octaves (mm. 22–25, where the left-hand part should be marked an octave below as written) to darken the timbre. After the piano again punctuates the final note of the phrase, B♮, Navarro adds a classic tango accented and syncopated minor second on ♯4̂/5̂ of the G minor tonal center ( WE 6.16a). Then, as the piano left hand continues in the b′ phrase (mm. 26–29), it breaks the melody up into fragments and omits some notes to form a scaffolding for two new layers in the texture—a countermelody in the bass and syncopated chords and clusters interspersed with octave riffs in the piano right hand. Navarro Page 32 of 37

The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) continues his variation process by transposing the b′′ to the new pitch center of A and maintains the three layers of texture ( WE 6.16b, mm. 30–33). While the piano still plays the fragmented melody in the left hand and syncopated clusters in the right hand, Navarro adds new counterpoint in the bass that retains the essential rhythmic patterns of b′. The phrase closes with the piano and bass joined in octave riffs on the main b melodic motive. As Navarro repeats the b′ and b′′ phrases in mm. 34–41, he switches the roles between piano left hand and the bass. Now the bass plays the melodic fragments, embellished with harmonics and double stops, while the piano plays the countermelody. The piano further varies the repetition by playing the countermelody in octaves or offsetting with clusters, while the bass intersperses the melodic fragments with riffs to double the countermelody in the piano. The last varied repetition of the b melody (mm. 42–45) effects a tonal return to the original section pitch center of B♭. The piano left hand again plays the fragmented melody around the axis notes B♭ and G with an accented low E to outline the diminished triad. The right hand and the bass play yet another new countermelody in octaves, and then the texture expands back to three layers in the last bar when the right plays chord/cluster harmonies. While the pitch center remains B♭, D♭ emerges as its upper third in the countermelody and so anchors the pitch organization to another tonal relationship. At the same time, it foreshadows a third relationship that appears in the C section. The section winds down with a two-bar extension that stretches out a measured arrastre spanning D♭ and F in augmentation fraseo triplets (

WE 6.17, mm. 46–47).

The extension flows seamlessly into a slower three-bar fantasia transition played by the piano solo that further connects the B and C sections ( WE 6.17, mm. 48–51). Navarro shifts from strong tango rhythmic cells to rhapsodic arpeggio figures in a nebulous tonal atmosphere. The right hand picks up the last three notes from the previous measure (D♭, F, and E) (p.329) and adds an A below. This dreamy four-note melodic fragment spirals upward to rest on B♭, reversing the anchor third relationship from the end of the B section. In the left-hand arpeggios, bass-line anchor notes unfold a descending E minor triad, as if to settle and resolve the E diminished chord from the beginning of the B section. A luscious, yet nonfunctional, French augmented sixth chord over E in the bass harmonizes the arrival of B♭ and unifies the contradictory pitch collections in the two hands. Finally, the flowing rhythm dissipates on the repeated octave B♭, which further sets up the pitch center in the C section. C Section (mm. 51–66; Grand Pause, m. 67)

The slow C section features a lyrical bass solo with a fluid piano accompaniment, organized into two repeated contrasting four-bar phrases, c, d, c′, and d′ ( WF 6.10). While on the surface Navarro seems to present the highest degree of contrast in terms of tempo and mood, he demonstrates a controlled economy of Page 33 of 37

The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) means in the C section by combining and transforming melodic and rhythmic ideas from the two preceding sections. Navarro begins the c phrase (mm. 51–54) by recomposing the B♭-F-G motive from melody b to create a descending gesture B♭-G-F while altering the rhythm to a slow 3-3-2. Meanwhile, the piano accompaniment elaborates the open fifths of the a melody as the left hand repeats the exact pitches of the bass solo in m. 1, F-C-G. Now, however, the F serves as a dominant pedal supporting the B♭ pitch center of the melody. The bass melody in the d phrase (mm. 55–58) elaborates the c phrase with flowing rhythms of eighth notes and triplets and an increased dynamic level. The piano continues the same fluid accompaniment figuration as in the c phrase, but now the right hand thickens the texture with added-note chords. The pitch center moves to D♭, reiterating the B♭-D♭ third axis from the transition (mm. 48– 50). In the varied repetition of these two contrasting phrases (c′ in mm. 59–62 and d′ in mm. 63–66), the bass melody shifts into its vibrant upper register. The piano thickens the texture with added-note chords above first an F pedal and then a D♭ pedal in broken octaves. Tension builds in the last phrase through a gradual crescendo, the bass soars to a high E♭, and the tempo slows. As the piano left hand shifts to a C pedal point (mm. 65–66), the harmony settles on an extended C dominant harmony, which in turn sets a return to the F tonal center in the return of the A section in m. 68 (

WE 6.18).

(p.330) Return of A Section (mm. 68–83) and Coda (mm. 84–95)

After repeating the opening A section’s a and a′ phrases nearly exactly (mm. 68– 75), Navarro crosses over into a true jazz realm. He sets up an eight-bar repeated structure for improvisation in mm. 76–83 ( WE 6.19), divided into two 4-bar groups that move between G minor and E minor tonal centers (another axis chromatic third relationship). In the score, the rising fifths and embellished descending steps’ motivic ideas from the a phrase are transposed and developed in the bass part, while the notated clusters familiar from the A section are now set in a harmonic framework of extended jazz chords in the piano. Yet, still grounded in the tango style, Navarro notates a walking bass marcato in the piano left hand to frame tonal/harmonic support for the improvisation.21 Rather than spinning out variations in the traditional tango style, Navarro concludes “Contra todos” with a twelve-bar coda that recalls musical ideas from the A and B sections as it maintains the pitch center E from the end of the improvisation. The tango winds down with melodic fragments from the B section played in octaves between the bass and piano. In place of the traditional tango “chan-chan,” Navarro concludes the piece with a final flourish that moves from a strong D♯ leading tone through a tanguero piano glissando to land on the final tonic E heavily accented in four octaves (

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WE 6.20).

The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) (p.331) Postre: Conclusion of Part II

Continuing with our porteño café theme, this postre (literally meaning dessert) refers to our closing thoughts. These ten in-depth case studies and the four short cafecitos offer a close-up view of tango’s compositional, arranging, and performance style in the hands of key tangueros from the 1920s to today. As the “father of the guardia nueva,” De Caro and his school established a model for instrumental tango in all three arenas and catapulted the genre into an era of artistic refinement. In turn, the Golden Age icon Troilo synthesized traits of the guardia vieja and the guardia nueva, combining strong, danceable rhythms with fluid, romantic melodies; warm orchestral sounds; soulful bandoneón playing; and melancholic compositions giving voice to tango’s essential tristeza. Also in the Golden Age, Pugliese expanded the legacy of De Caro to create his iconic yumba technique juxtaposed with fluid tempos and melodies within his unified cooperative orchestra. D’Arienzo and Di Sarli represent two towering figures of the dance-era orchestras in the Golden Age. Salgán, Piazzolla, Plaza, and Federico strongly represent the sounds of the post– Golden Age, when tango moved into mostly concert settings as the dance craze subsided. Salgan’s style strikes a brilliant balance between tradition and innovation, with his emphasis on tango melody in a polished instrumental style like De Caro. He represents how post–Golden Age tangueros synthesized their musical activities as performers, arrangers, and, most significantly, composers/ arrangers to create their own distinct voice. Carrying forward the legacy of both De Caro and Troilo, Piazzolla’s nuevo tango uniquely combined his musical heritage in tango, jazz, and classical music, and he opened the door to experimentation in tango for the next generation. Plaza’s lush post–Golden Age orchestral sound emanates an essential simplicity and clarity while being anchored (p.332) in a romantic sensibility that he absorbed working with such maestros as Pugliese. Federico bridged the generations from traditional tangueros like Troilo and Di Sarli to modern tango, as his style both adapted to the changing times and remained grounded in his romantic roots. Two other towering figures, bandoneonists/composers/arrangers Marconi and Mederos, propelled tango into the twenty-first century, and they continue to stand as pillars within the tango community of Buenos Aires today. Within the many divergent tango styles in the new millennium in Argentina, we represent the “Music of Buenos Aires” with three tangueros who have come of age since tango’s rebirth. Like Piazzolla, Bolotin utilizes his diverse and extensive background in multiple styles of music to create his individual performance and compositional style as his classical training informs his tango writing, arranging, orchestration, and violin playing. With her Salgánesque compositional practice of generating melodies from clear motivic ideas, Possetti’s unique style reinvigorates tango with her fresh voice as she experiments with new instrumental colors and with jazz and contemporary harmonies. Finally, Navarro hit the tango bandstand performing in established Page 35 of 37

The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) tango styles like those of Marconi and Salgán, and he combines his background in tango, jazz, classical, and even rock styles as one of the foremost tango bassists/composers/arrangers in Buenos Aires today. As evidenced by this book, Argentine tango is a dynamic and living art form. It has been shaped and transformed by a lineage of tangueros, and it will continue to thrive in the hands of the next generation. Young tangueros such as the Greco brothers, Enrich, and others who were featured in the 2012 Tango Festival’s special series “Los Dorados 20” (“The Golden 20s”) embrace tango’s dynamic past and push it into new directions. If, as we hope, our work here lays a strong foundation for further studies of tango music, we anticipate scholars and musicians will continue to trace representatives of the art form’s young composers, arrangers, and performers as they carry and invigorate tango into the future. Notes:

(1.) Damián Bolotin, interview by authors, Buenos Aires, August 19, 2012. (2.) Ibid. (3.) CD liner notes, Hora pico, Cuerdas pop-temporáneas, EPSA Music, 0784-02, 2006, compact disc. (4.) Julio De Caro used this same nontonic functional opening in “Tierra querida,” but in D major. (5.) Bolotin’s instructions in parenthesis read golpe seco en ½ de la contratapa. (6.) Sonia Possetti, interview by authors, Buenos Aires, August 19, 2012. (7.) Ibid. (8.) Said to Wendland numerous times in her piano lessons in 2005–2006. (9.) Michael O’Brien, “Contemporary Tango in Buenos Aires, Argentina: A Globalized Local Music in a Historicized Present” (Master’s thesis, University of Texas, 2005), 90. (10.) Bolotin set the nostalgic tone for studying “Desde aquí” at the Emory Tango Study Abroad Program in Buenos Aires by coaching the students to imagine the wide, vast horizon of the Argentine Pampas, July 12, 2011. (11.) “El trombón apareció como una necesidad expresiva sin saber si iba a encontrar la persona con la que pudiera trabajar… . Hay mucho ritmo en mi música, pero creía que faltaba otra manera de canalizar el humor. El trombón puede ser muy melódico, muy rítmico y tiene en su sonoridad una ironía que me encanta y, de alguna manera, forma parte de mi personalidad.” Gabriel Plaza, Page 36 of 37

The “Music of Buenos Aires” (1990s–present) “No me preocupa entrar en la batea del tango,” La nación, August 28, 2010, accessed online http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1298822-no-me-preocupa-entrar-enla-batea-del-tango. (12.) Note that the performance on the recording varies slightly from the score. (13.) María Susanna Azzi and Simon Collier, Le Grand Tango: The Life and Music of Astor Piazzolla (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 44. (14.) Juan Pablo Navarro, interview by authors, Buenos Aires August 16, 2012. (15.) “La orquesta se dedica a la difusión del repertorio de tango contemporáneo, con obras de su propia autoría, y de compositores destacados como Diego Schissi y Emiliano Greco entre otros.” From the Orquesta Típica Juan Pablo Navarro Facebook page, accessed August 7, 2013. (16.) “Clínicas de estilo orquestal: El estilo Horacio Salgán” (lecture, 2010 Tango Festival, Buenos Aires, August 17, 2010). (17.) Navarro, interview, August 16, 2012. (18.) There is one section of the piece that calls for no vibrato. (19.) Navarro, interview by Wendland, Buenos Aires, June 20, 2013. (20.) In the recording, pianist Zárate punctuates the last note of the phrase with an accented forte cluster to accent the last note of the phrase that is outside Navarro’s main collection. (21.) Navarro allows more liberty in this improvisation section on the recording. The first and second times through (3:28–4:04), Zárate improvises on the chord changes, while Navarro comps in marcato with arrastre. On the third reiteration (4:05), Navarro plays the melody mostly as written in the score, while Zárate comps with a marcato left-hand bass line and syncopated chords in the right hand.

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Bibliography

Tracing Tangueros: Argentine Tango Instrumental Music Kacey Link and Kristin Wendland

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780199348220 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: March 2016 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199348220.001.0001

(p.333) Bibliography Bibliography references: Alposta, Luis. El tango en Japón. Buenos Aires: Corregidor, 1987. Andrews, George Reid. The Afro-Argentines of Buenos Aires, 1800-1900. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1980. Aslan, Pablo. “The Evolution of Tango Music.” Unpublished, 2002. Accessed September 11, 2011. Available from http://www.avantango.com. Adapted from “Tango: Stylistic Evolution and Innovation.” Master’s thesis, University of California at Los Angeles, 1990. Astarita, Gaspar. “Julián Plaza.” Todotango. Accessed September 20, 2014. http://www.todotango.com/creadores/biografia/45/Julian-Plaza/. Atlas, Allan. “Astor Piazzolla: tangos, funerales, y blue notes.” In Estudios sobre la obra de Astor Piazzolla, edited by Omar García Brunelli, 77–88. Buenos Aires: Gourmet Musical Ediciones, 2008. Also published in “Astor Piazzolla: Tangos, Funerals, and ‘Blue Notes.’” In Essays on Music and Culture in Honor of Herbert Kellman, edited by Barbara Haggh, 551–561. Paris: Klincksieck, 2000. Auerbach, Brian. “Astor Piazzolla, The Great American Music Hall, San Francisco, April 26, 1988.” Great American Music Hall, San Francisco, CA. CODA 221 (August–September 1988): 23. Azzi, María Susana. Antropología del tango: los protagonistas. Buenos Aires: Ediciones de Olavarría, 1991.

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Bibliography ——— . “Multicultural Tango: The Impact and the Contribution of the Italian Immigration to the Tango in Argentina.” International Journal of Musicology 5 (1996): 437–453. ——— . “The Tango, Peronism, and Astor Piazzolla during the 1940s and 50s.” In From Tejano to Tango, edited by Walter Aaron Clark, 25–40. New York: Routledge, 2002. ——— , and Simon Collier. Le Grand Tango: The Life and Music of Astor Piazzolla. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. ——— , Simon Collier, Artemis Cooper, and Richard Martin. ¡Tango! The Dance, the Song, the Story. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997. ——— , and Chris Goertzen. “Globalization and the Tango.” Yearbook for Traditional Music 31 (1999): 67–76. Bach, Caleb. “Astor Piazzolla: A New-Age Score for the Tango.” Américas 63, nos. 5–6 (1991): 14–21. Béhague, Gerard. “A Performance and Listener-Centered Approach to Musical Analysis: Some Theoretical and Methodological Factors.” Latin American Music Review 27, no. 1 (2006): 10–18. (p.334) ——— . Performance Practice: Ethnomusicological Perspectives, edited by Gerard Béhague. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1984. Bolasell, Michel. La revolución del tango: la nueva edad de oro. Buenos Aires: Corregidor, 2011. Borges, Jorge Luis. “A History of Tango.” In Selected Non-fictions, edited by Eliot Weinberger, translated by Esther Allen, Suzanne Jill Levine, and Eliot Weinberger. New York: Penguin Books, 1999. ——— . Obra poética. Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1975. Cadícamo, Enrique. El desconocido Juan Carlos Cobián. Buenos Aires: SADAIC, 1972. ——— . Mis memorias. Buenos Aires: Corregidor, 1999. Canaro, Francisco. Mis memorias: mis bodas de oro con el tango. Buenos Aires: Corregidor, 1957. Cannata, David Butler. “Making It There: los conciertos de Piazzolla en Nueva York.” In Estudios sobre la obra de Astor Piazzolla, edited by Omar García Brunelli, 199–232. Buenos Aires: Gourmet Musical Ediciones, 2008. Also

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Bibliography published in “Making It There: Piazzolla’s New York Concerts.” Latin American Music Review 26, no. 1 (2005): 57–87. Cañardo, Marina, and Silvia Gerszkowicz. “‘Tango Nuevo, nuevo’: un studio de los aportes de Gerardo Gandini a la música de Astor Piazzolla.” In Estudios sobre la obra de Astor Piazzolla, edited by Omar García Brunelli, 127–132. Buenos Aires: Gourmet Musical Ediciones, 2008. Carreras Venturini, Verónica H., and José Pedro Aresi. “‘Shusheta’ y su inspiración.” Todotango. Accessed August 13, 2010. http://www.todotango.com/ spanish/biblioteca/cronicas/shusheta.asp. Castro, Donald S. “Carlos Gardel and the Argentine Tango: The Lyric of Social Irresponsibility and Male Inadequacy.” In The Passion of Music and Dance: Body, Gender and Sexuality, edited by William Washabaugh, 63–78. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. ——— . The Argentine Tango as Social History, 1880-1955: The Soul of the People. Lewiston: E. Mellen Press, 1991. Centeya, Julián. “El bandoneón mayor de Buenos Aires.” In La historia del tango, Tomo 16: Aníbal Troilo, 2999–3060. Buenos Aires: Corregidor, 1999. Collier, Simon. The Life, Music, and Times of Carlos Gardel. Pittsburg, PA: Pittsburg University Press, 1986. ———. “The Popular Roots of the Argentine Tango.” History Workshop 34 (Autumn 1992): 92–100. Czackis, Lloica. “Tangele: The History of Yiddish Tango.” Jewish Quarterly (UK) 60, no. 1 (Spring 2003): 45–53. Daseking, Christina, et al. Lessons from the Crisis in Argentina. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund, 2004. De Caro, Julio. El tango en mis recuerdos. Buenos Aires: Ediciones Centurion, 1964. Del Mazo, Mariano, and Adrián D’Amore. Quién me quita lo bailado, Juan Carlos Copes: Una vida de tango. Buenos Aires: Corregidor, 2001. Del Priore, Oscar. “Story of the tango ‘Boedo.’” Todotango. Accessed September 13, 2014. http://www.todotango.com/english/biblioteca/CRONICAS/ leyenda_boedo.asp. ——— . Cien tangos fundamentales. Buenos Aires: Aguilar, 1998.

