To Serve My Country, to Serve My Race: The Story of the Only African-American WACS Stationed Overseas During World War II 9780814763247

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"A fine study o f militar y sociolog y an d group interaction. " —Choice "A fascinatin g accoun t o f blac k wome n i n th e arme d force s i n Worl d War II. We ar e indebted to Brenda Moore fo r recording this story whil e these wome n ar e stil l wit h us . Moor e give s powerfu l ne w insight s fo r African America n studies , gende r studies , an d military history. " —Charles Moskos, Northwestern University "To read about the Black women of the famous '6888th ' is to reimagin e World War II— a good thin g t o d o i n the 1990s! " —Cynthia Enloe, Professor of Government, Clark University

TO SERVE MY COUNTRY, TO SERVE MY RACE The Story of the Only African American Wacs Stationed Overseas during World War II Brenda L. Moore

NEW YORK UNIVERSITY PRES S New York and London

NEW YOR K U N I V E R S I T Y PRES S New Yor k an d Londo n Copyright © 199 6 b y Ne w Yor k Universit y All right s reserve d Library o f Congres s Cataloging-in-Publicatio n Dat a Moore, Brend a L. , 1 9 5 0 To serv e m y country , t o serv e m y rac e : the stor y o f th e onl y African America n WAC S statione d oversea s durin g Worl d Wa r I I / Brenda L . Moore , p. cm . Includes bibliographica l reference s (p . ) and index . ISBN 0-8147-5522- 4 (acid-fre e paper ) ISB N 0-8147-5587- 9 (pbk. ) 1. Unite d States—Armed Forces—Afro-Americans . 2 . Unite d States — Armed Forces—Women . 3 . Worl d War, 1939-1945—Afro-Americans . 4. Worl d War , 1939-1945—Participation , Female . 5 . Unite d States . Army.—Women's Arm y Corps . I . Tide . UB418.A47M66 199 6 940.54'03—dc20 95-3246 7 CIP New Yor k Universit y Pres s book s ar e printe d o n acid-fre e paper , and thei r bindin g material s ar e chose n fo r strengt h an d durability . Manufactured i n th e Unite d State s o f Americ a 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

This book is dedicated to my mother Hester W. Moore who, from the beginning, persevered in opening doors for me.

Contents

Preface ix Acknowledgments xi Abbreviations xiii List of Tables and figures xv 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Introduction 1 A Changing Military Structure 24 Fight Our Battles and Claim Our Victories 49 Just American Soldiers Going to Do a Job 84 Serving in the European Theater of Operations, January 1945-March 1946 109 Life after Military Service 144 Cohesion, Conflict, and Phenomenology 179 Epilogue 199 Appendix A. Interviewees 203 Appendix B. Survey of Members of the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion 209 Appendix C . Roster Containing Names, Ranks, and Serial Numbers of 742 6888th Members 217 Notes 231 Bibliography 257 Index 265 All photographs appear as an insert following page 176

Preface

This boo k i s a resul t o f m y longtim e interes t i n th e subjec t o f African America n wome n i n th e military . Whil e servin g si x year s on activ e dut y i n th e U.S . Army, I recognized tha t Africa n Ameri can women' s experience s ar e differen t fro m thos e o f Africa n American me n an d o f Euro-America n women . Whil e completin g a doctorat e i n sociolog y wit h a focu s o n militar y studie s a t th e University o f Chicago , I notice d th e glarin g absenc e o f Africa n American militar y wome n fro m al l o f th e majo r studies ; it was a s though blac k wome n di d no t exist . Indeed , ther e ha s lon g bee n a need fo r a systemati c stud y o f Africa n America n women' s rol e i n national defense . Althoug h a coupl e o f book s an d a fe w article s have bee n writte n recentl y o n th e topic , researc h o n blac k women's contribution s i n the militar y remain s sparse . The purpos e o f thi s boo k i s t o examin e th e consequence s o f changes i n rac e an d gende r policie s fo r th e statu s o f Africa n American wome n i n the Army during World War II . World War II is a logical perio d t o stud y becaus e i t marked a significant turnin g point i n th e statu s o f racia l minoritie s an d wome n i n th e U.S . armed services . Durin g tha t er a opportunitie s fo r wome n i n th e military expanded , a s discusse d a t lengt h i n chapte r 1 . Wha t social, political , an d organizationa l factor s influence d chang e i n racial an d gende r policie s i n th e militar y durin g Worl d Wa r II ? IX

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Preface

What wer e th e uniqu e factor s associate d wit h bein g Africa n American, female , an d i n the armed service s at that time in American history ? Ho w di d thes e wome n activel y shap e thei r lives ? These an d othe r question s ar e explored i n the followin g pages .

Acknowledgments

I a m deepl y indebte d t o th e forme r member s o f th e 6888t h Cen tral Posta l Director y Battalio n fo r thei r willingnes s t o b e inter viewed. The y wer e generou s wit h thei r tim e an d i n som e case s shared treasure d scrapbook s containin g photographs , officia l mil itary document s wit h raise d seals , and writte n memoirs . To al l of them I am sincerel y grateful . Ideas fo r thi s boo k bega n t o develo p i n sprin g 1991 , whe n I received a Dr. Nual a McGan n Dresche r Affirmativ e Actio n Leav e Award t o researc h archiva l document s o n wome n i n th e U.S . Army. I wa s abl e t o develo p thos e idea s furthe r whil e a t th e University o f Marylan d a t Colleg e Par k o n a postdoctoral fellow ship awar d durin g academi c yea r 1991—92 . I than k Mad y an d David Sega l fo r servin g a s m y sponsors , an d fo r thei r valuabl e feedback o n m y work . I researche d an d wrot e portion s o f thi s book durin g th e summer s o f 199 2 an d 1993 , thank s t o summe r faculty award s fro m th e United State s Army Researc h Institut e fo r the Behaviora l an d Socia l Sciences . Som e o f th e theme s i n th e book wer e reprinte d fro m a n articl e I wrote i n 199 3 title d "Serv ing with a Dual Mission : Africa n America n Wome n i n World Wa r II," wit h th e permissio n o f th e National Journal of Sociology. I am als o gratefu l t o Charle s C . Moskos , Cynthi a Enloe , an d tw o XI

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Acknowledgments

anonymous reviewer s fo r thei r valuabl e comment s o n a n earlie r draft o f thi s book . A gran t fro m th e Julia n Par k Publicatio n Fun d a t th e Stat e University o f Ne w Yor k a t Buffal o assiste d wit h th e duplicatio n of som e o f th e archiva l photographs . Som e of m y travel expenses , as wel l a s fund s fo r tap e transcriptions , wer e provide d b y th e School o f Law , Bald y Center , a t th e Stat e Universit y o f Ne w York a t Buffal o unde r th e Gende r an d La w Project . Finally , I am thankfu l t o Do n Watkin s an d t o Barbar a Evan s a t th e Stat e University o f Ne w Yor k a t Buffalo' s Ar t an d Photographi c Ser vices, for preparin g m y figures an d tables .

Abbreviations

ACWIS AGCT AWOL CO ETO G-l KP MP NAWSA NAACP NCAC NCO NCNW

ocs

OJT POWs SO VA WAAC Waac

Advisory Counci l t o th e Women's Interest s Sectio n Army Genera l Classificatio n Tes t Absent Without Leav e Commanding Office r European Theate r o f Operation s Assistant Chie f o f Staf f fo r Personne l Kitchen Polic e Military Polic e National America n Woma n Suffrag e Associatio n National Associatio n fo r th e Advancemen t o f Colore d People National Civilia n Advisor y Committe e Noncommissioned Office r National Counci l o f Negr o Wome n Officer Candidat e Schoo l On th e Job Trainin g Prisoners o f Wa r Special Order s Veterans Administratio n Women's Arm y Auxiliar y Corp s A member o f th e WAA C

Xlll

XIV

Abbreviations WAC Women' s Arm y Corp s Wac A member o f th e WAC WAVES Wome n Accepte d fo r Voluntee r Emergenc y Servic e WIS Women' s Interest s Sectio n

List of Tables and Figures

Table 1 . Parent' s Occupatio n an d Interviewee' s Occupation befor e Militar y Servic e 8 Table 2. Interviewee' s Age , Education , Rank , Civilia n Occupation, an d Father' s an d Mother' s Occupations 8 Table 3. Servic e Comman d fro m Whic h Member s of th e 6888t h Entere d th e Militar y 9 Table 4. African-America n Wome n i n th e Arm y fro m 1943-1993 19 Figure 1 . 6888t h Livin g Facilitie s i n Englan d Figure 2. Chai n o f Comman d o f 6888t h Member s

xv

5 6 4 6 113 131

1 Introduction We had classe s i n militar y organization , ho w t o salute , how t o march . "Tak e 3 0 steps, " barke d th e dril l ser geant. "Fal l in ! Dress right ! Fall out ! Dress righ t dress! Clean the latrine! Polish the shoes! Make the cot! Police the area ! Reveille ! Retreat ! Mes s Call ! Mai l Call ! Straighten those shoulders! Belly in! Hut two! Whatever made you blankety blankety women think you could be soldiers ?" — Gertrude LaVigne

World Wa r I I marke d a turnin g poin t i n th e statu s o f racia l minorities an d wome n i n th e U.S . arme d services . Th e natur e o f the conflic t challenge d existin g form s o f socia l stratificatio n i n th e Army, a s well a s in othe r America n institutions . Previou s militar y restrictions place d o n rac e wer e lifte d a s a resul t o f th e Selectiv e Service Trainin g Ac t o f 1940 , an d Africa n America n me n wer e recruited fo r th e wa r effor t i n greate r number s tha n i n previou s wars. They als o served in a greater variety of military assignments . Opportunities fo r wome n wer e als o expanding , beginnin g wit h the establishment o f the Women's Army Auxiliary Corp s (WAAC ) in Marc h 1942 . Th e WAA C wa s converte d t o th e WAC , o r Women's Arm y Corps , i n 1943 , giving women ful l militar y bene fits. Th e Wome n Accepte d fo r Voluntee r Emergenc y Servic e (WAVES) wa s institute d i n Jul y 1942 , an d th e Marin e Corp s enrolled wome n i n Februar y 1943 . Ther e wa s n o separat e ai r force i n the American militar y durin g World Wa r II , but rathe r a n Army Ai r Corps , which wa s part o f th e War Department . Indeed , 1

2

Introduction

the fortie s witnesse d a movemen t launche d b y th e U.S . War De partment t o recrui t larg e number s o f wome n int o th e militar y t o contribute t o th e war effort . Until Worl d Wa r I I Africa n America n wome n wer e virtuall y excluded fro m militar y service . Althoug h severa l attempte d t o participate i n Worl d Wa r I , onl y eightee n wer e accepte d fo r dut y in th e Arm y Nurse s Corps. 1 Durin g Worl d Wa r II , b y contrast , African America n wome n wer e accepte d int o th e Women' s Arm y Auxiliary Corp s a s soo n a s i t wa s founded , largel y becaus e o f pressure place d o n th e War Departmen t b y blac k politica l organi zations demandin g racia l equality . Blac k activist s monitore d closely th e Wa r Department' s plan s fo r developin g a women' s corps; thus , whe n i t wa s reveale d tha t a Texan , Ovet a Cul p Hobby, wa s appointe d a s directo r o f th e WAAC , the y proteste d the appointmen t o n th e ground s tha t Hobby , becaus e o f he r southern background , woul d discriminat e agains t Africa n Ameri can women. After Hobb y allocate d fort y o f the first officer traine e slots t o Africa n America n women , blac k oppositio n t o he r ap pointment tapere d off. 2 Independen t o f th e effort s o f blac k politi cal organizations , Africa n America n wome n als o participate d i n feminist venture s t o gai n publi c acceptanc e o f a women's militar y corps. (Example s o f thes e effort s ar e discusse d a t lengt h i n chap ters 2 and 3. ) Most Africa n America n wome n wh o serve d i n th e militar y during th e wa r joine d th e U.S . Army , becaus e th e othe r service s categorically refuse d t o admi t them . Th e Navy , fo r example , di d not begi n acceptin g Africa n America n wome n fo r activ e dut y until nearl y tw o an d one-hal f year s afte r th e WAVE S cam e int o existence.3 Nava l official s explaine d tha t the y di d no t allo w Afri can America n wome n t o serv e becaus e ther e wer e n o blac k me n going o n se a dut y fo r the m t o replace. 4 Nobod y coul d explai n why African America n wome n coul d not replace white men; obvi ously tha t wa s simpl y take n fo r granted . Consequently , Africa n American wome n wer e exclude d fro m servic e i n th e Nav y unti l President Roosevel t ra n fo r a fourt h ter m o f offic e an d directl y

Introduction

3

ordered th e Nav y t o admi t them. 5 Unlik e Africa n America n women servin g i n th e WAAC/WAC , th e fe w wh o serve d i n th e Navy wer e integrate d wit h whit e WAVES , largely becaus e s o fe w African America n wome n wer e admitted . The forme r directo r o f th e WAVES , Mildre d McAfe e Horton , revealed i n a published intervie w tha t th e Navy ha d n o rea l prob lems in integrating blac k wome n a t that time : It was announced quickl y that we would accept officers an d we wanted officers particularl y to help supervise the women—the Negro women— at Hunte r [College ] in th e basi c training school , where there was to be no segregatio n excep t tha t ther e woul d b e a compan y o f 25 0 [Negro ] women, and they would have all the privileges of the station, they would eat i n th e sam e mess , everything there , whic h wa s a simpl y incredibl e achievement from th e point of view of where we'd been in the Navy. . . . The 25 0 wome n t o b e take n int o th e compan y a t Hunte r wer e wa y short—I think that there were only 25. . . . The Negro girls simply went in an d too k thei r place s wit h everyon e else . . . . Captain Amsde n said , "The onl y episod e tha t w e remembe r wa s whe n on e whit e gir l wen t down to the mate of the deck in the apartment hous e and said , 'I think there must be some mistake because I find that my roommate is going to be a Negr o girl, ' an d th e office r o f th e dec k said , 'Well , we'r e i n th e Navy now , an d we'r e al l citizens. ' " So , Captai n Amsde n said , "th e white girl went upstairs and helped her roommate make her bunk." 6 The Marin e Corp s di d no t enlis t Africa n America n wome n unti l after th e war, i n September 1949. 7 Thus, during the war th e Arm y offered th e greates t opportunit y fo r racia l minoritie s i n genera l and Africa n America n wome n i n particula r t o serv e o n activ e duty. Deploymen t o f racia l minoritie s an d wome n i n th e Arm y during World War II represented milestone s that led in subsequen t years to racia l an d gende r integratio n o f al l the armed services . To Serve My Country, To Serve My Race relie s heavil y o n testimonies o f wome n wh o serve d i n th e 6888t h Centra l Posta l Directory Battalion , th e onl y grou p o f Africa n America n Wac s (members o f th e Women' s Arm y Corps ) t o serv e oversea s durin g the war . Becaus e o f it s rac e an d gende r composition , th e 6888t h

4

Introduction

would hav e been inconceivable befor e World War II. An estimate d 855 Africa n America n Wacs , 82 4 enliste d wome n an d 3 1 officers , served with th e 6888th . (Th e names, ranks, and seria l numbers o f 742 o f thes e wome n ar e liste d i n Appendi x C. ) Wh o wer e thes e women, an d wher e di d the y com e from ? Wha t wer e thei r living , working, an d socia l experience s whil e the y serve d i n Europe ? How di d militar y servic e affec t thei r live s when the y reentered th e civilian worl d an d later ? Wha t ca n thei r experience s teac h u s more broadl y abou t socia l conflic t an d socia l change ? Fifty-on e women wh o serve d wit h th e 6888t h wer e interviewe d fo r thi s book, 5 officer s an d 4 6 enliste d women . Thei r name s an d birth places and th e places and date s of my interviews of them ar e listed in Appendi x A . Thes e wome n trul y represen t th e diversit y tha t characterized th e unit . The y entere d th e militar y fro m differen t geographical areas , fro m differen t socioeconomi c backgrounds , and wit h differen t educationa l achievemen t levels , a s discusse d further i n chapter 4 . When I embarke d o n thi s research , s o littl e ha d bee n writte n about Africa n America n wome n i n th e militar y tha t I ha d t o go ou t int o th e field t o collec t an d consolidat e information . B y thoroughly examinin g document s a t th e Militar y Referenc e Branch o f th e Nationa l Archives , I was abl e t o locat e th e name s of som e o f th e Africa n America n wome n wh o ha d serve d i n England an d Franc e durin g Worl d Wa r II . I researche d lead s o n these wome n an d eventuall y obtaine d telephon e number s and , i n some cases , addresses . Afte r designin g a questionnaire , I bega n conducting interview s b y telephone . When I contacted th e first fe w interviewees , I was astounded t o learn that these women lea d very active lives; I had imagined the m as dorman t an d sedentary . Muc h t o m y surprise , som e o f thes e senior citizens are still employed full time , others serve on politica l boards, and almos t all of them d o volunteer work in their commu nities. Many o f th e wome n trave l t o variou s organizationa l meet ings and governmen t function s t o speak abou t their militar y expe rience. Severa l attende d th e Tribut e t o Worl d Wa r I I Veteran s

Introduction

5

held b y th e Blac k Congressiona l Caucu s i n Washington , D.C . i n September 1994 . I wa s ver y please d b y th e women' s receptivenes s t o m y stud y and b y their willingness, even eagerness, to provide m e with infor mation. Wit h eac h intervie w I acquired th e name s o f on e o r tw o additional wome n wh o ha d serve d wit h th e group . This snowbal l process continue d throughou t th e entir e interviewin g period . Al though I interviewe d mos t o f th e wome n b y telephone , I als o traveled throughou t th e Unite d State s an d interviewe d severa l i n person. Durin g m y travel s I attended tw o larg e event s fo r wome n veterans, wher e I wa s abl e t o mee t an d intervie w som e forme r members o f th e 6888th . Th e firs t event , th e Fiftiet h Anniversar y Convention o f th e Women' s Arm y Corps , wa s hel d a t For t McClellan, Alabama , i n Ma y 1992 . Th e secon d even t wa s th e Black WAAC-WA C Wome n i n th e Service s Eight h Biennia l Re union, hel d i n Septembe r o f th e sam e year . Becaus e o f tim e con straints I interviewe d som e o f th e wome n durin g th e event s an d made arrangement s t o interview other s later . This study als o draws on archiva l documents o n African Ameri cans an d wome n wh o serve d i n the militar y durin g World Wa r II . I obtained document s fro m severa l source s including th e Nationa l Archives, Washington , D . C ; th e Bethun e Museu m an d Archives , Washington, D . C ; th e Schombur g Cente r fo r Researc h i n Blac k Culture, Ne w York ; th e Headquarter s Unite d State s Ai r Forc e Historical Researc h Cente r a t Maxwell Air Force Base, Montgom ery; th e Historica l Archive s a t Tuskege e University ; th e Cente r of Militar y History , Washington , D . C ; th e Nationa l Personne l Records Center , St . Louis ; th e Ora l Histor y Department , U.S . Naval Institute , Annapolis ; th e U.S . Militar y Histor y Institute , Carlisle Barracks , Pennsylvania ; th e Amista d Researc h Center , New Orleans ; an d th e WA C Foundatio n a t For t McClellan , Ala bama. I n som e instances informatio n foun d i n nontechnical mate rial suc h a s diarie s an d biographie s helpe d m e t o formulat e th e data use d fo r thi s study . I first examine d fo r conten t th e officia l literature , suc h a s mili -

6

Introduction

tary documents , an d th e nonofficia l literature , suc h a s biogra phies, diaries, documents, manuscripts, an d records. Then I developed a questionnair e t o surve y forme r member s o f th e 6888t h about thei r live s before , during , an d afte r militar y servic e (se e Appendix B) . Interview s wer e conducte d b y telephon e an d i n person. I aske d open-ende d question s i n a n effor t t o encourag e respondents t o spea k freel y o n a specifi c topi c an d thereb y revea l unexpected insight s int o thei r militar y experiences . I used closed ended question s t o ascertai n specifi c facts . Al l o f th e interview s were audiotaped; i n one instance I conducted a videotaped sessio n in Boston wit h a member o f th e 6888th . Interviewee s participate d voluntarily, coul d withdra w a t an y time , an d wer e give n th e op portunity t o revie w th e results . Members o f th e 6888t h wer e no t th e onl y Africa n America n women t o serv e oversea s durin g th e war. Blac k nurse s ha d serve d in Australi a an d Afric a befor e th e establishmen t o f th e 6888th . (The arm y nurse s corp s wa s a separat e organizatio n fro m th e WAC.) In fact, th e first African America n wome n t o serve oversea s were a uni t o f nurse s assigne d t o Liberia . Later , i n June o f 1944 , a uni t o f sixty-thre e blac k nurse s wa s sen t t o Englan d t o car e fo r German prisoner s o f war . I n contras t t o th e divers e member s o f the 6888th , al l o f thes e blac k nurse s ha d distinguishe d themselve s as part o f th e medica l profession. 8 The 6888t h wa s mor e tha n eigh t time s a s larg e a s th e larges t unit o f Africa n America n nurse s t o b e deploye d oversea s an d wa s more representativ e o f blac k wome n i n th e large r society ; som e were professionals , whil e other s wer e unskilled . Member s o f th e unit cam e fro m al l walk s o f life . The y entere d th e militar y fro m different regions , bu t th e majorit y cam e fro m th e easter n regio n of th e Unite d States . Som e ha d attende d elementar y schoo l i n cities, other s i n countr y towns . Som e wen t awa y t o colleg e an d graduated befor e enterin g th e military; other s entere d th e militar y directly ou t o f hig h school . Although the y represented al l levels of education, talent , an d skills , mos t o f thes e wome n wer e wel l educated an d ha d clerica l experience . The y wer e ambitiou s and youn g an d wante d t o "mak e something " o f themselves .

Introduction

7

Moreover, the y wante d t o mak e a differenc e i n th e world . Realizing tha t "th e eye s o f th e world " wer e upo n them , mem bers o f th e 6888t h welcome d th e opportunit y t o prov e them selves publicl y an d t o blaz e a trai l fo r othe r Africa n America n women. Not th e typica l WA C unit deploye d overseas , the 6888t h wa s a microcosm o f th e then-current sociopolitica l struggle s ove r effort s to giv e blac k wome n th e righ t t o serv e i n al l facet s o f th e U.S . Army. Befor e the y wer e assemble d int o th e 6888th , thes e wome n worked i n a variety o f militar y occupation s a t a number o f Arm y and Arm y Ai r Forc e installation s throughou t th e Unite d States . The unit was compose d o f women fro m bot h Arm y Air Force an d Army Servic e Forc e units , s o tha t al l Africa n America n Wac s would hav e a n opportunit y t o serv e overseas . Thi s remarkabl e group serve d i n Englan d an d Franc e fro m Januar y 194 5 unti l March 1946 . Th e battalion' s member s wer e rotate d bac k t o th e United State s a t differen t times , dependin g o n ho w lon g the y ha d already served . Members o f th e 6888t h joine d th e WAAC/WA C fo r a variet y of personal , political , an d economi c reasons . The y ha d n o ide a where the y woul d b e assigne d t o wor k onc e the y entere d th e Army, bu t mos t believe d tha t the y woul d b e treate d th e sam e a s white Waacs/Wacs . Africa n America n wome n wer e tol d tha t th e military woul d no t discriminat e agains t the m becaus e o f thei r race, an d the y believe d it . Deepl y affecte d b y advertisement s stressing nationalistic themes , some women joine d t o demonstrat e patriotism. Throug h th e Offic e o f Wa r Informatio n (OWI) , whic h placed advertisement s i n magazine s an d newspaper s an d o n th e radio, th e Arm y encourage d thousand s o f wome n t o joi n th e Women's Arm y Auxiliar y Corps. 9 Mos t o f thes e advertisement s were aime d towar d alterin g gende r role s o f middle-clas s whit e women b y sendin g th e messag e tha t wome n coul d retai n thei r femininity eve n thoug h the y wer e stron g enoug h t o activel y sup port th e war effort . A few advertisement s wer e als o placed i n black newspapers . To avoid th e impressio n o f discriminatin g agains t Africa n America n

8

Introduction

women, th e Wa r Departmen t advertise d i n publication s suc h a s New York' s Amsterdam News, th e Chicago Defender, an d th e magazine The Crisis: A Record of the Darker Races t o targe t women i n th e blac k community . Fo r th e sam e purpos e th e Arm y printed a WAAC recruitment poste r i n 194 2 o n whic h a n Africa n American woma n pointe d t o th e captio n "Wome n Answe r Amer ica's Call." 10 Man y o f th e 6888t h member s joine d th e militar y i n response t o Arm y advertisement s i n th e blac k press , headline d with th e now-famous sloga n "Uncl e Sa m Needs You. " Gertrude LaVigne , suppl y sergean t o f th e 6888th , state d i n a n interview tha t th e advertisement s abou t th e WAAC influenced he r to joi n th e military . Bor n i n Jacksonville, Alabama, LaVign e live d with tw o brothers , fou r sisters , an d he r mother . He r fathe r ha d died whe n sh e wa s ver y young ; he r mothe r supporte d he r famil y by workin g i n tobacc o fields fo r a fe w year s befor e movin g t o Cincinnati an d startin g a catering business . LaVigne left schoo l i n the elevent h grade , worke d ful l tim e i n he r mother' s caterin g business, an d marrie d he r first husban d jus t befor e goin g int o th e military. Becaus e sh e place d a hig h premiu m o n education , LaVigne wa s especiall y intereste d i n th e G I benefit s tha t th e mili tary wa s offering : "Whe n I sa w al l th e advertisemen t abou t schooling an d th e othe r benefits , an d th e trave l whic h woul d probably b e involved, I thought, Thi s is what I want." n Both blac k an d whit e recruiters visited blac k school s to encour age black women t o join the WAC. Allie Davis, who serve d a s one of th e man y posta l clerk s o f th e 6888th , gre w u p o n a far m i n Colbert, Oklahoma , wit h he r parents , tw o brothers , an d tw o sisters. Davis ha d complete d thre e year s o f college ; before joinin g the militar y sh e worke d par t tim e a s a laundres s t o hel p pa y he r college expenses . Sh e signe d u p afte r learnin g abou t th e G I Bil l from a white mal e recruite r wh o ha d visite d her school . Sammye Davi s was bor n i n Cottag e Grove , Alabama, bu t gre w up i n Memphi s wit h he r father , stepmother , an d younge r twi n brothers. He r biologica l mothe r ha d die d whe n sh e wa s six , an d her fathe r remarrie d whe n sh e wa s eight . Davi s graduate d fro m

Introduction

9

LeMoyne Colleg e i n 194 4 wit h a degree i n educatio n an d joine d the militar y becaus e sh e wa s impresse d b y a n Africa n America n Wac who visited her college. She recalls, "Sh e looked goo d physi cally. Sh e looke d health y an d sh e represente d th e Arm y ver y well." Davis worked as a postal cler k with the 6888th . Dorothy Johnson , anothe r cas e i n point , ha d complete d fou r years a t Spelma n Colleg e befor e joinin g th e military . Lookin g back at the reasons why she joined the military, Johnson says: In the first place I think I joined because I was bored at Spelman. And the second reason I joined was that I wanted to travel. I wanted to go overseas. Probably the third most compelling reason was that one morning a recruiting officer wa s one of ou r speakers in the chapel convocation, an d she made such an impression o n a number of u s that . .. w e decided that was the thing that we wanted to do. And so we did. Elaine Bennet t joine d th e WAC "becaus e I wanted t o prov e t o myself, an d mayb e t o th e world , tha t w e [Africa n Americans ] would giv e what we ha d back t o th e United States as a confirma tion tha t w e wer e full-fledge d citizens. " Bennet t wa s t o becom e the first sergean t o f Compan y D . Bor n i n Madison , Florida , sh e was on e o f th e two childre n of a black businessma n an d his wife , who worked as a seamstress. Bennett describes her family as closeknit. Bot h o f he r parents were activ e i n church : "M y fathe r was , of course , a trustee , m y mothe r san g i n th e choir , an d the y wer e very, very religious people. You didn't play cards in my house an d you didn' t danc e i n m y house , an d tha t kin d o f thing. " Throug h her church Bennett earne d a n academic scholarshi p t o New Yor k University. Sh e completed three years of colleg e before joinin g the military: " I was majorin g i n busines s administration . . . . M y fa ther an d mothe r fel t tha t I bette r majo r i n educatio n becaus e during that time . . . w e [Africa n Americans ] onl y ha d the oppor tunity t o preac h o r teach . Bu t teachin g wa s reall y no t m y bag , i t really wasn't." Margaret Barbou r wa s th e younges t chil d i n a famil y o f thre e boys and four girls:

10

Introduction

I wa s bor n i n Seaford , Virginia . I lived i n a whit e neighborhood ; m y family wa s th e onl y Black s there , an d stil l is . I didn' t hav e an y racia l problems. Schools were segregated. I was quite content when I came out of high school; at that time they had the National Youth Administration, and they sent me to college. I went to McKinley Union University; they had a branch in Norfolk, Virginia at that time. When I asked her why she joined the military, Barbour responded , "My mothe r ha d passed . Ther e wa s onl y m y fathe r an d I left. S o I thought i t [th e military ] woul d b e a goo d chang e fo r me , an d i t worked ou t jus t fine." Some o f th e wome n joine d th e Arm y i n a n effor t t o advanc e occupationally. Bernic e Thomas wa s bor n i n Brooklyn an d reare d in Harlem , th e onl y chil d o f a musicia n an d a domesti c worker . Thomas wa s a singl e parent , workin g i n th e garmen t district , before enterin g th e military i n 1944 : Had I stayed i n Ne w York , I could se e no advancemen t fo r m e in an y field. I wa s workin g i n th e garmen t district , an d a t on e tim e I wa s working o n a specialize d machin e wher e yo u di d on e littl e thin g ove r and ove r an d ove r al l da y long . And the n I started pressin g al l o f thi s underwear, I would just be exhausted. I wasn't really satisfied wit h how my lif e wa s progressin g a t tha t time , an d I fel t tha t wome n i n th e military wer e goin g to hav e a bette r opportunit y whe n everythin g was over an d ther e woul d b e more job s openin g up , particularly fo r blac k women. Had I continued t o work a t the garment district , I would have been dead and gone a long time ago because I couldn't have withstood it. Thomas, lik e man y othe r Africa n America n wome n goin g int o the Women' s Arm y Corps , wa s willin g t o mak e th e sacrifice s necessary t o obtai n veteran' s benefit s i n th e year s tha t woul d follow th e war . Fo r Thoma s th e sacrific e wa s eve n mor e de manding tha n i t wa s fo r man y others , becaus e sh e lef t behin d a 16-year-old son : The only personal disadvantage of serving in the military was that I had to leav e m y so n i n Ne w Jersey wit h som e dea r friends . An d I kind of

Introduction

11

think I lost a lot b y no t bein g with hi m a t th e tim e I should hav e been . I tried t o explai n t o hi m tha t I was doin g this fo r bot h o f ou r benefits . H e was ver y unhapp y whe n I lef t eve n thoug h h e understoo d my reason s because w e talke d i t out . Bu t h e wa s ver y unhapp y tha t h e didn' t hav e mama becaus e I was th e closest thing to him. I think tha t b y leaving hi m in New Jersey with friends , I lost the friendship I once had wit h him . Similarly, Blanch e Scott , w h o wa s bor n i n Boydto n i n Mecklen burg County , Virginia , reports : I had on e whol e brothe r an d thre e half-brother s an d on e half-sister . M y parents wer e bot h teachers . M y fathe r wa s marrie d befor e h e marrie d my mother , s o I never live d aroun d m y half-siste r an d brothers . I wen t into th e militar y fro m Washington , D.C . I graduate d fro m hig h schoo l in 193 4 an d ha d thre e year s o f colleg e befor e th e depressio n hit . Se e my mother die d th e yea r tha t I graduate d hig h school . I ha d a scholarshi p and I went t o Howar d Universit y i n 1934 . To be frank wit h you , the da y that I was suppose d t o ente r Howard , my mothe r died . Sh e was injure d in a streetca r ou t o n Rout e 103 ; an d sh e died , an d sh e wa s burie d th e day I was suppos e t o ente r Howard . Bu t I went [t o Howard ] becaus e I had a scholarship . An d i t wa s jus t har d an d I didn' t graduat e an d s o I finally go t a jo b afte r thre e an d a half years . And I got along ; ther e wa s no on e bu t me . I remember whe n I had a bo x o f cracker s an d a ca n o f potted mea t tha t woul d las t m e a coupl e o f days , bu t I never though t I was poor. I think bac k no w an d I don't kno w ho w som e of thes e peopl e today woul d hav e made i t back then . I went t o work fo r th e governmen t as a nursin g attendan t a t St . Elizabeth Hospital ; i t was a menta l institu tion an d stil l is . And the n I was o n th e clerks ' register ; s o whe n I cam e up on th e clerks' register I transferred fro m tha t to the Navy Departmen t to work a s a clerk. And the n I left t o g o into th e Army . The 1940 s witnesse d widesprea d underemploymen t an d unem ployment amon g Africa n Americans . Th e Unite d State s a t tha t time typifie d a racial-cast e society , whic h place d Africa n Ameri cans a t a disadvantag e i n relatio n t o othe r racia l an d ethni c groups. 1 2 T o man y Africa n America n women , th e militar y repre sented a glimme r o f hop e fo r realizin g thei r dreams .

12

Introduction

Willie Whitin g joine d th e militar y becaus e "m y famil y coul d not affor d t o sen d m e t o college. " Sh e live d wit h he r mother , stepfather, an d brother : My dad was a refrigerating enginee r a t an ice company, and my mother was a housewif e an d a seamstress . We lived i n Chicag o wher e Rober t Taylor Home s [ a housing projec t i n Chicago , notoriou s fo r gan g war s and other crime] are now erected. It was a two-story frame when I lived there. I went to elementary school in the neighborhood. My brother and I went t o a n integrate d hig h schoo l o n th e west sid e of th e city , which was know n a s McKinle y Hig h Schoo l a t th e time . I graduated . M y brother died [o f natural causes] before he came out of high school. Before enterin g th e militar y Whitin g ha d complete d tw o year s o f college: " I ha d intermittentl y bee n employed . Ther e wa s n o money fo r m e to go to college . The funds tha t were used—I gues s a portio n o f the m wa s a par t o f th e insuranc e proceed s fro m m y brother's death—wer e exhausted ; an d ther e wer e no t th e beauti ful grant s an d thos e thing s tha t ar e availabl e today. " Whitin g joined th e WA C i n Septembe r 1944 , thre e month s afte r Presiden t Roosevelt signe d int o la w th e Servicemen' s Readjustmen t Ac t o f 1944 (th e G I Bill , whic h provide d educationa l benefit s fo r veter ans). Th e G I Bil l was a stron g incentiv e fo r thos e wh o wante d t o go o n t o highe r educatio n afte r thei r militar y service , an d recruit ers constantly mentione d i t to potential recruits . Like Bernice Thomas, Blanch e Scott , an d Willi e Whiting, othe r women als o joine d th e militar y a s a mean s o f upwar d mobility . Mary Daniel s Williams, a former coo k i n the 6888th , was born i n Cleveland an d live d with he r parents, two sisters , and three broth ers. He r mothe r worke d ironin g shirts , an d he r fathe r wa s a mechanic. Growin g u p durin g th e depression , William s remem bers tha t opportunitie s fo r Africa n America n wome n wer e ver y scarce: " I was going nowhere fast . I was getting older an d I could just se e u s livin g i n th e slum s forever. " William s ha d complete d the nint h grad e an d wa s cleanin g house s befor e sh e joine d th e military. (" I ha d n o skills.") Sh e had a n unsuccessful marriag e an d had give n birth t o a stillborn child . Williams recalls , " I could loo k

Introduction

13

up an d se e all thos e othe r [sociall y disadvantaged ] people , an d al l the million s o f kids . I [coul d se e myself ] livin g i n tw o o r thre e rooms fo r th e res t o f m y life , an d I decide d fo r mysel f I wasn' t going to d o it. " William s spok e wit h a military recruite r a t a pos t office i n Cincinnati : "The y promise d u s education , ne w place s t o go and t o visit—well , jus t a totally ne w life. " Quite a fe w wome n state d tha t the y joine d th e Arm y becaus e they were unable to find employment i n the civilian sector. Other s assumed tha t the y woul d increas e thei r opportunit y t o obtai n a good educatio n b y joinin g th e Women' s Arm y Auxiliar y Corps . Gladys Anderson wante d t o advanc e b y acquiring the skill s necessary t o becom e a secretary . Margare t Barbou r wante d a "bette r way o f life. " Stil l other s wer e merel y curious : the y jus t wanted t o see what militar y servic e was like . While som e o f th e Africa n America n wome n mentione d s o fa r joined th e WAAC/WAC t o escap e sever e economi c hardship , oth ers lik e Davis , Johnson , Bennett , an d Barbou r ha d grow n u p i n households wher e thei r parent s mad e a comfortabl e living . Man y were abl e t o furthe r thei r forma l educatio n afte r hig h school , obtaining eithe r a vocationa l skil l o r a colleg e degree . Som e eve n secured stabl e employment. Rut h Wade , for example , was bor n i n Jackson, Tennessee , wher e sh e gre w u p i n a househol d wit h tw o sisters (on e o f who m wa s he r twin ) an d tw o brothers . He r fathe r was a barber , an d he r mothe r taugh t elementar y school . Wade' s family move d t o Detroi t whe n sh e wa s te n year s old . Ther e sh e completed hig h schoo l an d Ruby' s Beaut y School , "th e bigges t beauty schoo l i n Detroi t a t tha t particula r time. " I n th e 6888t h Wade was assigne d t o th e motor pool . Charity E . Adam s Earley , battalio n commande r o f th e 6888th , was bor n i n Columbia , Sout h Carolina , wher e sh e gre w u p wit h two brother s an d a sister. Her mothe r wa s a former schoolteache r who ha d retire d t o b e a homemaker ; he r fathe r wa s a n ordaine d minister i n th e Africa n Methodis t Episcopalia n Church . Afte r graduating fro m colleg e an d teachin g mathematic s fo r fou r year s in Sout h Carolina' s publi c schoo l system , Earle y wa s invite d b y

14

Introduction

the Wa r Departmen t t o appl y fo r th e Women' s Arm y Auxiliar y Corps: "Teachin g wa s abou t th e onl y thin g availabl e fo r yo u [African America n women ] unles s you went into domestic service . . . . The Arm y wa s recommende d t o m e an d I was recommende d to it , a s were mos t o f u s i n the firs t Officer' s Candidat e class , an d I decided t o tak e it. " A. Noel Campbel l Mitchell , the executive office r o f th e 6888th , was bor n i n Tuskegee , Alabama , wher e sh e gre w u p i n a house hold wit h he r parents , thre e brothers , an d tw o sisters . Her fathe r worked fo r th e Department o f Agriculture, teaching modern farm ing technique s t o rura l farmers ; he r mothe r wa s a homemaker . Mitchell graduate d fro m Tuskege e Institut e i n 194 0 with a degre e in hom e economic s an d taugh t tw o year s a t a junio r hig h schoo l in Cartersville , Georgi a befor e joinin g the WAAC. However divers e thei r backgrounds , member s o f th e 6888t h shared th e experienc e o f bein g stigmatize d a s blac k wome n i n a predominantly whit e mal e institution . Africa n America n me n an d (later) women o f Europea n descen t were being deployed overseas , but blac k wome n wer e exclude d fro m suc h assignment s unti l th e War Departmen t acquiesce d t o politica l pressur e specificall y aimed a t thi s omission . Challenge s t o th e Wa r Department' s ex clusionary practice s surface d i n newspape r article s an d wer e ex pressed i n comment s b y blac k congressiona l representative s an d leaders o f suc h communit y organization s a s the National Associa tion fo r th e Advancemen t o f Colore d Peopl e (NAACP ) an d th e National Counci l o f Negr o Wome n (NCNW) . (Th e latte r group , founded b y Mar y McLeo d Bethun e i n 1935 , consiste d o f severa l black women' s organizations. ) Militar y official s o f th e Europea n Theater o f Operation s (ETO ) concede d an d submitte d a requisi tion fo r blac k wome n t o se t up half o f a central postal directory. 13 Dorothy Bartlet t wa s reare d i n Newark, Ne w Jersey, where sh e lived wit h he r parents , tw o brothers , an d tw o sisters . He r fathe r was a n elevato r operato r a t a larg e hotel ; he r mothe r wa s a homemaker. Lik e many African America n women o f the time, she grew u p i n a low-incom e famil y tha t stresse d religio n an d mora l

Introduction

15

values: "Pap a wa s making ver y littl e money . Ther e wa s no goin g on picnic s fo r us . We all belonged t o Sunda y school . M y mothe r was Baptist ; m y fathe r wa s Methodist ; s o w e wen t t o eac h church." Bartlet t lef t schoo l t o get married i n 1925 . Her marriag e ended i n divorc e i n 1942 , after sh e had give n birt h t o on e child . She lived with her oldest siste r befor e goin g into the Army: " I had previously live d i n Brookly n wit h m y husband, an d the n whe n I got divorced , I took m y daughter an d went t o liv e i n Ne w Yor k [Manhattan]." In November 1944 , two months befor e member s of the 6888t h began oversea s orientatio n a t For t Oglethorpe , Georgia , Bartlet t joined th e WAC . She had bee n workin g a s a silk finisher i n th e garment sectio n o f Ne w Yor k Cit y an d soo n woul d becom e a postal cler k i n th e ver y uni t tha t wa s a t th e cente r o f muc h political debate : This unit [the 6888th] was formed throug h a lot of persuasion and stuff. Congressman Powell from New York was complaining about the lack of black Wacs overseas, and he was able to get something passed in Congress or something. Anyhow, this [the 6888th] was the only black WAC unit overseas the whole time. Margaret Barne s Jones , publi c relation s office r o f th e 6888th , was bor n i n Oberlin, Ohio , where sh e grew up with tw o brother s and tw o sisters. Her mother wa s a political activist , a membe r of the Speakers Bureau fo r the Republican Part y in the state of Ohio , and presiden t o f the Ohio Federatio n o f Colored Women' s Clubs . Her fathe r wa s a chef. Jones describe s Oberli n a s a pleasant are a for a youn g Africa n America n woman : "Oberli n ha s quit e a tradition a s bein g ver y liberal . I t wa s th e first colleg e t o admi t women, an d the underground railroa d ra n right throug h Oberlin . As fa r a s prejudice wa s concerne d i t neve r entere d ou r lives . We had tw o schools an d you went t o the school you lived closes t to." Jones attribute s th e deploymen t o f Africa n America n Wac s overseas largel y to the efforts o f Mary McLeo d Bethune , a prominent leade r an d a close frien d o f her mother's:

16

Introduction

I think sh e was one of the reasons the 6888th cam e into existence, and that w e [Africa n America n Wacs ] finally got ou t o f th e Unite d States , because ther e weren't an y black Wac s outside o f th e continenta l limit s of the United States. She [Bethune] was very close to Eleanor Roosevelt , and Frankli n Roosevel t simpl y aske d he r i f i t was true tha t ther e wer e no blac k Wac s outsid e th e continenta l limit s o f th e Unite d States . H e was no t awar e o f that . H e wa s president o f th e Unite d States , an d h e didn't know . An d sh e ha d t o admi t tha t i t wa s true , an d ther e wer e white Wac s i n Nort h Africa , an d drivin g staf f car s i n Paris , an d w e [African America n Wacs] still hadn't left the United States. Bethune indee d playe d a centra l rol e i n th e deploymen t o f blac k Wacs overseas . He r clos e associatio n wit h Eleano r Roosevel t de veloped afte r sh e ha d bee n appointe d b y Presiden t Roosevel t a s director o f th e Negr o divisio n o f th e National Yout h Administra tion, a relief progra m fo r America n youth. 14 I n the spring of 194 2 Bethune serve d a s a specia l assistan t t o th e secretar y o f wa r t o help selec t black Wa c officer candidates . Sh e was als o the directo r of th e Nationa l Counci l o f Negr o Wome n ( a nonprofi t organiza tion tha t work s t o increas e opportunitie s an d improv e th e qualit y of lif e fo r Africa n America n women , eve n today ) an d late r a n advisor t o th e directo r o f th e Women' s Arm y Corps , Ovet a Cul p Hobby, o n Africa n America n Wacs. 15 Bethune kne w virtuall y everythin g abou t Africa n America n Wacs. Rut h Wad e me t Bethun e whil e sh e was i n basi c trainin g a t Fort De s Moines : I alway s ha d smal l fee t an d whe n w e were bein g fitted for clothin g in Des Moines I was told that I would b e issued a pair of shoes a half-size too big. When Bethune came to visit I told her that I had blisters on my feet. Sh e said , "G o ove r ther e [t o supply ] an d tel l the m tha t I sai d t o issue you some shoes that fit." Deeply committe d t o human equality , Bethune labore d vigorousl y to ge t Africa n America n Wac s ful l participatio n i n th e Women' s Army Corps . So muc h controvers y surrounde d th e deploymen t o f Africa n American Wac s oversea s tha t man y ha d los t hop e o f eve r bein g

Introduction

17

deployed abroa d b y the time they were finally requisitioned. Som e were so disillusioned tha t they received the news of the assignmen t with disbelief . Charit y Adam s Earle y recalls : About mid-Decembe r Colone l Ma c called m e into his office an d asked , "How woul d yo u like to go overseas?" I smiled, assuming the questio n was rhetorical. I knew that the Negro press had a campaign i n progress to see that Negro Wacs were assigned overseas, as white Wacs had been. To date that campaign had elicited the response that Negro Wacs would create problems in the overseas arena. 16 Earley soo n realize d tha t Africa n America n Wac s i n fac t woul d be deploye d oversea s an d tha t sh e woul d b e th e commande r o f the unit . Noel Campbel l Mitchel l wa s statione d a t For t Oglethorp e when sh e receive d a lette r fro m Charit y Adams , a goo d frien d o f hers, informin g he r o f th e Army' s plan s t o deplo y blac k Wac s overseas: We ha d joine d th e Arm y togethe r an d sh e ha d bee n m y commandin g officer fo r nin e months . . . . W e hadn' t see n eac h othe r fo r ove r tw o years but had kept in touch. . .. I read the letter and was dumbfounded . Edna sai d tha t i t was tru e tha t colore d Wac s were t o g o overseas. The plans wer e being made a t Des Moines an d sh e had bee n informed tha t she would b e commander o f th e troops , an d i f ther e wer e an y wome n she wante d a s he r officer s sh e coul d as k fo r them . Sh e sai d sh e ha d thought abou t me , and i f I was interested sh e would submi t m y name. . . . I was excited because ever since I had heard the rumors I was sure if the opportunity came, I would certainly volunteer. (Charity Adam s wa s calle d Edn a b y he r famil y an d friends. ) Mitchell wa s later t o becom e th e executiv e office r o f th e 6888th . Members o f th e 6888t h welcome d th e opportunit y t o serv e overseas an d wer e no t likel y t o le t anythin g interfer e wit h tha t chance. Elsi e Olive r wa s bor n i n Burkeville , Virginia , wher e he r parents wer e far m workers . Sh e ha d complete d hig h schoo l an d was twenty-eigh t year s old , workin g i n Bosto n a s a hairdresser , before sh e joine d th e military : "M y parent s woul d hav e neve r

18

Introduction

agreed fo r m e t o g o [int o th e Army] , an d I didn' t sa y anythin g t o them abou t i t unti l I was in. " Oliver wa s a coo k i n a n all-blac k WA C detachmen t a t C a m p Gruber, O k l a h o m a , whe n th e Wa r Departmen t finally requisiti oned Africa n America n wome n t o serv e overseas : My compan y office r [ a blac k Wac ] di d no t wan t m e t o go ; sh e said , "You're neede d righ t here. " I went ove r he r hea d whe n sh e told m e tha t she wa s goin g t o delet e m y nam e fro m th e list . I wen t t o th e suprem e commander o f th e whol e post , Colone l Locket . H e wa s ove r everybody , both whit e an d black . H e knew m e because he ate at our mes s hall. Tha t morning wa s s o cold , bu t I was s o provoked tha t I didn't eve n pu t o n a coat; I went righ t t o hi s offic e i n jus t a whit e uniform . I told hi m tha t I was chose n fo r oversea s dut y an d w e ha d onl y a fe w day s t o ge t read y to leav e fo r For t Oglethorpe , Georgi a fo r training , an d m y compan y officer didn' t wan t m e t o go . I aske d hi m fo r hel p s o tha t I coul d g o through som e channe l ove r he r head . H e suggeste d tha t I tal k wit h Eleanor Roosevelt . I aske d hi m ho w I coul d ge t i n touc h wit h Mrs . Roosevelt o n suc h a short notice . He replied, "Here' s m y telephone." H e put the call through t o Washington fro m hi s office an d handed the phon e to me . Mrs . Roosevelt' s receptionis t informe d m e tha t Mrs . Roosevel t was i n a meetin g an d tha t sh e woul d b e i n touc h wit h me . I lef t m y company officer' s telephon e number . Colone l Locke t too k m e bac k down t o th e WA C Detachmen t an d whil e h e wa s talkin g wit h my company office r th e phon e ran g an d i t wa s Mrs . Roosevelt . Sh e aske d my Company Officer , "D o yo u know Elsi e Oliver?" My compan y office r replied, "Yes. " Mrs . Roosevel t the n said , "Well , hav e he r read y fo r shipment a t fou r p.m . today. " Tha t wa s all . I thin k a t fou r p.m . I wa s the first one waiting fo r th e train . Similarly, Glady s Carte r says : "Whe n th e wor d go t ou t tha t there wa s goin g t o b e a grou p [o f Africa n America n women ] t o go overseas , everybod y wante d t o go . I k n o w I wante d t o go . I think I woul d hav e climbe d u p a mountai n t o ge t o n th e list. " When I aske d he r wh y ther e wa s s o muc h excitemen t abou t serving overseas , Carte r replied : "W e wer e goin g t o d o ou r duty .

Introduction

19

Despite al l th e ba d thing s tha t happene d i n th e country , thi s wa s our home . Thi s [th e Unite d States ] i s wher e I wa s born . I t wa s where m y mothe r an d fathe r were . S o ther e wa s a feelin g o f wanting t o d o your part. " These response s reflec t thos e o f othe r member s o f th e 6888th . The Unite d State s entere d Worl d Wa r I I fo r th e explici t purpos e of makin g th e world saf e fo r democracy , a concept tha t resonate d in th e heart s an d mind s o f Africa n America n wome n (howeve r ironically, give n thei r lega l an d societa l statu s i n pre-civil-rights movement America) . Th e wa r offere d the m a n opportunit y t o demonstrate thei r patriotism an d subsequentl y t o reap the benefit s of th e country' s economi c an d political prosperity . Political motive s alone , however, d o not explai n th e excitemen t these wome n fel t abou t goin g overseas . Man y wer e stil l i n thei r teens, young an d eage r t o se e anothe r par t o f th e world . Virgini a Frazier recalls : I went in when I was nineteen. We were young. We were all young then. When you'r e youn g yo u don' t kno w wha t you'r e gettin g into . I n fac t who would have ever thought that a little girl from Minnesota , black at that, would go away to Europe? It was very exciting because I had never been. . . . We had a ball ! We did ou r job , and the n afterwards , w e did our thing. Born fro m politica l struggle s fo r racia l equality , th e 6888t h represented a victor y fo r th e NAACP , th e NCNW , th e blac k press, and al l who fough t fo r racia l equality i n the arme d services , especially th e Women' s Arm y Corps . Thi s boo k describe s ho w change i n th e militar y wa s a direc t resul t o f pressur e externa l t o the institution . Bu t eve n mor e important , i t examine s change s i n the militar y tha t resulte d fro m th e employmen t o f Africa n Ameri can women . Thes e wome n wer e no t mer e passiv e object s i n a n institution tha t ha d onl y recentl y opene d it s door s t o them . The y campaigned activel y t o chang e race-biase d policie s i n th e Women's Army (Auxiliary ) Corps . To illustrate this point, Marga -

20

Introduction

ret Barne s Jone s recall s a n ac t o f resistanc e a t he r permanen t dut y station afte r basi c training : [I] went t o Cam p Breckenridge , Kentucky . Tha t wa s a n experienc e tha t I'll neve r forget . . . . I wa s th e executiv e officer , a Secon d Lieutenant . The compan y office r wa s a [black ] first lieutenan t fro m Boston ; he r name wa s Myrtl e Anderson . Sh e an d I took 17 5 blac k wome n t o Cam p Breckenridge, Kentucky , an d tha t wa s th e beginnin g o f a n activ e experi ence becaus e th e commandin g office r o f tha t pos t wa s a southerner, an d when h e sa w my records , [and ] h e sa w thos e o f Captai n Anderson , h e reminded u s tha t althoug h sh e wa s fro m Boston , whic h i s i n th e north , and I wa s fro m Ohio , whic h i s i n th e north , w e wer e bot h the n i n th e South. H e pointed tha t out . C a m p Breckenridg e wa s a predominantl y whit e militar y installa tion i n th e Sout h durin g Worl d Wa r II . Th e pos t commande r w h o m Jone s mention s wa s a whit e southerne r w h o fel t tha t Afri can American s "belonge d i n thei r place. " Africa n America n Wac s in Jones' s uni t a t C a m p Breckenridg e wer e force d t o confron t th e obstacle o f bein g malassigned : Because o f th e assignment s tha t thos e girl s had , the y wer e assigne d a s charwomen an d the y ha d t o work i n the laundry . Now thos e Wacs wer e skilled. On e wa s a schoolteacher , the y ha d don e administrativ e work , they ha d don e al l kind s o f things . A t Cam p Breckenridg e the y wer e assigned t o clea n th e ramp , t o scru b th e ramp , an d t o wor k i n th e laundry; the y rebelled . An d th e Pos t Commande r hear d abou t it . An d Captain Anderso n an d I had a compan y meeting , an d I told thos e girl s that unles s the y carrie d ou t thei r assignment s the y woul d ti e ou r hands . There wouldn' t b e anythin g w e [Captai n Anderso n an d myself ] coul d do becaus e th e pos t commande r wa s alread y a devou t racist . I went t o the moto r poo l tha t nigh t an d checke d ou t a jee p an d drov e t o Evans ville, Indiana , an d I calle d For t De s Moines , Iow a (Dove y Roundtre e was stil l ou t ther e then), 17 tol d th e office r o n duty , " I want yo u t o liste n carefully. I' m goin g t o sa y thi s once. " I said , "There' s a ver y volatil e situation her e a t Cam p Breckenridge. " An d I explained t o he r [th e dut y officer] wha t ha d happened . An d I said that someon e needs to come her e before ther e i s mor e troubl e tha n ther e alread y is . I said , "Genera l

Introduction

21

Faith," wh o wa s th e genera l a t For t De s Moines , "shoul d hea r abou t this." 18 Brig. Gen . Do n C . Faith , th e forme r commandan t o f th e Firs t WAAC Trainin g Cente r a t For t De s Moine s (wher e Jone s ha d taken basi c training) , i s repute d t o hav e bee n a fai r leade r an d generally wa s respecte d b y African America n Waacs . When Jone s placed he r cal l t o For t De s Moines , Genera l Fait h ha d bee n reas signed a s commande r o f th e WAA C Training Command , oversee ing operation s a t thre e trainin g center s (For t De s Moines , Day tona Beach , an d For t Oglethorpe) . H e wa s als o assigne d a s hea d of th e Training an d Fiel d Inspectio n Division . General Faith' s fiel d inspectio n servic e reporte d a numbe r o f malassignments o f Wac s an d declare d tha t suc h assignment s re sulted i n resentment an d lo w morale . Jones continued : Well, Genera l Fait h wa s tol d abou t it , an d i n tw o day s h e wa s a t Camp Breckenridge. Now the Post Commander never ever knew how he [General Faith] got there. As a matter of fact I never told my commanding officer , Captai n Anderson , wha t I had done . But I did it . S o in th e meantime I had all the qualifications o f every woman in the organization [unit] an d thei r assignment s were changed t o those commensurate wit h what they were qualified t o do. Those assignments were changed. Many o f th e 6888t h member s stoo d u p relentlessl y fo r thei r rights. While at Fort Oglethorpe , preparing to go overseas, Glady s Carter refuse d t o drin k ou t o f a wate r fountai n marke d "fo r colored only" : I decided I wanted a drink of water an d I was shocked to see two water fountains, on e marke d "colored " an d th e othe r marke d "white. " . . . I had not seen this on an Army post before. . . . I t wasn't like that at Walla Walla. . .. A s I wa s gettin g read y t o tak e a si p [o f wate r fro m th e fountain marke d "white" ] a littl e blac k lad y cam e u p t o m e an d said , "You hav e t o drin k ou t o f thi s one " [pointin g t o th e on e labele d "col ored"]. I remember bein g kind o f upse t abou t tha t an d saying , "I' m i n the Unite d State s Army , I' m no t drinkin g ou t o f an y colore d wate r fountain." I marched ove r an d dran k m y water ou t o f th e white foun -

22

Introduction

tain, lik e Mis s Jan e Pittman , I guess. 19 I tol d som e o f th e girls , an d everybody walked over and drank out of the white fountain . Such act s o f resistanc e wer e necessar y befor e change s wer e mad e in inequitabl e racia l an d gende r policies . Struggle s lik e thes e ar e described i n furthe r detai l i n chapte r 3 . The wome n i n thi s stud y wer e pioneer s i n militar y servic e during a tim e whe n racia l segregatio n wa s law , an d a woman' s place wa s i n th e home . Consequently , Africa n America n wome n contributed t o militar y servic e i n th e fac e o f th e hars h realitie s o f racism an d sexism . Their contribution s to o ofte n hav e bee n omit ted from historica l account s o f military events and fro m sociologi cal an d psychologica l assessment s o f militar y veterans . To Serve My Country, To Serve My Race acknowledge s suc h contribution s by observin g ho w th e militar y an d th e live s of th e Africa n Ameri can Wac s change d a s a resul t o f Worl d Wa r II . Chapter 2 focuse s on structura l change s tha t wer e mad e i n th e militar y befor e Afri can America n wome n wer e permitte d t o serve . Chapte r 3 dis cusses th e uniquenes s o f bein g a n Africa n America n woma n i n the Arm y durin g Worl d Wa r II ; i n tha t chapte r I highligh t th e discrimination the y face d becaus e o f thei r rac e an d gender , a s well a s thei r act s o f resistanc e t o socia l inequality . Chapte r 4 concentrates o n member s o f the 6888th an d their preparations fo r going overseas . Chapte r 5 describe s th e experience s o f th e unit' s members i n Englan d an d France . Chapte r 6 look s a t th e live s o f these wome n whe n the y returne d t o th e Unite d State s an d exam ines th e militar y a s a possibl e turnin g poin t an d a n avenu e o f upward mobility . Chapte r 7 analyzes the 6888t h i n terms o f thre e theories: socia l cohesion , socia l conflict , an d phenomenology . Fi nally, chapte r 8 look s a t wha t som e o f thes e wome n ar e doin g today. In sum , To Serve My Country, To Serve My Race examine s th e processes b y whic h member s o f th e 6888t h sough t t o obtai n sociopolitical right s durin g a perio d i n America n histor y whe n these right s wer e systematicall y denie d t o racia l minoritie s an d

Introduction

23

women. Thes e wome n identifie d wit h bein g American , ha d inter nalized th e American idea l o f "libert y an d justic e fo r all, " an d fo r the mos t par t sough t t o wor k withi n th e confine s o f th e system , making appeal s throug h lette r writin g an d officia l organizationa l processes. A centra l facto r motivatin g member s o f th e 6888t h t o join th e Women's Arm y (Auxiliary ) Corp s wa s a strong desir e fo r social change . Thei r presenc e an d thei r servic e i n th e militar y le d to conflict , whic h facilitate d suc h change .

2 A Changing Military Structure Dominants ca n incorporat e token s an d stil l preserv e their generalization s b y inducting token s into stereotyp ical role s tha t preserv e familia r form s o f interactio n between th e kind s o f peopl e represente d b y th e toke n and th e dominants . —Rosabeth Kanter , Men and Women of the Corporation

As society changes , so doe s the military , albei t ofte n a t a differen t rate. Change s i n socia l relation s tha t bega n durin g Worl d Wa r I I resulted i n par t fro m a n advance d industria l econom y a s wel l a s from th e wa r itself . Th e transitio n fro m a n agraria n t o a n indus trial societ y wa s accelerate d becaus e o f th e nee d fo r mor e expedi ent war production. This war was more mechanized than previou s wars, an d America n factorie s wer e abl e t o produc e wa r good s a t unprecedented speed : automobil e factorie s manufacture d tanks ; typewriter factorie s manufacture d machin e guns . With massiv e number s o f whit e me n deploye d abroa d t o fight, millions o f America n wome n lef t thei r home s t o wor k i n th e factories. Member s o f racia l an d ethni c minoritie s wh o ha d bee n previously passe d ove r fo r job s wer e abl e t o find wor k i n wa r production. Peopl e migrate d t o citie s en masse in search o f jobs in the burgeonin g industria l centers . Much o f th e black migratio n t o cities was als o spurred b y new technology i n southern agriculture : the plantin g an d harvestin g o f crops , formerl y th e wor k o f blac k 24

A Changing Military Structure

25

sharecroppers, no w wer e performe d b y suc h far m machine s a s tractors an d cotto n pickers. 1 World Wa r I I marke d th e beginnin g o f a comple x er a define d by wholesal e change s i n th e social , political , an d economi c role s of th e America n populace . Entir e ne w socia l classe s compose d o f industrial worker s an d technician s emerged . American s bega n t o view the world an d themselves in a new way, which le d to unprec edented cultura l an d lega l changes . A s a whole, America n societ y was gradually force d t o becom e more toleran t o f socia l change, as indicated b y th e gain s mad e b y women , Africa n Americans , an d other historicall y oppresse d segment s o f th e population . Socia l change, however , i s alway s me t wit h resistance , a s demonstrate d by th e numerou s rac e riots 2 o f th e tim e an d (fo r th e purpose s o f this book ) b y th e slanderou s rumor s tha t wome n i n th e militar y were all prostitutes an d lesbians. Many o f these rumors originate d with whit e mal e soldiers . Technology exerte d a stron g influenc e o n th e militar y occupa tional structure . Because of th e emphasis on technological innova tion, thi s structur e ha d shifte d it s emphasi s fro m comba t arm s t o greater administrativ e an d technical support . Especially noticeabl e during th e wa r wa s a growin g similarit y betwee n th e skill s re quired i n militar y unit s an d thos e use d i n the civilia n workplace. 3 As a result o f moder n technology , th e militar y coul d emplo y larg e numbers o f women an d minoritie s t o work i n clerical and suppor t jobs withou t changin g it s stratifie d structure ; whit e me n woul d remain a t th e to p o f th e hierarchy . Neithe r wome n no r minoritie s were par t o f th e elit e grou p o f leader s wh o mad e u p th e militar y establishment a t tha t time . Ther e wer e essentiall y tw o type s o f leaders durin g th e war : Th e "heroi c leaders, " wh o embodie d valor an d glory , an d th e militar y "managers, " wh o wer e mor e concerned wit h th e rationa l conduc t o f war. 4 Africa n America n men an d wome n wer e exclude d fro m leadershi p position s i n com bat. The idea of assigning women t o the battlefield wa s outside th e realm o f America n imagination . Africa n America n me n seldo m received a n opportunit y t o bea r arms ; whe n the y di d so , the y

26

A Changing Military Structure

almost neve r gaine d th e recognitio n the y deserve d fo r thei r act s of courage . The critica l nee d fo r personne l durin g Worl d Wa r I I wa s th e major impetu s fo r th e proces s b y whic h rac e an d gende r policie s changed i n th e America n arme d services . Societa l change s re sulting fro m organize d movements , couple d wit h th e tremendou s need fo r huma n power , affecte d ho w minoritie s an d wome n even tually woul d b e use d b y th e Wa r Department . Africa n America n men, fo r example , wh o wer e narrowl y assigne d t o th e suppl y services durin g Worl d Wa r I , no w wer e give n th e opportunit y t o serve i n othe r type s o f unit s an d i n mor e geographica l area s (including overseas). 5 Women , wh o befor e Worl d Wa r I I serve d almost exclusivel y a s nurses , wer e no w recruite d int o th e newl y organized Women' s Arm y Auxiliar y Corp s (WAAC ) t o wor k a s typists, switchboard operators , clerks, and technicians. Like Army nurses, Waac s (member s o f th e Women' s Arm y Auxiliar y Corps ) served unde r a separat e comman d structure , withou t Arm y rank , officer status , o r militar y benefits 6 —that is , until 1943 , when th e WAAC wa s converte d t o th e Women's Arm y Corp s an d it s mem bers obtaine d ful l Arm y statu s an d rank. 7 I t i s estimate d tha t 909,000 Africa n America n me n an d wome n serve d i n th e Arm y during Worl d Wa r II , wit h a pea k o f 700,00 0 o r 8. 7 percen t o f the total Arm y strengt h i n 1944. 8 Approximately 150,00 0 wome n served i n th e WAAC/WA C durin g th e war , abou t 4 percen t o f whom wer e Africa n American. 9 Ye t eve n whil e th e Wa r Depart ment expande d it s boundarie s t o includ e Africa n America n me n and women , thes e minoritie s remaine d i n subservien t position s t o white males . In this chapter I identify societa l an d organizationa l factor s tha t led t o thes e initia l change s i n rac e an d gende r policie s i n th e U.S. military, an d I discus s ho w thes e change s influence d th e us e o f African America n wome n i n th e war . Tw o separat e campaign s had t o b e waged befor e Africa n America n wome n woul d eve n b e considered fo r militar y service . First , campaign s t o brin g greate r opportunities t o blac k me n wer e conducte d b y severa l civilia n

A Changing Military Structure

27

organizations an d wer e linke d t o a wide r campaig n b y Africa n Americans fo r economic , political , an d civi l right s before , during , and afte r Worl d Wa r II . Second , a large-scal e campaig n fo r th e mobilization o f wome n wa s launche d b y th e Wa r Departmen t after Japa n bombe d Pear l Harbor . Th e dat a presente d i n thi s chapter strongl y suppor t th e "recruit/reject " hypothesi s i n mili tary sociology : militar y organization s recrui t minoritie s an d women i n time s o f grea t manpowe r shortag e bu t rejec t thei r services a t othe r times . Thi s wa s clearl y th e cas e durin g Worl d War II . Th e service s o f Africa n America n me n wer e virtuall y rejected b y th e Wa r Departmen t unti l th e grea t militar y buildu p of 1940 . Similarly , th e ide a o f a women' s Arm y corp s wa s no t entertained unti l th e United State s entered th e war . Expansion of

Racial Boundaries

Limited acces s t o economi c institutions , vulnerabilit y t o socia l injustices, an d politica l exclusio n characteriz e th e lif e o f Africa n Americans durin g Worl d Wa r II. 10 African American s wer e virtu ally exclude d fro m prestigiou s occupations ; the y hel d mainl y un desirable jobs—thos e tha t offere d neithe r financia l stabilit y no r opportunities fo r advancement . Blac k wome n wer e "stil l wit nessing the lynching o f thei r sons , brothers, fathers, husband s an d lovers, an d th e rapin g o f thei r daughters , sisters , mothers , an d selves." 11 I n man y area s o f th e South , black s ha d bee n disfran chised sinc e the Reconstructio n era. 12 As early a s 193 8 Africa n American s campaigne d fo r expande d opportunities t o serv e i n th e military . Blac k publication s suc h a s the Pittsburgh Courier an d The Crisis urged thei r reader s t o sen d letters t o politica l officials , requestin g tha t Africa n American s b e given greater opportunitie s t o take part i n national defense. 13 Thi s effort wa s par t o f a mor e genera l struggl e b y Africa n American s nationwide t o increas e opportunitie s fo r black s i n employmen t and t o improve thei r political representatio n i n government . Other cause s were bein g pursued a s well. The limite d inclusio n

28

A Changing Military Structure

of Africa n American s i n wa r production , fo r example , wa s a n item i n th e blac k campaig n i n th e 1940s . This particular issu e le d to th e schedulin g o f a marc h i n th e Distric t o f Columbia ; th e march wa s cancele d whe n Presiden t Roosevel t decide d t o sig n a n executive orde r abolishin g discriminatio n i n th e defens e indus try.14 Thi s decisio n wa s a landmar k i n th e struggl e fo r blac k equality. I n additio n t o th e executiv e order , th e President' s Com mittee o n Fai r Employmen t Practice s wa s establishe d t o investi gate complaint s o f racia l discrimination . Many Africa n American s fel t tha t throug h participatio n i n th e war effor t significan t politica l an d economi c gain s coul d b e achieved. Politically , Africa n American s viewe d th e wa r a s a n opportunity t o prov e thei r loyalt y an d thereb y t o b e accepte d a s first-class citizen s afte r th e war . Economically , th e demand s o f war woul d requir e labor , thereb y creatin g jo b opportunitie s fo r African Americans . Furthermore , som e Africa n American s per ceived th e militar y a s a n avenu e o f upwar d mobility , providin g training i n occupationa l skill s tha t coul d b e use d i n th e civilia n labor marke t onc e th e wa r ha d ended . Politica l pressur e wa s applied t o various youth organization s t o train Africa n American s so tha t the y woul d b e prepare d fo r wor k i n bot h defens e indus tries an d th e activ e arme d forces. 15 Expanding blac k men' s opportunitie s t o serv e i n th e militar y would benefi t no t onl y th e African America n community , bu t th e War Departmen t a s well . Cognizan t o f th e fac t tha t blac k man power wa s neede d i n developin g a n effectiv e fighting force , th e War Departmen t mad e plan s t o ope n it s doors . I t grapple d wit h the challeng e o f employin g larg e number s o f blac k me n t o fill military need s whil e adherin g t o th e socia l norm s o f racia l segre gation, an d accordingl y i t formulate d thre e plan s befor e alterin g the existin g polic y o n mobilizin g Africa n Americans . Th e 193 7 plan, whic h state d tha t Black s an d White s shoul d b e mobilized i n proportion t o their number s i n the general population, forme d th e basis fo r subsequen t policie s o n race. 16 Before th e Unite d State s entere d th e war , th e militar y wa s

A Changing Military Structure

29

opened t o blac k me n throug h th e Selectiv e Service Training Act of 1940 (th e nation's first peace-time conscription). After Franc e wa s occupied b y Germany, the U.S. Congress supported a vast militar y buildup t o ai d England . Th e Selectiv e Servic e Trainin g Ac t ex panded militar y opportunitie s fo r Africa n American s b y prohib iting racial discriminatio n agains t volunteer s an d draftees. 17 Shortly afte r thi s ac t wen t int o effect , th e Wa r Departmen t devised a seven-poin t polic y outlinin g ho w Africa n American s were t o b e employed . Th e polic y specificall y state d tha t (1 ) th e strength o f blac k personne l woul d b e proportionat e t o th e blac k population o f th e country (10. 6 percent), (2 ) black unit s would b e established i n eac h majo r branc h o f th e Army , (3 ) blac k reserv e officers wh o wer e eligibl e fo r activ e dut y woul d b e assigne d t o "Negro unit s officere d b y colore d personnel, " (4 ) Africa n Ameri cans would receiv e the opportunity t o qualif y fo r reserv e commis sions, (5 ) Africa n American s wer e t o b e give n aviatio n training , (6) blac k civilian s wer e t o b e accorde d equa l opportunit y fo r employment a t work , an d (7 ) ther e woul d b e n o interminglin g between "colore d an d white " enliste d personne l i n th e sam e regi mental organization. 18 Item s 1 and 7 were later applie d directl y t o the Women's Arm y Auxiliar y Corps . The sevent h point , prohibiting interminglin g betwee n th e races, stirred tremendou s resentmen t an d ange r i n the African America n community an d continue d t o haunt th e War Departmen t through out th e wa r years . Suc h a polic y conflicte d wit h th e fundamenta l value o f th e Unite d States—democracy . O n severa l occasion s Af rican America n mal e soldier s openl y proteste d racia l segregation ; in man y instance s peopl e los t thei r live s o r wer e wounde d durin g these confrontations . Separatin g blac k fro m whit e personne l i n the sam e regimenta l organizatio n wa s bot h ideologicall y an d lo gistically problematic . Simpl y stated , i t wa s inconsisten t fo r th e War Departmen t t o mobiliz e masse s o f Africa n America n me n (and late r Africa n America n women ) t o g o abroa d explicitl y t o take par t i n a wa r fo r democracy , bu t t o d o s o i n raciall y segre gated units . The policy was als o logistically inefficien t fo r th e Wa r

30

A Changing Military Structure

Department's goa l o f developin g an d maintainin g a n effectiv e force. Complications resultin g fro m racia l segregatio n wer e describe d expressively i n the February 194 2 editio n o f The Crisis: The first implicatio n o f segregatio n i s inferiority . . . . W e believ e thi s inescapable feelin g o f inferiority , an d th e shame and resentmen t o f Negro soldier s an d civilian s tha t thei r governmen t shoul d iotce i t upo n them a s a national polic y in a war agains t racial bigotr y an d barbarity , are th e underlying causes of al l the headaches th e War Department ha s had ove r Negro soldiers in training this past year . . . our draftee s wer e not inducted for two or three months because Jim Crow "Negro " facilities a t trainin g camp s wer e no t ready . . . . Arrived i n camps , ou r boy s found themselve s frequentl y i n isolate d stations , fa r fro m th e othe r soldiers. They foun d separat e busse s "fo r colored, " separat e cand y an d cigarette counters , separat e movi e theater s (o r Jim Cro w "roosts " fo r them in regular theaters). 19 Similar concern s wer e voice d late r abou t segregatio n policie s i n the WAAC/WAC . I n chapte r 3 I recoun t severa l example s o f protests agains t tha t segregation . The War Departmen t waste d a great dea l o f tim e an d resource s in tryin g t o avoi d black-whit e contac t b y implementin g racia l segregation policies . Ulysse s Lee , the officia l historia n o n th e em ployment o f blac k troop s durin g Worl d Wa r II , asserte d tha t unused housin g ha d t o remai n vacan t i f th e personne l t o b e bil leted were not o f th e race fo r whic h th e housing was designated. 20 Camp locations where Blacks were to be sent were determined no t by military need , bu t b y (1 ) the availabilit y o f raciall y appropriat e housing, (2 ) the proportion o f white an d blac k troop s o n th e post , and (3 ) th e proximit y o f th e pos t t o civilia n center s o f blac k communities. 21 Finding enoug h cadr e t o trai n an d lea d Africa n America n mal e units presente d anothe r proble m fo r th e Wa r Department . A s a consequence o f racia l segregation , th e suppl y o f cadr e wa s neve r sufficient.22 O f th e 228,71 5 blac k me n i n th e Arm y i n Augus t

