Timber in Ancient Israel: Dendroarcharology and Dendrochronology 9652660248, 9789652660244

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TIMBER IN ANCIENT ISRAEL Dendroarchaeology and Dendrochronology

TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY SONIA AND MARCO NADLER INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY

MONOGRAPH SERIES NUMBER 26

Executive Editor: Editorial Board:

Manuscript & Production Editor:

Israel Finkelstein Avi Gopher Ze’ev Herzog David Ussishkin Shirley Gassner

TIMBER IN ANCIENT ISRAEL DENDROARCHAEOLOGY AND DENDROCHRONOLOGY

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

EMERY AND CLAIRE YASS PUBLICATIONS IN ARCHAEOLOGY INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY, TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY TEL AVIV 2007

Under the auspices of the Friends of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University

Published by the Emery and Claire Yass Publications in Archaeology (Bequeathed by the Yass Estate, Sydney, Australia)

of the Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University

ISBN 965-266-024-8 © Copyright 2007 All rights reserved

Printed in Israel by Top

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CONTENTS Preface Chapter 1

1

THE NATURE OF THE EVIDENCE WRITTEN SOURCES EVIDENCE FROM PLANT REMAINS POLLEN GRAIN ANALYSIS FRUITS AND SEEDS FROM ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS ARCHAEOLOGICAL WOOD REMAINS: DENDROARCHAEOLOGY SOURCES OF INFORMATION BASIC ASSUMPTIONS METHODS OF ANALYSIS

CONTRIBUTION OF DENDROARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Chapter 2

4 6 6 6 7 7 11 11 14

RECONSTRUCTION OF PAST ARBOREAL LANDSCAPE

14

IMPORT OF TIMBER AND FOREIGN COMMERCIAL RELATIONSHIPS

16

EVERYDAY LIFE: FURNITURE, TOOLS AND ARTEFACTS

16

HUMAN IMPACT: DEFORESTATION, CULTIVATION AND INTRODUCTION OF HORTICULTURE

16

INDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE MEDITERRANEAN FOREST, PARK FOREST AND MAQUIS SOURCES OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL WOOD REMAINS INDIGENOUS NON-EDIBLE TREES AND SHRUBS RECONSTRUCTION OF THE PAST ARBOREAL LANDSCAPE

Chapter 3

4

17

GOLAN HEIGHTS

20 25 33 33

UPPER AND LOWER GALILEE

35

MOUNT CARMEL

37

JEZREEL VALLEY

38

THE COASTAL PLAIN

39

SAMARIA

43

JUDAEA

43

CONCLUSIONS

46

INDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE SEMI-ARID AND ARID ZONES SOURCES OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL WOOD REMAINS INDIGENOUS NON-EDIBLE TREES AND SHRUBS RECONSTRUCTION OF THE PAST ARBOREAL LANDSCAPE THE NORTHERN NEGEV THE CENTRAL NEGEV THE ARAVA VALLEY THE DEAD SEA REGION

53 56 64 74 74 78 80 83

v

LAND OF KINNEROT BETH-SHEAN VALLEY CENTRAL JORDAN VALLEY

CONCLUSIONS

Chapter 4

THE ANCIENT ARBOREAL LANDSCAPE OF THE SINAI DESERT SOURCES OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL WOOD REMAINS RECONSTRUCTION OF THE PAST ARBOREAL LANDSCAPE NORTHERN SINAI EASTERN SINAI CENTRAL SINAI SOUTHERN SINAI

CONCLUSIONS

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Chapter 8

Chapter 9

EXPLOITATION OF CULTIVATED FRUIT TREE TIMBER

95 96 98 98 99 99 100 101 103

SOURCES OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL WOOD REMAINS

104

IMPORT OF FOREIGN TIMBER DURING ANTIQUITY

116

IMPORTED SPECIES

116

SOURCES OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL WOOD REMAINS

122

CONCLUSIONS

128

ANCIENT WOODEN ARTEFACTS

132

HOUSEHOLD OBJECTS AND TOOLS

132

WOODEN COFFINS

138

INTERIOR DECORATIONS

141

DENDROCHRONOLOGICAL RESEARCH

145

CLIMATE, SOIL AND PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC UNITS

145

SPECIFIC DENDROCHRONOLOGICAL RESEARCH PROBLEMS

146

PRESENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE

147

CHRONOLOGIES OF LIVING TREES

149

DATING ARCHAEOLOGICAL TIMBER

154

FLOATING CHRONOLOGIES

154

CONSTRUCTING A MASTER CHRONOLOGY FOR THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN REGION DATING ARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIAL BY 14C

160

ARBOREAL HISTORY OF ISRAEL

166

References Index of Plant Species Index of Sites vi

85 86 88 92

165

170 185 187

LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 1.1: Fig. 1.2: Fig. 1.3: Fig. 1.4: Fig. 1.5: Fig. 1.6: Fig. 1.7: Fig. 1.8: Fig. 1.9: Fig. 1.10: Fig. 1.11: Fig. 1.12: Fig. 2.1: Fig. 2.2: Fig. 2.3: Fig. 2.4: Fig. 2.5: Fig. 2.6: Fig. 3.1: Fig. 3.2: Fig. 3.3: Fig. 3.4: Fig. 3.5: Fig. 3.6: Fig. 3.7: Fig. 3.8: Fig. 3.9: Fig. 3.10: Fig. 3.11: Fig. 3.12: Fig. 3.13: Fig. 3.14: Fig. 3.15: Fig. 4.1: Fig. 4.2: Fig. 5.1: Fig. 5.2: Fig. 5.3: Fig. 5.4: Fig. 5.5: Fig. 5.6: Fig. 5.7: Fig. 5.8:

Beams and logs in the roof of the 11th century mosque at Saint Catherine’s monastery. Beams and logs in 17th century construction at Saint Catherine’s monastery. Logs in the siege ramp at Masada. Logs in guard tower at >En Boqeq. A burnt log of date palm at >En Boqeq. Logs of Cedar of Lebanon from the fresco building at Kurnub. Burnt logs of Acacia raddiana (A) and Cedrus libani (C) from Tel Beer-sheba. Charred pieces of wood dated to the Iron Age at Tel Beer-sheba. Microscopic sections of Phoenix dactylifera from >En Boqeq. Microscopic sections of Phoenix dactylifera from MoEn Boqeq, Roman-Byzantine period. Microscopic sections of a non-charred piece of Tamarix (X5) from the roof of the guard tower at >En Boqeq, Roman-Byzantine period. Microscopic sections of Juniperus phoenica from Masada. Archaeological sites in Sinai where dendroarchaeological research was carried out. Phoenix dactylifera growing in the Feiran oasis. Olive orchard near the Cave of Machpelah, Hebron. A cultivated Olea europaea specimen in an orchard in the Lower Galilee. The oldest living specimen of Olea europaea growing in the garden of Gethsemane in Jerusalem. Pollen grains of Olea europaea (Nos. 1-3) and of Phyllirea media (Nos. 4-5) under electron microscope. Microscopic sections of charred pieces of Olea europaea wood from Tel Ta>anach, dated to the Middle Bronze Age. Stones of wild and cultivated Olea europaea. Location of wood remains of Olea europaea. Phoenix dactylifera trees growing in Wadi Feiran oasis, Sinai.

8 8 8 9 9 9 9 10 12 13 14 15 18 19 21 26 29 32 60 61 65 67 67 69 71 75 75 75 81 81 83 83 85 97 102 105 105 105 106 106 107 107 111

vii

Fig. 5.9: Fig. 5.10: Fig. 5.11: Fig. 6.1: Fig. 6.2: Fig. 6.3: Fig. 6.4: Fig. 6.5: Fig. 6.6: Fig. 6.7: Fig. 6.8: Fig. 6.9: Fig. 7.1: Fig. 7.2: Fig. 7.3: Fig. 7.4: Fig. 7.5: Fig. 7.6: Fig. 7.7: Fig. 7.8: Fig. 7.9: Fig. 8.1: Fig. 8.2: Fig. 8.3: Fig. 8.4: Fig. 8.5: Fig. 8.6: Fig. 8.7: Fig. 8.8: Fig. 8.9: Fig. 8.10: Fig. 8.11: Fig. 8.12: Fig. 8.13: Fig. 8.14: Fig. 8.15: Fig. 8.16:

viii

Baskets (Nos.1-5) and ropes (Nos.4, 5), made of Phoenix dactylifera leaves and bark fibres from MoEn Boqeq. A flat wooden vessel made of Acacia raddiana from >En Gedi, Tomb 6. A wooden cylindrical bowl made of Acacia raddiana from >En Gedi, Tomb 6. A wooden comb made of Acacia raddiana from >En Gedi, Tomb 6. Components of a wooden coffin (No. II-113) made of Cupressus sempervirens from Jericho. Wooden coffin made of Ficus sycomorus from >En Gedi. Carved panels from the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. Nos. 1 and 2 are made of Cedrus libani and Nos. 3 and 4 are made of Cupressus sempervirens. The entrance door to the 6th century CE Basilica at Saint Catherine’s Monastery in Sinai. It is made of Cupressus sempervirens. The ceiling of the 6th century CE basilica at Saint Catherine’s Monastery in Sinai. It is made of Cupressus sempervirens. Increment cores of trunks of Pinus halepensis (above) and Cedrus libani (below). Cross-section of a branch of Pinus halepensis demonstrating assymetric growth. Cross-section of trunk of Cupressus sempervirens showing false rings. Master chronologies of Juniperus polycarpos from Iran, Pinus nigra from Turkey and Pistacia khinjuk from southern Sinai. Cross-cut of a 502 year old trunk of Jumiperus phoenica from Mount Maghara, Sinai. Cross-cut of a 400 year old trunk of Pistacia khinjuk from southern Sinai. Cross-section of a log of Cedrus libani from Safed. Microscoopic 3-dimensional strcture of the wood of Fig. 8.7. Cross-cut of a log of Cedrus libani from the roof of Al-Aqsa Mosque, Jerusalem. Floating master chronology of Cedrus libani logs from Al-Aqsa Mosque roof, Jerusalem. Log of Cedrus libani from Kurnub. Cross-cut of logs of Cupressus sempervirens. 1) From Herodium; 2): From Kurnub. Juniperus phoenica from MoEn Avdat. Water-bank vegetation in the Hula valley Nature Reserve. Closed reservation of maquis of Quercus calliprinos - Pistacia palaestina association in the Alona Nature Reserve, Mount Carmel. The impact of grazing on Mediterranean maquis of Quercus calliprinos - Pistacia palaestina association on Mount Carmel. Invasion of Quercus calliprinos between Pinus halepensis specimens in the Hamasreq Nature Reserve, Judaean hills. Pistacia palaestina in the Judaean hills in autumn. Fruiting Pistacia lentiscus on the coastal plain. Rhus coriaria in the Upper Galilee. Platanus orientalis in the Galilee. The oldest living speciman of Olea europaea in the Garden of Gethsemane Jerusalem. Flowering Styrax officinalis in the Galilee. The oldest living specimen of Quercus ithaburensis near the Tomb of Abahalafta, Galilee. Tamarix aphylla near Beersheba. Acacia tortilis in the southern Negev. Acacia albida near Ashdod. Retama raetam near Beersheba. Juniperus phoenica at Jebel Maghara Sinai. Phoenix dactylifera at the Feiran oasis. Pistacia khinjuk on Jebel Sirbal, southern Sinai. Phragmites communis next to a stream bed in the Negev. Amygdalus communis in blossom. Ceratonia siliqua in bloom. Ficus sycamorus. Ziziphus spina christi bearing fruit. Close-up views of various edible fruits. (Left) General view of a stand of Cedrus libani at Jebel Baruk, Lebanon. (Right) Close-up showing cones. Cupressus sempervirens var. pyramidalis from Shfeya. Pinus halepensis in the grounds of the Rockefeller Museum, Jerusalem. Juniperus phoenica near Petra, Jordan. Carved panel from the Al-Aqsa mosque. Wooden comb from >En Tamar. Wooden plug from >En Tamar. Carved beams from the Al-Aqsa mosque.

x x x 47 47 50 50 50 50 51 51 51 51 54 54 54 54 55 55 55 55 58 58 58 58 58 59 59 59 59 62 62 62 62

ix

Plate I: Nerium oleander in bloom on the banks of a stream.

Plate II: Populus euphratica on the slopes of >En Avdat.

x

Plate III: Water-bank vegetation in the Hula valley Nature Reserve.

PREFACE

The various types of flora mentioned in the Bible have long been of great interest to scientists, many of whom were seeking for information, particularly regarding trees and shrubs, from various historical sources. The first book published on biblical plants – Die Flora der Juden appeared in four volumes (Löw 1926-34). Since then several books have been written on this subject including Plants of the Bible (Moldenke and Moldenke 1952), Plants of the Bible (Feldman 1956a), Plants of the Mishna (Feldman 1956b), Plant World of the Bible (Felix 1957), All Trees and Woody Plants of the Bible (Anderson 1979), Plants of the Bible (Zohary 1982), Fruit Trees in the Bible and Talmudic Literature (Felix 1994) and Trees: Aromatic, Ornamental and the Forest in the Bible and Rabbinic Literature (Felix 1997). All these publications were based only on written sources. The increasing interest in the woods and timber in the ancient Middle East resulted in a comprehensive book entitled Trees and Timber in the Ancient Mediterranean (Meiggs 1982). This book too is based on written documents which originated of the world of Greece and Rome, but also from Egypt, Mesopotamia and the Phoenician colonies which exploited the Lebanese forests and played an important part in Mediterranean history. The nature of the subject imposed many problems of presentation especially the nomenclature of trees and timber. For the last three decades the interdisciplinary study of archaeobotany has made great progress. Consequently, an increasing number of research projects have been based on archaeological plant remains. Numerous papers have been published and also several monographs focused on a single subject, whereas other books have resulted from scientific meetings. Paleoethnobotany (Renfrew 1973) and Domestication of Plants in the Old World (Zohary and Hopf 2000) present the process of crop plant evolution and attempt to answer the question of the origin and spread of cultivated plants in the classical Old World. The data presented are based on the identification of the wild progenitors of most cultivated plants and identification of fruits and seeds, which originated in archaeological excavations. Phytoarchaeology (Brooks and Johannes 1990) presents different aspects of the relationships between vegetation and archaeology in several continents from the high Arctic to southern Oceania, and encompasses a variety of cultures. Plant and Ancient Man: Studies in Palaeoethnobotany (Van Zeist and Casparie 1984), Wood and Archaeology (eds. Hackens et al. 1988), Foraging and Farming (Harris and Hillman 1989), Progress in Old World Palaeoethnobotany (Van Zeist et al. 1991) and Trees and Timber in Mesopotamia (Postgate and Powell 1992), which resulted from archaeobotanical conferences, present various aspects of archaeobotany. On the other hand, The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals (Ucko and Dimbleby 1969), L’urbanisation de la Palestine a l’age du Bronze Ancien (Miroschedji 1989), The Beginning of Agriculture (Milles et al. 1989) and Man’s Role in Shaping the Eastern Mediterranean Landscape (Bottema et al. 1990) resulted from interdisciplinary conferences and thus devote only part of the chapters to archaeobotany. 1

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

The difficulties involved in an accurate identification of archaeological wood remains, especially when carbonized, limited the number of dendroarchaeological studies. Development of modern histological techniques in Israel have enabled us to identify very minute pieces of wood up to the species level, even when charred or hardened. Consequently, a comprehensive dendroarchaeological research programme has been carried out over the last thirty years at numerous archaeological sites all over the country, and wood remains including charred and non-charred logs and pieces of wood have been collected and identified. References are quoted for each site investigated and published. Identifications which appear without citation were carried out by the author and are published here for the first time. In this book the spelling of site names follows The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land (Stern 1993). Where identification of a site with a place name mentioned in the ancient literature is assured, it is not prefaced with ‘Tel’, e.g. Megiddo, Lachish, Hazor, etc. This book is the result of these comprehensive investigations and is based, for the first time, on direct evidence derived from archaeological wood remains. The accumulated data make it possible to determine the dominant species prior to man’s massive interference with nature, and provide better information on the primary climax vegetation associations of the various climatic zones of Israel. It allows the earliest signs of cultivation to be traced, when and where the clearance of native vegetation and introduction of new species started, what the subsequent results of this interference in the composition of the primary climax vegetation were and where this impact was most effective. The combined evidence from dendroarchaeology, 14C dating, written sources and information on the ecology of living trees has facilitated reconstruction of the history of the arboreal vegetation of Israel during antiquity and, consequently, the macroclimate which prevailed in the various geographic regions of the country in the relevant periods. The first chapters of this book are devoted to the above topics. Chapter 2 is dedicated to the indigenous trees and shrubs of the Mediterranean forest, park-forest and maquis of Israel which were retrieved from the archaeological excavations, and to the reconstruction of the past arboreal landscape of the Mediterranean territory. Chapter 3 is devoted to the trees and shrubs of the Irano-Turanian, Saharo-Arabian and Sudanian territories of Israel retrieved from the archaeological excavations, and to the reconstruction of the past landscape of these regions. Chapter 4 presents the ancient arboreal landscape of the Sinai desert as evident from the wood remains retrieved from the archaeological sites excavated in this peninsula. The timber trade between Israel and its neighbours in antiquity is dealt with in other chapters, as are various wooden artefacts found in ancient sites. The data is based on the wood remains retrieved in the archaeological excavations all over the country. Chapter 5 deals with the exploitation of timber which originated in cultivated fruit trees. Chapter 6 is devoted to the imported timbers during antiquity in Israel as evident from the wood remains retrieved from the archaeological excavations. Chapter 7 describes the various wooden artefacts found in archaeological excavations, trying to shed light on the preferred timbers for manufacturing these objects in antiquity. Israel has no true forests, and almost all the tree species growing in this country raise endless problems regarding the possibility of dating archaeological sites by the dendrochronological method. In Chapter 8 these difficulties and the results of dendrochronological research in Israel are discussed. The accuracy of floating chronologies based on material originating from archaeological excavations is examined, and the possibility of building a reliable master chronology for our region . 2

P REFACE

I would like to take this opportunity to express my appreciation to my colleagues who have directed excavations all over the country for making the archaeobotanical finds available to me for analysis. Without their generous cooperation in supplying material a study of this scope would not have been possible. I am grateful to the Director and staff of the Sonia and Marco Institute of Archaeology for making all the facilities of the Institute available to me and encouraging the publication of the results of three decades of research. Particular thanks go to Ami Brauner and Pavel Shrago who willingly contributed their skills to drawing the maps and photographing the specimens respectively. All the pictures taken in the field were photographed by the author. A very special thank you to Shirley Gassner who edited and structured the material with professional skill and endless patience. Without her constructive comments and suggestions this book would not look the way it does today. I am deeply indebted to Prof. Daniel Zohary for the time and expertise which he devoted to reading the manuscript and for his invaluable comments on the content. I cannot fully express my appreciation for his contribution to the original concept of this book and his constant support. Nili Liphschitz October 2007

3

CHAPTER 1:

THE NATURE OF THE EVIDENCE

Two main sources of information contribute to the reconstruction of past vegetation: historical documents and botanical remains gathered in archaeological excavations. The documents include the Bible, the Mishna, the Talmud, works of Greek and Roman writers like Theophrastus and Pliny the Elder and memoirs of pilgrims and travellers who visited the Holy Land through the ages. The botanical evidence is based on pollen grain analysis, seed and fruit identification and mainly on analysis of construction timber and wood used for everyday tools, artefacts and fuel. The different sources of evidence vary in reliability and relative weight. The careful synthesis of the accumulated information enables reconstruction of the past landscape. Modern research concerning geographic distribution and ecology of living plants provides information for a better understanding of the archaeobotanical finds. The introduction of radiocarbon dating (14C) to archaeology allows wood and seed remains to be dated. Except for dating based on stratigraphy and cultural association, it enabled to date non-stratified material. Development of AMS (Accelerator Mass Spectrometry) made possible to use very small samples like a single charred grain, so today it is possible to rule out errors of intrusion, i.e., translocation of plant remains from one layer to another by animals or by human interference (Mook and Waterbolk 1985).

WRITTEN SOURCES Before dendroarchaeological research started, information on the trees of the Levant was based on written documents. The names of plants mentioned in these writings differ from their modern scientific identification. The names of plants mentioned in the Hebrew Bible are translated into different genera according to the relevant language. For example, the modern Hebrew name for cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) is berosh, but this identification is controversial and inexact. In an English translation of the Bible (Friedlander 1881)berosh is translated as fir. In a German translation (Zunz 1980) it is referred as Tannenbaum (fir), while in a French translation (Kahn 1974) the berosh is referred to as cypress. Several botanists suggest that the biblical berosh is the Abies cilicica while others prefer the Juniperus excelsa. Today berosh refers to Cupressus sempervirens (Liphschitz and Biger 1989). The same holds true for another of today’s common trees such as the pine (Pinus). The modern Hebrew name for pine (oren) is mentioned only once in the Bible (Isa. 44:14). In an English translation of the Bible (Friedlander 1881) one can find the mention of pine in Isa. 60:13: “The glory of Lebanon shall come unto thee, the fir tree, the pine tree and the box together, to beautify the place of my sanctuary”. The original Hebrew text speaks about tidhar which is not familiar today, yet one authority believes it might be a fir (Anderson 1979:134). There is some dispute among scholars as to the reference to pine in Neh. 8:15: “Go forth unto the mount and fetch olive branches and pine branches and myrtle branches and palm of these trees”. The Hebrew text refers to etz shemen which means ‘oil tree’. Some authorities accept this as Eleagnus angustifolia. The same holds true also for Isa. 41:19 where the Hebrew name 4

CHAPTER 1: THE NATURE OF THE EVIDENCE

again is etz shemen. Some refer to it as pine tree while others refer to a plane tree (Feldman 1956a; Felix 1957; Anderson 1979). According to the Septuaginta (Brenton 1970), the first Greek translation of the Bible, oren means Pitus, i.e., Pinus in Latin. In the Assyrian language there is a tree named urnu, and the Aramaic translation of the Bible by Yonatan Ben Uziel explains the oren in Isaiah as being urnu. According to Karu (1957) the urnu means Lorbeerbaum in German, which is Laurus nobilis, as it is identified with the Talmudic mention (Rosh Hashana section 23:1) of aronim-ari which means ar, i.e., the Hebrew name for Laurus nobilis. In the first modern Hebrew dictionary Ben Yehuda (1950) suggests that the biblical oren is Quercus i.e., Eiche in German. According to Yona Ebn Jenach, tirza is snubar – an Arabic word meaning Pinus. There are many other translations of the word oren as being other trees mentioned in the Bible and ancient literature. It is therefore impossible to find the exact name for the biblical tree (Liphschitz and Biger 2001). Numerous trees mentioned in the Bible are not recognized today, and their botanical identification is in doubt. Such trees are teashur, gopher, etz shemen, tirza, tidhar, bacha, sneh, armon, almugim, hovnim, zeelim, aviyonah, etc. Long lists of trees mentioned in the Hebrew Bible are not known today. Among them are names like afarsemon. Today this name refers to the genus Persimon, but it is foreign and did not grow in Israel in the past. Trees mentioned in the Bible lack botanical description. Therefore, the identification of biblical local trees with species familiar to translators who lived in Europe, Africa or the United States resulted in numerous errors. English translations from Greek of Enquiry into Plants by Theophrastus (Hort 1968) and of Pliny’s Natural History from Latin (Rackham 1968, 1971; Jones 1966, 1969) confronted the translators with difficulties in identifying plants mentioned in the Greek or Latin text. When an English name was not obvious and no English equivalent could be found (chiefly where the plants are not British or known in England) the translators transliterated the Greek or Latin names or gave a literary rendering of it in inverted commas. Since the derivation of Greek or Latin plant names was often obscure, it has been necessary to preserve the Greek name or the Latin name and to give the English name after it in brackets. This was necessary whenever the author has apparently used more than one name for the same plant. It is therefore obvious that the translation of the Greek and Latin authors into Hebrew involves great difficulties already mentioned above. Many pilgrims and travellers who visited the Holy Land, especially during the 19th century, left memoirs of their journeys and detailed descriptions and drawings of the landscape. Among them are Guerin (1880), whose seven volumes covered Judaea, Samaria and the Galilee, Wilson (1880) who described Palestine from the north to Sinai with numerous accurate drawings of places and trees and Schumacher (1888) whose book on the Golan includes detailed descriptions of the arboreal cover. Some of the travellers were biologists. Tristram (1865) wrote a detailed diary of his two-year journey to Palestine which focuses on the vegetation and the animals he saw. Other famous travellers were Thomson (1896), Anderlind (1890) the botanist and Roberts (1855) the artist. Identifying plant names mentioned in books written even by botanists like Anderlindt or Tristram is still very difficult. The memoirs of Tristram (1865) and Guerin (1880) were translated by a biologist who tried to give modern names as accurately as possible (Ben Amram 1977, 1982-1987). It must be borne in mind that scientific Latin names as well as Hebrew names of various genera and species have been changed several times. The present-day names may differ greatly, even when correct, from the original names mentioned in the text, and even from the Hebrew translation. 5

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

EVIDENCE FROM PLANT REMAINS POLLEN GRAIN ANALYSIS

One of the accepted methods for the reconstruction of past vegetation is pollen grain analysis. Usually pollen diagrams are aimed to represent the relationships between the AP (Arboreal Pollen) and the NAP (Non Arboreal Pollen). Changes in the relationship between the AP and the NAP in various periods point to changes in climate, i.e., a wetter or cooler climate or a dryer and warmer one. However, the quantity of pollen deposited per unit area depends upon a number of factors. These are the frequency of the species in the area, its absolute pollen production which varies individually and according to the growth conditions of the specimen and the dispersal mechanism of the pollen, i.e., wind pollination versus insect pollination. Some other sources of error might be local over-representation proximal to the site, long distance transport mechanism, differential destruction of pollen grains or vertical displacement of pollen after primary deposition. Furthermore, it is often almost impossible to distinguish between various species of the same genus, or even between various genera of the same family (Faegri and Iversen 1975). Results of pollen analysis should therefore be considered very carefully, especially in historic excavations. For this reason pollen analysis is usually applied to prehistoric excavations or from cores taken from geological strata. However, information obtained from pollen analysis can add to the information gathered from other sources of research. In Israel pollen analyses have been carried out mainly on samples originating in cores taken in water bodies: Birket-Ram – Golan Heights (Weinstein 1976), the Hule (Horowitz 1971; WeinsteinEvron 1983), Lake Kinneret (Horowitz 1971; Baruch 1986), Haifa Bay (Rossignol 1962, 1964) and the Dead Sea (Baruch 1990). Several pollen analyses were made for samples originating in archaeological excavations: Hayonim Terrace (Leroi-Gourhan 1981), Mitzpeh Yiron (Weinstein-Evron 1986), Carmel coast (Galili and Weinstein-Evron 1985), Lachish (Drori and Horowitz 1988/9), the Negev highlands (Horowitz 1977) and Jordan valley (Darmon 1984, 1988). The cumulative data of our region were recently presented in the book Palynology of Arid Lands (Horowitz 1992). FRUIT AND SEED REMAINS FROM ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS

Carbonized and non-carbonized fruits and seeds can be identified morphologically by comparison with recent fruits and seeds. Fruit and seed remains gathered from archaeological excavations were already expertly identified several decades ago in many countries including Israel since the beginning of the 20th century (e.g. MacAlister 1912; Feinbrun 1938; Helbaek 1958; Zaitschek 1958, 1961, 1962; etc.). Domestication of fruit plants in the Old World was discussed already 40 years ago (Helbaek 1959) and a comprehensive research study on archaeological fruit and seed remains was published about a decade later (Renfrew 1973). Since then ample information has accumulated and numerous papers published. Many excavation reports on specific archaeological sites in the Holy Land published during the last 25 years include data on fruit and seed remains. The sites where such research was made are: Lachish (Helbaek 1958; Liphschitz 2004a), Tel Beer-sheba (Liphschitz and Waisel 1973a, 1984), Arad (Hopf 1978), Timna (Kislev 1988), Meiron (Liphschitz and Waisel 1981), Tel Masos (Liphschitz and Waisel 1983), Tell Qasile (Kislev and Hopf 1985), Tel Qiri (Liphschitz and Waisel 1987), Shiqmim (Kislev 1986), Tel Michal (Liphschitz and Waisel 1989), City of David (Liphschitz and Waisel 1992), >En Boqeq (Liphschitz and Waisel 1993; Liphschitz 2000c), Shiloh (Kislev 1993), >En Besor (Liphschitz 1995a), Tel 6

CHAPTER 1: THE NATURE OF THE EVIDENCE

Dalit (Liphschitz 1996a), Naúal Qanah Cave (Liphschitz 1996b), Tel >Ira (Liphschitz 1999d), Megiddo (Liphschitz 2000a), Tel Aphek (Liphschitz 2000b), Tel Kabri (Liphschitz 2002a). Considerable progress has been achieved in the knowledge of the wild ancestors of Old World crops, and wild progenitors of most of these cultivated plants have been identified. The accumulated information has made it possible to determine which were the first plants to be domesticated in the Old World and where the earliest signs of their domestication are to be found. Answers to these questions as well as which crops were introduced into the area and when these changes occurred are presented in a recently published book on Domestication of Plants in the Old World (Zohary and Hopf 2000). Several conferences have been dedicated to these subjects and the papers presented have been edited and published (Ucko and Dimbleby 1969; Milles et al. 1989; van Zeist and Casparie 1984; van Zeist et al. 1991; Renfrew 1991). ARCHAEOLOGICAL WOOD REMAINS: DENDROARCHAEOLOGY

Direct evidence of tree species which existed in the past can be obtained through dendroarchaeological research. This is based on the identification of wood remains gathered in archaeological excavations or sampled in ancient buildings. This book is mainly concerned with the contribution of dendroarchaeological research in the Holy Land to numerous disciplines. SOURCES OF INFORMATION The survival of well-preserved ancient buildings where wooden logs and beams were used in construction is very rare in Israel. Such buildings are usually sacred places like churches and mosques, e.g. Saint Catherine’s Monastery in southern Sinai, Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem and the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem. These were founded in the time of Justinian in the 7th century CE, and the original constructions still exist today. In Saint Catherine’s Monastery hundreds of beams and logs used in the construction of roofs (Fig. 1.1), balconies, walls and passages (Fig. 1.2) enabled a meticulous examination of the whole complex (Liphschitz and Waisel 1976). Restoration of the roof of the Al-Aqsa Mosque and replacement of the original roof logs provided an opportunity to inspect the original roof timber (Lev-Yadun et al. 1984; Liphschitz et al. 1997). Only a few partly-preserved structures survived the conflagrations which destroyed many ancient cities. These archaeological sites are mainly in the arid regions of the country, among them Masada, including parts of the northern palace, the western palace and the siege ramp (Fig. 1.3), the RomanByzantine castle at >En Boqeq near the Dead Sea (Figs. 1.4, 1.5) and road stations at >En Raúel, Mo En Boqeq.

Fig. 1.6: Logs of Cedar of Lebanon removed from the fresco building at Kurnub, dated to the Nabataean period.

Fig. 1.5: A burnt log of date palm in the yard of the Roman-Byzantine castle at >En Boqeq.

Fig. 1.7: Burnt logs of Acacia raddiana (A) and Cedrus libani (C) from Tel Beer-sheba, dated to the Iron Age.

9

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

Fig. 1.8: Charred pieces of wood dated to the Iron Age at Tel Beer-sheba: 1) Cross-cut of a burned log and pieces of burned wood in a vessel; 2) Charred pieces of wood in a vessel (near A, B, and C); 3) Charred pieces of wood inserted in a wall (near the letters); 4) Charred pieces of wood on the floor (near the letters).

10

CHAPTER 1: THE NATURE OF THE EVIDENCE

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS Dendroarchaeology is based on several basic assumptions. 1. Timber for everyday use for construction of simple structures and for fuel was taken from the close vicinity and therefore represents the local natural vegetation. Only rarely was precious wood imported from far distances for the construction of sanctuaries, palaces or governmental buildings, as in the case of cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani). 2. The basic ecological requirements of plant species in the past were the same as today. Therefore changes in the composition of plants in the past indicate macroclimatic changes. Climatic changes are especially prominent in transition regions between two climatic zones and therefore vegetation changes will be obvious there. 3. The disappearance of plants from an area does not necessarily always mean a climatic change. Man’s impact on the composition of vegetation, i.e., clearance of forest areas for agriculture and introduction of new cultivated species and varieties must always be taken into consideration. Dendroarchaeological research provides important data on the distribution of trees and timber supply, as well as information on various uses of local native via imported timber during antiquity. The proportionate amount of the diverse tree species found in the excavations represents their availability in the region, as well as the intensities of exploitation at the examined site. Preservation of timber depends both on the climatic conditions as well as on the history of the region and the degree of preservation of the site. Very often sites were burned and destroyed during wars and the residue includes only small remnants of carbonized wood. Lack of appropriate techniques for handling charred wood avoided the collection and preservation of wood remains, resulting in loss of extremely valuable data. Only in the last twenty years have new methods been developed which enable identification of charred wood up to the species level (Liphschitz 1986a, 1988). METHODS OF ANALYSIS Dendroarchaeological analysis is based on the identification of the wood remains up to the species level, based on the anatomical three dimensional structure of the wood. The exact identification is of special importance in Israel where, despite the small area, different species of the same genus represent different ecological habitats. For instance Quercus boissieri (Cyprus oak) represents the very humid, high elevation species, Quercus calliprinos (Kermes oak) is a typically Mediterranean species and Quercus ithaburensis (Mt. Tabor oak) occurs in the dry regions of the Mediterranean territory bordering on the semi-arid region. Regarding the genus Pistacia, Pistacia palaestina (Terebinth) is a typical Mediterranean species occuring together with Quercus calliprinos, Pistacia lentiscus (Lentisk) occupies low elevations of the territory and Pistacia atlantica (Atlantic pistachio) is an Irano-Turanian species. Scanning electron microscopy is rarely used for routine examinations because of the high cost and the time demanded for the preparation and the analysis of each sample. Identification of charred wood using incident light microscopy depends greatly on the accurate preparation of thin-sections of the three dimensional planes of the sample. This is a difficult procedure and very often impossible when either hardened or waterlogged wood remains are involved. Wood remains gathered in archaeological excavations are of three main types: charred wood, non-charred but hardened wood and waterlogged logs and pieces of wood collected in underwater excavations. The development of convenient routine techniques for preparing slides for microscopic examination from archaeological wood remains originating from different sources made it possible to 11

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

obtain thin sections suitable for accurate anatomical identification. Nonetheless, each type involves its own particular difficulties which demanded development of special preparation techniques. In the case of charred wood the anatomical structure of the xylem is well preserved. However, it is impossible to prepare microscopic sections either with a razor blade or microtome when the usual embedding technique with TBA and paraffin (cf. Jensen 1962) is used. Where the sample originates in a site located in an arid or saline region, it is very hard as a result of the extreme environmental conditions which prevail in the particular area. Consequently, the preparation of thin sections for microscopic examination is almost impossible. Wood samples collected in underwater excavations are waterlogged. The wood is very soft, and its drying in the open air causes deformation of the xylem structure, and precludes preparation of microscopic sections. TECHNIQUES FOR THE PREPARATION OF THIN-SECTIONS FOR MICROSCOPIC ANALYSIS The preparation techniques which today enable accurate identification of the plant species via the microscopic three-dimensional structure of archaeological wood remains are described below.

Charred wood Samples of 0.5-1 cm 3 (or smaller) of charred wood are aspirated in absolute ethyl alcohol for 24 hours. The samples are then transferred for 24 hours to a celloidin – clove oil solution which is composed of 1% of procelloidin or celloidin powder dissolved in clove oil solution. Excess solution is rinsed in absolute ethyl alcohol for 2 minutes. Samples are then transferred to 50-55o C paraffin in the oven for at least 72 hours. Blocks are prepared in paraffin. Serial sections of 10-12 µ thick are prepared using a rotary microtome (Liphschitz 1999e; Liphschitz, 2004e:125). Before putting the strips on the slide a thin film of Haupt glue (Beklyn and Miksche 1976:66) (1% glycerine + 2% phenol dissolved in tap water) is smeared over the glass and then flooded with tap water, after which the serial section is affixed. The glass with the floating ribbon is put on the heating thermostatic plate for spreading and drying. After cooling the microscope slides at room temperature, the paraffin can be removed by dipping the slide in a patented Solvent for Histology. The specimen is mounted in Canada Balsam. An example of the results obtained by this method is demonstrated in Fig. 1.9, where 10 µ thick cross- and longitudinal-sections of date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) charred wood is seen. The age of the sample is about 1500 years.

Fig. 1.9: Microscopic sections of a charred wood sample of Phoenix dactylifera (date palm) from the Roman-Byzantine castle at >En Boqeq. 1) Cross-section; 2) Longitudinal section.

12

CHAPTER 1: THE NATURE OF THE EVIDENCE

Hardened non-charred wood Samples of 0.5-1 cm 3 (or smaller) of hardened unburnt wood are softened by immersion in boiling ethandiol (triethylene glycol) (cf. Burkhart 1966) for 1-2 hours. Extremely hard samples can be immersed directly in this boiling solution but softer tissue samples can be kept in a glass of this softening solution which stands in boiling water. The process results in darkening of the wood samples to a dark brown. Once the tissues have become soft enough, the samples are treated in the same procedure as charred wood, i.e., in celloidin – clove oil solution, absolute ethyl alcohol and paraffin (Liphschitz 1999e; Liphschitz, 2004e:125). In cases where the sections are not darkened, they can be stained in safranin (1% safranin dissolved in 70% ethyl alcohol), before the paraffin is removed (for staining and fixation methods used for paraffin sections see: Jensen 1962). The stained sections are then permanently fixed with Canada Balsam. It is also possible to stain the samples before the embedding procedure starts by Safranin solution. In this case the samples should be transferred from the Safranin solution to 96% ethyl alcohol and absolute ethyl alcohol before embedding. An example of sections prepared by this method is demonstrated in Fig. 1.10. The sections are of the same species as in the first embedding technique (Date palm) and are about 2000 years old, originating from a desert region.

Fig. 1.10: Microscopic sections of a non-charred wood sample of Phoenix dactylifera (Date palm) from the Nabataean site of Moat Bustra. Wood remains were obtained from ten sites in the Upper Galilee and four sites in the Lower Galilee (Table 2.1.II). The remnants were dated to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B period, the Neolithic period, the Chalcolithic period, the Early, Middle and Late Bronze Ages, Iron Age, Hellenistic period, Roman period, and the Crusader period. Altogether 431 samples were identified, 393 of them originated from sites of the Upper Galilee and only 38 from sites of the Lower Galilee. The Upper Galilee sites included Naúal Be§et and îorvat Galil (Liphschitz 1993b), Meiron (Liphschitz and Waisel 1981), Kabri (Liphschitz 2002a), Tel Dan, Hazor, Sasa, Mizpe Yammim, Peqi>in and Monfort. The four sites of the Lower Galilee were Yiftahel, Tel Yin>am, Rosh Zayit (Baruch and Liphschitz 2000) and Zippori (Liphschitz 1996c). The wood remains gathered on Mount Carmel originated of 6 sites only and the wood assemblage is not rich (Table 2.1.III). The prehistoric periods are better represented than historic ones. The prehistoric sites are Kebara (Baruch et al. 1992), El Wad Cave (Lev-Yadun and Weinstein-Evron 1994) and îorvat Castra (van den Brink et al. 2001). The historic sites are Tel Nami (Lev-Yadun et al. 1996), îorvat Sumaqa (Liphschitz 1999a), îorvat Raqit (Liphschitz, 2003a) and îorvat Castra. Archaeological wood remains were gathered from seven sites in the Jezreel valley: Naúal Zehora, Tel Ta>anach (Liphschitz and Waisel 1980), Megiddo (Liphschitz 2000a, 2006a), Tel Qiri (Liphschitz and Waisel 1987), Tel Qashish (Liphschitz, 2003b), Yoqne >am and Jezreel. They represent the Pottery Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods, the Early, Middle and Late Bronze Ages and the Iron Age. Altogether above 1221 samples were identified (Table 2.1.IV). Samples were collected from 29 sites along the coastal plain (Table 2.1.V). The remnants were dated to the prehistoric (Pre Pottery Neolithic B and Pottery Neolithic), protohistoric (Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age) and historic periods (Middle and Late Bronze Ages, Iron Age, Persian, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Early Islamic and Crusader periods) (Table 2.1). Altogether 1234 wood samples were identified from these sites. The earliest wood remains discovered in the coastal plain dated to the Pre Pottery Neolithic B (Liphschitz 1986b) and Pottery Neolithic periods (Liphschitz 1987c). Chalcolithic remains were collected from Shoham (Liphschitz 2005a, 2005b), and of Early Bronze Age from Shoham (Liphschitz 2005a,b), Tel Aphek (Liphschitz 2000b), Afridar (Gophna and Liphschitz 1996; Liphschitz 2001a, 2002c), Tel Dalit (Liphschitz 1996a) and Newe Yaraq. Middle and Late Bronze Age wood remains were gathered at nine sites: Acco (Liphschitz and Waisel 1977a), Jaffa, Tel Gerisa (Liphschitz 1989b), Tel Michal (Liphschitz and Waisel 1989), Rishon Le-Zion, Tel Hefer, Tel >Ashir and urikiyeh. Wood remains dating to the Iron Age were retrieved from nine sites: Tel Gerisa (Liphschitz 1987c), Tel Michal (Liphschitz and Waisel 1989), Tell Qasile (Liphschitz and Waisel 1985), Ashdod, Tel Aphek (Liphschitz 2000b), Tel Zeror, >Izbet êarta (Liphschitz and Waisel 1986), Yavneh Yam and Acco (Liphschitz and Waisel 1977a). 20

CHAPTER 2: I NDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE M EDITERRANEAN R EGION

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Bir Ansuba Qal>at Bustra Rosh Zayit Mount Sena’im Tel Dan

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Naúal Be§et Montfort Tel Kabri Sasa Meiron Peqi>in Mizpe Yammim Abu Pula Qasrin El Majami Hazor Gamala Tel Hadar îorvat Kanaf Rasm Harbush Ramat Magshimim Ohalo II Zippori Yiftahel Kfar Ata Acco Haifa Bay Tel Yin>am Jezreel Qashish

31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41.

