Three Preludes to the Song of Roland: GUI of Burgundy, Roland at Saragossa, and Otinel (Gallica) 9781843846963, 9781805430513, 1843846969

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Gallica Volume 50

THREE PRELUDES TO THE SONG OF ROLAND

Gallica

ISSN 1749-091X Founding Editor: Sarah Kay Series Editors: Miranda Griffin and Peggy McCracken Gallica aims to provide a forum for the best current work in medieval and early modern French studies. Literary studies are particularly welcome and preference is given to works written in English, although publication in French is not excluded. Proposals or queries should be sent in the first instance to the editors, or to the publisher, at the addresses given below; all submissions receive prompt and informed consideration. Professor Miranda Griffin ([email protected]) Professor Peggy McCracken ([email protected]) Caroline Palmer ([email protected]) Previously published volumes in this series are listed at the end of this volume.

THREE PRELUDES TO THE SONG OF ROLAND GUI OF BURGUNDY, ROLAND AT SARAGOSSA, AND OTINEL

TRANSLATED BY WILLIAM W. KIBLER AND CATHERINE M. JONES

D. S. BREWER

Translation © William W. Kibler and Catherine M. Jones 2023 All Rights Reserved. Except as permitted under current legislation no part of this work may be photocopied, stored in a retrieval system, published, performed in public, adapted, broadcast, transmitted, recorded or reproduced in any form or by any means, without the prior permission of the copyright owner The right of William W. Kibler and Catherine M. Jones to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 First published 2023 D. S. Brewer, Cambridge ISBN 978-1-84384-696-3 hardback ISBN 978-1-80543-051-3 ePDF D. S. Brewer is an imprint of Boydell & Brewer Ltd PO Box 9, Woodbridge, Suffolk IP12 3DF, UK and of Boydell & Brewer Inc. 668 Mt Hope Avenue, Rochester, NY 14620–2731, USA website: www.boydellandbrewer.com A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library The publisher has no responsibility for the continued existence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate Cover image from the Entrée d’Espagne courtesy of the Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana, Venice, manuscript Fr. Z. 21 (=257), f. 161v. “Su concessione del Ministero della Cultura – Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana. Divieto di reproduzione.”

In memory of Douglas Kelly

Contents Acknowledgements

ix

General Introduction The chansons de geste The Battle of Roncevaux Prequels to the Song of Roland Perspectives on Charlemagne Women’s Roles Muslim Warriors Translating the chansons de geste

1 1 3 3 6 8 10 12

Gui of Burgundy

15

Roland at Saragossa

139

Otinel

185

Glossary Select Bibliography Index of Proper Names

255 259 265

Acknowledgements We owe a special debt of gratitude to Françoise Denis, who contributed significantly to our presentation of Gui of Burgundy and read all three translations with a critical eye. Our project was greatly enriched by her careful attention to historical detail and linguistic subtlety. François Suard directed us to Jean-Baptiste Camps, who generously provided us with an early version of his forthcoming edition of Otinel. We also thank the tireless Leslie Zarker Morgan for her valuable assistance in obtaining a cover image. Noel Fallows, who sadly did not live to see our project come to fruition, was a fount of information on medieval armor, as was Dr. Ralph Moffat, Curator of European Arms and Armour for the Glasgow Museums. Jill Reynolds graciously read and critiqued an early portion of our text. We are grateful to the anonymous readers of our manuscript, whose detailed comments and suggestions helped us improve the critical apparatus as well as the translation. Indeed, it has been a particular pleasure to work with the wonderful people at Boydell and Brewer. We very much appreciated Elizabeth McDonald’s efficient communications and especially Caroline Palmer’s cheerful encouragement and insightful reading. Any remaining flaws or inaccuracies are entirely our own. Finally, we wish to thank our respective spouses, Nancy Kibler and Richard Neupert, for their unwavering tolerance and support.

General Introduction The chansons de geste The three poems presented in this volume are representatives of the medieval Romance epic or chansons de geste, which were traditional heroic tales that flourished from the late eleventh through the fifteenth centuries.1 Chansons de geste are long narrative poems in monorhymed or assonanced stanzas of unequal length, called laisses. The poems themselves ranged from as few as 870 lines (Voyage/Pilgrimage of Charlemagne) to over 34,000 (Lion de Bourges), and the laisses could be as short as three or four lines, or over a thousand. The word geste refers to the subject matter of the poems – the heroic deeds of an individual hero or the collective deeds of a family or clan. Chanson suggests a musical dimension for the genre. Although no extant chanson de geste manuscripts contain musical notation, evidence from textual and iconographical sources suggests that the earliest such poems were performed to the accompaniment of a vielle, which is a type of medieval fiddle. The origins of the genre are controversial, but they most likely began as oral poems recited or sung by professional entertainers known as jongleurs, then eventually came to be written down, beginning in the late eleventh century. The first written texts may have been taken directly from oral performances, but the later poems are essentially written products designed to imitate the formulaic style of the oral tradition. Despite being set generally in the eighth and ninth centuries, at the height of the Carolingian empire, the poems are highly politically engaged and reflect the feudal realities of the time when they were first written down. The chansons de geste were instruments of both religious and social propaganda. This was notably the time of the great Crusades to the Holy Land (1095– 1291), led by powerful barons and the occasional king, so that conflicts between Christians and Muslims are a central feature. The crusading ethos called upon the European warrior aristocracy to defend Christendom against

1 See Catherine M. Jones, Introduction to the Chansons de Geste, Gainesville, UP of Florida, 2014, pp. 1–58.

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the military and cultural forces of Islam, and chief among those defenders was the Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne (r. 768–814), who actually spent much of his reign fighting the Saxons in the north and the Muslims in Italy and Spain. These poems were also a form of popular historiography, often taking historical figures or battles as points of departure and distorting them to suit their narrative or political purposes. In our current atmosphere of challenging the value of historical and cultural artifacts that contributed to the Western legacy of racial and religious intolerance, it is important to justify the validity of the chansons de geste as objects worthy of our attention. To be sure, the Romance epic routinely projects the flaws and failings of Western Christendom onto Muslims and other non-Western peoples, and they are, in the words of Shokoofeh Rajabzadeh, “violent, Islamophobic, racist, anti-Muslim, and hateful.”2 By construing the non-Christian adversary as morally, racially, and culturally Other, the chansons de geste sought to arouse the crusading spirit and justify the notion of “holy war.” Rather than excluding such texts from the Western canon, however, we can appreciate them as documents of a particular worldview that informs the racial and religious conflicts of our own time. Read critically, these narratives display a complex relationship to the society that produced them, both celebrating and questioning sectarianism, violence, and feudal institutions. Since we are reproducing the text and not interpreting it, we have made every effort to translate the multiple terms used in the poem to refer to Muslims accurately. Most controversial among these is “Saracen,” which our poets use a total of 123 times. As Rajabzadeh shows, this term was derived from the false notion that Muslims were descended from Ismail, the son whom Abraham fathered with his slave, Hagar, and they were apparently so ashamed of this that they claimed falsely to be descended from Abraham’s wife Sara. To reflect accurately the Islamophobia of our texts, we use “Saracen” only when the poet and/or scribe used the corresponding Old French or Occitan equivalents, Sarazin and sarrazina jant (both with variant spellings). Other common terms used to refer to Muslims in our poems are paiens (198 occurrences), turcs (35), persant (10), and escler, esclavon (14), which we duly translate using their closest English equivalents (pagans, Turks, Persians, and Slavs). Similarly, to express the world view of both the narrator and audience, we have capitalized nouns, pronouns, and possessive adjectives referring to the Christian God.

2 Shokoofeh Rajabzadeh, “The Depoliticized Saracen and Muslim Erasure,” Literature Compass, vol. 16, nos. 9–10, 2019 https://doi.org/10.1111/lic3.12548.



General Introduction

3

The Battle of Roncevaux Despite their historical “veneer,” there is very little in the chansons de geste that reflects their historical settings. Nonetheless, one overwhelming historical “fact” does stand out and can be considered, in many ways, the true origin of these epic poems: the defeat of Charlemagne’s army at the pass of Roncevaux in the Pyrenees in 778, which is also the subject of the most celebrated of the chansons de geste, The Song of Roland. In the troubled years that marked the end of the Merovingian Dynasty (mid-fifth to mid-eighth century), weak kings ceded power to territorial lords and divided their lands at death among their sons. In the seventh century, two small areas became dominant: Neustria in the west, between the Seine and the Loire, and Austrasia to the northeast, between the Meuse and the Rhine rivers. A weaker kingdom to the south was Burgundy. The battles between the Neustrians and the Austrasians were brutal, until Pepin of Herestal, an Austrasian, crushed his opponents in 687 and united the three areas. This was effectively the beginning of the Carolingian dynasty. At Pepin’s death in 714, his illegitimate son Charles Martel seized control, defeated his rivals, and reunified the land. Meanwhile in 711, Muslims, less than a century after the death of the Prophet Mohammed in 632, crossed into Spain and subjugated its Visigothic population. They then pushed into Frankish territory as far as Tours, on the Loire River, where they were defeated by Charles Martel in 732. By 751, Charles’s son and successor, Pepin (called “the Short”), had driven them out of Languedoc and across the Pyrenees back into Spain. Charlemagne became King of the Franks at the death of his father, Pepin, and spent much of his reign on military expeditions against the Saxons to the northeast and against Muslim kingdoms in both Italy (Lombardy) and Spain. Charlemagne, at the request of the Muslim governor of Barcelona, Suleiman ibn al-Arabí, led an army into Spain in April 778 to help in the latter’s rebellion against the emir of Córdoba. In exchange, Suleiman promised Charlemagne control over the cities of Pamplona, Barcelona, Huesca, Girona, and Saragossa. Charles occupied Pamplona without resistance and received hostages from that town, as well as from Barcelona, Huesca, and Girona. Saragossa, however, refused and Charlemagne laid siege to it. After an unsuccessful two months, he learned of a Saxon uprising in the north and set off with his army to return to his homelands. His army was attacked and destroyed at Roncevaux. Prequels to the Song of Roland That much is verifiable history, but nearly everything else about Charlemagne’s journey to Spain is fictive, composed it would seem to turn this defeat into a glorious triumph for Charles as well as for Christianity. In the opening lines of

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The Song of Roland, the poet writes that Charles had spent not two months but seven years in Spain, conquering all the territories held by the Muslims with the exception of Saragossa: Charles the king, our great emperor, Has been in Spain for seven long years, And conquered that proud land as far as the sea. There is no castle which can resist him, No wall or city left to be destroyed, Except for Saragossa, which stands upon a mountain. It is held by King Marsile, who does not love God; He serves Mohammad and calls upon Apollo. He cannot prevent disaster from overtaking him. (1–9)3

Given the enormous success of the Roland, it is not surprising that subsequent poets would want to exploit the material, and a series of related chansons de geste, known collectively as the Cycle of the King, since King Charles was their central and unifying character, came into being. In addition to reworkings of The Song of Roland in Old French and other medieval languages (Latin, German, Spanish, Italian, Norse, Dutch, Occitan), there were further poems relating to the numerous military campaigns of the emperor, notably against the Saxons (Les Saisnes) and against the Muslims both on the Italian peninsula (Fierabras, Destruction de Rome, Aspremont) and in Spain.4 The battle of Roncevaux itself inspired a number of prequels and sequels that François Suard groups under the category of “tributaries” to the Song of Roland.5 Our choice to unite three of these spin-offs in one volume is somewhat unusual. Gui of Burgundy, Roland at Saragossa, and Otinel are all part of the Cycle of the King, but each poem features a different hero. They do not appear together in any extant manuscripts, and they are not all composed in the same language. Yet they share the same narrative function within the Charlemagne tradition: all three poems in this volume can be placed in the

3 This and all subsequent references to The Song of Roland are taken from the translation by Glyn S. Burgess, London and New York, Penguin Books, 1990. 4 We cannot determine which version(s) of the Roland material were available to these poets. The Burgess translation is based on the oldest extant version, dating from the late eleventh or early twelfth century: Oxford, Bodleian Library, Digby 23, commonly known as the “Oxford Roland.” 5 In addition to the three “preludes” translated in this volume, François Suard includes three continuations, Anseïs de Carthage, Les Saisnes, and Gaydon. See his Guide de la chanson de geste et de sa postérité littéraire: XIe–XVe siècle, Paris, H. Champion, 2011, pp. 184–87.



General Introduction

5

period of Charlemagne’s foreign expeditions against the Muslims in the years or even days before the battle of Roncevaux. Together they offer an imaginative set of preludes to the foundational story of Charlemagne’s defeat. Gui of Burgundy extends the period of time spent in Spain by Charles and his army from seven to twenty-six years,6 which gives the sons of the twelve peers the opportunity to reach adulthood, come to the rescue of their fathers, and complete the subjugation of the Muslim kingdom there. Roland at Saragossa is one of the few epics composed in Old Occitan.7 Its action takes place in the days immediately preceding the decisive defeat and relates in an heroi-comic manner how Roland sneaks into Saragossa at the request of the Muslim Queen Braslimonda, who has been enraptured by his strength and beauty. Finally, Otinel tells of an envoy who comes to Charlemagne in Paris to challenge him on behalf of the Emir Garsile, who has his capital in Lombardy. Action takes place in France and northern Italy in a lull between the capture of Pamplona and the defeat at Roncevaux. All three preludes take liberties with the Song of Roland, amplifying and adapting the source material in different ways. The poets did not hesitate to reinvent the chronology and nature of events leading to the battle of Roncevaux, and we shall see that certain characters undergo significant modifications. Despite the serious subject matter, humor is occasionally injected into the stories, especially in Roland at Saragossa, which delights in mocking the brash Roland.8 Yet the deadly battle looms over each of the narratives, foreshadowed by quarrels between Roland and Olivier and by premonitory dreams that prefigure Charlemagne’s four symbolic dreams in The Song of Roland.9 The order in which our three translations are presented – Gui of Burgundy, Roland at Saragossa, Otinel – was decided on the basis of several factors, primarily related to the content of the texts and the mentality they reflect. We begin with Gui of Burgundy (early thirteenth century), which is the longest of the three works, at 4598 rhymed alexandrine lines in the London manuscript 6 The number of years varies according to the manuscript: twenty-six in our base manuscript L and twenty-seven in T. 7 Occitan (also known as Provençal) is the language that was spoken during the Middle Ages in what is now southern France. Like French, it is a Romance language derived from Latin. Occitan was the language of the troubadours, who flourished in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. 8 On humor and parody in Roland at Saragossa, see Dorothea Kullmann, “Roland à Saragosse parodie-t-il la courtoisie ?” Parodies courtoises, parodies de la courtoisie: Actes du 14e congrès international de la Société internationale de littérature courtoise, edited by Margarida Madureira, Carlos F. Clamote Carrero, and Ana Paiva Morais, Paris, Classiques Garnier, Rencontres, 2016, pp. 293–307. 9 Premonitory dreams are found in Gui of Burgundy (lines 136–50, 1066–79) and Roland at Saragossa (lines 14–33).

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THREE PRELUDES TO THE SONG OF ROLAND

that we have chosen as our base text.10 It offers the broadest understanding of the life and mentality of the period and develops in greatest detail the motives for waging wars, the military tactics, and the customs of medieval warfare. It also gives the richest representation of the court of the emperor Charlemagne, both in the failed older generation and the successful second generation, that of the sons of the twelve peers who originally accompanied him into Spain. It presents Charlemagne’s entourage, a majority of characters that will be met and recognized in many other chansons de geste. Roland at Saragossa (late thirteenth or early fourteenth century, 1410 assonanced decasyllabic lines) is the shortest of our three poems and the most recent. Through its use of humor, amorous pursuit, and lavish descriptions of material objects, it illustrates the diversity of the Romance epic repertory. Finally, Otinel (late twelfth century, 2322 assonanced decasyllabic lines) features the type of the “good Saracen”11 who converts to Christianity after coming into contact with Charlemagne’s worthy knights. Together, the three poems exemplify the kinds of thematic experimentation found in chansons de geste of the generation after the Song of Roland. Perspectives on Charlemagne Described in the Oxford version of the Song of Roland as “nostre emperere magnes,” Charlemagne is the principal symbol of Christian unity. At the beginning of Gui of Burgundy, he is “that mighty crowned king, /The best who ever lived in all of Christendom” (lines 3–4); in Otinel he is “the powerful and mighty king” (line 4). All three of our poems represent Charles and his forces in conflict with the Muslim Other, but the character of the “mighty king” has evolved in a negative manner due to his inability to conquer Spain. In Gui, he has already spent twenty-six years at war against the enemy and he and his men must finally be rescued by their young sons, who complete the conquest. This weakness of Charles is further underscored in the opening scene, when one of his main knights, Ogier the Dane, dares to confront him with these words: – “In God’s name, emperor,” said Ogier the Dane, “You have caused us to suffer and struggle mightily For twenty-six years and more now, Ever since we first came into Spain; I haven’t lain down four nights without my hauberk,

10 Details of the manuscript traditions can be found in the introductions to the individual poems. 11 This is a stock expression studied extensively in Catalina Gîrbea, Le Bon Sarrasin dans le roman médiéval (1100–1225). Paris, Classiques Garnier, 2014.



General Introduction 7

And the flesh of my chest is worn raw by its links; I’m certainly hairier than a wild bear! People say that Charles has captured all these kingdoms, But really it was Roland and Olivier, Along with bearded Naimes and myself, Ogier the Dane, While you were lying comfortably in your bed. You were eating cakes and bread and game birds, Drinking claret, spiced drinks and aged wines While only threatening to lay waste to Spain. If I were armed outside on my warhorse And had all my weapons at the ready, May the true God of justice damn me If I didn’t personally take you prisoner!” (35–52)

All the subsequent action in Gui is initiated when Richard of Normandy points out that although Charles claims to have subjugated all of Spain, five more cities remain to be conquered. The emperor is clearly concerned for his reputation: “I won’t have people call me a coward or weakling / Who can’t even get up on his warhorse” (lines 1645–46). In the opening scene of Roland at Saragossa, Charlemagne is reduced to begging Roland (unsuccessfully) not to attack Saragossa: “Nephew, for the love of God, why not give up [this plan of attack]? Take the crown tonight or in the morning And I will be as a servant to you, Serving you your food, your bread, and your wine.” (2–5)

When Roland refuses, Charlemagne fades completely into the background until the end when, weary of war, he reconciles Roland and Olivier (line 1407). In Otinel Charles has temporarily left Spain for his Easter Court in Paris. When Otinel arrives with his challenge, Charlemagne essentially moves to the background and lets Roland take the lead, as well as the combat. It is even Roland, rather than the king, who first promises Charles’s daughter to Otinel if he will convert. Although Charles prays to God to protect Roland (lines 508–17), it is not until all the peers join in prayer that God is moved to send down the Holy Ghost to convert Otinel (lines 588–93). In the great final battle against 10,000 Muslims on the plains of Lombardy, the mighty emperor is entirely overshadowed by Otinel, the twelve peers (Charlemagne’s closest confidants and military leaders), and several other lesser heroes, such as Hardouin, Hellin, and Guinemant. In the final laisse, the emperor retires to his castles and leaves Otinel to protect his realm.

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Women’s Roles In The Song of Roland and other early epics, women tend to play a subordinate role, occupying the interstices of plots centered on territorial disputes, “holy” war, and conflicts between lords and vassals. The classic example of the effaced epic heroine is Aude, Roland’s fiancée in the Oxford version of the Song of Roland, who occupies twenty-six lines in the narrative (lines 1720, 3708–33) and whose principal function is to expire upon learning of Roland’s death. Gui of Burgundy similarly accords a tributary role to female characters. They are mostly unnamed and grouped together as “the ladies” who accompany Gui and his knights to search for their long absent husbands. Aude appears fleetingly as Roland’s betrothed: “fair Aude, clad in silk brocade […] / There was not a more beautiful lady in Charles’s kingdom” (lines 4348–49). Two female characters are notable as substitutes for their absent spouses: Gui’s widowed mother, not named, counsels her son on the proper conduct of a king (lines 421–50); 12 and Margarie, the wife of the Muslim King Huidelon, is baptized after her husband and entrusted with his land during his absence (line 3407). Charlemagne’s sister Gilles, who is also the wife of Ganelon and mother of Roland, is the most assertive woman in the group, daring to reproach Gui for postponing their return de France (lines 3584–88). The other two texts in this volume reflect an increasing permeability to generic boundaries. Epic poets gradually incorporated narrative material associated with the courtly romance, which rose to popularity in the course of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and in which female characters gained a certain degree of prominence as subjects and objects of desire.13 In both Roland at Saragossa and Otinel, women have more significant public and private roles. The entire action of Roland at Saragossa, in fact, is predicated on the spontaneous love that the Muslim Queen Braslimonda of Saragossa experiences at the first sight of the warrior hero Roland. An eroticized version of the grave Bramimonde, wife of Marsile in the Oxford Roland, Braslimonda partially corresponds to the stock motif of the Muslim Princess or Queen, an assertive and passionate woman who is willing to convert to Christianity and abandon her husband, father, and/or betrothed for love of a Christian knight.14 12 This brief maternal admonishment recalls the advice given by Perceval’s widowed mother in Chrétien de Troyes’ Romance of Perceval (The Story of the Grail) translated by William W. Kibler and Carleton W. Carroll, Arthurian Romances, pp. 387–88). This type of social, moral, or political counsel, normally dispensed by the young man’s father or surrogate, is also the subject of a literary genre, the chastoiement. 13 Sarah Kay, “La représentation de la féminité dans les chansons de geste,” Charlemagne in the North: Proceedings of the Twelfth International Congress of the Société Rencesvals, edited by Philip E. Bennett, Anne Elizabeth Cobby, and Graham Runnalls, Edinburgh, Société Rencesvals, British Branch, 1993, pp. 223–40; here p. 225. 14 On the Muslim Princess, see Jacqueline de Weever, Sheba’s Daughters: Whitening



General Introduction 9

These feisty women, projections of white male desire, are both exotic and familiar, surrounded by Eastern luxury but incarnating the Western ideal of feminine beauty.15 Thus Braslimonda, dressed in a tunic of African silk and a luxurious mantle, sets out to meet her beloved on a similarly well-clad palfrey equipped with a thousand little bells, a gold bridle, silver reins, and precious stones sent by the emir of Babylon (lines 545–64). The poet does not, however, take the Muslim princess narrative to its expected conclusion. It is Braslimonda who initiates the relationship by sending Roland a love token, and she who initiates courtly banter (lines 580–616). Yet Braslimonda cannot seem to settle on her allegiance, complaining about Marsile and then comically begging Roland to spare his life: “Noble lady,” Roland said to her, “Who is that person in the lead?” Said the lady, “Ah, fair Sir Roland, It’s my husband, to my great misfortune.” […] Then [Roland] drew his sword and leapt toward Marsile To cut off his head without holding back. But Braslimonda shouted loudly to him: “Have mercy, fair sir, and don’t kill him! He’s my husband and I must protect him.” Said Roland, “You are quite right: He should be spared because of your love for him.” (631–34, 643–49)

Otinel features another Muslim princess who comes into direct contact with the enemy. Fair Alfamie, betrothed to Clarel, is charged with healing the captive Ogier the Dane after a particularly fierce battle (lines 1052–70). She and her entourage make use of a special herb that cures the Christian knight by dawn.16 Such circumstances fairly cry out for the lady to fall in love with her patient and convert to Christianity, but Alfamie remains faithful to her beloved Clarel. As Marianne Ailes has written, “In Otinel, the type of the belle Sarrasine is rewritten twice; in both cases the challenge to the authority of the father is erased and replaced by a dutiful Christian princess, Belissent, and an and Demonizing the Saracen Woman in Medieval French Epic, New York, Garland, 1998; Sarah Kay, Chansons de Geste in the Age of Romance: Political Fictions, Oxford, Clarendon, 1995, pp. 30–44. See also the Introduction to Roland at Saragossa below. 15 The most celebrated example is Orable, wife of Tibaut of Africa, who marries William of Orange and receives the name Guibourc at baptism. See “The Conquest of Orange” (La Prise d’Orange) in An Old French Trilogy: Three Texts from the William of Orange Cycle, translated by Catherine M. Jones, William W. Kibler, and Logan E. Whalen, Gainesville, UP of Florida, 2020. 16 Special herbs are often associated with Muslim women in the chansons de geste.

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equally dutiful Muslim princess, Alfamie, who, for this very reason, can never be assimilated into Christian society.”17 Muslim Warriors Just as the depiction of women is slowly evolving in these epics, so is that of the Muslim warrior.18 In their portraits of Muslim adversaries, out of ignorance or malice, the epic poets consistently misrepresent the Islamic faith as a polytheistic religion. The prophet Mohammed is portrayed as a god and worshipped along with the “pagan” deities Tervagant, Apollin, and Jupiter. Portraits of Muslim knights often include demonic traits such as flaming red eyes and horns as well as bestial attributes.19 Usually presented as treacherous, savage, and cunning, the Muslim is a projection of the flaws and desires of the West. However, some chansons exhibit a new willingness to humanize the enemy, especially those who are willing to convert to Christianity. In Gui of Burgundy, the first Muslim we meet is Barbarin, who had lived in France for seven years and is a wise counselor of King Escorfaut of Carsade. He recognizes Gui and his men as troops come to rescue Charles and urges Escorfaut to surrender his city without a fight because “Their God watches over them and ours is a fool; /It is their God who makes our wheat and bread” (lines 684–85). Escorfaut disdains this advice, sallies forth, and he and many of his men are slain by the French. Barbarin then invents a stratagem to allow Gui’s troops to enter the city, after which he asks for and receives Christian baptism (lines 789–806). He then leads a convoy of provisions to Charles at Luserne. A little later another friendly Muslim Macabré helps Gui enter the fortified city of Montorgueil to speak with its aging and chivalrous king Huidelon, who agrees to a single combat between his son Danemont and Gui 17 Marianne Ailes, “Otinel: An Epic in Dialog with the Tradition, ” Olifant, vol. 27, 2012, pp. 9–40, here p. 31. 18 On Muslims in the chansons de geste, see Norman Daniel, Heroes and Saracens: An Interpretation of the Chansons de Geste, Edinburgh, Edinburgh UP, 1984; Lynn Tarte Ramey, Christian, Saracen and Genre in Medieval French Literature, New York, Routledge, 2001; Suzanne Conklin Akbari, Idols in the East: European Representations of Islam and the Orient, 1100–1450, Ithaca, Cornell UP, 2009; and Rajabzadeh, “The Depoliticized Saracen.” 19 See, for example, this description of the gatekeeper at Montorgueil in Gui of Burgundy: The gatekeeper was very frightening; You’ve never heard tell of an uglier fellow: His eyebrows were huge and his nose broad, His eyes were as red as hot coals, His skin was as black as pitch And he stood a full thirteen feet tall. There was not a more evil pagan in forty cities! (2134–40)



General Introduction 11

for the future of the city. If Gui wins, Huidelon will surrender all his lands to Charlemagne; if Gui loses, he and his men will be hanged. Even before the combat, Huidelon recognizes Gui’s abilities and provides him with a generous feast and furnishes him with arms, armor, and a fresh horse. During the battle, Huidelon’s second son Dragolant intervenes to save his brother, which is against all the conventions. Huidelon, fearing he will be accused of treachery, asks to be taken to Charlemagne, where he asks to be baptized, along with his wife and all his men (lines 3390–98). From this point on he helps Gui, first to capture the cities of Augorie and Maudrane, then Luiserne. Whereas in Gui of Burgundy the converted Muslims serve as mere adjuvants to the Christian hero, in Otinel the converted Muslim will become the eponymous hero of the poem as well as the center of the poem’s love interest. But when he first arrives as a messenger at Charles’s court in Paris to challenge Charlemagne in the name of his Muslim lord Garsile, Otinel is described as evil and wicked, rolling his eyes like a chained lion (lines 120– 21). Although messengers bearing bad news are often executed, both Roland and Charles grant him freedom to speak his message fully and he goes on to denigrate Christianity and Christian warriors, especially the wise Naimes. After he lops off the head of an impetuous Provençal knight who has dared to challenge him, he willingly hands over his sword to Roland and a duel is soon arranged between Otinel and Roland, champions of their respective religions. After inquiring about his lineage, Charles says to Otinel: “You are a most worthy man, / It’s a pity you’ve never been baptized” (lines 247–48). This unusual treatment prepares us to recognize him as a worthy opponent as well as one who will miraculously abandon his faith, become Christian, lead the Christian forces against his former lord, marry Charlemagne’s daughter, Belissent, and rule over all the conquered territories. The battle between Roland and Otinel ends, as we know, with the latter’s conversion to Christianity. This combat is paralleled in a subsequent duel between the now Christian Otinel and another noble Muslim, Clarel. It begins, like the earlier battle, with an exchange of taunts denigrating the opponent’s religion in especially vivid terms (laisses 39–40, 43–44, 46). Clarel, like Otinel before him, has been depicted as an especially worthy opponent. In an earlier fight against Roland (laisses 23–25), Clarel was captured and was being led to Charlemagne when the peers were attacked by fifteen-hundred enemy warriors and Clarel was freed. Clarel showed his nobility by saving Ogier from death in the ensuing battle and having him led instead to imprisonment under the care of Alfamie, Clarel’s sweetheart (laisses 26–32). But despite his multiple noble qualities, when Clarel is defeated by Otinel (laisses 47–50), he refuses to convert and must be killed. With his dying words he curses his “god,” Mohammed (line 1625). His death leads to the final battle between Charlemagne and Garsile, which is reminiscent of the great battle in the

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second half of The Song of Roland between Charles and the Emir Baligant. The texts presented here thus attest to the variety of perspectives on the Muslim Other in the post-Roland corpus. To be sure, the social and cultural forces resisting religious tolerance are quite limited. The “good Muslim” knight and the “beautiful Muslim Princess” are already on the path to conversion and thus their “goodness” aligns them proleptically with the Christian protagonists. Yet just as historians are uncovering the complexity of actual Muslim–Christian encounters during this period, literary scholars have identified micro-narratives that disrupt the binary divisions between Islamic and Christian worlds.20 Translating the chansons de geste Many of the most popular epic poems were copied multiple times, and no two written texts were ever identical, due to scribal errors, omissions, expansions, or interpolations. The editor of a medieval text therefore must contend with the vagaries of the written tradition. In preparing an edition, an editor attempts to determine whether passages or lines from another manuscript are essential to the comprehension of the base text and/or whether they are lines that had been skipped in error by a copyist and therefore germane to the text. Even if a poem exists in a single manuscript, there are inevitably instances where the scribe copying the text strayed from the original by, for example, skipping lines or words, so it is up to the modern editor to determine what might have been intended. However, in translating a text, we are less concerned with the authenticity of the lines borrowed, and more attuned to the logic and continuity of the story itself. Moreover, we are interested in lines – whatever their provenance – that add color and interest to our undertaking. In that spirit, we have occasionally seen fit to add lines from other manuscripts to our base text. Not all these additions can be justified editorially, but we believe that all are acceptable aesthetically. We have attempted to render the Old French and Old Occitan verse into line-by-line standard modern English without trying to reproduce the formal properties of the original chansons. One of our principal challenges was the medieval poets’ custom of alternating between the past tense and the “historical present,” the latter being used to lend immediacy and drama to the story. In the interest of readability, we chose to render these present tenses in the past.21 Measurements of time, distance, and value have evolved over the ages to be ever more precise. In the Middle Ages, at the time of the poems translated 20 See Marianne Ailes, “Desiring the Other: Subjugation and Resistance of the Female Saracen in the chanson de geste,” French Studies, vol. 4, 2020, pp. 173–88, here pp. 174–75. 21 This was also the solution recently adopted by Douglas Kelly and Glyn S. Burgess in their translation of the Roman de Troie (Cambridge, D. S. Brewer, 2017).



General Introduction

13

for this volume, measurements were much less scientifically precise than today and depended rather on historical precedents and agreements among trading partners and collaborators. Time in western Europe was measured in days, months, and years, as it still is today, but the hours of the day varied according to the season rather than being measured in hours and minutes. Such precise measurement was impossible before the invention of mechanical clocks, the earliest of which were public clocks built into towers in the towns of northern Italy or southern Germany later in the Middle Ages, in the final years of the thirteenth century and beginning of the fourteenth, a good hundred years and more after our texts were composed. These first clocks did not have dials or hands but told the time by striking bells, which is a direct outgrowth of what are known as the Canonical Hours, which were observed by monks in their monasteries. The Hours were announced by bells and summoned the monks and faithful to prayer. They included matins, immediately followed by lauds, and celebrated before daybreak; prime, at sunrise; tierce, at midmorning; sext, around noon; nones, in midafternoon; vespers, at sunset, and compline, after nightfall. Time between the hours varied according to the season, being longer in spring and summer and shorter in autumn and winter. Measurements of length were initially based upon the human body. The cubit was a unit that indicated the distance from one’s elbow (coude in French) to the fingertips, but of course this varied according to the individual. It was used in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Rome, and it appears in some medieval scientific works in both Latin and Old French, but is never employed in popular literature such as our chansons de geste. Common units of distance measurement in the Middle Ages were the foot (pié), the league (lieue), and the acre (arpent). The length of the pié, like that of the coude, depended on the individual. As a unit of measurement, it appears five times in Roland, twice in Gui, but not in Otinel. The league appears eight times in Gui, twice in Otinel, and once in Roland. It is equivalent to about three of our miles. The most unusual unit to moderns, though quite common throughout the entire corpus of the chansons de geste, is the arpent. As a unit of length, it is equal to one side of a square forming an arpent, or about seventy-five yards, which is approximately one acre. Its use in our poems can be likened to the common American use of “football fields” as an approximate unit of length. It is found twice in Gui, three times in Otinel, but not in Roland. Coinage, essential for trade, was subject to much fluctuation from region to region throughout western Europe in the Middle Ages. The principal coin in medieval France was the silver denier, a descendant of the basic Roman coin, the denarius. The system of coinage was regularized by the eighth- and ninth-century Carolingian Renaissance, such that there were twelve deniers in a sous (shilling) and ten sous in a livre (pound). Only the denier was

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an actual coin; the rest were money of account.22 During the early feudal period, when the monarchy was both weak and corrupt, many powerful dukes, bishops, and even abbots were permitted to mint their own coins, so their actual value varied widely. As the French kings Louis VII and PhilippeAuguste moved to strengthen the central monarchy in the late twelfth and early thirteenth century, a prime concern was to strengthen and standardize the royal coinage, and deniers minted in Paris (parisi) and those from Tours (tournois) became dominant. Moneychangers were needed to determine the value of the silver in coins. Higher values were paid by weighing out sacks of deniers at the moneychanger’s. A mark consisted of eight ounces of silver and the livre twelve. Medieval poets often used the word denier, which we have generally translated as “penny” or “pennyworth,” to indicate something of little or no value. Occasionally we have replaced it by “worthless,” “not a bit,” or an object of little significance (e.g., “fig” in Roland, line 948). Although no gold coinage existed in western Europe during the period of our texts, a gold coin from Byzantium, the besant, was in circulation and is frequently mentioned in our poems. It was the equivalent of two sous and appears in both Roland and Otinel. The mark is mentioned frequently in Otinel, Parisian pennies are found in Otinel, and sous are mentioned in Roland. See additionally the note to line 204 in Roland at Saragossa. Other medieval terms are defined in the Glossary at the end of the volume.

22 For a more complete discussion of the significance of the denier, see http:// numismatics.org/pocketchange/denier-tournois/ (Consulted 8/5/21).

GUI OF BURGUNDY

Introduction As is the case for most chansons de geste, it is difficult to establish a precise date for the composition of Gui of Burgundy. Scholars have agreed on the beginning of the thirteenth century, perhaps around 1211, since the manuscript of Tours mentions a marchois – a coin that was not minted before this date. More important, another chanson, written around 1230–34, alludes to the gist of the Gui of Burgundy story, thus situating our text before these dates, in the first quarter of the thirteenth century. 1 The same uncertainty remains about a possible historical background. Several hypotheses have been proposed, but none is verifiable. One suggests that the Gui of Burgundy legend might have to do with the powerful family of Burgundy that fought several crusades against the Muslims during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. One Gui of Burgundy did exist. He was the great-grandson of Richard I of Normandy. He became pope Calixtus II and was regent for his nephew, the future king of Castile and León in Spain. Interesting as it may be, such a reference is vague and inconclusive. All we can say, at this time, is that the chanson reflects the skirmishes against the Islamic enemy in Spain illustrated by many epic texts and especially those involving Charlemagne and his peers. When the story begins, Charlemagne has been campaigning in Spain for twenty-six years. Spurred by a mocking remark from one of his twelve peers, Richard of Normandy, the emperor decides to stay even longer in order to seize five cities that escaped his authority. Although an angel appears ordering him to go directly to the city of Luserne, Charles persists in besieging the other four, each for a year, without success. On the advice of Naimes, one of his peers and his main counselor, he finally goes to Luserne, which he besieges in vain for seven years. At the same time in France, the sons of the twelve peers, frustrated by the emperor’s excessive absence, gather in Paris to designate a substitute king who would maintain order in the kingdom while Charles is in Spain. Bertrand, Duke Naimes’s son, proposes offering the crown to the young Gui of Burgundy. Since this young knight is Charles’s nephew, he probably will not incur his uncle’s wrath as would someone from outside the family. Under the threat of losing his head if he refuses the crown, Gui accepts the 1 Gaydon, Chanson de geste du XIIIe siècle, edited and translated by Jean Subrenat, Louvain and Paris, Peeters, 2007.

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nomination and immediately decides to lead everyone to Spain, mothers and sisters included, to join and help Charlemagne. However, instead of going directly to the emperor’s rescue, and to prove the young nobles’ military worth and valor, Gui decides first to conquer the five cities that Charles had not been able to subjugate. After an initial victory at Carsade, Gui assembles and sends a great quantity of food to help Charlemagne’s starving army. The young nobles accompanying the relief convoy are forbidden to reveal their identity to their fathers, which leads to some amusing encounters that leave the old peers curious and puzzled by the unknown family ties of these handsome young men. Charles is angered by the existence of a new king but is pleasantly surprised by his victory. He accepts the food and requests Gui’s help. However, the young king does not want to come before completing the conquest of the other four cities. When Gui and his army finally reach Luserne, joyful reunions take place: two armies, two kings, fathers and sons, wives and husbands. Charles orders a week of rest for everyone, after which the women will return to France. The attack on Luserne is led by Gui while Charlemagne, summoned by an angel, is on pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostella. After the French victory, a quarrel starts between Gui and Roland when the latter claims the honor of presenting the city to the emperor. Confronted with this irresponsible and childish behavior, a furious Charles orders the evacuation of the city and, prostrate on the ground, asks God to ensure that it would never again be coveted by anyone in the future. His prayer is granted immediately: water surges and completely engulfs the place. After this miracle, the heroes and their armies start on their way to Roncevaux, where their tragic destiny awaits them. Gui of Burgundy contains the usual and traditional twists and turns of epic literature – holy war against Muslims, heroic fights, judiciary duels, giants, disguises, miracles, conversions – but, in many ways, the story renews the imaginative energy of these commonplaces with its unusual perspective. It is obvious that twenty-six years of military campaigns in Spain, compared to the seven of the Song of Roland, is pure invention. This invention, however, makes possible the very original core of the story: a meeting of two generations of warriors, a confrontation between young and old, their military tactics, and attitudes towards the heathen enemy. What the fathers were unable to achieve, the sons successfully carry out, through some wise and surprising decisions. Although he does not hesitate to kill enemies or force them to convert, Gui dares to make friends with Muslims, to follow their proposed stratagems, and even, on two instances, to trust part of his army to his new allies. In doing so, and although still deferring to religious tenets, he initiates the possibility of a new mental attitude in which appreciation, trust, and respect can exist between adversaries. This story also creates a young hero – Gui – to the detriment of the celebrated and renowned Roland, whose arrogant attitude is



GUI OF BURGUNDY 19

not portrayed favorably. The epic wraps the encounter of the two generations in a subtle form of humor and irony that pervades the whole work. However, the liberating laughter that delights the reader also broaches serious questions, like the legitimacy and responsibility of power, the meaning and consequences of war, and the relativity of religious, ethnic, and family prejudice. In all these domains, the young open a breach in the traditional canvas championed by their elders. This opening makes obvious the inherent fragility of human mentalities and comportments. Despite the gap of several centuries, Gui of Burgundy is a tale that still resonates in our time. Gui of Burgundy is found in two relatively complete manuscripts (London and Tours, both datable to the thirteenth century) and two fragments, and it has recently been re-edited according to modern standards.2 We have chosen to translate the longer and, as we have explained in the General Introduction to this volume, what we consider the more interesting of the two manuscripts, that in the British Library in London. While the manuscripts are far from being exactly the same, both tell the same story in the same order, and there are no significant lacunae in either manuscript.3 A character bearing the same name as our hero, Gui of Burgundy, appears in several other chansons de geste: Renaut de Montauban, Anseïs de Carthage, Destruction de Rome, and particularly Fierabras, which describes his military prowess against the Muslim enemy and his amorous adventure with the emir’s daughter. Our Gui of Burgundy is at least one generation younger, has no military experience since he has just been made knight, and has no amorous designs on anyone. Critics are unanimous in believing that only the name relates them to our hero. The poem was known outside of France, as the Anglo-Norman text of the London manuscript attests, but there are no known translations into other medieval languages.4

2 Gui de Bourgogne, Chanson de geste du XIIIe siècle, edited by Françoise E. Denis and William W. Kibler, Paris, H. Champion, 2019. The two principal manuscripts are British Library, Harley 527 (L) and Bibliothèque municipale de Tours, 937 (T). The two fragments are Darmstadt (Hessische Landes- und Hochschulbibliotek 3306 (d) and Sées 19 (s). 3 Although we have adhered closely to the London manuscript for our translation, we have from time to time been obliged to borrow words or lines from Tours to clarify our translation when London was manifestly corrupt. Entire lines from Tours are enclosed in square brackets and given a number. 4 According to a listing of manuscripts at Peterborough Abbey, copies of both Gui of Burgundy and Otinel were in their library, possibly in the same manuscript. See Phillipa Hardman and Marianne Ailes, The Legend of Charlemagne in Medieval England: The Matter of France in Middle English and Anglo-Norman Literature, Cambridge, D.S. Brewer, 2017, pp. 45–46 and note 44. The library of St. Augustine’s Abbey in Canterbury also owned a copy (p. 48).

GUI OF BURGUNDY 1. Listen, noble barons, may God increase your blessings! I shall begin for you a song of great nobility, About the emperor Charlemagne, that mighty crowned king, The best who ever lived in all of Christendom. Because God commanded it, Charles spent Twenty-six long years in Spain, that foreign kingdom; He captured a great number of towns, cities, and castles. One day the king was in the city of Nobles, Which he had captured after killing Forré;5 He summoned Ogier, bearded Naimes, His nephew Roland, Olivier the wise, And his numerous faithful followers. “Barons,” the emperor said, “listen to what I think: We have captured the lands on every side And have destroyed every castle, town, or fortress. Let us proceed now to the splendid city of Córdoba; It is held by an exceedingly arrogant emir Who has stocked it with abundant supplies. By holy charity, let us go there, barons, Because if God has destined all this wealth for us, All our impoverished lineages could be rich. Then we will return to France, as we have long desired.” Thierry of Ardennes said, “You are crazy! You were only born to do harm, And to destroy, abase, and shame other people!” – “Thierry,” Charles replied, “you are completely mistaken: Each of us has but one soul in his body to save: Don’t do this for me, but for God.”

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5 The Muslim king of Nobles killed by Roland and Olivier when Charlemagne conquered his city. This action is recounted in the late-thirteenth-century Norse prose Karlamagnússaga. See La saga de Charlemagne, translated by Daniel Lacroix, Paris, Librairie générale française, 2000, Branch I, chap. 52.



GUI OF BURGUNDY

2. “My lords,” said Charles, “keep quiet and listen to me: I have brought us through many foreign lands And kept you away from the pleasures of your wives. Tomorrow at dawn make yourselves ready And load the mules and packhorses; I intend to ride toward Córdoba.” – “In God’s name, emperor,” said Ogier the Dane, “You have caused us to suffer and struggle mightily For twenty-six years and more now, Ever since we first came into Spain; I haven’t lain down four nights without my hauberk, And the flesh of my chest is worn raw by its links; I’m certainly hairier than a wild bear! People say that Charles has captured all these kingdoms, But really it was Roland and Olivier, Along with bearded Naimes and myself, Ogier the Dane, While you were lying comfortably in your bed. You were eating cakes and bread and game birds, Drinking claret, spiced drinks, and aged wines While only threatening to lay waste to Spain. If I were armed outside on my warhorse And had all my weapons at the ready, May the true God of justice damn me If I didn’t personally take you prisoner!” – “By St. Denis,” said Charles, “you speak the truth, Ogier. I do not deny that you are a mighty warrior. But you do a great wrong in slandering me, Your liege lord; you sin grievously!”6 3. “Barons,” said Charles, “I can’t believe what I hear, Which is causing much grief and anger in my heart: I hear Ogier challenging me, But by my white beard, he will regret it. It’s been twenty-six years since we came into Spain;

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6 Ogier the Dane was himself the hero of an “epic of revolt” (La Chevalerie Ogier de Danemarche), one of several chansons de geste depicting a powerful baron’s rebellion against his overlord. Ogier withdraws his allegiance to Charlemagne when his son is murdered by Charlemagne’s wicked son Charlot. When Charlemagne refuses to have Charlot executed, a furious Ogier leaves the court and wages a long series of battles against his overlord’s forces.

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I haven’t lain down four nights without my byrnie; Both my tunic and my shirt are ripped apart And I have to wear my byrnie against my skin. I won’t lie, for that would be a wicked thing: There is no citadel, castle, town, or house That I haven’t conquered by strength and force. First I conquered Bordeaux by chivalric valor, Then I took Aix in Gascony, a strong and valued town; I forcefully overthrew Astorga in Valencia And captured Monjardin by chivalric valor; I took Logroño, Estella, and prosperous Pamplona; I am now lord over all these lands, And anyone who wishes to rule them in my name Will be honored and supported by me.” Next to speak was Richard of Normandy – That is, Richard the Fearless, lord of Rouen, Who founded the abbey church of Fécamp And is now enshrined and worshiped there in a reliquary. “You say, emperor, that you conquered all the land; That’s what you claim, but I say it’s not true: As God is my witness, I know of five cities where, If one were to claim them in your name, He would lose his head without fail.” – “Richard,” replied the emperor, “I can’t believe what I hear! Maybe you can name them, but I cannot; So name them now, as God is your witness!” Richard replied, “I won’t, my dear lord, Because we French are allowed to leave your service, And it would be a wicked thing to name them.” – “Richard,” said the emperor, “by my white beard, If you do not state the names of the five cities Our friendship is at its end: I’ll have your head before the hour of compline.”7 Richard replied, “Then I’ll not hide them: Do you know Montorgueil and prosperous Montesclair? Do you not know Luserne, so well fortified? The citadel of Carsade that is so beloved?