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Bibliography ——— . Osvaldo Pugliese: Una vida en el tango. Buenos Aires: Editorial Losada, 2008. DeVeaux, Scott, and Gary Giddins. Jazz. New York: W. W. Norton, 2009. Dibb, Mike. Astor Piazzolla: In Portrait. Directed and produced by Mike Dibb and Tony Staveacre, 213 min., Opus Arte, BBC, 2005, DVD. (p.335) Dimov, Jorge, and Esther Echenbaum Jonisz. Leopoldo Federico: el inefable bandoneón del tango. Buenos Aries: Gourmet Musical Ediciones, 2009. Dinzel, Rodolfo. El tango, una danza. Buenos Aires: Corregidor, 1994. Drago, Alejandro Marcelo. “Instrumental Tango Idioms in the Symphonic Works and Orchestral Arrangements of Astor Piazzolla. Performance and Notational Problems: A Conductor’s Perspective.” DMA document, University of Southern Mississippi, 2008. Fain, Paulina. Método fundamental para apprender a tocar tango/Fundamental Method for Playing Tango Music: La flauta en el tango/The Flute in Tango. Bilingual, edited by Fain. Munich: Ricordi, 2010. Ferrer, Horacio. El siglo de oro del tango: compendio ilustrado de su historia. Also in English as The Golden Age of Tango. Buenos Aires: Academia Nacional del Tango, Manrique Zago Ediciones, 1998. ——— . El tango: su historia y evolución. Buenos Aires: Ediciones Continente, 1999. ——— . Los tangos de Piazzolla y Ferrer: 1967-1971; quereme así piantao. Buenos Aires: Ediciones Continente, 2000. ———. Los tangos de Piazzolla y Ferrer: 1972-1994; mi loco bandoneón. Buenos Aires: Ediciones Continente, 2000. Finkielman, Jorge. The Film Industry in Argentina: An Illustrated Cultural History. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2003. Fischerman, Diego, and Abel Gilbert. Piazzolla: el mal entendido. Buenos Aires: Edhasa, 2009. Fumagalli, Monica. Jorge Luis Borges y el tango. Buenos Aires: Abrazos, 2004. Gallo, Ramiro. Método fundamental para apprender a tocar tango/Fundamental Method for Playing Tango Music: El violín en el tango/The Violin in the Tango. Bilingual, edited by Fain. Munich: Ricordi, 2011.

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Bibliography García Blaya, Ricardo. “Atilio Stampone.” Todotango. Accessed September 3, 2014. http://www.todotango.com/english/artists/biography/715/Atilio-Stampone/. ——— . “La Cumparsita.” Todotango. Accessed August 15, 2011. http:// www.todotango.com/spanish/biblioteca/cronicas/la_cumparsita.asp. ——— . “Leopoldo Federico.” Todotango. Accessed October 6, 2014. http:// www.todotango.com/Creadores/Biografia.aspx?id=765. ——— . “Néstor Marconi.” Todotango. Accessed September 3, 2014. http:// www.todotango.com/creadores/biografia/825/Nestor-Marconi/. ——— . “Sexteto Tango.” Todotango. Accessed September 3, 2014. http:// www.todotango.com/creadores/biografia/785/Sexteto-Tango/. ——— . “The Tango Piece ‘Recuerdo,’ a Family Secret.” Todotango. Accessed September 3, 2014. http://www.todotango.com/english/biblioteca/cronicas/ recuerdo.asp). García Brunelli, Omar. Discografía básica del tango, 1905-2010: su historia a través de las grabaciones. Buenos Aires: Gourmet Musical Ediciones, 2010. ——— , ed. Estudios sobre la obra de Astor Piazzolla. Buenos Aires: Gourmet Musical Ediciones, 2008. ——— . “La obra de Astor Piazzolla y su relación con el tango como especie de música popular urbana.” Revista del Instituto de Investigación Musicológica “Carlos Vega” 12 (1992): 155–221. García Jiménez, Francisco. Así nacieron los tangos. Buenos Aires: Editorial Losada, S.A., 1965. Gobello, José. “Juan D’Arienzo.” Todotango. Accessed September 3, 2014. http:// www.todotango.com/creadores/biografia/32/Juan-DArienzo/. Gorin, Natalio. Astor Piazzolla: A Memoir. Translated, annotated, and expanded by Fernando Gonzalez. Portland, OR: Amadeus Press, 2001. (p.336) Goyena, Héctor Luis. “El tango en la escena dramática de Buenos Aires durante la década del veinte.” Latin American Music Review/Revista de Música Latinoamericano 15/1 (Spring–Summer 1994): 93–109. Graciano, Julián. Cátedra de análisis musical del “Conservatorio Argentino Galván.” Unpublished manuscript, 2003, Buenos Aires. ——— . “Eduardo Rovira: de su estética, estilo y idea.” Unpublished paper, 2006, Buenos Aires.

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Bibliography ——— . Método de guitarra tango. chapter 1 translated into English as “Rhythmic Accompaniment.” Unpublished manuscript, 2010, Buenos Aires. Granados, Ysomar. “A Pianist’s Guide to the Argentine Tango (Horacio Salgán, Astor Pizzolla).” DMA document, University of Miami, 2001. Gronow, Pekka. “Popular Music in Finland: A Preliminary Survey.” Ethnomusicology 17, no. 1 (January 1973): 52–71. Groppa, Carlos G. The Tango in the United States: A History. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2004. Guillermoprieto, Alma. “And They Still Tango.” National Geographic, December (2003): 34–53. Guy, Donna J. Sex and Danger in Buenos Aires: Prostitution, Family, and Nation in Argentina. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1991. Hedges, Jill. Argentina: A Modern History. New York: I. B. Tauris, 2011. Illari, Bernardo. “María de Buenos Aires: el tango del eterno retorno.” In Estudios sobre la obra de Astor Piazzolla, edited by Omar García Brunelli, 157– 198. Buenos Aires: Gourmet Musical Ediciones, 2008. Jakubs, Deborah L. “From Bawdyhouse to Cabaret: The Evolution of the Tango as an Expression of Argentine Popular Culture.” Journal of Popular Culture 18 (Summer 1984): 133–145. Judkovski, José. El Tango: una historia con judíos. Buenos Aires: Fundacion IWO, 1998. Karush, Matthew B. Culture of Class: Radio and Cinema in the Making of a Divided Argentina, 1920-1946. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2012. Keselman, Julio, ed. Osvaldo Pugliese. Buenos Aires: Mundial, S.A. 2005. Kohan, Pablo. “El lenguaje compositivo de Juan Carlos Cobián.” Revista Argentina de Musicología 1 (1996): 95–108. ——— . Estudios sobre los estilos compositivos del tango (1920-1935). Buenos Aires: Gourmet Musical Ediciones, 2010. Krämer, Ulrich. “Armonía y forma en María de Buenos Aires de Astor Piazzolla.” In Estudios sobre la obra de Astor Piazzolla, edited by Omar García Brunelli, 145–156. Buenos Aires: Gourmet Musical Ediciones, 2008. Also published in Revista del Instituto Superior de Música (Santa Fe, Argentina) 9 (August 2002): 40–51.

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Bibliography Mamone, Pascual “Cholo,” with Diego Sauchelli and Julián Hasse. Tratado de Orquestación en Estilos Tangueros. Buenos Aires: Altavoz Ediciones Musicales, 2011. Available for download in PDF under “Books and Editions” on http:// www.diegosauchelli.com.ar/. Martino, Alejandro. “Aportes de Astor Piazzolla a la historia de la flauta en el tango.” In Estudios sobre la obra de Astor Piazzolla, edited by Omar García Brunelli, 89–98. Buenos Aires: Gourmet Musical Ediciones, 2008. Matallana, Andrea. Locos por la radio: una historia social de la radiofonía en la Argentina, 1923-1947. Buenos Aires: Prometeo Libros, 2006. Matamoro, Blas. La ciudad del tango: tango histórico y sociedad. Buenos Aires: Editorial Galerna, 1982. Mauriño, Gabriela. “Interpreting the Tango Music of Astor Piazzolla.” Saxophone Symposium 23 (1998): 45–61. ——— . “Raíces tangueras en la obra de Astor Piazzolla.” In Estudios sobre la obra de Astor Piazzolla, edited by Omar García Brunelli, 13–18. Buenos Aires: Gourmet Musical Ediciones, 2008. Mederos, Rodolfo. El lenguaje del tango. Unpublished manuscript, 2005, Buenos Aires. Merkin, Marta, et al. Días de los radios: historia de la radio argentina. 4th ed. Buenos Aires: Compañia Editora Espasa Calpa Argentina S.A., 1996. Monelle, Raymond. The Sense of Music: Semiotic Essays. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000. Monk, Bernardo. El saxofón en el tango: primer método para la inclusión del saxofón en nuestra música ciudadana. Buenos Aires: Melos, 2009. Montes-Baquer, José. Astor Piazzolla in Conversation and Concert: The Next Tango. Directed by José Montes-Baquer, produced by Harald Gericke, 88 min., Deutsche Grammophon, 2007, DVD. Moreno Chá, Ercilia. “Music in the Southern Cone: Chile, Argentina, and Uruguay.” In Music in Latin American Culture: Regional Traditions, edited by John M. Schechter, 236–301. New York: Schirmer Books, 1999. (p.338) ——— , ed. Tango: tuyo, mío y nuestro. Buenos Aires: Instituto Nacional de Antropología y Pensamiento Latinoamericano, 1995. Neal, Caroline, dir. Si sos brujo: una historia de tango. Buenos Aires: Instituto Nacional de Cine y Artes Audiovisuales, 2005, DVD.

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Bibliography Nicholson, Stuart. “Ricky-Tick—Tango, Jazz and Dancing Finns.” Finnish Music Quarterly 4 (2010): 50–51. Novati, Jorge, Inés Cuello, Irma Ruiz, and Néstor Ceñal. Antología del tango rioplatense, vol. 1: Desde sus comienzos hasta 1920. Buenos Aires: Instituto Nacional del Musicología “Carlos Vega,” 1980. Nudler, Julio. “Leopoldo Federico, a 40 años de haber formado su primera orquesta.” Pagina 12, 1998. Accessed October 5, 2014. http:// www.pagina12.com.ar/1998/98-06/98-06-15/pag12.htm. ——— . “Homero Manzi.” Todotango. Accessed September 3, 2014. http:// www.todotango.com/english/creadores/manzi.asp. ——— . “No toca botón.” Pagina 12. Accessed October 6, 2014. http:// www.pagina12.com.ar/2001/suple/Radar/01-12/01-12-16/NOTA1.HTM. ——— . “Osvaldo Fresedo.” Todotango. Accessed September 3, 2014. http:// www.todotango.com/nglish/artists/biography/41/Osvaldo-Fresedo/. ——— . “Pedro Laurenz.” Todotango. Accessed September 3, 2014. http:// www.todotango.com/english/creadores/laurenz.html. ——— . Tango Judío: del ghetto de la milonga. Buenos Aires: Editorial Sudamericana, 1998. O’Brien, Michael Seamus. “Contemporary Tango in Buenos Aires, Argentina: A Globalized Local Music in a Historicized Present.” Master’s thesis, University of Texas, 2005. ——— . “Disciplining the Popular: New Institutions for Argentine Music Education Systems.” PhD diss., University of Texas at Austin, 2010. Pacini Hernandez, Deborah. Oye com va!: Hybridity and Identity in Latino Popular Music. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2010. Padilla, Alfonso. “Two Sides of the Tango Coin.” Finnish Music Quarterly 2 (2009): 28–32. Pelinski, Ramón. “Astor Piazzolla: entre tango y fuga, en busca de una identidad estilística.” In Estudios sobre la obra de Astor Piazzolla, edited by Omar García Brunelli, 35–56. Buenos Aires: Gourmet Musical Ediciones, 2008. ———, ed. El tango nómade: ensayos sobre la diáspora del tango. Buenos Aires: Ediciones Corregidor, 2000.

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Bibliography ——— . “Ostinato y placer de la repetición en la música de Astor Piazzolla.” Revista del Instituto Superior de Música (Santa Fe, Argentina) 9 (August 2002): 29–39. Peralta, Julián. La orquesta típica: mecánica y aplicación de los fundamentos técnicos del tango. Buenos Aires: Departamento de Impresiones de la H.C.D de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, 2008. Piazzolla, Diana. Astor. Buenos Aires: Ediciones Corregidor, 2005. Pinsón, Néstor. “Aníbal Troilo and His Appearances in the Movies and at the Theater.” Todotango. Accessed September 3, 2014. http://www.todotango.com/ english/history/chronicle/275/Anibal-Troilo-and-his-appearances-in-the-moviesand-at-theater/. ——— . “Héctor Farrel.” Todotango. Accessed September 3, 2014. http:// www.todotango.com/english/creadores/hfarrel.asp. ——— . “Interview with Osvaldo Requena.” Todotango. Accessed September 16, 2014. http://www.todotango.com/historias/cronica/180/Requena-Entrevista-aOsvaldo-Requena/. (p.339) ——— . “Juan José Mosalini.” Todotango. Accessed September 3, 2014. http://www.todotango.com/english/artists/biography/923/Juan-Jose-Mosalini/. ——— . “Orquesta Típica Victor.” Todotango. Accessed September 3, 2014. http:// www.todotango.com/english/artists/biography/648/Tipica-Victor/. ——— . “Osvaldo Pugliese.” Todotango. Accessed September 3, 2014. http:// www.todotango.com/english/creadores/opugliese.asp. Plaza, Gabriel. “No me preocupa entrar en la batea del tango.” La nación, August 28, 2010. Accessed online http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1298822-no-mepreocupa-entrar-en-la-batea-del-tango. Possetti, Hernán. Método fundamental para apprender a tocar tango/ Fundamental Method for Playing Tango Music: El piano en el tango/The Piano in the Tango. Bilingual, edited by Paulina Fain. Buenos Aires: Fondo Nacional de las Artes, 2014. Pujol, Sergio A. “Más allá de Piazzolla: con el pasado que vuelve.” In Estudios sobre la obra de Astor Piazzolla, edited by Omar García Brunelli, 233–244. Buenos Aires: Gourmet Musical Ediciones, 2008. Rafael, Eduardo. “Osvaldo Ruggiero and His Confidences.” Todotango. Accessed September 3, 2014. http://www.todotango.com/english/biblioteca/cronicas/ entrevista_oruggiero.asp Page 10 of 13