Yoqne >am Tel Qiri îorvat Sumaqa îorvat Raqit El-Wad Cave Atlit Tel Nami Kebara Megiddo Ta>anach Caesarea

42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58.

Tel Zeror Tel Hefer Tel >Ashir Zur Natan Apollonia Tel Michal Tell Qasile Tel Gerisa Jaffa Rishon Le-Zion Yavneh Yam Ashdod Ashkelon >Izbet Sartah Kfar Saba Tel Aphek

59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81.

Naúal Qanah Cave Karnei Shomron Qela Tel Dalit Hermeshit Shoham Newe Yaraq Mount Ebal Mount Gerizim Shiloh Gibeon Jerusalem Herodium îorvat Me§ad Tel Batash Beth Shemesh Tel Yarmut Tel Harasim Beth Guvrin Maresha Lachish Tel >Erani Hebron

Khirbet Zureiqiye

Fig. 2.3: Location of archaeological sites where wood samples were gathered and identified.

For the Persian and Hellenistic periods wood samples were analyzed from six sites: Caesarea, Apollonia (Liphschitz 1999b), Tel Michal (Liphschitz and Waisel 1989), Tel Aphek (Liphschitz 1987c, 1989b), Jaffa and Yavneh Yam. Samples dating to the Roman and Byzantine periods came from eight sites and for the Early Islamic and Crusader periods they came from six sites. In Samaria (Table 2.1.VI) archaeological wood remains coming from the Naúal Qanah Cave date to the Neolithic period to the Early Bronze Age (Liphschitz 1996b) while historic periods are represented by six sites: Shiloh (Liphschitz 1993a), Qela (Liphschitz 1991a), Mount Ebal (Liphschitz 1987d), Mount 21

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

Gerizim, and Karnei Shomron (Liphschitz 1991a). Their wood assemblages dated to the Middle and Late Bronze Ages, the Iron Age and the Byzantine and Mamluk periods. The wood remains of Judaea were uncovered at 21 sites (Table 2.1.VII): Lachish (Liphschitz, 2004a), Tel Batash (Liphschitz 1986c, 2006b), Tel >Erani (Liphschitz 1986c), Tel Yarmut (Liphschitz 1986c), îorvat Zikhrin, îorvat Me§ad, Maresha, Hermeshit, Zur Natan, Tel Harasim, Tel Beth Shemesh, several sites in Jerusalem (Liphschitz 1986c, 1989c, 1999c, 2002b; Liphschitz and Waisel 1992), Khirbet Boreq (Liphschitz 1986c), Herodium (Liphschitz 1986c), Beth Guvrin and Tel Rumeida (Hebron). TABLE 2.1: SITES AND PERIODS INVESTIGATED* I. MOUNT HERMON AND THE GOLAN HEIGHTS Site

Reg. No.

Chalc.

EB

LB

IA

Hell.

Rom.-Byz. E. Isl.

Mamluk Total no.

MOUNT HERMON

Khirbet Hawarith Bir Ansuba Mount Sena’im Qal>at Bustra

2186/2935 2216/2991 2178/2979 2128/2979

4 2 1 1

4 2 1 1

5 5

21 7

9 1

2 4 30 2 35 16 70 9 5 25

18

28

10

206

CENTRAL GOLAN

El Majami Abu Pula Rasm Harbush Ramat Magshimim Qasrin îorvat Kanaf Gamala îorvat Zemel Snir Tel Hadar

2160/2630 2120/2660 2210/2500 2260/2500 2161/2661 2145/2531 219/2560 2291/2890 2128/2934 2122/2507

Total no.

2 3 30 2

1

2

37

1 70 9 5

12

13

12

15

85

Chal. EB

MB

LB

1

II. GALILEE UPPER GALILEE:

Site Meiron Tel Dan Hazor Monfort Tel Kabri Mizpe Yammim Peqi>in Sasa Naúal Be§et Total no.

Reg. No. 1915/2664 2105/2868 203/269 1716/2721 1632/2681 1933/2604 1818/2645 1873/2704 1711/2753

PPNB

Neo.

1

IA-Hell. Pers. 12

Crus.

9 46 7

17

20

115

48

55 15

7 2 6 6

17

7

20

* The numbers are the wood samples analyzed at each site. 22

33

IA

116

33

105

27

55

7

Total no. 12 9 80 7 255 15 7 2 6 393

CHAPTER 2: I NDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE M EDITERRANEAN R EGION LOWER GALILEE:

Site Rosh Zayit Zippori Yiftahel

Reg. No. 1718/2538 176/239 1719/2401 198/235

Tel Yin>am Total no.

PPN

LB

IA

Rom.

Total no. 15 12 9 2 38

15 12 9 2 2

9

15

12

III. MOUNT CARMEL Site

Reg. No.

El-Wad Cave

148/230 * 154/230 1516/2355 1442/2182 ** 1433/2296 *** 1471-8/2437-46

îorvat Sumaqa îorvat Raqit Kebara Tel Nami îorvat Castra Total no.

Mouster-UP

Natuf

Chal

MB

LB

Rom.-Byz

Total no.

31

31 19 20 68 17 11 166

19 20 68

68

1 1

31

13

4

13

4

10 49

* Lev-Yadun and Weinstein-Evron 1994. ** Baruch et al. 1992. *** Lev-Yadun et al. 1996.

IV. JEZREEL VALLEY Site

Reg. No.

PN

Naúal Zehora

1600/2233 171/214 1675/2212 161/227 160/232 1604/2289 1819/2180

63

Tel Ta>anach Megiddo Tel Qiri Tel Qashish Yoqne>am Jezreel Total no.

Chal

EB

MB 5 121

6

LB

IA

Total no.

11 29

20 49

37 425 12

5

9

45

78

67 330 871

32

63

6

158

63 73 630 12 32 81 330 1221

V. THE COASTAL PLAIN PREHISTORIC SITES:

Site Haifa Bay* Atlit Lod, Newe Yaraq Total no.

Reg. No.

PPNB

144/234 1408/1518

25

PN 12 37 49

25

Total no. 12 25 37 74

* Including the sites: Kfar Samir, Tel Hreiz (1455/2390), Kfar Galim (1457/2414), Carmel Coast and Tel Megadim (1452/2365). PROTOHISTORIC SITES

Site

Reg. No.

Lod, Newe Yaraq Tel Aphek Ashkelon-Afridar Tel Dalit Shoham Total no.

1408/1518 143/168 180/120 1427/1538 1447/1569

Chal.

EB

Total no.

63 63

28 16 77 13 101 235

28 16 77 13 164 298

23

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

HISTORICAL PERIODS

Site

Reg. No.

Acco Kfar Ata Caesarea Apollonia Tel Gerisa Tel Michal Jaffa Tell Qasile Newe Yaraq Yavneh Yam Rishon Le-Zion Ashdod Kfar Saba Tel Aphek Tel Hefer Tel Zeror >Izbet êarta Tel >Ashir Khirbet Zureiqiye Total no.

MB

1585/2585 160/246 1397/2008 1319/1780 1320/1666 131/174 1267/1623 1309/1678 1408/1518 1212/1479 127/153 118/129 1444/1764 143/168 1415/1976 1476/2038 1467/1679 1347/1856 1382/1833

LB

13

IA

Pers.

Hell. Rom.

Byz.

E. Isl.

Crus.

Total no.

12 1

10 2

23 14 6

36 12

3

1 1

50 4

14 20

62

30

5 4 20 5 37

34 6 1

25 5 6 68 75 98 67 10 2 159 34 7 8 224 51 7 8 6 2 862

10

10 17

2 30

20

34 7 70 51

61

33

16

37

82

79

1

6 7

1

62

74

11

7 8 6 2 188

116

131

119

VI. SAMARIA AND JUDAEA SAMARIA:

Site

Reg. No.

Naúal Qanah Shiloh Qela Mount Ebal Mount Gerizim Karnei Shomron Total no.

159/171 178/162 1584/1624 1773/1829 176/168 159/175

Neo

Neo-Chal. Ne.-EB

1

9

1

2

9

2

Chal.

MB

LB

IA

14

1

38 10 12 3

14

1

63

Mamluk Total no.

6

6

18 53 10 12 3 34 130

34 34

JUDAEA:

Site

Reg. No.

Lachish Tel Batash

1357/1089 141/132 129/113 147/124 1466/1634 1553/1360 140/110 1475/1506 1508/1829 1338/1279 1477/1286

Tel >Erani Tel Yarmut îorvat Zikhrin îorvat Me§ad Maresha Hermeshit Zur Natan Tel Harasim Beth Shemesh

24

EB 3

MB

MB-LB LB

206 23

LB-IA IA Pers. Hell. (Herod.) 1108 370 6 15 2 2

Rom.Byz.

Byz. E. Isl. Total no.

43 69 18 9

9

7 4

36

17 11

1 94

1693 42 43 69 18 25 4 53 11 1 94

CHAPTER 2: I NDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE M EDITERRANEAN R EGION

Site

Reg. No.

Jerusalem City of David The Ophel Scottish Church Jewish Quarter Al-Aqsa 1609/1681 îorvat Boreq Gibeon 167/139 Herodium 1731/1192 Beth Guvrin 139/112 Tel Rumeida 161/105 Total no.

EB

MB

MB-LB LB

3

1

LB-IA IA Pers.

91 29

Hell.

2

Rom.Byz.

Byz. E. Isl.

1

25 8

44 162 7

2 61 4 25 140

5 216

23

1125

2

15 609

42

141

45

11

184

Total no.

98 29 25 52 162 7 2 61 4 45 2538

INDIGENOUS NON-EDIBLE TREES AND SHRUBS Numerous barren trees and shrubs indigenous to the Mediterranean territory of Israel were retrieved from Holocene layers in archaeological sites located in this zone. Their native distribution (Zohary 1966, 1972; Feinbrun-Dothan 1978, 1986) is compared with their past distribution as evident from the archaeological finds. QUERCUS CALLIPRINOS (KERMES OAK)

Quercus calliprinos (Kermes oak) is the dominant evergreen tree species of the maquis and forests of the Mediterranean territory of Israel today. It is widespread in the Golan Heights, Dan valley, the Upper and Lower Galilee, Mount Carmel, the Shephela, Samaria and the Judaean Hills. Today there are few sites where old trees characterized by a thick trunk and a broad canopy survived, mainly near sacred tombs where they were protected by man. Most of the Kermes oaks have been damaged by cutting, browsing and fire, and have a shrubby shape. The wood remains of Quercus calliprinos gathered in archaeological excavations show it was the most widespread species in the Mediterranean territory from the Golan Heights in the north to Mount Hebron in the south. It has been either the single or the dominant oak species in the forest and maquis of the Mediterranean territory. It is a major component of the wood assemblage in 73 of the 93 sites investigated: in 10 sites of the Golan Heights and Mount Hermon, in 8 sites in the Upper and Lower Galilee, in 5 sites on Mount Carmel, in 7 sites in Jezreel valley, in 24 sites along the coastal plain, and in 19 sites in Samaria and Judaea. In these sites 967 wood samples were identified. The earliest wood remains were identified from the Mousterian layers at Kebara, and the Natufian layers from El Wad Cave on Mount Carmel. Wood remains from the PPNB, PPN and PN were identified from Atlit, Haifa Bay, Naúal Zehora and Newe Yaraq. Numerous remains were gathered from the Chalcolithic strata in the Golan Heights (Rasm Harbush, El Majami), Upper Galilee (Peqi’in) and Haifa Bay. In later periods, from the Early Bronze Age onwards, the percentage of Quercus calliprinos in the archaeological wood assemblages is very prominent in almost all sites: in the Golan Heights, in the Upper and Lower Galilee, on Mount Carmel, in the Jezreel valley, in the coastal plain, in Samaria and in Judaea (Fig. 2.4). 25

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

1. Hawarith 2. Tel Dan 3. Tel Kabri 4. Montfort 5. Peqi>in 6. Meiron 7. Hazor 8. Qa§rin 9. Gamala 10. Rasm Harbush 11. îorvat Kanaf 12. Tel Hadar 13. El Majami 14. Mizpe Yammim 15. Rosh Zayit 16. Acco 17. Haifa Bay 18. Yiftahel 19. Jezreel 20. Tel Ta>anach 21. Megiddo 22. Tel Qiri 23. Yoqne>am 24. Tel Qashish 25. îorvat Raqit 26. Atlit 27. Tel Nami 28. Kebara 29. El Wad Cave 30. îorvat Sumaqa 31. Caesarea 32. Tel Zeror 33. Tel îefer 34. Khirbet Zureiqiye 35. Zur Natan 36. Tel Michal 37. Apollonia 38. >Izbet Sartah 39. Naúal Qanah Cave 40. Karnei Shomron 41. Kfar Saba

42. Tell Qasile 43. Tel Gerisa 44. Jaffa 45. Rishon Le-Zion 46. Tel Aphek 47. Tel Dalit 48. Newe Yaraq 49. Shoham 50. Yavneh Yam 51. Mount Ebal 52. Mount Gerizim 53. Shiloh 54. Gibeon 55. Jerusalem 56. îorvat Me§ad 57. Tel Beth Shemesh 58. Tel Yarmut 59. Tel Batash 60. Tel >Erani 61. Beth Guvrin 62. Maresha 63. Lachish 64. Hebron

Fig. 2.4: Location of wood remains of Quercus calliprinos (•) and Quercus ithaburensis (▲).

Among the representative multilayered sites where Quercus calliprinos has been a dominant component throughout all subsequent archaeological layers excavated are Kabri (Neolithic – IronPersian periods), Megiddo (Chalcolithic – Iron Age period), Tel Aphek (Middle Bronze Age – Hellenistic periods), Tel Gerisa (Middle Bronze Age – Iron Age periods), Tel Michal (Late Bronze Age – Hellenistic periods) and Lachish (Middle Bronze Age – Iron Age period). 26

CHAPTER 2: I NDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE M EDITERRANEAN R EGION

The preponderance of Quercus calliprinos over Quercus ithaburensis in wood remnants found in the excavations cannot be explained by a preference for either species for exploitation since both are hard woods and the working of either type is equally difficult. Therefore, the difference between the two species must reflect the abundance of the first and the scarcity of the second species. QUERCUS ITHABURENSIS (MOUNT TABOR OAK)

Quercus ithaburensais is a deciduous forest tree which thrives in the transition zones between the Mediterranean and the steppe belts, where the mean annual rainfall varies between 400 and 500 mm. Today only remnants of the Quercus ithaburensis forests have survived usually up to 500 m’ above sea level in the Dan valley, Hula valley, Upper Jordan valley, coastal Galilee, Acco plain, Sharon plain, Upper and Lower Galilee and Samaria. They grow either in groves or as single specimens, mostly near sacred tombs. Among the large residual forests are the Yahoudiye forest in the Golan Heights and the Tiv >on forest. Notable groups of huge trees are found in the Tal grove in the Upper Galilee and Cherquas grove in the Sharon. In contrast to the marked dominance of Quercus calliprinos in the Mediterranean forest and maquis, Quercus iithaburensis is rather rare in this landscape. It appears only at 26 sites (Fig. 2.4), and in these the number of wood remnants is very low. Altogether 232 wood samples of Quercus ithaburensis were identified as against 967 samples of Quercus calliprinos. The first evidence of its existence in the ancient landscape is from the Mousterian – Upper Mousterian layers from Kebara and from the Natufian layers at El Wad Cave on Mount Carmel. Later on Quercus ithaburensis wood remains are present in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic in Yiftahel in the Lower Galilee, in the Pottery Neolithic and Early Bronze Age at Newe Yaraq in the coastal plain and in the Chalcholithic and Early Bronze Age at Shoham. A few remnants were found also at sites dated to the Middle Bronze Age onwards. Two representative sites are Tel Aphek, where Quercus ithaburensis remnants were identified in the Middle Bronze Age – Roman Age periods and at Lachish in the Middle Bronze Age – Iron Age periods. QUERCUS BOISSIERI (CYPRUS OAK)

Quercus boissieri is a deciduous tree which inhabits the cool elevated Mediterranean mountain zones in the Golan, Upper and Lower Galilee, Mount Carmel, Judaean hills and Samaria. Single specimens of this species are scattered in Judaea and Samaria in the higher zones. The presence of Quercus boissieri in the ancient landscape was extremely rare. Wood remains of this oak species were discovered only in four sites and then as very small fragments. Altogether only 11 samples of Quercus boissieri were collected from the Chalcholithic layers at Peqi>in, the Early Bronze Age layers both at Abu Pula in the Golan Heights and Hebron in the Judaean hills and from Iron Age strata at Sasa in the Upper Galilee. . PISTACIA PALAESTINA (TEREBINTH)

Pistacia palaestina is a common deciduous tree of the Mediterranean maquis and garigue of Israel. It is indigenous to the Golan, Upper and Lower Galilee, Dan valley, Hula Plain, Mount Carmel, Sharon Plain, Judaean hills and Samaria. Most of the Pistacia palaestina trees today are small, characterized by several coppices resulting from fires, grazing and browsing. Old trees with a single trunk and a dense canopy survived mainly near sacred tombs. 27

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

Remnants of Pistacia palaestina collected in archaeological excavations demonstrate that it was widespread from the Golan Heights in the north to Mount Hebron in the south, along the archaeological profile. Pistacia palaestina is a dominant component of the Quercus calliprinos – Pistacia palaestina alliance. It is a major component of the wood assemblage in 56 of the 93 sites investigated (Fig. 2.5), namely, six sites on the Golan Heights, nine sites in the Upper and Lower Galilee, two sites on Mount Carmel, seven sites in the Jezreel valley, 21 sites along the coastal plain and 11 sites in Samaria and Judaea. At these sites 757 wood samples were identified. The earliest wood remains were collected from the PPNB layers at Naúal Bezet in the Upper Galilee and at Atlit on the coastal plain. Specimens were retrieved from Neolithic layers at Kabri in the Upper Galilee and samples dated to the Neolithic – Chalcolithic periods came from the Naúal Qanah cave in Samaria. Wood remnants from PPN layers were identified at Yiftahel in the Lower Galilee and from the PN layers at Naúal Zehora in the Jezreel valley, as well as at Newe Yaraq in the coastal plain. Wood remains dated to the Chalcolithic period were identified at Peqi’in in the Upper Galilee, in Shoham in the coastal plain and in the Naúal Qanah cave in Samaria. From the Early Bronze Age onwards, percentages of Pistacia palaestina in the archaeological wood assemblages is very prominent at almost all sites: in the Golan Heights, in the Upper and Lower Galilee, on Mount Carmel, in Jezreel valley, in the coastal plain, in Samaria and in Judaea. Among the representative multilayered sites where Pistacia palaestina has been a dominant component through all archaeological srata excavated, are Tel Kabri (Neolithic – Iron – Persian periods), Megiddo (Chalcolithic – Iron Age) Yoqne >am (Middle Bronze – Iron Age), Tel Gerisa (Middle Bronze Age – Early Islamic period), Tel Michal (Late Bronze Age – Early Islamic period), Tel Aphek (Middle Bronze Age – Roman periods), Yavneh Yam (Persian – Early Islamic periods) and Lachish (Early Bronze Age – Iron Age period). Appreciable amounts of Pistacia palaestina were present at other sites such as Jezreel (Iron Age) and Tel Yarmut (Early Bronze Age) in Judaea. PISTACIA LENTISCUS (LENTISK; MASTIC TREE)

Pistacia lentiscus is a very common evergreen shrub of the maquis and garigue of the Mediterranean zone. It characterizes the forest and garigue formations and inhabits stable sand dunes along the coast and the lower hills usually up to 300-500 m above sea level. It is indigenous to the Galilee coast, Acco plain, Sharon plain, Philistean plain, Upper and Lower Galilee, Mount Carmel, Mount Gilboa and the Judaean hills. The shrubs are not grazed by sheeps and goats and therefore are well preserved. In contrast to the dominance of Pistacia palaestina in the Mediterranean forest and maquis, Pistacia lentiscus is quite rare in this landscape. It appears only in 17 sites (Fig. 2.5), and in these the number of wood remnants is very low. Altogether only 35 wood samples of Pistacia lentiscus were identified, as against 757 samples of Pistacia palaestina. The first evidence of its existence in the ancient landscape is from the PPN - PN layers at Haifa Bay and from the Chalcolithic layers at Shoham in the coastal plain. Fragments of Pistacia lentiscus appear in very small numbers at single sites in the Upper Galille, the Lower Galilee, Jezreel valley, Mount Carmel, and Samaria. In the coastal plain this shrub is represented in 10 sites and in Judaea in two sites only.

28

CHAPTER 2: I NDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE M EDITERRANEAN R EGION

1. Hawarith 2. Naúal Be§et 3. Tel Kabri 4. Peqi'in 5. Meiron 6. Hazor 7. Qasrin 8. Gamala 9. îorvat Kanaf 10. Tel Hadar 11. Mizpe Yammim 12. Rosh Zayit 13. Acco 14. Haifa Bay 15. Kfar Saba 16. Yiftahel 17. Zippori 18. Jezreel 19. Atlit 20. îorvat Raqit 21. Tel Qashish 22. Yoqne>am 23. Tel Qiri 24. îorvat Sumaqa 25. Megiddo 26. Tel Ta>anach 27. Caesarea 28. Tel Zeror 29. Tel Hefer 30. Tel Qashish 31. Mount Ebal 32. Shiloh 33. Naúal Qanah Cave 34. 'Izbet Sartah 35. Apollonia 36. Tel Michal 37. Tell Qasile

38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55.

Tel Gerisa Tel Aphek Jaffa Rishon Le-Zion Newe Yarak Hermeshit Shoham Yavneh Yam Tel Batash îorvat Me§ad Gibeon Jerusalem Beth Shemesh Tel Yarmut Tel >Erani Ashkelon Lachish Hebron

•

Fig. 2.5: Location of wood remains of Pistacia palaestina ( ) and Pistacia lentiscus (▲).

PLATANUS ORIENTALIS (ORIENTAL PLANE)

Platanus orientalis is one of the tallest trees of Israel. It is characterized by a thick trunk. It grows on river banks and permanent water streams in the Upper Galilee, Dan valley, Hula Plain, Upper Jordan valley and the Judaean hills. Famous huge trees grow in the western Galilee along Naúal Bezet and Naúal Keziv and in the Jordan sources. Trees of Platanus orientalis grow in the Judaean hills in a valley north of Qiriat Anavim which is called Naúal Dolev after the Hebrew name of this tree. Wood remains of Platanus orientalis have been identified only at Kabri in the northern Galilee in strata dated to the Iron Age. 29

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

ACER SYRIACUM (SYRIAN ASH)

Acer syriacum is a deciduous tree which grows along streams in the Upper Galilee and the Upper Jordan valley. At Tel Dan the copious water supply favours the growth of tall trees with thick trunks. Only five examples of wood belonging to Acer syriacum have been identified. These come from two sites: from Kabri in strata dated to the Middle Bronze Age and Iron –Persian periods, and from an Iron Age stratum at Jezreel. LAURUS NOBILIS (LAUREL)

Laurus nobilis is an everrgreen tree which favours humid and shady sites in the maquis. It is native to the Dan valley, Upper and Lower Galilee, Mount Carmel, Samaria and the Judaean hills. It generally develops as a shrub in the maquis, but there are numerous tall trees in the Upper Galilee. Isolated samples of Laurus nobilis were found in Jezreel in an Iron Age layer. ARBUTUS ANDRACHNE (STRAWBERRY TREE)

Arbutus andrachne is a common evergreen tree of the Mediterranean forest and maquis in the Upper and Lower Galilee, Mount Carmel, Mount Tabor, Samaria and Judaea. It is characterized by the red-brown bark of the adult trunk. Following fires and cutting the trees develop several trunks instead of one main bole. Wood remains of Arbutus andrachne were identified only at Naúal Bezet in the northern Galilee in a layer dated to the PPN period. CERCIS SILIQUASTRUM (JUDAS TREE)

Cercis siliquastrum is a deciduous tree of the more humid maquis of the Upper and Lower Galilee, Mount Carmel, Samaria and the Judaean hills and mountains, mainly on northern slopes and wadi beds. Following grazing, browsing and fires the tree develops coppices, and very often acquires the shape of a bush. Remains of Cercis siliquastrum wood were found at eight sites only, comprising altogether 22 wood samples. The earliest remains were retrieved from the PPNB site at Atlit and from the PPN-PN layer at Haifa Bay. Except for one site, all the others which yielded remnants of Cercis siliquastrum are located in the Galilee, Haifa Bay and the Jezreel valley. FRAXINUS SYRIACA (SYRIAN ASH)

Fraxinus syriaca grows along rivers and streams in the Golan, Upper Galilee, the Hula valley, the Beth Shean valley, Upper Jordan valley, Mount Carmel and the Sharon Plain. At Tel Dan, where water is abundant, the tree develops a tall broad trunk. A single wood sample of Fraxinus syriaca was found at Montfort and another at Meggido. STYRAX OFFICINALIS (STORAX)

Styrax officinalis is a deciduous small tree or shrub, common in maquis and forests. It is native to the Golan, Upper and Lower Galilee, Mount Gilboa, Mount Carmel, the Sharon Plain, Samaria and the Judaean hills. It is a major component of the present-day Quercus ithaburensis – Styrax officinalis association. Due to the fact that it is not used as construction timber nor browsed by sheep, the tree appears at sites where no other trees survived. Regenerating after fires and coppicing results in a bushy shape. Only a single sample of Styrax officinalis was found at Tel Ta>anach in a Middle Bronze Age stratum.

30

CHAPTER 2: I NDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE M EDITERRANEAN R EGION

ULMUS CAMPESTRIS (ELM)

Ulmus campestris is a deciduous tree which grows in creeks on Mount Carmel, in the Lower Galilee and in Samaria (Fig. 2.6). Only two wood samples of Ulmus campestris have been identified. Both come from Jezreel. ULMUS CANESCENS (ELM)

Ulmus canescens is a rare deciduous tree. Isolated specimens grow today along creeks on Mount Carmel, Samaria and in the Lower Galille. Only three wood samples of Ulmus canescens were identified in Iron Age Lachish. MYRTUS COMMUNIS (COMMON MYRTLE)

Myrtus communis is an evergreen shrub growing in maquis and riverine thickets in the Upper Galilee, upper Jordan valley, the Golan Heights and the Carmel range. It was cultivated for ritual and ornamental uses and is one of the four species of the Jewish Feast of Tabernacles. Seven wood samples of Myrtus communis were retrieved from five sites. The earliest remnants date to the PPN-PN period from Haifa Bay and to the Natufian period from El Wad Cave on Mount Carmel. Remnants from Neolithic-Chalcolithic period were found at Naúal Qanah Cave and remains dated to the Chalcolithic period were identified from Peqi>in. Three samples were found at Tel Kabri originating in Middle Bronze Age and Iron Age – Persian strata. RHAMNUS ALATERNUS (MEDITERRANEAN BUCKTHORN)

Rhamnus alaternus is an evergreen shrub of semi-humid maquis which can attain dimensions of a tree. This species is native to the Golan, Dan valley, Coastal and Upper Galilee, Sharon plain, Mount Carmel, Samaria and the Judaean hills. A single sample of Rhamnus alaternus was found at Jezreel in a stratum dated to the Iron Age. RHAMNUS PALAESTINUS (PALESTINE BUCKTHORN)

Rhamnus palaestinus is a small deciduous tree that is common in the maquis and garigue, also in semisteppes on sandy and calcareous ground, often among rocks. It is native to Coastal Galilee, the Acco plain, the Sharon plain, the plain of Philistaea, the Golan, Upper and Lower Galilee, Mount Carmel, Mount Gilboa, Samaria and the Judaean hills. Fourteen samples originated from five sites. The earliest remains are from the Chalcolithic period at Shoham, Yoqne >am and Lachish. CRATAEGUS ARONIA (HAWTHORN; AZAROLE)

Crataegus aronia is a small tree or shrub of the maquis and open maquis-steppes on the desert edge. It is common in the Golan, Upper and Lower Galilee, Mount Carmel, Mount Gilboa, the Sharon Plain, the Philistean Plain, Samaria and the Judaea hills. Remains of Crataegus aronia were found at nine sites, comprising altogether 23 samples. The earliest are dated to the Early Bronze Age and originated from Megiddo in the Jezreel valley and Tel Yarmut in the coastal plain. This species is best represented at Megiddo, where 14 samples (=50% of the total from all sites) originated from layers dated to the Early Bronze and Iron Ages.

31

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

Fig. 2.6: Ulmus campestris growing on the Temple Mount, Jerusalem.

32

CHAPTER 2: I NDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE M EDITERRANEAN R EGION

SPARTIUM JUNCEUM

Spartium junceum is an evergreen shrub or small tree which is native to maquis in the Dan valley, Upper and Lower Galilee, Mount Carmel, Mount Gilboa, Samaria and the Judaean hills. A single sample was identified at Jezreel in an Iron Age stratum. ONONIS NATRIX

Ononis natrix is a half-shrub which is native to the batha in the Dan valley, Hula valley, Lower Jordan valley, Upper and Lower Galilee, Mount Carmel, Mount Gilboa, Jezreel valley, Samaria, the Judaean hills and the desert. A single wood sample was identified at Tel Kabri in a Middle Bronze Age stratum.

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE PAST ARBOREAL LANDSCAPE GOLAN HEIGHTS:

The earliest wood remains discovered in the Golan Heights were of Quercus calliprinos and Olea europaea (Olive). They are dated to the Chalcolithic period and were found at three sites: El Majmi, Rasm Harbush and Ramat Magshimim. Remains of Quercus boissieri were found at Abu Pula in layers dated to the Early-Middle Bronze Age (Table 2.2). Numerous wood remains were discovered at îorvat Kanaf, representing a variety of tree species and archaeological periods. The majority of wood remains were of Quercus calliprinos, Pistacia palaestina and Olea europaea. They were collected from the Iron Age layers, the Roman-Byzantine period and the Early Islamic period. Remains of Ziziphus spina christi originated in the 6th century CE layers. Olea europaea wood remains were also discovered in Mamluk layers. The wood assemblage which came from the 4th-8th centuries CE at Qa§rin included Quercus calliprinos, Pistacia palaestina and Olea europaea, but also Pistacia atlantica, Ceratonia siliqua and Ficus carica. Wood remains of Quercus calliprinos and Olea europaea were gathered from Mamluk layers. At Gamala, another site located in the central Golan Heights, the findings are similar. The site is dated to the 1st century BCE – 1st century CE. Most wood samples were of Olea europaea and Pistacia palaestina. The other remnants included Pistacia atlantica, Quercus ithaburensis, Ceratonia siliqua and Ziziphus spina christi. (Table 2.2). At two other sites, Snir grave and îorvat Zemel, dated to the 2nd-1st centuries BCE, and at a third, Khirbet Hawarith, dated to the Late Roman period, similar wood assemblages which included not only Olea europaea, Quercus calliprinos and Pistacia palaestina were identified but also Quercus ithaburensis, Amygdalus communis (Almond) and Cupressus sempervirens (Cypress). A single piece of Phoenix dactylifera (Date palm) was discovered in a vessel at îorvat Zemel. Although meagre, all wood remnants collected at the Mount Hermon sites (Khirbet Hawarith, Bir Ansuba, Sena’im, Qal >at Bustra) stemmed from the Roman-Byzantine layers. They consisted of Olea europaea, Cedrus libani (Cedar of Lebanon) and Quercus sp. Remains from the southern Golan were gathered at one site only: Tel Hadar on the southern bank of Lake Kinneret, dated to the Iron Age period. Although few pieces were found, the variety of timber included mainly Quercus calliprinos, Pistacia palaestina and Olea europaea, but also remnants of Ziziphus spina christi, Pistacia atlantica, Tamarix (x5), Populus euphratica (Euphrates poplar) and Acacia raddiana (Table 2.2). 33

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

The greatest number of wood samples collected at the archaeological sites in the Golan Heights belonged therefore to three tree species: Quercus calliprinos, Pistacia palaestina and Olea europaea, which constituted 63% of the wood remains (Table 2.14). TABLE 2.2: SPECIES FROM MOUNT HERMON AND THE GOLAN HEIGHTS BY PERIOD CHALCOLITHIC AND EARLY BRONZE AGES Site Period Olea europaea Quercus calliprinos Quercus boissieri Total no.

Ramat Magshimim Chal. 2

2

Abu Pula Chal. 3

Rasm Harbush

EB

Chal. 27 3

1 1

3

el-Majami

Total no.

Chal. 32 5 1 38

2

30

2

IRON AGE, HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN-BYZANTINE PERIODS MOUNT HERMON

Site Period

îorvat Hawarith Bir Ansuba Mount Sena’im Rom.-Byz. Rom.-Byz. Rom.-Byz.

Quercus calliprinos Quercus sp. Pistacia palaestina Olea europaea Cupressus sempervirens Cedrus libani Total no.

Total no.

Qal>at Bustra Rom.-Byz.

1 1

1

1

1

1 2 2 1 1 1 8

2 1 1 1 2

4

CENTRAL GOLAN HEIGHTS

Site

Tel Hadar

Period

LB

Quercus calliprinos Quercus ithaburensis Pistacia palaestina Pistacia atlantica Pistacia sp. Olea europaea Amygdalus communis Ziziphus spina christi Ceratonia siliqua Pinus pinea Pinus halepensis Acacia raddiana Phoenix dactylifera Populus euphratica Tamarix sp. Total no.

34

3 3

IA

îorvat Kanaf IA Hell.

1

1

1 2 1 1

1

Gamala îorvat Zemel Rom.-Byz. Hell. Hell. 3 2

1

2 1 16 4 10 25

6 1

Snir

Qa§rin

Hell.

Rom.-Byz.

1

1

2

2 1

2

1

5

5

1 4

1 3 3 12

1 1 1 2 6 1

1

70

9

1 12

2

1

5

Total no.

15 2 24 8 14 32 1 5 1 1 2 7 2 4 3 121

CHAPTER 2: I NDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE M EDITERRANEAN R EGION

MODERN PERIODS

Period Quercus calliprinos Pistacia palaestina Pistacia atlantica Olea europaea Ziziphus spina christi Ceratonia siliqua Amygdalus communis Ficus carica Total no.

îorvat Kanaf

Qa§rin

Site E. Isl.

Mamluk

E. Isl.

2 2 1 14

2

4

2 4

Total no. Mamluk

1 2

1

7

1

1 1 1 21

9

8 2 3 20 2 1 1 1 38

UPPER AND LOWER GALILEE:

The earliest wood remains discovered in the Upper Galilee dated to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B were Pistacia palaestina and Arbutus andrachne, found in Naúal Be§et and îorvat Galil (Table 2.3). Several wood species dated to the Chalcolithic period were identified at Peqi>in: Pistacia palaestina, Quercus calliprinos, Quercus boissieri, Olea europaea and Myrtus communis. Numerous wood remains were discovered at Tel Kabri, representing a variety of tree species and archaeological periods. Wood remains of Quercus calliprinos, Pistacia palaestina and Olea europaea were collected from Neolithic, Early Bronze Age and Middle Bronze Age levels. Wood remains of Phoenix dactylifera came from Early Bronze Age strata and pieces of Pistacia lentiscus, Myrtus communis, Acer syriacum, Ceratonia siliqua, Ononis natrix and Cedrus libani were gathered from layers dated to the Middle Bronze Age. Wood remains of the Late Bronze Age were discovered only at Hazor, and included Quercus calliprinos, Pistacia palaestina and numerous logs of Cedrus libani (Table 2.3). A large assemblage of wood species were found in Iron Age strata at three sites in the Upper Galilee: Tel Kabri, Tel Dan, Hazor and Sasa. These remains included mainly Olea europaea, but also eight additional species (Table 2.3). A few wood remains originated from the Hellenistic layers at Mizpe Yammim, and some were collected at the Montfort castle of the Crusader period (Table 2.3). The bulk of the wood assemblage collected from all sites in the Upper Galilee was Olea europaea, mainly since the Early Bronze Age onwards, and Quercus calliprinos and Pistacia palaestina. The archaeological wood remains identified from sites in the Lower Galilee were rather few. As in the Upper Galilee, so also in the Lower Galilee the majority were of Olea europaea, Pistacia palaestina and Quercus calliprinos, ca. 73% in the Upper Galilee and 78% in the Lower Galilee (Table 2.4).

35

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

TABLE 2.3: LOCATION OF WOOD REMAINS IN THE UPPER GALILEE PRE-POTTERY NEOLITHIC B, NEOLITHIC AND BRONZE AGE Site Period

Naúal Be§et PPNB

Peqi>in Chal.

5

Pistacia palaestina Pistacia lentiscus Pistacia sp. Quercus calliprinos Quercus boissieri Olea europaea Arbutus andrachne Myrtus communis Acer syriacum Ceratonia siliqua Juglans regia Ononis natrix Phoenix dactylifera Cedrus libani Total no.

Tel Kabri

Hazor MB

Total no.

Neo.

EB

MB

LB

1

2

6

3

1 1 3

4

1

24 2 7 47

11

10

29

1

41 2 7 54 1 54 1 3 2 2 2 1 1 18 189

1

1 1

2 2 2 2 1 1

6

7

17

18

1 117

1 1

16 23

IRON AGE, PERSIAN, HELLENISTIC AND CRUSADER PERIODS Site Period Olea europaea Pistacia palaestina Pistacia atlantica Quercus calliprinos Quercus ithaburensis Quercus boissieri Ceratonia siliqua Cercis siliquastrum Acer syriacum Fraxinus syriaca Crataegus aronia Myrtus communis Amygdalus communis Ziziphus spina christi Spartium glaucum Platanus orientalis Phoenix dactylifera Cupressus sempervirens Pinus halepensis Cedrus libani Total no.

36

Tel Dan Hazor IA IA

1

Sasa IA

26 3 4 4

Meiron Hell.

Tel Kabri Mizpeh Yammim IA IA-Pers. Hell.-Pers.

8 2

18 1

6 11

1 7

1

13

15 1

4 2

8

Montfort Crusader

2

2 1

3 5 2

1 1

2 2

1 2 4 1

1 3 1

9

6 46

2

12

1 1 4 48

2 1 55

15

7

Total no. 49 24 5 39 11 2 4 6 2 1 2 1 4 4 1 1 3 2 3 11 194

TABLE 2.4: LOCATION OF WOOD REMAINS IN THE LOWER GALILEE Site Period

Tel Yin>am LBA

Yiftahel PPN

Quercus calliprinos Quercus ithaburensis Pistacia palaestina Pistacia lentiscus Pistacia atlantica Ceratonia siliqua Cercis siliquastrum Olea europaea Viburnum alaternum Cedrus libani Total No.

Rosh Zayit IA

3 3 3

Zippori Rom.

Total no.

1 3

9

2

11

2

15

4 3 8 1 1 3 1 15 1 1 37

2 1 1 3 1 2 1 1 12

MOUNT CARMEL

The earliest remnants date to the Mousterian-Upper Paleolithic period from Kebara and in the main belong to two oaks: Quercus calliprinos and Quercus ithaburensis. The Natufian period is represented by a few wood remains from El-Wad Cave and are mainly of Quercus calliprinos and Tamarix (X5). Remnants of Olea europaea originated of Chalcolithic strata at îorvat Castra. A few wood remnants from the Middle and Late Bronze Ages were found at Tel Nami, while three sites, îorvat Sumaqa, îorvat Raqit and îorvat Castra, produced samples from the Roman-Byzantine periods. The data show that most of the wood remains belonged to Quercus calliprinos, Pistacia palaestina and Olea europaea, which constitutes 58% of the wood collected from layers dated to the Early Bronze age onwards. The second species of oak: Quercus ithaburensis was also well represented in the wood assemblage (Table 2.5). TABLE 2.5: LOCATION OF WOOD REMAINS ON MOUNT CARMEL Site Period Quercus calliprinos Quercus ithaburensis Quercus sp. Pistacia atlantica Pistacia palaestina Pistacia lentiscus Pistacia sp. Ceratonia siliqua Olea europaea Crataegus aronia Crataegus sp. Salix sp. Ulmus sp. Myrtus communis Tamarix sp. Cupressus sempervirens Pinus halepensis Cedrus libani Total no.

Kebara el-Wad Cave Mouster-UP Natuf. 26 25 9 1

10 3 2

Tel Nami MB LB 2 3 1

1

îorvat Sumaqa îorvat Raqit Rom.-Byz. Rom.-Byz. 2

2

4 1

3

1

3 3

4 1 1

2

1 5

4

3 1 2 19

4 1 10 1

68

7 1

31

1 3 13

4

20

Total no. 43 31 12 1 7 1 4 1 17 1 4 5 1 1 10 8 2 5 155

37

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

JEZREEL VALLEY:

Quercus calliprinos, Pistacia palaestina and Olea europaea were predominant at all sites and in all periods. They constituted 82% of the wood assemblage. Since all the wood was found in layers dated to the Early Bronze Age onwards, the Olea europaea wood remains were the dominant constituent, comprising 62%. Except for these three species, other Mediterranean trees were identified: Quercus ithaburensis, Styrax officinalis, Acer syriacum, Laurus nobilis, Juglans regia, Fraxinus syriaca, Rhamnus palaestinus, Rhamnus alaternus, Ceratonia siliqua, Cercis siliquastrum, Ulmus campestris, Amygdalus communis and Crataegus aronia. In addition tree species included: Ziziphus spina christi, Acacia raddiana, Acacia albida, Tamarix (X5), which characterize drier areas, but also conifers like Cedrus libani, Cupressus sempervirens and Pinus halepensis (Table 2.6).

TABLE 2.6: LOCATION OF WOOD REMAINS IN JEZREEL VALLEY Site

N. Zehora T.Qashish

Period

PN

EB

Olea europaea Quercus calliprinos Quercus ithaburensis Quercus sp. Pistacia palaestina Pistacia lentiscus Pistacia sp. Styrax officinalis Acer syriacum Tamarix sp. Tamarix (X5) Populus euphratica Rhamnus palaestinus Rhamnus alaternus Ceratonia siliqua Cercis siliquastrum Ulmus campestris Amygdalus communis Crataegus aronia Ziziphus spina christi Acacia sp. Acacia raddiana Acacia albida Juglans regia Fraxinus syriaca Spartium junceum Cupressus sempervirens Pinus halepensis Cedrus libani Total no.