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7 Time in the Middle Ages was reckoned by the eight canonical hours, when church bells were traditionally rung: matins, followed immediately by lauds (before daybreak); prime (sunrise); tierce (mid-morning); sext (noon); nones (mid-afternoon); vespers (sunset); compline (after nightfall). See the General Introduction for more information on telling time in the Middle Ages.



GUI OF BURGUNDY

Have you never heard tell of the tower of Augorie? To be sure, you don’t yet control these cities. If one were to claim them in your name, He would lose his head without fail.” When Charles heard this, he nearly lost his mind; He called to a knight named Ely: “Hurry,” he said, “and summon Floriant of Combie; He’ll be able to tell me what I need to know.” Ely summoned him just as Charles had ordered. “Floriant,” said the king, “as God is your witness, Were you born in pagan lands?” And Floriant replied, “That is true, fair sire. There isn’t the smallest stream in all the land Where I’ve not taken a duck or crane with my hawk.” – “By God,” said the emperor, “that’s why I want to ask: Do you know Montorgueil or prosperous Montesclair? Have you ever heard tell of the tower of Augorie? Do you not know Luserne, with its tall fortifications? The citadel of Carsade that is so well stocked?” Floriant replied, “Upon my life, I know them well. By God, he was thinking madness in his heart Whoever mentioned these five cities to you. Forget about them, dear king: you can never take them Because your Christian God has never been proclaimed there.” – “By the beard that grows on my chin,” said Charlemagne, “I will capture these five cities If it takes till the end of my days.” On hearing this, the French all shuddered And cursed Duke Richard of Normandy. 4. The day was done, vespers was over; Richard’s news had saddened everyone. Duke Naimes spoke to powerful Charles: “Let us return to France, in the name of Almighty God, And everyone can see their wives and children again.” – “By my white beard,” said Charles, “I won’t do that, And as long as I live I won’t go to Córdoba Until I have taken those five famous cities.” Then noble Charles lay down in his tent With its highest posts topped in shining gold. But Charles did not sleep, for he was lost in thought.

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Suddenly there appeared an angel, surrounded by a bright light, That God had commanded to appear there. “Charles,” said the angel, “do not be afraid, For the all-powerful Lord God sends you this word: Fear not the waters nor the deep ravines, The ports nor the banks nor the wide rivers; But go first of all to Luserne, And before you have captured it and killed the Persians,8 I will send you such good and brave reinforcements That none in the lands of France could compare. I can tell you no more, but may the One Who suffered on the Holy Cross be with you!” 5. Then the angel departed, but the light remained. The emperor Charles was greatly reassured By the heavenly message that God had sent him. The emperor Charles did not want to delay: He immediately had trumpets sounded And had his standard raised on high. The king came to Carsade but was unable to enter;9 He spent a year besieging and assailing it, But he was unable to damage or destroy the city. Unable to win the city, he turned away; He abandoned Carsade when he could not destroy it And took his army straight to Montorgueil. Again, he spent an entire year laying siege, But was unable to do so properly Or even approach the town or its walls. Huidelon put up such an effective resistance That Charles angrily called off his army And went to besiege the mighty walls of Augorie.

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8 The enemies of the Christians are interchangeably labeled Persians, Saracens, Turks, Slavs, and pagans in the epic poems. On the “Saracen” in French medieval literature, see Ramey, Christian, Saracen and Genre; Daniel, Heroes and Saracens; and Rajabzadeh, “The Depoliticized Saracen.” 9 Laisses 5–8 demonstrate a form of repetition associated with oral–formulaic style known as the “parallel laisse,” a series of stanzas recounting the same basic action according to the same narrative pattern, but with variations. See Jean Rychner, La chanson de geste: Essai sur l’art épique des jongleurs, Geneva, Droz; Lille, Giard, 1955, pp. 83–93 and Jones, Introduction to the Chansons de Geste, p. 14.



GUI OF BURGUNDY

6. Our Emperor Charles laid siege to Augorie. For an entire year he attacked the city, But it was so well defended by the lords who ruled it That Charles was unable to capture so much as an apple. The king angrily abandoned the siege And rode straight to Montesclair. 7. Charles was sad, frustrated, and angry; He did not stop until he had come to Montesclair. He repeatedly attacked the moats and walls. Corsabrin, a powerful emir, defended the city; Charles could not do two pennyworth damage to it,10 So the emperor turned away and headed to Maudrane. 8. Charles was sad and turned back with great regret: He and his powerful company abandoned Montesclair And went to lay siege to the city of Maudrane. But it was defended by Amaudras, who feared no man, So Charles was unable to capture so much as a chestnut. Seeing this, the king was so depressed That he came very close to maiming and killing himself. 9. Charles was sad, frustrated, and angry. “My lord,” said Duke Naimes, “do not be dismayed: When it pleases God, sire, you will recover. Go straight to Luserne and lay siege to it; If you capture Luserne, all these others will fall.” – “Naimes,” said the emperor, “just as you wish.” In the morning at dawn, when the sun rose bright, He had his wagons loaded and set off with his army. Every day before nightfall They had to travel a good twelve leagues Through lands that were rougher than I could tell.

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10 Here, and elsewhere in our poems, the poets use the word dener/denier, the most common medieval French coin, to indicate something of little or no value. We have generally translated this (as here) by English “pennyworth,” or by some expression like “worthless,” “not a bit,” etc. See additionally the General Introduction and the note to line 204 in Roland at Saragossa for more on medieval coinage.

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Charles looked and saw his Frenchmen weeping, Bewailing the absence of their wives and children. “Barons,” he said, “I see that you are deeply grieved; I am not surprised, because I’ve made you suffer greatly. If anyone wishes to return now to France, I give you leave to go, for I cannot refuse it. But there is one thing you must know for sure: By the faith I owe my Christian religion, Whoever returns – he and all his lineage – Will be ill-treated and reduced to serfdom.” Four thousand seven hundred left the army – But the Gascons and Champenois all remained – And Charlemagne recorded each of their names: Thus were the ranks of serfs first created. The army assembled and was ready to depart; They rode together across plains and meadows Until they reached the splendid city of Luserne. Charles laid siege to it on the first day of summer And remained there for seven years; He was unable to enter it or do the slightest damage. Let us now stop telling of the mighty crowned King Charles And speak instead of the fifty-four thousand Young Frenchmen in the city of Paris, Who were all sons of the French barons. 10. The sons of Emperor Charles’s twelve peers Gathered together in Paris; First to arrive was Gui, Duke Samson’s son; Next came Bertrand, Duke Naimes’s son, Berard of Montdidier, the baron Thierry’s son, And Estout of Langres, Duke Oton’s son, Geoffrey of Anjou, son of Solomon, And Angeler’s son Savary the Gascon, There was also Alberic, son of Basin of Burgundy, Richard’s son, named Terrion, As well as Haston, son of Ivoire of Ivorie, And the sons of Anseïs and Huon, Along with Gerer’s son and his companion Gerin; All the best and most illustrious came. So many had assembled that it was a marvel:

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Men from Maine and Ile-de-France, from Normandy and Brittany, Fifty-four thousand in total of Charles’s men From all over the kingdom of France. Many were gathered in the great hall in Paris; The first to speak was Bertrand, Duke Naimes’s son, Who summoned the youths and said to them: “Young men, noble barons and knights, France will be lost if we don’t do something: We have not had any news of our king Charles, Who seems to have forgotten his kingdom of France. The king has been so very long in Spain That we have not seen our fathers as we should have; Sweet France will be destroyed And the rich will seize the houses of the poor. Let us crown a king in this country Who will keep us French in lawfulness and peace; A kingdom without a lord is worthless.” The youths exclaimed: “We all agree!” 11. That day there assembled a large number of French barons, Including the young sons of the twelve peers Whose fathers Charlemagne had led into Spain. Bertrand, Duke Naimes’s son, was the first to rise; He was handsome and noble of body, well-built, And he stood up before the others. “Young men,” Bertrand said, “listen to me: Charles, the mighty crowned king, is in Spain; A full twenty-six years ago He led there the fathers who begot us; Our mothers have nourished and raised us so well, Thank God, that now we are knighted. If you grant it, let us now select a king in France Whom we will follow for better and for worse, For if we failed him, it would be to our great dishonor.” The youths replied, “You have spoken well!” One of Ganelon’s sons rose to his feet: He was the youngest and was called Maucion; He was tall and muscular, with a long nose And red beard; he was very broad and heavy-set; He had shifty eyes and looked evil. Before all the others he declared:

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“Bertrand, you have spoken well indeed; If we are going to select a king, I nominate myself: I demand that you give me the crown. If you make me king, you will be much honored, For you will be loved and rewarded by me. Barons, I would be king if you so order, And the kingdom would be well off in my hands, For I am a nobleman of distinguished lineage: Alori is my nephew and Hardré my cousin;11 Richard and bearded Foucher are my relatives, Along with Izzy the young and Brian the old, Baddass, Malingerer, Dirtbag, and Dogface, Herkenbald, Herbert, Nivars, and Scummy, Boozer the vassal, Danemon the bearded, Girard of Valcorant, Puffinup the braggart, Courtly Alberic, Beranger and Hardré. There’s no more to say: I’m of splendid lineage, And my father is Ganelon, who accompanied Charles; It is well known that he wed the king’s sister, So it is clear I should be crowned king of France, And I will be if you all agree; So give me the crown – I’m ready! I will lead you well, and you would be fools to doubt it.” Estout of Langres said, “You are in too big a hurry! You didn’t even wait to be nominated.” – “So? I’m being called a wicked braggart Just because I spoke my mind and my heart?” – “Maucion, shut up! You shouldn’t have spoken.” 12. “Bertrand spoke well, my lords,” said Estout, “Let us select a good man to make our king. I’m not saying this for myself, but for everyone: If I wanted the crown, I could certainly have it

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11 The names of enemies of the crown – apart from a few “standard” ones such as Ganelon, Hardré, Berenger, and Alori – were intended to sound strange and/or amusing to the medieval ear. They often involve the prefix mal- or mau- (evil). In this listing alone there are Malveisin (literally “evil neighbor”), Malingres (our “Malingerer”), and Malurez (“Unfortunate”). Ganelon’s son, mentioned first in line 273, is named (appropriately) Maucion (Evil”). Such names are quite meaningless to modern ears, so we have chosen – at the slight risk of appearing to lack seriousness – to provide some with English “equivalents” that better render what the listing might have meant for a medieval audience.



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And become king of France, whether you like it or not; But I truly don’t want it, for I am too quick to anger;12 We need a wise man filled with love for all, Who could watch over the land and rule it amicably.” – “I was the first to offer myself,” said Maucion, “So I demand the crown; I claim it over everyone. If you make someone else king, no matter how noble, I’ll slice off the head above his chin!” Estout of Langres replied, “We would be fools To make you king and not be wary of you: Let a scoundrel speak like a scoundrel, and I’m a scoundrel; But I will say my piece, whether you like it or not. For God’s sake, Maucion, you need to shut up: You and your lineage – all your ancestors – Are and have always been traitors. Cursed be a traitor, shaved from ear to ear,13 And cursed be anyone who’d choose one.” – “My lords,” said the very noble Berard of Ardennes, “Let us stop our quarreling and shouting, Because fighting and insults are a waste. Let us go instead to the church to pray And to ask God and His Holy Name To choose a man who will be able To watch lovingly over the land. Let us select four hundred men – The very worthiest that we can find among us – Who will all swear upon the holy relics To do our very best To choose the worthiest king we can. And whomever we choose

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12 Estout (derived from the Germanic Stolz) meant “proud,” “violent,” or “impetuous” in Old French. See also lines 1236–37 below for how his contemporaries interpreted his name. 13 Cutting or defiling in any way a man’s beard, mustache, or sideburns was considered a grave insult, a direct attack on his manhood. Shame and ridicule ensued for all to see, and consequently humiliation, loss of respect, and rejection. It was particularly efficient when used against a traitor. One good example is the treatment of Ganelon in the Song of Roland. Accused of treason against Roland and the rearguard, Ganelon, on the emperor’s orders, was seized and kept prisoner by the army’s kitchen staff. With hate and disgust for the traitor, the cooks plucked hair from his beard and mustache, thus uprooting him from his rank, status, and human dignity, as a traitor deserves (Song of Roland, lines 1816–23). Other allusions to the significance of male facial hair in our text may be found at lines 1763–68 and 2299–2301.

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Must not dare refuse or stir up trouble; And whoever objects to our choice Will be in danger of losing his head.” – “By my faith,” said Estout of Langres, “this is right!” 13. Everyone agreed with what Berard proposed: They selected four hundred brave young men, Who all swore upon the holy relics That they would faithfully choose The worthiest and most honorable man they could. “My lords,” said Bertrand, “we have all taken our oaths, And now we must stay true to them.” – “Bertrand,” said Maucion, “now we shall see Who is willing to follow your lead. Do not forget that I have proposed myself: If you select another, you will lose my friendship; I will chase you down and make you suffer.” Count Bertrand replied, “You have threatened me; Certainly, if it’s up to me, you will never be crowned!” And Estout of Langres said, “We would be crazy To let ourselves be intimidated by a foul wretch; I’ll be damned if I ever agree to this!” 14. Estout looked around and found a heavy pole. With both hands he lifted it high And would have brought it down on Maucion’s head If his own men had not intervened and seized it To prevent his fighting with the pretender. They led him, angry and upset, back to his lodgings, Where he said that France was lost. The young men returned to the assembly. “My lords,” said Bertrand, “let us decide today: If you so order, I will name the king. I will name him with the understanding That if I speak well you will all follow my lead, But if I am in error, you will make it good. I will not choose alone, for you will help me. Think about Samson of Burgundy: The worthy knight is married to Charles’s daughter And has fathered a beautiful son.

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He is called Gui and is a handsome young man; He was knighted less than a year ago. Let us make him our king, if you agree; He is Charles’s nephew and relative. If the emperor returns to his realm And finds that we have crowned Gui our king, He will not slay him, since he is of his own lineage. And if he does not return, Gui will inherit this land, For we do not wish Charles to be disinherited.” The young men replied, “You have made an excellent choice.” They approached Gui and said to him: “My lord Gui of Burgundy, come forward. We wish to bestow the crown of France upon you.” The young man replied, “In the name of the true God, Give me the crown, I dare not refuse: I would rather be king than lose my head!” They gave him the crown and swore Never to abandon him as long as they lived. “My lords,” said the youth, “you have crowned me And each one of you has done as you willed. Now I want you to do as I will, And anyone who objects will lose his head. Each one of you must return to his own land And immediately prepare a large wagon – One with four wheels and covered with canvas – And load into it your mother and your household And one of the oldest men in your land, So that when you young men start to quarrel The old ones will be there to offer good advice. Bring along provisions to last ten years, For by this crown that you have placed Upon my head against my will, And by the faith I owe to the true God, I will not hold a castle or citadel in France Nor accept a single penny in taxes. Get yourselves ready without delay, For by the Lord sent to save this world I wish to follow Charles into Spain.” Upon hearing this, all the young men were frightened, For they had hoped to rest and sleep in France. They all cursed the hour that Gui was crowned.

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15. The youths returned to their own lands. Gui returned to the realm of Burgundy; When his mother, the noble countess, saw him, The lady said, “Fair son, we are pleased to see you! You are now king of France, by God’s grace. Do you intend to usurp Charles’s kingdom And chase him from the land and into exile?” – “Not at all, my lady, as God is my witness, But the young men of France have chosen me.” – “Fair son,” said the lady, “it is God’s pleasure. Since you are king of the land of France, You must not look down upon orphans, Nor take even an Angevin penny from them, But rather give them whatever of your own treasure they desire; This is the way to maintain your lands.” – “What are you saying, my lady?” the youth responded. “In the name of the ever-truthful Lord, I will not hold a castle or citadel in France Nor accept a single penny in taxes. Get yourself ready, sweet noble lady: I am going to Spain; you will come with me And be able to see your husband, as you have long desired.” – “Fair son,” the lady replied, “what did you say?” – “Mother,” said the youth, “do not contradict me.” Gui had a lovely, fringed wagon constructed, And the others did likewise in their lands. On the feast of St. John, they returned to Paris14 And met together on the banks of the Seine. There were some forty thousand young men and boys, With not a graybeard among them. King Gui of Burgundy raised a cry: – “Where is lord Maucion? I don’t see him here.” The others responded, “My lord, at Montlhéry, In his own castle that was built by his father. He is threatening you, so we’ve heard.” – “Listen to me well,” he said. “I swear to you: When I leave for France, you will accompany me. But I’d be ill-advised to conquer a foreign land If I cannot do as I please here in my own. 14

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The feast of St. John the Baptist (June 24) was widely celebrated in the Middle Ages.



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So quickly now, let’s capture Maucion!” Gui mounted a swift Arabian steed; Four hundred knights likewise mounted up And galloped swiftly out of Paris; They did not stop until they reached Montlhéry. When Maucion saw them, he nearly lost his mind; He summoned his cousin Alori: “Cousin, what can I do? I can’t save myself! There is no way I can defeat Gui; I’ll have to put myself entirely at his mercy. If he agrees, I’ll accompany him to Spain And suffer many trials and tribulations on the way.” – “My lord,” said Alori, “you have made a good choice.” Maucion mounted his horse, left the castle, Rode promptly and swiftly up to Gui, Dismounted, took hold of Gui’s stirrup, And quietly begged and implored his mercy: – “Lord Gui of Burgundy, noble and esteemed knight, They were very wise to choose you as king, For everyone should cherish and love you. When you leave for Spain to seek our friends, I’ll go with you, you cannot leave without me, And I’ll see my father whom I’ve never met.” – “Maucion,” said Gui, “by the ever-truthful God, I’ll never trust you a single day of my life! I know that if you remain here in France, You will start causing trouble as soon as I leave.” He summoned the provost, with his sergeants and bailiffs, To whom he had confided the task of ruling France. He turned Maucion over to him and told him To convey him swiftly to the tower of Privers, To be guarded there and properly nourished, And not to release him on any account Until after Charles returns, if he is still alive. They replied, “As you command it.” Meanwhile King Gui returned to Paris Where, upon seeing him, the women shouted: “My lord Gui of Burgundy, noble and esteemed knight, The emperor Charles led away our husbands, And it will be a great sin if you lead off our sons.” – “What are you saying, ladies?” asked King Gui. “I swear by the ever-truthful God

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That if any woman, no matter of what rank – Even if she were the sister of Charlemagne – Raises her voice to countermand my order, I’ll have her lower lip sliced off her face!” On hearing this, the ladies realized this was no joke; Together they prayed silently to Jesus in Paradise To protect their sons from injury and death. 16. At the first signs of dawn the next morning, King Gui had himself dressed and readied And had his wagons loaded and army assembled; The wagons advanced side by side. Gui spoke to Bertrand, Naimes’s son: “I order you to safeguard these wagons for me And see to the safety of the ladies.” – “My lord,” replied Bertrand, “it will be done as you command.” King Gui of Burgundy gave his order: If the poorest man in his army Should make an offer for anything he wished to buy, Then no wealthy man should dare make A higher offer until the deal is completed. If he did, he would have his head cut off. On the day they left the city of Paris A great darkness overcame the land; The Seine flowed blacker than ink And the sun grew dark at nones. Throughout the land people said, “It’s the end of the world!” The army commended sweet France to Jesus’s care And rode off without stopping. They rode together through wind and rain Until they came to the good city of Bordeaux. They crossed the Gironde River in launches and ships And rode through the Landes And passed the impoverished town of Beline. They came into Gascony, And the young knights pressed on together Until they drank wine from the grapes Charles had planted And saw the woods whose broad and leafy oaks Had sprung from the acorns he had sown.15

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15 The mature vineyards and the tall oaks grown from acorns that Charlemagne’s army had planted emphasize the twenty-six years that had supposedly passed since they left behind their wives and offspring (line 6).



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They met a thin and exhausted pilgrim Who had been living in Jerusalem, And who had often traveled through these lands; He had worn himself out trying to visit Every holy sanctuary in all Christendom. King Gui of Burgundy greeted him in these terms: “Pilgrim, may the Holy Trinity watch over you.” The pilgrim removed his hat and looked at him: “My lord, may God in Majesty protect you. Where are you coming from, fair sir, with such a large army?” King Gui responded, “I will tell you the truth: I am the King of France, from the city of Paris.” The pilgrim responded, “That’s not true: You aren’t Charles, who is much feared! Not long ago I saw him sad and depressed Before the walls of the splendid city of Luserne. In truth, his feet and hands were so swollen That he could barely stand upon his two feet. He and his men were so beaten down That they could barely mount their horses.” When King Gui heard this, he looked at Bertrand: “Have you heard, my companion, how our worthy parents Are all suffering in that foreign land?” Then he spoke even more forcefully to the pilgrim: “My friend, upon your word as a Christian, When you came upon Charlemagne’s army Did you recognize any of the twelve peers?” – “Yes,” replied the pilgrim, “and I can name them all: I recognized Roland and his companion Olivier, Naimes with his long beard and Ogier the baron, Richard of Normandy and illustrious Renier, Yvon and Ivoire and wise Oton, [Duke Thierry of Ardennes and bearded Eudes,] And Samson of Burgundy, so noble and bold.” When King Gui heard his father’s name, The heart in his breast became so tight That he nearly fainted and fell off his horse. He immediately turned to the pilgrim and said: “My friend, in the name of all that is holy, Tell me if this Samson of Burgundy is a mighty warrior.” – “Yes, my lord, he is a wealthy man [But he has lost everything and has nothing to eat.] I lay sick for four nights in his tent, But truly I had nothing to eat, because he had nothing to give.

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On the fifth day, listen to what he did: The duke had two horses bled And caught their blood in a pure silver basin; Once it had coagulated, we ate it with salt, For indeed we had no bread or honey.” When King Gui heard this, he nearly lost his mind And almost fainted and fell from his horse. Once again he questioned the pilgrim: “My friend, tell me upon your word: What has reduced Charles to such desperate straits?” – “By my faith, my lord, this powerful city Upon the bluff, whose tower you behold: Charles has besieged it for a year, I assure you, But has not been able to do a pennyworth of damage.” Hearing this, Gui turned to Bertrand And said, “Have you heard That you can see the mighty fortress That has reduced our noble fathers to such dire straits? Ride there at once with my banner raised, Because by this crown that was placed Upon my head in Paris against my will And by the faith I owe St. Honoré, As well as to my father who engendered me And whom I’ve never seen in all my life, I swear that I’ll never unbuckle my helmet from my head, Nor lift my splendid shield from my shoulder, Nor lift my inlaid hauberk from my back, Nor remove my spurs from my feet Until the hour I have captured this citadel.”16 17. King Gui and his men rode forward All in formation toward the citadel. When they saw them, the Saracens rose from their meal And went to the windows to watch. “My lords,” said Escorfaut, “Charles is returning; He has been at Luserne but could not take it.

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16 The name of the citadel is Carsade. Its leader is Escorfaut, who is killed by Gui during the siege that follows. He is not to be confused with a second Escorfaut, nephew of Huidelon of Montorgueil and emir of Augorie. Within Carsade is a palace, which literally and miraculously falls to the French youths in laisse 22. The citadel is not positively identified until lines 1265–70.



GUI OF BURGUNDY

The old man would gladly return now to France, But he is cowardly and out of his head And wants to go where he won’t meet any opposition. Arm yourselves at once, noble knights, And we’ll attack them front and rear!” – “By my faith,” said Barbarin, “that’s foolish! Because that isn’t the mighty King Charlemagne, And it’s not Roland or Duke Olivier, Nor Samson of Burgundy, Richard, or Renier, Nor Naimes with his long beard, nor Thierry or Ogier; And it’s not Yvon or Ivoire, Oton or Berangier. But without lying I’ll tell you who they are, Because I lived in France for over seven years: It’s a rescue party from France come to help. Wait a bit and I’ll go speak with them To ask them what demands they have.” The pagans replied, “Ride swiftly!” 18. The Saracen mounted a swift warhorse, Spurred it hard, and drove it straight ahead, Not stopping until he reached the French army. He greeted them loudly and said: “My lords, may Mohammed bless you!” And bold-hearted King Gui replied: “My friend, may God and the Holy Spirit grant you faith, So that your soul will not be lost to Him.” – “Where are you from?” asked the Saracen. Gui replied, “I am the king of Paris.” – “No you aren’t, upon my head!” the pagan responded; “You are not Charles, king of Saint-Denis. No more than a month ago I saw him Sad and downcast, at powerful Luserne. So tell me who you are, and don’t lie about it!” And King Gui responded, “I swear to you That I am king of France, Orléans, and Paris.” – “I’ve never heard such a thing,” said the Saracen, “And may Mohammed my creator curse the land That can harbor and defend two kings!” Then afterwards he added, “I’ve not spoken clearly: In France there are wheat and vineyards, And bold hearted and honorable men

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Who can well defend the land and uphold the country. Where are you headed?” asked the Saracen. King Gui replied, “To attack this citadel.” – “You’re a fool,” the pagan replied. “Charles, the king of Saint-Denis, besieged it for a year, And wasn’t able to do a Parisian pennyworth of damage, Even though he brought forth ten trebuchets, Fifty mangonels, and ten sapper platforms every day.”17 – “May it please God,” said Gui, “that the man is come Who will bring them destruction and defeat!” 19. “My lords,” said Barbarin, “I am going to return And will tell my lord that I’ve spoken with you. By my god Mohammed, who is my witness, They will surrender the city to you without deceit or quarrel.” Then he spurred his horse and set off toward the city; He did not pull rein until he reached it. As soon as Escorfaut saw him, he asked: “My friend, who are these people you met with? You stayed there quite a long while.” – “My lord,” said Barbarin, “I’ll tell you the truth: These are not people, but winged angels! Behold them there, my lord, armed on their horses, With shields on their necks as if growing there. By my god Mohammed, who is my witness, If all the Saracens alive and born to women And all the buried dead come back to life Were all assembled in that field below And fought against the French, They would all be killed before the sun had set. Their God watches over them and ours is a fool; It is their God who makes our wheat and bread.” – “Lowly vassal,” said Escorfaut, “you have insulted us!” Barbarin replied, “You can say what you will, But I’ll not believe it as long as I live.” Then he added so as not to be heard:

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17 Trebuchets and mangonels are both military machines designed to launch heavy stones against enemy walls; truies (line 662) are war machines that combine this launching ability with a wooden covering to enable them to be moved right up to the walls to facilitate sapper operations. See also lines 1273–74.



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“In truth, I’ll leave no matter whom it hurts.” Escorfaut shouted, “To arms, pagans, For I’ll attack them at once!” They drew on their hauberks and their gemmed helmets And mounted their swift, impulsive steeds; Some thirty thousand rode forth from the citadel. When King Gui saw them, he called to Jesus: “Glorious Father, protect me And all my companions I see before me From injury and death, So that we may once again see our fathers And come to their aid, through your goodness, At the splendid city of Luserne.” Archbishop Renier cried out:18 “Barons, kneel down and receive a blessing!” They immediately did as he commanded. “Barons,” said the archbishop, “listen to what I say: All the sins you have committed, by word and deed, From the first day you were born Until this one that finds you gathered here, I pardon for you – have no doubt about it, For I stand witness here and before God. And listen now to your penance: Shower mighty blows on these damned pagans – That’s all the penance you will need!” – “By God,” the Frenchmen said, “he’s a good advocate!” 20. When the good archbishop had blessed his people And absolved them in the name of Mary’s Son, They mounted their horses without delay. There was Escorfaut, the lord of the town, Carrying his lance upright with its banner of Tyrian silk; When he saw his interpreter, he asked: “Say, which one is the king of prosperous France?” – “There he is, in full armor with the fleury shield, Brightly gilded and with the fleur de lis upon it; He is clearly a man of great importance.”

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Escorfaut responded, “He will not live long! The Son of Holy Mary will not prevent me From killing him quickly with my sharp sword!” When King Gui heard this, his heart grew tender And he called upon Almighty God; he was no fool: “Glorious Father, who holds everything in your hands, Protect me today so I won’t lose my life, And protect all my companions from any harm, So that we may once again see Charles of Saint-Denis And come to his rescue before mighty Luserne.” Then he spurred his horse, As did Escorfaut without hesitation; With lances raised they charged one another; To his shame, Escorfaut’s lance was shattered And King Gui did not spare him: He pierced through his shield and byrnie And guided his solid sword deep into his heart, Knocking him dead from his steed. Gui shouted: “Charlemagne and Monjoie! Strike them, my knights!”19 The sons of prosperous France struck boldly And two thousand pagans were dead when they lowered their lances. 21. Great was the battle and much to be feared, And the Saracens were distraught that they could not endure. Behold Barbarin, who inspired so much fear; He approached King Gui eager to speak: “My lord,” he said to the king, “I won’t hide from you That I’ve come here to speak to you and your companions: You have killed our men and we can no longer hold out. The citadel is strong and you cannot enter it, But I will help you, if I can, to conquer it: I will take flight and you will chase me And follow me across the moat; Then you will pursue me up to the gate And come quickly through after me; Otherwise you will be unable to capture the citadel.”

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19 “Monjoie” is the conventional Christian battle-cry in the Old French epic. Although the etymology of the word is uncertain, it is believed to have a Germanic origin: mund gawi, “protect the land.” See Anne Lombard-Jourdan, “‘Munjoie!’ Montjoie et Monjoie. Histoire d’un mot.” Nouvelle Revue d’onomastique, vol. 21–22, no. 1, Jan. 1993, pp. 159–80.



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– “My friend,” said Gui, “that is a good plan.” Then the Turk turned back and began shouting: “My lords, our leader is dead, and we cannot hold out! Let us flee back into the city!” And they all said, “That is a great plan.” Bertrand, Renier, and Guilemer were nearby. “My lords,” said Gui, “for God’s sake, When you see the pagans turn their backs and flee, I order you to follow them so closely That you enter the city at their heels, Or otherwise the citadel will never be captured.” – “My lord,” said Bertrand, “strike boldly for God’s sake And kill everyone that you encounter!” The pagans turned their backs and fled; The Frenchmen pursued them, ready to strike, And rained blows down upon them as far as the gate. Any pagans who remained outside were in a bad way, For the young Frenchmen killed and dismembered them all. After they killed them, they threw them into the sea. King Gui of Burgundy gave his orders: All provisions were to be brought into the market square, And anyone who refused would lose his eyes. They immediately did as they were commanded. King Gui saw the provisions and began to sigh; He remembered Charles and his mighty barons. He called to Bertrand and Berard the wise, To Estout the son of Odon and to archbishop Renier, To Savary of Toulouse who was a powerful man: “My lords,” said Gui, “listen to me: Take twenty swift and rested mules And load them with these provisions; Have two thousand strong knights Accompany you in full armor. Lead the pack animals straight to Luserne, Present them to noble king Charles for me, And greet him in the name of the king of France.” – “My lord,” said Bertrand, “it will be as you command.” At that moment, Barbarin said to Gui: “My lord, for the love of God, have me plunged Into the baptismal font and reborn in water, For I truly believe in God the King of Majesty. I will put you in charge of the city in God’s name,

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And then I will go to Luserne, if you so command.” And Gui replied, “May God be praised!” The bishop had a font prepared, In which they had Barbarin baptized. Naimes’s son Bertrand said to Gui: “Since you have said so, we will go to Luserne, Where we will see the fathers who begot us. We will let them, sire, kiss and embrace us.” – “By St. Denis,” said Gui, “and by St. Omer, No matter how highborn you may be, If any one of you reveals who you really are, I’ll have you beheaded and dismembered, Because I want to lead you there personally, in great pomp!” Upon hearing this, the young men were so irate That they cursed the day he was crowned. 22. They set the matter aside for the night, And when morning came with the rising sun, King Gui of Burgundy did not wish to delay; He had his men and his knights armed And they went all the way up to the tower. “Barons,” said King Gui, “fall to your knees And let us ask glorious God in heaven To help us conquer this splendid palace.” King Gui went down on his knees with the others behind him. “O God,” said the king, “You who govern all things, Let us conquer this magnificent palace!” Now hear how God cherished Gui: Before an archer could raise his bow, The marble tower collapsed and split in two, Sending every pagan and infidel Crashing to his death on the ground below. King Gui ordered his men to search all the houses and cellars And remove the fine gold and coins, Tyrian purple silks, other fine silks, and bolts of taffeta.20

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20 The Crusades had acquainted Europeans with silks from the East: tyrs were silks dyed with murex, which gave them a purplish-crimson color; pailes is a generic term for fine silks; cendals were lightweight silks often used to line garments. See Monica Wright, Weaving Narrative: Clothing in Twelfth-Century French Romance, University Park, The Pennsylvania State UP, 2009. pp. 31–32 and p. 31, note 18. See additionally the note to line 1217 in Roland at Saragossa.



GUI OF BURGUNDY

Bertrand and Berard wasted no time: They had thirty-two knights mounted And many packhorses loaded with provisions, As well as gold, silver, and valuable fabrics. They asked King Gui for permission to leave, And he commended them to God. Our messengers then departed, And King Gui began to weep with pity. The young men set out: may Jesus help them! They were led by the newly baptized Barbarin, Who knew from experience the dangerous passes. But before they reached Charles, the righteous king, Even the most cheerful among them would be downcast and angry. 23. Our messengers were on their way: may God bring them honor! They were bringing provisions to proud-faced Charles. The young knights rode for two days, Led by the noble and valiant Barbarin. The renowned young men looked to their right And saw Montorgueil high upon a rock; Estout, son of Oton, was the first to exclaim: “My lords, for the love of God, what is that city? Has it been conquered by the mighty king Charles?” Barbarin replied, “No, he never entered the city; He and his barons laid siege to it for an entire year Without gaining a single penny.” – “By God,” said Estout, “let’s plunder the city And expel the Saracens and infidels!” – “By my faith,” said Bertrand, “you have lost your mind! We have sworn to bring provisions to King Charles, But you want to steer us off course.” – “Estout, what you propose is pure folly,” said Barbarin. “How would we take the city? Even Charles couldn’t do it. But be content if you can continue on your way in peace.” – “By God,” said Estout, “I can tell you’re losing your nerve. May it never please God, who was hung on the Cross, That we reach Charles and his powerful barons Without having seen or encountered any Saracens!” If he spoke in jest, his words nonetheless came true, For they had not gone one league, I believe, When they saw four hundred armed pagans

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Led by the redoubtable Danemont, Son of Huidelon and born in Montorgueil. These men guarded the passes, gorges, and fords. Seeing the messengers, they shouted: “Who are you, lords, following this path? Are you merchants carrying all those riches? Are you Saracens or Christians?” Wise Bertrand replied: “We are not Saracens, but Christians! We’re from the honorable country of France And we are going to Luserne to deliver these provisions.” – “Lowly vassal,” said Danemont, “you’ll be sorry! What did Escorfaut say when you passed by him? I’ll bet he was sleeping, so you slipped away.” – “By my head, scoundrel,” said Estout, “you are a liar! King Gui killed him and conquered the city.” Hearing this, Danemont nearly lost his mind. He shouted at the top of his lungs, “Pay me my tribute! Every one of you owes me a thousand gold besants.” Hearing this, Estout bellowed: “My lords, did you hear what this accursed wretch said? Let’s cross here and do battle with him. You’re crazy if you don’t!” – “We won’t, fair lord,” said valiant Bertrand. “They outnumber us; we could never survive. Instead, we will continue on our way, if you please.” Hearing this, Estout was infuriated. He gave his horse full rein, clasped his shield, And brandished his sword, commending himself to God. He plunged into the water at full tilt, Without seeking footbridge, passage, or ford. His horse pressed on until he reached the other shore. As soon as he arrived, Danemont rushed toward him And dealt him a mighty blow With a strong steel fauchard, Knocking both horse and rider into the ford. Now Estout was in water up to his bejeweled helmet. Bertrand, the renowned knight, shouted: “Holy Mary, Lady of Majesty, We’ve lost Estout unless you return him to us. Even if it means having my head lopped off,

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I’m going to help him, no matter what anyone says!” He spurred his horse and plunged into the ford, And the others followed him at full speed. Now hear about the miracle wrought by God: The water pulled back and receded into its bed. They crossed the water and lifted their spears; Our knights numbered at least two hundred. The Saracens burst forth – At least four thousand of them, may God destroy them! – And began striking the French on their banded shields. 24. The two sides swiftly engaged in close combat; The French were valiant, each one laying low his adversary. Estout fought like a true warrior: He cried out: “Barons, attack! God, where is the pagan, the filthy scoundrel, Who sent me swimming today for no good reason?” Behold Danemont riding at full speed; He came upon Estout, son of Oton, And they exchanged mighty blows on their lion-embossed shields, Shattering their lances and sending splinters flying. Their shields clashed; Both men were hurled onto the sand And then leapt back up like true warriors. Danemont drew his sword from his side And dealt Estout a mighty blow on his round helmet; Like a true warrior, Estout struck him back on the helmet With the full weight of his sword, Sending flowers and gemstones tumbling to the ground And slicing into his gleaming hauberk. Believe me, the blow very nearly took off His ear and cheek as well. Seeing this, Danemont was incensed; He held his sword fast and came charging at full speed. He would have done severe damage But for Bertrand and Berard, who struck swiftly, Along with Savary of Toulouse and brave Terrion, Archbishop Renier and noble Hugh. Then, from another direction, came Persians and Slavs To rescue their lord Danemont;

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They put him back on his horse, And the French did the same for Estout, son of Oton; Our men then charged toward the Saracens. “Danemont,” said the Turks, “let us retreat; These are Charles’s men: we can’t possibly hold out!” – “Quiet, traitors!” said evil Danemont; “We will kill every last one of them!” The pagans replied, “Stay, then! Do as you wish, but we’re leaving.” Hearing this, Danemont was incensed; The pagans turned and fled without a backward glance. Estout, son of Oton, shouted: “After them, barons! We’ve got them now.” – “No, my lord,” said Barbarin, “by God, we won’t, For it’s foolish to chase them farther.” The pagans fled as fast as they could, And Danemont rode all the way to Montorgueil without stopping. When his father Huidelon saw him, he cried out: “Where have you been, fair son?” – “My lord,” replied Danemont, “I will not lie to you. I fell into the hands of Charles’s messengers, Who were making their way to Luserne, Carrying the provisions that are so badly needed there. My lord, by Mohammed, we must keep Charles out.” And his father replied, “By my head, we will do it!” He shouted, “Raise the drawbridge! Make sure these Frenchmen won’t be able to enter.” They had the gate closed, the drawbridge raised, And the walls fortified all around. Now we shall leave the Turks and speak instead of the messengers, Who were riding on the sandy road toward Luserne. Barbarin led them, along with noble Bertrand; May the Lord who pardoned Longinus protect them, For they never let up before reaching Charles. 25. Now the messengers were on their way; May they be guided by the Lord who made wine from water When He attended the wedding at Cana. They rejoiced at having vanquished And defeated Cain’s descendants.

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GUI OF BURGUNDY 47

Now we shall speak of Charles, the king of Saint-Denis, Who was outside Luserne, angry and despondent. He was sitting on a block of stone in front of his tent And saw that his legs, arms, and feet were swollen; He looked at his hands with their broken skin And called out to Renier, Thierry, Bearded Naimes, Ogier, and Henry: “Barons,” said the king, “I am in a sorry state! I’ve not been able to capture Luserne And we only have food enough for two and a half days. I will have to abandon this great siege, But I will be sorrowful and angry To leave Spain, so help me God, my friend!” – “In God’s name, sire,” said Thierry of Ardennes, “We ought to be ashamed indeed For not capturing this kingdom; We should return to France, to Paris: Demons from hell brought us here!” The foot soldiers all began to cry out: “It’s all because of Richard of Normandy, Who told the king about the castles and cities.” Word spread until it reached Richard, Who was outraged when he heard it. He stripped off his clothes and went completely naked To the king’s tent without delay; In front of all the barons and the people gathered around, He took his sword into his two hands, knelt down, And begged Thierry for mercy. “My lord,” he said, “by the One who has never lied, I fully admit that I led us into this predicament. I meant no harm, so help me God, And no one can force a king To do something against his wishes. But by the Lord who never lied, I have suffered as much as you have, lord Thierry. I haven’t eaten anything of substance for two days, Nor have I drunk claret, wine, or spiced drinks, But only the warm blood of horses, mules, and packhorses. Take my sword, noble and highborn knight, And cut off my head because of what I said. God pardoned those who killed Him and I will do the same.” When the barons heard this, they were filled with pity;

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They would not have harmed him for all the gold God made. “So help me God,” said Duke Naimes to Thierry of Ardennes, “Whoever strikes him will become my enemy.” They apologized for their anger and had Richard dressed. The emperor could not help but weep. “Sire,” said Duke Naimes, “do not trouble yourself so. When Jesus finds that the time is right, You will take Luserne without a struggle.” – “Naimes,” replied the king, “may God bless you And may He have mercy on us and send us help, For we are tormented and ashamed for lack of food.” But he lamented for nothing: before nightfall, He would have all the food he needed To satisfy his great army, For the young men were riding furiously, Not stopping until they reached the French troops. 26. Now the messengers sent by Gui the warrior Were bringing packhorses laden with food To King Charles, who was in dire need. That day the king was sitting in front of his vast tent, Tearfully observing his legs and his feet; He called Naimes and Ogier the Dane, Yvon and Ivoire, Oton and Berenger. “Barons,” said Charles, “I am quite angry. I cannot capture this city, which is infuriating, And we haven’t eaten for two whole days!” – “Sire,” said Naimes, “God will help us; Whoever has faith in Him has nothing to fear; Last night, I had a marvelous dream: Before daybreak, I dreamed, sire, That we were in Paris, in the orchard, With many valiant knights around us; I looked up and saw the sky undulating, And then I saw emerge from the heavens such beautiful people That they seemed like winged angels, And they all fell at your feet; You raised them up with great affection, And when I saw the clouds return to the sky, It began to rain and sleet Bread and wine upon you, truly!

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GUI OF BURGUNDY 49

And you shared it generously with your knights.” – “Naimes,” said the king, “God willing, your dream will come true.” He then looked at the wide road And saw the young knights riding close together, Their packhorses kicking up clouds of dust. Then the king thought he was seeing things And that these were pagans and infidels. He shouted, “To arms! Before this day is over, We will have need of our old shields: I see pagans and infidels approaching.” 27. When Charles saw the young knights And the loaded packhorses arriving, He thought he was in a bad way, For he took the knights for Saracens and Slavs. “Barons,” said Charles, “arm yourselves! We will have to confront this first detachment And I believe that we will kill every one of them.” – “Sire,” said Ogier, “you are wrong, For my two hands and my two feet are swollen And I cannot fit into my stirrups. Even fifty blows struck by my blade of steel, My worthy sword Corteine, Would not be able to slay a single Saracen. And yet I assure you I have seen a time When I could grasp Corteine by its golden hilt And cut a Turk to pieces in an instant.” – “Barons,” said Charles, “I will do as you wish, But if you allow me to die, You will incur shame and reproach; Never in your lifetime will you have such a good lord.” Charles continued, “Oh God, why do You hate me so? Did I not once capture castles and cities? Towns and strongholds could not stand against me. Now I am helpless and foolish; If you please, God, grant me death.” Then the king rose and called out: “Bring me my armor right away, quickly! Since you refuse to budge, I will go it alone.” He then began to weep – he could not help it. Said Ogier the Dane, “We must be mad

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To let our beloved king shed tears. May it please the Lord, the King of Majesty, That none of us return, not even all twelve peers, Unless we are slain and cut to pieces; Surely it is better to die than to live as cowards.” Then they attached spurs to their bare feet, For they had no socks or shoes or boots: All had been destroyed by wind and storms. They donned their hauberks and laced their gemmed helmets, Girded their swords and fastened their belts, And then mounted their scrawny, weak horses, Which had eaten neither oats nor rye nor wheat – Nothing but the sparse grass from the fields – And suspended their shields blackened with smoke. They were a good twelve thousand old and bearded men. They left Charles behind, And the king commended them to St. Honoré, Praying that he would keep them safe and alive. Thus the elders departed and encountered the youths. They met in a valley With the children they had fathered. But when the youths saw them, they were terrified, Thinking that they were Saracens and Slavs; They were lined up as if prepared for battle, And the old men readied themselves as well; There was nothing more to do but strike blows. But when they saw the shields painted with crosses, Duke Naimes knew at once that these were Frenchmen; Needless to say, he was overjoyed. He removed his shield and threw it upon the grass, Followed by his sword with its steely blade. He wasted no time in approaching the French knights; The very first one he encountered Was Bertrand, his own son. Naimes observed him carefully And then grabbed the youth’s bridle And greeted him in the name of the King of Majesty: “May the Glorious Lord who hung upon the Cross Protect you, fair lords, and grant you His mercy; Are you merchants carrying all those riches? Do you have plenty of bread and wine and meat? If you wish to sell it for money,

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The emperor Charles will arrange to buy it With carefully weighed gold and silver.” – “My lord,” said Bertrand, “may God help you!” Then after a closer look he added: “Old man, sir, what did you say? Are you highwaymen and thieves? From your armor, I’d say you were traitors. When have you ever seen merchants armed like this? Besides, you seem foolish and senile. Since you asked, I’ll tell you who we are; I’m not afraid of you and have nothing to hide: We are not merchants, have no doubt. We are from the honorable land of France And are the vassals of the worthy king; We are headed for Luserne, bringing provisions. We have no intention of selling, but of giving: We wish to present them to King Charles On behalf of our noble and valiant king. And you, holding my bridle and asking so many questions, Where are you from?” Duke Naimes replied, “I will tell you truly: I was born in the honorable land of Bavaria; My name is Duke Naimes and I am one of the twelve peers.” Hearing this, Bertrand looked more closely, For he realized that this was his beloved father. He was furious that he could neither embrace him Nor reveal himself because of Gui’s command. Truly, this caused him such anguish That he nearly fell off his horse in a dead faint. And yet in the midst of his great sorrow He severely insulted his father: Looking at him threateningly, And without mincing words, he said: “I’ll be damned if I care,” said valiant Bertrand, “Whether you are Duke Naimes or one of the twelve peers. You have little love for your wife or your son, For you’ve not seen him in your entire life.” – “My God,” said Duke Naimes, “do I have a son?” – “Yes,” said Bertrand, “a very fine young man; He was dubbed less than a year ago; He is no bigger than I am and no older. By the God we worship,

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I once heard him pledge and swear That if he encountered you on the road He would send your head flying. You let his mother suffer a long widowhood: In Bavaria they told her That Charles had arranged for you to be married in Spain.” – “As God is my witness,” said Naimes, “I never dreamed of it! He has kept us in Spain against our will.” – “You’re a clever liar,” replied wise Bertrand; “I tell you again, and make no mistake: If your son meets you on any road or path, He will separate your head from your body.” – “God,” said Naimes, “I think I’m losing my mind! I curse the hour that I was born, When my own son threatens me; But such a threat is a long shot: he will never find me.” 28. Duke Oton of Langres, the lion-hearted, Urged forth his horse with sharp spurs And grabbed his son Estout’s bridle; “What is your name?” he asked. His son replied, “I am called Estout And I am from France: I am one of King Gui’s men; Never did a better man put on spurs.” Oton of Langres replied, “I consider him a traitor For having usurped King Charles’s crown; He will be hanged with a strong rope.” Hearing this, Estout nearly went mad with rage; He shook his head wildly and, with a fiendish look, Glared at his father and said: “By my head, old man, you are a scoundrel For saying this about powerful King Gui; Never did a better man put on spurs. I’m tempted to yank out your beard and mustache Or split you in two from the top of your head!” Oton of Langres replied, “Your name suits you: You are treacherous and vile and thus called Estout.” 29. Duke Thierry of Ardennes spurred his horse And grabbed Berard of Montdidier’s bridle – This was his son by his noble wife.