A Changing Military Structure

31

1942, onl y 81 7 (.3 5 percent ) wer e officers. 23 Africa n America n men serve d in racially segregate d unit s tha t were led almost exclu sively b y white officers . Thi s tren d amon g th e me n wa s th e oppo site o f tha t amon g th e Africa n America n women , wh o possesse d trained leader s befor e the y ha d enoug h recruit s t o instruct. 24 The Wa r Departmen t resistanc e t o employin g blac k me n i n combat stemme d i n par t fro m th e stereotypica l belie f tha t blac k men wer e inferio r t o whit e men . Relyin g heavil y o n testimon y b y World Wa r I commander s o f th e 92n d Divisio n (th e onl y blac k combat divisio n wit h th e America n Expeditionar y Forces) , mili tary official s supporte d th e notio n tha t blac k me n shoul d b e use d "principally a s labo r organizations. " Th e commande r o f th e 367th Infantr y i s cite d a s stating , "A s fighting troops , th e Negr o must b e rated a s secon d clas s material; thi s is due primarily t o hi s inferior intelligenc e an d lac k o f menta l an d mora l qualities." 25 These testimonies alway s include d referenc e t o th e 368t h Infantr y Regiment o f th e 92nd Division , which fle d durin g combat becaus e of inappropriat e comba t training . Omitte d fro m th e discussio n was the valiant performance o f the 369th Infantry , a black comba t unit that serve d directl y unde r th e French durin g World War I and received hig h evaluation s fro m it s French commander. 26 Regardless o f ho w wel l traine d blac k mal e soldier s wer e t o be deploye d overseas , th e oversea s commander s wer e reluctan t because the y feare d racia l conflic t and , i n som e cases , objection s by whit e foreig n governments. 27 Blac k mal e troop s wer e no t de ployed oversea s i n larg e number s unti l 1 3 Ma y 1942 , whe n th e War Departmen t issue d a policy o n wher e the y would b e assigne d and ho w the y woul d b e used . Th e Army' s officia l stud y o f blac k troops durin g Worl d Wa r I I include s statistic s revealin g tha t o n 12 Ma y 194 2 ther e wer e onl y 15,67 9 blac k me n oversea s (non e of who m wer e statione d i n th e Britis h Isles) ; seve n an d one-hal f months late r thi s numbe r ha d increase d t o 53,70 9 blac k me n (7,315 of whom wer e statione d i n the British Isles). 28 At one poin t American militar y official s i n Londo n state d tha t n o blac k unit s

A Changing Military Structure

32

should b e sen t t o England . Thi s recommendatio n wa s overruled , however, an d i t wa s decide d tha t al l Africa n America n me n as signed t o th e British Isle s would b e restricted t o servic e units . Even though a great man y Africa n American s durin g the 1940 s identified th e Unite d State s a s thei r home , the y wer e raciall y op pressed, denied full citizenshi p rights, and prohibited fro m bearin g arms t o defen d th e country . Africa n American s wer e divide d ove r the issu e o f whethe r o r no t the y shoul d participat e i n th e wa r abroad. Som e fel t tha t "th e responsibilit y o f th e Negr o i s to fight fascism i n Mississipp i rathe r tha n Berlin"; 29 other s wer e highl y motivated t o serv e i n th e military . Fo r th e mos t par t blac k com munity leader s an d th e blac k pres s encourage d Africa n America n men (an d late r women) t o participate i n the war effort . Employing Africa n America n me n wa s mor e palatabl e t o th e War Departmen t tha n usin g women . Befor e th e Unite d State s entered th e war , traditiona l gende r norm s decree d tha t militar y service wa s extremel y inappropriat e fo r women. 30 Onc e th e United State s entere d th e war , however , i t wa s soo n acknowl edged tha t larg e number s o f wome n woul d b e necessar y t o wor k in rear position s whil e me n move d t o the fron t lines . Changes i n th e Wa r Department' s racia l policie s subsequentl y provided th e Women' s Arm y Auxiliar y Corp s wit h a referenc e point fo r employin g Africa n America n wome n i n subsequen t months. Lik e thei r mal e counterparts , Africa n America n wome n were authorize d t o constitut e 10. 6 percent o f the WAAC, equal t o the proportio n o f thei r populatio n i n th e country . The y wer e als o to b e raciall y segregate d an d wer e t o b e assigne d t o cam p loca tions o n th e basi s o f th e sam e criteri a a s ha d bee n use d t o assig n African America n men. 31 Finally , racia l restriction s wer e place d on th e deploymen t o f Africa n America n wome n overseas . The Bombing of

Pearl Harbor and the WAAC Bill

Social biase s als o prohibite d whit e wome n fro m exercisin g thei r rights an d responsibilitie s a s citizens . Wa r Departmen t official s

A Changing Military Structure

33

had bee n divide d ove r th e issu e o f developin g a women' s corp s since Worl d Wa r I . Legislatio n t o enlis t wome n i n th e Arm y wa s introduced t o Congres s i n 191 7 bu t wa s disapproved. 32 Attempt s to pas s legislatio n authorizin g a women' s corp s wer e als o mad e (though i n vain ) befor e th e Unite d State s entere d Worl d Wa r II , and wit h soun d reasoning . Th e militar y desperatel y neede d offic e workers, an d wome n wer e mor e numerou s an d mor e competen t than me n i n occupation s suc h a s typin g an d switchboar d opera tion. Furthermore , i t wa s know n tha t i f th e Unite d State s entere d World Wa r II , the employmen t o f women woul d b e indispensable . Many militar y officials , however , refuse d t o take heed, and durin g the year s followin g Worl d Wa r I the y viewe d wome n a s inconse quential t o thei r mission . The passag e o f th e Nineteent h Amendment , throug h whic h women gaine d suffrage , slightl y altere d th e wa y som e o f thes e officials perceive d women . Havin g recentl y gaine d th e righ t t o vote, many wome n supporte d a proposal t o eliminat e th e militar y as a way o f ensuring peace. 33 In response, military official s create d a positio n title d Directo r o f Women' s Relations , Unite d State s Army, whose incumbent woul d serv e as a liaison betwee n th e Wa r Department an d America n women . Th e purpos e o f th e positio n was t o educat e wome n o n th e necessit y o f a militar y an d thereb y to wi n thei r politica l support . Anit a Phipp s filled thi s positio n fo r ten years ; durin g tha t tim e sh e develope d a pla n fo r a women' s Army corps , which th e Genera l Staf f rejecte d i n August 1926 . Nearly tw o year s later , bowin g t o pressur e t o develo p a women's corps , th e Wa r Departmen t appointe d Maj . Everet t Hughes a s its chief planner . Majo r Hughe s not onl y supported th e notion tha t wome n shoul d b e allowed t o serv e in the military , bu t he als o recommende d strongl y tha t the y b e integrate d int o th e men's arm y wit h ful l benefits . Hughes' s proposa l wa s place d o n hold fo r severa l month s an d finally throw n ou t i n 1931. 34 Eight year s late r th e newl y appointe d chie f o f staff , Gen . George C . Marshall , resume d plannin g fo r a women' s corps . I n spring 194 1 Congresswoma n Edit h Nourse Roger s consulted wit h

34

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him abou t introducin g a bill to Congress . Subsequently, H R 490 6 was prepare d b y officer s o f th e G- l Division. 35 Th e bombin g o f Pearl Harbo r accelerate d th e Wa r Department' s plan s fo r a women's corps . Secretar y o f Wa r Henr y L . Stimso n sen t hi s ap proval o f th e WAA C bil l t o Congres s o n 2 4 December ; b y th e following wee k Representativ e Roger s ha d incorporate d th e Wa r Department's propose d amendment s int o th e bil l an d reintro duced i t a s HR 6293. 36 Members o f th e 6888t h remembere d Pear l Harbo r well , eve n though the y ha d n o ide a a t tha t tim e tha t the y woul d late r serv e in the Army. Glady s Carte r wa s move d deepl y b y the event : If yo u live d durin g th e bombin g o f Pear l Harbor , i t [th e event ] wa s like a bol t o f lightning . . . . everybod y ha d t o d o something . . . . me n volunteered an d wer e later drafted , wome n worke d i n factories , every body wanted t o d o their part. We knew how bad Negroe s were treated in America, but there wasn't a question in my mind, nor anybody else's mind; this is our country too. Elsie Olive r hear d th e new s whil e sh e an d friend s wer e eatin g breakfast: The morning of Pearl Harbor, I was eating breakfast. Sevent h of December, 1941 , in Boston. I was serving breakfast becaus e I had guests fro m Camp Edwards , Massachusetts , an d severa l girl s wer e ther e t o mee t these fella s an d w e wer e al l havin g breakfas t together . The y cam e u p that morning, and while they were there it came over the radio of Pearl Harbor. An d righ t awa y th e notic e cam e fro m Cam p Edward s tha t everybody ther e ha d t o repor t bac k t o bas e fo r militar y orders . The y would be on call to go to California, an d the next stop would be Hawaii. Myrtle Rhode n ha d gon e t o churc h tha t morning , bu t instea d of returnin g directl y home , sh e decide d t o g o t o a movi e a t th e Lowe Eas t Theater o n Wes t 125t h Stree t in Harlem : In the middle of the movie the lights came on and the screen went blank. . . . And they announced, "Al l military personnel report to your nearest base." Oh , it was very dramatic. And the theater was loaded with fella s

A Changing Military Structure

35

in military uniform, Marines , Navy, Army. So all these guys got up and, I mean in an instant, they kissed their dates or whoever they were with, and they were taking the stairs two at a time. Just flying! I mean it was tremendous. . .. I got on the Seventh Avenue bus and went home. I lived on Fiftieth Stree t and Sevent h Avenue. And when I went upstairs to my house, oh , m y mothe r wa s upset . Sh e said , "Oh , the y bombe d Pear l Harbor." I said , "Mama , what' s goin g on ? What' s happening? " Sh e said, "Th e Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor. That's American territory in Hawaii . . . and we'r e a t war. " Th e nex t mornin g Presiden t Roosevel t made that famous speec h that "thi s date will live in infamy." The bombin g o f Pear l Harbo r resulte d i n th e destructio n o f 8 U.S. battleships , 3 destroyers , 4 smal l ships , an d 16 0 aircraft . More tha n 2,40 0 America n personne l reportedl y los t thei r lives. 37 Four day s late r Ital y an d German y declare d wa r o n th e Unite d States. Fighting a wa r o n tw o front s demande d th e employmen t o f women, despit e the social norms . Women provide d necessar y sup port bot h i n the militar y an d i n civilia n wa r industries . There wa s little time fo r racia l o r gende r bias . The fat e o f th e countr y wa s i n the hands o f al l Americans . With grea t reluctanc e th e Hous e o f Representative s passe d th e WAAC bil l o n 1 7 Marc h 1942 ; th e Senat e passe d i t o n 1 4 May . On 1 5 Ma y i t wa s signe d int o Publi c La w 554. 38 Ovet a Cul p Hobby wa s appointe d a s th e WAA C directo r an d late r wa s give n the ran k o f lieutenan t colonel . Th e subsequen t recruitmen t o f large number s o f wome n fo r activ e participatio n i n militar y ser vice wa s unparallele d i n th e nation' s history . Thirt y thousan d women applie d fo r Office r Candidat e School . Applicant s fro m ages twenty-on e t o forty-fiv e wer e give n aptitud e test s an d wer e screened furthe r b y loca l interviewin g boards. 39 Mos t o f th e se lected candidate s ha d bee n employe d successfull y i n civilia n life , had colleg e training, an d range d i n ag e from twenty-fiv e t o thirty nine. One-fift h wer e married , mostl y t o me n i n th e military . Som e were mothers ; a fe w ha d youn g children ; man y ha d son s i n ser -

36

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vice.40 O n 2 0 Jul y 194 2 thes e wome n bega n Office r Candidat e School a t For t De s Moines , Iowa , a t th e first WAA C Trainin g Center. Although th e Unite d State s wa s engage d i n a massiv e war , many wome n ha d bee n conditione d t o b e dependent an d acquies cent. T o pu t o n a unifor m an d defen d th e country' s constitutio n ran counte r t o the role for whic h mos t American women ha d bee n socialized. Although wome n surel y continue d t o advocat e change , the earl y women' s movemen t al l bu t disintegrate d afte r th e Nine teenth Amendmen t wa s passed. 41 Severa l women' s organization s existed whe n th e United State s entere d th e war, bu t the y were no t unified an d thu s were not influential . War Departmen t official s realize d tha t t o mobiliz e larg e num bers of well-educated, middle-clas s women to serve in the military , they woul d hav e t o organiz e a large-scal e campaign . Portrayin g women i n occupationa l role s tha t previousl y ha d bee n reserve d for me n wa s a n essentia l elemen t o f th e War Department' s move ment t o chang e th e imag e o f th e America n woman. 42 I n additio n to advertising , th e Wa r Departmen t employe d a n existin g organi zation, th e Women' s Interest s Section , t o assis t i n thi s mobiliza tion. Without suc h a n organizatio n th e War Department probabl y would no t hav e bee n abl e t o recrui t th e approximatel y 150,00 0 women wh o serve d i n the WAAC/WAC durin g th e war. America n women o f so-calle d hig h calibe r wer e encourage d t o enlis t i n th e military b y th e Women' s Interest s Section , whic h belonge d t o th e Bureau o f Publi c Relations . Thi s organizatio n wa s founde d i n 1941 b y Ovet a Cul p Hobby , wh o als o serve d a s it s first chief. 43 Its functio n wa s somewha t differen t fro m tha t o f th e directo r o f women's relations , th e positio n create d b y th e Wa r Departmen t two decade s earlier , i n tha t th e Women' s Interest s Sectio n wa s directed towar d soldiers ' wive s an d mothers . Th e directo r o f women's relation s focuse d o n educatin g America n wome n abou t the importanc e o f maintainin g a n army ; th e Women' s Interest s Section addresse d specifi c concern s raise d b y relatives of me n wh o were currentl y o n activ e duty .

A Changing Military Structure Recruitment and the Advisory Council Women's Interests Section

37 to the

The Advisor y Counci l t o th e Women' s Interest s Sectio n (ACWIS ) was a grou p compose d o f th e president s o f thirty-thre e nationa l women's organizations ; late r thi s numbe r increase d t o thirty-six . The first meetin g o f ACWI S was calle d o n 1 3 Octobe r 194 1 in a n effort t o infor m wome n al l ove r th e Unite d State s abou t ho w th e Army care d fo r it s soldiers . As a resul t o f tha t meetin g th e grou p produced an d circulate d si x pamphlets o n wha t soldier s wer e fed , how thei r healt h wa s protected , an d wha t thei r recreationa l an d religious opportunitie s were . (Thes e pamphlets wer e prepare d be fore Pear l Harbo r an d pertaine d t o a peace-time Army. ) Subsequent issue s addresse d b y th e grou p include d wha t women coul d d o t o hel p th e Arm y t o victor y an d wha t coul d b e done t o hel p promot e th e imag e o f th e WAAC . O n 1 5 June 194 2 Emily Newel l Blair , chie f o f th e Women' s Interest s Section , urge d the Advisory Counci l t o publicly suppor t th e WAAC: Mrs Hobb y ha s tol d yo u abou t th e WAAC . A s th e Corp s wil l b e re cruited afte r regula r Arm y method s an d b e under Arm y orders ther e is little neede d fro m th e women' s organization s excep t an d beyon d wha t they d o fo r th e men i n service. But I would poin t ou t tha t inasmuc h a s this i s th e first women' s Arm y th e attitud e o f th e organize d wome n toward th e WAA C wil l g o fa r i n establishin g th e public' s attitud e to wards it as a dignified, important branc h of the service. I do not need to tell you how to do this, either. 44 On th e sam e day , a s a follow-up , Ovet a Cul p Hobby , directo r of th e Women' s Arm y Auxiliar y Corps , spok e confidentiall y t o members o f ACWI S abou t th e plan s fo r th e WAAC. 45 B y the en d of th e meeting , leader s o f women' s organization s throughou t th e country wer e supportin g th e idea . The recruitmen t o f massiv e number s o f wome n t o fill positions that wer e traditionall y considere d inappropriat e fo r wome n re sembled a socia l movemen t i n tha t i t oppose d th e norm s govern ing gende r role s i n society . Indeed , th e Wa r Departmen t ha d n o

38

A Changing Military Structure

intention o f changin g th e gende r structur e o f militar y societ y o r the rewar d distributio n withi n it s society ; therefore , i t wa s no t deliberately launching a movement t o redefine gende r roles. Nonetheless, th e chang e i n gende r relation s tha t emerge d durin g an d after th e war make s the WAAC/WAC recruitmen t effor t compara ble t o thos e o f socia l movements . Th e Women' s Interest s Sectio n (WIS) was analogou s t o wha t som e theorists in th e study o f socia l movements cal l a socia l movemen t organization . A s define d b y Zald an d McCarthy , a socia l movemen t organizatio n "i s a com plex, o r formal , organizatio n tha t identifie s it s goal s wit h th e preferences o f a socia l movemen t . . . an d attempt s t o implemen t those goals." 46 WI S identifie d th e goal s o f ACWIS ; th e women' s organizations belongin g t o ACWI S bot h adhere d t o thos e goal s and provide d resource s fo r reachin g them . The first WAAC Office r Candidat e Clas s was held fro m 2 0 July to 2 9 Augus t 194 2 an d wa s followe d weekl y b y a strea m o f graduating officer s an d "enrolled " (enlisted ) wome n fro m th e WAAC Trainin g Center. 47 Lt . Gen . Dwigh t Eisenhowe r immedi ately requeste d tw o WAA C companie s t o serv e overseas . Hobb y was reluctan t t o allo w wome n t o b e deploye d overseas , however , because a s member s o f a n auxiliar y corp s the y di d no t hav e military statu s an d consequentl y wer e no t entitle d t o hospitaliza tion o r lif e insurance . Nevertheless , 15 0 whit e Waacs volunteere d for oversea s dut y i n th e winte r o f 194 2 an d wer e deploye d t o North Afric a i n December . Whit e women wer e deploye d i n muc h greater number s afte r th e Women' s Arm y Corp s wa s establishe d in 1943 . As th e WAA C developed , ACWI S playe d a n increasin g rol e i n influencing publi c opinion . Th e counci l woul d mak e sur e tha t women ha d th e opportunit y t o contribut e full y "t o th e plannin g and establishmen t o f worl d cooperation. " T o thi s en d th e Wa r Department invite d Marjory Fr y of the British Information Servic e to a meetin g wit h ACWI S o n 2 8 Octobe r 1942 , t o sugges t t o council member s ho w the y migh t procee d wit h thei r pla n fo r a women's corp s base d o n th e Britis h experience . Fr y spok e o f th e

A Changing Military Structure

39

military backgroun d o f Britis h women , emphasizin g tha t thos e women wer e equippe d wit h specialize d trainin g t o mee t th e prob lems of th e day. 48 ACWIS wa s perhap s th e Wa r Department' s singl e mos t im portant vehicl e for reachin g th e thousands o f women wh o eventu ally woul d pu t o n th e uniform . I n it s 194 3 annua l repor t ACWI S listed a total of thirty-six organization s a s members of the council , with a combined membershi p o f twelv e million t o thirtee n millio n women. Twenty o f the participating organization s published mag azines wit h "a n aggregat e circulatio n o f approximatel y on e mil lion thre e hundre d thousand." 49 Seventee n o f th e ACWI S organi zations held annual , biennial , o r triennia l meetings . The purpose o f th e counci l expande d fro m disseminatin g infor mation t o sponsoring projects, many of them devoted to recruitin g women fo r th e WAAC. Item 4 i n the annua l report , "Cooperatio n in th e Recruitin g Progra m o f th e WAAC," include d th e followin g information: With grea t pleasur e w e undertook las t fal l t o enlis t th e cooperatio n o f the Advisor y Counci l organization s i n furtherin g th e recruitin g o f th e Women's Army Auxiliary Corps . The plan of cooperation involve d fou r main points . All members o f th e Advisor y Counci l wer e aske d t o sen d us o r mak e availabl e t o u s i f possibl e thei r uni t list s s o tha t w e coul d send them a WAAC direct mail piece and a copy of the plan of coopera tion; to publicize the WAAC and call attention t o its need of recruits by articles i n thei r publication s o r item s i n thei r clu b letter s an d othe r communications; to urge their members to serve on local women's committees fo r WAA C recruitin g i n thei r ow n communities ; an d t o invit e WAAC recruiting officers t o speak at their club meetings.50 According t o Margare t S . Banister , organizatio n directo r o f th e Women's Interest s Section , twent y o f th e thirty-si x organization s cooperated wit h thi s plan . The Wa r Departmen t continue d t o solici t hel p fro m al l thirty six organization s t o recrui t wome n fo r th e corps . A t a meetin g held o n 2 5 Jun e 194 3 Colone l Hobb y addresse d ACWI S abou t the status o f th e WAACs afte r a year :

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In th e beginnin g ther e wer e fou r job s ope n t o thes e women . Thei r splendid record caused the Army to ask for additional jobs for them and to reques t ove r 400,000 wome n fo r th e service . The enlisted me n were not traine d t o d o man y o f th e job s whil e th e wome n wer e traine d while civilians. Each woman replace d I f man . At first the WAACS were additional personnel , no w the y releas e th e equivalen t numbe r o f men . The WAACS made a study of the 628 different job s done by men—each has a specificatio n seria l number . 40 0 job s wer e suitabl e fo r women . Yard stick applied—Is th e work too heavy? Number o f women needed. Were th e hour s suc h tha t wome n woul d b e protecte d goin g bac k an d forth, etc. ? Ther e wa s no t enoug h personne l t o trai n fo r 40 0 jobs , but 138 jobs are now being done by women.51 The WAA C ha d bee n i n existenc e fo r a year . Th e ne w rol e of wome n wa s bein g severel y challenge d b y th e sam e militar y commanders wh o fel t tha t ther e wa s n o plac e fo r wome n i n th e military an d b y th e America n public , wh o ha d receive d a grea t deal o f negativ e informatio n abou t th e WAAC. Hobby wen t on t o report tha t th e WAA C strengt h wa s 150,000 , mor e tha n hal f th e size o f th e standin g peace-tim e Army . Amon g th e problem s face d by Waacs , sh e argued , wer e imprope r housin g facilities , insuffi cient clothing , an d slanderou s stories , which appeare d i n the New York Daily News an d th e Washington Times. Hobb y vehementl y decried thes e stories a s false : Five hundre d [Waacs ] wer e sai d t o hav e bee n returne d fro m Afric a t o have babies . Thre e actuall y returned . On e wa s legitimatel y pregnan t before sh e left, on e was il l with a gall bladder, th e other wa s sufferin g with a concussio n fro m a bomb. On e hundre d Waac s sai d t o b e in St. Elizabeth's. No trut h i n this statement . No r wa s ther e an y truth i n the statements tha t a trainloa d o f Waac s ha d bee n sen t t o Walte r Ree d to hav e babies , 8 6 discharge d fro m For t Deven s wit h babie s ( 3 wer e discharged), 172 lesbians in a hospital. Out of 65,000 women there [are] 7 illegitimat e pregnancies , 9 case s o f syphilis , an d 4 1 case s o f gon orrhea.52 Striving t o persuad e thes e civilia n wome n o n th e Advisor y Coun cil t o defen d agains t th e slanderou s attack s o n Waacs , Hobb y

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further state d tha t th e WAAC was th e biggest professional oppor tunity America n wome n ha d eve r ha d an d tha t member s o f ACWIS neede d t o educat e America n wome n abou t th e WAAC' s duties an d t o solici t thei r support . Improvin g th e imag e o f th e WAAC wa s essentia l i f th e Wa r Departmen t wa s t o mee t it s personnel goals . The Wa r Departmen t employe d severa l strategie s t o improv e the imag e o f wome n wh o ha d temporaril y abandone d thei r role s as housewives , mothers , sisters , an d daughter s t o pu t o n th e uni form. On e suc h strateg y wa s t o circulat e informatio n abou t th e importance o f women t o military goals. In July 194 3 the Women' s Army Auxiliar y Corp s wa s converte d t o th e Women' s Arm y Corps. Th e Women' s Interest s Sectio n publishe d "Fact s abou t the Women' s Arm y Corps, " whic h containe d informatio n abou t eligibility requirements , th e chang e fro m WAA C t o WAC , wh y Wacs wer e needed , job s tha t Wac s wer e doin g i n th e Army , an d how th e Arm y praise d Wacs . Th e documen t include d th e follow ing information : The WAC is filling and i s prepared t o fill the 15 5 jobs whic h fal l int o eight majo r type s o f wor k a s follows : 1 . Technical and Professional, including the following general classifications: medical, personnel, public relations, instructio n an d training , physica l science s an d mathematics , photography, languages , drafting , an d weather . 2 . Radio, whic h pro vides jobs for radio mechanics, operators and repairmen, in 7 specialized capacities. 3 . Communications, consistin g o f a doze n classifications , including many kinds of operator s suc h a s switchboard, telegraph , teletypewriter, an d s o forth . 4 . Mechanical Trade, and Manual, whic h i s broken dow n into jobs for mechanics, textile and fabric workers, motor vehicle mechanic s an d miscellaneous , wit h man y sub-division s i n eac h classification. 5 . Administrative and Office, havin g 3 2 classifications , among the m accountant , auditor , bookbinder , cashier , cryptanalyst , fingerprinter, first sergeant, personne l noncommissione d officer , proof reader, an d typist . 6 . Motor Vehicle Drivers, fal l int o th e followin g groups o f work : chauffeur , motorboa t operator , moto r transportatio n noncommissioned officer , ligh t truc k driver , an d truckmaster . 7 . Food, consisting of jobs for bakers, cooks, dietitians, meats or daily inspectors,

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mess sergeants , an d subsistenc e noncommissione d officers . 8 . Supply and Stock, includin g 1 3 types, amon g the m Arm y Ai r Force s technica l supply noncommissioned officer , chie f storekeeper , shippin g clerk, shop clerk, and toolroom keeper. 53 The documen t emphasize d tha t th e women i n th e Women's Arm y Auxiliary Corp s ha d done , an d wer e doing , a n outstandin g job . General Eisenhowe r reportedl y praise d th e Wac s i n Afric a fo r distinguishing themselve s i n bot h neatnes s an d efficiency . Col . George Teachout , commande r o f th e pos t a t Cam p Crowder , Missouri, i s cite d a s saying : " I wan t t o sa y o f ever y Wa c a t thi s installation I woul d b e prou d t o hav e he r fo r a daughter. " Col . Floyd T . Gillespie , assistan t chie f signa l office r i n Allie d Forc e Headquarters, endorse d th e WAC in the followin g statement : After th e girl s ha d a fe w week s o f experienc e i n thei r job s the y wer e handling their assignment s lik e veterans. They were fas t an d the y were accurate. W e coul d hav e use d hundred s more . I n fact , ha d w e ha d enough o f them , w e coul d hav e use d the m t o operat e al l ou r fixed communication installations—telephon e an d telegraph—throughou t the rea r areas . Ever y on e o f thes e girl s release d som e ma n fo r signa l corps duty up in the combat zones. 54 By the en d o f th e yea r th e WA C recruitin g driv e ha d ended . I n January 194 4 Colone l Hobb y reporte d t o ACWI S tha t th e driv e had bee n a success : "America n wome n enliste d a t th e rat e o f 90 3 per week . Henc e th e los s o f WA C strengt h tha t ha d bee n antici pated i n the transition fro m th e WAAC to th e WAC was regained . The WA C strengt h increase d fro m 20,94 3 i n Januar y 194 3 t o 62,859 i n January 1944." 5 5 In subsequen t month s a National Civilia n Advisor y Committe e (NCAC) wa s forme d unde r th e Women' s Arm y Corps ; i t imple mented it s recruitmen t effort s throug h th e Wa r Department' s re gional service commands (fiel d site s in different geographica l area s throughout th e Unite d States) . Man y o f th e member s o f ACWI S served o n thi s ne w committee . Unlik e th e council , however , th e committee wa s concerne d exclusivel y wit h WA C affairs . Th e Na -

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tional Civilia n Advisor y Committe e wa s charge d wit h th e tas k o f employing innovativ e strategie s t o recrui t wome n int o th e WAC . On 1 6 Decembe r 1944 , fo r example , NCA C se t u p site s i n th e second servic e comman d (Ne w Yor k an d Governor s Islan d area ) and submitte d it s quarterl y recruitin g activitie s report , coverin g the perio d fro m Septembe r t o December . Th e strategie s i t em ployed include d developin g a list of schools , publishing a series of articles, runnin g newspape r advertisements , an d obtainin g state ments fro m leadin g industria l firm s assurin g wome n tha t the y would b e guaranteed thei r position s upo n returnin g i f the y lef t t o join th e WAC . Th e Fift h Avenu e Coac h Compan y wen t s o fa r a s to pain t a bus publicizing th e WAC. 56 NCAC continue d t o se t u p site s a t differen t regiona l servic e commands durin g the early month s o f 1945 . An NCAC sit e at th e third servic e command , coverin g Maryland , Pennsylvania , an d Virginia, wa s organize d o n 1 0 Februar y 1945 . I n a n effor t t o assist th e WA C i n it s recruitmen t efforts , member s o f NCA C toured th e Norfol k Arm y Ai r Bas e an d visite d Cam p Patric k Henry s o that the y coul d se e Wacs a t work. 57 A t the nint h servic e command (California , Washington , Oregon , Nevada , Utah , Idaho, an d Montana ) NCA C showe d films such a s To the Ladies, which portraye d wome n a s responsible , matur e adults , worthy o f respect. Luncheon s an d tea s wer e als o sponsore d i n th e nint h service command fo r th e purpose o f presenting the WAC progra m to newspape r representatives , radi o commentators , an d eligibl e women. Th e Universit y o f Californi a wa s summone d t o assis t in th e recruitmen t an d complie d b y holdin g assembl y program s preceded b y tour s o f a hospita l wher e Wa c technician s wer e o n duty. Th e stat e o f Orego n employe d sponsore d advertisement s and obtaine d suppor t fro m 11 5 America n Legio n Auxiliar y unit s throughout th e state . Th e Arizon a Stat e Federatio n o f Labo r sponsored a medical WAC recruiting campaign . I n Utah, approxi mately 50 0 persons , includin g 25 0 student s a t th e Universit y o f Utah, attende d a tea give n a t the home o f Governo r Herber t Ma w of Utah i n honor o f women i n uniform. 58 Apparentl y th e Nationa l

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Civilian Advisor y Counci l succeede d i n mobilizin g a variet y o f organizations an d institution s t o suppor t th e WA C recruitmen t effort. NCAC remaine d activ e i n WA C recruitmen t unti l th e en d o f the war ; a t tha t tim e th e grou p focuse d o n helpin g Wac s mak e a smooth transitio n bac k int o civilia n life . Th e imag e o f th e Wa c was stil l unstable: Althoug h ACWI S an d (later ) NCA C succeede d in recruitin g wome n t o serv e i n th e Army , nast y rumor s abou t Wacs bein g prostitute s an d lesbian s persisted . Nationa l NCA C chairman Mrs . Oswal d B . Lord , concerne d abou t employmen t opportunities fo r Wac s whe n the y returne d t o civilia n life , sen t a form lette r t o variou s civilia n organization s requestin g tha t the y provide writte n endorsement s o f Wacs. 59 The war wa s over , how ever, an d th e work o f NCAC wa s comin g t o a n end . On 1 3 Novembe r 194 5 a bulleti n announce d tha t th e Wa r Department wa s disbandin g Regiona l Civilia n Advisor y Commit tees. Th e secon d servic e comman d wa s t o b e discontinue d afte r 30 November . Th e NCA C wa s t o b e continue d a s a n advisor y board i n al l matter s relatin g t o member s o f th e Women' s Arm y Corps. Th e bulleti n emphasize d tha t civilia n employer s ofte n di d not credi t Wac s wit h th e intensiv e trainin g an d experience s the y had receive d i n th e Army . Consequently , som e wome n wer e finding that thei r service as Wacs worked agains t them rathe r tha n fo r them i n thei r searc h fo r employment . I n a n effor t t o addres s thi s problem, th e Veterans ' Servic e Center s bega n explorin g method s of givin g wome n veteran s credi t fo r bein g medica l technician s i n the Army. 60 In Februar y 194 6 severa l member s o f NCA C travele d oversea s to visi t WAC units tha t ha d no t ye t returne d t o th e Unite d States . Visiting Europ e unde r th e sponsorshi p o f th e Wa r Department , these member s observe d twenty-tw o hundre d Wac s assigne d t o the Europea n Theate r o f Operations . Apparentl y th e 6888t h wa s not on e o f th e unit s the y visited, althoug h th e last o f th e battalio n members di d no t retur n t o th e Unite d State s unti l Marc h 1946 . None o f th e member s o f th e 6888t h who m I interviewed remem -

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bers a visi t b y th e Civilia n Advisor y Committee , an d th e 6888t h is no t mentione d i n th e repor t b y Geneviev e Forbe s Herrick . Herrick, a membe r o f th e committee , circulate d a repor t o f he r visit wit h mor e tha n a thousan d Wacs , i n whic h sh e state d tha t she got t o kno w tw o hundre d o f the m personally . Sh e spoke wit h commanders o f Wacs in Frankfurt, Munich , Vienna, Berlin, Paris , Bamberg, Salzburg , Nuremberg , an d Berchtesgaden , al l o f who m were men , an d reporte d tha t the y al l appreciate d th e wor k don e by Wacs . I n vie w o f th e negativ e imag e o f Wacs , thi s wa s a meaningful disclosure. 61 Some o f Herrick' s writte n observation s suppor t informatio n about Wacs that ha d bee n revealed alread y an d late r was reporte d in th e Army' s officia l documen t o n th e Women' s Arm y Corps . Among thes e observation s wa s th e fac t tha t Wac s i n Europ e wer e on averag e olde r tha n mal e soldier s statione d overseas . The aver age male soldie r statione d i n the Europea n Theate r o f Operation s (ETO) wa s i n hi s earl y twenties ; th e averag e Wa c wa s i n he r thirties. Th e averag e Wac , i n th e Unite d State s a s wel l a s i n Europe, wa s als o bette r educate d tha n he r mal e counterpart. 62 Because o f th e relativel y smal l proportio n o f wome n servin g i n the militar y an d becaus e wome n wer e assigne d onl y t o selecte d occupations tha t almos t alway s require d specialize d skills , th e War Departmen t require d highe r aptitud e score s o n th e entranc e examination fo r wome n tha n fo r men . Interestingly, Herric k report s that Wacs in Germany wer e heav ily involve d i n communit y work , usuall y i n yout h activitie s pro grams. A n America n professor , Dr . Elizabet h Lam , worke d fo r the Office o f Military Governmen t i n Berlin an d serve d a s a senio r specialist i n yout h activitie s fo r girls . A Wa c office r o r enliste d woman wa s authorize d i n eac h headquarter s t o supervise , orga nize, an d conduc t girls ' activities . Th e Wac s me t wit h girl s fro m twelve t o twent y year s o f age , mad e toy s fo r orphane d Germa n children, hel d discussio n group s wit h hig h schoo l an d universit y students, and conducte d classe s in singing and fol k dancing . While visiting Wac s i n Germany , Herric k observe d a Thanksgivin g din -

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ner tha t wa s hel d i n a n enliste d women' s mes s hal l an d a Christ mas celebratio n i n Frankfurt . Sh e als o reporte d tha t Wac s too k donations an d purchase d thre e hundre d pair s o f shoe s fro m Czechoslovakians t o giv e t o Germa n childre n wh o ha d none. 63 Activities lik e these , whic h represen t th e humanitaria n rol e per formed b y man y Wac s durin g th e war , ar e generall y overlooke d in the literature abou t th e Women's Arm y Corps . According t o Herrick , Wac s i n th e ET O too k advantag e o f courses i n foreig n language , music , art , an d architecture . Thei r living condition s varie d fro m rugge d t o th e comfort s o f goo d hotels. A t th e Bamber g headquarter s o f th e U.S . Constabulary , Wacs live d i n auster e conditions , wit h fe w ligh t bulb s an d poo r lavatory facilities . I n Vienn a som e o f th e enliste d wome n wer e billeted i n a forme r orphanag e fo r Jewis h childre n (whic h house d German S S troops durin g the war). In Salzburg Wacs stayed a t th e Steinlechner Hotel , wher e th e livin g condition s wer e pleasant . I n Paris the y live d i n lavish , ornat e hotel s tha t ha d bee n take n ove r by th e Army. 64 (Thes e condition s wer e quit e simila r t o thos e o f the 6888th , whic h ar e describe d i n chapter 5. ) Social club s fo r Wac s als o range d fro m simpl e t o luxurious ; these club s wer e exclusivel y fo r whit e Wacs . I n Frankfur t th e Underground wa s fo r enliste d women , whil e officer s frequente d the officers ' clu b a t th e luxuriou s Kronber g Castle . Th e Coge n House wa s on e o f th e mor e elegan t club s i n Frankfurt , whic h a Wac office r coul d visi t onl y i f sh e wa s invite d b y a colone l o r a n officer o f highe r rank . Berli n ha d a " 4 8 " Clu b fo r bot h enliste d men an d women . Th e mos t elaborat e officers ' clu b i n Berli n wa s the Harna c House , operate d b y Wa c captai n Margo t Reis— a graduate o f Columbi a Universit y an d Prat t Institute . Berchtesga den wa s a recreational are a i n Germany , whic h som e o f th e Wac s visited while they were o n leave. 65 Most Wac s i n th e ET O worke d i n suc h clerica l position s a s teletype an d switchboar d operator s fo r th e trans-Atlantic oversea s operation i n Vienna. Som e Wacs, however, filled supervisory jobs , such a s traffi c chief s fo r th e militar y switchboar d i n Berlin . Th e

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supervisor o f th e finance departmen t i n Berlin an d Bamber g was a Wac. Othe r occupation s hel d b y Wac s include d servin g a s chie f clerk of the public safety department , a s court reporter, a s photographer, a s mes s sergeant , a s waitress , a s Germa n translator , a s stenographer i n th e Judg e Advocat e General' s offic e (JAG) , an d as exchange officer . Wac s als o were attache d t o th e socia l welfar e department o f th e 98t h Genera l Hospita l a t Munich . A Wa c officer serve d i n th e Educatio n an d Religiou s Affair s Branc h o f the Offic e o f Militar y Governmen t i n Bavaria . The activitie s o f ACWI S an d late r o f NCA C wer e directe d toward wome n o f Europea n descent . Mar y McLeo d Bethune , a s president o f th e Nationa l Counci l o f Negr o Women , wa s th e lin k between Africa n America n wome n an d th e Wa r Department' s advisory councils . Sh e was th e onl y Africa n America n membe r o f ACWIS. Consequently , Africa n America n wome n wer e influence d to som e degre e b y th e recruitmen t effort s o f ACWI S an d b y th e NCAC. Many o f the white Wacs' experiences observe d b y Herric k were simila r t o thos e o f blac k Wac s i n Europ e a t tha t time . African America n Wac s als o too k advantag e o f th e educationa l opportunities availabl e t o the m whil e the y were i n Europe , whic h were simila r t o thos e offere d t o Euro-America n Wacs . Th e livin g conditions o f th e blac k Wac s i n Europ e als o varie d fro m poo r t o good, dependin g o n wher e th e uni t wa s stationed . Man y o f th e jobs performe d b y member s o f th e 6888t h wer e th e sam e a s those performe d b y white Wacs . The accomplishment s o f Africa n American Wacs, however, were never highlighted i n the reports of the Advisor y Counci l o f th e Women' s Interes t Sectio n o r o f th e National Counci l Advisor y Committee . I t wa s almos t a s thoug h African America n wome n wer e invisible to these organizations . Because o f thei r doubl e minorit y status , Africa n America n women woul d no t hav e bee n employe d b y th e militar y durin g World Wa r II , wer e i t no t fo r preexistin g racia l policie s tha t specified ho w blac k me n wer e t o b e use d an d newl y developin g gender policie s specifying wher e an d ho w wome n wer e t o b e employed. Certainly , th e expandin g role s o f blac k me n an d o f

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white wome n create d th e contex t i n whic h blac k wome n wer e employed i n th e U.S . Army durin g Worl d Wa r II . By the tim e th e 6888th wa s formed , th e Wa r Departmen t ha d alread y addresse d the questio n o f deployin g Africa n America n me n overseas , an d several whit e WA C companie s alread y ha d bee n deploye d t o th e European an d th e Chin a Theater s o f Operations . Ye t the Africa n American Waac/Wa c face d obstacle s precisel y becaus e o f he r rac e and he r gender , a situatio n tha t di d no t confron t Africa n Ameri can me n o r Euro-America n women .

3 Fight Our Battles and Claim Our Victories As a group , blac k wome n ar e i n a n unusua l positio n i n this society , fo r no t onl y ar e w e collectivel y a t th e bot tom o f th e occupationa l ladder , bu t ou r overal l socia l status i s lowe r tha n tha t o f an y group . . . . Whit e women an d blac k me n hav e i t bot h ways . The y ca n act a s oppresso r o r b e oppressed . Blac k me n ma y b e victimized b y racism , bu t sexis m allow s the m t o ac t a s exploiters an d oppressor s o f women . Whit e wome n may b e victimize d b y sexism , bu t racis m enable s the m to ac t a s exploiters o f blac k people . —bell hooks , Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center

In thei r dail y effor t t o negotiat e th e world , Africa n America n women ar e force d t o confron t th e indignitie s o f eithe r racis m o r sexism, an d ofte n bot h simultaneously . Thi s fac t i s conspicuou s in th e experience s o f Africa n America n Waacs/Wacs . A s blac k Americans the y wer e force d t o live , eat , an d ofte n wor k i n sepa rate facilities , i n remot e area s o f militar y installations . A s wome n they wer e subjecte d t o th e hars h an d slanderou s rumor s directe d toward al l wome n i n th e military . Africa n America n Waacs/Wac s struggled t o influence polic y change s within a hierarchically struc tured organizatio n founde d an d operatin g o n sexis t an d racis t principles. The combinatio n o f racis m an d sexis m confrontin g th e Africa n 49

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American Waac/Wa c pu t he r int o a categor y separat e fro m thos e of African America n me n an d Euro-American women . I n additio n to campaign s establishe d t o expan d th e us e o f Africa n America n men an d t o mobiliz e women , a n additiona l effor t wa s necessar y before Africa n America n wome n wer e t o receiv e a chanc e t o participate full y i n th e Women' s Arm y Corps , which include d th e opportunity t o serv e overseas . Unlik e th e campaig n t o develo p a women's arm y corps , th e pressur e exerte d o n th e militar y t o deploy Africa n America n wome n oversea s wa s externa l t o th e War Department . Th e campaig n fo r racia l equalit y i n th e WAAC/ WAC wa s linke d t o organization s tha t deal t wit h racia l injustice s in general, namely th e NAACP, the NCNW, an d th e black press . Barricades and Bridges Throughout th e histor y o f th e Unite d State s Africa n America n women hav e fough t t o b e recognize d a s citizen s i n civil , political, and socia l arenas . Activel y seekin g civi l libertie s suc h a s freedo m of speec h an d th e righ t t o huma n dignity , Africa n America n women playe d a leadin g rol e i n th e antislaver y movement s an d the antilynchin g campaign s o f th e nineteent h century. 1 Th e Anti Slavery Society , governe d exclusivel y b y men , focuse d solel y o n issues o f abolishin g slavery . Onl y fou r wome n wer e invite d t o attend th e 183 3 conventio n hel d b y th e America n Anti-Slaver y Society i n Philadelphia , an d thei r participatio n wa s restricte d t o that o f passiv e observers. 2 A t th e Worl d Anti-Slaver y Conventio n in London , seve n year s later , Elizabet h Cad y Stanton , a whit e American feminis t wh o attende d th e meeting , wa s denie d a sea t because o f he r gender. 3 Man y o f th e blac k women' s earl y effort s to eradicat e racis m an d sexis m wer e mad e i n allianc e wit h whit e women i n earl y movement s suc h a s the Femal e Anti-Slaver y Soci ety. Man y o f th e blac k wome n leader s o f thi s organizatio n live d in Boston an d Philadelphia. 4 Although th e early women's movemen t evolve d fro m th e aboli tionist movement , racia l biase s ha d alway s bee n presen t t o som e

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degree. Racism , however , becam e eve n mor e prominen t i n th e women's movemen t afte r th e passage of the Fifteenth Amendmen t in 1869 , becaus e blac k me n wer e grante d suffrag e an d whit e women wer e not. 5 Thi s situatio n exacerbate d a n alread y straine d relationship betwee n Africa n America n an d Euro-America n women; a s a resul t man y whit e wome n withdre w thei r suppor t for th e emancipatio n o f Africa n American s an d concentrate d pri marily o n bourgeois , whit e feminis t issues . I n 189 0 whit e femi nists forme d th e National America n Woma n Suffrag e Associatio n (NAWSA). Th e typica l membe r o f NAWS A no t onl y dissociate d herself fro m Africa n American s bu t als o supporte d th e ideolog y of white supremac y i n a n effor t t o gai n th e support o f th e South. 6 Black women , continuin g t o striv e fo r socia l equality , devel oped politica l organization s suc h a s th e Nationa l Associatio n o f Colored Women . Thi s grou p wa s founde d b y Mar y Churc h Ter rell in 1896 , after blac k women's club s were rejected fo r member ship i n th e Genera l Federatio n o f Women' s Clubs. 7 Th e Alph a Suffrage Clu b i n Chicag o wa s establishe d i n 191 4 b y Ida B . Wells for th e purpos e o f mobilizin g blac k wome n t o struggl e fo r loca l and universa l suffrage. 8 Indeed, Africa n America n wome n ha d a histor y o f organizin g for socia l an d politica l chang e lon g befor e Worl d Wa r II . Issue s associated wit h bot h rac e an d gende r discriminatio n wer e ad dressed b y these early political organizations , a s well as by group s that wer e forme d i n subsequen t years . Africa n America n wome n were not alway s accepte d a s members o f organization s dominate d by blac k male s o r thos e governe d b y whit e women ; thus , i t wa s imperative fo r the m t o develo p a separat e politica l advocac y group. The years preceding World War I I were inequitable towar d women an d especiall y detrimenta l t o th e welfar e o f Africa n Americans. Th e Nationa l Counci l o f Negr o Wome n (NCNW) , founded b y Mar y McLeo d Bethun e i n 1935 , wa s a prominen t organization tha t addresse d bot h rac e an d gende r issues . During World Wa r I I Bethune, president o f the NCNW, wa s a n invited member o f the Advisory Counci l for th e Women's Interest s

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Section (ACWIS ) an d late r o f th e Nationa l Civilia n Advisor y Committee (NCAC ) fo r th e Women' s Arm y Corps . Thi s distin guished Africa n America n woman , wh o hel d a number o f leader ship positions i n the country, was the link between these organiza tions an d th e Africa n America n community. 9 ACWI S an d NCA C officials constantl y calle d o n Bethun e t o influenc e Africa n Ameri can wome n t o suppor t effort s tha t they , whit e middle-clas s women, define d a s important . On e suc h effor t wa s t o encourag e educated wome n wit h "hig h mora l character " t o joi n th e WAAC/ WAC. In 194 3 Bethune received severa l communication s concern ing WAA C recruitmen t fro m Emil y Newel l Blair , chie f o f th e Women's Interest s Section , an d Margare t Banister , th e organiza tion's director . O n 1 3 January Baniste r wrot e Bethun e informin g her o f fou r regiona l conference s an d confirmin g tha t invitation s would b e extended t o the list of NCNW representative s submitte d by Bethune five months earlier. 10 Th e NCNW consiste d o f severa l black women' s organization s tha t wer e particularl y concerne d about employmen t issues , and workin g fo r th e admission o f blac k women int o th e WAAC was consistent wit h th e NCNW's broade r goals o f racia l equality . Bethune , i n a sho w o f complet e support , wrote bac k t o Baniste r wit h th e name s o f thre e additiona l repre sentatives. In the followin g mont h Blai r wrote Bethun e requestin g that sh e and th e member s o f he r organizatio n activel y assis t th e WAA C recruitment driv e b y writin g a persona l colum n i n th e NCNW' s national publication , th e Aframerican Woman's Journal, listin g the name s o f organizatio n members ' daughter s wh o ha d joine d the WAC . Blai r als o aske d Bethun e t o writ e a n articl e urgin g organization member s t o be hospitable to Wacs in their communi ties.11 On e o f Bethune' s philosophie s wa s tha t Africa n America n women shoul d seiz e al l opportunitie s t o participat e an d t o mak e lasting contribution s t o America n institutions. 12 Viewin g th e Women's Arm y Auxiliar y Corp s a s a n opportunit y fo r Africa n American wome n t o advanc e themselve s sociall y an d politically , Bethune encouraged the m t o enlist .

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On 2 0 Marc h 194 3 Blai r wrot e Bethun e askin g he r t o dissemi nate informatio n o n a "cod e o f wartim e conversation." 13 Wa r Department official s wer e concerne d tha t classifie d informatio n would b e sprea d b y wome n talkin g to o openl y abou t thei r spouses' an d sons ' militar y assignments . Wome n therefor e wer e instructed no t t o revea l informatio n abou t wher e o r ho w thei r spouses o r son s wer e deployed . Bethun e replie d t o Blai r tha t sh e would suppor t th e effort . Blai r wrot e Bethun e agai n o n 8 April , requesting tha t sh e encourag e NCN W member s t o participat e i n the "Secon d Wa r Loa n Progra m fo r Women " b y purchasin g bonds fo r militar y equipment . Bethun e wa s a liaiso n betwee n African America n an d Euro-America n wome n durin g th e war . Many suc h request s wer e mad e t o solici t suppor t fro m Africa n American wome n i n efforts define d b y conservative white women . Bethune, however , realize d ho w importan t i t wa s fo r Africa n American wome n t o for m a unite d fron t wit h whit e wome n against problems associate d wit h sexism . Sexis m affecte d th e live s of blac k wome n a s wel l a s white , an d thes e issue s wer e rarel y i f ever addresse d b y organization s tha t focuse d primaril y o n rac e matters. Bethune's effort s influence d man y Africa n America n wome n t o join th e WAAC/WAC . Sh e personally selecte d severa l o f th e Afri can America n wome n wh o attende d an d graduate d fro m th e WAAC's first Office r Candidat e School , evidenc e o f he r pla n t o advance Africa n America n women' s interest s throug h blac k par ticipation. Bethun e too k a leadin g rol e i n instructin g blac k candi dates abou t th e dua l missio n the y wer e t o perform . First , the y were t o carr y ou t th e dutie s o f th e Women' s Arm y Auxiliar y Corps, a s the y ha d swor n t o d o whe n takin g th e oat h t o joi n th e WAAC. Second, the y were to conduc t themselve s i n such a way a s to demonstrat e tha t Africa n American s wer e capabl e soldier s an d respectable persons, worthy o f first-class citizenship . While th e first WAA C OC S wa s stil l i n session , Bethun e visite d the blac k candidates . Noe l Campbel l Mitchel l remember s tha t Bethune tol d th e Africa n America n participant s t o se t a goo d

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example: "Sh e [Mar y McLeo d Bethune ] cam e ou t ther e an d talked t o al l of u s an d tol d u s that the y [th e War Department ] di d not wan t u s i n thi s servic e i n th e firs t place , s o w e ha d t o se t a n example. And we did . We did a beautiful jo b ou t there. " Bethune trie d t o sensitiz e member s o f ACWI S an d NCA C t o African America n women' s issue s an d concerns . Sh e presente d ACWIS with findings fro m he r investigations o f the WAC Training Center. I n a writte n statemen t presente d t o th e Advisor y Counci l on 1 6 August 1943 , Bethune stated : As a member o f th e Women's Interests Section o f the War Department , the Nationa l Counci l o f Negr o Wome n appreciate s th e opportunit y extended t o inspec t th e activitie s o f th e Women's Arm y Corp s a t For t Des Moines, Iowa, an d Cam p Crowder , Missouri . The tou r wa s infor mative an d serve d t o increas e ou r interes t i n th e progra m an d anxiet y for existing problems. We find it very difficult t o make recommendations which wil l b e effectiv e fo r recruitin g purpose s i n vie w o f th e existin g policy o f segregation . Ful l integratio n i s th e goa l w e seek . Workin g toward this goal we make the following recommendations. 14 Among Bethune' s nin e recommendation s wa s tha t mor e blac k officers b e traine d fo r recruitin g duty , tha t blac k officer s b e give n training i n al l specialized school s i n the Army, that blac k Wacs b e assigned i n occupation s tha t wer e presentl y close d t o them , tha t no all-blac k regimen t b e establishe d a t For t De s Moine s (a s wa s proposed b y th e Wa r Department) , an d tha t th e OC S no t b e moved t o For t Oglethorpe , Georgi a (anothe r proposa l mad e b y the War Department). 15 Black WA C officer s ha d bee n assigne d t o recruitin g dut y i n 1942, bu t the y wer e withdraw n fro m tha t dut y i n July 194 3 an d were returne d t o trainin g center s t o instruc t blac k trainees . Th e War Departmen t refuse d t o reassig n Africa n America n wome n a s recruiters becaus e o f report s tha t th e presenc e o f blac k Wac s "i n public places giving public speeches" created racial disturbances. 16 As fo r specialize d schools , blac k Wac s wer e no t traine d o r as signed i n technica l fields suc h a s th e Signa l Corps , th e Chemica l Warfare Service , o r th e Corp s o f Engineers . Thes e fields wer e

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open onl y t o a limite d numbe r o f whit e Wacs , mos t o f who m (approximately five thousand ) wer e assigne d t o th e Signa l Corps , in Septembe r 1944 . No mor e tha n seve n hundred Wac s were eve r assigned t o Chemica l Warfar e Service s at an y give n time. 17 As fo r th e "all-Negr o regiment, " Bethun e wa s referrin g t o a reorganization propose d b y the War Departmen t i n August 1943 . According t o th e plan , Africa n America n Wac s a t For t De s Moines woul d b e reorganized int o a n all-blac k regimen t an d thu s would b e segregated completel y o n post. This proposal me t stron g opposition b y man y blac k Wac s statione d a t For t De s Moines. 18 It i s no t surprisin g tha t Bethune , a n integrationist , woul d oppos e any pla n fo r racia l segregation . Th e reorganizatio n pla n wa s sub sequently rescinded . Bethune' s primar y concer n abou t openin g a n Officer Candidat e Schoo l a t For t Oglethorp e wa s that blac k Wac s would no t be well received in nearby Chattanooga . He r objection s were i n vain , however ; For t Oglethorp e opene d it s Officer' s Can didate Schoo l i n Augus t 1943. 19 Ther e were , however , relativel y few Africa n America n Wac s traine d a t For t Oglethorpe . Putne y reports tha t th e onl y blac k Wac s traine d a t For t Oglethorp e wer e "those specificall y recruite d i n lat e 194 4 an d earl y 194 5 fo r as signment i n arm y genera l hospital s an d som e o f th e blac k [Wac ] officers wh o wer e commissione d betwee n Septembe r 18 , 1943 , and Februar y 17 , 1945." 2 0 Seeing t o i t tha t blac k wome n wer e amon g th e first office r candidates o f th e WAA C wa s onl y on e o f th e battle s fough t b y Bethune. Onc e Africa n American s entere d th e Women' s Arm y Auxiliary Corps , they were subjected t o various act s of racism. To help kee p thei r moral e high , Bethun e praise d the m effusivel y fo r their accomplishments . Sh e als o provide d emotional , political , and economi c suppor t fo r Africa n America n Wac s wh o swa m against th e tide s o f institutiona l racism . Fo r example , Bethun e helped rais e money t o obtai n lega l representation fo r fou r Africa n American Wacs who were court-martialed a t Fort Devens in 1945 . These wome n ha d disobeye d wha t the y allege d wa s a raciall y discriminatory orde r (describe d mor e full y below) . Bethun e als o

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defended th e preservation o f th e Negro WAC Band when official s had decide d t o discontinu e it . Thi s situatio n wa s especiall y trou blesome becaus e blac k Wac s wer e prohibite d fro m playin g i n th e all-white WAC Band (se e below). Racial discriminatio n i n th e Women' s Arm y Auxiliar y Corp s was obviousl y a majo r concer n i n th e Africa n America n commu nity. Fro m th e ver y beginnin g blac k organization s suc h a s th e Alpha Kapp a Alph a (AKA ) Sorority , th e Nationa l Counci l o f Negro Wome n (NCNW) , th e Nationa l Associatio n fo r th e Ad vancement o f Colore d Peopl e (NAACP) , th e Nationa l Urba n League, an d th e Delt a Sigm a Thet a Sororit y lobbie d fo r a claus e that woul d prohibi t th e WAAC fro m discriminatin g agains t blac k women. Thei r effor t wa s defeate d b y the Senat e an d th e Hous e o f Representatives o n th e groun d tha t suc h a claus e wa s no t neces sary.21 Althoug h th e Arm y offere d Africa n America n wome n greater opportunitie s fo r activ e participatio n tha n di d th e othe r armed services , it was fa r fro m fre e o f racia l biases . African America n wome n wer e authorize d t o participat e i n th e Women's Arm y Auxiliar y Corp s fro m it s inception , bu t man y faced a great dea l o f difficult y whe n the y trie d t o apply . Althoug h a fe w blac k wome n receive d persona l invitation s fro m th e Wa r Department t o appl y fo r th e first Office r Candidat e Schoo l at For t Des Moines, many who attempte d t o join the WAAC were refuse d applications a t thei r loca l recruitin g stations, 22 becaus e som e re cruiters, i n act s o f individua l racism , too k i t upo n themselve s t o deny application s t o Africa n Americans . On a numbe r o f occasion s Africa n America n wome n o r thei r representatives, o r both , wrote t o WAAC Headquarter s t o expos e local recruiter s wh o ha d refuse d the m applications. 23 O n 1 8 Ma y 1942 Ear l Davis , presiden t o f th e Winston-Sale m Yout h Counci l of th e NAACP , sen t Ovet a Cul p Hobb y a telegra m notifyin g he r that th e recruitin g office r a t Winston-Sale m woul d no t recrui t blacks fo r th e WAAC . I n a repl y t o Davi s b y telegra m o n th e following day , Hobb y state d tha t th e recruite r ( a Sergean t Ste phenson) ha d bee n contacte d an d woul d correc t hi s mistake .

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Complaints of racial discrimination a t recruitment station s con tinued t o b e forwarde d t o WAA C Headquarters . O n 2 9 Ma y Mrs. E . P . Trezevant o f Columbia , Sout h Carolina , wrot e a lette r addressed t o th e U.S . Arm y Recruitin g Corps , assertin g tha t he r local recruitin g statio n ha d faile d t o giv e her a n application . O n 3 June sh e receive d a repl y fro m th e assistan t adjutan t general , Captain W . H . Nealing , statin g that th e Women's Arm y Auxiliar y Corps's polic y wa s no t t o discriminat e o n th e basi s of race , creed , or nationa l origin . No t satisfie d wit h tha t response , Mrs . Treze vant wrot e th e followin g wee k t o Ovet a Hobb y an d receive d a reply tha t th e deadlin e fo r applyin g t o th e first OC S wa s 4 June . Refusing t o giv e up, Mrs . Trezevant the n wrot e t o Mar y McLeo d Bethune, wh o forwarde d th e complain t bac k t o th e WAAC direc tor. Hobb y wrot e a lette r t o Bethune , whic h acknowledge d tha t the complain t indee d wa s valid , bu t conclude d he r lette r b y say ing, " I regre t exceedingl y tha t a t thi s lat e dat e ther e i s nothin g which ca n b e done." 24 Another Africa n America n woma n encountere d a n obstacl e when sh e attempted t o appl y fo r th e WAAC in North Carolina : The mos t difficul t par t o f it , bu t on e tha t blac k women , a fe w o f us , overcame, was to knock down the doors of the United States Post Offic e and ge t a n applicatio n t o apply . Tha t wa s fa r harde r tha n passin g th e mental alertnes s test . An d I hav e hear d othe r wome n wh o recoun t similarly. . . . That wa s really ou r first battle whic h became , across thi s country, a campaign. Why, if they could shu t you out an d you couldn' t get in the door. . . . That's an easy way to eliminate you. 25 The "menta l alertnes s test " refer s t o th e aptitud e tes t tha t al l applicants had t o pass before gainin g admissio n t o th e military. I n this cas e th e prospectiv e applicant , a t Bethune' s advice , moved t o Washington, D.C . Ther e sh e wa s abl e t o appl y an d subsequentl y enroll i n th e Women' s Arm y Auxiliar y Corps , t o becom e on e o f the first 44 0 wome n t o atten d th e WAA C Office r Candidat e School. While som e o f th e othe r wome n ha d n o difficult y i n obtainin g

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applications, almos t al l o f thos e wh o attende d th e firs t WAA C OCS wer e stunne d b y th e blatan t racia l segregatio n the y encoun tered. Charit y Adam s Earley , fo r example , wa s shocked . Sh e wa s inducted int o th e militar y a t Columbus , Ohio , o n 1 3 July 1942 : "We wer e marche d int o a trai n an d w e cam e int o De s Moines. " When thi s grou p o f inductee s arrive d a t For t De s Moines , the y were taken t o th e trainin g cente r b y truck . When w e marche d ou t o f thos e trucks , an d marche d int o a stagin g center—a receptio n center , I guess i t was—w e ha d t o lear n [military ] terms. Th e first thin g tha t too k plac e literall y shocke d us . Ther e ha d been twenty-five o f us who had traveled together from Columbus , Ohio, and an officer cam e in and asked if the colored girls would move over to some seats he had way over in the corner. And then he proceeded to call the res t o f the m b y nam e t o sen d the m t o thei r quarters . . . . An d o f course w e wer e sor t o f shocke d tha t thi s kin d o f actio n woul d tak e place. . . . But we survive d tha t an d w e went t o ou r separat e quarters , No. 54 at Fort Des Moines, Iowa. Bernadine Flannaga n wa s als o surprise d whe n sh e learne d tha t the Women's Arm y Auxiliar y Corp s wa s racially segregated : We [black Waacs] had our own barracks and white Waacs had their own barracks. W e [blac k Waacs ] ha d ou r ow n trainin g facilitie s an d the y [white Waacs] had thei r ow n training facilities . I was surprised becaus e in Ne w London , Connecticut , wher e I gre w up , everythin g wa s inte grated. I left New London with white girls to travel to Fort Des Moines. We got o n th e trai n goin g sout h an d w e were separate d whe n w e go t down to the Mason-Dixon line. I was told that I had to move to another section o f th e train . . . . The whol e militar y servic e was a shoc k t o m e because I ha d n o ide a i t wa s segregated . I don' t kno w wha t I wa s thinking about . Bu t bein g fro m a n integrate d town , I just didn' t thin k that way. Noel Campbel l Mitchel l reflect s o n th e initia l oppositio n fro m family an d friend s wh o wante d t o shelte r he r fro m th e col d mili tary environment : "Havin g bee n born , reared , an d educate d a t Tuskegee Institute , an d becaus e o f m y seemingl y sh y an d depen dent nature , m y parent s an d friend s wer e shocke d when , afte r

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two year s o f teaching , I persisted , agains t everyone' s advic e an d discouragement, excep t tha t o f m y father , i n becomin g a membe r of th e first Officer' s Candidat e Schoo l o f th e Women' s Arm y Auxiliary C o r p s . " O n 2 3 Jun e 194 2 Mitchel l an d fou r othe r wome n fro m Tuskegee receive d militar y order s t o repor t t o For t McPherson , Georgia. By the tim e I had complete d my physica l examinatio n I was thoroughl y convinced tha t I didn't wan t t o joi n th e Army . We were told t o wait i n a room unti l w e wer e calle d fo r a n interview . Whe n I wa s calle d I wa s scared t o death . I walke d int o th e roo m an d ther e sa t thre e Arm y colonels an d tw o civilia n women . On e o f th e wome n brok e th e silenc e by saying , " I a m disappointe d i n you. " I stare d a t he r becaus e I ha d never see n he r befor e an d I knew sh e had neve r see n me . How coul d sh e say suc h a thing ? I t turne d ou t tha t sh e happene d t o kno w m y father , who wa s si x feet , thre e inche s tal l an d weighe d 20 6 pounds . Sh e ha d been certai n tha t I woul d b e abou t hi s heigh t an d weight . I coul d se e why sh e wa s disappointe d a s I wa s onl y five feet , tw o inche s tal l an d weighed 11 6 pounds. That brok e th e ice and I was mor e a t ease . Mitchell passe d he r physica l a s wel l a s th e intervie w an d wa s informed tha t i n a fe w day s sh e woul d receiv e order s t o trave l t o the inductio n cente r t o b e swor n in . A t abou t noo n o n 1 6 July sh e took th e oat h an d becam e officiall y a par t o f th e Army . As th e trai n pulle d ou t o f th e statio n I was neve r mor e homesic k i n my life. I resolved tha t sinc e I was in it [th e Army] now , I had t o make good . The trai n wa s ful l o f girl s o n thei r wa y t o camp . I arrived i n Des Moine s on th e night o f 2 0 July 1942 , about 7:3 0 PM . W e were met a t the statio n by enlisted me n wh o wer e detailed t o trai n th e members o f th e Women' s Army Auxiliar y Corps . W e were tol d t o "fal l in. " I knew tha t Arm y lif e was toug h bu t I hardl y expecte d t o hav e t o rui n m y travelin g outfi t falling int o th e dust . I neve r hear d thos e word s befor e i n m y life , s o I looked aroun d t o se e what th e othe r girl s were doing . I just followe d th e few wh o seeme d t o know tha t t o fal l i n meant t o for m a straight line. 26 Mitchell wa s th e onl y Africa n America n i n thi s grou p o f wome n w h o travele d t o For t De s Moines . Upo n he r arriva l a t th e trainin g

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center Mitchell wa s met by an African America n woma n wh o ha d arrived earlie r an d wh o escorte d he r t o th e barrack s reserve d fo r "coloreds." Mitchel l wa s th e thirty-eight h blac k Waa c t o arrive ; two mor e wer e expected . Surveyin g th e are a fo r a familia r face , she saw on e woman wh o ha d attende d colleg e with her : " I hadn' t known he r well , bu t w e greete d eac h othe r lik e long-los t friends . Anyone fro m hom e wa s welcome d a t tha t moment. " Mitchel l vividly remember s racia l segregatio n i n the first Office r Candidat e School: "Ther e wer e 40 0 white s an d 4 0 black s a t th e tim e . . . and completel y segregated . W e ha d ou r ow n building , an d w e were th e thir d platoo n i n a company. " Racia l segregatio n pre sented a serious logistic problem fo r th e Army an d a psychologica l problem fo r man y Africa n America n Waacs/Wacs . Initially th e Wa r Departmen t wa s confuse d abou t wha t t o d o with blac k wome n i n th e WAAC . Muc h o f th e discomfitur e stemmed fro m racia l stereotypes . O n 1 4 Ma y 1942 , fo r example , the executiv e directo r o f th e WAAC , Maj. Harol d P . Tasker, sen t a memorandum t o Ovet a Cul p Hobby, informing he r of a strateg y to admi t fort y blac k wome n t o the first OCS : It was originally planne d t o admi t twenty-three (23 ) colored wome n t o the Officer Candidates ' Course. Information fro m th e engineer school at Fort Belvoir indicates a very high percentage of failures from the colored group in the Engineer Officer Candidat e course. It is, therefore, believe d that th e numbe r t o atten d ou r first officers' schoo l shoul d b e increased to 40. . . . Based on that figure, and assuming for sak e of argument tha t there wil l b e n o losses , th e followin g pla n i s offere d a s a workabl e solution from al l angles, including training and housing facilities. 27 The overal l plan wa s t o trai n jus t enough blac k wome n t o fill two companies consistin g o f 3 officers , 2 0 noncommissione d officers , and slightl y more than 12 7 auxiliaries (low-rankin g women o f th e rank an d file). These companie s subsequentl y wer e t o b e assigne d to For t Huachuca , Arizona , th e larges t blac k Arm y pos t a t th e time. A t th e en d o f th e trainin g perio d n o blac k Waac s woul d b e left a t Fort De s Moines. This plan neve r materialized , however .

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African America n wome n participate d i n the firs t OC S gradua tion o n 2 9 Augus t an d wer e commissione d a s thir d officers . Be cause women di d no t actuall y belon g t o th e U.S . Army bu t rathe r were a part o f a n auxiliary , th e War Departmen t create d th e ran k of thir d officer , th e equivalen t t o th e Army' s secon d officer. 28 Th e exact numbe r o f Africa n America n wome n wh o graduate d i n th e first OC S clas s i s unclear . I n a n articl e titled : "Announc e Roste r of Wome n i n th e Arm y Auxiliar y Corps, " th e Chicago Defender listed fort y names. 29 Severa l othe r document s stat e tha t thirty nine Africa n America n wome n attende d th e first OC S clas s an d successfully complete d it. 30 I n an y case , the women wer e carefull y selected fro m a poo l o f eligibles . Al l o f the m ha d a t leas t som e college experienc e befor e enterin g th e military , an d man y wer e college graduates . Two month s befor e th e graduation ceremony , in a news releas e dated 1 Jun e 1942 , Bethun e announce d tha t sh e ha d conferre d with WAA C directo r Hobb y an d ha d bee n assure d tha t blac k women woul d b e welcome d wit h " a spiri t o f justic e an d fai r play." Th e articl e read a s follows : Mrs. Bethune, speakin g a s president o f th e Nationa l Counci l o f Negr o Women, expressed the belief that this is an opportunity for the service of the best women of the race. She urged that the women who are fitted for this typ e o f servic e b y possessing strengt h o f character , leadership , an d cooperative attitude , registe r an d becom e a par t o f thi s program . Th e National Counci l of Negro Women, declared Mrs. Bethune, reasserts its determination to stand shoulder to shoulder with all other women of the country i n bearin g ou r par t o f th e responsibilit y fo r winnin g thi s war . The endorsement o f the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps , asserted Mrs. Bethune, i s wholeheartedl y given , bu t i s no t t o b e interprete d a s a n endorsement of its policy of segregation. This, however, she declared, is the other hal f o f ou r battle . It must not, in any way, lessen our suppor t or participation i n our country's victory effort. 31 Several blac k organization s wer e skeptical , however , abou t black women' s participatin g i n a n organizatio n i n whic h ther e was institutionalize d racis m an d denie d rights . Thes e organiza -

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tions voiced thei r concern s abou t racia l segregatio n i n the WAAC. E. J . Adams , actin g secretar y o f th e Nort h Jerse y Committe e o n Discrimination, wrot e t o Col . Do n Faith , th e commandan t o f the WAA C Trainin g Center , requestin g tha t th e polic y o f racia l discrimination b e abolished . Th e lette r wa s forwarde d t o WAA C Headquarters, an d Adj . Gen . Willia m Pearso n replie d formula ically tha t th e content s o f Adams' s lette r ha d bee n dul y noted. 32 On 2 5 Augus t Harr y McAlpi n o f th e Chicago Defender sen t Col . Harold Tasker , th e executiv e directo r o f th e WAAC , a mem o reporting allege d racia l discriminatio n a t th e WAAC training cen ter. Amon g th e allegation s wa s tha t th e swimmin g poo l wa s ope n to blac k Waac s onl y on e hou r a week ; tha t sign s wer e posted , designating whic h table s blac k Waac s wer e authorize d t o occup y in th e mes s hall ; tha t blac k Waac s wer e require d t o si t i n on e section o f th e classroom ; tha t blac k Waac s wer e banne d fro m th e officers' recreationa l facilities ; an d tha t racia l slur s wer e use d i n the classroom. O n 8 September McAlpi n receive d a reply from Lt . Col. Noe l Macy , assistan t directo r o f th e Wa r Department' s Bu reau o f Publi c Relations , addressin g eac h allegatio n separately. 33 Macy sai d tha t ther e wa s n o discriminatio n wit h regar d t o th e swimming pool ; sign s ha d bee n remove d fro m table s i n th e mes s hall; Black s naturall y woul d si t togethe r i n classroom s becaus e the wome n wer e seate d wit h thei r platoons , an d tha t ther e wer e two servic e clubs: one fo r White s an d on e fo r Blacks." 34 In August , a fe w day s afte r th e first WAA C OC S hel d it s graduation, Bethun e aske d Charle s P . Howard , a blac k attorne y in Iowa , t o investigat e condition s surroundin g blac k Waac s a t Fort De s Moines. In his report Howar d wrote : I reported to Captain Vann B. Kennedy, Public Relations Officer, advise d him tha t I was makin g a n investigatio n o f th e post a t your reques t fo r the informatio n o f Mrs . Roosevelt , an d aske d fo r a n intervie w wit h Colonel Do n C . Faith. The Colonel was not immediatel y available , but upon hi s retur n I was grante d a n intervie w a t once . I advised Colone l Faith that my mission was to investigate conditions a t Fort Des Moines relative to th e Negro girl s and informe d hi m that I had bee n requeste d

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to do so by you. Colonel Faith frankl y informe d m e that a s to housing, recreation, an d eating , the Negro girls are segregated, an d that segrega tion was done in conformity wit h "th e policy of the Army;" that other wise Negr o girl s ar e give n absolut e equalit y o f opportunity . Fo r th e purpose of facilitatin g m y investigation I prepared a series of questions , and the answers thereto are by me based upon questions propounded t o Colonel Fait h an d Captai n Kennedy , interview s mad e thi s dat e wit h individual Negr o Waacs an d group s o f Negr o Waacs, and m y personal observations made daily since the first day of camp. 35 Howard reporte d tha t th e thirty-nin e office r candidate s wer e as signed t o on e platoo n an d wer e par t o f th e Firs t Compan y o f th e First Regimen t WAA C with tw o othe r platoon s mad e u p o f whit e officer candidates . Ther e wer e a blac k an d a whit e servic e club , one pos t cantee n fo r bot h Black s an d Whites , an d on e swimmin g pool with a specified tim e for blac k women t o swim. Black wome n were assigne d specia l table s i n th e mes s hall' s southeas t corner , marked "Reserve d C. " Whe n blac k Waac s complaine d abou t th e reservation card s o n th e table , Colone l Fait h ha d the m removed . Black Waac s attende d classe s alon g wit h White s whe n trainin g consisted o f tw o o r mor e platoons . Howar d als o reporte d tha t some blac k office r candidate s visite d whit e friends , an d vic e versa.36 This repor t make s clea r tha t rac e discriminatio n wa s bein g practiced i n th e WAA C trainin g center , eve n thoug h th e Wa r Department wante d t o giv e th e impressio n tha t facilitie s wer e separate but equal. On 2 September Bethun e forwarded Howard' s report t o Judg e Willia m Hastie , civilia n aid e t o th e secretar y o f war. Judg e Hasti e forwarde d th e repor t t o Lieutenan t Colone l Macy. I n a mem o t o Lt . Col . Davi d Page , Mac y state d tha t th e report appeare d t o b e entirel y accurat e an d recommende d tha t i t be cleared fo r release. 37 Because Africa n America n wome n wer e accepte d i n th e first WAAC Office r Candidat e School , i t sometime s appears , a t leas t on th e surface, tha t blac k femal e officer s wer e more highly advan taged tha n blac k mal e officers . Th e numbe r o f blac k mal e officer s

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was insufficien t t o lea d blac k mal e troops ; in contrast , ther e wer e initially mor e Africa n America n femal e officer s tha n enrolle d (en listed) women . I n Decembe r 194 2 blac k wome n mad e u p 3. 8 percent o f th e WAA C officer s a s compare d wit h 1. 4 percen t o f the WAA C enliste d women . Thi s rati o change d i n th e followin g months, however , a s mor e blac k wome n wer e traine d a s enliste d personnel.38 B y Marc h 1943 , fo r example , Black s mad e u p 2. 6 percent o f th e WAA C officer s an d 5. 8 percen t o f th e enliste d women. 39 For the first time in American history women in general, and Africa n America n wome n i n particular , wer e bein g traine d for leadershi p position s i n a n auxiliar y o f a n exclusivel y mal e in stitution. Even so, equal opportunity wa s far fro m realit y in the Women' s Army (Auxiliary ) Corps . Racia l restriction s influence d th e assign ments an d activitie s o f blac k Waacs/Wacs . Thos e wh o wer e as signed th e positio n o f compan y commander , fo r example , wer e restricted t o commandin g all-blac k femal e units . WA C directo r was th e onl y positio n wit h a n accompanyin g ran k o f colone l tha t was open t o women, and all of the women who filled that positio n were o f Europea n descent . Al l o f th e fe w lieutenan t colone l posi tions were filled by white women . The highes t ran k assigne d t o Africa n America n wome n durin g World Wa r I I wa s tha t o f major. 40 Tw o blac k wome n attaine d this rank : on e wa s Harrie t West , o f WA C Headquarters i n Wash ington, D.C. ; th e othe r wa s Charit y Adams , th e battalio n com mander o f th e 6888t h Centra l Posta l Director y Battalion. 41 Char ity Adam s Earley , the n Charit y Adams , wa s promote d t o lieutenant colone l when sh e returned t o the United State s after th e war. Thus , the highes t positio n t o whic h th e averag e blac k Waac / Wac office r coul d realisticall y aspir e wa s tha t o f a company-leve l officer, fo r who m th e highes t attainabl e ran k wa s captain . Thi s fact dampene d th e spirit s o f som e o f th e blac k Waac/Wa c offi cers.42 A mor e over t ac t o f racis m wa s reflecte d i n th e polic y that forbad e Africa n America n Waac/Wa c officer s fro m eatin g

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or socializin g i n officers ' clubs. 43 Earle y recall s bein g severel y reprimanded b y a whit e mal e office r superio r fo r goin g t o th e officers' clu b while stationed a t For t De s Moines : So you are the Major Adams, the negra officer wh o went into the officer s club las t night . I don't thin k an y colore d perso n ha s eve r bee n a guest there before . Wha t wer e you doin g there? Who had th e nerv e to invit e you there? I don't believ e in race mixing, and I don't intend to be a part of it. I understand that you are from Sout h Carolina. Well, I am too, and that makes it worse. . .. I can't stand having a negra from th e same state that I come from socializin g with th e same people I do. Don't le t being an office r g o t o you r head ; yo u ar e stil l colore d an d I wan t yo u t o remember that. You people have to stay in your place.44 These peculiarl y margina l blac k wome n occupie d a paradoxica l position o f prominence an d obscurity . Many o f th e blac k graduate s o f th e first WAA C OC S clas s remained a t For t De s Moines , wer e furthe r traine d a s compan y officers, an d serve d a s officer s fo r th e blac k WAA C companie s that wer e forme d i n th e followin g months . Thes e wome n wer e responsible fo r "th e administratio n o f blac k WA C companies , housing, feedin g an d gettin g troop s t o th e righ t plac e a t th e righ t time." 45 The y face d th e sam e challenge s a s thos e encountere d b y their whit e counterparts , an d the y struggle d wit h th e additiona l burden o f managin g th e problem s resultin g fro m racia l segrega tion. Charit y Adam s Earle y recall s tha t whil e whit e Waac s spen t one wee k i n th e receptio n area , move d o n t o anothe r are a fo r basic training , an d wen t t o stil l anothe r are a fo r skil l develop ment, blac k Waac s remaine d i n th e sam e are a fo r al l thre e activ ities: Because there were not many Negro WAACs, all of their routine schedules wer e don e i n Compan y 8 excep t fo r th e specialis t training . Th e result wa s tha t I commande d a receivin g company , a basi c trainin g company, an d a stagin g company . M y officer s an d I learne d i n on e company, in a short time , what othe r officer s learne d ove r long periods of time. 46

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Black compan y officer s thu s ha d t o b e mor e versatil e tha n thei r white counterpart s becaus e o f th e racia l inequalit y buil t int o th e institutional structur e o f th e Women' s Arm y (Auxiliary ) Corps . As a resul t o f suc h inequities , blac k Waacs ' living , working , an d social condition s wer e no t onl y raciall y separat e bu t als o inferio r to thos e o f thei r whit e counterparts . WAAC Detachment

No.