3 20 17 12 9

16 3

38

T. Qiri Jezreel Total no. Yoqne>am EB MB LB IA Chal EB MB LB IA MB LB IA IA IA Tel Ta>anach

5

8 1

13

Megiddo

13 33 3 1 2 1 1

3 1

53 18 10

2

11

1 2

2

1

2

18 3

1 1

12 340 13 10 9 8 1 6 10 1 1 2 9 3

1

20 4 15 5

5 5

160 50 10

3

5 25

1

33 4 3 1

1 3

7 3 3

1

1

3 4

1

8 3

1 1

2

2 6 2

1

1

5 11 63

32

5

11

1 20 4

6

121 29

2 3 1 1 5 4 2 6 1 4 2 5 1

4 1 1 2

1 1 1 49 425

5

9 67

12

1 8 1 22 330

689 147 60 16 122 2 20 7 1 2 12 8 7 1 8 9 2 8 15 11 2 5 1 5 1 1 15 15 24 1221

CHAPTER 2: I NDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE M EDITERRANEAN R EGION

THE COASTAL PLAIN (INCLUDING THE SHARON AND SHEPHELA)

The earliest wood remains discovered in the coastal plain dated to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B. They included Quercus calliprinos (about 1/3 of the samples), Pistacia palaestina, Olea europaea, Cercis siliquastrum, Tamarix (X5) and Phoenix dactylifera (Table 2.7). From the Pottery Neolithic period 11 woody species were identified, of which 40% were Quercus calliprinos and only 16% were Olea europaea. The Early Bronze Age is characterized by a majority of wood remains of Olea europaea, which constituted above 49%. This is the period when cultivation of olives had already started. The remains were collected from five sites: Shoham, Tel Aphek, Afridar, Tel Dalit and Newe Yaraq. Middle and Late Bronze Age wood remains were gathered at nine sites: Acco, Jaffa, Tel Gerisa, Tel Michal, Rishon Le-Zion, Tel Aphek, Tel Hefer, Tel ‘Ashir and Zurikiyeh. Olea europaea constituted 35%, Quercus calliprinos 29% and Pistacia palaestina ca. 10% of the wood assemblage. For the Iron Age period wood remains were collected at nine sites: Tel Gerisa, Tel Michal, Tell Qasile, Ashdod, Tel Aphek, Tel Zeror, >Izbet êarta, Yavneh Yam and Acco. In this period Olea europaea constituted ca. 20% whereas Quercus calliprinos constituted ca. 30% and Pistacia palaestina 11%. Wood samples dating to the Persian and Hellenistic periods were analyzed from six sites: Caesarea, Apollonia, Tel Michal, Tel Aphek, Jaffa and Yavneh Yam. Quercus calliprinos and Olea europaea each constituted ca. 25% and Pistacia palaestina ca. 10% of the assemblage. The Roman and Byzantine periods are represented by wood remains from eight sites. Olea europaea constituted 25%, but in these periods 30% of the wood assemblage was imported coniferous timbers, of them 25% were of Cedrus libani. Wood remnants from the Early Islamic and Crusader periods came from six sites. As in earlier periods, Olea europaea constituted above 20%, Quercus calliprinos and Pistacia palaestina another 20% of the assemblage. In these periods many samples of Quercus were poorly preserved and were identified up to the genus level only. Again, imported coniferous timbers constituted more than 20% of the sample. TABLE 2.7: LOCATION OF WOOD REMAINS IN THE COASTAL PLAIN PREHISTORIC PERIODS

Site Period Olea europaea Pistacia palaestina Pistacia lentiscus Pistacia sp. Cercis siliquastrum Quercus calliprinos Quercus ithaburensis Quercus sp. Myrtus communis Tamarix (X5) Phoenix dactylifera Nerium oleander Total no.

Atlit PPNB

Haifa bay PPN-PN

2 3

Newe Yaraq PN 8 3

1 4 2 8

2 6

14 5 3

1 6 4 25

1 1 12

27

Total no. 10 6 1 4 4 28 5 3 1 6 5 1 74

39

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

CHALCOLITHIC AND EARLY BRONZE AGE

Site Period

Haifa Bay Shoham Tel Aphek Afridar Chal. Chal. EB EB EB

Olea europaea Quercus calliprinos Quercus ithaburensis Pistacia palaestina Pistacia lentiscus Ceratonia siliqua Ziziphus spina christi Crataegus aronia Rhamnus palaestinus Tamarix (X5) Tamarix aphylla Retama raetam Acacia raddiana Atriplex halimus Pinus halepensis Cedrus libani Quercus cerris Total no.

57 5 4 4 1

7

77 4 4 7

8 2

Tel Dalit EB

65

Newe Yaraq EB

8 4

Total no.

18 4 1 3 1

2 2

2 2 1

233 46 9 16 4 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 2 1 307

1

1 1 1 1 2 1 1

7

1

73

1

99

2 1 77

10

13

28

MIDDLE AND LATE BRONZE AGES

Site

Acco

Period

MB

Quercus calliprinos Quercus ithaburensis Quercus sp. Pistacia palaestina Pistacia lentiscus Pistacia sp. Olea europaea Ceratonia siliqua Amygdalus communis Retama raetam Acacia raddiana Acacia sp. Tamarix (X5) Tamarix sp. Ziziphus spina christi Cupressus sempervirens Pinus halepensis Cedrus libani Total no.

40

Jaffa Tel Gerisa Tel Michal Rishon Tel Le-Zion Aphek LB MB LB MB LB MB MB LB

6

2

7

1 2

2

1 1 2 11

1

3

6

3 1 1 1

1

2 6

Tel Hefer >Ashir MB

6

22 15

26 15

9

4

3 1

2 1

7

22 1

27

14

15

3 61

20 51

MB

Khirbet Total no. Zureiqiye MB 2

6

1 1 1

1

1

1 1 1 1 1 2 13

2 6

10

26

2

14

34

70

6

2

83 31 2 28 3 4 106 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 25 295

CHAPTER 2: I NDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE M EDITERRANEAN R EGION

IRON AGE

Site Quercus calliprinos Quercus ithaburensis Quercus sp. Pistacia palaestina Pistacia atlantica Pistacia lentiscus Pistacia sp. Olea europaea Retama raetam Amygdalus communis Ziziphus spina christi Phoenix dactylifera Tamarix sp. Tamarix (X5) Nerium oleander Ficus sycomorus Acacia raddiana Pinus halepensis Cupressus sempervirens Cedrus libani Total no.

Tel Gerisa 13

Tel Tell Michal Qasile 4 2 1

3

1

2

2

1

Ashdod

Tel Aphek 16 7

Tel >Izbet êartah Yavneh Yam Acco Total no. Zeror 2 1 2 40 1 9 2 2 1 3 4 16 1 1 1 2 1 4 1 1 6 27 1 2 13 1 1 2 1 5 1 1 6 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 1 4 6 8 15 12 140

2

1 7 6

5

7

4 2

5

1 1

1

1 1 37

12

2 10

7

1 33

PERSIAN AND HELLENISTIC PERIODS

Site Caesarea Apollonia Tel Michal Period Hell. Pers. Hell. Pers. Hell. Species 1 2 23 4 6 1 Quercus calliprinos 3 Quercus ithaburensis Quercus sp. 1 1 4 Pistacia palaestina Pistacia lentiscus 1 Pistacia sp. 2 Olea europaea 1 8 1 Retama raetam Acacia raddiana Acacia albida Tamarix (X5) Populus sp. Cercis siliquastrum Atriplex halimus Ficus sycomorus Crataegus aronia 6 Cupressus sempervirens 1 4 Pinus halepensis Pinus sp. Cedrus libani Total no. 2 3 1 50 14

Tel Aphek Hell. 5 1

Jaffa Pers. Hell. 3 2

5

6 1

6 2 1 2 3 2 1 1

Yavneh Yam Pers.-Hell. 11 7 2 5 3 36 3 1 1 2 2 1 1 1

17

4

2 22

7 1 5 89

Total no. 51 15 5 24 2 5 46 16 4 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 6 12 1 7 203

41

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

ROMAN AND BYZANTINE PERIODS

Site

Tel Michal Jaffa

Period

Rom.

Quercus calliprinos Quercus ithaburensis Quercus sp. Pistacia palaestina Pistacia lentiscus Pistacia sp. Olea europaea Ceratonia siliqua Tamarix aphylla Tamarix (X5) Populus sp. Retama raetam Ziziphus spina christi Acacia raddiana Pinus halepensis Cupressus sempervirens Cedrus libani Total no.

Rom.

Tel Kfar Ata Caesarea Apollonia Yavneh Yam Aphek Rom. Byz. Byz. Rom.-Byz. Byz.

6

Newe Yaraq Byz.

Kfar Total no. Saba Byz.

2

8 1 8 7 2 2 38 1 1 1 2 5 2 8 13 2 38 146

1 7 1

1 2

1

9

1

1 3

1

12

1

2 5 1

8

2

1 1 2 1 2

3

1

8 3 10 36

5

5 1 9 35

1

2

2

3

6 26

9 33

1 4 5

2

1

EARLY ISLAMIC AND CRUSADER PERIODS

Site Period Quercus calliprinos Quercus ithaburensis Quercus sp. Pistacia palaestina Pistacia lentiscus Pistacia sp. Olea europaea Ceratonia siliqua Tamarix aphylla Tamarix jordanis Tamarix (X5) Ziziphus spina christi Pinus halepensis Cupressus sempervirens Cedrus libani Total No.

42

Apollonia E. Isl. Crus. 4 1 15 2 1 4 6 1

3

Tel Gerisa E. Isl.

Yavneh Yam E. Isl.

3

4

1 1

2 1

Kfar Saba Tel Aphek Tel Michal E. Isl. Crus. E. Isl. E. Isl.

1 1

4

4

2

3 1

1 2 1

1

3 39

1 10

5

9 2

3

1

1 1

21

6

2

2

1

Total no. 14 1 15 6 3 5 19 1 1 1 2 2 10 10 1 90

CHAPTER 2: I NDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE M EDITERRANEAN R EGION

SAMARIA

The earliest wood remains gathered in Samaria date to the Neolithic, Neolithic-Early Bronze Age and to the Neolithic-Chalcolithic periods. All finds originated of Naúal Qanah Cave (Table 2.8) and the wood species are of Quercus calliprinos, Pistacia palaestina, Olea europaea, Amygdalus communis and Myrtus communis. The first three species constitute 75% of the finds. The historic periods are represented by five sites: Shiloh, Qela, Mount Ebal, Mount Gerizim, and Karnei Shomron. (Table 2.8). The wood assemblage dated to the Middle and Late Bronze Ages, to the Iron and Byzantine periods, and to the Mamluk period. It was composed of Quercus calliprinos, Pistacia palaestina, Olea europaea, Amygdalus communis and of Pinus halepensis. The first three species constitute together above 96% (Table 2.14). TABLE 2.8: LOCATION OF WOOD REMAINS IN SAMARIA PREHISTORIC PERIODS

Site Period

Naúal Qanah Cave Neo.-Chal.

Neo.

Quercus calliprinos Quercus sp. Pistacia palaestina Olea europaea Ziziphus spina christi Myrtus communis Total no.

1

Total no. Chal.

1 1 2

2 3

4 1 9

1

2 1 5 4 4 1 18

5

HISTORIC PERIODS

Site Period Quercus calliprinos Pistacia palaestina Olea europaea Amygdalus communis Total no.

Naúal Qanah Cave Chalc.-EBA

Shiloh MB

Qela

Mount Ebal

Mount Gerizim

IA

IA

Mamluk

1 5 2 3 11

3

34

3

34

LB

IA

10 10

1 1

14

14

6 6 28

2

14

14

40

Karnei Shomron

Total no.

44 11 68 3 126

JUDAEA

The wood assemblage of the Early, Middle and Late Bronze Ages is represented mainly by Quercus calliprinos, Pistacia palaeastina and Olea europaea. The relatively high percentages of Cedrus libani reflects the extensive use of this timber in the temple and palace at Lachish and in the city of Jerusalem. (Table 2.9). The highest percentages of wood remains are of Olea europaea, which was already cultivated in the Early Bronze Age. A very similar picture is obtained for the wood assemblage identified for the Iron Age period (Table 2.9). The great majority of the wood is Olea europaea and Cedrus libani timber is extensively used in Lachish and in Jerusalem. Similarly, in the the Persian, Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods the highest percentages of wood are Olea europaea. Cedrus libani was extensively used in Jerusalem, but also at other sites (Tables 2.9). In the Early Islamic period most of the wood is imported timber of Cedrus libani and Quercus cerris which was sampled from the roof of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. These logs were brought especially for the monumental construction of the mosque most probably from Turkey. 43

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

In Judaea, as in other Mediterranean regions, the wood remains of Quercus calliprinos, Pistacia palaestina and Olea europaea compriseed the majority of the identified wood assemblage, constituting 78%. (Table 2.14). TABLE 2.9: LOCATION OF WOOD REMAINS IN JUDAEA EARLY AND MIDDLE BRONZE AGES

Site Period Quercus calliprinos Quercus ithaburensis Quercus boissieri Quercus sp. Pistacia palaestina Olea europaea Crataegus aronia Amygdalus communis Phoenix dactylifera Populus euphratica Retama raetam Tamarix aphylla Acacia raddiana Cupressus sempervirens Pinus halepensis Cedrus libani Total no.

Tel >Erani Tel Yarmut

Lachish

EB

EB

EB

3

11

25 1

15 22

28 25 1

1 2

City of David Gibeon

MB

MB

17 98

3

MB

Hebron EB

MB

1

6

2

3

4 1 6 7

1 2

1

3 1

1 1 3 1

3 1

44

69

3

1 58 206

3

4

25

Total no.

5

48 1 4 1 68 162 1 1 1 1 3 7 (?) 1 1 1 58 359

LATE BRONZE AGE

Site Period Quercus calliprinos Quercus ithaburensis Pistacia palaestina Pistacia lentiscus Olea europaea Populus euphratica Ceratonia siliqua Myrtus communis Retama raetam Rhamnus palaestinus Tamarix aphylla Ziziphus spina christi Acacia raddiana Phoenix dactylifera Cupressus sempervirens Cedrus libani Total no.

44

Lachish LB 221 38 239 5 451 5 3 1 23 6 24 1 6 3 1 81 1108

Tel Batash MB/LB LB

City of David LB

Tel Harasim LB

9 1 4

6

8

7

1

1

17

1

1

4

1

23

Total no. 236 39 247 5 467 5 3 1 23 6 25 1 6 3 1 81 1150

CHAPTER 2: I NDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE M EDITERRANEAN R EGION

IRON AGE

Site

Lachish City of David

Quercus calliprinos Quercus ithaburensis Quercus boissieri Pistacia palaestina Pistacia lentiscus Pistacia sp. Olea europaea Amygdalus communis Acacia raddiana Tamarix (X5) Tamarix aphylla Phoenix dactylifera Populus euphratica Ulmus canescens Ficus sycomorus Ziziphus spina christi Pinus halepensis Cupressus sempervirens Cedrus libani Total no.

Jerusalem Beth Shemesh Hebron The Ophel Jewish Quarter

29 4

10 4

6

12 5

47 4

16

2

208 2 30

38 10 1

6 5 1

7 1 3 62

6 4 6 3

3

Total no.

6

63 13 3 74 5 3 316 17 34 2 9 4 8 3 8 3 10 8 24 603

3

2

2 2

2 8

3 6 1 22 370

4 7 1 8

1 29

91

94

11

PERSIAN AND HELLENISTIC (HERODIAN) PERIODS

Site Period Quercus calliprinos Pistacia palaestina Pistacia lentiscus Olea europaea Amygdalus communis Ceratonia siliqua Populus euphratica Punica granatum Tamarix aphylla Phoenix dactylifera Calotropis procera Pinus halepensis Cupressus sempervirens Cedrus libani Total no.

Lachish Pers.

Jerusalem Herodium Hermeshit Masada Total no. City of David Scottish Church Jewish Quarter Pers.

Pers.

Herod.

Herod. 2 1

4

9 4 1

5 4 2

Hell.

Herod.

5

1 1

13

3

2 6 7 33

4

1 8 1 34 8 3 1 7 1 1 4 18 72 24 183

1 7 1 1 5 1 6

2

25

6 18 16 45

4 1 47 63

9

45

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

ROMAN/BYZANTINE AND BYZANTINE PERIODS

Site

î. Zikhrin î. Me§ad

Period

Rom.-Byz. Rom.-Byz.

Quercus calliprinos Pistacia palaestina Pistacia lentiscus Olea europaea Populus euphratica Pinus halepensis Cedrus libani Total no.

Maresha Hermeshit Byz.

Rom.-Byz.

Jerusalem î Boreq Total no. City of David Jewish Quarter Rom.-Byz.

Byz.

Byz.

1 5

1 1 1

11

3

1

5

5 1

1 1 18

5 1 9

6 4 18

3 4

1 1

1 1

7

1 10 1 22 1 13 10 58

EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD

Site Quercus calliprinos Quercus ithaburensis Quercus cerris Pistacia palaestina Olea europaea Platanus orientalis Populus euphratica Tamarix (X5) Ziziphus spina christi Pinus halepensis Cupressus sempervirens Cedrus libani Total no.

Zur Natan

Jerusalem (Al-Aqsa)

2 1

Beth Guvrin 2

Me§ad 2

69 1 1

1 4 3 1 1

1 1 5 11

2 34 62 162

4

1 7

Total no. 6 1 69 1 2 4 3 1 2 3 34 68 184

CONCLUSIONS It is evident from the accumulated data of archaeobotanical analyses carried out at the Mediterranean sites that the dominant native climax arboreal association was that of Quercus calliprinos – Pistacia palaestina (Tables 2.10, 2.11). Before the cultivation of Olea europaea, the Quercus calliprinos and Pistacia palaestina were dominant, and the olive was one of the constituents of this association, but in small percentages. In the PPNA until the Chalcolithic period Olea europaea constituted only 7.5% of the wood remains, whereas Quercus calliprinos and Pistacia palaestina comprised together 41.5% (Table 2.10). The results of the archaeobotanical analysis for the Chalcolithic period are problematic. The number of wood remains are few. Moreover, concerning Olea europaea, 27 wood remains found at Rasm Harbush in the Golan originated in one house, and the wood remains at Shoham originated of two caves where the Chalcoloithic and the Early Bronze Age wood remnants appeared together. Since the Early Bronze Age period, Olea europaea turned to be a dominant component in the arboreal landscape, as many orchards of olive replaced the native Quercus calliprinos – Pistacia palaestina maquis. Since the Early Bronze Age until the end of the Iron Age period, Quercus calliprinos constituted between 21.8% to 12.3% (Table 2.10), and Pistacia palaestina constituted between 16.8% to 11.2% (Table 2.10). 46

CHAPTER 2: I NDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE M EDITERRANEAN R EGION

Plate IV: Closed reservation of maquis of Quercus calliprinos - Pistacia palaestina association in the Alona Nature Reserve, Mount Carmel.

Plate V: The impact of grazing on Mediterranean maquis of Quercus calliprinos - Pistacia palaestina association on Mount Carmel.

47

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

During these periods Olea europaea constituted between 44.16% to 58.37% of the wood assemblages, being the major component of the timber used during those periods (Table 2.10). The wood remains of those three tree species, i.e., Quercus calliprinos, Pistacia palaestina and Olea europaea comprised together about 75% of the wood remains found in the Mediterranean archaeological sites. During the Persian-Hellenistic period, the Roman-Byzantine period and the Early Islamic period the percentages of the wood remains of Quercus calliprinos, Pistacia palaestina and Olea europaea greatly decreased. The Quercus calliprinos constituted between 14.7% to 6.76%, Pistacia palaestine comprised between 12.52% to 3.14% and Olea europaea constituted between 28.57% to 11.18%. In these periods the percentages of the imported coniferous timber of Cedrus libani, Cupressus sempervirens and Pinus halepensis greatly increased. The wood remains of those three coniferous species constituted together 25.5% in the Persian-Hellenistic period, 33.4% in the Roman-Byzantine period and 25.15% in the Early Islamic period (see also Chapter 6). On the other hand, Quercus ithaburensis, Ceratonia siliqua and Pistacia lentiscus constituted very low percentages of the wood remains along the whole period of the Holocene (Table 2.11). Pinus halepensis constituted during the Chalcolithic period until the end of the Iron Age period very low percentages, which were below 1% (Table 2.10). Since the Persian-Hellenistic period until the end of the Early Islamic period the percentages of Pinus halepensis greatly increased (Table 2.10). Most of the Pinus halepensis wood remains were found in the coastal plain, where it was convenient to import the timber by the sea, and in the monumental buildings in Jerusalem (Table 2.10) (see also Chapter 6). Comparison made for the proportions of the wood remains of the various tree species according to the geographical districts, since the Early Bronze Age onwards, resulted in the same picture (Tables 2.12-2.14). The three dominant tree species, i.e., Quercus calliprinos, Pistacia palaestina and Olea europaea constituted together 70.96% of the wood remains in the various Mediterranean districts of the country (Table 2.14), whereas Ceratonia siliqua, Pistacia lentiscus Quercus ithaburensis and Pinus halepensis constituted only very low percentages of the wood remains (Table 2.14). As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, Zohary (1959, 1962, 1973) claimed that the Mediterranean territory was dominated by four plant associations, i.e., Quercus calliprinos – Pistacia palaestina, Quercus ithaburensis, Ceratonia siliqua – Pistacia lentiscus and Pinus halepensis. Comparison of the wood remains of Quercus calliprinos – Pistacia palaestina association with those of the Quercus ithaburensis, Ceratonia siliqua – Pistacia lentiscus and Pinus halepensis show, that Quercus calliprinos - Pistacia palaestina association, including the olive, wild or cultivated, constitutes together above 70% of the wood remains gathered in the Mediterranean territory. The Quercus calliprinos – Pistacia palaestina association was therefore dominant during antiquity. The preponderence of Quercus calliprinos as compared with Quercus ithaburensis in wood remnanats found in the excavations cannot be explained by preference for either species for exploitation, since both are hard woods and the working of either of the type of wood is equally difficult. Instead, the differences between the two species reflects the abundance of Quercus calliprinos and the scarcity of Quercus ithaburensis.

48

TABLE 2.10: PERCENTAGES OF WOOD REMAINS BY PERIOD Period

PPNA-Pre-Chal. Chalcolithic EBA MBA LBA IA Persian/Hell. Roman/Byz. E. Isl.

No. of Quercus calliprinos Samples No. % 212 63 29.7 120* 21 17.50 553 56 10.12 592 129 21.79 1364 283 20.74 1708 211 12.35 551 81 14.70 266 18 6.76 286 23 8.04

Pistacia palaestina Olea europaea Quercus ithaburensis Pistacia lentiscus Ceratonia siliqua Pinus halepensis No. 25 9 93 75 262 191 69 22 9

% 11.79 7.50 16.81 12.66 19.20 11.18 12.52 8.27 3.14

No. % 16 7.54 53* 44.16* 272 49.18 240 40.54 549 40.24 997 58.37 122 22.14 76 28.57 32 11.18

No. 20 4 15 19 64 54 20 21 2

% 11.79 3.33 2.71 3.20 4.69 3.16 3.62 7.89 0.69

No. 1 1 3 3 8 8 3 5 3

% 0.47 0.83 0.54 0.50 0.58 0.46 0.54 1.87 1.04

No. 0 0 2 3 3 9 7 5 2

% 0.36 0.50 0.21 0.52 1.27 1.87 0.69

* From a house in the Golan and a mixed Chalcolithic-Early Bronze Age cave at Shoham.

TABLE 2.11: PERCENTAGES OF IMPORTED TIMBER BY PERIOD Period

No. of Samples

EBA MBA LB IA Persian/Hell. Roman/Byz. E. Isl.

553 592 1364 1708 551 266 286

Cedrus libani No. % 2 0.36 101 17.06 103 7.55 116 6.79 31 5.62 52 19.50 15 5.24

Cupressus sempervirens No. % 6 1.08 1 0.16 2 0.14 18 1.05 80 14.50 10 3.75 44 15.37

Pinus halepensis No. % 13 2.35 2 0.33 4 0.29 16 0.93 30 5.44 27 10.15 13 4.54

TABLE 2.12: DISTRIBUTION OF WOOD REMAINS BY SPECIES AND REGION IN PREHISTORIC AND CHALCOLITHIC PERIODS Region Upper Galilee Lower Galilee Mount Carmel Jezreel Valley Coastal Plain Samaria Total no.

Quercus calliprinos Prehistoric Chalcolithic. 4 1 3 0 36 0 20 1 28 7* 2 0 93 9

Pistacia palaestina Prehistoric Chalcolithic 7 1 3 0 0 0 9 1 6 0* 3 2 28 4

49 There are no prehistoric wood remains in the Golan and Judaea.

Olea europaea Prehistoric Chalcolithic 11 3 0 0 0 0 3 3 10 0* 0 4 24 10

No. % 0 1 0.83 13 2.35 2 0.33 4 0.29 16 0.93 30 5.44 27 10.15 13 4.54

Plate VI: Invasion of Quercus calliprinos between Pinus halepensis specimens in the Hamasreq Nature Reserve, Judaean hills.

Plate VIII: Fruiting Pistacia lentiscus on the coastal plain.

50

Plate VII: Pistacia palaestina in the Judaean hills in autumn.

Plate IX: Rhus coriaria in the Upper Galilee.

Plate X: Platanus orientalis in the Galilee.

Plate XI: The oldest living speciman of Olea europaea in the garden of Gethsemane , Jerusalem.

Plate XIII: The oldest living specimen of Quercus ithaburensis near the Tomb of Abahalafta, Galilee. Plate XII: Flowering Styrax officinalis in the Galilee.

51

52

TABLE 2.13: DISTRIBUTION OF WOOD REMAINS BY SPECIES AND REGION FROM THE EARLY BRONZE AGE TO THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD Region Golan and Hermon Upper Galilee Lower Galilee Mount Carmel Jezreel Valley Coastal Plain Samaria Judaea Total no.

Quercus calliprinos No. % 25 15.24 40 22.47 1 3.70 7 11.86 109 9.92 215 15.36 44 34.92 355 16.80 796 15.41

Pistacia palaestina No. % 26 15.85 30 16.85 5 18.51 7 11.86 111 10.10 97 6.93 11 8.73 408 19.31 695 13.46

Olea europaea No. % 52 31.70 59 33.14 15 55.55 20 33.89 683 62.20 412 29.44 68 53.96 857 40.57 2173 42.08

Quercus ithaburensis Ceratonia siliqua Pistacia lentiscus Pinus halepensis Total no. No. % No. % No. % No. % 164 2 1.21 2 1.21 0 2 1.21 178 0 6 3.37 2 1.12 3 1.68 27 3 11.11 1 3.70 1 3.70 0 3 5.08 1 1.69 1 1.69 2 3.38 59 43 3.91 3 0.27 2 0.18 15 1.36 1098 62 4.43 5 0.35 15 1.07 42 3.00 1399 126 0 0 0 0 63 2.98 6 0.28 11 0.52 43 2.03 2112 120 2.32 24 0.46 32 0.62 106 2.05 5163

TABLE 2.14: DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES ASSOCIATIONS FROM THE EARLY BRONZE AGE TO THE EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD Region Golan and Hermon Upper Galilee Lower Galilee Mount Carmel Jezreel Valley Coastal Plain Samaria Judaea Total no.

Q.c.+P.p.+O.e assoc. No. % 103 62.80 129 21 34 903 724 123 1620 3664

Key: Q.c. = Quercus calliprinos P.p. = Pistacia palaestina O.e. = Olea europaea C.s. = Ceratonia siliqua P.l. = Pistacia lentiscus

72.47 77.77 57.62 82.24 51.75 97.61 77.69 70.96

Quercus ithaburensis No. % 2 0 3 3 43 62 0 63 120

1.21 11.11 5.08 3.91 4.43 2.98 2.32

No.

C.s.+P.l. assoc. %

No.

Pinus halepensis %

2

1.21

2

1.21

8 2 2 5 20 0 17 56

4.49 7.40 3.38 0.45 1.42

3 0 2 15 42 0 43 106

1.68

0.52 1.08

3.38 1.36 3.00 2.03 2.05

Total no. 164 178 27 59 1098 1399 126 2112 5163

CHAPTER 3

INDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE SEMI-ARID AND ARID ZONES

The term desert vegetation is applied in a wider sense to encompass the vegetation of both the semi-arid Irano-Turanian and arid Saharo-Arabian zones of Israel (Zohary 1962, 1973). The Negev, which includes both Irano-Turanian and Saharo-Arabian zones, is therefore characterized by a desert vegetation. The eastern zone of the Negev – the Dead Sea region is a Sudanian penetration which is distinguished by different ecological conditions and different arboreal species. The amount of rainfall ranges from 350 mm in the northern district near Tel Sera> to 25 mm in the south near >Evrona. Accordingly, the arboreal vegetation changes gradually from Irano-Turanian steppe formation of shrubs and wadi trees to SaharoArabian desert formation of dwarf shrubs. Topography, degree of salinity, soil texture and structure, temperatures and relative humidity also contribute to the diversity of the habitats and vegetation (Zohary 1962, 1973). The Rift valley, which stretches along the eastern side of Israel includes several regions: Land of Kinnerot and Beth Shean valley are typified by Irano-Turanian semi-arid vegetation because of the drier and warm climate and the Havarian soils. The northern and southern regions of the Jordan plain, as well as the Dead Sea region and northern Arava valley are characterized by arid Saharo-Arabian vegetation, due to extreme climatic conditions of a hot desert. The Sudanian savanna-type vegetation penetrates into niches with ample water, i.e., in oases. The high temperatures prevailing in the Rift valley result in a much more northerly penetration of the Sudanian element than in other districts of the country (Waisel et al. 1978). Man’s impact on the vegetational cover by hewing of wood for industry and fuel and by grazing of sheep and goats during thousands of years has left a severe mark on the vegetation, especially in the semi arid and arid regions of the Negev (Waisel et al. 1978). The use of land as agricultural fields in the northern Negev, especially the Beersheba valley where precipitation is relatively a high, has resulted in substitution of the primary vegetation by edible crops (Zohary 1980). Three woody species are common today in this region: Tamarix aphylla, Retama raetam and Acacia raddiana. Tamarix aphylla thrives on sand dunes and is indigenous to wetter wadis also in the southern Negev. Retama raetam has a wide range of distribution and is considered among the most characteristic plants of the Negev. Acacia raddiana is a common tree species of the northern Negev plains and the Arava valley (Halevy and Orshan 1972; Halevy 1974). The arboreal vegetation of the central Negev consists of steppe forest and shrub communities. Pistacia atlantica, a deciduous tree of open steppe forests, occurs in the Negev mountains. Anabasis articulata – Retama raetam association is confined to the sandy plain of Tureiba (Mishor Yamin). Zygophyllum dumosum is confined to hammada hills covered with flint stones and to fissures and interstices of a rocky substratum of grey and less saline soils typical of the eastern part of the central Negev (Zohary 1962, 1980; Danin 1977). 53

Plate XV: Acacia tortilis in the southern Negev.

Plate XIV: Tamarix aphylla near Beersheba.

Plate XVII: Retama raetam near Beersheba.

Plate XVI: Acacia albida near Ashdod.

54

Plate XVIII: Juniperus phoenica at Jebel Maghara, Sinai.

Plate XIX: Phoenix dactylifera at the Feiran oasis.

Plate XX: Pistacia khinjuk on Jebel Sirbal, southern Sinai.

Plate XXI: Phragmites communis next to a stream bed in the Negev.

55

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

The arboreal vegetation of the Arava valley consists of dwarf shrubs, most of them belonging to the Chaenopodiaceae family. Tropical trees and shrubs which demand relatively high winter temperatures and ground water bodies appear in the oases. Haloxylon persicum forms a special type of forest in the Arava valley and is followed by Retama raetam. The most common of the tropical trees are: Acacia raddiana, A. tortilis, A. gerrardii ssp. negevensis, Hyphaene thebaica, Salvadora persica, Moringa peregrina and Ziziphus spina christi. The leading tree species is Acacia raddiana, often accompanied by Acacia tortilis, or in the southwestern part by A. gerrardii ssp. negevensis. Phoenix dactylifera is natural to the oases both in eastern Sinai and in the Negev. In the Dead Sea region are riparian woods such as Tamarix (X5) , e.g. Tamarix jordanis and Populus euphratica. Populus euphratica along with Phoenix dactylifera appear in many of the springs of brackish water in the desert (Zohary 1962, 1980; Waisel 1984).

SOURCES OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL WOOD REMAINS Archaeological wood remains which represent the semi-arid and arid regions of Israel were gathered from 50 sites and included 6364 samples (Figs. 3.1; 3.2). Three additional sites located in eastern Sinai produced 188 samples. Due to the paucity of dendroarchaeological investigations for sites located in the western Negev, data obtained from three eastern Sinai sites were included. The archaeological wood remains were obtained from 13 sites located in the northern Negev: >En Besor (Liphschitz 1995a), Besor Bridge (Site H) (Liphschitz 1995a), Tel Sera> (Liphschitz 1986a, 1996e), Tel Haror (Liphschitz 1996e), îorvat Karkur (Liphschitz 2004b), Tel Beer-sheba (Liphschitz and Waisel 1973a, 1973b, 1984; Liphschitz 1991b, 1996e), Tel Masos (Liphschitz and Waisel 1983), Tel >Ira (Liphschitz 1999d), Tel Malúata (Liphschitz 1986a, 1996e), Tel Aroer, Arad (Hopf 1978; Liphschitz 1996e; Liphschitz and Waisel 1973a), îorvat >Uza (Liphschitz 1996e), and îorvat Radum (Liphschitz 1996e). Altogether 2078 samples of wood from strata dated from the Chalcolithic to the Early Islamic periods were identified (Tables 3.1.I; 3.2). The earliest wood remains were those from the Chalcolithic period at Tel Masos (Liphschitz and Waisel 1983). Early Bronze Age remnants were collected at Arad (Hopf 1978; Liphschitz 1996e), ‘En Besor and Besor Bridge (Site H) (Liphschitz 1995a). Those dating to the Middle Bronze Age were gathered at Tel Haror and Tel Malúata (Liphschitz 1986a), and Late Bronze Age samples came from Tel Sera and Tel Haror (Liphschitz 1996e). The great majority of wood remnants originated from Iron Age strata (Table 3.2) and were collected from eight sites: Tel Sera> (Liphschitz 1996e), Tel Beer-sheba (Liphschitz and Waisel 1973a, 1973b, 1984; Liphschitz 1991b, 1996e), Tel Masos (Liphschitz and Waisel 1983), Tel Ira (Liphschitz 1999d), Tel Malúata (Liphschitz 1996e), îorvat >Uza (Liphschitz 1996e), Arad (Liphschitz and Waisel 1973a) and îorvat Radum (Liphschitz 1996e). Wood remains were obtained from nine sites in the central Negev (Tables 3.1.II; 3.3). The earliest were collected in the Avdat/Aqev area, dating back to prehistoric times (Liphschitz and Waisel 1977b). Their time span is between the Mid/upper Paleolithic to the Late Neolithic. Recent research on wood remains from the Negev highlands was carried out in Naúal Neqarot, Saflulim, Abu Salem, Ramat Harif and Ma>ale Ramon East, dating to the Epipaleolithic period (Baruch and Goring-Morris 1997). PPNA and PPNB remains were retrieved from Me§ad Mazal, Abu Salem and Ramat Harif (Liphschitz 1986b).

56

CHAPTER 3: INDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE SEMI-ARID AND ARID ZONES

From later eras, i.e., the Nabataean, Roman and Roman-Byzantine periods, timber was gathered at five sites: Kurnub, Oboda, Migdal Zafit, Shivta and Me§ad Tamar (Liphschitz 1996e). Altogether 231 samples were gathered and identified from sites located in the central Negev. As noted above, data was obtained for three Iron Age sites located in eastern Sinai on the border of the central Negev. These sites are Qseime (Liphschitz 1994a), Kuntillat >Ajrud (Liphschitz 1996e) and Kadesh Barnea (Liphschitz 1996e). They comprised 188 wood samples. Wood remains in the southern Arava valley were obtained from two sites dated to the PPNA, PPNB, Early Bronze and Intermediate Bronze (EBIV) Ages: Naúal Issaron and the Uvda valley (Liphschitz 1986b, 2001b), one site dated to the Late Bronze Age: Timna (Werker 1988a) and six sites dating to the Iron Age, the Nabatean and the Early Islamic periods: Timna (Werker 1988a), Me§ad Hazeva, Yotvata, >Evrona, Mo En Raúel (Liphschitz 1996e). (Fig. 3.1). All in all 450 wood samples which originated in the Arava valley sites were identified (Tables 3.1.III, 3.4). Wood remains from the Dead Sea Region were identified from three sites: ‘En Boqeq (Liphschitz and Waisel 1993; Liphschitz 2000c), Masada (Liphschitz et al. 1981a; Liphschitz and Lev-Yadun 1989; Liphschitz 1994b) and >En Gedi (Liphschitz 1996f). (Tables 3.1.IV, 3.5) (Fig. 3.1). The finds from >En Gedi are dated to the Hellenistic, Roman-Byzantine, Byzantine and Early Islamic periods, the finds collected at Masada are of Herodian times and those of ‘En Boqeq are dated to the Roman-Byzantine period. The assemblage of wood remains includes 2384 samples. Five sites in the Land of Kinnerot yielded wood remains: Me§ad Ateret, Bethsaida, Tel Kinnerot, Tel Tsaf and Ohalo II (Tables 3.1.V, 3.6) (Fig. 3.2). The earliest came from Ohalo II, all dated to the Epipaleolithic period (19,400 YBP) (Liphschitz and Nadel 1997). Several samples dated to the Early Bronze Age were gathered at two sites (Tel Kinnerot and Tel Beth Yerah) and Iron Age remnants were collected at Bethsaida. Wood remains dated to the Crusader period were gathered at Me§ad Ateret. The total assemblage from this region included 142 samples. Wood remains were obtained from five sites in the Beth Shean valley: Tel Beth Shean (Baruch 2006), Tel Eztaba, Tel Reúov (Liphschitz, forthcoming), Tel Tsaf (Liphschitz 1989a) and Tell el-Hamma (Tables 3.1.VI, 3.7) (Fig. 3.2). The earliest remnants were gathered at Tel Tsaf and dated to the Chalcolithic period. For later periods numerous wood remains were identified. Very similar assemblages of wood species were identified at two sites: Tel Beth Shean and Tel Reúov located in the centre of the Beth Shean valley. The remains originated from various strata along the archaeological profile: the Early, Middle and Late Bronze Ages, the Iron Age, Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine, Islamic and Medieval periods. Altogether they comprised 554 wood remains. Wood remains were collected from six sites in the Jordan valley (Tables 3.1.VII, 3.8) (Fig. 3.2): Gilgal (Liphschitz and Noy 1991), Netiv Hagdud (Liphschitz 1986b), Jericho (several sites)1, Vered Yericho, Gerasimus Monastic Cells (Patrich et al. 1993) and Qumran Cave. Altogether 525 wood samples were retrieved. The earliest were dated to the Natufian –Para Natufian period and Pre-Pottery Neolithic and were collected at one of the sites at Jericho. Wood remnants dated to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A were gathered at Netiv Hagdud (Liphschitz 1986b). Others from the Natufian period and Pre-Pottery Neolithic A strata were collected at Gilgal (Liphschitz and Noy 1991). 1.

These include the data published by Western in 1983, although identification mostly was made only up to genus level and is therefore not accurate. They originated from numerous layers from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A to the Roman period.

57

Plate XXII: Amygdalus communis in blossom.

Plate XXIII: Ceratonia siliqua in bloom.

Plate XXIV: Ficus sycomorus.

Plate XXV: Ziziphus spina christi bearing fruit.

Plate XXVI: Close-up views of various edible fruits.

Olea europaea 58

Amygdalus communis

Ceratonia siliqua

Ficus sycomorus

Phoenix dactylifera

Plate XXVII: Left: General view of a stand of Cedrus libani at Jebel Baruk, Lebanon. Right: Close-up showing cones.

Plate XXVIII: Cupressus sempervirens var. pyramidalis from Shfeya.

Plate XXX: Juniperus phoenica near Petra, Jordan.

Plate XXIX: Pinus halepensis in the grounds of the Rockefeller Museaum, Jerusalem.

59

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

1. >En Besor 2. >En Besor Bridge (Site H) 3. Tel Haror 4. Tel Sera> 5. îorvat Karkur 6. Tel Beer-sheba 7. Tel >Ira 8. Tel Masos 9. Tel Malúata 10. Tel Aroer 11. Arad 12. îorvat >Uza 13. îorvat Radum 14. >En Gedi 15. Masada 16. >En Boqeq 17. Kurnub 18. Migdal Zafit 19. Me§ad Mazal 20. Me§ad Tamar 21. Oboda 22. Aqev/Avdat 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36.

>En Raúel MoAjrud Abu Salem Ramat Harif Shivta Nessana >Uvda valley Naúal Issaron Yotvata Timna >Evrona

Fig. 3.1: Location of investigated archaeological sites in the Negev.

Pottery Neolithic – Chalcolithic period remains were collected at Qumran Cave. In this cave wood remains were identified from two other strata dated to the Iron Age and Hellenistic periods. Samples from the Iron Age were collected at Vered Yericho and remnants of wood dated to the Hellenistic period were gathered at the Jewish Cemetery at Jericho (Liphschitz and Waisel 1999). Fragments dated to the Byzantine period were collected from the Gerasimus Monastic Cells (Patrich et al. 1993:292, Note 15).

60

CHAPTER 3: INDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE SEMI-ARID AND ARID ZONES

1. Me§ad Ateret 2. Bethsaida 3. Tel Kinnerot 4. Beth Yerah 5. Ohalo II 6. Tel Beth Shean 7. Tel Eztaba 8. Tel Reúov 9. Tel Tsaf 10. El Hamma 11. Gilgal 12. Netiv Hagdud 13. Jericho 14. Vered Yericho 15. Gerasimus Monastic Cells 16. Qumran Cave

Fig. 3.2: Location of archaeological sites in the Rift valley.

TABLE 3.1: SITES AND PERIODS INVESTIGATED* I. NORTHERN NEGEV

Site

Reg. No.

>En Besor Besor Bridge (Site H)

1013/0795 1015/0800 119/088 08795/11257 1266/0821 135/073 146/069 1487/0713 152/069 1479/0623 162/075 1657/0687 1659/0665

Tel Sera> Tel Haror îorvat Karkur Tel Beer-sheba Tel Masos Tel >Ira Tel Malúata Tel Aroer Arad îorvat >Uza îorvat Radum Total no.