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“What is your name?” asked proud-faced Thierry. And the youth responded promptly: “My name is Berard, I have no wish to hide it; And you, holding my bridle, what is your name?” Thierry responded sincerely, “I’ll not hide it: I am Thierry of Ardennes.” Hearing this, Berard was very upset Because he dared not hug or kiss him: King Gui had expressly forbidden it. Then he said, “I’ll be damned if I care, You lecherous old son of a bitch; Charles treats you like a beast of burden, Carrying your load around Spain like a packhorse.” 30. “My lords,” said Duke Naimes, “listen to me: Tell me truthfully, what is the name of your king? He should be ashamed and disgraced For trying to take away Charles’s great kingdom.” – “What has he ever done to you?” replied Bertrand. “He has never held a castle or a city in France, Nor has he received a pennyworth of revenue; And I am telling you the absolute truth: He is sending Charles a generous gift.” – “My lord,” said Naimes, “I ask you, then, In God’s name, where did these goods come from?” – “From Carsade,” replied Bertrand. – “When did you get there?” asked Thierry of Ardennes. – “Two weeks ago,” replied Bertrand. “That is where we acquired these goods; We laid siege on a Thursday morning And the city was captured before noon.” – “God help me,” said Naimes, “I’ve never heard of such a thing! Charles, the king of Saint-Denis, laid siege there for an entire year! Each day rocks were hurled From fifty mangonels and ten strong catapults, But they never did the least bit of damage.” – “God did not wish it,” responded Bertrand. “You weren’t worthy of capturing anything.” 31. “My lords,” said proud Thierry, “I beseech you by the One who suffered the Passion

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To speak to Charles only with the utmost respect; Otherwise, he will have your heads lopped off.” – “Accursed be anyone who fears him,” said Bertrand; “We hold no castles or strongholds from him, Nor a single plot of his land.” They departed without delay, And the young men rode furiously, Not stopping until they reached Charles’s army. They found Charles in his tent, Sitting pensively, his chin on his hand. Bertrand, son of Naimes, was the first to dismount, Followed by all the messengers sent by Gui. Bertrand spoke first, for he was very wise: “May glorious God who suffered the Passion Allow you to take revenge on the treacherous pagans, Those who do not believe in holy salvation; And may He bless and protect the Emperor Charles And all his knights assembled here. May He preserve the powerful King Gui, Who sent us here to bring you generous provisions. Although he has never seen you, sire, he offers you a fine gift.” When he heard this, the king frowned And rolled his eyes with a fiendish look. Noble Charles rose to his feet in a fury, Such that he split open the soles of his feet in four places. He leaned angrily on a staff And, eyeing Bertrand, said loudly: “You are much mistaken; begin again!” – “Sire,” said Bertrand, “I assure you there has been no mistake.” – “What the devil!” said Charles, “Are you telling me there is another king in France?” Bertrand replied, “We don’t even know you; We depend solely on King Gui And we’ve never known another king in all our lives. If you are the Charles who was in Morillon, I wish to God who suffered the Passion That you were in France, in your house in Paris, With ladies from far and wide, Each one holding in her hand a club And beating you so hard on your back and rump That you would give all the gold in Besançon Not to have taken their husbands from them.”

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“By St. Denis,” said Charles, “I did this, it is true; It was a terrible mistake and a great sin; They would be right to give me a sound beating.” 32. “Young man,” said King Charles, “listen to me: Where did these goods you’re offering me come from?” – “From Carsade,” said wise Bertrand. – “When did you get there?” asked the renowned Charles. – “Two weeks ago,” replied valiant Bertrand. – “And what is the name of your lord?” asked the renowned Charles. – “Sire, they call him Gui in his native land.” – “And of what land is he king?” asked valiant Charles. – “Sire,” said Bertrand, “the kingdom of France.” – “My God,” said Charles, “where was he born?” – “By my head,” said Bertrand, “this I will not reveal. I wouldn’t tell you for everything you own.” – “By my head,” said Charles, “and by my faith, If I could catch him, his life would be over: I would have a rope tightened under his chin And have him harnessed to the tail of a packhorse; Then I would have him dragged from Rheims to Orléans.” Hearing this, Bertrand thought he would lose his mind; Had he not been king of France, Charles would have paid dearly. “What has he done to you?” asked valiant Bertrand; “He never took any of your castles or cities And never received a penny of your revenue; Yet I have brought you on his behalf a fine gift. The very day of his coronation He sent us riding off to find you When we had intended to take our rest, Hunting in the forest and walking beside the river. He offers you these provisions Which, clearly, you desperately need. I see that your men have swollen limbs And you yourself are in such a bad way That you can’t even stand on your own feet Without holding on to a staff. I consider my lord foolish and outrageous For having to force you to take this gift, Ungrateful as you are: it’s pure madness. I believe this good deed will turn against us.

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Since you need neither bread nor wheat, I will return the provisions.” He looked at his father and wept with pity, Saying under his breath, so that none could hear: “My God, what have I said, unfortunate wretch that I am? I wouldn’t return the goods for all the city of Paris.” He said to the king, “Sire, you are in the wrong; If you were wise, you would be grateful to him.” When Charles heard him threaten to return And take back the provisions, He deeply regretted what he had said. “My friend,” he said, “you are absolutely right; If I were wise, I would accept gladly, For we are in need of bread and wheat. Blessed be the hour when Gui was conceived And when he was crowned in France!” Behold Roland and his companion Olivier, Who were just arriving from the mountains; Seeing the packhorses, they rejoiced greatly And then noticed the young knights in their elegant attire. “God,” said Olivier, “we’ve endured such great poverty! It’s been over seven years Since I had a change of clothes.” – “It is the same for me,” said worthy Roland. – “Fair nephew,” said the king, “listen, if you please, To good news that will bring you great joy: In France they have crowned a fair young man as king; I am told there is not a nobler man In the kingdom of France, nor a more just one.” Hearing this, Roland gave a hollow laugh And then said bitterly, “They did well; If he is as valiant as you say, You can leave him to govern France forever.” Hearing this, Charles sighed, For he knew he was being mocked. Then the king said, “How arrogant you are! You have never given me wise counsel; I’d like to slap your face with my glove!” – “Sire,” said Olivier, “you are in the wrong. It has been fully twenty-six years Since I was in a great hall or splendid palace. Instead, I have slept in fields and valleys and meadows.

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We have seized castles, towns, and citadels. But now you mock us for no reason. By the apostle they venerate in Nero’s Meadow,21 Before eight days have passed I will go back to France; It has been a long time since I saw my beloved mother Or my sister Aude, so fair of face.” – “By my head,” said Roland, “I will do the same. Let us leave this senile old man And let him be commended to a hundred devils!” Behold Ganelon accompanied by Hardré, Tibaut, Alori, Mauvoisin, and Mauré, The most illustrious men of his lineage. Ganelon approached Charles and said: “Sire, you who are so wise, And you, noble young man, listen to me: We are five thousand well-born men; We have all pledged and sworn upon holy relics That we must return to sweet France. We have taken castles, towns, and cities, But everything we have done has been forgotten. Now these scoundrels have arrived from France Where they have seized our possessions, And they dare to bring the king they have crowned. But by the apostle they venerate in Nero’s Meadow, If my advice is heard and followed And if the king follows my wishes, He will have all these messengers beheaded.” Hearing this, Charles bowed his head; He summoned Naimes and Archbishop Renier. 33. The emperor of France summoned Ogier And bearded Naimes, Richard, and Renier, And Yvon, Yvoire, Oton, and Berengier, And Samson of Burgundy and proud-faced Thierry; He looked at Roland and Olivier and then said:

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21 Nero’s Meadow refers to the landscaped gardens built by Nero around his new palace in central Rome immediately after the 64 CE fire. It was by tradition the site of St. Peter’s martyrdom under the Emperor Nero. It may also refer to Nero’s other palace at the Vatican. It is also mentioned at lines 1429, 1962, and 2281.

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“Barons, give me your counsel: In France they have made a powerful knight their king Without asking my leave or considering my rights.” Hearing this, Naimes looked at Ogier, But the two of them remained silent, not uttering a word. “Sire,” said Ganelon, “I will speak first: In France they have made a lowly scoundrel their king Without asking your leave or considering your rights; Know for certain that this should trouble you mightily. Have those provisions unloaded quickly And have them delivered to the noble barons; Be sure that the poor receive nothing worth even a penny. Then have the young knights stripped naked, For you might well need their clothing, And have their hands and feet bound. Then have your army break camp And leave Luserne, for you will never capture it: No man under the heavens can seize it for you. Then have your men ride out And attack that wretched scoundrel Gui. Have his men killed and dismembered And have Gui himself hung upon the gallows; I believe you’ll not find a better way to take revenge.” Hearing this, Naimes thought he would lose his mind; He leapt to his feet in anger, Letting his gold-edged cloak fall And removing his cap from his head. His beard flowed all the way down to his waist And his mustache was braided behind his neck. He looked like a man with lands to govern. Speaking like a true noble warrior, In a booming voice he said: “In the name of glorious God, ruler of all things, And of the most holy river where He was baptized, And of the stake to which He was bound, And of the most Holy Cross where He was hung, And of the most holy crown of thorns He wore on His head, And of the most holy nails that pierced His feet, And of His most holy death by which we were freed, And of everything He does on earth and in the heavens, May this counselor and his big mouth be damned! And accursed be Charles, ruler of France, If he doesn’t repay you for this evil advice!”

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Hearing this, Ganelon was furious with himself; he would have given A hundred pounds of pure gold to be able to take back his words. 34. “Sire,” said Duke Naimes, “listen to me: Do not believe advice from traitors and evildoers. You will regret it, by St. Simon! I advise you not to kill Gui’s messengers, For these young men are from your country, And – would I lie to you, Emperor Charles? – I believe my son is among them, along with the sons Of Ogier, Richard of Normandy, and Duke Samson. Do the honorable thing: welcome the young men, Have them brought to your tent and entertained Until tomorrow at daybreak, Then send greetings and friendship to their lord. Disregard Ganelon’s treacherous advice.” – “Naimes,” said Charles, “you have spoken like a true baron; If the others agree, we will accept your advice.” The French spoke up loudly, saying: “Truly, the powerful Duke Naimes has spoken wisely.” Hearing this, Ganelon frowned And rolled his eyes like a true fiend. He summoned his valiant companion Hardré, Along with Tibaut, Alori, and the men of Morillon; All told, they were a force of five thousand vile scoundrels. They left in a rage, consumed by anger, Swearing to God who suffered the Passion That Duke Naimes would be sorry, Along with Roland, Olivier, and the emperor Charles. They were not wrong – may God bring down evil upon them! – For Ganelon would sell them to King Marsile And betray the twelve companions out of envy; Sadly, all of them would die at Roncevaux.

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Now you will hear a marvelous song; Never was there a better one composed by a jongleur. 35. Ganelon returned to the tents, Threatening Roland and his companion Olivier That he would make them sorry if he could. The emperor Charles was taking no chances:

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He immediately had the food unpacked And divided among his army Such that it was evenly distributed among the rich and the poor. Then they all ate their fill And blessed the hour that Gui had been crowned. “Naimes,” said Charles, “now listen to me: Do you see that young man named Bertrand? May God the King of Majesty confound me If that isn’t your son, conceived in your wife’s womb; Every time he turned toward you today, I saw tears flowing from his eyes.” – “I don’t know, sire, but I found him to be haughty: Today he called me a wicked senile old man.” 36. Charles summoned proud-faced Thierry; “By God,” said the king, “I will speak quite frankly: Do you see that praiseworthy young man, The blond one named Berard? I tell you truthfully and in all loyalty That he is your son, born of your wife.” – “I don’t know, sire, by heaven, But I found him to be proud and arrogant; Today he called me a wicked old scoundrel. Still, sire, give them lodging for tonight So that you can discover what they’re about.” The king replied, “So be it.” 37. Charles summoned Duke Oton of Langres: “Fair lord,” he said, “go straight to the Germans And tell them to vacate their tent right away; Have these young men lodged there sumptuously.” Oton replied, “Sire, as you wish.” He mounted his horse, rode off, And told the Germans to vacate their tent, Which they did angrily and resentfully. The emperor of France had the young men brought inside And seated comfortably around the tent. “Young men,” said Bertrand, “in the name of God, listen to me: Eat as much as you wish and drink in moderation, And don’t mention King Gui from now on,

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For Charles, the noble and valiant emperor, Will soon send spies to listen to us To see if we speak about King Gui, So that he can find out who his father is. I wouldn’t want this to happen, even for the gold of ten cities, Or we will never be reconciled with Gui.” – “My lord,” said the young men, “just as you please. We will never go against your wishes.” 38. Now the young men were all seated at dinner. Emperor Charles called to Ogier, Bearded Naimes, Thierry, and Renier; He also looked to Roland and Olivier: “Barons,” said the king, “mount your warhorses; We will go meet and speak with the youths.” Roland and Olivier mounted at once, And none of the twelve peers wished to delay, Nor did the emperor himself. They all hurried to the young men’s tent. Berard of Montdidier was the first to see them coming. He went to Bertrand and said to him: “Noble youth, don’t take it wrong: There is your father calmly approaching us.” – “And yours as well,” Bertrand replied. “I’m very sorry that we cannot embrace them, But we mustn’t because of Gui’s orders.” At this moment the emperor dismounted And the messenger Bertrand stood to greet him. “Young man,” said the emperor, “may you be blessed By the Holy Cross to which Jesus was nailed. I have come as a friend to speak with you.” – “My lord,” replied Bertrand, “may God be thanked.” The emperor of France sat down beside Bertrand; Berard of Ardennes sat at his feet As did the others, to show their good manners. “Young men,” said the emperor, “please listen to me: What is the name of your king? He is much to be praised, But one thing bothers me a great deal: That he has taken a crown without consulting me.” – “What wrong has he done you?” asked Bertrand. “He has never held a castle or fief in France,

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Nor has he received a pennyworth of revenue, And he has brought you a generous gift.” – “That is true, by my head,” said the emperor. “Tell me, what do you know about the ladies of France? Are all the maidens and women dead?” – “Indeed not,” affirmed praiseworthy Bertrand. “We are bringing over fifteen thousand with us; Gui has had them transported in carts and wagons. Your sister, bright-faced Lady Gille, is with them, As is beautiful Aude, Olivier’s sister.” When Roland heard this, he leapt to his feet And hurried to embrace Bertrand: “Noble young man, by the power of heaven, If I had a palfrey or warhorse with me, A molted falcon or plump sparrowhawk, I would give it to you if you’d accept it.” – “My lord,” said Bertrand, “listen to what I say: When you are back in France And have been granted your income and fiefs, I will thankfully accept your generosity.” – “So help me God,” said Charles, “you know your manners.” With these words the emperor rose to his feet. “Young men,” he said, “listen to me: I wish to return, and you will stay here.” – “Sire,” said the youths, “may God be with you.” At the separation there was much lamenting; Both Roland and Olivier wept. The emperor of France returned to his tent And entered it; he had his men settle down. In front of him he saw a pilgrim, Who had his staff and palm branches, and a cap upon his head; Charlemagne spoke to him as follows: “Friend, I hold you in high esteem; Please lend me your garments, brother, And put on mine, which are no less valuable.” – “Willingly,” said the pilgrim, “in God’s name.” Then both men undressed. Charles put on the hair shirt and pilgrim’s cap, And shod his rustic shoes and laced them up; He hung the leather pouch about his neck And took up the heavy pilgrim’s staff. Dressed like this, he looked just like a pilgrim.

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He summoned noble Ogier the Dane: “My friend,” he said, “I am very surprised That they’ve made the warrior Gui king in France: He has not asked leave of me nor considered my rights. By the apostle that knights go to venerate, I won’t have people call me a coward or weakling Who can’t even get up on his warhorse. I’m going to go into the city there To spy out where the wall is easiest to breach. May it not please God, who rules over everything, That I ever fear having my head chopped off, Or that anyone says as much to King Gui; No, he must fear and dread me as a mighty warrior!” – “Sire,” said Ogier, “let it be as you wish, And may Jesus in Glory be with you!” 39. “Ogier,” said Charles, “listen to my idea: I’m going to go into the city to spy; When you are sure I’ve gotten in, Put on my armor, take up my shield, Mount upon my warhorse at once – The Saracens and Slavs will recognize it easily – Then attack the gates with Naimes And thirty thousand armed companions.” – “Sire,” said the Dane, “I am at your command.” Hearing these words, Charlemagne turned And did not stop until he reached Luserne. He approached the Bavarian Gate, facing the sea, And came to the small entry door. Listen to how the good king disfigured himself: He lowered his head to his shoulders and began to shake, He stumbled along as if he had a sore hip, He held his right eye closed and opened the other, And he twisted his mouth up into his face. He reached the little door that was opened to him, Stuck in his foot, and crossed to the inside. But as he headed up toward the tower He was hit by a blast of wind That blew his hat from his head, Uncovering his face and revealing his identity. The armed pagans guarding the gate

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To the good city saw him. Boidan of Moride was the first to speak – He was an interpreter who had been in France, And he quickly recognized the mighty crowned king. “My lords,” Boidan said, “listen to what I think: Have you ever seen the mighty crowned king Charles? That’s him there, come to spy on the city! I tell you: he’s going to speak to Aquilant. I’ll follow him closely, I assure you, And slice his head from his body.” When Charles heard him plotting his death, You can be sure he was very afraid. He prayed to God, the King of Majesty: “Oh God, Father Almighty, born without sin, Who allowed your body to suffer on the Holy Cross; As I believe this to be true, Lord, protect me So that I can once again see young king Gui And the salvation of France I so desire.” He began to look up to the heavens And beheld them open to Majesty And saw a Cross, supported on all sides by four winged angels, That was pouring forth a great light. The king feared for the lives of his nobles, But the Archangel Gabriel came down to him And whispered gently into his ear: “Emperor of France, rest assured that He who brought you here will watch over you.” Hearing this, the emperor regained confidence And the angel departed at once. Charles – may God increase his kindness – Went immediately to the main palace, Where he found Aquilant beneath a pine tree Surrounded by thirty crowned kings. They had gathered together for fear of the French. The old graybeard Charles, Leaning upon his strong ashen staff, Approached and greeted Aquilant as follows: “May Mohammed save you, sire, and all your men.” Aquilant looked at him and asked: “Where are you coming from, where are you going, and where were you born?” – “Sire,” replied the emperor, “you will hear the truth:

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I was born in the splendid city of Palermo; I am returning from worshipping Mohammed in Mecca, Where I made my offering in early summer. I had planned to return to my own country, But Charlemagne was keeping such close watch at the passes That there was no way I could get through; In fact, it’s a miracle I was able to escape. Just the other day I was with your father, the mighty king Macabé, Who sends you greetings by me And says – and you cannot doubt this – That you must always protect your honor and your city. Within two weeks or a month He will send you four thousand armed Turks Who will defend and protect you from Charlemagne; They will force the old man to abandon his siege. May Mohammed, in whom you believe, destroy you If you do not hang him once you’ve captured him!” – “Pilgrim,” said Aquilant, “you will be richly rewarded For this welcome news you bring me.” The pagan who had recognized Charlemagne Followed closely behind him as he went out. Before saying a single thing to him, He seized Charles by his hoary beard, Yanked it hard, pulled him toward himself, And said, “Old man, look at me! I know exactly who you are; You need to give an entirely different message.” When Charles saw this, he was greatly angered. Then, by God, a very noble thought came to his mind: If he heard that man say one more word, He would regret it and be very sorry. Charles raised his thick and weighty staff And struck him such a blow to the head That he smashed his skull to pieces, And the pagan’s eyes popped out of his head As it came crashing to the ground. He had struck him dead right in front of Aquilant, Who cried out, “Grab this pilgrim And hang him without delay!” But Salatré the Turk said, “By my god Mohammed, What you’ve just said was wrong and it surprises me! This pagan has harmed your reputation more than the pilgrim:

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He grabbed him by the beard without warning And, if he’d hurt him, the pilgrim could have lodged a complaint And you’d have willingly and properly upheld him. The pilgrim avenged himself for the lack of warning, So if this pagan was injured, the pilgrim is not to blame. The pilgrim was in the right, so let him be.” Aquilant replied, “As you say. If I can prevent it, he will suffer no further harm.” At this moment, a boy rushed forward, And when he saw Aquilant shouted to him: “Mighty and esteemed king, you have delayed too long: You will lose your city if you do not hurry, Because the redoubtable king Charles is attacking its walls; He has shattered the drawbridge and destroyed the moat.” Hearing this, Aquilant shouted: “To arms, my knights, without delay!” And they did so without any hesitation. Aquilant, too, armed himself at once And spoke to Charles as follows: “Wait for me here, pilgrim. I’ll return to you when the attack is over And give you so much of my wealth that you’ll thank me for it.” – “My lord,” replied Charles, “at your command.” Then he added in a low voice, “I’ll not be waiting!” After Aquilant of Luserne went to the attack, King Charles rose to his feet, Hurried through the dark streets, And came straight to the gate. The pagan gatekeepers shouted to him: “Pilgrim, if you go out, you’ll die!” The king heard this but said nothing. He came to the small exit door, stepped forward Without opposition, and passed through. Once he was in the fields, he started to run – An unshod horse could not have kept up. He came to where his men were attacking and had them stop. 40. Charles had them stop and abandon the attack, For he saw that it was to no avail. The noble knights withdrew And rested that night until dawn.

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Fearsome Charlemagne arose in the morning And summoned the messenger Bertrand. “Bertrand,” said the king, “do you wish to return?” And he replied, “Without any delay.” – “Greet the warrior King Gui for me,” said Charles, “And ask him in God’s name to come to my aid, For I am in great need, so help me God!” – “Sire,” replied Bertrand, “I will tell him exactly that.” Thereupon all the messengers mounted And made ready to set off at once; Charles called to the noble and esteemed barons And embraced them all as they left. “So help me God,” said Naimes, “it makes me angry When we see our wives’ sons here And they don’t deign to embrace or kiss us.” The noble knights returned to camp; The messengers departed – may God be with them – And did not stop until they reached Carsade. Let us now speak of bold-hearted Gui: He looked and saw before him the pilgrim Who had come such a long distance And had brought him news of bold-faced Charles. “My friend,” said Gui, “be quiet and hear me: Tell me everything you know about Montorgueil.” The pilgrim responded, “I won’t hide anything: Montorgueil is a strong and wealthy fortress.” 41. “My friend,” said King Gui, “listen to me: Can you tell me what sort of place Montorgueil is?’ – “Yes,” replied the pilgrim, “and don’t doubt a word: Montorgueil is well defended on every side: Four bodies of water surround it. It is held by Huidelon, a mighty knight, Whose wife has borne him two fine sons. The city is so strong, I assure you, That there is none stronger in all Christendom. It has vineyards and fields within its walls.” “Pilgrim, can you lead us there?” the king asked. – “Yes,” he replied, “if you wish to go there. But this would be for nothing, I assure you, Since the crowned king Charles besieged it for a year

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And could not do a pennyworth of damage to it.” Gui glanced down toward Carsade And saw the beloved messengers returning Whom he had sent to bearded Charlemagne. He rode quickly toward them, Embraced them warmly one by one, And then quietly asked Bertrand: “My friend, how are you doing? How did it go? Did you see the mighty crowned king, Charlemagne?” – “Yes,” said Bertrand, “he sends you his greetings, And those of Samson of Burgundy and his relatives. Charles asks you for God’s sake to come to him, And if you have no land, he will give you plenty.” – “My friend,” said Gui, “there is something more pressing: We must go immediately to Montorgueil: I’ll not go to Charles until I’ve captured it.” – “In faith,” said Bertrand, “you are out of your mind!” – “My friend,” replied King Gui, “enough of that, Because I swear to you, I wish to go there first.” 42. King Gui of Burgundy summoned Bertrand, Savary of Toulouse, wise Huon, Berard of Montdidier, Alberic the valiant, Archbishop Renier and mighty Estout. “Barons,” said King Gui, “listen to me: We will go to Montorgueil, if it pleases Almighty God, And will capture Huidelon and his two sons. If they refuse to believe in Almighty God, I will carry out greater justice than you’ve ever seen, And I will have his two sons skinned alive!” The youths replied, “As you command it.” That night they slept until dawn first appeared, When Gui of Burgundy summoned his men To leave for heavily defended Montorgueil. The ladies in the wagons were sad at heart Because they were not going to Luserne To see the husbands they desired so desperately. But King Gui swore by Jesus of Bethlehem That they would never see them Until he had captured Montorgueil with his steel sword. After that, no one dared say anything more.

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Now they were well equipped: they all mounted up And King Gui ordered the ranks. They left four hundred good troops in Carsade Along with sixty strong horses To guard the city carefully and loyally. The warrior Gui left Carsade At the head of many valiant knights; They were led along the cobbled way by the pilgrim. May God in his wisdom watch over them! 43. King Gui rode forth, guided by the pilgrim. The army did not stop by day or by night, And when the sun set on the fifth day, The army set up camp in a field for the night, Where they remained until daylight. The army made ready and moved out, Riding all day until nones, When Gui of Burgundy looked off to his right And saw the much-desired city of Montorgueil. He beheld Huidelon’s tower that the giant built, With its shining carbuncle on top. As soon as he saw it, the pilgrim called to Gui: “My lord, listen here to what I say. What you see is Montorgueil by the sea; Have your men stop and look up at it. You could remain here seven years, by God, And not one of you would set foot inside.” Without a moment’s hesitation, Gui replied: “It all depends on God, who created this world; If it pleases Him, He will let us conquer it.” 44. Young Gui of Burgundy was a mighty knight. When he saw Montorgueil he praised it highly. Then the wise pilgrim called to him And said in the friendliest manner possible: “Have your barons come to a halt.” Gui responded, “As you wish.” The French set up their camp In a shady spot in a vast field. They saw the towers and fortifications of Montorgueil,

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Along with the four dangerous rivers And the many powerful magnets.22 “Oh God,” said the French, “by your goodness, Tell us how we can capture this good city!” – “Barons,” said Gui, “do not despair, For God, the King of Majesty, will help us.” They rested there that night until dawn, When the good archbishop celebrated Mass And the young men attended with good hearts. When Mass was concluded, they armed themselves. Gui of Burgundy mounted his horse And summoned Bertrand, worthy Berard, Savary of Toulouse, and wise Huon. “Barons,” he said, “listen to me: This city is well defended, you will never take it, For any siege or assault is doomed to fail. If someone has a good suggestion, give it to us.” – “My lord,” said Bertrand, “I tell you truly, I am the son of Naimes, who is most esteemed For having given wise counsel on many occasions. As for myself, I can do as much for you: Take nine young men and have them outfitted, With you to guide them, making the tenth. Go into Montorgueil as messengers, Where you will tell Huidelon your message And make him believe as true That noble Charlemagne has sent you To ask for the lands and fiefs in his name. Only ten men can carry a message to such a place,

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22 In the twelfth-century Anglo-Norman Alexander, or Roman de Toute Chevalerie by Thomas of Kent, an English writer composing in Anglo-Norman French, there is a passage similar to ours. In lines 5528–31, guides warn Alexander that the beds of some rivers and seas are covered with magnetic stones that can stop or destroy boats that contain iron (e.g., iron nails or sheathing), and that he and his men are in even graver danger because their hauberks and weapons are made of steel. In Gui of Burgundy, magnets in the rivers surrounding Montorgueil appear to have a similar effect. Indeed, geology confirms that some rocks containing iron-bearing minerals act as tiny magnets, and that sedimentary rocks may also have magnetic power. A related motif, the “Magnetic Mountain,” is found in the French fourteenth-century Roman de Berinus and in several fourteenth-century Old French chansons de geste. It has been traced back to classical antiquity. Arabic and other Middle Eastern storytellers, notably those of the 1001 Nights, made use of it. See Gédéon Huet, “La légende de la Montagne d’Aimant dans le Roman de Berinus,” Romania, vols. 175–76, 1916, pp. 427–53.



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For one could never take an army there. If he gives a reasonable response, thank him, And if he curses you, then cut off his head. Ten good Frenchmen well-armed are worth more, I assure you, than a hundred pagans. If your mission is carried out as planned, Once the palace is in our hands It will not take long to capture the splendid citadel. Those men left behind in this shady grove Will help you capture the town.” Gui replied, “You give good advice, And I shall follow your suggestion. But, by the apostle we venerate in Nero’s Meadow, You will be the first to enter with me. Now choose your relatives and others you wish.” Bertrand said, “Since I am designated: Berard of Montdidier, you will come with me, And you both, Sir Alberic and Guilemer the Scot, And you, Sir Estout, no matter who may object.” “My lords,” said the archbishop, “let me come too. You know without fail that I’m a learned cleric Who knows how to invoke the holy names when needed,23 As well as handily meet and defeat a knight.” – “By my head,” said Gui, “you have spoken the truth, And since you want to, you will come with us.” He chose enough of his men to make ten in all. They all armed and readied themselves well, And then quickly mounted their horses. King Gui took leave of all his people. His mother wept at his departure, And Bertrand’s mother lamented deeply. Next the king summoned Boidant: “Boidant,” he said, “listen to me: “I am placing my army in your safekeeping.”

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23 Amuletic lists of divine names were part of medieval popular religion. Here, as in two other chanson de geste, the names of God are said to possess a divine power of protection. See Aiol: A Chanson de Geste, edited and translated by Sandra C. Malicote and A. Richard Hartman, New York, Italica Press, 2014, lines 455–60; Les Enfances Guillaume, edited by Joseph Louis Perrier, New York, Publication of the Institute of French Studies, 1933, lines 183–86 and p. 60, variant (the names of Jesus); and Don C. Skemer, Binding Words: Textual Amulets in the Middle Ages, University Park, The Pennsylvania State UP, 2006.

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And Boidant replied, “I am at your command. Be assured that I will guard it faithfully.” Having heard this, Gui set forth, After sadly commending his men to Jesus. His men rode off at full speed. May God in his goodness be with them, For no man could know greater adventure. Before they return, you can be certain That even the best of them would rather be in Paris. 45. Gui set off with his nine companions. May God who suffered the Passion watch over them! But I won’t lie to you: before they return The best of them would rather be on Samson’s Hill.24 The barons rode along the riverbank, But they could find neither bridge nor passage, And the magnets frightened them terribly. “Oh God,” said King Gui, “by your holy name, Let us accomplish what we’ve set out to do!” Before King Gui had even finished saying this, They saw a thousand Saracens coming along the shore, Led by Macabré from Vaulion Hill. When he saw our barons spurring toward him, He shouted to his companions: “I command you in the name of my god Mohammed To wait here for us until we return, Because I see knights racing toward us And am going to ask them where they’re from.” They replied, “We will do as you wish, And you can be sure that we’ll wait here for you.” Macabré rode along the shore And spurred toward our Frenchmen. As he approached our barons, he shouted: “Where are you from, my lords, in Mohammed’s name? Are you messengers? Don’t hide anything.” Gui raised his chin when he heard him And replied calmly and politely, “My friend, “We are messengers from the emperor Charles.”

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24 The text has al pui de Sampson “on Samson’s Hill,” which possibly refers to the Biblical Samson’s slaughter of a thousand Philistines with a donkey’s jawbone (Judges 15:15–18).



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46. King Gui of Burgundy looked at Macabré, And the pagan, after bowing to him, Greeted him politely in the Greek tongue: “Barons, welcome in the name of Mohammed. Are you messengers? Don’t hide it from me.” – “Yes,” said King Gui, “you’d be wrong not to believe it. We come from Charles, the mighty crowned king, And are going to give our message to Huidelon: The noble and worthy emperor Charles Is very angry with his nephew Roland. He is weary of war and doesn’t wish to pursue it further; Instead, he wants to return to France. My lord wishes to reach an accord with Huidelon.” – “By my head,” said the Turk, “the news you carry Will bring you riches and ease.” – “That is true,” said King Gui, “but I am very frightened That we do not know how to cross the waters And are very fearful of the magnets, Because we have hauberks and gem-laden helmets.” Macabré replied, “There is no cause for worry, Because I will lead you, since you are seeking peace.” The Turk led them upstream To where a four-sided marker stone Indicated that this was the place to cross. “My lords,” said the pagan, “listen to me: Here is a passage across that is eleven feet wide And four hundred feet long. Enter upon it carefully and not recklessly. If you turn aside, be assured That you’ll soon be in serious difficulty.” – “By St. Denis,” said Gui, “and St. Honoré, You must go first since you know these waters. If we were to be lost, you’d be to blame.” The Turk replied, “I’ll gladly do so.” He spurred his horse and entered the ford While the others followed on foot. They succeeded in crossing the water, And when they had, Macabré spoke to them: “Barons,” said the Turk, “listen to me: This is your route, so now you can go Straight to Huidelon to deliver your message. If you do not object, I’d like to turn back.”

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– “My friend,” said King Gui, “may God be with you, As long as it is His will.” Thereupon Macabré set off without delay And did not stop until he had reached his men. Gui rode rapidly on at full speed Until he reached Montorgueil. May the Lord who suffered on the Cross watch over them, Because before they return, you can be sure That they will fear being sliced to pieces. 47. Gui rode on, accompanied by his men. May the Lord who rose from death to life be with them, For no knight had ever ridden into such adventure. They rode toward Montorgueil with trepidation And entered the prosperous city by its main gate. They saw horses and Syrian mules, And they saw bourgeois with their fine households, And they saw Spanish gold and Almerian silk, And they saw many Saracen women at work. “Oh heavens,” said Gui, “my lady Holy Mary, How is it that the bold emperor Charles, Who conquered so much of Spain with his barons, Failed to bring this city under his control?” The young men rode through the prosperous city. May the Son of Holy Mary watch over them Because before they leave – you must believe me – All of them will be in fear for their lives, Since King Huidelon and his entourage Numbered a hundred pagan knights In the strongly fortified keep. But Huidelon’s sons were not among them: They were guarding the city of Montesclair With a thousand accursed Saracens Out of fear of the king of Saint-Denis. King Gui and his men rode quickly forward; All were mounted upon Syrian steeds. The company totaled ten in all. “My lords,” said Gui, “for Mary’s Son Jesus, Let us stick close together and not separate. Messengers should do nothing foolhardy.” – “By my head,” said Estout, “don’t say that!

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By the apostle who is sought in Rome, No matter how noble a Turk or pagan may be, If he says anything insulting I’ll run him through with my burnished sword!” – “So will I, as God is my witness,” said Bertrand. Archbishop Renier shouted: “May God, the Son of Holy Mary, damn anyone Who doesn’t strike boldly with his burnished sword Against these people who don’t love Jesus!” – “Barons,” said Gui, “stop your boasting, Because too much boasting is sinful. But if it does come to a fight, Defend yourselves honorably.” The youths swore that, if God helped them, They would not abandon Gui in life or death. 48. Gui rode on, may God honor him, Along with his very praiseworthy companions: Naimes’s son Bertrand and noble Estout, Savary of Toulouse and wise Huon, Alberic of Burgundy and strong Berard, Archbishop Renier, Geoffrey, and Guilemer. They rode along the riverbank at full speed. Saracens and pagans watched them closely And said to one another in low voice: “Look at those handsome knights, so finely equipped. They have separated themselves from Charles’s army, Which is not far off, you can be sure. Our overlord Huidelon will be defeated today.” The youths rode on at full speed And did not stop until they reached the main entrance, Where they saw a giant standing guard at the gate. The gatekeeper was very frightening; You’ve never heard tell of an uglier fellow: His eyebrows were huge and his nose broad, His eyes were as red as hot coals, His skin was as black as pitch And he stood a full thirteen feet tall. There was not a more evil pagan in forty cities! Gui of Burgundy said to Bertrand: “Sir Bertrand, for God’s sake look there:

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Have you ever seen a more impressive young man? He is Huidelon’s gatekeeper, much to be feared! He has slaughtered and slain many a fine man. This bastard immediately gobbled up Anyone that Charles sent to speak with Huidelon.” – “Upon my word,” said Bertrand, “if I can fight him, I think I can cut off his head and limbs, And he’ll never again guard a door or gate.” The brave knights advanced to the gate And saw the mighty giant standing there, Holding in his hand a huge square club Encircled with many bands of pure steel. At the end of the club were keys, And in all the city there was no man strong enough To carry the club even a short distance Without collapsing his ribs and sides. Gui of Burgundy greeted him as follows: “Gatekeeper, I hope Jesus will watch over you! Is Huidelon here? May we speak with him?” When the gatekeeper heard this, he shouted: “Son of a bitch, scoundrel, you’ll be sorry you asked for him! And you’ll pay dearly for having come here!” He raised the huge square club And was about to bring it down on Gui’s head, When the young man dodged so that he missed. Instead, he struck the swift steed on its head, And it fell immediately to the ground. Seeing this, Gui nearly lost his mind. He drew his good sword, rushed forward, And gave the giant such a mighty blow That it cut off his arm at the shoulder. With his next blow he sliced off his head, Then tossed his trunk and legs into the moat. “My lord,” said Bertrand, “give me the keys. I should be gatekeeper, since they killed my horse.” “My friend,” replied Gui, “That is out of the question! Five of us will remain here to guard the gate So that no Saracens or Slavs can enter, And the rest of us will go up to deliver our message.” – “I’ll go,” said Bertrand, “along with brave Berard.” – “Me too,” said Estout, “whether you like it or not.” The archbishop added, “Please let me go.

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You know without fail that I’m a learned cleric Who knows how to invoke the holy names when needed, As well as handily meet and defeat a knight.” – “By St. Denis,” said Gui, “this is some priest! You shall come along, since you want to.” So the five barons went, and five remained: Alberic of Burgundy and fair-faced Geoffrey, Savary of Toulouse, Huon, and Guilemer. These remained below to guard the gate. They raised the drawbridge and locked it So that the Saracens and Slavs could not enter. Gui of Burgundy went up the steps Along with the other four barons. Before they returned, they would be greatly angered. 49. The five messengers mounted the stairs to the palace, Holding their shields and steel swords before them. They found Huidelon in the main hall. He was surrounded by well over a hundred Filthy Saracens – may God damn them! – And numerous valets, servants, and squires. May the Lord, who rules over all, curse them, For they will harm our Frenchmen, I believe. Huidelon the arrogant, much to be feared, Was seated on a solid gold throne. His beard flowed all the way down to his waist And his mustache was braided behind his neck. He was dressed magnificently in fine ermine And had the look of a man born to lead. He spoke to his filthy Saracens: “Barons,” said Huidelon, “be quiet and listen to me: To tell you the truth, I’m very upset. I am very frightened of powerful King Charlemagne, And of his nephew Roland, Count Olivier, Bearded Naimes, Thierry, and Renier, And of all the esteemed barons of France. They’ve conquered lands – our foreign lands! – Killed our children, our cousins, and our nephews. The emperor Charles is much to be feared: He left France twenty-six years ago With his men, who are all great fighters.

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They have taken our castles, our cities, and our fiefs. First, he conquered Bordeaux with his sharp steel sword, Then came into prosperous Gascony, Bringing acorns along on mules and packhorses, From which have grown mighty spreading oaks. He had war machines built to topple walls, Had his noble knights plant vineyards From which they drink wine and eat delicacies, And they have conquered our land with iron and steel. They are now laying siege to the city of Luserne; He has been there seven years, which must distress him. I am very reluctant to return there, you must know, Because Charles hates me more than anyone under the sun; If he can capture me, he’ll have my head.” The young men entered the main hall, Holding their shields and steel swords before them. Their pagan enemy Huidelon knew nothing of it Until he saw Gui approaching him. King Gui greeted him boldly: “May the God of Glory who rules over all things, And who suffered on the Holy Cross, Save and bless proud-faced Charles And protect Roland and Olivier from death, As well as Naimes, Samson, and Ogier; And may he smite you on the top of your head! I am Charles’s man, and won’t hide it from you. By the apostle whom knights invoke, If I see you move a hand or a foot, I’ll give you such a blow with my steel sword That your head will fly off into this fireplace! No man under heaven can stop me.” When Huidelon heard this, he was enraged And began to question his men: “Tell me, where is the gatekeeper That I was so happy to have guard my gate? He’s killed over four thousand Frenchmen.” – “My lord,” replied a boy, “I saw him chopped to death And lying headless in the moat.” – “Who did this? Don’t hide it from me!” – “My lord, this traitorous messenger did it.” When Huidelon heard this, he was filled with anger.

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50. After Gui, Naimes’s son Bertrand spoke And loudly greeted the pagan Huidelon: “May the glorious Lord who pardoned Longinus, Raised saintly Lazarus from the dead, And comforted Mary Magdalene in Simon’s house, Bless and watch over the emperor Charles, Bearded Naimes, Ogier, and Samson, And may He confound and curse you! I am one of white-bearded Charles’s men And I’ve been sent to order you To hand over the tower and dungeon of Montorgueil, As well as the tower of Montesclair and surrounding countryside. And if you do not do as we have said, If Charles can capture you, nothing will prevent him From hanging you on high like a thief. And by the apostle we venerate in Nero’s Meadow, There is little keeping me from chopping off your head.” He was about to step boldly forward And would have killed him with his sword, Whether he liked it or not, when Gui seized him by the tunic And nobly pulled him back. Seeing this, Huidelon was greatly displeased. 51. Estout, son of Odon, could delay no longer; With his clear voice he began to cry out: “Arrogant Huidelon, listen to what I say: We have given our message, but I want to emphasize What my lord Charles deigned to command: If you do not turn over praiseworthy Montorgueil And all the lands surrounding it on every side To Charles, the emperor of the kingdom of France, If he can defeat and capture you anywhere at all, He will have a thick rope put around your neck And have you hanged as a common thief! And that white beard that’s so well-regarded, In which I see golden flecks sparkling and shining,25

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25 The custom of men weaving gold strands or using specks of gold leaf in their beards is quite ancient. In a chapter entitled “Usage des Barbes d’or, etc.” pp. 128–33 in the volume Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire de la barbe de l’homme, the anonymous author

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Will be plucked out like one plucks a goose, And nothing will keep him from doing that! This is how he will treat you And how he’ll have your body vilely disgraced. This is so shameful that I feel sorry for you And am nearly ready to slay you myself with my steel sword.” But Estout decided to let him be for now, Because he wanted to begin the slaughter of the Saracens. When Huidelon saw this, he began to change color, For he dared not stand up or even shake his head. 52. Archbishop Renier did not want to wait, So he began to harangue Huidelon: “Huidelon of Montorgueil, listen to what I say I am an ordained cleric in mighty Charles’s household. He has long labored here in Spanish lands, But has always left you alone here on this island. He has not deigned to attack or take Montorgueil, But he now orders you to turn it over to him at once, Along with the very famous tower of Montesclair. If you do not do as our orders command And if Charles can capture you, He will have your head chopped off And your hands and feet ripped from your body. You won’t need castles or strongholds again! Next, he’ll have your sons skinned alive And then thrown into a fire, And he’ll have your courtly wife burned as well.” When he heard this, Huidelon nearly lost his mind. Then he looked at his pagan knights And said to them in Greek: “To arms, knights! And attack them from the front and rear; By Mohammed, if they escape you are lost!” They all replied, “We are at your command!”

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(possibly the Benedictine Augustin Fangé) notes that it is attested for King Solomon in the Antiquités judaïques, bk. 8, ch. 2, for the kings of ancient Persia by St. Chrysostom, as well as for the earliest Frankish kings in the Histoire de Navarre, bk. 10, p. 558, where we read (our translation) “according to the testimony of early Annales, the first Kings of France wore their hair long, braided, and interwoven with silk ribbons, and tied their beards braided and flecked with gold.” Augustin Fangé, Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire de la barbe de l’homme, Liège, Jean-François Brancart, 1774.



GUI OF BURGUNDY

The evil scoundrels went down to a storeroom Where they donned their hauberks, laced on their helmets, Strapped on their swords with their engraved golden grips, Then immediately returned. When Huidelon saw them, he was delighted. “By my head,” said Renier, “we’ve delayed too long!” –“That’s true,” said Estout, “it’s time to fight; I’d rather they attack than have us start it.” Then Gui of Burgundy advanced And struck Bruillant, the son of Haltebriez: He lopped off his head, and as it fell at his feet He tossed the pagan’s corpse into a fireplace. Next, the archbishop struck without delay: He hit a nasty, cowardly pagan, Who felt his steely sword upon his shoulders. Naimes’s son Bertrand struck a third pagan, Sending his head flying six feet away. Odon’s son Estout could not wait to start: He killed three – which was no sin! Savary of Toulouse was ready to fight: He split two enemies with his steel sword. These brave knights proved themselves well. May the Lord who judges the world save them, Because before vespers and nightfall They will fear for their heads and their lives. 53. The battle in the paved palace was dreadful, But Gui of Burgundy proved himself well, As did Bertrand, Estout, Renier, and Guilemer. They were bathed in sweat because of their efforts And repeatedly shouted out “Monjoie” with pride. Those who had stayed behind to guard the gate heard them. “My lords,” said Alberic, “listen to me: I hear a lot of noise in the palace, to be sure, So I think they have started a fight. For Christian charity, let’s go help them!” The others responded, “As you wish!” They shut the gate tightly and raised the drawbridge, So that the infidel pagans could not get in. They ran quickly up into the palace, With their shields before them and their engraved swords drawn.