2 (Colored)

The first all-blac k WAA C Basic Training Compan y bega n trainin g at For t De s Moine s i n Septembe r 1942. 47 Al l o f thes e wome n had a basi c trainin g cours e tha t ha d bee n designe d b y th e pos t commandant an d patterne d afte r th e first four week s of the men' s basic course . Th e cours e consiste d o f militar y courtesy , Arm y organization, an d drill . I n lie u o f comba t course s (wome n wer e not traine d i n weaponry) , Waac s ha d course s i n curren t events , map reading , an d propert y responsibility. 48 Som e o f thes e wome n received vocational training , becoming drivers, cooks, and bakers ; others wer e sen t t o th e field withou t suc h training . Som e o f th e women interviewe d fo r thi s stud y fel t fortunat e t o hav e bee n selected amon g th e fe w blac k Wac s t o atten d administratio n school. Mar y Rozie r recall s tha t a larg e numbe r o f blac k Wac s were sent to cooks ' an d bakers ' school : " I was sent to administra tion school . The y [th e WAC ] ha d administratio n school , an d cooks' an d bakers ' schools; and ther e were a lot of girl s who wer e teachers [i n civilia n life ] wh o wer e sen t t o cooks ' an d bakers ' school, but I was luck y enoug h t o g o to admi n school. " In Decembe r 194 2 th e first tw o blac k WAA C companies , th e Thirty-Second an d th e Thirty-Thir d WAA C Pos t Headquarter s Companies, arrive d a t For t Huachuca , Arizona. 49 Africa n Ameri can Waacs were subsequently assigne d to various Army an d Arm y Air Corp s installation s throughou t th e Unite d States . Mos t o f them lived , worked, an d socialize d i n raciall y segregate d environ ments, bu t som e worke d i n unit s i n whic h the y wer e th e onl y African Americans , o r i n whic h the y wer e amon g th e ver y fe w

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black Waacs/Wac s assigned . Harrie t West , fo r example , wa s th e only blac k WAA C office r assigne d fo r dut y i n th e Personne l Divi sion a t WAAC Headquarters i n the District of Columbia . Anothe r Waac/Wac, Blanch e Scott , wa s th e onl y Africa n America n as signed t o her recruitin g statio n i n Virginia: "Ther e was a group of us i n Richmond , i n th e headquarters , an d I wa s th e onl y Black , and ther e wer e abou t si x o r seve n whit e WA C officers. " Charit y Adams Earle y late r becam e on e of tw o blac k Wacs working i n th e WAC Training Cente r Headquarters. 50 Largely becaus e o f racia l discriminatio n i n the larger society , a s well a s th e militar y polic y o n racia l segregation , th e Wa r Depart ment wa s finding i t difficul t t o recrui t qualifie d Africa n America n women. Th e Wa r Departmen t define d eligibilit y b y a n applicant' s score o n th e entranc e examination . Becaus e o f poo r educationa l facilities, however , th e literac y rat e wa s lo w i n th e blac k commu nity. O n 1 1 September 194 2 1s t Lt. D. F. Taylor sen t a memoran dum to the Military Branc h Personne l Divisio n statin g that quota s for "colore d WAA C auxiliarie s [lo w rankin g enliste d women] " had no t bee n me t becaus e 8 5 percen t o f th e blac k WAA C appli cants ha d faile d th e menta l alertnes s test . Taylo r requeste d tha t the menta l alertnes s tes t scor e b e lowered fo r blac k WAA C appli cants. Lieutenan t Colone l Taske r rejecte d thi s reques t bu t state d that he would emplo y four "colore d WAAC officers fo r temporar y recruiting duty " i n a n effor t t o recrui t mor e educate d blac k women. On th e followin g da y Col . Osca r Abbott , directo r o f militar y personnel, circulate d a mem o title d "Polic y Regardin g Colore d Personnel i n th e WAAC. " Th e first tw o paragraph s o f th e memo randum read : 1. Colored unit s of th e WAAC post headquarters typ e could b e fased on an y pos t wher e ther e i s a nee d fo r a WAA C Unit ; provide d th e colored unit operates on the same basis of efficiency a s the white unit. In this regar d ther e shoul d b e no lowerin g o f th e standar d tes t fo r appli cants in order to fill the ratio requirements. 2. Ther e i s a definit e reluctanc e o n th e par t o f th e bes t qualifie d

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colored women to volunteer i n the WAAC. This is brought abou t by an impression on their part that they will not be well received or treated on posts wher e the y ma y b e stationed . Thi s coul d b e overcom e b y a n intensive recruitin g campaig n wit h th e ide a i n vie w o f interestin g th e desired class of colored women in this project and arriving at a thorough understanding of their rights and privileges while in the service.51 The memo als o listed the names and locations of colleges enrollin g large number s o f Africa n America n wome n an d state d tha t blac k WAAC companie s shoul d b e assigne d t o location s wher e the y would b e well received . The Wa r Departmen t wa s no t aggressivel y addressin g th e con cerns raise d b y Africa n Americans . Asid e fro m th e questio n o f low aptitud e scores , much o f th e racia l tensio n tha t existe d i n th e Women's Arm y (Auxiliary ) Corp s resulte d fro m th e Wa r Depart ment's polic y o f racia l segregation , which almos t invariabl y le d t o unfair treatmen t o f Africa n America n women . Eve n whe n blac k Waacs/Wacs score d hig h o n th e militar y entranc e examination , they wer e no t assigne d t o occupation s commensurat e wit h thei r abilities, nor wer e they promoted . The issu e o f racia l segregatio n becam e especiall y importan t t o black leader s when severa l allegation s wer e mad e abou t th e racis t practices o f th e WAAC . Edwi n Embree , presiden t o f th e Juliu s Rosenwald Fun d i n Chicago , wa s disturbe d b y thes e allegation s and visite d th e WAAC Training Cente r o n 2 3 Septembe r 1942 . In a letter he wrote to Colone l Faith, thanking him for th e hospitalit y they received , Embre e assesse d tha t facilitie s fo r "white s an d col oreds" wer e equa l an d tha t qualifie d blac k wome n a t For t De s Moines ha d a positiv e effec t o n whit e Waacs , wh o claime d neve r to hav e associate d o n th e basi s o f "equality , friendship , an d com mon effor t wit h Negroe s o f thei r ow n qualit y an d education , i n fact di d no t kno w suc h wome n existed. " Takin g a diplomati c tone, Embre e wrot e tha t th e specia l tabl e tha t ha d bee n assigne d to colore d girl s i n th e officers ' mes s wa s a conspicuou s for m o f segregation an d wa s resente d b y blac k Waa c officers . Embre e

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ended hi s lette r b y urgin g tha t th e "unnecessar y [racial ] segrega tion b e corrected." 52 Later tha t mont h a Mrs . Viol a A . McAtee a wrot e t o Eleano r Roosevelt requestin g tha t Irm a Moore , a n Africa n America n Waac wh o hel d a master' s degre e i n theology , b e reassigne d t o a position mor e commensurat e wit h he r skills . "I' m hopin g yo u could fly dow n t o De s Moine s an d loo k ove r th e trainin g cam p and se e this Negro, (on e would perhap s find her scrubbing floors)! You are so fine and s o far abov e bigotry ; I know yo u wil l do wha t you ca n fo r thi s dar k skinne d woman , Irm a L . Moore, D.D . (5t h Co.), (2nd . Reg.)." 53 Attorney S . Joe Brow n o f Iow a als o lobbie d on Moore' s behalf . I n a lette r addresse d t o Colone l Fait h h e wrote, "Mis s Moor e enliste d fo r th e express purpose o f qualifyin g for a chaplaincy ; bu t no w tha t wome n ar e no t bein g accepte d a s chaplains, sh e is willing t o waiv e he r clerica l ran k an d enrol l a s a candidate fo r a third officer ; an d I am sur e tha t yo u ca n mak e n o mistake b y giving her thi s opportunity." 54 The proble m o f malassignmen t wa s roote d i n structura l in equality perpetrated b y the War Department an d not only discour aged qualifie d Africa n America n wome n fro m joinin g th e Women's Arm y Corps , bu t als o create d unres t amon g blac k women wh o ha d joined . Severa l Africa n America n wome n openl y protested bein g assigne d t o menia l tasks ; som e wer e victoriou s i n their protests , bu t othe r attempt s wer e defeated . Befor e goin g overseas wit h th e 6888th , Doroth y Daile y Jones wa s statione d a t Fort Jackson , Sout h Carolina . Sh e arrive d a t For t Jackso n i n th e middle o f a n inflammator y situation : "Th e [black ] wome n i n th e outfit, whic h wa s attache d t o th e regiona l hospital , wer e doin g the mos t menia l wor k i n th e hospital . The y wer e washin g wall s and carryin g be d pans , an d no t muc h o f anythin g else , regardles s of training. " Whe n Jones arrived , thre e African America n wome n already ha d bee n court-martiale d fo r rebellin g agains t th e system , and on e woma n ha d slappe d a whit e mal e officer . "Tw o o f u s stuck ou r neck s out ; w e kne w enoug h abou t militar y la w t o d o i t

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in a reasonabl y saf e manner ; w e wrot e a lette r t o th e hospita l commander throug h channels. " Som e o f th e wome n i n Jones ' company wer e alread y traine d medica l technicians . Other s wer e unskilled: "W e di d hav e a meetin g wit h th e power s tha t b e an d some agreement s wer e reache d tha t ther e woul d b e som e trainin g for thos e women wh o didn' t hav e an y skills." 55 Many militar y hospital s a t tha t tim e hire d civilian s t o d o th e menial task s tha t wer e assigne d t o blac k wome n a t For t Jackso n who ha d bee n traine d a s medical technicians : We convince d the m [th e power s tha t be ] tha t i t wa s a wast e t o us e expensive Wac s fo r job s tha t comparativel y inexpensiv e civilian s coul d do. Nobod y ha d bee n promote d fro m th e tim e th e uni t ha d bee n pu t together. W e wer e WA C Detachmen t No . 2 . I n thos e day s 2 alway s meant colored . I mad e PFC ; ou r to p sergean t finally got he r sergean t stripes; sh e wa s a corporal . Th e company' s ran k wen t fro m PF C t o corporal, an d peopl e wer e traine d t o b e medica l technician s an d la b technicians. I didn't get beyond PFC until we went overseas.56 Jones wa s late r assigne d t o specia l service s i n th e Headquarter s Company o f th e 6888th . Grievances associate d wit h racia l segregatio n i n th e WA C reached man y sympatheti c ears . Emil y Hickman , chairperso n o f the Publi c Affair s Committe e o f th e Youn g Women' s Christia n Association, wrot e a letter t o WAAC director Hobb y o n 1 4 Octo ber 194 2 an d late r t o Secretar y o f Wa r Henr y L . Stimson , pro testing racia l segregatio n i n th e WAAC' s Office r Candidat e School: We ar e particularl y disturbe d abou t thi s i n vie w o f th e fac t tha t w e understand that there has been considerable modification o f the customary Army plan of racial separation insofar a s officers' trainin g for Army men i s concerned . W e ar e tremendousl y hopefu l tha t wome n ma y se t ahead th e cause of nationa l unit y an d war morale , to which we believe the subject of our inquiry has direct relation. 57 Emily Hickma n wa s referrin g t o th e fac t tha t althoug h loca l an d national legislatio n prohibite d racia l integration , i n 194 1 Arm y

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officials ha d integrate d Office r Candidat e Trainin g i n a n effor t t o use manpower mor e efficiently. 58 By this tim e Bethune' s suppor t fo r th e corp s wa s facin g sever e challenges. Th e blac k pres s an d th e Nationa l Associatio n fo r th e Advancement o f Colore d Peopl e were deeply concerne d abou t th e treatment o f Africa n America n wome n i n th e WAAC . Bethun e was criticize d fo r approvin g a n organizatio n tha t ha d a racia l segregation plan . O n 4 Novembe r 194 2 sh e wrot e i n he r ow n defense t o Walter White : I have read wit h grea t alar m you r findings on the statu s o f segregatio n being practice d i n th e trainin g o f th e Women' s Arm y Auxiliar y Corp s at For t De s Moines . Specifically , I a m eve n mor e alarme d becaus e o f information comin g to you and to Negro members of the WAAC indicating that I have given my approval to this segregated plan of operation. I think yo u an d other s wh o hav e know n m e durin g th e year s nee d n o statement of my disapproval o f segregation i n any form. I have never at any time approved segregation at Fort Des Moines.59 Less tha n tw o week s later , i n a n intervie w wit h th e Washington Tribune, Bethun e urged blac k Wacs to work fo r changin g militar y racial policie s throug h externa l organization s an d no t t o tak e matters int o thei r ow n hands : "I t i s unfortunat e tha t th e Negr o Waacs must b e segregated bu t it is much easie r for the m t o remai n in th e cam p an d leav e th e fighting o f th e conditio n t o thos e o f u s on th e outside." 60 Late r tha t month , partl y a s a result o f politica l pressure an d partl y becaus e ther e wa s onl y a smal l numbe r o f African America n wome n trainin g t o b e officers, th e War Depart ment desegregate d th e livin g an d recreationa l facilitie s o f th e Of ficer Candidate Schoo l (OCS ) a t For t De s Moines. 61 Some o f th e officer s o f th e 6888t h attende d OC S durin g thi s period o f desegregation . Blanch e Scot t recalls : "Th e OC S wasn' t bad. There were ten Black s (the y call them blac k now ; the n i t wa s Negro). All of u s [bot h blac k an d whit e women] wer e in the sam e barracks; th e te n Negr o Wac s were i n one littl e smal l roo m a t th e end. We [black an d white Wacs] had classe s together, at e together ,

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socialized together , yo u know , an d al l that . W e didn' t hav e an y problems a t al l a s I recall. " Similarly , Mildre d Dupe e Leonar d remembers, "Whe n w e wer e i n officer' s trainin g w e live d i n th e same buildin g a s white trainees , bu t al l o f th e Black s wer e i n on e room becaus e ther e were s o few o f us; there were nine of us in my class out o f three hundred. " While the War Department receive d letters from Africa n Ameri cans protesting racia l segregation , i t also received correspondenc e from whit e Americans protesting allege d racial integration. O n 1 7 April 194 3 John C . McCormack, genera l manager o f radio statio n KWKH.KTBS i n Shreveport , Louisiana , wrot e t o Joh n Ewing , apparently a prominen t residen t o f Shreveport . Whe n th e lette r was written , Ewin g wa s i n Ne w Yor k stayin g a t th e Waldor f Astoria Hotel . McCormac k wrot e t o Ewin g abou t recen t rumor s that th e Women' s Arm y Corp s wa s raciall y integrated . I n th e letter h e suggeste d tha t th e WAA C b e investigate d fo r allege d racial integration : Miss. Tucker's siste r enliste d i n th e WAAC about si x weeks ago . Afte r completing her basic training, she applied for administrativ e schoo l and was transferre d ove r las t weeken d t o th e Chamberlai n Hote l i n De s Moines. A couple o f day s afte r movin g into thi s hotel, sh e wrote Mis s Tucker a letter commentin g ver y strongl y o n th e situatio n betwee n th e negroes and the whites in the WAAC. She said both negroes and whites were stationed i n th e Chamberlai n Hotel, althoug h the y wer e on sepa rate floors . The y us e th e sam e dinin g roo m eve n thoug h the y hav e a section fo r th e negroe s an d a sectio n fo r th e whites . Sh e sai d sh e ha d seen them working side by side serving food, an d it was her understanding that the y di d K P [kitchen police ] dut y together . Sh e also state d sh e understood tha t i n th e cook s an d baker s schoo l the y worke d together , ate together, an d live d in the same barracks. . .. I feel a little bit guilty in that w e have . . . influenced s o many girl s to joi n thi s thin g who n o doubt find themselves i n a n unhapp y situatio n afte r the y arriv e du e t o misrepresentation. . . . I n writing this letter, I also have in mind havin g heard yo u mentio n tha t littl e Helen wa s thinking o f joining the WAAC and felt you would want this thoroughly investigated before she did. 62

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Ewing forwarde d th e lette r t o Colone l Hobby , wh o replie d t o John McCormac k a s follows i n a letter date d 7 May : In the basic training section, Negroes are formed int o their own companies, except in a few instances when the number of Negroes who arriv e at a training center at any one time is insufficient t o make up a company. In such a case, every effort i s made to form at least a platoon of Negroes, so that th e Negr o wome n withi n th e compan y ma y b e housed i n thei r own sectio n o f th e barracks . . . . The numbe r o f Negroe s wh o receiv e officer candidat e trainin g i s s o smal l tha t the y canno t b e forme d int o company units, and are consequently placed in regular officer candidat e companies. . .. I am satisfie d tha t such occurrence s a s you mentio n ar e infrequent, an d whe n the y d o happe n ar e temporar y an d practicall y unavoidable.63 The las t sentenc e o f thi s lette r reveal s tha t Hobby , th e directo r o f the WAC , sympathize d wit h McCormack' s complain t an d sup ported th e idea o f racia l segregatio n i n the Women's Arm y Corps . Rather tha n defendin g integration , Hobb y apologize s fo r it . Ha d the Women' s Arm y Corp s desegregate d al l o f it s facilitie s an d assigned Africa n America n wome n t o position s commensurat e with thei r abilities , man y o f th e racia l problem s tha t surface d would hav e bee n alleviated . Instead , racis m remaine d a proble m in the Women's Arm y Corp s becaus e o f it s narrow-minded polic y of racia l segregation , whic h ra n counte r t o th e American ideolog y of democracy . The Africa n America n communit y continue d t o pres s th e issu e of rac e relation s i n th e WAAC . O n 1 4 Jun e 194 3 a fac t shee t was circulate d amon g member s o f th e Conferenc e agains t Rac e Discrimination i n the War Effort. 64 Som e of th e African America n citizens wante d a mor e specifi c accoun t o f th e situatio n i n th e WAC i n orde r t o mak e a better-informe d assessment . Florenc e Murray, fo r example , o f th e Hote l Theres a i n Ne w Yor k City , wrote t o th e Wa r Departmen t requestin g a variety o f statistic s o n Negro Waacs . Firs t Office r Gretche n M . Thor p replie d o n 7 Au gust 1943 , stating that th e WAC did not compil e statistics by race. Thorp revealed , however , tha t thirty-nin e Black s ha d graduate d

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from th e firs t Office r Candidat e Schoo l an d tha t som e ha d re ceived promotions ; i n addition , blac k officer s serve d a t WA C Headquarters i n Washington , D.C. , a t th e WA C Training Center s in De s Moine s an d a t For t Devens , an d i n te n Arm y installation s in the field. 65 The atmospher e create d b y th e WAC's policy o f racia l segrega tion spawne d racia l bigotr y b y creatin g a n atmospher e i n whic h individual racist s wer e inspire d t o ac t ou t thei r prejudices . Con sider th e cas e o f Elsi e Oliver , wh o whil e statione d a t For t De s Moines was almos t fatall y injure d b y a military dentis t who delib erately use d soile d instrument s t o wor k i n he r mouth . Olive r developed a serious infectio n an d ha d t o b e hospitalized : I was notified t o go to this dentist [on e reputed as expressing disdain fo r African Americans ] an d hi s offic e wa s filled with Whites . When every body else was out of his office bu t his assistant, they called me. I figured they would not see me that day at all. It was almost night when he called "Elsie Oliver." I went down to his chair, and when I sat down I noticed that all the instruments were soiled. . .. S o I said: "Sir , you're not going to work o n m e with that! " H e said: "I' m th e dentist, you'll d o as I tell you." S o then h e pushed m e in the chair an d starte d rubbin g his hands up on my legs. I said, "I' m not here for anythin g but denta l work. . . . " So that' s whe n h e pushe d m y hea d bac k an d starte d pawin g i n m y mouth. . . . Th e nex t mornin g infectio n ha d se t in . . . . I wa s i n th e hospital for three or four weeks. Oliver believe s tha t th e dentis t wa s late r court-martiale d fo r hi s deplorable act . Yet , althoug h thi s individua l ac t o f discriminatio n was no t sanctione d b y th e institution , i t wa s encourage d b y th e War Department' s polic y o f racia l segregation . On 4 Februar y 194 4 Lul a Jone s Garret t o f th e Afro-American Newspaper i n Baltimor e forwarde d a lis t o f charge s o f racia l discrimination, compile d b y blac k Wac s a t For t De s Moines , t o Maj. Harrie t West , the African America n Wa c assigned a s adviso r on Negr o affairs , a t WA C Headquarter s i n Washington , D.C . A few day s earlie r a mor e extensiv e lis t o f complaint s fro m a n anonymous Wa c had bee n sen t t o Majo r Wes t a t he r hom e i n th e

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District o f Columbia . Th e grievance s include d allegation s tha t black Wac s wer e force d t o bille t i n crowde d quarter s separate d from othe r billets , wer e subjecte d t o racia l slurs , an d wer e no t allowed t o charg e book s ou t o f Servic e Clu b "numbe r 1 " ( a designation indicatin g that i t was a facility fo r Whites). An investigation wa s requested . Th e lis t o f grievance s wen t u p th e chai n o f command a t WA C Headquarter s befor e i t wa s sen t bac k t o For t Des Moine s fo r investigation . Maj . Charit y Adams , serving a t th e time a s the Trainin g Cente r (quality ) contro l officer , wa s assigne d to investigat e th e complaints. 66 Upon completin g he r investigation, Majo r Adam s reporte d tha t there was n o racia l discrimination : At no time have Negro officers bee n forced t o live under the condition s stated. Housing facilities ar e equally adequate for both Negro and white officers. Referenc e book s ar e located i n the military scienc e library an d are available to all military personnel. They are not kept in either service club. Book s kep t i n eithe r servic e clu b ma y b e availabl e t o personne l through the librarians of either Club. 67 The final repor t wa s sen t bac k t o Headquarter s an d the n for warded t o Lul a Garrett . Racia l slur s wer e no t mentione d i n tha t report, no r di d the report addres s the specific allegatio n tha t blac k Wacs were denied access to library books at Service Club "numbe r 1." I n thi s instance , Majo r Adam s replie d a s mos t WA C official s responded t o complaints , b y recitin g militar y policy ; sh e was no t in a position powerfu l enoug h t o permit anythin g else . Fulfilling a role wit h whic h sh e di d no t necessaril y identify , Majo r Adam s was merel y a black Wa c carrying ou t orders . A numbe r o f allegation s wer e mad e concernin g th e Wa r De partment's unequa l an d inferio r treatmen t o f blac k Wacs ; al though som e ma y hav e bee n lef t unsubstantiated , other s wer e supported b y facts. I n July 194 4 Horac e R . Ca y ton, manage r o f a hotel o n th e Sout h Sid e o f Chicago , wrot e a lette r t o th e arme d forces inductio n statio n refusin g t o rene w hi s contrac t t o hous e newly inducte d Africa n America n Wacs . On e o f hi s reason s fo r

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refusal wa s tha t th e inductio n statio n neglecte d t o reserv e room s for blac k Wac s befor e sendin g the m t o th e hotel . Becaus e o f thi s lack o f coordination , wome n wer e lef t withou t lodging . Blac k Wacs wer e sen t t o th e Sout h Sid e t o loo k fo r housin g lat e a t night, while white Wacs were housed i n the Loop (Th e downtow n business area ) i n a protected environment . Cayto n requeste d tha t the War Departmen t revis e its policy an d hous e blac k inductee s i n the sam e way a s white inductees . During tha t mont h a number o f letter s were written t o th e Wa r Department concernin g discontinuin g th e only Negro WAC Band . One o f thes e letter s wa s addresse d t o Secretar y o f Wa r Henr y Stimson fro m Walte r White , secretar y o f th e NAACP . Severa l newspaper article s als o proteste d th e disbandment . Th e Negr o Wac Band a t For t De s Moines initiall y consiste d o f thirt y women , and late r wa s reduce d t o twenty-eigh t (th e standar d siz e fo r a n Army band) . Th e ban d wa s establishe d becaus e blac k Wac s wer e excluded fro m th e officia l band , whic h wa s compose d exclusivel y of whit e Wacs. Pvt. Leonor a Hul l wa s th e ban d director ; an d 2n d Lt. Thelm a Brow n wa s th e office r i n charge . Becaus e th e ban d was no t officiall y authorized , th e ban d member s wer e carrie d a s overhead. O n 1 0 July 194 4 the y wer e give n a ban d rating : som e members wer e promote d t o corporal , other s t o sergeant . The y made numerou s appearances , mos t notabl y a t a conferenc e fo r the NAAC P i n Chicago . A few day s afte r tha t performance , how ever, th e ban d member s receive d notice s tha t th e ban d woul d b e dissolved effectiv e 1 8 July an d it s member s woul d b e reclassifie d and sen t to differen t units . As a resul t o f widesprea d protes t b y blac k organizations , th e black press , an d privat e citizens , th e Wa r Departmen t wa s com pelled t o rescin d it s decision . O n 1 6 Augus t Lt . Col . Jessie Pear l Rice wrote a letter t o Bethune : The orde r t o disban d thi s uni t wa s issue d a s a par t o f a n Army-wid e program whic h calle d fo r th e discontinuance o f a large number o f bands . After obtainin g ful l informatio n an d receivin g th e recommendatio n o f the commandin g office r o f th e Firs t WA C Trainin g Center— a recom -

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mendation base d o n th e importanc e o f ban d t o morale—th e Wa r De partment decide d t o continu e th e ban d an d it s officia l activatio n ha s been directed. 68 The Wa r Departmen t quickl y foun d itsel f force d t o modif y it s policy i n a n effor t t o b e mor e raciall y inclusive . Yet , eve n thoug h the Wa r Departmen t allowe d th e ban d t o continue , i t wa s no t willing to includ e African America n Waac s i n its white band . Racism an d sexis m continue d t o b e definin g characteristic s o f life fo r Africa n America n wome n i n uniform . Eve n towar d th e end o f th e war Africa n America n wome n coul d b e beate n unmer cifully b y polic e i n th e Sout h fo r sittin g i n a "whit e only " sectio n of a train station . Th e irony o f such case s was that African Ameri can Wac s no t onl y wer e terrorize d b y polic e i n th e ver y countr y they wer e willin g t o protec t fro m foreig n invasion , bu t the y als o were punishe d b y th e Wa r Departmen t fo r no t adherin g t o racia l segregation. On e suc h cas e wa s describe d i n Ne w Yor k City' s Amsterdam-Star News o n 2 8 July 1945 : Following a n unmercifu l beatin g b y a civilia n policema n i n Eliza beth town, KY. , becaus e sh e dare d si t i n a waitin g roo m reserve d fo r white people, a WAC Private faces summary court martial this Saturday for breakin g th e Jim Cro w Law s of th e state. The woman, PFC . Helen Smith o f Syracuse , who has serve d 2 6 months in the Corps an d i s now stationed a t Fort Knox, lay ill in the hospital fo r a full wee k before sh e was able to write of her plight to relatives here and in Philadelphia. 69 In othe r reporte d incident s a s well , Africa n America n wome n were beate n whil e wearin g th e Arm y uniform . I n on e suc h repor t it wa s claime d tha t a n Africa n America n woma n wa s beate n fo r being a captain an d "expectin g whit e people t o salut e her." 70 Two month s befor e V- E (victor y i n Europe ) Day , blac k Wac s continued t o complai n abou t racis m i n th e corps . I n a newspape r article title d "Disillusione d b y Jim-Cro w Washingto n Gir l Quit s WAC," Pvt . Ana Aike n testified : I wa s swor n i n th e WA C o n th e 5 th o f February , 1943 , and receive d basic trainin g a t For t De s Moines. Condition s o n th e pos t wer e prett y

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fair. We only had segregated service clubs. After I completed my training I was sent to Fort Clark, Texas. . . . [There] when I went to the movies I met Jim Crow. . . . San Antonio was the nearest town and there we were barred fro m al l recreatio n centers . . . . Fro m ther e I wen t t o Cam p Gruber, Oklahoma, i n June 1944 . This camp was definitely no t one fo r colored [Wacs ] a s provision s ha d bee n mad e fo r whit e Wac s only . . . . The moral e o f ou r grou p becam e very low . . . . We were finally sent t o Fort Sa m Houston , Texa s . . . [where ] civilian s employe d a t th e depo t made it very unpleasant fo r us . . . . We were not allowed to work a t the hospital (Brook s General) . . . . Unti l w e ar e abl e t o liv e togethe r a s a people, colore d unit s shoul d b e sheltere d fro m th e inconvenience s o f the south. 71 In th e sam e mont h fou r blac k Wac s i n th e North , rebellin g against malassignments , wer e convicte d fo r disobeyin g a direc t order t o work . Thes e Wac s wer e protestin g thei r assignmen t t o perform onl y "dirt y duties " (menia l tasks ) becaus e o f thei r race . On 2 0 Marc h the y wer e convicte d b y a nine-membe r court-mar tial o n charge s o f disobeyin g a superior officer , receive d a dishon orable discharge , an d wer e sentence d t o on e yea r a t har d labor . Yet, unlike s o many case s against blac k Wacs who refuse d t o obe y unfair an d unjus t orders , thi s cas e di d no t en d i n defeat . O n 2 3 March 194 5 thre e congressmen—Emanue l Celler , Vit o Marcan tonio, an d Ada m Clayto n Powell—aske d fo r a n investigatio n o f the court-martial . Again , severa l letter s wer e writte n t o th e Wa r Department b y blac k organization s an d th e blac k press . O n 3 April the court-martia l sentence s were voided o n th e grounds tha t the cour t wa s convene d improperl y (Gen . Sherma n Miles , th e accuser, als o convene d th e court , whic h wa s bot h inappropriat e and illegal) . The Wacs were immediately restore d t o duty ; thi s ac t represented a collectiv e succes s b y th e Africa n America n com munity.72 At time s racia l discriminatio n agains t blac k Wac s reflecte d th e fears o f whit e ethnic s living in neighborhoods adjacen t t o militar y installations. Resident s rebelle d agains t proposal s mad e b y th e War Departmen t t o statio n blac k Wac s near thei r neighborhoods .

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On 6 April 1945 , for example , Col. John Nash, general staff corp s to the Director o f Personnel, wrote a memo claimin g that a Jewish residential committe e i n Hyd e Par k (Chicago ) proteste d th e pro posed placemen t o f blac k Wac s a t Gardine r Hospital. 73 Gardine r Hospital wa s locate d a t 166 0 Eas t Hyd e Par k Boulevard , a pre dominantly Jewis h neighborhood . On e mil e wes t o f th e hospita l was Cottag e Grov e Avenue , th e easter n boundar y o f Chicago' s black neighborhood . Althoug h Hyd e Par k ha d a restrictiv e cove nants propert y owners ' agreement , resident s feare d tha t Africa n Americans woul d migrat e int o thei r communit y an d caus e a de valuation o f thei r property . Th e resident s als o wer e concerne d that if a black WAC detachment wer e assigned a t Gardiner Hospi tal, th e Wac s woul d b e quartere d i n th e immediat e vicinit y an d would b e tempte d t o us e beache s reserve d fo r White s only . Fur thermore, th e committe e argued , blac k me n woul d pas s throug h white segregate d area s when callin g on blac k Wacs fo r dates . Black organizations , includin g th e Nationa l Counci l o f Negr o Women an d th e Chicag o Counci l agains t Racia l an d Religiou s Discrimination me t wit h militar y official s t o counterac t th e peti tion draw n u p b y Jewis h protesters . Thes e activist s i n Chicag o sent letter s urgin g th e Wa r Departmen t t o carr y ou t it s pla n an d to assig n th e blac k WA C unit t o Gardiner . Afte r lon g deliberatio n the Wa r Departmen t activate d th e unit—th e Fifty-Fift h WA C Hospital Company—whic h bega n it s tou r o f dut y o n 5 June. Al l official report s indicat e tha t th e uni t performe d wel l an d encoun tered n o racia l antagonis m durin g its time in Hyde Park. 74 In som e way s th e militar y environmen t wa s merel y a reflectio n of civilia n society . Complying wit h th e country's racia l norms , th e U.S. Arm y wa s raciall y segregate d fo r th e mos t part . Integratio n of th e Office r Candidat e Schoo l wa s a n exceptio n t o th e rule . Although th e workplac e wa s sometime s integrated , recreationa l and livin g facilitie s wer e separate d almos t entirel y b y race . B y protesting race-biase d policie s i n th e Women' s Arm y Auxiliar y Corps an d late r th e Women' s Arm y Corps , Africa n American s actively sough t chang e an d sometime s achieve d it .

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80 Deploying Negro

Waacs/Wacs Overseas

Among th e issue s concernin g racia l equalit y i n th e WAAC/WA C was the question o f deployin g African America n Waac/Wacs over seas. Black political leader s addresse d thi s issue in public speeche s and wrot e t o th e Wa r Department . I n a lette r t o Ovet a Hobb y dated 1 4 August 1944 , Mary McLeo d Bethun e continue d t o rais e issues that had not been satisfactorily addressed , including deploy ment o f Africa n America n Wac s overseas : In addition t o seein g to i t that Negr o WACS are admitted t o the 400th Army Band at Fort Des Moines, we also urge that colored WAC officials be assigne d t o dutie s comparabl e t o thei r rank , tha t colore d WAC S be allowed t o serv e overseas , an d finally that the y b e accorde d al l o f th e rights an d privilege s o f a ful l fledged WAC, regardles s o f race , color , or creed. 75 Several letter s wer e writte n t o th e Wa r Departmen t requestin g that blac k Wac s b e deploye d overseas . Secretary o f Wa r Henr y L . Stimson's standar d repl y t o thes e request s wa s simpl y tha t Negr o Wacs wer e no t bein g deploye d oversea s becaus e the y wer e no t being requested b y overseas commanders. 76 The rac e barrie r preventin g th e deploymen t o f Africa n Ameri cans oversea s wa s broke n fo r blac k me n i n Ma y 1942 , whe n black soldier s wer e statione d i n th e Britis h Isle s fo r th e firs t time . Three month s late r th e Wa r Departmen t indecorousl y requeste d African America n Wac s t o serv e a s mate s fo r blac k mal e soldiers . As early as August 194 2 Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower, commande r of th e America n force s i n th e ETO , announce d tha t th e Arm y planned t o sen d blac k Waac s t o Englan d "t o perfor m dutie s suc h as ca r drivin g an d secretaria l wor k an d als o t o provid e compan ionship fo r thousand s o f Negr o troops. " A n articl e i n th e New York Times stated : Frankly recognizing the problem, the Army is attempting to deal with it on a sensible and practical basis, the General stressed. In the larger cities like London, where in the nature of thing s there is less home entertain-

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ment o f soldiers , Negroes o n leav e wander disconsolately , on e of the m remarking: "There' s no hot music and none of our girls." 77 Newspapers heralde d th e announcemen t tha t blac k Waac s wer e going t o th e Unite d Kingdo m t o serv e a s companion s t o blac k male troops . O n 2 1 Augus t th e St. Louis Arpug carrie d th e head line "Arm y Wil l Sen d Ou r WAAC s t o Englan d t o Hel p Troops. " On th e followin g da y th e Philadelphia Tribune wrote : "Ther e i s a possibility tha t Negr o member s o f th e Women' s Arm y Auxiliar y Corps wil l serv e overseas . . .. Th e Waac s i f the y g o wil l serv e a t such dutie s a s secretaries, chauffeur s an d a t the sam e time brin g a touch o f hom e t o th e soldiers. " 78 This new s hi t WAA C official s particularl y hard . The y ha d struggled laboriousl y throug h ACWI S an d th e NCA C t o avoi d being tagge d a s a n escor t service . They battle d constantl y agains t depictions o f Waac s a s loose, highly sexe d wome n wit h lo w mor als an d a predispositio n towar d "illegitimate " births . Rejectin g the notio n tha t blac k Waac s woul d b e shippe d abroa d onl y t o entertain soldiers , th e WAA C directo r sen t a statemen t abroa d through Truma n K . Gibson , Jr . (civilia n aid e t o th e secretar y o f war), outlining th e dutie s expecte d o f Waacs abroad : The tw o companie s o f Negr o wome n wil l b e sen t oversea s som e tim e during the fall fo r dut y i n various posts where American Negr o Troops are stationed . Thi s i s in accordanc e wit h th e procedure whic h i s being carried ou t i n thi s countr y wher e Negr o unit s o f th e WAAC are bein g stationed o n posts where the predominant population consist s of Negro soldiers. Every member of the WAAC is enrolled an d trained to perfor m a specific duty which will release a soldier for comba t duty. 79 Hobby, however , refuse d t o allo w blac k Waac s t o b e shippe d to Europ e unde r thes e circumstances , "t o le t women b e scattere d in uncontrolle d smal l field unit s nea r mal e Negr o troops. " Th e requisition wa s cancele d hastily , wit h th e explanatio n tha t "col ored Wac s wil l no t b e requisitione d unti l suc h tim e tha t th e Wa r Department announce s tha t thei r shipmen t t o [overseas ] theater s of operatio n i s a necessity." 80 Ye t i n th e heigh t o f wa r th e ET O

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was in dire need o f skille d clerica l workers t o relieve male soldier s for combat . Th e combinatio n o f institutionalize d racis m an d sex ism prevente d th e us e o f educated , talented , an d skille d blac k Wacs in oversea s theaters i n the early years of th e war . Meanwhile, Caucasia n Waac s were preparing fo r oversea s dut y and wer e read y fo r shipmen t b y Septembe r 1942 . Th e greates t concern voice d b y Hobb y abou t thei r deploymen t wa s th e fac t that a s member s o f a n auxiliar y the y wer e no t entitle d t o extr a overseas pay , governmen t lif e insurance , o r veteran s hospitaliza tion. Nevertheless , Genera l Eisenhowe r requeste d Caucasia n Waac typist s an d telephon e operator s t o serv e i n Nort h Africa ; 150 Waacs wer e selecte d fro m volunteer s an d departe d fo r Nort h Africa i n Novembe r 1942 . ET O official s continue d t o reques t white Wacs for deploymen t t o Europe . Black Wac s wer e no t requeste d agai n unti l lat e i n 1944 . Ger trude LaVign e wa s workin g a s a suppl y cler k a t For t Huachuc a when sh e learne d tha t sh e ha d bee n selecte d t o g o overseas : "B y mid-1944 w e wer e informe d o f th e grou p t o b e selecte d fo r over seas duty . A commissio n o f mal e officer s cam e t o th e WA C area , interviewed enliste d women , an d selecte d thos e o f u s wh o woul d comprise th e first all-Negr o WA C outfit t o g o overseas. " Many battle s were won throug h th e collective efforts o f Africa n American Waacs/Wacs , communit y organizations , politica l lead ers, an d th e blac k press . Victor y prevaile d i n th e allocatio n o f forty slot s t o Africa n America n wome n i n th e first Office r Candi date School , th e desegregatio n o f th e WA C Office r Candidat e School, th e reassignmen t o f blac k Wac s a t Cam p Breckenridg e and a t For t Jackson, th e reinstatemen t o f th e fou r Africa n Ameri can Wac s wh o wer e court-martiale d fo r protestin g malassign ments, th e reinstatemen t o f th e Negr o WA C Ban d whe n th e offi cial WAC ban d exclude d blac k Wa c musicians , th e assignmen t o f black Wac s t o Gardine r Hospital , an d th e deploymen t o f blac k Wacs t o th e Europea n Theate r o f Operations . Thes e events , milestones for blac k activists , influenced th e lives of al l African Ameri can Waacs/Wacs. Several o f th e members o f th e 6888th , includin g

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Charity Adam s Earley , Margare t Barne s Jones , an d Doroth y Dailey Jones , activel y confronte d racia l issue s lon g befor e the y were deploye d overseas . Although segregatio n wa s no t ne w t o mos t Africa n America n women wh o wer e reare d i n th e South , severa l wome n wh o ha d grown u p i n norther n citie s state d tha t the y di d no t experienc e racial discriminatio n unti l the y entere d th e Army . I n contras t t o the segregatio n practice d i n th e souther n regio n o f th e Unite d States, th e U.S . Wa r Departmen t sometime s mad e a consciou s effort t o provid e separat e bu t equa l facilitie s fo r blac k an d fo r white Waacs/Wacs. According to th e findings o f som e inspections , in som e case s the Women's Arm y Corp s i n fac t provide d separat e but equal facilities. 81 Nonetheless, racial segregation was offensiv e and demeanin g t o Africa n American s an d t o white humanitarian s throughout th e United States . Whether member s o f th e 6888t h ha d bee n statione d i n th e segregated Sout h o r i n mor e integrate d installation s i n th e north ern regions , b y no w the y wer e keenl y awar e tha t the y ha d th e same political interests . They realized tha t i n order t o survive the y had t o wor k together , collectively , a s a unit . The y ha d develope d a political consciousness .

4 Just American Soldiers Going to Do a Job No on e kne w whe n w e wer e t o leave . I must hav e ha d a premonitio n becaus e afte r suppe r o n th e nigh t o f January 23r d I fel t kin d o f homesic k an d I wante d t o talk t o Mom . I kind o f fel t th e tim e wa s drawin g near , so I calle d he r lon g distance , an d w e talke d fo r a lon g time. I tol d he r tha t thi s woul d probabl y b e th e las t time I woul d call ; tha t I wa s no t sur e whe n w e wer e leaving. . . . I said , I'll tak e car e o f mysel f an d writ e often, an d I told he r no t t o worry abou t me . —A. Noel Campbel l Mitchell, Unpublished Memoir s

Socioeconomic Status and Household Composition Only a fe w occupation s wer e availabl e t o Africa n American s before Worl d Wa r II . Althoug h mos t blac k professional s i n th e 1940s wer e eithe r schoolteacher s o r ministers , certainl y Africa n American doctors , scientists, and lawyers existed in black commu nities. I n addition , onl y a smal l percentag e o f clerica l worker s i n the labo r forc e wer e Africa n Americans . Mos t blac k businesse s in th e Nort h wer e beaut y parlors , barbershops , cleaners , an d restaurants. 1 Ther e wer e som e black-owne d insuranc e companie s and manufacturin g companie s i n th e souther n regio n o f th e coun try.2 Th e larges t proportio n o f blac k workers , however , wa s con centrated i n domestic, service, semiskilled, an d labore r positions. 3 As indicate d b y th e narrative s i n chapte r 1 , member s o f th e 84

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Table 1. Parent's Occupatio n an d Interviewee' s Occupation befor e Militar y Service Occupational Parent' Category Occupation Professional 1 Clerical 2 Retail trad e 0 Service6 1 Domestic" Domestic 6 Crafts 2 Operatives 4 Laborers 2 Farmers 4 Other4* 2 Total 10

s Interviewee' * befor % %(N (N)) % 18 8 (9 (9)) 1 2 (1 (1)) 1 0 (0 (0)) 2 17 7 (9 (9)) 1 6 (3 (3)) 8 22 2 (11(11)) 6 4 (2 (2)) 0 25 5 (13(13)) 1 4 (2 (2)) 0 2 (1 (1)) 2 100 0 (51(51)) 10

s Occupatio n e Servic e

% (N

(N)) 18 8 (9 (9)) 19 9 (10(10)) 2 (1 (1)) 11 1 (6 (6)) 8 (4 (4)) 6 (3 (3)) 0 (0 (0)) 12 2 (6 (6)) 0 (0 (0)) 24 4 (12(12)) 100 0 (51(51))

N O T E S : "Father's occupatio n unles s fathe r wa s decease d or unemployed. ^Excluding private household workers . Domestic refer s t o private househol d servic e workers ; Occupationa l cate gories take n fro m th e Censu s o f Population , Occupationa l Classificatio n System. ^Includes unemploye d an d students. c

6888th cam e fro m divers e socioeconomi c backgrounds. 4 Mos t of the wome n interviewe d fo r this stud y gre w u p in families wher e the head s o f household wer e eithe r skille d o r unskilled laborers ; the head s o f household o f the next larges t grou p wer e craftsme n (table 1) . Of the fifty-on e wome n interviewed , nin e were reared in households wher e at least on e parent wa s a working professional , and in four case s both parents worked in professional occupation s (table 2) . Table 2 als o reveal s tha t i n seve n o f thes e household s parents wer e schoo l teachers ; ther e wer e tw o ministers' house holds; an d one in which a parent wa s an agriculturist. I n eleven households, parent s worke d i n skille d craft s suc h a s tailoring , dressmaking, aut o mechanics , an d construction , an d in tw o of those household s parent s wer e entertainers—musicia n an d playwright. Parents in nine households worked in such service occupa tions a s catering , hairdressing , an d barbering ; parent s i n thre e households wer e domesti c workers . I n three household s th e parents wer e operativ e workers , i n two households the y wer e farm ers, and in one household bot h parent s wer e unemployed . Although mos t o f the women interviewe d fo r this stud y gre w

Table 2 . Interviewee' s Age , Education , Rank , Civilia n Occupation , an d Father's an d Mother' s Occupation s Age* Education*

22 23 23 20 33 23 20 27 21 19 25 23 21 21 24 36 23 22 20 21 24 25 27 22 25 20 32 22 21 19 21 25 23 28 21 20 18 23 26 27 23 28 18 36 21 31 25 18 22 25 20

12 12 13 15 12 12 15 14 14 13 14 15 16 12 17 12 12 12 12 14 16 16 16 12 16 12 14 11 16 12 13 16 16 12 12 12 13 14 13 15 13 12 12 12 12 12 16 13 9 12 14

Rank wit h 6888th

Civilian Occupation *

Father's Occupation

Mother's Occupation

E-5 E-3 E-3 E-3 E-5 E-3 E-8 E-5 E-3 E-3 E-3 E-6 E-2 E-3 0-4 E-3 E-3 E-3 E-3 E-4 E-4 E-4 E-3 E-4 E-3 E-3 0-2 E-6 0-2 E-4 E-2 E-3 0-3 E-3 E-4 E-3 E-2 E-5 E-3 0-2 E-3 E-3 E-3 E-5 E-3 E-6 E-4 E-3 E-4 E-6 E-4

typist secretary clerical teacher factory worke r factory worke r clerical student student factory worke r student student unemployed waitress teacher clerical unemployed clerical clerical artist factory worke r teacher librarian factory worke r unemployed sales clerk clerical caterer unemployed domestic dancer engraver teacher beautician clerical unemployed clerical beautician secretary clerical domestic unemployed domestic factory worke r dressmaker beautician teacher student domestic teacher student

bank cler k laborer farmer caterer elevator operato r factory worke r contractor laborer contractor factory worke r restaurant owne r farmer teacher contractor minister laborer janitor presser factory worke r tailor pullman porte r laborer principal disabled ve t laborer pullman porte r chef deceased deceased factory worke r producer/playwright teacher agriculturist farm worke r laborer unknown contractor chef minister teacher deceased construction laborer musician mechanic barber laborer refrig repairma n mechanic domestic domestic

housewife domestic housewife caterer housewife domestic seamstress domestic housewife domestic housewife housewife teacher housewife housewife housewife housewife cook housewife housewife housewife housewife teacher seamstress deceased housewife teacher/politics caterer beautician farm worke r singer teacher housewife farm worke r housewife WPA/public aid teacher music teacher housewife teacher domestic housewife housewife domestic laundry worke r teacher domestic seamstress domestic domestic domestic

N O T E : 3 O n enterin g service.

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up i n traditiona l nuclea r familie s consistin g o f tw o parent s an d siblings, som e live d i n wha t toda y migh t b e calle d alternativ e households. Som e live d wit h relative s othe r tha n thei r biologica l parents. Mary Ragland' s parents were killed in a car accident, an d she wa s reare d b y adoptiv e parents : " I wa s bor n i n Atlanta , Georgia, bu t I wa s raise d i n Wilmington , Delaware . M y father , from wha t I gather , wa s fro m Atlanta , an d m y mothe r wa s Eas t Indian; I don' t kno w ho w the y go t together . Sh e an d m y fathe r died a t a ver y youn g ag e i n th e earl y thirtie s an d I was raise d b y some friend s o f their s i n Wilmington , Delaware. " Raglan d de scribes he r adoptiv e parent s a s entrepreneurs , "The y ha d tw o Safeway markets , so they raise d m e very well. " One interviewee , Bosto n nativ e Eni d Clark , wa s reare d b y a foster parent : "M y parent s weren' t intereste d i n m e bu t anothe r lady was very interested. . . . I was in a one-parent household . M y foster mothe r ha d neve r married . Sh e alway s wante d a child , s o she got one. " Clar k suffere d physica l defect s a t birt h an d require d special care : I was i n ba d shap e whe n I left th e hospita l afte r I was bor n becaus e I had ricket s an d a fe w othe r things . An d sh e too k car e o f m e up unti l about ag e eigh t o r nine , an d the n m y rea l mothe r someho w o r othe r thought sh e wante d m e back . An d al l sh e di d wa s t o shov e m e int o different homes . The court sent me back to my foster mother when I was eleven; they wanted me to be with someone who loved me. We lived in a section o f Bosto n calle d Roxbury . It' s a terribl e mes s now , bu t i t wa s kind o f nic e then . I t wa s multiracial , mostl y Jewish an d Irish . We had good times there. Clark's foste r mothe r di d domesti c wor k fo r som e o f th e wealth y residents o f Boston . A pediatricia n fo r who m sh e di d laundr y provided Clar k grati s with muc h o f th e medical car e she required . Clark complete d hig h schoo l an d a fe w month s o f clerica l schoo l before enterin g th e military . Bein g a n onl y child , sh e fel t tha t sh e had t o represen t he r famil y i n th e wa r effort . Clar k serve d a s a postal cler k i n the 6888th . In anothe r uncommo n situation , a woma n wh o ha d grow n u p in a whit e nuclea r famil y di d no t lear n tha t sh e wa s blac k unti l

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she applied to enter the Army. Anna Tarryk was born in Brooklyn , New York , an d live d wit h he r mother , he r adoptiv e fathe r ( a construction engineer) , an d five hal f brothers , "M y mothe r i s Austrian an d m y backgroun d i s a little different tha n most . Whe n I applie d t o g o int o th e servic e I was tol d tha t I would hav e t o b e segregated; bu t u p t o tha t poin t I didn't hav e t o be. " Becaus e sh e appeared t o b e of Europea n descent , Tarryk was never questione d about he r rac e when sh e was growing up. She lived in an all-whit e neighborhood, attende d all-whit e schools , an d ha d graduate d from a n all-whit e high schoo l befor e enterin g the service . Tarryk neve r kne w he r biologica l father , an d he r mothe r neve r discussed he r Africa n heritage : "Sh e jus t sai d on e thing , tha t h e was a dark-skinne d man , an d whe n h e learne d tha t m y mothe r was pregnan t h e left. " O f he r mother , Tarry k says , "Sh e marrie d my fathe r whil e sh e wa s pregnant , an d h e adopte d me. " Tarry k joined th e Arm y eve n thoug h th e recruite r trie d t o dissuad e her : "She fel t ver y compassionat e towar d me . I think sh e fel t tha t sh e tried t o sav e m e fro m goin g int o th e military . Bu t bein g young , I had m y own se t of ideas." Tarryk entere d th e Army with a waiver: "The waive r wa s tha t i f I wasn' t abl e t o adjus t I coul d ge t a n honorable discharge. " Like Tarryk , ther e wer e othe r wome n o f mixe d heritag e i n th e unit. Doroth y Jone s recall s a goo d frien d fro m Minneapoli s named Ton i Smith : If the recruiting sergeant hadn't known her and her family, there probably would have been no questions asked, and she would have been listed as white, an d tha t woul d hav e bee n that ; an d I probably neve r woul d have met her. . . . But the woman wh o was recruiting a t the time knew her background, knew that her family was sort of mixed, and asked her, "Are yo u whit e o r colored? " An d Ton i sai d tha t sh e never stoppe d t o consider it before. She decided she was colored. And she said, "Probably a mistake but I did it." In som e case s th e father s wer e eithe r dea d o r physicall y dis abled, an d th e mother s wer e generall y th e primar y breadwinners .

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Gertrude LaVigne , fo r example , live d i n a househol d heade d b y her mother ; he r fathe r ha d die d whe n sh e wa s stil l a n infant . A s mentioned i n chapte r 1 , LaVigne' s mothe r move d he r famil y t o Ohio an d starte d a family caterin g business . Age Distribution The ag e limi t fo r enlistmen t i n th e Women' s Arm y Corp s wa s 2 0 to 5 0 (i t wa s 2 1 t o 4 5 fo r th e Women' s Arm y Auxiliar y Corp s before 1 July 1943). 5 Member s o f th e 6888t h represente d al l o f the ag e group s tha t existe d i n th e WA C durin g th e 1940s . Ac cording t o a n articl e i n Stars and Stripes, 20-year-ol d Pvt . Hild a E. Wood o f Philadelphi a wa s th e younges t member , and-i2-year old Erm a L . Fife r o f Chicago , a grandmothe r o f three , wa s th e oldest. Thes e member s wer e par t o f th e firs t contingent , whic h arrived i n England i n February 1945 . In som e case s wome n younge r tha n ag e 2 0 joine d th e militar y with parenta l consent . Suc h youn g wome n wer e i n th e secon d contingent o f th e 6888th , whic h arrive d i n Europ e i n April 1945 . Mary Raglan d an d Willi e Whitin g clai m tha t the y wer e "no t quite 18 " whe n the y entere d i n 1944 . Bot h ha d t o hav e writte n permission fro m a paren t o r a lega l guardia n befor e joinin g th e WAC. A year late r the y wer e assigne d t o th e 6888th . Mos t o f th e women interviewe d fo r thi s stud y wer e i n thei r earl y t o middl e twenties whe n the y entere d th e military. As highlighted i n table 2 , the interviewees range d i n ag e from 1 8 to 36 . Education As a group th e member s o f th e 6888th , no t surprisingly , wer e les s well educate d tha n whit e Wac s statione d i n Europ e a t th e time . Forty percen t o f th e uni t wa s reporte d b y th e War Departmen t t o be unskilled , a s compare d wit h 1 percen t o f whit e Wac s i n thi s theater; an d 4 0 percen t score d i n th e tw o lowes t AGC T (Arm y General Classificatio n Test ) grades , a s compare d wit h 1 0 percen t

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for whit e Wacs. 6 Thes e discrepancie s i n occupationa l skill s an d aptitude score s obviousl y reflec t racia l inequitie s i n educationa l opportunities durin g tha t period . I n th e 1930 s fewe r tha n 1 0 percent o f Africa n American s ag e twenty-fiv e o r olde r ha d com pleted hig h school . Onl y 1. 3 percen t ha d complete d college. 7 Well-educated Africa n America n Waacs/Wacs , o n th e othe r hand, tende d t o d o wel l o n th e militar y entranc e examination . This was demonstrate d no t onl y by the black women wh o entere d and complete d OCS , bu t als o b y thos e wh o entere d a s enliste d women. Doroth y Daile y Jones , a privat e first clas s wit h th e 6888th, score d exceptionall y high . Jones, born i n Richmond, Vir ginia, was th e oldes t o f eleve n children . He r fathe r wa s a Pullma n porter, he r mothe r a homemaker. Whe n Jones was three years ol d her famil y move d t o Cambridge , Massachusetts , i n a n effor t t o escape, "goo d ol d Ji m Crow " (legalize d racia l segregatio n i n th e South). Jones' s mothe r taugh t he r ho w t o rea d whe n sh e wa s only three : Mom was a remarkable woman. In another time and another place, she would have had a couple of degrees and be doing all kinds of things. As it was , unti l th e younges t wa s i n school , sh e wasn' t abl e t o wor k o r anything. Mo m wa s alway s intereste d i n wha t wa s happenin g i n th e world. A s long as I can remember , I could rea d th e newspaper an d we would discus s things . Sh e neve r discourage d m e fro m havin g a lo t o f friends o f different type s of people. In fact, I am constantly quoting her. She used to say that people who restricted themselves to one group were cheating themselves of the opportunity to grow. Jones ha d gon e t o predominantl y whit e publi c school s i n Cam bridge. Althoug h sh e ha d complete d onl y hig h schoo l an d a fe w hours towar d a colleg e degre e whe n sh e entere d th e military , sh e scored i n the highest bracke t o f th e AGCT : It's no t tha t I a m brighte r tha n othe r people . A lo t o f peopl e I thin k would have scored higher if those tests really tested intelligence, but they don't. They test knowledge. What they test is how well you can handle middle-class communication . S o I don' t fee l particularl y prou d tha t I

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scored high. I just happen to be a good test taker because, for one thing, I had bee n a reade r al l o f m y life. Secondly , an d relate d t o that , i s my ability t o dea l wit h th e Englis h language . I had excellen t teacher s . . . and they encouraged my use of English, my exploration of English. I did a lo t o f readin g outsid e o f class , linguistic s an d stuf f lik e that , jus t because I wa s intereste d i n communication . I als o ha d knowledg e i n depth of French and a little bit of Spanish, and a little bit of German. All those thing s helped . I' m a rapi d reader , whic h i s anothe r thin g tha t helped. Th e mor e question s yo u ca n ge t to , th e bette r of f yo u are . So those are the things that contribute d t o my being a good test taker, and some basic intelligence. But I know people who are as smart and smarter than I am who don't test well. Members o f th e 6888t h i n genera l appea r t o hav e bee n bette r educated tha n th e averag e Africa n America n woma n i n civilia n society. Fe w member s o f th e 6888t h ha d no t complete d hig h school, an d severa l ha d a t leas t som e college . Al l o f th e officer s and a considerable proportion o f the enlisted women wer e univer sity graduates. 8 A newspape r clippin g distribute d b y th e Wa r Department state d tha t 8 5 percen t o f th e uni t wer e ex-school teachers an d hel d colleg e degrees. 9 Th e battalio n commander , Charity Adam s Earley , ha d graduate d fro m Wilberforc e Univer sity an d complete d on e yea r o f graduat e stud y a t Ohi o Stat e University befor e enterin g th e military . He r successor , wh o serve d most o f he r tim e wit h th e 6888t h a s a company commander , ha d received her master' s degre e from Ohi o Stat e University in 1937. 10 The executiv e officer , Noe l Campbel l Mitchell , ha d complete d four year s o f colleg e a t Tuskege e Institut e befor e joinin g th e mili tary, an d th e specia l servic e office r ha d graduate d fro m Sargen t College in Boston befor e entering. 11 O f th e fifty-one wome n inter viewed fo r thi s book , mor e tha n hal f ha d ha d a t leas t som e college, and mor e tha n one-fourt h wer e colleg e graduates. All bu t two ha d graduate d fro m hig h school . Tabl e 2 show s th e year s o f school complete d b y each interviewe e befor e sh e entered th e mili tary; th e number s rang e fro m 9 to 17 .

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Civilian Occupational Skills Before th e wa r Africa n America n wome n wer e concentrate d i n three occupationa l categories : domesti c workers , far m laborers , and servic e workers (beauticians , lodgin g hous e keepers , janitors , waitresses, an d midwives) . I n 194 0 fewe r tha n 5 percen t o f Afri can America n wome n i n th e labo r forc e wer e professional s suc h as teachers, physicians, or lawyers. 12 The previou s occupationa l experience s o f member s o f th e 6888th wer e no t typica l o f th e averag e Africa n America n wome n of tha t period . Man y member s o f th e uni t ha d worke d a t profes sional an d skille d occupation s befor e enterin g th e military . Al though 4 0 percen t wer e reporte d t o hav e bee n unskille d workers , the remainin g 6 0 percen t wer e eithe r unemployed , semiskilled , skilled, o r professiona l workers . Bett y Smit h o f Kansa s City , fo r example, ha d bee n a studen t nurs e befor e goin g int o th e military . Jacqueline an d Winon a Fuller , sister s fro m Chicago , ha d bee n clerical workers . Jacquelin e wa s als o a graduat e o f th e Ar t Insti tute o f Chicago. 13 Jennie Moto n wa s a n accomplishe d pianist. 14 Most o f th e interviewee s wer e eithe r unemploye d o r student s before the y entere d th e military . Te n o f the m wer e clerica l work ers, an d nin e wer e professional s (se e tabl e 1) . Table 2 highlight s the nin e professiona l occupation s o f interviewees . Tessi e Barr , Charity Adam s Earley , Margare t Jackson , Noe l Campbel l Mitch ell, Johnnie Walton , an d Essi e Woods wer e schoolteachers . Doro thy Johnso n wa s a n assistan t librarian . Glady s Anderso n an d Mary Rozie r wer e secretaries . Unlik e wome n o f thei r parents ' generation, man y member s o f th e 6888t h ha d worke d i n clerica l positions; thi s fac t suggest s tha t thes e position s wer e becomin g more availabl e t o Africa n American s tha n the y had bee n i n previ ous years . Fou r o f th e wome n wer e domesti c workers , thre e worked i n a skille d craft , an d si x wer e eithe r skille d o r unskille d laborers i n factories (se e table 2). Some o f th e interviewee s ha d graduate d fro m colleg e wit h de grees i n teachin g an d wer e unemployed . Severa l wome n empha -

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sized ho w limite d th e occupationa l opportunitie s wer e fo r the m before the y joined the WAAC/WAC. Mildred Leonard' s comment s characterize th e unemploye d Africa n America n woma n profes sional o f tha t time : I entere d th e servic e i n Octobe r an d actuall y ther e wer e n o job s avail able. I was in teaching and of course we were segregated at the time; and the teachers who taught ha d tenur e an d yo u had t o wait fo r somebod y to die before there was a vacancy. And so there just weren't any jobs that were available for a college trained person. . . . Teaching was closed out. Lavinia Johnso n als o report s tha t sh e ha d complete d colleg e an d was seekin g employmen t befor e joinin g th e Women' s Arm y Corps, " I ha d a teacher' s degre e bu t I didn' t hav e an y plac e t o teach, s o I decide d sinc e I ha d n o jo b i n th e teachin g field tha t I would g o into th e military. " Geographical Origin and Neighborhood Characteristics According t o m y roste r o f 74 2 names , ranks , an d seria l number s of member s o f th e 6888th , mos t o f th e wome n entere d th e mili tary fro m th e easter n regio n o f th e Unite d State s (se e Appendi x C). 15 Th e first digi t o f th e seria l numbe r represent s th e geographi cal are a (servic e command ) fro m whic h th e membe r entered . A s shown i n th e first colum n o f tabl e 3 , most o f th e wome n entere d the militar y fro m th e thir d servic e comman d (Maryland , Pennsyl vania, an d part s o f Virginia) , an d fewes t o f the m entere d fro m the nint h servic e comman d (wester n states) . Whe n th e state s o f Maryland, Virginia , an d Washington , D.C. , ar e classifie d a s be longing t o th e norther n regio n o f th e Unite d States , almos t hal f (44 percent ) o f th e wome n entere d th e militar y fro m th e north eastern regio n o f th e Unite d State s (first , second , third , an d tent h service command s i n tabl e 3) . Approximatel y 1 6 percen t o f th e women entere d th e militar y fro m th e fourt h servic e command , o r south Atlanti c states , 2 7 percen t fro m th e midwester n regio n

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Table 3 . Servic e Comman d fro m Whic h Member s o f th e 6888t h Entered th e Militar y N Servic

22 Firs

e Comman d State

t Connecticut

117 130

Second Third

116

Fourth

87 75 31

Fifth Sixth Seventh

91

Eighth

17

Ninth

56

Tenth

742

Total

s

, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont Delaware, New York, and New Jersey Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Virginia (Except Alexandria and Arlington) Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio, and West Virginia Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas Arizona, California, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, and Washington Alexandria, Virginia; Arlington, Virginia; and Washington, D.C.

S O U R C E : A R 170-10 , Augus t 1942 , Service Commands and Departments, U.S . Arm y Cente r o f Military History , Washington, D.C .