Chal.

EB

MB

LB

IA Pers.

Hell. Rom/Byz. E Arab

41 245 128 36 8 6

9

856 72 37 87

4

118

8

6 3 5 3 4

2 3 97

2

138

99 39 9 39 253 1333

21

1

139

50 28 41 6

1 1

17 2 128

25

Total no. 41 383 50 50 1013 115 58 93 5 216 45 9 2078

* The numbers are the wood samples analyzed at each site.

61

Plate XXXII: Wooden comb from >En Tamar.

Plate XXXIII: Wooden plug from >En Tamar.

Plate XXXI: Carved panel from Al-Aqsa mosque.

Plate XXXIV: Carved beams from Al-Aqsa mosque. 62

CHAPTER 3: INDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE SEMI-ARID AND ARID ZONES II. CENTRAL NEGEV 2

Site Har Harif: Ramat Harif Abu Salem Migdal Zafit Me§ad Mazal Kurnub Oboda Me§ad Tamar Naúal Oded Shivta Total no. Site3 Qseime Kuntillet >Ajrud Kadesh Barnea Total no.

Reg. No.

PPNA

PPNB

21 23

2

110/989 110/006 157/050 159/049 156/048 1278/0228 1731/0485 123/987 1145/0325

Nabat.

Rom.

Rom/Byz.

E. Isl.

Total 21 25 32 10 10 75 36 6 16 231

32 10 10 10

65 36 6

44

12

20

Reg. No. 0885/0120 0940/9560 0960/0063

16 117

32

6

Iron 9 135 44 188

III. ARAVA VALLEY

Site Uvda Valley Yotvata

> Evrona Naúal Issaron Me§ad Hazeva Timna >En Raúel Mo< a Total no.

Reg. No. 1168/0183 155/923 1495/8943 148/925 1734/0242 1432/9115 1663/0046 1624/9947

PPNA 10

EB 62

IB 90

LB

IA

Nabat.

Rom.

E. Isl.

14

1

79 19

8

1

21 36

31

62

90

36

22

40 69 109

2

98

Total 162 94 19 21 9 36 40 69 450

IV. DEAD SEA AREA

Site

Reg. No.

>En Boqeq Masada >En Gedi Total no.

185/067 1837/0804 1870/0965

Hell.

Herod.

Rom/Byz.

Byz.

E. Isl.

Total

63 63

574 1419 391 2384

574 105 105

1419 1419

93 667

130 130

V. LAND OF KINNEROT

Site

Reg. No.

Me§ad Ateret Bethsaida Tel Kinnerot Beth Yerah Ohalo II Total no.

2088/2675 2092/2571 2008/2529 2040/2360 2039/2362

2. 3.

Epipaleolithic

EB

IA

Crusader 30

4 2 5 101 101

7

4

30

Total. 30 4 2 5 101 142

The results of the dendroarchaeological research at the Epipaleolithic sites (Baruch and Goring-Morris 1997) are not included in the table. Since no information is available for Iron Age sites in the central Negev, three eastern Sinai sites bordering the Negev represent this period.

63

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

VI. BETH SHEAN VALLEY

Site

Reg. No.

Beth Shean Beth Shean4 Tel Eztaba Tel Reúov Tel Tsaf Tel el-Hamma Total no.

1973/2122 1973/2122 197/212 197/207 2015/2024 1973/1977

Chal.

EB

MB

LB LB-IA

IA Hell. Rom.

36

30

27

55

14 21

18

26

27

35

58

56

64

Byz. Med.

Isl. Total no.

4 20

20

2

5

205

17 16

4

3

5 265

33

6

8

4 180 17 327 21 5 554

5 14

5

14

VII. NORTHERN PART OF JORDAN VALLEY

Site Gilgal Netiv Hagdud Jericho Jericho-Jewish Cemetery Vered Yericho Gerasimus Monastic Cells Qumran Cave Total no.

Reg. No. 1933/1547 1918/1539 193/142 191/141

PreNatuf-Natuf

Natuf Neolithic 10

1

5

PPNA PN-Chal. MB 39 10 2

IA Hell.

184

190/135

Byz. Total no. 49 10 8 184

41

195/133 1926/1257

41 22

1

10

5

49

209 209

2

43 83

28 212

22

22 279 593

INDIGENOUS NON-EDIBLE TREES AND SHRUBS TAMARIX APHYLLA (TAMARISK):

Tamarix aphylla is the largest Tamarisk tree. It grows on sandy dunes and plains, both in the coastal plain and in the Negev, mainly in its northern reaches. It also occupies salt desert and wadi beds in the Negev, Dead Sea area and Arava valley. It is a common Sudanian element with penetrations into Saharo-Arabian regions. Tamarix aphylla was used very often during antiquity in the northern Negev, where it is very common today as well (Fig. 3.3). The earliest wood remains are dated to the Early, Middle and Bronze Age periods from four sites located in the northern Negev: from >En Besor and Tel Sera > in the west through Tel Haror up to Arad in the east. Its comprised 36% of the identified wood samples. From the Iron Age period, wood remains of Tamarix aphylla were identified at eight sites from Tel Sera > in the west to Arad in the east, and constituted 32% of the wood assemblage. Wood remnants of this Tamarisk species were retrieved from all sites dated to the Persian period, comprising 38% of the wood remnants. Wood samples of this tamarisk species were also retrieved from the Hellenistic period at two sites: Tel Beer-sheba and Tel >Ira. The representative site where ample amounts of Tamarix aphylla wood was in use is Tel Beer-sheba where its remains constituted between 36% to 50% of the assemblage gathered and identified.

4. Identifications by Baruch (2006).

64

CHAPTER 3: INDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE SEMI-ARID AND ARID ZONES

1. >En Besor 2. Tel Haror 3. Tel Sera 4. Tel Beer-sheba 5. Tel Masos 6. Tel >Ira 7. Arad 8. Tel Malúata 9. îorvat >Uza 10. îorvat Radum 11. Shivta 12. Kuntillet >Ajrud 13. >Uvda valley

Fig. 3.3: Location of wood remains of Tamarix aphylla

TAMARIX (X5) (TAMARISK)

Tamarix (X5) is a group of Tamarisk trees which is characterized by 5 sepals, 5 petals and whorls of 5 stamens each, and by a diffuse porous type of wood. The trees of this group are Saharo-Arabian, appearing in wet habitats, along the Rift valley, Arava valley and Dead Sea area. The earliest wood remains of Tamarix (X5) were found at Ohalo II in the Epipaleolithic layers. Remains dated to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic period were identified at Jericho. Chalcolithic wood remnants were found at Tel Tsaf, Tel Reúov and Qumran. Few samples of Tamarix (X5) wood were found in the northern Negev at Tel Beer-sheba. Tamarix (X5) wood remnants are prominent in the Iron Age sites located in eastern central Sinai, where they comprised 30% f the wood assemblage, Relatively high percentages were identified at Kuntillet >Ajrud (33.3%) and at Kadesh Barnea (23%), and at Qumran and Vered Yericho. Tamarix (X5) wood was identified also from later periods in sites located in the central Negev, in the Arava valley and in the Dead Sea region. TAMARIX (X4) (TAMARISK)

Tamarix (X4) is a group of Tamarisk trees characterized by 4 sepals, petals and whorls of 4 stamens each, and by a ring porous type of wood. The trees of this group inhabit saline and brackish water bodies of the central Negev, lower Jordan valley and Dead Sea area. Some appear also in the Acco and Sharon plains.

65

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

The earliest wood remains of Tamarix (X4) were retrieved from the Epipaleolithic layers at Ohalo II, and from the Pottery Neolithic – Chalcolithic period at Qumran. A very few remains of Tamarix (X4) wood were identified at two Iron Age sites: Kuntillet >Ajrud in eastern-central Sinai and Yotvata in the Arava valley. Some remnants were retrieved also from the Hellenistic period at Qumran and at two sites located in the Dead Sea region: Masada and >En Gedi. ACACIA RADDIANA (ACACIA)

Acacia raddiana is a common tree of Judaean desert, the northern Negev plains, the Arava valley and Sinai (Fig. 3.4). Usually it has a main single trunk. Acacia raddiana is a Sudanian element, penetrating into East African regions. It is a tree of hot desert wadis, depressions and oases in the Judaean desert, west, north and central Negev, lower Jordan valley Dead Sea area and Arava valley. The earliest wood remains of Acacia raddiana were found in the Natufian layers at Gilgal, and later in the northern Negev in the Early Bronze Age at Arad and in the Middle and Late Bronze Ages at Tel Haror. Its appearance is very prominent in the Iron Age in the northern Negev, comprising 19% of the wood remains of this region. Numerous samples of Acacia raddiana were found at Tel Sera> (14%) located in the western region of the northern Negev, at Tel Beer-sheba (20%) and at Tel Malúata (27%) located in the central district of the northern Negev, and at Arad (15%) located in the eastern region of the northern Negev. Acacia raddiana remnants were found in the Arava valley in Iron Age, Nabataean and Early Islamic periods and in the Dead Sea region at all three sites dated to the Herodian, Hellenistic, RomanByzantine and Early Islamic periods: >En Boqeq, Masada, and >En Gedi. ACACIA TORTILIS (ACACIA)

Acacia tortilis is a large shrub or a small tree lacking a main trunk. It is a Sudanian element extending into the East Africa region. It inhabits hot desert wadis of the Dead Sea area, Arava valley and adjoining wadis (Fig. 3.5). The many branches are ray-like, bearing an umbrella shaped crown. Acacia tortilis is sensitive to low temperatures and inhabits only warm narrow strips around the Dead Sea and the Arava valley. A single wood sample of Acacia tortilis was found in the PPNA site of Naúal Issaron in the Arava valley. Very few remnants were retrieved from the Nabataean layers at Mo En Raúel and in the Early Islamic period layers at >Evrona in the Arava valley. A single wood sample was identified at Masada and a single fragment at >En Gedi, both located in the Dead Sea region. ACACIA GERRARDII SPP. NEGEVENSIS (NEGEV ACACIA)

Acacia gerrardii spp. negevensis is a Sudanian and East African element with one main trunk. It inhabits sandy and pebbly ground in wadis in the north, central and southern Negev and the Arava valley. It is very common in the upper parts of wadis leading into the Arava valley. Very few wood remains of this Acacia species were found at Timna in the Arava valley and at two sites located in the Dead Sea region: >En Gedi and Masada. ACACIA ALBIDA (ACACIA)

Acacia albida is a large tree of Sudanian origin which inhabits alluvial and sandy soils, banks of wadis and basalt ground. It appears in the Sharon plain, the plain of Philistaea, the lower Galilee, the Shephela, the upper and lower Jordan valleys, the Beth Shean valley and the Dead Sea area. Only very few wood remains of Acacia albida were retrieved from excavations. The earliest originated of the Chalcolithic layers at Tel Tsaf and others came from the Islamic period at Tel Beth Shean. 66

CHAPTER 3: INDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE SEMI-ARID AND ARID ZONES

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

Gerasimus monastery Vered Yericho Qumran >En Gedi Masada >En Boqeq Tel Haror Tel Sera> Tel Beer-sheba Tel Masos Tel >Ira Tel Malhatha Arad îorvat >Uza îorvat Radum Migdal Zafit Oboda

18. 19. 20. 21.

>En Raúel MoAjrud Yotvata

Fig. 3.4: Location of wood remains of Acacia raddiana.

1. >En Gedi 2. Masada 3. 4. 5. 6.

>En Raúel Mo Evrona

Fig. 3.5: Location of wood remains of Acacia tortilis.

67

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

PISTACIA ATLANTICA (ATLANTIC PISTACHIO)

Pistacia atlantica is a deciduous tree of Irano-Turanian distribution with extension into the eastern Mediterranean region. It inhabits semi-steppe areas and steppes, either solitary or forming scattered stands in the Golan, Dan valley, Hula valley, upper Jordan valley and central Negev. It also occurs on the eastern slopes of the upper Galilee mountains, and the Samaria and Judaean hills. It occurs very rarely in typical Mediterranean maquis and more often in association with Quercus ithaburensis forests on Mount Carmel and the Jezreel valley. The earliest wood remains of Pistacia atlantica were found at Ohalo II from the Epipaleolithic period. Later, it was identified in the central Negev in Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and B at Abu Salem and Har Harif, and in Natufian and Pre-Pottery Neolithic A layers at Gilgal. Later wood remains were retrieved from Pottery Neolithic – Chalcolithic layers in Qumran and in the Chalcolithic layers at Tel Tsaf and Tel Reúov. Few wood remains were also identified from the Early Bronze Age layers in several sites: Tel Beth Shean, Tel Reúov, Tel Beth Yerah, Arad and the Uvda valley (Table 3.2). Wood samples originating from the Iron Age, Hellenistic, Herodian and Roman-Byzantine periods were also identified. POPULUS EUPHRATICA (EUPHRATES POPLAR)

Populus euphratica is a tall tree of Irano-Turanian and Saharo-Arabian zones. It inhabits river banks and springs in the central Negev, upper and lower Jordan valley and Dead Sea area. It forms riverine forests, especially on the banks of the lower course of the Jordan river. The earliest wood remains of Populus euphratica were identified at Ohalo II dated to the Epipaleolithic period and from the Natufian – Pre-Natufian as well as Pre-Pottery Neolithic period at Jericho and Gilgal. Chalcolithic period remnants were collected at Tel Tsaf and Tel Reúov and from the Early Bronze Age period at Tel Beth Yerah. Wood remains from the Iron Age were retrieved from Tel Reúov, Tel Beth Shean and El Hamma. Populus euphratica was recovered from Persian, Hellenistic, Roman and Early Islamic period strata at Tel Beer-sheba and Tel >Ira in the northern Negev. This species was identified in Iron Age levels at three sites located in eastern Sinai while sites in the central Negev yielded remains dated to the Roman-Byzantine periods. A few remains were found in the Arava valley and in the Dead Sea area. ZIZIPHUS SPINA CHRISTI (CHRIST THORN; JUJUBE)

Ziziphus spina christi is a thermophilic tree of Sudanian origin from the savannas of East Africa. The tree inhabits warm niches along the Jordan river, in the coastal plain mainly on kurkar ridges, in the northern valleys and in wadis and oases in the Negev (Fig. 3.6). The time when this tree penetrated into Israel is not known. The earliest wood remains of Ziziphus spina christi were identified at Qumran Cave in Pottery Neolithic – Chalcolithic strata. Remains were found in the Early Bronze Age layers at Megiddo, Shoham, and Sinai at Ein Um Ahmed. Some Middle Bronze Age remnants were identified at Megiddo, Tel Gerisa and Jericho while Megiddo and Lachish produced a few samples dated to the Late Bronze Age. Wood remains originating in Iron Age strata were gathered at Megiddo, Jezreel, Ashdod, Tel Zeror, Acco, Tel Aphek, Lachish, Tel Beer-sheba and îorvat Radum. There were also a few remnants from later periods. 68

CHAPTER 3: INDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE SEMI-ARID AND ARID ZONES

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

Me§ad Ateret Gamala Tel Hadar Acco Jezreel Megiddo Tel Zeror Zur Natan Apollonia Kefar Saba Tel Aphek Tel Gerisa Shoham Jericho Qumran Ashdod Beth Guvrin Lachish >En Gedi Masada îorvat Radum Arad Tel >Ira Tel Beer-sheba îorvat Karkur Tel Sera> >En Boqeq

28. >En Raúel 29. MoEn Gedi Nature Reserve and the other in Naúal îemar. A few samples of Maerua crassifolia were identified from the Pottery Neolithic – Chalcolithic period at Qumran. A single sample was identified in the Arava valley at Mo En Gedi and one of the most renowned stands of this tree grows in the Granite Canyon at Naúal Gishron. Very few remains of Moringa peregrina were retrieved from Iron Age layers at Yotvata, Nabataean layers at Mo Evrona.

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SALVADORA PERSICSA

Salvadora persica is a tree or shrub of Sudanian origin. It inhabits hot desert oases, mostly on damp soils, sometimes also on salines. It appears in the Judaean desert, lower Jordan valley, Dead Sea area and Arava valley. Salvadora persica was identified from the Iron Age period at Yotvata, from the Nabataean period at Mo En Gedi. GREWIA VILLOSA

Grewia villosa is a small evergreen tree or a shrub, mainly Sudanian, which inhabits hot valleys and stony grounds in the lower Jordan valley, Dead Sea area and Arava valley. Large populations of this species grow near Mitzpe Shalem in the Dead Sea area. Only a single wood sample of this species was retrieved from a Byzantine layer at >En Gedi. BALANITES AEGYPTIACA (BALANITES)

Balanites aegyptiaca is a thorny tree or shrub of Sudanian origin which inhabits hot deserts, oases and wadis in the eastern Judaean desert, the Beth Shean valley, lower Jordan valley, Dead Sea area and Arava valley. Northern stands appear in the Beth Shean valley, near Ma>oz Hayyim and Kefar Rupin. The famous population of Balanites aegyptiaca that grew at >En Gedi was destroyed, but replanted on the very same site. Wood samples of Balanites aegyptiaca were retrieved from the Pottery Neolithic – Chalcolithic layers at Qumran and from Pottery Neolithic layers at Jericho. Fragments of this species were identified from the Herodian period at Masada and from Byzantine strata at >En Gedi. CORDIA SINENSIS (CORDIA)

Cordia sinensis is an evergreen tree or shrub of Sudanian origin which inhabits oases in the desert and appears in the Dead Sea area (>En Gedi, Ghor-es-Safieh and el-Mezra>a). Only isolated specimens have survived in the >En Gedi oases. Only a few remnants of Cordia sinensis were retrieved from the Byzantine layers at >En Gedi. HYPHAENE THEBAICA (DUM PALM)

Hyphaene thebaica is a palm tree with broad leaves of Sudanian origin. It inhabits sandy saline soils in the Arava valley and the Gulf of Eilat coast. Famous are the groups of trees growing in the vicinity of >En >Evrona, near Eilat and at several sites along the eastern coasts of Sinai. The trunk is forked once in a while into two equal branches repeatedly. Several wood samples of Hyphaene thebaica were identified at >Evrona in an Early Islamic level. RETAMA RAETAM (WHITE BROOM)

Retama raetam is a Saharo-Arabian shrub with extensions into local Irano-Turanian zones and the sandy soil belt of the Mediterranean area (Fig. 3.7). It grows on sandy, rocky and gravelly ground in the Judaean desert, east, central and southern Negev, upper and lower Jordan valley and Arava valley. It also appears on sandy soils in Acco plain, Sharon plain, the plain of Philistia and the western Negev. It is a dominant component in the vegetation of stabilized dunes of the Mediterranean coastal plain.

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CHAPTER 3: INDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE SEMI-ARID AND ARID ZONES

1. Apollonia 2. >Izbet Sartah 3. Tel Michal 4. Tel Gerisa 5. Tel Aphek 6. Jaffa 7. Yavneh Yam 8. Lachish 9. >En Besor 10. Tel Haror 11. Tel Sera> 12. Tel Beer-sheba 13. Tel >Ira 14. Tel Masos 15. Tel Malúata 16. Arad 17. Masada 18. îorvat >Uza 19. Migdal Zafit 20. Me§ad Tamar 21. Qseime 22. Kadesh Barnea 23. Kuntillet >Ajrud 24. Uvda valley 25. Naúal Issaron

Fig. 3.7: Location of wood remains of Retama raetam.

The earliest wood remains of Retama raetam were retrieved from the Early Bronze Age layers at >En Besor and Arad, and from the Middle and Late Bronze Age strata at Tel Haror and Tel Sera. In the Iron Age period remnants of Retama raetam appear in high percentages at almost all sites in the northern Negev from Tel Sera> in the west to Arad in the east. Representative sites are Tel Beer-sheba, Tel >Ira, Tel Masos and Arad. Wood remains of this shrub are also found in Persian, Hellenistic and Roman-Byzantine levels in sites located in the northern Negev. A few wood remains were also found from Iron Age and Roman periods in the central Negev. ZYGOPHYLLUM DUMOSUM (BUSHY BEAN CAPER)

Zygophyllum dumosum is a very common East Saharo-Arabian shrub. It inhabits deserts, stony or rocky ground on hillsides and plateaux in the Judaean desert, Negev, lower Jordan valley, Dead Sea area and Arava valley. Very few wood remains of Zygophyllum dumosum have been identified. The earliest is a single sample dated to the Early Bronze Age at Arad. At the same site, a single sample was identified from the Iron Age and another from the Early Islamic period. Wood remnants of Zygophyllum dumosum were found at Qumran in layers dated to the Iron Age and Hellenistic periods. Single samples were found at Migdal Zafit, Oboda, >En Tamar and >En Gedi in Roman layers and at Masada in the Herodian layer. 71

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

HALOXYLON PERSICUM

Haloxylon persicum is a shrub or a tree with a thick stem at the base and many branches. It is an IranoTuranian element extending into adjacent Saharo-Arabian territories. The shrub inhabits wadis crossing a saline depression in the Dead Sea area. The earliest wood remains of Haloxylon persicum were identified from PPNB layers in the Arava valley. A few samples were found from later periods in the same region: from Iron Age strata at Yotvata and Early Islamic period levels at Yotvata and >Evrona. Few samples were retrieved from the Iron Age layers at two sites in eastern Sinai. SUAEDA PALAESTINA

Suaeda palaestina is a dwarf shrub of East Saharo-Arabian and East Sudanian zones which is endemic to Israel. It inhabits hot desert salines in the lower Jordan valley and Dead Sea area. A single example, dated to the Late Bronze Age, was identified at Timna in the Arava valley. SUAEDA ASPHALTICA

Suaeda asphaltica is a glabrous dwarf shrub of Saharo-Arabian origin. Its habitats include deserts, frequently on gypsaceous soils and steep slopes, in the Judaean desert, central Negev, lower Jordan valley and Dead Sea area. A single sample of Suaeda asphaltica was retrieved from a Pottery Neolithic–Chalcolithic layer at Qumran. SUAEDA FRUTICOSA

Suaeda fruticosa is a glabrous shrub, mainly Sudanian, extending into Saharo-Arabian territories. It inhabits hot deserts and saline marshes in the Judaean desert, lower Jordan valley, Dead Sea area and Arava valley. Only one sample of Suaeda fruticosa was retrieved from a Pottery Neolithic–Chalcolithic layer at Qumran. HAMMADA SALICORNICA

Hammada salicornica is a half shrub of East Sudanian origin. It inhabits sandy ground, debris of sandstone and granite in hotter deserts. It grows in the central and southern Negev, the Dead Sea area and Arava valley. Several wood samples of Hammada salicornica were identified at Vered Yericho from an Iron Age stratum. A single wood sample was identified at Masada from the Herodian layer. HAMMADA NEGEVENSIS

Hammada negevensis is a dwarf shrub of the East Saharo-Arabian area, endemic to Israel. It inhabits stony deserts, often on somewhat gypsaceous soils, in the central Negev (Naúal Ovdat) and the Arava valley. A single wood sample of Hammada negevensis was retrieved from a Pottery Neolithic–Chalcolithic layer at Qumran. ANABASIS ARTICULATA

Anabasis articulata is a dwarf shrub of Saharo-Arabian origin, slightly extending into the Irano-Turanian region. It appears on gravelly and stony desert in the Judaean desert, the Negev, lower Jordan valley, Dead Sea area and Arava valley. The earliest wood remains were retrieved at Gilgal from a Pre-Pottery Neolithic A level. A single wood sample was identified at Masada from the Herodian layer. 72

CHAPTER 3: INDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE SEMI-ARID AND ARID ZONES

ANABASIS SETIFERA

Anabasis setifera is a glabrous perennial. It is an east Irano-Turanian element slightly extending into IranoTuranian and Sudanian zones. It inhabits hot deserts, moist salines and wadi beds, often on gypsaceous grounds, in the Judaean desert, Negev, lower Jordan valley, Dead Sea area and Arava valley. A single sample of Anabasis setifera was retrieved from a Pottery Neolithic – Chalcolithic level at Qumran. ATRIPLEX HALIMUS

Atriplex halimus is a shrub of Saharo-Arabian and Mediterranean area of distribution. It inhabits salines, wadi beds and sandy soils in the Sharon plain, the plain of Philistea, the Judaean hills, the Judaean desert, upper and lower Jordan valleys, Dead Sea area and Arava valley. The earliest wood remains of Atriplex halimus were identified at Ohalo II in Epipaleolithic layers. Several samples were also retrieved from the Natufian layers at Gilgal and Pottery Neolithic – Chalcolithic layers at Qumran. HALOGETON ALOPEUROIDES

Halogeton alopeuroides is a glabrous dwarf shrub of Saharo-Arabian origin. It inhabits steppe and saline soils in the Judaean desert, central and southern Negev, lower Jordan valley and the Arava valley. A single wood sample of Halogeton alopeuroides was identified in a Pottery Neolithic – Chalcolothic layer at Qumran. ALLENIA LANCIFOLIA

Allenia lancifolia is a shrub of West Irano-Turanian origin typical of Israel and Syria. It inhabits stony and gypsaceous grounds in steppes and deserts in the Judaean desert, north and central Negev, lower Jordan valley and the Dead Sea area. A single sample of Allenia lancifolia was retrieved at Qumran from a Pottery Neolithic– Chalcolithic layer. SALSOLA TETRANDRA

Salsola tetrandra is a dwarf shrub of Saharo-Arabian distribution. It inhabits deserts and dry soils in the Judaean desert, west and central Negev, the lower Jordan valley, the Dead Sea area and the Arava valley. A single sample of Salsola tetrandra was retrieved at Qumran from a Pottery Neolithic– Chalcolithic layer. GYMNOCARPOS DECANDER

Gymnocarpos decander is a half shrub, almost glabrous, of Saharo-Arabian origin. It grows on stony slopes and hammadas in the Judaean desert, northern, central and southern Negev, the lower Jordan valley, the Dead Sea area and the Arava valley. Several wood samples of Gymnocarpos decander were retrieved from Pottery Neolithic – Chalcolithic layer at Qumran. A single example of this shrub was identified at >En Gedi in a RomanByzantine level. REAUMURIA HIRTELLA

Reaumuria hirtella is a dwarf shrub. It is an east Saharo-Arabian and west Irano-Turanian element which inhabits steppes and deserts in the Judaean desert, western Negev, the lower Jordan valley, the Dead Sea area and Arava valley. A single sample of Reaumuria hirtella was identfied at Qumran in a Pottery Neolithic–Chalcolithic layer. 73

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

CALOTROPIS PROCERA (SODOM APPLE)

Calotropis procera is a glabrous shrub of Sudanian origin penetrating into the East Saharo-Arabian territory. It inhabits desert plains in the southern Negev, lower Jordan valley, the Dead Sea area and the Arava valley. A single sample of Calotropis procera was identified from the Hellenistic period at >En Gedi.

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE PAST LANDSCAPE THE NORTHERN NEGEV

The earliest wood remains were those of Olea europaea. They stemmed from the Chalcolithic period and were retrieved from Tel Masos. A high percentage of remnants of this species were found in Early Bronze Age strata at Arad (ca. 50%) and in Late Bronze Age levels at Tel Sera> (ca. 33%). Olive cultivation was known since the Early Bronze Age and it can be assumed that olive orchards existed in the environs of Arad and Tel Sera>. Moreover, the location of Tel Sera on the border between the Negev and the Shephela, where the annual amount of rainfall reaches ca. 350 mm, supports olive cultivation. On the other hand, the proximity of Arad to the southern Hebron hills raises the possibility that olive timber was imported over this short distance. Two reasons favour this assumption. Firstly, Arad is situated in an area poor in timber resources and secondly trees that had ceased to yield fruit could be used as a source of timber. However, the possibility that local climatic changes took place during the relevant periods at both sites should also be taken into consideration. The bulk of the wood remnants originated from the Iron Age strata (Table 3.2). Nineteen species of trees and shrubs were identified. Three of these, Tamarix aphylla (Fig. 3.8), Acacia raddiana (Fig. 3.9) and Retama raetam, constitute 70% of the wood used by man in this region. No doubt these species were growing abundantly in the past in the same region in which they grow today (Fig. 3.10). Six species: Zygophyllum dumosum, Ziziphus spina christi, Populus euphratica, Pistacia atlantica, Phoenix dactylifera and Tamarix (X5) (Tamarix with 5 stamens in the flower), which together constitute about 5% of the wood assemblage grew in various regions of the Negev in the past. All these species are growing today in the Negev, either in oases, in the central Negev mountains or in the environs of the Dead Sea. About 20% of the assemblage was brought to the northern Negev from the Mediterranean region of the country, most probably from the Judaean hills where they still grow today. This group includes Pistacia palaestina, Quercus calliprinos, Quercus ithaburensis, Pinus halepensis, Cupressus sempervirens, Styrax officinalis, Olea europaea and Crataegus aronia. The fact that olive remnants constitute about half of the Mediterranean timber assemblage can also point to the existence of olive orchards in the northern Negev at that period. Only one species, Cedrus libani, is a temperate species which never grew in Israel. Today this tree grows in Lebanon, Turkey and Cyprus. Its timber was highly esteemed during antiquity and was no doubt imported into the northern Negev, most probably from Lebanon. The three woody species, Tamarix aphylla, Acacia raddiana and Retama raetam, appear abundantly in most sites during the Hellenistic period, comprising a relatively high percentage of the samples as in the Iron Age (Table 3.2). During the Roman-Byzantine period a high percentage of Cedrus libani wood remains, above 50%, is obvious. The timber was profusely used in two sites: at the church of Masos and at the church of îorvat Karkur. Twelve beams and pieces of Juniperus phoenica wood were found in an Hellenistic well at Tel Beersheba. The logs were no doubt imported for use in the well either from Edom or from north central Sinai. Despite the fact that the number of wood remains differ in different periods, the timber analyses of the northern Negev along the archaeological profile suggest that at least since the Early Bronze Age until the Early Islamic period the natural arboreal vegetation closely resembled that of the present day. 74

CHAPTER 3: INDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE SEMI-ARID AND ARID ZONES

Fig. 3. 8: Microscopic sections of a charred piece of wood of Tamarix aphylla from Tel Beer-sheba, Iron Age strata. 1) Cross section; 2) Magnification of No. 1; 3) Longitudinal tangential section; 4) Longitudinal radial section.

Fig. 3.9: Microscopic sections of a charred piece of wood of Acacia raddiana from Tel Beer-sheba, Iron Age strata. 1) Cross section; 2) Magnification of No. 1; 3) Longitudinal tangential section; 4) Longitudinal radial section.

Fig. 3.10: Tel Beer-sheba prior to commencement of excavation. An Acacia raddiana tree in the centre with Tamarix aphylla to its right.

75

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TABLE 3.2: SPECIES FROM THE NORTHERN NEGEV BY PERIOD BRONZE AGE

Site Acacia raddiana Retama raetam Tamarix aphylla Tamarix sp. Populus euphratica Zygophyllum dumosum Hammada sp. Suaeda sp. Phoenix dactylifera Ceratonia siliqua Pistacia atlantica Pistacia palaestina Pistacia sp. Olea europaea Quercus calliprinos Quercus ithaburensis Quercus sp. Cupressus sempervirens Vitis vinifera Cedrus libani Pinus halepensis Total no.

>En Besor EB 1 38 1

Arad EB 1 12 4 1* 1* 1 1 1

1 1* 15 1 3* 44+5* 2

Tel Haror MB 4 2 8

83+14*

19 97

Tel Haror LB 1 2 5

3

2

1

1 1 7 1

5

1* 1 2*

41

Tel Sera> LB

80 5 7

26

6 36 152 1 5 1 1 1 4 1 15 7 4 136 8

7

3 24 1 245

Total no.

8

1 4 2 24 1 417

IRON AGE Tel Beer-sheba Tel Masos Tel >Ira Tel Malhata Tel Sera> î. >Uza Arad î. Radum Total no. 175 3 4 25 38 5 15 1 246 Acacia raddiana 145 4 5 29 18 9 30 240 Retama raetam 308 10 16 21 38 4 22 1 420 Tamarix aphylla 5 2 7 Tamarix (X5) 1 1 2 4 Ziziphus spina christi 1 1 Zygophyllum dumosum 8 3 1 1 3 3 3 22 Populus euphratica 21 5 2 28 Phoenix dactylifera 1 2 3 Crataegus aronia 94 31 3 3 12 7 1 152 Olea europaea 8 1 1 3 13 Pistacia atlantica 18 4 1 7 4 4 38 Pistacia palaestina 1 1 Pistacia sp. 16 5 3 4 1 29 Quercus calliprinos 10 4 3 1 13 31 Quercus ithaburensis 1 1 Quercus sp. 4 4 Rhamnus palaestina 3 1 4 Styrax officinalis 9 1 4 Cupressus sempervirens 8 3 11 Pinus halepensis 22 7 4 4 3 3 41 Cedrus libani Total no. 856 72 37 91 128 39 99 6 1308 Site

*. Identified by Hopf 1978.

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CHAPTER 3: INDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE SEMI-ARID AND ARID ZONES

PERSIAN PERIOD

Site

Tel Beer-sheba

Retama raetam Tamarix aphylla Ziziphus spina christi Populus euphratica Olea europaea Quercus ithaburensis Quercus calliprinos Pinus halepensis Cedrus libani Total no.

Tel >Ira

1 2

Total no.

Tel Sera> 1 2

4 1 1

2 8 1 1 4 1 1 2 1 21

4 1 1 1

1

4

8

1 9

HELLENISTIC PERIOD

Site

Tel Beer-sheba

Acacia raddiana Retama raetam Tamarix aphylla Tamarix (X5) Populus euphratica Phoenix dactylifera Olea europaea Pistacia palaestina Quercus calliprinos Quercus ithaburensis Styrax officinalis Cupressus sempervirens Pinus halepensis Cedrus libani Juniperus phoenica5 Total no.

Tel >Ira

îorvat >Uza

Arad

1 3

3

2

9 16 22 3 1 3 7 4 1

1

Tel Aroer

1

1 1 13 10 16 12 118

1 1 6

4 4

3

5

Total no. 9 22 25 3 1 3 9 4 1 1 1 13 11 21 12 136

ROMAN-BYZANTINE PERIOD

Site Retama raetam Ziziphus spina christi Phoenix dactylifera Populus euphratica Crataegus aronia Olea europaea Quercus ithaburensis Cupressus sempervirens Pinus halepensis Cedrus libani Total no.

Tel Beer-sheba 2

1 1 2 1 3 3 10 25

Tel Masos 2

Tel >Ira 1

îorvat >Uza îorvat Karkur Total no. 1 5 1 1

3

1

8

2

286 41

1 4

2

3 2 39* 50

6 5 2 2 1 6 1 16 5 68 122

5. Identified by Lev-Yadun et al. 1995. 6. Timber collected at the church.

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EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD

Site Acacia raddiana Retama raetam Ziziphus spina christi Zygophyllum dumosum Populus euphratica Crataegus aronia Pistacia palaestina Quercus calliprinos Cupressus sempervirens Pinus halepensis Cedrus libani Total no.

Tel Beer-sheba

Tel >Ira

Arad

2 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 7

1 1

3 4 5 17

Total no. 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 5 7 25

THE CENTRAL NEGEV

The earliest wood remains from the Negev were collected in the central Negev at Avdat/Aqev area. In this region very few samples of wood dating back to prehistoric era were identified. They belong to four tree species: Olea europaea, Tamarix aphylla, Pistacia atlantica and Cupressus. The time span of these finds is between the Mid/Upper Paleolithic to the Late Neolithic. Pistacia atlantica trees are typical of the area today and most probably grew there in the past too. Regarding the other species, it can be assumed that they grew there during antiquity, in view of the fact that climate in that era was cooler and wetter than today. Recent research on wood remains from the Negev highlands: Naúal Neqarot, Saflulim, Abu Salem, Ramat Harif and Ma’ale Ramon East, dating to the Epipaleolithic period, revealed that Pistacia atlantica constituted 62% of the wood at Saflulim, 99.9% of the remains at Abu Salem, 99.6% of the wood at Ramat Harif and 58% of the assemblage at Ma’ale Ramon East. Juniperus constituted 82% at Naúal Nrqarot and 40% at Ma’ale Ramon East. Few wood remains of Paliurus, Rhamnus, Amygdalus, Ephedra, Tamarix, Zygophyllum and Chaenopodiaceae shrubs were also detected. Today the Juniperus trees do not grow at all in Israel. Steppe forest composed of Pistacia atlantica and Juniperus phoenica appear today in Edom mountains in Jordan. The Epipaleolithic wood remains from the Negev highlands suggest the past existence of steppe forest in the Negev highlands at that time. The Juniperus trees which appear today only in Edom and north central Sinai were probably extinct following man’s exploitation. Wood remnants dating to the PPNA and PPNB layers were collected at Me§ad Mazal, at Abu Salem and at Ramat Harif. Most of those wood remains originated from Pistacia atlantica and Tamarix jordanis. Only two samples were of Olea europaea (Table 3.3). Since no data is available for the central Negev from the Bronze Age and Iron Age periods, three Iron Age sites located in eastern Sinai on the border of the central Negev represent this region. Wood remains collected from Qseime, Kuntillet >Ajrud and Kadesh Barnea were those of Tamarix spp. (Tamarix aphylla, Tamarix X5 and Tamarix X4) (ca. 60%) and Phoenix dactylifera (ca. 15%), all of which are growing today in this region. Except for three samples of Cedrus libani and Cupressus sempervirens all other wood remains represented local species. Timber analysis of samples from the Nabataean, Roman and Roman-Byzantine periods showed that the wooden logs found in Kurnub belong to Cupressus sempervirens and Cedrus libani (Table 3.3). These must both have been brought to the site. The wood remains that were identified at Oboda include both 78

CHAPTER 3: INDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE SEMI-ARID AND ARID ZONES

local and foreign species. The local species include: Acacia raddiana, Zygophyllum dumosum, Pistacia atlantica, Populus euphratica and Tamarix (X5). A few remnants of three Mediterranean species, Olea europaea, Quercus calliprinos and Cupressus sempervirens, were also identified. Olea europaea trees were probably grown under cultivation. The Cedrus libani timber found at Oboda was no doubt imported to the site from Lebanon. Half of the wood samples found in the excavation of Migdal Zafit, located in the eastern part of the central Negev, were taken from local woody species, namely Tamarix(X5), Acacia raddiana, Retama raetam and Zygophyllum dumosum. The timber of Suaeda, Populus euphratica and Nerium oleander was most probably brought to the site from the Dead Sea region. Considerable quantities of wood remains were gathered at Nessana, a Byzantine site located in the central Negev. Unfortunately the assemblage collected there is problematic. The site was occupied during the Byzantine period, but the very same place was settled during the end of the Ottoman period and the beginning of the British Mandate so that wood remains of the 19th-20th centuries are mixed with the ancient wood. However, these late constructions are distinguished by the woody species that were imported from Turkey, and later on from Europe. The existence of local species can be attributed to the Byzantine period, but may be modern as well. Six wood samples of the Early Islamic period were gathered at Naúal Oded in the Ramon centre. They originate from local species: Retama raetam, Pistacia atlantica, Noaea mucronata and Hammada. Results of the dendroarchaeological analyses in the central Negev show that the vegetation typical of the area today also characterized it during the past. TABLE 3.3: SPECIES FROM THE CENTRAL NEGEV BY PERIOD6 PPNA AND PPNB Site Olea europaea Pistacia atlantica Tamarix jordanis Total no.

Abu Salem PPNA 2 21 23

Abu Salem PPNB

Har Harif PPNB

2

25

2

25

Me§ad Mazal PPNB

10 10

Total no. 2 48 10 60

IRON AGE7 Site Acacia raddiana Tamarix aphylla Tamarix (X5) Tamarix (X4) Retama raetam Ficus sycomorus Ficus pseudosycomorus Haloxylon persicum Phoenix dactylifera Phragmites communis Pistacia atlantica Pistacia khinjuk Populus euphratica Cedrus libani Cupressus sempervirens Total no. 7.

Kuntillet >Ajrud 1 18 45 33 1 2 5 9 14 1 3 2 1 135

Qseima

Kadesh Barnea

1

10

1

4

1 18 4

4

1 1 1 9

7

44

Total no. 1 18 56 33 6 2 5 10 32 1 8 3 10 2 1 188

Iron Age sites located in eastern Sinai represent the Iron Age sites of the western Negev.

79

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

NABATEAN, ROMAN AND ROMAN/BYZANTINE PERIODS Site Acacia raddiana Tamarix (X5) Tamarix aphylla Retama raetam Suaeda sp. Zygophyllum dumosum Balanites aegyptiaca Nerium oleander Phoenix dactylifera Populus euphratica Quercus calliprinos Pistacia palaestina Pistacia atlantica Olea europaea Cedrus libani Cupressus sempervirens Pinus halepensis Thymelea hirsuta Total no.

Kurnub Nabat.

Oboda Nabat. 2

3

2

8 2

3

10

10

Migdal Zafit Oboda Me§ad Tamar Shivta Total no. Rom. Rom.-Byz. Rom.-Byz. Rom.-Byz. 4 3 7 4 4 2 1 13 1 1 5 9 14 1 1 4 3 1 8 3 6 6 6 6 1 10 3 14 1 3 2 2 24 2 26 6 6 9 6 7 33 4 8 14 1 5 6 3 3 32 65 36 16 169

THE ARAVA VALLEY

Analysis of the timber collected at Naúal Issaron and in the Uvda valley show that the same trees and shrubs typical of the region today, Tamarix (X5), Acacia tortilis, Haloxylon persicum, Retama raetam and Anabasis articulate, were found in the PPNA, PPNB and Early Bronze Age periods. Pistacia atlantica was probably brought to the various sites from the central Negev (Table 3.4). The wood remains collected at Timna from the Late Bronze Age temple consisted partly of imported coniferous timber such as Pinus, Abies and Cupressus sempervirens and partly of local arboreal species like Acacia, Tamarix, Haloxylon persicum and Pistacia atlantica. Most wood samples found in Nabataean and Early Islamic period levels at Me§ad Hazeva, Yotvata and >Evrona belong to local species which characterize this region today: Acacia raddiana, Acacia tortilis, Haloxylon persicum, Moringa peregrina, Hyphaene tebaica, Phoenix dactylifera, Salvadora persica, Tamarix (X4) and Tamarix (X5) (Table 3.4). More than half the wood assemblage found at Nabataean Mo En Gedi. Similarly, also at >En Raúel more than half of the wood samples belong to local trees: Tamarix (X5), Ziziphus spina christi (Fig. 3.12), Acacia tortilis and Phoenix dactylifera. The Juniperus phoenica logs were probably brought to the region from Edom and Cedrus libani logs were in all likelihood imported from Lebanon.