Bibliography Rey, Luis. “Biografía.” In El tango en mis recuerdos, by Julio De Caro, 333–428. Buenos Aires: Ediciones Centurion, 1964. Roberts, John Storm. The Latin Tinge: The Impact of Latin American Music in the United States. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Rock, David. Argentina 1516-1987, From Spanish Colonization to Alfonsín. Rev. ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987. Romero, Jose Luis. Breve historia de la Argentina. Caracas: El libro menor, 1988. Romero, Luis Alberto. A History of Argentina in the Twentieth Century. Translated by James P. Brennan. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002. Rossi, Vicente. Cosas de negros. 2nd ed. Buenos Aires: Hachette, 1956. Rouchetto, Nélida. “Osvaldo Pugliese, su trayectoria.” In La historia del tango, vol. 14, 2491–2546. Buenos Aires: Ediciones Corregidor, 1979. Salgán, Horacio. Arreglos para orquesta típica. Buenos Aires: Biblioteca Nacional and TangoVia, 2008. (Facsimile of eight compositions by Salgán arranged for orchestra; front and back matter include extensive commentary, bibliography, catalog of works, and discography.) ——— . Curso de tango. Buenos Aires: Pablo J. Polidoro, 2001. Translated into English by Will Genz and Marisa Hurtado as Tango Course, 2nd ed., 2001. ——— . A fuego lento, arrangement for piano. Buenos Aires: Editorial Musical Korn-Intersong, 1955. ——— . Aquellos tangos camperos, arrangement for piano. Buenos Aires: Editorial Musical Korn-Intersong, 1977. ——— . Don Agustín Bardi, arrangement for piano. Buenos Aires: Warner Chappell Music, 1950. ——— . Grillito, arrangement for piano. Buenos Aires: Editorial Musical KornIntersong, 1955. ——— . Tangos arranged for piano in 2 volumes: I. Muñequita (Franciso Lomuto), Shusheta (Juan Carlos Cobián), and La casita de mis viejo (Cobián); II. Griseta (Enrique Delfino), La cumparsita (Gerardo Matos Rodríguez), and Gallo ciego (Agustin Bardi). Buenos Aires: Ricordi Americana, 1987; reprinted BMG Music Publishing Argentina, 2000. (p.340) Savigliano, Marta E. Tango and the Political Economy of Passion. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995. Page 11 of 13

Bibliography ——— . “Whiny Ruffians and Rebellious Broads: Tango as a Spectacle of Erotized Social Tension.” Theatre Journal 47, no. 1 (March 1995): 83–104. Scobie, James R. Argentina: A City and a Nation. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1971. ——— . Buenos Aires: Plaza to Suburb, 1870-1910. New York: Oxford University Press, 1974. Selles, Roberto. “Tango on Radio.” Todotango. Accessed September 3, 2014. http://www.todotango.com/english/history/chronicle/108/Tango-on-Radio/. Sierra, Luis Adolfo. “Armando Blasco.” Todotango. Accessed September 3, 2014. http://www.todotango.com/english/creadores/ablasco.asp. ——— . Historia de la Orquesta Típica: evolución instrumental del tango. Buenos Aires: Corregidor, 1984. Silva, Federico. Informe sobre Troilo. Buenos Aires: Editorial Plus Ultra, 1978. Sora, Gabriel, dir. Los Capos del Tango. Including Juan D’Arienzo, Aníbal Troilo. Buenos Aires: BGM Industrias del Discos S.A. Discos Magenta, 2005, DVDs. Speratti, Alberto. Con Piazzolla. Buenos Aires: Galerna Colección Testimonios, 1969. Taylor, Julie, M. Paper Tangos. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1998. ——— . “Tango: Theme of Class and Nation.” Ethnomusicology 20 (1976): 273– 291. Tobin, Jeffery. “Tango and the Scandal of Homosocial Desire.” In The Passion of Music and Dance: Body, Gender and Sexuality, edited by William Washabaugh, 79–102. New York: Berg, 1998. Thompson, Robert Farris. Tango: The Art History of Love. New York: Vintage Books, 2005. Ulla, Noemí. Tango rebelión y nostalgia. Buenos Aires: Editorial Jorge Alvarez S.A., 1967. Ursini, Sonia. Horacio Salgán: La supervivencia de un artista en el tiempo. Buenos Aires: Corregidor, 1993. Varela, Gustavo. Mal de tango: historia y genealogía moral de la música ciudadana. Buenos Aires: Paidós, 2005. Vega, Carlos. Danzas y canciones argentinas: teorías e investigaciones, un ensayo sobre el tango. Buenos Aires: Ricordi, 1936. Page 12 of 13

Bibliography Walter, Richard J. Politics and Urban Growth in Buenos Aires, 1910-1942. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Weibrot, Mark, and Luis Sandoval. “Argentina’s Economic Recovery: Policy Choices and Implications.” Washington, DC: Center for Economic Policy and Research, October 2007. Wendland, Kristin. “The Allure of Tango: Grafting Traditional Performance Practice and Style onto Art-Tangos.” College Music Symposium 47 (2007): 1–11. Zinger, Pablo. “It Took One to Tango: Piazzolla.” New York Times, December 7, 1997, AR36. Zucchi, Oscar. El Tango, el Bandoneón, y sus Intérpretes. Buenos Aires: Ediciones Corregidor, 2001.

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Tracing Tangueros: Argentine Tango Instrumental Music Kacey Link and Kristin Wendland

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780199348220 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: March 2016 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199348220.001.0001

(p.341) Permissions Photo credits are included below the images throughout, with the exception of the credits for the part two opening page, which are below: Top row from left: Julio De Caro Sextet, c. 1926-28, undated photo from the Archivo General de la Nación, Dpto. Doc. Fotográficos, Buenos Aires, Argentina, #71339_A, used by permission; Aníbal Troilo, February 16, 1944, dated photo from the Archivo General de la Nación, Dpto. Doc. Fotográficos, Buenos Aires, Argentina, #320241_A, used by permission; Julián Plaza with Osvaldo Pugliese, undated photo, used by permission from Diego Plaza; Astor Piazzolla and Roberto Goyeneche, undated photo from the Archivo General de la Nación, Dpto. Doc. Fotográficos, Buenos Aires, Argentina, #349382_A, used by permission; Horacio Salgán, 1952, dated photo from the Archivo General de la Nación, Dpto. Doc. Fotográficos, Buenos Aires, Argentina, #349384_A, used by permission; Leopoldo Federico with Orquesta de Salgán, 2011 Tango Festival, August 19, 2011, photo taken by authors; and Sonia Possetti Sexteto, rehearsal for the 2012 Tango Festival, August 21, 2012, photo taken by authors

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Tracing Tangueros: Argentine Tango Instrumental Music Kacey Link and Kristin Wendland

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780199348220 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: March 2016 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199348220.001.0001

(p.342) Index of titles and Translations Culled from either first recordings or publications. All titles are tangos unless otherwise indicated. (p.343) “A fuego lento” (“On a low flame,” Horacio Salgán, 1951), 33, 114 analysis of, 213–216 compositional style of, 34–35, 69, 207–209 Graciano’s accompanimental patterns for in lead sheet notation, 114 Salgán’s performance of, 98, 124, 203, 211–213 as tango standard, 67–68, 73 yeites in, 112, 131 “A mis compañeros” (“To my close friends,” Osvaldo Ruggiero, 1955), 183, 185, 187– 188 “A Orlando Goñi” (“To Orlando Goñi,”Alfredo Gobbi, 1949), 57, 59–60, 62, 98 “A todo trapo” (“At full speed/maximum volume; Blasting/Blaring,” Quinteto Viceversa, 2008), 85 “Abran cancha” (cancha is Lunfardo for soccer field; thus “Open the field,” or an expression that means, “Stand aside because here I come,” Rodolfo Mederos, 2007), 80 “Adiós Nonino” (“Goodbye Nonino,” a name of endearment for the composer’s father, Astor Piazzolla, 1959), 73, 125, 224, 229 compositional style of, 235, 237–240 performances of, 126–127, 167, 231 “Agua de tango” (“Water of Tango,” Sonia Possetti, 2010), 293, 307, 309 “Ahora sí!” (“Now, yes!” Sonia Possetti, 2003), 308, 309 “Aire de tango” (“Air of Tango,” Sonia Possetti, 2010), 309 “Aquellos tangos camperos” (“Some Country Tangos,” Horacio Salgán and Ubaldo De Lío, 1976), 107, 110, 205, 208, 213 Arlequín porteño (Buenos Aires Harlequin [Suite], Rául Garello, 2002), 84 “Ausencia en tus ojos” (“Absence in Your Eyes,” Sonia Possetti, 2010, 307–309 “Bahía Blanca” (named for the composer’s hometown in southern Argentina, Carlos Di Sarli, 1957), 198 Page 1 of 11

Index of titles and Translations “Bailarina” (“Dancer” [female], milonga, Sonia Possetti, 2001), 304, 308, 310 “Balada para él” (“Ballad for Him,” Astor Piazzolla/Horacio Ferrer, 1970), 66 “Balada para mi muerte” (“Ballad for My Death,” Astor Piazzolla/Horacio Ferrer, 1970), 66 “Balada para un loco” (“Ballad for a Madman,” Astor Piazzolla/Horacio Ferrer, 1969), 14, 66, 225 compositional style in, 235, 239–240 written for Baltar, 228–229 “Bandola triste” (“Sad Bandoneón,” Raúl Garello, 1970), 167 “Bandola zurdo” (“Bandoneón Lefty,” Leopoldo Federico/Rául Garello, 1973), 75–76, 268, 271–274 (p.344) “Bandoneón arrabalero” (“Neighborhood Bandoneón,” Juan Bautista Deambroggio [“Bachicha”]/Pascual Contursi, 1928), 12 “Barracas” (referring to the neighborhood on the southeast side of Buenos Aires, Juan Pablo Navarro, 2013), 324 “Barrio de tango” (“Tango Neighborhood,” Aníbal Troilo/Homero Manzi, 1942), 160 “Boedo” (referring to the neighborhood on the south side of Buenos Aires, Julio De Caro, 1928), 28, 48, 74, 92, 98, 100, 149, 151, 173, 182 analysis of, 152–156 De Caro playing, 140, 143, 145–146 form of, 49, 151 Salgán’s arrangement of, 203, 206–207, 213 “Buenos Aires hora zero” (“Buenos Aires Zero Hour,” Astor Piazzolla, 1963), 226 “Bullanguera” (slang for one [female] who enjoys parties, Sonia Possetti, 2003), 307– 309 “Cachirulo” (Lunfardo for a goofy person, Francisco Cafiero, 1941), 163–164 “Cafetín de Buenos Aires” (“Buenos Aires Café,” Mariano Mores/Enrique Santos Discépolo, 1948), 57 “Cambalache” (Lunfardo term describing a flea market or junk shop, Enrique Santos Discépolo, 1934), 57, 267 “Caminito” (“Dear Street,” Juan de Dios Filiberto, 1926), 253, 258, 272 “Caminos” (“Pathways,” Julián Graciano, 2012), 85–86 “Camorra 1” (“Duel 1,” also references Astor Piazzolla’s “La camorra,” Daniel Piazzolla/Nicolás Guerschberg, 2013), 85–86 “Canción desperada” (“Desperate Song,” Enrique Santos Discépolo, 1945), 13 “Canción para Betty” (“Song for Betty” [his wife], Juan Pablo Navarro, 2010), 322–323 “Candombass” (“Candombe Bass,” Juan Pablo Navarro, 2010), 324 “Capricho otoñal” (“Fall Caprice,” Leopoldo Federico/Osvaldo Requena, 1977), 268, 273–275 “Cartón junao” (Lunfardo from junar [to look] and chabón [dude/guy], thus “Dude, Look,” Juan D’Arienzo/Hector Varela, 1947), 197. “Cautivante” (“Captivating,” Leopoldo Federico, 1973), 75, 271 “Cayó la ficha” (“Got It” [Argentine slang for finally realizing something], Sonia Possetti, 2010), 307, 309 “Champagne tango” (same in English, Manuel Aróztegui/Pascual Contursi, 1938), 12 “Che, bandoneón” (“Hey, Bandoneón,” Aníbal Troilo/Homero Manzi, 1949), 73, 74, 160, 166, 169–171, 268 “Che, Buenos Aires” (“Hey, Buenos Aires,” Raúl Garello, c. 2003), 84, 167 Page 2 of 11

Index of titles and Translations “Chiclana” (small town in the province of Buenos Aires, Julio De Caro, rec. 1950), 107 “Chiquilín de Bachín” (Lunfardo for young man of the bar, vals, Horacio Ferrer/Astor Piazzolla, 1969), 225 “Comme il faut” (“As It Should Be,” Eduardo Arolas, 1917), 31–32, 40–42 by Mederos, 80, 84 by Troilo, 159, 163 “Con bombo legüero” (“With bombo legüero” [traditional Argentine bass drum made from hollowed tree trunk and cured animal skin], Horacio Salgán, 1963), 205 Concierto para bandoneón (Concerto for Bandoneón, Astor Piazzolla, 1983), 107, 225, 234, 284 “Contra todos los que rayen” (“Challenging everyone to defeat [him] on the double bass,” Juan Pablo Navarro, 2010. Note: Navarro explained how the title has a double meaning. It refers to the slang use (p.345) of rayar when neighborhood soccer teams issue a daring challenge to each other, and also to the contra (against) as an abbreviation of contrabajo (double bass). So, Navarro’s double meaning is “challenging everyone to defeat him on the double bass” [email correspondence, May 27, 2013]), 85, 86, 132, 321, 322 analysis of, 324–330 “Contrabajeando” (“Doublebassing,” Astor Piazzolla, 1954 [rec. by Troilo’s orchestra]), 223, 324 “Contrabajissimo” (“The Best Bass,” Piazzolla, 1984), 324 “Contratango” (“Tango for Bass” [contrabajo], Nicolás Guerschberg, 2010), 322 “Contratiempo” (“Offbeat,” Astor Piazzolla, 1952 [rec. by Troilo’s orchestra]), 223 “Copacabana” (a beach neighborhood of Rio de Janeiro, Julio De Caro, 1927), 142, 149 “Côte d’azur” (the French Riviera, Julio De Caro, 1931), 141 “Criolla linda” (“Pretty Creole [female],” Vicente Gorrese, Bernardo Germino/Luis Rubistein Criolla linda, 1953 [rec. by Federico/Stampone orchestra]), 266 “Dalo por hecho” (“Consider It Done “ or “It’s a Deal,” Sonia Possetti, 2010), 85, 126, 306–310 analysis of, 310–317 “Danzarín” (“Dancer,” Julián Plaza, 1958), 31, 73–74 analysis of, 258–263 arrangements of, 67, 74, 111–112 compositional style of, 32–33, 35, 69, 123, 132, 254–256 performance styles of, 70, 167, 249, 257 popularity of, 253, 258–259 “De tal palo” (“Like Father” [written for bassist Horacio Cabarcos in honor of his father Fernando], Leopoldo Federico, 2007), 272–273 “De todas maneras” (“In Every Way,” Rodolfo Mederos, c. 1976), 73, 75–76 “Decarísimo” (superlative in tribute to Julio De Caro, Astor Piazzolla, 1961), 224 “Derecho viejo” (“Old Right” [literal], Eduardo Arolas, 1918. Note: The title has multiple layers of meaning. It is also a slang expression that means “Go ahead” [Inés Freixas, email correspondence, February 17, 2015]. Furthermore, Arolas dedicates the piano score to a group of law students by writing, “Dedicado al centro estudiantes de derecho.” Thus, the title suggests a play on words that refers to his fellows who also “Go for it”), 10, 56, 140 compositional style of, 42, 59, 61, 92, 98 by D’Arienzo’s orchestra, 58, 62, 197 by De Caro’s sextet, 145–147, 149 Page 3 of 11