(fifth, sixth , an d sevent h servic e commands) , 1 2 percent fro m th e west south centra l region (eight h service command), and 2 percen t from th e western regio n (nint h servic e command). 16 Some o f th e wome n ha d live d i n raciall y segregate d communi ties; other s gre w u p i n ethnicall y divers e neighborhoods . Noe l Campbell Mitchell' s wa s al l black : " I ha d neve r bee n aroun d white people befor e i n my life. [I n Officer Candidat e School ] ther e were 3 9 o f u s an d 40 0 Whites . . . . Thre e o f u s wer e fro m Tuskegee, an d al l thre e o f u s graduate d [fro m college ] t o o . . . . I didn't kno w to o muc h abou t segregatio n becaus e I' d onl y bee n around black s al l o f m y life. " Althoug h Mitchel l live d an d gre w up i n th e " J i m Crow " South , he r famil y wa s abl e t o shelte r he r from th e dehumanizin g aspect s o f racism . Al l o f he r activitie s were confine d t o a n Africa n America n community , an d thu s sh e had n o contac t with th e white world . Other women wh o grew up in the southern regio n of the natio n knew al l too wel l th e impediments o f racism . Sadi e Belcher foun d

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life difficul t a s a youn g Africa n America n woma n livin g i n At lanta: "Lif e wasn't eas y for Negroes . It was a time when th e Sout h was segregated , an d that' s al l w e kne w becaus e w e wer e brough t up i n it. " Severa l wome n interviewe d fo r thi s stud y spok e abou t growing u p i n th e segregate d South , bein g mad e t o atten d segre gated schools , an d ridin g i n th e bac k o f segregate d buse s afte r paying the same fare a s white passengers . But no t al l o f th e wome n live d i n segregate d neighborhoods . Myrtle Rhoden , fo r example , describe s he r neighborhoo d a s ra cially diverse . He r residentia l communit y o f Ne w Yor k containe d not onl y Africa n American s bu t als o Jewish, Spanish , an d Hind u children: To thi s da y I a m stil l friend s wit h thos e children . They'r e grown , bu t we're stil l i n contac t wit h eac h other . W e lost Ine z Enriques [wh o was Spanish] last December. She passed away. But I'm still in touch with the Hindu family. Quentin and I just chatted not too long ago. He moved to Atlanta, but we're still friends eve n to this day. Bernadine Flannaga n als o lived i n a n interracia l neighborhood , "There wer e al l type s o f peopl e livin g i n m y neighborhood . W e had Syrians , Poles , Portuguese , French , a s wel l a s Afro-Ameri cans." Virgini a Frazie r speak s similarl y o f he r integrate d neigh borhood i n Minneapolis: "W e never had segregation—well , whe n my parents an d the m cam e on th e underground railroad , the y ha d it, bu t I never experience d it. " Sh e goe s o n t o sa y tha t sh e neve r experienced racia l segregatio n unti l sh e attende d basi c trainin g a t Fort De s Moines . Some o f th e forme r member s o f th e 6888t h revea l tha t thei r parents wer e ver y activ e i n civi c affairs . A s a resul t o f thei r par ents' politica l activities , thes e wome n wer e expose d t o politica l issues a t a n earl y age . Charit y Adam s Earley , fo r instance , speak s of her father's confrontation s wit h th e Ku Klux Klan when h e was president o f th e Sout h Carolin a branc h o f th e NAACP. 17 Glady s Carter recall s tha t he r fathe r wa s ver y activ e i n civi c affair s i n Harlem:

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My father wa s an activist ; I remember goin g with hi m t o forums . An d 125th Stree t was a business street for Harlem ; that's where the five and dimes were, and there was a department store and a lot of shops, and of course th e Apoll o Theate r wa s there . And ther e wer e n o colore d sale s clerks i n an y o f th e stores ; the y wer e al l white . An d Ada m Clayto n Powell led a rally. I was eight or nine years of age when I marched in the parade with m y dad; an d I thought tha t was great. I had a little sign. I learned late r tha t w e wer e demandin g tha t th e store s o n 125t h Stree t hire black clerks and managers. Growing u p o n 127t h Stree t an d the n movin g t o 145t h Street , Gladys Carte r ha s fon d memorie s o f Harlem . Mos t o f al l sh e remembers i t a s a very saf e plac e t o live : "Harle m wa s a wonder ful place . No t a t al l lik e yo u hea r abou t today ; I fel t ver y safe. " Carter, wh o wa s activ e i n sports , use d t o practic e a t th e YMC A on 135t h Street . "Whe n w e lef t basketbal l practice , sometime s eleven, ten-thirty a t night , som e girls went uptow n an d som e girl s went downtown . I live d th e farthest , 145t h Street , s o th e las t couple o f block s I usually walked b y myself; an d sometime s 1 had to wal k ove r acros s t o St . Nichola s Avenue ; an d I went throug h those street s feelin g very , very safe. " Military Occupational

Statuses

before the 6888th

Members of the 6888th ha d been assigned to military installation s throughout th e Unite d States . They ha d performe d i n a variety o f military roles , includin g administrativ e an d clerica l assignments . Six o f th e battalion' s thirty-on e officers , Charit y Adams , Noe l Campbell, Ver a Harrison , Mar y Kearney , Mildre d Carter , an d Corrie Sherar d ha d attende d th e first Office r Candidat e Schoo l together tw o an d a hal f year s earlier . Mos t o f th e officer s o f th e unit ha d bee n eithe r compan y o r executiv e officer s i n field unit s just befor e bein g deploye d fo r oversea s dut y an d therefor e ha d plenty o f experienc e i n leadin g troops . Ver a Harrison , fo r exam ple, wa s th e executiv e office r fo r th e 33r d Pos t Headquarter s

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Company a t For t Huachuca , Arizona , whe n sh e receive d he r or ders fo r overseas . Viole t Hil l an d Coloni a Powel l wer e executiv e officers o f WAC detachments a t Fort Lewis, Washington, an d For t Bragg, Nort h Carolina , respectively . Noe l Campbel l Mitchell , Margaret Barne s Jones, Blanche Scott , an d Mercede s Jordan wer e all compan y officer s o f WA C detachments . Mitchell , wh o ha d been traine d t o b e a suppl y officer , wa s commandin g a WA C detachment a t For t Oglethorp e whe n sh e receive d he r order s fo r overseas duty . Blanch e Scott , wh o previousl y ha d bee n assigne d to the Recruiting Comman d i n Virginia, was at Walla Walla Arm y Air Bas e i n th e stat e o f Washingto n whe n sh e receive d th e news . Margaret Jones was assigne d t o th e Staten Island termina l i n Ne w York; Jordan wa s a t Dougla s Arm y Air Base. Some o f th e 6888t h officers , however , ha d no t bee n command ing units i n the field, bu t ha d hel d administrativ e position s befor e "coming dow n o n order s t o go overseas." Lillian Dunca n wa s th e plans an d trainin g office r fo r th e WA C sectio n a t For t Knox , Kentucky. At Fort De s Moines, Corrie Sherar d was a mess officer , Charity Adam s Earle y wa s th e Trainin g Cente r contro l officer , and Mildre d Dupe e Leonar d wa s a librarian. Thes e officers ' wid e and varie d experience s wer e asset s t o th e battalio n onc e the y were overseas . Most o f th e enliste d wome n I interviewe d reporte d tha t the y had worke d i n eithe r clerica l o r administrativ e position s befor e being assigne d t o th e 6888th . Som e o f th e battalio n member s ha d held highl y responsibl e positions . Luci a Pitts , a posta l cler k wit h the unit , reveal s i n he r publishe d memoir s tha t sh e wa s assigne d to th e provos t marshal' s offic e a t For t Huachuca , wher e sh e re placed a mal e sergean t majo r an d becam e th e actin g sergean t major. He r dutie s include d administerin g an d supervisin g al l o f the offic e wor k an d supervisin g 15 0 militar y police. 18 Mar y Ro zier wa s traine d i n administratio n a t For t De s Moine s an d late r worked a s a medical secretary in the psychiatric ward o f a hospital at Cam p Atterbury , Indiana . Som e o f th e wome n worke d i n ser -

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vice occupations : Kitt y Smith , fo r example , wa s assigne d a s a chaplain's assistan t an d the n a s a denta l assistan t a t Cam p Siber t in Gadsen, Alabama . Other interviewee s wer e cooks before the y were assigned to th e 6888th. Gertrud e LaVign e attende d th e Army' s Coo k an d Bake r School a t For t Huachuca , wher e sh e was assigne d a s a coo k afte r completing th e course . Sh e continue d t o tak e classe s i n clerica l work; late r sh e was assigne d a s a supply clerk , an d the n a s a mai l clerk, before learnin g that sh e had bee n selected fo r oversea s duty . Elsie Oliver , Mar y Williams , an d Edit h Tyrel l worke d a s cook s before thei r assignmen t t o the 6888th . Preparing for Overseas Duty Members o f th e 6888t h assemble d a t th e Extende d Fiel d Servic e Battalion, Third WAC Training Center , Fort Oglethorpe , Georgia , to receiv e trainin g an d t o b e outfitte d fo r oversea s duty . Man y former member s thin k o f th e event as a homecoming. Mos t o f th e women I interviewed greete d ol d friend s who m the y ha d no t see n in years . Som e o f th e wome n ha d bee n friend s befor e the y joine d the military; others had me t during previous military assignments . Former commandin g officer s an d forme r enliste d trainee s wer e reunited fo r th e first tim e sinc e basi c training . "Ther e wer e girl s who too k thei r basi c training under me, " remember s Noe l Mitch ell, "and whom , afte r thei r four week s with me , I hadn't see n unti l they arrive d a t For t Oglethorpe . Charit y Adam s Earle y recalls , "Other officer s an d enliste d wome n wh o wer e t o belon g t o ou r outfit arrive d and , with th e arrival o f eac h group , we had anothe r reunion. W e tol d storie s abou t wha t happene d t o u s durin g th e time w e ha d bee n awa y fro m eac h othe r o n ou r variou s field assignments." 19 All o f th e wome n kne w an d though t highl y o f thei r battalio n commander, Maj . Charit y Adams . Eve n i f the y ha d no t traine d under her , the y kne w o f he r becaus e sh e was on e o f tw o highest ranking Africa n America n wome n i n uniform a t tha t time . Majo r

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Adams wa s discusse d o n th e radi o an d writte n u p i n al l o f th e black newspapers ; sh e wa s trul y a celebrity . I n he r orientatio n speech Adam s welcome d th e wome n i n th e unit . Sh e emphasize d that the y wer e th e firs t blac k Wac s t o g o oversea s an d tha t "th e eyes of th e world" wer e upon them . Noel Mitchel l recall s Charit y Adams sayin g tha t a s th e firs t blac k Wac s t o serv e overseas , "w e could eithe r d o a good jo b an d receiv e praise, or d o a bad jo b an d receive ridicule. " Mitchell, wh o alread y ha d bee n statione d a t For t Oglethorpe , was responsibl e fo r familiarizin g th e grou p wit h th e militar y in stallation. I pointed out that Fort Oglethorpe was not a segregated post, and that I was just as surprised a s they were when I found thi s to be true. . .. I did stress one point tha t th e commanding office r o f th e post mad e clea r t o me: that althoug h the post would not be segregated, he had no jurisdiction over civil authorities of f th e reservation, so the girls would have to conduct themselves accordingly. None o f th e wome n wer e tol d wha t thei r assignment s woul d be, wher e the y wer e going , o r whe n the y wer e goin g t o leave . After te n day s o f orientation , stil l completel y i n th e dar k abou t their destination , th e uni t wa s issued equipmen t an d winte r cloth ing. Althoug h the y ha d no t bee n informe d abou t wher e the y would b e stationed , everybod y speculated . Noe l Mitchel l too k part i n these deliberations : We assumed tha t ou r destinatio n wa s Europ e sinc e the prescribed uni form fo r th e ET O wa s winter . I t seem s w e wer e bein g issue d enoug h clothing t o wea r th e res t o f ou r lives . We were give n woo l shirts , sk i suits with liner s [whic h wer e to b e the women's work clothes] , knitted caps, twil l fatigu e trouser s an d shirts , an d fiel d shoes , whic h wer e hightop brown shoes to be worn with trousers. During trainin g th e wome n wer e taugh t ho w t o recogniz e en emy aircraft , ships , an d weapon s o f al l types . The y als o learne d what t o sa y an d ho w t o reac t i f capture d b y th e enemy , ho w t o board a shi p vi a carg o net , an d ho w t o clim b ropes . Doroth y

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Bartlett remembers , "W e had a moc k ship , an d we had t o lear n how t o get up and come down . Som e of the girls froze, an d som e of th e sergeants had to go up and get them." Glady s Carte r says : We had to clim b rope s . . . and come dow n th e side o f a shi p a s you would i f it were sinking . We had to do some crawlin g unde r wire . . . . We ha d t o pu t o n ga s mask s an d w e ha d t o lear n t o pu t the m o n properly. An d then the y too k u s int o a roo m whil e ther e wa s gas in there, and told us to lift up . . .. I t seems to me, if I remember correctly, we were to lift u p just to get a whiff [o f gas], and then the y ushered us out. S o that wa s part o f it . A lot of marchin g an d just gettin g ready , getting outfitted, tha t kind of thing. Enid Clar k describe s th e training a t For t Oglethorp e a s an "infil tration course " consistin g o f "al l the stuff th e men went throug h except w e didn' t hav e liv e bullet s sho t a t us. " Sammy e Davi s recalls, "W e had all of the technical trainin g tha t the men had . . . climbing that wall , making lon g trips with pack s on our backs for endurance, an d tha t kin d o f thing. " Mildre d Dupe e Leonar d re calls, "Th e trainin g a t Oglethorp e wa s jus t trainin g u s t o g o overseas an d for wha t w e might expect . W e went throug h Arm y training an d did boarding an d evacuating th e ships. They weren' t training wome n t o us e weapons , bu t w e wer e traine d o n th e obstacle cours e an d hiking, an d things lik e that. " Mar y McBrid e remembers tha t th e activities a t Fort Oglethorp e consiste d of falling and crawling and stuff. Climbin g ropes and mess. Coming down and stuff . I t was havoc. Yo u know whe n you'r e crawlin g unde r bar b wire an d they're shooting , do-do-do , an d you're crawling . The y sa y if you raise up, they'll kill you. They scare you half to death. I don't know whether i t was live ammunition o r what, bu t you had to learn how to do that stuff t o save your life. Myrtle Rhode n wil l neve r forge t receivin g immunizatio n shots , new uniforms , an d oversea s equipmen t a t For t Oglethorpe : "W e were traine d ho w to detec t ga s bombs an d gas attacks. W e were trained ho w to disperse ove r to the side of the road t o go down in the ditc h . . . tha t typ e o f warfar e training . The n on e night the y

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packed u s u p aroun d tw o i n th e morning . Fo g wa s u p t o you r keister [buttocks] , and w e finally go t i n truck s an d ende d u p o n a railroad train . Th e nex t thin g I knew , w e wer e goin g t o Ne w York City. " Three Separate Journeys Abroad Members o f th e 6888t h actuall y travele d oversea s i n thre e waves . First th e battalio n commande r an d he r executiv e office r (Charit y Adams an d Noe l Campbell , late r Mitchell ) fle w t o Europ e a t th e end o f January 1945 . Shortly afterwar d th e first contingen t o f th e battalion saile d to Europe o n the He de France. Finally, the secon d contingent saile d to Europe o n the Queen Elizabeth. Eac h journe y was differen t fro m th e others . On 2 4 Januar y 194 5 Adam s an d Campbel l receive d order s to repor t t o Washington , D.C . The y arrive d a t th e airpor t i n Chattanooga an d ha d t o wai t a fe w hour s befor e thei r plan e departed. Noe l Campbel l Mitchel l bega n t o have second thought s about flying : I began t o wonde r i f I would lik e flying to Europe . I had flown befor e with m y brothe r an d enjoye d it , bu t pleasur e flying is on e thin g an d flying th e Atlantic Ocean was another thing. I couldn't say I was scared. Later, Edna admitted to me that she felt the same way, but she didn't tell me for the same reason I didn't tell her. They fle w fro m Chattanoog a t o Washington, D . C. on a commer cial plan e an d arrive d i n Washingto n a t 9:3 0 tha t night , "tired , cold, hungry , an d wit h n o plac e t o stay. " I t ha d no t occurre d t o them tha t al l o f th e busines s office s woul d b e close d b y th e tim e they reache d thei r destination . Th e Wa r Departmen t ha d no t made boardin g arrangement s fo r them . Afte r lookin g throug h he r personal phon e book , Adam s calle d a frien d an d wa s abl e t o secure a place for the m t o sta y that night . Mitchell says : Edna called her friend an d greeted her as if she had seen her only a few days ago . Th e friend , afte r listenin g t o ou r problem , said , "Wai t a

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minute while I ask my mother if it will be all right." We waited with our ringers crossed . Sh e cam e bac k t o th e phon e afte r wha t seeme d lik e hours an d sai d it would b e all right to come out. We took a taxi, went out, an d foun d Josephin e an d her mother t o be very nice. After servin g supper and preparing their own bedroom for us, they slept on the couch. They wante d t o kno w ou r missio n an d ho w lon g w e woul d b e i n Washington. Although we had missed security class at Fort Oglethorpe , we knew that movement of troops or personnel was a top secret, so we told them we didn't know; we would find out in the morning. The followin g da y th e officer s reporte d t o Gravel y Point , Vir ginia (jus t outsid e Washington, D.C. ) t o b e processed fo r oversea s travel. The y wen t t o th e finance office , a clothin g suppl y room , and a medica l section . Bot h Adam s an d Campbel l remembe r th e strange look s the y receive d a t th e reception center . Not onl y wer e they the only Negro Wacs in the building, but they were officers — one a major , th e othe r a captain . Mos t o f th e peopl e i n th e processing are a wer e white mal e soldiers ; the two wome n di d no t see an y Africa n American s unti l the y wen t t o th e cafeteri a fo r lunch. Mitchel l recalls : As I wa s goin g throug h th e lin e someon e called , "Noel! " I couldn' t imagine who it was. I knew it must have been someone from home since I was know n a s Abbie in th e Army. I turned, an d ther e t o m y surpris e was Mrs. Edith Washington (th e widow of Booker T. Washington's son, from Tuskegee ) an d he r daughter , Edith . I had know n the m al l o f m y life. I asked wha t sh e was doin g there . She said sh e had bee n workin g there sinc e shortl y afte r th e wa r started . I was s o gla d t o se e her , o r anyone else I knew at this time. She asked me the usual thing that I had been asked since I had arrived in Washington. I told her the usual thing. Earley an d Mitchel l wer e give n order s i n a sealed envelop e an d were instructe d no t t o ope n the m unti l the y wer e i n flight . Th e next da y the y boarde d a C-5 4 carg o plan e (equippe d wit h a rubber lifeboat ) alon g wit h sixtee n me n an d on e civilia n woman . Among th e me n wer e "on e major , severa l captains , first an d second lieutenants , mostl y wit h thic k souther n accents , an d thre e civilian me n i n Arm y uniform s withou t insignia." 20 On e o f th e

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civilian men , Mitchell recalls , was a war corresponden t an d edito r of th e Christian Science Monitor. Afte r th e plan e ha d bee n i n flight fo r a n hour , Earle y an d Mitchel l rea d thei r order s an d discovered tha t the y were en route t o London . When I interviewe d Noe l Campbel l Mitchel l an d Charit y Ad ams Earley, they bot h describe d th e other passenger s o n th e plan e as sociabl e an d friendly . Neithe r racis m no r sexis m surface d dur ing thei r journe y abroad . Th e passenger s spen t man y hour s to gether, experiencin g a journe y tha t wa s nove l an d sometime s anxiety provoking . Unde r thes e circumstance s rac e an d gende r were inconsequential . The plan e stoppe d i n Bermuda , wher e th e passenger s disem barked an d at e dinner a t the officers' mes s hall. Adams and Camp bell dine d wit h tw o o f th e whit e me n the y ha d me t o n th e plane . The nex t sto p wa s th e Azore s Islands , wher e the y at e breakfast . By this tim e the passengers ha d bee n traveling together fo r severa l hours and , a s Mitchel l said , "wer e on e bi g family , callin g eac h other b y ou r first names . Ther e wa s n o restrain t i n ou r talking , for w e were just American soldier s goin g to d o a job." The traveler s arrive d i n Prestwick , Scotland , a t 2:0 0 A.M . an d were taken t o a n America n Re d Cros s hotel, where the y spen t th e night. The group separate d i n Prestwick, where Earley an d Mitch ell boarde d a DC- 3 fo r London . Landin g approximatel y thre e miles outsid e th e city , the y wer e take n th e res t o f th e wa y t o London b y a n Ai r Transport Comman d bus . Although Londo n ha d bee n bombe d quit e heavil y i n th e months precedin g thei r arrival , Adams an d Campbel l di d no t find the ravage s o f wa r a s they ha d expected . Noe l Campbel l Mitchel l remembers, " I wa s quit e surprise d t o se e house s standing . Fro m all o f th e report s I hear d a t home , Londo n wa s i n shambles . I learned late r tha t th e Englis h ha d cleare d al l the debri s a s soon a s possible afte r ai r raids. " Adams an d Campbel l wer e th e very first blac k WA C officers t o arrive in Europe; as they might have expected, they were met wit h astonished looks :

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While w e wer e observin g wha t wa s strang e t o us , w e wer e bein g ob served. We had forgotte n ho w strange we seemed to militar y a s well as civilian personnel . Again , we were amon g U.S. military personne l wh o could no t believ e Negr o Wa c officer s wer e real . Salute s wer e slo w i n coming an d frequentl y [were ] returne d wit h grea t reluctance . Th e ol d familiar problem was beginning all over again. 21 Adams an d Campbel l reporte d t o Maj. Margaret Philpot , WAC staff directo r i n the United Kingdom , who sa w to it that they wer e processed an d briefe d abou t their new assignment. Noel Campbel l Mitchell liked Major Philpo t fro m th e moment sh e met her: "Dur ing m y sta y i n Englan d w e becam e fas t friends. " Mitchel l recall s how cordia l Philpo t wa s upo n thei r first meeting : Major Philpo t wa s sittin g behin d he r des k whe n w e walke d in . Sh e smiled an d said , "Hello . I am glad you ar e here. I have a copy of you r orders bu t I di d no t kno w jus t whe n yo u wer e goin g t o arrive . You r troops have not left th e States yet, but there is plenty to be done befor e they arrive . The y ar e tentativel y du e t o arriv e o n Februar y 12th ; tha t will give you two weeks." That evenin g a t dinner , accordin g t o Mitchell , Philpo t briefe d Adams an d Campbel l abou t thei r assignmen t i n Europe : I am sur e you kno w yo u wil l be working with mail . Up until now , the mail ha s bee n service d b y whit e Wac s a t th e Firs t Bas e Pos t Offic e a t Sutton Coa l Field . . . . Thes e Wac s hav e bee n servicin g th e mai l fo r almost tw o years. Most o f them ar e being sent home, so there is a real need for you." A few day s after tha t conversation Adam s and Campbel l met Maj . Dudley C . Jernigan , commandin g office r o f th e Firs t Bas e Pos t Office, t o whic h th e 6888t h woul d b e temporarily attached . The y learned tha t the y woul d b e statione d i n Birmingha m an d quar tered a t a n ol d boardin g school , whic h the y wer e responsibl e fo r preparing fo r thei r battalion' s arrival . After Earle y an d Mitchell' s departure , member s o f th e 6888t h traveled oversea s in two waves. At the end of January 194 5 nearl y seven hundre d blac k Wac s boarde d a trai n an d wen t t o Cam p

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Shanks, Ne w York , fo r final processing . Gertrud e LaVign e re members bein g delayed i n New York : Our unit was at the dock ready to board our ship for overseas. The Red Cross was ther e with coffe e an d doughnuts . I t was terribly col d an d I , and others, thought o f pouring the coffee o n our feet to warm them up. There wa s a dela y o n ou r boardin g an d w e learne d tha t ther e wer e enemy ships and submarines in the north Atlantic, so we were sent back to th e quarter s are a fo r a n indefinit e delay . There were [male ] soldier s there als o waitin g t o board ou r ship , an d othe r transpor t ship s i n th e dock. . . . Our stay was extended several times before we finally boarded our ship and set sail for England . Colonel Hobby , directo r o f th e WAC , traveled t o Ne w Yor k t o see the first contingen t off . Th e uni t wen t b y ferr y t o th e doc k o f the lie de France, whic h the y boarde d o n 3 February. Thi s exqui site ship , whic h ha d bee n use d fo r transportin g wealth y an d fa mous peopl e t o Europe , had bee n modifie d t o transpor t troop s t o Europe durin g th e war. Myrtl e Rhode n remember s tha t th e shi p was loaded with troops and equipment and bombs and ammunition and whatever els e the y neede d fo r war . I t wa s loade d t o th e brim . W e [members of the 6888th] were on the top deck in the staterooms. There weren't any other women; all of the other people on board the ship were men. . .. I looked out on the deck before we went into our quarters and saw ships everywhere. We pulled away from th e harbor and we were out in the sea, not in the middle, but we were way out in the water, and we could see other ships; many, many ships were out there. All of th e women I interviewed remembe r th e shi p a s large an d impressive. Rut h Jefferso n Wrigh t states , "Yo u know , i t wa s a nice ship ; an d al l I remembe r i s tha t I wa s sic k th e whol e time . They ha d s o man y o f u s i n on e room. " Som e o f th e forme r members describ e the trip overseas a s being "exciting , fascinating , and beautiful" ; other s complained , a s di d Wright , abou t bein g seasick al l th e way . Durin g th e voyag e th e wome n wer e pu t through boa t drill s an d exercis e sessions . Mildred Dupe e Leonard , a first lieutenan t wit h th e 6888th , found th e journey oversea s t o b e wonderful :

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In th e Army , th e condition s unde r whic h officer s liv e and th e condition s under which enliste d personnel liv e are not the same, and s o we [officers ] were livin g in the bes t quarters . I t had th e bes t o f everything . I t may no t have bee n quit e tha t goo d fo r enliste d personne l becaus e som e o f the m were dow n i n th e hole . I t would b e just lik e traveling o n a n ocea n liner : the furthe r dow n o n th e ship you go , the less pleasant th e trip . Gladys T h o m a s Anderson , a youn g an d fun-lovin g privat e firs t class, foun d th e voyag e mos t enjoyabl e i n spit e o f th e conditions : Believe i t o r not , I was enjoyin g it . We had a hectic trip becaus e w e ha d heavy waves ; an d the n on e nigh t the y tol d u s tha t ther e wa s a su b behind us , an d I wok e u p an d hear d it . Bu t I didn' t believ e wha t the y told m e an d jus t turne d ove r an d wen t bac k t o sleep ; I found ou t late r i t was true . Durin g th e day , oftentime s whe n w e at e ou r meals , we ha d t o go down t o th e dinin g room , an d th e shi p would b e listing fro m righ t t o left. I remember enjoyin g i t becaus e I couldn' t pu t m y foo t dow n lik e I wanted to . Th e shi p woul d com e u p t o mee t my foot , an d I laughe d about that . Bu t yo u ha d t o d o somethin g t o whil e awa y th e time , an d I couldn't se e bein g sa d an d no t enjoyin g myself . S o I just enjoye d bein g with my friends , an d talking , an d laughin g a t th e one s wh o go t seasick . I was on e of th e fortunat e ones ; I didn't ge t seasick . The " s u b " tha t Anderso n mention s wa s indee d a Germa n subma rine. Befor e th e lie de France reache d Glasgo w H a r b o r , i t wa s engaged b y Germa n U-boats . N o t al l o f th e wome n experience d th e tri p a s cheerfull y a s did Anderson . Rhoden , fo r example , wa s frantic : " O u r shi p wa s engaged, an d w e wen t int o w h a t wa s considere d a zigza g typ e o f formation t o avoi d th e attack . T h a t lasted , the y tel l me , forty-fiv e minutes; bu t honestl y I though t i t wa s muc h longe r tha n forty five minutes. " Ther e wer e twelv e wome n t o a room , si x i n double deck bunk s o n eac h side . Rhode n remember s bein g tosse d an d turned: You ha d t o han g o n wit h al l you r strengt h becaus e th e veerin g wa s s o severe—the pullin g an d turning . I coul d hea r th e nois e outside ; th e sirens, th e banging , th e horns , an d th e whistles ; th e galvanize d garbag e

Just American Soldiers Going to Do a Job 107 cans wer e bangin g an d clanging ; everythin g w e ha d o n ou r shelve s went flying through th e ai r lik e marbles ; perfum e an d cosmetic s wen t everywhere; lots of screaming. Everything was going at one time. Rhoden, lik e man y o f th e othe r women , prayed : " I thought , thi s is th e end . I really did . I sai d m y prayers . On e o r tw o girl s wer e crying i n m y squadron . I didn' t d o an y outburst ; I don' t kno w what wa s wron g wit h me ; I jus t didn' t screa m ou t loud . An d finally i t ended. I t just stopped. " LaVigne als o mentione d thi s even t a s mos t memorable , an d especially tha t the y reache d thei r destinatio n withou t casualty : "About on e da y ou t o f th e Glasgo w Harbo r ou r convo y encoun tered enem y submarines . Th e shi p zig-zagged , rolled , an d pitche d as ou r convoy , escorte d b y fighte r ships , planes , an d submarine s engaged th e enemy . . . . Fortunately w e docked i n safety." 22 Accompanied b y a n arme d convo y o f ships , the first contingen t of th e 6888t h arrive d i n Glasgo w o n 1 1 February 1945 . The uni t was me t b y bagpip e music , thei r battalio n commander , Charit y Adams, an d Brig . Gen . Benjami n O . Davis , Sr. , th e highest-rank ing African America n officer . I n a letter t o hi s wife, Davi s wrote : Charity Adams a Wilberforce gir l is the Major commandin g the battalion. I visite d the m aboar d shi p an d rod e wit h th e first sectio n fro m Glasgow to Birmingham where I am now. I am being nicely handled and the girls are being beautifully take n care of. They are in good spirits. 23 Fifty day s late r th e secon d contingen t o f th e 6888t h arrive d i n England. Their shi p also traveled i n a convoy, but the journey wa s less eventfu l tha n th e firs t contingent's . Nobod y reporte d an y attack b y enem y submarines , o r anythin g o f tha t sort . Th e fe w women I interviewed wh o wer e wit h th e secon d contingent , suc h as Dorothy Johnson, remembe r th e journey a s pleasant : We went ove r i n a very high styl e because we went ove r o n the Queen Elizabeth. So we ha d quit e a commodiou s ship , an d w e wer e no t th e only one s tha t wer e bein g transferre d a t th e time . . . . The whol e shi p was people d wit h troop s goin g overseas , an d w e were, of course , i n a convoy. . . . And it was a rather luxurious journey over.

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The secon d contingen t wa s als o met b y the battalio n commander . Unlike th e member s o f th e first contingent , wh o wer e me t wit h bagpipes an d a bi g celebration i n Scotland , th e secon d contingen t did not receive its welcome until it arrived in Birmingham. Charit y Adams Earle y state s tha t th e grou p wa s greete d b y th e earlie r arrivals a s well a s b y militar y dignitaries. 24 The welcom e give n t o the second contingent , however , was not nearl y a s jubilant a s tha t which th e first contingent received .

5 Serving in the European Theater of Operations, January 1945-March 1946

Welcome! Welcome!

Welcome!

During th e firs t fe w day s in Europe, Adams an d Campbel l fle w t o Paris t o repor t t o Lt . Gen . Joh n C . H . Lee , th e commandin g general o f th e Communicatio n Zone , ETO . Upo n arriva l i n Pari s they wer e me t b y Maj . Mar y Weems , assistan t WA C directo r fo r Headquarter Communicatio n Zone , ETO . Late r the y me t wit h Brig. Gen. Benjamin O . Davis, Sr., Headquarters Staff , Communi cation Zone , ETO . Noe l Campbel l Mitchel l tol d m e that Genera l Davis's aid e an d nephew , Lt . Joh n Overton , wa s onc e a hig h school classmat e o f hers . Mitchel l als o sai d tha t sh e ha d know n General Davi s fo r man y year s a t Tuskege e Institute : Davi s ha d taught militar y scienc e an d tactic s a t Tuskegee when Mitchel l wa s a studen t there . Adam s an d Campbel l spen t a fe w day s attendin g various receptions , som e o f whic h wer e give n i n thei r honor . On e such even t wa s hel d i n Pari s i n Genera l Lee' s suit e a t th e Hote l George Cinq , with severa l othe r officers. 1 109

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Much o f thei r time , however , wa s spen t i n preparin g fo r thei r unit's arrival . The y selecte d room s fo r offices , separate d th e bat talion int o companies , mad e a lis t o f th e equipmen t the y woul d need, an d performe d numerou s othe r logisti c an d administrativ e tasks. The y wer e responsibl e fo r makin g sur e tha t bed s wer e available fo r th e uni t an d tha t thei r mes s hal l wa s sufficientl y stocked wit h foo d an d utensils . They sa w t o i t that plumbin g an d electrical work wa s done an d that telephon e line s were connected . Soldiers from a nearby mal e unit were assigned to assist in prepar ing the livin g and wor k quarter s fo r th e battalion' s arrival . The kitche n wa s cleaned , foo d wa s prepared , an d th e dinin g hall ha d bee n decorate d wit h welcomin g sign s onl y hour s befor e the 6888t h arrive d i n England. As an adde d feature , a dance ban d was engage d t o gree t member s o f th e incomin g uni t a s soo n a s they arrived . O n 1 0 Februar y Adam s departe d Birmingha m t o meet th e troop s i n Scotland . Mitchel l recall s tha t sh e staye d i n Birmingham, overseein g the work tha t ha d ye t to b e done . A special inspectio n o f th e 6888t h wa s mad e b y Genera l Davi s when th e first contingent arrive d i n Europe. On 1 1 February 194 5 Davis, accompanie d b y a n inspectio n team , inspecte d th e uni t aboard th e lie de France? O n th e followin g da y Davi s accompa nied th e battalion's first sectio n fro m Glasgo w t o Birmingham . War corresponden t Edwar d B . Toles , a spectator , wrot e th e following abou t th e unit's arriva l i n England : As trainloads o f the smartly uniformed women , equipped with ful l field packs, poure d ont o th e statio n platform , a 30-piec e whit e arm y ban d blared out "Beer Barrel Polka." Past the lusty cheers of townspeople and down th e blackou t streets , th e firs t oversea s grou p o f Negr o Wac s marched t o it s home , a swank y steam-heate d fram e structur e tha t for merly house d a first clas s boys ' school . I n tw o hug e dinin g rooms , roast lam b awaite d th e ne w arrivals. The huge building provides livin g quarters, workrooms , headquarters , an d eve n a regulation-siz e basket ball cour t i n the moder n gymnasiu m wa s ready fo r th e women's recreation.3

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The grou p wa s me t b y Colone l Herr , compan y office r o f th e western district ; Colone l Darnell , distric t engineer ; an d Majo r Jernigan, compan y office r o f th e Firs t Bas e Pos t Office . Genera l Davis, alon g wit h Colonel s Her r an d Darnell , inspecte d th e Kin g Edward School , wher e th e 6888t h wa s t o b e quartered , an d re ported tha t th e buildin g wa s i n excellen t condition . A s state d i n General Davis' s report , th e Kin g Edwar d Schoo l "wa s clea n an d comfortably heated . Bed s wer e mad e an d nicel y arranged , an d sufficient fo r accommodatio n o f th e personnel. " Genera l Davi s also reported tha t th e unit's moral e was high. 4 Upon arrivin g i n Scotland , Mildre d Dupe e Leonar d remember s hurrying fro m th e shi p to boar d a train : We arrived i n Scotland an d transferred fro m th e ship to the train t o go into England. Traveling in a large group like that in a troop train, so to speak, th e condition s wer e jus t lik e thos e o f anyon e travelin g o n a crowded train . Bu t o f cours e w e had bee n issue d C rations an d thing s like that . W e ha d ou r ow n duffe l bag s i n whic h w e carrie d ou r ow n personal items , and the C rations, which suffice d a s our meal s until we got to where we were going. Several women commente d o n th e beauty o f the countryside o n their wa y t o Birmingham . I n he r memoirs , Luci a Pitt s describe s the scene as living up t o it s celebrated reputation : [It] was a first impressio n neve r t o b e forgotten. Th e farmlands looke d lush and green, but at intervals there was snow. Everything was laid out so neatl y an d precisely , wit h tri m hedgerow s separatin g th e plots, an d little splashin g fall s her e an d there ; an d th e lan d looke d s o clea n i t seemed it had been swept by a broom. 5 The wome n arrive d a t th e Kin g Edwar d Schoo l a t nigh t an d received th e welcomin g tha t Edwar d Tole s describe d i n hi s new s release. Margare t Barbour , remember s that , tire d fro m th e long , arduous journey , the y foun d tha t the y had makeshif t bunks . "Th e guys [mal e soldiers ] ha d mad e doubl e decker s fo r u s an d bed s were al l made when w e got there. "

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On 1 3 February a specia l assembl y wa s hel d a t the school . Th e male officer s mentione d abov e wer e accompanie d b y Maj . Vir ginia Hurle y an d Captain s Mar y Mille r an d Elle n Hays , al l o f whom wer e Transportatio n Corp s WA C officers . Th e progra m consisted o f speeche s b y Genera l Davis , Majo r Jernigan , Majo r Weems, Majo r Adams , Captai n Mildre d E . Carte r (th e 6888t h special servic e officer), an d Chaplai n Beverl y M. Ward . According t o Genera l Davis' s report , th e detachmen t consiste d of 2 6 officer s an d 68 7 enliste d women . H e stated , "Th e com mander, Majo r Charit y E . Adam s appear s t o b e competent , an d displayed excellen t leadershi p an d control." 6 H e als o said that th e detachment wa s organize d int o a provisiona l battalion , assigne d to th e Firs t Bas e Pos t Office , AP O 640 , fo r dut y unde r Majo r Jernigan. I n actuality , th e uni t wa s attache d t o th e Firs t Pos t Office unti l 8 March 1945 ; it then receive d it s official designatio n as th e 6888t h Centra l Posta l Director y an d becam e a self-sus taining battalion an d th e largest U.S. Army uni t in Birmingham a t that time . The battalion' s livin g facilitie s varie d wit h th e location . I n Bir mingham an d Roue n th e wome n wer e house d i n muc h smalle r quarters tha n i n Paris . Contrar y t o som e o f th e informatio n i n General Davis' s report , man y o f th e interviewee s describe d th e King Edwar d Schoo l i n Englan d a s bein g i n shamble s whe n the y arrived. Th e buildin g showe d sign s of bombin g an d othe r ravage s of th e war . Ther e wer e hole s i n th e roof , whic h som e member s remember patchin g themselves . Th e livin g quarter s ha d ver y lim ited heat , an d ho t wate r wa s scarce . Mitchel l says : " I ha d neve r been i n a mor e depressin g plac e i n m y life . Th e corridor s wer e narrow an d dark . Th e room s wer e small , ill-lighted , an d poorl y ventilated." Members complaine d abou t havin g to g o outside to take show ers in the cold . Myrtle Rhode n recalls , The first night I took a shower wit h abou t fou r o r five other females . I was s o tire d tha t th e fac t tha t w e had n o showe r curtain s o r anythin g

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Figure 1. 6888th Living Facilities in England

still hadn't registered with me until much later. It was cold and we took our showers as quickly as we could and went to bed. I remember that in the followin g day s I bathe d b y m y be d ou t o f m y helme t mos t o f the time. Figure 1 show s th e layou t o f th e wor k an d livin g facilities . Most of the unit's activitie s took place in the main building, where enlisted quarters , administrativ e offices , recreatio n an d storag e areas, a beauty parlor, an d gymtoriu m (gymnasium ) wer e located . In th e cente r o f th e quadrangl e wa s a courtyard , wher e outdoo r showers wer e located . I n a separat e buildin g o n th e ground s wa s a kitche n an d dinin g facility . Officer s live d i n tw o house s acros s the stree t fro m th e mai n building . Durin g thei r sta y i n Bir mingham, member s o f th e 6888t h transforme d th e Kin g Edwar d school int o very livable quarters . The primar y missio n o f th e battalio n wa s t o sor t an d redirec t mail. Al l o f th e wome n interviewe d fo r thi s stud y describ e th e work objective s simila r t o thos e recounted here :

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The 6888t h Centra l Posta l Director y Battalio n wa s responsibl e fo r th e redirection of mail to U.S. personnel in the European Theater of Opera tions. The total numbe r o f U.S. personnel involve d was estimated t o be about seve n million . . . . Thi s numbe r include d peopl e i n th e Army , Navy, Marine Corps, Air Corps, and Seabees, uniformed civilia n specialists an d technicians , nonuniforme d specialists , congressme n an d thei r aides on inspection trips, Red Cross workers, and every person involved in and with military and paramilitary activity in the ETO.7 Because so many o f the Army units were moving from on e comba t area t o another , an d becaus e ther e wa s a civilia n an d militar y manpower shortage , mai l ha d bee n accumulatin g i n British ware houses over severa l months. Mattie Allen remembers tha t loads of mail wer e continuousl y transporte d t o thei r facility : "W e wer e a postal battalio n an d w e had trai n load s of package s an d mai l tha t came t o u s a s a unit. " Doroth y Bartlet t recalls : "Th e gy m wa s stacked practically t o the ceiling with delaye d mail, like boxes an d letters an d thing s that people had sen t for soldier s that ha d move d to anothe r pos t o r something. " Accordin g t o Virgini a Frazier , "We were just stymie d b y the mail stacke d al l over. " The mai l wa s handle d rathe r intricately . Locato r clerk s ha d boxes o f locato r cards , whic h containe d th e uni t number s fo r al l of th e America n personne l statione d i n Europe . Whe n a uni t moved, th e posta l director y wa s notified , an d ne w locato r card s were mad e fo r al l o f th e peopl e i n tha t unit . Commo n surname s often require d severa l boxes : Mai l fo r peopl e name d Smith , fo r instance, may have filled three boxes. When a postal clerk receive d letters fo r somebod y name d Joh n A . Smith , fo r example , sh e found Joh n A . Smith' s locato r card , whic h containe d hi s uni t number, an d forwarde d th e mai l t o hi s unit . Ofte n mai l wa s forwarded t o soldier s afte r th e uni t ha d move d an d befor e th e postal director y receive d a ne w uni t locato r card . I n thos e case s the mai l was returne d t o th e postal director y an d hel d unti l a ne w locator car d wa s receive d fro m th e soldier' s unit . I f th e mai l wa s marked "deceased, " i t wen t t o a specia l are a an d wa s handle d separately. The 6888th , organize d int o five companies, was a self-

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sufficient unit . Th e Headquarter s Compan y handle d al l adminis trative and servic e support duties . Companies A, B, C, and D wer e made u p o f postal director y personnel . All o f th e interviewee s describe d th e workin g condition s a s poor. Som e o f th e strain s i n performin g thei r jo b wer e associate d directly wit h war . Lighting , fo r example , wa s poo r i n Englan d because window s wer e painte d blac k fo r war-relate d blackouts . Many o f th e wome n suffere d eyestrai n a s a resul t o f th e badl y li t work areas . Wor k spac e wa s als o a problem : th e limitatio n o n space require d tha t mai l clerk s b e assigne d t o rotatin g eight-hou r shifts. Anothe r sourc e o f stres s wa s th e lac k o f adequat e hea t i n the workplace ; wor k area s wer e s o col d tha t th e wome n worke d in their sk i pants an d field jackets. Ventilation wa s especially poo r at th e Kin g Edwar d School . Mitchel l describe s th e gymnasium , where the mail was stored , a s smelling like a distillery .

All Aboard! In Ma y 194 5 th e 6888t h wa s assigne d t o Rouen , France , wher e Joan o f Ar c wa s burne d a t th e stak e i n 1431 . The uni t member s traveled fro m Birmingha m b y trai n t o th e por t a t Southhampto n and boarde d a smal l boa t i n whic h the y crosse d th e Englis h Channel. Luci a Pitt s recorde d tha t th e wome n travele d i n ver y tight quarters : "O n thi s boa t w e slep t sailo r fashion—i n ou r clothes, o n piece s o f canva s tha t le t dow n fro m th e wal l shelf fashion. Nothin g wa s o n thes e shelve s bu t us , ou r lifebelts , an d our overcoat s fo r covering . Sinc e we slept in tiers of fou r t o six , if you lifte d you r hea d fro m you r bun k withou t thinking , yo u popped i t agains t th e bun k abov e you." 8 Whe n th e boa t docke d at L e Havre , th e first thin g mos t o f th e interviewee s recal l i s th e mass o f rubbl e the y saw . Lavini a Johnson' s first impressio n wa s that th e Frenc h di d no t clea n u p a s th e Britis h did : "Th e British , as soo n a s th e bombin g occurred , woul d clea n up . Th e French , they just let the rubble sta y there. " The uni t boarde d a trai n tha t ha d hole s i n th e roo f an d n o

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windows, a somewhat uncomfortabl e situatio n durin g the period s of rain . Whe n the y arrive d i n Rouen , the y receive d a n enormou s welcome fro m Africa n America n mal e soldier s statione d i n th e area. "Th e whole place was jammed ful l o f black soldiers," recall s Gladys Carter : They cam e i n ever y vehicl e imaginable . The y wer e i n trucks an d jeep s and wagons; and they were up on the roof an d every place waving. "My name i s Joe. " "Where' s Susie? " An d som e o f them , o f course , kne w some o f th e wome n an d wer e askin g fo r them . The y wer e jus t sur rounding us , yelling, "Le t me carry your bag . What's you r name? " . . . And s o yo u ha d t o laugh . . .. Th e nex t thin g I remembe r i s goin g through som e bi g gate s an d I heard m y nam e bein g called , "Schuster , Schuster" (m y maiden nam e is Schuster). And I looked up and it was a fella named Joe Judkins. Joe Judkins had been at Virginia State with me. . . . He greeted me with a kiss, you know, kind of a smack on the cheek as I walked along. Not everyon e foun d th e welcom e a s flatterin g a s di d Carter . Women o f th e uni t varie d a s to age , personality, an d responsibili ties. The executive officer, Mitchell , for example , found th e excitement disruptive : "W e wer e besiege d wit h soldier s an d civilians . We aske d fo r mal e MP s [militar y police ] t o guar d ou r gate s unti l we coul d ge t organize d an d us e WAC MPs. " Thi s respons e i s no t surprising i n vie w o f th e officers ' responsibilit y fo r ensurin g a flawless transitio n fro m Birmingha m t o Rouen . In Roue n th e battalio n wa s house d i n th e Casern e Tallandier , an ol d Frenc h barrack s tha t ha d onc e bee n occupie d b y Napo leon's troops . Severa l bric k building s wer e surrounde d b y a n eight-foot wal l with a high iron gate. This facility wa s much large r than th e Kin g Edwar d School . Th e battalion' s headquarter s an d medical facilit y occupie d on e building . A large two-story buildin g provided spac e fo r supplies , storage , an d th e moto r pool . Th e mess hall, kitchen, an d recreationa l spac e occupied anothe r build ing. Ther e wer e separat e smal l building s fo r laundr y an d addi tional storage . Th e larges t buildin g wa s a four-stor y bric k struc ture i n whic h th e wor k are a wa s locate d o n th e groun d floor ; th e

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enlisted personne l wer e quartere d o n th e othe r thre e floors . Tw o houses o n th e pos t wer e use d fo r officers ' quarters . Th e officers ' club occupie d th e firs t floo r o f on e of thes e houses . In Rouen , a s i n Birmingham , th e facilitie s include d a pos t ex change, a specia l service s office , a library , a beaut y parlor , an d a recreation hall . Although bed s were not available , and th e wome n slept o n canva s cot s tha t wer e stacke d i n twos , severa l battalio n members tol d corresponden t Edwar d Tole s that the y were please d with thei r ne w quarters becaus e of th e "breathin g space." 9 Every one agree d tha t th e livin g facilitie s wer e muc h large r i n Roue n than in Birmingham, but not everyone thought they were comfort able. Bernic e Thomas , fo r example , remember s th e quarter s i n Rouen a s les s tha n favorable : "W e live d i n a n ol d place . . . . I believe someon e tol d m e tha t Napoleo n ha d bee n there , horribl e old place , wit h n o windows , an d w e ha d t o tak e ou r mattres s covers to th e barn an d fill them u p wit h stra w fo r a mattress. " Lucia Pitt s describe d th e enliste d women' s livin g quarter s i n Rouen a s follows : All of th e enliste d wome n wer e assigne d t o th e larges t building , abou t thirty-two t o a room . We still ha d doubl e bunks , mad e o f frame s int o which Army cots had been fitted. For mattresses we were handed covers as w e entered , whic h w e ha d t o stuf f wit h fres h stra w fro m a pil e outside. We found tha t whe n on e lay dow n o n it , i t had a tendency t o knot up, sticking one in the wrong places and sometimes biting. We had no sheets, no pillows, just blankets . . . . But little stump s a Wac. Those who fel t the y ha d t o hav e pillows mad e them ou t o f extr a blanket s o r coats o r robes . Those wh o couldn' t bea r th e roug h blanke t scratchin g their neck s . . . foun d a piec e o f ra g an d folde d i t ove r th e blanke t edges.10 Despite th e poo r facilities , th e clos e quarter s i n Birmingha m an d later in Rouen promoted socia l bonding. The physical structur e of the Kin g Edward Schoo l an d o f th e Casern e Tallandie r force d th e unit's member s t o hav e dail y clos e face-to-fac e contac t an d t o develop primary grou p tie s and a strong sens e of sisterhood . Unlike th e wor k environmen t i n Birmingham , th e workroom s

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in Roue n wer e large , well ventilated , an d wel l lighted . Ther e wa s enough spac e t o allo w al l o f th e posta l clerk s t o wor k durin g th e day, thereb y alleviatin g th e problem s associate d wit h rotatin g shifts. Th e battalio n commande r wa s authorize d t o hir e Frenc h civilian workers . Tw o Frenc h interpreter s wer e employed , an d a French woma n t o clea n th e officers ' quarters . Approximatel y three hundre d Germa n prisoner s o f wa r worke d t o prepar e th e post fo r th e unit' s arriva l an d continue d t o maintai n th e pos t throughout th e unit's stay in Rouen. Capt . Thomas Campbel l (th e executive officer' s brother ) wa s assigne d t o th e uni t i n Roue n a s the medical doctor . Although som e o f th e strain s o f th e workplac e wer e alleviate d in Rouen , the y wer e no t eliminated . Som e wome n recal l tha t th e heating wa s neve r reall y adequate . I n additio n th e workloa d wa s extremely heavy . Myrtl e Rhode n recalls , "W e foun d th e sam e conditions i n Franc e tha t w e found i n England; th e mail had bee n held u p fo r months . Ther e wa s mai l tha t wa s tw o o r thre e year s old. S o w e ha d t o rewra p package s an d rerout e mail . The y gav e us si x month s t o ge t th e mai l ou t i n France , an d w e wer e deter mined t o ge t it out i n three. " Seventy Miles Southeast to

Paris

In Octobe r 194 5 th e battalio n wa s move d b y moto r convo y t o Paris, sevent y mile s southeas t o f Rouen . Accordin g t o Earley , th e convoy consiste d o f thirty-fiv e vehicle s (jeep s an d 6x6 trucks) . All of th e interviewee s wh o ha d no t returne d t o th e Unite d State s remember bein g delaye d b y a n acciden t tha t ha d occurre d i n a convoy ahea d o f them , bu t the y weren't sur e what ha d happened . Earley explained tha t a piano had falle n o n a male soldier, holdin g up th e convo y fo r hours. 11 Th e uni t di d no t arriv e i n Pari s unti l the wee hours o f the morning. This was the unit's final destinatio n in Europe ; i n contras t t o th e war m welcom e tha t th e 6888t h ha d received i n Birmingha m an d Rouen , n o soldier s o r dignitarie s greeted the m i n Paris.

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Living facilities i n Pari s fa r surpasse d thos e i n Birmingham an d Rouen. Member s o f th e 6888t h describ e thes e quarter s a s lavish . The battalio n wa s house d i n tw o hotels ; enliste d member s wer e housed a t the Bohy Lafayette, an d officer s a t the Hotel Etats-Unis . All o f th e unit' s member s enjoye d mai d service , an d thei r meal s were prepare d b y hote l cooks . Th e hotel s ha d self-servic e eleva tors, an d th e room s wer e ornat e wit h thic k carpeting , larg e beds , walk-in closets , mirrors , an d eas y chairs . Som e room s wer e fur nished wit h desk s an d lamps . Th e livin g condition s i n Paris , al though mor e plush , wer e no t conduciv e t o th e cohesivenes s tha t was presen t i n Birmingha m an d Roue n (se e chapter 7 fo r furthe r discussion.) The workin g are a i n Pari s wa s locate d i n a larg e garag e abou t a half-hour' s driv e fro m th e livin g quarters . Th e majo r grievanc e that surface d i n Pari s wa s th e shortag e o f workers . Larg e quanti ties o f mai l continue d t o b e delivere d t o th e uni t fo r processing . As before, America n soldier s brough t mai l t o th e work are a fro m the railway station, and French civilians assisted in handling heavy mailbags. Th e uni t ha d decrease d drasticall y i n size , however , while the workload remaine d th e same . Several member s ha d rotate d bac k t o th e Unite d State s befor e the uni t wa s deploye d t o Paris ; other s returne d hom e shortl y afterward. Bot h th e battalio n commande r an d th e executiv e offi cer wer e amon g thos e wh o returne d t o th e Unite d State s i n De cember 1945 . By March 1946 , when th e war ha d bee n ove r fo r a few months , al l o f th e remainin g member s ha d returne d t o th e States.12 Man y o f th e member s soo n returne d t o civilia n society , but som e remained i n the military an d retire d severa l years later . In both Englan d an d Franc e work condition s range d fro m poo r to barel y adequate . Althoug h th e strain s o f limite d space , poo r ventilation, an d poor lightin g were alleviated somewha t i n Rouen , the heatin g wa s stil l les s tha n desirable . I n Paris , o n th e othe r hand, work-relate d stres s wa s les s attributabl e t o th e physica l environment tha n t o th e reduction i n unit siz e and t o the fact tha t many o f th e members wante d t o return home . Although wel l ove r

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half o f th e uni t ha d rotate d bac k t o th e Unite d States , th e re maining member s wer e expecte d t o proces s th e mai l a t th e sam e level o f productivity . Yet , i n spit e o f th e voluminou s workloa d and reduce d siz e o f th e unit , man y o f th e wome n wer e abl e t o adjust an d wer e stil l motivate d t o d o a n outstandin g job . Myrtl e Rhoden says , "Th e 6888t h wa s knitte d togethe r int o on e grou p and wer e determine d t o ge t th e jo b don e i n Franc e a s w e ha d in England. " Different from

the Coloured Women Portrayed on the Films

Members o f th e 6888t h wer e th e first blac k wome n eve r see n b y most o f th e British resident s o f Birmingham . "The y stare d a t us, " Frances Johnson recalls . "I t seeme d like they had neve r seen blac k women befor e i n thei r lives. " "Curious, " "friendly, " "warm, " and "hospitable " ar e th e word s use d b y member s o f th e 6888t h to describ e th e British peopl e they met . In general , resident s o f Birmingha m wer e ver y hospitabl e t o members o f the 6888th . Severa l former member s of th e unit recal l that Britis h familie s invite d the m int o thei r homes . Doroth y Bart lett receive d man y invitations : "Th e majorit y o f th e peopl e i n Birmingham wer e ver y pleasant . Ther e wer e time s whe n I wa s downtown an d everythin g shu t down ; an d the y woul d invit e m e to thei r homes t o have tea with them. " The British people had bee n given erroneous information abou t African American s b y whit e America n soldier s wh o ha d bee n stationed i n England . Man y o f th e Africa n America n Wac s wer e approached b y British people , a s was Sadie Belcher: "Som e o f th e British sai d tha t th e American s ha d sai d tha t Black s wer e lik e animals an d the y ha d tails ; an d on e woma n eve n tol d m e tha t they sai d Black s barke d a t midnigh t lik e a dog. " I n spit e o f thes e rumors, Africa n America n Wac s foun d th e Britis h quit e cordial , and man y lastin g friendships developed . Dorothy Carte r mad e friend s wit h a famil y wh o considere d themselves relativel y hig h class :

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The Englis h ar e ver y class-consciou s an d yo u didn' t mee t peopl e i n a certain clas s unles s yo u happe n t o b e on e o f them . Bu t I happened t o meet thi s famil y who , i f I had bee n a citizen , I would no t hav e [met] . And I met people of a higher class through them. They used to show me places wher e blac k me n woul d g o t o party , an d describe d th e typ e of women that black men dealt with as being low class. Carter spen t som e o f he r weekend s wit h thi s family : "The y calle d every weeken d a holiday . I learne d t o lov e th e outdoors , th e museums, an d thing s o f tha t sor t becaus e that' s wher e w e wen t most o f th e time. " Sh e discovered tha t he r high-clas s friend s live d rather modestly : " I was no t impresse d wit h th e standar d o f livin g there. The y live d i n narro w house s wit h littl e gardens . Eve n th e family I met had a n outdoo r bathroo m an d toilet. " British peopl e treate d Africa n America n Wac s wit h a respec t that the y seldo m receive d i n th e Unite d State s fro m whit e Ameri cans. Moreover , th e Britis h refuse d t o allo w whit e America n ser vicemen t o sho w disrespec t t o blac k Wac s i n thei r presence . Myrtle Rhode n recall s the followin g incident : As we [ a few member s of th e 6888th ] walke d int o the pub the y [whit e American servicemen] were already there. They started verbally abusin g [us] an d declarin g ho w dar k th e roo m ha d gotte n a s a resul t o f u s walking in. British men came to our side and rescued us, and sat down. They [Britis h men] told the [white ] American servicemen that they were out o f plac e a t whic h poin t th e America n soldier s go t belligeren t an d were throw n out . W e [member s o f th e 6888th ] staye d a t th e pu b an d had a wonderful time , and th e Britis h me n escorted u s to ou r barrack s afterwards. Virginia Frazie r remember s a simila r ac t o f cordialit y o n th e part o f a Britis h famil y wh o provide d he r wit h shelte r whe n th e Red Cros s refuse d to . Whe n th e 6888t h wa s statione d i n France , Frazier, an d tw o whit e Wac s wer e selecte d fro m a poo l o f appli cants t o atten d Portsma n Colleg e o f Ar t i n England . Sh e receive d special order s t o repor t t o th e American Re d Cros s in Bath : It was about ten at night when I arrived at Bath, England, and I reported to th e America n Re d Cross . Muc h t o m y surprise , the y [Re d Cros s officials] didn' t reall y kno w wha t t o d o wit h m e becaus e I was black .

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The othe r tw o guy s comin g fro m differen t companie s i n Europ e wer e white. The y didn' t coun t o n a blac k person , an d a t tha t tim e th e Re d Crosses wer e [racially ] separate . They calle d thi s Englis h gu y from th e school—I guess he was the head guy at the school—and h e said he had a plac e I coul d sta y wit h a n Englis h family . Thi s wonderfu l Englis h family too k m e in . Thei r name s wer e Deetan . I t wa s jus t th e boy , Timmy Deetan , an d hi s mothe r too k m e in , gav e m e a room , an d i t was beautiful . The Britis h communit y though t highl y o f th e member s o f th e 6888th. Man y o f th e stereotypes an d myth s abou t African Ameri can wome n tha t the y ha d acquire d wer e apparentl y dispelle d b y the presence o f a Negro WA C battalion i n their country . This fac t is reflecte d i n a Britis h newspape r article : "Thes e WAC s ar e ver y different fro m th e coloure d wome n portraye d o n th e films, wher e they ar e usuall y eithe r domestic s o r th e outspoke n old-retaine r type o r sloe-eye d siren s give n t o gaudines s o f costum e an d eccen tricity i n dress . The WAC s have dignit y an d prope r reserve/' 13 All o f th e wome n i n th e stud y claime d tha t racia l segregatio n was not practiced i n England while they were stationed i n Europe. There i s well-documente d evidenc e tha t Britis h peopl e tende d t o gravitate towar d Africa n American s a s earl y a s 1942 , whe n th e first blac k soldier s arrive d i n England . Man y Britis h peopl e ap proved o f interracia l marriage s betwee n blac k an d whit e people , and man y Britis h wome n marrie d Africa n America n men. 14 Ac cording t o a report o n th e relation s betwee n America n troop s an d British citizen s provide d b y th e U.S . embass y i n London , th e British people condemne d th e American practice of racial segrega tion i n 1945. 15 Thus , th e war m receptio n tha t member s o f th e 6888th receive d fro m citizen s o f Britai n an d Franc e reflect s a cultural differenc e betwee n th e Unite d State s an d thos e countrie s during World Wa r II . Although non e o f th e wome n I studie d marrie d Britis h men , some, including th e battalio n commander , date d them : During th e cours e o f attendin g ceremonia l an d civi c functions, I met a young man , a civi l engineer , whos e jo b ha d kep t hi m workin g fo r th e

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city rather than off i n the service. He took quite a fancy to me and, afte r struggling to overcome his English prejudice agains t "blacks, " he asked me to accompany him to the theater. Before I could accept his invitation I, too, ha d a fe w persona l an d cultura l adjustment s t o make . . . . On e day he took me for tea at the home of friends o f his.16 Most respondent s spok e o f th e Britis h me n the y me t a s " friends" and reported tha t socia l activitie s with thei r new friends wer e hel d in groups. Myrtle Rhode n reports : We [three members of th e 6888th] mad e friends wit h a gentleman, Mr . Hicks, i n a public park. H e invite d u s to hi s home. He was living in a lady's house , Mrs . Granger , Audre y Granger . Twenty-on e Reservoi r Lane. I'll alway s remember that address . I know exactly where it is. We would g o ther e t o visi t Mr . Hick s an d h e introduce d u s t o Audre y Granger. . . . He r tw o son s wer e prisoner s o f wa r somewher e an d sh e was very concerned abou t them. . . . She was a little lady about five feet three, big blue eyes, and pure white, pretty silve r hair. Claric e Blackett, Ruth Bean , an d mysel f wen t t o he r house , an d whe n sh e opene d th e door she just devoured us . The little teeny woman embraced all three of us in her arms at one time. Several of th e interviewees state d tha t th e unit wa s not give n a s large a receptio n i n Franc e a s i n England . Som e perceive d th e French a s indifferent towar d them . Lavinia Johnson observe d tha t the atmospher e i n Franc e wa s differen t fro m tha t i n England : "They didn' t car e anything abou t you . They didn' t g o out o f thei r way t o serv e anybody. " I n he r publishe d memoirs , Earle y wrot e about th e peopl e th e uni t encountere d i n France , "W e sense d th e French resente d th e ' y ° u ow e us ; we save d you r country ' attitud e expressed b y man y America n personnel . A s long a s w e spen t ou r money t o sho p an d t o enjo y th e cultur e an d atmospher e o f th e city, th e [French ] peopl e di d no t car e whethe r w e wer e Negr o o r white." 17 Similarly , Glady s Carte r observed , "Franc e wa s differ ent fro m England ; I don' t thin k th e [French ] peopl e wer e a s friendly o r a s outgoing . I don't remembe r socializin g a s muc h i n France a s we had i n England." Myrtl e Rhode n di d not befrien d a s many people in France a s in England :

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There wa s on e famil y i n Franc e tha t wa s ver y nic e to me . They ha d a cafe no t fa r fro m th e Casern e Tallandier , th e buildin g w e live d in . Whenever I went t o th e caf e th e woman woul d invit e m e upstairs, and her little boy, Keith, would play the violin for me . I just enjoyed visitin g them but I didn't go there often. Other women , however , describ e mor e involve d relationship s with Frenc h residents . Rut h Wright , fo r example , foun d tha t th e French peopl e sh e encountere d wer e ver y friendly . Sh e me t a family i n Roue n b y th e nam e o f Lamon t an d visite d the m quit e often. Late r Wrigh t name d he r so n afte r th e Lamonts . Bernic e Thomas recalls , I made quite a few friends [i n France] with whom I corresponded whe n I returne d t o th e Unite d States . I was treate d fine; I staye d overnigh t with som e o f th e Frenc h people . On e woma n i n particula r couldn' t speak English , an d I couldn' t spea k French , bu t w e manage d t o ge t along. I would g o to he r hom e an d w e would hav e dinner , an d I even spent the night with her in the same bed. Diverse Skills and Talents Members o f th e 6888t h brough t divers e skill s an d talent s t o thei r military service ; thi s fac t help s t o explai n wh y the y wer e success ful a s a group. Unlik e othe r WA C units deploye d t o th e ETO , th e 6888th wa s no t attache d t o a mal e unit , bu t wa s self-contained . In England , member s o f th e 6888t h manage d an d operate d thei r mess halls , moto r pools , an d suppl y rooms . The y ha d thei r ow n military polic e t o patro l thei r barracks . The y als o ha d a chapel , with thei r ow n organis t an d thei r ow n choir . Durin g mos t o f th e unit's tou r i n Europe , al l o f th e suppor t services , suc h a s cooks , security, communication , recreation , an d suppl y wer e performe d by African America n women. 18 Most o f th e member s o f th e 6888t h wer e assigne d a s posta l clerks, processin g mail , bu t other s hel d servic e an d suppor t posi tions. Edith Tyrell, for example , served a s a cook. Virginia Frazie r worked i n th e personne l offic e a s a payrol l clerk . Gertrud e

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LaVigne was a supply sergeant : " I was quit e busy . At first I was a company suppl y sergean t an d the n I wa s th e battalio n suppl y sergeant, an d I remaine d battalio n suppl y sergean t al l th e whil e we were in England an d whe n w e moved t o France. " Margaret Jones , th e publi c relation s officer , wa s i n charg e o f interviewing member s an d sendin g newspape r storie s abou t th e unit's activitie s bac k t o th e Unite d States , "M y jo b wa s t o publi cize what th e girl s were doing , an d I wrote release s t o thei r hom e newspapers. I ha d a photographe r a t m y disposal , an d I woul d take photograph s o f th e girl s o n th e jo b sites , an d thos e wer e al l forwarded throug h a public relations offic e an d sen t to th e Unite d States." Jones was als o in charge of organizing fund-raising activi ties for charitabl e organization s suc h a s the United Negr o Colleg e Fund. Th e battalio n wage d a ver y successfu l Unite d Negr o Col lege Fun d driv e i n Jun e 1945 , raisin g $4,503.70. 19 Th e publi c relations office r als o publishe d a mimeographe d weekl y battalio n newspaper, Special Delivery, whic h reporte d curren t event s an d contained article s written b y battalion members . One o f th e greates t advantage s o f a uni t a s divers e a s th e 6888th wa s th e wealt h o f civilia n wor k experienc e tha t th e vari ous members had had. Many o f the skills the women had acquire d in civilia n societ y wer e grea t assets , enablin g th e uni t t o provid e its ow n suppor t service s (a s mentione d above ) a s wel l a s th e services of beauticians , actresses, and dancers . Mildred Carte r ha d been a professiona l dance r i n civilia n lif e an d ha d appeare d i n several Broadwa y musicals . Sh e wa s bor n i n Boston , graduate d from Sargen t College , an d ha d founde d th e Davenpor t Schoo l o f Dance befor e enterin g th e military . Becaus e o f he r theatrica l tal ents, Carte r wa s appointe d specia l servic e office r o f th e 6888t h and organize d a highly acclaime d entertainmen t troupe . Mary McBride , Willie Whiting, an d Leatric e Lowe were amon g the dancer s assigne d t o specia l services ; they were par t o f a danc e group tha t performe d show s al l ove r Europe . Whitin g recalls , " I traveled wit h a smal l grou p . . . w e wer e a dancin g trio . Mar y McBride, a professiona l dance r befor e sh e becam e a Wac , was i n

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charge of the trio." Later I interviewed McBride ; she informed m e that Mildre d Carte r ha d encourage d he r to for m a dance group : She [Carter ] said , " I know you teac h dancin g Mary, that's good. " S o I said, "Well , I have tw o friends , Willi e Whitin g (wh o didn' t kno w he r right fro m he r left ) an d Leatric e Lowe , an d we'l l b e a tri o fro m Chi cago." And you talk about working with them. All we did was straighten up an d fly right. A very corn y thing , when I go back i n m y mind, bu t anyway w e go t t o travel . See , they woul d tak e u s t o variou s hospita l bases. McBride adde d tha t ther e wer e abou t twenty-fiv e wome n i n thei r performing art s group . On e membe r wa s a singe r name d Phylli s Branch, wh o ha d performe d i n Ne w Yor k City . McBrid e recall s that Branc h ha d appeare d wit h worl d renowne d entertainers : "She san g wit h Fran k Sinatr a an d Samm y Davis , Jr., an d believ e it or not , when sh e first came into the military, sh e was a n MP. " Other member s o f th e battalio n wer e quit e competitiv e i n suc h sports a s softball , tabl e tennis , volleyball , an d basketball . Ger trude LaVigne played o n the basketball tea m an d later became th e noncommissioned office r i n charge . Th e athleti c team s travele d throughout Europe , participatin g i n tournaments . LaVign e says , "The Ping-Pon g tournamen t wa s playe d i n Wiesbade n [Ger many]." Th e cit y had bee n partially destroye d durin g combat, bu t "people wer e clearin g awa y debri s an d gettin g on wit h thei r lives . The childre n wer e happy , mostl y playin g childre n games ; but stil l their eye s wer e lik e bab y rabbits , frighteningl y searchin g fo r a way out. " While member s o f th e 6888t h playe d tabl e tennis , childre n begged fo r chocolate , chewin g gum , an d cigarettes . LaVign e re calls tha t he r tea m place d i n on e o f th e tabl e tenni s tournaments : "There wer e man y goo d player s a t thi s tournament . W e visite d the place s o f interes t i n an d aroun d th e cit y an d returne d t o ou r home bas e t o prepar e fo r othe r schedule d tournaments. " Glady s Anderson als o had entere d the table tennis tournament i n Wiesba -

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den: " I didn' t wi n becaus e I was knocke d ou t o f th e first round . But whe n w e ha d th e basketbal l team , I got int o basketball , an d we wer e fortunat e t o wi n th e tournamen t i n Europ e . . . an d w e got a ten days ' R and R [res t an d recuperation ] leave. " The basketbal l tea m wa s issue d men' s swimsuit s an d T-shirts : "We use d colore d materials, " explain s LaVigne , "an d pu t stripe s down th e sides , numbers o n th e back , an d trimmin g o n th e neck line an d sleeves . We were als o issue d gy m shoes ; we were ready! " Team member s refuse d t o allo w an y racia l oppositio n t o dampe n their spirits . LaVign e remember s a potentially demoralizin g even t that occurre d o n th e way t o the championship tournament : Well, the time came to go to Stuttgart, Germany, for the ETO championship basketbal l tournament . Th e tea m reporte d t o th e trai n station' s departure point. A number of the fourteen team s who would be participating i n thi s tournamen t wer e al l gathere d here . As we were read y t o board the train, we were stopped and told that we would not be permitted to board that train. The tea m wa s no t permitte d t o board , accordin g t o LaVigne , because th e member s wer e Africa n American . Sh e reporte d th e incident t o Genera l Lee , the commandin g genera l o f communica tions zone : Upon stressing the urgency of our mission, we were permitted t o see the general. I told him the situation abou t not being permitted t o board the train fo r th e tournament . H e asked : "D o yo u thin k yo u hav e a goo d team an d ca n win? " Ou r repl y wa s enthusiastically , "Ye s sir! " Th e general ordered a delay on the departure of that train and had his special car attached, and the 6888 CPD [Central Postal Directory] team rode to Stuttgart in style all the way. Some o f th e unit' s athlete s wer e selecte d t o tak e a two-wee k recreational specialists ' course . Amon g thos e selecte d wa s LaVigne: "Thi s was a training trip that was a dream vacatio n an d training al l rolle d int o one . W e wer e quartere d i n th e beautifu l Alhambra Hotel , on e o f th e elit e hotel s i n Nice , wit h al l th e

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amenities." Al l o f thos e wh o attende d wer e abl e t o d o a littl e sightseeing: "W e visite d Marseille , France , wen t int o norther n Italy acros s Spain' s southeaster n border , an d man y place s withi n driving distance. " The 6888t h als o ha d a softbal l tea m tha t playe d severa l game s and reache d th e tournament s i n Europe . I n Augus t 194 5 th e team travele d t o Namur , Belgiu m t o participat e i n th e regiona l tournament. On e officer , 1s t Lt . Violet Hill , was amon g th e play ers. Novell a Aul s wa s th e team' s coach . Th e battalio n com mander, alon g wit h 1s t Lts . Blanch e Scot t an d Margare t Barnes , traveled t o Namu r t o chee r th e tea m on. 20 Th e 6888th' s softbal l team di d no t wi n th e tournamen t because , accordin g t o LaVigne , key players ' strategie s wer e reveale d durin g thei r warmup . None theless, tea m member s enjoye d watchin g th e remainde r o f th e game. "Whil e w e were spectator s i n th e bleacher s fo r th e remain der o f th e tournament , th e tw o team s playin g th e championshi p started fighting o n th e field. A soldie r stoo d u p an d shouted : 'Ladies, ladies , let' s b e gentlemen , please. ' Thi s seeme d t o settl e and quie t th e teams, and the y went o n t o finish the game. " For th e wome n wh o playe d sports , livin g i n Europ e wa s mos t enjoyable. No t onl y di d they benefit b y improving their cardiovas cular endurance, conditioning , an d overal l fitness; the y als o developed teamwork . Moreover , activ e involvemen t i n sport s helpe d them t o dea l wit h th e stres s the y face d i n thei r day-to-da y lives . Anderson foun d tha t "bein g i n sports , you lear n ho w t o rol l wit h the punches. " Members o f th e 6888t h coul d participat e i n severa l organize d activities i n th e littl e fre e tim e the y had . Mar y Daniel s William s remembers tourin g England : "Anyon e wh o wante d t o sig n u p could go on tours. We went to London an d we visited the country side to look aroun d ol d castles . We went throug h Windso r Castle , which i s the place where the king and quee n liv e when they'r e no t in Buckingham Palace. "

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Leadership Style and a Hierarchical Rank Structure You cannot promote yourself; th e people under you are the ones who mov e you up. —Charit y Adams Earley

The 6888th , segregate d b y race and gender , was given full respon sibility fo r governin g itsel f an d carryin g ou t it s assigne d missio n without mal e or white female control . Leaders of the 6888th filled roles tha t Africa n America n wome n ha d neve r occupie d before , and the y wer e viewe d b y thei r subordinate s a s pioneer s an d rol e models rathe r tha n a s controllers . Thes e wome n le d b y exampl e rather tha n b y a n impersona l managemen t style . Uni t member s were abl e to perfor m effectivel y largel y becaus e their leader s wer e competent. Margare t Jackso n recalls , "W e ha d som e ver y stron g black officer s wh o wer e interested i n our maintainin g ou r sens e of self an d prid e an d race. " Cleopatr a Cohn , whe n aske d ho w wel l she though t th e 6888t h performe d it s mission , replied , " I thin k we di d rea l wel l becaus e w e ha d som e officer s wh o wer e reall y concerned abou t ou r welfare. " Elsi e Olive r stated , "W e coul d go t o an y office r wit h an y problem , an d the y woul d giv e u s friendly advice. " Members o f th e 6888t h ha d wha t th e organizationa l literatur e calls "vertica l cohesion " (bondin g betwee n leader s an d subordi nates) an d wer e no t inhibite d b y th e hierarchica l ran k structure . Virginia Frazie r explain s tha t Blanch e Scott , th e office r i n charg e of he r work , als o ha d bee n he r compan y office r a t Wall a Wall a Air Base , jus t befor e the y wer e assigne d t o oversea s duty . Scot t also ha d bee n he r compan y office r durin g basi c trainin g a t For t Des Moines. Frazie r states , "Ou r unit , tha t lef t th e administrativ e school, staye d togethe r al l th e wa y throug h [th e military] . That' s why Lt . Blanch e Scot t an d I ar e suc h goo d friend s [today ] — because sh e wa s alway s a n office r wit h ou r company. " Whe n I asked who m sh e woul d hav e sough t ou t first i f sh e ha d ha d a personal proble m whil e statione d overseas , Frazie r replied , " I would g o to Lieutenan t Scott , who wa s head o f m y company. "

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The highest-rankin g office r i n th e battalion , he r executiv e offi cer, an d al l o f th e company' s commissione d an d noncommis sioned officers wer e African America n women . These leaders wer e sensitive an d responsiv e t o th e need s o f th e wome n unde r thei r jurisdiction. Figur e 2 illustrate s th e chai n o f comman d o f th e 6888th. A t th e to p wa s th e commande r i n chie f (th e presiden t o f the Unite d States) ; directl y unde r him , fo r Wacs , wa s Colone l Hobby, followe d b y th e commande r o f th e ETO , Genera l Eisen hower, an d the n b y th e commandin g genera l o f th e Communica tion Zon e o f th e ETO . Nex t wa s th e commande r o f th e Commu nication Zon e o f Englan d (late r of Normandy) , an d the n th e ET O WAC Director , wh o wa s no t actuall y par t o f th e forma l chai n o f command bu t was involved i n al l WAC affairs i n Europe. Directl y under he r wa s th e battalio n commande r o f th e 6888th . Withi n the battalio n a n executiv e office r ranke d directl y beneat h th e battalion commander . Thirtee n officer s wer e assigne d t o head quarters compan y i n charg e o f office s suc h a s specia l service , personnel, publi c relations , pos t exchange , transportation , dinin g facilities, an d supply . Th e five companie s wer e heade d b y com pany commanders , executiv e officers , and , excep t fo r th e head quarters company , tw o posta l officers . I n additio n ther e wer e th e noncommissioned officers , th e enliste d women , an d th e adminis trative staf f o r th e suppor t personne l assigne d t o th e uni t (no t shown i n figure 2). Major Adam s represente d th e nexu s betwee n lega l an d charis matic authority. 21 O n th e on e hand , sh e was appointe d b y highe r military officials , o n th e basi s o f he r technica l qualifications , t o serve as the battalion commande r o f the 6888th. Her appointmen t carried th e impersonal , officia l obligatio n o f ensurin g tha t th e mission o f redirectin g mai l wa s accomplishe d effectively , whil e her subordinates ' physica l an d emotiona l need s were met . Adam s achieved thes e goal s well , an d he r superior s decide d t o promot e her t o lieutenan t colone l befor e he r ter m o f servic e ha d ended . According t o Frazier , "Charit y Adam s wa s ver y thoroug h an d businesslike. Sh e di d thing s strictl y military . Whe n w e wer e a t work i t was strictly business. "

Figure 2 . Chai n o f Comman d o f 6888t h Member s Commander i n Chief: President Roosevelt , Presiden t Truma n WAC Director USWAC : Col. Ovet a Cul p Hobb y Commanding Genera l o f ETO : Gen. Dwigh t D . Eisenhowe r Commanding General , Communicatio n Zone , ETO : Lt. Gen . John C . H . Le e Commanding General , Communicatio n Zone , Englan d Commanding General , Communicatio n Zone , Normand y ETO WA C Director : Maj. Margare t L . Philpo t Battalion Commander : Maj. Charit y E . Adam s Battalion Executiv e Officer : Capt. Abbe y Noe l Campbel l

Hqtr. Comp. Comp Company Office r 2Lt . Flatt s lLt Executive Office r 2Lt . Ric h 2Lt Special Servic e Office r Cpt . Carte r Posta Personnel Office r Cpt . Scot t Posta Public Relation s Office r Cpt . Barne s Chief o f Mai l Cpt . Kearne y Post Exchang e Office r lLt . LeBea u Transportation Office r 2Lt . Jorda n Mess Office r lLt . Sherar d Assistant Mes s Office r 2Lt . Elzi e Supply Office r lLt . William s Assistant Suppl y Office r 2Lt . Edward s Adjutant lLt . Landr y

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. Henderso n lLt . Tonkin s Cpt . Harriso n lLt . Tatu m . Stoke s 2Lt . Edward s 2Lt . Dunca n 2Lt . Stewar t l Officer s lLt . Cabl e lLt . Cherr y lLt . Dupe e lLt . Griffi n l Officer s lLt . Hil l lLt . Scot t lLt . Powel l 2Lt . Craddoc k

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On th e other hand, Major Adam s was a charismatic leader wh o possessed certai n qualitie s tha t se t he r apar t fro m th e averag e American woma n o f th e 1940s . She had obtaine d a college degre e with major s i n mathematics , physics , an d Lati n an d a mino r i n history, an d sh e wa s physicall y beautiful . Adam s als o hel d th e highest ran k awarde d t o a blac k Wa c a t tha t time . He r subordi nates greatl y admire d he r educationa l an d militar y achievements ; Willie Whiting recall s tha t "sh e had brain s an d beauty . Sh e had i t all." Frazie r remember s tha t th e battalio n commande r wa s wel l respected b y he r subordinates : "Sh e wa s liked . Everybod y ad mired he r fo r wh o sh e wa s becaus e sh e ha d a rar e rank. " Glady s Carter als o speak s highl y o f he r forme r battalio n commander : "We wer e i n suppor t o f her . An d t o thi s da y I don' t kno w an y 6888th membe r wh o isn' t proud o f her. She was a tough lady ; sh e made u s toe the line, but w e were so proud t o be in her outfit. " I n 1988, at a reunion, members of the 6888th pai d tribute to Charit y Adams Earley. Glady s Carte r recall s that Earle y asked t o be calle d by he r first name : " I ha d th e greates t difficult y whe n I saw he r a t a reunio n t o cal l he r Charity . I said , Yo u wil l alway s b e Majo r Adams t o me. " Battalion member s wer e willin g t o accep t Charit y Adams' s authority becaus e sh e possesse d bot h militar y skill s an d huma n character. He r subordinate s sa w he r almos t daily . He r offic e wa s close t o th e centra l wor k area , an d sh e i s sai d t o hav e attende d chapel ever y Sunday . Majo r Adam s wa s a rol e mode l t o th e women i n he r unit , a powerfu l ye t benevolen t leader . Sh e looke d after thei r need s an d wa s considerat e o f thei r well-being . Majo r Adams's subordinate s testif y tha t sh e neve r senselessl y insulte d the women unde r he r command . Charity Adam s Earle y hersel f acknowledge s tha t sh e di d no t find it necessary t o us e coercive tactics to obtain he r subordinates ' cooperation. Also , he r subordinate s realize d tha t th e bette r the y performed, th e mor e strongl y the y woul d enhanc e th e imag e o f their leader s an d o f blac k wome n i n general .