80

CHAPTER 3: INDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE SEMI-ARID AND ARID ZONES

Fig. 3.11: Microscopic sections of Pistacia atlantica from MoEn Rahel. 1) Cross section; 2) Magnification of No. 1; 3) Longitudinal tangential section; 4) Magnification of No. 3; 5) Longitudinal radial section; 6) Magnification of No. 5.

81

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

TABLE 3.4: SPECIES FROM THE ARAVA VALLEY BY PERIOD PREHISTORIC PERIODS

Site Acacia tortilis Acacia gerrardii spp. negevensis Acacia sp. Anabasis articulata Haloxylon persicum Populus euphratica Pistacia atlantica Suaeda palaestina Retama raetam Tamarix aphylla Tamarix (X5) Tamarix sp. Cupressus sempervirens Abies sp. Pinus halepensis Pinus nigra Pinus sp. Total no.

Naúal Issaron PPNA 1

PPNB

>Uvda valley EB

Timna* LB

IB

Total no. 1

6

6

7

7 4 2 1 18 1 19 5 14 2 2 1 3 4 3 95

4 2

16

10

4

2 10

2 3 4

1

21

3

22

1 4 1

2 2 1 3 4 3 36

13

IRON AGE, NABATEAN AND EARLY ISLAMIC PERIODS

Site

Yotvata IA

Acacia raddiana Acacia tortilis Ficus sycomorus Haloxylon persicum Hyphaene thebaica Maerua crassifolia Moringa peregrina Phragmites communis Phoenix dactylifera Populus euphratica Salvadora persica Tamarix (X4) Tamarix (X5) Ziziphus spina christi Zygophyllum dumosum Amygdalus communis Arbutus andrachne Olea europaea Pistacia atlantica Buxus sempervirens Cedrus libani Juniperus phoenica Pinus halepensis Total no. *

82

Identified by Werker 1988a.

Me§ad Hazeva IA 6

MoEn Raúel Nabat. 1 1

4 1 2

4 3 1 1 1

2

14 3 2

9

8 1

2 1

Yotvata E. Isl. 2

>Evrona E. Isl. 8

19

1 7

2 1 25

2

16 1

1 1 3 1 14 4 9 14

8

69

10 9 16 40

5 79

19

Total no. 1 12 1 24 7 1 10 1 53 4 3 1 26 2 1 1 1 3 1 24 13 25 5 229

CHAPTER 3: INDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE SEMI-ARID AND ARID ZONES

THE DEAD SEA REGION

The wood analyses show that the same trees and shrubs typical of the Dead Sea region today were profuse in the excavations in strata dated to the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods. Most of the local assemblage represented four tree species: Tamarix (X5) (Figs. 3.13, 3.14) including Tamarix jordanis, Populus euphratica, Phoenix dactylifera and Ficus sycomorus. These species constituted 50%. Other local trees and shrubs such as various Acacia species, Tamarix (X4), Ziziphus spina christi and various Chaenopodiaceae bushes like Suaeda, Anabasis, Hammada salicornica, Anabasis articulata, were also used by man at that time. A great percentage of the wood was made of imported timber, i.e., Juniperus phoenica, Cedrus libani, Pinus halepensis and Cupressus sempervirens that comprise altogether ca. 30% of the wood remnants identified (Table 3.5). The import of valuable timber from Edom (Juniperus phoenica) (Fig. 3.15) and from Lebanon (Cedrus libani) is most marked at Masada in the construction of the palace, whereas the logs used to build the rampart were taken from the local Tamarix trees.

Fig. 3.13: Logs of Tamarix (X5) and Populus euphratica from the roof of the guard tower at >En Boqeq, RomanByzantine period.

Fig. 3.14: Microscopic sections of a non-charred piece of Tamarix (X5) from the roof of the guard tower at >En Boqeq, Roman-Byzantine period. 1) Morphological view; 2) Cross section; 3) Longitudinal tangential section; 4) Longitudinal radial section.

83

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

TABLE 3.5: SPECIES FROM THE DEAD SEA REGION BY PERIOD Site Tamarix (X5) Tamarix (X4) Populus euphratica Retama raetam Acacia raddiana Acacia tortilis Acacia gerrardii Ziziphus spina christi Balanites aegyptiaca Phoenix dactylifera Phragmites communis Suaeda sp. Nerium oleander Zygophyllum dumosum Hammada salicornica Anabasis articulata Ficus sycomorus Ficus carica Calotropis procera Cordia sinensis Salvadora persica Grewia villosa Moringa peregrina Gymnocarpus decander Myrtus communis Pistacia atlantica Pistacia palaestina Quercus calliprinos Quercus ithaburensis Amygdalus communis Amygdalus korshinski Juniperus phoenica Cedrus libani Pinus halepensis Cupressus sempervirens Total no.

>En Gedi Hell.

2

101

Masada Herod. 57+171* 8 40+4* 1* 24+3* 1 2 7+1* 2+1* 43 73

>En Boqeq Rom/Byz. Rom/Byz. 240 10

>En Gedi Byz. 8

2 65

6

17

4 9

1 5

1

141 56 17 11

70

27 13 11+3* 118

8 11 63 6

1 55

3

2

3 1

1

3 1

1

37 5 41 11 2 14 1 556 99

3

43* 105

19 1419

574

6 3 3 2

1

1 1 93

130

* Wood from Masada rampart; Tamarix (X5) of the rampart was identified as Tamarix jordanis.

84

Total no. E. Isl.

63

486 10 120 1 52 2 4 23 14 372 135 17 11 30 13 14 224 1 1 6 3 3 5 1 37 5 41 11 2 15 1 556 104 1 62 2390

Fig. 3.15: Microscopic sections of Juniperus phoenica from Masada. 1) Cross section; 2) Magnification of No. 1; 3) Longitudinal tangential section; 4) Magnification of No. 3; 5) Longitudinal radial section.

LAND OF KINNEROT:

The earliest wood remnants originated at Ohalo II where large amounts of carbonized wood were retrieved, all dated to the Epipaleolithic period (19,400 YBP). A sample of 101 burnt wood fragments has been identified. Most of the wood was of Tamarix (X5). The other samples were of Tamarix (X4), Pistacia atlantica, Populus euphratica, Quercus ithaburensis, Fraxinus syriaca, Rhamnus palaestinus, Atriplex halimus and Phoenix dactylifera (Table 3.6). The Tamarix (X5), Tamarix (X4), Populus euphratica, Fraxinus syriaca, and Atriplex halimus represent vegetation typical of river banks, and their origin is in the immediate vicinity of the site. The Phoenix dactylifera grew in the same environment. The wood of Quercus ithaburensis, Rhamnus palaestinus and Pistacia atlantica were brought to the site from further away. Several samples dated to the Early Bronze Age were gathered at two sites. Wood fragments of Populus sp. were found at Tel Kinnerot, and pieces of wood of Populus euphratica, Pistacia atlantica and Olea europaea were collected at Tel Beth Yerah. A few remnants of Quercus ithaburensis and Salix acmophylla wood, dated to the Iron Age period, were collected at Bethsaida. Both trees are growing today on the site itself. Wood remains dated to the Crusader period were gathered at Me§ad Ateret. This assemblage included Populus euphratica, Phoenix dactylifera, Quercus ithaburensis, Platanus orientalis, Ziziphus spina christi, Tamarix (X5), Olea europaea, Phragmites communis and Cedrus libani. No doubt Cedrus libani timber was imported from Lebanon to the site. All other species were brought from close by. Two of these species: Olea europaea and Phoenix dactylifera were growing at that time either under cultivation or as escapees. 85

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

TABLE 3.6: SPECIES FROM THE LAND OF KINNEROT BY SITE AND PERIOD Site Tamarix (X5) Tamarix (X4) Pistacia atlantica Populus euphratica Populus sp. Quercus ithaburensis Fraxinus syriaca Rhamnus palaestinus Atriplex halimus Salix acmophylla Olea europaea Phoenix dactylifera Platanus orientalis Ziziphus spina christi Phragmites communis Cedrus libani Total no.

Ohalo II Epipaleolithic 60 4 16 8

Tel Kinnerot EB

Beth Yeraú EB

Bethsaida IA

2 1

Me§ad Ateret Crus. 1

3

2 3 2 1 6

8

13

1 1 1

101

2

4

9

1 1 3 1 1 4 30

Total no. 61 4 18 12 2 24 2 1 6 1 2 2 3 1 1 4 146

BETH SHEAN VALLEY:

The earliest wood remains, dated to the Chalcolithic period, were gathered at Tel Tsaf. They included 9 species: Quercus ithaburensis, Tamarix Jordanis (?), Tamarix (X5) , Ziziphus lotus, Pistacia atlantica, Pistacia lentiscus, Populus euphratica, Acacia albida and Olea europaea. Five of these species: Acacia albida, Populus euphratica, Quercus ithaburensis, Tamarix (X5) and Ziziphus lotus have grown in the region of the Beth Shean valley. Acacia albida was a common tree in Beth Shean valley in the past, and its remnants still grow today at Avuka. Two other species, Pistacia atlantica and Pistacia lentiscus, were most probably brought to the site from a short distance away. Pistacia atlantica – Quercus ithaburensis association covered most of the area around the sources of the Jordan River and the Hula valley, except for the swamps. The Ceratonia siliqua – Pistacia lentiscus association grows today in the area of Migdal, near the Sea of Galilee. Only one species, Olea europaea is a typical Mediterranean species. Probably single specimens could grow in the region in niches with preferred water conditions, or perhaps a single branch bearing olive fruits was brought to the site from the Mediterranean region of the country. For later periods numerous wood remains were identified. Very similar assemblages of wood species were identified at two sites: Tel Beth Shean and nearby Tel Reúov. These were retrieved from various strata along the archaeological profile: the Early, Middle and Late Bronze Ages, the Iron Age, the Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Islamic and Medieval periods. The samples represented more than 20 species. The wood assemblage identified at Tel Reúov included the following species: Olea europaea, Populus euphratica, Ulmus canescens, Fraxinus syriaca, Tamarix (X5) , Pistacia atlantica, Pistacia palaestina, Pistacia lentiscus, Quercus calliprinos, Cercis siliquastrum, Acer syriaca, Ceratonia siliqua, Celtis australis, Acacia albida, Acacia raddiana, Phoenix dactylifera, Retama raetam, Myrtus communis, Calycotome villosa, Atriplex sp., Capparis sp. and two conifers - Cedrus libani and Pinus halepensis (Table 3.7). The highest percentages of wood remains were those of Olea europaea which constituted ca. 50% of the remnants of the Iron Age and ca. 33.3% in the Islamic period. These figures point to cultivation in orchards in the region during those times. 86

CHAPTER 3: INDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE SEMI-ARID AND ARID ZONES

At Tel Beth Shean the following species were identified: Olea europaea, Ficus sycomorus, Populus euphratica, Ulmus canescens, Fraxinus syriaca, Tamarix sp., Pistacia atlantica, Pistacia palaetina/Pistacia atlantica, Quercus calliprinos, Quercus ithaburensis, Cercis siliquastrum, Acer sp., Acacia sp., Atriplex sp., Salix sp. and three conifers: Cedrus libani, Pinus halepensis and Cupressus sempervirens (Table 3.7). Wood remains were also collected at Tel Eztaba, date to the Hellenistic period. The species identified included Pistacia atlantica, Pistacia palaestina, Ceratonia siliqua, Acacia raddiana, Phoenix dactylifera and Cedrus libani. All these species were found at Tel Reúov. Cedrus libani and Pistacia atlantica were identified at Tel Beth Shean (Table 3.7). Numerous arboreal species found at Tel Reúov and Tel Beth Shean grow today in Beth Shean or adjacent regions: Olea europaea, Ficus sycomorus, Populus euphratica, Fraxinus syriaca, Tamarix (X5), Pistacia atlantica, Ceratonia siliqua, Acacia albida, Capparis ovata/Capparis spinosa, Phoenix dactylifera and Atriplex. Pistacia atlantica was probably brought from the Hula valley. The association of Quercus ithaburensis – Pistacia atlantica probably covered most of the area around the sources of the Jordan River and the Hula valley. The dendroarchaeological data show that since the Chalcolithic period until Medieval times the same arboreal species grew in the environs of Beth Shean, and the macroclimate of this region closely resembled present-day conditions.

TABLE 3.7: SPECIES FROM THE BETH SHEAN VALLEY BY PERIOD EARLY PERIODS Site Quercus ithaburensis Tamarix (jordanis?) Tamarix (X5) Tamarix sp. Ziziphus lotus Pistacia atlantica Pistacia palaestina P. atlantica/P.palaestina Pistacia lentiscus Olea europaea Populus euphratica Populus sp. Acacia albida Fraxinus syriacum Ceratonia siliqua Acer syriaca Acer sp. Cercis siliquastrum Pinus halepensis Total no.

Tel Tsaf Chal. 5 2 3

Tel Beth Shean EB 1

Total no.

Tel Reúov Chal.

EB

5 2

2 2

1

2

1 1

2 1 2 3

12

1 2 3

2 1

1 7 6

7 2

2

21

1 36

14

6 1 18

6 2 8 2 2 6 1 2 2 16 6 2 2 14 6 2 2 6 2 89

87

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

HISTORIC PERIODS Site

Tel elTotal Eztaba Hamma no. Hell. Rom. Byz. Isl. MB LB LB/IA IA Rom. Byz. Med. Hell. IA 3 6 24 17 12 44 3 280 1 1 3 16 1 2 1 2 6 1 1 19 2 1 2 1 3 29 1 10 2 3 1 1 7 6 6 2 19 6 1 1 2 1 3 1 2 3 1 7 2 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 11 3 3 3 9 1 2 1 1 3 1 1 5 5 1 1 1 1 2 1 5 13 16 4 3 14 30 27 20 55 2 5 5 17 5 471

Tel Reúov

Olea europaea Populus euphratica Populus sp. Ulmus canescens Fraxinus syriaca Tamarix (X5) Tamarix sp. Pistacia atlantica Pistacia palaestina Pistacia lentiscus Quercus calliprinos Quercus ithaburensis Cercis siliquastrum Acer syriacum Ceratonia siliqua Salix sp. Ficus sycomorus Celtis australis Punica sp. Acacia albida Acacia raddiana Acacia sp. Phoenix dactylifera Atriplex sp. Retama raetam Capparis sp. Calycotome villosum Myrtus communis Pinus halepensis Cupressus sempervirens Cedrus libani Total no.

MB LB 24 29 1

IA 118 10

2 2

13 19 9

1

5 6 1

1 6 2 2

2

1

1

2 3 1 1 3

26

1 37

2 205

Tel Beth Shean*

* Identified by Baruch (2006).

CENTRAL JORDAN VALLEY:

The earliest wood remains were dated to the Natufian –Para Natufian period and Pre-Pottery Neolithic and were collected at one of the sites at Jericho. They were very few and included Populus euphratica and Tamarix (X5) . Wood remnants dated to the Pre Pottery Neolithic A were gathered at Netiv Hagdud. In this site only one species, i.e., Tamarix jordanis was found. Other wood remnants from the Natufian period and from the Pre Pottery Neolithic A strata were collected at Gilgal. In both periods the assemblages of the woody species were very similar: Tamarix jordanis, Populus euphratica, Pistacia atlantica and Hammada at both periods, Acacia raddiana and Atriplex halimus originated of the Natufian strata only, whereas Anabasis articulata originated of the Pre Pottery Neolithic A layers only (Table 3.8). Most of the wood was made of Tamarix (X5) (55.8% o the PPNA assemblage and 36.3% of the Late Natufian site) and of Populus euphratica (25% and 18.2% in both sites respectively). 88

CHAPTER 3: INDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE SEMI-ARID AND ARID ZONES

Comparison of the wood species found at Gilgal with that of Netiv Hagdud located ca. 1.5 km to its west show that the source of the timber was the same. The assemblage from those sites resembles that of the present, pointing to similar macroclimatic conditions in this region. Wood remains of the Pottery Neolithic–Chalcolithic period were collected at Qumran Cave, where numerous species were identified. The wood assemblage included the following species: Phoenix dactylifera, Anabasis articulata, Anabasis setifera, Populus euphratica, Hammada negevensis, Tamarix (X5) , Tamarix (X4) , Retama raetam, Ziziphus spina christi, Quercus calliprinos, Quercus sp., Pistacia atlantica, Atriplex halimus, Halogeton alopecuroides, Gymnocarpos decander, Reaumuria hirtella, Aellenia lancifolia, Suaeda asphaltica, Suaeda fruticosa, Arthrocnemum sp., Salsola tetrandra, Balanites aegyptiaca and Maerua crassifolia. In Qumran Cave wood remains were retrieved from two separate strata dated to the Iron Age and the Hellenistic periods. The species identified were very similar. The following species were identified in both: Phragmites communis, Phoenix dactylifera, Anabasis articulata, Zygophyllum dumosum, Populus euphratica and Tamarix (X5). In addition to the above species, remnants of Hammada sp. and Acacia raddiana were found in the Iron Age stratum, whereas Suaeda sp. and Tamarix (X4) were present in the Hellenistic levels (Table 3.8). Most of the timber originated from shrubs, the great majority being members of the Chaenopodiaceae family. These shrubs are typical of this arid region. Wood remains from the Iron Age period were collected also at Vered Yericho. The species identified there included Tamarix (X5), Populus euphratica, Phoenix dactylifera, Acacia raddiana, Hammada salicornica and Pinus halepensis (Table 3.8). All these species are typical of this environment today. Remnants of wood from coffins dated to the Hellenistic period were gathered at the Jewish cemetery of Jericho. The following species were identified: Ficus sycomorus, Ziziphus spina christi, Populus euphratica, Phoenix dactylifera, Quercus calliprinos, Olea europaea, Pinus halepensis, Pinus brutia and Cupressus sempervirens. Most of the boards were made of Ficus sycomorus, Ziziphus spina christi and Cupressus sempervirens. Other wood species used were found in small numbers (Table 3.8). Trees of Ficus sycomorus grow north of Jericho. Populus euphratica is one of the main trees which characterize the banks of the Jordan river in the vicinity of Jericho, and Ziziphus spina christi as well as Phoenix dactylifera also inhabit this region. It can therefore be assumed that the timber of these four species for the coffins was taken from the neighbourhood of Jericho. Cupressus sempervirens grows under cultivation near Jericho. Quercus calliprinos and Olea europaea were brought from the Judaean hills. Pinus brutia never grew in Israel. The timber of this species must have been imported from either Cyprus or Turkey. Since Pinus halepensis was very rare in Israel during antiquity (see Chapter 7) it may also be assumed that the timber of Pinus halepensis was imported from abroad. Wood fragments dated to the Byzantine period were collected from the Gerasimus Monastic Cells. The assemblage included wood of Ficus sycomorus, Phoenix dactylifera, Anabasis articulata, Tamarix (X5), populus euphratica, Acacia raddiana and stems of a reed, either Phragmites or Arundo (Table 3.8). All these species no doubt were taken from the close vicinity of the site. Timber identification made by Western (1983) at Jericho were only up to the genus level. They originated from numerous layers along the archaeological profile, from the Pre Pottery Neolithic A to the Roman period (Table 3.9), The data obtained from the dendroarchaeological research carried out at sites along the Jordan valley testify that the primary climax arboreal cover did not change, except in regions where native vegetation was replaced by agricultural fields or by human settlements. It is therefore obvious that the macroclimate of the Jordan valley remained unaltered during the Holocene. 89

TABLE 3.8: SPECIES FROM THE CENTRAL JORDAN VALLEY BY PERIOD PREHISTORIC PERIODS

Site Populus euphratica Tamarix (X5) Tamarix (X4) Tamarix jordanis Pistacia atlantica Pistacia sp. Acacia raddiana Atriplex halimus Anabasis articulata Anabasis setifera Anabasis sp. Hammada sp. Hammada negevensis Phoenix dactylifera Halogeton alopeuroides Gymnocarpos decander Retama raetam Reaumuria hirtella Allenia lancifolia Suaeda asphaltica Suaeda fruticosa Arthrocnemum sp. Salsola tetrandra Ziziphus spina christi Quercus calliprinos Balanites aegyptiaca Maerua crassifolia Chaenopodiaceae Total no.

Jericho Pre Natuf-Natuf. 1

PPN 1 4

Gilgal Natuf. PPNA 1 11

4 1

Netiv Hagdud PPNA

23 3

10 9 1

1 1

5 14 3 1

1

2

1

5

Qumran PN-Chal. 9 26 8

1

10

39

10

5 3 1 12 25 1 1 7 2 3 1 5 1 3 4 59 209

Total no. 23 30 8 37 13 1 1 6 15 3 1 3 5 3 1 12 25 1 1 7 2 3 1 5 1 3 4 59 274

HISTORIC PERIODS

Site Phragmites communis Phragmites/Arundo Phoenix dactylifera Anabasis articulata Zygophyllum dumosum Populus euphratica Hammada sp. Hammada salicornica Tamarix (X5) Acacia raddiana Tamarix (X4) Suaeda sp. Haloxylon sp. Ficus sycomorus Ziziphus spina christi Quercus calliprinos Olea europaea Pinus halepensis Pinus bruita Cupressus sempervirens Total no.

90

Qumran IA 9

Hell. 5

11 6 6 2 1

7 3 5 2

1 6

4

Jericho Hell.

Vered Yericho IA

1

8

6

3 14 14 1

1 1

42

28

79 31 1 1 9 18 46 184

1

41

Gerasimus Total no. Byz. 14 3 3 5 32 3 11 1 14 1 14 1 20 1 8 1 1 6 6 5 84 31 1 1 10 18 46 22 317

CHAPTER 3: INDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE SEMI-ARID AND ARID ZONES

TABLE 3.9: IDENTIFICATION OF WOOD REMAINS FROM JERICHO BY WESTERN (1983) Period Populus Tamarix Tamarix aphylla Tamarix jordanis Tamarix nilotica Tamarix tetragyna Ziziphus spina christi Salix Ficus carica Ficus sycomorus Quercus Suaeda Calligonum commosum Atriplex Abutilon Capparis Prosopis Fraxinus Rhamnus palaestinus Noaea Vitex Acacia albida Haloxylon Olea Paliurus Punica Amygdalus Salvadora Ceratonia siliqua Morus Balanites aegyptiaca Eleagnus Phoenix Pistacia Lycium Lonicera Acacia negevensis Vitis Cercis Punica? Artemisia Rhus Ziziphus lotus Moringa Laurus Pistacia lentiscus Ulmus

PPNA

PPNB

17 123 11 2

8 83 8 9

14

1

20 33 1 7 8 3 1 2 1

8 9

PNA

EB

EB/MB

MB

Rom.

2 17 10

3 11

4

1

21 52 41 2

2

1 4 1 5 1 1 10 1 2

7

1 5 1 2 3 5

8 11

4 1 1

4

4 13

15 1 1 1 2

1 7

3 8 2 1

1 7 1 1 5 4 6 1 1 1 4 1 1 5 2 1 1 1 1

1

91

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

CONCLUSIONS Results of dendroarchaeological investigations show that the same natural arboreal vegetation which today characterizes the different regions of the Negev also distinguished them during antiquity, from the PPNA until the Early Islamic period. Three native woody species which inhabit the northern Negev today, Tamarix aphylla, Acacia raddiana and Retama raetam, characterized it also during antiquity. During the Early Bronze – PersianHellenistic periods these three species together comprised between 36- 68% of the wood assemblages (Table 3.10). In later periods (Persian-Hellenistic, Roman-Byzantine and Early Islamic) the proportion of imported coniferous timber increased greatly to 38%, 69% and 60% (Table 3.10). Another surprising result is the remarkable proportion of olive wood identified in the northern Negev. The high percentages of Olea europaea wood remnants that characterize the Early Bronze Age strata at Arad can be attributed to its being imported by man rather than to a local climatic change. Olive timber was presumably brought to Arad from the southern Hebron hills, which is ca. 15-18 km away. The mean annual precipitation in the latter region is ca. 400 mm (recorded measurements show a mean annual amount of 373 mm) (Ashbel 1967) and a Mediterranean maquis of Quercus calliprinos – Pistacia palaestina exists there till the present time in the environs of Yatta. However, today it is severely damaged following grazing and cutting. No doubt olive trees constituted one of the components of this maquis in this region during the Early Bronze Age, offering a source of timber for the inhabitants of Arad. Olive cultivation is known since the onset of the Early Bronze Age (Liphschitz et al. 1991) and thus olive orchards were probably part of the landscape of the southern Hebron hills in that period. The finding of Olea europaea wood remnants in Late Bronze Age levels at Tel Sera> can be explained either by import of olive wood from the nearby Mediterranean region, or by the presence of olive orchards in the environs of the site. Tel Sera> is located on a permanent water source – on the bank of Naúal Grar in a region with a mean annual amount of precipitation of 350 mm. These environmental conditions could enable the olive cultivation at Tel Sera> during the Late Bronze Age. The question of climatic changes in Israel has been investigated during the last decades by several disciplines, e.g. dendrochronology, dendroarchaeology, palynology, geology and geomorphology. An international workshop was recently devoted to this subject, and the different opinions concerning the question of climatic changes have been published (Graber et al. 1993). The central Negev (including eastern Sinai) was characterized by mainly three tree species, namely Tamarix (X4), Tamarix (X5) and Pistacia atlantica. During the Iron Age these three trees comprised 51.53% of the wood remains, whereas the coniferous timber constituted only 1.59%. On the other hand, during the Hellenistic-Byzantine periods the share of the native trees decreased to only 23% while the coniferous imported timber increased to 31.36% (Table 3.12). A similar increase in the proportions of imported coniferous timber in the wood assemblage is obvious in the Dead Sea region (Table 3.13). The three local trees which characterized the region, Ficus sycomorus, Tamarix (X5) and Phoenix dactylifera, constituted 45.26% in the Hellenistic-Early Islamic periods and coniferous imported timber reached 30.25% (Table 3.11). This is mainly due to the fact that Masada was built by Herod the Great with imported coniferous timber. The great increase of valuable imported coniferous timber during later eras, i.e., Hellenistic – Early Islamic periods, is very marked not only in the desert regions, but also in the Mediterranean part of the country (see Chapter 6). 92

CHAPTER 3: INDIGENOUS TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE SEMI-ARID AND ARID ZONES

A distinction must be made between microclimatic and macroclimatic changes. Microclimatic fluctuations can be detected by the sensitive method of dendrochronology. On the other hand, only when a change in climatic condition is drastic enough to substitute humid with xeric vegetation or vice versa can it be distinguished through dendroarchaeological analyses. Therefore, reconstruction of the past vegetational landscape from dendroarchaeological research can reveal the macroclimate which prevailed during the relevant periods in the past. In view of the above results, it can be assumed that the macroclimate of the Negev remained more or less similar since the PPNA till today. In spite of the existence of microclimatic variations, as is evident from the dendrochronological studies available for this region (Fahn et al. 1963; Waisel and Liphschitz 1968; Liphschitz and Waisel 1969; Liphschitz et al. 1987), the microclimatic changes were too small to cause any change in the arboreal vegetational landscape during the Holocene. The different arboreal vegetation units which characterize the Rift valley today due to drastic changes in the climate and topography characterized the very same districts of the Rift valley also during antiquity. In the Land of Kinnerot wood remains of four tree species, Quercus ithaburensis, Pistacia atlantica, Tamarix (X5) and Populus euphratica, together constitute 82.2% of the wood remains. The same tree species inhabit this region today. In the Beth Shean valley the wood remains originated from levels dating to the Middle Bronze – Iron Age periods. Olea europaea was already cultivated and olive orchards replaced large parts of the native arboreal cover during these periods, constituting 59.5% of the wood remains. The native arboreal cover was the very same as that of the present day. In the Jordan plain two groups of woody plants are dominant during Prehistoric periods. One group includes three Tamarisks, Tamarix jordanis, Tamarix (X4) and Tamarix (X5), that comprised 36%. The second group includes shrubs which belong to the Chaenopodiaceae family and constituted 32% of the assemblage. Both groups of woody species comprise together 68% of the wood remains gathered in the excavations. During the historic periods distinction must be made between the Iron Age and the Hellenistic and Byzantine periods. During the Iron Age the vegetation comprised river-bank species: Arundo and Phragmites communis, Phoenix dactylifera and Populus euphratica, and other tree species native to the region: Ficus sycomorus, Ziziphus spina christi, Tamarix (X4), Tamarix (X5), Acacia raddiana and various shrubs belonging to the Chaenopodiaceae family: Hammada salicornica, Anabasis articulata, Suaeda and Haloxylon. All these woody species characterize the region today. The number of wood samples collected from the Iron Age strata is meagre and therefore the percentages of each of the two gropus was not calculated. A different picture is obvious when analyzing the results of the Hellenistic and Byzantine archaeobotanical remains. During these late periods the percentages of imported coniferous timbers is very prominent: These remains included Pinus halepensis, Pinus bruita and Cupressus sempervirens which comprised 37.8% and 69.5% of the assemblage respectively (Table 3.11). The import of precious coniferous timbers during later historic periods is well distinguished all over Israel and Sinai, pointing to the economic ability to purchase and import these expensive building materials.

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TABLE 3.10: NATIVE SPECIES IN THE NORTHERN NEGEV BY PERIOD Species EBA MBA LBA IA Pers./Hell Rom/Byz. E. Isl.

No.

Tamarix aphylla No. % 42 30.43 8 20.51 112 44.26 420 31.50 25 15.62 -

138 39 253 1333 160 128 25

Acacia raddiana No. % 1 0.72 4 10.25 1 0.39 246 18.45 9 5.62 2 8.00

Retama raetam No. % 13 9.42 2 5.12 21 8.30 240 18.00 24 15.00 6 4.68 1 4.00

Total % 40.57 35.88 53.46 67.99 36.24 4.68 12.00

TABLE 3.11: IMPORTED CONIFERS IN THE NORTHERN NEGEV BY PERIOD Species LBA IA Pers./Hell Rom/Byz. E. Isl.

No. 253 1333 160 128 25

Cedrus libani No. % 24 9.48 41 3.07 22 13.79 68 53.12 7 28.00

Cupressus sempervirens Juniperus phoenica No. % No. % 4 0.30 13 8.12 12 7.50 16 12.50 3 12.00 -

Pinus halepensis No. % 1 0.39 11 0.82 13 8.12 5 3.90 5 20.00

Total % 9.87 4.19 37.81 69.52 60.00

TABLE 3.12: RATIO OF NATIVE VERSUS IMPORTED CONIFERS IN THE CENTRAL NEGEV BY PERIOD

Species IA Hell/Byz.

No. 188 169

Tamarix (X4) No. % 33 17.50 -

Tamarix (X5) Pistacia atlantica Total % No. % No. % 56 29.78 8 4.25 51.53 13 7.69 26 15.38 22.99

Nos. 3 53

conifers % 1.59 31.36

TABLE 3.13: RATIO OF NATIVE VERSUS IMPORTED CONIFERS IN THE DEAD SEA REGION BY PERIOD Species Hell/E. Isl.

94

No. 2390

Tamarix (X5) No. % 486 20.33

Ficus sycomorus No. % 224 9.37

Phoenix dactylifera Total % No. % 372 15.56 45.26

No. 723

% 30.25

CHAPTER 4

THE ANCIENT ARBOREAL LANDSCAPE OF THE SINAI DESERT

The results of dendroarchaeological research carried out in the Sinai desert make an important contribution to the reconstruction of the arboreal vegetation of the desert zones of Eretz Israel in antiquity. The first comprehensive phytogeographic research on Sinai was published by Zohary more than 60 years ago (Zohary 1935). Additional information from later surveys led to further publications (Zohary 1944). After the Six Day War in 1967, numerous botanical surveys and research studies were carried out in Sinai by Israeli botanists. Danin’s book (1983) provides a clear and comprehensive survey of the present plant life in Sinai. The Sinai Peninsula is considered a drought desert, and the amount of precipitation is the principal limiting factor for vegetation. The total yearly precipitation can fall in a few hours, and great differences exist even between adjacent regions. The mean annual precipitation of the northern region varies between 102 mm in El Arish on the northern coast and 25 mm in Nakhl in central Sinai. No systematic meteorological records are available for the southern mountain region, but snow is very frequent in ranges above 1000 m, and annual precipitation in the higher mountains may reach ca. 300 mm (Zohary 1944).

PRESENT DAY ARBOREAL VEGETATION The northern coastal salines are characterized by halophytes of the Chaenopodiaceae. Retama raetam bushes appear in northern districts on stable dunes, in troughs between dunes and in gravelly and sandy beds of wadis. The lower parts of the wadi beds are occupied by trees of Tamarix nilotica var. nilotica (=T. mannifera), Tamarix aphylla, Acacia raddiana and Acacia gerrardii. Thousands of Juniperus phoenica trees appear along the wadis in the area of Jebel Maghara, Jebel Hallal and Jebel Yaalaq in north-central Sinai. Haloxylon persicum and Hammada characterize the sandy areas in the anticline districts. Pistacia atlantica appears on the rocky beds and Acacia raddiana, Tamarix nilotica var. nilotica, Ziziphus spina christi and Ficus pseudosycomorus inhabit the large wadis near Bir Gafgafa and north to Elat. The great wadi beds of southern Sinai are occupied by Acacia raddiana, Calotropis procera, Tamarix nilotica var. nilotica and Ficus pseudosycomorus. Pistacia khinjuk is native to Jebel Um Shumer, the environs of Jebel Musa, western slopes of Jebel Sirbal, and wadis running from the environs of Saint Catherine’s Monastery eastwards (Zohary 1944; Danin 1987). Springs and larger oases are characterized by cultivated Phoenix dactylifera plantations, present both in northern Sinai around El Arish, and southern Sinai, where at Wadi Feran the trees form the largest date palm plantation in the peninsula. Various fruit trees are grown by the Bedouin in the oasis of Kadesh Barnea. Numerous wells and springs in the high mountain region of southern Sinai enable the Bedouin and the monks to maintain orchards of cultivated fruit trees such as Olea europaea, Amygdalus communis, Ficus carica and Punica granatum. Cultivated trees of Cupressus sempervirens var. pyramidalis and various varieties of Popolus are grown at many monasteries in the region (Waisel et al. 1978; Danin 1987). 95

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

THE SOURCE OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL WOOD REMAINS The wood samples identified were retrieved from 30 sites dated to different periods (Table 4.1) (Fig. 4.1). Altogether 729 wood samples were identified (Liphschitz 1998a; 2003c; Barakat 1999). Four sites in northern Sinai yielded wood remains. They are Haruba Sites A-345 and A-289, Ostrakine and Qasrawet (Liphschitz 1998a) (Table 4.1). From this area 198 samples were identified from strata dated to the Late Bronze Age and to the Roman/Byzantine period (Table 4.2). Wood remains from eastern Sinai were collected from three sites, all dated to the Iron Age: Qseime, Kuntillet >Ajrud and Kadesh Barnea (Liphschitz 1998a) (Table 4.1). Altogether, 174 samples were identified (Table 4.3). The samples from central Sinai were gathered from two sites dated to the Chalcolithic/Early Bronze Age period: S-1 (locality: Rahaya) and S-32 (locality: Tabieq) (both in Quadrangle Kuntilla) (Barakat 1999) (Table 4.1). A total of 142 samples were identified (Table 4.4). Wood remains from southern Sinai originated from 20 archaeological sites and one monastery (Table 4.1). Three sites were dated to prehistoric periods: Abu Mahdi to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and Ujrat el-Mehed and Wadi Tubeiq (Liphschitz 1998a) to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B. These sites yielded 86 wood remains (Table 4.5). Six sites date to the Chalcolithic period: Wadi Tubeiq, Gunna 25, Jebel Adida (Liphschitz 1998a), Site 1130, Site 1139 and Site 1105 near Serabit el-Khadem (Liphschitz 2003c). Five sites represent Early Bronze Age settlement: Ein Um Ahmed (Liphschitz 1998a), Sheikh Nabi Salah (=Site 1049), Sheikh Mukhsen (=Site 1046), Sheikh Awad and Watiya Pass (Liphschitz 2003c). These protohistoric sites yielded 115 samples (Table 4.5). Other sites date to the Late Bronze Age, e.g. Serabit el-Khadem (Liphschitz 2004), and Roman-Byzantine (Wadi Fraiyeh, Wadi Bir [=Site 1124] and Ein Najilla) and Early Islamic periods (Ein Najilla, Shaqif ed-Deir, Sigilliyeh and Deir Antush). The last-mentioned site dated to the Mamluk period (Liphschitz 1998a) (Table 4.5). Numerous samples of the later periods originated from Saint Catherine’s Monastery: from the 6th century basilica, from the 12th century mosque and from the 18th-19th century guest wings (Liphschitz and Waisel 1976). TABLE 4.1: SITES AND PERIODS INVESTIGATED* Site

Reg. No.

Period of wood remains

No. of samples analyzed

NORTHERN SINAI

Haruba: Site A-345 Haruba: Site A-289 Qasrawet Ostrakine

05190/06680 05094/06580 94131/04069 541/22/44271

LBA LBA Hellenistic Rom./Byz

31 3 90 73

0885/0120 0960/0063 0940/9560

IA IA IA

9 44 135

130/885* 110/875*

Chal./EB Chal./EB

132 10

5970/1670 5931/1603 6063/1832

PPNA PPNB PPNB

EASTERN SINAI:

Qseime Kadesh Barnea Kuntillet >Ajrud CENTRAL SINAI:

S-1 (locality Rahaya) S-32 (locality Tabieq) SOUTHERN SINAI:

Abu Mahdi Ujrrat el-Mehed=Banana I Wadi Tubeiq

96

34 26 24

CHAPTER 4: THE A NCIENT A RBOREAL LANDSCAPE OF THE SINAI DESERT

Site

Reg. No.

Wadi Tubeiq Gunna 25 Jebel Adida Site 1130 Site 1139 Site 1105 Ein Um Ahmed Sheikh Nabi Salah (Site 1049) Sheikh Mukhsen (Site 1046) Watiya Pass (Site 1042) Serabit el-Khadem Sheikh Awad (Site 1118) Wadi Fraiyeh Wadi Bir (Site 1124) Ein Najilla Ein Najilla Shaqif ed-Deir Shaqif ed-Deir Sigilliyeh Deir Antush Deir Antush St. Catherine’s Monastery St. Catherine’s Monastery St. Catherine’s Monastery

6063/1832 5931/1603 9962/8914 5549/1930 5492/1858 0060/8298 6367/2136 0506/7851 0493/7884 0492/7909 0060/8298 5880/1680 58920/13050 5540/1920 58440/15690 58440/15690 58970/13160 58970/13160 56405/16495 59000/13960 59000/13960

Period of wood remains

No. of samples analyzed

Chal. Chal. Chal. Chal. Chal. Chal. EBA EBA EBA EBA EBA EBA Rom./Byz. Rom./Byz. Rom./Byz. E. Isl. E. Isl. Mamluk E. Isl. E. Isl. Mamluk 6th cent. CE 12th cent. CE 19th cent. CE

23 2 1 5 1 3 8 10 31 5 3 26 4 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8** 6** 30**

* Map references are only approximation, since the investigators give only the locality (cf. Barakat 1999) **Excluding date palm logs which constitute ca. 25% of logs.

1. Haruba: Site A-345 2. Haruba: Site A-289 3. Ostrakine 4. Qasrawet 5. Qseime 6. Kadesh Barnea 7. Kuntillet >Ajrud 8. Site 1105 9. Serabit el-Khadem 10. Site 1130 11. Site 1139 12. Wadi Bir (Site 1124) 13. Ein Um Ahmad 14. Wadi Tubeiq

15. Watiya Pass (Site 1042) 16. Sheikh Mukhsen (Site 1046) 17. Sheikh Awad (Site 1118) 18. Sheikh Nebi Salah (Site 1049) 19. Abu Mahdi 20. Ujret el-Mehed (Banana I) 21. Gunna 25 22. St. Catherine’s monastery 23. Ein Najilla 24. Sigilliyeh 25. Deir Antush 26. Wadi Fraiyeh 27. Shaqif el-Deir 28. Jebel Adida

Fig. 4.1: Archaeological sites in Sinai where dendroarchaeological research was carried out.

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NILI LIPHSCHITZ

RECONSTRUCTION OF PAST ARBOREAL LANDSCAPE NORTHERN SINAI

The earliest wood remains identified in northern Sinai were retrieved from one site dated to the Late Bronze Age (Table 4.2). The assemblage included mainly local arboreal species, i.e., Acacia raddiana, Tamarix (X4), Retama raetam, Pistacia atlantica and Pistacia khinjuk. Two samples of Quercus calliprinos and Quercus ithaburensis were also found, which are Mediterranean trees. About 80% of the wood remains identified are dated to the Roman - Byzantine period. Numerous wood remains originated from Tamarix (X5) (13%) and from Pistacia atlantica (12%). Many samples identified only as Pistacia sp., could have been either Pistacia atlantica or Pistacia khinjuk. Remnants of Tamarix (X4), Retama raetam, Phoenix dactylifera, Phragmites communis, Populus euphratica, Suaeda sp. and Salsola sp. as well as other plants belonging to the Chaenopodiaceae family were identified. A high percentage (ca. 45%) of Cedrus libani wood, all dated to the Roman – Byzantine period, originated from monumental constructions. A few pieces of wood of another conifer, Pinus brutia, were found in the same levels. A few samples of Olea europaea, Quercus calliprinos, Quercus ithaburensis, Cupressus sempervirens and Pinus halepensis were also identified. TABLE 4.2: SPECIES FROM NORTHERN SINAI BY PERIOD

Site Acacia raddiana Tamarix (X5) Tamarix (X4) Retama raetam Pistacia atlantica Populus euphratica Pistacia sp. Quercus calliprinos Quercus ithaburensis Quercus sp. Olea europaea Suaeda sp. Salsola sp. Chaenopodiaceae Phragmites communis Phoenix dactylifera Cupressus sempervirens Pinus halepensis Pinus brutia Cedrus libani Total no.