Index of titles and Translations as guardia vieja and Golden Age standard, 40–41, 57 performance styles of, 62, 131, 145, 146 “Desde aquí” (“From Here,” milonga lenta, Sonia Possetti, 2003), 117, 131, 293, 307– 308 “Discepolín” (in honor of Enrique Santos Discépolo, Aníbal Troilo/Homero Manzi, 1950), 160 “Disonante” (“Dissonant,” Julián Plaza, 1953), 253 “Don Agustín Bardi” (referring to the guardia vieja tanguero, Horacio Salgán, 1947), 130, 203, 206–209, 211 “Dora” (Proper name, Damián Bolotin, 2006), 291, 294 “Dulce casero” (“Homemade Sweet,” Sonia Possetti, 2003), 306–308 “El abrojito” (“The Little Thistle,” Luis Bernstein/Fernandez Blanco, 1926), 107 “El amanecer” (“The Dawn,” Roberto Firpo, 1915), 115 (p.346) “El aristocrato” (“The Aristocrat,” Juan Carlos Cobián/Enrique Cadícamo, 1944 [see also “Shusheta”]), 54, 57 “El choclo” (“The Corn,” Ángel Villoldo, 1905), 10, 29 compositional style of, 28, 33–35, 41–42 by old guard tangueros, 40–41 performance styles of, 86, 292 Plaza’s arrangement of, 84, 86, 130, 251–252 Sexteto Mayor’s arrangement of, 74, 76 “El marne” (perhaps in reference to the World War I battle, as per the artillery illustration on the piano sheet music, Eduardo Arolas, 1920), 268 “El monito” (“The Monkey,” Julio De Caro, 1928), 130, 143, 145, 182, 187 “El motivo” (“The Motive,” Juan Carlos Cobián/Pascual Contursi, c. 1914), 114n91, 161 “El tango recuerda a un grande del jazz”/”Homenaje a Glen Miller” (“A Tango Remembrance to a Great [One] of Jazz”/”Homage to Glenn Miller,” Leopoldo Federico/ Osvaldo Berlingieri, 1973), 271 “Emancipación” (“Emancipation,” Alfredo Bevilacqua, n.d.), 17, 182–183, 185, 186n83, 187–188 “En esta tarde gris” (“In This Gray Afternoon,” Mariano Mores/José María Contursi, 1941), 267 “Entre nosotros” (“Between Us,” Damián Bolotin, 1998), 293 “Éramos tan jóvenes” (“We Were So Young,” Leopoldo Federico, 1986), 73–74, 268, 272–275 analysis of, 277–282 “Escualo” (“Shark,” Astor Piazzolla, 1979), 131, 292, 295 “Extravío” (“Deviation,” Osvaldo Requena, 1973), 75 “Fantasia ContraPiazzollissimo” (fantasy on Piazzolla pieces featuring double bass, Juan Pablo Navarro, 2013), 324 “Flor de amor” (“Flower of Love,” Aníbal Troilo, 1933), 159 “Flores negras” (“Black Flowers,” Francisco De Caro, 1927), 48–50, 150 by De Caro orchestra, 140, 142 by De Caro sextet, 143, 146–149 “Fuga y misterio” (“Fugue and Mystery,” from María de Buenos Aires, Astor Piazzolla, 1968), 107 “Fugata” (as in the classical name for a fugue exposition, Astor Piazzolla, 1988), 231 compositional style of, 35, 107, 236, 239–241

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Index of titles and Translations “Gallo ciego” (“Blind Rooster” [literal], Agustín Bardi, n.d. Note: According to Michael O’Brien, it is also a Lunfardo term that can mean either an easy mark for swindling or a parlor game like blind man’s bluff [note in the manuscript review, January 11, 2015]), 10, 107 arrangements of, 67, 182, 183, 184, 185, 205–207 performance styles of, 84, 187, 202–203 “Garua” (Lunfardo word for the light, misty rain in Buenos Aires, Aníbal Troilo/Enrique Cadícamo, 1943), 160 “Grand Guignol” (in reference to the Belle Époque Theater in the Pigalle neighborhood of Paris, Bajofondo, 2007), 86 “Grillito” (“Little Cricket,” Horacio Salgán, 1954), 203, 208–209 “Guardia vieja” (“Old Guard,” Julio De Caro, 1926), 143, 146, 149, 151 “Hora pico” (“Rush Hour,” Damián Bolotin, 2006), 292, 294 “Incompatible” (as in English, “Incompatible,” Juan Pablo Navarro, 2010), 323 “Inspiración” (“Inspiration,” Peregrino Paulos, n.d.), 57, 61, 63, 159, 163, 164 “Invierno porteño” (“Buenos Aires Winter,” from Las cuatro estaciones porteñas, Astor Piazzolla, 1970), 239 (p.347) “Kicho” (in reference to the composer’s bassist, Astor Piazzolla, 1974), 324 “La bordona” (referring to the three low bass strings of the guitar, Emilio Balcarce, 1958), 68 “La camorra I” (“The Duel I,” also references the Italian crime organization, Astor Piazzolla, 1988) 85, 234 compositional style of, 235–241 performances of, 132–133, 232–233 “La camorra II” (“The Duel II,” Astor Piazzolla, 1988), 234 “La camorra III” (“The Duel III,” Astor Piazzolla, 1988), 234 “La cumparsita” (“The Little Carnival March,” Gerardo Matos Rodríguez, 1916), 3, 24, 40 arrangements of, 228, 251–253, 257, 276–277 performance styles of, 180, 258, 292 showcasing virtuosity, 86, 139, 258 tango orchestras individualizing, 56, 86 “La cumparsita/Porque canto así” (“The Little Carnival March/Why I Sing Like This,” Gerardo Matos Rodríguez/Celedonio Flores, 1916/1943), 267, 270 “La cumparsita/Si supieras” (“The Little Carnival March/ If You Knew,” Gerardo Matos Rodríguez/Pascual Contursi, 1916/1924), 12, 258 “La llamo silbando” (“I Call Her Whistling,” Horacio Salgán, 1952), 203, 208–212 “La mariposa” (“The Butterfly,” Pedro Maffia/Celedonio Flores, 1926), 182–183 “La mesa dulce” (“The Sweet Table,” Damián Bolotin, 2006), 131, 293 “La morocha” (“The Brunette,” Enrique Saborido/Ángel Villoldo, 1905), 11–12, 40 “La rayuela” (“The Hopscotch,” Julio De Caro, 1926), 143, 149, 151, 182–183, 187 “La revancha” (“The Rematch,” Pedro Laurenz, 1926), 165 “La trampera” (“The Cheating Woman,” milonga, Aníbal Troilo, 1951), arrangements of, 67, 170 compositional style of, 28, 169–170 by Troilo-Grela Quartet, 161, 167–168 by Troilo’s orchestra, 165–166, 170 “La tregua” (“The Truce,”) Julián Plaza, 1974), 254–255

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Index of titles and Translations “La última curda” (“The Last Bender,” Aníbal Troilo/Cátulo Castillo, 1956), 110, 160, 205 “La yumba” (named for composer’s characteristic yumba rhythmic technique), Osvaldo Pugliese, 1946. 180–181 analysis of, 190–195 bandoneones in, 58, 133 compositional style in, 60, 98, 107, 189–190 as Golden Age standard, 56–57, 60 performance style of, 62, 187 Las cuatro estaciones porteñas (The Four Porteño [Buenos Aires] Seasons, Astor Piazzolla, 1970), 234 “Libertango” (“Free Tango,” Astor Piazzolla, 1974), 31 “Líquido 5” (“Liquid 5,” Diego Schissi, 2010), 85 “Lita” (female name, Samuel Castriota, 1916). See “Mi noche triste” for name change and added lyrics “Lo que vendrá” (“What Will Come,” Astor Piazzolla, 1957), 167 “Los indios” (“The Indians,” Francisco Canaro, rec. 1927), 202 “Los mareados” (“The Drunkards,” Juan Carlos Cobián/Enrique Cadícamo, 1922), 69, 126, 228 “Madrugón” (Lunfardo for “Anticipated,” Julián Peralta, 2014), 86 “Maipo” (theater named in Buenos Aires in 1922, Eduardo Arolas, n.d. Note: According to Julián Graciano, Maipo was the battle in which General San Martin achieved the independence of Chile, and is also better known as Maipu [email correspondence, February 23, 2015]), by De Caro orchestra, 59, 140 by De Caro Sextet, 30, 48, 50, 143, 146–149 as Golden Age standard, 40, 57 by Troilo-Grela Quartet, 161, 167–168 (p.348) “Mal de amores” (“Lovesick,” Pedro Laurenz, 1928), 103, 286 by De Caro Sextet, 31, 50 melody of, 48, 125 trio arrangement by Mederos, 286 variations in, 34, 48 “Mala junta” (“Bad Company,” Julio De Caro and Pedro Laurenz, 1927), compositional style in, 100, 151–152 by De Caro Sextet, 143, 145–146 performance style of, 130, 143, 146, 149, 187 recordings of, 140, 182 “Malandraca” (nickname for the composer’s daughter Beba, who as a playful little girl distracted him from his work [see Del Priore, Osvaldo Pugliese, 76], Osvaldo Pugliese, 1949), 180, 183, 187–190 “Malena” (name of the female protagonist in the lyrics, Lucio Demare/Homero Manzi, 1941), 13, 33, 114, 164 compositional style of, 28, 35, 61, 107 as Golden Age standard, 56–57 by Troilo and Demare, 59, 62, 63 by Troilo and Fiorentino’s orchestra, 54, 124–125 by Troilo’s orchestras, 159, 163–164

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Index of titles and Translations “Mañana zarpa un barco” (“Tomorrow a Boat Sails,” Lucio Demare/Homero Manzi, 1942), 54 “Margarita de agosto,” (“Margarita of August,” Raúl Garello, 1973), 75 María de Buenos Aires (Maria from Buenos Aires [tango operita]), Astor Piazzolla/ Horacio Ferrer, 1968), 14, 16, 107, 225, 234 “Marrón y azul” (“Brown and Blue,” Astor Piazzolla 1955), compositional style of, 69, 237–240 performance style of, 70, 228 “Melancólico” (“Melancholic,” Julián Plaza, 1960), 252–257 “Mi Buenos Aires querido” (“My Dear Buenos Aires,” Carlos Gardel, 1934), 80 “Mi fueye querido” (“My Dear Bandoneón,” Leopoldo Federico, 2003), 273–274 “Mi noche triste” (“My Sad Night,” Samuel Castriota/Pascual Contursi, 1916), 12, 13, 33, 161 “Michelangelo 70” (named for the nightclub in San Telmo, Astor Piazzolla, 1969), 66, 75, 229 analysis of, 241–246 compositional style of, 97, 235–240 yeites in, 130–131, 232 “Mientras tanto” (“In the Meantime,” Sonia Possetti, 2001), 304 “Milonga del ángel” (“Angel Milonga,” slow milonga, Astor Piazzolla, 1973), compositional style in, 28, 236, 239 peformance style of, 231, 232, 234 “Milongueando en el 40” (“Milonga- ing [going to the milonga] in the ‘40s,” Armando Pontier, 1941), 163, 271, 275–276 “Milonguero triste” (“Sad Milonguero,” Aníbal Troilo, 1965), 168 “Milonguero viejo” (“Old Milonguero,” Carlos Di Sarli, 1928), 57–58, 63, 198–199 by Di Sarli’s orchestra, 198–199 “Mistonga” (Lunfardo expression meaning poverty, humility, Note: Bolotin also meant his title to represent a mixture of rhythms between the milonga and some Brazilian rhythms like a choro [email correspondence, February 21, 2015] Damián Bolotin, 2006), 293–294 “Moulin Rouge” (after the famous Parisian cabaret, Julio De Caro, 1931), 141, 149 “Nada” (“Nothing,” José Dames/Horacio Sanguinetti, 1944), 108 “Nada más” (“Nothing More,” Juan D’Arienzo, 1938), 197 “Negracha” (term of endearment honoring a group of black female fans that inspired the composer by their strongly rhythmic yet subtle dance style [see Del Priore, Osvaldo Pugliese, 73– 74], Osvaldo Pugliese, 1948), 180, 185–190 (p.349) “Noche de Abril” (“April Night,” Sonia Possetti, 2001), 307–308 “Nochero soy” (“I Am [a Man] of the Night,” Oscar Herrero, 1956), 183 “Nocturna” (“Night,” Julián Plaza, 1959), 167, 256–257, 253–254 “Nocturno a mi barrio” (“Night in My Neighborhood,” Aníbal Troilo, 1968), 168 “Nonino” (a name of endearment for the composer’s father, Astor Piazzolla, c. 1955), 224 “Nostalgias” (“Longings” or “Nostalgias,” Juan Carlos Cobían/Enríque Cadícamo, 1936), 14, 33, 34, 76, 167 “Nostálgico” (“Nostalgic,” Julián Plaza, 1962), 251–258 “Oblivion” (Astor Piazzolla, 1984), 238 “Ojos negros” (“Black Eyes,” Vicente Greco, n.d.), 107

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Index of titles and Translations Oratorio Carlos Gardel (oratorio dedicated to Carlos Gardel, Horacio Salgán/Horacio Ferrer, 1990), 107, 203–204, 207 “Organito de la tarde” (“Dear Organ of the Afternoon,” Cátulo Castillo, 1924), 258 “Orgullo criollo” (“Creole Pride,” Julio De Caro/Pedro Laurenz, 1943), 100 “Pa’ el Agus y el Uli” (“For Agustín and Ulysses” [the composer’s two sons], Juan Pablo Navarro, 2014), 324 “Pa’ que bailen los muchachos” (“So That the Boys Dance,” Aníbal Troilo/Homero Manzi, 1942), 57, 59–60, 62, 169 analysis of, 172–175 arrangements of, 84, 167 bandoneones in, 58, 133, 168 performance styles on, 70, 164 Troilo and, 133, 167 by Troilo-Grela Quartet, 161, 167–168 by Troilo’s orchestras, 159, 163 “Paciencia” (“Patience,” Juan D’Arienzo, 1937), 197 “Para Bioy” (“For Bioy” [Argentine author Adolfo Bioy Casares], Sonia Possetti, 2001), 304 “Para el recorrido” (“For the Trip,” Néstor Marconi, 1988), 76, 284, 322 “Para volverse loco” (“To Go Crazy,” Juan Pablo Navarro, 2010), 323–324 “Pata ancha” (Lunfardo term describing state of feeling all is well, Mario Demarco, 1957), 183–185, 187 “Patético” (“Pathetic,” Jorge Caldara, 1949), 165, 166 “Payadora” (female payador [Argentine minstrel from the Pampas], Julián Plaza, 1966), 251, 253–257 “Pedro y Pedro” (in homage to the two great bandoneonists Pedro Maffia and Pedro Laurenz, Astor Piazzolla, 1981), 222, 268, 275 “Percal” (Lunfardo term describing coarse fabric of humble or working- class women’s clothing, Domingo Federico/Homero Expósito, 1943), 54, 57, 62 “Perfume evocador” (“Evocative Perfume,”, Damián Bolotin, 2006), 294 “Por una cabeza” (“By a Head” [as in a horse race], Carlos Gardel/Alfredo La Pera, 1935), 2, 11, 13, 24 “Posdata” (“Postscript,” Sonia Possetti, 2003), 307, 309 “Postangos” (same in English, Gerardo Gandini, 2005), 86 “Prepárense” (“Prepare Yourself,” Astor Piazzolla, 1951 [rec. by Troilo’s orchestra]), 223 “Qué solo estoy” (“How Lonely I Am,” Raúl Kaplún/Roberto Miró, 1944), 33, 56, 57, 62 compositional style of, 33–34, 59–61 by Demare, 54, 60 by Di Sarli, 56, 58, 63 Lomuto’s arrangement of, 99, 101, 104 “Quejas de bandoneón” (“Wail of the Bandoneón,” Juan de Dios Filiberto, 1918), 167 (p.350) “Recuerdo” (“Remembrance,” Osvaldo Pugliese, 1924) compositional style of, 49, 92, 178, 188–190 by De Caro orchestra, 140 by De Caro sextet, 143, 145, 148 recordings of, 140, 182 variations in, 34, 48