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Race and Gender Discrimination Revisited Discrimination stemmin g from th e racial an d gender attitude s tha t prevailed the n i n th e Unite d State s periodicall y surface d i n Eu rope. I n man y suc h instance s member s o f th e 6888t h pu t u p a n ardent struggl e t o fight racis m an d sexism . Ther e wer e a fe w accounts o f resistanc e t o outrigh t racia l discrimination , o n th e part o f member s o f th e 6888t h i n Europe . Th e America n Re d Cross i n England , fo r example , allegedl y attempte d t o provid e segregated recreationa l facilitie s fo r blac k an d whit e Wac s b y opening a hote l fo r black s only . Th e battalio n commande r aske d all of th e member s o f th e 6888t h t o suppor t he r i n resistin g racia l segregation b y refusin g t o patroniz e th e segregate d club . " I a m very prou d o f m y servic e a s C O o f th e 6888th , bu t on e o f th e proudest time s was when th e women o f tha t uni t supporte d m e in this action . I hav e neve r delude d mysel f tha t thi s suppor t cam e out of lov e for me . What w e had wa s a large group of adult Negr o women wh o ha d bee n victimized , i n on e wa y o r another , b y racial bias." 22 Another inciden t occurre d whe n th e 6888t h basketbal l tea m was o n it s wa y t o London . Jus t befor e th e uni t departe d fo r Rouen, th e forme r suppl y NC O recall s tha t severa l member s o f the tea m wer e selecte d t o g o t o Londo n t o tr y ou t fo r th e all-sta r team, whic h consiste d o f member s fro m al l th e WA C team s i n England. The y wer e a ver y disgruntle d grou p o f wome n whe n they learne d tha t becaus e the y belonge d t o th e onl y blac k WA C unit overseas , an d becaus e o f th e U.S . polic y forbiddin g raciall y mixed teams , they were no t permitted t o compete . This ac t of dis crimination jus t mad e th e 6888t h basketbal l tea m mor e deter mined t o wi n th e game s the y wer e permitte d t o play . "Whe n th e time came to go to Stuttgart, Germany , to the ETO Championshi p Basketball Tournamen t . . . w e wer e victorious . Th e 6888t h Cen tral Postal Directory wo n th e ETO Basketball Championship." 23 Most o f th e women I interviewed state d tha t the y generall y go t along well with Africa n America n mal e soldiers in Europe. Matti e

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Allen states , "The y love d havin g peopl e o f thei r ow n colo r over seas, an d w e [member s o f th e 6888th ] wer e treate d wit h th e utmost courtesy. " Similarly , Virginia Frazie r says, "Boy, were they glad t o se e us . Whe n w e arrive d i n Roue n ther e wa s a mo b o f them waitin g outsid e th e gat e fo r u s t o arrive . . . . Eac h blac k [male] outfi t statione d nea r u s would hav e dance s an d truck s sen t for u s to go. " France s Johnson remember s tha t man y o f th e blac k male soldier s wer e "cousins , uncles , an d othe r kind s o f relative s to member s o f th e 6888th. " Mar y McBrid e says , "Oh , the y jus t loved [havin g member s o f th e 6888t h statione d i n Europe]. " Sh e added, "Yo u ha d t o pu t the m i n thei r place . The y woul d mak e [sexual] suggestions , bu t I wasn't fo r that . S o there wa s a certai n respect tha t som e o f u s received . . . . I kno w I receive d som e re spect." Several members marrie d Africa n America n me n who were als o stationed i n Europe . I n man y case s th e couple s me t i n Europe , a s did Geraldin e an d Pau l Beaumont. 24 I n othe r case s th e me n an d women ha d know n eac h othe r befor e enterin g th e military . Rut h Sloan's marriag e t o Emmet t William s i n Paris, for example , was a result o f a romance tha t ha d begu n whe n the y were in college. 25 Many o f th e interviewee s ha d mixe d feeling s abou t th e Africa n American me n the y me t i n Europe . Alli e Davi s state s tha t "som e were nice ; other s resente d th e presenc e o f blac k women. " Rut h Hammond say s tha t he r experience s wit h blac k me n i n Europ e were "sometime s goo d an d sometime s bad. . . . I t wasn't anythin g ever physical , bu t sometime s littl e snid e remarks . I didn't le t tha t stuff bothe r me. " Odess a Marshal l recalls , "The y kind o f resente d us in the first place because we thought the y thought tha t we wer e sending them t o the front line . But mostly, in my experiences, they were prett y nice. " Similarly , Mar y Rozie r states , "Som e wer e happy t o se e us ; other s treate d u s a s thoug h w e wer e ther e fo r them. Som e woul d b e offende d i f the y aske d fo r a dat e an d wer e turned down . An d o f cours e the y woul d sa y tha t yo u wer e a lesbian an d tha t wa s wh y [yo u turne d the m down] . Bu t then , there were others wh o wer e just nice. "

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Other women , however , spok e o f negativ e experience s wit h African America n militar y me n i n Europe. Some alleged tha t Afri can America n mal e soldier s behave d a s thoug h member s o f th e 6888th wer e assigne d t o Europ e specificall y t o provid e compan ionship fo r them . Th e forme r personne l office r o f th e unit , Blanche Scott , stated , "S o man y o f th e blac k fellow s seeme d t o have the idea tha t w e were in th e Army fo r th e soldiers an d Johns , and the y treate d u s tha t way . . . . We resented that. " Ardell a Pitt s says, " I didn' t find anythin g wrong, bu t som e of th e girls said tha t when the y trie d t o carr y themselve s lik e real ladies , guys said the y were stuck-u p o r somethin g an d calle d the m al l kind s o f names . I don't know . I sor t o f staye d b y myself . I didn' t lik e runnin g around an d partyin g an d stuf f lik e tha t s o I ha d n o problem. " Elaine Bennett recalls : Charity Adam s foun d ou t tha t a rumor ha d lef t th e Unite d State s tha t the black wome n i n our battalio n wer e being used to accommodate th e black males and she had a fit. She just had a fit. . . because it wasn't that [we wer e ther e t o accommodat e men] . W e wer e ther e t o serv e ou r country. W e were ther e wit h a responsibility . Afte r workin g wit h tha t mail all day, you were so doggoned tire d yo u were really glad to pile in your bunk an d wait until six o'clock th e next morning to get up and do the same thing all over again. Other account s sugges t that th e African America n mal e soldier s in Europe were not intereste d i n dating African America n women . Elsie Olive r state s quit e emphatically , "The y [Africa n America n men] wer e bus y wit h whit e [European ] wome n overseas . Tha t i s why ther e wer e s o man y wa r babies . The y woul d sa y suc h thing s to blac k wome n a s 'W e wan t somethin g w e ca n se e a t night. ' " Johnnie Walto n recalls , "Th e Africa n America n me n didn' t hav e time t o foo l wit h yo u [member s o f th e 6888th] ; the y wer e mor e interested i n the mademoiselles." Ye t African America n me n alleg edly were enrage d wheneve r the y sa w blac k wome n datin g Britis h or Frenc h men . A s Rut h Wrigh t says , "There' s on e thin g abou t the blac k mal e soldier s i n Englan d an d France , the y wer e ver y protective o f thei r women . Now , the y coul d g o ou t wit h Britis h

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girls an d whatnot , bu t i f the y caugh t a blac k gir l walkin g wit h a white fellow , the y sometime s woul d g o nuts! That wa s a no-no. " Surely, whe n th e wome n o f th e 6888t h behave d i n ways whic h were consisten t wit h th e role s tha t America n cultur e prescribe d for women , the y wer e les s likel y t o mee t wit h disapprova l fro m the blac k mal e soldiers . Severa l traits , howeve r mythical , ar e stereotypically ascribe d t o women o f al l races in the United States . Women, b y America n standards , ar e suppose d t o b e unaggressiv e physically, sexuall y passive , nurturant , friendly , attentiv e t o thei r appearance, dependent , an d possesse d b y on e man . Men , o n th e other hand , ar e suppose d t o b e aggressiv e physically , sexuall y assertive, emotionall y tough , an d independent . Thi s lis t of gende r stereotypes i s by no mean s intende d t o b e exhaustive; man y mor e are no t include d here . Th e poin t i s tha t member s o f th e 6888t h found themselve s i n conflic t wit h th e expectation s o f Africa n American mal e soldier s whe n the y di d no t adher e t o th e typica l gender roles . Som e o f th e me n fel t thei r masculinit y threatene d when the y wer e turne d dow n fo r a date , an d the y retaliate d b y calling the women names . Because it was commonl y believe d tha t women belonge d t o me n o f thei r ow n race , black me n wer e upse t when the y sa w blac k wome n socializin g wit h Britis h an d Frenc h men. Th e women, ' on th e othe r hand , coul d no t mak e th e sam e claim o n th e me n becaus e o f th e difference s i n socia l standard s and becaus e o f th e traditiona l belie f tha t wha t wa s goo d fo r th e gander wa s not goo d fo r th e goose . Earley describe d th e tensio n tha t sometime s existe d betwee n black mal e soldier s an d Wac s in term s o f competition . Sh e wrote: "Negro male s had bee n systematicall y degrade d an d mistreate d i n the civilia n world , an d th e presenc e o f successfull y performin g Negro wome n o n th e scene increased thei r resentment. The effort s of th e women t o b e supportive o f me n wa s mistake n fo r competi tion an d patronage." 26 Thi s though t i s develope d furthe r i n th e following statemen t b y Elaine Bennett: "Som e of the male soldier s were ver y unhapp y wit h th e amoun t o f ran k blac k female s ha d i n comparison t o th e rank the y had. "

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The gende r discriminatio n encountere d b y member s o f th e 6888th wa s mor e pervasiv e tha n th e personal confrontation s tha t surfaced betwee n the m an d blac k mal e soldiers . I t stemme d fro m norms governin g gende r role s i n th e America n society . Matti e E . Treadwell discusse d th e slanderou s attack s agains t wome n i n th e WAAC, whic h wer e widesprea d a s earl y a s Ma y 1943 . Thes e attacks include d a n "onslaugh t o f gossip , jokes , slander , an d ob scenity abou t th e WAA C whic h swep t alon g th e easter n sea board." 27 I n fact , gende r discriminatio n wa s roote d i n th e infra structure o f th e militar y institutio n an d continue d t o surfac e throughout th e war years; it remains a problem i n military organi zations today. 28 The Silent Minority Homosexuality wa s als o a fac t o f lif e i n th e 6888th , a s i n othe r organizations bot h insid e an d outsid e th e militar y institution . Many o f th e interviewee s acknowledge d tha t ther e wer e lesbian s in the unit. "Thing s weren' t a s open the n a s they ar e now. At tha t time i t [th e homosexua l lifestyle ] wa s no t ope n a t all , mos t o f it wa s kep t hush-hush. " A fe w interviewee s mad e unsolicite d comments abou t homosexua l activit y in the unit, stating that the y would hav e preferre d tha t suc h activit y ha d neve r existed . Bu t homosexual activit y di d occur , an d regardles s o f ho w hush-hus h it was , nonparticipant s generall y wer e awar e o f it . On e inter viewee says that sh e had no t bee n awar e o f a homosexual lifestyl e until she was assigned t o Fort Oglethorpe , Georgia, in preparatio n for oversea s duty : "I t wa s lik e goin g t o a circu s t o se e women s o masculine. . . . They trie d t o sta y i n clusters ; al l of thei r friend s i n a littl e uni t i n an d o f itself . . . . On e budd y go t i n touc h wit h th e other buddie s an d the y forme d thei r ow n littl e clique. " The fac t tha t lesbian s wer e i n th e uni t di d no t pos e a proble m for everyone . Dorothy Jones says : I ha d know n lesbian s fro m th e tim e I was a kid . Lon g befor e I knew what it was, or even the word, there were a couple of women, friends of

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my aunt , wh o becam e friend s o f mine . Whe n I wante d t o stud y th e violin, Miss Chil i was th e one who gav e me the violin sh e had learne d on. . .. I bega n t o realiz e wha t he r lifestyl e was , bu t sh e was a reall y wonderful huma n being , s o ho w coul d I b e upse t b y it ? A s I gre w through pre-adolescence , sh e began t o pul l away ; sh e would n o longe r take me places, and so forth. And I asked Mom if I had done something to offen d her . Mom replied , "O h no , she just doesn' t wan t yo u tagge d with her reputation. You're getting to be a young woman now." People a s tolerant a s Jones were sometimes questione d b y straigh t members o f th e 6888th . Jones , fo r example , recalle d bein g ridi culed sometime s fo r no t supportin g derogator y statement s abou t lesbians in the unit : I felt flak from peopl e [member s of th e 6888th] wh o didn't understan d my approach t o the whole concept of sexual preference: "Wha t you do in your tim e in your bedroo m i s your business . It doesn' t concer n me . And the fact tha t I am civil and even friendly t o you doesn't mean tha t I'm joinin g yo u i n you r bedroom. " Som e o f th e straigh t peopl e reall y could not understand how I could be friendly with lesbians. But I believe that whe n you'r e doin g wha t yo u conside r t o b e right , don' t worr y about what other people think about it. So I didn't. Although th e interviewee s ha d mixe d feeling s abou t th e pres ence o f lesbian s i n th e unit , al l agree d tha t thei r presenc e di d no t in an y wa y impai r th e unit' s performance . Referrin g t o homosex ual activity , th e battalio n commande r wrote , " I canno t swea r t o the kin d o f socia l activit y tha t too k plac e with al l members o f th e 6888th, bu t I will swea r tha t th e efficien t performanc e o f th e uni t was no t impaired." 29 Jones sum s the situation u p in the followin g statement: "Ther e wer e alway s homosexual s throughou t th e military. Som e o f the m wer e extremel y competen t militar y personne l who eithe r wer e know n o r wer e no t know n t o b e so . In th e case s of som e tha t I kne w o r kne w of , the y wer e s o competen t tha t their commandin g officer s close d thei r eye s t o th e fac t tha t the y were gay. "

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Morale and Job Performance For th e presen t analysi s I defin e moral e i n term s o f th e unit' s ability an d determinatio n t o perfor m it s mission . Accordin g t o Louis Wirth , moral e i s th e pursui t o f collectiv e goals . I t i s a group's capacit y t o maintai n it s integrit y an d steadfastnes s o f purpose unti l it s objectiv e i s attained. 30 Althoug h mos t o f th e people I interviewed state d tha t moral e wa s hig h i n th e 6888th , a few peopl e recal l that i t was somewha t lo w a t times . Willie Whit ing, fo r example , remembere d tha t th e wor k wa s dul l an d tha t there wa s littl e chanc e fo r advancemen t becaus e o f th e limite d number o f slot s fo r promotion . Sh e adde d tha t sh e fel t sh e wa s competent t o perform a t a higher ran k i f given the chance . One even t tha t dampene d th e battalio n members ' spirit s whil e they wer e statione d i n Englan d wa s th e new s o f Presiden t Roose velt's death . Th e presiden t wa s greatl y respecte d b y Africa n Americans, largely fo r hi s government interventio n program s an d his employmen t o f blac k officials . Member s o f th e 6888t h wer e moved deepl y b y hi s death . Luci a Pitt s wrote i n her memoir s tha t the new s wa s reveale d t o th e wome n whil e the y wer e i n forma tion, "W e continue d t o stan d ther e stunned . 1 remember finally stamping m y foo t an d sayin g ou t loud , 'Oh , no! ' Som e girl s openly wept . Th e sergean t announce d a memoria l retrea t fo r th e next da y an d dismisse d us . We wandered blindl y away , th e usua l high spirit s an d chit-cha t missing." 31 Several wome n I interviewe d remembere d tha t thre e member s were kille d i n a n automobil e acciden t whil e th e battalio n wa s stationed i n Rouen . Tha t even t temporaril y lowere d th e spirit s o f the unit . Blanch e Scot t recalls , "W e di d hav e a fe w peopl e wh o got kille d ove r ther e i n a n automobil e acciden t an d peopl e go t down i n th e dumps . Bu t [othe r tha n that ] I though t moral e wa s A-l. If it wasn't 10 0 percent, it was at least 96 percent." Similarly , Sammye Davis states : Morale wa s high becaus e fo r al l of u s it was a totally ne w experience , and especially the traveling. We weren't like a lot of the Wacs in that we

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didn't stay in one place very long. We went from Birmingham—we were only there about four months—and the n we went to Rouen for three or four months , an d the n w e wen t t o Paris . S o yo u see , i t wa s lik e a vacation, s o morale wa s high . There wa s on e incident i n Roue n wher e three Wac s [member s o f th e 6888th ] wer e kille d becaus e the y wer e riding in a jeep, and th e driver was going too fast . . . . That wa s something sad that happened, but it wasn't a long-lasting low-morale thing. The remain s o f th e wome n kille d i n th e ca r accident—Delore s Browne an d Mar y Barlo w o f Connecticu t an d Mar y Banksto n o f New York—ar e burie d a t th e Normand y America n Cemeter y i n Bayeux.32 Thi s even t saddene d th e wome n i n th e unit , bu t i t di d not demoraliz e them ; i n fac t i t brough t the m close r together . Th e War Departmen t di d no t mak e provision s fo r funerals , s o mem bers o f th e 6888t h donate d thei r service s an d thei r mone y t o se e to i t that tw o funera l service s were held: on e for th e two decease d women wh o wer e Protestant , an d on e fo r th e woma n wh o wa s Catholic. Noel Campbel l Mitchel l reflect s upo n thi s event : It occurre d t o u s tha t somethin g ha d t o b e don e t o th e bodie s befor e burial. W e wondere d ho w w e woul d hav e the m fixed up . I t dawne d upon Lieutenan t Scott , our personnel officer , tha t with a s many girls as we had in the unit, surely there was someone who had done embalming or had bee n a mortician i n civilian life. She went to the personnel offic e and checke d thei r servic e records. . . . She found th e name s o f thre e of the girl s who ha d onc e don e tha t kin d o f work . . .. I called the m int o the offic e an d tol d the m what w e wanted don e an d aske d the m i f they would do it, and they said they would. Battalion member s donate d mone y tha t wa s use d t o purchas e caskets. Mildre d Carter , th e specia l servic e officer , arrange d th e funeral program s an d memoria l services . Th e wome n i n th e bat talion wh o ha d worke d a s mortician s i n civilia n lif e prepare d th e bodies fo r burial . Th e executiv e officer , th e publi c relation s offi cer, an d a n interprete r wen t ou t int o th e Frenc h communit y an d purchased caskets . Throug h a unifie d effor t b y member s o f th e battalion, th e decease d wer e burie d wit h honors .

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Virtually al l o f th e wome n I interviewe d state d tha t overal l morale i n th e uni t wa s high . Margare t Jackso n recall s that , "fo r the mos t part , peopl e who m I knew wer e i n very goo d spirits . We worked; w e accepte d th e ba d alon g wit h th e good . Ther e wer e a few complaints , bu t w e kne w wha t th e circumstance s wer e an d that the y wer e no t permanent . I n Birmingham , England , wher e we firs t stayed , w e ha d difficultie s wit h plumbing . Bu t i t wa s no t unbearable." Frances Johnso n says , "W e trie d t o kee p u p ou r morale . W e staged show s ourselves . W e pu t o n variet y shows. " Margare t Jones state d tha t th e moral e o f th e uni t wa s "quit e high . . . . We had ou r ow n beauticians ; tha t wa s par t o f ou r specia l service s setup. An d o f course , wit h 85 0 wome n i n th e organizatio n wh o needed t o hav e thei r hai r done , the y wer e i n demand . W e [also ] had abou t twent y o r twenty-fiv e wome n i n th e organizatio n wh o were musicians. " Rut h Wrigh t comments , " I don' t thin k th e mo rale wa s eve r low . W e ha d s o muc h fu n amon g ourselve s tha t I don't thin k tha t i t wa s a problem. " Johnni e Walto n remember s that "moral e wa s ver y hig h becaus e everybod y wa s lookin g for ward t o seein g as much o f Europ e a s they could. [Member s o f th e 6888th] ha d a chanc e t o g o t o differen t section s o f th e Europea n continent an d ha d a chance to visit historical site s and t o d o al l of the things that typica l tourist s do. " Janyce Taylor recalls , " I don' t think ther e wa s eve r a moral e problem . I really don't . I think w e had prett y goo d officers ; mos t o f th e NCOs wer e pretty good. " A centra l facto r contributin g t o th e favorabl e moral e i n th e battalion wa s th e cordia l welcom e tha t th e grou p receive d fro m the Englis h an d th e French . I f nothin g else , th e congenialit y ex pressed b y the host countrie s provided a safety valv e for th e stres s of th e workin g an d livin g conditions. Although a t time s member s of the 6888t h wer e reminded o f th e dehumanizing effect s o f racia l discrimination, th e citizen s o f Englan d an d Franc e treate d the m with dignit y an d respect . Eac h o f th e member s I interviewed ha s fond memorie s o f th e friendlines s the y encountered . No t onl y were member s o f th e 6888t h entertaine d b y European s a t publi c

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establishments suc h a s sk i resort s an d pubs ; the y wer e als o wel comed an d entertaine d i n private homes . How wel l th e uni t performe d oversea s ha s sometime s bee n a subject o f debate . Al l o f th e wome n who m I interviewe d state d unequivocally tha t the unit fulfilled it s mission outstandingly well . Both th e battalio n commande r an d he r executiv e office r praise d the member s o f th e 6888t h fo r workin g da y an d nigh t t o prepar e thousands o f piece s o f mai l fo r deliver y unde r less-than-desirabl e conditions. The wome n worke d diligentl y an d brok e previou s record s fo r redirecting mail ; the y carrie d ou t thei r missio n wit h a grea t dea l of pride. The battalion commande r an d the executive officer recal l that ther e were no notabl e disciplinar y problem s amon g the mem bers. Thes e statement s wer e confirme d b y th e followin g passage , taken fro m th e officia l accoun t o f wome n i n th e Arm y Corp s during World Wa r II : No particular difficultie s wer e reported in discipline and administration . The unit [6888th] was congratulated by the theater on its "exceptionally fine" special service s program. Its observance of military courtesies was pronounced exemplary , a s were groomin g an d appearanc e o f member s and the maintenance of quarters. 33 Hence, ther e wa s n o proble m wit h member s o f th e 6888t h goin g AWOL (absen t withou t leave) . Similarly , pregnanc y wa s no t a major proble m i n th e unit . Th e forme r first sergean t o f Compan y D, Bennett , said , " I don' t thin k I had a half doze n wome n ou t o f 250 wh o wer e discharge d becaus e o f pregnancy. " There i s som e evidenc e tha t th e moral e o f th e unit' s member s declined somewha t afte r the y move d t o Paris. Four month s befor e the entir e uni t wa s returne d t o th e Unite d States , member s wer e beginning t o loo k forwar d t o goin g home . Man y o f th e wome n had gone , leaving the uni t a t abou t hal f it s original size . Probabl y the mos t importan t reaso n fo r th e members ' lowere d spirit s wa s the fac t th e war wa s over, an d the y were ready to g o home . There wa s a n officia l repor t tha t th e unit' s performance , al -

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though hig h i n England, had falle n whil e they were in France. The document suggest s tha t th e uni t ma y hav e performe d wel l whil e at ful l strength , bu t tha t th e performanc e leve l droppe d whe n the unit' s siz e wa s reduced . I n Novembe r 194 5 Maj . France s A . Clements an d Capt . Velm a Griffit h inspecte d WA C unit s i n th e ETO. Th e 6888t h wa s inspecte d o n 1 5 November . Accordin g t o Major Clements' s evaluatio n report , th e strengt h o f th e battalio n had falle n fro m 85 0 t o 55 8 Wacs , 21 0 o f who m wer e eligibl e fo r discharge b y 1 January 1946 . Major Clement s state d furthe r tha t moral e o f th e battalion wa s low fo r th e followin g reasons : (1 ) Th e battalio n commande r wa s confronted wit h man y problem s an d ha d faile d t o counse l he r women wisely , a s sh e had don e i n th e past , t o hel p the m throug h the difficul t perio d the y faced . (2 ) Th e workloa d ha d fluctuate d from heav y t o ligh t an d the n t o heav y agai n withou t adequat e time fo r th e Wac s t o adjust . Thi s proble m wa s compounde d b y the dee p reductio n i n uni t strengt h jus t whe n a larg e influ x o f holiday mai l was received . (3 ) Heating was extremely poor , creat ing poor workin g conditions . Major Clement s recommende d tha t th e 6888t h b e returne d t o the States . Sh e spok e wit h Mar y Halleren , th e ET O WA C staf f director i n Frankfurt , an d late r wit h th e G- l adjutan t genera l about th e problem s sh e sa w i n th e 6888th . ET O officials , how ever, decide d t o retai n th e unit , contrar y t o Majo r Clements' s recommendation. This efficienc y evaluatio n reflect s th e unit' s wor k performanc e for onl y a smal l segmen t o f thei r oversea s tour . Th e repor t als o implies tha t whe n th e uni t wa s functionin g a t ful l strength , it s overall performanc e wa s quit e high . Mar y Rozie r recall s tha t th e members o f th e 6888t h wer e tol d b y high-rankin g official s i n th e European Theate r o f Operation s tha t they had don e an exception ally good job : "W e were surprise d tha t w e didn't ge t a citation. "

0 Life after Military Service

In chapter s 1 an d 2 I examine d wha t civilia n lif e wa s lik e fo r members o f th e 6888t h befor e the y entere d th e military . I n thi s chapter I discuss ho w militar y servic e affecte d thei r live s afte r th e unit was disbanded. Although som e members of the unit remaine d in th e activ e arme d service s afte r the y returne d t o th e Unite d States, most of the m immediatel y reentere d civilia n society to rea p some o f th e benefit s o f service . Whe n thes e wome n joine d th e military, the y expecte d th e Unite d State s t o wi n th e war ; the y looked forwar d t o expande d opportunitie s whe n the y returne d home. No t onl y di d the y expec t t o receiv e a goo d education , ful l employment, an d adequat e healt h care ; they were willing to wor k for the m b y fulfillin g th e obligation s tha t accompan y citizenship , including defendin g th e U.S. constitution . As illustrated i n chapter 1 , many o f th e interviewees state d tha t before the y joined th e Women's Arm y (Auxiliary ) Corp s the y ha d believed the y woul d hav e greate r occupationa l an d educationa l opportunities afte r th e war . Thi s positiv e attitud e parallel s earlie r 144

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findings o n African America n me n who serve d in the Army durin g the same period. 1 Modell, Goulden, and Magnusson foun d simila r results whe n the y reexamine d surve y dat a collecte d durin g th e war b y Samue l Stouffe r an d hi s associates. 2 Evaluatin g response s to tw o variable s (generalize d optimis m an d residentia l plans) , Modell an d hi s colleagues foun d tha t Africa n America n men , t o a greater extent than me n of European descent , assumed they woul d be bette r of f a s a resul t o f thei r militar y service . I n additio n the y discovered tha t Africa n America n me n fro m th e South wer e mor e optimistic abou t return s fo r militar y servic e than wer e thos e fro m the North . Both th e members o f th e 6888t h an d th e men in Modell's stud y emphasized thei r expectatio n fo r a bette r qualit y o f life . Unlik e the questio n i n th e curren t study , however , th e questio n use d i n Modell's stud y i s worde d vaguel y an d i s closed-ended : "D o yo u think thing s wil l b e bette r o r wors e fo r yo u personall y afte r th e war tha n befor e th e war?" 3 Th e Africa n America n me n answere d that thing s woul d b e bette r fo r the m personally , bu t the y di d no t specify how . I n th e presen t study , b y contrast , member s o f th e 6888th state d specificall y tha t the y expecte d t o attai n a bette r quality o f lif e afte r militar y servic e through educationa l an d occu pational advancement . Th e open-ende d questio n fo r th e presen t study wa s worde d a s follows : "Wha t wer e som e o f th e reason s that yo u joine d th e military? " (Se e questio n 2 i n Appendi x B. ) Most o f th e interviewees maintaine d tha t advance d educatio n an d occupational advancemen t wer e amon g thei r reasons . Another differenc e betwee n th e presen t stud y an d Modell' s i s the effec t o f geographica l regio n o n th e interviewees ' responses . Whereas Model l foun d tha t souther n blac k me n wer e mor e opti mistic abou t th e effect s o f thei r militar y servic e tha n norther n black men , I found n o suc h regiona l variatio n amon g th e wome n in m y study . Member s o f th e 6888t h wer e generall y optimisti c about advancin g educationall y an d occupationall y afte r th e war , regardless o f thei r geographica l background . Another distinctio n betwee n th e tw o studie s i s tha t o f interre -

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gional migration . Modell , Goulden , an d Magnusso n showe d tha t African America n me n expecte d t o relocat e afte r th e wa r wa s over. Many o f the m ha d entere d th e military fro m souther n state s and expecte d t o liv e outsid e th e Sout h whe n th e wa r ended. 4 I n contrast, althoug h severa l member s o f th e 6888t h i n fact change d their domicil e a t th e end o f World Wa r I I (thereb y contributin g t o the massiv e interregiona l migratio n tha t too k plac e i n th e Unite d States durin g tha t period) , th e wome n interviewe d fo r thi s stud y did no t emphasiz e geographi c relocatio n a s on e o f thei r expecta tions befor e joinin g th e military. 5 A fe w o f th e wome n wh o wer e born an d reare d i n souther n state s entere d th e militar y fro m northern states ; hence they had migrated befor e enrolling . Blanche Scott, fo r example , wa s bor n i n Boydton , Virginia , an d wa s in ducted int o th e militar y i n th e Washington , D . C , area , wher e she stil l live s today . Othe r interviewees , suc h a s Charit y Earley , Elsie Oliver , Mar y Rozier , Elizabet h Eastman , an d Gertrud e La Vigne, als o ha d move d t o norther n citie s befor e enterin g th e mil itary. Some women mentione d tha t Wac s were stigmatized when the y returned t o th e civilia n society . Whe n I aske d interviewee s whether the y suffere d an y disadvantage s fo r havin g serve d i n th e military, mos t o f th e replie s wer e simila r t o Odess a Marshall's : "Disadvantages? No , I can't se e any a t all. " A few women , how ever, reporte d tha t militar y wome n wer e stigmatize d a s bein g "whores" o r "lesbians. " Lavinia Johnson, fo r example , answered , "I don' t kno w o f an y disadvantag e othe r tha n tha t peopl e hav e misconceptions o f militar y personnel ; tha t yo u [wome n veterans ] are lik e a hardnos e comba t soldier . Onc e i n a whil e I would ru n into someone who said that military women di d not have feminin e qualities." Mar y Rozie r remembere d tha t whe n sh e returne d t o the civilia n world , "peopl e stil l said th e sam e thin g a s the soldier s felt; tha t yo u jus t wen t i n [th e military] t o ru n around , t o b e wit h the me n o r t o b e wit h th e women , on e o r th e other . No t man y people reall y accepte d th e fac t tha t I wa s goin g i n becaus e I wanted t o b e a part o f th e war effor t too. "

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Some w o m e n simpl y di d no t mentio n tha t the y ha d serve d i n the Women' s Arm y Corps . Willi e Whiting , fo r example , stated , I think w e woul d b e kiddin g ourselve s i f we di d no t accep t th e fac t tha t being a woman vetera n give s a little stigma. Ho w ofte n i t works t o you r advantage, I don't know . Whe n yo u com e hom e fro m th e servic e you'r e faced wit h al l o f thes e things . And a s m y occupation s hav e developed , I have neve r don e an y braggin g i n referenc e t o m y veteran statu s becaus e I recognize tha t ther e i s a stigm a attache d t o it . I think tha t I lived lon g enough t o outliv e that [stigma] , but everyone di d not have that luxury . A fe w forme r member s o f th e 6888t h complaine d tha t the y could no t cas h i n o n thei r militar y benefit s becaus e th e Veteran s Administration (VA ) wa s insensitiv e t o women' s needs . Th e fol lowing accoun t b y Doroth y Jone s i s a cas e i n point : When I moved bac k t o Boston, afte r m y oldest chil d was born , I decided that i t wa s tim e t o g o bac k t o school . An d I did go , an d Elle n [Jones' s daughter] wen t t o nurser y school . B y th e tim e th e secon d yea r wa s coming around , I wa s pregnan t again . An d i t wa s als o th e yea r th e Veterans Administratio n ha d announce d tha t Worl d Wa r I I vet s ha d t o either b e i n schoo l o n Octobe r 1 or los e thei r benefits . Yo u coul d appl y for a n extensio n base d o n circumstance s beyon d you r control . Well , I applied fo r a n extensio n base d o n m y pregnancy . ( I was du e th e begin ning o f Octobe r an d therefor e wasn' t goin g t o registe r fo r th e fal l semester. I wen t t o summe r school . Everybod y wa s teasin g me ; they' d give me two seat s instead o f one , you kno w tha t whol e bit. ) An d th e VA turned m e down . The y tol d m e tha t bein g pregnan t wa s not , i n their ' opinion, somethin g beyon d m y control . I asked , "I n Massachusetts? " Birth contro l wa s highl y illega l i n Massachusett s i n thos e days ; th e use , the prescription , o r th e advice . Al l tha t wa s illegal . Doctor s wer e bein g arrested. . . . When I asked , "Wha t i s beyon d one' s control? " the y [th e VA representatives] replied , "Well , if you were called to service in Korea , that's th e onl y thin g tha t yo u ca n ge t a n extensio n for . . . . S o I filed fo r an appeal , an d Alic e [th e baby ] too k he r goo d tim e comin g int o thi s world. My appea l was scheduled fo r 10:0 0 A.M., the morning of Octobe r 21st; Alic e cam e int o thi s worl d th e nigh t o f th e 20th . . . . [Jone s calle d the V A o n th e afternoo n o f th e 21st. ] The y said , "Sorry , yo u didn' t

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show, so by default you'v e lost. " I probably coul d have started writin g my congressma n an d al l bu t I had a three-year-ol d an d a newbor n t o take care of. I let that one drop. Complaints lik e thes e di d no t surfac e ofte n i n th e account s given b y member s o f th e 6888th ; ye t al l o f th e wome n wer e aware o f negativ e stereotype s o f th e femal e militar y vetera n an d of wome n veterans ' difficult y i n reapin g benefits . Mos t o f th e women di d no t fee l the y coul d d o anythin g t o chang e negativ e sentiments towar d th e femal e vetera n an d chos e t o ignor e the m and t o concentrat e thei r energie s o n th e bread-and-butte r issue s of improvin g thei r economi c lives. * How doe s th e effec t o f militar y servic e o n th e live s o f forme r members o f th e 6888t h compar e wit h tha t o n forme r militar y personnel i n previou s studies ? Researc h conducte d durin g Worl d War I I did no t concentrat e o n th e effec t o f militar y servic e o n th e subsequent live s o f militar y personnel , bu t rathe r o n ho w wel l soldiers adjuste d t o militar y life . I n th e 1940s , fo r example , stud ies in socia l psycholog y conducte d a t th e Researc h Branch , Infor mation an d Educatio n Divisio n o f th e Arm y examine d America n soldiers' problem s o f adaptatio n an d morale. 6 Durin g th e sam e period Edwar d Shil s an d Morri s Janowit z publishe d a stud y o n cohesion an d disintegratio n o f Germa n soldier s durin g th e war , accentuating adaptation. 7 The effec t o f militar y servic e o n postservic e lif e di d no t emerg e as a centra l them e i n th e socia l scienc e literatur e unti l th e 1960s , when controvers y aros e abou t th e militar y draft . A fe w o f th e resulting studie s ar e highlighte d i n thi s section . Mos t o f the m differ fro m th e presen t wor k i n tha t the y focu s o n th e militar y i n a differen t period . Severa l wer e conducte d durin g th e Vietna m War era , when th e militar y wa s scrutinize d closel y an d th e moral ity o f militar y servic e wa s questione d seriously . Al l o f th e studie s referenced i n thi s section , wit h th e exceptio n o f Fredlan d an d Little's works, examine the effects o f a racially integrated military , in contras t t o th e racially segregate d Arm y o f World War II .

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The presen t stud y als o differ s fro m thos e reference d belo w i n that i t is based o n qualitativ e informatio n (individua l cas e studie s and historica l documents ) rathe r tha n quantitativ e dat a (fro m large sample s o f th e population) . Anothe r significan t differenc e i s that non e o f th e earlie r studie s focu s o n women' s militar y experi ences. Yet, although thes e previous studie s ar e not alway s directl y comparable t o th e presen t inquiry , the y ar e instructiv e i n provid ing a genera l framewor k b y whic h t o analyz e th e effect s o f mili tary service . These studies, based o n a human capita l approach , examin e th e effect o f militar y servic e o n civilia n income ; the y attemp t t o ex plain observe d inequalitie s i n th e distributio n o f labo r incom e i n terms o f difference s i n investmen t i n training . Huma n capita l theory assume s tha t huma n service s ca n b e augmente d throug h training, education, an d experience . A further assumptio n o f thes e studies is that wages ar e positively relate d to productivity an d tha t people's wage s increas e a s the y becom e mor e productive . Job s that requir e a grea t dea l o f trainin g o r forma l educatio n pa y higher wages than thos e requiring less. Some of these proposition s are generall y applicabl e and , a s illustrate d below , ar e supporte d by the findings o f th e present study. 8 Military servic e ha s variou s possibl e effect s o n th e subsequen t lives of those who served . Some studies foun d tha t militar y servic e created a discontinuit y i n servic e members ' live s b y removin g them fro m lif e i n th e civilia n worl d an d subjectin g the m t o a n environment i n which thei r past was insignificant. 9 Severa l investigations conducte d b y economist s i n th e 1960 s illustrate d tha t participation i n th e arme d service s negativel y influence d mal e soldiers' postservic e income , primaril y fo r tw o reasons . First , th e military pa y scal e wa s appreciabl y lowe r tha n tha t o f civilia n organizations. Second , interruptio n o f servic e members ' live s dis rupted highe r education , on-the-jo b training , an d jo b seniority , forcing the m t o sacrific e educationa l o r employmen t opportuni ties, o r both , a s wel l a s caree r advancement . Thoma s Willett' s article "Anothe r Cos t o f Conscription " an d Walter Oi' s publishe d

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study "Th e Economi c Cos t o f Conscription " fal l int o thi s cat egory.10 Members o f th e 6888th , b y contrast , di d no t vie w militar y service a s a disruption i n their lives . Unlike th e me n i n the studie s cited above , th e wome n i n general , an d th e member s o f th e 6888th i n particular wer e not conscripts (draftees ) bu t volunteers . This fac t woul d largel y explai n th e difference s foun d here . Man y of th e wome n I interviewe d regarde d th e hiatu s i n thei r live s caused b y the war a s a moratorium, allowin g the m tim e t o reflec t on thei r past s an d t o thin k abou t thei r futures . A s mentione d earlier, mos t o f th e wome n wh o ha d bee n workin g befor e the y joined th e militar y wer e guarantee d thei r position s whe n the y returned t o th e civilia n world , an d therefor e the y di d no t fea r losing thei r job s whe n the y chos e t o ente r th e military . Interview ees wh o ha d bee n employe d i n a professiona l caree r complaine d that regardles s o f thei r capabilities , the y wer e limited t o teaching . The lowe r pa y offere d b y th e militar y fo r thei r service s di d no t discourage the m fro m joining ; on th e contrary, these women wer e looking forwar d t o a change . Mos t o f th e interviewee s wh o ha d been attendin g colleg e before the y entere d th e militar y wer e eage r to becom e military veteran s t o help finance thei r education . In successiv e studie s publishe d i n th e lat e 1960 s an d earl y 1970s, social scientists criticized economists for focusin g narrowl y on th e consequence s o f militar y servic e fo r whit e male s an d over looking possibl e variation s du e t o demographi c characteristic s such a s socioeconomi c status , race , an d gender . The y expande d the huma n capita l mode l t o examin e variatio n resultin g fro m former servicemen' s clas s an d rac e differences . Man y o f thes e subsequent studie s showe d result s dramaticall y differen t fro m those produced b y economists. Sociological research, for example , discovered man y benefit s o f militar y service . Severa l sociologist s illustrated tha t servic e offere d opportunitie s fo r self-improvemen t through facilitie s suc h a s technica l training , continuin g academi c studies in off-duty programs , and educational attainmen t in subsequent years. 11 A case in point is a study conducted b y Kattenbrin k

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in 1969 . Controlling fo r socioeconomi c status , Kattenbrink foun d that militar y me n o f relativel y lo w socioeconomi c statu s mad e more occupationa l gain s when the y returne d t o th e civilia n worl d than militar y me n o f highe r status . The reaso n fo r thi s difference , according t o Kattenbrink , wa s tha t militar y me n o f lowe r socio economic status , whil e o n activ e duty , mad e mor e progres s aca demically an d sociall y than di d th e men o f highe r status. 12 Later studie s raise d question s abou t Kattenbrink' s clai m tha t military servic e influence d th e occupationa l gain s o f me n o f lo w socioeconomic status . A stud y conducte d i n 197 0 b y Maso n found n o relationshi p betwee n militar y servic e an d subsequen t earnings, regardless o f socioeconomi c status . Mason furthe r com pared th e earning s o f blac k an d o f whit e me n an d foun d tha t service did not affec t blac k males' civilian earning s an y differentl y than thos e o f white males . He conclude d tha t neithe r racia l grou p derived an y earnin g advantag e fro m militar y statu s o r experi ence.13 Whe n examinin g veterans ' educationa l attainment , how ever, Maso n foun d a stron g relationshi p betwee n militar y servic e and education : educatio n contribute d mor e t o a n officer' s civilia n status tha n t o tha t o f a n enliste d man . Thi s difference , argue d Mason, existe d becaus e officer s generall y hav e mor e schoolin g than enliste d personnel initially . As i n Kattenbrink' s findings, som e o f th e member s o f th e 6888th mad e occupationa l gain s whe n the y returne d t o th e civil ian world . Unlik e th e subject s o f Kattenbrink' s study , however , the member s o f th e 6888t h displaye d n o rea l differenc e base d o n class; mos t o f th e wome n interviewed , regardles s o f class , state d that the y mature d throug h thei r militar y experience . Similarly , the presen t stud y give s n o indicatio n tha t socioeconomi c statu s influenced th e propensit y o f forme r 6888t h member s t o continu e their education ; man y o f them pursued academi c studies in subsequent year s regardless o f thei r economi c background . Unlik e Ma son's findings, statement s b y forme r member s o f th e 6888t h sug gest, tha t althoug h som e di d no t obtai n rea l occupationa l advantages fo r thei r militar y service , other s did . Som e member s

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of th e 6888t h increase d thei r earning s b y acquirin g civi l servic e points fo r bein g veterans an d thu s receiving higher jo b ratings . The stron g relationshi p tha t Maso n foun d betwee n educatio n and militar y servic e seem s t o b e supporte d b y th e experience s of member s o f th e 6888th . I n th e presen t stud y educatio n wa s mentioned mos t ofte n a s th e mos t importan t variabl e leadin g t o upward mobility , whethe r th e interviewee s wer e officer s o r en listed members . Thi s finding i s no t surprisin g whe n w e conside r that man y o f th e wome n interviewe d fo r thi s stud y entere d th e military fo r th e express purpose o f completin g their education . Browning, Lopreato , an d Poston' s research , unlik e th e studie s mentioned above , discovere d tha t militar y servic e resulte d i n a n income advantag e fo r racia l minorities . The y furthe r observe d that th e militar y institutio n create d a "bridgin g environment " fo r members o f minorities , whic h provide d th e condition s the y needed t o advanc e occupationally. Thi s bridging environment ha d subsequently booste d th e earnin g powe r o f Africa n American s and Mexica n American s whe n the y returne d t o th e civilia n world. 14 Lopreat o an d Posto n produce d additiona l evidenc e i n support o f the bridging environment theor y in a subsequent study , which reveale d tha t minorit y veteran s converte d educatio n int o earnings a t a greater rat e tha n di d minorit y nonveterans. 15 Posto n found late r tha t minorit y veteran s wer e paid mor e tha n nonveter ans fo r thei r age , education, an d clas s of work. 16 The dat a fo r th e presen t stud y ar e insufficien t t o prov e o r disprove thi s research , becaus e w e lac k comparativ e informatio n on African America n wome n o f th e World War I I era who di d no t serve in the military . Man y o f th e interviewees, however, describ e the militar y structur e a s providin g a bridgin g environment . A s reflected i n som e o f th e account s t o follow , severa l forme r mem bers o f th e 6888th , suc h a s Mar y Daniel s William s an d Bernic e Thomas, spea k o f th e militar y environmen t a s havin g create d a break fro m thei r pas t an d havin g prepare d the m fo r th e civilia n labor marke t tha t the y confronte d later . As illustrated i n the narrative s below , the preparation t o whic h

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members o f th e 6888t h refe r di d no t tak e th e for m o f vocationa l training, but consiste d o f intangible benefits suc h as discipline an d the tangibl e benefit s o f th e G I Bill . This finding i s consisten t wit h that o f a n earlie r stud y b y Fredlan d an d Littl e examinin g long term contribution s o f vocationa l trainin g o n th e subsequen t earn ings o f Worl d Wa r I I veterans . Thos e author s discovere d tha t military training , o n th e whole , wa s les s significan t i n influencin g earnings tha n wa s civilia n vocationa l training . Afte r separatin g military trainin g int o thre e categorie s (professional/managerial , skilled manual , an d al l others) , the y foun d tha t th e onl y militar y training tha t yielde d hig h premium s i n civilia n lif e wa s tha t i n th e professional an d manageria l area. 17 Similarly , almos t al l o f th e women interviewe d fo r m y stud y state d tha t th e vocationa l train ing the y receive d whil e o n activ e dut y wa s no t relevan t t o thei r subsequent wor k i n the civilian world . Like man y o f th e militar y occupationa l task s require d durin g World War II , those performed b y members o f th e 6888t h di d no t demand muc h skill . Ver y fe w Africa n America n wome n receive d professional o r managerial trainin g while in the military, althoug h some ha d entere d th e militar y wit h civilia n professiona l training . Nonetheless, som e o f th e wome n i n this study , lik e other veteran s of Worl d Wa r II , wer e abl e t o translat e thei r militar y experienc e into materia l reward s throug h th e G I Bil l o r civi l servic e points , as discusse d furthe r below . Th e gain s i n huma n capita l achieve d by members o f th e 6888t h wer e largely a function o f th e historica l period. Thes e wome n joine d th e militar y durin g a perio d whe n the G I Bil l was signe d int o law . They returne d t o a civilian worl d that offere d wome n man y mor e occupationa l opportunitie s tha n the on e the y ha d left ; thus , the y coul d cas h i n o n th e huma n capital gain s they had mad e in the military. For the present inquir y I have separate d th e influence s o f militar y servic e on interviewees ' lives int o fou r categories : intangibl e rewards , educationa l an d occupational benefits , marriage , an d militar y servic e a s a turnin g point.

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154 Intangible Rewards

Among th e intangibl e rewards , militar y servic e has bee n foun d t o broaden one' s perspectives , socia l knowledge , an d self-aware ness.18 Elder an d hi s colleagues assert , "Mobilizatio n increase s th e scope o f awarenes s o f onesel f an d other s throug h a n expande d range o f interactiona l experiences , includin g ne w peopl e an d places, whic h promot e greate r acceptanc e o f socia l diversity." 19 This intangibl e effec t o f militar y servic e i s supporte d strongl y b y data o f th e present study . A fe w interviewee s foun d tha t thei r militar y servic e di d no t translate int o materia l rewards . The y di d no t acquir e an y usabl e occupational skill s i n th e militar y fo r th e civilia n labo r market , nor di d the y mak e us e o f th e G I Bil l afte r the y wer e discharge d from th e Army . Althoug h the y di d no t gai n materially , thes e women almos t invariabl y sai d tha t the y benefite d spirituall y fo r having served . Militar y servic e provided the m wit h rar e an d valu able experiences . Rut h Hammond , fo r example , state d tha t th e military di d no t hel p he r t o advanc e educationall y o r occupation ally. Sh e ha d complete d colleg e befor e enterin g th e military ; sh e did no t us e the G I Bill for additiona l educatio n whe n sh e returne d home fro m oversea s becaus e sh e wante d t o work . Whe n th e wa r was over, Hammond's service s were forgotten. Sh e was never abl e to find th e jo b fo r whic h sh e fel t sh e wa s qualifie d becaus e o f what sh e perceived a s racial discrimination : I applie d fo r a n openin g a t th e Veteran s Administratio n t o hel p wit h discharges an d whatnot . Th e first thin g tha t I was tol d [b y a woma n who wa s screenin g applicants ] wa s "Yo u hav e t o hav e a degre e fo r that." I said , "Well ; yo u haven' t looke d a t m y resum e s o yo u don' t know what I have." . . . She read it. She didn't say anything, but I didn't get the job. Even thoug h Hammon d believe s tha t th e militar y di d no t provid e her wit h a n avenu e o f upwar d mobility , sh e state d tha t sh e me t and interacted with wonderful peopl e while serving overseas. That

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experience i n itsel f wa s invaluable : " I wante d t o trave l an d I did . I me t som e ver y nic e people , I saw som e wonderfu l things , an d I enjoyed a lot of things , so I don't regre t servin g in the military. " Gladys Anderso n als o state d tha t sh e di d no t obtai n materia l rewards fo r servin g i n th e WAC . He r situatio n wa s somewha t different fro m tha t o f Hammond' s i n tha t sh e starte d workin g a s soon a s sh e returned hom e fro m service , and sh e attende d colleg e part time . Anderso n say s tha t th e militar y di d no t hel p he r t o advance educationall y o r occupationally , "becaus e I went i n a s a stenographer cler k an d cam e out a s a stenographer clerk. " Ander son went t o schoo l part tim e until sh e discovered tha t sh e was no t progressing a s fas t a s sh e ha d wished : "M y instructo r tol d m e that I would b e fort y year s ol d b y th e tim e I finished an d go t th e degree tha t I wanted; I wanted t o b e a domesti c scienc e teacher . . . . Afte r thinkin g abou t i t I realized tha t I could no t qui t m y jo b just t o continu e colleg e o n a full-tim e basis , s o I decide d t o qui t [college]." Although sh e did not advanc e occupationally o r educa tionally, Anderson' s militar y experienc e mad e i t easie r fo r he r t o get along with people : " I learned ho w t o accep t people an d no t t o fret to o muc h whe n thing s don' t com e out a s they should. " Former member s o f th e 6888t h wh o clai m t o hav e benefite d materially b y militar y servic e almos t invariabl y benefite d psycho logically a s well . Mos t o f thes e wome n als o recogniz e tha t th e military provided the m with enlightenin g experiences. Tessie B&rr, for example , remarks , "Th e servic e gav e m e a n insigh t o n th e w o r l d . . . . I ca n accep t thing s more. " Othe r wome n state d tha t they reache d a higher leve l of maturit y a s a result o f thei r militar y service by learning t o liv e and wor k wit h others . Odessa Marshal l claims, "Th e militar y change d m y lif e i n a numbe r o f ways. " Among th e man y effect s o f servic e o n he r life , sh e declares , "I t gave me a little mor e independence , an d i t mad e m e more aggres sive." Largel y throug h th e influenc e o f he r militar y experience , Marshall i s currentl y a n advocat e o f women' s rights . Vernell e Davis als o credit s militar y servic e fo r teachin g he r ho w t o liv e with people : " I ca n respec t anyone . I don' t car e wha t you'r e

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doing; I have respec t fo r you . I don't sa y I want t o associat e wit h you, bu t I can liv e with you. " The militar y institutio n i s famou s (o r infamous , dependin g upon one' s poin t o f view ) fo r it s regimente d wa y o f life . Conse quently, personne l o n activ e dut y giv e u p muc h o f thei r persona l right t o life , liberty , an d th e pursui t o f happines s upo n enterin g the military . Sammy e Davi s remember s th e militar y a s strict , bu t she feel s tha t th e auster e lifestyl e ha d a positive effec t o n he r life : "Of cours e th e lifestyl e wa s ver y rigid , whic h wa s ver y goo d because a s a result I' m no w organized , mor e s o than man y peopl e I see. It [th e Army] was good fo r organization , self-discipline , self control, gettin g alon g wit h people . There wer e man y goo d thing s that I got out o f bein g in service. " Willie Whiting als o acknowledge s militar y servic e fo r th e disci pline sh e acquired : To the exten t tha t disciplin e play s a major rol e i n m y life I say I have benefited b y bein g i n th e military . . . . There I learned th e necessit y of discipline and exactly what it means; and of course the results if you fail to discipline. I'm very glad for the experience in service. If it taught more discipline, I needed it. I had resigned myself t o the fact, when I went in, that ther e probabl y woul d b e man y time s whe n somethin g woul d b e suggested that I would rathe r no t do, but the military was not designe d for me personally, so I did it. Allie Davis als o appreciate s th e military fo r it s discipline. She says that servic e mad e he r "tough , disciplined , an d self-controlled, " attributes tha t helpe d he r late r i n bot h he r persona l an d he r professional civilia n life . Some interviewees , suc h a s Glady s Carter , sai d tha t militar y service helped the m t o develo p self-confidence : The militar y ha d a grea t impac t o n m y lif e an d th e typ e o f perso n I turned ou t t o be . I always was assertive , an d a person interested , con cerned, an d . . . not . . . afraid t o ge t involved . But I think th e militar y gave me more direction . I t gave me even mor e o f a willingness t o tak e

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on a job an d t o take on a challenge. I just think that I can do anythin g damn well if I put my mind to it. The military had a lot to do with that [feeling of confidence]. Some wome n claime d the y ha d bee n sheltere d al l thei r live s until the y entere d th e Women's Arm y (Auxiliary ) Corps . Militar y service altere d thei r vie w o f lif e b y expandin g thei r horizons . Lavinia Johnson , fo r example , credit s th e servic e fo r th e insigh t she acquire d abou t peopl e i n general : " I learne d s o muc h abou t other people . I cam e fro m a smal l tow n an d ha d le d a sheltere d life. [I n th e military ] I learne d t o accep t differen t people. " I n retrospect, Mildre d Dupe e Leonar d als o credit s th e servic e fo r exposing he r t o diversity : " I jus t thin k tha t th e trainin g an d th e assignments I ha d an d th e maturit y tha t I develope d durin g thi s period o f tim e certainly prepare d m e to handle th e situation i n th e civilian world . I was youn g an d ha d neve r worke d o r bee n awa y from home , o r experience d an y o f th e rea l lif e outsid e o f home. " Leonard explain s tha t durin g th e time sh e spent in the military, " I had a n opportunit y t o hav e fou r mor e year s o f maturity , wit h responsibilities. S o whe n I cam e ou t o f th e militar y I reall y fel t prepared [fo r adul t life]. " Sadi e Belche r als o becam e mor e inde pendent a s a resul t o f he r militar y service : " I thin k mayb e i t helped m e t o g r o w . . . . I t gav e m e independence , becaus e [i n th e military] I didn't hav e anyon e t o reall y depen d on . I had t o b e o n my own, an d tha t gav e me more self-responsibility , I guess." Anna Tarry k claime d tha t th e militar y radicall y change d he r perspective o n life : "I t gav e m e th e opportunit y t o becom e inde pendent an d t o matur e quickly . I t widene d m y horizon s a s fa r a s people ar e concerned—learnin g abou t othe r culture s an d stuf f like that. " Whe n aske d whethe r ther e wer e an y disadvantage s i n serving i n th e military , Tarry k replied , "Well , a t firs t ther e wer e some disadvantage s becaus e when w e [Africa n America n women ] went i n we were no t totall y respected . We had t o figh t th e war o n three fronts: firs t w e had t o fight segregation , secon d was the war , and thir d wer e the men. " Margaret Jones als o remembers militar y servic e as affecting he r

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life significantl y i n th e sam e wa y a s i t influence d Ann a TarrykV . "It wa s goo d becaus e I was fro m a smal l tow n an d i t broadene d my horizons. " Jone s add s tha t sh e ha d alway s associate d an d socialized with white people. Growing up in Oberlin, Ohio , where she wen t t o schoo l wit h whit e children , sh e ha d neithe r know n nor experience d over t act s o f racism : " I ha d alway s bee n associ ated wit h whit e peopl e a s a matte r o f cours e i n Oberlin . Afte r I came i n contac t wit h th e kin d o f whit e peopl e I cam e i n contac t with i n th e Army , I ha d t o realiz e tha t I had see n onl y on e side , that I had no t see n al l ther e wa s t o see. " Growin g u p i n Oberlin , for Jones, was like "bein g in a cocoon. Yo u were not awar e of th e prejudices tha t existe d outside. " Bu t whe n sh e entere d th e mili tary, Jones continues , "the n I realized tha t i t [racia l prejudice] di d exist, an d tha t I had t o lear n ho w t o liv e with it , o r lear n ho w t o combat it. " Among the intangible reward s o f military service , former mem bers o f th e 6888t h mentio n th e opportunit y t o trave l bot h withi n the Unite d State s an d t o countrie s the y ha d previousl y onl y rea d about i n books . Durin g thei r travel s member s o f th e 6888t h me t African America n wome n fro m differen t regions , as well a s Europeans in England an d France . Almost al l of the interviewees state d that servin g overseas during World War I I was exciting , adventur ous, an d overal l a fulfilling experience . Many sai d that their expe rience increase d thei r knowledg e o f Europea n culture . Doroth y Johnson, fo r example , ha d graduate d wit h a degre e i n literatur e from Spelma n Colleg e befor e joinin g th e WAC . Sh e foun d tha t her sta y i n Franc e gav e he r th e opportunit y t o visi t th e home s o f many world-renowne d writers : Rouen was a rather bucolic town. It was a mecca for French seventeenthand eighteenth-century writers. It was a place where Greek theater went on in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries. It was a place of culture. Flaubert' s fathe r wa s a docto r a t th e ver y hospita l tha t I was admitted to when I suffered a n intestinal flu, and his family lived in that hospital. I never dreame d tha t I would b e treate d i n th e ver y hospita l that Flaubert's father onc e worked [in].

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Elizabeth Eastma n als o appreciate s th e trave l sh e di d whil e o n active dut y an d refer s t o i t a s educational : " I wouldn't hav e bee n in thos e differen t countrie s i f I hadn' t bee n i n th e service . . .. A lot o f people have not ha d tha t experienc e i n life. " Dorothy Jone s wa s thrille d wit h th e experienc e o f travelin g t o Europe durin g th e war: "Comin g fro m a s poor a family a s I came from, eve n if Dad ha d bee n makin g a whole lo t mor e mone y tha n he was, we still would hav e been poor wit h th e number o f mouth s he ha d t o feed . Ho w wa s I eve r goin g t o ge t t o Europe ? I mad e the mos t o f it! " Jone s ha d a n opportunit y t o atten d Biarrit z American Universit y i n Franc e fo r si x month s whil e sh e wa s overseas: "Biarrit z i s a major resor t town , an d th e military too k i t over durin g th e war. Th e purpose o f th e schoo l was fo r GI s to ge t a hea d star t o n goin g bac k t o schoo l befor e returnin g t o th e United States . I got colleg e credit fo r th e course s I took a t Biarrit z when w e returned home. " Margaret Jackson , a schoolteache r befor e sh e joine d th e mili tary an d afte r sh e returned t o civilia n society , stated that althoug h the militar y di d no t dramaticall y chang e he r lif e financially, "i t was a pleasan t experience . Naturall y an y servic e i n th e militar y would hav e it s moment s o f pai n an d happiness , bu t basicall y i t was a n enlightening , a broadenin g experienc e tha t I certainl y would repeat. " Elain e Bennet t similarl y describe s th e militar y a s "both goo d an d bad" : It was good and yet it was bad because you were just indoctrinated [int o the military way of doing things without regard for your personal beliefs or desires], and as a result, time is the most important thing to me. Even after al l these years . . . I met people [whil e in service ] that I cherish, I developed som e o f th e mos t beautifu l friendships , an d it' s jus t lik e a sorority. The y becom e sisters . The y becom e very , ver y clos e t o you . Whatever your problems are belong to them, and vice versa. I met some beautiful peopl e in the service, and their friendships ar e everlasting.

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Occupational Benefits

For th e firs t tim e i n an y war , th e Selectiv e Servic e Ac t include d a provision tha t guarantee d reemploymen t right s t o al l veteran s who ha d lef t civilia n job s t o ente r th e military . I n addition , o n 2 2 June 194 4 Presiden t Roosevel t signe d th e G I Bil l o f Right s int o law, providing educationa l benefit s fo r militar y veterans. The final education titl e provide d on e yea r o f educatio n fo r ninet y day s o f service and a n additiona l period o f educatio n beyon d the first year equal t o th e tim e th e vetera n spen t o n activ e duty . Educationa l funding, however , wa s no t t o excee d fou r years . The educationa l benefit packag e include d paymen t o f al l fees , tuition , books , an d supplies u p t o a maximu m o f $50 0 pe r schoo l year , plu s a monthly subsistenc e allowanc e whil e th e vetera n wa s enrolle d i n school.20 Thes e benefit s wer e availabl e t o member s o f th e Women's Arm y Corps ; som e member s o f th e 6888t h too k advan tage of the m immediatel y afte r the y left th e military . According t o a stud y b y Elde r an d associates , jag e o f entr y into th e militar y strongl y determine d ho w muc h th e servic e wa s perceived a s a turnin g poin t i n mal e veterans ' lives. 21 Thes e ob servers foun d tha t me n ag e twenty-on e an d younge r wer e mor e likely t o vie w thei r militar y servic e a s positively influencin g socia l independence, educationa l benefits , an d thei r relationship s wit h their parents . Althoug h ther e i s n o evidenc e tha t militar y servic e helped member s o f th e 6888t h t o ge t alon g bette r wit h thei r parents, w e kno w tha t ag e di d no t affec t thei r inclinatio n t o perceive th e militar y a s positively influencin g thei r independence . Nor wa s ag e a facto r i n determinin g th e likelihoo d tha t th e women woul d us e militar y educationa l benefit s i n subsequen t years. A s indicate d above , Leonar d an d Tarry k declare d tha t th e military gav e the m a greate r sens e o f socia l independence . Leo nard wa s twenty-on e year s ol d whe n sh e entere d th e military ; Tarryk wa s twenty-eight . On th e othe r hand , severa l forme r 6888t h member s wer e i n their lat e teen s an d earl y twentie s whe n the y cashe d i n o n th e G I

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Bill of Rights. And some of the women were well into their thirtie s when the y use d th e G I Bil l fo r thei r colleg e education . Fo r man y 6888th members , educationa l opportunitie s wer e th e mos t sig nificant gai n fro m militar y service . Educatio n i n itsel f wa s re garded ver y highl y b y man y Africa n America n wome n durin g World Wa r II . Havin g bee n deprive d o f forma l educatio n fo r so man y years , Africa n American s place d a hig h premiu m o n college degrees . Dorothy Johnson , wh o entere d th e militar y whe n sh e wa s i n her lat e twenties , recalls , "W e al l wer e eligibl e fo r th e G I Bil l o f Rights, and whe n I got out I went immediately t o graduat e schoo l to ge t m y degre e i n librar y science . The Bil l paid fo r m y graduat e education." Alli e Davi s als o praise s th e G I Bill . After leavin g th e military sh e received bot h he r B.A . an d M.A . degree s fro m Geor gia Stat e University . Sh e wen t o n t o teac h elementar y schoo l an d retired afte r thirty-seve n years . Similarly, afte r servin g o n activ e dut y fo r ninetee n months , Willie Whitin g use d th e G I Bil l t o assis t he r wit h he r la w schoo l expenses. Sh e worke d a s a secretar y whil e attendin g la w school : "Christmastime I worke d i n th e pos t office ; yo u coul d alway s make som e extr a buck s there. " Jus t befor e graduatin g fro m la w school, Whiting worked i n her uncle's law firm in Chicago. She reports: Six or eight months before I graduated la w school, my uncle learned he had tuberculosis. (Incidentally, I worked for a certified public accountant during that period; most of the time I was in law school.) And so he [my uncle] decided tha t i f I would giv e up working fo r Washington , Fidlan , and McKeeb a [th e accountin g firm] , I coul d com e int o hi s offic e an d work unti l h e completed th e surger y tha t the y [hi s doctors] ha d antici pated fo r him . An d that' s wha t I did. An d h e wa s ou t fo r abou t nin e months. And during that period of time very few of his clients knew he was ill . I alway s tak e suc h prid e i n sayin g tha t because , whethe r h e appreciated i t o r not , I thought I di d a n excellen t jo b i n handlin g hi s office an d saving his practice. And he lived twenty-five years after that . I think I served him well. . .. B y the time he came back, I had passed the

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bar and I was a lawyer. He had promised me some of his business when he got ou t o f th e hospita l an d wa s abl e to g o back int o th e offic e an d work. I n th e meantim e I had gotte n married . . .. I can' t pinpoin t th e time. I had become unhappy because he [my uncle] never made good on his promise . S o I lef t hi m an d becam e a n executiv e secretar y fo r th e NAACP fo r abou t tw o years . Fro m ther e I becam e a cit y attorney , corporation counsel ; an d fro m ther e I wen t t o th e state' s attorney' s office fo r abou t fou r o r five years . I spen t a shor t stin t i n th e U.S . Attorney's office. Al l of these are prosecutorial positions. Then I became a magistrate. That's what the lowest rung of the judiciary was called at that time. I've been here ever since. Charity Adam s Earle y use d th e G I Bil l t o retur n t o Ohi o Stat e University. Sh e wa s discharge d fro m th e militar y o n 2 6 Marc h 1946, thre e month s afte r he r promotio n t o lieutenan t colonel . Earley completed he r master's degree , which sh e had begu n befor e joining th e military . Sh e marrie d i n Augus t 194 9 an d continue d graduate studie s i n Europe . " I no t onl y use d th e G I Bil l a t Ohi o State University , bu t I married a ma n wh o wa s i n medica l schoo l in Switzerlan d an d I worked o n a doctorat e a t th e Universit y o f Zurich i n Switzerland. " Earle y subsequentl y worke d fo r a year a s the registratio n office r fo r th e Veteran s Administratio n i n Cleve land an d late r becam e dea n o f studen t personne l service s a t Ten nessee A&I an d a t Georgi a College . Mattie Alle n als o wen t t o colleg e shortl y afte r sh e returne d t o the Unite d States : "Afte r I moved t o Califorini a I went t o Comp ton College . I got a degree, and . . . I was very much satisfie d wit h myself unti l 1965 . That' s whe n I ha d a n operatio n a t th e V A hospital an d the y paralyze d on e whol e sid e o f m y body. " Alle n was tol d tha t sh e would liv e approximately five years. "An d here , twenty-seven year s later , I' m stil l livin g t o tel l it. " Allen , no w retired, celebrate s life : "Yo u kno w everybod y say s tha t it' s m y attitude, becaus e I lov e t o travel . Th e mor e I travel , th e mor e I want t o travel . I'v e bee n aroun d th e worl d twice , an d a lo t o f places three o r fou r times , and I'v e been on twenty-fiv e cruises. "

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Some wome n benefite d bot h educationall y an d occupationall y as a result o f thei r militar y service . Enid Clark , fo r instance , wen t to work a s soon a s she returned t o civilia n society : I worked a t school for a while. I became a dental nurse, and I did a few other things . I was connecte d wit h Tuft s Universit y whe n I was doin g the denta l nursin g course , and i t was abou t a year, bu t a t tha t tim e in '46, denta l nurse s weren't pai d ver y much , an d you'r e o n you r fee t al l day. I decide d I didn' t nee d that , an d tha t I would rathe r g o bac k t o secretarial work. Clark worke d a s a schoo l cler k fo r a shor t while , "an d the n I became principa l secretary . I was promote d t o principa l secretar y after th e perso n holdin g th e positio n befor e m e left. " Clar k wa s promoted agai n an d relocate d t o th e central administrativ e office : "I wen t downtow n t o th e administrativ e offic e an d I becam e a secretary t o thre e assistan t superintendent s [a t thre e differen t times]." Determined t o advance her career even further, sh e states, "Rather tha n retirin g fro m m y las t secretaria l position , I went t o a communit y colleg e . . . an d I became a credentials technician. " Similarly, Virgini a Frazie r recalls , " I finished m y busines s school trainin g an d wen t t o wor k fo r th e governmen t agai n be cause ther e wa s a rul e . . . tha t you'r e no t t o b e pu t of f o f you r job becaus e yo u wen t int o th e service. " Frazie r late r marrie d a man wh o ha d bee n statione d i n Franc e whil e sh e was assigne d t o the 6888th ; the y ha d eigh t childre n together . Reflectin g o n he r work a s an accountan t a t the Sharpe Army Depot fo r thirt y years , Frazier says , "You know, veterans have a lot of advantages . I have taken advantag e o f th e G I Bill . I complete d m y educatio n usin g the G I Bill . Both o f u s [sh e an d he r husband ] wer e veterans , an d I'm no w livin g i n Sa n Jos e i n a hom e w e bough t unde r th e GI Bill." Anna Tarry k use d th e G I Bill to stud y elementar y educatio n a t Temple Universit y fo r a fe w years , bu t sh e lef t t o wor k a s a n account cler k fo r th e Veteran s Administration . Ther e sh e wa s advanced t o a teachin g positio n an d remaine d unti l sh e retired :

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"When I first lef t th e militar y I did voluntee r wor k a t th e Menta l Reception Center , an d I also did volunteer wor k a t the Children' s Hospital. I worke d i n accounting ; an d the n I lef t tha t jo b t o go int o a teachin g statu s a t th e Veteran s Administratio n unti l I retired. " Elaine Bennet t wen t bac k t o colleg e an d complete d a bachelo r of scienc e degree: "Whe n I came out o f th e servic e an d went bac k north, I worked fo r th e Veterans Administration. I was there fo r a couple o f year s i n loa n guarantees... . I used m y G I Bil l t o ge t a degree in business administration. " Mildred Dupe e Leonar d use d th e G I Bil l t o ear n he r master' s degree i n education : "Whe n I cam e ou t o f th e militar y I wen t back t o school . I worke d fo r th e women' s divisio n o f th e polic e department. Durin g my maternity leav e I had shor t stints with th e welfare department . The n I went fro m th e police departmen t int o teaching an d staye d i n teaching. " Leonar d wa s a hig h schoo l counselor a t Detroit' s Northwester n Hig h Schoo l whe n sh e re tired. Sh e ha d complete d he r undergraduat e studie s befor e goin g into th e military , bu t sh e ha d neve r worked : " I fel t tha t whe n I came out o f the military I was really prepared t o work. " Noel Campbel l Mitchel l attende d graduat e schoo l o n th e G I Bill a t Columbi a Universit y an d receive d a maste r o f scienc e de gree in 1948 : I came home in '4 6 an d I went t o Columbi a Teacher s Colleg e and go t my masters i n foo d an d nutrition . Tha t wa s m y major i n college . And then I went t o Brigha m Hospita l i n Bosto n t o d o a year' s internship . And then I came back to Tuskegee and I worked for the VA Hospital fo r twenty-seven years . And I've bee n retired sinc e 1980 . . . . I got married after I came back to Tuskegee, after I finished my internship. I have two grown sons and two granddaughters. Mitchell was appointed staf f dietitia n a t Tuskegee Veterans Hospi tal i n 1949 , tw o year s befor e sh e married . Whe n I aske d he r whether th e militar y ha d helpe d he r to advanc e educationall y an d occupationally, sh e replied ,

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Yes, because I would no t hav e had th e money to go to graduate schoo l and t o d o m y internship . Tha t wa s th e bes t G I Bill they [th e military ] ever had. They paid fo r everythin g we had an d gave us a stipend. I was at Columbia fo r two years and one year at Brigham Hospital in Boston, and I never had to pay one penny for it. " Even some of th e women wh o di d not tak e advantag e o f th e G I Bill attribut e thei r occupationa l mobilit y t o thei r militar y service . This mobilit y wa s th e primar y benefi t o f servic e fo r Christin e Stone Pinkney . Sh e ha d worke d fo r th e Wa r Departmen t a s a n assistant messenge r fo r si x months befor e goin g into th e military : "When I came bac k the y hel d m y job fo r me , but I didn't wan t t o keep that job." Pinkney took a civil service examination fo r clerk s and wa s place d i n a clerica l positio n a t th e Censu s Bureau . Sh e worked i n the geography divisio n fo r nin e years before movin g t o a positio n wit h th e Foo d an d Dru g Administration ; sh e retire d thirty-five year s later . Pinkne y credit s he r civi l servic e job s t o he r service in the Women's Arm y Corps . Paralleling Pinkney' s experienc e wa s tha t o f Vernell e Davis , who retired afte r twenty-si x years with th e Department o f Health . Davis believe s her vetera n statu s helpe d he r t o ge t the job. Evely n Fray als o speak s o f th e preferentia l treatmen t sh e receive d fo r being a vetera n whe n sh e wa s hire d b y th e Veteran s Administra tion an d late r b y th e U.S . Post Office . Fra y recalls , "Whe n othe r people wer e bein g lai d off , I got veteran' s preference. " Similarly , occupational mobilit y wa s th e mai n benefi t fo r France s Johnson . Before joinin g th e WA C Johnson worke d i n a foo d factory . Afte r completing he r militar y tou r o f dut y sh e use d th e G I Bil l t o complete a cours e i n cler k typing . Sh e subsequentl y worke d a s a hospital war d cler k fo r thirty-on e years . Marriage For som e member s o f th e 6888th , militar y servic e playe d a n important rol e i n mat e selection . Severa l wome n mentione d tha t they ha d marrie d shortl y afte r the y wer e discharge d fro m th e

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military. A few member s me t thei r futur e spouse s whil e o n activ e duty an d vie w the service as leading to marriage. Cleopatra Cohn , for example , me t he r futur e husban d whil e sh e wa s statione d i n Rouen; the y marrie d an d starte d a famil y shortl y afte r Coh n lef t the military . Whe n thei r oldes t chil d wa s almos t read y t o finish high school , Coh n bega n workin g a s a cler k i n a pos t office . Sh e says, " I applie d [fo r th e position] , and I got militar y preference. " Cohn emphasize s marriag e a s "th e ver y bes t thin g tha t eve r hap pened" t o her : " I wa s fortunat e enoug h t o ge t a ver y goo d hus band, an d children , an d famil y life. " Militar y servic e als o helpe d Cohn t o "lear n t o live with people " an d "t o dea l with advers e sit uations." Gladys Carte r als o marrie d afte r sh e complete d he r ter m o f service and worke d fo r th e War Department fo r a short time : That was in Washington, D.C., which i s my husband's home. . .. I was the first Wa c t o com e bac k an d finish a t Virgini a State , I think . M y degree wa s a n A.B . I was a sociolog y major . The n w e moved bac k t o New York. Tank [Carter's husband] got his degree in health and physical administration. W e lived in Yonkers. He worked i n a factory, i n Phelps Dodge i n Yonkers . An d h e go t u p earl y i n th e mornin g an d h e wen t down t o Columbi a Universit y . . . and I was a housewife. Tan k got his master's degree at Columbia. . .. I had the two children, of course. Then he go t a cal l throug h Columbi a t o g o u p t o Hudson, Ne w York , t o interview for a job at a state facility fo r delinquent youngsters. Carter an d he r husban d move d u p t o Hudson . Sh e eventuall y found a teachin g position , wen t bac k t o school , an d receive d a master's degre e i n educatio n fro m th e Stat e Universit y o f Ne w York a t Albany . Gertrude LaVign e remaine d i n th e Arm y fo r eigh t year s afte r World Wa r II . When sh e returned t o the United States , she recalls, "Many o f th e wome n i n ou r uni t wer e discharged , an d man y o f us were reassigne d t o Cam p Stoneman , California , t o b e assigne d as a uni t t o Japan. " Thes e women , however , wer e neve r sen t t o Japan, bu t remaine d a t Cam p Stonema n "i n postal , clerical , an d hospital work. " Durin g th e mid-1950s , whe n th e WA C opene d

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the officers' rank s t o active-duty enliste d women, LaVigne becam e a secon d lieutenant , assigne d t o For t Lewis , Washington , a s a n administrative assistant . LaVign e me t he r husban d (Leo n La Vigne) whil e sh e was o n activ e dut y a t Cam p Stoneman , an d the y were marrie d i n 1948 . I n 195 3 he r husban d wa s statione d i n Korea. Sh e requeste d a transfe r t o Kore a throug h Japan , bu t was denied : August 31 , 195 3 wa s th e dat e o f m y releas e fro m th e WAC . . . . M y sister an d I drove to Cincinnati , Ohio, where I lived with he r an d tried to get a compassionate transfer to Japan to visit my husband as a civilian dependent. While awaitin g word I worked wit h th e Re d Cros s an d th e Department o f Schools . I also joine d th e reserv e uni t i n For t Thomas , Kentucky, wher e I serve d unti l m y husban d returne d fro m Kore a i n 1954. My husband wa s transferre d t o Washington , D.C. , in the sprin g of '5 7 to attend medica l training school at Walter Reed Army Hospital. I went t o American University , taking premed [courses ] fro m fal l 195 6 through Ma y 1957 . At thi s tim e Leo n [LaVigne' s husband ] wa s transferred overseas to Germany. We drove to my family's home in Addyston, Ohio (sixteen to twenty miles west of Cincinnati), where Leon, Jr., and I awaited order s t o joi n hi m i n Germany . I n German y I attende d th e University o f Maryland . . .. I too k Re d Cros s trainin g classe s an d worked i n th e offic e whil e w e wer e there . I helped t o organiz e a preschool nursery school, which my children attended. I was also a member of the board, and I worked in the church as a Sunday school teacher and altar chairman. We adopted two of our children there (brown babies). When I aske d LaVign e whethe r sh e though t th e militar y ha d helped he r t o advanc e educationall y o r occupationally , sh e re plied, "Definitely . I' m on e o f thos e profoun d cours e takers . I haven't don e anythin g i n the last year . . . since my husband died , but I always tak e courses . I have ove r 50 0 credit s [but ] n o degre e because I go t ou t o f servic e an d travele d wit h m y husband. " LaVigne worked par t tim e mostl y i n youth activities . Odessa Marshal l lef t th e militar y i n Novembe r 194 5 an d mar ried five months later . While rearing nin e children, Marshal l wen t back t o schoo l an d complete d a nursin g degree . He r G I benefit s

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had expire d b y the time sh e returned t o college , so she had t o pa y for he r educatio n herself . Sh e worked a s a nurse fo r twenty-eigh t years befor e retiring . Elain e Bennet t marrie d whe n sh e lef t th e military. Alli e Davi s marrie d whil e sh e wa s i n th e servic e a t For t Benning, Georgia . Rut h Wright , whe n aske d ho w militar y servic e had change d he r life, replied : One big thing [tha t resulted fro m m y military service ] is my husband, I can tell you that. I think as women we were exposed to, and this sounds sort o f peculiar , bu t thi s [m y tim e i n service ] wa s th e first time, othe r than college, that I had been exposed to so many black men and women. When you liv e in a little village that's isolate d an d you're s o protected, you really don't know there's a world out there. Military Service as a Turning Point Although man y o f th e interviewees learned valuabl e lesson s in th e military an d som e advance d educationall y an d occupationally , fewer fel t tha t thei r live s had take n a ne w directio n a s a resul t o f their militar y service . Elder , Gimble , an d Ivi e defin e subjectiv e turning point s a s th e "perception s o f lif e transition s i n whic h th e individual take s o n ne w set s of roles , enters fres h relation s wit h a new se t o f people , an d acquire s a ne w sel f conception." 22 Al though mos t o f th e wome n interviewe d fo r thi s boo k perceive d military servic e a s a positiv e experience , fewe r perceive d i t a s a turning poin t i n thei r lives . Members wh o ha d caree r aspiration s when the y lef t th e militar y tha t wer e neve r fulfille d tende d no t t o view th e militar y i n thi s way . A s mentione d above , Rut h Ham mond an d Glady s Anderso n bot h ha d frustrate d occupationa l aspirations whe n the y returne d t o th e civilia n worl d an d state d that th e militar y wa s not a n avenu e o f upwar d mobilit y fo r them . Likewise, member s wh o ha d caree r goal s befor e enterin g th e military an d fulfille d thos e goal s afte r militar y servic e di d no t regard thei r servic e a s a turning point . Mos t o f th e women i n thi s study wh o ha d complete d colleg e befor e enterin g th e militar y o r who use d thei r G I Bil l whe n the y returne d t o civilia n society , o r

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both, wer e colleg e boun d befor e the y entered . Fo r the m militar y service represented les s a turning point than a means of continuin g to develo p alon g the path the y ha d alread y begun . Battalion Commande r Charit y Adam s Earley , for example , ha d received a letter o f invitatio n t o join the Women's Army Auxiliar y Corps whil e sh e wa s enrolle d i n graduat e schoo l a t Ohi o Stat e University. A s mentione d earlier , sh e postpone d completin g he r master's degre e t o ente r th e military . Whe n sh e returne d t o th e civilian world , sh e continue d he r lif e fro m th e poin t a t whic h sh e

had left :

Well, I don't think it [militar y service] helped me educationally i n terms of goin g to schoo l an d finishing my master's. I was already three-quar ters of the way done with my master's, so I had two quarters to complete when I returned [t o civilian society] . So it didn' t hel p m e in that sense . As far a s an occupation was concerned, I was an educator before I went into service and have been connected t o the school practically al l of my life. I came out of service in March and finished the requirements for my Masters. I went late r t o Georgi a Stat e College . I was dea n o f student s there. Whiting, wh o wa s onl y i n he r teen s whe n sh e joine d th e mili tary, expresse s a sentimen t simila r t o Earley's . She stated tha t sh e knew sh e wante d t o g o t o la w schoo l befor e sh e entere d servic e and tha t militar y servic e represente d a mean s t o tha t end . Whe n asked whethe r th e militar y ha d change d he r life , Whitin g replie d that militar y servic e di d no t chang e he r goa l o f attendin g la w school, s o i n tha t sens e i t wa s no t a turnin g point . Stil l sh e acknowledges tha t th e G I Bil l provided he r wit h th e fund s neces sary t o pursue her education : There woul d hav e bee n n o wa y fo r m e t o hav e gon e furthe r i n m y education withou t th e G I Bill. . .. I don't thin k i t ha s eve r hur t m e t o have been a veteran. I had neve r flaunted it, bu t I certainly hav e never denied it. And I have said on more than one occasion I feel certain tha t the probability o f my becoming a lawyer would have been a lot thinner had I not had the support of the GI Bill.