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Seeing them, the pagans were frightened, For they thought that they were the first of many; They turned and ran, because they did not dare delay. Even Huidelon did not dare wait. Gui of Burgundy was gripping his sword And tried to corner him beside a pillar, But Huidelon leapt through a window into the moat. Jesus Himself preserved him from harm, Because he was destined to be baptized later And to believe in God, the King of Majesty. He would eventually pay homage to the powerful King Charles And help Gui conquer the land, As I shall relate to you if you wish to listen. The young Frenchmen took heart at this; They removed the bars and closed the doors behind them. They climbed together up into the highest tower, Where they found the hunchback who guarded it. Gui of Burgundy grabbed him around the waist, Threw him to the ground, and dragged him By the temples all up and down the room, Before throwing him through a window into the moat. His heart failed him before he hit the ground. Then they searched the palace through and through, But did not find enough food, I assure you, To earn them even a small amount of money. “Upon my word,” said Gui, “we are in trouble: We will starve to death before we can get out of here.” He thought of his mother and wept deeply. Naimes’s son Bertrand shouted: “By my head, sir Gui, you are quite wrong to cry! You haven’t even been here a month yet And you don’t look like you’re starving. When you see the pagans fully armed And coming to besiege and assault the tower, And you see them hurling stones And knocking the tower down to the ground And hauling you out by your heels – Then, and only then, can you weep and wail.” – “So help me God,” said Gui, “you are a noble friend!” With these words, he ceased weeping. They all entered a vaulted chamber, Where they found a splendid bed made up

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On which Huidelon slept with his tender wife – No one has ever heard tell of a finer bed. In the room they found oriental fabrics, silk, and samite, Fine inlaid hauberks and bejeweled helmets, Daggers and sharp steel swords. “So help me God,” said Gui, “we have plenty of weapons. Now may the crucified Christ provide us some food!” They searched the chamber from top to bottom And found a chest next to a pillar. In the chest they found four loaves of sifted flour, Salted venison, and a small barrel of red wine. Alberic the Burgundian shouted: “So help me God, lords, we are in luck! We have food and drink, God be praised! Let’s share it out and be sparing with the wine, And we’ll be able to hold this splendid palace for a week! Afterwards the King of Majesty will help us.” Everyone replied, “We believe it!” They remained there a week before being thrown out. Huidelon sent for his two sons And summoned his pagans by their numbers ; They all came, afraid to do otherwise. When they heard the news, they were fearful Because he had lost his splendid palace. Huidelon spoke to his two sons And told and related everything to them, About how he had been sorely mistreated. 54. “My sons,” said Huidelon, “be quiet and listen to me: The messengers sent by the righteous and mighty King Charles Are shut up in the great palace; Let us mount an attack on the tower Until they are captured and forcibly detained.” – “Sire,” said Danemont, “they are the king’s messengers, But they don’t even have a quarter loaf of bread, Nor can they find anything up there to eat or drink. Delay a little while, and you can be assured that Before a week has passed, You will see them drying up and dying of hunger, And then stumbling and falling out of the windows. By Mohammed, the god who judges me,

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I don’t want you to destroy this great palace, For there is none better from here to Montpellier.” – “Fair son,” said Huidelon, “your wish will be granted.” Here we shall set aside the Turks – may God destroy them! – And tell you about the youths – may God help them! – Who were in the palace, sad and downcast, For they did not have a pennyworth of food. They had drunk all their wine and eaten all their bread And fasted for an entire day. That night they slept until daybreak And then arose in the morning with the sun. They all leaned out of a main window And looked below across the stretch of sand. They saw the much-feared sea currents, And they saw the four magnetized waterways, And they saw Montesclair set high on a rock, And they saw young Gui’s army, And the silken tents and the blazing ornaments. Gui of Burgundy looked upon them with pleasure And thought of his mother whom he loved dearly; He looked pitifully at Bertrand the messenger; “God help me,” said Gui the noble knight, “Anyone with good advice should come forward.” – “Sire,” said Bertrand, “I will be frank: I will advise you, God willing.” 55. “Sire,” said Bertrand, “here is what I think: By glorious God, you should be quite worried That we haven’t a pennyworth of food. I will go further, and you will be able to judge Whether my words are foolish or wise: When we came to this great palace, We led our enemies to believe That proud Charlemagne had sent us here, And that we were claiming these fiefs and lands on his behalf. We behaved arrogantly and caused a great commotion, Fiercely armed but few in number, And they came at us like treacherous scoundrels. But a messenger should not be harmed in word or in deed, And force isn’t worth the value of a pea. If all the soldiers, knights, and townspeople

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Were assembled from here to Étampes, And all the courtly young men in our army Were to besiege Montorgueil and the mountain passes, They could be here a year, or two or three, Without doing a pennyworth of damage.” When King Gui heard this, he was greatly troubled. 56. “My lords,” said Bertrand, “listen to me: Proud Huidelon is most presumptuous; If you trust what I’m saying and thinking, We will immediately charge him with treason; And if he has any measure of prowess and goodness, When he hears that we have accused him of treason, You may be sure that he will defend himself. Each of us has but one death ordained by God; When it pleases Him, let us accept it willingly; I would rather die than live like a weakling.” – “By my head,” said Estout, “you have spoken well: I will do battle no matter what anyone thinks.” – “My friend,” said Gui, “you’re being too hasty: No one has authorized or granted a battle, And we don’t yet know what his intentions are.” – “My lords,” said the archbishop, “listen to me: I will do battle if you command me to do so And I will fight against two armed Turks, For they have behaved toward us like utter traitors.” At this, Gui stood up And went to lean out of a window, His head and shoulders thrust forward. Below, beneath the branching olive tree, He spotted proud Huidelon with his powerful barons. In a loud voice he began to shout: “Proud Huidelon, here is what I think: People say you love virtue and goodness, But we haven’t seen it, by God in Majesty; Indeed, you have failed to prove your worth. We came here to this splendid palace, Sent by gray-haired Charles; As messengers, we explained what we wanted: On behalf of Charles, we demanded your entire realm. Our words were neither heard nor heeded;

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You had us attacked on your authority And forced us into this splendid palace; Truly, you have behaved like a traitor, For messengers should not be harmed. And if you wish to contradict or deny this, I am fully prepared to prove it at any moment In single combat with one of your knights, if you wish.” When Huidelon heard this, he exclaimed: “By my head, Frenchman, you will not turn back. I have my noble and valiant son here with me, If you have the necessary courage and virtue To bear arms against him. Since you called me a traitor, If my son is defeated or vanquished, I will give you my land and my possessions; But if you are beaten or defeated And judged the loser on the battlefield, Your companions will be hung from the gallows.” When Gui heard this, he bowed his head; Looking at his companions, he said: “God help me, my lords, I tell you frankly: Nothing, not even a bag full of gold, Will keep me from going down to speak to Huidelon, And I will do battle if he grants it.” – “My lord,” said Bertrand, “please let me go.” – “By God in Majesty, let me go instead!” said Berard. Estout, son of Odon, rose to his feet And swore by God who was hung on the Cross: “If anyone, no matter how highborn, Utters a single word, I will strike him if I can get near him. I’ll be the one to do battle, no matter what anyone says!” – “My lords,” said Gui, “listen to me: After our Lord who was hung on the Cross, I am your lord, and it is my duty to protect you. I obliged you to accompany me to this realm And I will lead you, as destined by God; I’ll be the one to do battle – no one will deny me!” No one was bold enough to utter a word. Then Gui donned his hauberk, fastened his helmet, Girded his sword on the left side,

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And hung his banded shield around his neck. He kissed and embraced his companions And descended the steps of the splendid palace, Commending himself to glorious God. The king bowed down low, And the youths wept with great pity. Gui mounted a dappled horse And set off without further objection. The youths locked the gates behind him. When Huidelon saw Gui, he came toward him And cried out to him at the top of his lungs, saying: “Give me your armor at once: The hauberk, the helmet, the banded shield, And the good steel blade! And I will swear to you upon my honor That I will protect you from any harm Before you are to die in judicial combat.” 57. Young Gui of Burgundy disarmed at once And stood before him only in his silk tunic. He was a handsome young man, pleasing to behold; But the noble prince was quite unwell, For he had fasted a long time in the main palace. Huidelon shouted to him: “Vassal, have you eaten today? Tell me the truth!” – “No, my lord,” replied Gui, “not for three days, by my head.” When Huidelon heard this, he sighed deeply. “By Mohammed and Apollin,”26 he cried out, “Before battle you will have plenty to eat.” 58. Huidelon of Montorgueil was a noble knight. He called his seneschal: “Come here, Sinagon; Go at once and bring a white cloth, A full cup of wine, three loaves of white bread, And a roast peacock, well prepared.”

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26 In the Romance epic, Muslim adversaries are often depicted as polytheists who worship a trinity of gods: Mohammed, Apollin (not to be confused with the Greek Apollo), and Tervagant.

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Sinagon replied, “I will do as you wish.” Huidelon served Gui a large cup of wine And then carved his meat in his presence. When Gui saw the meal, he began to weep, For his generous heart caused him to reflect. He cried out in a loud voice: “May it never please God, the King of Majesty, That I take another bite Until all my companions have had their fill.” Hearing this, Huidelon nodded his head And declared that the companions would have their share; Thus the youths ate to their hearts’ content, And Gui ate in abundance as well. He ate everything he was served, leaving nothing. The pagans and Saracens observed Gui, Saying to each other, “By Mohammed, look: This Frenchman has consumed enough bread and wine To satisfy four knights.” – “Be quiet, you wretches!” said valiant Huidelon, “The food was put to good use, For there is no better knight in all of Christendom.” When Gui had finished eating he stood up And Huidelon had his armor brought. Gui promptly equipped himself for battle: He donned his hauberk, fastened his helmet, And girded his sword on the left side. Huidelon summoned the Saracens and Slavs: “My lords,” he said, “listen to me: If I allow this youth to mount his own horse And my son slays him, I will be blamed for it. But I have a good fresh horse That I can give him, if you wish, And if my son slays him, know this truly: I will not be blamed by my people.” The Saracens exclaimed, “Have it brought to him.” Huidelon had the horse brought at once, And Gui mounted willingly and gladly. Huidelon gave him back his strong banded shield And his spear with the stout blade. Calling the Saracens and Slavs, he said: “Take this vassal down to that meadow,

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And be sure that no one insults or harms him; If you say anything to displease him, I’ll have you torn limb from limb!” And the Saracens replied, “As you wish!” They brought him to an area outside the city, And pagans rushed to get a look at him. They said to one another, “See what a handsome youth he is! He should have no trouble outmaneuvering Danemont. If only he can escape with his life!” They hurried to the battlefield without stopping, And Gui dismounted under a branching tree. He turned toward the east and invoked God: “Glorious Lord God, who gave me life, Protect me through your goodness, That I might yet see Charles with the graying hair.” 59. Proud Huidelon summoned his son, Who came swiftly and promptly. When Huidelon saw him, he said, for all to hear: “Fair son, I am losing my lands and my domain, For the Franks have come, by their great audacity. They were sent by Charles, the strong and powerful king; They demanded my land and all my domain, But I fought back, you can be sure of it. Because they are accusing me of treason, I arranged a combat against one of them, A single armed combat against you. If you are vanquished and defeated, I will lose my lands and my domain. If he is defeated, all of them will be hanged in the wind.” And Danemont said, “I consent to this and grant it.” He asked that his armor be brought at once, And it was placed before him. He armed himself without delay. 60. When King Danemont was fully armed on the battlefield, He was quite handsome, distinguished, and well-formed. His fine Spanish horse was brought before him: One side was as white as a flower in the meadow;

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The other was as red as a rose in summer. Its limbs were sturdy, its hooves were flat, Its tail was peacock blue, its chest raised high; Its head was narrow to sharpen its vision; Its ears were small, and its nose was wide. The saddle was of ivory, the saddlebow of gold; The bridle was worth a hundred pounds And the peytral was of fine silk. A thousand bells hung from its sides: As soon as the horse began to gallop, All the bells began to ring. The horse was swift and worthy of praise. Danemont mounted by the left stirrup; He hung his banded shield around his neck And grasped his sword of fine steel. Huidelon called out to the Saracens and Slavs: “Lead my son down to that field.” And they replied, “As you wish.” They rode without pause from there to the field, Where they found Gui beneath the branching olive tree. When Huidelon saw him, he began to think That he must protect the combatants from dishonor. 61. When King Danemont left the town, He was richly equipped in the manner of a great lord. When he saw Gui, he called out to him loudly: “By Mohammed, my god, you are making a big mistake! Here before the assembled lords, I say That the king of Saint-Denis will never hold a foot of this land. You will lose your head before compline.” To which Gui replied without hesitation: “All rests with God, the Son of Blessed Mary, But you will pay dearly, so help me God.” 62. After the two barons had challenged each other, They separated, leaving about an acre between them. Old Huidelon began to think That he would be dishonored if he did not protect the combatants. He summoned Saracens and pagans, saying: “My lords, go into the town, Close the gates, and give me the keys.

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Even if you see things going badly for my son, You will be torn limb from limb If you go to help him, no matter whom it displeases. And know truly that I would never want To be disloyal or untruthful to Gui.” And the Saracens replied, “You have our word.” They immediately entered the town, Closed the gates, and turned over the keys to Huidelon. Dragolant the Proud stationed himself at the walls. He saw his brother below, fully armed, And called out to the Saracens and pagans, saying: “My lords, listen to me: It is written in the holy texts,27 I assure you, That no pagan can outlast a Christian. Go now and arm yourselves, a hundred of you. I will lead you out by the secret gate And we can hide in the thicket. If we see that things are going badly for my brother, We will help him, no matter whom it displeases.” And they replied, “You have our word.” When they had armed themselves, they mounted up And rode through the secret gate. God! What a pity Gui did not know this! Nor did old Huidelon with the graying hair: He would never have agreed to it for all his possessions. And if those in the tower had known it, They would have come out without asking leave. Old King Huidelon stood with his back to the wall, Watching his son prepare for battle. He prayed to his god, as you will hear: “Mohammed,” said Huidelon, “now I will see if you favor us, For I have long served and honored you here. Thus I ask you, through your goodness, To preserve my son from death and mutilation. And if instead the Frank defeats him, You will never again have authority in Montorgueil; I will replace you with the Christian God.” Now hear what the pagans decided to do: They placed the statue of their god Mohammed on the wall

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27 This is a problematic passage. Dragolant, a Muslim, says that it is written in scripture (la lei in chansons de geste generally refers to Christian Holy Scripture) that no pagan can defeat a Christian.

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So that Danemont would be reassured if he saw it. When Huidelon saw the statue, he ordered his men To bring the ancient cross That he had seized from the French in battle; He had it placed next to Mohammed on the wall. Danemont looked up and saw Mohammed: He immediately and swiftly bowed before his god, And Gui similarly venerated the cross. Then they became fiercer than two feisty lions. They challenged one another, And King Danemont cried out to Gui, saying: “I swear, Frenchman, you will leave your head with me!” – “All rests with God,” said the renowned Gui. Then they spurred their high-spirited horses And each struck the other’s banded shield, Piercing and splitting the bosses. Their spears were strong and did not shatter; Their spirited horses carried them with such might That their saddle straps burst – they could not hold. The two barons were thrown to the ground with such force Over the hindquarters of their swift steeds That the sides of their helmets collided And their shield straps flew off from the force of their blows. They both fainted from the pain. In the time it would take you to go half a league, You would not see either one stand up again. The men in the tower were frightened upon seeing them. “By my head,” said Bertrand, “they have exchanged mighty blows!” Archbishop Renier cried out to Huidelon: “Put them back on their horses, if you please, With their shields and their sturdy spears.” Huidelon replied, “I give my full consent.” He rode at once toward the combatants, Bringing five knights along with him. They brought Danemont’s high-spirited horse And they secured Gui’s saddle tightly. Gui of Burgundy got to his feet And said softly and quietly under his breath: “Holy Lady Mary, please help me!” He made the sign of the Cross by God in Majesty And then mounted his horse without delay; Huidelon gave him his banded shield.

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Worthy Danemont mounted his horse And cried out in a loud voice: “By my god Mohammed, I am wasting time! I should have slain some fifty men by now.” And Gui replied, “Fear not: In time we’ll see how you fare.” Valiant Bertrand cried out: “My lord Gui of Burgundy, you must now think of Your father, the worthy Duke Samson, Whom you have never seen in your entire life: If you don’t succeed, you never will see him.” When Gui heard this, his strength returned: He would not have feared four faithless Turks. Seeing Danemont, he rode off towards him. 63. Both knights were mounted on their worthy horses. They lowered their lances with gonfanons attached, Pricked their horses with massive spurs, And dealt each other mighty blows to their grey-brown shields. Their lances shattered – they could not endure: The fragments flew up toward the sky. Their worthy steeds carried them so swiftly That their shields banged against their chests, And they lost their grip on reins and shield-straps. Blows rained down on them from head to toe, Leaving them dazed, their eyes blinded. A pack horse could have run a full league Before either knew where to turn. Young Gui of Burgundy was quite troubled; He drew his sword with its massive point, And Danemont struck him, but it was not a mortal blow. Gui struck back like a brave and valorous knight, Landing a mighty blow on Danemont’s massive helmet, Sending gems and flowers tumbling to the ground, And slicing the coif from his triple-mailed hauberk. Had it not been for the Turk’s leather jerkin, He would have been split from head to toe. Nonetheless, he was vanquished by the blow, For it sent him tumbling toward the horse’s neck, Mangling his saddle-bow. Gui’s fine sword glanced downward

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And pierced Danemont’s hauberk above the thigh, Tearing through four hundred links reinforced with gold. 2848 His horse fell to its knees, so staggered by the blow That its muzzle plunged into the grass. When it leapt up again it was filled with fear. It galloped some one hundred and fifty yards across the flowering field 2852 Without Danemont knowing where he had turned. Gui cried out, “Now I have struck you well! Ease up a bit – you’ve gotten ahead of yourself.” When the men in the tower heard this, they all laughed. 2856 64. When Danemont saw that Gui had struck him, He was downcast and angry, And then ashamed of the blow he had received. He spurred his horse through the grassy field And when he saw Gui, he did not greet him warmly, But rather shouted to him violently: “By Mohammed, lord Frenchman, you’ll be sorry you struck me; If I don’t have my revenge by vespers, No maiden will ever call me her lover!” He then dealt Gui such a mighty blow That he sliced right through the pure gold sides of his gemmed helmet And the coif of his chain mail hauberk. Had it not been for the gambeson he was wearing And the power of Almighty God, Danemont would have split him all the way down through the belt. And yet the blow so weakened and confounded him That it knocked him across the saddlebow, Sliced off a quarter of his shield, Pierced the hauberk above the thigh, Peeled off a hundred links of chain mail, And split the spurs right off his feet. Danemont shouted at him violently: “By my head, lord Frenchman, now I have struck you well! Did you think I was still dazed and helpless? Did you suppose I was tricked by your mockery? You’ll never again see white-haired old Charles, Nor his nephew Roland, nor his friend Olivier. By Mohammed, my god and my redeemer, I will never eat again until I see you hanged, You and all your companions up in the tower.”

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Hearing this, Gui was furious. The archbishop cried out, “My lord Gui, what are you doing? Think of your mother, who prays for your salvation!” When Gui heard this, his heart leapt. As soon as he saw the pagan, he rushed toward him. 65. Young Gui of Burgundy was infuriated, But when he heard the men in the tower admonishing him To think of his mother, he recovered his strength. Spurring his horse, he charged swiftly forth, Grasped his naked sword, and gripped his shield. As soon as he reached Danemont he dealt him a mighty blow Atop his gleaming helmet, Breaking and shattering the largest piece. He sliced through the coif of his hauberk And wounded him badly in the head, So that bright red blood flowed to the ground. When Danemont saw this, he was furious. He raised his sharp-edged sword And dealt Gui of Burgundy a mighty blow On his helmet, slicing right through it And penetrating to the flesh, Very nearly cutting off his ear. When Gui saw this, he was infuriated; With a sincere heart, he prayed to God,28 Who, through His holy angel, had commanded His mother To carry Him in her womb and give birth to Him: “There was great rejoicing when Jesus sent her this message, And amidst this joy, she married St. Joseph. When the staff turned green and blossomed in his hands,29

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28 The prayer that follows is known as an “epic credo.” In this traditional motif, the hero facing great danger invokes sacred history to affirm the validity of his cause and ask for God’s protection. After recounting a series of episodes from the Old and New Testaments and popular religious legend, Gui will swear by these truths to pray for victory against Danemont. We note that the poet intermingles characters from the Old and New Testaments, falsely placing Daniel and Jonah among Christ’s miracles while on Earth. 29 In early apocryphal stories found in the Protoevangelium of James and the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew, a dove flies forth from Joseph’s rod to indicate that he has been chosen by God to be the husband of the Virgin Mary. In the widely popular thirteenth-century (ca. 1261–66) Legenda Aurea’s (Golden Legend’s) version of the marriage of Mary, more likely to have been known by our poet, lilies burst forth from Joseph’s staff rather than a dove. See “Légende dorée” in Dictionnaire des lettres françaises: Le Moyen Âge, Paris: Fayard,

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St. Joseph protected and greatly honored her. When her time arrived, as destined by God, The lady gave birth to you without suffering. Lord, your birth illuminated all things: The numerous birds and beasts All rejoiced in their own ways; The Eastern Star rose by your command, And the three kings came to adore you. Your mother brought you to the Temple of Solomon And placed you in the arms of St. Simeon. For thirty years you walked the earth and performed miracles: You raised Lazarus from the dead, Saved St. Daniel in the lions’ den, Saved St. Jonah from the body of the whale, And forgave Mary Magdalene her sins. On Palm Sunday you entered into Jerusalem, Riding a mule in great humility. Moved by Satan, Judas betrayed you And the Jews captured you: it was no joking matter. They stretched out your arms and hung you on the Cross, And you suffered a criminal’s death. On the third day, dear Lord, you rose from the dead And comforted Mary Magdalene in the garden. On the day of the Ascension, Lord, you rose into heaven And illuminated the world with exquisite clarity. Lord, just as I believe all this to be true, I pray that you preserve me from defeat.” 66. When King Gui had finished his prayer, Danemont came staggering toward him in a strange fashion. When Gui saw him, he looked up And grasped his beloved sword. He struck Danemont on his Bavarian helmet, And the Turk whacked the back of Gui’s helmet, Slicing off the hoop with its many precious stones. “By my head, lord Frenchman, I have no use for your banner, But I’ll make you a new shroud out of it this very day.” When Gui heard this, he spoke fiercely:

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1964, and https://bustedhalo.com/questionbox/where-does-the-church-get-some-of-thelegendary-stories-of-st-joseph, consulted 1/18/2021.



GUI OF BURGUNDY 97

“If it pleases God, the true and absolute judge, It will not be as you say, filthy scoundrel! You’ll not leave this battlefield with as much as a penny.” – “God,” said the Franks, “Father of justice, Through your power, protect Gui on this day, That he might vanquish this evil wretch!” 67. The two barons were in the middle of the field. Danemont was fierce and King Gui was furious. The pagan attacked like a madman: He dealt Gui a fearsome blow to his golden helmet, Sending gems and flowers flying to the ground. Gui struck back with prodigious force Above the pagan’s shoulder on his bejewelled helmet. He dealt such a mighty blow to the back of his neck That it sent Danemont flying to the front of his horse; But the hauberk was strong and withstood the blow. Without pause, the pagan struck anew: He dealt such a mighty blow to Gui’s gemmed helmet That it dazed him and knocked him forward. Seeing this, the men in the tower cried out: “Holy Lady Mary, save your champion! This battle has lasted far too long. Lord, show us what you have in mind.” After speaking these words, they wept bitterly. King Danemont urged on his horse, Heading toward Gui with formidable strength. He swore to Mohammed that Gui would soon die. 68. The two barons were mounted on their steeds. Danemont was quite valiant, and Gui just as brave. The pagan rushed boldly toward him, Causing Gui to change color. The impetuous pagan landed a blow To the front of Gui’s floral-painted helmet. The blade sliced all the way down to the saddlebow And severed the horse’s neck: they both fell. The men in the tower cried out loudly: “Lord Gui of Burgundy, have you forgotten us? Fair lord, we are the hostages pledged for you.

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If you are defeated, we will die a painful death.” Hearing this, Gui was gripped by mortal fear. Proud Huidelon cried out to his son Angrily, in a loud voice: “May Mohammed my god, who makes the flowers grow, Curse the feet, the arms, and the hands That killed the horse but spared the rider!” 69. When Gui saw that his warhorse was dead, You may be sure that he was full of sorrow. He quickly leapt to his feet, But the Turk came back towards him with great fury. The villain dealt him a great blow as he passed by, Knocking Gui more than a hundred feet. He fell to his knees in the middle of the verdant field. The men in the tower saw this and were greatly saddened. The archbishop prostrated himself; turning his head to the East, He prayed to God, the Almighty Father: “Glorious Father, you created all people, Beginning with Adam And then Eve, who had many descendants. They lived in paradise, Lord, Where you allowed them everything but one single fruit. Eve ate of this fruit, causing much suffering: With great cunning, she persuaded Adam to eat some as well. And you, Lord, were gently born of the Virgin. Lord, just as I believe this to be true, Protect Gui the warrior from death this day, So that we might see great-hearted Charles again And bring aid to his siege before the great city of Luserne.” Having uttered these words, he leapt to his feet. Gui of Burgundy sallied forth, With sword in hand and shield in front. He rushed toward Danemont And dealt him a mighty blow on his shiny helmet. The blade slid downward Through the saddle, striking the warhorse And slicing through his neck and shoulder. The horse fell along with Danemont. Seeing this, Gui exclaimed: “By my head, lord Turk, you are in a bad way!

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With the help of God, in whom I believe, By the time I’m finished with you – before sunset – Your corpse could be bought for a besant!” 70. When King Danemont saw that his horse was dead; He was beside himself with anger. He leapt to his feet, holding his engraved sword, And rushed toward Gui, Who met him bravely, as befitted a renowned warrior. They met in battle like two wild boars: Never have I heard a blacksmith Strike metal upon metal when the iron is hot More forcefully than these swords struck helmets. “Scoundrel!” cried Danemont, “you won’t get away!” – “Pagan!” said Gui, “you are about to die!” Gui made a clever move: He removed his shield and tossed it onto the field, Then grabbed the Turk under his arms And lifted him swiftly off the ground. He then whirled him around and flung him down. The dazed pagan tried to get up, But worthy Gui held on tight: He struck the helmet that was already pierced, So that blood spilled on the grassy field. Had he dealt him another blow, The pagan would never again have risen to his feet. When Dragolant saw this, he shouted to his pagans: “Help my brother! Save him from death!” The Saracens came out in full force. The men in the tower saw them and were filled with dread. “By my head,” said Renier, “we’ve been tricked! This is pure treachery. God, please help us!” – “My lord,” said Estout, “There is no time to talk. Let each man take up arms without delay!” They armed themselves at once, embraced each other, And mounted their rapid, spirited steeds. They lowered the drawbridge and swarmed out of the castle Before any Saracen could stop them, For they were all at the city walls Watching the two valiant knights do battle. The barons rode out at full speed,

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Leaving no one behind: They would help Gui, no matter whom it displeased. And old Huidelon proved worthy of praise: He kept his word to King Gui. 71. Haughty Huidelon was a noble knight; When he saw his son approaching with his companions, He felt great anger in his heart. He drew his flashing iron sword, Drove it through the first Turk he encountered, And then shouted as loudly as he could: “I swear by my flowing beard, if anyone advances further, No matter how high his rank, I’ll slash off his head with my burnished sword!” On hearing this, the pagans reined in their steeds. Proud Huidelon wasted no time: [He seized the dead Turk’s steed by the rein,] Came towards Gui, and said: “Mount this warhorse without delay, Because by my god Mohammed who saves me, You will not lose limb nor life this day!” Then you could see Bertrand and his barons Charging across the field. When Huidelon saw them, his blood surged. 72. Proud Huidelon was quite frightened When he saw the Frenchmen racing toward him, And he shouted out to them: “Why did you come down and leave the tower?” Bertrand replied, “You’ll soon know, sire: Because we saw Saracens and Slavs Rushing out of the leafy, branching thicket.” Huidelon responded, “You did well. You will all enter the city with me. I am planning to do something for which I’ll never be blamed.” They replied, “As you wish.” They all accompanied him back into the city, Where they dismounted and went up into the palace. They quickly removed King Gui’s armor, As well as Danemont’s. Huidelon had all of his barons summoned.

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“My lords,” he said, “it is no secret That my son Dragolant behaved badly, Because now I’ll be charged with treason And accusing fingers will be pointed at me in Charles’s court.” When he saw Gui, Huidelon asked him: “My young sir, listen to me: Would you escort me to Charlemagne’s court, So that I will not be slandered or blamed? I would like to submit to the judgment of the Franks: I will surrender all my lands and possessions to Charles, And my son Dragolant will have his head cut off.” –“My lord,” answered Gui, “don’t worry, You will not lose so much as a penny.” They quickly made preparations for the trip, Left the city, and passed the fords. Once they were out, they looked And saw Gui’s army encamped in the meadows, With its silk pavilions and gilded tent posts. Seeing them, Huidelon asked Gui: “Whose army do I see down in these meadows?” – “I’ll tell you the truth,” said Gui, “It’s the army of King Gui, a young knight Who will soon be going to the mighty crowned King Charles. Come along, my lord, I’m going to speak with him.” – “As you wish, my lord,” said Huidelon. With these words Gui set off While the other barons remained behind. Gui did not stop until he reached the main tent. When his men saw him, they were filled with joy. “My lord,” they said, “where have you been so long? Where are the others? For God’s sake, tell us!” Gui answered, “They stayed behind, But many other knights are accompanying them, Including noble and wise Huidelon. I ask you all to honor him well, For there is no one more loyal in all of Christendom.” He removed his armor and was given royal clothing: There was no one more handsome in all the kingdom. Just then Huidelon and his splendid barons arrived. They dismounted and entered the tent. As soon as Huidelon saw Gui, he bowed deeply And greeted him in Greek.

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73. Proud Huidelon sat down inside the tent, And all his marquis sat around him. Danemont stared straight at Gui’s face And whispered into his father’s ear: “That’s the knight I fought today.” – “Shut up,” said Huidelon, “you’re a crazy fool. If these French recognize you, you’re in real trouble.” Let us leave these Turks – may God convert them – And speak instead about Charles, the king of Saint-Denis, Who was still besieging Luserne, angry and upset. He called to Ogier and bearded Naimes: “Barons,” said the king, “I have been very ill-treated By the messenger Bertrand, who was to send me a gift. He seems to have completely forgotten what I asked of him: To send me the young king I wished to see. I don’t believe he’ll ever come in my lifetime.” – “My lord,” said Naimes, “hear my advice: If you listen to and heed my counsel, You will choose as many as fifteen thousand men And send them to find Gui, whom you are eager to see; You can be sure that he will come at once.” And the king said, “Go at once, Duke Naimes, Along with Ogier and Thierry of Ardennes, Samson of Burgundy and brave Savary.” – “My lord,” said the barons, “as it pleases God.” The barons readied themselves at once And were soon fifteen thousand on their worthy steeds. They set off immediately along the cobbled road And did not halt until they reached Carsade. But their stop was in vain, for Gui had already left. The Persians informed them that he was at Montorgueil. So the knights set off again, and may God bless them. The noble barons rode Until they saw Montorgueil seated upon its cliff. They looked off to the right, to a flowery meadow, And beheld the bold knight Gui’s army. Seeing this, Duke Naimes said to Thierry: “I believe you can see King Gui now.” – “My lord,” replied Thierry, “may it be pleasing to God.” At this word, they lined up

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One beside the other upon their worthy steeds. Meanwhile King Gui had looked around And saw the barons advancing across the plain. Seeing Bertrand, he spoke to him thus: “As a youth of worthy lineage, listen to me. I see knights approaching down the slope, But I don’t know who they are nor where they’re from. Have some fifteen thousand of your men arm themselves, For it would be shameful to be caught by surprise.” – “Gladly, fair sire,” replied hardy Bertrand. They quickly donned their armor And Bertrand moved out, for he was unafraid. When he saw Charles’s barons, he smiled inwardly30 And shouted out to King Gui: “Charles, the king of Saint-Denis, surely loves you, For these are barons from all corners of his kingdom.” – “Dear God, I will give thanks to you,” said Gui. “Is my father among them?” – “By my head, he is indeed,” said Bertrand. “That is him in the lead, wearing the gray fur, With his white beard flowing down his chest. Another is Naimes, the valiant old man, Another is Thierry of Ardennes; They are the fathers of the noble sons Who’ve been so long in foreign lands.” When the young men heard this, they all shouted: – “Sir Gui, let us welcome our fathers!” But Gui replied, “By the head of St. Denis, Not a one of you is of such high rank That I wouldn’t have his head chopped off If he were to reveal himself to his father.” When the young men heard this, all were stunned. “My lords, listen to me,” said Huidelon. “Who are these knights who’ve made you so upset?” – “My lord,” said brave Bertrand, “they are from France. Pay them no more heed: we are going to see them.” And Huidelon replied, “I’ll come with you, my lords.” The young men approached the barons

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30 fet un ris: The verb rire and its derived forms expressed a multitude of emotions in Old French, from smiling to hearty laughter. See Philippe Ménard, Le rire et le sourire dans le roman courtois en France au moyen âge (1150–1250), Geneva, Droz, 1969.

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And Gui of Burgundy addressed them As follows, “My lord barons, you are most welcome.” And white-haired Duke Naimes responded: “Sire, may the Lord God above bless you. Which of you is king of France? Don’t lie to me.” Bertrand replied, “You will soon be told.” 74. “My lords,” said Duke Naimes, “listen to me: Which of you is king of France? Don’t hide it from me.” – “By my head,” replied Bertrand, “you’ll see over there. Come with us to where he’s seated in his tent.” And he replied, “As you wish.” With this, they rode on While Gui of Burgundy came forward. King Gui was nobly dressed With an exceedingly rich mantle over his shoulders. He sat, as was his custom, upon a portable throne And proudly held a staff in his hand. At this moment the barons reached the tent, Where they sat courteously side by side. Naimes of Bavaria stood up And let the mantle he was wearing slide to the ground. His flowing beard fell to his waist And he appeared every bit a ruling prince. Looking at Gui, he addressed him as follows: “May the Lord of Glory who resides in the Trinity Save the king of France and his noble barons.” Gui replied, “May God’s goodness shine upon you.” Then Duke Naimes said to Gui: “Sire, let us go out, for I wish to speak with you.” Gui replied, “That is a good idea.” So they quickly left the tent And began to converse in private. “Sire,” said Duke Naimes, “let nothing be hidden. I appeal to you in the name of God in Majesty To tell me, my lord, nothing but the truth.” And Gui said to him, “You were right to appeal to me, But by the crown that was given to me And by which I was crowned in Paris against my will, If you say anything to displease me, I’ll have your head and limbs cut off.”

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– “Sire,” said Duke Naimes, “I’ll need to be careful! Tell me, for God in Majesty, To whom belongs this first wagon, So elegantly decorated with the imposing dragon?” – “So help me God,” said Gui, “I’ll tell you the truth: It belongs to the lovely duchess Gille, Who is the sister of Charles, the mighty crowned king, Wife of Ganelon, Hardré’s companion, And mother of Roland, the worthy knight. That is why I have put it in the lead.” Naimes replied, “That was a noble decision. And whose is this other – tell me truthfully – That is no less richly decorated And sits so splendidly beside the first? It is exceedingly rich and important looking.” Gui replied, “I’ll tell you the truth: It is the wagon carrying my good mother. I placed it next because I am a crowned king.” To which Naimes replied, “You are very wise. Who, then, is the father who conceived you?” – “What did you ask, you crazy old fool? By St. Denis of France, if you say anything more, I’ll have the head chopped off your body!” – “Sire,” said Duke Naimes, “I’ll let it go for now.” After these words, they entered the tent, And the French barons rose before them. 75. Young Gui of Burgundy took a seat in the pavilion, With Duke Naimes opposite him, And the other barons around them. Huidelon, who was greatly renowned, stood up. His beard with its golden flecks hung low, And he began to speak to the gathered men: “Listen now, noble and knightly barons, All you who are liegemen of Emperor Charles. You are wiser than these younger knights, And that is why I am asking for your counsel. Montorgueil and the kingdom all around are mine, And I thought that I was safe in my mighty tower, When ten Frenchmen came to me in Charles’s name And requisitioned all my lands.

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They took away my palace and my main house And called me a traitor – why should I deny it? I had my son Danemont serve as my champion, And I swore to their champion upon our faith That I would see that no one else harmed him. But young Dragolant would have nothing of it: When the two champions were on the field of honor, He came forth with many others to help Danemont.” 76. “My lords,” said Huidelon, “listen to me: Because I promised and swore to Gui That no one except Danemont would harm him, I have come here to request judgment. If I have behaved as a traitor to him, I wish to lose all my lands and inheritance, And my son Dragolant will lose his head.” When Naimes heard this, he sighed And immediately left the tent. Gui of Burgundy left with him, And the powerful barons accompanied them. “My lords and barons,” wise Gui said, “I ask you in God’s name to render a just verdict.” Naimes replied, “I’ll tell you what I think: A man who’s never been baptized And believed in holy Christianity Should not be blamed for coming to the aid of his brother. Therefore, we should pardon his mistake.” The barons said, “This is good advice.” After these words they returned And told Huidelon what they had decided. When the Turk heard this, he looked at his son And said to him without delay: “One would be a fool not to accept holy Christianity!” Then he turned to Gui and exclaimed: “Sire, noble king, in the name of God in Majesty, Have me raised from the font and baptized, Along with both of my praiseworthy sons. Then we will go to the mighty crowned King Charles, Become his liegemen, do homage to him for our fiefs, And help him conquer Spain.” Hearing this, the barons were overjoyed,

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And the archbishop made ready the font. They had Huidelon remove his clothing And his wise sons did so as well. They were all baptized and became Christians, But their names were not changed.31 A good thirty thousand select and noble men Were baptized at the same time, to honor Huidelon. 77. After Huidelon had been raised up and baptized Along with his two sons and all the knights, One could count thirty thousand new converts. “My lord,” Huidelon said to Gui, “listen to me: Come to Montorgueil; I wish to present you the keys And have my courtly wife baptized. Then we will go to the mighty crowned King Charles.” Then all the knightly barons exclaimed: “In the name of God, sire, this is an excellent suggestion.” Swiftly they equipped themselves And rode forth together without delay, The old and the young and all the knights. They crossed over the waters where the magnets were placed And entered Montorgueil amid great rejoicing. A messenger went ahead to speak to the lady: “My lady, I must tell you that I am coming from the army. I saw your husband raised from the font and baptized, Along with both your sons, who were immersed. King Gui is approaching with ten thousand men And you yourself will be raised up and baptized.” “Thanks be to you, dear God,” replied the lady. 78. When Lady Marguerite heard the news That her husband Huidelon had been baptized, Her heart leapt for joy. You should have seen Lady Marguerite Hurrying all through the city for draperies – Tyrian, Almerian and other fine silks –

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31 It was the custom for Muslim converts to take on a Christian name at baptism. A prominent example is Bramimonde in the Song of Roland, whose name is changed to Juliane (line 3986). Not to be required to do so was a sign of great respect for the convert.

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To hang in the vaulted hall. [Huidelon and his barons entered the city] And Lady Marguerite went to greet them. As soon as she saw her husband, she exclaimed: “Dear husband, my lord, welcome to you And to all your fine companions.” – “My lady,” said Huidelon, “you seem so happy!” – “In God’s name, sire, have you been baptized?” – “Yes,” replied Huidelon, “and it’s no lie. And I want you to believe in Holy Mary’s Son.” The lady said, “Most willingly, fair sir.” King Gui wasted no time: He told the archbishop to prepare the baptismal fonts. They had the courtly lady baptized Along with ten thousand of her people, All of whom received God’s sacrament. Gui of Burgundy was Marguerite’s godfather. He spoke in earnest to Huidelon: “Sire, listen to me: before these assembled barons I return your lands to you and renounce any claim to them.” – “By my head,” said Huidelon, “this will not happen. I will never in my life command a single foot of them Until I have seen Charles and his flowing beard. I will offer my life and all my lands to him.” When the barons heard this, they were overjoyed. They entrusted the land to Lady Marguerite, Left a good number of knights with her, And hurried back to rejoin the army. The ladies in the wagons were very eager To see their husbands, whom they dearly loved. But Gui, by his royal authority, issued an order Stating that no lady in the wagons should dare Show herself under threat of losing her life. They must remain silent and not show themselves. Duke Naimes, with his flowing beard, Came to speak with Gui: “Will you come with us to Charles, king of Saint-Denis?” To which Gui replied, “I won’t hide it: Once I have conquered the tower of Augorie And the city of Maudrane on the Sea, Then will I go to serve Charlemagne. I swear I won’t come until I have taken these cities.” – “Then you won’t come in your lifetime.”

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– “I will,” said Gui, “don’t you worry, If it is the will of He who suffered on the Cross.” 79. Samson of Burgundy was a praiseworthy man Who loved Gui very dearly, Since he had fathered him in his wife’s womb. He began to speak calmly and courteously to him: “My lord, for God’s sake, don’t hide it from me: When you placed the crown upon your head in France And ordered the sons of our wives to accompany you, Why did you not come to help Charles in Luserne? I tell you truly that he is in very great need.” Gui, who was most praiseworthy, replied: “I will not go to the powerful and just King Charlemagne Until I have captured and subdued these two cities. Then I will turn them over to Charles – this I promise you.” – “So help me God,” said Samson, “what you say is right, But you’ll never see Charles again if you delay any longer.” – “Yes I will,” said the young man, “don’t worry. In the name of the Lord who suffered on the Cross, Greet him warmly and send him my regards. I will send him a thousand mules and three hundred packhorses, All charged and laden with food, As well as a thousand golden shields, a thousand swords, and a thousand spears.” – “Sire,” said Duke Naimes, “it shall be as you please. We will take him everything that you give us.” – “All there is left to do,” said Samson, “is to take our leave.” The barons asked leave of proud-faced Gui. When they had mounted up, Gui escorted them, Along with Berard and esteemed Renier. They all wept piteously as they departed. –“So help me God,” said Samson, “I’m quite angry To see here the sons of our noble wives Who don’t deign to embrace or kiss us.” He said to Gui, “Turn back now. Truly we leave in sorrow and despair.” When young Gui heard this, he hastened to embrace him, And they were washed by the tears they both shed. They nearly fainted and fell off their horses. The youths turned back as their elders rode on.

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I do not wish to tell you about their trip, Only that they reached Luserne on a Tuesday. They dismounted hastily before the striped tent. When Charles saw them, he had never been happier. “Naimes,” said the emperor, “how did it go? Did you see Gui, the strong and righteous king?” – “Yes,” said Duke Naimes, “we just saw him, And he sends you greetings and friendship, As well as a gift that should cheer you up: Shields, hauberks, helmets, and plenty to eat.” – “So help me God,” said Charles, “You did well; May Jesus let me live long enough to help him!” – “In God’s name, emperor,” said his nephew Roland, “You should hold him dear for the gifts he’s sent you. But ask Duke Naimes and the warrior Samson Why the rich and esteemed king hasn’t come to see you.” – “Indeed, I would be very glad to see him.” – “I don’t know when it will please him to do so,” said Naimes, “But he has captured Montorgueil and proud Montesclair And had Huidelon raised from the font and baptized, Along with his two sons and noble wife And over thirteen thousand of his people, Whose fiefs and honors he has received. First he will capture Augorie and Maudrane And then he and his knights will come to you.” – “So help me God,” said Charles, “he is much to be praised! If he were not my cousin, my relative, or my nephew, He would never have presumed under any circumstances, Nor would the youths of France have agreed To place upon his head the golden crown of France.” – “I don’t know, sire,” said Samson, “but I love him dearly. Indeed, he came twice to embrace and kiss me, And he almost fainted and fell off his warhorse.” – “Samson,” said Charles, “by the grace of heaven, I believe he is the son of your noble wife, The husband of my niece, and therefore my nephew.” – “I don’t know, sire,” said Samson, “but I’m very upset, And you must agree to whatever he wants to do.” With these words, the counts all went to their tents And Charles remained upset and angry.