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Index of titles and Translations “Responso” (“Responsory,” Aníbal Troilo, 1951), compositional style of, 102, 168–170, 172 by Federico’s orchestra, 271, 276 for Manzi, 160–161 by Troilo’s orchestra, 165, 166 “Río sena” (“Seine River,” Astor Piazzolla, 1955), 130, 295 “Romance de barrio” (“Romance from the Neighborhood,” vals, Aníbal Troilo, 1947), 93, 166, 169–171 “Sans souci” (named for the palatial high- society club in Buenos Aires and also French for “carefree,” Enrique Delfino, c. 1919), 57, 59, 63 “Selección de Carlos Di Sarli” (“Medley of Di Sarli,” arr. by Leopoldo Federico, 1975), 74, 271, 276 “Selección de tangos de Julio De Caro” (“Medley of Tangos by Julio De Caro,” arr. by Argentino Galván, rec. by Troilo, 1949), 165, 166 “Sentimiento tanguero” (“Tango Feeling,” Lucio Demare, n.d.), 271, 276 “Sepia” (referring to reddish- brown ink color, Sonia Possetti, 2010), 292–293 “Serial dodecafónico” (“Dodecaphonic Series” [as in twelve- tone composition], Eduardo Rovira, 1963), 69 “Shusheta (“Dandy” or “Playboy,” Juan Carlos Cobián, 1920; words added by Enríque Cadícamo, 1934), 48, 50, 154 phrase and period structure of, 49–50 revisions of, 54, 57 “Si soy así” (“I Am Like This,” Franciso Lomuto/Antonio Botta, 1933), 35, 67 “Si superias.” See “La cumparsita/Si supieras” “Siga el corso” (Lunfardo for “Follow the Madness,” Anselmo Aieta/Francisco García Jiménez, 1926), 110, 205 Sinfonía Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires Symphony, Astor Piazzolla, 1951), 223 “Sólo por hoy” (“Just for Today,” Sonia Possetti, 2010), 130 “Somos tango” (“We Are Tango,” Sonia Possetti, 2003), 306, 308 “Soniada” (play- on word from sonar [dreaming] and “Sonia” [the composer’s wife and musical partner], Damián Bolotin, 2006), 85, 292 analysis of, 295–301 yeites in, 130, 132 “Sónico” (“Sonic,” Eduardo Rovira, 1959), 69–70 Suite de los elementos (Suite of the Elements, Sonia Possetti, 2010), 310 Suite Troileana (Troilo Suite, Astor Piazzolla, 1975), 162, 222 “Sur” (“South,” referring to the neighborhood on the south side of Buenos Aires, Aníbal Troilo/Homero Manzi, 1948), 34, 56, 160, 168 compositional style of, 61, 169–172, 171 by Troilo’s orchestra, 165, 170–172 “Sus ojos se cerraron” (“Your Eyes Closed,” Carlos Gardel/Alfredo Le Pera, 1935), 267, 270, 275 “Tango del ángel” (“Tango of the Angel,” Astor Piazzolla, 1957), 271, 275–276 “Tango del balanceo” (tango titled for the composer’s distinct umpa- umpa rhythm, Horacio Salgán, 1963), 205, 208 “Tango en tres” (“Tango in Three,” Eduardo Rovira, 1966), 83 “Tango Jalousie” (“Jealous Tango,” Jacob Gade, 1925), 3, 24 (p.351) “Tango lungo” (Lunfardo term for tall and lanky, thus “Lanky Tango,” Rául Garello, 2000), 84 Page 9 of 11

Index of titles and Translations “Tangology,”(“Study of Tango,” Astor Piazzolla and Horacio Malvicino, 1957), 232 “Tanguedia III” (probably a mix of the words “tango” and Tragedía [tragedy], Astor Piazzolla, 1985, note: translation by Damián Bolotin [email correspondence, February 21, 2015]), 131, 230, 236–238, 240 “Tanguera” (Female tanguero, Mariano Mores, n.d.), 2 “Tanguito para Néstor” (“A Little Tango for Néstor” [Marconi], Juan Pablo Navarro, 2010), 323 “Tierra querida” (“Dear Land,” Julio De Caro, 1927), 296n4 arrangements of, 110, 149 compositional style of, 92, 150–151 by De Caro sextet, 145–146, 149 performance styles of, 143, 146 recordings of, 140, 182 “Tierrita” (“Little Land,” Agustín Bardi, n.d.), 266 “Tinta verde” (“Green Ink,” Agustín Bardi, n.d., the commonly told story goes that Bardi wrote this score in green ink, hence the title), 159 “Toda mi vida” (“All My Life,” Aníbal Troilo/José María Contursi, 1941), 160 “Todo corazón” (“Full Heart”), Julio De Caro, 1924. 92, 140, 143, 149–150, 151 “Trenzas” (“Braids,” Armando Pontier/Homero Expósito, 1945), 114n91 “Tres esquinas” (“Three Corners,” referring to a location in the neighborhood of Barracas on the south side of Buenos Aires, Ángel D’Agostino and Alfredo Attadía/ Enrique Cadícamo, 1941), 54 compositional style of, 60, 125–126 Stazo’s arrangement of, 34–35, 102, 115 “Tres minutos con realidad” (“Three Minutes with Reality,” Astor Piazzolla, 1957), 239n77, 295 “Triunfal” (“Triumphant,” Astor Piazzolla, 1953 [rec. by Troilo’s orchestra]), 223 “Twenty Years After” (Astor Piazzolla, 1974), 73, 75–76, 225, 229 “Twenty Years Ago” (Astor Piazzolla, 1974), 225 “Un fueye en Paris” (“fueye” literally means “bellows” and is used synonymously by tangueros for the bandoneón, thus “A Bandoneón in Paris,” Leopoldo Federico, 1988), 273–274 “Un Placer” (“A Pleasure,” vals, Vicente Romeo, c. 1942), 93 “Uno” (“One,” Mariano Mores/Enrique Santos Discépolo, 1943), 57 “Verano porteño” (“Buenos Aires Summer,” from Las cuatro estaciones porteñas, Astor Piazzolla, 1965), compositional style in, 125, 235–240 performances of, 131–132, 167, 231, 232 “Verdemar” (proper name, literally “Green Sea” but referring to the eyes, Carlos Di Sarli/José María Contursi, 1943), 198 “Viceversa” (as in English, “Vice Versa,” Emiliano Greco, 2007), 85 “Vida mía” (“My Life,” Osvaldo Fresedo/Emilio Fresedo, 1933), 57–59, 62–63, 69n64, 74, 205 “Violeta” (proper name, vals, Sonia Possetti, 2001), 304, 307–308 “Volver” (“Return,” Carlos Gardel/Alfredo Le Pera, 1935), 161 “Vos, Buenos Aires” (“You, Buenos Aires,” Nicolás Ledesma, 2008), 80 “Yira yira” (Lunfardo term for prostitutes wandering on the streets to solicit clients, Enrique Santos Discépolo, 1930), 13 “Zum” (onomatopoeia for rhythmic sound, Astor Piazzolla, 1972), 74, 182, 186–187 Page 10 of 11

Index of titles and Translations

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Index

Tracing Tangueros: Argentine Tango Instrumental Music Kacey Link and Kristin Wendland

Print publication date: 2016 Print ISBN-13: 9780199348220 Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: March 2016 DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199348220.001.0001

(p.352) Index (p.353) a la parrilla (performance style), 43 Academia Nacional del Tango (National Academy of the Tango), 14, 78 accompanimental rhythms, 28–30, 50n32, 58, 93–95. See also marcato; síncopa; yumba alternating, 259, 270–273, 298 in arranging styles, 90, 114, 148, 185, 205–207, 229, 251, 286 combinations of, 96–97, 172, 194, 241, 245 in compositional styles, 169, 189, 198, 205–208, 235–236, 253–254, 284, 294, 309 in different tango styles, 42, 48, 59–60, 85, 152 execution of, 116–123, 262 melody and, 59–60, 85, 92 in performance styles, 50n32, 163, 165–167, 187, 212, 257–258, 306 adornos (ornaments), 33 in arrangements, 262–263, 272, 275–276, 292–293 in compositional styles, 253, 299 in performance practice, 231, 232, 258 in tango styles, 42, 76, 86 in techniques with melodies, 100–102, 126–127 Afro-Argentines/Uruguayans, 7–9 Agri, Antonio, 203, 224, 277 Agri, Pablo, 11, 267–268, 292 ensembles of, 80, 277–278 Alfonsín, Raúl, 71, 72 Almagro Tango Club, 79, 321 Álvarez, Roberto, 80, 181, 186 apoyatura, 34, 105–106, 316 Archivo Música de Cámara (Chamber Music Archive), 78–79 Argentina, 36, 103. See also government, Argentine development of tango in, 1, 4, 6–11 economy of, 53, 63, 71, 76, 79, 180, 267, 276 importance of tango in, 5–6, 17, 36, 51, 79, 143, 224 spread of television in, 66–67 Page 1 of 28

Index tango in and outside of, 24–25 turmoil in, 13, 36, 50–52, 57, 63–64, 66, 70–71, 76–77 Arias, Aníbal, 161, 303 Arias-Montes duo, 127, 259 Arolas, Eduardo, 10, 40–41 and arrastre, 50, 95 compositions by, 28, 31, 98 ensembles of, 43, 47, 139, 147 arrangers, 67, 101, 249 composers and, 204 for De Caro’s orchestras, 142, 142n17 importance of, 56, 67, 112–113 tangueros as performers and, 89, 331 for Troilo’s orchestras, 159, 160, 163 arranging, 99, 113, 182, 191, 202 defining characteristics of tango music in, 74 definition of, 89n8 to demonstrate virtuosity in, 126–127 of music for listening, 165–167 post-Golden Age, 286 style manuals on, 108, 110, 114 teaching and learning, 285, 303, 305 (p.354) arrastre (drag) in defining characteristics of tango music, 75 definition of, 29–30, 95, 97 execution of, 97, 119–120, 121, 166, 185–186, 187, 231, 306–307, 322 origins of, 50 techniques of, 144–145 art form, tango as, 10–11, 142–143, 332 Artola, Héctor, 56, 159, 163 Aslan, Pablo, 2, 165 Asociación Argentina de Intérpretes (AADI, Argentina Association of Interpreters), 268 Astillero. See Peralta, Julián Baffa, Ernesto, 99n35, 160, 203, 303 Bajofondo, 83, 86 Balcarce, Emilio. See also Sexteto Tango; Orquesta Escuela de Tango as arranger, 113, 182 as composer, 68, 167 as performer, 179, 197 Baltar, Amelita, 15, 66, 225, 228–229, 303 bandoneones, 111 Bolotin and Possetti’s duo excluding, 289, 304 in defining characteristics of tango music, 26–27, 47–48, 74–75, 109–110 Federico’s playing, 76, 275–277 by Golden Age tangueros, 59, 331 by guardia vieja tangueros, 40–43 Maffia’s playing, 144, 275 performance techniques on, 118–121, 277 Piazzolla playing, 221–222, 224–226, 230–232, 275 Page 2 of 28

Index Plaza playing, 248–249, 251, 256–258 in Pugliese’s arrangements, 183–185 roles of, 33–34, 42, 108, 110, 124, 147, 206–207, 251 in Salgán’s compositions and arrangements, 206–208, 210, 211 solos on, 63, 268, 272, 276–277, 279 in tango orchestras, 58, 182–183, 197 tangueros’ virtuosity on, 76, 80, 126–127, 144, 275–277, 284 in traditional ensembles, 25–27, 41, 47–48, 226, 308 training on, 142, 248, 266, 283, 285 Troilo’s playing, 158, 164, 168, 275 yeites on, 129, 132–133 Baralis, Hugo, 140, 159–160, 223 Bardi, Agustín, 10, 40, 207–208 Barenboim, Daniel, 87, 214, 285 Bartók, Bela, 290, 294, 296 bass, 140, 164–165 acoustic, 319 arrangements for, 228, 229, 257, 286 compositions for, 323–324 electric, 288, 319 performance styles on, 43, 212, 322–323 performance techniques on, 117–119, 120, 129, 131–132 roles of, 147, 233, 308 solos by, 277, 326–329 in tango instrumentation, 26–27, 41, 47–48, 74 bass clarinet, 26, 110–111, 205 bass lines chromatic, 34, 61 in composition styles, 49, 235, 238–239, 273, 323 and elaborations of, 30–31 in tango harmony, 105–106 Berlingieri, Osvaldo, 68, 271, 303 Federico’s trio with, 72, 268, 271, 276 in Troilo’s orchestras, 160–161, 167–168 Bernardo, Arturo, 177–178 Bernstein, Luis, 40 Berón, Raúl, 33, 54, 56, 160 Bésame Petronila (musical comedy, Federico and Mores), 266 Beytelmann, Gustavo, 72 Biagi, Rodolfo, 196–197 Bianco, Anthony, 319–320 Bianquet, Ovidio José “El Cachafaz,” 15, 186 Binelli, Daniel, 72, 180, 289 Blasco, Armando “El cieguito,” 25, 50, 140–141, 145 Blumetti, Armando, 319, 321 Bolotin, Damián, 88n5, 227, 249, 287, 309. See also Fernando Tarrés Sextet compositional and arranging style of, 111, 130, 288–289, 290, 292, 293–295 (p.355) Cuerdas poptemporáneas, 26, 81, 290, 292 Page 3 of 28

Index duos with Possetti, 289–290, 304, 308 Federico and, 81, 267, 269, 272, 277 formal designs, 296, 297–300 influences on, 135, 291, 332 performance style of, 121, 125–126, 288, 291–293, 313, 316 performance techniques and practices of, 116, 277 in Possetti’s ensembles, 304–305 recordings by, 81, 285, 289, 290, 292, 304 solo in Plaza’s arrangements, 86, 258 string quartet of, 293–294 tango style of, 83, 291 teaching, 291, 308n10 violin virtuosity of, 126–127, 292 yeites by, 112, 130–132 bordellos, and tango, 8–11, 40–41, 43 bordoneos (elaborations of bass lines), 30–31, 33, 122 Borges, Jorge Luis, 9–10, 224–225 Bragato, José, 78–79, 160, 223, 226, 234 Brunetti, Octavio, 324 Buenas noches, Buenos Aires (film), 66, 160 Buono, Carlos, 289, 303 Cabarcos, Fernando, 248, 268, 273 Federico’s trio with, 72, 268, 271, 276–277 Cabarcos, Horacio, 67n61, 72, 267, 272–273, 277 cabarets/cafés, as tango venues, 43, 54 Cadícamo, Enrique, 14, 57, 160 Café de la Chancha, 177–178 Café Germinal, 54, 159, 178 Café Nacional, 54, 178, 179 Café Vinilo, 5, 321 Caló, Miguel, 54, 59, 61, 250 Caló, Miguel, orchestras of. See also Orquesta de las Estrellas identified with strong beat for dancing, 52–53, 56 members of, 178, 202, 222, 248, 266 performance style of, 63, 80, 269 Canaro, Francisco, 3–4, 55 Mis memorias (book), 41, 45 as old guard tanguero, 40, 45 tango ensembles of, 41, 47, 53 in traditionalist stream, 45, 56, 65 candombe (dance), 8, 15 Caño 14, 66, 73, 283, 289, 303 cantando (singing) melodic style, 32, 48, 59, 98n27, 104, 278, 282, 286. See also melodic styles performance style of, 46, 60, 62–63 performance techniques of, 32, 56, 124–126 canyengue, 43, 132, 186 Caramelos surtidos (theater show), 160 Carril, Hugo del, 8 Page 4 of 28

Index Castillo, González, 57, 114n91, 160 Castriota, Samuel, 12 cellos, 26, 223, 229 in Bolotin’s compositions, 294, 296–298, 300 in tango orchestras, 163, 182, 258 censorship, in tango, 57, 64–65 Centro Cultural Torquato Tasso, 5, 77 Cevasco, Adalberto, 268, 272, 288 chamber ensembles, 111 increasing playing skill of tangueros in, 70, 76 post-Golden Age, 68–69 tango orchestras vs., 64–65, 72, 271 “chan-chan” (finale) alternatives to, 93, 108, 156, 270 form of, 107–108 as hallmark of Argentine tango, 35, 62, 284 omitted, 240–241, 246, 330 performance of, 175, 195, 263, 282 styles of, 92, 185, 190, 211, 301 Chanel, Roberto, 179 Chanteclair (tango venue), 43, 54, 140 Chau, papá (film), 73, 249 chicharra (cicada), 50, 111–112, 130–131, 133, 145, 148, 153, 163, 166, 187, 206, 212, 214, 246, 257, 260, 276, 280, 292–295, 297, 309 “Choro en fa sostenido” (Salgán), 202 chromaticism. See also harmony dissonances, 238n76 influence on post-Golden Age tango, 69 in Golden Age tango, 170 Cine 25 de Mayo “El Petit Colón,” 44 Cirigliano, Juan Carlos, 266, 320 clarinets, 270, 275 (p.356) classical music, 33, 202, 222, 290 influence on tangueros, 284, 291–294 “La yumba” compared to, 190, 193 in nuevo tango, 220, 227, 331 tango music fusing with, 83 tangueros’ training in, 82–83, 138, 201, 213, 233, 239, 288, 291, 303, 306, 319 clave rhythm, 31n14, 308 clubes de barrio (neighborhood clubs), 54 Cobián, Juan Carlos, 114n91 background and career of, 46–47 Cadícamo and, 14, 14n38 ensembles of, 50, 139, 147 influence of, 50, 147, 178, 187 orchestra of, 159, 266 performance style of, 50, 147 Colángelo, José, 72, 161, 167–168, 277 College Music Society Tango Institute, 291, 305 Page 5 of 28