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When I aske d Doroth y Johnso n i f militar y servic e ha d bee n a turning point i n her life , she replied : Not really. I think I would have pursued my educational career even if I had not been in the military. . . . Maybe the discipline might have helped to some extent. But when I went into the military I was in my twenties, which meant that I had pretty much formed m y philosophy. I was not a kid. . .. I really don't think that it [military service] had much to do with my life. I t was a n experienc e tha t I enjoyed an d revele d i n while I was there, and when it was over, I don't think it had much influence. Still, Johnson recognize s the benefits sh e received fro m th e GI Bill: "It [militar y service] made it easier for m e to pursue my education , since I go t m y educatio n finance d b y th e government . . . . Thi s house tha t P m i n now , I receive d a lesse r interes t rat e becaus e I had bee n i n the military. " These case s ar e simila r i n tha t eac h o f thes e wome n kne w where sh e wante d t o g o i n life , bu t the y ar e no t identical . Earle y was i n he r earl y twentie s whe n sh e wa s recruite d t o trai n a s a n officer i n th e Women' s Arm y Auxiliar y Corps . Sh e ha d alread y begun graduat e studie s a t Ohi o Stat e Universit y an d too k a leav e of absenc e t o serv e he r country . Afte r service , sh e picke d u p he r life wher e sh e lef t off . Whiting , o n th e othe r hand , entere d th e Women's Army Corp s with th e intention o f using the GI Bill when she returne d t o th e civilia n world . Sh e wa s stil l i n he r teen s an d aspired t o b e a lawye r before , durin g an d afte r militar y service . Johnson, wh o ha d complete d he r undergraduat e studies , wa s i n her lat e twentie s an d wante d t o se e th e world . Fo r Earle y an d Johnson th e interruptio n tha t accompanie d militar y servic e wa s like a moratoriu m i n thei r lives . Fo r Whitin g i t wa s a stepping stone toward a goal . Some forme r member s o f th e 6888t h hardl y kne w wher e the y were goin g i n life . Althoug h the y aspire d t o elevat e thei r socia l and economi c standing , the y were not sur e how the y would d o it . Members wh o wer e uncertai n abou t thei r futur e befor e enterin g service an d wh o coul d us e th e G I Bil l o r secur e gainfu l employ ment whe n the y reentere d civilia n lif e wer e mor e likel y t o vie w

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military servic e a s a turnin g point . Fo r thes e wome n th e militar y provided a bridging environment t o a more tolerant postwa r soci ety. Mar y Daniel s Williams , fo r example , wa s abl e t o mak e dra matic change s i n he r socia l an d economi c statu s a s a result o f he r military service . A s describe d i n chapte r 1 , William s joine d th e Women's Army Corp s becaus e she recognized tha t sh e "wa s goin g nowhere fast " i n th e civilia n world . Sh e was influence d t o joi n b y her recruiter' s assuranc e tha t sh e woul d b e abl e t o complet e he r formal education . Followin g u p o n he r educationa l plan s whe n she returne d hom e fro m th e military , sh e attende d Cincinnati' s Hughes Hig h Schoo l an d complete d he r Genera l Equivalenc y Di ploma (GED) . Determined t o elevat e her socia l statu s when th e war wa s over , Williams declares , " I kne w wha t I wanted, an d I knew tha t I was never gonn a scru b anothe r floor." Usin g th e G I Bill , William s went o n t o ear n he r bachelor' s degre e fro m Salmo n P . Chas e College: " I wen t t o da y schoo l an d nigh t schoo l an d summe r school, an d complete d 12 6 credi t hour s an d go t th e degree . I was in a hurry. " Sh e went o n t o wor k a s a secretar y befor e advancin g to a professiona l positio n a t th e Hamilto n Count y Welfar e De partment i n Cincinnati : " I starte d of f a s a clerk, an d the n I was a secretary. The n I went o n t o becom e a supervisor , an d the n fro m there I wa s transferre d upstair s an d becam e a caseworker. " Sh e had t o tak e additiona l colleg e courses a t the Universit y o f Cincin nati t o qualif y a s a caseworker . " I ha d t o g o bac k t o schoo l t o take Sociolog y 101 . I ha d t o lear n wha t i t too k t o ge t th e jo b I wanted, an d whe n I did , I wen t bac k t o school . I worke d ver y hard, I watched an d memorize d everythin g I could, an d I starte d moving cas e wor k throug h th e welfar e department. " William s retired fro m th e Hamilton Count y Welfare Departmen t afte r mor e than twent y year s o f service , " I mad e m y wa y t o socia l worker / case worker , an d I wa s ver y wel l paid. " Williams' s testimon y i s one o f th e succes s storie s o f a n Africa n America n woma n wh o was abl e t o chang e he r lif e a s a resul t o f servin g i n th e militar y during World Wa r II .

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Some 6888t h member s staye d i n th e militar y fo r a shor t tim e after the y returne d t o th e Unite d State s fro m Europe , an d afte r being discharge d worke d i n a civilia n capacity . Bernic e Thoma s remained o n activ e dut y unti l 194 8 an d the n joine d th e Arm y Reserves. She was assigne d t o Cam p Bowman , whic h wa s locate d in Pittsburg , California , whe n sh e returne d t o th e Unite d States : "There w e [Africa n America n Wacs ] me t a lo t o f segregation . There wer e whit e Wac s there , bu t the y ha d al l o f th e blac k Wac s on on e sid e o f th e post—o n th e outsid e o f th e post , really . W e had al l o f ou r facilitie s ove r wher e w e lived . Ther e wa s nothin g there bu t u s an d th e gophers. " Fro m Cam p Bowma n Thoma s went t o For t Ord : "Thi s i s where we met a lot of opposition ; the y [white military personnel ] di d no t want u s there. " Thomas wa s discharge d fro m th e servic e i n Californi a an d decided t o sta y there : " I staye d wit h som e friend s i n Oakland , and I applie d fo r a jo b i n th e Presidio , a militar y installatio n i n San Francisco. " Afte r a great dea l o f disput e abou t hirin g a blac k woman, Thoma s wa s engage d t o fil l a clerica l positio n a t th e Presidio: " I wa s accepte d bu t I wa s completel y ignored . I wa s seated i n fron t o f a typewrite r an d n o on e woul d tal k t o me . Th e other hel p i n th e offic e wer e al l white, an d the y wouldn' t giv e m e anything t o do . An d i f the y di d giv e m e something , i t woul d b e just lik e throwing a do g a bone. " Thoma s late r wa s reassigne d t o another office : " I eventuall y go t assigne d t o wor k fo r a very nic e officer, an d h e gav e m e a rea l job . I moved ove r t o Oakland , an d I started workin g i n the Army Reserves. " Thomas als o had joine d the Army Reserves , which gav e her additiona l civi l servic e points ; and sh e wa s abl e t o retir e wit h a sizabl e pension : " I d o believ e that th e Arm y wa s a turnin g poin t fo r m e an d m y lif e becaus e I know tha t I would neve r have been abl e to bu y a home other tha n under th e G I Bill . An d I would neve r hav e ha d th e othe r benefit s that I hav e derive d fro m bein g i n th e military , suc h a s a civi l service job." Other member s o f th e 6888t h eithe r remaine d i n th e militar y when the y returne d t o th e Unite d State s fro m Europ e o r lef t fo r a

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short time , returne d t o activ e duty , an d retire d fro m th e militar y several year s later . Som e o f th e wome n I interviewe d mad e a career o f th e militar y an d viewe d servic e a s a chang e i n th e direction an d qualit y o f thei r lives . Blanch e Scott , fo r example , stayed in the military an d retired i n 196 5 a s a major. Sh e perceives the militar y a s a turnin g poin t i n he r lif e becaus e i t offere d he r financial stability : I did not have a job, nor di d I know o f one in civilian life when I came back [fro m overseas] . I went over to the Pentagon on my own and tried to find a job in the military—I went up and down the halls. I stopped in an offic e wit h Wac s [i n it ] an d a youn g lad y tol d m e tha t Gen . B . O. Davis, Sr., had aske d fo r som e Wac officers ou t a t Lockbur n Ai r Force Base; and sh e told m e that i f I could ge t a letter fro m hi m statin g tha t he woul d accep t me , sh e woul d pu t m e o n order s t o Lockbur n Ai r Force Base. Scott wrote t o Genera l Davis , explaining tha t sh e was lookin g fo r a job , an d requeste d a lette r o f acceptanc e fro m him : "H e an swered th e lette r an d sai d h e woul d accep t me. " Sh e credit s he r successful militar y caree r t o Gen . Benjamin O . Davis, Sr.: " I wen t to Lockburn , an d that' s ho w I stayed i n th e Army , becaus e B . O . Davis, Sr. , sai d h e woul d accep t me . . . . An d I staye d i n twelv e years, eight months , an d twenty-eigh t day s before gettin g out. " Scott say s sh e use d th e G I Bil l afte r sh e retire d fro m militar y service. Sh e worked a t For t Leonardwoo d i n Missour i unti l 197 2 and the n lef t t o g o bac k t o school : "That' s wh y I quit whe n I did , because my [G I Bill] eligibility would hav e run out . I had bee n ou t of schoo l fo r thirty-fiv e years , an d th e Universit y o f Colorad o accepted al l o f m y credit s fro m Howar d University ; an d that' s where I got a degre e i n sociology. " I n additio n t o financial stabil ity, Scott credit s th e militar y fo r changin g th e cours e o f he r lif e i n another way , " I wa s somewha t shy , an d I' m stil l that , bu t i t [th e military] gav e m e a sens e o f confidenc e fo r myself . . . . I was jus t thinking th e othe r day , i f I didn' t hav e militar y trainin g I don' t know whethe r I' d stil l be here." Margaret Barne s Jone s als o view s militar y servic e a s a turnin g

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point i n he r life . Sh e retire d fro m activ e dut y i n 1965 . "Th e 6888th wen t t o Europ e i n '45 ; we came bac k befor e 1946. 1 went right t o school ; an d the n I was i n reserv e statu s an d wa s ordere d back t o activ e dut y i n 194 9 an d wen t t o For t Lee , Virginia , where I trained troops. " Jone s credit s he r militar y servic e fo r he r willingness t o giv e so freel y o f herself : " I hav e mor e o f a sense of responsibility t o m y fello w men . I fee l tha t havin g see n th e bi g picture, I know what' s goin g on ; I know wha t need s t o b e done . Anybody who' s eve r bee n i n th e Arm y love s peace . Yo u kno w that becaus e that's what yo u fight for . Peac e is your ultimat e goal . And th e well-bein g o f you r fello w man . Thes e ar e th e thing s tha t are important. " Sinc e Jones ha s retire d fro m th e military , sh e ha s been very activ e in civi c affairs : I worke d wit h th e Arme d Force s Associatio n i n th e Pentagon . It' s a volunteer organization . W e hav e a file o f ever y militar y pos t i n th e world: Army, Air Force, Navy, Marines, Coast Guard. On every military post i n th e worl d w e provid e informatio n fo r militar y personne l wh o are bein g transferred t o anothe r post. Information abou t commissaries , nearest hospitals, those kinds of things. If they [military personnel] have a handicappe d chil d an d wan t t o kno w i f there' s a schoo l tha t wil l accommodate tha t child ; i f there' s a place where a wife ca n work; i f a family ca n accompany a soldier some places, that's the kind of informa tion we have. I also do volunteer work at other organizations like Black Women United; I also work with children in homeless shelters. When I aske d Jone s whethe r sh e though t he r militar y experienc e would hav e bee n differen t i f sh e ha d bee n o f Europea n descent , she replied , Well, first of al l I would hav e gotte n differen t assignments . I probably would hav e gotte n a n assignmen t tha t woul d hav e pu t m e i n a bette r position to advance. I stayed a captain for ten years because of one man that I worked for . On e white lieutenant colone l that I worked fo r wh o was just impossible. I think h e was a psychopath, t o tell you th e truth . Be that a s it may, I know, had I been white, I would no t have been put in th e positio n I wa s in . H e [th e lieutenan t colonel ] woul d no t hav e regarded me the way he did. He would have probably written efficienc y

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reports s o tha t I would hav e gotte n promote d afte r th e first two year s there [unde r hi s command] . Bu t thos e ar e th e kind s o f thing s blac k women wer e confronte d with . O f cours e i t woul d hav e bee n differen t had I been white. It was the same for blac k me n in the military durin g that time. Dorothy Bartlet t retire d fro m th e militar y afte r twenty-on e years o f service . Unlik e Jones , however , sh e wa s no t eage r t o advance i n ran k whil e sh e was i n th e military : "M y commandin g officer wante d m e t o b e a first sergean t becaus e I was olde r tha n most o f the m [wome n i n military ] tha t wer e i n ther e a t tha t time . But sh e [th e commandin g officer ] wa s ver y disguste d wit h m e because I didn't wan t i t [th e rank o f first sergeant] . I told he r tha t I didn' t wan t i t becaus e i t wa s th e bes t wa y t o los e friends , an d I had to o man y friends . I n 197 5 I retired. " Bartlet t i s prou d tha t she own s he r ow n home , i s abl e t o leas e par t o f he r home , an d does no t hav e t o worr y abou t financial securit y becaus e o f he r military retirement . Sh e declares, "Betwee n m y social security an d Army pension, I can liv e without headaches. " Margaret Barbou r i s anothe r forme r membe r o f th e 6888t h who mad e militar y servic e a career . Sh e entere d th e Arm y Ai r Corps i n Ma y 194 4 an d complete d si x week s o f basi c trainin g program a t For t De s Moines , Iowa , befor e workin g a s a glide r pilot record s cler k a t Maxto n Ai r Forc e Base . Sh e wa s late r as signed t o th e 6888th , complete d he r tou r o f duty , an d wa s dis charged fro m th e militar y i n 1946 , onl y t o retur n t o activ e dut y the followin g year . Sh e retire d fro m th e Ai r Forc e a s a maste r sergeant twenty-seve n year s later . I went in in March o f '44 , and retired in April of '72, but I had a year's break. I was trained a s an administrative clerk in Des Moines. I went to Maxton Air Force Base in North Carolina. I was keeping records for the glider pilots ; I was th e onl y Blac k i n th e office . I only ha d a proble m with one guy. He never said anything to me, but one day he came in and I had my coat hanging on the rack, and he didn't want to hang his coat by mine, so he went to one of the sergeants there and aske d him to get me to mov e m y coat. An d th e sergean t aske d th e guy , "What' s wron g

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with you? " An d the y jus t le t [tha t incident ] pass . Tha t wa s th e onl y racial incident I ever had. I don't let things like that bother me because I can close my mind to it. Barbour wa s a superviso r o f mai l clerk s whe n sh e wa s assigne d overseas wit h th e 6888th . Sh e mention s tha t th e wor k itsel f wa s not challengin g "becaus e it was relatively eas y to do . All you wer e doing wa s checkin g th e fil e agains t th e nam e t o mak e sur e th e person wa s ther e an d i f th e addres s ha d changed , readdres s it. " When Barbou r returne d t o th e Unite d States , sh e wa s discharge d from th e military : I got ou t o f servic e because I was sick . My stomac h wa s out o f whac k from eatin g tha t food . S o I got out an d I stayed ou t a year; an d the n I reenlisted with my same rank of Staff Sergeant . I came back to Lockburn Air Forc e Base . When I first wen t int o service , I was i n th e Arm y Ai r Corps; when the Air Force came into being, I transferred over . I started off workin g in a headquarters admissio n center. They tried to give me a hard time , so they transferre d m e out o f there , and I went int o supply , repairs, and utilities, keeping track of the boys' supplies like white gloves and toilet tissues and making sure that everything was intact. They had to d o somethin g with me , and that' s wha t I did while I was there, and then Lockbur n close d an d I moved u p t o Wrigh t Patterso n Ai r Forc e Base in Ohio . And ther e I was doing the same thing. At that time , you know, the y [militar y officials ] didn' t reall y wan t t o giv e wome n an y authority i f the y coul d ge t aroun d it . S o I was i n repair s an d utilitie s there, and I went into training instructor, and I got a promotion to teach. Barbour describe s he r tou r o f militar y servic e a s a struggl e fo r advancement, i n whic h sh e prevailed . Sh e take s grea t prid e i n having complete d eigh t militar y school s durin g he r career : Arm y Clerks School , Suppl y Managemen t Staf f Office r Course , Elec tronic Dat a Processin g Standardize d Suppl y Course , OJ T (O n the Jo b Training ) Traine r Superviso r Course , OJ T Administrato r Course, Senio r NC O Academy , Primar y Managemen t Course , and Suppl y Syste m Managemen t Course . She also was recognize d for som e o f her accomplishment s an d receive d severa l meritoriou s awards, includin g th e World Wa r I I Victory Medal , th e Ai r Forc e

1. Member s o f th e 6888t h a t th e easter n Por t o f Embarkatio n dresse d i n field uniform, befor e sailin g overseas . Fro m lef t t o right : (kneeling ) Pvt . Geneviev e Marshall o f Washington , D.C. , Pfc . Lillie Harrison o f Washington , D.C. , (stand ing) Pvt . France s Chappel l o f Sout h Boston , Va. , Tech . 5 Ameli a Aker s o f Roanoke, Va. , Tech . 4 Alic e Alliso n o f Wytheville , Va. , Pfc . Oliv e Dedeau x o f Washington, D.C. , Pfc . Margare t Barbou r o f Yorktown , Va. , an d Cpl . Susa n Crabtree o f Washington , D.C . Februar y 1945 . Courtes y o f th e WA C Museum , Fort McClellan , Ala .

2. Member s o f th e 6888t h a t th e easter n Por t o f Embarkatio n befor e sailin g overseas i n Februar y 1945 . From lef t t o right : (seated ) Tech . 5 Dori s L . Paige of Ocean Springs , Mass., and Pvt . Elouise A. Pinkney o f Brunswick, Ga. , (standing ) Pfc. Ruth L . Gaddy o f Charlotte , N.C., Tech. 5 Lottie S . Mills of New York , Pvt . Lillian Battle of Tuskegee , Ala., an d Pfc . Mary F . Davis o f Atlanta, Ga . Courtes y of th e WAC Museum, For t McClellan , Ala .

3. Enliste d women i n front o f WAC Detachment No . 2 a t For t Dix , New Jersey. From th e personal collectio n o f Ann a Tarryk .

4. Col . Ovet a Hobb y talkin g thing s ove r wit h thre e enliste d wome n a t th e eastern Por t o f Embarkatio n befor e thei r sailin g fo r England . Fro m lef t t o right : Pfc. Alees e J . Robinso n o f Philadelphia , Colone l Hobby , Pfc . Catherin e Le e o f Greenville, Tex., an d Pfc . Elizabet h M . McNai r o f Ne w Haven , Conn . Februar y 1945. Courtes y o f th e WAC Museum, For t McClellan , Ala .

5. Member s o f th e 6888t h preparin g t o sai l oversea s fro m th e easter n Por t o f Embarkation. Courtes y o f th e WAC Museum, For t McClellan , Ala .

6. Lt . Gen . Joh n C . H . Le e an d Maj . Charit y Adams , Birmingham , England . From the personal collectio n o f Glady s O . Anderson .

7. Member s o f th e 6888t h standin g i n formatio n i n fron t o f th e Kin g Edwar d School, Birmingham, England . RG111 , SC200585-S , National Archives .

8. Member s o f th e 6888t h cleanin g their quarter s a t th e Kin g Edward Schoo l i n Birmingham, England . RG111 , SC257463 , National Archives .

Above: 9 . Th e mes s hal l o f th e 6888t h i n Bir mingham, England . RG111 , SC200790 , Na tional Archives . Right: 10 . Switchboar d Operato r Pfc . Vernes e C. Haye s o f Weldon , N.C. , 6888t h Centra l Postal Director y Battalion , Birmingham , En gland. Courtes y o f WA C Foundation , For t McClellan, Ala .

Left: 11 . Sgt . Fanni e Littl e (left ) and Cpl . Virgini a Lan e makin g wastebaskets ou t o f cardboar d boxes a t th e Kin g Edwar d School , Birmingham, England , Februar y 1945. Fro m th e persona l collectio n of Virginia Lan e Frazier .

12. Maj . Charit y Adam s (front ) inspectin g member s o f th e 6888t h i n Bir mingham, England . U.S . Arm y Photograp h RG111 , SC200791 , Nationa l Ar chives.

13. Compan y D o f th e 6888th , commande d b y 1s t Lt. Violet W. Hill , marchin g on th e parad e field i n Birmingham , England . Fro m th e persona l collectio n o f Gladys O . Anderson .

14. Th e 6888t h Centra l Posta l Director y Battalio n marchin g i n Birmingham , England. Courtes y o f th e WAC Museum, For t McClellan , Ala .

15. Th e 6888t h Centra l Posta l Director y Battalio n standin g a t parad e res t o n parade field i n Birmingham , England . Fro m th e persona l collectio n o f Bernic e Thomas.

16. Th e 6888t h Centra l Posta l Direc tory Battalio n standin g a t parade res t on parade field in Birmingham, En gland. Fro m th e personal collectio n o f Bernice Thomas .

17. A quartet o f me n o f th e 452nd An tiaircraft Artiller y Aircraft Warnin g Bat talion singin g on th e Hou r o f Char m program give n b y the 6888t h i n Rouen , France. From lef t t o right : Pfc . Alto n Hawkins, Pfc. Henr y Winston , Sgt . Melverse Mack, an d Cpl . Rubin Sands . RG111, SC209960 , National Archives .

18. Lt . Elfreda LeBeau , pos t exchange officer , servin g Coca Col a t o Maj . Charit y Adams a t th e grand openin g of th e 6888t h ne w snac k ba r in Rouen, France . RG111 , SC209179, National Ar chives.

19. Rouen , France . Chaplai n Willia m T . Gree n readin g th e benedictio n a t th e marriage ceremon y o f Pfc . Florenc e A l Collins , posta l cler k o f th e 6888th , an d Cpl. Willia m A . Johnson o f th e 1696t h Labo r Supervisio n Company . Thi s wa s the first African America n militar y coupl e to b e married i n the European Theate r of Operations . RG111 , SC210939 , National Archives .

20. Th e 6888t h Centra l Posta l Director y Battalion , i n Rouen , France , marchin g in a parad e i n hono r o f Joa n o f Ar c followin g a ceremon y a t th e marke t plac e where she was burne d a t the stake . RG111, SC26441 , National Archives .

21. Maggi e Chestang , on e of th e basketball player s o f th e 6888th , sit ting on a n Army jee p a t th e 6888t h motor poo l i n Rouen , France . Fro m the personal collectio n o f Glady s O . Anderson.

22. Member s o f th e 6888t h holdin g mess kits just before mealtim e i n Rouen, France . From th e persona l collection o f Glady s O . Anderson .

23. Fron t gat e entrance t o th e 6888th livin g and work quarter s i n Rouen, France . From th e persona l collection o f Glady s O . Anderson .

24. Fou r member s o f th e 6888t h on a ship in France . From th e per sonal collectio n o f Glady s O . An derson.

25. Tw o member s o f th e 6888t h o n th e roofto p o f th e enliste d women' s bar racks in Rouen , France . From th e personal collectio n o f Bernic e Thomas .

26. Member s o f th e 6888t h sortin g mai l i n Franc e wit h Frenc h civilia n employ ees. RG111, SC337995-5 , National Archives .

27. Th e 6888t h Centra l Posta l Director y Battalio n marchin g i n a parad e i n Rouen, France . From th e personal collectio n o f Glady s O . Anderson .

28. Pvt . Rut h L . Jame s o n guar d dut y a t a n ope n hous e fo - th e 6888t h i n Rouen, France , May 1945 . Hundreds o f soldier s attended . Courtes y o f th e WAC Museum, For t McClellan , Ala .

29. Member s o f th e 6888t h takin g par t i n a ceremon y i n Rouen , France , cele brating Joa n o f Ar c Day , Ma y 1945 . Fro m th e persona l collectio n o f Glady s O. Anderson .

30. Member s o f th e 6888t h attendin g a dance sponsore d b y the 549th Enginee r Company i n Franc e o n 8 Jul y 1945 . Courtes y o f th e WA C Museum , For t McClellan, Ala .

31. Tw o member s o f th e 6888th , whil e statione d i n Paris , visitin g a famil y i n Lucerne, Switzerland , a t Christmas , 1945 . Fro m th e persona l collectio n o f Gladys O . Anderson .

32. Las t wave of 6888t h member s t o retur n t o the United State s in March 1946 . From the personal collectio n o f Glady s O . Anderson .

33. Nin e forme r member s o f th e 6888t h returne d t o Englan d an d Franc e i n April 1981 . Three o f the m pos e Wit h Councillo r Josep h Bailey , th e lor d mayo r of Birmingham, England . Fro m lef t t o right : Doroth y Bartlett , Councillo r Josep h Bailey, Essi e Woods , an d Lavini a Johnson . Fro m th e persona l collectio n o f Dorothy Bartlett .

34. Forme r member s o f th e 6888t h a t a biennia l reunio n hel d i n Ne w Yor k City, 1988 . From th e personal collectio n o f Glady s Carter .

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Good Conduc t Medal , th e Army Goo d Conduc t Meda l wit h tw o Oak Lea f Clusters , th e Air Force Commendatio n Medal , th e European-African Middl e Easter n Servic e Medal, the Air Force Out standing Uni t Award , th e Nationa l Defens e Servic e Award , th e Air Forc e Longevit y Servic e Awar d wit h tw o Bronz e Oa k Lea f Clusters, and the American Campaig n Medal . Like Jone s an d Bartlett , Barbou r staye d i n th e militar y lon g enough t o experienc e racia l integration . Sh e had the opportunit y to serv e overseas agai n befor e retiring : While I was still at Wright Pat [Wright Patterson Air Force Base] I went to Hillfield , Utah , for supply training system. They used to send people to other bases to be trained on the system. There were four of us, a black guy and two white guys [and myself]. From there I went to Newflyn Air Force Base , and I was still in training managemen t procedures . The n I came bac k t o the States. I requested Andrew s Ai r Force Bas e but they sent m e to Fort Snellen , Minnesota . . .. I only staye d ther e a month. I didn't even unpack my bags because I didn't intend to stay there. And I was stil l doin g th e same thing , trainin g an d stuff. An d then I came to Andrews, an d I was at Andrew s fifteen years. I moved fro m Andrew s over t o Bowling , almos t acros s th e street , an d I was a t Bowlin g fo r three years. Like man y othe r peopl e wh o make a career o f militar y service , Barbour identifie d wit h th e militar y wa y o f doin g things . Sh e remembered a commen t mad e b y a civilia n woma n wh o worke d for he r while sh e was in the military: "Sh e told m e she would no t have like d fo r m e t o hav e bee n he r maste r i f sh e was a slave . I said, I' m no t pushin g you ; I expec t yo u t o ge t everythin g done , that's all. " Barbour sai d tha t whe n sh e left th e military sh e trie d employment i n a store for a while before decidin g that sh e did not want t o wor k a s a civilian : "Afte r you'v e bee n i n th e servic e a long time , yo u know , it' s har d t o ge t use d t o thi s lackadaisica l stuff. Salespeopl e woul d stan d aroun d an d talk whe n the y shoul d be taking car e of business." Lik e most o f the women wh o made a career o f militar y service , Barbour' s self-concep t wa s shape d largely by her military training .

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When I asked he r ho w sh e spends her time , Barbour replied : I belon g t o a lo t o f organizations . I' m wit h th e Tuskege e Airmen , an d I'm wit h th e WAC Veterans Association. Every month w e go out to the hospitals and give patients a little party, and they're very happy. We call them th e birthday boys . Whoever ha s a birthday get s a cupcake with a dollar o n it , an d they'r e jus t a s happ y [a s ca n be] . And I d o a lo t o f traveling; alway s t o a conventio n o r somethin g somewhere . I' m wit h several senior groups. If something is going on that I want to be involved in, I go. Certainly th e military was a turning point i n the lives of wome n who decide d t o mak e a caree r o f it . O f necessity , militar y career ists too k o n ne w roles , entere d relationship s wit h ne w set s o f people, an d acquire d ne w self-concept s base d i n par t o n thei r military roles . Lik e Barbour , militar y careerist s sometime s com pleted severa l militar y school s whil e o n activ e duty , whic h gav e them a n opportunit y t o advanc e no t onl y i n knowledge , bu t als o in rank . Nearly al l o f th e wome n interviewe d fo r thi s boo k acknowl edged positiv e influence s militar y servic e ha d o n thei r lives . Th e influences mos t ofte n describe d b y members o f th e 6888t h corres ponded wit h eigh t o f th e te n reason s militar y servic e wa s viewe d as a turning poin t i n Elders , Gimble, an d Ivie' s Oakland/Berkele y sample o f me n an d husbands. 23 Fo r example , member s o f th e 6888th mentione d maturity , independence , altere d vie w o f life , a break i n life , travel/adventure , marriage , education , an d occupa tional caree r amon g th e positiv e consequence s tha t militar y ser vice ha d o n thei r lives . Despite th e setback s describe d b y som e o f the forme r member s o f th e 6888th , mos t o f th e wome n I inter viewed state d tha t thei r militar y experience s wer e wel l wort h th e time. Som e wer e abl e t o mak e educationa l an d occupationa l gains; other s too k pleasur e simpl y i n havin g ha d th e militar y ex perience.

7 Cohesion, Conflict, and Phenomenology

My final analysi s of th e 6888t h Centra l Posta l Directory Battalio n is informe d b y thre e importan t sociologica l theories : socia l cohe sion, socia l conflict , an d phenomenology . Socia l cohesio n ha s al ways bee n o f interes t t o militar y scholar s becaus e o f it s conse quences fo r uni t performance . Althoug h fe w studie s hav e focuse d on th e socia l cohesio n o f suppor t unit s durin g Worl d Wa r I I (an d none o n femal e militar y units) , man y factor s hav e bee n foun d t o influence morale , cohesion , an d espri t d e corp s amon g comba t personnel. Som e o f thes e findings ar e no t directl y applicabl e t o support unit s suc h a s th e 6888th , bu t other , mor e genera l findings are. Social conflic t ha s a unifyin g functio n an d helpe d t o produc e and solidif y solidarit y amon g member s o f th e 6888th . A s dis cussed below , th e sociopolitica l struggl e tha t le d t o th e formatio n of th e 6888t h als o serve d a s a catalys t fo r th e group' s perfor mance. While statione d i n Europ e member s o f th e 6888t h wer e abl e t o 179

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shape thei r realit y b y challenging racial discriminatio n an d gende r norms i n a wa y tha t wa s no t possibl e i n th e Unite d States . I explain thi s fac t b y employin g concept s o f phenomenology. 1 M y analysis draw s fro m contemporar y sociologists , suc h a s Pete r Berger an d Thoma s Luckmann , Ervin g Goffman , an d Doroth y Smith, who hav e applied phenomenolog y t o the study o f everyda y life.2 Patrici a Hil l Collins' s us e o f epistemolog y i n he r stud y o f "the subjugate d knowledg e o f a Blac k women' s standpoint " i s consistent wit h th e phenomenologica l approac h use d here. 3 Th e last section o f thi s chapter illustrate s changes in the representatio n of Africa n America n wome n i n th e militar y ove r th e las t hal f century. Factors Influencing Social

Cohesion

A cohesive uni t i s an effectiv e on e tha t support s trust , teamwork , and commitmen t an d protect s it s member s agains t breakdow n caused b y stress. As mentioned earlier , vertical cohesio n describe s the bondin g betwee n superior s an d subordinates . Horizonta l co hesion describe s th e bondin g betwee n peers . While noncombatan t unit s d o no t experienc e physical , social , and emotiona l deprivatio n t o th e sam e exten t a s unit s directl y involved i n combat , the y d o encounte r hardship . Fo r th e mos t part, member s o f th e 6888t h di d no t fea r physica l destructio n while the y were statione d i n Europe. Even so, these women some times wer e confronte d directl y b y th e horror s o f war . Fo r exam ple, man y wome n wer e terrifie d whe n th e He de France wa s engaged b y Germa n U-boats . Similarly , whe n th e uni t arrive d i n England i n Januar y 1945 , fighting wa s stil l goin g o n i n Europe . Several wome n recalle d dreadfu l ai r raid s an d blackout s durin g their sta y i n England . Doroth y Daile y Jone s remember s a n occa sion whe n a blac k mal e uni t i n Englan d wa s almos t totall y de stroyed: About forty mile s from wher e we [the 6888th] were stationed there was a unit of [black ] engineers. They were the target of the air raid, and the

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camp was really in bad shape. And that inciden t really brought it home to me . These were actua l huma n beings , some of whom I had met . We were vulnerable lik e everybody else . When th e siren s went off , w e had to black out too. Remembering anothe r bombin g incident , Jone s says , " I wa s stil l stationed i n Birmingha m an d ha d a frien d i n London , a youn g English woma n I ha d met . I ha d visite d he r an d he r famil y a couple o f time s an d wa s schedule d t o visi t the m thi s particula r weekend. S o I wen t t o thei r hous e an d nobod y wa s there . Th e entire bloc k ha d bee n demolished . I never hear d fro m he r again. " The 6888th , however , di d no t experienc e hig h deat h rates , extreme foo d shortages , o r a sever e lac k o f healt h care , a s di d men i n combat . Thei r clothing , althoug h no t alway s size d prop erly, was alway s adequate . What, then , were the day-to-day socia l and environmenta l stresse s confrontin g member s o f th e unit ? I n examining th e working , living , an d socia l condition s o f th e 6888th, i t become s clea r tha t th e uni t experience d considerabl e stress. Some of th e strain s i n performing thei r jo b were associate d with war ; other s stemme d fro m racia l an d gende r attitude s tha t prevailed i n the United State s an d ha d followe d the m t o Europe . One stres s associate d wit h wa r wa s limite d wor k space , whic h forced mai l clerk s t o wor k rotatin g eight-hou r shifts . Som e o f th e women remembere d tha t i t wa s ver y difficul t t o becom e accli mated t o a rotatin g shift . A s Anderso n states , "The y [th e com manders o f th e 6888th ] ha d shif t changes , an d tha t wa s th e hardest par t t o adjus t to . On e wee k yo u ha d th e mornin g shif t and yo u woul d hav e t o adjus t t o sleepin g [s o you coul d wor k th e morning shift] . Whe n yo u ha d almos t adjusted , the n you' d hav e to g o t o anothe r shift , an d tha t wa s a har d thin g t o do ; bu t we managed. " Another stres s wa s th e lac k o f adequat e hea t i n th e workplace . Work area s were so cold that the women worke d i n their ski pant s and field jackets . Also , lightin g wa s poo r i n Englan d becaus e windows wer e painte d blac k fo r war-relate d blackouts . Man y o f the women sai d the y suffere d eyestrai n a s a result o f th e poorly li t

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work areas . Th e auster e livin g facilitie s wer e stil l anothe r sourc e of stress , especiall y i n Birmingha m wher e livin g quarter s wer e poorly heate d an d ho t wate r wa s scarce . Perhaps th e mos t potentiall y demoralizin g strai n experience d by member s o f th e 6888t h wa s discriminatio n base d o n thei r ascribed characteristic s o f rac e an d gender . They serve d durin g a n era in which African America n women i n uniform coul d be beate n unmercifully b y polic e i n th e Sout h i f the y sa t i n a "whit e only " section o f a trai n station . Al l o f th e 6888t h member s who m I interviewed recalle d incident s o f racia l discriminatio n whil e the y were i n th e military , man y o f whic h hav e alread y bee n discussed . Gladys Carter , fo r example , spok e o f a n episod e sh e experience d while th e 6888t h wa s bein g fitte d fo r ne w uniform s a t For t Ogle thorpe. Similarly , Charit y Adam s Earle y too k a stan d agains t racism i n Re d Cros s facilities . An d th e unit' s basketbal l tea m wa s denied th e opportunit y t o compet e fo r place s on th e All-Star tea m because "raciall y mixe d teams " wen t agains t th e Wa r Depart ment's racia l segregatio n policy . A s fo r gende r discrimination , some wome n state d tha t mal e soldier s sometime s treate d the m a s though the y were sex objects . Members o f th e 6888t h remaine d unifie d i n th e fac e o f stress . What wa s i t abou t thei r militar y experienc e tha t pulle d the m together? On e measur e o f cohesio n commonl y use d durin g Worl d War I I wa s jo b satisfaction . Amon g th e man y factor s influencin g the jo b satisfactio n an d henc e th e cohesio n o f comba t unit s wa s "elite status." 4 Stouffe r an d hi s associates , i n comparin g th e mo rale o f comba t flyin g personne l i n th e Arm y Ai r Corp s wit h tha t of groun d forces , foun d tha t flyin g personne l tende d t o b e mor e satisfied wit h thei r combat assignmen t an d expressed greater prid e in thei r militar y organizatio n tha n di d th e groun d troops . Thre e of th e reason s give n fo r thi s greate r satisfactio n wer e tha t flyin g personnel (1 ) wer e volunteers , (2 ) wer e terminate d fro m comba t duty whe n the y ha d complete d a specifie d numbe r o f comba t missions (i n contrast t o th e ground forces , wh o coul d expec t thei r combat dut y t o continu e a s long a s they me t th e minimu m physi -

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cal requirements) ; an d (3 ) wer e abl e t o tak e prid e i n thei r elit e status. Similarly , volunteerism , th e temporar y natur e o f th e as signment, an d elit e status playe d a n importan t rol e i n shapin g th e morale o f th e women i n this study . All o f th e member s o f th e 6888t h wer e volunteers . The y al l were abl e t o rotat e bac k t o th e Unite d State s afte r a specifie d period o f tim e o n activ e duty , an d the y wer e ofte n place d o n a pedestal b y th e European s the y cam e i n contac t with . Bot h th e British an d th e Frenc h treate d member s o f th e 6888t h wit h th e respect denied them in the United States . Indeed, they were treate d as member s o f a n elit e group ; the y wer e a novelt y i n th e eye s o f Europeans, mos t o f who m ha d neve r me t blac k wome n before . A few o f th e wome n state d tha t European s wer e amaze d a t th e variation i n the ski n colo r an d styl e of dres s amon g blac k wome n from th e Unite d States . Althoug h member s o f th e 6888t h some times were reminded o f the dehumanizing effects o f racial discrim ination b y whit e America n soldier s an d b y th e discriminator y policies o f th e Wa r Department , citizen s o f Britai n an d Franc e neutralized thes e act s o f racis m b y treatin g th e wome n wit h dig nity and respect. All of the women I interviewed have fond memo ries o f th e friendlines s o f th e Britis h an d Frenc h peopl e the y knew whil e i n Europe . No t onl y wer e member s o f th e 6888t h entertained a t publi c establishments , the y wer e als o welcome d into private homes. British newspapers wrote laudatory comment s about member s o f th e uni t an d spok e highl y o f the m i n publi c gatherings. Political, ideological , an d cultura l gesture s als o hel p t o explai n cohesion amon g 6888t h members . While primary grou p relation s are a centra l facto r i n explainin g th e performanc e o f comba t troops, secondar y symbol s ar e paramoun t i n explainin g perfor mance of noncombatant unit s such as those Women's Army Corp s units statione d oversea s durin g Worl d Wa r II . Shils an d Janowitz , for example , foun d tha t th e centra l elemen t holdin g togethe r th e Wehrmacht (Germa n Army ) unde r stressfu l circumstance s wa s not s o muc h th e acceptanc e o f political , ideological , an d cultura l

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gestures, whic h the y regarde d a s secondar y symbols , bu t rathe r the fac t tha t a soldier' s uni t coul d functio n a s a primar y group , fulfilling th e soldier' s basi c organi c needs , supplyin g hi m wit h affection, an d providing a sense of power. 5 I assert tha t secondar y symbols offe r mor e o f a n explanatio n fo r th e performanc e o f noncombatant, WA C units suc h a s the 6888t h becaus e suc h unit s were generall y no t deprive d o f organi c needs , a s wer e comba t units. Members o f th e 6888t h wer e indee d motivate d b y a gran d cause. Living an d workin g o n a race- an d gender-segregate d mili tary installatio n i n Europ e wa s no t a central issu e fo r som e mem bers o f th e unit . Certainl y the y di d no t vie w themselve s a s a n inferior uni t i n an y way , an d nothin g i n th e interview s suggest s that the y wishe d t o b e raciall y integrate d a t tha t time . Al l o f th e interviewees spok e abou t th e 6888t h wit h a grea t dea l o f pride ; their uni t had a very special mission, not onl y for th e War Depart ment bu t fo r th e "Negr o race. " Janyc e Stoval l Taylo r refer s t o political, ideological , an d cultura l symbol s a s bein g th e drivin g force fo r th e member s o f th e unit to excel . We were a select group , and w e knew tha t the y [th e War Department ] picked th e eigh t hundred an d fifty-some of u s to g o [overseas ] becaus e we were among the best enlisted personnel. We were the best, and when I say best I don't mea n th e smartest o r anythin g like that . . . it's just a feeling tha t w e had. W e were continuall y tol d tha t onl y th e bes t blac k Wacs were going overseas, and that the eyes of the world were upon us. We were the first black Wacs to go overseas, and I suppose it was drilled into us . . . and we never intended to let an officer, o r anybody, fail. We never wanted anyon e to say that those black Wacs messed up when they were overseas. Similarly, remembering th e unit members' pride in their appear ance, Virgini a Lan e Frazie r states , "On e thin g abou t us—the y [the battalio n leaders ] mad e u s b e ver y nea t an d trim . Yo u neve r saw an y sloppy-lookin g blac k Wac . Nobod y eve r brok e th e rule . We al l looke d good. " Margare t Jackso n als o recall s tha t th e bat talion held firmly to its pride. Remembering tha t negative newspa -

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per article s occasionall y wer e writte n abou t th e 6888th , Jackso n says, We read articles , by Caucasian females , especially , who did not see m to want t o admi t the commendable work bein g done by a black unit. You must remember tha t w e were the first all-black uni t o f female s t o hav e gone abroad , an d fo r som e reason i t seeme d to me , to mos t o f u s who would discus s th e matter , tha t the y wer e jus t no t willin g to admi t ou r success. But we didn't worry about that. Cohesion, however , doe s no t alway s mea n tha t th e uni t ad vances th e interes t o f th e large r institution . Tamots u Shibutan i found tha t th e performance o f a Japanese America n uni t in Worl d War I I was poor althoug h th e integrit y o f th e unit wa s quit e high . Shibutani reache d th e followin g conclusion , amon g others : I f a leader i s define d b y th e uni t a s someon e wh o i s concerne d wit h the members ' well-being , th e member s wil l sacrific e fo r hi m o r her. Conversely , i f a leader i s defined a s someone wh o i s not thu s concerned, th e member s wil l no t sacrific e fo r hi m o r her. 6 Hence , another reaso n wh y member s o f th e 6888t h fulfille d thei r missio n of redirectin g mai l under stressfu l conditions , an d di d s o coopera tively, wa s effectiv e leadershi p o n th e par t o f th e battalion' s of ficers. As the testimonie s illustrate , th e leader s o f th e 6888t h behave d so as to demonstrat e commitmen t t o strengthenin g th e unit. Som e of th e wome n sai d tha t th e officer s showe d a genuin e interes t i n the persona l an d professiona l welfar e o f al l th e battalio n mem bers. W e lear n fro m Shibutan i tha t thes e element s o f leadershi p are essentia l i f subordinate s ar e t o b e willing t o wor k hard , striv e to improv e thei r skills , an d commi t themselve s t o th e mission . The battalio n commander , Majo r Charit y Adams , wa s indee d committed t o providin g th e resource s he r troop s neede d t o per form thei r missio n successfully . Major Adam s wa s als o committe d t o providin g th e wome n with item s fo r thei r persona l needs : "Wit h th e suppor t o f Maj . Margaret Philpot , ET O WA C Director , an d others , w e acquire d

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the items we needed, includin g straightenin g combs , marcel irons , special ga s burners , an d custome r chairs." 7 Thes e objects , use d for groomin g hair , wer e no t usuall y provide d fo r militar y units . Yet, becaus e o f specia l sensitivit y o n th e par t o f th e battalio n commander, member s o f th e 6888t h wer e abl e t o maintai n thei r personal appearanc e wit h littl e difficulty . Still, Majo r Adam s realize d tha t he r succes s a s a battalio n commander depende d o n th e cooperatio n o f al l o f th e wome n i n her unit : "Yo u canno t promot e yourself ; th e peopl e unde r yo u are th e one s wh o mov e yo u up. " Th e uni t member' s willingnes s to cooperat e an d t o mak e th e necessar y sacrifice s t o ge t th e jo b done ar e largel y attributabl e t o effectiv e leadershi p o n th e part o f the officers . Another reaso n fo r th e bon d amon g 6888t h member s i s tha t the uni t wa s self-sustaining ; member s depende d o n eac h othe r for suppor t services . Unlik e othe r WA C battalion s tha t serve d i n Europe, th e 6888t h wa s no t attache d t o a mal e uni t an d conse quently di d mor e tha n perfor m it s primary missio n o f redirectin g mail. Althoug h th e uni t wa s homogeneou s i n term s o f rac e an d gender, member s o f th e battalio n entere d th e military fro m differ ent regions of th e United State s and with varied work experiences , skills, and level s of education . Thi s heterogeneity allowe d th e uni t to functio n a s a comple x organization , relyin g o n it s member' s diverse skill s an d talents . Togethe r th e member s possesse d th e resources necessar y t o functio n efficientl y an d effectivel y a s a n independent organizatio n withi n th e militar y institution . Thi s combination o f divers e work experiences , various level s of educa tion, differen t geographica l origins , an d interdependenc e als o helps to explai n th e group's unity . In sum , al l indication s ar e tha t th e 6888t h wa s a cohesiv e unit. Ther e wer e n o seriou s disciplinar y problem s amon g grou p members, a s i n th e demoralize d uni t describe d b y Shibutani . O n the contrary , member s o f th e 6888t h reportedl y brok e previou s records for redistributin g mai l in Europe. Unit members als o were recognized fo r bein g well-groomed . Outsid e inspector s reporte d

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that th e unit' s quarter s wer e wel l maintained. 8 Thes e ar e indica tors o f cooperation , teamwork , an d hig h morale . Al l o f th e women interviewe d fo r thi s stud y clai m tha t th e 6888t h wa s united i n it s effort s t o perfor m it s missio n o f redirectin g mail , a s well a s in its struggle to overcom e racis m an d sexism . Social Conflict and Group Solidarity Collectively, Africa n America n organization s wer e th e drivin g force i n th e Wa r Department' s decisio n t o deplo y Africa n Ameri can Wac s overseas . O n on e sid e o f a metaphorica l negotiatin g table wer e th e Wa r Departmen t an d whit e officials , wh o uphel d the traditional norm s o f th e institution; o n th e other sid e were th e National Associatio n fo r th e Advancement o f Colore d People , the National Counci l o f Negr o Women , an d representative s o f blac k publications suc h a s th e Pittsburgh Courier, Chicago Defender, and The Crisis. 9 Th e overridin g etho s fo r thes e African America n reformists wa s tha t al l America n citizens , regardles s o f rac e o r gender, shoul d b e afforde d th e opportunit y t o participat e i n na tional defens e a t al l levels. Sometimes religiou s organizations suc h as th e Youn g Women' s Christia n Associatio n supporte d thes e struggles fo r racia l equality . Throug h th e effort s o f thes e groups , the Wa r Departmen t concede d an d directe d militar y official s o f the Europea n Theate r o f Operation s t o requisitio n blac k Wacs . Only the n wer e eigh t hundre d Africa n America n Wac s requisi tioned t o se t up hal f o f a central posta l directory. 10 An importan t poin t fo r th e presen t discussio n i s that th e initia l conflict surroundin g th e 6888t h wa s "realistic " (directe d towar d an end) an d was resolved afte r th e unit was deploye d t o Europe. 11 This struggle largely concerne d who would b e permitted t o participate in the war effor t oversea s an d unde r what conditions. Unlike the first contingen t o f whit e Waacs tha t wen t oversea s to Englan d in July 1943 , African America n Wacs were not authorize d t o serv e in th e Europea n Theate r o f Operation s unti l th e War Departmen t acquiesced t o sociopolitica l pressures . Hence , i t wa s conflic t tha t

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led t o thi s initia l change . Thi s observatio n i s consisten t wit h th e following propositio n o f socia l conflict theory : Where conflic t i s merel y a mean s determine d b y a superio r purpose , there i s n o reaso n t o restric t o r eve n avoi d it , provide d tha t i t ca n b e replaced b y othe r measure s whic h hav e th e sam e promis e o f success . Where, o n th e othe r hand , i t i s exclusivel y determine d b y subjectiv e feelings, wher e ther e ar e inne r energie s whic h ca n b e satisfie d onl y through fight, its substitution b y other means is impossible.12 Thus, th e conflic t abou t deployin g Africa n America n Wac s over seas wa s resolve d onc e th e 6888t h wa s formed . Th e 6888t h emerged a s a resul t o f "realistic " conflict , a mean s t o a n en d an d probably woul d no t hav e emerge d without it . This initia l conflic t ove r th e deploymen t o f Africa n America n Wacs was als o integrative i n the sens e that i t fostered cooperatio n between tw o opposin g groups : th e War Departmen t an d th e Afri can America n reformists . Thi s poin t i s als o expresse d i n th e fol lowing proposition o f conflic t theory : Conflict act s as a stimulus for establishing new rules, norms, and institutions, thu s servin g a s a n agen t o f socializatio n fo r bot h contendin g parties. . .. A s a stimulu s fo r th e creatio n an d modificatio n o f norms , conflict make s th e readjustmen t o f relationship s t o change d condition s possible.13 The conflic t abou t whethe r Africa n America n Wac s woul d serv e overseas di d no t violat e th e fundamenta l principle s o f th e Unite d States; on th e contrary, the struggle fo r racia l equalit y was consis tent with th e American idea l of democracy . Because of the genera l agreement abou t th e valu e o f democracy , ther e wa s roo m fo r compromise betwee n th e Wa r Departmen t an d blac k activists . The compromis e wa s tha t Africa n America n wome n woul d b e deployed overseas , bu t the y woul d b e require d t o serv e i n a race and gender-segregate d unit . As a consequenc e o f th e politica l debate , an d becaus e th e ver y establishment o f th e 6888t h modifie d th e traditiona l norm s o f the militar y institution , th e uni t wa s unde r constan t scrutiny .

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Sometimes th e targe t o f racia l o r gende r hostility , th e 6888t h was subjecte d t o variou s externa l pressures . Externa l pressures , however, helpe d t o unif y th e battalio n b y establishin g boundarie s between it s member s an d antagonisti c groups . A s Geor g Simme l states, On th e on e hand, th e group a s a whole may enter int o a n antagonisti c relation wit h a powe r outsid e o f it , an d i t i s becaus e o f thi s tha t th e tightening of the relations amon g its members and the intensification o f its unity, in consciousness and in action, occur. 14 Therefore, dissensio n abou t th e participation o f African America n women i n the WAAC/WAC i n general, an d abou t th e deploymen t of Africa n America n Wac s oversea s i n particular , helpe d t o bin d members o f th e 6888th . All o f th e unit' s member s wer e abl e t o identif y wit h rac e an d gender oppression ; consequentl y the y ha d create d a sanctuary , protecting eac h othe r fro m th e harsh effect s o f racis m an d sexism . Whether thes e pressure s wher e structural , suc h a s th e Ji m Cro w laws dictatin g tha t Africa n American s wer e to us e separate publi c facilities, o r personal , suc h a s th e harassmen t b y som e whit e American soldier s of members o f the 6888t h i n a British pub, the y created a stron g bon d amon g th e battalio n members . Thi s wa s demonstrated no t onl y b y th e members ' determinatio n t o brea k previous record s i n redirectin g mail , bu t als o b y thei r determina tion t o exce l i n othe r activitie s suc h a s marching , performin g i n the theater , participatin g i n sports , o r takin g colleg e classe s i n their fre e time . The y consciousl y performe d eac h o f thei r task s with unshakabl e pride . The members ' unite d fron t agains t rac e an d gende r discrimina tion i s portrayed throughou t thi s book . Civi l right s wer e byprod ucts o f th e thes e women's successfu l struggles . When member s o f the 6888t h perceive d tha t thei r huma n right s were bein g violated , they too k actio n t o facilitat e change . O n th e on e hand , th e strug gle fo r racia l equalit y explain s th e grou p solidarit y foun d amon g members o f th e 6888th . O n th e othe r hand , solidarit y help s t o

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explain th e conflict s i n whic h member s o f th e 6888t h wer e en gaged: "Whe n a particula r definitio n o f realit y come s t o b e attached t o a concrete power interest, it may be called an ideology . . . . Ever y grou p engage d i n socia l conflic t require s solidarity . Ideologies generat e solidarity." 15 Reconstructing Reality Another wa y o f viewin g th e solidarit y amon g member s o f th e 6888th i s i n term s o f thei r ideas . A basi c propositio n posite d b y proponents o f phenomenolog y i s that huma n though t arise s fro m a socia l context ; thu s realit y is socially constructed . Supporter s o f this approac h see k t o analyz e th e processe s b y whic h realit y i s constructed i n everyday life. Further, and significan t t o the presen t discussion, the y recogniz e tha t thi s proces s contain s a n elemen t of power . Not everyon e i n societ y participate s i n th e constructio n o f thought. A s Dorothy Smit h states , The makin g an d disseminatio n o f th e form s o f though t w e mak e us e of t o thin k abou t ourselve s an d ou r societ y ar e part o f th e relations of ruling an d henc e originat e i n position s o f power . Thes e position s o f power ar e occupie d b y me n exclusively , whic h mean s tha t ou r form s of though t pu t togethe r a vie w o f th e worl d fro m a plac e wome n d o not occupy. 16 In agreemen t wit h thi s view , Berge r an d Luckman n assert , "H e who ha s th e bigge r stic k ha s th e bette r chanc e o f imposin g hi s definitions o f reality." 17 Patrici a Hil l Collins , characterizin g th e peculiar for m o f dominatio n impose d o n Africa n America n women, distinguishe s betwee n dominatio n wit h affectio n an d domination withou t affection , Domination ma y b e eithe r crue l an d exploitativ e wit h n o affectio n o r may be exploitative yet coexist with affection . Th e former produce s the victim—in thi s case , th e Blac k woma n a s "mule " whos e labo r ha s been exploited. In contrast, the combination of dominance and affectio n

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produces th e pet, the individual wh o is subordinate bu t whose survival depends o n th e whim s o f th e mor e powerful . . . . Africa n America n women simultaneousl y embod y th e coexistenc e o f th e victi m an d th e pet, with survival often linke d to the ability to be appropriately subordinate as victims or pets.18 When thes e propositions ar e applie d t o a n analysi s of th e state ments an d archiva l document s reviewe d here , it i s clear tha t Afri can America n wome n wer e subjugate d an d subordinate d t o th e white male power structur e that existed in every American institu tion, an d especiall y i n th e Army . I t i s als o clea r tha t althoug h some o f th e African America n Wac s were "victims " an d expecte d to d o th e mos t menia l wor k withou t regar d fo r thei r skill s o r credentials, other s (includin g man y o f th e officers ) wer e treate d as "pets. " Members o f th e 6888t h reconstructe d thei r realit y whe n the y were deploye d t o Europe . Th e differenc e betwee n th e socia l envi ronment o f th e Unite d State s an d tha t whic h existe d i n Britai n and Franc e i n th e 1940 s i s central i n analyzin g th e process o f thi s reconstruction. Fo r mos t o f th e women i n this study, for example , Jim Cro w law s wer e th e nor m i n th e Unite d State s befor e thei r service, durin g thei r militar y service , an d fo r a shor t perio d afte r World Wa r II , whe n man y o f the m returne d t o th e civilia n world. 19 Al l institution s hav e wha t Berge r an d Luckman n cal l "recipe knowledge, " tha t whic h "supplie s th e institutionall y ap propriate rule s o f conduct." 20 Th e norm s o f reciprocit y betwee n white American s an d blac k American s wer e suc h tha t th e latte r were relegated a position o f inferiority . Thi s was manifeste d i n al l American institutions : labo r institution s reserve d th e leas t desir able jobs for Africa n Americans , medical institutions administere d the poorest healt h car e t o Africa n Americans , educational institu tions reserve d th e poores t facilitie s fo r Africa n Americans . I n a n effort t o survive , African American s wer e force d t o adher e t o th e standards o f rol e performanc e b y deferrin g t o whit e Americans . As on e glarin g exampl e o f Africa n Americans ' subordination , black adult s wer e expecte d t o addres s whit e childre n a s "Miss "

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and "Mister, " whil e whit e childre n addresse d blac k adult s b y their first names . As reflecte d i n th e historica l document s an d i n th e testimonie s of forme r member s o f th e 6888th , man y Africa n American s chal lenged th e dominan t viewpoin t o f th e 1940s , establishing alterna tive definition s o f thei r persona l identitie s an d thei r appropriat e social roles . These challenge s wer e displaye d i n the militar y i n th e form o f protest . Fo r example , a numbe r o f Africa n America n Wacs proteste d malassignment s i n militar y occupations . Whil e a few wer e victorious, many wer e labeled a s deviants an d viewed a s posing a threa t t o th e institutiona l orde r a s i t was ; ofte n the y resigned, were court-martialed, o r wer e forced int o submission . The Africa n America n Wac s wh o wer e deploye d t o Europ e found a societ y tha t supporte d thei r ideolog y o f racia l equality ; this support , i n turn , encourage d the m t o challeng e th e America n system o f dominatio n mor e ofte n an d wit h greate r intensity . I n the word s o f Berge r an d Luckmann , "I t i s on e thin g t o hav e some individuals around , eve n if they band togethe r a s a minorit y group, who canno t o r wil l no t abid e b y a n institutiona l rule . I t is quite anothe r thin g t o mee t a n entir e societ y tha t ha s neve r hear d of thi s rule , an d tha t nevertheles s seem s t o ge t alon g ver y wel l without it." 21 Racial discriminatio n di d no t exis t i n Englan d an d Franc e a s i t did i n th e United States . After receivin g s o many distorte d image s of Africa n American s fro m whit e America n soldier s statione d i n Europe, British peopl e bega n t o investigat e thos e allegations . Several o f m y interviewee s sai d tha t Britis h peopl e invite d the m t o their home s an d aske d the m t o remai n afte r midnigh t t o se e whether Black s ha d tails. 22 Elsi e Olive r recalls , "Childre n woul d ask us , 'I s i t tru e tha t i n you r countr y the y [whit e people ] kee p you peopl e [blac k people ] outsid e whil e the y ar e eating?' , an d I said, 'whateve r yo u rea d i s true.' " The rol e o f Africa n America n Wac s i n Europ e durin g Worl d War I I wa s radicall y differen t fro m thei r rol e i n civilia n societ y

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and a t dut y station s i n th e Unite d States , wher e a well-define d split labo r marke t existed : th e lowest, mos t undesirabl e job s wer e filled by African America n women. 23 In Europe all of the powerfu l positions in the battalion wer e filled by African America n women . The 6888th consiste d o f approximately 85 0 women, all of Africa n descent. All of the occupational positions, from a menial task suc h as "KP " (kitche n police ) t o th e mos t prestigiou s role , battalio n commander, wer e hel d b y blac k women . Becaus e th e uni t wa s segregated, th e battalion's livin g quarters , eatin g facilities , moto r pool, militar y police , administrativ e staff , an d so on , were com posed exclusivel y o f African America n women . Thi s was a radical departure fro m a n environment where practically al l of the power ful position s wer e hel d b y men of European descent . Bein g a selfcontained WA C battalio n i n Europe, the 6888th ha d what Berge r and Luckman n cal l a "plausibilit y structure, " on e in whic h the y could reconstruct thei r reality , redefine thei r roles , and circumvent relations with outsider s (individual s who would attemp t to subor dinate the m becaus e of race or gender). Major Adams , fo r example , whil e statione d i n Birmingha m encouraged the women unde r her command t o boycott the American Re d Cross' s hote l i n protes t o f tha t organization' s racia l segregation.24 Ye t he r activ e stan d agains t racia l segregatio n i n Europe contraste d oddl y wit h th e passive positio n sh e took whe n she was assigned t o the WAC Training Center . A s stated i n chapter 3 , Major Adam s replie d t o allegations o f racial discriminatio n in severa l facilitie s a t Fort De s Moines an d in the classroom wit h the declaratio n tha t sh e had foun d n o racia l discriminatio n a s a result o f he r investigation. 25 Whe n sh e was fre e fro m th e direc t rule o f a white mal e commandant , however , Majo r Adam s coul d take a mor e activ e positio n agains t racia l inequality . Sh e was the battalion commande r o f he r unit , an d thu s ha d th e libert y tha t was no t availabl e t o he r a t For t De s Moines becaus e he r realit y had changed . Although mos t of the women interviewe d fo r this stud y viewe d

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the resocialization proces s in basic training a s different fro m wha t they ha d known , an d eve n sometime s a s challenging , the y mos t often remembere d thei r life-alterin g experience s i n Englan d an d France. Th e roya l treatmen t member s o f th e 6888t h describ e receiving fro m th e Britis h no t onl y booste d thei r morale , bu t als o enhanced th e self-concept o f individua l members. Bertha Solomo n Walker says , "W e realize d tha t w e ha d self-worth , a righ t t o b e proud an d dignified . W e wante d peopl e abroa d t o kno w tha t w e were prou d t o b e blac k women , an d carrie d ourselve s a s such." 26 In Europ e the y wer e n o longe r treate d a s second-clas s citizens . Through thi s experienc e member s o f th e 6888t h gaine d a ne w perspective o n themselves . Man y o f th e respondent s ha d greate r expectations o f themselve s whe n the y lef t th e militar y tha n whe n they entere d th e service . How Far We've Come, How Far We've Got to Go Some o f th e Africa n America n wome n wh o remaine d i n th e mili tary afte r th e war misse d the camaraderi e the y had experience d i n the 6888th . Frustrate d b y th e margina l statu s the y acquire d i n desegregated units , som e Africa n America n wome n sai d tha t i n some respects , they preferre d servin g in a race- and gender - segre gated unit . Bernic e Thoma s recall s th e discomfor t experience d by Africa n America n wome n whe n th e Arm y wa s first desegre gated: When th e Arm y wa s desegregated , a lo t o f th e wome n [wh o ha d pre viously serve d i n th e 6888th ] wer e sorry . The y fel t bette r an d mor e comfortable wit h jus t being all Afro-Americans. The y didn't car e about being integrated . Som e o f m y friend s sai d whe n the y go t u p i n th e mornings, whe n w e wer e al l together , befor e th e integratio n . . . the y would put on their radios, they would b e dancing and singing, and just having a goo d time . Wherea s the y fel t tha t whe n w e wer e integrate d they couldn't d o that. An d anothe r thin g that som e of m y friends wer e concerned abou t was that when they straightened thei r hair, or washed their hair , the y didn' t wan t th e white girls t o se e them. . . . You know,

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we've alway s ha d thi s thin g abou t hair , an d tha t wa s on e thin g tha t annoyed them. . . . It's just like when I was in Harlem. I never knew that I was culturally deprived until someone came into Harlem and told me I was culturally deprived. I was very happy in my little ghetto in Harlem. Solidarity amon g Africa n America n Wac s bega n t o unrave l during th e earl y perio d o f racia l desegregatio n o f th e arme d forces. Changin g th e focu s t o whit e Wacs , desegregatio n force d black Wac s t o eithe r confor m t o th e dominan t rul e (behav e i n a way deeme d appropriat e b y whit e superordinates ) o r suppres s their behavio r (b e silenced) . I n th e process , th e Africa n America n Wac, i n relatio n t o he r whit e counterpart , wa s ofte n deprive d socially, politically , an d culturally ; sh e wa s expecte d t o fit th e Eurocentric imag e (i n regar d t o religiou s orientation , styl e o f dress, taste in music, hair style , cuisine, and s o on) that dominate d all American institutions . This feelin g o f powerlessnes s o n th e par t o f Africa n America n Wacs has bee n assuage d i n mor e recen t years a s racial an d gende r integration ha s becom e mor e o f a realit y i n th e arme d services . When aske d "Wha t d o yo u thin k woul d b e mos t surprisin g t o women servin g in the arme d service s today abou t you r experienc e on activ e duty? " (se e Item 36 , Appendix B) , several forme r mem bers o f th e 6888t h replie d a s Edit h Tyrel l did : "Well , th e wa y I look a t it , toda y they'v e go t i t made . They'r e no t segregated , an d they ca n probabl y mov e u p [i n rank ] faster. " Indeed , th e arme d forces toda y ar e not onl y racially integrated bu t als o integrated b y gender. I n mor e recen t year s th e arme d service s hav e expande d their boundaries , allowin g wome n t o compet e fo r al l militar y occupations excep t thos e involving direc t combat . The number o f African America n women servin g in the militar y . declined sharpl y afte r Worl d War II , as did the number o f militar y women i n general. In December 194 6 the strength o f the Women' s Army Corp s ha d falle n t o 9,655 ; i t di d no t excee d 12,00 0 agai n until 1970 , whe n th e numbe r o f wome n i n th e arme d service s began t o soar. 27 Tabl e 4 show s th e dro p i n th e numbe r o f blac k Wacs fro m 2,53 2 i n 194 3 t o 31 9 i n 1947 . Also show n i n tabl e 4

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Table 4. African America n Women in the Army from 194 3 to 199 6 Year

1943 1947 1951 1955 1959 1973 1977 1981 1985 1989 1993 1994 1995 1996

Number o f Officers

65 9 30 29 27 56 236 1,144 1,872 2,236 2,048 2,018 1,967 1,918

Number o f Enlisted

Total Number

Percent o f Al l Women in the Army

2,467 310 1,015 954 1,015 3,184 11,293 27,185 28,979 34,855 28,819 28,085 27,170 27,534

2,532 319 1,045 983 1,042 3,240 11,529 28,329 30,851 37,091 30,867 30,103 29,137 29,452

5.7 3.9 8.7 11.4 12.1 18.2 23.7 38.7 39.3 43.3 43.9 43.8 43.6 43.2

S O U R C E S : Matti e Treadwell , The Women's Army Corps, 777 ; Betti e Morden , The Women's Army Corps 1945-1978, 409-410 , 415; Defense Manpowe r Dat a Center , Washington, D.C . N O T E : Ther e were no statistic s maintaine d o n blac k personne l fro m 1961-1971 .

is tha t fro m 197 3 t o 198 9 th e numbe r o f Africa n America n women i n th e Arm y continuall y increased . In the 1970s , for th e first time in American history , the percent age o f Africa n America n wome n o n activ e dut y increase d mor e rapidly tha n tha t o f whit e wome n (th e percentag e o f Africa n American me n als o increase d rapidly) . Whil e th e numbe r o f women o n activ e dut y i n genera l increase d threefol d fro m 197 3 to 197 9 th e percentag e o f Africa n America n wome n increase d fivefold.28 Thi s unprecedente d expansio n i n th e representatio n o f African America n wome n i s i n star k contras t t o th e underrepre sentation o f Africa n America n wome n i n th e militar y durin g an d immediately followin g Worl d War I I (see table 4). In 194 3 Africa n American wome n comprise d 5. 7 percen t o f al l wome n i n th e Army; b y 199 3 thei r percentag e ha d soare d t o 43. 9 percent . Major factor s leadin g t o thi s expansio n wer e th e en d o f th e draf t and th e subsequen t declin e i n th e participatio n rat e o f middle class whit e males . Wit h th e onse t o f th e all-voluntee r forc e i n 1975, militar y organization s bega n t o heavil y recrui t minoritie s and wome n i n a n effor t t o hel p mee t personne l goals . Thi s wa s especially tru e i n 1979 , whe n th e Arm y fel l shor t o f it s man power objective. 29

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From 198 9 t o 199 5 th e numbe r o f Africa n America n wome n fell a s a resul t o f th e militar y drawdown . However , th e numbe r of blac k enliste d wome n increase d agai n i n 199 6 (se e table 4) . It appear s tha t effort s t o expan d opportunitie s fo r Africa n American wome n i n the militar y durin g World Wa r I I were no t i n vain. Today , a s i n th e Worl d Wa r I I period , ther e i s a heav y concentration o f African America n wome n i n the U.S. Army. Ove r the las t decade , however , th e proportion o f blac k enliste d wome n in the Army ha s decreased a s their proportion ha s increased i n th e Navy. Curren t dat a suppor t Edit h TyrelP s assumptio n tha t Afri can America n wome n ar e makin g ran k mor e rapidly . Whil e th e percentage o f Africa n America n wome n i n lowe r pa y grade s (El E4; private through corporal ) i s declining, it is increasing at highe r pay grade s (E5-E8 ; sergean t throug h maste r sergeant) . Th e per centage o f Africa n America n wome n i n pa y grade s 0 1 - 0 3 (sec ond lieutenan t throug h captain ) ha s bee n relativel y stabl e (a t 5 o r 6 percent ) ove r th e years , but representatio n ha s increase d amon g 0 4 s (majors ) fro m 0. 2 percen t i n 198 0 to 1. 0 percen t i n 199 0 an d has remaine d a t tha t level . The expansion o f military personnel boundarie s to include Afri can America n wome n reflect s bot h conflic t an d collectiv e action . Examples i n thi s boo k illustrat e tha t Africa n America n wome n sometimes succeede d i n their struggle fo r equa l rights . When thes e acts o f resistanc e wer e successful , th e resul t wa s ofte n a redefini tion o f norms . Africa n America n women' s entr y int o th e Arm y during Worl d Wa r I I an d thei r subsequen t deploymen t t o th e European Theate r o f Operation s marke d a significan t break through i n thei r opportunitie s t o serv e in the military. The dispro portionately larg e number s o f Africa n America n wome n i n th e armed service s suggest s tha t th e militar y offer s the m greate r em ployment opportunitie s tha n d o institution s i n the civilian sector . Still, th e overrepresentatio n o f Africa n American s i n th e mili tary ha s raise d som e ethica l an d politica l concerns . On e concer n is that th e disproportionately larg e black participatio n i n the mili tary woul d discourag e whit e participation . Som e peopl e hav e ar gued tha t a s the numbe r o f blac k militar y personne l increases , th e

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number o f white s ma y b e expecte d t o decrease. 30 Becaus e o f thi s country's ambivalen t attitude s towar d Africa n Americans , socia l groups suc h a s organizations , neighborhoods , an d school s hav e been devalued erroneousl y whe n the proportion o f African Ameri cans increases . Thi s wa s no t th e case , however , wit h th e U.S . military, whic h ha d begu n t o los e whit e mal e enrollmen t eve n before th e numbe r o f Africa n American s increased . Th e increase d enrollment o f Africa n American s wa s a n effec t an d no t a cause of the refusa l o f whit e middle-clas s me n t o serv e o n activ e duty . During th e 1970 s an d 1980 s Africa n American s i n general , an d African America n wome n i n particular , wer e joinin g th e militar y in disproportionatel y larg e number s becaus e the y wer e doin g a job tha t othe r segment s o f th e population di d no t want t o do . On th e othe r hand , som e observer s espous e th e counterargu ment tha t th e overrepresentatio n o f Africa n American s i n th e American arme d force s i s no t a caus e fo r alarm , bu t shoul d b e applauded becaus e i t i s a superio r alternativ e t o bein g unem ployed an d homeless . Several arguments supporting the overrepre sentation o f Africa n American s i n th e militar y followe d thi s lin e of reasonin g i n th e 1970 s an d 1980s. 31 Althoug h thes e view s appeared t o advocat e soun d remedie s t o unemploymen t i n th e short term , they neglected th e fundamental issu e of choice . Should unemployment b e th e onl y choic e ope n t o Africa n American s i n general an d Africa n America n wome n i n particular , othe r tha n enlisting i n th e America n arme d services ? What w e ar e witnessin g is too fe w caree r option s availabl e to Africa n America n wome n i n the civilia n sector . Give n th e recen t effort s o f th e service s (espe cially the Army) to reduce personnel, it is unlikely that the militar y will continu e t o b e a caree r opportunit y fo r a disproportionatel y large number o f Africa n America n women .

tt Epilogue They're fantastic ! They're breakin g al l of th e rules; the y have thei r lonnngg g cigarettes , thei r drinks ; an d they'r e talking abou t no t bein g abl e t o wal k bu t the y stil l d o everything. The y reall y have a fantastic spirit . —Lorraine Wes t

Birmingham Revisited In April 198 1 a few forme r member s o f th e 6888t h too k a nostal gic tri p bac k t o Englan d an d France . I n Birmingha m the y wer e greeted b y th e lor d mayor , Councillo r Josep h Bailey , wh o gav e a reception i n thei r honor . Afte r havin g lunc h wit h cit y officials , they were given a tour o f Birmingham. Essie Woods declares, "W e were treate d royally . . . . They rolle d ou t th e red carpe t fo r us ; we just weren' t expectin g al l that." 1 Th e wome n wer e als o me t b y British diplomat s i n London ; th e event s the y attende d ar e de scribed i n a newspape r article : "The y lunche d wit h Lor d Mayo r Colonel Si r Ronal d Gardner-Thorp e an d Brigadie r Directo r Ann e Fields, th e hea d o f th e Women' s Roya l Arm y Corp s i n London . Later the y dine d wit h Edwin a Coven , Deput y Chairma n Magis trate o f Londo n an d membe r o f th e Cour t o f Commo n Council. 2 Dorothy Bartlet t report s tha t the y als o visite d Franc e o n thei r trip: "I n a few word s i t was lovely , an d I enjoyed it . We went no t 199

Epilogue

200

only t o England , bu t w e went als o to Franc e while we were there . Everyone was lovely t o us. " Lavinia Johnson recalls : We were very well received and welcomed. In England we had a wonderful time . We visited th e old Kin g Edward Schoo l in Birmingham wher e we were once billeted, and they really received us very well. We went to Paris—we didn' t ge t t o Rouen , wher e w e were als o stationed , bu t w e did go to Paris, and we had a very nice time there. They had planned a wonderful guide d tou r o f th e city . We had tim e t o shop , an d w e ha d time to take a boat ride down the Seine. Reuniting Today, fifty year s afte r th e uni t wa s founded , man y member s o f the 6888t h sta y i n touc h an d participat e i n reunions . I n 197 9 Mary Rozie r organize d a reunio n o f al l forme r member s o f th e 6888th Centra l Posta l Director y Battalion , whic h wa s hel d a t Stouffer's Cincinnat i Towers . I n subsequen t year s man y o f th e members participated , an d continu e t o participate , i n th e Blac k WAAC-WAC Wome n i n th e Service s Biennia l Reunions . Th e fac t that som e o f th e unit' s member s continu e t o write eac h othe r an d to atten d reunion s mor e tha n fifty year s afte r th e wa r suggest s that th e group indee d wa s cohesive . The ver y first Blac k Wa c Reunio n wa s organize d b y a group o f African America n wome n veteran s wh o had serve d in the militar y during an d shortl y afte r Worl d Wa r I I an d wa s hel d i n Texa s i n 1981. Charit y Adam s Earle y wa s th e gues t speake r o f th e sixt h reunion, i n Ne w Yor k Cit y i n 1988 . Sinc e th e lat e 1980 s thes e reunions hav e include d Africa n America n wome n i n th e contem porary arme d services . Th e meetings , whic h usuall y las t fou r t o eight days , begi n wit h registratio n an d a n informa l socia l hour . On th e evenin g of th e first da y a welcoming receptio n i s generall y held. Eac h o f th e followin g day s begin s wit h a breakfast ; th e schedule usuall y include s tim e t o discus s business , a s wel l a s several tours t o majo r attraction s o f th e city where th e conferenc e occurs. Eac h reunio n feature s a forma l banque t wit h a gues t

Epilogue

201

speaker an d end s wit h a candleligh t memoria l servic e fo r th e African America n women veterans who have died since the last reunion. I attende d th e eight h biennia l reunio n i n Orlando , Florida , i n September 1992 . Th e reunio n wa s schedule d fo r eigh t days : fou r days a t th e luxurious Stouffe r Resor t i n Orland o an d fou r aboar d the cruis e shi p Carnival. Th e even t bega n wit h th e usua l registra tion, including packets with mementos , a souvenir journal, knitte d coasters, variou s advertisements , an d severa l knick-knacks . Th e first evening ended wit h a jubilant welcomin g reception , complet e with a dance band . On th e followin g day , afte r breakfas t i n on e o f th e restaurant s at th e hotel , w e hel d a busines s meeting . I wa s introduce d a s a new member , havin g serve d i n th e militar y fo r si x year s i n th e 1970s, and a s a professor doin g research o n th e 6888th . Afte r th e meeting severa l forme r member s o f th e 6888t h approache d th e table where I sat an d introduce d themselves . On th e evenin g o f th e thir d da y a forma l banque t wa s hel d i n one o f th e ballroom s a t th e hotel . Th e gues t speake r wa s a n African America n woma n wh o ha d jus t retire d fro m th e Arm y a s a sergean t first clas s afte r twent y year s o f service . Brig . Gen . Clara L . Adams-Ender, a veteran o f thirty-tw o year s an d th e first woman t o b e awarde d th e Exper t Fiel d Medica l Badge , als o spoke. The fou r day s a t th e Stouffe r ende d wit h a candleligh t memo rial, durin g whic h on e o f th e member s playe d "Taps " o n th e harmonica. Anothe r membe r rea d th e names of fifty-three Africa n American wome n veteran s wh o ha d died , includin g th e thre e black wome n wh o wer e kille d i n th e lin e o f dut y durin g th e Gul f War. Althoug h som e o f u s di d no t boar d th e Carnival wit h th e rest o f th e group, I received wor d tha t the y had a wonderful time .