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80. The barons returned to their pavilions And Charles remained upset and full of anger. He lay down upon a bed but did not sleep. “Oh God,” said Charles, “who reigns over all, From what land does this powerful young man come? He has captured Montorgueil through his prowess And both Huidelon and his people are baptized, But he and his troops don’t deign to come help me. By the Lord who reigns over everything, I’ll never capture Luserne as long as I live If this young man I so need doesn’t come to me, For God, the Son of Holy Mary, has told me so.” Let us now leave Charles – may Jesus bless him – And speak of proud-faced Gui. He spoke to Huidelon with the flowing beard And to his son Danemont – may Jesus bless him. “My lords,” said the young man, “I won’t hide it from you: Charles of Saint-Denis is very eager to see me, And the women are weeping and wailing And want me to take them to Luserne. But how can I go to Charles before I’ve captured Augorie And the citadel of Maudrane on the sea?” – “My lord,” replied Huidelon, “here’s what I’ll say: You had me baptized in the name of Jesus, Son of Mary, So I promise that within two weeks, If it is pleasing to the One who suffered on the Cross, I will turn over to you those cities and towns.” When Gui heard this, he thanked him profusely. 81. “My lord,” said Huidelon, “listen to me: You had me baptized, and I thank you; I am your liegeman and sworn to serve you well. Have your army set off by dawn tomorrow; Those who drive the wagons will also move out, And we will head toward the fine city of Augorie. I will deliver your message without discussion To King Escorfaut, whom my father raised. Indeed, he is my nephew, I tell you truthfully. By the faith I owe Charles of Saint-Denis,

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If he tries to contradict my words or my actions, Our relationship will be of no avail to him And won’t prevent my lopping his head off its trunk.” – “My lord,” replied the youth, “I thank you. May God let me live long enough to repay you.” They left things at that until daybreak, When King Gui had his men get ready. They hitched up the wagons and set off, Led by Huidelon and his son Danemont. There you would have heard the trumpets blast And shake the earth for a good long league. The army had so many worthy young men That although the lead troops set off at dawn, The last men did not mount up before noon! May the crucified Lord be with them. They had marched so long on the cobbled road That one Thursday morning they looked before them And saw Augorie with its marble walls, Its rich and mighty tower, and its vaulted palace. When Huidelon saw it, he said to Gui: “Now you can behold the rich towers And the good fortress – the finest ever seen! Have your men camp down there in that fallow land. Entrust a hundred of your best knights to me, And I’ll take a hundred forty of mine To deliver your message, if it pleases God.” Young Gui replied by invoking Jesus Christ. He summoned Bertrand, Berard, and Thierry, Savary of Toulouse, and bold Estout. “My lords,” said Gui, “by the ever-truthful God, Have a hundred men arm and ready themselves, And do whatever Huidelon asks of you.” – “My lord,” replied Bertrand, “I’ll never lie to you: We must do whatever you ask without question.” They had a hundred of the bravest men prepare themselves And added them to Huidelon’s hundred forty. Meanwhile Gui had his men set up camp And take lodging in the flowering meadow. Then he went to the wagons, lined them up, And asked that the ladies be properly served. Charlemagne’s sister Gille was very upset And tearfully said to Gui as soon as she saw him:

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“You are very wrong, sire, by St. Denis: We should have gone to the great city of Luserne To see our husbands, whom we’ve come seeking. Instead, you’ve had us camp here in this foreign place. You’ve committed a serious wrong, by St. Denis.” – “By St. Denis of France,” replied bold Gui, “Unless I capture Maudrane and the citadel of Augorie, It’ll be a full ten years before you see your lovers.” When the ladies heard this, they prayed to St. Denis To watch over their sons and husbands. Proud Huidelon set off, Along with Berard, Renier, Estout, and Alberic – There were two hundred forty men in all. May the crucified Lord be with them! 82. Huidelon set off with his knights. King Gui commended them to God the Son of Mary, That He might bring them back alive and healthy. Blessed by Jesus, the barons rode without stopping Until they reached Augorie. Huidelon rode ahead with his Persian troops, All of them armed in pagan fashion. They entered the well-provisioned city through its gate, And there was no Saracen to oppose them. The handsome company rode on Until it reached the door to the ancient tower. Huidelon shouted and the gatesmen heard him And said, “Welcome, fair good sir, Are all these knights in your company?” When Danemont heard this, he exclaimed: “You’ll be fully informed before compline. Now where is bold-faced Escorfaut?” – “Fair sir, he is in the tower with his closest men; There are no more than a hundred in his company.” When Huidelon heard this, he could not resist a smile. All his men dismounted beneath a flowering olive tree And quickly climbed up to the stoned hall, Where they found proud-faced Escorfaut. As soon as he saw him, Huidelon shouted: “Fair nephew, I offer you no friendly greeting. Young Gui of Burgundy, who is so noble,

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Has captured Carsade through his bravery And has taken my well provisioned city of Montorgueil. He hasn’t left me even a parcel of my lands On which I could grow a crab apple.” When Escorfaut heard this, he could not keep from saying: “The scoundrel will be sorry, by my flowing beard. I’m going to send for pagans and all my faithful men. I’ll send for Butor of Saulorie And summon Amaudras from rich Maudrane. Once I have gathered all my splendid knights, I’ll attack Gui with all my forces. I’ll slice off his head with my sharp sword And destroy his whole company. I won’t destroy the ladies in the wagons, But will use them to repopulate my ravaged lands.” When Bertrand heard this, his blood boiled. He turned to Berard and said in a low voice: “Have you heard this pagan’s foolish boast? The scoundrel will be sorry, I swear to God!” – “My lords,” said Estout, “by God the Son of Mary, I beg and implore you not to act in haste. Since these pagans, who were baptized By God’s grace, were the ones who led us here, Though they might not win, they won’t fail us. And once we see them begin the fight, Let’s all strike mighty blows with our sharp swords.” When the youths heard this, they all shouted: “That’s a great idea, and may God be with us! If Huidelon with the flowing beard is ready, We won’t take long to capture this ancient tower And turn this castle over to Gui.” – “Indeed,” said Danemont, “he won’t fail you!” 83. Escorfaut of Augorie stood up; He recognized by their faces that Berard and Bertrand Had been born in the land of the Franks. As soon as he saw Huidelon, he said with a laugh: “Who are these knights? Don’t hide anything. Were they captured in battle, in skirmish, or single combat? By Mohammed my god, they are very insulting. If they are not your men I’ll cut off their heads with my steel sword!”

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When Danemont heard this, he leapt to his feet And spoke directly to Escorfaut: “So help me God, fair sir, there is nothing to hide: These men belong to the brave knight Gui. Through us he demands That you become his liegeman from this day forward And that you believe in Jesus, the all-powerful King, Who nourishes and rules over us. As He is my witness, We have received the true faith through Him, And if you do not do the same, your life is worth nothing.” When Escorfaut heard this, he frowned And said through his teeth so that no one heard: “I’ve given lodging to guests who will bring me harm!” 84. Proud Huidelon was greatly to be praised. As soon as he saw Escorfaut, he began to shout to him: “My friend,” said the old man, “I have nothing to hide: God has shown us the best knight Who ever lived in France or under the heavens. He had us all raised from the font and baptized And has returned our lands and fiefs to all of us. He has brought us to the strong righteous King Charles. We have come here to ask you, in God’s name, To surrender your land to him and be baptized. If you don’t do this, by the apostle knights seek, Neither love nor kinship will prevent me From chopping off your head And pulling your arms and feet from your body.” After saying this he looked at the messengers Bertrand, Estout, Renier, and Berard of Montdidier. When the young men heard him, they did not delay, They removed their capes and drew their steel swords. Naimes’s son Bertrand went to strike first, Followed by Archbishop Renier, who attacked the king of Montesclair; The others struck as well, not wanting to wait. Odon’s son Estout approached Escorfaut And was about to strike with the sword in his hand When Huidelon spoke up, “For God’s sake, don’t touch him!” Escorfaut ran toward Huidelon, For he realized his own strength would be of no avail. He started to shout and cry out: “Put your steel swords back in their sheaths!

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I will turn over my lands and my fiefs to Gui And believe in Jesus who suffered on the Cross. I would rather lose my land than lose my head, But it’s more out of force than affection.” “I don’t care,” said Huidelon, “but I’m very happy for it.” 85. When Escorfaut realized that he had been taken by surprise And saw all the splendid sharp swords surrounding him, He had no choice but to grant everything they asked; Had he not, his life would have been over. He turned toward Huidelon and cried out: “King Gui shall have possession of my kingdom, For he will keep my lands and my country safe.” – “By my head,” said Huidelon, “you have spoken well, Because you won’t lose an Angevin penny’s worth. So put everything you have under his care.” – “By my head,” said Bertrand, “it won’t be that easy; First he must have his pagans promise and swear That they will not cause us any irreparable harm.” Escorfaut responded, “I will do as you ask.” He thrust his head out of one of the windows, Looked down, saw thirty-three thousand pagans Fully armed, and said to them: “My lords, listen to what I have to say: I will hand over my lands and my country to the French, I will have myself baptized in the holy font, And I want you likewise to hand over your lands.” The pagans responded, “It won’t be that easy: Instead, we’ll attack them ferociously Until we’ve slaughtered and killed them all.” Escorfaut replied, “I cannot believe what I just heard! Either you will do all that I have asked, Or you will see me die a cruel death.” 86. “My lords,” said Escorfaut, “I’ll not hide it: If you don’t immediately do as you’ve heard me ask, You’ll soon see my head separated from its trunk, Because I see Gui there with his encamped troops.” They replied to him, “We must not abandon you.

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We won’t fail you, even if we must lose our limbs!” They had the gates opened and the bridges lowered, And then they laid down their arms without delay. Men-at-arms and knights came down from the palace And went to Gui’s army to announce the news. Naimes’s son Bertrand went to attach To the highest point of the splendid palace A red banner to wave in the wind. The young knights in Gui’s army saw it And young Gui of Burgundy began to shout: “Quickly now, the city is ours! Take advantage! We must all thank and offer praises to God.” As soon as they heard him, some fifty thousand men Mounted up and rushed into the city. The ladies could not keep from rejoicing. Each with her prayer book and psalter Prayed to Jesus Christ who suffered on the Cross To let their men conquer the lands and fiefs. 87. The brave young men entered the city And captured it from top to bottom. Young Gui had it proclaimed throughout the city That no matter how high-born any knight might be, If he were to seize a Saracen’s gold or silver, Nothing could keep him from losing his head. When the Saracens heard this, they were happy And said to one another, “These are very fine people! Because of them we should receive the true belief.” Huidelon and his son Dragolant came forward Holding Escorfaut between them. When Huidelon saw Gui, he said: “My lord, listen to me: Escorfaut has surrendered And you can do as you please with his city.” – “My lord,” replied young Gui, “may God the Redeemer Permit us henceforth to succeed enough That we can do as Charlemagne desires. Let me speak first to the pagan.” Whereupon he said aloud to him: “My friend, do you wish to receive the true belief – Faith, humility, and holy baptism?”

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– “My lord,” said Escorfaut, “I do, and I believe.” Archbishop Renier went to prepare the fonts And baptized him and I do not know how many of his men. Those who refused to convert were slaughtered. By my reckoning, we can count Nearly thirty thousand who all received the true faith. Huidelon had thirty thousand brave men; By my count, there were some hundred thousand Prepared to do whatever Charles desired. They entrusted the city to four hundred men-at-arms. Escorfaut and noble Huidelon Were both eager to go to Charlemagne’s aid. Now they all set off together, the old men and the young, Asking Jesus to watch over their travels. 88. Now the worthy knights set off together. May the One who was nailed to the Cross guide them. The esteemed youth Gui of Burgundy Called to Huidelon and his son Danemont, And did not forget to address King Escorfaut: “My lords,” said the youth, “for the love of God, thank you! How many days before we reach the city of Luserne?” “By my faith,” replied Huidelon, “I shall tell you at once: Before three days are ended We will see Charles, the king of Saint-Denis, And the French barons you are so eager to meet.” When Escorfaut heard this, he laughed And said to Huidelon, “I cannot believe you! Before we reach Luserne, we will come to a powerful city, Finer than any ever held by a pagan or Saracen. It sits high upon an ancient cliff overlooking a gulf. The walls surrounding it are all of gray marble, Sheathed in steel from one corner to the next. There are fifteen high and magnificent towers, Each surrounded by a rapid-flowing stream, And fifteen gates with ingenious locking mechanisms, Each of which has a rotating bridge. The overlord has appropriately placed A hundred armed and armored knights to guard the city. God has never created a man powerful enough – No matter how many men he had with him –

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To capture the city before the Day of Judgment.” – “What is the name of this city?” King Gui asked. – “It is called Maudrane,” said Escorfaut, “And it is held by Amaudras, a dastardly Arab; He is the son of my sister, and I raised him for many years; If he is not defeated, we will be betrayed And could be deceived and brought to shame. You see Huidelon here, who’s been converted; I will force Amaudras to convert, too, so help me Jesus Christ. If he escapes us, may God never again help me: I should be quartered by horses! If he does not obey me, I will snatch the heart right out of his breast And present it myself to Charles of Saint-Denis!” When Gui heard this, he laughed And replied, “I thank you five hundred times.” That night they made camp in a flowery meadow, Then set off again the next day. 89. Now the barons were riding together joyfully: May they be guided by the Lord who pardoned Longinus! They placed the wagons with the ladies in front, For they would be glad to see the emperor Charles. They journeyed alongside the sea, Riding vigorously until midday. Then they climbed a hill, looked down below, And saw the city overlooking a deep gulf: They saw well-built houses, great stone halls , And fortified walls on all sides. They saw fifteen inlets with raucous rushing water, Each one as wide as the range of a crossbow. They saw forests and vineyards all around, And greater riches than any man has ever seen. Young Gui of Burgundy lifted his head And called out to Escorfaut and King Huidelon: “Now we can see the towers of Maudrane.” – “You speak truly, fair lord,” replied Danemont. “Now let us set up camp in this area. We will never enter the city except by deceit, For even if all the troops in Charles’s kingdom And all the Saracens, past and present,

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Had besieged it from all sides, They could be there until Judgment Day Without doing a button’s worth of harm.” When Gui heard this, he bowed his head. “Do not be troubled, my lord,” said Huidelon. “God and St. Peter will lead us there safely. Before tomorrow at this time, we will deliver the city to you. Entrust to me ten thousand of your knights, And I will bring twenty thousand of my best men. But I will have your knights bound hand and foot. Each one will be wearing a supple hauberk, With his green-gold helmet32 fastened and his colored sword girded, And each will be mounted on his valuable warhorse. When we arrive at the gates, we will convince Those guarding the bridge that they are all prisoners Captured from Gui’s army Whom we are bringing to Maudrane for trial. That is how we will get inside.” – “By my head,” said Gui, “this is a good idea. But take care, fair lord, that we are not betrayed.” – “By the Lord who suffered the Passion,” said Huidelon, “I wouldn’t betray you for all the gold in Avalon,33 Even if I were to be beheaded.” And young Gui replied, “May God grant you forgiveness.” 90. Young Gui of Burgundy had his men set up camp And then lined them up beside a leafy thicket. He summoned Bertrand, son of Naimes, Estout, son of Odon, and Berard of Montdidier: “Have ten thousand of my men armed with hauberks And do whatever Huidelon commands: In the name of God, take care to uphold my honor!” And they replied, “My lord, we must leave you now.”

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32 The formula “green–gold helmet” (vert heaume) appears in many chansons de geste and has been the subject of much debate. Some historians believe that vert designates green paint, while others interpret vert as an adjective designating brilliance. May Plouzeau has argued that the formula refers to the greenish cast of superior metal. See Plouzeau, “Vert heaume: approches d’un syntagme,” Les Couleurs au moyen âge, Senefiance 24 (CUERMA), Aix-en-Provence, 1988, pp. 591–650. The expression occurs here, in Roland at Saragossa, lines 112, 187, and 751, as well as in Otinel, line 300. 33 Valon: either the mythical island of Arthurian romance or an actual town in the region of Burgundy-Franche-Comté.



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Promptly and swiftly they began their preparations. Twenty thousand knights armed themselves: All had just been baptized in the name of God. When they were assembled, there were indeed twenty thousand. They were led by Huidelon and his nephew Escorfaut, Valiant Danemont, and fierce Dragolant. King Gui commended them to Heavenly God, Praying that they might return safe and sound. Old Huidelon wasted no time: He had the Frenchmen bound hand and foot, But not too tightly: when the trick had succeeded, They would all quickly unbind their hands and feet. They were placed in front and rode out immediately, Not stopping until they reached the city. At the main bridge they found the pagans fully armed, Guarding the gates and the outer walls. Their lord was Cornius – may God confound him! Escorfaut arrived and began to shout: “My friend, open the gate immediately! Allow me to enter that I might deliver my message To my beloved uncle Amaudras.34 I wish to present him with ten thousand prisoners Whom we captured from Gui’s army. They are being led by Huidelon and fierce Danemont.” When the pagan heard this, he was overjoyed. He quickly unlatched the gate And escorted them to King Amaudras. The youths crossed the fifteen great bridges And found Amaudras beneath an olive tree. He was playing chess with fierce Murgalant, Surrounded by a large group of knights. When he saw the Frenchmen, who appeared to be prisoners, He quickly leapt to his feet. Huidelon immediately addressed Amaudras, saying: “May Mohammed, who judges all things, save you, sire! We bring you a most valuable gift: Ten thousand captives, bound and tied.” Hearing this, Amaudras was overjoyed. “Where were they captured, my lord?” he asked.

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34 The vocabulary of kinship is somewhat unstable in this text. In line 3826, Amaudras is presented as Escorfaut’s nephew, which seems more accurate, because Amaudras is said to be the son of Escorfaut’s sister.

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– “Fair lord, from Gui’s army,” replied his nephew Escorfaut. “They came to besiege Augorie the day before yesterday And attacked our gates with projectiles. I won’t hide it from you: we would all have been captured Had it not been for Huidelon, who came to my rescue, Joining battle with them as befitted a valiant knight. All of them were slain and cut to pieces Except these captives I am handing over to you. They are your share; judge them as you see fit.” Amaudras replied, “You have acted wisely. Let us go together to the city of Luserne To assist my lord Aquilant. We will forcibly remove Charles’s army And separate his head from his body. The other day, a courteous pilgrim was telling me That Charles could barely remain on his feet, That his army had nothing to eat or drink, And that all their warhorses were exhausted.” – “By my head,” said Huidelon, “I don’t mind telling you That I will be the first one there, if I can manage it, For I hate that old man more than anyone on earth. But let us bring the prisoners up here; Tomorrow we’ll have them shot by your archers. Allow me to rest and get some sleep, For I have had no rest for a full week, Nor have I taken off my double white hauberk.” And Amaudras replied, “So granted.” Then the noble prisoners set off, Led by Danemont and fierce Dragolant. At the entry to the palace they found the main porter, Who was holding a club made of apple wood. Striking Bertrand on his grooved helmet, He said, “Now you are in a bad way!” When Danemont saw this, he nearly lost his mind. He drew his sharp steel sword And gave the porter such a blow That the sword slipped downward. “Away, scoundrel!” he said, “this is how to avenge A foul wretch who dares to judge a noble man.” And the young knights went up to the hall. Before arriving at the top, they had themselves unbound And then drew their steel swords.

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Huidelon was holding the rear, along with fierce Amaudras. They closed the gates and raised the drawbridges So that the evil wretches would be unable to climb up to the hall. 91. Now the young knights were in the palace, unbound, Clasping their steel swords in their hands. Behold Huidelon and Amaudras; Amaudras was amazed to see our Frenchmen. Turning to Huidelon, he said quickly: “Have those swords taken away from the captives, And have them thrown into my largest dungeon.” And Huidelon replied, “They will make you sorry Unless you wish to believe in Jesus, the loving King, Who was born of the Virgin Mary in Bethlehem.” When Amaudras heard this, his blood began to boil. He said to Huidelon, “You stinking old man, Is this why you betrayed me so shamefully? By Mohammed, my god and my guarantor, I would rather be thrown into a blazing fire And be completely burned front and back Than believe in the one who was tortured by tyrants. If he couldn’t help himself, he certainly couldn’t protect me.” When Danemont heard this, he stepped forward And grabbed Amaudras by both sides of his beard. He pulled him toward himself with his heavy fist And dealt him such a powerful blow to the back of his neck That he knocked him to the ground at his feet. He then said, for all to hear, “Son of a whore, treacherous old man! You will regret what you said about God, the loving King, Who nourishes and rules us and makes the sun shine.” Archbishop Renier hurried over to them: “My lords, allow me to speak with him properly.” And they replied, “As you wish.” – “My friend, believe in God the Almighty Father, Who created heaven and earth out of nothing. We will make a pledge on behalf of King Gui: You will recover every bit of your land.” When Amaudras heard this, he rolled his eyes And said to Renier, “Your worthless sermon Won’t get me to believe in the one who suffered in Jerusalem And died a miserable death on an old wooden plank.

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I won’t believe in him any more than in a stinking dog.” When Renier heard this, he was deeply saddened. He raised his fine steel sword And dealt Amaudras a sharp blow in the middle of his head, Splitting him in half all the way down to his feet. “He certainly is a fine priest,” said noble Huidelon. “Indeed,” said his son Dragolant, “he is good at hearing confession, But not too joyful in administering penance: Bright blood is already flowing all the way down to his waist.” – “My lords, it is time to act,” said Bertrand, “Before the Saracens and Persians realize what is happening down below, Let us attack them – I wish and command it – Before they take up their armor and their fine swords.” – “As you wish,” said noble Huidelon. At this, they all descended from the tower, Huidelon wielding his sword fiercely. They opened the gates and lowered the drawbridges, For they saw the pagans idling about with one another. Proud Huidelon called out to them loudly: “You’ll all be sorry you were ever here, sons of whores!” He went first to strike Cornius, Splitting him in half as though he were a mere glove. Danemont and valiant Dragolant rushed forward, Along with Escorfaut of Augorie, Berard, and Bertrand, Savary of Toulouse and valiant Amauri, Alberic of Burgundy and mighty Renier, And bold Estout, son of Odon. Eager to strike, they approached the pagans, Who turned and fled as soon as they saw them. The youths pursued them, shouting: “You’ll be sorry you were here, Persian sons of whores!” 92. If you had been there that day, beneath the olive tree, When the French were battling that diabolical race, You would have seen the pagans fleeing and pursued, Shouting, yelling, howling, yelping, and barking. The French – may Jesus help them! – charged forward. If only you had been there to see them batter the pagans, Toppling one corpse on top of another! They killed more of them on the sandy shore Than four hundred carpenters could have slain in one day.

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The Saracens were disarmed and could no longer defend themselves. Then you would have heard the pagans shouting: “Alas, Mohammed, please come and help us; Have mercy on our souls, for we desperately need it!” Then you would have seen the French massacre the enemy: They killed them all, and the only ones left standing Were the thousand or more Who fled to the sea and drowned themselves. They leapt into the water, frightened by our steel swords. Those who could not swim drowned. The French regrouped at once Along with all the converts – may God help them! They had all the pagans thrown into the sea. That day, they captured many a great palace, Many great stone halls and many granaries. They had provisions gathered quickly To be transported to the troops. They entrusted the city to the fair-faced ladies, But first had them baptized, Instilling in them a belief in the True Judge. The good warriors rode off together, Not stopping until they reached Gui’s army. Whoever now wishes to hear a good beginning, Let him come forward and quiet down: He will hear how King Gui reconciled with fierce Charles, And how he offered him his head After having captured the great palace of Luserne. 93. The fine company of knights left the city And rode together across the prairie, Not stopping until they reached Gui’s army. White-bearded Huidelon rode in front, Along with Berard and bold Bertrand. Young Gui of Burgundy cried out to him loudly: “Noble and highborn king, has the city been taken?” – “Yes, sire,” said Huidelon, “in the name of Holy Mary. And King Amaudras had his head chopped off: Renier took revenge with his burnished sword, Because Amaudras scorned the Son of Holy Mary. But let us go to Luserne, the opulent city, To rescue Charles with his fine entourage.”

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– “By my head,” said Gui, “I’ll not refuse.” The good barons prepared to depart: They had the wagons harnessed where the ladies would sit, And the tents dismantled and loaded onto pack horses. They set off at once, wasting no time. Now we shall tell of Charles, the king of Saint-Denis, Who was laying siege to Luserne, full of anger and frustration. He called out to Ogier, Bearded Naimes, and powerful Samson: “How can it be,” said the emperor, “in the name of God, Son of Mary, That I will never see Gui? I don’t know what else to say.” Then he began to weep, sighing from deep within his heart. “Sire,” said Duke Naimes, “do not worry: You have been laying siege to this city for over seven years, Yet King Gui, who is bringing his fine army, Has captured three cities in three months. When he has all the land in his possession, He will surely come to you with a large company of knights.” – “By God,” said Charles, “I desire this with all my heart; After he arrives, I no longer wish to live.”

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94. Charles, king of France, lamented bitterly, But Naimes of Bavaria greatly comforted him. 4116 At that moment, a messenger was entering the encampment. On his way he came upon Roland and Olivier, Who were coming down from the mountains they had been guarding for three days. When Roland saw the boy, he called out to him, 4120 Asking where he was coming from and where he was going. The boy replied that he would explain: “Come with me before Charles and I will tell you.” The count entered the tent with the messenger, 4124 Who knelt down before King Charles. When Charles saw him, he immediately asked Where he was from and what he needed. “Sire,” said the messenger, “I have not eaten for three days. 4128 It has been a month since you sent me there. Yesterday morning at sunrise, I took my leave of Marsile, who vowed That he would come to Luserne with all his might, 4132



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And expel you forcibly from this place. He said that he would decapitate Roland and Olivier, And flay you alive.” The messenger continued, “Sire, what an army he has! More than seven thousand men, I assure you.” When the emperor heard this, he bowed his head, And Roland and Olivier both sighed. Charles then asked Ogier to advise him. Hearing this, Ogier rose to his feet And said to Charles, “Do not worry: Five hundred curses on anyone who doesn’t put up a fight, And who does not test his steely blade against them!” Hearing this, the French were reassured. “God,” said the emperor, “what a worthy knight! Blessed be the hour that Gaufroi sired him.” 95. The emperor of France was most distressed. He called to Ogier and bearded Duke Naimes: “My lords,” said the emperor, “how will we manage?” Behold Ganelon – may God destroy him! “Sire,” he said to the king, “have you lost your mind? You would have us killed and dismembered here. Let us leave this city – may God destroy it! – For no man under the heavens will ever capture it. You are waiting for something that will never happen: Gui and the youths whom you so wish to see, And who have conquered the lands on all sides.” When Naimes heard this, he rose to his feet And said to Charles, “Do not believe this man. If you do, you will be sorry for it. Do instead what I advise: Have four thousand men armed and equipped, And have the vanguard observe and assess, And report if they see any Saracens or Slavs.” – “Naimes,” said the emperor, “who should go?” – “Fair lord, send Ganelon and Hardré, Tibaut and Alori, all well-armed. Whoever gives you such advice should suffer for it.” – “Indeed,” said the emperor, “I approve wholeheartedly.” He summoned Ganelon and his many family members. “My friend,” said the king, “take up your arms

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And have the vanguard observe and assess the situation. If you see something suspicious, Return here at once and report to me.” – “Sire,” said Ganelon to the king, “we dare not refuse.” Under his breath, so that none could hear, He vowed that he would make Charles sorrowful and angry. They quickly armed themselves, And all five thousand mounted their horses. They rode out together, may God destroy them! King Gui’s army wasted no time. As they rode alongside a river, King Gui asked bearded Huidelon, “My lord, when will we arrive in the city of Luserne?” – “By my head,” said Huidelon, “before midday.” When they heard this, the young knights rejoiced. They rode along swiftly, Clad in sumptuous clothes Of fine silk, trimmed with fur. They all resembled winged angels, Mounted on swift and rapid horses. King Gui had them well organized, Lined up closely, one beside the other. They had the banners fastened to the wagons, Which truly delighted the ladies. Splendidly arrayed, they started up a hill. Meanwhile, Ganelon, Alori, and Hardré rode without pause Until they reached the top of the hill. They looked down below and saw Gui’s army, With their bright red banners and golden shields. They saw the wagons assembled in rows, And the mightiest army that has ever been seen. Thinking it was Marsile and his barons, They took fright and turned around, And did not stop before reaching Charles’s army. 96. The traitors returned – may God curse them! They rode as hard as they could, So hard that their prized horses were drenched with sweat. When Charles saw them, he leapt to his feet, Along with Naimes, Ogier, Samson, and Thierry.

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Ganelon the traitor shouted: “Sire,” he said to the king, “our enemy is upon us. We must immediately lift the siege and depart. Let us mount our horses and flee. Since God was born of the Virgin in Bethlehem, No one has seen such an army as the one approaching us.” – “God,” said the emperor, “have mercy on me! Noble Gui, how my heart is saddened! Never have I seen you and never will I see you. May you be protected by the Lord who never lied, And may He save the men who are with you. May He allow you to hold sweet France after me, For the fathers accompanying me have all gone.” He then fainted; he could no longer remain standing. Duke Naimes supported him, along with Samson and Thierry, Roland, Olivier, and noble Ogier. The worthy knights greatly consoled him. 97. “Sire,” said Naimes, “you are quite wrong. You know very well that we each have only one death. If your day has come, then so has ours, And we must commend our souls and bodies to God. Therefore, fair lord, listen and take comfort, And have your men armed without delay. You yourself should don your hauberk And mount your warhorse, with your shield around your neck.” – “Naimes,” said the emperor, “this advice is welcome. I have often needed your comforting words.” At this, they all armed themselves, Including the king and Duke Naimes. The duke then mounted his dark brown horse And had the French make their confessions without further delay. Olivier and Roland rode in front with great speed. “Sire,” said Naimes, “you are going too quickly: Let me speak with you to advise your army.” 98. Duke Naimes of Bavaria called out to Charles, Ogier the Dane, and wise Richard. “Sire,” he said to the king, “listen to my plan: Have our knights ride quietly So that the people of the city do not notice them,

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For if they knew the truth, They would sneak up behind us clad in their armor; We will not turn back until we have met the Turks.” – “Naimes,” said the emperor, “go with God, And may He protect and save you.” At this, they prepared to depart. They had no intention of stopping before reaching the vanguard. They looked down and saw Gui mount his horse With his barons lined up in ranks beside him. They saw the golden shields shine and sparkle, And the silken gonfanons wave in the wind. When Naimes saw them, he recognized them well: He clearly recognized that these were their own sons. His heart leapt with joy so that he could hardly speak. “Let us go back to righteous Charles And tell him news of the noble young knights Who are bringing the aid he has been seeking.” At this, they turned their horses around And spurred them so hard that they were drenched with sweat. They did not stop until they reached Charles’s army. When Naimes saw him, he cried out: “Sire,” he said to the king, “be assured: Since God was born of the Virgin in Bethlehem, There has never been an aid mission like the one you will soon see, Led by Gui, the young king.” – “Dear God,” said the king, “now my life is complete. If it pleases you, God, let me die, Since the redoubtable King Gui is coming. Now I know without question that the city will be captured.” At that moment the youth reached the top of the hill, With his powerful assembly of knights arrayed behind him. When Charles saw him, he fell into a faint; When he rose again, he cried out loudly: “Barons, remove your armor and your arms And go to meet him on your knees: Whoever brings such aid deserves to be honored.” And they did as he commanded. King Gui of Burgundy observed all of this. Seeing Bertrand, he spoke to him thus: “My friend,” said the king, “tell me the truth: What can they be doing?” – “Sire,” said Bertrand, “they are acting in faith and humility:

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They are so pleased to see you that they don’t know where to go.” – “Alas!” said the king, “now I am embarrassed! As the younger men, we should have acted first.” He cried out in a loud voice: “Barons, dismount and let us disarm; Place the point of your sword facing upward, And kneel upon the ground.” All the converts came forward, And the young men came toward the older men. Both Charles and Gui parted from their ranks And met in the middle of the field. They raised their arms and embraced. Before they could speak, their arms remained entwined Longer than it would take a man to walk a full league. When they stood straight again, they looked at each other. Young Gui of Burgundy said to Charles: “Thank you, in the name of God in Majesty. It has been a full twenty-six years Since you took away the fathers who engendered us. One day, we were in the city of Paris, And I was made king against my wishes. Had I not agreed, they would have killed me. But I have never held a castle or a city in France. Instead, I made all of them ride off after me. First I captured the wealthy city of Carsade, Then I captured Montorgueil and nearby Montesclair. I had Huidelon plunged into the font and baptized, And I captured Augorie and nearby Maudrane. May you be proclaimed lord of all these cities. Here is my sword, sire: please take it And cut off my head if that is what you wish.” – “By my head,” said Charles, “you are valiant and wise. Not for a single day will you lose your crown. Instead, I will give you Spain in its entirety.” Then, the barons on both sides gathered around. Young Gui of Burgundy shouted: “Young men, now we have fathers, if we can recognize them!” And they replied, “May God be praised!” He himself went up to Samson And kissed him more than a hundred times on the mouth and nose.

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99. Young Gui of Burgundy went up to Samson, And Berard to Thierry, Estout to Odon. Valiant Bertrand went up to Naimes, And all the others did the same, without hesitation. Since God raised St. Lazarus from the dead, I have never heard such great joy in story or song. Rejoicing, they came to Charles’s tent. Young Gui called out to Bertrand, son of Naimes: “Bring the ladies without delay, For they all greatly desire to see their husbands.” – “Sire,” said Bertrand, “blessed be God!” When he reached the wagons, he cried out: “Ladies, King Gui bids you to leave the wagons.” When the ladies heard this, they were delighted. The first to step down was Gille, Charles’s sister, And with her fair Aude, clad in silk brocade: There was not a more beautiful lady in Charles’s kingdom. 100. When the ladies stepped out of the wagons, they greatly rejoiced. Hand in hand they came to the tents and the pavilions. They were met by Emperor Charles and bearded Naimes, Samson, Ogier, and fierce Richard, Duke Odon of Langres and many others. Each one found his wife, and there was much rejoicing. On that day, happy were the ladies who found their husbands; Those who did not grieved bitterly. The king took Aude aside and called Roland: “Fair nephew, behold fair Aude whom you should love dearly.” – “Indeed I do, fair uncle, have no doubt.” He kissed her mouth and nose more than a hundred times. Emperor Charles issued an order, Commanding all the knights to get in the wagons And pray to God, Savior of the world, That He let them engender sons Capable of inheriting their land. They did as he commanded, Climbing with their fair wives into the wagons, Where they rejoiced and delighted in their affection for each other.

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101. The counts and the princes greatly rejoiced; They stayed in the wagons for eight days without leaving, Except at nightfall, when all was calm. One morning, Charles of Saint-Denis arose And summoned his powerful barons. Not daring to refuse, they all came. Charles spoke to them thus: “My lords, I must tell you That if you agree, my heart desires That the ladies return to powerful France, Bringing along their nieces and their daughters. Fair Aude, who is pledged to Roland, will leave as well. We will set a day when they will all be happy again.” – “We approve wholeheartedly,” exclaimed the barons. At this, they returned to their tents and pavilions. Charles took aside the fair and prudent Aude; He also summoned the fair and slender Gille, And then the other ladies, who sat down in the meadow. Charles addressed them as befitted a noble man. 102. The emperor of France spoke so that all could hear: “My ladies,” he said, “by the Almighty King, You must now return to valiant France: You could not tolerate the great hardships here in Spain. We will go to Marsile, if God is willing. If He grants us honor over the unbelievers, And if we can defeat and destroy them, Then we will return to our beloved France. Trust me, on the feast of St. Sebastian, My nephew Roland will marry fair Aude, And we will crown young Gui. We will give him Spain, that worthy land, And Roland will have France, for he is the rightful heir.” The ladies replied, “We will do as you command.” More than a thousand of them left, I believe, Who would never again see husband nor son, For Ganelon betrayed them, the vile wretch. He sold them to Marsile for gold and silver, Causing the great martyrdom at Roncevaux.

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103. Having made these decisions, the emperor stood up. The ladies left the army, grieving bitterly. They kissed and embraced their husbands, Many of whom they would never again see alive. The emperor Charles promised them safe conduct, So, by day and night they traveled in the wagons Until all had returned to his kingdom. When the day decided by Charles arrived, Each of the ladies held a proper banquet. The men were eagerly awaited throughout the kingdom, But when they failed to arrive, the ladies grieved bitterly. Charles the valiant emperor was at Luserne. He summoned his barons before him And had the lands divided and distributed. He returned Huidelon’s inheritance And his entire kingdom from one end to the other. He gave Augorie to wise Escorfaut. Since they had already accepted Gui as their lord, The converts departed to protect their lands. The day was drawing to an end and vespers was approaching. The emperor Charles lay down in his tent. Just after midnight, when he awoke, He beheld an angel shining brightly, As if he were a blazing torch. “Charles,” said the angel, “listen to me: I am not of this earth, but a spiritual being. The Lord who ascended to heaven commands you To go to pray to St. James in Galicia.35 You will hear news that will delight you Before you return, I tell you truly. After this joy you will hear more news, But do not worry, valiant emperor, For the One who protects all will lead you. I can say no more than what I have been told, But may the One we serve in winter and in summer Protect you and your life, and increase your goodness.” The angel departed and Charles remained. He was delighted by the message God had sent him.

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35 The shrine of St. James the Greater at Santiago de Compostella in northwestern Spain was a major pilgrimage site in the Middle Ages. The faithful believed that the Apostle’s body was miraculously conveyed there and buried after his martyrdom.



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The next morning at daybreak, After the emperor had dressed and prepared, He summoned before him Roland and Olivier, Naimes, Ogier, and brave Samson. The young king of Spain was also included. When Charles told them what the angel had said, The barons were greatly pleased. “Sire,” said Duke Naimes, “here is what I think: We will go with you if you so command.” – “I will take only eight of you,” said the renowned Charles. “Young King Gui of Burgundy, you will guard this army, To prevent any problems, disputes, or outcry. But, my fair lord, do not attack Luserne Until the time of my return. And you, fair nephew Roland, think about what should be done.” – “My lord,” said the count, “as you command.” At this, the king turned to leave, Along with Naimes, Ogier, brave Samson, Richard, Thierry, and the renowned Renier. They each departed disguised as pilgrims. But they had not gone one league Before King Gui had the horn sounded, Signaling the troops to arm. 104. The noble knights equipped themselves, And King Gui was armed on a Gascon warhorse. He summoned the best young knights, And Roland and Olivier returned. The old men from the great land were armed as well. The Saracens observed them from the top of the wall: Every single one of them was frightened. Aquilant exclaimed in a loud voice: “Barons, to arms, without delay! For soon we will all be attacked, the knights and the men alike.” Three thousand drums sounded across Luserne, And drums and bugles caused such a great commotion That those outside the city heard the noise and the uproar Made by the Saracens all around. 105. When the pagan forces were armed, Aquilant of Luserne was taking no chances. He had a rich warship prepared:

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If the need arose, it would save his life. He had with him thirty kings, all in high spirits. King Gui of Burgundy also was taking no chances. [In a loud, clear voice he cried: “My lords, do your best! May God help us!”] Then you would have heard a great commotion: Entering the city, each one let out a war cry. They defended themselves against the accursed pagans, Who pelted them with sharp stakes, sticks, and boiling pitch. Some one hundred men were scalded and lost their lives. “God,” said young Gui, “Holy Mary, Do not let these powerful barons be destroyed, But let us conquer this ancient city.” The emperor Charles wasted no time: He and his companions arrived at St. James’s shrine, Where Charles prayed and made his offering. Meanwhile, the noble company of knights was assembling. 106. The emperor Charles returned While Gui’s army was gathering on all sides. Just at noon, as the sun began its descent, A large portion of the city wall tumbled to the ground. When young Gui saw this, he looked to the heavens, Gripped his shield and bright sword, And rushed to enter the city, Followed immediately by his men. They entered from all sides through the crumbling walls. The pagans hurled their projectiles, but to no avail. Everyone tried to defend himself, Striking down the enemy and piling up the bodies. Roland was not yet aware of the breach, as he was attacking from the other side. 107. When the walls had been pierced, the barons entered, Killing the enemy, slicing heads, arms, and feet. No one has ever seen such a fierce battle As the one you could have seen at Luserne that day. They often cried out, “Monjoie, King Gui!” When the valiant knights at Roland’s side heard the battle-cry, They quickly turned in that direction,

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Entering the city with great force. They found the pagans dead and dismembered. “To be sure,” said Roland, “this king is very bold. The King of Paradise is performing miracles for him.” At this, they all joined battle. The worthy knights entered the fray, And all those they pursued lost their lives. When Aquilant saw this, he was stunned That his army was not worth a penny. He went immediately to his warship, Along with thirty kings from the land of Persia. They set out to sea and began to curse. May they be guided by Pontius Pilate and the Antichrist! 108. When King Aquilant set out to sea, He and all the others thought they would escape. But this was not the wish of glorious God. Instead, He stirred up a great blustery wind. By the will of God and the waves in the sea, The warship crashed into a pier And was smashed right through the middle. Then you would have seen those kings floating in the sea; Whoever could not swim could not escape Unless he agreed to be baptized. When young Gui saw this, he thanked God, While Roland and Olivier set to killing all they encountered. The battle lasted one night and two days, Until all the Saracens and Slavs were dead. Gui went up to the great palace And said that he would present it to proud-faced Charles. When Roland heard this, he thought he would go mad. “Young king,” he said, “do not think That you could rise so high over me. Leave the palace to me and I will protect it. It is I who will present it to Charles, no matter what you think!” – “My lord,” said young Gui, “I assure you, With the help of glorious God who suffered On the Holy Cross to save His people, I will present this great palace to Charles.” When Roland heard this, he was ready for a fight And said that he would knock Gui blind. “By my head,” said Bertrand, “I hear a fool speaking.

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We wasted our time crowning Gui in France If we cannot protect him against you in a fight; We wouldn’t be worth two pennies! I warn you: if you even dare give him a dirty look, You will soon see this sword pierce your body.” When Roland heard this, he thought he would go mad. He would never again love him for the rest of his life. 109. Many were gathered inside Luserne. Roland was truly enraged. He was about to begin a fight with Gui, When the barons of France separated them. Behold the graybeard Charles, Returning from St. James’s shrine with his worthy barons. When he learned about Luserne, he was overjoyed. Spurring their horses hard, they entered the city, Not stopping until they reached the great palace. When his men saw him, they were overcome with joy. When Roland saw Charles, he said: “Fair uncle, I present you with this great sturdy tower.” – “Indeed,” said Gui, “but it is I who captured it.” – “By my head,” said Roland, “that is a lie!” Charles immediately ended the dispute, Then issued an order at the top of his voice That all leave the city at once. Then the king lay down in the grassy meadow And prayed to God, who created the sky and the dew, That this city meet an unhappy fate So that it might no longer be coveted by anyone. Indeed, before anyone could walk a league, The entire city was submerged in water. When the barons saw this, they were greatly pleased And all bowed their heads to pray to heaven. Then the king commanded the army to break camp And go to Roncevaux, where they would meet a dire fate. Truly, those who went there joyfully Would never again return. Go with God, my lords; the song is finished. May you all be commended to Him. Amen.

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ROLAND AT SARAGOSSA

Introduction In 1912, two short epic poems in Old Occitan were discovered in a latefourteenth- or early-fifteenth-century register of deeds in Apt (Vaucluse) in present-day southern France. No titles are given in the manuscript, but the poems have generally been known as Roland à Saragosse and Ronsasvals since their first edition by Mario Roques.1 The latter text will not concern us here, as it is a compact version of the battle of Roncevaux itself. The 1409-line Roland, on the other hand, recounts an episode directly preceding the legendary battle, thus joining the group of prequels gathered in this volume. We acknowledge that the title Roland à Saragosse is not entirely satisfactory: Roland spends very little time in Saragossa, and his companion Olivier is arguably presented in a more favorable light. Hans-Erich Keller even suggested that the poem be named for Olivier.2 Nonetheless, to avoid confusion, we have chosen to retain the conventional title, which we translate as Roland at Saragossa to convey the hero’s position in, around, and in front of “la gran cieutat valhant” (the mighty and worthy city, line 284). The poem’s origins – and indeed the origins of Occitan epic poetry itself – have long been a matter of scholarly debate. Very few Occitan epics have come down to us, and most of the surviving texts are incomplete or fragmentary.3 Based on careful study of proper names and toponyms, some scholars have concluded that the Romance epic genre originated in the Occitan-speaking

1 Mario Roques published an early version of Roland à Saragosse with commentary before his definitive critical edition (Paris, Champion,1956): See “Roland à Saragosse, poème épique provençal (Premier Article),” Romania, vol. 67, no. 267, Jan. 1942, pp. 289– 330; “Roland à Saragosse, poème épique provençal (Deuxième Article),” Romania, vol. 68, no. 269–70, Jan. 1944, pp. 18–42; “Roland à Saragosse (Troisième Article).” Roland à Saragosse et Ronsasvals. Examen Comparatif,” Romania, vol. 69, no. 275, Jan. 1946, pp. 317–61. 2 Hans-Erich Keller also believed that this poem is a vestige of a cycle about Olivier, his sister Aude, and their father Renier. See “Roland à Saragosse ou la vengeance d’Olivier,” Atti Del Secondo Congresso Internazionale Della “Association Internationale d’Etudes Occitane,” edited by Giuliano Gasca Queirazza, Turin, U di Torino, 1993, pp. 221–29, here p. 226. 3 This category includes, in addition to Roland at Saragossa and Ronsasvals, the Canso d’Antioca, Aigar et Maurin, Daurel et Beton, and the Chanson de la croisade albigeoise. The Occitan version of Fierabras is complete. An outlier, Girart de Roussillon, is composed in a hybrid language (a mix of Occitan and French); though complete, it is probably a composite text. See Suard, Guide de la chanson de geste, pp. 45–46.

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south of France.4 Evidence supporting this hypothesis includes an allusion to a Song of Roland in the fragmentary twelfth-century Canso d’Antioca; abundant references to epic heroes in troubadour lyric; and the origin of the Roland–Olivier pairing: the name “Olivier” first appeared in the south during the eleventh century, followed by the names Roland and Olivier given to brothers, again in the south during the late eleventh century. Other scholars, pointing to the absence of any surviving Occitan epic before the Oxford Roland (the earliest version extant), conclude that the Occitan texts imitate or derive from French models.5 While we cannot trace the precise filiation of Roland at Saragossa, we do know that a version of Roland’s pre-Roncevaux exploits was circulating by the late twelfth century. A song composed by the Catalan troubadour Guillem de Berguedan ca. 1180 contains an allusion to this episode in Roland’s legendary career: “Ja del tornei no.us cal gabar ni feigner / c’anc non valc tant Rotlans a Serragosa” (You should not brag about the tournament or pretend that Roland was never so worthy in Saragossa).6 It is reasonable to assume that the twelfth-century troubadour and his audience were familiar with the satellite story of Roland’s adventures at Saragossa, but in the absence of further documentary evidence, we can suppose only that the version found in the Apt manuscript is a late-thirteenth or fourteenth-century copy or reworking of an earlier French, Occitan, or Aragonese source.7 The first 380–400 lines have been lost. Lines 271–72 of the surviving poem seem to suggest that all Spain except the town of Saragossa has been conquered by Charlemagne and his troops, who are now encamped at Roncevaux.8 This 4 See Rita Lejeune, “La naissance du couple littéraire Roland-Olivier,” Mélanges Henri Grégoire, vol. 2, Brussels, Secrétariat des Éditions de l’Institut, pp. 371–401 and “Le problème de l’épopée occitane,” 1972, Rpt. in Littérature et société au moyen âge, Marche Romane, 1979, pp. 67–99. 5 For a summary of this debate, see Suard, Guide de la chanson de geste, pp. 45–47. In his introduction to the two Roland poems, Robert Lafont summarizes his theory that the Roland epic material originated as part of a historical Occitan–Norman dialogue: Le Roland occitan, edited and translated by Gérard Gouiran and Robert Lafont, Paris, Éditions 10/18, 1991, pp. 14–28. 6 Guillem de Berguedà: Edición critica, traducción, notas, y glosario, edited by Martín de Riquer, Abadía de Poblet, 1971, vol. 2, pp. 116–17, our translation. 7 See Hans-Erich Keller, “Roland à Saragosse: sa position dans la production rolandienne,” Studia occitanica in memoriam P. Remy, Ann Arbor, U of Michigan P, vol. 2, 1986, pp. 93–106, here, p. 103; Marjolaine Raguin-Barthelmebs, “Note sur la convergence des traditions du Ronsasvals et de Roland à Saragosse,” Revue des Langues Romanes, vol. 121, no. 1, 2017, pp. 139–58, here pp. 140–45; and Dorothea Kullmann, “Roland à Saragosse parodie-t-il la courtoisie ?” Parodies courtoises, parodies de la courtoisie: Actes du 14e congrès international de la Société internationale de littérature courtoise, edited by Margarida Madureira, Carlos F. Clamote Carrero, and Ana Paiva Morais, Paris, Classiques Garnier, Rencontres, 2016, pp. 293–307, here p. 294. Roques identifies analogous traits in several Italian and Franco–Italian works: see his Introduction, p. xi. 8 See our General Introduction, pp. 3–4.