98

Late Bronze Age Haruba S. 345 Haruba S. 289 2 4

3 1 1 3

4 4 11 2 2 2

1

3

1

2 1 2 4 3

1

31

Rom./Byz. Ostrakine Qasrawet

3

8 4 1 37 73

3 20

18 1 3

5 2 9

14 5 1 2 8 91

Total no. 5 27 1 5 25 1 17 2 2 2 8 3 11 4 3 14 13 6 3 45 198

CHAPTER 4: THE A NCIENT A RBOREAL LANDSCAPE OF THE SINAI DESERT

EASTERN SINAI

All wood remains from this region were retrieved from three Iron Age sites: Kuntillet >Ajrud, Qseime and Kadesh Barnea (Table 4.3). Most were of Tamarix spp. (Tamarix aphylla, Tamarix (X5) and Tamarix (X4) (57%) and from Phoenix dactylifera (17%). Other species identified included Ficus sycomorus, Ficus pseudosycomorus, Haloxylon persicum, Phragmites communis, Pistacia atlantica, Pistacia khinjuk and Populus euphratica. Two samples of Cedrus libani and a single piece of Cupressus sempervirens were also found. TABLE 4.3 : SPECIES FROM IRON AGE SITES IN EASTERN SINAI Site Acacia raddiana Tamarix aphylla Tamarix (X5) Tamarix (X4) Retama raetam Pistacia atlantica Pistacia khinjuk Populus euphratica Ficus sycomorus Ficus pseudosycomorus Haloxylon persicum Phragmites communis Phoenix dactylifera Cupressus sempervirens Cedrus libani Total no.

Qseime

Kuntillet >Ajrud 1 18 45 33 1 3 2 2 5 9 1 14

Kadesh Barnea

1 4

1 4

1

7

1 18 1 1 8

1 135

31

Total no. 1 18 45 33 3 8 3 10 2 5 10 1 32 1 2 174

CENTRAL SINAI

All wood remains collected in central Sinai came from two Chalcolithic/Early Bronze Age sites: S1 and S-32 (Table 4.4). Most of the wood was Capparis decidua, Retama raetam, Acacia gerrardi and Ziziphus spina christi. The other woody species gathered there included Cleome drosserifolia, Maerua crassifolia and Ephedra alata. TABLE 4.4 : SPECIES FROM CHALCOLITHIC/EARLY BRONZE AGE SITES IN CENTRAL SINAI Site Acacia gerrardi Capparis decidua Retama raetam Ziziphus spina christi Cleome drosserifolia Maerua crassifolia Ephedra alata Leguminosae Total no.

S-1 12 66 25 21 1 2 2 3 132

S-32 10

10

Total no. 22 66 25 21 1 2 2 3 142

99

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

SOUTHERN SINAI

Most wood samples were from archaeological sites dated to the prehistoric (PPNA and PPNB), protohistoric (Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age) and Late Bronze Age periods (Table 4.5). They consisted of Pistacia khinjuk (39%) and of Pistacia sp. (37%), most probably Pistacia khinjuk. Other species found included Tamarix (X5), Tamarix (X4), Phoenix dactylifera, Acacia raddiana, Ziziphus spina christi, Populus euphratica and plants belonging to the Chaenopodiaceae family. A single wood remnant of Cupressus sempervirens and one of Amygdalus communis were identified at one Late Bronze Age site. From the Roman/Byzantine and Early Islamic periods, as well as from later periods. Wood remains of Tamarix (X5), Tamarix (X4), Acacia raddiana, Phoenix dactylifera, Pistacia khinjuk, Cupressus sempervirens, Amygdalus communis, Olea europaea and undefined species of Populus were identified. TABLE 4.5 : SPECIES FROM SOUTHERN SINAI BY PERIOD PRE-POTTERY NEOLITHIC A AND PRE-POTTERY NEOLITHIC B

Site Period Tamarix (X5) Pistacia khinjuk Pistacia sp. Total No.

Abu Mahdi PPNA 1 17 16 34

Wadi Tubeiq PPNB 19 1 4 24

Ujret el-Mehed PPNB

Total no. 20 29 35 86

11 15 26

CHALCOLITHIC PERIOD

Site Acacia raddiana Tamarix (X5) Pistacia khinjuk Populus euphratica Ziziphus spina christi Phoenix dactylifera Total no.

Site 1105 2

Wadi Tubeiq

Guna

20 3

Site 1130

2

Jebel Adida Site 1139

5

1 1 3

23

2

5

1

1 1

Total no. 2 20 9 1 1 1 35

EARLY BRONZE AGE

Site Acacia raddiana Tamarix (X5) Tamarix (X4) Tamarix sp. Pistacia khinjuk Pistacia sp. Chaenopodiaceae Ziziphus spina christi Phoenix dactylifera Total no.

100

Sheikh Awad (Site 1118) 1 2 5 18

Ein Um Ahmad Sheikh Mukhsen Nabi Salah Watiya Pass (Site 1046) (Site 1048) 3 2

1

1

15 15

9

5

1 10

5

1 1 26

8

31

Total no. 1 4 2 2 35 33 1 1 1 80

CHAPTER 4: THE A NCIENT A RBOREAL LANDSCAPE OF THE SINAI DESERT

LATE BRONZE AGE

Site Acacia raddiana Pistacia khinjuk Pistacia sp. Amygdalus communis Cupressus sempervirens Total no.

Serabit el-Khadim 1 5 1 1 1 9

ROMAN/BYZANTINE PERIOD

Site Period

Wadi Fraiyeh Rom/Byz.

Acacia raddiana Tamarix (X5) Tamarix (X4) Olea europaea Phoenix dactylifera Amygdalus communis Total no.

Wadi Bir (Site 1124) Byz.

Ein Najilla Rom./Byz.

Total no.

2 2

2 2 1 2 1 2 10

1 2 1 1 5

4

1 1

EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD, 10TH, 12TH, 18TH AND 19TH CENTURIES CE

Site Period Acacia raddiana Tamarix (X5) Tamarix mannifera Pistacia khinjuk Populus sp. Amugdalus communis Olea europaea Phoenix dactylifera Cupressus sempervirens Total no. *

Deir Antush Shaqif ed Deir Ein Najilla Sigilliyeh St. Catherine’s Monastery Total no. E. Isl. Mamluk E. Isl. 10th c. E. Isl. 10th c. 12th c. 18th c. 19th c. 1

1 1

1

3 2 2 1 32 21 5 * 44 110*

1 2 3 1 1

1 1

1 1

1

1

1

1

* 3 6*

19 6 4 * 36 68*

1 10 14 * 4 30*

Ca. 25% of the logs in the Monastery.

CONCLUSIONS Although the amount of wood remains is considerable, division between sites and periods is not equal, and some periods are represented only by very few sites. Nevertheless, the results of the dendroarchaeological investigations suggest that the same native arboreal vegetation that exists today in Sinai was present in the area also during antiquity. Archaeological wood remains, mainly of Tamarix (X5) and Tamarix (X4), Pistacia atlantica and Pistacia khinjuk, Acacia raddiana, Acacia gerrardi, Ziziphus spina christi, Capparis decidua, Retama raetam, and various Chaenopodiaceae, were discovered in the vicinity of the present-day habitats of these species. Despite the microclimatic variations evident from dendrochronological studies available for northcentral Sinai for Juniperus phoenica and for southern Sinai for Pistacia khinjuk (Waisel and Liphschitz 1968; Liphschitz and Waisel 1969; Liphschitz et al. 1987) the changes were too small to cause any drastic 101

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

alteration in the arboreal vegetational landscape during the Holocene (see also Chapter 8). It can therefore be assumed that the macroclimate of Sinai has remained more or less the same throughout the Holocene. Cedrus libani is native to Lebanon, Turkey and the mountains of Cyprus, and never grew in Sinai. The high percentages of Cedrus libani timber found in two sites in northern Sinai testify to the import of this timber, presumably from Lebanon. Wood pieces of two pine species, Pinus brutia and Pinus halepensis, were found in the same sites and levels. These also never grew in Sinai but both appear native in Lebanon. Their timber was presumably imported from there together with the wood of Cedrus libani. Single samples of Cedrus libani wood were also imported to two Iron Age sites, Kuntillet >Ajrud and Qseime, which functioned as road stations in eastern Sinai. The fact that wood remains of Olea europaea and Amygdalus communis were identified in archaeological sites in southern Sinai is not surprising. These cultivated fruit trees were most probably raised in orchards like those today in the environs of Saint Catherine’s Monastery. The very high percentages of Phoenix dactylifera logs (25% of all construction timber) in this monastery result from its proximity to the huge date palm plantation in the Feiran oasis (Fig. 4.2). Numerous wood remains of Phoenix dactylifera were found at several other sites located in various regions of the peninsula, always in oases, where these trees still grow today. The use of many logs of Cupressus sempervirens in the construction of the Saint Catherine’s Monastery since the 6th century shows that the pyramidal trees of cypress grew in the region since that period. Today one can see numerous cypress trees of the pyramidal cultivated variety growing in the gardens and around the orchards of the monastery, as well as on the slopes of the nearby mountains. Pieces of wood made of cypress were identified in several archaeological sites in northern and southern Sinai. The source of these timbers was probably specimens which grew in the vicinity.

Fig. 4.2: Phoenix dactylifera growing in the Feiran oasis, Sinai.

102

CHAPTER 5

EXPLOITATION OF CULTIVATED FRUIT TREE TIMBER

This chapter focuses on the use of the wood of fruit trees during antiquity as is evident from the dendroarchaeological analyses (Liphschitz 1989d). Fruit trees are perennials starting to bear fruit three to eight years after planting and attaining full productivity several years later. The fruit tree planter is much less mobile than the herder or crop cultivator and horticulture indicates a fully sedentary way of life (Zohary and Hopf 2000). Fruit trees constitute an important economic element in Israel. Five of the biblical ‘seven species’ are fruit trees: Olea europaea (Olive), Punica granatum (Pomegranate), Vitis vinifera (Grape vine), Ficus carica (Fig) and Phoenix dactylifera (Date palm). Their products include the edible fruits and wine, raisins, olive oil and date honey, which are among the basic economic elements of subsistence. Recognition of their value in antiquity resulted in written rules which were aimed at preserving these species. Cutting down of fruit trees was forbidden by the Bible: “When thou shalt besiege a city a long time, in making war against it to take it, thou shalt not destroy the trees therefore by forcing an axe against them: for thou mayest eat of them, and thou shalt not cut them down (for the tree of the field is man’s life) to employ them in the siege: Only the trees which thou knowest that they be not trees for meat, thou shalt build bulwarks against the city that maketh war with thee, until it be subdued” (Deut. 20:19-20). One of the Hammurabi’s laws (Driver and Miles 1955: Law No. 59) determines that a person who cuts a tree in a plantation has to pay a large sum of money. Later on, it was permitted to cut down only olive trees with low oil content: “less than a quarter of Seha” (Babylonian Talmud, Baba Metzia, 84: XLIV; Jerusalem Talmud, Peah 87: XLII; Jerusalem Talmud, Sheviit, 87: XXXV) and also to sell aged olive and vines for timber (Ktovoth, 84: XLV). The sycamore fig, although considered to be a fruit tree, was allowed to be used for preparation of construction logs, which were named korot shikma (i.e., logs of sycamore) (Babylonian Talmud, Baba Metzia, 89: XLIX). Cutting of trees for timber is also mentioned in Baba Kamah (Babylonian Talmud, Baba Kamah, 91: LXXII). The fact that Israel is a meeting point of several phytogeographical regions is reflected in the variety of fruit trees cultivated. Foodstuffs were imported and exported from one region to another, and the presence of their remnants such as seeds and pits in the excavations testifies to the local economy and diet. However, the existence of the actual timber of fruit trees indicates that they were grown in the vicinity of the site. Most fruit trees like Olea europaea (Olive), Amygdalus communis (Almond), Ceratonia siliqua (Carob), Punica granatum (Pomegranate) and Vitis vinifera (Grape vine) grow in the Mediterranean region of the country. Date palm is typical of the oases of the arid regions. Ziziphus spina christi (Christ thorn; Jujube) occurs widely throughout Israel, from the Galilee to the Negev, mainly in low-lying sites and valleys. Ficus sycomorus (Sycamore fig) is a cultivated variety or an escapee widespread in the coastal plain and the Jordan valley, and Ficus carica (Fig) is a cultivated or an escapee common all over the country. 103

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More than half the country is semi-arid and arid land which is very poor in trees. The Mediterranean region of Israel was never covered by forests, the arboreal landscape being rather of maquis, garigue and batha formations. Shortage of timber, which characterized the country, resulted in the necessity to exploit all available sources of wood including fruit trees which had ceased to bear fruit.

SOURCES OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL WOOD REMAINS Wood remains were collected from archaeological sites located in the Mediterranean territory and in the Irano-Turanian, Saharo-Arabian and Sudanian territories (Chapters 3, 4). OLEA EUROPAEA (OLIVE):

Olea europaea occurs today in Israel in the Mediterranean territory both as cultivated and natural element, and constitutes a common component of the maquis and garigue formations. The numerous olive orchards have become an integral part of the landscape. Most populations in Israel are domesticated or escapees from cultivation, and therefore it is almost impossible to define wild stands of olive trees in the country. Even within the maquis the olive trees are escapees (i.e., natural) and not wild (i.e., native) specimens. Before man’s interference with native vegetation, the wild olive was a component of the native Mediterranean Quercus calliprinos – Pistacia palaestina association, but in small percentages. After its introduction into cultivation olive groves became very prominent in the landscape, especially on slopes on lower elevations. Olive was one of the earliest domesticated fruit trees (Figs. 5.1-5.3). It was used for its oil as well as for its edible fruit. The question of the earliest period when domestication of olives might have started in ancient Israel was considered through examination of botanical and archaeological remains from ancient times (Liphschitz et al. 1991). The botanical finds gathered from archaeological excavations include three components: pollen grains, stones and wood. The pollen grains show no differences between wild and cultivated olive. Moreover, pollen grains of Olea europaea are indistinguishable from pollen grains of Phillyrea media that belongs to the same family (Fig. 5.4). Comparison of the three dimensional structure of the wood of wild and cultivated recent olives made by the author showed no differences between wild and cultivated olives (Fig. 5.5). In spite of the great variability of olive fruits’ and stones’ dimensions, the size of the stones, together with an AMS 14C analysis of the specific single stones offer quite a reliable parameter to distinguish between wild and cultivated varieties. Unusually small dimensions of Chalcolithic stones collected at Shoham (3824-3646 BCE) (Liphschitz et al. 1996) and Nevallat (4002-3808 BCE) (van den Brink et al. 2001), and Early Chalcolithic stones collected at Naúal Zehora II (4866-4342 BCE) (Liphschitz and Bonani 2000) were measured. Their dimensions are about half the size of stones of cultivated olive stones (Fig. 5.6). Wood remains found in the archaeological sites (Fig. 5.7) supply a very important information concerning the question of olive cultivation. The relative proportions of olive wood remnants versus timber made of other local woody species can indicate the relative abundance of olive in the native vegetation during different period. A high proportion of olive timber points to an increase in number of cultivated specimens, and the establishment of orchard agriculture in the vicinity of the sites.

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Fig. 5.1: Olive orchard near the Cave of Machpelah, Hebron, ca. 1850. (Courtesy of the late Dr. Karschon)

Fig. 5.2: A cultivated Olea europaea specimen in an orchard in the Lower Galilee.

Fig. 5.3: The oldest living specimen of Olea europaea growing in the garden of Gethsemane in Jerusalem.

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Fig. 5.4: Pollen grains of Olea europaea (Nos. 1-3) and of Phyllirea media (Nos. 4-5) under electron microscope.

Fig. 5.5: Microscopic sections of charred pieces of Olea europaea wood from Tel Ta’anach, dated to the Middle Bronze Age. 1-2) Cross sections. No. 2 is a magnification of No. 1; 3) Tangential longitudinal section. 4) Radial longitudinal section.

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Fig. 5.6: Stones of wild and cultivated Olea europaea. Top row from left to right: two stones from the Early Chalcolithic period from Naúal Zehora II, two stones from the Chalcolithic period from Nevallat and three stones from the Chalcolithic period from Shoham. Bottom row: All stones are from Iron Age Lachish.

1. Bir Ansuba 2. Me§ad Ateret 3. Tel Kabri 4. Acco 5. Rosh Zayit 6. Peqi'in 7. Meiron 8. Mizpe Yammim 9. Hazor 10. Abu Pula 11. Qasrin 12. Gamala 13. Ramat Magshimim 14. Rasm Harbush 15. îorvat Kanaf 16. Tel Hadar 17. Tel Kinnerot 18. Beth Yerah 19. Tel Yin'am 20. Zippori 21. Jezreel 22. Tel Ta>anach 23. Megiddo 24. Tel Qiri 25. Yoqne>am 26. Tel Qashish 27. îorvat Raqit

28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54.

Atlit Tel Nami îorvat Sumaqa Caesarea Tel Zeror Tel Hefer Zur Natan Naúal Qanah Cave Tel Michal Apollonia 'Izbet Sartah Mt. Ebal Shiloh Qela Kfar Saba Hermeshit Shoham Newe Yaraq Tel Aphek Tel Gerisa Jaffa Rishon Le-Zion Yavneh Yam Ashdod Tel Harasim Tel Batash îorvat Me§ad

55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81.

Gibeon Jerusalem Herodium Hebron Beth Shemesh Tel Yarmut Tel >Erani Ashkelon Lachish Tel Haror Tel Sera> Tel Beer-sheba Tel >Ira Arad îorvat >Uza îorvat Radum Beth Shean Tel Eztaba Tel Reúov Tel Tsaf Jericho Tel Malúata Tel Aroer Tel Masos Oboda Abu Salem MoEn Gedi and Zoar were famous for their prolific dates. Jericho and Zoar were named ‘the City of the Dates’. >En Gedi was known as ‘Hazzezun Tamar’ after the Hebrew word for date palm. From the 15th to the mid-19th century all written descriptions stress the disappearance of the date palms from this area. This disappearance is the outcome of overexploitation by man, mainly for construction and fuel (Liphschitz 1989f).

Fig. 5.8: Phoenix dactylifera trees growing in Wadi Feiran oasis, Sinai.

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Fig. 5.9: Baskets (Nos.1-5) and ropes (Nos.4, 5), made of Phoenix dactylifera leaves and bark fibres from MoEn Gedi 17. ‘En Besor 18. Tel Haror 19. Tel Sera> 20. Horvat Karkur 21. Tel Beer-sheba 22. Tel Malúata 23. >En Boqeq 24. Me§ad Tamar 25. >En Raúel 26. MoEn Gedi in layers dated to the Byzantine period and at Qa§rin in layers dated to the Early Islamic period. FICUS SYCOMORUS (SYCAMORE FIG)

The wild sycamore fig is widely distributed in East Africa and in Yemen. Cultivation of Ficus sycomorus was an Egyptian speciality. It was domesticated since early dynastic times in the lower Nile valley (Zohary and Hopf 2000). Almost all coffins and wooden artefacts of the simple people in Egypt were made of sycamore fig wood (Liphschitz 1998c). In Israel the Ficus sycomorus is cultivated especially along the coastal plain, mainly on sand dunes or in present-day urbanized regions, Many old aged specimens have survived. The earliest wood remains of Ficus sycomorus found in Israel come from Jericho in strata dated to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A. Numerous coffins made of its timber were found in the Jewish cemetery at Jericho dated to the Second Temple period and at >En Gedi where they were dated to the Hellenistic period. At >En Gedi many household utensils made of sycamore fig were also found, and at Masada logs, boards and wooden objects were identified as this species. All these objects originated in strata dated to the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods. A few wood remains of Ficus sycomorus were discovered at other sites in Israel. The earliest remnants date to the Late Bronze Age and originated at Tel Beth Shean. Several pieces of wood were identified at Yavneh Yam in Iron Age and Persian-Hellenistic strata and at Hebron in Iron Age strata. Few samples were identified at Kuntillet >Ajrud and at Moanach and Tel Nami. Many charred logs and remnants (39 out of 68 samples) came from the ruins of the Middle Bronze Age palace at Lachish where remains of several beams were found in one of its rooms (Ussishkin 1983). Likewise, many charred pieces of wood and eight beams were discovered at Tel Hefer in a monumental construction. Late Bronze Age remnants were found at Hazor, Tel Aphek, Jaffa, Lachish, Tel Beth Shean and Tel Sera>. Those discovered at Lachish came from the Late Bronze Age temple where nearly 50% of the wood remains (114 out of 262 samples) were of Cedrus libani. The temple’s roof was spanned by long wooden beams and ten carbonized cedar beams could be detected along the southern part of the hall. Of special interest are the remains of several cedar beams from the southern side of the hall discovered lying nearly equidistant from one another. A wooden plank about 40 cm wide, inserted between two stone slabs and laid on a layer of small stones formed the threshold. The remains of two rounded wooden posts, each about 12 cm in diameter, protruded from either end of the plank. Both the plank and the posts were made of Cedar of Lebanon. Considerable amounts of carbonized cedar were found in and around the entrance, indicating that the doorway was probably faced with wooden panelling. The 14C dates obtained for the cedar logs placed them in a much earlier period than the archaeological dates for the site. The 14C date for the log from the Middle Bronze Age palace, which was destroyed at the end of the 16th century BCE, was 1800±30 BCE, while the samples from the Late Bronze Age temple, destroyed in the 12th century BCE, were dated to 1300+/-103 BCE. However, one must remember that 14C dates represent the time at which the tree was felled and this may have occurred long before the destruction of the temple (Ussishkin 1978). Nevertheless, the radiocarbon dates do suggest that the cedar logs were in primary use in these buildings. Only in one site of the Late Bronze Age in the northern Negev in Tel Sera> was found for the first time wood remains of Cedar of Lebanon. Iron Age wood remains of Cedar of Lebanon were found at 17 sites, some located in north and central Israel and others in the Negev. These sites are Tel Kabri, Hazor, Jezreel, Megiddo, Tel Aphek, Tell Qasile, Tel Gerisa, Atlit, Lachish, Jerusalem, Tel Reúov, îorvat >Uza, Tel Masos, Tel Beer-sheba, Arad and Tel Malúata. Wood remains of cedar wood were also found at two sites in Sinai, namely Kuntillet >Ajrud and Qseime. Settlement of the southern coastal plain by the Philistines and the establishment of the Kingdom of David and Solomon enhanced foreign commerce. Two cedar logs were found in the Philistine temple at Tell Qasile, where one log came from the vestibule and the other was probably the remains of a wooden pillar, came from the main hall. As in the Late Bronze Age, during the Iron Age too cedar wood was used in many sites in the Negev. It seems that the scarcity of suitable wood for timber in the Negev necessitated its import from abroad. The high occurrence of cedar wood in the Negev indicates the widespread commercial relationships and wealth of the regime that was able to use an expensive import in the building in the monumental constructions. 122

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28.

Bir Ansuba Hazor Me§ad Ateret Kabri Kfar Ata Zippori Jezreel îorvat Sumaqa Atlit Tel Nami Megiddo Caesarea Ta>anach Tel Beth Shean + Tel Eztaba Tel Reúov Zur Natan Apollonia Tell Qasile Tel Gerisa Tel Hefer Tel Aphek îorvat Zikhrin Hermeshit Jaffa îorvat Me§ad Cypros Herodium Jerusalem

29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56.

Lachish Maresha >En Gedi Masada Arad îorvat Karkur Tel Sera> Ashkelon Yavneh Yam Qasrawet Tel Beer-sheba Tel Masos Tel >Ira Malúata îorvat >Uza >En Boqeq Aroer Me§ad Tamar Kurnub Har Yeruham Oboda Shivta Nessana Qseime

MoAjrud Yotvata Ostrakine

Fig. 6.6: Location of Cedrus libani wood samples in archaeological sites.

For the Persian period, only a few remnants of cedar wood came from Tel Sera>, located in the northern Negev. During the Second Temple period, and especially during the reign of Herod the Great, use of cedar wood for construction was widespread, and its remnants were found in 15 sites throughout the country: Atlit, Jaffa, Caesarea, îorvat Za’akuka, Hermeshit, Jerusalem, Tel Eztaba, Tel >Ira, Tel Beer-sheba, Kurnub, Cypros, Masada, >En Gedi, MoIra, Tel Masos, Tel Beer-sheba, îorvat Karkur, 123

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Nessana, Shivta, Me§ad Yeruham, >En Boqeq, >En Gedi, Me§ad Tamar and Yotvata. Its remnants were also discovered in two sites in Sinai: Ostrakine and Qasrawet. Cedar wood from the Early Islamic period was found at Tel Beer-sheba, Arad, Yotvata and most prominently from the roof of Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem (Lev-Yadun et al. 1984). Remnants of Cedar of Lebanon were found in four Crusader and Mamluk period sites: Atlit, Me§ad Ateret, Yavneh Yam and Apollonia. At Atlit the cedar logs were found in the Castle of the Pilgrims. The archaeobotanical finds point to the use of Cedar of Lebanon for special construction purposes and objects during different periods in various regions of the country. Cedar of Lebanon originated in Lebanon, at a considerable distance from Israel. Bringing the timber to each of the sites in Israel was a serious commercial enterprise which required the organization of felling trees in the Lebanese mountains, transporting them to the coast, loading the timber on the ships, shipping the cargo to the ports in Israel, and subsequently transporting it to remote places in the country. Such a system could be operated only in periods in which the economy was strong and the administration well organized. These conditions prevailed in Israel from the Early Bronze Age until the Crusader period. JUNIPERUS PHOENICA Logs and wood pieces of Juniuperus phoenica have been found only rarely in archaeological sites in Israel (Fig. 6.7). The earliest wood remnants were found at four sites: in Naúal Neqarot in the Roman period (17800-13000 BP), in the Ma>ale Ramon in the Harifian period (10000 BP), in Naúal îemar Cave in the PPNB period and in Timna in the Chalcolithic period. Most of the wood remains were found in strata dating to the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods: in Tel Beer-sheba, Mo En Raúel and in Masada. All these sites are located in the Negev, the Arava valley and Dead Sea region. The findings in Naúal Neqarot and Ma>ale Ramon show that Juniperus phoenica grew in the past in the Negev highlands together with Pistacia atlantica. These two species grow today together in Edom, and the assumption on the disappearance of Phoenician juniper due to climatic changes is therefore mistaken. Logs of this tree are of a high quality and a pleasant scent. The family relationship between Herod the Great, the builder of Masada, and the Edomites is reflected in the import of enormous amounts of Phoenician juniper timber to build his palaces. At Masada 556 out of 1233 wood pieces and logs were made of Juniperus phoenica. MoUza, 8 samples were identified at Tel Beer-sheba and 10 samples in Jerusalem. The same holds true for the Persian period: Jerusalem, Yavneh Yam, Tel Beer-sheba, Tel >Ira and Apollonia. 124

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1. 2. 3. 4.

Masada Tel Beer-sheba Naúal îemar Cave Ma>ale Ramon

5. >En Raúel 6. MoEn Gedi. Similarly, very few wood remains originated of the layers dated to the Early Islamic period: Tel Michal, Yavneh Yam, Tel Aphek, Hermeshit, Shuni, Tel Beer-sheba, Arad and Yotvata. In the Crusader castle at Apollonia 21 wood samples of Aleppo pine were found, mainly logs, and a single wood sample was found in the Early Islamic layers at Tel Aphek. There is a relatively high percentage of Aleppo pine wood remains in Hellenistic and RomanByzantine sites on the coastal plain and the Shephela. These regions were unsuitable for pine groves but the presence of this timber can be explained by the import of pine logs from other Mediterranean areas (Lebanon, Syria, Turkey and Greece) with whom commercial relationships flourished at that time. These periods were characterized by large-scale building projects which needed long logs and the coastal plain is convenient for maritime transportation of goods. 125

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Aleppo pine wood has been recorded from archaeological sites in the arid region of the Negev where it could never grow because of the desert climate. This again calls for import of pine logs. On the contrary, in the Galilee area in northern Israel and on Mount Carmel, the area that is considered the best for pine growth, there are very few Aleppo pine remains. No pine remains at all were found at sites in the central hill country of Judaea and Samaria (excluding Jerusalem) which are very suitable for pine growing. Its high occurrence in Jerusalem can be explained only by import of logs and timber for the residential and monumental construction projects in the capital city. All these data clearly point to the absence of pine from the mountains, the best regions for its growth. During prehistoric and protohistoric periods, when native vegetation was used, and the Kermes oak- Terebinth association was dominant in the Mediterranean territory of Israel, the remnants of Aleppo pine are negligible. During historic periods pine timber was imported according to building demands, in regions where pine could not grow.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

Tel Kabri Gamala Kfar Samir Tel Nami îorvat Sumaqa Megiddo Jezreel Tel Reúov Zur Natan îorvat Boreq Apollonia Tel Michal Tel Aphek Tel Dalit Hermeshit Yavneh Yam îorvat Me§ad

18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34.

Tel Gerisa Shoham Jerusalem Jericho Herodium >En Gedi Lachish Tel Sera> îorvat Karkur Tel Beer-sheba Tel >Ira Arad îorvat >Uza Me§ad Tamar Shivta Yotvata Timna

Fig. 6.8: Location of Pinus halepensis wood samples in archaeological sites.

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CUPRESSUS SEMPERVIRENS In Israel the amount of cypress timber changes according to the archaeological period (Fig. 6.9). The earliest single samples of Cupressus sempervirens were found in Naúal Zin in the Negev dating to 11,580 BCE and to the Moshabian period. A single sample was found in el-Wad Cave in the Epipaleolithic layer. The Early Bronze Age is represented by only a single sample each of cypress wood from Tel Yarmut and Naúal Zin and five samples from Megiddo. Likewise, at Tel Aphek a single sample came from Middle Bronze Age strata and the few wood samples dating to the Late Bronze Age were retrieved from Megiddo and Lachish (1 sample each), Tel Sera> (3 samples) and Timna (2 samples). This paucity continues in the Iron Age which produced a single sample each at Tel Gerisa, Lachish, Tel >Ira, Arad and Megiddo, Two samples were found at Jezreel and Jerusalem, and 9 samples at Tel Beer-sheba. A single sample was identified at Tel Beer-sheba in the Iron Age/ Herodian period. A marked increase in Cypress wood remains is obvious in Hellenistic and Herodian strata. While only single wood samples were discovered at Hawarith, Mount Meiron, Kurnub and >En Gedi and a few wood remains were found at Hermeshit and Yavneh Yam, a great number of logs and wood remnants were found at 6 sites. Their distribution was as follows: 17 samples in Jerusalem, 47 samples in Herodium, 13 samples in Tel Beer-sheba, 43 samples at Masada, 16 samples at Cypros and 46 samples at Jericho. In the Roman period only a few samples of cypress were discovered at Tel Aphek, Hermeshit, Tel Beersheba and Migdal Zafit, but the use of this timber increases again in the Roman/Byzantine, Byzantine and Byzantine-Early Islamic period. In the Roman Byzantine period the remains were discovered at îorvat Sumaqa, îorvat Raqit, Hermeshit, Tel >Ira, Tel Masos, ‘En Boqeq and ‘En Gedi. The remains of the Byzantine period originated at Kfar Saba, Hermeshit, Nessana, ‘En Gedi and îorvat Karkur. In the Byzantine/Early Islamic period the remains were gathered at Hermeshit and in Apollonia. During the Early Islamic period few wood remains of cypress were found in several sites: Tel Aphek, Apollonia, Kfar Saba, Yavneh Yam, Arad and îorvat Mafjar. Only in Jerusalen numerous logs of cypress wood were found in the Al-Aqsa Mosque roof dated to the Early Islamic Period. Two samples of cypress wood were dated to the Mameluk period, one from Yavneh Yam and one from Kfar Saba. Numerous logs dating to the 6th, 11th and 17th-18th centuries CE are present in the various parts of the Basilica, Mosque and guest- room balconies in the Saint Catherine’s Monastery in southern Sinai. The location of the sites where Cupressus sempervirens wood remnants were found indicates a concentration in the southern arid area of Israel: the Negev, the Jordan valley and Dead Sea region. In these regions cypress cannot grow natively, and it is therefore obvious that the timber was imported for construction purposes as well as for objects and tools. Cypress timber was also imported to Jerusalem and Herodium during the Hellenistic to Byzantine periods for monumental constructions due to its straight long logs. Only a few remnants of cypress wood were found in the various archaeological sites located in the Mediterranean region of the country, in spite of the ease of working its timber. These findings point that Cupressus sempervirens did not grow natively in Israel. The origin of the cypress timber was therefore from cultivated specimens characterized by a tall straight bole, most probably all from abroad.

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Hawarith Meiron Mizpe Yammim Jezreel îorvat Raqit îorvat Sumaqa El Wad Cave Megiddo Caesarea Apollonia Tel Michal Tel Gerisa Tel Aphek Kfar Saba Hermeshit Yavneh Yam Cypros Jerusalem Jericho

20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36.

Herodium Tel Yarmut Lachish >En Gedi Masada >En Boqeq Arad Tel >Ira Tel Masos Tel Beer-sheba îorvat Karkur Tel Sera> Migdal Zafit Me§ad Tamar Kurnub Nessana Timna

Fig. 6.9: Location of Cupressus sempervirens wood samples in archaeological sites.

CONCLUSIONS The proportions of Cedrus libani, Juniperus phoenica, Pinus halepensis and Cupressus sempervirens in the total wood remains gathered in archaeological excavations were compared on the basis of two separate points of view: by period and by geographic region. The percentages of the timber samples originating from these conifers was examined for each period from the Early Bronze Age to the end of the Early Islamic period (Tables 6.1-6.3). Distribution was examined both for the whole country (Table 6.1) and then for each geographic zone: the Mediterranean (Table 6.2) and in the desert, which includes the various districts of the Negev and Sinai (Table 6.3). During the Early Bronze to Iron Ages the percentages of the coniferous timbers was low, whereas during the Persian and Hellenistic through Early Islamic periods their share in the wood assemblages greatly increased, varying between 22% to 43% (Table 6.1). This phenomenon is prominent both in the Mediterranean region and in the desert regions of the Negev and Sinai (Tables 6.2, 6.3). Examination of the share of the coniferous timber in the total wood assemblages in the various districts for the whole country (Table 6.4, 6.5) points to a marked phenomenon. In Jerusalem there is 128

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a very high proportion of the coniferous woods whereas in the Judaean mountains the proportions are very low and in Samaria there is not even one example of these coniferous timbers. The most obvious conclusion is that import of coniferous timber, which is characterized by straight long trunks and high durability, increased greatly during the later periods, i.e., Persian-Hellenistic, Roman-Byzantine and Early Islamic periods. Abundant imports characterized the city of Jerusalem, but also distinguished special monumental constructions such as the temple and the palace in Lachish, the palaces of Masada, Cypros and even churches like îorvat Karkur. It is clear that this precious timber was imported according to the demands and wealth of the ruler of each particular district.

TABLE 6.1: DISTRIBUTION OF IMPORTED TIMBER BY PERIOD

EB MB LB IA Pers./Hell. Rom/Byz. E. Isl.

No. of samples. Cedrus libani No. % 901 3 0.36 779 84 10.78 1760 126 7.15 3559 110 3.09 2342 173 7.38 1420 193 13.59 402 84 20.89

Juniperus phoenica No. % 593 25.32 -

Pinus halepensis Cupressus sempervirens No. % No. % 15 1.66 6 0.66 2 0.25 1 0.12 9 0.51 5 0.28 28 0.78 23 0.64 57 2.43 184 7.85 45 3.16 71 5.00 29 7.21 46 11.44

Total % 3.32 11.16 7.95 4.52 42.99 21.76 35.55

TABLE 6.2: DISTRIBUTION OF IMPORTED TIMBER IN THE MEDITERRANEAN TERRITORY BY PERIOD No. of samples EB MB LB IA Pers./Hell. Rom./Byz. E. Isl.

553 592 1364 1708 551 26 286

Cedrus libani No. % 3 0.36 83 14.02 102 7.47 62 3.63 31 5.62 52 19.54 68 23.77

Cupressus sempervirens No. % 6 1.08 1 0.16 2 0.14 18 1.05 80 14.52 10 3.75 43 15.03

Pinus halepensis No. % 13 2.35 2 0.33 4 0.29 16 0.93 30 5.44 27 10.15 13 4.54

Total % 3.97 14.51 5.90 5.61 25.58 33.44 43.34

TABLE 6.3: DISTRIBUTION OF IMPORTED TIMBER IN THE NEGEV AND SINAI DESERTS BY PERIOD NORTHERN NEGEV

LB IA Pers.-Hell. Rom./Byz. E. Isl.

No. of samples Cedrus libani No. % 343 24 6.99 1359 41 3.01 1757 22 1.25 1003 68 6.77 192 7 3.64

Cupressus sempervirens Pinus halepensis No. % No. % 1 0.29 4 0.29 11 0.80 13 0.74 13 0.74 16 1.59 5 0.49 3 1.56 5 2.60

Juniperus phoenica No. % 12 0.68 -

Total % 7.28 4.10 2.67 8.85 7.80

CENTRAL NEGEV

Pers./Hell. Rom./Byz.

No. of samples Cedrus libani Cupressus sempervirens Pinus halepensis No. % No. % No. % 20 11 55.00 2 10.00 149 22 14.76 12 8.05 6 4.02

Juniperus phoenica Total % No. % 65.00 18.81

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ARAVA VALLEY

LB Pers./Hell. E. Isl.

No. of samples Cedrus libani No. % 36 163 4 6.34 98 9 9.18

Cupressus sempervirens Pinus halepensis No. % No. % 2 5.55 3 8.33 5 5.21

Juniperus phoenica No. % 25 39.68 -

Total %

Cupressus sempervirens Pinus halepensis No. % No. % 43 2.82 19 2.38 1 0.12

Juniperus phoenica Total % No. % 556 36.48 45.86 3.00

No. of samples Cedrus libani No. % 71 56 1 1.72 335 5 1.49 217 5 2.30 36 2 5.55

Cupressus sempervirens No. % 46 21.19 1 2.77

Pinus halepensis No. % 2 2.81 1 0.03 14 6.45 1 2.77

Juniperus phoenica No. % -

Total %

No. of samples Cedrus libani No. % 13 174 2 1.14 153 45 29.41

Cupressus sempervirens No. % 1 7.69 1 0.57 13 8.49

Pinus halepensis No. % 1 7.69 5 3.26

Juniperus phoenica No. % -

Total %

13.88 40.02 14.39

DEAD SEA REGION

Pers./Hell. Rom./Byz.

No. of samples Cedrus libani No. % 1524 100 6.56 797 4 0.50

JORDAN VALLEY

EB MB IA Pers./Hell. Rom./Byz.

2.81 1.72 1.52 29.94 8.32

SINAI Period LB IA. Rom./Byz.

15.38 1.71 41.16

TABLE 6.4: DISTRIBUTION OF IMPORTED TIMBER BY GEOGRAPHIC REGION (EBA TO EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD) No. of samples

Cedrus libani No.

%

Juniperus Pinus halepensis Cupressus phoenica sempervirens No. % No. % No. %

Total %

0

2 1 6 15 88 12 21 145

1.21 0.48 10.16 1.36 6.29 0.68 5.73

1 1 7 9 90 47 46 201

0.60 0.48 11.86 0.81 6.43 2.69 12.56

3.63 23.36 30.49 4.35 36.09 3.59 40.14 16.23

12 0.53 581 20.79 593

17 41 9 6 73

2.01 1.82 0.32 0.92

47 50 64 15 176

5.56 2.22 2.28 2.31

9.10 13.23 27.56 10.47 16.33

MEDITERRANEAN

Hermon and Golan Heights Galilee Mount Carmel Jezreel Valley Coastal Plain and Shephela Judaea (excluding Jerusalem) Jerusalem Samaria Total no. of samples

164 205 59 1098 1399 1746 366 126 5163

3 46 5 24 327 4 80 492

1.82 22.40 8.47 2.18 23.37 0.22 21.85

DESERT REGIONS

Beth Shean and Jordan valley Negev Dead Sea and Arava valley Sinai Total no. of samples

130

845 2251 2803 649 6548

13 195 117 47 372

1.53 8.66 4.17 7.24

CHAPTER 6: I MPORT OF FOREIGN TIMBER IN A NTIQUITY

TABLE 6.5: DISTRIBUTION OF IMPORTED TIMBERS IN THE MEDITERREANEAN WET REGION VERSUS THE ARID REGIONS (EBA TO EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD) Species

Cedrus libani Juniperus phoenica Pinus halepensis Cupressus sempervirens No. of conifer samples Total no. of wood samples

Mediterranean region No. 492 145 201 838 5163

% 9.52 2.80 3.89 16.23

Negev, Dead Sea region, Arava valley, Jordan valley and Sinai No. 372 593 73 176 1214 6548

% 5.68 9.05 1.11 2.68 18.54

131

CHAPTER 7

ANCIENT WOODEN ARTEFACTS

Only a few wooden objects have been recovered from the numerous archaeological sites excavated in Israel. This is due mainly to the humid conditions prevailing in the Mediterranean region of the country which are not conducive to wood preservation. Furthermore, damage to many sites by wars and fire has further reduced the chances of survival of these natural materials. While the number of wooden household tools and objects from ancient times is small, a rich collection has been retrieved from archaeological sites dating to the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods (Liphschitz 1998b). In addition to household utensils, a few wooden coffins were found, mainly in the arid region of the country (Liphschitz 1996f; Liphschitz and Waisel 1999), as well as wooden weapons and wooden parts of weapons (Liphschitz 1998d). Wood was also used for special indoor decoration for carved panels, beams (Liphschitz et al. 1997) and doors.