Index Collier, Simon, 8–9, 92n10, 226 Color Tango, 80, 86, 181 communism/cooperativism, 178–179 compadrito (urban hoodlum figure), 9–10, 12,15. Conjunto 9 (Ensemble 9). See Piazzolla, Astor, ensembles of Conservatorio de Estilos Tangueros Argentino Galván, 78 Conservatorio Superior de Manuel de Falla, 78 Conservatorio Williams, 46 Console, Héctor, 225, 233–234 contratiempo (offbeat), 29, 60, 97, 115, 121, 254, 255, 259, 280, 284 Contursi, Pascual, 12–13, 57, 114n91, 160 Copes, Juan Carlos, 15–16, 224 Corrales, Carlos, 204, 213, 267, 321 corrientes. See streams of tango (in the 1920s) corte (dance step), 8, 15 counterpoint, 48, 68, 100, 148, 254 De Caro’s use of, 152, 154, 173 other tangueros’ use of, 173, 270, 328 Piazzolla’s use of, 240, 243, 246 Possetti and, 304, 314 Pugliese’s use of, 183–184, 194 Salgán’s use of, 206, 208, 210, 218–219 Cuacci, Juan Carlos, 81, 320 Cuarteto Pa’ que bailen los muchachos. See Federico, Leopoldo, ensembles of Cuarteto San Telmo. See Federico, Leopoldo, ensembles of Cuerdas poptemporáneas. See Bolotin, Damián D’Agostino, Angel, 53–54, 56, 60 D’Agostino, Antonio, 159, 177, 196 D’Arienzo, Juan, 196–197 arranging, 197 orchestras of, 52, 55, 59, 331 identified with traditional stream of tango, 56, 61, 196–197 Los Reyes del Tango recreating sound of, 80 members of, 53, 159, 196–197 performance style of, 62, 117, 118, 124 recordings by, 56, 58, 197 D’Coté (Hunt’s saxophone quartet), 111 De Angelis, Alfredo, 53, 56 De Caro, Emilio, 25, 138–139, 145 De Caro, Francisco, 25, 46, 50, 138, 143, 147 helping reorganize orchestra, 141–142 influence on Pugliese, 178, 187 in sextet with Julio, 139, 146 De Caro, Julio, 25, 53, 55, 199, 203 arranging style of, 147–149 background of, 138, 149n26 bond with Francisco, 141–142, 143 called “father of the guardia nueva”, 46–47, 138, 149, 331 compositional style of, 48, 59, 98, 100, 107, 130, 149–152, 169, 188, 296n4 Page 6 of 28

Index El tango en mis recuerdos (book), 142–143 formal designs, 151, 153–156 influence of, 130, 135, 142, 143, 201, 221 influence on Pugliese, 181–182, 185, 186, 191 Salgán’s style compared to, 206–207, 331 tributes to, 143, 181–182, 224 violin-cornet of, 137, 140, 146 De Caro, Julio, orchestras of, 52, 55–56, 152, 203 increasing size of, 141–142 performance style of, 59, 62 personnel of, 141, 159, 266 (p.357) recordings by, 142 De Caro, Julio, sextet of, 25–26, 30–31, 47, 50, 139, 178 performance style of, 70, 126, 143, 144–147 personnel of, 140, 144, 149 Pugliese emulating sound of, 182, 187 recordings, 140, 147, 149 touring internationally, 140–141 De Elía, Oscar, 81, 88n5, 116, 164n51 De Lío, Ubaldo, 161, 267 performance style of, 68–69, 76, 97, 133, 212 with Salgán, 72, 74, 203, 207 Del Priore, Oscar, 113, 179, 183n78, 188 Delfino, Enrique, 46, 50, 55, 147 Demare, Lucio, 63 Berón and, 54, 56 compositional style of, 13, 59–61 orchestra of, 53, 56, 58, 62, 266 Di Cicco, Minotto, 139, 145 Di Sarli, Carlos, 53–54, 80 arranging style of, 58, 115, 276 compositional style of, 59 influence of, 250, 271, 332 orchestras of, 53, 196, 198, 248, 266 performance style of, 58, 62–63, 186, 306 as pianist, 63, 198–199 playing for dancing, 56, 331 recordings by, 56, 198 romanticism of, 65, 196 sextet, 198 Díaz, David, 159, 161 Díaz, Kicho, 159, 164–165, 203, 224, 234 Discépolo, Enrique Santos, 11, 13, 33, 57 Donato, Edgardo, 248 duelo criollo (knife fight), 9n23, 230 Editorial Julio Korn. See Korn education, on tango. See also conservatorios; style manuals Bolotin teaching, 291, 308n10 Page 7 of 28

Index Mederos teaching, 90n9, 285 Navarro teaching, 321 Possetti teaching, 291, 305 at Tango Festival, 6, 78 El día del bandoneón (The Day of the Bandoneón, holiday), 143, 162, 305 El día que me quieres (film), 55, 221 El patio de la morocha (theater show), 160–161 El último payador (Manzi and Pappier film), 8 El Viejo Almacén (tango venue), 66, 73 Electronic Octet. See Piazzolla, Astor, ensembles of embellishments. See adornos Emory University, tango events, 291, 305, 308n10 enlaces (connecting links), 61, 153, 246 in arranging techniques, 59, 90, 100–101, 146–149 in performance styles, 167, 197 uses of, 50, 126, 144, 164, 199 Enrich, Nicolás, 26–27, 305, 332 performance style of, 118, 124–125 performance techniques of, 116, 120–121 as a premier bandoneón player, 80, 127, 132–133 Escalandrum, 227. See also Piazzolla, Daniel “Pipi” escoba (broom), 130–131, 145, 187, 257 Escuela de Música Popular de Avellanda (EMPA), 78, 285, 303, 305 Escuela de Tango Orlando Goñi, 78 Escuela de Tango Osvaldo Ruggiero, 79 escuela decareana, 138, 144, 147, 181, 187, 232. See also De Caro, Julio Espósito, Genaro, 46–47 evolutionistas. See streams of tango (1920s) Expósito, Homero, 57, 114n91 Ezeiza, Gabino, 8 Fain, Paulina, 78, 92, 101, 116 style manuals by, 88–89, 108 on tango melody styles, 99, 104, 123–124 Falabella, Esteban, 2, 81–82, 204, 320–321 Federico, Leopoldo, 4, 198, 227, 264, 272, 304. arranging and instrumentation style, 75, 267–268, 270–272 background of, 203, 265–269 Bolotin and, 288–291 as bridge between tango styles, 68, 264–265, 269, 278, 332 compositional style of, 272–275, 278 (p.358) compositions by, 73, 268, 273 directing Orquesta Estable de Radio Belgrano, 266–267 formal designs, 272, 274–275, 278–280, 282 in “Generation of ‘55,” 68 helping younger tangueros, 269, 290 influences on, 135, 269, 271, 273 in Nuevo Quinteto Real, 203 performance style of, 99n35, 275–277 Page 8 of 28

Index playing with Salgán’s orchestras, 203–204 Possetti and, 290, 304 tango style of, 74, 331 tristeza in, 272, 275, 279–280 virtuosity on bandoneón, 76, 142, 275–276 Federico, Leopoldo, ensembles of, 72, 223. See also Piazzolla, Astor, Octeto Buenos Aires Cuarteto Pa’ que bailen los muchachos (with De Lío), 267 Cuarteto San Telmo (with Grela), 268 Federico-Grela Quartet, 249, 259, 268 recordings by, 268 Federico, Leopoldo, orchestras of, 72, 266. See also Orquesta Stampone-Federico consistent style of, 80–81, 84 personnel of, 267–268, 272, 289–290, 303 recordings by, 66, 75, 267, 271 romantic style of, 275–276 Sosa and, 65, 67, 267, 269 Fenoglio, Pablo, 305, 309 Fernández, Guillermo, 303, 305 Fernando Tarrés Sextet, 290–291 Ferrer, Horacio, 13–14, 66, 78, 204, 224–225 Festival Nacional de Tango (La Falda, Córdoba), 5–6 films, tango and, 55, 66, 73, 104, 141, 160, 225, 249, 305. See also Hollywood films; silent films finale. See “chan-chan” Fiorentino, Francisco, 14, 47, 223 forming ensemble with Goñi, 159–160 singing with Troilo’s orchestras, 54, 124–125, 159, 164, 172, 175n60 Firpo, Roberto, 115, 139 as old guard tanguero, 40, 45, 56 orchestras of, 56, 139, 178, 201–202 techniques of, 95, 95n16 flutes, 25–27, 84, 123 folklórico (music), 12, 207, 289, 293, 305 form, tango, 106–108, 215, 218. See also phrase and period structure contrapuntal, 35 da capo, 35 designs of, 34–35 large-scale, 34–35, 41 three-part, 35, 41, 49, 69, 214–215, 218, 280 two-part, 35, 49, 61, 151, 153, 155, 190–191 Francini, Enrique Marco, 223, 249, 283 fraseo (phrasing), 50 melody styles and, 32, 48, 59, 63, 124–125 notation of, 32, 99, 104, 281 in performance styles, 32, 50, 63, 85–86, 99, 103, 124–126 types of, 99 Fresedo, Osvaldo, 59, 69n64, 142, 198 ensembles of, 47, 50, 53 Page 9 of 28

Index orchestra of, 52, 58, 62–63, 139 tango style of, 46, 147 Fundación Astor Piazzolla, 227 Gallo, Ramiro, 78, 83, 116 style manuals by, 88–89, 101, 108, 121 Galván, Argentino, 67 arrangements by, 56, 266 arranging for Troilo’s orchestra, 159, 163, 165–166, 170 Gandini, Gerardo, 83, 86, 226 García, Carlos, 81 García Brunelli, Omar, 198, 229 Gardel, Carlos, 1–2, 14, 55, 141, 221 in development of tango canción, 12–13, 125 honors for, 5, 12, 143, 265 Garello, Raúl, 75, 188 compositions by, 84, 167 conducting Orquesta Tango de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, 81 orchestra of, 72, 84, 232 sextet of, 26 style of, 80–81 Troilo and, 72, 160, 164, 167 (p.359) Gavito, Carlos, 16–17, 186n83 Generación Cero (Generation Zero), 72, 75, 285 “Generation of ‘55,” 68 Gente de Tango, 80 Ginastera, Alberto, 222 Giunta, Oscar, 203, 320 Glücksmann, Max, 44, 54 Gobbi, Alfredo Julio Eusebio, 11, 56 “El violín romántico del tango” (“The Romantic Violin of Tango”), 59 orchestras of, 53, 59, 62, 65, 266 Pugliese in duo with, 178 in Vardaro-Pugliese Sextet, 158, 178 Golden Age of tango (1930s and 1940s), 10, 51–63, 142, 196, 265 arrangers in, 112–113 dance craze in, 52, 331 debate over beginning of, 51–52 end of, 52–53, 64, 203 Federico as bridge from, 264–265, 272, 278 orchestras of, 52–53, 57, 60–61, 79–80 Piazzolla’s nuevo tango building on, 234, 240 poets and composers collaborating in, 56–57 Pugliese as culmination of, 177, 181 revival of tangos from, 79–80 Salgán transitioning sound into post-Golden Age, 200–201, 203 singers with orchestras in, 14, 62, 159 tango standards from, 56–57, 80, 158, 172, 251, 271 tangueros after, 36, 37–39 tangueros of, 36, 37–39, 56, 60–63, 93, 135, 159 Page 10 of 28

Index traits of tangos from, 49, 57–63, 163, 170, 263, 331 Troilo’s compositions from, 158, 168, 172 golpe (knock), 112, 120, 131–132, 153, 187, 233, 257 Goñi, Orlando, 160, 223 performance style of, 146, 164, 187 Troilo’s orchestra and, 159, 163–164 González, Adriana, 304–305 Gosis, Jamie, 224 gota (raindrop), 131, 208 Gotan Project, 3 government, Argentine effects on tangueros, 57, 65–66, 179–180, 267 encouraging tango renaissance, 81 instability of, 76–77 military, 51, 57, 63–64, 71–72, 79, 267 Goyeneche, Roberto, 15–16, 160, 172, 203, 229 Graciano, Julián, 95, 109n73, 239n77 on accompanimental rhythms, 97, 114 analysis of “La yumba,” 193n96, 193n97 Cátedra de Análisis Musical (book), 106n65 jazz influence on, 83, 85, 103, 106 performance style of, 83, 119 performance techniques of, 116, 120–121 on Rovira’s music, 69n63 style manuals by, 88–89, 101, 108 in Tango en tres, 83, 86 on tango form, 106n65 Greco, Emiliano, 81, 320–321, 332 Greco, Lautaro, 81, 332 Greco, Vicente, 40, 41, 47 Grela, Roberto, 65, 70, 160–161, 167–168, 172, 249, 259, 268 guardia nueva (new guard) tangueros, in 1920s, 36, 37–39, 46, 64, 224 compositional process of, 56–57 De Caro as, 143, 188 Golden Age compared to, 56, 59, 61 guardia vieja compared to, 44–45 influence on Piazzolla, 234, 237 influence on Pugliese, 178, 183, 187 influences on and of, 135 performance style of, 49–50, 187 traits of music by, 47–51, 60–61, 92, 125, 152–153 Troilo playing with music of, 158, 162 guardia vieja (old guard) tangueros, 10, 36, 37–39, 40 compositional process of, 56–57 guardia nueva compared to, 44–45 influence of, 46, 56, 178, 207–208, 234 key stylistic norms developed by, 41–42 performance style of, 42–43 traits of tangos by, 61, 162 Page 11 of 28

Index Troilo playing music by, 158, 162 uses of tangos by, 56, 84, 196–197, 257, 268 (p.360) Guerschberg, Nicolás, 83, 320, 323 guitarra, 112, 131, 163–164, 187, 193 guitars, 319 arrangements and compositions for, 207, 229, 251, 284, 286, 323 electric, 223, 228 performance techniques on, 68–69, 118–120, 129, 133 in tango instrumentation, 25–27, 41, 308 uses of, 30–31, 42 habanera (rhythm), 7, 30–31, 152 Hanrahan, Kip, 225 harmony in tango, 104–106. See also chromaticism augmented sixth chords, 34, 61, 105, 170, 189, 209, 214, 219, 239, 278, 310, 313, 315 augmented sixth chords, French, 170, 280–281, 314, 329 augmented sixth chords, German, 34, 61, 105, 106, 194, 216, 280–281, 316 clusters, 325–328, 330 diatonic, 34, 49, 254 in different tango styles, 42, 60–61, 68, 69 extended chords, 34, 189, 209, 214, 241, 245, 254, 257, 260, 262, 273–274, 278, 284, 295, 310, 323, 325 jazz-influenced, 34, 170, 209, 295, 310, 323 major-minor tonal system in, 34 modal inflections, 241, 278 Neapolitan sixth chord, 69, 209, 214, 239 nonfunctional, 34 pentatonic, 239, 245, 308 polychords, 239, 241, 246 post-tonal, 34, 86, 294–295, 325 in tango characteristics, 24–25 tangueros studying, 266, 304 tonal, 42, 294–295, 325 harps, 53, 84 Herrero, Oscar, 65, 179–180 Hollywood films and tango, 2–4, 24, 73, 249 immigration/emigration, 6–7, 26, 40, 64, 72 improvisation, 43, 86, 225, 231–233, 284, 330 Bolotin’s, 288, 291, 293 compositions allowing for, 75–76, 323 declining with increasing arrangement, 56, 307 jazz and, 98, 103, 288, 304 Possetti and, 304, 307 instrumentation adding instruments, 53, 84 in characteristics of tango, 24–27, 41, 67, 74, 142, 308 definition of, 89n8 in different styles of tango, 47–48, 53, 58–59, 67–68, 85 experiments with, 69, 110–111, 207, 225, 308–309 Page 12 of 28