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places the action immediately before the events narrated in the Song of Roland. The missing lines probably recounted how the Muslim Queen Braslimonda (Bramimonde in the Roland), wife of King Marsile, noticed the handsome and brave Roland and summoned him to her palace. Our text begins in the midst of a quarrel involving Charlemagne, Roland, and his close companion Olivier. Charlemagne recounts a frightening premonitory dream that seems to portend Roland’s death and urges him not to go to Saragossa. Charlemagne offers several inducements, including his entire kingdom, but Roland proudly refuses. He and Olivier arm themselves splendidly and ride toward Saragossa. When they reach the outskirts of the city, however, Roland insists upon entering alone, which causes a bitter quarrel between the two companions. As Roland approaches the city, Queen Braslimonda observes him from the palace. Roland slays King Farnagan, who was guarding the orchards at the entrance to the city, and then faces a hundred armed Muslims. Roland kills all but one; the survivor escapes and warns Marsile of a pending attack. Marsile summons his barons and prepares for battle. Meanwhile, Roland has entered the city and is greeted by the fair Braslimonda, who bestows upon him a precious mantle that he may present to Charlemagne as proof of his exploits in Saragossa. Their flirtation is interrupted by Marsile, who attacks Roland and is swiftly defeated. Roland spares his life in deference to Braslimonda’s wishes and then proceeds to slay twelve hundred more Muslims. The elderly Count of Bavis, who was once gravely wounded by Roland, insists on confronting him anew in battle. Though he is over a hundred years old, the count fights valiantly until he is finally slain by Roland. The Muslims strike back so furiously that Roland, seriously wounded, retreats and fights his way out of the city, slicing through the gate with his beloved sword Durendal. Pursued by a second wave of enemy troops, Roland twice asks Olivier for help, and Olivier twice refuses. However, when King Balant knocks Roland to the ground and takes his horse Malmatin, Olivier intervenes, unhorsing Balant and returning Malmatin to Roland. Soon the two companions engage the Muslims and are joined by troops led by Archbishop Turpin. The Muslims retreat into the citadel, and the Franks return to Roncevaux. Olivier complains to Charlemagne about Roland’s behavior, but when Charlemagne makes light of the matter, Olivier storms off with his men. He encounters a Muslim who informs him that a great treasure is being transported from Mont Negre to Saragossa. Olivier and his men capture the treasure and find lodging in the castle of Gorreya. Meanwhile, Roland has returned to Charlemagne’s camp, where he presents Braslimonda’s mantle to the emperor. Charlemagne, initially grateful, becomes angry when he receives word that Olivier and his army are leaving. Roland goes off in search of Olivier, who pretends to be a Muslim and provokes a battle with Roland. Recognizing Olivier and his men, Roland asks forgiveness, but the quarrel continues until Charlemagne reconciles the two companions.

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Roland at Saragossa is both a preface to the Song of Roland and a synthesis of several medieval literary traditions. The text sheds light on the reception of the Roland by choosing to focus on certain features, particularly the volatile relationship between Roland and Olivier. In the Song of Roland, the two companions famously quarrel over Roland’s decision not to sound the horn when he realizes that the rearguard is vastly outnumbered. A second dispute arises when defeat is certain and Roland insists upon blowing the horn, but all is forgiven in a poignant scene just before the two heroes’ deaths.9 In Roland at Saragossa, exchanges between Roland and Olivier account for many of the poem’s comic effects. Multiple quarrels spring up between the companions, most of which gently mock Roland’s fierce independence and reluctance to ask for help. Reconciliation occurs only through Charlemagne’s intervention in the last two lines of the poem. Other instances of foreshadowing are more ominous. Following his premonitory dream, Charlemagne urges Roland and Olivier to remain at camp, citing the predictions of written and oral sources: The geste they sing and the written texts all state “Olivier and Roland will die there; There will never again be two such fine vassals. Our whole world will be destroyed.” (46–49)

When Roland is subsequently injured in his combat with the count of Bavis, he suffers considerably as blood gushes from his mouth and nose. The scene solemnly prefigures the hero’s violent death at Roncevaux, where, having finally sounded the horn with excessive force, he ruptures his temples and blood flows from his mouth. The Occitan Roland thus alternates comic and tragic allusions to its source material, refashioning Roland as a heroi-comic figure.10 Caroline Jewers aptly describes Roland at Saragossa as “an epic episode [crossed] with the aesthetics of the troubadours [to create] an odd courtly romance.”11 Indeed, the story’s love tokens and descriptions of luxurious armor and fabric are typically associated with romance conventions. Moreover, like other late epics, Roland at Saragossa incorporates a love interest in the form of the Muslim Princess (or Queen) figure. As we have seen, this stock epic character is typically assertive and independent, willing to renounce faith and

9 The quarrel between Roland and Olivier has been a subject of debate for decades. See Catherine M. Jones, “Roland vs. Oliver,” Approaches to Teaching the Song of Roland, edited by William W. Kibler and Leslie Zarker Morgan, New York, Modern Language Association of America, 2006, pp. 201–06. 10 Kullmann, “Roland à Saragosse,” pp. 305–07. 11 Caroline Jewers, “Becoming Saracen: Seduction, Conquest, and Exchange in Rollan a Saragossa,” Romance Studies, vol. 27, no. 2, Apr. 2009, pp. 95–105, here p. 97.



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family for a Christian knight. Often, she stands in for the conquest of a city.12 Building upon Queen Bramimonde of the Song of Roland, the Occitan poet partially transforms Marsile’s mournful queen into the desiring Braslimonda “of the fair body.” Yet Braslimonda’s role is fleeting: It is her summons that launches the narrative, but she encounters Roland only briefly before war takes center stage. Far from abandoning her countrymen, she asks Roland to save her husband. She thus shares traits with the domna, the unattainable married lady celebrated by the troubadours.13 Roland’s courtly love adventure is but a brief and light-hearted interlude that enriches these time-honored characters without disrupting their future roles in the battle of Roncevaux.14 Roland at Saragossa contains an unusual number of references to historical sources (“la geste”) and performers of epic (jongleurs).15 Medieval poets tend to cite vague textual authorities to lend credence to the narrator’s assertions, particularly in the case of hyperbolic statements. References to a jongleur can fulfill the same function, but the Roland at Saragossa poet goes further by playfully inserting these performers into the narrative. Charlemagne gives his own luxurious mantle to a jongleur after receiving Braslimonda’s mantle from Roland, suggesting that these entertainers are worthy of fine gifts. A more elaborate tribute to jongleurs appears as a digression just as Charlemagne’s knights are leaving for Saragossa: There was once a jongleur who sang of Roland; He was said truly to have the bravest heart. Fairies had created him in a deep valley. Others say that he never fled a battlefield; He was no tougher than any other person, But was surely noble, bold, and brave, And God always protected him from harm. (252–58)

The ambiguity of the pronouns “he” and “him” blurs the distinction between performer and hero since jongleurs do occasionally appear on the battlefield. By imagining mythical origins (for the performer? our narrator? Roland?), the poet cleverly elevates his own status. Self-conscious and irreverent, this long-overlooked chanson de geste is a lively addition to the Rolandian corpus. Roland at Saragossa and Ronsasvals are found (without titles) in a single manuscript, now catalogued as Vaucluse 3E4/1132 in the Archives

12 See Jewers, “Becoming Saracen,” pp. 99–102; Ramey, Christian, Saracen and Genre, pp. 5, 41–52; and Kinoshita, Medieval Boundaries, pp. 13–74. 13 Kullmann, “Roland à Saragosse,” p. 298. 14 Roland is betrothed to fair Aude, and Bramimonde converts to Christianity without the mediation of a love interest. 15 “Geste”: Lines 46, 239, 686, 826, 876, 1287; “jongleur”: 252–58, 366, 789, 1286.

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départementales de Vaucluse in Avignon.16 Roland at Saragossa originally occupied folios I–X, but its first two folios (roughly 380–400 lines) are missing; Ronsasvals is also lacunary, with two missing folios approximately one-third of the way into the poem.17 Our translation is based upon the edition by Mario Roques and the edition with Modern French translation by Gérard Gouiran and Robert Lafont.

16 https://archives.vaucluse.fr/documents-a-savourer/tresors-en-ligne/une-chansonde-roland-provencale-1887.html; Roland at Saragossa is available at this site in digital form. 17 Roques, Roland à Saragosse, Introduction, p. 5.

ROLAND AT SARAGOSSA 1. “…And good arms and good fiery steeds. Nephew, for the love of God, why not give it up?18 Take the crown tonight or in the morning And I will be as a servant to you, Serving you your food, your bread, and your wine.” Said Roland, “This will not happen to you, Because as long as you live I do not wish to rule a kingdom.” Said Olivier, “We’ve waited too long, Day is ending and night is upon us.” When the king heard this, he nearly went mad. 2. “Now I know that I have lost Roland; It’s because of the demon, I’m sure of that. Roland has been gone for a good nine days. While I was lying on my bed in this tent, I dreamt an amazing and impressive dream: A swift stag entered my tent. On each of its antlers there were four burning candles; Twenty thousand men followed after it, Carrying between them an enormous body. There were bishops singing many Masses And reciting psalms as they escorted the corpse. With a large golden cross, with silver incense-burners, They were all in procession. After that a falcon came flying in; It landed upon the glove on my hand And began tearing at my beard And pulled out half of it. Down from the heavens came a great flame

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18 Here and at line 36, where Charlemagne uses the same expression (“quar non t’en layssas”), he is asking Roland to give up this plan to attack Saragossa and return directly to France to become king and Charles’s successor. It is to this plan of attack that Olivier refers in lines 8–9, and for which he dons his armor in laisse 3.

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That burned up my tents, both inside and out. Because of this dream I was terrified. I don’t know what to do: I fear for Roland.” Roland said to Charles, “What are these laments I’m hearing? You frighten me because of a dream! Now I know for certain and truly That I must die; I won’t live long.” – “Nephew, why don’t you give it up, since I’m begging you? Take the crown that I am offering you, For this battle will be your downfall. In Saragossa, there is much boundless pride, For there are ten kings in addition to Marsile: They are arrogant, evil, strong, and powerful. You will attack them at the inner gate;19 They will watch without emotion as blood flows From thirty thousand pagan warriors. If you were to die there, it would be a great tragedy. The geste20 they sing and the written texts all state: ‘Olivier and Roland will die there, There will never again be two such fine vassals. Our whole world will be destroyed And paganism will rise triumphant.’” – “Sire,” he said, “why are you begging me? Because by this God that we all adore, And by the apostle the pilgrims seek, No amount of gold or silver Will keep me from launching this attack. With my sword I will strike so hard upon the gate That Marsile will be astonished, As will all the kings therein And fair Braslimonda. If glorious and Almighty God wills That the Saracens pursue me Or approach near to me,

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19 The city has two gates: an outer one that protects the orchards, and an inner one that leads directly into the citadel. Roland will enter the first, which is guarded by King Farnagan, after line 358 and will attack at the inner gate after line 468. 20 Gesta/geste (also at lines 239, 686, 826, 876, 1287 and Otinel, line 3) is from Latin gesta and first referred to exploits or deeds, in particular, memorable or celebrated actions. Later it came to refer to stories and tales about those exploits, notably the chansons de geste, sometimes today called “epics,” or to the sources of those stories. Originally oral, they were soon written down and geste could refer to either. From there, it also came to signify families and groups of written texts around a related personage or theme. Epic poets often invoke such a source to lend authenticity to the narrative.



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I will strike such blows with my sword Durendal That their blood could turn four millstones.” The king replied, “I hear a foolish oath. I know now that you won’t live long.” Olivier said, “You are delaying too long, Night is upon us and evening has passed. You have spent too much time talking to the king.” – “Olivier, my lord, put on your armor. Go to your tent to get your equipment, And I will do the same.” Said Olivier, “Gladly and willingly.” Olivier mounted his palfrey And rode quickly toward his tent. 3. Olivier reached his quarters. In the square he found his troops: Sixty thousand brave knights Who accompanied him and were his own men. When the barons got to their feet, They all greeted him gladly and in a friendly way. “My lords,” he said, “bring me my arms.” They quickly brought a splendid suit of armor And placed it upon a silk carpet with a circular design. Then they asked him, “My lord, where do you wish to go?” – “I want to ride alone with Roland. I do not wish to have any other companion, But to go alone with Roland. You will see me return tomorrow evening, If God in His goodness protects me.” And they responded willingly and as one: “May the King of Glory assure your return And protect you from danger and death.” Olivier, standing upon a white carpet, donned his armor. It was splendid and purchased at a high price: He traded a superb castle for it, Built alongside the sea with mighty walls. Fairies had built it upon the seashore…. [A beautiful horse was brought to him]21 God never created such a beast, palfrey or steed,

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21 Like Gouiran and Lafont, the editors of the French edition and translation, we assume that a few lines of the source were missing or omitted at this point.

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For, when urged on by golden spurs, It could run faster than a falcon flies. He placed his fine gilded hauberk upon his back, With its silver links and pure gold rivets. God had never created weapons that could pierce it, Whether spear, lance, or mace; There was no finer armor in all Christendom, Except they say that Roland had its double. They were both discovered at the Holy Sepulcher; Charlemagne had them brought back And gave them to Roland and Olivier. He could not have given them to finer knights. Upon his head, Olivier laced a green–gold steel helmet,22 Its band was gilded and its nasal pure silver. Before Olivier agreed to pay anything, He had it tested against all sorts of arms: But God had not created any arms that could break it, Neither spear nor lance nor steely sword. Next, he girded on his sword at his left side; He named it Talhaprima,23 and it was most praiseworthy. It was excellent and had been given to him by Charles. No iron, wood, nor steel could hold against it. Then they brought his speedy charger to him, A chestnut Arabian with white stockings; One of its left legs was white And it was named swift Blaviet. Charlemagne had captured it Below Pamplona, where it was wreaking havoc. Its saddle and reins were already on the horse: The saddle was ivory inlaid with silver, Its saddle-blanket was heavy damask silk, And Olivier’s spurs were of purest gold. He leapt upon the horse without touching the stirrups. Then they brought him a quartered shield, Which was not painted, but had gilded lettering. His lance was rigid, and its iron tip was sharp; From it flew a marvelously woven silk pennon

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See the note to Gui of Burgundy at line 3873. It was the custom for a medieval knight, whether Christian or Muslim, to give appropriate names to his sword and his horse. Roland’s sword was called Durendal (line 155), which could be translated “Unbreakable,” and Talhaprima might be translated “FirstRate Cutter.” See also the note at line 86 of Otinel. 22 23



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Which, when extended, covered both horse and rider. He was fully equipped in no more time than it took to tell, And he set off rapidly as everyone watched. 4. In a loud voice he shouted, “Where are you, Sir Roland?” Having stayed to converse with his uncle In Charles’s tent, Roland now came forth. In the square alongside a river Some put on their armor And took up their iron lances and sharp-edged spears. Others aligned the shafts of their lances, While still others played at chess. Before anyone could say a word, Roland appeared, And all who saw him stood up. Not everyone saw him, for the armies were immense. “My lords,” he said, “give me my armor!” They responded, “Gladly and willingly.” Now they brought him his armor, Which he laid out on a white cloth. Next, they gave him sharp-edged Durendal, Which Roland took gladly and willingly. He drew it forth from its scabbard, admired it, And then placed it upon the white cloth. The duke launched into prayer And begged God gladly and willingly: “Help me, Almighty Lord God,24 Who was born of the Virgin, Of the maiden in whom you grew. You were raised for seven years in Nazareth And then fasted truly for forty days; You suffered great pain and torment for us When you were raised and hung upon the Cross; You were also laid in the Sepulcher And rose again on the third day. True and glorious Lord, omnipotent and almighty, I pray to you – because I believe all this – To protect me in this battle And save me from the pagans,

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24 On this traditional style of prayer, called an “epic credo,” see the note to line 2910 of Gui of Burgundy.

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That I not perish or suffer defeat. Protect also my companion Olivier, Whom I love more than all other men.” As soon as the paladin Roland had finished this prayer, He rose to his feet And crossed himself in the name of mighty Jesus. They brought his fine armor to him: They laid out his steel chausses And strapped on his silver spurs; He put on an Algerian hauberk,25 With its bright gold ventail and plates. God has not created weapons that could pierce or damage it, Neither spear nor lance nor sharp-edged sword. He laced a shiny green–gold helmet on his head; It had a thousand crystals all around it That lit the way at midnight for his army. He strapped on his sword, the sharp-edged Durendal, In which the paladin Roland placed his total trust. Then they brought him his fine swift steed, Which was named Malmatin. 5. When the horse saw Roland fully armed, It recognized him as a mother would her son. It began to stamp its four feet, To leap about and snort so loudly That the earth shook all around. 6. Malmatin, when he saw Roland fully armed, Recognized him as a mother would her son And reared up upon its hind legs. Its saddle was of ivory inlaid with silver And its saddle blanket was of African silk. Its stirrups had been dearly paid for in besants.26 And its breast strap was wide and splendid: Its décor was in gold and silver, As bright as a blooming rose.

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25 jaucerant, which we translate here and elsewhere “Algerian hauberk” is, according to Greimas, from the Arabic name for Algiers, al-Djaza’ir. 26 For medieval coinage mentioned in our poems, see the General Introduction.



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The bridle was golden and the reins were silver. Roland leapt onto the horse without using the stirrups. He grabbed a shield and hung it from his neck; It had fourteen bosses of blazing gold. His spear was strong and its point was very sharp; His ventail and hauberk flaps were embroidered in gold. When Roland deployed his pennon, it covered both the horse and himself, And four lance lengths dragged upon the earth. Before anyone could say a word, Roland rode forth, Spurred into the midst of the army, And galloped straight to Charles’s tent. Olivier leapt down from his horse And knelt at Charlemagne’s feet. “My lord emperor, I ask for your leave.” Charles gave it gladly and willingly. Then the good and noble emperor spoke to him: “Olivier, sir, I beg you for Roland, Help him, for he is in great need.” Olivier said, “Why are you begging me? Providing my armor is strong enough, I will not fail him as long as I live.” The king said, “You have spoken well.” Before anyone could say a word, they set off, Left the army behind, and departed the camp. Charlemagne, the good and noble emperor, Prayed for them until they were out of sight: “Lord above, true and omnipotent God, Watch over Olivier and Roland for me!” He and all the others wept for them. The king summoned Archbishop Turpin And Angelier, as well as Estout – The geste says he was Roland’s cousin. “Barons,” the noble emperor said to them, “Go in my name to Roland’s men And urge them all on my behalf To spur rapidly after him. If even a single one remains behind, I will personally take vengeance upon him.” – “Sire,” replied the valiant knights, “We will do so gladly and willingly.” They went at once to Roland’s men And greeted them in the name of Charles.

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Sixty thousand put on their armor And spurred rapidly after them. There was once a jongleur who sang of Roland; He was said truly to have the bravest heart. Fairies had created him in a deep valley. Others say that he never fled a battlefield. He was no tougher than any other person, But was surely noble, bold, and brave, And God always protected him from harm. Olivier and Roland rode onward And the army following them never caught up; Olivier and Roland rode onward. 7. The army following them never caught up Until the next day after nightfall, During the battle when Roland’s bravery became evident. The night was pitch black and they could not go on; There were obstacles as they crossed Mont Negre. When dawn came, they found one another, And the two of them climbed up to a lookout. Roland spoke to Olivier: “Olivier, my lord, all has gone well for us. Spain has been conquered, every bit of it, Except Saragossa, which we have not yet won. We shall conquer it with our sharp weapons. When we went to conquer the city of St. James,27 Marsile won back his city. They killed worthy Sampson’s son Gilles; We won’t be able to return for two months To sweet France to rest our bodies. I have taken your sister as my wife, Beautiful Aude, whom I love so dearly.” Olivier did not yet understand why he told him that, But when he found out, he would be sad and angry. Roland climbed up to the lookout. 8. He saw the mighty and worthy city of Saragossa. He looked down toward the south and saw The high towers and the large palaces. 27

See the note to Gui of Burgundy at line 4435.

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Duke Roland went down from the lookout, Leading swift Malmatin with his right hand. He led it after him by the silver reins And did not stop until they reached the plain. In full armor he remounted his steed, And Olivier did likewise. “Olivier, my lord,” Roland said to him, “Grant me the wish I desire and request, And if you do, sir, your reward will be great.” Said Olivier, “What do you ask of me? If I possess anything you might desire, Be it horse or weapons or armor, I will give it to you gladly and willingly.” – “Thank you, fine sir,” replied Roland. “So kiss me now on the mouth.” – “I will, sir, since you so desire it.” They kissed one another, then Roland added: “You will stay on the plain at the lookout And I alone will attack the city, For I have requested this of brave Charlemagne And he has granted me this noble honor. In truth I wish to make the attack alone.” Said Olivier, “Lord God, you’ve tricked me!28 If I had only known it earlier, I would never have agreed for gold nor silver, Nor for all the wealth of Jerusalem. Ah, Roland, don’t leave me, my dear companion! If you leave me, I’ll be in a bad way.” Said Roland, “You’ll not go forward another step.” When Olivier heard this, he could not have been more upset, And he cursed the day he ever wore armor: “May it please God, the Almighty Father, That King Marsile take you captive Within these towers and mighty palaces; No man born of woman could endure this.” Roland heard this but paid little attention.

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28 The poet here has made use of a motif that is frequent in romance, but rare in epic material: the Rash Boon, whereby a person agrees to grant a request before it has been formulated. The request usually goes against the grantor’s deepest wishes, or even his moral principles, but having given his word, he is honor-bound to do as he has promised. Use of the Rash Boon can be seen as reflecting the hybrid nature of this poem, which even the poet calls a romance at the end.

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He urged on his steed with his sharp spurs And rode down into a deep valley. The duke displayed his pennon, Of which four lance lengths dragged upon the earth, Beautifully spread out along the valley. Meanwhile, Braslimonda longed for Roland And conversed nobly with her ladies-in-waiting: “Ladies,” she said, “I am amazed. I am very amazed by the paladin Roland, For it’s been ten days since I sent him my glove, 29 And I’ve received no messenger from the French.” The lady called to one of her maidens And told her to climb to the top of the palace to see what she could learn of Roland By looking out one of the windows. The maiden immediately did as she was ordered, Going to a window that was decorated with silver And thrusting her head outside. She looked toward Mont Negre and saw Roland Spurring his steed down the slope With his pennon trailing behind him. The maiden returned to her lady and said, blushing: “By my faith, milady, I see a Frenchman approaching On a swift steed and wearing beautiful armor. You can tell by his bearing that he’s a knight.” When Braslimonda heard this, her heart leapt for joy. The lady went herself and thrust her head Out a window inlaid with niello. She looked toward Mont Negre and saw Roland approaching, Descending the slope upon his swift steed, With the pennon trailing behind the duke. She quickly rose to her feet: “By my faith,” said Braslimonda, “that is Duke Roland! He will certainly attack our city, And before he leaves it will be in ruins. Let him come. I commend him to Mohammed!”

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29 The glove is an important feudal symbol. Thrown to the ground, it is a provocation. Offered to an overlord, it is a sign of submission. In lines 971–88, it represents the sovereign’s authority transmitted to the vassal. Here, the glove serves as a love token: courtly love poetry often appropriates the language and symbols of feudalism, with the lady cast as the overlord and the lover as the humble vassal.



ROLAND AT SARAGOSSA

King Farnagan was guarding the orchards; He was doing so to keep the French from entering. He looked up and saw Roland approaching, Spurring his horse down the slope. As he neared, the king said to him: “Tell me, brother, and don’t lie: Are you a spy on a spying mission, Or a messenger bringing news, Or a jongleur looking for a payout?” – “You filthy slob,” said Roland, “I’m not a spy come to spy on you, Nor a messenger bringing news, Nor a jongleur looking for a payout. No, but a real knight riding forth, And if you don’t run, you’ll learn a huge lesson That even your god cannot protect you from!” When he heard this, the king turned to flee. Roland said, “I have no respect for you; If you don’t turn back around, I’ll strike you from behind! I’ve never struck a Saracen in flight, But as God is my witness, you’re about to learn a huge lesson From my sharp spear through your shoulders. Your hauberk is a good one if it keeps it from coming out the front, And even your god cannot protect you!” Hearing that he could not save himself, The king turned his horse and attacked; His lance shattered on Roland’s shield. Roland struck him with his sharp lance, Slaying him upon the field at a lance’s length.30 Said Braslimonda, “I knew it! If Roland met a hundred such kings,

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30 asta/hanste refers to the straight, wooden shaft of a medieval lance or spear, which in this period was generally about twelve feet long and topped with a sharp steel point. The expression can l’asta dura (also at lines 478, 500) has been compared to the curious expression pleine sa hanste found notably in the Song of Roland and Chanson de Guillaume. One of the best discussions of the phrase is that by D. J. A. Ross: “Actually the phrase, far from being a vague, general expression for a heavy blow, or even a blow with outstretched lance, is a very precise and accurate one, describing an unhorsing of a particularly brilliant nature, an instance of the handling of the weapon which was evidently much admired. Hanste is here an exact measure of length, a lance-length, and the nature of the action is this: the victor transfixes his opponent, lifts him bodily from the saddle and deposits him on the ground a full lance length behind his horse.” D. J. A. Ross, “Pleine sa hanste,” Medium Aevum. vol. 20, 1951, pp. 1–10, here p. 6.

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Their god would never be able to save them. Every day the French pray to a good Lord, And King Marsile does the same; Every day he offers Him a besant To protect him against the French.31 Let him come. I commend him to Mohammed!” Seven merchants exited the city, Leading fourteen mules laden with gold and silver. They were Christians, and Roland recognized them well. “Where are you from, my friends?” asked Roland. – “We are all Normans from Normandy, my lord.” – “Do you not have names, my friends?” asked Roland. – “My lord,” said one, “I’m called Guizamant.” – “Brother Guizamant, don’t hide anything from me: Can you give me news of this valiant city? Is Marsile there with all his mighty army?” – “By my faith, sir,” Guizamant replied, “Just today I left him inside the Zuda,32 Along with ten proud and arrogant kings. There are a good hundred thousand militant pagans And fair Braslimonda.” – “Tell me, brother, how they spend their days.” – “By my faith, sir, they arise in the morning, Say their prayers at the appointed hours, And then sit down upon a white carpet Where they are brought games of chess and backgammon At which the Saracens amuse themselves. Fair Braslimonda Defeats them all; no one can beat her. When evening falls, she taunts them: ‘You’ve all been defeated for love of Roland!’” When Roland heard this, nothing could have pleased him more.

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31 The text makes clear that the Christians pray to the Christian God but leaves unclear exactly to whom Marsile prays. It is quite possible, as the French editors suggest, that he, too, like some of the Roman emperors of old, prayed to the Christian God as well as the pagan one, “comme une assurance supplémentaire” (as an extra precaution; note in Gouiran and Lafont ed., p. 125). 32 MS: suza; also at 503, 535, 575, and 783. Parts of this building are still standing in Saragossa. It was built on Roman ruins and served as a fortified residence of the Muslim governors of the independent Taifa of Sarakusta. One of Alfonso I of Aragon’s first actions after capturing the city in 1118 was to take possession of these headquarters, which then became the residence of the Aragonese kings until the thirteenth century. https://www. zaragoza.es/sede/portal/turismo/post/torreon-de-la-zuda?locale=en, accessed 10/24/22.



ROLAND AT SARAGOSSA

“Guizamant, brother, can I get in there?” – “Indeed you can, fair sir, I’m sure, But be very wary at the gate, For you’ll find a hundred militant Saracens Stationed there to keep out any Frenchmen.” – “Guizamant, brother, take this fiery steed. You can sell it for gold and silver in your land, For as you see it’s a splendid, huge Arabian. Lead it by your right hand, but don’t mount it.” – “Thank you, my lord,” said the merchants, “If the Saracens knew this, They would confiscate all we have.” – “Don’t be afraid of anything,” Roland told them. “You can see Olivier there in the field near the lookout, And Charlemagne is in the great pass at Roncevaux. Don’t be afraid to die, but ride on And take this fiery steed with you; You can sell it for gold and silver in your land.” – “Thank you, my lord,” said the merchants As they took hold of the horse by its silver reins. They commended the paladin Roland to God. It was not long before they met Olivier in the field And saluted the duke in the name of the Creator. “May God save you,” said noble Olivier. – “Olivier, sir, take this fiery steed with you. As you can see it’s a splendid, huge Arabian That the paladin Roland has sent to you, Which was ridden by an infidel he killed outside these walls.” – “I won’t take it,” said noble Olivier. “May God never give me a horse or armor That I’ve not won by the blade of my sword! Don’t be afraid. Take the fiery steed with you, For you can sell it in your land for gold and silver.” – “Thank you, my lord,” said the merchants. As they took the horse by its silver reins, They commended valiant Olivier to God, And all set off, leading the fiery steed. Let us speak now of the paladin Roland Who was still outside in the orchards. The duke rode boldly along And crossed a stream of flowing water; He rode softly over the bridge

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So that the Saracens would not hear him. The Saracens clearly heard him, But they thought it was King Farnagan, Who was going out in the early morning To protect the orchards from the French.

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9. Roland entered Saragossa, 468 But he met a great obstacle at the gate: A hundred Saracens with their helmets laced on Were guarding the gate so the French could not enter. When they saw him, they said: 472 “Who are you, you devil, and what do you want? Lay down your arms if you wish to enter.” Roland heard this and was never so angered As when they ordered him to lay down his arms. 476 He lowered his lance and killed a pagan, Toppling him over at a lance’s length. They said among themselves, “We’ve let him go too far!” Thirty struck him upon his quartered shield 480 And thirty more on his incrusted hauberk, But all were slain and cut to pieces by Roland. One of them grabbed ahold of his silver reins; When he saw this, he was seething with anger. 484 He lowered his spear but could not reach him, So he drew Durendal, which was all of solid steel, And struck the wretch who was holding his horse. He gave such a blow to his laced-on helmet 488 That it split him in two halves upon the ground. The pagan released the horse, but no one thanked him for it. Meanwhile, Roland did not stop wielding Durendal Until he had slain and destroyed all the others, 492 Except for a single man who escaped him, Though he had lost his right arm. Before long the danger became so great That he would not have wished to be there for all the gold beyond the sea. 496 10. Roland raced after him on horseback through the streets. In the middle of the road he encountered an infidel And gave him such a blow with his sharp-edged lance That he struck him to the ground at a lance’s length.

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The Saracen – may God make him suffer! – The one who had lost his right arm, Did not stop until he reached the Zuda. He told his story to King Marsile, Who looked and saw that he was covered with blood. “Tell me, brother, and don’t hide anything from me: Have you been fighting the French?” “Oh yes,” he said, “is it not obvious? A knight who was all alone Attacked us before sunrise And killed the mighty King Farnagan And a hundred others at the inner gate.” Marsile said, “I believe he is Roland, The arrogant nephew of Charlemagne.” Before anyone could say a word, The king summoned his barons. First he summoned the strong King Balant And the king of Rebla and the king of Ayrant, The king of Galas and the strong King Amalrant And the king of Castilla and King Tornacant. They all came before King Marsile. “My lords,” he said, “we have a great problem: A knight who was all alone Attacked us before sunrise And killed the mighty King Farnagan And a hundred others at the inner gate. I believe he is the paladin Roland, The nephew of arrogant Charlemagne. If we can defeat or capture him, King Charles who dearly loves him Will die along with all his men. Christianity will decline And paganism will be triumphant.” Before anyone could say a word, Roland appeared In the square before the Zuda. At the gateway he killed an infidel. He gave him such a blow with his sharp-edged spear That he struck him to the ground at a lance’s length And King Marsile fled as quickly as possible before him. The Saracens ran to arm themselves, And sixty thousand put on their armor. And fair Braslimonda

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Heard that the paladin Roland Was striking mighty blows within the city. She donned a tunic of African silk And close-fitting leggings of samite; Over her shoulders she threw an expensive mantle: The wealthiest of merchants Could not have afforded even the clasps. They led her palfrey out to her. It was green and indigo, dappled and iron-gray. Its saddle was ivory inlaid with silver, And the saddle-blanket of African silk. The breast-strap was wide and splendid: There were a thousand little tinkling gold bells, All dangling from two silver threads. When one rose up, the other fell, For they were arranged in pairs. God never created a cleric clever enough To be able to explain how they worked. The bridle was gold and the reins silver. There were carbuncles and large topazes That the emir of Babylon had sent to her; He was her lover and adored her greatly. The lady mounted her palfrey, Stepping into the stirrup without any aid. They brought a sparrowhawk out to her; It had moulted four times; no one had seen a finer bird. She carried it on a glove she wore on her hand, Which was gilded with finely worked gold. She rode forth along the road And found an infidel in the middle of her path. “Tell me, brother, have you seen Roland?” – “Yes, milady, I tell you truthfully: I saw him on the square before the Zuda. He just killed two of my brothers.” Said the lady, “That doesn’t bother me at all.” She did not waste a moment in finding Roland, Whom she greeted in the name of the Creator: “And may God save you, milady,” Roland said to her. When she saw him, she took hold of his reins, “You’ve been captured and will never escape.” Said Roland, “That’s all I could wish for. You can take me more easily than any man alive:

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If there were a thousand pagan warriors They could never pull upon my silver reins.” Fair Braslimonda said: “Turn back, sir, to save yourself. You have launched an unbelievably mighty attack: No oath could have made me believe – Even if it had been sworn this morning on holy relics – That French warriors, even if there’d been a thousand of them, Would have been able to fight their way into here. Turn back, sir, to save yourself, For King Marsile is arming himself within, Along with seven proud and arrogant kings. And there are a hundred thousand armed warriors. They are nearby, and if they find you, they will capture you. If sharp-edged Durendal, which is worth all the riches From Spain to Jerusalem, remains here, Christianity will decline And paganism will be triumphant. As for yourself, sir, it would be a disaster.” Said Roland, “Let us advance. If Durendal doesn’t shatter or break, I will kill so many with my lance and my sword That Marsile will be greatly saddened.” The lady performed an amazing deed: She took off her fine mantle And laid it over his horse’s neck. She then said a word to Roland That pleased him greatly: “For love of me, sir, take this And show it to noble Charlemagne. Otherwise he would never believe you were here.” Said Roland, “That’s all I want. If I left it here, he would call me a coward.” He loosened the cords that held his saddlebow, Which were silk interwoven with silver, And attached the mantle to his saddlebow. Braslimonda was beautiful, with a resplendent visage; The paladin Roland said to her: “May it please God, the Almighty Father, That I could hold you out there in the fields!” – “Oh God! If only you were there with me, Sir Roland! Before nightfall tomorrow

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I would give you the Saracen fields And King Marsile would be heartbroken.” Before anyone could say a word, an army of pagans arrived; In the lead was Marsile. “Noble lady,” Roland said to her, “Who is that person in the lead?” Said the lady, “Ah, fair Sir Roland, It’s my husband, to my great misfortune.” It was Marsile in the lead, And he saw Roland there with his wife. He was so upset that he almost lost his mind. He spurred his horse and went to strike Roland, But his lance shattered against his shield. Roland struck him with his sharp spear. His hauberk was strong and was not damaged, But Roland knocked him to the ground at a lance’s length. Then he drew his sword and leapt toward Marsile To cut off his head without holding back. But Braslimonda shouted loudly to him: “Have mercy, fair sir, and don’t kill him! He’s my husband and I must protect him.” Said Roland, “You are quite right: He should be spared because of your love for him.” Just then you could see the mighty King Balagant. When he saw Malmatin, his heart sank, And the king shouted to his pagan troops: “My lords,” he said, “ride forth! You can see Roland riding Malmatin. My lords,” he continued, “don’t kill the horse, For by my faith I paid dearly for it: I gave the valiant city of Valencia for it. Then I gave it to cruel Ferragut, Who used it to defeat all the enemies he had. If any one of you is so exceedingly bold As to slay it, or wound it in the slightest, I will take revenge upon him, For there is no swifter horse in all of Spain.” When Roland heard this, nothing could have pleased him more Than to know his horse was out of danger. He spurred Malmatin into battle And struck a pagan named Balyrant,

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Splitting his shield and smashing his hauberk And laying him out a lance’s length away. Then he struck a second and a third pagan; All three of them were dead beyond saving. He charged into the midst of the press And, swinging his steed about, drew Durendal And struck a pagan named Alayrant, Splitting his shield and his Algerian hauberk, Cutting him into two pieces upon the field. Seeing this, the pagans were frightened And said to one another, “There is no saving us – This is the devil, not Roland! One would be a fool to wait for him; Neither hauberks nor helmets will save us!” God! What a mighty battle Roland gave them. From early morning at the crack of dawn, It did not end until after the noon hour. By nightfall he had killed a great many – Twelve hundred, if the geste does not lie. King Marsile came galloping toward him, Shouting at the top of his voice, “Is that you, Roland? Charlemagne’s nephew, so overweeningly proud? You have caused great harm to our people! I’ll hang you high upon the gallows. Charles, who loves you so, will never again see you.” Said Roland, “Come forward, evil king! You’re a coward if you don’t come forward. God, who’s ever seen so many worthless men? When I pursue you, you all flee before me!” Said Marsile, “May god destroy you! By Mohammed, I’ll not come forward.” He turned and fled through the press. The king fled up into the palace, Where he found the count of Bravis and pressed him: “Count of Bravis, sir, it is going badly for us Since Roland has entered the gate And slain the mighty King Farnagan, And I cannot tell you how many others.” When the old man heard this, he had never been so pleased. “Tell me, Marsile, and don’t hide anything from me: Is it really true that Roland is within the walls?” – “Yes,” said Marsile, “by the great Mohammed.”

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Said the old man, “I am pleased to hear that. I met him once in a great battle Where he came to fight me in the open field. My hauberk was of no help to me When he sliced off all my left thigh. I lay in bed with this wound for seven years, So now is the time to avenge myself!” Said the old man, “Where’s my armor? Give me my arms and my swift warhorse!” Said Marsile, “You are speaking like a fool: If he finds you, you won’t live long!” Said the Count of Bravis, “You disrespect me! The two of you are lacking in courage. I am already old – well over a hundred; If I die, there’s no harm and it’s not a worry.” 11. “Tell me, Marsile, in all frankness, If it is really true that Roland the warrior Has entered the city gate.” – “Yes,” said Marsile, “by Mohammed, my god.” Said the old man, “You have truly emboldened me, As if we were companions in combat. He fought with me on the battlefield And sliced off my entire left side: I have not been able to get up for more than seven years. Now the time has come for us to do battle.” Said Marsile, “You are talking nonsense: If he finds you, your time is up.” Said the Count of Bravis, “Those are cowardly words. I am already old, over a hundred years of age. If I were to die, it would be no great loss. Sons of whores, bring me my arms! By Mohammed, I am going to do battle with him.” 12. The old man stood up straight, Donned a shirt, white silk breeches, And a fine silk brocade tunic that flowed all the way to the ground. He girded his silver-pommeled sword That was a foot wide, measured at the blade, And as long as a lance: that is the absolute truth.

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13. He donned a hauberk of steel chain mail, That could be pierced by no weapon Except Durendal, which nothing can resist. He then laced a steel green–gold helmet upon his head. When he was fully equipped, they brought his warhorse. The old man mounted without touching the stirrup, And then they brought his strong bossed shield. His lance was rigid, with a steel point, His banner made of rich white silk. Before anyone could say a word, the old man was armed. He said to his men, “All of you, follow me!” 14. “All of you, spur your horses and follow me! To anyone who can capture Roland And deliver him to me, Without killing him or injuring him at all, I will give so much refined gold and silver That his lineage will be forever wealthy.” They replied softly, under their breath: “Lord Mohammed, protect us from Roland!” The old knight rode out ahead And saw the carnage wrought by Roland. He said, “It is the devil we are seeking. Whoever saw so many slain by just one man? By Mohammed, Roland has outdone himself!” He rushed straight for the outer gate And locked it with a marvelous bolt. Next, the old man locked the chain And attached the keys to his saddle-bow. Then he swore and made this solemn oath: “By Mohammed, Roland will not leave Before we have vanquished and defeated him!” The old man turned around at once And spurred his horse up the road. On his way, he encountered a Saracen And asked him, “Have you seen Roland?” – “Yes, I have,” he replied, “over there at the Zuda.” – “Tell me then, how are the kings faring?” – “By my faith, my lord, they are terrified of him: He is grasping Durendal by its silver pommel,

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And anyone he strikes is sure to die. By my faith, my lord, Roland is quite bold: He defends himself exactly like a jongleur When he is being pursued.”33 “It is a great error,” said the old man, “Not to kill or defeat him.” – “By my faith, my lord, Roland is a man like no other. No man born of a woman can capture him.” The old man departed without further delay, Not stopping until he found Roland. As soon as he saw him, without saying a word, He struck him on his silver shield, Charging at him with such might That he knocked his feet from his stirrups. Roland struck back with his sharp spear, And cut the old man’s shield to pieces. The hauberk was solid: Roland could not pierce it, But knocked him to the ground with his sturdy shaft. The old man got up quickly, Drew his sword, and went to strike Roland. He dealt him such a mighty blow on the helmet That he sliced off one side of it. The hauberk was solid; he could not pierce it, And his sword came down upon the saddlebow; It did not break, for it was made of pure silver. Said Roland, “I have let you go too far: If all the others here are like you, I will never leave this place alive.” He drew Durendal and struck the old man furiously With such a mighty blow to his helmet That he slashed right through it and through his Algerian hauberk.

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33 Silvère Menegaldo explains this rather curious comparison in the context of other passages in Roland at Saragossa that mention a jongleur. In lines 253–58, for example, the ambiguous syntax makes it impossible to tell whether it is Roland or the jongleur who is being praised for his bravery; the confusion is not entirely implausible as there are several examples of warrior-jongleurs in the Romance epic. Earlier, Queen Braslimonda had given Roland a mantle, a typical gift for a jongleur, as we discover when Charlemagne bestows his own mantle on a jongleur (lines 609, 1286). In lines 788–90, Roland is again assimilated to a jongleur, leading us to ask whether the poet is glorifying the jongleur by comparing him to a knight or mocking the knight by associating him with a jongleur. Menegaldo concludes that this network of assimilation is a signal of the heroi–comic nature of the work. See Le jongleur dans la littérature narrative des XIIe et XIIIe siècles: Du personnage au masque, Paris, Champion, 2005, pp. 101–16, 193–94, 204–06.



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The sword swept down to the ground, Slicing the old man in half. The pagans’ sorrow was immense: They mourned their brothers, their sons, and their relatives. They shot sharp feathered arrows, Completely shattering Roland’s shield. They dealt such great blows to his Algerian hauberk That blood poured from his mouth and nose: So says the geste: He suffered great pain. “My God,” said Roland, “if only I were outside in the field! There is no way to escape this battle alive.” He pricked Malmatin with the sharp point of his spurs And rode without pause up to the outer gate. Finding it closed, he nearly lost his mind. Then he leaned on his heavy lance And, feeling like a wretch, said: “Woe is me! Now I know for certain that I will die here. Noble Charlemagne spoke truly When he told me about his dream. My lord Olivier, my companion, I should never have left you! I will never see you again in my life. Now I know for certain that I will die here, But before I do, I will avenge my death.” He drew his sword and grasped his shield.34 Spinning around with his sharp sword, He killed fifteen pagans. When he tired of striking blows, He returned to the gate at a gallop. “My God,” he said, “Almighty Father, Roland will soon be dying; Holy Mary, now pray for your child! My Lady, please be my protectress. What will happen now to my French soldiers, Those sixty thousand men who are loyal to me? I have given them nothing for more than seven years, Against what I promised them for the next three years: Gold, silver, deniers and besants. Even the poorest among them will be rich. He drew Durendal and gazed at it, saying: 34

The poet has forgotten that in line 823 Roland’s shield was shattered.

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“Ah, my good sword, you are so fine and sharp! Charles conquered you when he killed Braynant,35 And then girded you on my left side. Now the Saracens will take you: This is a shame, a cause for great anger and sadness. I would rather die while smashing you to pieces Than leave you in the hands of a Saracen.”36 He struck two mighty blows upon the bolt With the pommel containing relics: Fragments of St. Lazarus and St. John, And a piece of Holy Mary’s clothing. Never would it be broken here. With both hands, Roland grasped his sword By the pure silver pommel. He struck such a mighty blow to the gate That he sliced through the bolt and the chain, And the sword crashed down through the doorjamb, Plunging more than a foot into the ground. The geste says that the mark is still there. Roland joyfully sheathed his sword, Grasped his lance and his swift warhorse, And left for the open field. He dismounted at the spring And made the sign of the Cross in the name of Jesus. He drank as much water as he desired. King Marsile shouted from inside the citadel: “My lords, why do you not capture Roland? You can see that he has given up the fight.” The pagans replied, “Your words are in vain. How can we capture him? He is already outside, in the field.” Said Marsile, “How did he get out?” – “By my faith, fair sire, he sliced through The great gates and the bolts with his sharp sword.” When Marsile heard this, he nearly lost his mind. He pulled at his beard and tore out his hair, saying: “Ah! Mohammed, you treacherous god! You have wronged me by taking Roland away.

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Muslim warrior slain by Charlemagne; also mentioned in the epic Mainet. This passage is modeled on a portion of Roland’s death scene in the Song of Roland: fearing that Durendal will fall into the hands of the enemy, Roland strikes his sword against a rock in an attempt to destroy it (lines 2297–354). 35 36



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Truly, you will lose your eyes for this! My lords,” said he, “let us all go after Roland. He is exhausted: I am sure we can capture him.” Once they had armed themselves, Sixty thousand Saracens rode out of the citadel. When they saw the mark left on the gate By Roland’s mighty blow, King Marsile was amazed: “I have never seen any man born of a woman Strike such a mighty blow with his sword. I am not surprised that Roland is so bold. If I had that sword girded on my left side, I wouldn’t have left the field for a thousand Frenchmen.” Duke Roland turned around And saw the Saracens approaching: It was not a sight that pleased him. He cursed them in the name of God, saying: “Sons of whores, may God send you misfortune! As many as I have slain, there is always another.” Just then, Olivier came galloping toward him From the lookout in the field where Roland had left him. As soon as he saw him, Roland called out to him: “Lord Olivier, why aren’t you helping me? I can no longer wear my armor. Today I entered the citadel And fought a great and marvelous battle. I spoke with the queen to my heart’s desire. Here is the mantle I brought back for you. But there was a time slightly after noon When I wouldn’t have wanted to be there for a hundred thousand silver marks. Help me, my lord, for I greatly need it!” Olivier replied, “Now I’m hearing worthless complaints. Today you left me behind as though I were a coward. On top of the lookout you swore an oath That you would not allow me to take one step forward. You swore this before Charlemagne himself, That if all-powerful God wished The Saracens to pursue you, You would strike so hard with your sharp sword That their blood could turn four millstones – And yet, I don’t see anything being milled. I will not take even a half step forward Until your Algerian hauberk is pierced

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And I see blood flowing from all parts of it.” When Roland heard this, he was filled with sorrow. 15. “My lord Olivier, please help me! As God is my witness, I cannot last much longer. My helmet has been split into two pieces, And my spear is shattered and broken.” Said Olivier, “You are speaking like a fool. If you knew you would need me, You shouldn’t have left me on that lookout. I will not step forward one foot or even a half. If you die out there, I won’t care a fig.” When Roland heard this, he was outraged. Said the duke, “How dare you say such a thing? If I die here, do not dare return. If Charlemagne were able to find you, He would have you hanged from the high gallows.” – “No need, my lord, to speak foolishly, For I will know how to make my peace with the king.” 16. There was a Saracen king named Amalrant Who understood French; As soon as he heard Roland say That he was exhausted, he wasted no time And rode to King Marsile at a gallop. “Sire,” he said, “I have served you for a long time, Though you have never given me anything in return. I beseech you to grant me battle against Roland, For I assure you that I will defeat him. I will hold him prisoner in Saragossa And turn him over to you, so you may do with him what you wish.” Marsile replied, “That is quite a boast. There are sixty thousand men out there in the field, And with all of them I have not advanced by half a foot – Yet you think you can defeat him all by yourself!” – “What does it matter to you, sire? Give me your glove.” Said Marsile, “I will not refuse you, But I give it to you knowing full well That you will not live long.” The Saracen wasted no time.