HOUSEHOLD OBJECTS AND TOOLS The earliest wooden artefact, discovered in a cave at Wadi Murabba’at (Schick 1995), is a toothed object made of wooden sticks, bound together by yarn and coated with asphalt. It was referred to as a comb, although its exact function is unknown. The sticks were made of Myrtus communis (Werker 1995). The 14 C AMS test, which enables the dating of very small samples, carried out on one of the sticks yielded the age of 10,000 YBP (Bonani 1995). This, however, does not necessarily indicate when the sticks were bound into a comb, a process that might have taken place much later. Wooden objects from the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods were discovered in three caves in the Judaean Desert: the Naúal îemar Cave (Bar-Yosef 1985), the Cave of the Treasure (Bar-Adon 1971) and the Cave of the Warrior (Schick 1998). Wood identification of a weaving loom made of wooden sticks, discovered in the Cave of the Treasure (Bar-Adon 1971), showed that four of the sticks were of Tamarix sp. And three others of Acacia sp., Retama raetam and Olea sp. (Bar-Adon 1971:215). Wooden artefacts discovered in the Naúal îemar Cave included some objects resembling spatulas and arrowheads, two fragments of digging sticks, one object shaped like a fish hook, one wooden awl and a single box fragment (Bar-Yosef 1985). Timber analysis (Werker 1988b) showed they were made mainly of local arboreal species: Retama raetam, Tamarix sp. and a Chaenopodiaceae, probably Salsola. A single artefact was made of Juniperus and another one of Pistacia; both were probably brought to the cave from Edom. Wooden artefacts found in the Cave of the Warrior included a bowl made of Quercus ithaburensis and a stick made of Salix (Werker 1998). Two wooden artefacts were discovered at the Egyptian mining temple at Timna, dated to the 14th13th century BCE (Rothenberg 1988). One is a small disc made of Pinus; the other is a comb made of Buxus sempervirens (Fahn and Zamski 1988).

132

CHAPTER 7: A NCIENT WOODEN A RTEFACTS

HELLENISTIC, ROMAN AND BYZANTINE PERIODS

Well-preserved wooden objects of these periods (Table 7.1) were discovered in the Judaean Desert caves. Wooden objects were found in two caves of Naúal îever. In the Cave of the Horror, dating from the Bar Kokhba period, an intact box, five combs, spindles, gaming counters and sticks were found (Aharoni 1961, 1962). The Cave of the Letters yielded the following finds: a box made of Tilia, a cylindrical box and cover made of Arbutus, two mirror handles made of Tilia, four vessels of Acacia, remnants of four other vessels, two spoons, a comb made of Buxus sempervirens, a handle and three spindles (Yadin 1963a). Objects were also found in two caves of Naúal David. In the Roman period Cave of the Pool an intact comb, two broken combs, three vessels and a cup were found (Avigad 1961, 1962). In the Roman period Naúal Seelim Cave several combs were collected (Aharoni 1961, 1962) and another was discovered in Cave I at Naúal Qumran (Barthelemy and Milik 1955). In the Wadi Murabba’at Cave, also of the Roman period, several vessels, two spoons, four combs, spindles and a weaving needle were collected (Benoit et al. 1961). However, timber analysis was carried out only on a few items collected from two sites: the Cave of the Treasure in Naúal Mishmar (Bar-Adon 1971:185-193) and the Cave of the Letters in Naúal îever (Yadin 1963a:124-140). The growing interest in interdisciplinary studies over the last two decades has resulted in a large number of detailed dendroarchaeological investigations in Israel. The first comprehensive research on wooden artefacts was carried out on the rich assemblage discovered at Masada (Liphschitz 1994b; Liphschitz and Lev-Yadun 1989). Wooden objects collected during 1935-1936 at the church of Nessana (=Auja el-Hafir) (Colt 1962) were identified several years ago. A wooden bowl discovered in the Nabataean tower at Oboda, adjacent to the northern supporting wall (Negev, pers. comm.), has only recently been examined (Liphschitz 1998b). A wooden plug made of Tamarix (X5) (Fig. 7.1) was found in the Roman/Byzantine castle at >En Boqeq (Liphschitz and Waisel 1993). Scores of wooden objects were found in three sites excavated in recent years. A total of 35 artefacts were found in burial caves at >En Gedi (Hadas 1994), of which only seven were at first examined (Werker 1994) while the remainder were subsequently investigated (Liphschitz 1998b). At Fig. 7.1: A wooden plug made of Tamarix (X5) from >En MoEn Raúel (Cohen 1993a, 1993b), all of which have been analyzed (Liphschitz 1998b). The fact that all the above sites dated to the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods are located in arid regions (Dead Sea region and the Negev) resulted in an excellent state of preservation of the wooden objects. WOODEN OBJECTS FROM MO EN GEDI A total of 35 wooden vessels was found in the course of the >En Gedi excavations (Figs. 7.2-7.4). The majority could be defined as tableware, consisting of 16 small bowls, and the remainders as toilet articles. Among the cosmetic vessels were a small ointment bowl, two complete kohl tubes (one with a matching lid), remains of a small lid and a large lid of a cylindrical vessel. Other toiletry articles include a hairpin and two combs. The collection found in Tomb 1 has been identified previously (Werker 1994). It includes objects made of local wood: a conic bowl of Tamarix (aphylla?), two vessels of Ficus (carica or sycomorus), a vessel and cup of Arbutus andrachne (a Mediterranean tree species) and a cover of Buxus sempervirens (which grows in northern Syria). Only five artefacts were found in Tomb 5, three of which were previously examined (Werker 1994): a vessel made of Arbutus andrachne and a kohl tube and a comb made of Buxus sempervirens. Two bowls were made of Ficus sycomorus, a local species, one well preserved and the other in a poor state of preservation (Liphschitz 1998b). Tomb 6 has the richest collection, consisting of 19 objects. All artefacts were recently examined (Liphschitz 1998b) and were found to be made of a local species of wood.The small collection of toilet articles consists of a small oinment bowl and a comb, both of Acacia raddiana, and a badly preserved kohl tube made of Ficus sycomorus. The other artefacts are household objects, made of Ficus sycomorus (lid, badly preserved bowl, well preserved flat vessel, poorly preserved vessel, hair pin and pot-like bowl). Other artefacts are made of Acacia negevensis (a handle and a bowl), Acacia raddiana (an undefined cylindrical object, a comb, two flat vessels and three small vessels) and Calotropis procera (a bowl). WOODEN OBJECTS FROM >EN TAMAR Two combs made of Buxus sempervirens, one comb of Tamarix (X5), a handle made of Colutea istria and a cork made of Buxus sempervirens were identified at >En Tamar, a Nabataean site northwest of Neot Hakikar. 134

CHAPTER 7: A NCIENT WOODEN A RTEFACTS

Fig. 7.2: A flat wooden vessel made of Acacia raddiana from >En Gedi, Tomb 6. (Courtesy of Gideon Hadas)

Fig. 7.3: A wooden cylindrical bowl made of Acacia raddiana from >En Gedi, Tomb 6. (Courtesy of Gideon Hadas)

Fig. 7.4: A wooden comb made of Acacia raddiana from >En Gedi, Tomb 6. (Courtesy of Gideon Hadas)

A WOODEN OBJECT FROM OBODA A bowl discovered in the tower adjacent to the defence wall was made of Tamarix (X5), which, as aforementioned, is a local tree species. (Liphschitz 1998b). WOODEN OBJECTS FROM NESSANA During the 1935-1936 excavations at Nessana (Colt 1962) 20 wooden objects were collected, part of a large assemblage of wooden artefacts. These were made of: Acacia (raddiana or tortilis) (two spindles); Buxus sempervirens (a spindle, a bowl, three combs, a coil, a box and one half of a die); Tamarix (a stopper); Acacia negevensis(?) (a wheel); Balanites aegyptiaca, Acacia albida and Quercus (three halves of a wheel made of each species); Populus euphratica (a lid and a handle); and Acer (a handle and a bowl). WOODEN OBJECTS FROM MASADA Numerous wooden objects which were discovered at Masada were identified already (Liphschitz 1994b; Liphschitz and Lev-Yadun 1989). A total of 54 well defined household tools were identified, including 19 bowls and cups, two boxes, one kohl pot, ten combs, four handles, six stoppers, seven spindles, three spoons and two lids. Those objects were made of different sources. Some were made of trees and shrubs growing in the vicinity of the sites or in oases on the western side of the Dead Sea: Tamarix (X5) (three bowls, a handle and a stopper), Acacia raddiana (a handle), Hammada salicornica (a stopper), Ficus sycomorus (a bowl), and Populus euphratica (two spindles, a kohl pot and a bowl). Others were made of Pistacia atlantica which grows in the Negev highlands (a bowl and a stopper), and of Nerium oleander which grows in the Judaean desert (two bowls). Some articles were prepared from timber of Mediterranean arboreal species: Quercus calliprinos (a spoon, a bowl and a stopper), Pistacia palaestina (three bowls, a comb and a lid), Myrtus communis (five bowls, nine combs, four spindles, two stoppers, a lid and a handle), and Amygdalus communis (a bowl and a box). Timber of Juniperus phoenica which grows in Edom, was amply used at Masada, both for construction (more than 500 logs and wood pieces were made of this species) and for manufacturing wooden objects (two spoons, a bowl, a box, a spindle and a handle). 135

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

TABLE 7.1: WOOD USED FOR ARTEFACT MANUFACTURE IN THE HELLENISTIC, ROMAN AND BYZANTINE PERIODS Object

Species

Bowls, vessels and cups

Acacia raddiana Acacia negevensis Calotropis procera Moringa peregrina Tamarix (X5) Ficus sycomorus Nerium oleander Populus euphratica Pistacia atlantica Arbutus andrachne Acer sp. Quercus calliprinos Pistacia palaestina Amygdalus communis Myrtus communis Juniperus phoenica Buxus sempervirens

Boxes

Kohl pots

Combs

Handles

Stoppers

136

Amygdalus communis Arbutus andrachne Juniperus phoenica Tilia sp. Buxus sempervirens Populus euphratica Acacia raddiana Ficus sycomorus Buxus sempervirens Acacia raddiana Myrtus communis Pistacia palaestina Buxus sempervirens s

Masada

MoEn Raúel >En Gedi Cave of Letters 1 1

3 1 2 1 1

1 1

7 1 1

4

1 7

2

Oboda Nessana

1

1 1

1 3 1 5 1 1

1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 1 5

Tamarix (X5) Acacia raddiana Salvadora persica Populus euphratica Myrtus communis Acer sp. Juniperus phoenica Tilia sp.

1 1

Tamarix (X5) Tamarix sp. Hammada salicornica Ziziphus spina christi Ficus sycomorus Myrtus communis Pistacia atlantica Quercus clliprinos

1

7

1

3

1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1

CHAPTER 7: A NCIENT WOODEN A RTEFACTS

Object

Species

Spindles

Acacia raddiana or tortilis Moringa peregrina Populus euphratica Myrtus communis Amygdalus communis Juniperus phoenica Buxus sempervirens

2 4

Weaving looms

Acacia raddiana Olea europaea Buxus sempervirens

1 1 1

Spoons

Quercus calliprinos Juniperus phoenica

1 2

Lids

Populus euphratica Myrtus communis Buxus sempervirens

1 1

Coil

Buxus sempervirens

Needles

Acacia raddiana Acacia negevensis Populus euphratica Tamarix (X5)

Masada

MoEn Raúel >En Gedi Cave of Letters

Oboda Nessana 2 1

1 1 1

2 1

1

1

1 1 1 1

CONCLUSIONS

About half of the wood objects and tools dated to the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods from Mo En Raúel, >En Gedi, Masada, Oboda, Nessana and the Judaean Desert caves were made of local species growing in the vicinity of the sites. The use of Acacia raddiana was found at six sites: Mo En Raúel, >En Gedi, Masada, Nessana and the Cave of the Letters. The use of Tamarix (X5) and Ficus sycomorus was found at three sites: Mo En Gedi and Masada. A bowl from Oboda was also made of Tamarix (X5). Populus euphratica was used at Mo En Gedi, a cylindrical box at Mo En Gedi, >En Tamar and the Cave of the Letters), Tilia (at the Cave of the Letters) and Juniperus phoenica (at Masada), raises the possibility that such objects were prepared in wood industrial centres which existed in other countries in the Levant. Buxus sempervirens was used to prepare various objects, especially combs. Among the articles made of this timber are: a cosmetic vessel (the Cave of the Letters), a box (Nessana) and two spindles (Nessana and MoEn Gedi), and three coils (MoEn Raúel and Nessana). The combs made of this wood were discovered in numerous sites, the earliest one at the Late Bronze Age temple at Timna. All other combs are of the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods: five combs were found at MoEn Raúel, three at Nessana, two at >En Tamar and one in the Cave of the Letters. Buxus sempervirens grows in Europe, North Africa and Asia, and is still used in Turkey in comb manufacture. Either these objects were imported, or the timber imported and the objects made by local specialists. It should be mentioned here that combs were made of other timber as well: nine combs of Myrtus communis and a single comb of Pistacia palaestina were found at Masada. The wood of Myrtus communis is very flexible and is most suitable for such objects. Even the prehistoric comb discovered in Wadi Murabba’at was made of Myrtus communis. Only a single comb, found at >En Gedi, was made of a local species: Acacia raddiana and another, from >En Tamar, was made of Tamarix (X5). Objects made of Juniperus phoenica were discovered only at Masada. Juniperus phoenica trees grow in north-central Sinai and in Edom. In view of the fact that more than half of the logs and wood pieces there were made of this wood (over 500), it can be assumed that the wood wad brought to Masada from Edom. Objects made of this timber were either imported as a finished product or prepared from the imported timber of this tree at the site itself. Two handles and a single box discovered in the Cave of the Letters were made of Tilia. This tree grows in Europe, including Turkey, and the prepared wooden objects presumably were imported from there. LATER PERIODS

It should also be mentioned that four wooden objects dated to a much later period were found in the 1926 excavations at the Crusader fortress of Qal’at el-Qurein (=Montfort) in the Galilee. The objects, identified only a few years ago, included a stopper made of Quercus calliprinos, a sword handle made of Cercis siliquastrum, a lid of Fraxinus syriaca and a round cylindrical object made of Pinus halepensis. These four tree species grow in the vicinity of the site.

WOODEN COFFINS Although numerous burial caves have been excavated in Israel, only a small number of wooden coffins were discovered in them. This is due mainly to the damage wrought by human intruders and to the humid conditions in most tombs, which are not conducive to the preservation of wood. To date ten sites have yielded remains of wooden coffins which date to the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods. Most of these survived at six sites located in the arid regions of the country: >En Gedi and Jericho in the Dead Sea area, Tel Malúata and îorvat Karkur Illit in the northern Negev, Kurnub in the Negev highlands and Yotvata in the southern Arava valley. A number were discovered at Jericho (Fig. 7.5) (Hachlili 1980, 1993) and >En Gedi (Fig. 7.6) (Hadas 1994). Four coffins from the 1st century BCE were found at Tel Malúata and four others, dated to the same period, were found at Kurnub. All the other sites yielded only a single coffin. 138

CHAPTER 7: A NCIENT WOODEN A RTEFACTS

Fig. 7.5: Components of a wooden coffin (No. II-113) made of Cupressus sempervirens from Jericho. Length of the board 1.8 m.

Fig. 7.6: Wooden coffin made of Ficus sycomorus from >En Gedi. (Courtesy of Gideon Hadas).

Wooden coffins were also retrieved from four sites located in the Mediterranean zone: îorvat Za’aquqa (near Maresha) in the Judaean Shephela, Jerusalem and Bethany (al-‘Azariyah) in the Central Hills and Kfar Gil’adi in northern Galilee. Timber analysis was made only for some of the coffins (Liphschitz 1996f). Remains of ten wooden coffins of the 1st century BCE were preserved in Jericho cemetery (Hachlili 1980, 1993). In all coffins, except one, most of the boards, the angular parts, the corner posts and the planks were made either of Ficus sycomorus (77 out of 194 components) or of Cupressus sempervirens (44 out of 194 components). One of the coffins was mainly made of Pinus brutia. Ziziphus spina christi, characterized by its very hard wood, was used mainly for dowels. Other parts of the coffins were made of Pinus halepensis, Pinus sp., Populus euphratica, Phoenix dactylifera, Olea europaea and Quercus calliprinos (Table 7.2) (Liphschitz and Waisel 1999). The 1st century BCE necropolis of >En Gedi provided the greatest assemblage of well-preserved wooden coffins: 21 nearly intact coffins and fragmentary remains of 19 more (Hadas 1994). These coffins were mainly made of Ficus sycomorus. Thirteen coffins from Tomb 5 and three from Tomb 6 yielded 88 coffin parts, including planks, legs, lids, gables, dowels, pegs and wedges. Of the 88 components, 86 were made of sycamore wood. One dowel was made of Cupressus sempervirens and another of Ziziphus spina christi. (Liphschitz 1996f) (Table 7.2). Four other wooden coffins and remnants of a fifth from Tombs 1, 2 and 5, comprising 30 components, were also mainly made of sycamore wood (21 components) (Werker 1994). Other parts of these coffins were made of Tamarix sp., Salix, Cupressus sempervirens, Pinus halepensis, Cedrus libani and another pine species, either Pinus nigra or Pinus silvestris (Werker 1994) (Table 7.2). Earlier excavations at >En Gedi (Avigad 1993) yielded five wooden coffins, also dated to the 1st century BCE. One of these coffins was made of Cedar of Lebanon and its inlay of Viburnum tinus (Fahn et al. 1986). 139

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

A 2nd century BCE coffin found at Kurnub (Negev 1971) and a Roman period coffin discovered at Yotvata (Meshel 1991) were made of Cedrus libani. Remnants of a Hellenistic period coffin, also made of Cedar of Lebanon, was found at îorvat Za’aquqa (Kloner et al. 1992). The timber of Cupressus sempervirens was used for a coffin of the Byzantine period at îorvat Karkur Illit and the timber of Pinus halepensis was used for a coffin of the Early Roman period found at Bethany (al-Azariyeh) (Chalk 1933). A coffin of the 3rd century CE found at the YMCA in a tomb was made of coniferous wood (Illife 1935). The fact that most of the timber used in the coffins of both >En Gedi and Jericho is sycamore is not surprising, since this tree species grows naturally today in the environs of Jericho, and undoubtedly grew there during the Second Temple period. It is not unlikely that trees of this species grew in the >En Gedi oasis as well, although none grow there today. Ziziphus spina christi, used for coffin parts at both cemeteries, grows in the environs of Jericho and >En Gedi. Other timbers used for coffin parts at Jericho, i.e., Phoenix dactylifera and Populus euphratica, also grow in the area. On the other hand, all coniferous tree species timbers which were used to build the coffins at both cemeteries were imported from abroad. Cupressus sempervirens grows in Edom, on the other side of the Jordan valley. Pinus brutia grows in Cyprus and Turkey. Cedrus libani grows in Lebanon, Turkey and Cyprus, Pinus nigra grows in Turkey and Cyprus, and Pinus silvestris grows in Turkey. It is interesting to compare the plethora of coffins found mainly at >En Gedi and Jericho, but also at other sites in the arid Negev, with the many wooden coffins found in Egypt (Liphschitz 1998c). Two main timbers were used for coffins in Egypt: sycamore for the simple coffins and Cedar of Lebanon for the prestigious coffins of the royalty and nobles. Sycamore is native to Egypt whereas Cedar of Lebanon was imported from Lebanon. Other local timbers used for Egyptian coffins were tamarisk, acacia and Christ thorn, whereas other imported coniferous timber such as pine and cypress were also used. Although coffins alone cannot be taken to indicate the socio-economic status of the dead, and tomb architecture, inscriptions and other artefacts should be considered, it is tempting to assume a difference in social ranking between those buried in coffins made of local timber and those buried in coffins made of valuable imported cedar wood. TABLE 7.2: TIMBER USED AS COMPONENTS OF COFFINS AT JERICHO AND >EN GEDI Species Ficus sycomorus Ziziphus spina christi Cupressus sempervirens Populus euphratica Pinus halepensis Pinus brutia Olea europaea Pinus sp. Pinus nigra/Pinus silvestris Cedrus libani Quercus calliprinos 1 Phoenix dactylifera 2 Salix sp. Tamarix sp. Total no. of samples 194

140

>En Gedi

Jericho No. 77 33 44 6 6 18 3 4

% 39.69 17.01 22.68 3.09 3.09 9.27 1.54 2.06

No. 107 1 2

% 88.42 0.82 1.65

1

0.82

2 5

1.65 4.13

1 2 121

0.82 1.65

0.51 1.03

CHAPTER 7: A NCIENT WOODEN A RTEFACTS

WEAPONS Wood was among the main components of ancient weapons. Bows and arrows were made of wood. Handles of javelins, spears, swords, axes and maces were also made of wood. Unfortunately, only a very small number of wooden weapons or their components have been preserved in Israel (Liphschitz 1998d). The earliest wooden weapons are a bow and two arrows found in the Cave of the Warrior in the Judaean Desert, dated to the Chalcolithic period. These were made of Olea europaea wood (Werker 1998). A handle of a javelin of the Middle Bronze Age I which was found in a tomb-cave at Moza was also made of Olea europaea (Fahn and Zamski 1975). An axe was found in a tomb of the same period at Jaljulia-west (Avivi 2005:29). Its handle was made of wood of Quercus calliprinos. Handles of two swords from a tomb in the Persian Garden at Acco and two axe-hafts from Ashdod dated to the Iron Age were all made of Ziziphus spina christi. A mace, two javelins and eight arrowheads dated to the Crusader period recovered at Me§ad Ateret (Gesher Benot Yaaqov) were made of coniferous wood, and a sword handle of the same period from Qal’at el-Qurein was made of Cercis siliquastrum. In the Castle of Apollonia destroyed in 1265 CE remains of wooden handles and 16 arrowheads were identified. Three handles were made of Cedrus libani wood, one handle was made of Pinus (silvestris?), five handles were made of Pinus and seven handles of coniferous wood. The Chalcolithic bow and arrows found in the Cave of the Warrior were made of wood which was brought to the cave, probably from the Judaean hills. The wooden parts of the weapons found in Moza, Acco, Ashdod, Jaljulia-west and Qal’at el-Qurein were made of trees which grew near those sites, testifying to local weapon production. The weapons found in Me §ad Ateret and Appolonia, dated to quite a late period in history could either have been manufactured from imported wood at the site itself or imported ready-made from abroad. Very few weapons were found in Egypt including bows, arrow-shafts and axe-hafts. Most wooden components were made of local wood, mainly of Acacia but also of Tamarix, and Ziziphus spina christi. Some wooden handles were made of foreign wood such as Buxus, Fraxinus, Cedrus and Quercus (Yadin 1963a; Davies 1987; Western and McLord 1995).

INTERIOR DECORATIONS An impressive collection of carved wooden panels, beams and boards removed from the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem during restorations in the 1930s are at present housed in the Rockefeller Museum in Jerusalem and in the Islamic Museum on the Temple Mount (Fig. 7.7). Carved panels and beams are also famous from the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem and at Saint Catherine’s Monastery in Sinai. The wooden ceiling of the church at the latter site is carved to represent the sky with sun, moon and stars, and the great door to the nave is richly decorated. The carved panels and beams differ in their decorative elements (Marcais 1940). In a comprehensive study Hamilton (1949) describes them in detail paying special attention to their artistic motifs. Two beams have Greek inscriptions. One of the inscriptions mentions the name of Peter, the Patriarch of Jerusalem who occupied the patriarchal throne from 524 - 552 CE (Avi Yonah 1942). The widespread repair and reconstruction of the church took place from 531 CE. The second Greek inscription (Schwabe 1949) was attributed to the 6th or 7th century CE. These Greek inscriptions, written prior to the construction of the Al-Aqsa Mosque between 705-715 CE, suggest that the beams were taken from Christian churches and re-used. A third carved beam has an inscription in Arabic. 141

NILI LIPHSCHITZ

The carved beams from Al-Aqsa mosque are similar in decoration to the carved wooden beams from the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem (Rosen-Ayalon 1989:41-42). The decoration points to the period of Justinian (527-565AD). The same rosette appears on the carved beam from the Al-Aqsa Mosque (Beam 53.5), and therefore may be dated to the same period.

Fig. 7.7: Carved panels from the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. Nos. 1 and 2 are made of Cedrus libani and Nos. 3 and 4 are made of Cupressus sempervirens.

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The ceiling at Saint Catherine’s Monastery in southern Sinai is also carved with floral ornaments, and the great door to the nave is lavishly decorated. Two inscriptions on the carved beam over the nave of Saint Catherine’s Monastery enable its exact dating to the time of Justinian and his wife Theodora. She died in 548 CE and Justinian in 565 CE. The church must therefore have been built sometime between these dates (Galey 1979:50-51). Paleographic and stylistic comparison suggests that the door is of the same period as the carved beams. Evidence including 14C tests proved that the structure has stood since the time of Justinian (Galey 1979:57). Wood identification of the door (Fig. 7.8) and some of the ceiling beams (Fig. 7.9) show they are made of Cupressus sempervirens (Liphschitz and Waisel 1976), as are several of the carved beams and panels of Al-Aqsa Mosque.

Fig. 7.8: The entrance door to the 6th century CE basilica at Saint Catherine’s Monastery in Sinai. It is made of Cupressus sempervirens.

Fig. 7.9: The ceiling of the 6th century CE basilica at Saint Catherine’s Monastery in Sinai. It is made of Cupressus sempervirens.

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Twenty-two carved panels and beamsfrom the Al-Aqsa mosque, now in the Rockefeller Museum, were botanically identified and six were dated by radiocarbon 14C AMS technique (Liphschitz et al. 1997). Sixteen of these architectural elements were made of Cedrus libani and six of Cupressus sempervirens (Table 7.3). All the samples which were dated by 14C were earlier than the construction of the mosque, and therefore their timber was in secondary use. This can be attributed to the shortage of suitable timber for such panels and beams and the fact that the precious timber was always imported from abroad, most probably from Lebanon. TABLE 7.3: WOOD IDENTIFICATION AND 14C DATING OF CARVED PANELS AND BEAMS Description Carved panel No. 53.1 Carved panel No. 53.15 Carved panel No. 53.11 Carved panel No. 53.13 Carved panel No. 53.9 Carved beam No. 53.18 Carved beam No. 53.20 Carved beam No. 53.21 Carved beam No. 53.22 Carved beam No. 53.5 Carved beam No. 53.27 Carved beam No. 53.25 Carved beam No. 53.24 Carved beam No. 53.12 Carced beam No. 53.26 Carved panel No. 53.2 Carved panel No. 53.4 Carved panel No. 53.6 Carved panel No. 53.14 Carved panel No. 53.10 Carved panel No. 53.19

144

Species Cedrus libani Cedrus libani Cedrus libani Cedrus libani Cedrus libani Cedrus libani Cedrus libani Cedrus libani Cedrus libani Cedrus libani Cedrus libani Cedrus libani Cedrus libani Cedrus libani Cedrus libani Cupressus sempervirens Cupressus sempervirens Cupressus sempervirens Cupressus sempervirens Cupressus sempervirens Cupressus sempervirens

Calibrated age (BCE/CE)

32BCE-219CE (100%)

316-435CE (83.5%) Arabic inscription 411-567CE (98.6%) Greek inscription (Avi Yonah 1942) 437-635CE (100%)

209-37BCE (94.3%) 377-168BCE (100%) Greek inscription (Schwabe 1949)

CHAPTER 8

DENDROCHRONOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Israel is a meeting point of three main phytogeographic regions:Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian and SaharoArabian, and a Sudanian penetration. This unique location characterized by diverse climates as well as its occupational history since ancient times result in unusual difficulties for dendrochronological research.

CLIMATE, SOIL AND PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC UNITS Israel is situated in the eastern Mediterranean basin, in an area of complex climate, soil, topography and vegetation. It displays contrasting features in many respects, having mountain peaks higher than 1000 m asl in the north and depressions about 400 m below sea level in the east (Dead Sea). The main soil types in Israel are terra rossa, rendzina, basalt, sandy and sandy-calcareous soils, alluvial and loess soils, hammadas and saline soils. A variety of prevailing edaphic conditions occurs even within climatically uniform zones. The climate of northern and central Israel is of the Mediterranean type, characterized by a mild rainy winter and a dry hot summer. In the southern district the climate tends to be arid. This diversity is due to geographic latitude, altitude, distance from the sea and topography. A mild climate near the sea shore changes to a more continental climate inland. Rainfall ranges from about 1000 mm in the northern mountains to about 25 mm mean annual precipitation in the southern desert areas. The vegetation ranges from humid Mediterranean forest and maquis to arid zone types and has undergone many changes in its composition since the early Tertiary. Each period has had its invasions and retreats, and these changes have left their relics. The present vegetation of Israel is therefore the outcome of the intermingled effects of all the above mentioned environmental factors. (cf. Zohary 1962, 1973). Changes in the distribution of the vegetation in Israel began when human activity became a major ecological factor. Farming, pasturing, industry, fuel, fires and wars resulted in the destruction of existing plant species and invasions by others. The coastal plain and the mountain valleys have been under continuous cultivation since very ancient times. Destruction of the primary vegetation followed by abandonment of cultivated areas resulted in re-occupation of the areas by natural or secondary climax vegetation. The present state of forests and maquis in Israel is the residue of the primary vegetation which could withstand and survive the overusage by man, together with foreign invaders which have expanded considerably and spread over all areas which originally were occupied by forests and maquis. The destruction of the forest cover by man was a slow process. Damage was caused by hewing of wood for industry, fuel and building, grazing and browsing, clearing of forest areas and forest fires either planned or accidental. Local trees provided timber both for local needs and also for export to neighbouring arid regions. Grazing resulted in the production of bushy shapes instead of well developed trees. 145

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SPECIFIC DENDROCHRONOLOGICAL RESEARCH PROBLEMS I. WOOD ANATOMY

Mature trees growing in Israel can be divided into several general patterns concerning growth ring formation. 1. Trees that commonly form only one ring each year under normal conditions of growth. Those are typical to temperate regions. They undergo a period of winter rest or dormancy. 2. Trees that commonly form more than one ring each year (multiple or false rings). They are characteristic of the Mediterranean subtropical and tropical regions. They possess intermittent growth of the shoot, and a new growth ring is formed usually corresponding each new flush of growth. False, multiple or intra-annual rings are often formed when cambial activity occurs in several growth flushes within the same year. Alternation of early and late wood production are repeated within one growth season. In false rings the earlywood – latewood boundary may be somewhat more gradual. In normal rings the boundary between the latewood of one year and the earlywood of the next year is usually abrupt. Very often false rings are as clearly defined to the eyes as true annual rings. The presence of multiple rings often leads to serious overestimation of tree age. 3. Trees which fail to produce distinct growth rings at all. They are typical to tropical regions, under a uniform environment. In these trees continuous growth occurs. 4. Trees which produce discontinuous rings. Such rings occur in trees of arid zones or overmature trees or supressed trees with one-side crowns. Different number of xylem layers are formed on different radii of the stem. 5. Woody species with included phloem, e.g. Chaenopodiaceae family. Many shrubs typical of the more arid regions of Israel belong to this family. Another phenomenon which occurs in many aged specimens in arid regions is the splitting of the axis. This also makes it difficult in using arid woody species, e.g. Zygophyllum dumosum, for dendrochronology. (cf. Fahn 1962; Liphschitz and Lev-Yadun 1986). Many trees and shrubs of Israel do not produce growth rings at all. Most of them are desert or semidesert like all the species of the genus Acacia, Ficus sycomorus, Tamarix aphylla, Calotropis procera, members of the Chaenopodiaceae family as Haloxylon persicum, Phoenix dactylifera, Hyphaene thebaica, Moringa peregrina, Salvadora persica and others. Other species produce false rings which are very often indistinguishable from annual rings: Cupressus sempervirens (Liphschitz et al. 1981b), Ziziphus spina christi (Liphschitz and Waisel 1970a), Pistacia lentiscus (Grundwage and Werker 1976; Liphschitz et al. 1985), Quercus boissieri and Quercus calliprinos (Liphschitz and Waisel 1967), Populus euphratica (Liphschitz and Waisel 1970b), Olea europaea and Quercus ithaburensis (Liphschitz 1995b). Others grow assymetrically, i.e. Juniperus phoenica or lack the centre of the bole like Olea europaea and Pistacia khinjuk. Other woody species produce rings which differ in structure and width due to different site conditions: Populus euphratica (Liphschitz and Waisel 1970b), Quercus ithaburensis (Liphschitz 1995b), or Pistacia lentiscus (Grundwage and Werker 1976; Liphschitz 1995b). II. GROWTH HABITS

The existence of several groups of trees which exhibit different patterns of growth on the very same site was found for several tree species which were analyzed for dendrochronology. Those are Quercus 146

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boissieri (Liphschitz and Waisel 1967), Populus euphratica (Liphschitz 1969), Juniperus phoenica (Liphschitz et al. 1987) and Pistacia khinjuk (Liphschitz et al. 1987). The question why individual trees of the same age under similar external conditions behave differently remains open. It is possible that different response to various temperatures or water availability is caused by genetic differences in the population. It is also possible that this phenomenon is indirect and results from competition between specimens that break dormancy earlier and those that are dormant a longer period of time, or from specific conditions of the ecological niche. Differences in ring formation occur also from year to year. Adaptation to the Mediterranean climatic rhythm is usually characterized by one active growth season during the mild wet autumn, winter and spring, and by a period of dormancy during the dry and hot summer months. Temporary water stresses which might be caused by occasional dry and hot spells of the spring, the so called “sharav”, result in short periods of inactivity. Improvement of water balance later on brings about a new flush of growth. When discontinuous growth occurs, two rings might be produced during a single year. Extremely cold winters also result in different phenological behaviour. The cambium may enter dormancy or inactivity in extremely cold winters also in evergreens, and subsequently produce a false ring (Liphschitz and LevYadun 1986). Certain trees may be deciduous e.g. Ficus sycomorus and Ziziphus spina christi. III. SCARCITY OF SUITABLE TREES

Scarcity of specimens of old trees with distinct annual growth rings which react sensitively to every climatic change are the main obstacle to dendrochronological research in Israel. In fact, living old trees exist today in Israel only very rarely, and are usually in the vicinity of a sacred tomb or holy place (Liphschitz and Biger 1998). Investigations of such specimens can be made only by taking cores (Fig. 8.1), which is in most cases insufficient because of assymetric growth (Fig. 8.2) and false ring formation (Fig. 8.3). Moreover, those trees sometimes receive additional water and cannot therefore represent natural conditions. Very few well-preserved old buildings have survived standing today in Israel. Most were destroyed during wars, and those that endure are usually holy sites like churches, mosques etc. In most cases the logs are used to support the roof, and cannot be sampled for dendrochronology. In archaeological sites usually the wood remnants are small, mostly charred. Very seldom, mainly in the arid district of the country, the sites were not destroyed and logs are still existing. But in most cases the logs are made of ringless tree species. Another complication is the fact that when suitable logs do still exist, they are usually made of imported wood (Chapter 6), so the exact origin of the wood is not known. Moreover, in the absence of a long master chronology, the data obtained from old buildings or archaeological sites remains floating. Cross-dating is impossible so that dating can be determined only by using either archaeological information or by 14C dating which is less accurate.

PRESENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE Dendrochronological research in Israel today can be divided into several categories: 1. Information obtained from living trees which can contribute to the establishment of the master chronology of the region. 2. Data obtained from ring sequences of construction timber gathered in archaeological excavations or old buildings. In these cases the chronologies obtained are floating ones. 147

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Fig. 8.1: Increment cores of trunks of Pinus halepensis (above) and Cedrus libani (below). On the left is the outer edge including the bark.

Fig. 8.2: Cross-section of a branch of Pinus halepensis demonstrating assymetric growth. The innermost ring with the pith is clearly visible on the left.

Fig. 8.3: Cross-section of trunk of Cupressus sempervirens showing false rings. The right-hand side slide is a magnification and shows three rings on the right and five rings on the left.

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3. Data obtained from ring sequences of construction timber of historical buildings, mostly of the 19th century. The chronologies built can help, after cross-dating with master chronologies available in the International Tree Ring Data Bank, to date these buildings where no written documents are available. CHRONOLOGIES OF LIVING TREES

Modern dendrochronological investigations began in Israel in 1963. Due to scarcity of suitable material for dendrochronological research in the country itself, investigations were made, when possible, on trees growing in other sites in the eastern Mediterranean basin. Since then methods of research have changed. In the first investigations during 1963-1969, curves of running means of 5 and 21 years were used (Fahn et al. 1963; Liphschitz and Waisel 1967; Waisel and Liphschitz 1968). Later on, the value of the rings were calculated as indices (Fritts 1963; Fritts et al. 1969). After cross-dating, a master chronology was constructed. Correlation coefficients between the master chronology and climatic variables were calculated. Very few tree ring chronologies exist for the northern and central district of Israel so that a master chronology could not be constructed because of lack of information. The data available include a few tree ring chronologies for the trees and logs in the Golan Heights (Felix 1968; Kaplan 1984), and tree ring chronologies for Quercus boissieri (Cyprus oak) growing in the Upper Galilee (Mount Meiron) (Liphschitz and Waisel 1967). The trees which formed the samples were rather young and had only reached the age of about 70 years. Dependence of radial increment on temperature conditions was obvious. The effect of temperature was also reflected by the width of the annual rings and by the appearance of false rings. Increment cores taken from Cedrus libani (Cedar of Lebanon) trees, growing in Lebanon on Jebel Baruk showed that they attained ages of up to 450 years. Unfortunately the extremely assymetric growth of these trees precluded the possibility of reaching any conclusions. Only one long chronology is available for the central region of Israel. Several old Pinus halepensis (Aleppo pine) trees survived in the Armenian Patriachate yard in Jerusalem, and one old living specimen of this species (about 250 years) survived in the Rockefeller Museum yard in Jerusalem (the tree died in 1998). The old age of these pines made them suitable for dendrochronological analysis (Lev-Yadun et al. 1981). The long-term pattern of radial growth yielded sinusoidal curves of 75 years amplitude. In the oldest trees as well as in the master chronology a double cycle of 75 years can well be distinguished. Dependence of radial growth on spring rainfall and temperatures can be explained by the annual rhythm of activity in this species (cf. Oppenheimer 1945; Gindel 1944; Liphschitz et al. 1984). However, two facts must be taken into consideration regarding those trees. Firstly, the data achieved covers only about 200 years due to the fact that this species usually attains maximal ages of about 200 years. Meteorological records for Jerusalem have been recorded for about 150 years, so that their contribution to reconstructing past climate of this region is limited. Secondly, these specimens grow under cultivation and have received irrigation water throughout the year, a fact which undoubtedly influenced their growth rhythm. The growth pattern of irrigated trees most probably differs from trees growing under natural conditions. Actually, two earlier investigations were made on Pinus halepensis growing 20 km from Jerusalem (Hamasreik Nature Reserve; Beith Mahsir) under natural conditions (Gindel 1944, 1980; Tamari 1976). Though the master chronology of 54-117 years was closely correlated 149

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with annual rainfall of Jerusalem, the information could not extend the meteorological data since, as mentioned earlier, rainfall measurements are not available for Jerusalem for the whole period. The first modern dendrochronological research in Israel was carried out in the Negev – the southern district of the country (Fahn et al. 1963). Lack of suitable material makes it the sole information available for this region until today. Pistacia atlantica (Atlantic pistachio) trees showed major cycles of about 100 years, but were difficult to interpret despite some correspondence to the annual precipitation of Jerusalem. Wide ring production is obvious during 1775-1820. Another period of intensive radial growth can be observed during 1680-1720, though the trees were very young. Narrow rings were formed during 1720-1770. In the same study Zygophyllum dumosum shrubs were also examined. The fluctuations of the radial growth of these shrubs corresponded to the fluctuations of the Dead Sea level although it should be borne in mind that in old specimens of this shrub splitting of the axis is a well known phenomenon. Moreover, when artificial water stresses were given to adult individuals false rings were produced, which could not be distinguished from the annual rings (Waisel et al. 1970). Long term chronologies were constructed for Juniperus phoenica (Phoenician juniper) and Pistacia khinjuk (Persian pistachio) (Fig. 8.4) trees growing in Sinai (Waisel and Liphschitz 1968; Liphschitz and Waisel 1969; Liphschitz et al. 1984, 1987).

Fig. 8.4: Master chronologies of Juniperus polycarpos from Iran, Pinus nigra from Turkey and Pistacia khinjuk from southern Sinai.

Juniperus phoenica grows in north-central Sinai. Pistacia khinjuk grows in the mountain region of south Sinai. The oldest living specimen of Juniperus phoenica reached the age of 865 years. Numerous Juniperus phoenica trees attained ages of above 500 years (Fig. 8.5) and 700 years. The oldest living specimen of the Persian pistachio was 400 years old (Fig. 8.6). A period of wide ring production occurred during the years 1670-1712 and 1790-1820. Narrow rings were produced during 1715-1740 and 1830-1860 (Liphschitz et al. 1984). According to the longest living juniper tree (865 years old) from Jebel Hallal another favourable period for width growth occurred during 1185-1255 (Liphschitz and Waisel 1969). Local variations between the local populations of each specimen as well as between the juniper and the pistachio inhabiting two different districts do exist. The juniper population of Jebel Hallal showed a better correlation with temperature while radial growth of the juniper trees of Jebel Maghara was dependent 150

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Fig. 8.5: Cross-cut of a 502 year old trunk of Jumiperus phoenica from Jebel Maghara, Sinai.

Fig. 8..6: Cross-cut of a 400 year old trunk of Pistacia khinjuk from southern Sinai.