Index in individuation of tango orchestras, 58 modern, 68, 69 orchestration and, 108–111 traditional, 75, 85, 142, 308 Internacional Encuentro Tango para Músicos (Tango for Musicians International Meeting), 78 International Tango Collection (Mikhashoff), 24 Italians, influence on tango, 7, 32–33 Jairo, 2, 305 jazz, 47, 72, 103, 291 Bolotin’s involvement with, 288, 290 improvisation in, 75–76, 98, 304 influence on Bolotin, 291, 293, 296–298 influence on “Music of Buenos Aires,” 82–83, 85–86, 310, 323, 327, 330 influence on post-Golden Age tango, 69, 271, 284 influence on tango, 75–76, 106 in nuevo tango, 220, 227, 240, 331 tangueros fusing tango with, 75, 86, 225, 227, 229, 268, 272 tangueros’ training in, 82–83, 233, 320 Jews, influence on tango, 7–8, 236 José Basso Orchestra, 283 klezmer music, 236, 288 Kohan, Pablo, 41n8, 44n17, 92n11, 104n56, 151n27 Korn, Julio (Editorial), 67, 249, 253, 272 Kronos Quartet, 2, 127, 226–227 (p.361) La Camerata Argentina, 11 La Casa del Tango (The House of Tango), 181 Laurenz, Pedro, 25, 46, 55, 99n35, 125, 275, 286 bandoneón playing by, 50, 59, 164 in De Caro sextet, 140–141, 144–145 influence of, 222, 266, 283 orchestra of, 145, 178 in Quinteto Real, 203 variations by, 59, 184–185 Lavallén, Víctor, 78, 179, 182 in Sexteto Tango, 65, 180, 249 Le Pera, Alfredo, 13 Ledesma, Nicolás, 80, 86, 117, 267, 272 levare (upbeat), 97–98, 118 ligado (smooth) melody style. See cantando (singing) melody style Lipseker, Félix, 142, 142n18, 248, 266, 272 listening, vs. dancing tango concerts for, 3–5, 6, 44, 77, 78 tango music for, 45, 64, 73, 80, 139, 160, 182, 205–206, 251 tango music for dancing and, 4, 41, 45 tango orchestras playing for, 52, 160–162, 165–168, 202, 264, 269, 331 Loduca, Miguel, 177–178 Lomuto, Francisco, 99, 101, 104 Los Reyes del Tango (The Kings of Tango), 80 Page 13 of 28

Index Lozza, Arturo, 178–179, 186 Lunfardo (Rioplatense slang), 10, 13, 57 Maciel, Jorge, 65, 179 Maderna, Osmar, 113, 266 Maffia, Pedro, 46, 47, 144, 178, 183n78 bandoneón playing by, 43, 164 influence of, 222, 265 in Julio De Caro sextet, 139–140 “Pedro y Pedro” written to honor, 275 variations by, 59, 184–185 Maglio, Juan “Pacho,” 40, 159 Malvicino, Horacio ensembles of, 223–225, 272 Federico and, 268, 272 jazz-tango fusion of, 268, 272 performance style of, 133, 232–233 Mamone, Pascual, 100, 109–110, 112, 168 on accompaniment rhythms, 97, 114 as arranger, 108, 113 compositions by, 78–79, 100n38 style manual by, 88, 108 on thematic transformations, 102–103 on variaciones in tango melodies, 101–102 Manzi, Homero, 8, 13, 57, 160–161, 170, 266, 290 Marabú Cabaret, 54, 159 marcato (marked accompanimental rhythms), 29–30, 31, 93–95. See also accompanimental rhythms in 2, 102, 122, 152, 163, 185, 194, 261 in 4, 60, 62, 90, 94, 97, 102, 115, 163, 197, 224, 242, 263 arrastre and, 62, 84, 95, 276 bass line, 75, 84–85, 94, 106, 235–236, 238, 243, 271, 314, 325 blanca/coral (half notes/choral), 95 elaborations on, 60, 94–95, 166 execution of, 116–120, 122, 148, 163, 186–187, 199, 212 in Golden Age tangos, 59, 62 inverted, 95, 97 pesante, 94, 114, 117–118 replacing milonga rhythm, 28, 48, 90–92, 104 uses of, 60, 92, 146, 148, 235 walking bass, 75, 224, 229, 271, 284, 323, 330 weak-beat accents, 95 Marconi, Néstor, 5, 72, 227, 320, 332 arranging, 284 background, 283–284 compositional and arranging style of, 76, 84, 284 Néstor Marconi Trio, 284, 318, 320, 322 with orchestras and ensembles, 78, 81, 99n35, 203–204, 232, 283 performance style of, 99n35, 284 recordings by, 284 Page 14 of 28

Index Matos Rodríguez, Gerardo, 3, 12n33, 40 Mederos, Rodolfo, 73, 100 arranging process of, 90, 90n9, 91, 113–114 arranging style of, 84, 285–286 Bolotin and, 288, 291 electric tango quintet of, 288–289 fusing tango with rock, 75–76 in Generación Cero (Generation Zero), 72, 75, 285 (p.362) influence of, 291, 303 orchestras and, 80, 180 recordings by, 80, 87, 285, 289 Rodolfo Mederos Quintet, 305 Rodolfo Mederos Trio, 285–286 on síncopa, 96–97 style manual by, 88, 92, 110 teaching by, 285, 303 melodic codes, 32–33 melódico (melodic) melody style. See cantando melodic styles, 32, 98–99. See also cantando melodic style; rítmico melody style in arranging process, 90 execution of, 123–126 melody, embellishments to. See adornos melody, in tango. See also rítmico (rhythmic) melody style accompanimental rhythms and, 28–30, 42, 59–60, 68–69, 89–90 articulation and, 62, 85, 90, 166, 173, 211–212, 257–258 called most important tango element, 27, 74, 89, 113, 205–206, 211, 214, 308 in different tango styles, 32, 42, 48, 59–60, 68–69, 85 elaborations and embellishments, 33, 59–60, 100–102 melodic codes in, 32–33 notation of articulation and phrasing, 103–104, 250–251 other aspects of musical line and, 100–103 performance practices, 123–127 phrasing and language in, 103–104 transformations in, 90, 100, 102, 216, 218, 242–245 upbeat-downbeat metric in, 31, 103 Merello, Tita, 15, 55 meter, 31, 48. See also tres ritmos change from duple to quadruple, 92–93 Michelangelo (club), 66, 73, 241 milonga (music genre), 15, 80 composition of, 169, 253 milonga campera (country milonga), 7–8, 28, 30–31, 92 milonga ciudadana (city milonga), 7–8, 28, 92 milonga lenta (performance practice), 28, 122 types of, 7–8 milongas (dance venues), 4–6, 14, 16–17 milongueo (country sound), 31 Monk, Bernardo, 92, 100, 107 Page 15 of 28

Index experimentation by, 93, 111 style manual by, 88, 103, 106, 108, 111 Montes, Daniel, 290, 303–304. See also Arias, Aníbal; Arias-Montes duo Mores, Mariano, 2, 57, 65, 266 Mosalini, Juan José, 72, 182, 204 Mulligan, Gerry, 72, 75–76, 223, 225, 229 “Music of Buenos Aires,” 82–83 Bolotin’s, 288, 291, 293, 296 Federico as bridge to, 264–265, 272 influences on, 85–86, 135, 143, 332 Navarro’s, 318, 324 Possetti’s, 302, 304, 306, 310 música ciudadana/urbana (city/urban music), 82 musical genres, blurring of boundaries of, 324–326 fusion of tango with other, 225, 227, 228, 289, 296, 332 musical training, tangueros’, 46, 70, 82–83, 86, 125. See also tangueros’ backgrounds Navarro, Juan Pablo, 2, 227, 318 arranging style of, 323–324 background of, 319–321 compositional and arranging style of, 323–324 formal designs, 325–330 in ensembles, 83, 204, 284, 318–319 influences on, 135, 321 Orquesta Típica Juan Pablo Navarro, 319–322, 324 performance style of, 118, 322–323 on performance styles, 131, 213, 233 performance techniques and practices of, 116, 120–121 recordings by, 319–320 tango style of, 83, 86, 318, 321, 332 Nieves, María, 16, 224 nostalgia, 160, 278, 282, 294, 308 (p.363) as tango theme, 14, 57, 277 Nudler, Julio, 50, 160 Nuevo Quinteto Real. See Salgán, Horacio, ensembles of nuevo tango. See Piazzolla, Astor Nuevo Tango Quinteto. See Piazzolla, Astor, ensembles of; First Quintet Octeto Buenos Aires. See Piazzolla, Astor, ensembles of Odeon (record label), 142, 159–160, 179–180, 223 Onganía, Juan Carlos, 64, 70–71 orchestration, 108–112 in arranging process, 90, 113–115 De Caro’s, 153, 156 definition of, 89n8 Federico’s, 281 Piazzolla’s, 228, 229, 242, 246 Plaza’s, 251–254, 259–261, 263 Possetti’s, 304, 310 Pugliese’s, 183 Page 16 of 28

Index Salgán’s, 206–207 in Stazo’s arrangement of “Tres esquinas,” 115 Troilo’s, 163, 165, 166, 167, 172 Orquesta de las Estrellas (Orchestra of the Stars), 269 Orquesta del Tango de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, 5, 81 performances of, 259, 305 personnel of, 284, 318–320 Orquesta Escuela de Tango Emilio Balcarce, 78–79, 88n5, 113, 191, 259 Orquesta Nacional de Música Argentina Juan de Dios Filiberto, 5, 81, 111, 289–290, 293, 305 Orquesta Selección Nacional de Tango, 5 Orquesta Stampone-Federico, 249, 266–267 orquesta típica criolla (typical creole orchestra), 25–26, 41, 84 Orquesta Típica Fernández Fierro, 83, 181 Orquesta Típica Los Provincianos, 55, 159 Orquesta Típica Victor, 55, 159 Ortiz, Ciriaco, 47, 55, 99n35, 159 bandoneón playing by, 43, 164 in Vardaro-Pugliese Sextet, 159, 178 Pampas, 7–8 Pane, Julio, 204 pasajes (passages), 90, 98, 100–101 payada/payador (song duels/singer of payadas), 8, 11–13, 32–33, 125 pelotita (little ball), 124 Penón, Arturo, 179, 182 Peralta, Julián, 60n48, 78, 88n5, 92 on arrangements, 114–115 and Astillero, 15, 83, 85–86 on compositional techniques, 101–102, 105, 105n63, 107 Escuela de Tango Orlando Goñi and, 78 on instrumental techniques, 112, 117, 164n51 on “La yumba,” 190, 193n97 on melodies, 100, 102, 124 on orchestration, 109–110 on rhythms, 93, 95n16, 97–98, 121–122 style manual by, 88–89, 108 percussion instruments, 9, 26, 75, 84, 251 in Federico’s compositions, 75, 271 in Possetti’s compositions, 304, 308–309 techniques with, 111–112 Pereiro, Federico, 267, 304 Peressini, Julio, 203–204 performance style, 99n35. See also specific tangueros for concerts vs. dancing, 64–65 of Golden Age tangueros, 62–63 of guardia nueva tangueros, 49–50 of guardia vieja tangueros, 42–43 of post-Golden Age tangueros, 67, 69–70 of present-day tangueros, 86 Page 17 of 28

Index tangueros’ traditional, 87, 284 Perón, Juan Domingo, 51–52, 63, 71 tangueros and, 64, 180, 223 Petrucelli, Luis, 47, 139–140, 159 phonograph, tango distributed through, 40, 44–45, 54–55 phrase and period structure, 35, 41n8, 93. See also form, tango in Golden Age tangos, 61–62 in guardia nueva tangos, 49 in guardia vieja tangos, 41–42 in post-Golden Age tangos, 68, 69 (p.364) phrasing and language, 103–104. See also fraseo piano, 80, 177, 288 compositions to showcase, 323–324 in De Caro’s compositions, 154, 156 in Federico’s arrangements, 276 in Navarro’s compositions, 323–329 performance styles on, 164, 167–168, 187, 293 performance techniques on, 117, 119–120, 129, 132, 206–207 in Piazzolla’s arrangements and compositions, 228–229, 243–246 Plaza playing, 249, 251, 256 in Plaza’s arrangements and compositions, 251–252, 254, 257–258, 261–263 in Possetti’s compositions, 310–311, 314–316 Possetti’s style on, 293, 302–303, 306–307 in Pugliese’s arrangements and compositions, 183–184, 194–195 roles in ensembles and orchestras, 108–109, 124, 146–147, 197, 233 Salgán playing, 201–202 in Salgán’s compositions and arrangements, 206–208, 211, 213, 219 scores for, 40, 55 in tango instrumentation norms, 26–27, 41, 47–48, 74, 308 tangueros’ training on, 138, 283, 305 tangueros’ virtuosity on, 86, 198–199, 213, 233 Piazzolla, Astor, 1, 14, 55, 138, 183n78, 220, 224 arrangements by, 113, 159, 163, 167, 295 arranging and instrumentation style of, 222, 228–229, 295 background of, 220–227, 230 composing to showcase virtuosity, 126, 140, 232, 275, 292 compositional style of, 30–31, 35, 97, 234–241, 253, 255, 292 compositions by, 3, 16, 66, 73, 78–79, 268, 284, 290–291 Ferrer and, 14, 224–226 formal designs, 240–241, 242 grandson reinterpreting music of, 85 influence of, 135, 233, 283–284 influence on present-day tangueros, 82, 85, 269, 273, 288, 294, 321 influences on, 135, 142–143, 162, 185, 221–222 innovations by, 68–69 Mederos and, 285–286 Navarro’s composition for, 324 nuevo tango, 65, 82, 87, 220, 223–224, 226, 227, 230. See also Piazzolla, Astor, arranging and instrumentation style, performance style Page 18 of 28

Index performance style of, 118, 226, 229–231, 233, 284 performance techniques and, 120, 127, 130–132 Pugliese and, 185, 188, 190 reputation of, 2, 79, 331 tango style of, 75–76, 212, 227, 272 tristeza in, 237 Troilo and, 161–162 Troilo’s orchestra and, 54, 159, 167 Piazzolla, Astor, ensembles of, 225, 229 Conjunto 9 (Ensemble 9), 225 Electronic Octet, 72, 225 First Quintet, 224 with Goñi and Fiorentino, 159–160 Goyeneche singing with, 203 Kronos Quartet, 2, 127, 226 Nonet, 72–73 Octeto Buenos Aires, 65, 69, 111, 223–224, 227–228, 232, 267 orchestras, 53, 65, 223, 266 quintet configurations of, 26, 229, 308 recordings by, 190, 224, 226, 229–234, Second Quintet, 72, 225–226, 229–234, 241, 276 Sextet, 181, 226, 229, 241 Piazzolla, Daniel, 224, 225 Piazzolla, Daniel “Pipi,” 85, 227 Piazzolla, Vicente “Nonino,” 221, 224 pizzicato. See gota, guitarra, tambor Plaza, Diego, 248, 249 Plaza, Julián, 4, 247, 288. See also Sexteto Tango arrangement and instrumentation style of, 248–253, 257 arrangements by, 67, 74, 86, 97, 113, 160, 182, 183n78 (p.365) background of, 248–250, 266 compositional style of, 68, 252–256, 259, 261–262, 310 compositions by, 73, 130 formal designs, 251–252, 256, 259–263, 260 influence of, 67n61, 135, 291 influences on, 135, 142 innovations by, 68–69 performance style of, 248, 256 Pugliese and, 179, 187–188, 190 tango style of, 250, 331–332 Troilo’s orchestra and, 160, 167 Plaza, Julián. orchestras of, 289 consistent style of, 80, 84 performance style of, 132, 256–259 recordings by, 80, 249, 257 Podestá, Alberto, 15, 54, 56, 303 poets and poetry, 8, 11, 57 composers collaborating with, 56–57, 160, 168–169, 224–225 Page 19 of 28

Index tango canción and, 11–15 polirritmia (polyrythmic accompaniment), 90, 97 politics, and tango, 57, 203 Pugliese’s activism in, 178–180 popular music (música popular), 34–35, 141, 278, 307, 310 portamento (instrumental technique), 112, 149, 164, 166, 187, 263 by other instruments, 126, 144, 233 by violinists, 145, 212, 232–233, 263, 293 Possetti, Hernán, 89n7, 95, 285, 289, 303 Possetti, Sonia, 79, 85, 88n5, 97, 105n63, 302, 304, 305 arranging, 108, 289, 304 307–310 background of, 78, 303–305 Bolotin’s collaborations with, 292–293 compositional style of, 111, 126, 130, 302–303, 307–310, 314, 332 compositions by, 81, 117 formal designs, 310, 312, 313–316 in ensembles, 277, 290 Federico and, 81, 269, 277 influences on, 135, 212 performance style of, 306–307 performance techniques of, 116–117, 121, 146 tango style of, 82–83, 306, 308 as teacher, 291, 305 Possetti, Sonia, ensembles of duo with Bolotin, 289–290, 293, 304, 308 Quintet, 304 recordings by, 81, 289–290, 304–305, 307–308 Sextet, 26, 305 Tangata Rea, 303 post-Golden Age tangueros, 38–30, 64–66, 104, 220, 286 defining characteristics of, 67–69, 281 Federico as bridge from, 264–265, 278 influence of, 135, 271, 321 influences on, 135 performance styles of, 67, 69–70 representatives of, 250, 331 Salgán as, 200, 204 synthesizing tradition and innovation, 204–205 tango orchestras and, 84, 267 primitivo tango criollo. See tango criollo Prusak, Sebastián, 290, 320 Pugliese, Osvaldo, 4–5, 17, 73, 176 arranging style of, 182–185 background of, 177–181 Color Tango revitalizing style of, 80, 86 compositional style of, 34, 61, 188–190, 207, 310 corrientes renovadoras (renovators stream), foundational in, 188 folclore pampeano, influence of, 186 formal designs, 189–194, 191 Page 20 of 28