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He quickly donned his armor And galloped out through the gate, Followed closely by King Marsile. As soon as he was with the others in the open field, The Saracen broke ranks And cried out, “Where has Roland gone?” Roland heard him and replied: “Who the devil is asking? If you wish to do battle, why don’t you come forward?” When the pagan heard that Roland wanted a battle, He had no wish to remain, not for gold nor for silver, But he dared not back away now, For he had received the glove from King Marsile. His spear shattered on contact with the duke’s shield. Roland struck him with his sharp lance, Piercing his shield and splitting his hauberk. With the hard shaft he knocked him dead to the ground. “I knew it,” said Marsile, “If another comes up, he will die the same way.” Roland turned around and spurred his horse Toward Olivier, saying: “My lord Olivier, you are acting very badly By not helping me when I so need it! I implore you, by the oath you swore to me When you became my companion: Help me now without delay!” Olivier replied, “Why are you begging me? I will swear neither oaths nor fealty: You left me today as though I were a mere coward. If you die here, I don’t give a damn.” – “Foul wretch!” Roland said to him. “If I die here, you’ll have no one to protect you. If noble Charlemagne can find you, He will have you hanged from the high gallows.” – “There is no point in threatening me, my lord: I am going to make my peace with the king, And I will tell him the truth – That you attacked Saragossa alone, And that you left me on the lookout. I will tell him that you entered Saragossa, Where the Saracens killed you. I saw nothing and knew nothing about it.

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I will absolve myself of any accusations.” When Roland heard this, he was bitterly sad: “May God confound me if I implore you any further; I would rather die than flee the battlefield Like a mere coward.” He dropped his shield to the ground on one side And threw his lance down on the other. He grasped his sharp sword with both hands And entered the fray, But his blows were not worth a glove: He pierced neither hauberk nor Algerian helmet. Marsile said, “Now Roland is defeated!” The king pulled his men to one side And exhorted the pagans: “My lords,” he said, “let us attack Roland! Let us strike his Algerian hauberk with our lances. But take care not to harm his warhorse: Do not kill or injure it in any way. When Roland is on the ground, he must remain strong: We will capture him and his swift warhorse Whose name, I’ve heard, is Malmatin.” The pagans replied, “We are wasting time! If help arrives for Roland, we will be in a bad way.” Then they spurred their horses and rode forward. They struck Roland on his Algerian hauberk, Knocking him and his horse to the ground. Behold the mighty King Balant: He grabbed Malmatin by its silver reins, Mounted, and rode off at a gallop. He led the horse into grass up to its chest, Washed its mane and its mouth, And then made his way back to the battlefield. He spurred the horse into the midst of the fray: “Ah, Bonmatin, how fine and rapid you are! I wouldn’t give you away for gold or silver, Or for Saragossa or anything else.” The Saracens fought with Roland, Who defended himself bravely with his sharp sword . They dealt him many blows with their lances. Said Olivier, “Roland needs help!” He mounted his warhorse with all his equipment.

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17. When Olivier had mounted his horse, He unfurled his silken banner And prodded his horse with pure gold spurs. It carried him faster than the flight of a sparrowhawk. He saw Balant leading the warhorse. He had seized the mantle and was trying to unfasten it. Immediately, Olivier appeared And cried out to him, “Filthy wretch, why are you taking the mantle? As soon as you get it, you’ll have to give it up.” When he heard Olivier, Balant was filled with fear. He would not have wanted to stay there for all the gold beyond the sea. He dropped the reins on the horse’s neck. If he had been thinking clearly, he could have escaped, But Olivier struck him with his lance, Knocking him off the horse. The king set off on foot through the melee, Rejoicing at his narrow escape. Olivier wasted no time: He seized Malmatin and brought him to Roland. “My lord,” he said, “take back your warhorse, Provided that you never thank me for it.” Roland mounted the horse, full of anger and rage, And then went to rest at the spring. Olivier mounted, letting no one approach. “By my faith, my lord, I needed nothing from you. You should never have left me on that lookout.” Having said this, Olivier set off. He struck an emir from across the seas, Piercing his shield and smashing his hauberk, And knocking him to the ground with his sturdy lance. He spurred his horse to the middle of the battlefield: No one he struck remained on his horse. The pagans watched him in amazement, Saying to each other, “What has happened? Where has this devil been for so long?” Marsile replied, “It is Olivier: I recognize him from his fierce blows.” Then they said, “We’ve been outwitted. If all the twelve peers are like him, We have no choice but to flee across the seas.” One of the Saracens left his companions.

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He spotted Roland beside the spring And, as soon as he saw him, Dealt him a mighty blow with his lance; The blade sliced through his double hauberk. Roland stood up and saw him leave. He seized his lance, which had fallen to the ground, And flung it at the Saracen; The blow struck him high between the shoulders and through his chest, Knocking him off his horse. “Foul wretch,” said Roland, “may God confound you!” As he said this, he retrieved his lance. Olivier looked at him, angry as he had ever been. He no longer wished to be far from Roland. Great was the battle that Olivier waged against them. 18. From midday until past vespers, He killed so many men with his steel sword That their blood could turn four millstones. Roland stood up and looked at the sun. Seeing that nightfall was approaching, He laced a burnished helmet on his head, Took up his shield, and prepared to leave the field. He mounted his horse with the stirrup And then said, “True Almighty Father, Let my French soldiers come.” Hearing this, they wasted no time. Archbishop Turpin rode to the top of the lookout And looked down at the valley below. When he saw Roland and Olivier in battle, He spurred his horse down the hill. As soon as he saw them, he began to beseech the others: “My lords,” he said, “let us don our armor, For I see Roland and Olivier in battle: They are up against more than twenty thousand men!” Now the French began to ride swiftly, Saying, “Anyone ready to strike, come forward!” The archbishop replied, “You will not! We will strike together as one. We will pass through the middle of the orchards: Hide your horses carefully And make no noise with your lances,

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ROLAND AT SARAGOSSA 177

So that the Saracens will be unaware of our presence Until the moment we strike their shields. Let us spur our horses straight toward the gate, To keep the pagans from entering: Then our souls will truly go before God.” And the French were all in agreement. The Saracens, except for one who shot a bolt from his crossbow, Were unaware of their presence Until the French sprang up before them. Marsile fled, following King Balant. They locked the gate so that no one could enter, And the others remained in great distress. Now the French were all together, And they rode back after dark. Olivier parted from them And rode ahead by two good leagues. He arrived in Roncevaux at daybreak And went straight to Charles’s tent. King Charles marveled at the sight of him. Olivier dismounted in front of the tent; When he saw Charles, he fell at his feet. The emperor lifted him by the hand. “Sire,” said Olivier, “I have come to make a complaint against Roland: He has caused me the greatest shame man has ever seen. He led the attack on Saragossa alone: He had lost swift Malmatin, But I returned the horse to him by its silver reins.” – “My lord Olivier, who unhorsed Roland?” – “By my faith, sire, I cannot tell you who it was: There were sixty thousand pagans.” Charles replied, “It doesn’t matter, Since he wasn’t unhorsed by one man alone. And the reinforcements I sent you? Did they not help you when you needed it?” – “By my faith, sire, we did not see them During battle when we really needed help, Until evening, when the sun was setting. Now Roland arrives with his large army; His men are all wealthy From plundering the pagans: Hauberks, helmets, fine armor, And rapid, valiant warhorses.”

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– “By my faith,” said Charles, “this is welcome news. My lord Olivier, Roland is coming, And we will make peace as you wish.” Olivier replied, “That is not what I am asking.” He mounted his horse and set off, Galloping toward his lodgings. When they saw him, his men stood up And removed his arms and armor. “My lords,” he said, “prepare to depart. Dismantle your tents and fold them up.” They replied, “Just as you wish.” All his men immediately put on their armor, While Olivier asked for something to eat. They brought him a large swan, Some white flatbread,37 clear wine, and white spiced wine; There dined anyone who wished. When Olivier had eaten, he rose from the table. His horse was brought to him and bandaged. They brought seven measures38 of oats, And gave the horse as much as it wanted. While Olivier was speaking with his men, A Saracen came before them. He well knew how to speak Latin and French. He seized Olivier by his white ermine fur And took him to one side of the camp. “My lord Olivier, you are most valiant and brave. What would you give if I arranged For all of your troops to become quite wealthy?” Olivier replied, “I would give you so much That you would be forever rich and powerful.” – “Listen, my lord, and listen well: The king of Mont Negre is moving his treasure: He is having it transported to Saragossa. There are thirty mules bearing gold and silver; They also bear fine silks and beautiful jewelry, Silk taffetas, polpras,39 and fine white ermines.”

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37 fogassetz. A small flatbread baked in the ashes of a campfire, and thus suited to troops in the field. See Gouiran and Lafont, p. 126, note 1196. 38 The ponhadiera was a measure of grain less than one liter. See Gouiran and Lafont, Roland, p. 123, note 1200. 39 Fine silk imported from the East. See Wright, Weaving Narrative, p. 46. For additional information, see the note to Gui of Burgundy, line 836.



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– “My brother,” said Olivier, “what is your name?” – “By my faith, my lord, my name is Golian.” – “My brother Golian, I think this is a trap.” The pagan replied, “Have no fear: I will always walk in front of you, And if you see that I am lying, Cut off my head with your sharp sword.” Said Olivier, “I ask for nothing more.” At this, he donned a white hauberk, Girded his sword on his left side, Laced his helmet, mounted his horse, And rode down Mont Negre at full speed. The pagan climbed up to an overlook, And Olivier did the same. They looked below upon a large valley And saw the Saracens approaching. Olivier said, “Golian has served me well.” The Saracen showed him the wagons, Thirty packhorses loaded with gold and silver. When they had seen them, they climbed back down. Olivier said to his men: “My lords, arm yourselves: A great and marvelous battle awaits us. Truly, we will prevail, if God wills it. We will capture the treasure and we will all be rich.” When they heard this, they had nothing but contempt for the enemy. Olivier lined up his troops: He placed fifteen thousand on one side And fifteen thousand on the other. They all rode forth to strike the enemy; Nor did the enemy hesitate. Olivier sallied forth ahead of the others And went to strike the front line. He spoke words that were pleasing to him: “God forbid that Roland were here!” The king of Mont Negre fled, And they wasted no time pursuing him. The Frenchmen struck mighty blows together Until all the Saracens were dead. Then they gathered the refined gold and the silver, The silks, polpras, and African cloth. The knights quickly removed their armor,

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And all the others sat down in a row. Next they divided the refined gold and the silver. They gave the Saracen a hundred silken cloths and a thousand sous in besants, As well as horses and as many weapons as he desired. Never had they been so enriched by anyone. The French barons gained a fine fortune: They carried so much away that all were wealthy. Olivier reserved nothing for himself, Except one piece of silk and one swift warhorse. As soon as he commanded it, they set off And rode toward a castle Surrounded by walls, with four stout towers. It was the castle of Gorreya,40 quite beautiful and large. As the Saracens were fleeing, Olivier entered the castle to find lodging With the treasure he had conquered. They also buried their dead in a great valley. Let us now speak of the paladin Roland: He returned from Saragossa with his men And went directly to Charles, who asked: “Nephew, what have you done? Don’t hide anything.” “Uncle,” he replied, “I will tell you How I spoke with the queen of my heart’s desire – With fair Braslimonda. Here is the mantle that I brought back for you.” The king put it on; it suited him perfectly. He gave his own to a jongleur: According to the geste, it was worth a thousand besants. He then asked Roland for news. “Sire,” he said, “please wait for a while, For I am completely exhausted: Tomorrow I will tell you the whole story.” – “Nephew,” said Charles, “that is agreeable to me.” They delayed no longer: Roland went to his lodgings And removed his arms and armor. He then lay down on a magnificent bed. He asked for a meal, and it was brought to him:

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40 According to Martín de Riquer, this could be Guerrea del Gallego, located about 35 kilometers to the north of Saragossa. See Gouiran and Lafont, pp. 126–27, note 1272.



ROLAND AT SARAGOSSA

They brought him a large peacock, Salted meat, bread, and spiced wine. The duke ate to his heart’s content. Thereupon arrived a swift messenger: He presented himself before Charles, saying: “Lord Emperor, things are going badly for you. Your court is leaving you, And you can no longer count on Olivier, Who left today with his numerous troops.” When Charles heard this, he was angry and sorrowful. The king mounted a mule And went directly to Roland’s tent. When he found the duke, he said to him angrily: “Sons of whores, how badly you’ve deceived me! You have all caused me great shame By sending away my best vassals. We can no longer count on Olivier: He left this morning with his men, After complaining to me in all truth That you abandoned him on the lookout, all alone, As though he were a coward, Because of your excessive pride. Now I am telling you, and know this for certain, If you do not return him to me, I will have you hanged from the high gallows, For without him, we are not worth a glove.” When Roland heard this, he was sadder than he had ever been. He arose, took up his armor, Mounted his horse, and left the camp, Following in the tracks left by the French. He searched for them throughout Mont Negre, Until he reached a lookout, which he climbed. Looking down below into a valley, He saw massive carnage. “My God,” he said, “true and Almighty Father! Olivier was surely there with the pagans; He and his men have taken refined gold and silver And anything else they desired.” Spurring his horse, he went down from the lookout And crossed the valley toward the castle. A Frenchman came down from the ramparts

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And went inside to speak to Olivier: “Olivier, my lord, I see Roland approaching.” Olivier summoned Golian: “My friend,” he said, “climb up to the tower; If Roland asks you Whether you saw a large army pass through today, Tell him this, without lying: This morning the troops came through together, And the French are lodged at Port-Grasset.” The Saracen climbed the tower And told Roland what he had been ordered to say. When Roland heard this, he was angry and sorrowful. He hurried to the castle And rapped on the gate with his sharp lance. Inside, they told Olivier: “Olivier, my lord, Roland is attacking you!” Olivier asked, “Where is my armor?” It was brought to him immediately, And Olivier set off in haste. He mounted an ambling mule41 And had a round shield hanging at his neck. His lance was sturdy and its blade sharp; His banner was made of rich white silk. He passed through the gate and went outside. Roland saw him and asked: “Where are you from, brother? Hide nothing from me.” – “I am a Saracen from across the sea.” – “Saracen, brother, I challenge you to a battle.” And Olivier said, “It will not be denied you.” He urged his horse with sharp spurs. The noble warriors struck each other, And their shields shattered to pieces. Their lances and Algerian hauberks were destroyed. Roland drew Durendal, his sharp sword, And went to strike Olivier on his gleaming helmet. Olivier feared him greatly: He sprang back, leaning on his spurs. First, Roland broke his saddlebow; Then nothing could save the horse:

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41 A mule that has been trained to move by raising two legs on one side at the same time. See Gouiran and Lafont, p. 127, note 1358.



ROLAND AT SARAGOSSA

He split it in two halves on the field. The French cried out, “We have waited too long! He will kill him with mighty Durendal. Barons, why don’t we come to his aid?” They rushed out of the castle, one faster than the other. Roland saw them and was greatly pleased, Though he knew well that he had been deceived. “My lord Olivier, you have behaved badly. You had us fight so that I would harm you. If I had slain you, I would have died of grief!” Said Olivier, “I have no affection for you.” – “Olivier, my lord, let us return. Charles is so distressed that he has nearly lost his mind.” Said Olivier, “You are wasting your breath.” He said to his men, “Go and prepare yourselves: We are going to return to our land.” When Roland heard this, he knew what Olivier intended. He spurred his horse and turned around, Not stopping until he reached Charles. “Lord Emperor, why have you not mounted your horse? Olivier is in the castle at Gorreya; He has taken as much booty as he wished, And his men have all been showered with wealth.” The king mounted his horse, accompanied by I know not how many men. Roland was in the lead, And they did not slow down until they reached Gorreya, Just as Olivier was leaving. The emperor took him by the wrist, And kissed him three times on his face. Charles, the good and noble emperor, was weary. When he had reconciled Olivier and Roland, They turned back and greatly rejoiced.

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My lords, thus ends this romance.42

42 Medieval poets and scribes did not use generic labels consistently. Although the chansons de geste were most often called “chansons,” they are occasionally labeled as “romans.” The latter term originally designated a text in a Romance language, as opposed to Latin. And see also, above, note to line 309.

OTINEL

Introduction Otinel, composed in the late twelfth or early thirteenth century, is the earliest of the three poems included in this volume. It takes place in a sort of interval during Charles’s expeditions into Spain, between the conquest of Pamplona1 and the disaster at Roncevaux, during which he has returned temporarily to Paris. The poem opens with the arrival of a messenger at Charlemagne’s court,2 bearing a challenge from the Emir Garsile who, during this same interval, had ventured into Lombardy, capturing several cities and setting up headquarters in Atilie. We soon learn that the messenger, Otinel, is a nephew of the giant Fernagu, who was slain by Roland during one of Charlemagne’s earlier expeditions. This episode is recounted in the Pseudo-Turpin Chronicle, so-called because the author claimed to be the Archbishop Turpin who fought alongside Charlemagne and the twelve peers in the Song of Roland.3 The Chronicle tells of four fictitious campaigns by the emperor into Spain against the Muslims in the years preceding Roncevaux. In the fourth and final of these campaigns, Roland succeeds in killing the giant Fernagu after a threeday battle. When Otinel arrives in Paris, he insolently challenges Charlemagne on behalf of Garsile to convert to Islam or lose his lands. An impetuous French knight attacks him and is quickly beheaded by Otinel. He next challenges Roland to single combat to avenge the death of Fernagu, his uncle. In preparing for combat, Otinel is presented his arms and armor by Charlemagne’s beautiful daughter, Belissent. The fight between the two Alluded to by Clarel as having already been captured by Charlemagne (lines 808–09). This scene is discussed extensively in Jean-Claude Vallecalle, Messages et ambassades dans l’épopée française médiévale: l’illusion du dialogue, Paris, Champion, 2006. 3 The Pseudo-Turpin was immensely popular in the Middle Ages. Falsely attributed to the Archbishop Turpin of the Song of Roland, the chronicle was actually composed in the mid-twelfth century to glorify Charlemagne, the great medieval pilgrimage center of Santiago de Compostella in northwestern Spain, and the pilgrimage routes leading there. The text exists in its Latin version in more than 130 manuscripts, plus six different French translations in numerous manuscripts (32 for the Johannes version alone). There are also translations into nearly all medieval European languages. For additional details and bibliographical information, consult the excellent article by Gillette Tyl-Labory, “Chronique du Pseudo-Turpin,” Dictionnaire des Lettres Françaises, Moyen Age, edited by Robert Bossuat, Louis Pichard, and Guy Raynaud de Lage, updated by Geneviève Hasenohr and Michel Zink, Paris, Fayard, 1992, pp. 292–95. 1 2

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champions of their respective religions is going badly for Roland until the Christian God intervenes and sends the Holy Spirit in the form of a dove to Otinel, who has a miraculous change of heart and converts to Christianity. He is baptized in the cathedral of Notre-Dame in Paris, made a peer, offered Charlemagne’s daughter Belissent to be his wife, and promised Lombardy as dowry. Our poem then presents a new foreign excursion by the French troops, this time into Lombardy, where the Emir Garsile, having sacked Rome, is ensconced in his fortified city of Atilie. Otinel vows not to wed Belissent until he has slain the Emir Garsile at Atilie, but he takes her with him when he joins the French army as it heads off for Lombardy in the spring to make war on his former overlord. The army sets up camp in a meadow near Atilie. Roland, Olivier, and Ogier the Dane defeat four enemy kings in quick succession and capture the noble Muslim Clarel, a cousin of Otinel. But on their way back to camp, they are themselves attacked by fifteen hundred enemy warriors, who free Clarel and grievously wound Ogier. His life is spared when Clarel intervenes and sends him back to Atilie to be put in the care of Alfamie, Garsile’s daughter and Clarel’s beloved. After a series of individual combats, in which Otinel figures prominently by slaying Clarel, a great battle breaks out between the French and the enemy forces. Garsile is defeated by Otinel and finally captured by Roland. He is imprisoned by Charlemagne and dies unrepentant. Atilie is captured and Otinel weds Belissent. He is awarded Lombardy for his services. Otinel was unfairly savaged by earlier critics. Its editors claimed that the greatest merit of the poem was to be very short!4 And its close links to the Fierabras, a contemporary chanson de geste, were “a major factor in the dismissal of [Otinel] as a relatively unimportant work, a paler version of the original.”5 The poem has recently been extensively rehabilitated in particular by the work of Marianne Ailes, who sees it much more positively as a direct response to Fierabras.6 We, too, believe that a more thoughtful and modern approach reveals Otinel to be a composite of some of the best epic action in Old French. The several pitched battles in the poem are broken down into numerous one-on-one combats, with colorful scenes of arming and other preparations before many of them. The action is fast paced, varied, and suspenseful. Common epic motifs are exploited with unusual originality in the poem – the Muslim ambassador who denigrates the Christians, the exchange of religious 4 Otinel, chanson de geste publiée pour la première fois d’après les manuscrits de Rome et de Middlehill, edited by François Guessard and Henri Michelant, Les Anciens Poëtes de la France, Paris, Jannet, 1858, Préface, p. viii. 5 Ailes, “Otinel: an Epic in Dialogue with the Tradition,” p. 11. 6 Hardman and Ailes, The Legend of Charlemagne, p. 111, and especially pp. 353–66.



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and other insults between combatants, the love between Christian and Muslim, the conversion of the Muslim, arming for combat, the mustering of troops, and others. The Muslim Clarel is memorable as an amusing bundle of contrasts. Fifteen feet tall, surnamed “the Cheerful” and deemed the fairest man from here to the East (lines 1383–84), Clarel is a particularly savage combatant. His skill in warfare is matched only by his vicious mockery, including insults aimed at Charlemagne himself: “Your head is white and your skin sagging; You’ll never kill another knight, Fight another battle, nor shatter another shield. You are so old you’re addlebrained. You should have been killed long ago.” (1464–68)

Otinel is a triumph of the imagination, and there is nothing traditional or historical to be found in it. Paris, for example, only became the royal capital in the late twelfth century and no such stronghold as Atilie can be identified in Italy. Other than Charlemagne, Roland, Olivier, and the Muslim Marsile/ Garsile, all the characters sprang from the fertile imagination of some unknown late twelfth-century or early thirteenth-century mind. The original poem was most likely composed in Anglo-Norman French (that is, the French spoken in England after the Conquest of 1066), and the work had much more success in England and Scandinavia than on the continent. In addition to the Cologny version of Otinel (see below), there exists a mini-cycle of five related poems in Middle English: The Siege of Milan, Roland and Vernagu, Otuel A Knight, Otuel and Roland, Duke Roland and Sir Otuel of Spain, and two versions in early Welsh.7 There are also versions in Old Norse and Danish, a mention in an Icelandic compilation known as Saga Karla Magnusar og Kappa Hans, as well as references in several Latin and medieval compilations.8 The French Otinel is extant in two quite different versions, one in the Vatican Library9 and the other now at the Fondation Bodmer in Cologny,

7 The last four and the Cologny Otinel can be found together in The Roland and Otuel Romances and the Anglo-Norman Otinel, edited by E. Melick, S. Fein, and D. Raybin. For the Welsh versions, see La Chanson d’Otinel, édition complète du corpus manuscrit et prolégomènes à l’édition critique, edited by Jean-Baptiste Camps, Littératures, Université Paris-Sorbonne – Paris IV, 2016, https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-01664932 here, p. xxi. 8 Camps, La Chanson d’Otinel, pp. xxi–xxii. 9 Vatican City, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana Reg. Lat. 1616. Digital facsimile at https://digi.vatlib.it/view/MSS_Reg.lat.1616. It was copied along with the epic Fierabras at Saint-Brieuc (Côtes-du-Nord) in 1317 (see Camps, p. clxxiv). A full description is in Camps, pp. clx ff.

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Switzerland.10 There are also two fragments (one of only four lines).11 An edition based on the Vatican City manuscript was published in 1858,12 and that of the Cologny text only in 2019. Neither edition is particularly trustworthy, and a modern edition of the poem is promised by Jean-Baptiste Camps, based on his Paris thesis of 2016. Dr. Camps has generously allowed us to consult his careful editions of all the texts to facilitate our translation. Both of the principal manuscripts have serious faults and we cannot agree with the editors of Cologny that it “supplies the best and most complete extant version of Otinel” while conversely the Vatican copy is “a less authoritative manuscript.” 13 The Cologny manuscript is massively abbreviated at the end. Although no laisses are missing entirely, what is narrated in 217 lines in Vatican is reduced to 73 in Cologny. Additionally, two important passages in Vatican are skipped entirely in Cologny (our lines 1630–55 and 2053–2104), and many sections in addition to the ending are radically abbreviated. On the other hand, in their edition of the Vatican manuscript, Guessard and Michelant were obliged to borrow three extensive passages as well as ten other lines14 to provide a continuous narrative. Two of these passages (lines 63–140 and 824–1112 in our translation) are mentioned in their Preface to the poem (p. xii), the third (lines 688–756) only in their notes (p. 85, note to page 24, line 11). However, in our comparison of the Vatican and Cologny manuscripts preparatory to beginning our translation, we became aware of three additional lengthy developments that Guessard and Michelant should have incorporated into their edition, if only to follow their own methodology. These are lines

10 Cologny, Switzerland, Fondation Martin Bodmer, Cod. Bodmer 168, fols. 211ra–222rb. Digital facsimile at https://www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/fmb/cb-0168/. Full description in Camps, pp. cxxix ff; dated to the last third of the thirteenth century, Camps, pp. cxxxiv ff. 11 The longer, from Mende [M], is a bi-folio of 293 lines, corresponding to lines 573– 865 of the American edition of Cologny and now bound into a volume of fragments, Paris, BnF, nouv. acq. fr. 5094 – II. See Camps, pp. xcv–xcvi for a description. The second, in Paris, BnF, fr. 25408, contains only four lines. See Camps, p. cxv for the description and p. cxxi for the text, which corresponds to Cologny lines 375–77 and 379. 12 Otinel, edited by François Guessard and Henri Michelant. 13 Melick et al., pp. 261–62. To the contrary and more correctly, Guessard and Michelant note that Cologny is “parfois si incorrect que nous avons dû renoncer à le publier en entier” (pp. xii–xiii) [sometimes so incorrect that we have had to abandon the idea of publishing the entire manuscript]. 14 Lines 206, 259, 306–08, 585, 655–56, 776, 1282. These additions are indicated by square brackets in their edition and are included in their line count.



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1158–92,15 1385–1428,16 and 1820–190617 of our translation. Adding in these and 23 other lines not found in their edition,18 our translation now has 2322 lines rather than the 2133 of their edition. As Hardman and Ailes point out, it is impossible to determine whether the Anglo-Norman scribe of Cologny was deliberately abbreviating the material or the continental scribe expanding it.19 The Otinel material, along with Fierabras and the Song of Roland, are the only French materials to be translated into Middle English. They are all concerned with the major religious conflict between Christian and Muslim, and they all reflect “the threat to European nations and to Christian society posed by hostile Saracen powers.”20

15 Camps notes, p. 235, n. 705: “ici débute le quatrième manque de texte majeur de A, mais, cette fois, il ne s’agit pas d’une lacune matérielle, mais d’une omission en plein texte, et la réalité du manque paraît notamment assurée par la brutalité du changement de laisse dans A.” [Here begins the fourth major textual gap in A. This time it is not a material lacuna, but rather a textual omission; the existence of the gap is particularly evident in the abrupt change of laisse in A.] 16 Camps notes, p. 255, n. 897: “nous avons à nouveau dans A une apparente omission en plein texte (pas une lacune) d’une quarantaine de vers, qui peut renvoyer soit à nouveau à un saut de colonne, soit à une volonté d’abrègement. La description de l’adoubement de Clarel paraît néanmoins nécessaire à la symétrie du duel Clarel / Otinel avec le duel Otinel / Rolland. On retrouve d’ailleurs, laisse XLV, cette description pour Otinel.” [Again, we have in A an apparent textual omission (not a lacuna) of some forty lines, which could indicate either another skipped column or a desire to abbreviate. The description of Clarel’s dubbing seems nonetheless necessary for the symmetry between the Clarel/Otinel duel and the Otinel/Roland duel. Moreover, laisse 45 contains this description of Otinel.] 17 Just before the beginning of this passage, Camps notes, p. 292, n. 1629: “à partir de ce point, les divergences entre les deux versions s’accroissent encore, au point qu’il devient par endroit presque impossible de les aligner sur la majeure partie des laisses LVIII-LX.” [From this point on, the divergences between the two versions become even more marked, to the point where it becomes in some places nearly impossible to bring them into alignment for the greater part of laisses 58–60.] 18 Additional lines from Cologny, added for the translation, are 221, 255, 301–02, 312–15, 318–20, 337, 355, 476–77, 550–54, 1597, and 1909–10. 19 Hardman and Ailes, The Legend of Charlemagne, pp. 353–66. 20 Hardman and Ailes, The Legend of Charlemagne, pp. 69, 73.

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Line number correspondences Guessard 1–220 221–253 254–298 299–307 308–309 310–325 326–463 464–535 536–778 779–1137 1138–1329 1330–1497 1498–1719 1720–1721 1722–2133

Kibler/Jones 1-220 221 222–254 255 256–300 301–302 303–311 312–315 316–317 318–320 321–336 337 338–475 476–477 478–549 550–554 555–797 798 799–1157 1158–1192 1193–1384 1385–1428 1429–1596 1597 1598–1819 1820–1906 1907–08 1909–1910 1911–2322

Difference

+1 +2 +4 +8 +11 +12 +14 +19 +20 +55 +99 +100 +187 +189

OTINEL 1. Anyone who would like to hear a beautiful song, Please be quiet and come forward. You will hear the best of the valiant geste21 About Pepin’s son, the powerful and mighty king, And about the twelve peers who so loved one another. We read that they loved each other so dearly That they were never separated From this day until the day they died At Roncevaux, where they fought Against Garsile,22 the powerful and mighty king, To whom the foul coward Ganelon Betrayed them, as most of us know. That day in battle Thirty thousand seven hundred Of our barons died, which distressed Charlemagne. Other jongleurs do not say anything about this, Because they do not know of the great tragedy That befell Charles, whom God so loved That He performed miracles for him in his lifetime. 2. It was at Easter time, so we have heard, That Charles held court at his home in Paris. The twelve companions were there; It was a great gathering with many people. There were many counts, many princes, and many barons, Many knights of great renown; No one remained behind. Everyone who held A castle or fortress in fief to Charles attended.

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On geste, see the note to line 46 of Roland at Saragossa. Garsile, here and in line 29, refers to Marsile of the Song of Roland, as the corresponding line in Cologny makes clear: “Sur le rei Marsilie le serement i funt” (line 22). Otinel has a major character named Garsile, a powerful emir like Marsile, but he is captured by Otinel at the end of our poem and thrown into Charlemagne’s prison, where he dies, before the decisive battle at Roncevaux (see lines 2054–76). 21 22

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They all agreed to a plan To make war upon Garsile, The exceedingly evil king of Spain. But before the light of day faded They would hear news that would frighten them. If God through His Holy Name did not protect them, They would lose sweet France. There was a messenger from King Garsile Who was named Otinel; He spurred his horse across Paris, Reached the palace, dismounted upon the block, Climbed the stairs, and asked to see Charlemagne. He was met by Ogier and the baron Gautier, Who inquired politely and without threat: “My friend, where are you from? What is your name?” – “My lords,” he said, “I am called Otinel, And I am from the noble land of Spain. King Garsile, a very powerful ruler, Sends me to Charles, the evil, cowardly man, The old dotard – may evil befall him!” Ogier replied at once: “There he is, with his white mustache, His long beard, and his ermine wrap. There also is Roland, in the crimson silk robe, And beside him is his dear companion, Who is named Count Olivier.” Then Otinel, the wicked Saracen, said: “May it please my lord Mohammed That I hang him from a noose And club the twelve peers to death.” And Ogier said, “You are most wicked! You could well start a quarrel Which will end with your being hanged by the neck.” Said Otinel, “I don’t respect you at all! You and your men are not worth a spur.” 3. The Saracen came before the king. “Charles,” he said, “now listen to me: I am a messenger from the best king Who ever ruled in heathendom, I believe. I give you no greeting, for I must not,

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Because you have done wrong to Mohammed and me. May he whose religion I follow destroy you And all those around you, As well as your nephew Roland, whom I see here. If I encounter him some day in battle And can direct my horse against him, I will give him such a blow with my sword To his body that he’d have to be strong not to fall.” Roland chuckled and looked at the king. 4. “Brother Saracen,” said praiseworthy Roland, “You can say whatever you want, And you’ll not be touched by any Frenchman.” – “No,” said Charles, “since you wish it. I swear that you’ll not be harmed For a whole week beginning today.” Said Otinel, “Nonsense! I don’t fear any man born of woman As long as I have this sword by my side: It’s called Corrouçouse,23 and I received it at my knighting. Barely nine months have passed since then, And I have used it to behead a thousand Frenchmen!” – “Where was that, brother?” asked the renowned Charles. Said Otinel, “I’ll tell you everything: It was eight months ago; I came during the ninth To Rome, your valiant city, which was destroyed; You were called emperor there, But King Garsile has captured it with his barons, Who were twenty thousand strong. We slaughtered a great number of people, Men and women alike – not a one escaped! I struck so many with this sword at my side That my fists were swollen for a whole week.” The French said, “Cursed be the hour you were born!” Estout of Langres stood up,24 Seized his squared-off cudgel,

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23 It was customary in French epics for the knights to give names to their swords. Otinel’s is Corrouçouse (with a variety of spellings), which can be related to Old French coroços “angry, indignant, wrathful.” See the note at line 119 in Roland at Saragossa. Clarel’s sword, Mellee, means “quarrel” or “combat.” 24 See the note to line 311 in Gui of Burgundy concerning this character’s name.

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And would have struck him, to be sure, If Charles’s nephew had not leapt forward And said to him, “Sir Estout, stop! For love of me, if you love me at all, Because I have given the pagan my word That he could say anything he pleased.” There was an ill-mannered knight sitting there, A Provençal born in Saint-Gilles. He went behind the messenger And punched his head with both fists; It was so unexpected that he was knocked to the ground. But Otinel quickly stood back up, Drew Corrouçouse with its gilded pommel, Struck him with such a mighty blow That his head fell at the king’s feet. The French shouted, “Barons, seize him!” Otinel turned aside, Rolled his eyes, lifted his whiskers, And looked as if he were a chained lion. He shouted, “Don’t move, barons! By the god to whom I am devoted, If you do, seven hundred will die!” The emperor rose to his feet And said to him, “Give me your sword.” The pagan replied, “Nonsense!” Then Roland said, “Give it to me, And I’ll return it when you leave.” Said Otinel, “Fair sir, take it, But I beg you to watch over it carefully. I wouldn’t trade it for seven of your cities, And what’s more, I’ll use it to cut off your head!” Said Roland, “By my faith, you’ve gone too far. State your message and begone!” – “Gladly,” he said. “Now listen.” 5. “Charles,” he said, “I’ll not hide anything from you. I am a messenger from the emperor Garsile, Who holds Spain, Alexandria, and Russia, Tyre and Sidon, Persia and Barbary. He orders me to inform you That Christianity is not worth a clove,

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And whoever believes it is a fool. Instead, accept Mohammed, who rules everywhere: The heavens and the earth and the rolling seas. You and your vassals must become his men And then come to meet the mighty King Garsile; He will give you possessions and dominion. Moreover, he will leave you Normandy And the ports and ships of England. He will give Russia to your nephew Roland, And grant Slovenia to Olivier. But he will never leave you sweet France, For it has been given to Florient of Syria. There is no finer man in all heathendom, Nor anyone braver in all of chivalry, Nor more skilled in wielding a tempered sword. He will rule France and its powerful barons.” But the king replied, “This will never be! What do you say, my loyal men?” All the barons shouted loudly: “True emperor, we will never allow Pagans to rule over France. Summon your people as a great army And then, if it is your will, lead us To where we can find those repugnant, odious men. If we encounter King Garsile on the battlefield, Nothing will keep him from losing his head.” Said Otinel, “These are foolish words I hear!! The men who are threatening Garsile’s life Will be ruthlessly attacked by him, And their souls will quit their bodies. When my lord has summoned his army And assembled his mighty forces, He will attack you in pitched battle. There isn’t a Frenchman, no matter how brave, Who would not rather be in Hungary When he beholds his charging army.” Gray-bearded Duke Naimes replied: “Pagan messenger, don’t hide it from me: If Charles summons his army And assembles his mighty forces, Where can he find King Garsile?” Said Otinel, “These are boastful words I hear!

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By Mohammed who rules and guides us, If you come there and start a fight, You will all die a cruel and painful death, For the pagans are ten times thirty thousand strong, All with shining hauberks and helmets from Pavia. They have built a city in Lombardy That the pagans call Atilie; It holds a fortified position between two rivers, One named Trouble and the other Defiance. God has not created a man who could defeat Their ships, their castle, nor their mighty domain. If the greybeard Charlemagne comes there And tries to start a war, We’ll soon see who’ll win a fair lady With brilliant strokes from his tempered sword. And you, old man, will never come there: Take my advice, or you’ll lose your life! You’ll never fight again, Nor shatter a staff, nor split open a strong shield; No maiden will ever desire you again. Instead, you’ll watch over this garden And keep out the crows and magpies.” When Duke Naimes heard these insults, He angrily grabbed Otinel’s beard And yanked it so hard his face bled; He had never felt such pain in all his life. 6. Count Roland leapt to his feet, Angry and filled with rage and fury. He stepped forward, burning with wrath, And shouted at Otinel: “Son of a whore, pompous ass! You’ve been boastful and arrogant today, But by the One who suffered on the Cross, You’d already have been killed for sure If I had not given you my word!” Said Otinel, “I am well aware of that: You shall have your battle if you dare to. Let us go in the morning onto this field, Just the two of us, if you please.” Roland replied, “You will swear to me.”

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Said Otinel, “You have my word. If either of us breaks faith, he’s a coward And his spurs should be removed from his feet. Never again should he be honored at court Nor served or upheld by any good person.” They swore their oaths to one another. 7. Then Charles, king of Saint-Denis, spoke: “Brother Saracen, by the religion you practice, To what lineage in your land do you belong? What is your name? Do tell me.” – “My lord, I am Otinel the Saracen, Son of bold-faced Galien; Mine is the Marche and all its lands, And Benoas, a most valuable place, A country that is powerful With Saracens of every stripe. Emirs and all the Berbers Fear me, I swear to you upon my faith. King Garsile is my first cousin, Noble King Fernagu25 was my uncle, The man from Nazareth, whom Roland killed. He will pay for that tomorrow!” The king said, “You are a most worthy man. It’s a pity you’ve never been baptized.” Said Otinel, “I would be shamed, Because your God isn’t worth a Parisian penny.”26 8. The king summoned his chamberlain Renier: “Come here, take this messenger And escort him to Garnier’s house. Give the host a hundred sous for his food And another hundred for his horse.” Then he summoned Duke Naimes of Bavaria Along with the good Dane Ogier: “I turn this messenger over to you. Serve him well if he has any needs.” 25 26

Fernagu was a giant slain by Roland in the Pseudo-Turpin Chronicle. For medieval coinage mentioned in our poems, see the General Introduction.

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They led him away without any delay And followed the orders of righteous Charles. The emperor sat down to eat. 9. Our emperor was seated at supper, Surrounded by his peers and household. After they had eaten, they lay down to rest Until morning, when the day dawned. Charles arose and had Roland summoned, Who came without delay. They went to the chapel to pray And Mass was sung by the abbot of Saint-Omer. Charles had a golden goblet brought forth That was filled to the brim with Parisian pennies; He made his offering, followed by the twelve peers. Roland offered his shining sword Durendal, In exchange for which he gave ten silver marks. After Mass, they all went to watch The Saracen who was coming to speak with the king. 10. The Saracen approached haughtily And spoke fiercely to Charles as soon as he saw him: “Lord king, where is valiant Roland, Who brings such confidence to the French? I say he is a perjurer and a coward If he doesn’t honor the oath We both swore aloud at court.” At these words Roland strode forth And spoke as a valiant knight: “By the faith I owe the Lord in whom I believe, No man alive will prevent me From laying you out flat defeated, Or else I’ll suffer the pangs of death.” Said Otinel, “So do as you’ve said: Put on your armor, and I swear That if I fail to fight you, have me hanged at once.” Said Olivier, “You’ve spoken very boldly: May Jesus in Glory defeat and destroy you!” The twelve peers led forth Roland And armed him properly and courteously.

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They put an Algerian hauberk on his back.27 It had thick mail in front and behind. On his head they strapped a shiny green–gold helmet28 It was the helmet of the giant Goliath, Captured by Charles when he killed Brachant – And was studded with beneficial bright stones. From his neck they hung a strong thick shield, Nobly painted with blue and gold. Around the rim ran the four winds, The twelve signs of the zodiac, and the months as well; The depths of the oceans were depicted And the heavens and earth encompassed. The sun shone brightly upon the boss. They brought him sharp-edged Durendal; There is no more to be said about the sword: The humble and the mighty all knew it, For there was no finer from here to the Orient. The count strapped it on, for he loved it dearly. They placed a saddle on swift Blanchart, Who runs faster than a sparrowhawk can fly. The saddle was of crystal and silver, The saddle blanket was of oriental silk, And the stirrups were finely worked in gold. Roland mounted without gripping the saddlebow. He held a stiff sharp spear in one hand, From which a crimson and violet pennon Flapped in the wind down to his fist. He rode up to Charlemagne and said: “My lord, I ask for your leave To test my horse out there. If the pagan keeps his word That he and I will do battle, I have great faith in Almighty God That I will lay him out flat defeated, Or else suffer the pangs of death.” Charles responded, “May Jesus help you!” He raised his hand and gave him a blessing. The twelve peers mounted up at once And led Roland to a spot between two rivers, 27 28

For the Algerian hauberk, see note to line 183 in Roland at Saragossa. For the green–gold helmet, see note to line 3873 in Gui of Burgundy.

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One was the Seine and the other the wide Marne. This was the field in which the two barons Were to fight, for better or for worse. Otinel stood before Charlemagne and said: “Charles, I ask you to give me a hauberk, A shield, a helmet, and a sharp spear. I have a good and lively steed, The finest from here to the Orient, And my sword has a sharp blade. Mounted upon my swift warhorse, I swear to you upon my god Tervagant,29 That before sunset and nightfall I will kill your nephew Roland With Corrouçouse, my sharp-bladed sword.” The king replied, “May Jesus harm you – You have made me angry and full of grief!” He looked to the right and saw Belissent Coming from her room to the square. Her beauty lit up the entire palace. “My daughter,” he said, “I commend to you this pagan. Give him all the weapons he desires, So that he will not be hindered by their lack.” – “My lord,” she said, “I shall do so gladly. He will be armed just as he wishes, So that he won’t lose a glove for lack of same.” 11. Belissent summoned Flandrine de Monbel And also Rosette de Ruissel. These three maidens armed Otinel In a lower room with walls of cut stone. On his back they placed King Samuel’s hauberk;30 The ventail had a fringed decoration And was made of silk with a gold clasp. The whole thing was worth a castle’s gold; It was attached by Flandrine de Monbel. On his head they laced Galatiel’s helmet,31

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For the pagan gods, see note to line 2603 in Gui of Burgundy. Samuel was an Old Testament judge and prophet (I and II Samuel). Although not technically a king, he ruled over Israel until he was too old to do so, when he anointed Saul as king at the demand of the Israelites. 31 Galatiel. Quite possibly a scribal deformation of Gamaliel, the son of Pedahzur and 29 30



OTINEL

Which had the finest rim anyone had ever seen. Charles’s daughter, who was brave of heart, Girded on King Zachariah’s sword:32 It was called Corrouçouse and was sharp-edged. It would cause so much trouble to Roland And for so long that he would regret it. From his neck they hung a strong new shield, With a green lion cub on a snow-white background, And between its feet was a young dragon. Lady Rosette de Ruissel Quickly strapped on his spurs. A saddle was put on swift Migrados, His steed that ran faster than a swallow flies. The horse saw the young man approaching; It immediately recognized its master Otinel And began to whinny and paw like a boar. Otinel mounted; he knew more about fighting And battle than a smithy about hammers. 12. The Saracen mounted his steed, Galloped off, and then returned. He rode straight to Belissent. “My beauty,” he said, “grant me leave. Thanks to you I am well armed. If I find Roland, he’s dead and gone!” “My lord,” she said, “go to battle, But beware of his sword Durendal. If you do not defend yourself well with your sword, You will never again rule a city.” After these words, the good Dane Ogier, Who was so renowned, led Otinel away, Accompanied by Duke Naimes. They took him to a meadow between two rivers.

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head of the tribe of Manasseh. With the other tribal heads, he helped lead the Israelites on the long trek out of the wilderness of the Sinai (Numbers 1:10, 2:20, 7:54–59, 10:23). This and all subsequent biblical references are taken from The Jerusalem Bible. 32 Zachariah, son of Jeroboam, was the last king of Israel of Jehu’s race. “He did what is displeasing to Yahweh, as his fathers had done; he did not give up the sins into which Jeroboam son of Nebat had led Israel” (2 Kings 15:9). It seems appropriate that Otinel, a Muslim who will become a Christian, is equipped symbolically with Old Testament trappings: Samuel’s hauberk, Zachariah’s sword (renamed Corrouçouse), and Galatiel’s helmet.