Appendix A

Interviewees

Mattie Jackson Alle n

Birthplace

Interviews b y Autho r

Sycamore, 111.

Fort McClellan, Ala. , 30 May 199 2

Gladys Thomas Anderso n Shreveport

, La .

Fort McClellan, Ala. , 14 May 199 2

Margaret Barbou r

Seaford, Va .

Los Angeles, 14 June 199 2

Tessie O'Bryant Bar r

Augusta, Ga .

Ecorse, Mich. , 29 May 199 2

Dorothy A . Gee Bartlett Newark

, N.J .

Detroit, 2 7 May 1992 , 16 October 199 4

Sadie Moore Belche r

Atlanta, Ga .

Mattapan, Mass. , 1 2 January 199 1

Elaine Smith Bennet t

Madison, Fla .

Cambridge, Md., 3 0 May 199 2

Dorothy Hutchin s Carte r Portsmouth Gladys Schuste r Carte r Brooklyn Enid Clar k

, Va . , N.Y .

Boston, Mass . 205

Baltimore, 1 May 199 4 Orlando, Fla., 2 5 September 199 2 Daly City , Calif., 2 7 May 199 2

Appendixes

206 Birthplace

Interviews b y Autho r

Cleopatra Evan s Coh n

Memphis, Tenn .

Tulsa, 25 July 199 3

Allie Love Davi s

Colbert, Okla .

Colbert, Okla. , 2 8 March 199 3

Sammye Trail Davi s

Cottage Grove , Ala.

Los Angeles, 6,12 Jun e 1992

Vernelle Hannah Davi s

Savannah, Ga .

Fort McClellan, Ala., 1 6 May 199 2

Charity E . Adams Earley Columbia

, S.C .

Arlington, Va. , 6,1 0 June 199 2

Elizabeth Patterso n Eastma n Nashville

, Tenn .

Los Angeles, 21 June 1992

Dorothy Elli s Bernadine Frazier Flannaga n Ke

Carver, 111. y West, Fla .

Chicago, 26 Octobe r 1994 New London , Conn. , 3 1 October 199 4

Evelyn Fra y

Brooklyn, N.Y .

Jamaica, N.Y., 2 3 March 199 3

Virginia Lan e Frazie r

Minneapolis, Minn .

San Jose, Calif., 3 0 March, 2 9 July 199 3

Ruth Hammon d

Louisville, Ky.

Roxbury, Mass. , 1 2 January 199 1

Margaret Jackso n

Selma, Ala.

Washington, D.C. , 9 July 199 3

Dorothy Johnso n

Dubbin, Ga .

Orlando, Fla., 1 1 July 1993

Frances Pickett Johnso n

St. Louis, Mo.

New Orleans , 2 5 October 199 2

Lavinia Lower y Johnso n

Sterling, Kans.

Fort McClellan , Ala., 1 4 May 1992 ; Detroit , 16 October 199 4

Dorothy Daile y Jones

Richmond, Va .

Sommerville, Mass., 3 0 October 199 4

Appendixes

207 Birthplace

Interviews b y Autho r

Margaret Barne s Jones

Oberlin, Ohi o

Alexandria, Va. , 30 Ma y 1992; Orlando , Fla. , 16, 25 Septembe r 1992

Gertrude Crus e LaVign e

Jacksonville, Ala .

Anchorage, 23 Januar y 1991

Mildred Dupe e Leonar d

Charleston, W.V .

Detroit, 3 June 199 2

Odessa Taylo r Marshal l

Stanton, Tenn .

Los Angeles, 6 June 1992

Mary McBrid e Chicago

, 111.

Lucille Johnson Mcjimpse y Washington A. Noel Campbel l Mitchel l Tuskegee

, D.C . , Ala.

Chicago, 8 May 199 2 Washington, D . C , 2 2 February 199 1 Tuskegee, Ala., 1 2 January 1991 , 30 January, 2 Februar y 1992

Elsie Olive r

Burkeville, Va.

Boston, 1 April 1991 , 12 November 199 3

Christine Ston e Pinkne y

Washington, D.C .

Washington, D . C , 2 June 199 2

Ardella Pitt s

Augusta, Ga .

Washington, D . C , 2 2 May 199 2

Mary Crawfor d Raglan d

Atlanta, Ga .

Washington, D . C , 1 9 August 199 3

Myrtle Rhode n

New York , N.Y .

Orlando, Fla. , 2 5 September 1992 ; Charlotte, N . C, 1 2 November 199 3

Mary Rozie r

Danville, Ky.

Cincinnati, 1 8 Januar y 1991

Blanche Scot t

Boydton, Va.

Alexandria, Va., 1 9 January 199 1

Appendixes

208 Birthplace

Interviews b y Autho r

Kitty Bowden Smit h

Hampton, Va .

Anna M . Tarry k

Brooklyn, N.Y .

South Bend , Ind., 2 2 February 199 1 Philadelphia, 1 9 July 1993

Janyce Stovall Taylo r

Philadelphia, Pa .

Philadelphia, 3 Marc h 1993

Bernice Thoma s

New York , N.Y .

Berkeley, Calif., 30 July 1993

Edith Armstrong Tyrel l

New York , N.Y .

St. Albans, N.Y., 3 June 1992

Ruth Wad e

Jackson, Tenn .

Detroit, 6 July 199 3

Johnnie Walto n

Hempsted, Tex .

Hempsted, Tex. , 1 9 July 1993

Willie Whitin g

Chicago, 111.

Chicago, 6 May 199 2

Mary Daniel s William s

Cleveland, Ohi o

Cincinnati, 1 8 January 1991, 1 9 June 199 3

Essie O'Bryant Wood s

Augusta, Ga .

Detroit, 3 June 199 2

Ruth Jefferson Wrigh t

Yellow Springs, Ohi o

Orlando, Fla., 2 6 September 199 2

Appendix B

Survey of Members of the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion5I

Veteran's Name . Date o f Birt h Rank & Positio n Hel d wit h 6888t h . Current Address . Telephone Number . Today's Dat e

Questions for Women Who Served in the 6888th Let's Talk abou t You r Life befor e Militar y Servic e 1. Would yo u briefl y describ e your lif e befor e yo u entere d th e military ? For example : a. Where were you born ? b. Did yo u liv e with you r biologica l parent s o r othe r relative s whe n you were a child? c. How man y brother s an d sister s did you have ? T h i s surve y wa s prepare d b y Dr . Brend a L . Moore , Departmen t o f Sociology , Stat e University o f Ne w Yor k a t Buffalo, Buffalo , N.Y . 14260 . Th e informatio n receive d fro m respondents will b e used only fo r the study of women i n the military.

211

Appendixes

212 d. What typ e of wor k di d your parent s do ?

e. Would you describ e your famil y a s being closely knit?. Please explain: f. Wher e di d yo u liv e before enterin g th e militar y an d wha t wa s lif e like for a young woman o f Africa n descen t there? g. How man y year s of educatio n di d you complet e befor e goin g int o the military? h. What wa s your occupatio n befor e goin g into the military? i. Did yo u receiv e specia l trainin g fo r th e wor k yo u di d befor e joining the military? j . Wha t wa s your marita l statu s when yo u entere d th e military? k. Additional comments : 2. What wer e some of the reasons tha t you joine d th e military ? 3. Ho w ol d wer e you whe n yo u went int o the military? 4. Where were you inducte d int o th e military ? 5. What year s were you o n activ e duty? 6. Did yo u marr y whil e you wer e on activ e duty? 7. Did yo u hav e an y dependent s othe r tha n yoursel f whil e you were o n active 8. Where di d you g o for basi c training? 9. After basi c trainin g wer e yo u traine d i n a specifi c militar y occupa tion? I f yes, which occupationa l field were you traine d in and wher e 10. Describe you r experience s a t you r basi c training statio n an d a t you r advanced trainin g station . Fo r example : a. To wha t exten t wer e activ e dut y wome n separate d fro m activ e

Appendixes

213

duty me n (di d they house , socialize, eat an d work i n separat e facilities)? b. To wha t exten t wer e activ e dut y blac k wome n separate d fro m active duty white women (di d they house, socialize, eat, an d wor k in separate facilities ) ? c. Additional comments : 11. Wher e wa s you r permanen t dut y statio n afte r militar y training ? 12. What occupatio n wer e yo u assigne d t o a t you r permanen t dut y sta tion? 13. Briefly describ e you r experience s a t you r permanen t dut y station . For example : a. To wha t exten t wer e activ e dut y wome n separate d fro m activ e duty me n (di d the y house , socialize , eat , an d wor k i n separat e facilities) ? b. To wha t exten t wer e activ e dut y blac k wome n separate d fro m active duty white women (di d they house, socialize, eat, an d wor k in separat e facilities ) ? c. Additional comments : 14. Did yo u personall y experienc e racia l o r gende r discriminatio n i n th e military? I f th e answe r i s yes, then describ e ho w yo u were discriminate d agains t an d ho w yo u cope d wit h discrimination .

Let's Tal k abou t You r Experience s with th e Six-Triple-Eight h 15. Describe th e training tha t th e grou p receive d t o prepare fo r oversea s duty. 16. How wer e yo u treate d b y whit e Unite d State s militar y personne l when yo u wer e i n Englan d an d Franc e durin g th e war ?

214

Appendixes

17. How wer e yo u treate d b y Africa n America n me n i n unifor m whe n you wer e overseas durin g World War II ? 18. How wer e yo u treate d b y the Britis h an d th e Frenc h whil e you wer e overseas durin g World War II ? 19. What socia l activitie s wer e availabl e t o member s o f th e 6888th ; di d you tak e advantag e o f thos e activities ? 20. What ar e som e o f th e thing s tha t yo u an d you r friend s oversea s shared i n common ? 21. Briefl y describ e the type of work yo u di d when yo u wer e assigne d t o the 6888t h 22. What wer e som e o f th e difficulties , i f any , i n carryin g ou t th e as signed dutie s o f th e 6888th ? 23. Wha t wa s moral e lik e among the member s o f th e 6888th ? If moral e wa s high , the n wha t kind s o f thing s di d member s o f th e 6888th d o t o keep their spirit s high? 24. Were rewards , suc h a s promotions , an d punishments , suc h a s dis missals, distributed fairl y withi n th e 6888t h Battalion ? Please explain 25. In your opinion , ho w di d the 6888t h perfor m a s a unit? 26. D o yo u hav e a scra p boo k o f you r militar y experience s whil e yo u were assigne d t o th e 6888th ? I f yes , ma y I mak e arrangements t o look a t it ? Let's Discus s W h a t I t Wa s Lik e Whe n Yo u Reentere d th e Civilian Worl d 27. Di d you r militar y servic e hel p yo u t o advanc e educationall y and/o r occupationally? Pleas e explain

Appendixes

215

28. Hav e yo u receive d a colleg e degre e and/o r vocationa l certificat e since yo u lef t th e military ? Wha t i s your highes t leve l of education ? 29. a . What wer e som e o f th e job s yo u hel d whe n yo u wer e discharge d from th e Army? b. I f you ar e not currentl y employed , what was the title of your mos t recent job? c. Briefly describ e what typ e of wor k yo u di d 30. Hav e yo u participate d i n an y for m o f communit y servic e o r volun teer work sinc e you lef t th e military ? 31. D o yo u fee l tha t you r militar y experienc e wa s a turnin g poin t i n your life ? I f yes, how? What wer e som e [other ] turnin g points i n your life ? 32. What ar e (were) som e persona l benefit s fro m bein g a forme r mili tary person? 33. What ar e (were ) som e persona l disadvantage s fo r havin g serve d i n the Unite d State s military? 34. D o yo u thin k tha t you r servic e experience woul d hav e been differen t had yo u bee n o f Europea n descent ? Pleas e explain . 35. Were trainin g experience s i n th e militar y helpfu l i n you r subsequen t work career ? 36. What d o yo u thin k woul d b e mos t surprisin g t o wome n servin g i n the arme d service s toda y abou t you r experienc e o n activ e duty ? 37. What doe s citizenship mea n t o you? 38. Hav e you eve r had a reunion wit h wome n o f the 6888th ? 39. Ove r th e years have you receive d G.I . benefits fo r education ? Did yo u ear n a degree with G.I . benefits ? 40. Ove r th e year s hav e yo u receive d G.I . benefit s fo r buyin g a house ?

216

Appendixes

41. Ove r th e years have you receive d G.I . benefit s fo r healt h care ? 42. Considerin g th e mos t influentia l event s i n you r life , wher e woul d you place military servic e as an influence o n the person you ar e now ? [least influential = 1 , most influentia l = 10 ] 43. D o yo u hav e an y problem s toda y tha t ar e du e t o you r militar y service suc h a s nightmares , depression , nervousness , an d th e like ? 44. Ar e yo u willin g t o spea k candidl y abou t sexua l orientatio n amon g unit members ? I f yes, a. Were there lesbian s in the unit? I f yes, b. Was ther e an y tensio n i n th e uni t du e t o th e presenc e o f lesbians ? c. Were lesbian s treate d unfairl y becaus e o f thei r sexua l orienta tion? d. Was th e missio n o f th e 6888t h impaire d becaus e o f th e presenc e of lesbians ?

Appendix C

Roster Containing Names, Ranks, and Serial Numbers of 742 6888th Members

Compiled fro m S O # 8 9 (3/30/45) , S O #1 8 (5/30/45) , an d S O # 8 4 (10/12/45) , Personnel Record s Office , St . Louis, Mo .

Officers (31) *MAJ Charity E. Adams, L201378 *CAPT Abbi e N . Campbell , L402518 CAPT Mildred E. Carter, LI 15021 CAPT Vera A. Harrison, L500024 CAPT Mary F. Kearney, L125005 *1ST LT Margare t F . Barnes, L500995 1ST LT Doris N. Cable, L500022 1ST LT Willa Cherry, L600718 *1ST L T Mildre d V . Dupee, L500418 1ST LT Fannie A. Griffin, L20010 9 1ST LT Bernice G. Henderson, L501504 1ST LT Violet Hill, L600015

ST LT Catherine G. Landry, L303726 f lST L T Blanche L . Scott, L30357 6 1ST LT Dorothy H. Scott, L600932 1ST LT Corrie S. Sherard, L402006 1ST LT Ella B. Tatum, L800726 1ST LT Vashti B. Tonkins, L308032 1ST LT Julia H. Williams, L402781 2ND LT Hazel E. Craddock, L702373 2ND LT Lillian Duncan, L402584 2ND LT Alice E. Edwards, L900401 2ND LT Bertie M. Edwards, L204945 2ND LT Vivian N. Elzie, L304676 2ND LT Frances Flatts, L201378

Note: Onl y forty-tw o o f th e interviewee s ar e liste d i n thi s roster . Thei r name s ar e designated b y an asterisk (*) .

219

Appendixes

220 2ND L T Merceedees A . Jordan, L200271 2ND L T Elfreda S . LeBeau, L80148 0 2ND L T Calonia V . Powell, L801525

2ND L T Julia A . Rich, L310886 3 2ND L T Gussye D. Stewart , L1000500 2ND L T Aubrey A. Stokes, L1000267

Enlisted (711) M Sg t Tommie Berry, A70121 6 1st Sgt Cleopatra Daniels , A40250 7 T Sg t Mary Buster , A30677 2 S Sgt Catherine Brown , A100002 6 S Sgt Juanita Goodloe , A80245 0 S Sgt Marseleana Goodwin , A202561 S Sgt Norene Harris , A50142 8 S Sgt Jerreli Lawrence , A80197 7 S Sgt Annie Lawson , A80464 4 S Sgt Fannie Little, A41103 5 S Sgt Ruby McClung , A82120 3 S Sgt Ina McRae , A20100 8 S Sgt Gertrude Rose , A20272 9 *S Sg t Elain e Smith , A40764 4 S Sgt Amanda Thomas , A50419 3 S Sgt Birdie Tillman, A80580 7 S Sgt Eunice Williams, A3054 6 Tec 3 Mattie Garrett , A20046 5 Sgt Dolores Browne, A12544 8 Sgt Gladys Brumfield, A40249 3 Sgt Lillian Butterfield, A22137 6 Sgt Gladys Clayton , A40088 9 Sgt Rhode Daniel , A30598 5 Sgt Liddie Duncan, A80525 8 Sgt Mary Ebo , A21614 3 Sgt Erma Fifer , A61083 9 Sgt Dolores Gray , A31087 7 Sgt Gertrude Hall , A100057 7 Sgt Rosa Harris , A40563 9

'Sgt Matti e Jackson , A100077 8 Sgt Anne Johnson, A40040 1 Sgt Cecelia Kelly , A30372 8 Sgt Catherine King , A30509 7 Sgt Marion Lawrence , A3 08 63 9 Sgt Lucille Lewis, A80980 4 Sgt Vivian Mazyck , A40114 9 Sgt Ruby McClung , A81120 3 Sgt Stella Patillo, A30500 4 Sgt Louisa Penny , A3 08 725 Sgt Annie Reed, A40901 5 Sgt Bernyce Scott, A50456 7 Sgt Sallie Smith, A50528 6 Sgt Pettie Smith, A70169 8 Sgt Vernie Smith, A70654 0 Sgt Dorothy Tabb , A81141 7 "Sgt Bernic e Thomas , A20723 9 Sgt Marcell Wilson , A30868 5 Sgt Alice Woodson, A51409 0 Sgt Ruth Wyatt , A50424 7 Sgt Vivian Young , A30252 0 Tec4 Alice Allison, A30981 6 Tec4 Annetta Batiste , A80137 6 Tec4 Addie Campbell , A41203 1 Tec4 Mamie Doss , A60295 2 Tec4 Mercelene Fairgood , A40289 6 Tec4 Marilyn Gill , A50149 2 Tec4 Creadell Haley , A60098 8 Tec4 Minnie Lackey , A40159 3 Tec4 Maggie Latta , A40550 9

Appendixes

221

Tec4 Edith Linzey , A22014 7 Cpl Dorothy Howard , A80197 9 Tec4 Ethel Loving , A20280 0 Cpl Madelyn Hudgins , A60715 7 Tec4 Evelyn Martin, A21752 0 Cpl Edna Jackson, A20137 4 Tec4 Alma Minter , A100017 1 Cpl Jewell Jackson, A80561 1 Tec4 Mattie Moorhead, A90053 0 Cpl Mary Jackson, A 3 03164 Tec4 Lucia Pitts , A61120 7 *Cpl Rut h Jefferson , A52146 3 Tec4 Bessie Robinson, A20348 5 Cpl Haze l Jennings, A30843 5 Tec4 Florence Scales , A70814 1 Cpl Willie Jewett, A80239 3 Tec4 Myke Smith, A30957 6 Cpl Willene Johnson, A22100 1 Tec4 Rose Stuart , A81037 9 *Cpl Virgini a Lane , A100026 1 Cpl Marion Mackey , A40087 4 *Tec4 Odess a Taylor , A70012 5 Cpl Eddye Maddox, A60327 7 Cpl Lov e Anderson, A31089 3 Cpl Charlott e McCullum , A81321 4 Cpl Bernice A. Augustine, A20197 9 Cpl Pearlin e McKell, A70048 0 Cpl Lena Bell , A31160 7 Cpl Elizabeth Moore , A31562 7 Cpl Theresa Bell , A80490 2 Cpl Jennie Moton, A30878 7 Cpl Jennetta Blythe , A50172 4 Cpl Mable Nevels , A70322 2 Cpl Alberta O'Bradley , A70346 6 Cpl Luci e Ownes , A20313 0 Cpl Lucille Brooks, A40703 6 Cpl Alma Philpot , A31888 0 Cpl Marjorie Brown , A20528 1 Cpl Theodore Bryant , A20327 3 *Cpl France s Pickett , A80509 3 Cpl Irma Campbell , A100014 2 Cpl Elouise Pinkney A40708 5 Cpl Irene Carr,A30871 1 Cpl Louise Reid , A20610 4 Cpl Edith Carter , A22536 0 Cpl Rut h Riddick , A30844 1 Cpl Virgie Caywood, A81146 4 Cpl Florida Robey , A81044 8 Cpl Alberta Coleman , A52135 3 Cpl Gertrud e Sessoms , A70015 2 Cpl Susan Crabtree , Al00052 3 Cpl Dannie Singleton , A40089 4 Cpl Bennye Daniels, A51402 4 Cpl Calli e Smith, A20292 9 Cpl Elizabeth DeWitt , A50639 5 *Cpl Christin e Stone , A100073 1 Cpl Daisy Dinkins, Al 000448 Cpl Hele n Streibling , A30007 5 Cpl Blanche Logan , A50231 5 Cpl Jennie Turner, A31400 0 Cpl Lorene r Ford , A12592 6 *Cpl Johnni e Walton , A81052 1 Cpl Jessie Godboldte, A31141 2 Cpl Clar a Webb, A51405 6 Cpl Martha Goddard , A40242 3 Cpl Lauretta Wray , A22540 8 Cpl Flora Grace , A40183 3 Tec5 Henrietta Adam , A52173 9 *Cpl Rut h Hammond , A52168 6 Tec5 Amelia Akers , A30979 4 Cpl Constanc e Hernandez , A l 16907 Tec5 Luvenia Allen , A40965 4 Cpl Louis e Heyward, A100098 9 Tec5 Novella Auls , A40856 0 Cpl Florine Hill, A40242 4 Tec5 Adeline Bell, A31127 5

222 Tec5 Betty Bowen, A60508 8 Tec5 Annie Braceful, A60076 1 Tec5 Or a Bragg , A90071 4 Tec5 Ruth Brown , A80183 6 Tec5 Edna Burton , A40090 7 Tec5 Glori a Carr , A60507 2 Tec5 Beverly Carrington, A l 17157 Tec5 Dare Charlet , A80488 8 Tec5 Florence Cole , A80239 0 Tec5 Madeleine Coleman , A20154 8 Tec5 Dorothy Cox , A70127 7 *Tec5 Gertrud e Cruse , A50129 9 *Tec5 Mar y Daniels , A50116 1 Tec5 Millie Dunn, A40039 9 Tec5 Evelyn Eiland, A61084 0 Tec5 Isabella Evans , A30394 8 Tec5 Vernice Evans, A81113 9 Tec5 Bessie Foster, A40916 2 Tec5 Christe l George , A40289 7 Tec5 Arena Glover , A30535 4 Tec5 Cecili a Goldsby , A60519 6 Tec5 Helen Gould , A100084 8 Tec5 Marie Hairston , A52170 0 Tec5 Nellie Harmon, A50647 7 Tec5 Velma Hayes , A50487 6 Tec5 Loraine Hinton , A61083 8 Tec5 Luella Holbert , A70516 6 Tec5 Helen Holmes , A30996 5 Tec5 Ernestine Hughes , A80208 1 *Tec5 Doroth y Hutchins , A30850 1 Tec5 Emma Jacobs, A81160 3 Tec5 Frances Jefferson, A30894 1 Tec5 Catherin e Johnson, A50674 1 Tec5 Martha Johnson, A80513 3 Tec5 Elaine Jones, A30469 2 Tec5 Annie Lawson, A80466 4 Tec5 Katherin e Lee , A30860 4 Tec5 Rut h Lottier , A50440 1

Appendixes Tec5 Jeanette Martin , A50603 8 Tec5 Genev a McRae , A20379 5 Tec5 Mary Medley , A30957 3 Tec5 Lottie Mills, A20421 4 Tec5 Mary Monroe , A30035 5 Tec5 Mildred Montgomery , A810483 Tec5 Mary Moody , A20297 9 Tec5 Jeanetta Moorhead , A40278 2 Tec5 Georgiana Morton , A22057 3 Tec5 Ruby O'Brien , A90399 9 *Tec5 Essi e O'Bryant , A40709 6 Tec5 Mablyne Ortiz , A80044 7 Tec5 Doris Paige, A40167 2 *Tec5 Elizabet h Patterson , A60494 7 Tec5 Gold a Patton , A70169 7 Tec5 Jewel Rettig , A80239 5 *Tec5 Myrtl e Rhoden , A20259 7 Tec5 Velma Riddick , A20557 5 Tec5 Beulah Robinson , A20449 0 Tec5 Hazel Russell , A50024 0 Tec5 Edna Sanders , A20589 1 Tec5 Lera h Saunders , A52173 1 Tec5 Annett Simmons , A80130 9 Tec5 Henrie Smith , A40708 3 Tec5 Mary Smith , A40340 2 Tec5 Thelma Smith , A50077 4 Tec5 Doris Stewart , A20057 5 Tec5 Viola Suarez , A90046 7 Tec5 Fannie Talbert, A100110 2 Tec5 Georgia Tivis , A70122 5 Tec5 Mary Walker , A20585 5 Tec5 Hazel Washington, A70133 4 Tec5 Lelia Watkins, A50062 4 Tec5 Essie Watts, A41103 7 Tec5 Shirley Wearye, A60505 1 Tec5 Theada Woddle , A70811 0 Tec5 Leola Wheat, A40222 1

Appendixes Tec5 Valma White, A80104 3 Tec5 Allie Williams, A80588 2 Tec5 Dorothy Williams , A30683 3 Tec5 Bessie Willis, A60298 9 Tec5 Levonia Woodward, A60217 7 Tec5 Edna Zeigler , A80586 0 Pfc Bettie Albert, A61021 4 Pfc Sallie Alexander, A41075 9 Pfc Dorothy Allen , A30864 8 Pfc Hazel Allen, A80786 3 Pfc Margie Amis, A20428 3 Pfc Margaret Anderson , A20457 7 Pfc Velma Arkward , A22152 2 Pfc Ella Armstrong, A60764 7 Pfc Mary Artist , A31118 6 Pfc Gladys Avant, A22156 1 Pfc Alva Bacote, A100060 0 Pfc Myrtle Baker, A40325 3 Pfc Mary Bankston , A20794 9 *Pfc Margare t Barbour , A31558 9 Pfc Elizabeth Barker , A40561 9 Pfc Crinne Barksdale, A40965 3 Pfc Geraldine Beaumont, A60627 5 Pfc Laura Bias , A13519 3 Pfc Bridget Bivens, A51418 0 *Pfc Kitt y Bowden , A30874 5 Pfc Hettie Boyce, A50424 5 Pfc Herlene Bradsher, A40717 1 Pfc Phyllis Branch, A20073 6 Pfc Lillie Bratcher, A30845 8 Pfc Emma Brock , A50180 7 Pfc Dorothy Brown , A41253 5 Pfc Susie Brown, A50514 4 Pfc Vivian Brown , A50711 0 Pfc Louise Bruce, A40966 8 Pfc Vyvyanne Bugg, A31283 4 Pfc Annie Burrell, A40966 8 Pfc Lillian Cabbell , A20463 3

223 Pfc Marcella Canty , A20718 4 Pfc Arlethea Cawthorne , A52185 1 Pfc Frances Cephas , A100934 7 Pfc Freddie Chinn , A81900 2 *Pfc Eni d Clark , A100095 2 Pfc Elizabeth Colbert , A80327 2 Pfc Arjean Conner , A61031 2 Pfc Elizabeth Cornwell , A31102 8 Pfc Beatrice Cosey , A40670 4 Pfc Anna Couch , A60317 3 Pfc Minnie Cross , A52197 8 Pfc Violet Dabney, A31045 6 *Pfc Doroth y Dailey , A l 17722 Pfc Ruth Daniels , A20447 2 Pfc Elsie Dannals, A30756 0 Pfc Naomi Davenport , A30693 9 Pfc Elizabeth Davis , A40871 2 Pfc Ella Davis, A81106 0 Pfc Mary Davis , A40637 9 Pfc Gladys Debman , A22187 9 Pfc Oliv e Dedeaux, A100014 7 Pfc Addie Demby, A31044 4 Pfc Rosa Diggs , A30877 5 Pfc Alyce Dixon, A100065 6 Pfc Harriett Douglas , A20574 1 Pfc Althea Dunn , A80460 1 Pfc Sophie Easterling, A40167 3 Pfc Marguerite Ellis , A81042 0 Pfc Edith Ellison , A100145 5 Pfc Marian Elzie , A30592 4 *Pfc Cleopatr a Evans , A40319 7 Pfc Opheli a Ewings , A30678 2 Pfc Jennie Fayson, A40814 9 Pfc Beula Fant, A70547 1 Pfc Jessie Faulk, A40609 0 Pfc Annie Finley, A30303 9 Pfc Vivian Fitzsimmons , A50511 1 Pfc Edna Fletcher , A40154 7

224 *Pfc Evely n Fray , A20653 8 *Pfc Bernadin e Frazier , A12543 1 Pfc Polly Frazier, A91788 0 Pfc Jacqueline Fuller , A60467 3 Pfc Winona Fuller , A60488 8 PfcRuthGaddy,A400088 Pfc Edith Gaskill , A100036 7 Pfc Sarah Gary , A100042 9 Pfc Mildred Gates , A60777 6 Pfc Marie Gillisslee , A20268 0 Pfc Elsie Givens, A100002 0 Pfc Hester Givens , A22130 4 Pfc Bernice Grant, A29778 6 Pfc Callie Grant, A610774 8 Pfc Mattie Gray , A40333 8 Pfc Thelma Green , A31034 9 Pfc Irene Greene, A40855 7 Pfc Mary Greens , A20598 1 Pfc Mattie Griffin , A80097 4 Pfc Annie Grimes , A81118 4 Pfc Marion Grundy , A30536 3 Pfc Lucile Hairston, A40562 0 Pfc Dolly Hall, A20572 2 Pfc Jesse Hall, A90123 9 Pfc Margaret Hampton , A69600 2 *Pfc Vernell e Hannah , A40703 3 Pfc Audrey Harris , A130552 7 Pfc Julia Harris , A22177 3 Pfc Lillie Harrison, A30398 2 Pfc Mabel Haskin , A40900 5 Pfc Vivian Hayden , A50145 8 Pfc Vernese Hayes, A41058 3 Pfc Helen Henderson , A30879 6 Pfc Geraldine Herndon , A70314 4 Pfc Mary Hill , A80983 5 Pfc Mildred Hooper , A80851 7 Pfc Willie House, A41295 5 Pfc Bernice Hugger, A60554 8

Appendixes Pfc Sadie Huff, A40630 8 Pfc Cora Hurston , A40622 5 Pfc Anna Jackson, A70137 6 Pfc Ella Jackson, A81011 7 Pfc Elvire Jackson, A100099 0 Pfc Marion Jackson, A12567 4 Pfc Novella Jackson, A40130 8 Pfc Ruth Jacobs, A100139 5 Pfc Evangeline Jeffrey, A20315 9 Pfc Hessie Johnson, A31040 4 Pfc Philista Johnson, A61163 9 Pfc Lillian Jones, A20278 4 Pfc Elizabeth Lamb , A40777 6 Pfc Juanita Lane , A60885 2 Pfc Catherin e Lee , A81027 9 Pfc Hattie Lee , A203958 Pfc Theodosia Lee , A80313 2 Pfc Evelyn LeSuerer , A31853 3 Pfc Bernice Lewis, A31225 3 Pfc Ruby Lipscomb , A40126 7 Pfc Sarah Longmire , A52197 9 Pfc Evelyn Lozi , A20718 0 Pfc Grace Lucas, A30701 9 Pfc Mary Maniece , A40277 7 Pfc Annie Mason, A40703 8 Pfc Vashti Matthews, A30292 0 Pfc Emily Mays, A20486 7 Pfc Maggie McClenton, A80402 8 Pfc Bette McDonald, A605566 Pfc Vernell McMillan, A22105 7 Pfc Elizabeth McNair , A12563 2 Pfc Julia McNeal , A30134 8 Pfc Susie Middlebrooks, A41264 6 Pfc Hylda Miller , A100078 2 Pfc Ophelia Mills , A81030 8 Pfc Lethelma Moore , A60441 6 Pfc Marion Moore , A80148 1 Pfc Norma Moore , A20698 1

Appendixes Pfc Beatrice Morris, A20417 2 Pfc Mamie Lewis , A20298 6 Pfc Mary McClain , A81322 7 Pfc Almota Morrison , A80464 8 Pfc Carrie Nelson, A50138 0 Pfc Normal Niblet , A80526 0 Pfc Emily Noisette, A30287 2 Pfc Hazel Norman , A50620 7 Pfc Helen Norris , A60504 7 *Pfc Tessi e O'Bryant , A40702 1 Pfc Evelena Odell , A70324 2 Pfc Thelma O'Kelly , A100135 5 *Pfc Elsi e Oliver , A11738 1 Pfc Essie O'Riley , A80760 6 Pfc Theodore Palmer , A20200 0 Pfc Kate Pate, A81016 4 Pfc Willa Perkins , A60117 1 Pfc Ethel Philyaw , A30277 8 Pfc Lucille Poindexter, A52131 7 Pfc Duray Prestwood , A52108 0 Pfc Thelma Purdy , A31969 9 Pfc Florence Radcliff , A60565 6 Pfc Farlene Reeves , A20754 2 Pfc Dorothy Reid , A100094 6 Pfc Elouise Rice , A40727 9 Pfc Cora Richardson , A81166 1 Pfc Winnie Richardson , A80165 1 Pfc Dorothy Ringer , A50545 2 Pfc Aleese Robinson, A31124 9 Pfc Juanita Rogers , A31886 4 Pfc Mary Rose , A40339 9 Pfc Grace Ruffin , A30829 1 Pfc Girtie Seddler , A40900 4 Pfc Edna Samples , A60467 7 Pfc Lillian Showell , A21754 6 Pfc Minnie Sibbie , A40907 1 Pfc Margaret Simmons , A100112 7 Pfc Helen S . Simmons, A70811 5

225 Pfc Rosalie Simmons, A40573 9 Pfc Virginia Singleton , A50641 2 Pfc Ann Smalls , A20766 5 Pfc Erma Smith , A81041 7 Pfc Florita Smith , A41109 7 Pfc Lucille Smith, A20420 8 Pfc Mabel Sneed , A80554 5 Pfc Hattie Steele , A52191 8 *Pfc Janyc e Stovall , A31107 7 Pfc Naomi Studdard , A20695 3 Pfc Effie Sutton , A40554 6 Pfc Sarah Tabb , A52134 8 Pfc Menthie Talbert , A81321 5 *Pfc Ann a Tarryk , A12589 5 Pfc Lyria Tate , A81127 6 Pfc Ermene Taylor, A40707 2 Pfc Sarah Taylor , A30872 3 *Pfc Glady s Thomas , A60857 7 Pfc Hazel Threadgill , A70159 7 Pfc Cordeli a Tolliver , A51430 7 *Pfc Sammy e Trail , A40988 3 Pfc Alva Truatt, A100025 5 Pfc Bessie Turner, A40609 8 Pfc Marion Va n Orkey , A22134 0 Pfc Alberta Washington , A50403 3 Pfc Malinda Washington , A80495 6 Pfc Lilla Waters, A50711 2 Pfc Virginia Watkins, A52129 3 Pfc Esther Wells, A52223 2 *Pfc Willi e Whiting , A60904 2 Pfc Artelya Whitley , Al 15835 Pfc Emma Wilson , A31904 0 Pfc Annie Wimberley, A40159 1 Pfc Ethel Wingo, A40591 2 Pfc Heather Withers , A22137 4 Pfc Helen Wood , A20174 6 Pfc Hilda Wood , A31874 7 Pfc Myrtle Wright, A80817 4

226 Pfc Margaret Young , A70263 9 Pvt Leona Abrams , A81706 5 Pvt Blanche Albritton, A81211 7 Pvt Lubertha Alexander , A41049 8 Pvt Earnestine Allen, A30910 0 Pvt Joyce Anderson, A13046 0 Pvt Rose Anderson, A81166 8 Pvt Edith Armistad , A20225 2 Pvt Sylvia Armstrong, A40709 7 Pvt Bernice Axam, A2225 66 Pvt Lucille Balloon, A41232 7 Pvt Louisa Balls , A31878 6 Pvt Mary Barlow , A13046 3 Pvt Agnes Barnes, A100046 6 Pvt Wilma Barnes , A90502 1 Pvt Dorothy Bartlett , A20950 5 Pvt Edna Bastin , A31916 6 Pvt Arleatha Battle , A100168 3 Pvt Lillian Battle, A13541 3 Pvt Mamie Beard , A60883 7 Pvt Pearl Bennett, A50423 2 Pvt Carolyn Berry , A31913 0 Pvt Dorothy Birkhead , A22532 1 Pvt Clarice Blackett, A20956 9 Pvt Virginia Blake , A20303 7 Pvt Willamae Boatwright , A22261 0 Pvt Ruth Beggues , A40149 9 Pvt Bessie Booker, A80781 3 Pvt Erma Brady , A61303 6 Pvt Odessa Brake , A31552 7 Pvt Claudia Braxton , A50757 7 Pvt Eugenia Brown , A30340 9 Pvt Izona Brown , A81207 4 Pvt Lila Burt, A61543 6 Pvt Anna Bybee , A50778 4 Pvt Gladys Carter , A30860 2 Pvt Charlotte Cartwright , A31154 8 Pvt Effie Chambers , A40911 0

Appendixes Pvt Frances Chappell , A31408 0 Pvt Maggie Chestang , A90324 5 Pvt Lela Cleggett , A40926 3 Pvt Mary Coleman , A30895 4 Pvt Willie Coleman, A40879 0 Pvt Gladys Collier , A92646 3 Pvt Arthurine Collins , A61175 7 Pvt Carmen Collins , A20963 8 Pvt Florence Collins , A31126 9 Pvt Chariot Conrad , A31086 9 *Pvt Mar y Crawford , A22582 7 Pvt Annie Crawl , A41304 0 Pvt Catherine Crump , A31284 1 Pvt Pearl Cumberbatch , A20578 4 Pvt Ruthanna Cummings , A60864 2 Pvt Gladys Dailey, A71455 7 Pvt Dorothy Daniels , A90576 9 Pvt Ella Davis, A81106 0 Pvt Eula Davis , A30898 8 Pvt Lola Davis , A41304 2 Pvt Ursula Davis , A31101 0 Pvt Freda Dean , A100098 8 Pvt Ruth Dean , A31239 4 Pvt Gwendolyn Deane , A20836 8 Pvt Emma DeFreese , A20184 4 Pvt Izetta Douglas , A20285 6 Pvt Thelma Duncan , A41131 6 Pvt Lula Edmonson, A51466 1 Pvt Carroll Edwards , A52220 1 Pvt Eva Edwards, A50824 7 Pvt Adele Evans, A60336 9 *Pvt Doroth y Ellis , A60629 6 Pvt Margaret Ellis , A80505 9 Pvt Helen English , A61504 6 Pvt Ruby Everette , A41128 5 Pvt Amy Fairweather, A20884 6 Pvt Jennie Fayson, A40814 9 Pvt Lora Ferguson , A30496 6

Appendixes Pvt Jane Ferguson, A52193 2 Pvt Rebecca Ferguson , A20826 6 Pvt Ermantrude Finch , A20821 0 Pvt Alice Ford, A31911 7 Pvt Frances Poster , A92645 2 Pvt Rosetta Gaines , A61163 8 Pvt Phyllis Galloway, A100131 7 Pvt Mamie Gammon , A52223 3 Pvt Crescenia Garcia , A20837 1 Pvt Anne Garrison , A30902 0 Pvt Sarah Gary , A100042 8 Pvt Dorothy Gatliff , A50789 3 Pvt Eleanor Gibton , A30385 4 Pvt Sylvia Gillis, A22227 6 Pvt Virginia Glenn , A41093 4 Pvt Frances Gray , A41409 4 Pvt Dorothy Green , A50848 9 Pvt Irene Greene, A40855 7 Pvt Phyletus Greene , A41324 2 Pvt Evelina Griffin , A22569 9 Pvt Isabel Griffin , A40189 6 Pvt Hilda Griggs , A31175 8 Pvt Annie Grimes , A81118 4 Pvt Annie Grinter , A60666 0 Pvt Maetris Hairston , A61221 7 Pvt Jessie Hall, A90123 9 Pvt Bernice Hester, A60699 3 Pvt Rhoda Hibler , A61516 5 Pvt Catherine Hinton , A31921 9 PvtAdaHolley,A225252 Pvt Wilhelmina Holmes , A403 8 75 Pvt Marian Horace , A60490 2 Pvt Lima Howard , A61120 6 Pvt Sadie Huff, A40630 8 Pvt Indiana Hunt , A20937 1 Pvt Alice Hunter, A51533 8 Pvt Cora Hurston , A40622 5 Pvt Willie Irvin, A40674 4

227 Pvt Elvena Isaac , A20693 9 Pvt Dollie Jackson, A70157 0 Pvt Dorothy Jackson, A50062 7 Pvt Florida Jackson, A40771 6 Pvt Julia Jackson, A50125 9 Pvt Willie Jackson, A31158 8 Pvt Isofine Jacobs, A31112 7 Pvt Rut h Jamos, A20933 2 Pvt Emma Jenkins, A41059 1 Pvt Alease Johnson, A20423 4 Pvt Bebe Johnson, A20146 4 Pvt Eunice Johnson, A52670 8 Pvt Felicia Johnson, A41203 5 Pvt Johnita Johnson, A20241 0 Pvt Lauretta Johnson, A20867 6 *Pvt Lucill e Johnson , A100165 5 Pvt Oliva Johnson, A40909 6 Pvt Romay Johnson, A l 000722 Pvt Thelma Johnson, A90309 8 Pvt Tommie Johnson, A13031 8 Pvt Dolores Johnston, A31111 8 Pvt Laura Jones, A32086 2 Pvt Leona Jones, A32103 5 Pvt Louise Jones, A60918 0 Pvt Lucille Jones, A81306 6 Pvt Mintha Jones, A70905 5 Pvt Nannie Jones, A40581 9 Pvt Adella King , A61178 2 Pvt Sybil King, A20804 6 Pvt Ilda League , A22179 4 Pvt William Lee , A205389 Pvt Ruth Lewis , A61540 7 Pvt Velma Lofty , A100124 0 Pvt Leatha Loggins , A8 05 65 7 Pvt Phyllis Long, A20959 9 Pvt Dorothy Lounds , A20594 1 Pvt Josie Lowe, A41126 8 Pvt Leatrice Lowe , A61508 4

228 *Pvt Lavini a Lowery , A70158 6 Pvt Wilma Lucas , A30702 0 Pvt Josephine Macklin , A51532 3 Pvt Cora Madison , A40980 6 Pvt Ros a Marsaw , A60591 9 Pvt Bernice Marsett, A31096 6 Pvt Genevieve Marshall, A100163 6 Pvt Frances Martin , A52226 6 Pvt Mary Martin , A40324 9 Pvt Celestine Mathis , A61728 9 Pvt Doris Maxwell , A51476 6 Pvt Ruth Mays , A20790 4 *Pvt Mar y McBride , A60887 8 Pvt Evelyn McDougal , A60490 0 Pvt Marie McKinney , A100119 9 Pvt Martha McKnight , A80912 8 Pvt Eloise McNeeley, A20172 0 Pvt Katherine Metoyer , A50749 9 Pvt Delois Miller, A60793 5 Pvt Doretha Miller , A22110 0 Pvt Evelyn Miller, A52218 0 Pvt Phoebe Miller, A52169 5 Pvt Annie Moore, A32086 4 Pvt Doris Moore , A10523 6 Pvt Elizabeth Moraney , A 3 07002 Pvt Sarah Morgan , A61194 9 Pvt Irene Morrow, A81204 6 Pvt Mary Nailor , A32060 5 Pvt Gladys O'Gilvie , A80536 9 Pvt Sarah Parker , A60825 9 Pvt Thelma Parker , A30288 1 Pvt Beulah Patten , A31120 1 Pvt Essie Penn, A81047 5 Pvt Nazimova Perry , A31940 3 Pvt Mildred Peterson , A80907 7 Pvt Monierah Petway , A30877 7 Pvt Helen Pinkett , A32071 0 *Pvt Ardell a Pitts , A40722 3

Appendixes Pvt Annie Pleasants, A3 09107 Pvt Lucy Pollitt, A30260 3 Pvt Carolyn Poole , A40709 0 Pvt Maude Poeter , A100166 6 Pvt Josephine Powell , A20598 2 Pvt Margaret Powell , A50765 8 Pvt Dona Primus , A100132 6 Pvt Minnie Quarles , A60650 4 Pvt Annie Reese, A12063 1 Pvt Minerva Revernal , A80967 1 Pvt Eddie Richards , A80172 9 Pvt Bette Richardson, A51434 7 Pvt Erma Rodriguez , A13021 9 Pvt Tommie Rookard, A50426 1 Pvt Louise Ross , A20781 8 Pvt Guthrie Rowland , A81690 4 Pvt Deloris Ruddock , A100110 1 Pvt Margaret Sales , A61596 8 Pvt Nettie Saunders , A52183 6 Pvt Benita Schuster , A20816 1 Pvt Antoinette Scott , A30862 7 Pvt Clara Simon , A30854 9 Pvt Anjenettie Smith , A81201 5 Pvt Caroline Smith , A22156 3 Pvt Dolores Smith , A40263 3 Pvt Fannie Smith, A41075 0 Pvt Geneva Smith , A52239 1 Pvt Mary Smith , A61547 3 Pvt Rubye Smith , A52231 4 Pvt Ozie Smothers, A40678 6 Pvt Mable Sneed , A80551 5 Pvt Bertha Solomon , A507595 Pvt Naomi Stewart , A31856 2 Pvt Trenna Stokenberry , A81217 7 Pvt Rose Stone, A20293 6 Pvt Eleanor Sullivan , A31855 0 Pvt Gloria Sydner , A32090 5 Pvt Nispa Tankard , A20859 1

Appendixes Pvt Maybell Tanner, A412039 Pvt Alonda Tapp, A709373 Pvt Gloria Taylor, A302941 Pvt Maude Taylor, A612225 Pvt Millie Taylor, A809227 Pvt Lydia Thornton, A918183 Pvt Edna Toolsie, A206163 Pvt Margoit Townsend, A311534 Pvt Catherine Turner, A225372 Pvt Bernice Underwood, A701040 Pvt Louise Usher, A508443 Pvt Lucy Ussery, A612152 Pvt Grace Vatrin, A606205 Pvt Elnora Wallace, A710944 Pvt Mary Walthall, A412715 Pvt Ruby Ward, A814008 Pvt Constance Wardell, A1001432 Pvt Laura Wardon, A508154 Pvt Doris Ware, A1001121 Pvt Cornelia Warfield, A30096 9 Pvt Lois Washington, A615286 Pvt Norma Watts, A208756 Pvt Constance Webb, A1001555

229 Pvt Grace Whyte, A1000951 Pvt Breda Williams, A221158 Pvt Dora Williams, A1001402 Pvt Estell Williams, A811419 Pvt LeMonthal Williams, A920035 Pvt Lettie Williams, A402048 Pvt Sarah Williams, A202695 Pvt Vertile Williams, A318924 Pvt Benevieve Williamson, A912383 Pvt Alberta Willis, A319476 Pvt Anna Wilson, A811273 Pvt Cecil Wilson, A701784 Pvt Eleanor Wilson, A318857 Pvt Clara Wilson, A320871 Pvt Mildred Wilson, A608853 Pvt Ruby Wilson, A317111 Pvt Dolly Woods, A514703 Pvt Johnnie Yerger, A604874 Pvt Dorothy Young, A201954 Pvt Evelyn Young, A811573 Pvt Mary Young, A305113 Pvt Mable Zemen, A819772

Notes

Notes to Chapter 1 1. Jess e Johnson , Black Women in the Armed Forces: 1942-1974 (Hampton, Va. : Jess e Johnson , 1974) , 47 ; Ulysse s Lee , United States Army in World War II: Special Studies: The Employment of Negro Troops (Washington , D.C. : U.S . Governmen t Printin g Office , 1966) , 5 ; U.S. Departmen t o f Defense , Offic e o f th e Assistan t Deput y o f Defens e for Equa l Opportunit y an d Safet y Policy , Black Americans in Defense of Our Nation (Washington , D.C. : U.S . Governmen t Printin g Office , 1985), 98. 2. Lee , Employment of Negro Troops, 422 . 3. Johnson , Black Women in the Armed Forces, 33. 4. D'An n Campbell , Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era (Cambridge : Harvar d Universit y Press , 1984) , 25. 5. Mildre d McAfe e Horton , "Recollection s o f Captai n Mildre d McAfee, USN R (Ret.), " i n WAVES Officers of World War II, vol . 1 (Annapolis: U.S. Naval Institute , 1971) , 4 6 - 4 8. 6. Ibid. , 4 6 - 4 8. 7. Ibid. , 4 1. 8. Johnson , Black Women in the Armed Forces, 48. 9. Amon g th e magazine s wer e American, Cosmopolitan, Reader's Digest, an d Saturday Evening Post. Se e Maureen Honey , Creating Rosie the Riveter: Class, Gender, and Propaganda during World War II (Am herst: Universit y o f Massachusett s Press , 1984) , 117-20 ; Matti e E . 231

232

Notes to Chapter 1

Treadwell, United States Army in World War II: Special Studies: The Women's Army Corps (Washington , D.C. : U.S . Governmen t Printin g Office, 1954) , 187 . 10. Johnson , Black Women in the Armed Forces, 21. 11. Se e Appendi x A fo r th e place s an d date s o f interview s wit h members o f th e 6888t h Centra l Posta l Director y Battalion . Al l quota tions throughou t th e boo k fo r whic h source s ar e not indicate d ar e take n from thes e interviews . 12. Alliso n Davis , Burleigh Gardner , an d Mar y Gardner , Deep South (Chicago: University of Chicag o Press, 1941). There is a broad sociologi cal literatur e tha t support s th e fac t tha t Africa n American s lagge d be hind Europea n American s durin g th e Worl d Wa r I I era . Man y o f th e studies conducte d durin g an d jus t afte r th e war wer e heavily theoretical . See, fo r example , Olive r C . Cox , Caste, Class, and Race: A Study in Social Dynamics (Garde n City , N.Y. : Doubleday , 1948) , 317-583 ; E . Franklin Frazier , The Negro in the United States, rev . ed . (Ne w York : Macmillan, 1957) ; Gunna r Myrdal , An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (Ne w York : Harper , 1944) . Mor e recent studie s o n th e topi c attemp t t o explai n previou s existin g theorie s through th e us e o f historica l an d statistica l data . Fo r a discussio n abou t the impac t o f th e politica l econom y o n black-whit e relations , se e Wil liam J. Wilson, The Declining Significance of Race: Blacks and Changing American Institutions (Chicago : Universit y o f Chicag o Press , 1980) . According t o Wilson , racia l conflic t durin g th e Worl d Wa r I I er a wa s influenced b y the nature o f a n industria l economy . Als o see Bart Landry , The New Black Middle Class (Berkeley : Universit y o f Californi a Press , 1987); Stanle y Lieberson , A Piece of the Pie: Blacks and White Immigrants since 1880 (Berkeley : Universit y o f Californi a Press , 1980) . Lieberson analyze s th e differentia l acces s Black s an d ne w whit e immigran t groups hav e ha d t o th e politica l an d lega l institutions , education , occu pations, an d housing . O n page s 217—1 9 an d 23 5 h e produces statistica l evidence illustratin g tha t afte r th e Civi l Wa r northern-bor n Africa n American me n an d wome n wer e actuall y bette r educate d tha n southern , central, an d easter n Europea n immigrant s an d wer e obtaining educatio n faster tha n northern-bor n White s wit h nativ e parents . Durin g Worl d War I , however, norther n Blacks ' education bega n t o deteriorate. Lieber son attribute s thi s declin e t o a n increas e i n th e degre e o f blac k isolatio n

Notes to Chapter 2

233

in northern cit y schools a t the time when th e isolation o f new European s had decreased . 13. Treadwell , Women's Army Corps, 599 . 14. Severa l program s unde r th e Nationa l Yout h Administratio n helped Africa n America n youth s t o continu e thei r education . Thirtee n percent o f th e enrollee s o f th e NY A Out-of-Schoo l Program , whic h provided vocationa l training , wer e black . Sixty-fou r thousan d blac k youths too k advantag e o f th e NY A studen t wor k program . Se e Joh n Hope Frankli n an d Alfre d A . Moss , Jr. , From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Negro Americans, 6t h ed . (Ne w York : Knopf, 1988) , 353. 15. A t th e tim e Bethun e founde d th e Nationa l Counci l o f Negr o Women, i t represente d fourtee n blac k women' s organizations . Today , twenty-seven nationa l organization s ar e affiliate d wit h th e NCNW , an d there ar e tw o hundre d loca l counci l section s throughou t th e Unite d States. Se e "Histor y o f th e Nationa l Counci l o f Negr o Women " i n The Guide to the Records of the National Council of Negro Women, Be thune Museum an d Archives , Washington, D.C . 16. Charit y Adam s Earley , One Woman's Army: A Black Officer Remembers the WAC (Colleg e Station : Texa s A& M Universit y Press , 1989), 121. 17. Dove y Johnson Roundtre e was one of the forty Africa n America n women t o atten d th e first Office r Candidat e Schoo l a t For t De s Moines , Iowa. Roundtre e ha d a reputatio n fo r standin g u p fo r racia l equality . She ofte n spok e wit h Bethun e abou t race-relate d affair s i n th e WAC . Roundtree wa s statione d a t For t De s Moine s whe n Margare t Barne s Jones calle d abou t th e events a t Cam p Breckenridge . 18. Treadwell , Women's Army Corps, 545 . 19. Glady s Carte r i s referrin g t o a n Africa n America n woma n wh o protested agains t separat e wate r fountain s fo r "coloreds " an d fo r "whites" b y openl y drinkin g fro m a fountai n labele d "whites " i n th e southern Unite d States . For detail s see : Ernes t J. Gaines , The Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman (Ne w York : Dial, 1971) . Notes to Chapter 2 1. Richar d H . Day , "Technologica l Chang e an d th e Sharecropper, " American Economic Review 5 7 (Jun e 1967) : 429. 2. Perhap s th e mos t seriou s rac e riot s tha t occurre d durin g th e wa r

234

Notes to Chapter 2

were the violence against "zoo t suiters " (Mexica n an d Negr o citizens ) i n Los Angeles and a race riot in Detroit fo r whic h Presiden t Roosevel t sen t soldiers to patrol th e city . Both riot s occurred i n June 1943 . 3. Th e Worl d Wa r I I era wa s no t th e onl y tim e i n U.S . history whe n military an d civilia n occupation s resemble d eac h other . Durin g th e pre Civil War era , th e American militar y witnesse d a period o f wha t Samue l Huntington calle d "technicism, " i n whic h vocationa l skill s fo r militar y personnel wer e stressed . W e lear n fro m Huntingto n tha t th e emphasi s on specializatio n b y th e America n militar y derive d fro m Jeffersonians , who dre w no distinction betwee n civilia n and military skills . Nineteenthcentury West Point graduates were in high demand b y private employers , and man y student s entere d th e academ y primaril y t o becom e scientist s or engineer s rathe r tha n Arm y officers . Se e Samue l Huntington , The Soldier and the State (Cambridge : Harvar d Universit y Press , 1957) , 199 . 4. Janowit z claime d tha t th e conspicuou s leader s i n Worl d Wa r I I were "exaggeration s o f th e conflictin g theme s i n th e militar y profes sion." Th e theme s t o whic h Janowit z wa s referrin g wer e thos e o f th e hero, wh o wa s a warrio r type , an d th e manager , wh o "maintaine d a position o f effectiv e authority. " Janowit z categorize d Dwigh t Eisen hower, Oma r Bradley , H . H . Arnold , Walte r Bedel l Smith , Willia m Leahy, an d Ernes t Kin g a s me n "wh o reflecte d th e technica l an d prag matic dimension s o f wa r making. " O n th e othe r hand , h e categorize d Bull Halsey , Georg e Patton , Jonathan Wainwright , Jame s Doolittle , an d Curtis LeMa y a s example s o f heroi c leaders . Dougla s MacArthur , claimed Janowitz , "fuse d bot h roles , bu t . . . ofte n performe d a s th e heroic fighter." Se e Morri s Janowitz , The Professional Soldier (Ne w York: Free Press, 1971) , 2 1, 154. 5. Ulysse s Lee, United States Army in World War II: Special Studies: The Employment of Negro Troops (Washington , D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office , 1966) , 5 , 703 ; Marti n Binkin , Mar k Eitelberg , Alvi n Schexnider, an d Marvi n Smith , Blacks and the Military (Washington , D.C.: Brookings Institution , 1982) , 17 . 6. Mad y W . Segal , "Wome n i n th e Military : Researc h an d Polic y Issues," Youth and Society 10 , no . 2 (Decembe r 1978) : 102 ; Matti e E . Treadwell, United States Army in World War II: Special Studies: The Women's Army Corps (Washington , D.C. : U.S . Governmen t Printin g Office, 1954) , 6 . 7. Treadwell , Women's Army Corps, 231 .

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8. Durin g Worl d Wa r I I Black s mad e u p approximatel y 4 percen t (167,000) o f th e Nav y an d 2. 5 percen t (17,000 ) o f th e Marin e Corps . Only 3 percen t o f th e Arm y comba t position s wer e filled b y blac k men. Th e greates t majorit y o f Black s wer e assigne d t o service s suc h a s quartermaster, engineer , an d transportatio n corps . Se e Binki n e t al. , Blacks and the Military, 20 , 24. 9. Ther e ar e differen t account s o f ho w man y wome n serve d i n th e WAAC/WAC durin g Worl d Wa r II . I n Black Women in the Armed Forces: 1942-1974 (Hampton , Va. : Jess e Johnson , 1974) , 15 , Jess e Johnson estimate d tha t 150,00 0 wome n serve d i n the WAAC/WAC dur ing th e wa r year s an d tha t approximatel y 6,50 0 wer e black . D'An n Campbell, i n Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era (Cambridge : Harvar d Universit y Press , 1984) , 253 , state d tha t 140,000 Wac s served durin g World Wa r II . 10. Stanle y Lieberson , A Piece of the Pie: Blacks and White Immigrants since 1880 (Berkeley : Universit y o f Californi a Press , 1980) ; Gun nar Myrdal , An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (Ne w York : Harper , 1944) ; William J. Wilson , The Declining Significance of Race: Blacks and Changing American Institutions (Chicago: University o f Chicag o Press , 1980) . 11. Brend a L . Moore, "Servin g with a Dual Mission: Africa n Ameri can Wome n i n Worl d Wa r II, " National Journal of Sociology 7 , no . 1 (1993): 34 . According t o Bettin a Aptheker , "Hundred s i f no t thousand s of whit e peopl e participate d i n th e tortur e an d killin g o f on e o r tw o individuals. Souvenir s i n th e for m o f bod y parts , piece s o f rop e an d clothing wer e ofte n take n b y member s o f th e mob. " Se e Bettin a Ap theker, Woman's Legacy: Essays on Race, Sex, and Class in American History (Amherst : Universit y o f Massachusett s Press , 1982) , 60 , 61 . Also see Alfreda M. Duster, ed., Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells (Chicago : Universit y o f Chicag o Press , 1970) , 6 9 - 7 1 , 8 4 - 8 5 , 126 , 128 , 129 , 138-39 , 148 , 149 , 154 , 182 , 186 , 187 , 195 , 196, 252, 266, 267, 284, 299. 12. Joh n Hop e Frankli n an d Alfre d A , Moss , Jr. , From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Negro Americans, 6t h ed . (Ne w York : Knopf , 1988); John A. Garraty , The American Nation: A History of the United States since 1865, vol . 2, 3rd ed . (Ne w York : Harper an d Row , 1975) . 13. Lee , Employment of Negro Troops, 52 . 14. Som e people argu e tha t Africa n Americans ' gain s in war produc -

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tion durin g Worl d Wa r I I wer e no t a s grea t a s durin g Worl d Wa r I because larg e number s o f whit e wome n wer e availabl e t o wor k an d because powerfu l White s resiste d blac k migratio n t o th e North . Se e Myrdal, An American Dilemma. Th e failur e t o allo w Black s full partici pation i n wa r productio n sparke d a schedule d marc h o n Washingto n organized b y A . Philli p Randolp h i n 1941 . Th e marc h wa s calle d of f when Presiden t Roosevel t agree d t o issu e a n executiv e orde r forbiddin g racial discriminatio n i n wa r industries . Executiv e Orde r 8802 , th e Fai r Employment Practice s Order , wa s signe d b y th e presiden t o n 2 5 Jun e 1941. 15. Lee , Employment of Negro Troops, 54 . Le e mention s severa l organizations, includin g th e Civilia n Conservatio n Corp s (CCC) , a ma jor youth trainin g program tha t wa s developed durin g the Great Depres sion a s a relie f progra m fo r unemploye d youths ; th e Nationa l Yout h Administration (NYA) , an organization tha t trained mechanic s and tech nical specialists ; an d th e Civi l Aeronautic s Authorit y (CAA) , whic h provided student s wit h pilo t trainin g i n cooperatio n wit h college s an d private airfields . 16. Fo r a complet e discussio n o f th e Wa r Department' s post-Worl d War I plans to mobilize black manpower , se e Lee, Employment of Negro Troops, 2 1 - 5 0 . 17. Ibid. , 73 . The legislatio n stipulate d tha t "an y person , regardles s of rac e o r color , betwee n th e age s o f 1 8 an d 36 , shal l b e afforde d a n opportunity t o voluntee r fo r inductio n int o th e lan d o r nava l forces. " In addition ther e wa s b e n o discriminatio n agains t an y perso n o n accoun t of rac e or color . 18. Lee , Employment of Negro Troops, 76. 19. The Crisis: A Record of the Darker Races, 49 , no . 2 (Februar y 1942): 47 . 20. Lee , Employment of Negro Troops, 98-99 . 21. Ibid. , 9 7 , 1 0 0 - 1 0 1. 22. Ibid. , 107-10 . 23. Ibid. , 211. 24. Africa n America n Waac s normall y commande d Africa n Ameri can WAA C troops . In on e isolate d case , however, a Negro Waa c office r commanded a white WAAC platoon. Th e Louisville Defender publishe d an article on 27 February 194 3 entitled, "Negr o Waac Commands Whit e Platoon." Th e articl e state d tha t Thir d Office r An n M . Clar k o f Ken -

Notes to Chapter 2

237

tucky wa s the first blac k office r bein g assigned t o dut y with a n all - white company (Fourt h Company , Thir d Regimen t a t For t De s Moines) . Th e article i s accompanie d b y a pictur e o f Thir d Office r Clark ; he r physica l appearance i s that o f a white woman . Sh e received he r B.A . degree fro m Kentucky Stat e Colleg e a t Frankfur t i n 194 1 an d sh e wa s a membe r o f Delta Thet a Sorority . Unfortunatel y I have no t bee n abl e t o obtai n an y further informatio n abou t thi s event . 25. Lee , Employment of Negro Troops, 17 . 26. Le e Nichols, Breakthrough on the Color Front (Ne w York : Ran dom House , 1954) , 32. 27. Lee , Employment of Negro Troops, 429 . 28. Ibid. , 433. 29. Africa n Americans ' negativ e sentiment s towar d thei r participa tion i n Worl d Wa r I I ar e documente d i n a speec h give n b y Edwar d E . Strong, nationa l secretar y o f th e Nationa l Negr o Congress , a t th e East ern Seaboar d Conferenc e o n th e Problem s o f th e Wa r an d th e Negr o People, 1 0 Apri l 194 3 i n Ne w Yor k City . Th e documen t i s par t o f th e Schomburg Collectio n a t th e Schombur g Cente r fo r Researc h i n Blac k Culture, New Yor k City . 30. Thi s i s obviou s whe n w e conside r tha t approximatel y 694,50 0 African America n me n serve d i n th e Arm y durin g Worl d Wa r I I durin g their pea k strengt h i n Jun e 1944 , a s compare d wit h th e 99,28 8 pea k strength o f Wac s in Apri l 1945 . See Lee, Employment of Negro Troops, 416; Treadwell, Women's Army Corps, 765 . 31. Lee , Employment of Negro Troops, 423 . 32. Accordin g t o Treadwell , th e bil l introduce d i n Decembe r 191 7 was returne d t o th e Hous e Militar y Affair s Committe e b y th e secretar y of war . Th e Navy , o n th e othe r hand , enliste d nearl y thirtee n thousan d women i n th e Nav y an d Marin e Corp s durin g Worl d Wa r I , wit h th e same status a s men. See Treadwell, Women's Army Corps, 8 . 33. In 191 8 th e Hous e o f Representative s passe d th e Nineteent h Amendment; th e Senate passed i t the following year ; in 192 0 the amend ment becam e part o f th e Constitution . 34. Treadwell , Women's Army Corps, 12-14 . 35. Ibid. , 18 , 19. 36. Ibid. , 24 . 37. Michae l J . Lyons , World War II: A Short History (Englewoo d Cliffs, N.J. : Prentice Hall , 1994) , 147 .