Index in ensembles, 144, 145, 158–159, 181 influence of, 135, 181, 186, 188, 221, 233, 236, 332 influences on, 50, 135, 143, 182 legacy of, 181 performance style of, 118, 185–188, 257, 286 political activism of, 65–66, 72, 178–180 recordings by, 182, 187, 190 Sexteto Vardaro-Pugliese, 53, 158, 178–179 tango style of, 56, 74, 99, 177, 181–182, 212 yumba technique of, 86, 96, 120, 331 (p.366) Pugliese, Osvaldo, orchestras of, 53, 72–73 arrangements for, 67, 249–250 arranging style of 182–185 articulation by, 186–187 as cooperative, 179, 182, 331 expanded size of, 182, 190 instrumentation of, 26, 182–183 performance style of, 62, 117, 186–188, 258 personnel in, 65, 180, 182, 248, 285 recordings by, 56, 179–180 style of, 58, 65, 177 success of, 179–180 Quinteto Real (Salgán), 5, 65, 68–69, 80, 204, 213 “A fuego lento” by, 124, 218n33, 219n34 forming, 203 Navarro in, 318, 320, 322 performance styles of, 99n35, 131, 322 recordings by, 203, 214 Quinteto Viceversa, 82, 85 Radio Belgrano, 54, 201–202, 266–267 Radio El Mundo, 54–55, 65, 159–160, 203, 266 Radio Splendid, 44, 54–55, 159 radio stations, 54, 20, 267 tango music on, 5, 44, 54–55, 65–66, 77 tango orchestras on, 142, 160 raspado (scraping), 132 rebirth, of tango, 36, 37–39, 77–79 rebote (rebound), 121 record companies, 40, 46 orchestras of, 55 tango distributed through, 55, 73 rellenos (fills), 59, 100–101, 122 renavadores. See streams of tango (in the 1920s) Requena, Osvaldo, 68, 75, 113, 268 rhythms, 90–93. See also accompanimental rhythms and tres ritmos 3-3-2 pattern, 31, 31n14, 48, 75, 96–97, 122–123, 235–236, 270, 273, 284, 294, 296–297 in arranging process, 89–90 in characteristics of tango, 24, 75 Page 21 of 28

Index in different tango styles, 42, 48, 68 habanera, 30–31 performance practices, 122–123, 212, 231, 257 Rinaldi, Susana, 11, 15, 268, 277 Río de la Plata region, Argentina, 6–11, 103 Ríos, Walter, 305, 320 rítmico (rhythmic) melodic style, 48, 90. See also melodic styles execution of, 62, 123–124, 162–165, 231 in tango milonga, 33, 46 Rivero, Carlos, 293, 303 Rivero, Edmondo, 66, 160, 203 Roccatagliata, Tito, 46–47, 50 rock music, and tango, 75, 83, 225, 319 Rogantini, Abel, 83, 320, 323 Rojas, Geraldine, 17, 186n83 romanticism, 61 Di Sarli’s, 198–199 Federico’s, 269, 275, 278 Plaza’s, 250, 254, 257–259, 331–332 Salgán’s, 211–212 Troilo’s, 166 Romero, Luis Alberto, 51, 64 Romo, Horacio, 78, 267 Rosenberg, Julio, 142, 142n17 Rossi, Vicente, 8–9, 65, 160, 180 Rouchetto, Nélida, 66, 177, 181 Rovira, Eduardo, 65, 68–69, 83 Ruggiero, Osvaldo, 65, 179, 180, 182, 187–188, 249 Salgán, César, 80, 107, 204, 210n19 Salgán, Horacio, 200, 289 arrangement models by, 114n91, 115 arranging 108, 114, 200, 202, 205–207, 211, 228 arranging guidelines for, 98, 114–115 background of, 201–204 compositional style of, 68–69, 207–211, 215, 253, 307 Curso de tango/Tango Course (book), 88, 100n38, 108–109 on important tango elements, 92n11, 109–110, 113 formal designs, 209–210, 215, 215–219 influence of, 135, 289, 303 influences on, 135, 143 (p.367) innovations by, 69, 96–97, 331 instrumentation style of, 108–110, 205–207 performance style of, 118, 130–131, 211–213, 257–258, 284, 307 post-Golden Age style of, 200, 331 recordings by, 108–109, 202, 213 on roles of composer and arranger, 204 style manual by, 88, 99, 102–105, 107–108, 111–112 style manual on melodies, 98, 100–101, 104, 113 Page 22 of 28

Index style manual on rhythms, 95, 97–98 tango rhythms and, 30n10, 96–97 tango style of, 74, 84, 204–205, 331 virtuosity of, 76, 213 Salgán, Horacio, ensembles of, 204. See also Quinteto Real duo with De Lío, 74, 203, 207 Nuevo Quinteto Real, 72, 84, 203, 212, 283 quintet configurations, 26, 308 Salgán, Horacio, orchestras of, 53, 72, 80, 205 Orquesta de Salgán, 26, 204 personnel of, 203, 232, 266, 322 repertory of, 202–204, 213–214 San Telmo Cuarteo. See Federico, Leopoldo, ensembles of Sánchez, Diego, 268, 277 Sassone, Florindo, 142, 266 Saura, Carlos, 16, 203–204 saxophones, 26, 75, 111, 229, 271, 288 Scaramuzza, Vicente, 177 Schissi, Diego, 304 compositions of, 320–321 Diego Schissi Quintet of, 83, 318 Navarro and, 320–321 Piazzolla’s influence on, 82, 85 in TangoContempo project, 320 Sciarretta, Vincent, 25, 140 Selección Nacional de Tango Orchestra, 81, 268, 290 Select Lavalle (movie theater), 140, 265 Sexteto Mayor, 5, 72–74, 76, 80–81, 259 Sexteto Tango, 67, 72–73, 80, 180, 250 Plaza and, 65, 250 recordings by, 249, 259 style of, 74, 257 sexteto típico, used by guardia nueva tangueros, 47–48 Sexteto Vardaro-Pugliese. See Pugliese, Osvaldo sexuality, in tango canción words, 11–13 sheet music, distribution of, 67 Si sos brujo: una historia de tango (Si sos brujo: A Tango Story, documentary), 250 Sierra, Adolfo, 50, 50n32, 113, 164 silent films, tango music with, 44, 140, 158, 177, 201, 265 síncopa accompanimental rhythms, 30, 32. See also accompanimental rhythms anticipada (anticipated), 28–29, 60, 106, 115 contratiempo (offbeat), 29 elaborations of, 60, 96–98, 244 in Golden Age tangos, 59–60 in guardia nueva tangos, 152 in performance practice, 120–122, 242, 245 replacing milonga rhythm, 28, 48, 90, 92 shift to milongueo from, 31 a tierra (downbeat), 60, 115 Page 23 of 28

Index “umpa-umpa” and, 97 uses of, 74, 92, 148, 169, 205, 235–236, 284, 308, 314–315 variations with, 109, 114 singers, tango, 65, 173, 303, 305 lacking musical training, 125 pairing with tango orchestras, 14–15, 54, 62, 65, 159, 163, 228–229, 267–268 popularity of, 14–15 sirena (siren), 131 social dancing, 3. See also tango dance on inauguration of Avenida 9 de Julio, 52 milongas for, 4–5 tango concerts vs., 4, 41 Sociedad Argentina de Autores y Compositores de Música (SADAIC, the Argentina Society of Authors and Composers of Music), 181, 249 Sosa, Julio, 15, 275, 267 singing with Federico’s orchestra, 65–67, 267, 270, 271 Spiller, Ljerko, 288, 292 (p.368) Spitalnik, Ismael, 70, 179 as arranger, 113, 160, 165, 182 Stampone, Atilio, 16, 65, 68, 72, 73, 289, 303 in Octeto Buenos Aires, 223 Caño 14 club of, 66, 289 Orquesta Nacional de Música Argentina Juan de Dios Filiberto and, 81 Orquesta Stampone-Federico of, 249, 266–267 Stamponi, Héctor “Chupita,” 113, 172–173, 266 Stazo, Luis, 34–35, 72, 102 strappata, 131–132, 146, 168, 187, 193, 233, 276, 295, 297, 310, 316, 322, 324 streams of tango (in the 1920s), 44–45 terms adopted by tango scholars, 44–45, 44–45, n17 innovators, 56, 68, 138 string sections in compositions and arrangements, 183–184, 198–199, 206, 208, 228, 251–252, 254, 275 roles in melodies, 124, 126 in tango orchestras, 182, 197, 198, 257 style manuals, by tangueros, 88–89, including n6 and n7; referenced throughout 89-115 Suárez Paz, Fernando, 161, 288–289 composers and arrangers showcasing virtuosity of, 232, 276, 292 performance style of, 125–127, 232 Piazzolla and, 127, 227, 232 in Piazzolla’s ensembles, 225–226 swing, of tango music, 30, 32, 60, 119, 138, 306, 310 tambor (drum), 112, 127, 131, 145, 148, 153, 155, 187, 206, 214, 216, 218, 233, 242, 257, 273, 293–295, 297 Tangata Rea. See Possetti, Sonia, ensembles of ¡Tango! (film), 15–16 Tango (Saura film), 16, 203–204, 214, 283, 289 tango, defining characteristics of, 24–25, 41–43, 284 accompanimental rhythms, 93–98 Page 24 of 28

Index arrastre, 30 in Golden Age, 57–63 in guardia nueva, 47–51 instrumental techniques, 111–112 instrumentation, 25–27, 109–110, 308 melody, 32–34, 98–103, 113, 308 meter and rhythm, 28–31, 90–93 orchestration, 108–111 performance standards, 86–87, 115–133 phrasing and language, 103–104 present-day, 83–86 1940s and 1950s, 67–69 1970s and 1980s, 73–74 texture, 27 yeites as unique to, 127 tango, Golden Age of, 51–63, 79–80 tango andaluz (Spanish theater form), 9 tango canción (tango song), 15 cantando melodic style and, 99, 104 themes of, 11–14 in three broad types of tango, 45–46 tango criollo, 9 tango dance, 2, 15–17, 92–93, 286. See also listening, vs. dance clinics for, 5–6 competitions in, 4, 6, 78 compositions for, 60, 169–170, 172–173 dancers associated with orchestras, 141, 224 influence on tango, 8, 186 lessons in, 5–6 popularity of, 51–52, 159, 180 revived in tango renaissance, 16, 80 strong beat for, 56, 60, 186 tango orchestras playing for, 52, 54, 56, 60, 141, 162–165, 196–197, 267 tango singers and, 62 venues for, 43, 54 tango electrónico, 83, 86 Tango en tres. See Graciano, Julián. Tango Festival, 11, 83, 88n5, 320 2001, 15, 204 2004, 205, 305 2007, 320 2009, 4, 290 2010, 305, 321 2011, 113n89, 278 2012, 290, 305, 332 dance competitions at, 4, 6, 78 (p.369) “tango for export,” in Argentina, 4, 11, 24 tango-jazz, 268, 320 Tango-Milonga, 28, 45–46, 98 Page 25 of 28

Index tango orchestras, 4. See also singers identified with streams of tango music, 55–56 individualizing tango standards, 56, 58–59, 62 instruments in, 25–27, 41, 63, 110–111, 285–286 popularity of, 53, 57 size of, 43–44, 52–53, 58, 64–65, 69, 111, 141 tango rebirth, 16, 36, 77–79, 332 tango romanza of De Caro sextet, 146–147 in three broad types of tango, 45–46 tango schools. See education, on tango “tango,” use of term, 8–9 Teatro Colón, 5, 44, 47, 73, 161, 181, 204, 249, 320 television, 66–67, 180, 249, 277 texture, tango, 24–25, 27, 32, 42, 58, 109, 154 theater shows, tango in, 160, 161, 226, 283, 289 themes, tango, 33, 57, 172, 207, 230. See also tristeza (sadness) nostalgia, 278, 282 in tango canción, 11–14 34 Puñalades, 83 Thompson, Leopoldo, 41, 43, 132, 139, 140, 146–147 Tibidabo Cabaret, 159, 266 traditionalistas. See streams of tango (in the 1920s) tres ritmos, 28, 83, 90–93 Trípodi, Orlando, 289, 303, 306 tristeza (sadness), as characteristic of tango music, 11–12, 24, 33, 331 Troilo, Aníbal, 5, 84, 157 arranging style of, 162–163, 166 background of, 158–160, 178 bandoneón playing by, 63, 133, 164, 167–168 collaborations by, 57, 124–125 compositional style of, 59, 60, 61, 93, 97, 102, 168–172 as Golden Age icon, 159, 162 films and, 55, 66 formal designs, 170–174 influence of, 135, 221–222, 235, 283, 286, 332 influences on, 135, 141, 143 legacy of, 161–162, 182 performance style of, 62, 70, 99n35, 166, 231, 276 Piazzolla and, 161, 221–222, 235 playing in orchestras, 55, 141 recordings by, 172–173, 175, 249–250 tango style of, 162, 182, 331–332 tristeza in, 158, 162, 172 Troilo, Aníbal, ensembles of, 65, 203. See also Troilo-Grela Quartet Cuarteto Aníbal Troilo, 65 Troilo, Aníbal, orchestras of, 14, 54, 65, 73 forming, 53, 159 performance style of, 163–165, 163–168, 166, 167–168 Page 26 of 28

Index personnel of, 54, 72, 159–160, 160–161, 222, 232 playing for dancing, 56, 162–165 playing for listening, 161, 165–168 Plaza arranging for, 67n61, 248–249, 259 recordings by, 159–161 singers with, 62, 203 style of, 58, 65, 186 Troilo-Grela Quartet, 160, 168, 170, 268 recordings by, 161, 167, 172 trombones, 26 in “Dalo por hecho,” 311, 313–316 Possetti and, 111, 302, 305, 309 trumpets, 288 umpa-umpa, 68, 96–97, 122, 208, 212 vals (waltz) rhythm, 169, 294, 307–308 accompaniment patterns, 92–93 meter, 28, 93 peruano (Peruvian), 93, 170 vanguardia (avant-garde), 65, 68–69, 188 Varchausky, Ignancio, 30n11, 78–79, 89n7 Vardaro, Elvino, 177–178, 222 Vardaro-Pugliese Sextet. See Pugliese, Osvaldo, ensembles of Vargas, Angel, 54, 125 variaciones (variations) in tango melodies, 33–34, 48, 101–102 Vega, Carlos, 8–9, 9n22 (p.370) vibraphones, Possetti using, 302, 308, 311, 314, 316 Villoldo, Ángel, 10, 11, 29, 40 violas, 26, 182, 297–299. See also strings violins. See also strings other instruments imitating, 232, 277 performance styles of, 211–212 performance techniques of, 117, 145–146, 246, 275–276, 297 solos, 195, 229, 275–276, 281, 284, 310 tangueros’ skill on, 292–293, 309 tangueros’ training on, 138, 177, 288 in traditional tango instrumentation, 25–27, 41, 47–48, 74, 308 used in melodies, 153, 183, 195, 298, 309 used in melody variations, 156, 244, 246 uses of, 42, 108–109, 147, 150, 263 yeites for, 128, 130–131 yeites (“licks”), 27, 50, 112 in compositions and arrangements, 149, 153, 206, 241, 259, 276, 288, 292, 297, 299, 301, 309 in performance styles, 127–133, 145, 166, 168, 187, 212, 232, 257, 291, 293–294 Yoneyama, Yoshinori, 267, 289 yumba technique, 86, 96 execution of, 120, 132 in “La yumba,” 190–195 notation of, 96 Page 27 of 28

Index Piazzolla’s, 231, 236 Pugliese’s, 74, 182, 185–187, 189, 331 Zárate, Cristián, 320, 323, 327n20, 330n21 zarzuela, 9, 139, 198 Ziegler, Pablo, 2, 87, 88n5, 126, 225, 227, 233

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