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both on temperature and rainfall. A better correlation to temperatures in a desert area is not surprising since rains are local and temperature is a more regional parameter. Precipitations were measured quite far from the habitats, thus not representing the water availability in the sampling site (Liphschitz et al. 1987). Chronologies of Cupressus sempervirens (Cypress) adult, cultivated or escapie, trees growing near Saint Catherine’s Monastery in Sinai showed a similar pattern with wide rings formation during 1808-1851, and narrow rings production during 1852-1917 (Liphschitz et al. 1987). Tree ring analyses were made for three conifers growing in Cyprus: 55-177 years Pinus brutia (Calabrian pine) from Adelphi and Akama forest, 128-471 years Pinus nigra (Austrian pine) from Mount Trodos, and 80-521 years old Cedrus libani var. brevifolia (Cedar of Lebanon; short needles variety) from Papos forest and Cedar valley (Tamari 1976). Correlation was found between the width growth and annual precipitation for the Calabrian pine. The master chronology of the Austrian pine showed no correlation with any climatic parameter. Correlation was found between the master chronology of the cedar and the season’s rains (Tamari 1976). In 1991 another dendrochronological research project was conducted on Pinus brutia (Calabrian pine) and Pinus nigra (Austrian pine) trees growing in the Troodos mountains in Cyprus (Eckstein and Vogel 1992). The growth of Pinus brutia trees in the “college forest” was found to be supported by the annual precipitation. Consequently it was possible to reconstruct the precipitation back to the 18th century. The tree growth on the sites above 1200 m’ was found to be additionally inf luenced by the temperature, because in that altitude rainfall is not the limiting factor. It was also found that high temperature in winter and spring and low temperature in summer supported the growth of the pines. The climate – growth relationship of Pinus nigra was found to be similar. Comparison between growth patterns of pines growing in Cyprus and Turkey showed that despite the great distance, the Catacik chronology of Pinus nigra from Anatolia showed a good similarity with the Cyprus chronology of Pinus brutia. Dendrochronological investigations made on Pinus nigra growing in south Anatolia Turkey (Liphschitz et al. 1979a) showed that a period of wide ring production occurred during the years 16701710 and 1780-1820. A drop in the curve due to narrow rings formation took place during 1720-1740 and 1830-1860. Radial growth is mainly correlated with mean minimal temperatures in May and mean maximal temperatures in August. The oldest specimen reached the age of 520 years. Long term chronologies were constructed for Juniperus polycarpos trees growing in north central Iran. Favourable conditions which prevailed during the periods 1675-1690 and 1790-1810 resulted in wide rings while less favourable conditions which prevailed during 1700-1735 and 1855-1865 resulted in narrow rings (Liphschitz et al. 1979b). Radial growth in this species depends mainly on the amount of precipitation in the more arid regions. When the amount of rainfall reached 450 mm and above it the summer temperatures become the limiting factor. Comparison of master chronologies of Pistacia atlantica (Atlantic pistachio) (Negev – Israel), Juniperus phoenica (Sinai), Pinus nigra (south Turkey) and Juniperus polycarpos (Iran) shows that wide ring production is prominent in all the sites of the investigations during the years 1670-1710 and 1780-1820, and narrow ring formation is obvious during the years 1720-1740 and 1830-1860 (Liphschitz et al. 1984). It seems therefore that there are periods in which a regional climatic regime prevails in the eastern Mediterranean basin. In other periods local variations exist.

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TABLE 8.1: MASTER CHRONOLOGIES FOR LIVING OLD TREES Site

Elevation

Species

Period

Reference

GOLAN HEIGHTS Hazury grave (33.17N-35.44E) (33.15N-35.45E) Masa>ada (33.15N-35.45E) Masa>ada Gebata a Zeyt (33.18N-35.44E) Yahudia (32.55N-35.48E)

816 m 900 m 900 m 1000 m 100 m

Quercus calliprinos Quercus infectoria Pistacia atlantica Pyrus syriaca Quercus ithaburensis

1800-1968 1750-1968 1820-1968 1880-1968 1885-1984

Felix 1968 Felix 1968 Felix 1968 Felix 1968 Kaplan 1984

(33.01N-35.73E) 890 m

Quercus boissieri

1900-1967

Liphschitz and Waisel 1967

(31.38N-35.18E) 600 m (31.50N-35.00E) 718 m (31.50N-35.00E) 718 m

Pinus halepensis Pinus halepensis Pinus halepensis

1765-1979 1852-1969 1858-1937

Lev-Yadun et al. 1981 Tamari 1976 Gindel,1944

GALILEE Mt. Meron JUDAEA Jerusalem Hamasreik Hamasreik

NEGEV Rosh Horsha Naúal Nafha Sedom (31.02N-35.23E) NORTH-CENTRAL SINAI Jebel Maghara (30.45N-33.25E) Jebel Yiallaq (30.25N-33.30E) Jebel Hallal (30.35N-34.00E)

800 m 800 m -390 m

1700-1963 Pistacia atlantica 1750-1963 Pistacia atlantica Zygophyllum dumosum 1700-1963

400 m 1000 m 892 m

Juniperus phoenica Juniperus phoenica Juniperus phoenica

1432-1967 1865-1967 1102-1967

Waisel and Liphschitz 1968 Waisel and Liphschitz 1968 Waisel and Liphschitz 1969

1800 m

Pistacia khinjuk

1577-1976

Liphschitz et al. 1984, 1987

2000 m 1200 m

Juniperus polycarpos Juniperus polycarpos

1659-1973 1669-1973

Liphschitz et al. 1979b; 1984 Liphschitz et al. 1979b; 1984

1100 m

Juniperus polycarpos

1832-1973

Liphschitz et al. 1979b; 1984

1770 m 1440 m

Pinus nigra Pinus nigra

1450-1969 1293-1979

Liphschitz et al. 1979b; 1984 Kuniholm 1983

Pistacia atlantica

1680-1896

Fahn et al. 1963

Pinus nigra Cedrus libani var. brevifolia (35.00N-32.30E) 1000 m Pinus brutia (35.00N-32.30E) 200 m Pinus brutia 400m + 800 Pinus brutia m+ 1200 m

1498-1969 1448-1969

Tamari 1976 Tamari 1976

1792-1969 1859-1969 1717-1990

Tamari 1976 Tamari 1976 Eckstein and Vogel 1992

SOUTHERN SINAI Jebel Sirbal (28.35N-33.33E) IRAN Khosh Yielag (36.45N-55.30E) Mohamed Rizah (36.15N-53.50E) Park Lake Rezaaiyeh (38.15N-45.15E) TURKEY Taurus Mts. (37.00N-35.00E) Catazik (39.55N-30.10E) Anatolia ALGERIA Dias de Laghouat CYPRUS Troodos Mts. Paphos, Cedar Valley Adelphi Akama Troodos Mts.

(34.55N-32.53E) 1800 m (25.00N-32.38E) 1400 m

Fahn et al. 1963 Fahn et al. 1963 Fahn et al. 1963

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DATING ARCHAEOLOGICAL TIMBER Numerous difficulties are involved in dating archaeological timber: 1. Cross-dating should be made only when the archaeological floating chronology and the reference master chronology are of the same tree species. 2. When a floating chronology is cross-dated the source of the timber is unkown. 3. A reference master chronology is constructed of several successive older ring sequences, which might incorporate mistakes in the overlapping of the older ring sequences. This has happened twice in the German oak master chronology. Instead of the sequences being overlapping, they were actually sequential so that the chronology was lengthened by several decades (Spurk et al. 1998). Other factors, which should be taken into account are: 1. The possibility of secondary and tertiary use of the timber (Liphschitz et al. 1997), which is typical for arid regions where timber is costly. 2. In worked timber very often the outer layers of the trunk, including numerous outermost rings, are missing due to woodworking of the carpenter. The date of the timber will represent a much earlier period than the date of the construction. FLOATING CHRONOLOGIES

Construction timber can serve as a valuable source for dendrochronological research. Such timber can be found either in historical buildings or during archaeological excavations. In historical buildings original timber is very often replaced by new during restorations. In those cases when timber is reinserted in the construction and not replaced, close-up photographs of cross-cut edges can be used as well. In archaeological sites timber is removed during the excavations and can therefore be used for ring analysis. However, one should remember that in regions poor in suitable construction timber secondary and even tertiary use of wood might occur (Liphschitz et al. 1997). Cross-dating dates the last rings of the examined log. Several floating chronologies were made on logs taken from ancient buildings dating back to several eras. I. THE HISTORICAL PERIOD Logs of Cedrus libani dating to the 17th-19th centuries CE were taken from buildings in the old city of Safed (Upper Galilee) (Figs. 8.7, 8.8). Cross-dating of the master chronology of the beams showed similar pattern to the general trend of the tree growth of the East Mediterranean basin, i.e., wide rings were produced during 1790-1820 (Liphschitz et al. 1984). Several floating chronologies were obtained for logs collected from abandoned buildings in the Golan Heights (Felix 1968). These chronologies were cross dated. The Platanus orientalis chronology was dated to the period 1620-1830, Quercus infectoria – to the period 1545-1830, and Pistacia atlantica to the periods 1535-1820 and 1540-1800 (Felix 1968). Dating of historic buildings in Eretz Israel settlements was made by dendrochronology of built in timber. The wood was made of European conifers: Picea alba, Larix decidua and Pinus silvestris. Comparison of the ring sequences of living trees show that the timber came from the south of France. The trees were felled around the second half of the 19th century. Written documents confirm that the settlements were established at the end of the 19th century, while the timber was imported from Marseille (Liphschitz and Biger 1988). 154

Fig. 8.7: Cross-section of a log of Cedrus libani from Safed.

Fig. 8.8: Microscopic 3-dimensional strcture of the wood of Fig. 8.7. 1) Cross-section with traumatic resin ducts. 2) Magnification of 1) showing two traumatic resin ducts; 3) Longitudinal tangential section; 4) Magnification of 3); 5) Longitudinal radial section with a traumatic resin duct; 6) Magnification of number 5) showing traumatic resin duct; 7) Bordered pits with fringed torus in 6).

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Another floating chronology was obtained for the American colony in Jaffa (Biger and Liphschitz 1993). Botanical identification of the timber showed all wood originated from northeastern American tree species: Pinus strobus, Larix laricina and Tsuga canadensis. Cross-dating of the ring sequences of the construction timber with master chronologies from the northeastern United States confirmed the known date of the establishment of the colony, as all logs examined originated from trees which had been felled before 1866. Written sources tell us that the American colony in Jaffa was established in 1866 and the timber was brought from Maine to build wooden houses. Dendrochronological research confirms the documentary records (Biger and Liphschitz 1993). Botanical analysis of the timber of an oil press in el-Medieh showed it was made of a pine belonging to a northeastern American pine-group. Dendrochronological measurement was made on a core taken from the log along a radius of its edge, including 147 rings. Cross-dating of the results with tree ring chronology for Mount Elephant, Maine, located in the northeastern United States showed the tree was felled around 1890 and the oil press was most probably restored at this time. Documents testify that the oil press was built by Clark, an American settler in the Holy Land at the end of the 19th century. (Liphschitz et al. 1996). II. THE BYZANTINE PERIOD Following repairs to the roof of Al-Aqsa and Omar Mosques in Jerusalem, numerous beams were removed and replaced. One hundred and forty of these were studied, of which 46 were made of Cedrus libani (Fig. 8.9), 18 of Cupressus sempervirens, 69 of Quercus cerries (Turkey oak), 3 of Populus sp. and 4 of Platanus sp. Cupressus sempervirens logs were not suitable for dendrochronological analysis because of numerous false rings. Populus and Platanus logs had rather a small number of rings. The Turkey oak logs dated to several eras, thus comprising several floating chronologies belonging to different periods. Only the logs of Cedar of Lebanon dated to a single period, i.e., 3rd-6th centuries CE. The master chronology indicates that periods of wide rings occurred approximately during both the 4th and the 6th centuries CE (Fig. 8.10), whereas a period of 50 years of very narrow rings occurred sometime during the 5th century CE. This period, which lasted for over fifty years, could not have been limited to a single site and probably occurred throughout the entire region following severe stress conditions (Lev-Yadun et al. 1984; Liphschitz et al. 1984).

Fig. 8.9: Cross-cut of a log of Cedrus libani from the roof of Al-Aqsa Mosque, Jerusalem.

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Fig. 8..10: Floating master chronology of Cedrus libani logs from Al-Aqsa Mosque roof, Jerusalem. The chronology is from the 4th-6th centuries CE.

Fig. 8.11: Log of Cedrus libani from Kurnub. 1) Cross-cut; 2) Microscopical cross-section; Traumatic resin ducts are obvious; 3) Microscopical radial longitudinal section. Bordered pits with fringed torus can be clearly seen.

157

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III. THE HERODIAN PERIOD Floating chronologies were obtained for Cedrus libani (Fig. 8.11) and Cupressus sempervirens (Fig. 8.12) logs dating to the 1st century BCE – 1st century CE, which were taken from archaeological excavations at Herodium, Cypros and Kurnub (Liphschitz et al. 1984; Liphschitz 1986a). Floating chronologies were established also for Juniperus phoenica logs from Mo En Raúel excavations (248 and 286 years long), dating to the 2nd century BCE – 1st century CE (Liphschitz 1986a). Another floating chronology of about 100 years long was prepared for Pistacia khinjuk from Ajrud in east Sinai. The logs are from the 9th century BCE (Liphschitz 1986a). Unfortunately, all these floating chronologies (Fig.8.14) cannot be dated at present because of lack of a long master chronology for this region.

Fig. 8.12: Cross-cut of logs of Cupressus sempervirens. 1) From Herodium; 2) From Kurnub.

158

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184

INDEX OF PLANT, SPECIES Abies, 4, 80, 82 Abutilon, 91 Acacia, 38, 40, 80, 87, 132, 133, 141, 146 Acacia albida, 38, 41, 54, 66, 86, 87, 91 Acacia gerrardi, spp. negevensis, 14, 56, 66, 82, 84, 91, 95, 99, 101, 135, 137 Acacia raddiana, 14, 33, 34, 38, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 53, 56, 66, 67, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89, 92, 93, 95, 98, 100, 101, 133, 134, 135, 137, 168 Acacia tortilis, 14, 54, 56, 66, 67, 80, 82, 84, 135 Acer, 87, 135 Acer syriacum, 30, 35, 36, 38, 86 Allenia lancifolia, 73, 89 Amygdalus, 78, 91 Amygdalus communis, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 40, 41, 43, 44, 45, 58, 82, 84, 95, 100, 102, 103, 108, 109, 133, 134, 135 Amygdalus korshinski, 84 Anabasis articulata, 53, 72, 80, 82, 83, 84, 88, 89, 93 Anabasis setifera, 73, 89 Arbutus andrachne, 30, 35, 36, 82, 133, 134 Artemisia, 91 Arthrocnemum, 89 Arundo, 89-93 Atriplex, 86, 87, 91 Atriplex halimus, 40, 41, 73, 85, 88, 89 Balanites aegyptiaca, 70, 80, 84, 89, 91, 135 Buxus sempervirens, 82, 132, 133, 134, 135, 138 Calycotome villosum, 86 Calotropis procera, 45, 74, 84, 95, 137, 146 Capparis, 86, 87, 91 Capparis decidua, 99, 101 Cedrus libani, 9, 11, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 46, 48, 49., 59,, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 99, 102, 116, 117, 122, 128, 139, 140, 141, 144, 149, 152, 154, 169, 158, 160, 161 Celtis australis, 86 Ceratonia siliqua, 14, 17, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 42, 44, 45, 48, 49, 52, 58, 76, 86, 87, 91, 103, 109, 110, 167, 168 Cercis, 91 Cercis siliquastrum, 30, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 86, 87, 138, 141 Chaenopodiaceae, 56, 79, 83, 89, 91, 93, 95, 99, 101, 133, 147, 169 Cleome drosserifolia, 99 Cordia sinensis, 70, 84 Crataegus aronia, 31, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 44, 74, 76, 77, 78 Cupressus sempervirens, 4, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 40, 4142, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 59, 74, 76, 77, 78, 80, 82, 84, 87, 93, 95, 99, 100, 102, 116, 120, 127, 128, 139, 140, 144, 146, 152, 156, 158, 160, 160 Eleagnus, 4, 91 Ephedra alata, 99

Ficus carica, 33, 35, 84, 91, 95, 103, 110, 114, 134 Ficus pseudosycomorus, 79, 95, 99 Ficus sycomorus, 41, 45, 58, 79, 82, 83, 84, 87, 89, 91, 92, 93, 99, 103, 114, 133, 134, 135, 137, 139, 146 Fragmites communis, 55 Fraxinus, 91 Fraxinus syriaca, 30, 36, 38, 84, 86, 87, Grewia villosa, 70, 84 Gymnocarpus decander, 73, 84, 89 Halogeton alopeuroides, 73, 89 Haloxylon, 91, 93 Haloxylon persicum, 56, 72, 79, 80, 82, 95, 99, 146 Hammada, 76, 79, 88, 89, 95 Hammada negevensis, 72, 89 Hammada salicornica, 72, 83, 84, 89, 93, 135 Hyphaene thebaica, 56, 70, 80, 82, 146 Juglans regia, 36, 38, 114, 115 Juniperus phoenica, 54, 59, 74, 77, 78, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 95, 101, 116, 118, 124, 128, 135, 138, 147, 150, 152, 158, 160, 169 Larix laricina, 156 Laurus, 91 Laurus nobilis, 5, 30, 38 Lonicera, 91 Lycium, 91 Maerua crassifolia, 69, 82, 89, 99, 133, 134 Moringa, 91 Moringa peregrina, 56, 69, 80, 82, 84, 133, 134, 146 Morus, 91 Myrtus communis, 31, 35, 36, 37, 39, 43, 44, 84, 86, 132, 135, 137, 138 Nerium oleander, 39, 41, 79, 80, 84, 135 Noea, 91 Olea, 91 Olea europaea, 16, 19, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 52, 58, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 82, 85, 86, 87, 89, 92, 93, 95, 100, 102, 103, 110, 132, 133, 134, 139, 140, 146 Ononis natrix, 33, 35, 36 Paliurus, 78, 91 Phoenix, 91 Phoenix dactylifera, 12, 13, 16, 33, 34, 36, 39, 41,, 44, 45, 55, 56, 58, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 92, 93, 99, 100, 102, 103, 110, 133, 134, 139, 140, 146 Phragmites communis, 79, 82, 84, 85, 89, 93, 99, Pinus brutia, 93, 102, 118, 139, 140, 152 Pinus halepensis, 14, 17, 18, 19, 34, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 52, 59, 74, 76, 78, 80, 82, 84, 86, 87, 89, 93, 102, 116, 118, 120, 116, 118, 120, 124, 128, 139, 140, 149, 167, 169 Pinus nigra, 82, 52, 140, 139, 82 Pinus pinea, 34

185

Pinus strobus, 156 Pistacia, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 33, 40, 41, 42, 45, 76, 91, 100 Pistacia atlantica, 11, 33, 34, 35, 37, 41, 53, 68, 74, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 93, 98, 99, 101, 124, 135, 150, 152 Pistacia khinjuk, 55, 79, 95, 98, 99, 100, 101, 147, 150, 158 Pistacia lentiscus, 11, 14, 28, 29, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 52, 86, 91, 146, 167, 168 Pistacia palaestina, 11, 14, 17, 27, 28, 29, 33, 23, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 74, 76, 77, 78, 84, 86, 87, 92, 104, 116, 167, 168 Platanus orientalis, 29, 36, 46, 51, 85, 154 Populus, 41, 42, 85, 91, 95, 100, 156 Populus euphratica, 33, 34, 38, 44, 45, 46, 56, 68, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 92, 93, 99, 133, 134, 135, 137, 139, 140 Prosopis, 91 Punica, 91 Punica granatum, 45, 95, 103, 114 Quercus, 33, 34, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 76, 89, 91, 135, 141 Quercus boissieri, 11, 27, 33, 34, 35, 36, 44, 45, 146, 147 Quercus calliprinos, 11, 14, 17, 25, 26, 27, 28, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 84, 86, 87, 89, 92, 98, 104, 110, 116, 135, 137, 138, 146, 167, 168 Quercus cerris, 40, 43, 46, 156 Quercus ithaburensis, 11, 14, 27, 30, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 48, 49, 50, 52, 74, 76, 77, 84, 85, 86, 87, 93, 98, 110, 132, 146, 167, 168 Reaumuria hirtella, 73, 89 Retama raetam, 14, 40, 41, 42, 44, 53, 54, 56, 70, 71, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 84, 86, 89, 92, 95, 98, 99, 101, 132 Rhamnus, 78 Rhamnus alaternus, 31, 38 Rhamnus palaestinus, 31, 38, 40, 44, 76, 85, 91 Rhus, 91 Rhus coriaria, 50 Salix, 37, 87, 91, 132 Salix acmophylla, 85

186

Salsola, 132 Salsola tetrandra, 73, 89 Salvadora, 91 Salvadora persica, 56, 70, 80, 82, 84, 133, 134, 146 Spartium glaucum, 36 Spartium junceum, 33, 38 Styrax officinalis, 30, 38, 50, 74, 76, 77, 167, 168 Suaeda, 76, 79, 80, 83, 84, 89, 91`, 93 Suaeda asphaltica, 72, 89 Suaeda fruticosa, 72, 89 Suaeda palaestina, 72, 89 Tamarix, 34, 38, 40, 41, 76, 78, 80, 82, 83, 87, 91, 99, 132, 133, 134, 141, 168 Tamarix aphylla, 14, 40, 42, 44, 45, 53, 54, 64, 65, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 91, 92, 95, 99, 134, 146 Tamarix jordanis, 42, 56, 78, 79, 83, 86, 88, 91, 93 Tamarix mannifera, 95, 101 Tamarix nilotica, 91, 95 Tamarix tetragyna, 91 Tamarix (X4), 65, 66, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 89, 92, 93, 98, 99, 100, 101 Tamarix (X5), 33, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 45, 46, 56, 65, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 92, 93, 98, 99, 100, 101, 133, 134, 135, 137 Thymelea hirsuta, 80 Tsugu canadensis, 156 Ulmus, 37, 91 Ulmus campestre, 31, 32, 38 Ulmus canescens, 31, 45, 86, 87 Viburnum alaternum, 37 Vitex, 91 Vitis, 91 Vitis vinifera, 76, 103, 110, 115 Ziziphus lotus, 86, 91 Ziziphus spina christi, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 56, 58, 68, 69, 74, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 82, 84, 85, 89, 91, 93, 95, 99, 100, 101, 103, 133, 134, 137, 139, 140, 141, 147, 167 Zygophyllum dumosum, 53, 71, 74, 76, 78, 79, 80, 82, 84, 89, 146, 150

INDEX OF SITES Abu Mahdi, 96, 100 Abu Pula, 20, 21, 22, 27, 33, 34, 107, 108 Abu Salem, 56, 60, 63, 78, 79, 107, 108 Acco, 20, 21, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 39, 40, 41, 68, 69, 70, 107, 108, 141 Al-Aqsa, 7, 25, 43, 46, 62, 124, 141, 142, 143, 156, 169 Apollonia, 21, 24, 26, 29, 39, 41, 42, 69, 71, 107, 122, 123, 124, 127, 141, 125 Arad, 6, 7, 56, 60, 61, 64, 67, 68, 69, 71, 74, 76, 77, 78, 92, 107, 109, 115, 122, 123, 124, 125, 127 Arava, 53, 64, 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 80, 110, 111, 116, 124, 138 Ashdod, 20, 21, 24, 39, 41, 54, 68, 69, 107, 141 Ashkelon-Afridar, 20, 21, 23, 29, 39, 40, 107, 122, 123 Atlit, 21, 23, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 39, 107, 111, 113, 122, 123, 124, Avdat/Aqev, 56, 60, 78, 80, 123 Bashan, 116 Beersheba valley, 53 Besor Bridge, Site H, 56 Beth Guvrin, 21, 22, 25, 26, 46, 69 Bethlehem - Church of the Nativity 7, 141, 142 Bethsaida, 57, 61, 63, 85, 86 Bir Ansuba, 20, 21, 22, 33, 34, 107, 123 Beth Shean valley, 53, 57, 67, 71, 87, 93, 111 Bir Gafgafa, 95 Birket-Ram, 6 Caesarea, 21, 24, 26, 29, 39, 41, 42, 107, 123 Coastal Plain, 28, 31, 39, 48, 49, 50, 52, 70, 103, 145, 167 Cypros, 123 Dead Sea, 6, 16, 53, 56, 64, 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 79, 83, 92, 94, 124, 135, 145, 150, 168, 169 Deir Antush, 96, 97, 101 Edom, 74, 78, 80, 83, 116, 118, 124, 132, 135, 138, 140, 169 Eilat, 70, 95 Ein Najilla, 96, 97, 101 Ein Um Ahmed, 68, 96, 97, 100 El-Arish, 95, 110 El-Hamma, 57, 61, 68, 88 El-Majami, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, 33, 34 El-Mezra>a, 70 El-Wad Cave, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, 27, 31, 37, 127 >En Boqeq, 6, 7, 9, 12, 46, 57, 60, 63, 67, 69, 83, 84, 111, 113, 123, 124, 127, 125 >En Besor, 6, 56, 60, 61, 64, 65, 71, 76, 113 >En Gedi, 60, 63, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 73, 74, 80, 84, 109, 111, 113, 114, 123, 124, 127, 133, 134, 137, 138, 139, 140, 125 >En Raúel , 7, 57, 60, 63, 66, 67, 69, 81, 82, 113, 124, 133, 134, 137, 138, 158, , 165 >En Tamar, 62, 71, 134, 138 >Evrona, 53, 57, 60, 63, 66, 67, 69, 70, 72, 80 Feiran oasis, 55, 95, 102, 110, 111

Galilee, 5, 17, 20, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 35, 49, 50, 51, 52, 66, 68, 86, 103, 105, 108, 111, 115, 120, 138, 139, 149, 167, 168, 169 Gamala, 20, 21, 22, 26, 29, 33, 34, 69, 107, 109, 111, 113, 125 Gaza, 110 Gerasimus, 64, 67, 90, 113 Ghor-es-Safieh, 70 Gibeon, 21, 25, 26, 29, 44, 107 Gilead, 116 Gilgal, 57, 61, 68, 72, 73, 88, 89, 90 Golan Heights, 5, 6, 17, 20, 22, 25, 27, 28, 30, 31, 33, 34, 46, 49, 52, 68, 108, 109, 111, 149, 154, 166, 167 Gunna, 25, 96, 97, 100 Haifa Bay, 6, 21, 23, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 40, 39, 111, 113 Har Harif, 56, 60, 62, 68, 79 Har Yeruham, 123 Haruba Sites A-98, 289, 345 Hawarith, 20, 22, 26, 29, 33, 34, 127 Hayonim terrace, 6 Hazor, 7, 20, 21, 22, 26, 29, 35, 36, 107, 109, 122, 123, 168 Hebron, 21, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 44, 45, 74, 92, 105, 107, 109, 114 Hermeshit, 21, 22, 24, 29, 45, 46, 107, 123, 127, 125 Hermon, 20, 22, 33, 34, 52, 166 Herodium, 21, 22, 25, 45, 107, 109, 123, 127, 125, 158 îorvat Be§et, 20, 21, 22, 29, 30, 35, 36 îorvat Boreq, 22, 25 îorvat Castra, 20, 23, 37 îorvat Galil, 20, 35 îorvat Jemel, 20 îorvat Karkur, 56, 60, 61, 69, 74, 77, 113, 123, 129, 169 îorvat Me§ad, 21, 22, 24, 26, 29, 46, 107, 123 îorvat Radum, 56, 60, 61, 65, 67, 68, 69, 76, 107 îorvat Raqit, 20, 21, 23, 26, 29, 37, 107, 127 îorvat Rosh Zayit, 20, 21, 23, 26, 29, 37, 107 îorvat Sumaqa, 20, 21, 23, 26, 29, 37, 107, 109, 123, 127 îorvat >Uza, 56, 60, 63, 65, 68, 71, 80, 82 îorvat Zikhrin, 22, 24, 46, 123 îorvat Zemel, 22, 33, 34, 111 Hula valley, 6, 27, 2930, 33, 68, 86, 87 >Izbet Sartah, 20, 21, 24, 26, 29, 39, 41, 71, 107 Jaffa, 20, 21, 7, 24, 26, 29, 39, 40, 41, 42, 71, 107, 122, 123, 156 Jebel Adida, 95, 97, 100 Jebel Baruk, 59 Jebel Hallal, 95, 118 Jebel Maghara, 118 Jebel Musa, 95 Jebel Sirbal, 55, 57, 95, 153 Jebel Umm Shumer, 95 Jebel Ya>alaq, 95, 118 Jericho, 57, 61, 64, 68, 69, 70, 88, 89, 90, 91, 107, 108, 109, 111, 113, 114, 115, 138, 139, 140, 125, 165

187

Jericho-Jewish Cemetery, 60, 64, 89, 114 Jerusalem, 7, 18, 21, 22, 25, 26, 29, 32, 43, 45, 46, 48, 51, 59, 105, 107, 108, 109, 111, 113, 114, 116, 120, 121, 123, 124, 127, 128, 138, 141, 126, 129, 149, 156, 169 City of David, 6, 25, 44, 45, 46, 108 The Ophel, 25, 45, 108 Scottish Church, 25, 114 Jewish Quarter, 25, 45, 46, 109, 169 Jezreel, 20, 21, 23, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 38, 68, 69, 107, 109, 115, 122, 123, 127 Jezreel valley, 17, 20, 25, 28, 30, 31, 38, 49, 52, 68, 115 Jordan, 6, 27, 29, 30, 31, 33, 53, 57, 59, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 73, 74, 78, 86, 88, 89, 93, 103, 109, 110, 111, 116 Judaea, 5, 17, 20, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 43, 44, 49, 50, 52, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 132, 133, 134, 141, 125, 167, 169 Kadesh Barnea, 57, 60, 63, 65, 71, 78, 79, 95, 96, 99 Kanaf, 20, 21, 22, 26, 29, 33, 34, 35, 107 Karnei Shomron, 21, 22, 24, 26, 43 Kebara, 20, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 37 Kfar Ata, 21, 24, 42, 123 Kfar Galim, 23 Kfar Rupin, 70 Kfar Saba, 21, 24, 26, 29, 42, 69, 107, 127 Kfar Samir, 124 Khirbet Zureiqiye, 20, 21, 24, 26, 39, 40 Kuntillet >Ajrud, 57, 60, 63, 65, 66, 67, 71, 78, 79, 96, 99, 102, 114, 123 Kurnub, 7, 9, 57, 60, 63, 78, 80, 158 Lachish, 6, 7, 21, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 43, 44, 45, 68, 69, 71, 107, 108, 109, 111, 113, 122, 123, 127, 133, 129, 168 Lod, 23 Ma>ale Ramon east, 56, 78 Ma>ale Ramon, 124 Ma>oz Hayyim, 70 Malúata, 56, 60, 61, 65, 67, 71, 76, 107, 113, 122, 123, Mamshit, 123 Masada, 7, 8, 45, 57, 60, 63, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 83, 84, 85, 92, 109, 114, 123, 124, 127, 135, 137, 129, 165 Me§ad Ateret, 57, 61, 63, 69, 85, 86, 107, 113, 123, 124 Me§ad Hazeva, 57, 63, 80, 82 Me§ad Mazal, 56, 60, 70, 79 Me§ad Tamar, 57, 60, 63, 71, 80, 62, 71, 113, 123, 124 Me§ad Yeruham, 124 Megiddo, 7, 20, 21, 23, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 38, 68, 69, 106, 108, 109, 122, 123, 124, 127 Migdal, 86 Migdal Zafit, 60, 70, 57, 63, 67, 71, 79, 80, 127 Mitzpe Shalem, 70 Mitzpe Yiron, 6 Mizpe Yammim, 20, 21, 22, 26, 29, 35, 36, 107 Moim, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 34 Mount Meiron, 6, 20, 21, 22, 26, 29, 36, 107, 149 Mount Tabor, 30 Mount Ukam, 120 Nabi Salah, 100 Nakhl, 95 Naúal Dolev, 29 Naúal Gishron, 69 Naúal Grar, 92 Naúal Hemar, 69, 108 Naúal Issaron, 57, 60, 63, 66, 67, 71, 80, 82 Naúal Keziv, 29 Naúal Neqarot, 56, 124 Naúal Oded, 63, 79 Naúal Qanah, 7, 21, 24, 26, 28, 29, 43, 107, 108, 109 Naúal Zehora, 20,, 23., 25, 28, 29, 4, Naúal Zin, 127 Negev, 53, 54, 56, 57, 60, 63, 64, 65, 68, 69, 71, 72, 74, 78, 79, 80, 92, 94, 103, 108, 109, 111, 118, 122, 123, 124, 127, 128, 133, 135, 140, 125, 150, 166, 169 Negev highlands, 6, 56, 108 Nessana, 60, 79, 123 Netiv Hagdud, 57, 61, 64, 88, 89, 90 Nevallat, 104 Newe Yaraq, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 39, 40, 42, 107 Oboda, 57, 60, 63, 67, 71, 78, 86, 110, 113 Ohalo II, 21, 57, 61, 63, 66, 68, 73, 85, 86, 110, 113 Ostrakine, 98, 123, 124 Peqi>in, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, 27, 29, 31, 35, 36, 107 Philistine plain, 28, 31, 73 Qa§rin, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, 27, 29, 31, 35, 36, 107 Qal>at Bustra, 20, 21, 22, 33, 34 Qasrawet, 98, 123, 124 Qela, 21, 24, 43, 107 Qiriat Anavim, 29 Qseime, 57, 60, 63, 71, 78, 96, 199, 102, 123, Qumran cave, 57, 60, 61, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73, 89, 90, 110, 112, 113, 133 Ramat Harif, 56 Ramat Magshimim, 20, 21, 22, 33, 34, 107 Rasm Harbush, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, 33, 34, 46, 107, 108 Rift Valley, 6, 16, 61, 93, 166 Rishon Le-Zion, 20, 21, 24, 26, 29, 37, 107 Saflulim, 56 Saint Catherine’s Monastery, 7, 8, 96, 97, 101, 102, 109, 110, 111, 141, 143, 152 Samaria, 5, 17, 21, 25, 27, 28, 30, 31, 33, 43, 49, 52, 68, 108, 109, 126, 129, 167, 169

Sasa, 20, 21, 22, 35, 36 Serabit el-Khadem, 96, 97, 101, 108 Shaqif ed-Deir, 96, 97, 101 Sharon plain, 17, 27, 28, 30, 31, 39, 65, 66, 70, 73, 167 Sheikh Awad (=Site 1118), 96, 97, 100 Sheikh Mukhsen (=Site 1046), 96, 97, 100 Sheikh Nabi Salah (=Site 1049), 96, 97 Shephelah, 17, 25, 39, 66, 74, 139 Shiloh, 6, 21, 24, 26, 43, 107 Shiqmim, 6 Shivta, 57, 60, 63, 65, 80, 123 Shoham, 20, 21, 23, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 39, 40, 46, 49, 68, 69, 104, 107, 124 Sigilliyeh, 96, 97, 101 Sinai, 2, 7, 8, 54, 55, 56, 57, 63, 65, 66, 68, 70, 72, 74, 78, 69, 92, 93, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 109, 110, 111, 118, 122, 124, 128, 138, 143, 150, 158, 166, 168 S-1, (locality Rahaya), 99 S-32, (locality Tabieq), 99 Site 1105, 96, 97, 100 Site 1130, 96, 97, 100 Site 1139, 96, 97, 100 Snir, 20, 22, 33, 34 Tel Aphek, 7, 20, 21, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 39, 40, 41, 42, 68, 69, 71, 107, 121, 123, 127, 125 Tel Aroer, 56, 60, 61, 77, 107, 123 Tel >Ashir, 20, 21, 24, 39, 40 Tel Batash, 21, 22, 24, 26, 29, 44, 107 Tel Beer-sheba, 6, 7, 9, 10, 53, 54, 56, 60, 61, 64, 65, 67, 68, 69, 71, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 107, 113, 122, 123, 124, 125, 127, 165 Tel Beth Shean, 30, 53, 57, 61, 64, 66, 70, 86, 87, 88, 93, 107, 109, 111, 113, 114, 122, 123 Tel Beth Shemesh, 21, 22, 24, 26, 29, 45, 107 Tel Beth Yerah, 57, 61, 63, 68, 85, 86, 107 Tel Dalit, 7, 20, 21, 23, 26, 39, 40, 124 Tel Dan, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 33, 35, 68 Tel >Erani, 21, 22, 24, 26, 29, 44, 107 Tel Eztaba, 57, 61, 64, 87, 88, 107, 109, 113, 123 Tel Gerisa, 20, 21, 24, 26, 28, 29, 39, 40, 41, 42, 69, 71, 107, 122, 123, 127 Tel Hadar, 20, 21, 22, 26, 29, 33, 34, 69, 107 Tel Harasim, 21, 22, 24, 44, 107 Tel Haror, 56, 60, 61, 64, 65, 67, 71, 76, 107, 113 Tel îefer, 20, 21, 24, 26, 29, 39, 40, 107, 122, 123

Tel >Ira, 7, 56, 60, 61, 64, 65, 67, 68, 69, 71, 76, 77, 78, 107, 123, 127 Tel Kabri, 7, 20, 21, 22, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 35, 36, 107, 108, 109, 111, 113, 122, 123 Tel Kinnerot, 53, 57, 61, 63, 85, 86, 93, 107, 6, 33 Tel Maresha, 21, 22, 24, 26, 123 Tel Masos, 6, 56, 60, 61, 65, 67, 71, 74, 76, 77, 107, 108, 122, 123, 127 Tel Megadim, 23 Tel Michal, 6, 20, 21, 24, 26, 28, 29, 39, 40, 41, 42, 71, 107, 125 Tel Nami, 2021, 23, 26, 37, 107, 122, 123 Tel Qashish, 20, 21, 22, 26, 29, 33, 34 Tell Qasile, 6, 21, 22, 24, 26, 29, 39, 41, 122, 123 Tel Qiri, 6, 20, 21, 23, 26, 29, 28, 107 Tel Reúov, 57, 61, 64, 65, 68, 86, 87, 88, 107, 109 Tel Rumeida, 22, 25 Tel Sera>, 53, 56, 60, 61, 64, 65, 67, 69, 71, 74, 76, 92, 107, 113, 122, 123, 127 Tel Ta>anach, 20, 21, 23, 26, 29, 30, 38, 106, 107, 122, 123 Tel Tsaf, 57, 61, 65, 66, 68, 86, 87, 107, 108 Tel Yarmut, 21, 22, 24, 26, 28, 29, 31, 44, 107, 127 Tel Yin>am, 20, 21, 23, 37, 107 Tel Zeror, 20, 21, 24, 26, 29, 39, 68, 69, 107 Timna, 6, 57, 60, 63, 66, 72, 80, 82, 124, 127 Tiv >on, 27 Tubas, 109 Tuleilat el-Ghassul, 110 Ujrrat el-Mehed, (=Banana, I), 96, 100 >Uvda valley, 57, 60, 63, 65, 68, 71, 80, 82 Vered Yericho, 57, 60, 61, 64, 65, 60, 72, 80, 82, 113 Wadi Bir, (=Site 1124), 96, 97, 101 Wadi Fraiyeh, 96, 97, 101 Wadi Tubeiq, 96, 97, 100 Watiya Pass, (=Site, 1042), 96, 97, 100 Yatta, 92 Yavneh-Yam, 20, 21, 24, 26, 28, 29, 41, 42, 71, 107, 109, 114, 123, 124, 127, 125 Yiftaúel, 20, 21, 23, 26, 28, 29, 37, 39 Yoqne >am, 20, 21, 23, 26, 28, 29, 31, 38, 107 Yotvata, 57, 60, 63, 66, 67, 69, 70, 72, 80, 82, 113, 123, 124, 138, 140 Zippori, 20, 21, 23, 29, 37, 107, 123 Zoar, 111 Zur Natan, 21, 22, 24, 26, 46, 169, 107, 123, 125

189

EMERY AND CLAIRE YASS PUBLICATIONS IN ARCHAEOLOGY MONOGRAPH SERIES OF THE SONIA AND MARCO NADLER INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY 1.

EXCAVATIONS AND STUDIES: Essays in Honour of Prof. Shmuel Yeivin. Y. Aharoni (ed.). 1973. (Hebrew)

2.

BEER-SHEBA I: Excavations at Tel Beer-sheba 1969-1971 Seasons. Y. Aharoni (ed.). 1973.

3.

TIRAT-CARMEL: A Mousterian Open-air Site in Israel. A. Ronen and M. Davis. 1974. (Hebrew)

4.

INVESTIGATIONS AT LACHISH: The Sanctuary and the Residency (Lachish V). Y. Aharoni. 1975.

5.

CANAANITE GODS IN METAL: An Archaeological Study of Ancient Syro-Palestinian Figurines. O. Negbi. 1976.

6.

THE CONQUEST OF LACHISH BY SENNACHERIB. D. Ussishkin. 1983.

7.

BEER-SHEBA II: The Early Iron Age Settlements. Z. Herzog. 1984.

8.

EXCAVATIONS AT TEL MICHAL, ISRAEL. Z. Herzog, G. Rapp Jr. and O. Negbi (eds.). 1989.

9.

PREHISTORIC ANATOLIA: The Neolithic Transformation and the Early Chalcolithic Period. J. Yakar. 1991.

9a.

PREHISTORIC ANATOLIA: SUPPLEMENT No. 1. J. Yakar. 1994.

10.

SHILOH: The Archaeology of a Biblical Site. I. Finkelstein (ed.). 1993.

11.

îORVAT QITMIT: An Edomite Shrine in the Biblical Negev. I. Beit-Arieh (ed.). 1995.

12.

THE NAîAL QANAH CAVE: Earliest Gold in the Southern Levant. A. Gopher (ed.). 1996.

13.

ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE CITY: Urban Planning in Ancient Israel and its Social Implications. Z. Herzog. 1997.

14.

HIGHLANDS OF MANY CULTURES: The Southern Samaria Survey: The Sites. I. Finkelstein (ed.). 1997.

15.

TEL >IRA: A Stronghold in the Biblical Negev. I. Beit-Arieh (ed.). 1999.

16.

APOLLONIA-ARSUF: Final Report of the Excavations. Volume I. I. Roll and O. Tal (eds.). 1999.

17.

ETHNOARCHAEOLOGY OF ANATOLIA: Rural Socio-economy in the Bronze and Iron Ages. J. Yakar. 2000.

18.

MEGIDDO III: The 1992-1996 Seasons. I. Finkelstein, D. Ussishkin and B. Halpern (eds.). 2000.

19.

APHEK-ANTIPATRIS I: Excavation of Areas A and B. The 1972-1976 Seasons. M. Kochavi, P. Beck and E. Yadin (eds.). 2000.

20.

TEL KABRI: The 1986-1993 Excavation Seasons. A. Kempinski. 2002.

21.

ARCHAEOLOGY IN SINAI: The Ophir Expedition. I. Beit-Arieh. 2003.

22.

THE RENEWED ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS AT LACHISH (1973-1994). D. Ussishkin. 2004.

23.

INSCRIBED IN CLAY: Provenance Study of the Amarna Letters and Other Ancient Near Eastern Texts. Y. Goren, I Finkelstein and N. Na’aman. 2004.

24.

MEGIDDO IV: The 1998-2002 Seasons. I. Finkelstein, D. Ussishkin and B. Halpern (eds.). 2006.

25.

îORVAT >UZA AND îORVAT RADUM: Two Fortresses in the Biblical Negev. I. Beit-Arieh. 2007.

26.

TIMBER IN ANCIENT ISRAEL: Dendroarchaeology and Dendrochronology. N. Liphschitz. 2007

27.

APHEK-ANTIPATRIS II. Forthcoming, Y. Gadot, M. Kochavi and E. Yadin (eds.)

190