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38. Treadwell , Women's Army Corps, 45 . 39. Th e ag e limit s wer e change d t o 2 0 an d 5 0 i n Jul y 1943 . Se e Treadwell, Women's Army Corps, 57 , 220. 40. Ibid. , 5 8 - 5 9 . 41. Myr a Mar x Ferre e and Bet h C. Hess, Controversy and Coalition: The New Feminist Movement (Boston : Twayne , 1985) , 2. 42. Shern a B . Gluck, Rosie the Riveter Revisited: Women, the War, and Social Change (Boston : Twayne , 1987) . 43. Treadwell , Women's Army Corps, 29 . 44. "Excerpt s fro m th e Remark s o f Mrs . Emil y Newel l Blai r o n th e Occasion o f He r Firs t Address as Chief o f the Women's Interest s Section , War Departmen t Burea u o f Publi c Relations , to the Advisory Counci l o f the Section , Monday June 15 , [1943] Washington D . C , " Record s o f th e National Counci l o f Negr o Women , serie s 5 , bo x 37 , folde r 522 , Be thune Museu m an d Archives , Washington, D.C . 45. "Resum e o f th e Meetin g o f th e Advisor y Counci l o n Jun e 1 5 [1943] a t th e Wa r Department, " Record s o f th e NCNW , serie s 5 , bo x 37, folde r 522 , Bethune Museu m an d Archives . 46. Meye r Zal d an d John McCarthy , Social Movements in an Organizational Society (Ne w Brunswick, N.J. : Transaction Books , 1987) , 20. 47. Treadwell , Women's Army Corps, 75 . 48. "Repor t o f Meetin g Hel d o n Octobe r 28 , 194 2 o n Invitatio n o f Miss Mary E . Woolley," Record s o f th e NCNW, serie s 5, box 38 , folde r 535, Bethun e Museu m an d Archives . 49. Ibid . 50. "Repor t o n th e Wor k o f th e Women' s Interest s Sectio n i n Con nection wit h th e Advisor y Council , June 194 2 t o June 1943, " Washing ton, D . C, 2 5 June 1943 , Records o f th e NCNW, serie s 5, box 37 , folde r 526, Bethune Museu m an d Archives . 51. "Advisor y Counci l t o th e Women' s Interest s Section , Wa r De partment Meetin g hel d Jun e 25 , 1943 , Mayflowe r Hotel , Washington , D.C. (Summar y o f remarks), " Record s o f th e NCNW , serie s 5 , bo x 37 , folder 526 , Bethune Museum an d Archives . 52. Ibid . 53. Ibid . 54. Ibid . 55. "Wa r Departmen t Burea u o f Publi c Relations, Women's Interest s Section o f Publication s Branch , Bulleti n o f Information , Januar y 1944, "

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239

Records o f th e NCNW , serie s 5 , bo x 37 , folde r 523 , Bethune Museu m and Archives . 56. "Repor t o f Civilia n Advisor y Committee, " Secon d Servic e Com mand Civilia n Advisor y Committee , Women' s Arm y Corps , 1 6 Decem ber 1944 , Record s o f th e NCNW , serie s 5 , bo x 37 , folder 523 , Bethun e Museum an d Archives . 57. "Thir d Servic e Comman d WA C Civilia n Advisor y Committee, " Records o f th e NCNW , serie s 5 , bo x 37 , folde r 523 , Bethune Museu m and Archives . 58. "Repor t o f Civilia n Advisor y Committee , Nint h Servic e Com mand," Record s o f th e NCNW , serie s 5 , bo x 37 , folde r 523 , Bethun e Museum an d Archives . 59. Letter , Mrs . Oswal d B . Lord, nationa l chairman , Nationa l Civil ian Advisor y Committee , Women' s Arm y Corps , Februar y 1945 , Re cords o f th e NCNW , serie s 5 , bo x 37 , folde r 523 , Bethun e Museu m and Archives . 60. "Secon d Servic e Comman d Civilia n Advisor y Committee, " Women's Arm y Corps , Bulleti n no . 14 , 1 3 Novembe r 1945 , Record s o f the NCNW , serie s 5 , bo x 37 , folde r 523 , Bethun e Museu m an d Ar chives. 61. "Repor t o f Geneviev e Forbe s Herrick, " Februar y 1946 , Record s of th e NCNW , serie s 5 , bo x 37 , folde r 523 , Bethune Museu m an d Ar chives.

62. Ibid. 63. Ibid. 64. Ibid. 65. Ibid .

Notes to Chapter 3 1. Th e mos t acclaime d Africa n America n woma n t o hel p lea d blac k slaves int o freedo m wa s Harrie t Tubman . Sh e i s sai d t o hav e escape d from slaver y hersel f a s wel l a s leadin g he r parents , children , sisters , an d others ou t o f slavery . Se e John Hop e Frankli n an d Alfre d A . Moss , Jr. , From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Negro Americans, 6t h ed . (Ne w York: Knopf , 1988) , 171-72 ; Mar y France s Berr y an d John W . Blassin game, Long Memory: The Black Experience in America (Ne w York : Oxford Universit y Press , 1982) . Ida B . Wells i s often cite d a s a principa l person t o launc h a n internationa l campaig n agains t lynching , th e bar -

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baric ac t o f torturin g an d murderin g blac k me n wh o ha d bee n accused , usually falsely , o f rapin g whit e women . Se e Alfred a M . Duster , ed. , Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells (Chicago : Uni versity of Chicag o Press , 1970) . 2. Angel a Y . Davis , Women, Race, and Class (Ne w York : Rando m House, 1981) , 37. 3. Barbar a S . Deckard, The Women's Movement: Political, Socioeconomic, and Psychological Issues (Ne w York : Harpe r an d Row , 1983) , 254. 4. Th e name s o f blac k wome n leader s includ e Sar a Parke r Remond , Sarah Mapp s Douglass , Leteti a Still , and th e Forte n sister s (Margaretta , Harriet, an d Sarah) . Se e Bettin a Aptheker , Woman's Legacy: Essays on Race, Sex, and Class in American History (Amherst : Universit y o f Massachusetts Press , 1982) , 19 . 5. Susa n B . Anthon y an d Elizabet h Cad y Stanton , bot h longtim e activists fo r huma n right s an d cofounder s o f th e American Equa l Right s Association alon g wit h Frederic k Douglass , fo r th e purpos e o f unifyin g abolitionists an d feminists , di d no t suppor t th e Fifteent h Amendmen t because i t di d no t exten d th e vot e t o women . Th e divisio n i n th e earl y feminist movemen t ove r thi s amendmen t i s cite d i n th e literatur e a s marking a n en d t o cooperatio n betwee n th e blac k an d th e women' s liberation movements . Se e Aptheker , Woman's Legacy, 11 ; Paula Gid dings, When and Where I Enter: The Impact of Black Women on Race and Sex in America (Ne w York : Bantam, 1984) , 65. 6. Deckard , The Women's Movement, 256 . 7. Duster , Crusade for Justice; Giddings , When and Where I Enter. 8. Se e Duster , Crusade for Justice; Giddings , When and Where I Enter. 9. Lette r to Mary McLeo d Bethun e fro m Emil y Newell Blair, 24 June 1942, Record s o f th e Nationa l Counci l o f Negr o Women , serie s 5 , bo x 37, folde r 522 , Bethune Museu m an d Archives , Washington, D.C . 10. Lette r t o Mar y McLeo d Bethun e fro m Margare t S . Banister , organization directo r o f th e Women' s Interest s Section , Publicatio n Branch, date d 1 3 Januar y 1943 ; als o lette r fro m Bethun e t o Baniste r dated 2 5 Januar y 1943 , Record s o f NCNW , serie s 5 , bo x 37 , folde r 526, Bethun e Museum an d Archives . 11. Lette r t o Mar y McLeo d Bethun e fro m Emil y Newel l Blair , 1 2

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241

February 1943 , Records o f NCNW , serie s 5 , bo x 38 , folde r 535 , Bethune Museum and Archives. 12. Mar y McLeo d Bethune , " A Centur y o f Progres s o f Negr o Women," a n addres s delivere d t o th e Chicag o Women' s Federatio n o n 30 June 1933 , reprinted i n Gerd a Lerner , ed. , Black Women in White America: A Documentary History (New York: Vintage, 1972), 579-84. 13. Se e lette r t o Mar y McLeo d Bethun e fro m Emil y Newel l Blair , Chief, Women's Interests Section, Publication Branch, dated 12 February 1943; als o Bethune' s lette r t o Blai r date d 2 2 Marc h 1943 , Records of NCNW, series 5, box 38, folder 535, Bethune Museum and Archives. 14. Documen t o f Nationa l Counci l o f Negr o Women , 1 6 Augus t 1943, R G 165 , Army G- l WA C Decimal Fil e 1942-4 6 250.3-291.2 , box #50, National Archives, Washington, D.C. 15. Ibid . 16. Matti e E. Treadwell, United States Army in World War II: Special Studies: The Women's Army Corps (Washington, D.C : U.S . Government Printing Office, 1954) , 594. 17. Ibid. , 318-21. 18. Marth a S . Putney, When the Nation Was in Need: Blacks in the Women's Army Corps during World War II (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1992), 14-16. 19. Ibid. , 102. 20. Ibid. , 6. 21. Michigan Chronicle, "Woma n of the Week," 1 9 December 1942. 22. Correspondenc e of Mrs. E. P. Trezevant to WAAC headquarters, 29 Ma y 1942 , 7 June 1942 , War Department' s replie s t o Trezevant , 3 June 1942 , 1 0 June 1942 , Trezevant's letter to Mary McLeod Bethune , 7 Jun e 1942 , Bethune' s lette r t o Ovet a Cul p Hobby , 1 7 Jun e 1942 , Hobby's repl y t o Bethune , 1 9 June 1942 , Hobby's 1 9 June 194 2 lette r to Trezevan t statin g tha t sh e di d no t hea r o f Trezevant' s complain t o f discrimination unti l al l o f th e applicant s ha d bee n processe d an d tha t there was nothin g sh e could d o abou t i t a t that time . Also see Western Union telegra m date d 2 8 Ma y 1942 , sent t o Hobb y b y Earl G . Davis, president o f th e Winston-Sale m Yout h Counci l o f th e NAACP , com plaining that the local recruiting officer, Sergean t Stephenson, refused t o accept application s fro m Negr o women . Als o se e Hobby' s repl y b y telegram date d 2 9 Ma y 194 2 statin g tha t Sergean t Stephenso n woul d

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correct his mistake and accept applications from Negr o applicants. Also see lette r date d 2 9 Ma y 194 2 t o Attorne y Willia m H . Hastie , civilia n aide on Negro affairs t o the secretary o f war, by G. F. Porter, secretar y of th e Dallas Branch, NAACP, alleging that th e local recruiting statio n in Dalla s wa s discriminatin g agains t Negro applicants . All items are in RG 165, Army G-l WA C file291.21, box #50, National Archives. 23. Wester n Union to Ovet a Hobby fro m Ear l Davis, 28 May 1942 , telegram to Earl Davis from Ovet a Hobby, 29 May 1942, letter to Oveta Hobby from P . L. Prattis, executive editor of the Pittsburgh Courier, 2 8 May 1942 , letter to P. L. Prattis from Ovet a Hobby, 3 June 1942 , letter to Attorne y Willia m H . Hastie , civilia n aid e t o th e secretar y o f war , from G . F . Porter , secretar y o f th e Dalla s Branch , NAACP , 2 9 Ma y 1942, letter to Col . William F . Pearson, adjutant general , WAAC, from William Hastie, 6 July 1942 , letter to William Hastie from Col . William Pearson, 8 July 1942 , R G 165 , Army G- l WA C file 291.21, bo x #49 , National Archives. 24. Lette r to U.S. Army Recruiting Corps from Mrs . E. P. Trezevant, 29 Ma y 1942 , lette r t o Trezevan t fro m W . H . Nealing , 3 June 1942 , letter t o Ovet a Cul p Hobb y fro m Trezevant , 7 Jun e 1942 , lette r t o Trezevant fro m Willia m F . Pearson, 1 0 June 1942 , letter t o Mrs. Mary McLeod Bethun e fro m Trezevant , 7 June 1942 , lette r t o Hobb y fro m Bethune, 1 7 June 1942 , lette r t o Bethun e fro m Hobby , 1 9 June 1942 , RG 165, Army G-l WA C file291.21, box #49, National Archives. 25. Dove y Roundtree , intervie w b y author , Washington , D.C. , 3 0 January 1991. 26. Noe l Campbell Mitchell, unpublished memoirs, Tuskegee, Ala. 27. Memo , Majo r Tasker , GSC , t o Colone l Hobby , directo r o f WAAC, 1 4 May 1942 , RG 165 , Army G- l WA C file 291.2, box #49 , National Archives. 28. Treadwell , Women's Army Corps, 71 . 29. Chicago Defender, 1 August 1942, 6. 30. See , for example , Charit y Adam s Earley , One Woman's Army: A Black Officer Remembers the WAC (Colleg e Station : Texa s A& M University Press, 1989). 31. New s releas e document , Record s o f th e NCNW , serie s 5 , bo x 38, folder 535, Bethune Museum and Archives. 32. Lette r to Col. Don C. Faith, 28 July 1942 , letter to E. J. Adams,

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3 Augus t 1942 , R G 165 , Arm y G- l WA C fil e 291.21 , bo x # 4 9 , Na tional Archives . 33. Memorandu m t o Colone l Taske r fro m Harr y McAlpin , 2 5 Au gust 1942 , letter t o McAlpin fro m J . Noel Macy , 8 September 1942 , R G 165, SPWA file 291.21, Nationa l Archives . 34. Ibid . 35. Repor t t o Mar y McLeo d Bethun e fro m Charle s P . Howard , 2 6 August 1942 , RG 165 , SPWA file 291.21 , National Archives . 36. Ibid . 37. Memorandu m fo r Wa r Department , Burea u o f Publi c Relation s (Attention Lt . Col . Davi d Page) , 1 7 September 1942 , R G 165 , Nationa l Archives. 38. Putney , When the Nation Was in Need, 155 . 39. Th e proportio n o f blac k officer s o f th e WAA C decline d steadil y each quarter. By December 194 5 black women mad e up only 1. 8 percen t of th e officers an d 4. 1 percent o f th e enlisted women . 40. B y contrast , th e highest-rankin g Africa n America n ma n i n th e Army a t the time was Brig. Gen. Benjamin O . Davis . 41. Fo r statistic s o n WAAC/WA C strengt h b y ran k se e Treadwell , Women's Army Corps, 776 . 42. Putney , When the Nation Was in Need, 130-31 . 43. Earley , One Woman's Army, 107—8,126 . 44. Ibid. , 107-8 . 45. Ibid. , 45, 46. 46. Ibid. , 60 . 47. Ibid. , 47. 48. Treadwell , Women's Army Corps, 635 . 49. "Colore d WAA C Unit s wit h D . C . Officer s Arriv e i n Arizona, " Washington Star, Decembe r 1942 . 50. Earle y state s that Lt . Aubrey Stoke s was her assistant . Se e Earley, One Woman's Army, 98 . Stokes was late r assigne d t o th e 6888t h a s th e company office r o f Compan y A . 51. "Memorandu m fo r th e Assistan t Chie f o f Staff , G-l , Polic y Re garding Colore d Personne l i n WAAC, " R G 165 , G- l WA C file 291.21 , National Archives . 52. Lette r t o Colone l Fait h fro m Edwi n Embree , 23 Septembe r 1942 , RG 165 , SPWA file 291.21, National Archives .

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53. Lette r to Eleanor Roosevel t fro m Viol a A. McAtee, 30 Septembe r 1942, R G 165 , SPWA file 291.21, Nationa l Archives . 54. Lette r to Col . Don C . Faith fro m S . Joe Brown, 27 October 1942 , RG 165 , SPWA file 291.21, National Archives . 55. Doroth y Daile y Jones , videotape d conference , Willia m Joine r Center fo r th e Stud y o f Peace , Universit y o f Massachusetts , Boston , March 1990 . 56. Ibid . 57. Lette r fro m Emil y Hickma n t o Ovet a Cul p Hobby , 1 4 Octobe r 1942, lette r fro m Lt . Col . J. Noe l Mac y t o Hickman , 2 3 Octobe r 1942 , letter fro m Hickma n t o Henr y L . Stimson , 1 5 Decembe r 1942 , lette r from Hobb y t o Hickman , 1 January 1943 , RG 165 , SPWA file 291.21 , National Archives . 58. Morri s J . MacGregor , Integration of the Armed Forces, 19401965 (Washington , D.C. : U.S. Government Printin g Office , 1981) , 5 1. 59. Lette r t o Walte r Whit e fro m Mar y McLeo d Bethune , 4 Novem ber 1942 , Record s o f NCNW , serie s 5 , bo x 38 , folde r 535 , Bethun e Museum an d Archives . 60. "Mrs . Bethun e Denie s Sh e Aske d fo r Ji m Cro w Waacs, " Washington Tribune, 2 1 November 1942 , 108 . 61. Treadwell , Women's Army Corps, 591 . 62. Lette r t o John D . Ewing fro m Joh n McCormack , 1 7 April 1943 , RG 165 , SPWA file 291.21, National Archives . 63. Lette r t o Joh n C . McCormac k fro m Ovet a Cul p Hobby , 7 Ma y 1943, R G 165 , SPWA file 291.21, National Archives . 64. "Th e Fact s Regardin g Segregatio n an d Discriminatio n agains t the Negr o i n th e Armed Forces, " 1 4 June 1943 , Records o f th e NCNW , series 5, box 8 , folder 139 , Bethune Museum an d Archives . 65. Lette r t o Florenc e Murray fro m Gretche n Thorp , 7 August 1943 , RG 165 , SPWA file 291.2, National Archives . 66. Charit y Earle y speak s abou t he r multipl e militar y occupatio n a t Fort De s Moine s a s consistin g largel y o f assignment s tha t n o on e els e wanted. Se e Earley, One Woman's Army, 98 . 67. Lette r to Harriet West from Lul a Jones Garrett, 4 February 1944 , list of grievances , 4 Februar y 1944 , memorandum t o Captai n McCarth y for Colone l Brown , 7 Februar y 1944 , memorandu m t o Colone l Brow n from Captai n McCarthy , n o date , memorandum t o Lieutenan t Le e fro m Treadwell, n o date , memorandu m t o Colone l Brow n fro m Majo r West ,

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no date , lette r t o commandin g general , sevent h servic e command , through deput y chief o f staff fo r servic e commands, from WA C director Oveta Cul p Hobby , 7 Februar y 1944 , Firs t Indorsemen t fro m WA C Director, 1 5 Februar y 1944 , Secon d Indorsemen t fro m Col . F . U . McCoskrie, Third Indorsement signed M. S. B., 9 March 1944 , RG 165, SPWA file291.2, National Archives. 68. Lette r t o Bethun e fro m Rice , 1 6 Augus t 1944 , Record s o f th e NCNW, series 5, box 37, folder 523, Bethune Museum and Archives. 69. Amsterdam-Star News, 25 July 1945. 70. Earley , One Woman's Army, 103 . 71. "Disillusione d b y Jim-Cro w Washingto n Gir l Quit s WAC, " Washington Afro American, 10 March 1945. 72. " 4 Negro Wacs Convicted—NAACP Leade r Calls It Fair," New York Post, 2 1 Marc h 1945 ; "Arm y Cour t Convict s 4 Negr o Wac s of Disobeying Superior," Washington Post, 21 March 1945 ; "3 Congressmen Ask Probe of Wac Trials," Washington Post, 23 March 1945. 73. Memorandu m fo r th e Directo r o f Personnel , Arm y Servic e Forces: "Report of Protest on the Assignment of Negro WACs to Gardiner Genera l Hospital , Chicago , Illinois," 6 April 1945 , RG 165 , SPWA file 291.1 , National Archives. 74. Ibid . Also see Putney, When the Nation Was in Need, 39, 89-95. 75. Lette r t o Ovet a C . Hobb y fro m Mar y McLeo d Bethune , 1 4 August 1944 , Record s o f th e NCNW , serie s 5 , bo x 37 , folde r 523 , Bethune Museum an d Archives . For more information abou t th e Black WAC Band se e Marth a S . Putney , "Th e Women' s Arm y Corps ' Blac k Band: A Historical Note, " i n Army History: The Professional Bulletin of Army History, 20-94-5, no. 32 (Fall 1994): 7-13. 76. Harr y McAlpin, "Turn Down Negro Wacs for Overseas Service," Chicago Defender, 5 February 1944 , 5. 77. "Arm y Wil l Sen d Negr o Waac s t o Englan d t o Hel p Entertai n Troops of Their Race," New York Times, 16 August 1942. 78. "WAAC S May Go Abroad, Gen. Eisenhower Reveals," Philadelphia Tribune, 22 August 1942 , 28. 79. "WAAC S Abroa d Perfor m Specifi c Militar y Duties, " Philadelphia Tribune, 5 September 1942 , 108. 80. Treadwell , Women's Army Corps, 599. 81. Thi s conclusio n i s based o n a report o f a n informa l visi t to th e WAAC training cam p (For t Des Moines, Iowa) b y Edwin R . Embree in

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1942. Accordin g t o Embree' s report , "facilitie s fo r white s an d colore d were equal. " Embre e state d furthe r tha t Negr o Waac s mad e u p a sepa rate platoon . A specia l tabl e ha d bee n assigne d t o "colored " girl s in th e officers' mess . Thi s wa s a conspicuou s for m o f segregatio n an d wa s resented b y blac k Waacs . I t wa s recommende d i n th e repor t tha t th e separate tabl e fo r Waac s i n th e officers ' mes s b e don e awa y with . Se e "Report o f Informa l Visi t t o Trainin g Cam p fo r WAACS , De s Moines , Iowa: Mad e B y Edwin R . Embree i n Compan y wit h W. W. Alexander, " RG 165 , Army G- l WA C decima l file 1942-4 6 250.3-291.2 , Nationa l Archives. Notes to Chapter 4 1. St . Clair Drak e an d Horac e R . Cayton , Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (Ne w York : Harpe r an d Row , 1945) , 438. 2. Se e Joseph Pierce , Negro Business and Business Education, Their Present and Prospective Development (Westport , Conn. : Negr o Univer sities Press, 1971) . 3. Se e E . Frankli n Frazier , The Negro in the United States, rev . ed . (New York : Macmillan , 1957) , 286; E. Franklin Frazier , "Occupationa l Classes amon g Negroe s i n Cities, " American Journal of Sociology 3 5 (March 1930) : 7 1 8 - 3 8 . 4. Socioeconomi c statu s in this study is determined b y occupation, a s categorized b y th e U.S . Census . Thus , th e socioeconomi c statu s o f a member's famil y o f origi n i s determine d b y th e parent' s occupatio n (o r head o f household' s occupatio n i f th e responden t wa s no t reare d b y he r parents). Th e followin g nin e broa d occupationa l categorie s ar e use d t o determine socioeconomi c status : professional , clerical , retai l trade , ser vice (excludin g privat e househol d work) , domesti c (privat e househol d service workers) , crafts , operatives , laborers , an d farmers . Th e "other " category refer s t o unemploye d persons , students , disable d persons , an d so on . 5. Matti e E . Treadwell, United States Army in World War II: Special Studies: The Women's Army Corps (Washington , D.C. : U.S . Govern ment Printin g Office , 1954) , 220. 6. Ibid. , 599 . 7. U.S . Department o f Commerce , Statistical Abstract of the United

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States 1989 (Washington , D.C.: U.S. Government Printin g Office, 1989) , table 211,130 . 8. "Thing s Talke d About, " Birmingham Sunday Mercury, Februar y 1945. 9. Joa n Capreol , "Bagpipe s Pla y fo r Happ y Wome n Whos e Dream s Come True, " pres s clipping , Februar y 1945 , War Department , R G 165 , SPWA 291.1, Nationa l Archives , Washington, D.C . 10. New York Amsterdam News, "Frenc h Wac s Ge t Ne w Com mander," 9 February 1946 . 11. Obituar y o f Mildre d E . Davenpor t Carter , 1 8 Octobe r 1990 , St . Cyprian's Episcopa l Church , Roxbury , Massachusetts . 12. U.S . Departmen t o f Commerce , Sixteenth Census of the United States: 1940 (Washington , D . C : U.S . Governmen t Printin g Office , 1943), tabl e 63 , "Rac e o f Employe d Person s (Excep t o n Publi c Emer gency Work) an d o f Experienced Worker s Seekin g Work, b y Occupatio n and Sex , for Regions : 1940, " 91. 13. "Wac s i n Posta l Uni t Praise d fo r Efficiency, " Chicago Defender, 14 April 1945,15 . 14. Jenni e Moton' s fathe r succeede d Booke r T . Washingto n a s hea d of th e Tuskege e Institut e i n Alabama . Se e "Firs t Negr o Wa c Uni t Over seas," The Call and Post, 2 0 January 1945 . 15. Th e roste r wa s compile d fro m Specia l Order s no . 89 , 3 0 Marc h 1945, Specia l Order s no . 18 , 30 Ma y 1945 , an d Specia l Order s no . 84 , 12 November 1945 , National Personne l Record s Center , St . Louis. 16. Althoug h th e servic e command s d o no t correspon d directl y t o the U.S. Bureau o f th e Censu s regions, they ar e a close approximation . 17. Charit y Adam s Earley , One Woman's Army: A Black Officer Remembers the WAC (Colleg e Station : Texa s A& M Universit y Press , 1989), 63. 18. Luci a M . Pitts , One Negro WAC's Story (Lo s Angeles: Luci a M . Pitts, 1968) , 4. 19. Earley , One Woman's Army, 124 . 20. Ibid. , 130 . 21. Ibid. , 134 . 22. Unpublishe d writte n statemen t b y Gertrude LaVigne , 23 Januar y 1991. 23. Lette r to Sadie from Ollie , 13 February 1945 , Benjamin O . Davis,

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Sr., Papers, personal letters to wife written in ETO, 1 January-30 April 1945, Archives, U.S. Military History Institute, Carlisle Barracks, Pa. 24. Earley , One Woman's Army, 144. Notes to Chapter 5 1. Edwar d B. Toles, "Firs t Negro Wacs Reach Continen t a t French Town," Chicago Defender, 9 June 1945,1, 6. 2. Th e following officers were part of the inspection team: Maj. Gen. Sir Eri c Girwoo d o f th e Britis h Army ; Ai r Commodor e To m Howe , RAF; Col. C . C. Sibley, port commander; Maj. K. E. Campbell, PROComZ; and Maj. H. Horak, PRD-SHAEF. 3. Edwar d B. Toles, "Firs t Wacs Overseas Greeted in Britain," Chicago Defender, 27 February 1945, 5. 4. "Specia l Inspection, WAC Detachment, First Base Post Office APO 640," memorandum to Maj. Gen. Charles H. Bonesteel, chief, General Inspectorate Section , ETOUSA , AP O 887 , Unite d State s Army , fro m B. O . Davis , brigadie r general , USA , 1 8 Februar y 1945 , Benjami n O . Davis, Sr., Papers, Archives, U.S. Army Military History Institute, Carlisle Barracks, Pa. 5. Luci a M. Pitts, One Negro WAC's Story (Los Angeles: Lucia M. Pitts, 1968), 8. 6. Inspectio n report to Maj. Gen. Charles H. Bonesteel , chief, General Inspectorate Section, ETOUSA, dated 18 February 1945 , Benjamin O. Davis , Sr. , Papers , Archives , U.S . Arm y Militar y Histor y Institute , Carlisle Barracks, Pa. 7. Charit y Adam s Earley , One Woman's Army: A Black Officer Remembers the WAC (Colleg e Station : Texa s A& M Universit y Press, 1989), 148. 8. Pitts , One Negro WAC's Story, 14 . 9. Edwar d B. Toles, "Firs t Negro Wacs Reach Continen t a t French Town," Chicago Defender, 9 June 1945, 1, 6. 10. Pitts , One Negro WAC's Story, 15. 11. Earley , One Woman's Army, 198,199. 12. "Onl y Oversea s Negr o WA C Section Home, " Army Times, 16 March 1946. 13. "Thing s Talked About," Birmingham Sunday Mercury, February 1945.

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14. Cynthi a Enloe , Bananas, Beaches, and Bases (Berkeley : Univer sity of Californi a Press , 1990) , 70; Graham Smith, When Jim Crow Met John Bull: Black American Soldiers in World War II Britain (Ne w York : St. Martin's, 1988) , 2 0 - 3 6, 70 . 15. G . Smith, When Jim Crow Met John Bull, 218. 16. Earley , One Woman's Army, 156 . 17. Ibid. , 201. 18. I n France , meal s wer e prepare d fo r th e battalio n b y prisoner s of war. 19. Earley , One Woman's Army, 185 . 20. Ibid. , 190 . 21. Ma x Weber , The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, (Glencoe, 111: Fre e Press, 1947), 324-406 . 22. Earley , One Woman's Army, 164 . 23. Gertrud e LaVigne , intervie w b y author , Anchorage , 2 3 Januar y 1991. 24. Fran k Godden , "Frenc h Tow n Greet s WA C Posta l Unit, " Chicago Defender, 2 3 June 1945,15 . 25. Special Delivery, 6888t h Centra l Posta l Directory Newsletter, 3 0 July 1945 , vol. 1 , no. 9 , 1 . 26. Earley , One Woman's Army, 187 . 27. Matti e E . Treadwell, United States Army in World War II: Special Studies: The Woman's Army Corps (Washington , D.C. : U.S . Gov ernment Printing Office, 1954) , 191-218 . 28. I am referring specifically t o events such as the Tailhook incident , which too k plac e i n th e Nav y an d becam e a seriou s proble m i n 1991 . See Timoth y J . McNulty , "Scanda l Force s Kels o t o Retire, " Chicago Tribune, 1 8 February 1994 : 1 , 11. 29. Earley , One Woman's Army, 181 . 30. Loui s Wirth, "Moral e an d Minority Groups, " American Journal of Sociology 47 , no. 3 (1941) : 426. 31. Pitts , One Negro WAC's Story, 13 . 32. I had a n opportunity t o visit th e Normandy America n Cemeter y and Memorial durin g the D-Day celebratio n i n June 1994 , an d I visited these women's grave sites. 33. Treadwell , Women's Army Corps, 600 .

Notes to Chapter 6

250 Notes to Chapter 6

1. Model l an d other s explore d dat a i n th e literatur e fo r The American Soldier t o determin e ho w th e hoped-fo r postwa r worl d differe d fo r Whites an d fo r Black s an d ho w tha t worl d differe d fo r blac k serviceme n whose prio r experienc e ha d differe d fro m thei r militar y experience . Se e John Modell , Mar c Goulden , an d Sigurdu r Magnusson , "Worl d Wa r I I in th e Live s of Blac k Americans : Som e Finding s an d a n Interpretation, " Journal of American History 76 , no. 3 (Decembe r 1989) : 839-47 . 2. Samue l Stouffer an d hi s associates conducte d a large-scale stud y i n the Researc h Branch , Informatio n an d Educatio n Divisio n o f th e Unite d States Arm y o n th e adjustmen t o f America n soldier s i n Worl d Wa r II. Se e Samue l Stouffer , Arthu r Lumsdaine , Mario n Lumsdaine , Robi n Williams, M . Brewste r Smith , Irvin g Janis , Shirle y Star , an d Leonar d Cottrell, Jr. , The American Soldier, vol . 1 , Adjustment during Army Life (Princeton , N.J. : Princeto n Universit y Press , 1949) . Model l an d coworkers examine d question s i n Survey s S-10 6 an d S-144 , whic h ar e now availabl e a t th e Rope r Cente r Archive s a t th e Universit y o f Con necticut an d a t th e Machin e Readabl e Record s Divisio n o f th e Nationa l Archives. Se e Modell e t al. , "Worl d Wa r I I in th e Live s o f Blac k Ameri cans," 841. 3. Model l e t al. , "Worl d Wa r I I i n th e Live s o f Blac k Americans, " 842. 4. Ibid . 5. Durin g Worl d Wa r I I approximatel y fiv e millio n American s mi grated fro m farm s t o industria l centers . See Donald Bogue , Principles of Demography (Ne w York : Wiley, 1969) , 767. 6. Stouffe r e t al., American Soldier. 7. Edwar d Shil s an d Morri s Janowitz, "Cohesio n an d Disintegratio n in th e Wehrmacht, " Public Opinion Quarterly 1 2 (Summe r 1948) : 280-315. 8. Gar y Becker , Human Capital (Chicago : Universit y o f Chicag o Press, 1975) . 9. Gle n H . Elder , Cynthi a Gimble , an d Rache l Ivie , "Turnin g Point s in Life : Th e Cas e o f Militar y Servic e an d War, " Military Psychology 3 , no. 4 (1991) : 215. 10. Se e Bunca n Baile y an d Thoma s F . Cargill , "Th e Militar y Draf t and Futur e Income, " Western Economic Journal 7 (1969) : 365-70 ;

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W. Le e Hanse n an d Burto n Weisbrod , "Economic s o f th e Militar y Draft," Quarterly Journal of Economics 8 1 (1967) : 3 9 5 - 4 2 1; Walte r Y . Oi, "Th e Economi c Cos t o f th e Draft, " American Economic Review 5 7 (1967): 3 9 - 6 2 ; Thoma s D . Willett , "Anothe r Cos t o f Conscription, " Western Economic Journal 6 (1963): 425-27 . 11. Irvin g G . Kattenbrink , "Militar y Servic e an d Occupationa l Mo bility," i n Selective Service and American Society, ed . Roge r Littl e (Ne w York: Russel l Sag e Foundation , 1969) ; Sall y Lopreat o an d Dudle y Poston, "Difference s i n Earning s an d Earning s Abilit y betwee n Blac k Veterans an d Nonveteran s i n th e Unite d States, " Social Science Quarterly 5 7 (Marc h 1977) : 750-66 ; Willia m M . Mason , "O n th e Socioeco nomic Effect s o f Militar y Service, " Ph.D . diss. , Universit y o f Chicago , 1970). 12. Kattenbrin k examine d th e intergenerationa l mobilit y o f tw o groups o f whit e male s i n Ne w Yor k State : forme r serviceme n wh o ha d returned t o th e civilia n community , an d me n wh o ha d no t serve d i n th e military. Se e Kattenbrink , "Militar y Servic e an d Occupationa l Mo bility." 13. Maso n compare d th e socioeconomi c statu s o f veteran s wit h tha t of nonveterans . H e foun d tha t th e degre e o f educatio n durin g an d afte r service was influence d b y th e serviceperson' s occupationa l statu s a s well as b y th e lengt h o f tim e h e spen t o n activ e duty . In addition , mor e significant difference s existe d betwee n me n o f differen t ran k tha n be tween me n wh o di d an d di d no t serve . Se e Mason , "O n th e Socioeco nomic Effects o f Military Service. " 14. Thes e author s studie d th e connection s betwee n militar y servic e and statu s attainmen t i n conjunctio n wit h th e locatio n o f Africa n an d Mexican American s i n th e civilia n stratificatio n system . Th e militar y creates a "bridgin g environment " (on e tha t provide s th e condition s fo r upward mobility ) b y providin g th e individua l wit h (1 ) a radica l brea k from civilia n lif e an d kinshi p ties , thereby facilitatin g resocialization , (2 ) further educatio n an d on-the-jo b training , an d (3 ) a n increase d capabil ity to cop e with an d manipulat e th e large-scale organizationa l structure s that typif y th e Unite d States . Se e Harley Browning , Sall y Lopreato , an d Dudley Poston , "Incom e an d Veteran s Status : Variation s amon g Mexi can Americans , Blacks , an d Anglos, " American Sociological Review 38 (1973) : 7 4 - 8 5 . Th e author s adapte d th e definitio n o f a bridgin g environment fro m Broo m an d Smith , who define d i t as one that provide s

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the condition s an d opportunitie s fo r movemen t fro m on e occupatio n t o another. Se e Leonard Broo m an d J. H . Smith , "Bridgin g Occupations, " British journal of Sociology 1 4 (Decembe r 1963) : 321-34 . 15. Lopreat o an d Poston , "Difference s i n Earning s an d Earning s Ability betwee n Blac k Veterans an d Nonveterans i n the United States. " 16. Dudle y Poston, "Th e Influence o f Military Servic e on the Civilia n Earning Pattern s o f Blacks , Mexica n Americans , an d Anglos, " Journal of Political and Military Sociology 7 (1979): 7 1 - 8 8 . 17. Fredlan d an d Littl e foun d tha t skille d manua l civilia n trainin g yielded significantl y hig h premium s t o thos e wh o receive d an d use d civilian training , bu t th e premium s wer e no t significan t fo r skille d man ual militar y training . Se e Eri c Fredlan d an d Roge r Little , "Lon g Ter m Returns t o Vocationa l Training : Evidenc e fro m Militar y Sources, " Journal of Human Resources 1 5 (Winte r 1980) : 4 9 - 6 6 . 18. Elde r e t al., "Turnin g Points, " 217 . 19. Ibid . 20. Keit h W . Olson , The G.L Bill, the Veterans, and the Colleges (Lexington: Universit y Pres s of Kentucky , 1974) , 17 . 21. Elde r e t al., "Turnin g Points, " 227 . 22. Ibid. , 217 . 23. Elder , Gimble , an d Ivi e liste d te n reason s militar y servic e wa s a turning poin t i n live s o f eighty-si x me n i n th e Oakland/Berkele y sampl e used i n thei r study . In ran k orde r th e reason s wer e maturity , education , travel/adventure, independence , altere d vie w o f life , lif e disruption , me t spouse, altere d vie w o f death , career , an d leadership . Se e Elde r e t al. , "Turning Points," 223. Notes to Chapter 7 1. Th e stud y o f phenomenolog y i s roote d i n th e wor k o f Edmun d Husserl, wh o sough t th e essenc e o f huma n knowledg e an d wa s no t concerned wit h th e object s o f th e empirica l world . Se e Edmund Husserl , Idea, trans . W . Boyce-Gibso n (Ne w York : Macmillan , 1962) ; Edmun d Husserl, The Phenomenology of Internal Time-Consciousness, ed . Mar tin Heidegge r (Bloomington : Indian a Universit y Press , 1964) ; Edmun d Husserl, Formal and Transcendental Logic, trans . Dorio n Cairn s (Th e Hague: Martinu s Nijhoff , 1969) . 2. Pete r Berge r an d Thoma s Luckmann , The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge (Garde n City , N.Y. :

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Anchor, 1967) ; Erving Goffman , The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (New York: Doubleday/Anchor, 1959) ; Dorothy Smith, The Everyday World as Problematic: A Feminist Sociology (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1987). 3. Patrici a Hil l Collins , Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment (Ne w York : Routledge , 1991), 202. 4. Samue l Stouffer , Arthu r Lumsdaine , Mario n Lumsdaine , Robi n Williams, M . Brewste r Smith , Irvin g Janis , Shirle y Star , an d Leonar d Cottrell, Jr., The American Soldier vol. 1, Adjustment during Army Life (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1949). 5. Edwar d Shils and Morris Janowitz, "Cohesio n and Disintegratio n in th e Wehrmacht, " Public Opinion Quarterly 1 2 (Summe r 1948) : 280-315. 6. Tamots u Shibutani , The Derelicts of K Company (Berkeley : University of California Press , 1978). 7. Charit y Adam s Earley , One Woman's Army: A Black Officer Remembers the WAC (Colleg e Station : Texa s A& M Universit y Press , 1989), 145. 8. Matti e E . Treadwell , The Women's Army Corps (Washington , D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1954) , 600. 9. Som e black politica l group s urge d Congres s t o write a protective nondiscriminatory claus e in the WAAC bill to guarantee racial equality. Vowing that black Waacs would be treated equally and would not suffe r discrimination becaus e o f thei r race , the War Departmen t insiste d tha t such a claus e wa s unnecessary . Becaus e o f thi s promise , th e disput e about th e claus e neve r develope d int o a majo r issue . Issues concernin g the treatmen t o f Africa n America n Waacs/Wac s surface d periodically , however; a s illustrate d above , these issue s wer e confronte d b y Africa n American organization s unifie d fo r change . Se e Ulysses Lee , The Employment of Negro Troops (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Print ing Office, 1966) , 421-22. 10. Matti e Treadwell, United States Army in World War II: Special Studies: The Women's Army Corps (Washington , D.C. : U.S . Govern ment Printing Office, 1954) , 599. 11. Cose r argue s that conflict s tha t aris e from frustratio n o f specifi c demands within th e relationship an d from estimate s of the participants' gains, and which are directed at the presumed frustratin g object , can be

254

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called realisti c conflict s insofa r a s the y ar e mean s towar d a specifi c result. Nonrealisti c conflicts , o n th e other hand, althoug h stil l involvin g interaction betwee n tw o o r mor e persons , ar e no t occasione d b y th e rival end s of th e antagonists bu t by the need for release of tensio n b y at least on e o f th e parties . Se e Lewi s Coser , The Functions of Social Conflict (Ne w York : Free Press, 1956) , 49. 12. Simmel , Conflict, 27-28 . 13. Coser , Functions of Social Conflict, 128 . 14. Simmel , Conflict, 91 , 92. 15. Berge r and Luckmann, Social Construction of Reality, 123 , 124 . 16. Smith , Everyday World as Problematic, 19 . 17. Berge r and Luckmann, Social Construction of Reality, 109 . 18. Collins , Black Feminist Thought, 174 . 19. Severa l wome n returne d t o th e civilia n secto r i n th e mi d t o lat e 1940s; mos t publi c facilitie s i n th e Sout h wer e no t desegregate d unti l after the civil rights movement of the 1960s . 20. Berge r and Luckmann, Social Construction of Reality, 65 . 21. Ibid. , 108 . 22. Myrtl e Rhoden , intervie w b y author ; Mary Rozier , intervie w b y author; Gertrude LaVigne, interview by author. 23. On e o f th e centra l propositions o f spli t (dual ) labo r marke t theory is that jobs can b e divided int o two groups , primary an d secondary . Jobs in the primary sector offer mor e money and security, and otherwise are mor e desirable , tha n thos e o f th e secondar y sector . Althoug h th e split (dual ) labo r marke t theor y ha s man y proponents , th e stud y refer enced fo r th e presen t analysi s i s Suzann e Berge r an d Michae l Piore , Dualism and Discontinuity in Industrial Societies (Ne w York : Cam bridge University Press , 1980) . 24. Earley , One Woman's Army, 164 , 165 . 25. Se e chapte r 3 fo r discussio n abou t complaint s mad e b y Negr o Wacs at Fort Des Moines in February 1944 . 26. Berth a Solomo n Walker , Call and Post, Cleveland , 9 Jun e 1994,1. 27. Betti e J. Morden, The Women's Army Corps, 1945-5978 (Wash ington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1990) , 28. 28. Edwi n Dorn, Who Defends America? Race, Sex, and Class in the Armed Forces (Washington , D.C. : Join t Cente r fo r Politica l Studies , 1989), 4 6 - 4 8; Brend a L. Moore, "Africa n American Women in the U.S.

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255

Military," Armed Forces and Society 17, no.3 (Spring 1991): 363—65 . 29. Curti s Gilroy , Rober t Phillips , an d John Blair , "Th e All-Volun teer Army : Fiftee n Year s Later, " Armed Forces and Society 16 , no . 3 (Spring 1990): 329-35. 30. Alvi n Schexnider, "Symposium : Race and the United States Military," Armed Forces and Society 6, no. 4 (Summer 1980): 606-13. 31. Ronal d Dellums , "Don' t Sla m th e Doo r t o Military, " Focus 3, no. 8 (June 1975) : 6; Alvin Schexnider, "Expectation s fro m th e Ranks: Representativeness an d Systems, " American Behavioral Scientist 19 , no.5 (May/Jun e 1976) : 523-42 ; Alvi n Schexnide r an d John S . Butler, "Race and the All-Volunteer System, " Armed Forces and Society 2, no. 3 (May 1976): 421-32. Notes to Chapter 8 1. "Trippin g Dow n Memor y Lane, " Birmingham Evening Mail, 29 April 1981; Cassandra Spratling, "Hands across the Water Give a Warm Shake," Detroit Free Press, 1 2 May 1981. 2. Spratling , "Hands across the Water Give a Warm Shake."

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Index

Absent without leave (AWOL) , 14 2 Accidents, fatal, 139-4 0 Adams, Maj. Charity. See Earley, Charity Adams Adams, E. J., 6 2 Adams-Ender, Gen . Clara, 20 1 Advertisements, 7 - 8 Advisory Counci l fo r the Women's Interest Section (ACWIS) , 3 7 - 4 2, 4 4 - 4 5, 47 , 51, 52,54, 81 , 238 n . 4 4 Aframerican Woman*s Journal, 52 African Americans in the military: desegregation, 194—95 ; negative sentiments toward participation i n World War II, 237 n . 29; overrepresentation of , 1 9 7 98; peak strengt h during World War II, 237 n . 3 0 Afro-American Newspaper, 24 5 n . 7 1 Age of women i n the military, 8 9 Aiken, Pvt. Ana, 7 7 Air raids, 18 0 Alexander, W. W., 246 n . 8 1 Allen, Mattie Jackson, 114,134,16 2 Allied Force Headquarters, 4 2 All-volunteer force , 255 nn . 29, 3 1 Alpha Kapp a Alpha Sorority, 56 Alpha Suffrage Clu b in Chicago, 5 1 American Red Cross, 1 0 5 , 1 2 1 - 2 2 , 1 3 3 , 182,193 Amsterdam-Star News, 8 , 77, 245 n . 6 9

Anderson, Gladys Thomas, 13 , 106,126 , 155,168,181 Anthony, Susan B., 240 n. 5 Antilynching campaign, 239 n . 1 Anti-Slavery Society , 5 0 Aptheker, Bettina, 235 n . 11 , 240 n . 5 Army Air Corps, 1 Army General Classificatio n Tes t (AGCT), 89,90 Army Nurses Corps, 2 Azores Islands, 10 3 Bailey, Buncan, 250 n. 1 0 Bailey, Councillor Joseph, 19 9 Bands. See Negro WAC Band Banister, Margaret S., 39, 52, 240 n . 1 0 Bankston, Mary, 14 0 Barbour, Margaret, 9-10, 13 , 111, 1 7 5 78 Barlow, Mary, 14 0 Barr, Tessie O'Bryant, 15 5 Bartlett, Dorothy Gee , 14-15 , 100 , 114 , 120,175,177,199 Beaumont, Geraldine , 13 4 Beaumont, Paul, 13 4 Becker, Gary, 250 n. 8 Belcher, Sadie Moore, 94 , 120,15 7 Bennett, Elaine Smith, 9, 13 , 135 , 136 , 142,159,164,168 Berger, Peter, 190-93 , 252 n . 2, 254 n . 1 7

265

266 Berger, Suzanne, 254 n . 2 3 Berry, Mary Frances, 239 n . 1 Bethune, Mary McLeod, 14-16 , 47, 5 1 55, 57, 6 1 - 6 3 , 71 , 76, 80 , 233 n . 15 , 240 nn . 9, 10 , 11 , 241 n . 12 , 243 n . 35, 244 n . 60 , 245 n . 6 8 Biarritz American University, 15 9 Binkin, Martin, 23 5 Birmingham, England, 1 0 9 - 1 5 , 1 4 1 , 1 9 9 200 Birmingham Evening Mail, 255 n . 1 Birmingham Sunday Mercury, 24 7 n . 8 , 248 n . 1 3 Black Congressional Caucus , 4 - 5 Black male soldiers, relationship wit h women of, 135-3 7 Black migration, 24, 236 n . 1 4 Black nurses, 6 Black press, 7, 32, 50, 7 1 Black WAAC-WAC Women in the Services Eighth Biennial Reunion, 5, 2Q0 Black women leader s of women's organiza tions, 240 n . 4 Blair, Emily Newell, 37 , 52, 53, 238 n . 44, 240 n . 11 , 241 n . 1 3 Blair, John, 255 n . 2 9 Blassingame, John W., 239 n . 1 Bogue, Donald, 250 n . 5 Bohy Lafayette, hotel , 11 9 Bombing: in England, 180-81 ; at Pearl Harbor, 27, 32-3 8 Bonesteel, Maj . Gen. Charles, 248 nn . 4, 6 British reception of African America n Wacs, 120-24,18 3 Broom, Leonard, 252 n . 1 4 Brown, Atty. Joe, 69, 244 n . 5 4 Browne, Delores, 14 0 Browning, Harley, 152 , 251 n . 1 4 Bureau of Publi c Relations, 36 Cairns, Dorion, 252 n . 1 Call and Post, 24 7 n . 1 4 Camp Atterbury, 9 7 Campbell, D'Ann, 235 n . 9 Campbell, Maj. K. E., 248 n . 2 Campbell, Noel . See Mitchell, Noe l Campbell Campbell, Capt . Thomas, 11 8 Camp Bowman, 17 2

Index Camp Breckenridge, 2 0 - 2 1, 8 2 Camp Crowder, 4 2 Camp Gruber, 7 8 Camp Shanks, 10 4 Camp Sibert, 9 8 Camp Stoneman, 166-6 7 Capreol, Joan, 247 n . 9 Cargill, Thomas F. , 250 n . 1 0 Carter, Dorothy Hutchins, 120—12 1 Carter, Gladys Schuster, 18-19 , 21 , 34, 95, 96 , 100 , 116 , 123 , 132 , 156 , 166 , 233 n . 1 9 Carter, Capt. Mildred, special service offi cer, 91, 9 6 , 1 1 2 , 1 2 5 - 2 6 , 1 4 0, 24 7 n . 1 9 Caserne Tallandier, 116 , 12 4 Cayton, Horace R., 75 , 76, 246 n . 1 Celler, Congressman Emanuel , 7 8 C-54 carg o plane, 10 2 Chain of command , 13 1 Chemical Warfare Service, 54, 5 5 Chicago Council agains t Racial and Religious Discrimination, 7 9 Chicago Defender, 8 , 61, 62,187, 24 2 n . 29, 24 5 n . 76, 24 7 n . 13 , 249 n . 2 4 Chicago Tribune, 24 9 n . 2 8 Chicago Women's Federation, 241 n . 1 2 Christian Science Monitor, 10 3 Civilian Advisory Committee , 239 nn . 56— 60 Civil Aeronautics Authority, 236 n . 1 5 Civilian Conservatio n Corps , 236 n . 1 5 Clark, 3d Office r An n M., 236-37 n . 1 5 Clark, Enid, 87,100,16 3 Clements, Maj. Frances A., 14 3 Cohesion. See Social cohesio n Cohn, Cleopatra Evans , 129 , 16 6 Collins, Patricia Hill, 190 , 253-54 n . 1 8 Communication Zone , ETO, 10 9 Conference agains t Race Discrimination i n the War Effort, 7 3 Conflict. See Social conflic t Conscripts (draftees) , 15 0 Contingents: first, 105-8 ; second, 107— 8 Corps of Engineers, 5 4 Coser, Lewis, 253 n . 11 , 254 n. 1 3 Cottrell, Leonard , 250 n. 2, 253 n . 4 Courtmartial, 6 9 Coven, Edwina, 19 9 Cox, Oliver , 232 n . 1 2

Index Crisis: A Record of the Darker Races, 8 , 27, 30,18 7 Dance group, 125-2 6 Davis, Allie Love, 8 , 134,156 , 161 , 16 8 Davis, Allison, 232 n . 1 2 Davis, Angela Y . 240 n . 2 Davis, Gen. Benjamin O., 107,109-12 , 173, 24 7 n . 23, 248 nn . 4, 6 ; as highest ranking African American , 243 n . 4 0 Davis, Earl, 56, 241 n . 22, 242 n . 2 3 Davis, Sammye Trail, 8 - 9, 13 , 100 , 156 Davis, Vernelle Hannah, 155 , 16 5 Day, Richard , 233 n . 1 Deckard, Barbara, 240 n . 6 Dellums, Ronald , 255 n . 3 1 Delta Sigm a Theta Sorority, 56 Desegregation, racial in the military, 1 9 4 95 Des Moines. See Fort Des Moine s Detroit Free Press, 255 n . 1 Director of Women's Relations, United States Army, 3 3 Discipline, military, 15 6 Discrimination: gender, 51, 133-37 , 182 ; racial, 51, 56, 57 , 75,133, 154 , 180 , 182-83,192, 2 4 1 - 4 2 n . 22. See also Racism; Sexism; Stereotypes Dorn, Edwin, 254 n . 2 8 Douglas Army Air Base, 9 7 Douglas, Frederick, 240 n . 5 Douglas, Sarah Mapps, 24 0 n . 4 Drake, St. Clair, 246 n . 1 Duncan, Lillian, 9 7 Duster, Alfr^da, 235 n . 11 , 240 n . 7 Earley, Charity Adams, 13 , 17 , 51, 56, 57 , 64, 65 , 75, 83 , 92, 95-99, 101 , 103, 104,107-10,118,130,132-33,146, 1 6 2 , 1 8 5 - 8 6 , 1 9 3 , 200 , 233 n . 16 , 242 n . 30, 243 n . 50, 244 n . 66, 24 5 n . 70, 24 7 n . 19 , 248 nn . 7, 11 , 249 n . 29, 253 n . 7, 254 n . 2 4 Eastman, Elizabeth Patterson , 146 , 159 , 169 Economy, from agraria n to industrial, 2 4 25 Education, 89 ; benefits, 16 0

267 Eisenhower, Gen . Dwight D., 38, 42, 80 , 82,130, 24 5 n . 7 8 Elder, Glen, 154,160,168 , 178 , 250 n . 9 , 252 n. 2 3 Elite status, 182-8 3 Embree, Edwin, 68, 243 n . 52, 245-46 n . 81 Enloe, Cynthia, 249 n . 1 4 Eurocentric image, 19 5 European Theater of Operation s (ETO) , 14? 44-48, 80 , 81, 82, 9 9 , 1 0 9 - 4 3 , 1 8 7 , 197 Evaluation report , 14 3 Ewing, John, 72, 73, 244 n . 6 2 Executive Orde r 8802, 236 n . 1 4 Faith, Gen. (als o Col.) Do n C , 21 , 62, 63, 69, 24 2 n . 32, 243 n . 52, 244 n . 5 4 Ferree, Myra Marx, 238 n . 4 1 Fields, Anne, 19 9 Fifteenth Amendment , 51 , 240 n . 5 Fifteenth Anniversar y Conventio n o f the Women's Army Corps, 5 Fifty-Fifth WA C Hospital Company , 7 9 First Base Post Office, 104 , 11 1 Flannagan, Bernadine Frazier, 58, 9 5 Fort Belvoif, 6 0 Fort Benning, 16 8 Fort Bragg, 9 7 Fort Clark, 7 8 Fort Des Moines, 17 , 2 0 - 2 1, 36 , 55, 56, 58, 59 , 65, 66, 69, 71 , 74, 76, 80 , 97 , 193; report of informal visi t to, 2 4 5 46 n . 8 1 Fort Devens (trainin g center), black Wacs strike at, 7 4 Forten sisters (Margaretta , Jarriet, and Sarah), 240 n. 4 Fort Huachuca, 60 , 66, 82 , 97, 9 8 Fort Jackson, 69, 70, 8 2 Fort Knox, 9 7 Fort Leonardwood, 17 3 Fort Lewis, 9 7 Fort McClellan, 5 Fort McPherson, 5 9 Fort Oglethorpe, 15 , 17 , 18 , 21, 54, 55, 97-100. See also Third WAC Training Center Fort Ord, 17 2

268 Franklin, John Hope, 233-35 n . 14 , 239 n . 1 Fray, Evelyn, 16 5 Frazier, E. Franklin, 232 n . 12 , 246 n . 3 Frazier, Virginia Lane, 19 , 114 , 121 , 124 , 129, 132,134 , 163,18 4 Fredland, Eric, 148 , 252 n . 1 7 French reception o f African America n Wacs, 18 3 Fry, Marjory, 3 8 Fuller, Jacqueline, 9 2 Fuller, Winona, 9 2 Gardiner Hospital, 79 , 8 2 Gardner, Burleigh, 232 n . 1 2 Gardner, Mary, 232 n . 1 2 Garner-Thorpe, Si r Ronald, 19 9 Garraty, John, 235 n . 1 2 Garrett, Lula Jones, 74, 75, 244 n . 6 7 Gender relations, 133-3 7 General Federatio n of Women's Clubs, 51 GI Bill, 8 , 1 2 , 1 5 3 , 1 6 0 - 7 3 , 25 2 n . 2 0 Gibson, Truman K., Jr., 8 1 Gibson, W. Boyce, 252 n . 1 Giddings, Paula, 240 n . 5 Gilroy, Curtis, 255 n . 2 9 Gimble, Cynthia, 168 , 178 , 250 n . 9 , 252 n . 2 3 Girwood, Maj . Gen. Sir Eric, 248 n . 2 Glasgow, Scotland , 106 , 10 7 Gluck, Shern a B., 238 n . 4 2 Godden, Frank, 249 n . 2 4 Goffman, Erving , 253 n . 2 Goulden, Marc, 145-46 , 25 0 n . 1 Gravely Point, 10 2 Griffith, Capt . Velma, 14 3 Group solidarity, 187-9 0 Hair grooming, equipment for, 185-8 6 Halleren, Mary, 14 3 Hammond, Ruth , 134 , 154,155 , 16 8 Hansen, Lee, 251 n . 1 0 Harrison, Vera, 9 6 Hastie, Judge William, 63, 242 n . 2 3 Hays, Capt . Ellen, 11 2 Heidegger, Martin, 252 n . 1 Herrick, Geneviev e Forbes, 45—47, 239 n . 61 Hess, Beth C, 23 8 n . 4 1

Index Hickman, Emily, 70, 244 n . 5 7 Hill, 1s t Lt. Violet, 97,12 8 Hobby, Ovet a Culp , 2,16, 35-37 , 39-40 , 42, 56, 57 , 60 , 61, 73, 81, 82,105,130 , 241 n . 22, 242 n . 24, 244 n . 63, 245 n . 75 Homosexuals, 137-3 9 Honey, Maureen , 231 n . 9 hooks, bell, 4 9 Horak, Maj . H., 24 8 n . 2 Horton, Capt. Mildred McAfee, 3 , 231 n . 5 Hotel Etats-Unis , 11 9 Hotel Georg e Cinq, 10 9 Howard, Atty. Charles P., 62, 63 Howe, Ai r Commodore Tom, 248 n . 2 HR 4906, 3 4 HR 6293 , 3 4 Hughes, Maj. Everett, 3 3 Human capital theory, 149-5 0 Huntington, Samuel , 234 n. 3 Hurley, Maj. Virginia, 11 2 Husserl, Edmund, 252 n . 1 He de France, 101, 105 , 106 , 18 0 Integration, racial, 70, 9 5 Ivie, Rachael, 168 , 178 , 250 n . 9, 252 n . 23 Jackson, Margaret, 129 , 141 , 159, 184-8 5 Janis, Irving, 250 n . 2, 253 n . 4 Janowitz, Morris , 148 , 183 , 234 n. 4 , 250 n . 7 , 253 n . 5 Jernigan, Maj. Dudley C , 104 , 111-1 2 Jim Crow laws, 30, 189 , 191 , 245 n . 7 1 Joan of Arc, 11 5 Job: performance, 139—43 ; satisfaction, 182-183; undesirabl e jobs, 19 3 Johnson, Dorothy, 9 , 13 , 107, 158 , 161, 170 Johnson, Frances Pickett, 134 , 141 , 16 5 Johnson, Jesse, 231 nn . 1 , 3, 8, 232 n. 10 , 235 n . 9 Johnson, Lavinia Lowery, 115 , 123 , 146 , 157, 20 0 Jones, Dorothy Dailey , 69 , 70, 83, 88, 90, 1 3 7 - 3 8 , 1 4 7 , 1 5 9 , 1 8 0 - 8 1 , 24 4 n . 55 Jones, Margaret Barnes, 15, 2 0 - 2 1, 83, 97,125,157-58,173-75,177

Index Jordan, Mercedes, 9 7 Julius Rosenwald Fund , 6 8 Kanter, Rosabeth, 2 4 Kattenbrink, Irving , 150-51 , 251 n . 1 2 Kearney, Mary, 9 6 Kennedy, Vann B., 62, 63 King Edward School, 1 1 1 - 1 3 , 1 1 5 - 5 6 Kitchen Police (KP) , 72 Kronberg Castle, 4 6 Ku Klux Klan, 95 Lam, Dr. Elizabeth, 4 5 Landry, Bart, 232 n . 1 2 LaVigne, Gertrude Cruse, 8 , 82 , 98, 105 , 107,124,126,127,146,166-67,189, 247 n. 22, 249 n . 23, 254 n . 2 2 Leadership: military, 25; 6888th, 129-33 , 185 Lee, Gen. John C. H., 30 , 10 9 Lee, Ulysses, 231 n . 1 , 234 n . 5, 236 nn . 15, 17 , 18 , 20, 237 nn . 25, 26, 27, 31, 253 n . 9 Le Havre, 11 5 Leonard, Mildred Dupee, 72, 93, 97, 100 , 105, 111 , 157,160,16 4 Lerner, Gerda, 241 n . 1 2 Lesbians. See Homosexuals Lieberson, Stanley, 232-33 n . 12 , 235 n . 10 Little, Roger, 148 , 251 n . 11 , 252 n . 1 7 Living quarters. See Quarters, living Lockburn Air Force Base, 17 3 Locket, Colonel , 1 8 Lopreato, Sally, 152 , 251 n . 14 , 252 n . 1 5 Lord, Mrs. Oswald B. , 44, 239 n . 5 9 Lowe, Leatrice, 125-2 6 Luckman, Thomas, 190—93 , 252 n . 2, 254 n. 1 5 Lumsdaine, Arthur, 250 n . 1 , 253 n . 4 Lumsdaine, Marion , 250 n. 1 , 253 n . 4 Lyons, Michael, 23 7 n . 3 7 MacGregor, Morris , 244 n. 5 8 Macy, Col . Noel, 62 , 243 n . 3 3 Magnusson, Sigurdur, 145-46 , 25 0 n . 1 Malassignments, 69 ; rebelling against, 7 8 Marcantonio, Congressma n Vito , 7 8 Marine Corps , 1 , 3

269 Marriage, 165-6 8 Marshall, Gen . George C, 3 3 Marshall, Odess a Taylor, 134 , 155 , 16 7 Mason-Dixon line , 58 Mason, William, 151-52 , 25 1 n . 1 3 Maw, Governo r Herbert , 43 Maxton Ai r Force Base, 17 5 McAlpin, Harry, 62 , 243 n . 33, 245 n . 76 McAteea, Viola, 69 , 244 n. 5 3 McBride, Mary, 100 , 125-26 , 13 4 McCarthy, John, 38, 238 n . 4 6 McCormack, John, 72, 73, 244 n . 6 3 McCoskrie, Col . F. U., 245 n . 67 McNulty, Timothy J., 249 n . 2 8 Mental alertnes s test, 5 7 Michigan Chronicle, XAXw.lA Miles, Gen . Sherman, 78 Military Branc h Personnel Division , 67 Military Referenc e Branch of th e National Archives, 4 Military service : as bridging environment , 152-53,171, 251-5 2 n . 14 ; as confirmation o f citizenship , 9, 194 ; effects of , 144-78; intangible rewards of, 154-60 ; previous studies of effects of, 148-54 ; regional variation i n effects of , 145 ; selfconfidence a s reward of, 156 ; tangible rewards of, 154-60 ; a s turning point, 168-78, 25 0 n . 9,252 n . 1 8 Miller, Capt. Mary, 11 2 Mitchell, Noe l Campbell , 14 , 17 , 53, 58, 59, 60 , 84 , 91, 94, 9 6 - 9 9 , 1 0 1 , 1 0 3 , 1 0 4 , 1 0 9 - 1 0 , 1 1 2 , 1 4 0 , 1 6 4 , 24 2 n . 2 6 Modell, John, 145-46 , 25 0 nn . 1 , 3 Moore, Brend a L., 235 n . 11 , 254 n . 2 8 Moore, Irm a L., 6 9 Morale, 55, 70 , 76, 78, 111 , 139-43,148 , 187, 19 4 Morden, Bettie J., 254 n . 2 7 Moss, Alfred, 233-35, 23 9 n . 1 Moton, Jennie, 92, 247 n . 1 4 Motor convoy, 11 8 Murray, Florence, 73 , 244 n. 6 5 Myrdal, Gunnar , 232 n . 12 , 235 n . 9 , 236 n . 1 4 Nash, Col . John, 7 9 National America n Woman Suffrage Asso ciation (NAW S A), 5 1

Index

270 National Associatio n fo r the Advancemen t of Colore d People (NAACP) , 14 , 19 , 50, 56, 71 , 76, 95, 187 ; Dallas branch of , 242 n . 23; Winston-Salem Yout h Council of, 24 1 n . 7 National Associatio n o f Colore d Women, 51 National Civilia n Advisory Committe e (NCAC),42-44,52,81 National Counci l o f Negro Women (NCNW), 14 , 16 , 19 , 47, 50, 51, 53, 54, 56, 61 , 79, 187 , 233 n . 1 5 National Urba n League, 56 National Yout h Administration (NYA) , 10 , 16, 233 n . 14 , 236 n . 1 5 Navy, 1 , 3, 249 n . 2 8 Nealing, Capt . W. H., 57 , 242 n . 2 4 Negro WAC Band, 56, 76, 8 2 Negro Wacs, convicted, 245 n . 72 ; traveling abroad, 245 n . 78 ; turned dow n for overseas duty, 245 n . 76; quit , 245 n . 7 1 Newspaper published b y the 6888th, 12 5 New York Amsterdam News, 24 7 n . 1 0 New York Daily News, 4 0 New York Times, 80 , 245 n . 7 7 Nichols, Lee, 237 n. 2 6 Nineteenth Amendment , 33 , 36, 237 n . 3 3 98th Genera l Hospital, 4 7 92nd Division , 3 1 Noncombatants, 18 4 Nondiscriminatory clause , 253 n . 9 Normandy America n Cemetery , 14 0 North Africa , 8 2 North Jersey Committee o n Discrimina tion, 6 2 Nurses, black, 6 Oakland/Berkeley sample , 17 8 Occupations: civilian, 92; of interviewees , 85, 86 ; military, 96, 193 ; occupational benefits, 163-65 ; of parents, 85, 8 6 Office o f War Information (OWI) , 7 Officers Candidat e School (OCS) , 35-36 , 53, 55-59 , 6 1 - 6 3 ; integrated, 71, 74, 79,82 Oi, Walter, 149-50 , 25 1 n . 1 0 Oliver, Elsie, 17-18 , 34 , 74 , 98, 129 , 135 , 146

Olson, Keit h W., 252 n . 2 0 Overton, Lt. John, 10 9 Page, Lt. Col. David, 6 3 Paris, France, 112,118-20 , 14 2 Pearl Harbor bombing, 27, 32—38 Pearson, Adj. Gen. William, 62, 242 n . 2 3 Phenomenology, 180,190-94 , 25 2 n . 1 Philadelphia Tribune, 81 , 245 n . 78 , 7 9 Phillips, Robert, 255 n . 2 9 Philpot, Maj. Margaret, 104 , 18 5 Phipps, Anita, 3 3 Pierce, Joseph, 246 n . 2 Pinkney, Christin e Stone, 16 5 Piore, Michael, 254 n . 2 3 Pittman, Jane, 22, 233 n . 1 9 Pittsburgh Courier, 27 , 187 , 242 n . 2 3 Pitts, Ardella, 13 5 Pitts, Lucia, 97, 111 , 115, 139 , 247 n . 18 , 248 nn . 8,1 0 Plausibility structure , 19 3 Porter, G. F., 242 n . 2 2 Poston, Dudley, 152 , 251 n . 11 , 252 n . 1 6 Postwar: different fo r black an d white servicemen, 250 n . 1 ; Wac representation in the Army, 195-9 6 Powell, Congressma n Ada m Clayton , 15 , 78, 96 Powell, Colonia , 9 7 Prattis, P. L., 242 n . 2 3 Pregnancy, 14 2 President's Committe e o n Fair Employment Practices, 28 Prestwick, Scotland , 10 3 Prisoners of War, German, 118 , 249 n . 1 8 Public Law, 554, 3 5 Putney, Martha S., 55, 241 nn . 18-20 , 243 n . 38, 245 n . 7 4 Quarters, living: in England and Rouen, 110, 117 , 182 ; face-to-face contac t in, 117; in Paris, 11 9 Queen Elizabeth, 101 , 10 7 Race relations: campaign for racial equality, 27-29; theories of, 23 2 n. 12 . See also Discrimination , race ; Integration, racial; Racial-caste society; Racis m

Index Racial-caste society , 11 . See also Discrimi nation, race; Jim Crow laws; Race relations; Racism Racism, 49, 94 , 187 . See also Discrimina tion, race; Jim Crow laws; Race relations; Racial-caste societ y Ragland, Mary Crawford , 87 , 8 9 Randolph, A. Phillip, 236 n . 1 4 Recipe knowledge, 19 1 Recruitment o f the WAAC, 39 Recruit/reject hypothesis, 2 7 Red Cross. See American Re d Cross Reformists, 18 7 Reis, Capt. Margot, 4 6 Remond, Sara Parker, 240 n . 4 Research Branch, Information an d Education Division o f the Army, 148 , 250 n . 2 Reunion, members of 6888th , 200-20 1 Rewards of militar y service. See Military service, intangible reward s of; Militar y service, tangible rewards of Rhoden, Myrtle, 34, 95, 100 , 105-7 , 112 , 118,120-21,124, 25 4 n . 2 2 Rice, Col. Jessie Pearl, 76, 24 5 n . 68 Rogers, Congresswoman Edit h Nourse, 3 3 Roosevelt, Eleanor , 16 , 18 , 62, 69, 244 n . 53 Roosevelt, Presiden t Franklin D., 2, 12 , 16 , 28, 35,16 0 Rosenwald Fund, 6 8 Rouen, France, 112,115-59,139 , 158 , 166 Roundtree, Dovey , 20, 233 n . 1 7 Rozier, Mary, 66, 9 7 , 1 3 4 , 1 4 3 , 1 4 6 , 200 , 254 n . 2 2 Schexnider, Alvin, 255 n . 3 0 Scott, 1s t Lt. Blanche, 11 , 67, 71, 97, 1 2 8 29,139 Second War Loan Program for Women, 5 3 Segal, Mady W., 23 4 Segregation: gender, 188 ; racial, 22, 29, 3 1 - 3 2 , 58 , 60 , 68, 72, 83, 95,148, 188 , 193 Selective Service Training Act of 1940 , 1 , 29, 16 0 Service commands, 9 3 - 9 4 Servicemen's Readjustmen t Act of 1944 . See GI Bill

271 Seven-point policy, 2 9 Sexism, 22, 53, 18 7 Sherard, Corrie, 9 6 Shibutani, Tomotsu, 185 , 253 n . 6 Shils, Edward, 148 , 183 , 250 n . 7, 253 n . 5 Sibley, Col . C . C, 24 8 n . 2 Signal Corps , 54, 55 Simmel, Georg, 189 , 254 n . 1 2 6888th Centra l Postal Director y Battalion: background of members, 84-89, 93-96 ; efficiency of , 24 7 n . 13 ; group solidarity, 187-90; leadership of, 129-33,185 ; mission of, 113-14 ; organization of , 114-15; reunion, 200-201; as self-sustaining, 124—33 , 186; skills of members, 124-29. See also Work conditions; Quarters, living Slander campaign, 40, 13 7 Sloan, Ruth, 13 4 Smith, Betty, 9 2 Smith, Dorothy, 190 , 253 n . 2, 254 n . 1 6 Smith, Graham, 249 n . 1 4 Smith, Pfc. Helen, 7 7 Smith, J. H., 252 n . 1 4 Smith, Kitty Bowden, 9 8 Smith, M. Brewster, 250 n . 2, 253 n . 4 Smith, Toni, 8 8 Social change, 2 4 - 2 7 Social cohesion , 148,179-87 , 199 ; and deprivation, 180 ; horizontal, 180 ; vertical, 18 0 Social conflict , 179—87 ; new norms as a result of, 188 ; realistic conflict, 187-88 , 197, 253-54 n . 11 ; theory of, 187-90 ; Social movemen t organization, 3 8 Socioeconomic status , 84, 151 , 246 n . 4 Special Delivery, 125 , 249 n . 2 5 Split (dual ) labor market theory, 254 n . 2 3 Sports, 126-2 9 Spratling, Cassandra , 255 n . 1 Stanton, Elizabeth Cady , 240 n . 5 Star, Shirley, 250 n . 2, 253 n . 4 Stars and Stripes, 8 9 Staten Island terminal, 9 7 Stereotypes: gender, 146 ; race, 12 2 Still, Letetia, 240 n . 4 Stimson, Henry L. , 34, 70, 76, 80 , 244 n . 57 St. Louis Arpug, 8 1

Index

272 Stokes, Lt. Aubrey, 243 n . 5 0 Stouffer, Samuel , 145,182-83 , 25 0 n. 2, 253 n . 4 Symbols, secondary, 183—8 4 Tailhook incident , 249 n . 2 8 Tarryk, Anna, 88, 1 5 7 - 5 8 , 1 6 0 , 1 6 3 Tasker, Col. Harold, 62, 243 n . 3 3 Taylor, Lt. D. F., 6 7 Taylor, Janyce Stovall, 141 , 18 4 Teachout, Col . George, 4 2 Technology, 24-2 5 Terrell, Mary Church, 5 1 Third officer, establishmen t o f rank , 6 1 Third WAC Training Center, 9 8 Thirty-Second WAAC Post Headquarters Company, 66 Thirty-Third WAAC Post Headquarter s Company, 66, 96 Thomas, Bernice, 10,12 , 117 , 152,172 , 194 Thorp, Gretchen M., 73 , 244 n . 65 368th Infantry , 3 1 369th Infantry , 3 1 367th Infantry , 3 1 Toles, Edward B., 110-11,117 , 24 8 n . 3 Tours, recreational, 128—2 9 Treadwell, Mattie, 137 , 232 n . 9, 233 nn . 13, 18 , 234 n . 7, 237 nn . 32, 34, 238 nn . 38, 39, 43, 47, 24 1 n . 16 , 242 n. 28, 243 n . 48, 244 n . 61, 246 n . 5, 24 9 nn . 27, 33, 253 n . 8 Trezevant, E . P., 57, 241 n . 2 2 Tubman, Harriet, 239 n . 1 Tyrell, Edith Armstrong, 9 8 , 1 2 4 , 1 9 5 , 1 9 7 U-boats, German , 106 , 10 8 Unemployment, 19 8 United Negro Colleg e Fund, 12 5 Veterans' Administration, 147 , 154 , 1 6 3 64 Victory in Europe (V E Day), 7 7 WAAC detachment no. 2, 66 Wade, Ruth, 13,1 6

Walker, Bertha Solomon, 254 n. 2 6 Walla Walla Army Air Base, 21, 97,12 9 Walton, Johnnie, 13 5 Ward, Chaplain Beverly M., 11 2 War Department, 1 , 2,18, 27-37 , 39,41 , 44, 101 , 165, 187-88 ; sociopolitica l pressures on, 18 7 Washington, Booker T., 247 n. 1 4 Washington, Edith, 10 1 Washington Times, 4 0 Washington Tribune, 7 1 Weber, Max, 249 n . 2 1 Weems, Maj. Mary, 10 9 Weisbrod, Burton, 251 n . 1 0 Wells, Ida B., 51 West, Maj. Harriet, 64, 67, 74 , 244 n . 6 7 West, Lorraine, 19 9 White, Walter, 76, 244 n . 5 9 Whiting, Willie, 12 , 125 , 132 , 139,147 , 156,161,169 Willett, Thomas, 149 , 251 n . 1 0 Williams, Emmett, 13 4 Williams, Mary Daniels, 12 , 98, 128 , 152 Williams, Robin, 250 n . 2, 253 n . 4 Wilson, William J., 232 n. 12 , 235 n . 1 0 Winston-Salem Yout h Council, 56 Wirth, Louis, 139 , 249 n . 3 0 Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergenc y Service (WAVES), 1- 3 Women's Army (Auxiliary ) Corp s (WAAC), 1 , 2, 7,19, 37-4 8 Women's Interests Section (WIS) , 36, 38, 41, 47 , 238 n . 55 Woods, Essie O'Bryant, 19 9 Work conditions: in England and Rouen, 1 1 4 - 1 5 , 1 1 7 , 1 8 1 - 8 2 ; i n Paris, 119 Wright Patterson Air Force Base, 176— 77 Wright, Ruth Jefferson, 105 , 124 , 141, 168 Young Women's Christian Association, 70, 187; public affairs committe e of, 7 0 Zald, Meyer, 38, 238 n . 4 6