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Charles had gone up into the mighty palace And was leaning upon a windowsill. He summoned the twelve peers, saying: “My lords, listen to me: Remove all the Frenchmen from the field.” They did as he commanded. Then the crowned king Charles shouted: “My lords, it is time to do battle.” Otinel said, “I am prepared And have armed myself just for that!” 13. Now the two brave knights were together, Each one eager for battle. Count Roland worked up his courage By praying devoutly to God and His mother. He humbly and with good heart asked That he be given victory over the infidel. But before Otinel is defeated or vanquished He will cause Roland to suffer greatly. He is so valorous and brave That he fears neither king nor emir. Brave Count Roland will be able to boast That he’s never faced a stronger foe. Behold Roland galloping forward, Riding quickly up to the palace, Where he launched his challenge: “I defy you from this moment forward!” Otinel replied, “As I do you! Beware of me, for I bear you no love And am seeking revenge for my uncle Fernagu!” Said Roland, “I’ve clearly heard your challenge!” He gave full rein to his good swift steed, As Otinel did raucous Migrados. They spurred on their steeds so ferociously That the earth shook under their hooves; Their Algerian horses made so much noise That it sounded like thunder from the heavens. The valorous knights raised their lances And the pennons floated on the breeze. They struck mighty blows to their shields That ripped apart the oriental silk straps;

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Neither paint nor flowers could be saved. But their hauberks were not harmed: They were so strong that neither was broken. The iron over their chests bent under the blows, But they passed by one another so cleanly That neither of them lost anything. “My God,” said the king, “I am amazed to see This pagan stand up so well against Roland.” Said Belissent, “My armor was good, And the one who wears it is no coward!” Roland grabbed sharp-edged Durendal And struck Otinel a blow to his shiny helmet That sliced off the nasal in front. With a second blow he struck his horse And severed its head from its body. The pagan fell when his horse failed him, But he quickly leapt back up And spoke as would a valiant knight: “Sir knight, you have not behaved well To have slain a living beast like this While leaving its rider to stand back up. This is a great dishonor for a worthy man. May Mohammed shame and destroy me If I fail to impose a most cruel vengeance! Your horse will have no reason to gloat When I strike him a blow right now, If I can touch him with my sword; And I will make you suffer as well!” He pulled Corrouçouse from his scabbard And struck Roland on his helmet, Slicing away flowers and precious stones. The blow hit the front of the saddle, Slicing through both the wood and felt, Then right through his steed’s shoulders, And continued cutting down to the ground, Where it dug some four feet in. The wicked infidel shouted: “Roland, I’ve kept my word to you!” – “My God,” said the king, “what a powerful blow! Holy Mary, protect Roland for me!” Do not be surprised that Roland fell to the ground When his horse was killed under him.

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But Roland leapt up without delay, Holding Durendal tightly in both fists; He gripped his shield, stepped forward, And struck the pagan so fiercely Upon his bright shiny helmet That a quarter of it fell to the ground. He split open the mail of his Algerian hauberk And lopped off half of its edge; His strong shield split to the boss. He would have killed him utterly, But Otinel regained his strength And struck valiantly with Corrouçouse. As for Roland, he did not spare him. They both struck mighty, overwhelming blows; No armor could withstand their swords Nor prevent their destroying whatever they hit. They destroyed their hauberks of mail, Whose links fell onto the green grass. Said Belissent, “They are striking noble blows! Both combatants are fearless: Durendal does not lack courage And Corrouçouse doesn’t weaken.” “My God,” said the king, “my heart is failing!” Charles stretched out into a cross facing east And said a noble prayer: “Dear God, Ruler of all people, Who made man and woman in your image, Who were born of the Virgin in Bethlehem. Ah! True Lord and God, as I firmly believe That all I have said here is true, Protect Roland from death And convert the infidel Otinel.” He kissed the ground, stood back up, And leaned his head out the window; He saw the barons fiercely fighting, Though they did not have enough left of their shields To be able to cover their chests. 14. The battle was cruel and fierce As the noble barons pursued one another.

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Count Roland shouted loudly: “Otinel, brother, abandon Mohammed And believe in God who suffered the Passion! Do it, sir, and you will receive a great gift: Belissent, King Charlemagne’s daughter. She is my first cousin, you know, And I offer her to you without deceit. You and I shall be companions And win castles and towers. I’ll never again ask of you so much as a spur.” Said Otinel, “I’m hearing foolishness. Cursed be the one who taught you religion: You have failed at your first sermon And don’t know how to read the lesson! But I am a master and will teach you: If I am able to attack you freely, I’ll give you such a blow to your round helmet That you won’t know up from down! Come here, Roland, for I say you’re a felon.” When he heard this, Roland turned as red as a hot coal. 15. You must know that Roland grew angry: He was much aggrieved to hear this slander. He grasped Durendal with its golden pommel And struck Otinel upon the helmet, Slicing away flowers and precious stones. Otinel deflected the blow, for he was a skilled fighter, And it fell onto his shoulder, Cutting through the double links of his coat of mail, And exposing his body down to the belt, But leaving the skin untouched. It was a powerful stroke that forced the pagan to double over. The French said, “What a knightly blow!” Most said that the courtly messenger Was defeated and unable to defend himself; But little did they know the warrior Otinel! He charged forward to avenge this blow, His eyes flaring like those of a bloodhound; Unless Roland is able to defend himself, He’ll never ride again.

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16. The melee was long and cruel. The Saracen grew pale; He took Corrouçouse with its broad blade And set off to introduce it to Charles’s nephew. He aimed his blow at Roland’s helmet, And his head would have been severed from his trunk Had Corrouçouse not slipped in his grip. Otinel struck him a second time, Driving his sword between Roland’s neck and shield, Cutting the buckler away from his armor And onto the meadow at his feet. The sword sliced to the bottom of his hauberk, Ripping and tearing it apart, Then hacked into the earth below. Pulling it out, Otinel shouted: “By Mohammed, my sword slashes wonderfully! Its iron is sharp, and I’ve tested it well; Sir Roland, this is a sad day, For it is about to slice off your head!” 17. The battle was quite violent and brutal; Each combatant inflicted great harm on the other. The two knights glared fiercely at one another And greatly feared the weighty blows; Their sword blades were as sharp as razors. All the French prostrated themselves facing east, For they were deeply fearful for their lord Roland; They fervently prayed to the Almighty Father To save him from the infidel And to keep him from being vanquished or defeated. After their prayer a dove appeared. Charles and all the others saw it. The Holy Spirit came down upon Otinel And transformed his heart by the command of Jesus. Then he said some very pleasing words: “Roland, draw closer now. Something – I know not what – is guiding me, And has changed my heart and my desires. I renounce Mohammed and Tervagant, As well as Apollin and stinking Jove

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And all the gods I believed in: They are not worth the stitches on a glove. Instead, I believe in God who suffered great torment When the tyrants hung Him on the Cross; And I believe in Mary who gave birth to Him. From now on, I will call upon them as my protectors To assist me when I am in need.” When Roland heard this, he said with a smile: “Noble lord, are you telling the truth?” Said Otinel, “I am, truly.” He flung his sword on the verdant grass. Their arms outstretched, they embraced, And the valiant knights greatly rejoiced. Seeing this, Charles cried out: “O God, how great is your power! I believe they have reached an accord. Noble knights, go to them quickly!” And they did, immediately and swiftly. The king himself spurred his horse to join them. He called Roland, saying: “Fair nephew, how are you? Tell me now, for I am very anxious.” – “Sire, very well, thanks to all-powerful God. I have fought with the best warrior Who ever lived or ever was. Thanks be to God, we have succeeded so well That he wishes to be baptized in the Christian faith. Retain him, fair lord; go forth And bestow upon him anything he wishes, But especially your daughter Belissent.” – “God,” said the king, “I have what I asked for: My prayer has been answered.” They disarmed Otinel And then mounted him on a swift warhorse. They spurred toward the city And quickly brought Otinel to the church. 18. They brought him to the church of Holy Mary. Turpin of Rheims donned his stole, Took up his psalter, and said the litany. A great many knights were in attendance

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For Otinel’s baptism; His godfather was Charles of Saint-Denis. They did not change his name, but left it as it was. He was baptized and renounced his religion To believe in God, the Son of Holy Mary. Behold the slender Belissent, Whiter than any pearl And rosier than a rose in bloom. “My daughter,” said Charles, “you are fair of complexion; Anyone who held you for even one night Would find his valor greatly increased. All cowardice would be put out of his mind. He would be a better knight forever And the envy of all Frenchmen. My godson, may Jesus bless you. Now you have abandoned Mohammed and his religion And you believe in God, the Son of Holy Mary. You will henceforth believe in glorious Jesus. Valiant knight, take my daughter, slender Belissent; For her sake you will have a powerful domain: You will be lord of all Lombardy.” When Otinel heard this, he bowed toward the ground. “Sire,” he said, “I do not refuse this. If the maiden wants me, I grant it with pleasure.” Said Belissent, “I consider myself fortunate: I should be most happy with such a husband. Never will I cease to love you.” Said Otinel, “By my faith, I swear to you: For the sake of your love, I will perform noble deeds Against the pagans, that foul, detestable race, With my steely sword, before Atilie. Rightful emperor, I leave in your charge Your daughter, who has my love, Until we come to the plains of Lombardy. The marriage will take place in the meadows outside Atilie, When I have slain the emperor Garsile.” 19. The king entered the palace With his noble barons in attendance. The meal was all organized and prepared, And those who were served ate well.

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After the meal, all arose. The king himself retired to his chambers. After closing the doors, they all went off to sleep Until the morning. At daylight The king arose and sent for his men. He climbed upon a table made of juniper wood, Holding a staff inlaid with gold. “My lords,” said Charles, “listen to me: Counsel me, as you are bound to do, About King Garsile, of whom you have heard: He has entered my land by force, Burned my castles and devastated my cities. Soon holy Christendom will be destroyed. Should we go there once winter has passed And before summer has come?” The French replied, “That is a surprising question! There is not a one of us who isn’t already fully prepared And you’d be foolish to name any other date.” “Yes, indeed,” said Charles, “because you all wish it. In the beginning of April, when March is over, You will prepare yourselves for my sake.” The French replied, “Just as you command.” 20. Our emperor ordered his letters to be written And sent messengers throughout his empire, Commanding the presence of all knights, Foot soldiers, men-at-arms, and crossbowmen. Anyone unable to come was ordered To bring four deniers to Saint-Denis. December and January came and went. After February and March came the mild weather. Our valiant emperor was in Paris. The twelve peers – Roland and Olivier, Ansel, Gerard, and Engeler, Estout of Langres, Turpin, and Gerier, Valiant Bertolais and Otinel the warrior, Duke Naimes and Ogier the Dane – All leaned their heads out of the large windows And saw Germans and Bavarians arriving, Along with stout-hearted Lorrainers, Poitevins, Provençal warriors,

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Burgundians, Flemings, and Picards, And the flower of Norman chivalry. Bretons came with quartered shields, Leading Algerian horses on their right side. All had four squires: If necessary, they could be dubbed knights. Thousands assembled below Montmartre. 21. On the first day of April at dawn, King Charles and his knights mounted their horses And left Paris for Saint-Denis, Where they took their leave and set out on their journey. The ladies wept and cursed Garsile. Horns were sounding and horses whinnying. The king would be traveling all the way to Lombardy. Duke Roland led them at the very front, Followed by gray-bearded Naimes. But Otinel could not bear to leave his lady behind: He mounted Belissent on a Hungarian mule, Which sped along faster Than a ship or galleon on the high seas. He had seven hundred barons under his authority, All valiant young men of high nobility. The brave company left France, traveled through Burgundy, Passed through Monjeu,33 Emerged from the mountains and came to Morie. They went by ship below Verceil, Climbed Montferrant, and saw Atilie, The fortified city inhabited by a detestable people. They set up camp outside Monpoun In the prairie beside the Ton River.

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22. Our emperor ordered the French to halt And set up camp beside the Ton River. 33 Monjeu is the Great St. Bernard Pass through the Alps from France to Italy. Although the itinerary that follows cannot be traced exactly, Verceil must be Vercelli in the Piedmont northeast of Turin, while Montferrant is the Monferrato region east of Turin. The Ton River (752) is most likely the Tonaro, which flows through the center of this mountainous area. Morie could be a scribal error for Ivorie (Ivrea on the Dora Báltea River). Atilie and Monpoun cannot be readily identified, although there are numerous toponyms in the area beginning with Mont-.



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They stayed there for twenty full days, Allowing their horses to rest And the sick to heal and recover. Meanwhile, King Charles wasted no time: He had a bridge built So that the French might cross to the other side. Valiant Charles stood on the bridge: He had the freshly hewn piles pounded in with iron mauls And supported with strong bands. The bridge was sturdy and completely reliable. The French went to dine at their lodgings, But Charles’s nephew hastened to don his armor Without any of the twelve peers knowing it – Except Ogier and noble Olivier. These three donned their armor without delay, Mounted their horses, and crossed the bridge. They began riding toward the city, Hoping to provoke a fight if they could; But before evening, I believe, Even the boldest among them would have food for thought: He would not wish to be there for a thousand marks of pure silver. 23. Outside Atilie, a full league away, Four kings of the infidel people Sallied forth and set out separately, Each one armed in his own fashion: King Balsamin was king of Ninivent. Corsable, king of a detestable people, Never kept faith with a living soul. The third was named Askanard the Tyrant:34 He had killed a thousand men with his sharp-edged sword. The fourth was named Clarel the Cheerful: There was no fairer man beneath the sun; Any man who asked to do battle with him, No matter how bold, would be slain or knocked bloody If dealt a blow by Clarel. They rode through the fields, putting their horses to the test,

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34 The Vatican manuscript gives Escorfaut, which is clearly in error: in line 834 below it is Askanard who strikes Roland. Cologny (line 699) correctly gives Askanard in the corresponding two lines (699, 750); we correct accordingly, so that the four enemy warriors who sally forth are the same as those who first strike the Christians.

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And making dire threats against Olivier and Roland. They swore to Mohammed, great Jupiter, Apollin and their god Tervagant, That if they could lead their armies into sweet France, Charlemagne could not prevent them From destroying the twelve peers. Said Clarel the Cheerful: “Threats will get us nowhere. I have heard many people speak of Duke Roland: There is no braver man from here to the Orient: No weapon can protect against his sword. I pray Mohammed, Jupiter, and Tervagant To bring me help and protection, That my sharp-edged sword might strike a blow To his head, on his gleaming helmet, So forceful that it slices down to his teeth. I have every right to despise him, For he killed Samson of Monbrant In a tournament below Pamplona. He was my brother, and his death brought me great sorrow. I will die of grief if I do not take revenge.” The three Frenchmen rode close together Beside the woods known as the Great Forest. Hearing the noise, they halted at once. Count Roland spotted them first. “My lords,” he said, “now be still. Do you see the pagans below the hanging rock? I believe there are only four of them: We can certainly take them on Through the mercy of God, the Almighty King.” And they replied, “Just as you please.” Each one raised his lance above his steed And spurred quickly toward the pagans. Clarel was the first to look toward the east And see the counts spurring fiercely toward them. He quickly called to his companions: “My lords,” he said, “summon all your courage! I see three knights riding toward us at full speed. Go meet them and find out what they’re looking for.” And rushing at them straightaway, They spoke not a word, not even asking who they were, Where they were from, or what they were looking for.

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Instead, they struck mighty blows with their lances. Askanard struck Roland’s shield, Shattering it below the boss. The byrnie was strong: it did not break; The lance shattered against its iron front. The count struck him so skillfully That neither shield nor hauberk was of any use. He slashed his chest, sliced through his entrails, And flung him dead from his fine swift horse. Then Count Roland said with a laugh: “Son of a whore, now you have found Roland, The one you were threatening just now!” 24. Corsable did battle with noble Ogier. He dealt him a fierce blow on his leather shield And drove his silken pennon right through it, Slicing off a good thirty-three links of his hauberk. He thrust the Welsh blade toward his side. He drove it in hard, but it helped him not a bit. Ogier immediately struck him on the shield, Thrusting his Welsh blade into his armor. Corsable’s fine hauberk wasn’t worth a pea. Ogier thrust his gold-embroidered pennon into his body, And knocked him dead from his Spanish horse. On his return, he uttered a few noble words: “Son of a whore, I am Ogier the Dane. It is for blows such as these that King Charles values me!” 25. Olivier did battle with the king of Ninivent, The bold and brave Balsamin, Whose shield bore a painted lion. Olivier struck him so deftly On his round shield that he split it in half. Balsamin’s fine byrnie was worthless. Olivier thrust his pennon straight through the front of his body And flung him dead from his bloody horse. Then he exclaimed, “I commend you to the devil!” As he turned around, Clarel came galloping toward him. He will be able to avenge the pagan If Olivier waits for him to strike;

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But Charles’s nephew crossed in front of him. Clarel struck him on his shield, But his good byrnie saved him from certain death. Roland’s fine horse lifted his front hooves And reared; Clarel pursued him Until Roland’s horse fell on top of a hill. Shouting his war cry, “Naimant!” Clarel tried to flee toward the city, But the Dane cut him off in front, Striking a mighty blow with his sharp-edged sword In the middle of his chest, on his gleaming hauberk, But the good byrnie did not bend or break. Ogier knocked him off his horse beside a hill. Olivier seized the fine rapid charger by the reins And brought it to Roland. “My lord,” he said, “Mount quickly! I give and present you this horse on behalf of Ogier. It is a hundred times better than your own.” The count jumped on without grasping the saddlebow, The pagan got to his feet And drew his sword, sharp-edged Mellee. He clasped his shield and defended himself vigorously. Roland drew valiant Durendal And quickly tried to strike Clarel, But the pagan thrust his shield forward: Roland’s sword sliced through everything it touched. Clarel fought hard, but to no avail. “My lords, I beg you for my life. Take me alive: you have won a great prize. Who is the lord? With my sword, I surrender.” He proffered his sword, which Count Roland accepted. Then they brought him the agile black horse On which the king of Ninivent had been killed. 26. The companions returned from battle. They had captured Clarel And planned to present him to Charlemagne. But before they could go as far as a league, They would be concerned with other matters, For the Saracens were returning from a plundering expedition: By all accounts, there were fifteen-hundred of them.

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They heard the clamor of horns and bugles, And saw the shimmering helmets And the banners waving above. When Roland saw them, he began to whistle. The brave warrior pressed on his stirrups And vowed to Ogier: “By the Lord who proclaims himself God, If I could take them on with Durendal, You would see me kill and dismember so many of them That news of it would travel across the sea.” – “My lords,” said Olivier, “I have heard it said by wise men That a man cannot protect himself from all evil, Nor can he always avoid a fight. And when a man thinks he has found great happiness, That is when he is closest to finding trouble.” – “Truly,” said Ogier, “Those are bleak thoughts. There is no need to be afraid. Behold the pagans: you cannot avoid them. We must pass through their lances, And each man must demonstrate his bravery. When a man is captured, he must not be slain, For since we cannot take him to the king, He might well reward us this very day.” Said Clarel, “You speak from a noble heart.” 27. “Sir Roland,” said valiant Ogier, “You are strong and fierce, bold and feared, And most distinguished in battle. Olivier too is a proven knight, And I myself have escaped many a predicament. Behold the pagans: you cannot refuse to fight them, Nor can you expect help to arrive. Whoever does not strike now is a proven coward!” They cried “Monjoie!” and rode into battle. There would soon be dead and wounded knights. 28. Roland struck a pagan named Berruier, Who was blacker than a mulberry from a mulberry bush. He flung him dead in the middle of a path.

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Olivier struck Balsan of Montpellier, And the Dane fought with the Saracen Motier. They struck them all dead: they were the first. They killed three of them with their applewood shafts, And then drew their steel swords. Roland sliced into them with Durendal: One by one he knocked them to the ground. The pagans found Olivier to be quite fierce: With Halteclere he cleared such a path That it could easily fit four wagons abreast. The good Dane outdid himself: He wasted no time in striking. Grasping Corteine, he spurred his horse And sent thirty pagan heads flying. 29. Then there came Carmel of Tabarie, A Saracen who outshone all the others; He was well armed and sat astride Pennepie. He cried out loudly in his own language: “What are you doing? May Mohammed curse you! What will we tell the emperor Garsile? That we’ve been shamed by just three men? I’m going to take the life of one of them!” He spurred his steed, raised his lance, And struck Ogier on his flowered shield, Shattering and piercing it right at the boss. His good byrnie was of no avail, And Carmel drove his Orcanie banner into his body, Wounding Ogier whether he liked it or not. When Roland saw this, nothing could keep him From striking Carmel on his round helmet, Splitting it open without mercy. “Coward,” he shouted, “May God in heaven damn you! You’ve taken a great man from my company!” The caliph of Nubia spurred across the field – A Saracen accursed by God And a cousin of the beautiful Alfamie. Just that morning he had proposed to her And sworn to perform an act of chivalry for her. Unless God, the Son of Mary, intervenes, He will bring them great harm.

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He struck Olivier on his solid byrnie, Which was strong enough to spare his life. He knocked him to the ground but did not wound him. The count rose up and leapt upon Pennepie, The good steed that had once been Carmel’s. He shouted to his companion: “Sir Roland, don’t worry! I’ve pledged my word to you: I’ll not fail you as long as I live.” With this the ruckus and folly began Between the pagans and our Frenchmen. 30. The good Dane hurried back to his feet. The crush was so thick that he could not mount his own bay horse. He then looked to his sword and said: “Listen, Curteine, I love you so And you are esteemed at Charles’s court; Today you and I must part company, But before I die, I intend to prove your worth!” He struck a pagan on his bright helmet And drove his sword down to his teeth. He called to Roland, but the baron did not hear, For he was so preoccupied That he did not know which way to turn. Saracens and Slavs were assailing Ogier, Who was defending himself worthily and bravely. King Clarel saw him greatly distressed And dealing mighty blows with his sword. He shouted, “Pagans, hold back! Give yourself up, Ogier, don’t be afraid; You can count on me with confidence: You’ll not be hurt as long as I can help you.” The emir said, “You cannot protect him. Soon you’ll watch him lose all his limbs!” Clarel heard this and nearly lost his mind; He drew his sword and went to give him a blow That sliced off his head, which fell to the ground. Then he said, “Leave Ogier alone!” He came up to the horse and had Ogier remount. He summoned eight Saracens from his own household, Those in whom he had the most confidence.

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“My lords,” he said, “hurry off And tell my sweetheart to watch over Ogier.” He turned him over to them and let them go. Ogier fainted repeatedly from his wounds. The king’s daughter, the beautiful Alfamie, Had entered an orchard to relax, Along with Guaïte and Belamer. They saw the pagans cross over the bar And said to one another, “Let’s go speak with them, To ask and see what they want.” 31. Said Alfamie, “You barons over there, Please tell us what news you bring. Where did you come upon this knight? Was he captured in a joust or wounded in battle?” – “Noble maiden,” said the old emir, “By Mohammed, why are you mocking us? Our hearts are already so heavy That none of us is ready to laugh.” – “Who caused this? Don’t hide it from me.” They replied, “This old imbecile here. He and two others have so decimated us That they’ve cut off a hundred pagan heads. Your dear and wise friend Clarel has asked you To guard him well for love of him.” Said the maiden, “Go back now, Take the others and bring them to me.” The pagans said, “Summer will end first.” Then she said to Ogier, “Come along, I promise you’ll be well cared for. What’s your name? What is your lineage?” – “I’m called Ogier, the praiseworthy Dane. My kinsmen attend Charlemagne’s court.” Said the maiden, “Now I know you well.” 32. These three maidens led Ogier To a spot beneath an olive tree. First they tied up his horse, Then they removed the courtly knight’s armor, One taking the helmet, another the steel sword.

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They removed his good double-linked hauberk, Washed his wounds, and laid him in a bed. They gave him a tender herb to eat That God Himself had planted in that orchard; It was called HealAll and was richly prized. Ogier fell asleep, for he was very weary, And when he awoke he felt completely fresh, Healthier than an apple on an apple tree. Let us leave Ogier for now, Since he had everything he needed. Let us speak of Duke Roland and Olivier, Who were in combat with their steel swords, For there were still a thousand pagans. They were too weary to raise their swords, So it was no wonder that they took flight. They fled along a main road, Followed by pagans eager to cut off their heads. 33. Otinel asked after the counts. When he could not find them, he knew well That they had gone to Atilie to joust. He quickly donned his armor, As did some seven hundred knights; Even the worst of them could kill a king. Otinel mounted his horse and went to speak with the king: “Sire, have your Frenchmen arm themselves at once! We must go organize a siege, Because your nephew, considering me a coward, Set off alone this morning to do battle. If ill befalls him, who’s to blame? He wants to be praised above all others. But by the Lord who is called God, If I can encounter Saracens today, You’ll hear me loudly cry ‘Monjoie!’ And strike such mighty blows with my sword That there’ll be no further talk of Roland!” 34. Our emperor had a trumpet blown; The Frenchmen armed themselves and crossed the bridge;

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They had Duke Samson carry the banner. There you could see so many gonfanons raised, So many straight staffs, so many pennons in the wind, That God has not created a man who could count them all. These agile young knights stood ready. Some began to boast that they would strike Mighty blows upon the Saracens. 35. These seven hundred young knights joined the army After Belissent entertained them at her table. Otinel spurred his good steed Flori A bowshot’s distance ahead of the others. He was well armed as befitted a knight: His armor was covered in an expensive silk, Whose value no one could estimate, Because neither fire nor water could damage it. Anyone who possessed even a pennyworth, If he were injured or wounded And placed it squarely upon the spot, Would immediately be healed and healthy.35 Charlemagne’s very praiseworthy daughter Handed him King Gaifier’s banner And Otinel spurred his good, swift steed. He met Roland coming out of a pond And began to mock him with these words: “Sir Roland, have you been fishing? Were you planning to feast on the pagans by yourself? By the faith I owe St. Richier, You and I will have plenty to digest!” He looked to the right and saw Olivier Fleeing down a path, pursued By a pagan king intent upon doing him harm. He had already wounded Olivier’s good steed, Which had blood flowing from four gashes. Otinel spurred on, not wishing to delay further,

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35 Medieval knights frequently wore a tunic with their colors over their armor for easier recognition, but the powers attributed to it here are usually provided by some kind of magical herb. Here it is the silk itself that seems to be intended as a poultice for an open wound. Cologny, lines 1034–35, stresses the exceptional lightness of the material and adds that it cannot be destroyed by fire. See also the description of a tunic below at lines 1735–36.



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And headed straight for the pagan. He pricked his horse with his gilded spurs, Lowered his lance made of applewood, And struck the pagan upon his quartered shield, Splitting it as if it were an olive branch. His good byrnie was not worth a penny, Nor was his gorget of any avail: Otinel buried his white standard in his body, And left him dead on the rocky slope. The brave count Olivier was overjoyed! Estout of Langres went to strike Maugier, A Saracen accursed by God; He was strong, haughty, and proud, And had slain more than a thousand Frenchmen. Estout struck him on his quartered shield, Causing it to shatter to pieces, And bathed his spear in the pagan’s blood. He left him dead upon the rocky ground. “Monjoie!” he shouted, “Strike them, knights!” And so they did, for they were not cowards. There was a great noise of standards being lowered And you would have seen a fierce battle starting: Many spears split, many shields shattered, And the mail of many hauberks broken. So many Saracens were unhorsed and fell That no man under heaven could keep count! 36. Engeler was riding through the ranks; His spear was broken, but he had his sword in hand; He saw Clariados, ruler of Numilliant, Who had jousted against Renier of Meliant, Knocking him down and taking his Arabian steed. But Engeler was there to challenge him: “You’ll not lead it away, for first I’ll make you suffer!” He went to strike him on the front of his helmet With such force that it split to his teeth; His body fell and his soul went to hell. A Saracen came spurring forward, Galatas who ruled Tyre the Great And who far surpassed his peers in strength. He lowered his lance, its standard flapping in the wind,

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And charged directly at the count As fast as he could spur on his horse. He struck Engeler upon the front of his shield, Driving his pennon right through, Shredding a good palm’s length of it. The sharp iron passed under his armpit: God stopped it from striking his flesh, But neither his saddle nor silver stirrups Could keep it from knocking him to the earth. Guaïte shouted, “Don’t let him win the day!” 37. Engeler went back into the melee, Though his good shield had fallen from his neck. I think he could have remounted, When Talos, an arrogant Turk, spurred forward; He had slain a thousand men since being knighted. He was there with fourteen others, Throwing lances and sharp fauchards at Engeler, Whose hauberk was breached in over thirty places. Engeler was in a bad position; It was no wonder that he was frightened, Yet he gave many a strong blow with his sword, For he was determined to sell his life dearly. Ysorez came spurring to the rescue, Along with Gautier of Termes and esteemed Girart. They immediately set upon the pagans, For each was ready to land mighty blows. They shouted “Monjoie!” and entered the fray. They struck so powerfully with their steel swords That many lay destroyed upon the field. They lifted Engeler up Upon a horse that was brought forth, And strapped a strong banded shield around his neck. Once Engeler was so equipped, He charged angrily in among the pagans And sliced apart five, one after another. His steely sword dispatched them Such that no doctor could ever rescue them. He fought as if he were possessed! Ysorez was fighting fiercely Against a pagan named Talos.

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They were battering each other’s banded shields; They had pierced them and broken through the wood. Talos leapt up without a moment’s delay And went at once toward Ysorez. Their two hearts were burning with anger As they gripped their engraved swords in their fists; Their steel blades flashed like lightening And rained mighty blows down upon their gemmed helmets. The battle would have ended with one of them dead Had they not been separated by the press of men. Girart of Orléans jousted against Amargot And killed him; devils carried off his soul. Our Frenchmen suffered immensely As they sliced open pagan chests and sides. The most powerful among them were overwhelmed And the field was bathed in red blood. 38. Arapater, a Turk from Florient, A city beyond greater India, Came to Clarel and took hold of his reins. “My lord,” he said, “we are helpless; These Frenchmen are worthy combatants. By Mohammed, we have lost!” Clarel replied, “We shall see!” He spurred toward the French Shouting his heathen battle cry. Saracens and Persians responded, And every one of them had a waving pennon, A Turkish bow, or slicing javelin. The French retreated a short distance.36 Arapater struck Droon the German, Piercing his shield below its silver boss And driving his strong, sharp spear into his body. He struck him dead upon the field before the French. Then he struck Girart of Orléans so hard Above his eyebrow beside his nasal That his brain was spread over the ground.

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36 MS. demi arpant. On the arpent as a common unit of measure in the Middle Ages, see the General Introduction and the note to line 2157 of Gui of Burgundy. It recurs in our lines 1890 and 1908.

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After killing him, Arapater rode off. But Otinel cut in front of him And hit him with such pent-up anger That he split his shield and shattered his spear. Then he drew a sword from its scabbard And struck him a mighty blow to his helmet. It would have killed him immediately Had the sword not broken in two. But it was not massive Corrouçouse, Which was still hanging by his side. Without hesitation he gripped it And withdrew it from his scabbard; He looked at it and wiped it down. He spurred his steed angrily And went to strike the foul heathen With such force upon his green helmet That the sword sliced down to his teeth. Then valiant Otinel said to him: “Son of a bitch, you were my relative, And now I’ve repaid you for your service!” Meanwhile King Clarel was in battle, Striking fiercely among the French. When he saw his men fleeing in all directions, He was so upset he reddened with anger. He spurred his swift-running steed And drew his sword with its silver pommel. He killed Richard, count of England, Garnier of Angers, and Huon of Clarvent. He left the press quickly, For he realized that things were going badly. He sounded trumpets to rally his men, But of twenty thousand, I think, There were no more than a hundred knights left. The others had died painful deaths. He saw clearly that all was lost; He turned to flee with his men, With the knights who remained. Clarel rode ahead of the others To the citadel, as fast as his horse could carry him, And all the others followed after him. The French chased wildly after them, Killing and maiming them as they went.

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39. The pagans fled across the plains of Lombardy To a narrow pass of bare rock, Where they met up with the fierce company Of the emperor Garsile’s household – May Jesus in Glory damn them! There were twenty thousand filthy, despised heathens. The battle would have started up again Had the day not ended. It was after compline. The army split up into its various divisions And the pagans entered the prosperous city. Clarel put down his large, flowered shield, Went up at once to the battlements, And saw the French approaching hastily. He shouted loudly to Otinel: “Tell me, vassal – may Mohammed curse you! – What is your name and from what lineage Do you descend, for you are so brave!” Otinel replied, “I’ll not hide anything: I’m called Otinel – may God curse you for asking! – Son of Galien. My mother’s name is Ludie. I’ve been baptized and abandoned foolish beliefs. King Charles has given me Lombardy Along with the slender, beautiful Belissent. I’ll never love a pagan as long as I live!” Clarel replied, “I can’t believe what I’m hearing! Fool! Have you abandoned your good religion? You’re bewitched. You’ve drunk amnesia And these doctors have driven you crazy. Come back, sir, and be reconciled; Make amends to Mohammed for denying him, And for the sin of renouncing his religion. I promise you truthfully That I will intervene with the king of Tabarie, That is to say the powerful Garsile, Until peace is established between the two of you.” Said Otinel, “I’m hearing pure folly! I wouldn’t do it for all of heathendom. No, I believe in God, the Son of Mary, And have renounced the pagan religion, Because all your gods aren’t worth a sorb-apple. May all their company be cursed,

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For they’re not worth a rotten apple! By the God who rose from death to life, If I can capture the city of Atilie, Garsile will never be able to stop me From hanging you on high like a spy, Along with Garsile and all his men!” Said the pagan, “I’m hearing pure folly! You’re filled with the greatest wickedness. By Mohammed whom I adore and pray to, I am ready to face you in single combat To prove that this religion you’ve adopted Isn’t worth a sorb-apple compared to ours. You and your God aren’t worth a magpie.” 40. Said Otinel, “You’re full of the devil For wanting to defend Mohammed against me.” – “Assure me that you no longer worship him.” – “I’ll defend the Lord God and His religion.” The Saracen raised his finger to him And Otinel swore his oath as well, That he too would face off in single combat. 41. Clarel turned angrily away, And Otinel led off his men. Our Frenchmen made camp in the green meadows; They put up their pavilions and lit fires. Doctors brought their ointments; The dead were lined up and buried, And the wounded were tended to. Otinel went to the king’s tent, Where he was met by our emperor, Belissent, and wise Naimes. Charles’s daughter examined his sides To be certain he was not wounded or hurt, Then gave him three kisses after he was disarmed. “Dear son-in-law,” said Charles, “you have a courtly love.” – “My lord,” he replied, “may God be praised. The Saracens and Slavs will pay dearly for this!”

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42. Burgundians and Germans kept watch over our army; Charles slept soundly that night. The Saracens kept watch as well, Blowing horns and shouting until dawn. Clarel and his men arose. He left the room, called a servant, And told him to bring him his armor Without delay. The man hurried off And brought it directly to him. Clarel, who was brave and noble, took it; There was no more handsome man from here to the East: He was fifteen feet tall when he stood up. They put an Algerian hauberk on his back; Whoever wore it need never fear that a sharp blade Could rip off a link, so tightly was it woven. But if Otinel could get close enough To strike him with Corrouçouse’s sharp blade, This hauberk would never save Clarel from that sword. Upon his head they laced on King Priam’s helmet; It was not made of iron or wood or silver, But from the skull of a dragon’s head. There were images of Jove, Tervagant, And Mohammed as a child: These were the gods to whom He often prayed for protection. Over his shoulders they hung a weighty shield All of leather, with not a piece of wood; It had eighteen golden bosses. Then they brought him a flowing banner Made of tightly woven vermilion silk. Next he strapped on his sharp sword, Mellee, Which he would not trade for a thousand gold marks. To the center of the square they led Turnevent, Who, when he felt spurs, ran as fast As a swallow could fly. He leapt into the saddle without touching the bow, And sounded his horn to alert his men; Throughout the city the heathens armed themselves. The king turned and spurred his steed. Alfamie said, “I commend you to Mohammed.

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Apollin, grant him victory And I’ll offer you a thousand gold marks!” He spurred out of the gate, Followed by as many as a hundred Saracens, Persians, Arabs, and Turks. They placed a statue of Mohammed on a wagon37 And pulled it across the raging waters; They left the wagon on a prominence, Attaching it securely with a silver chain So it could not move backward or forward. They all adored the statue and prayed humbly, Asking it to give them strength. They all offered gifts; Even the poorest of them offered a besant. Clarel set off, giving his horse free rein; He pulled up beside a surging river And beheld the French army all around. He saw how fierce they all seemed And began to lament to himself: “Mohammed, lord, what mighty danger awaits! I fear they will capture all Garsile’s holdings, For they are fiercer than a lion or a dragon.” 43. Our emperor arose the next morning And went to the waters around Atilie To relax with his closest counselors. Roland was there, bearded Naimes, Olivier, and worthy Otinel. As King Charles approached the water, Clarel saw him and shouted out: “Who are you, riding along there?” Said the emperor, “My friend, what do you want? I am King Charles. Why do you ask?” Clarel replied, “I’ll tell you why: I curse the hour you were born And also the hour you were conceived.

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37 Camps (p. 861) suggests that this is an automaton in the form of a figure whose limbs and head could be manipulated by wires or cords to appear lifelike. The word in the Cologny text is vertant, perhaps a variant of vertible for the rhyme. He cites the following example from Godefroy, vol. 8, p. 209: “Il (Athlas) avoit ceste industrie de faire des ymages en la forme de hommes lesquelz par aucuns engins vertibles sur quoy il les mettoit secretement faisoit mouvoir et cheminer.”



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May all your lineage be cursed; You have tormented my people for too long. I have just given your country and kingdom To the best Turk ever knighted – To Florient, who is so praiseworthy And who already rules the great lands of Syria. He will soon be crowned king of Paris.” – “You are too outspoken,” said Charles, “Too ready to speak folly, And a cowardly braggart. I have defeated and killed fifteen kings, And I promise you – it’s the truth – That I will never lift this siege Until Garsile is captured and destroyed, And his city burned, and its walls torn down.” Said Clarel, “Those are foolish words, Not to be believed, because you’ve lost your mind. Your head is white and your skin sagging; You’ll never kill another knight, Fight another battle, nor shatter another shield. You are so old you’re addlebrained. You should have been killed long ago.” Charles was shamed. He looked to his Franks And said, “Pagan, you are exceedingly arrogant! May you be cursed from this morning on; Soon you will be shamed and disgraced.” The king angrily threw off his cloak And said to his men, “Bring me my armor! I will go fight this faithless pagan.” Otinel leapt up, came over to the king, And spoke the words of a brave knight: “Sire, rest easy, for I swear to you That last evening I pledged my word to him And he pledged his to me. If you please, grant me this battle. I said that Mohammed must not win honor, For he cannot be brought out of hell, And all his power is not worth a peeled egg. Clarel, like a crazy fool, told me That holy Christianity is worthless, Like the baptism that renewed me. If you do not grant me this battle,

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You’ll never again be loved by me.” – “My dear godson, with this glove I grant you the fight.38 May the One who suffered on the Cross Protect you and bring dishonor to the pagan.” 44. King Clarel heard the discussion and the words Between Charles and Otinel. “Vassal,” he said, “acknowledge Mohammed And the most holy religion we profess Which will bring us all salvation, Because your God, who’s called Jesus, Was captured and imprisoned In Tartary, in the fires of Baratron. His remains are in deepest hell From whence he’ll never escape. Go on, get your weapons, for you are a felon!” Said Otinel, “I will be there without fail!” He immediately asked for his armor. 45. Olivier led the courtly messenger To be nobly armed beneath an olive tree. He placed a fine double hauberk over his shoulders And laced on King Galier’s helmet, Captured in Babylon from that warrior. Then Renier’s son39 belted on Corrouçouse – No smithy had ever forged a finer sword. They placed a quartered shield around his neck And Estout of Langres handed him a spear, Made of good iron with a shaft of laurel wood. Olivier fastened on his spurs While Belissent held his steed for him. Otinel kissed her three times Passionately, then mounted his horse. “My lady,” he said, “I am going to avenge God By destroying and shaming the heathens. For love of you they will pay dearly, If God keeps me safe, healthy, and whole.” 38 39

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– “My love,” she said, “may God keep you from harm!” The king had him blessed by the archbishop And his garments sprinkled with holy water. May Jesus in Glory watch over him And keep him safe, healthy, and whole. 46. Once Otinel was armed in this fashion He raised his spear and crossed the water. King Clarel spurred toward him, Shouting at the top of his voice: “You’ll regret that crossing, you traitorous apostate! Today you will be brought to shame, Cut to pieces, dishonored, and humiliated. Your own people cannot help you. So now, have you reconsidered Whether Mohammed is your protector, And ruler and king of all the world? He who believes in him is wise and sensible, Because the God to whom you’ve turned Isn’t worth two pennies compared to him.” Said Otinel, “You’ve been very arrogant In praising and lauding your gods; But by the One who suffered on the Cross, I’ll not eat again until you are killed, For Jesus Christ is all-powerful And no one should be worshipped except Him. I challenge you, so guard yourself well against me!” 47. Otinel spurred his swift warhorse, And King Clarel charged fiercely at him. They struck one another upon their shields And the iron points penetrated both, But their good hauberks saved them from death. They had struck each other so hard That they were both knocked from their saddles. Roland laughed and said to Belissent: “Those first blows were powerful!” The maiden replied, “I’m very frightened! Holy Mary, I commend my champion to you.” The pagans cried out, making a great racket;

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They uttered solemn prayers to Mohammed To help Clarel on this day And bring him victory by his command Over Otinel, who was fighting so well. Clarel rose to his feet and gripped his sword; Otinel likewise stood up. Both were infused with great courage And charged toward one another with steel swords. They struck such blows to sparkling helmets That their gems and flowers were knocked off. Sparks flew above the green grass; No living man had ever witnessed such a battle. 48. The Saracen was an excellent knight. He took Mellee with its golden pommel And struck Otinel a huge and powerful blow To the top of his helmet, but could not dent it, Although Otinel was doubled over. “Holy Mary!” exclaimed proud-faced Charles, “Protect the courtly messenger this day Who’s fighting to uphold your faith!” Otinel arose, filled with fury, Seized his shield and was prepared to avenge himself. He was holding Corrouçouse at the ready And struck a sharp blow to Clarel’s helmet That knocked away a quarter of it, Taking with it his lips and jaw So one could see the white of his teeth. Said Otinel, “That’s how you trade A blow for a tap, or a penny for a halfpenny.40 Your lady Alfamie, whom you loved so dearly, Will have no further use for you!” 49. The pagan was severely wounded; He could clearly see that he was dishonored forever. Holding Mellee, with which he had been knighted, He rushed madly toward Otinel

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40 Camps suggests in his note on p. 875 that the idea expressed here is most likely an increase in intensity.



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And would have struck him such hearty blows That, had God in his goodness not helped him, Charlemagne would have been distressed and angry. But Otinel was unafraid And fiercer than a cornered lion; He held his strong banded shield over his head. Clarel struck like a madman, Slicing it to bits upon the field And splitting Otinel’s gem-encrusted helmet Down to the coif with his sword. Had it not been for his gilded hauberk, No doctor could ever have healed him. He was stunned so totally That blood gushed from his mouth. “By my faith,” said Otinel, “this blow was too much! But by my patron St. Peter, You are about to receive such hearty blows From Corrouçouse with its gilded pommel, That, if you don’t protect yourself well, You will never again hold any city.” 50. Otinel rolled his eyes in anger, Raised his sword, prepared his blow, And struck Clarel on his shining helmet. He smashed it and there was no saving him: Neither coif nor byrnie could prevent His blow from slashing down to his front teeth. Clarel could not stay upright; He fell stretched out upon the ground, Cursing his lord, Mohammed. Otinel, overcome with joy and happiness, Shouted “Monjoie!” for all to hear. The French were happy and the pagans sad; There was much rejoicing for valiant Otinel. But listen now to the great trouble That befell Ogier, that valiant knight: When Alfamie heard the report That Clarel was defeated and dead, She fainted three times in her grief and despair. When she recovered, she stood up And immediately called her knights.

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More than forty hastened to her. “My lords,” she said, “do as I command: Seize Ogier, the wretched mercenary, And tie him up to a large stake. The French will never mock us!” – “My lady,” they said, “at your command.” They approached Ogier and seized him. But Ogier was strong and powerful; He struck one with his right fist Beside the ear, killing him at once. Then he struck another, with the same result. But it was all in vain, For there were too many Saracens and Persians. Forcibly they tied him tightly Around the waist to a large stake. He was guarded by five pagans Who tormented him mercilessly. We shall leave him now – may Jesus help him! – And come back to him at the proper time. 51. The battle and the fight were won. A pagan came to Garsile With the extremely sad news That Clarel had been bloodily slain By Otinel, who was most valorous. After hearing the messenger, Garsile was sadder than he had ever been. He lamented him like a crazy heathen: “Ah!” he said, “Clarel, I’ve lost you! The man who slayed you struck deeply at my heart. If I don’t avenge you, I’m not worth a straw!” He took his horn and sounded it at once; Seven thousand trumpets answered in reply. Thirty thousand were in the front ranks And those behind went uncounted. There were more troops than anyone had ever seen, All threatening Charles the old greybeard, Count Roland, and his beloved Olivier. If God does not watch over them with power, They will all be defeated and slain.

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52. Now our emperor’s army was well equipped, Shouting and charging across the field. Roland had assembled his mighty host And formed two squadrons of his noble knights, All prepared to do battle. The smaller of them had twenty thousand men, All from France, brimming with prowess. This day the pagans will suffer greatly; Many were to have a sad day, For many heads would be lost. 53. The French began happily striking blows; Each was well armed according to his wishes. The king, riding on a swift warhorse, Called to Naimes and said to him: “My dear friend, I entrust my standard to you; Carry it, my lord, and I will give you Volant, My warhorse that you esteem so highly. With this glove I turn over to you five castles. Call Guinemant, Robert of Troyes, And Gautier of Toulouse to accompany you.” – “Sire,” said Naimes, “at your command. If the God of Glory agrees to help us, I’ll bear it proudly and you will lose nothing.” 54. Our emperor mounted his steed, As did Count Roland and noble Olivier. The French followed without delay. They did not stop before reaching the water, Which they swiftly crossed. Naimes unfurled the king’s standard As they rode toward Otinel. The king had him given a fine horse, Which the esteemed knight mounted. He had him given a new shield and lance, Because his had been destroyed in the fight. At that moment Garin of Saint-Omer, Fromont of Troyes, and Girart of Montclair arrived

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And headed for the battle. The pagans closed ranks to attack; There were so many they could not be numbered. You could count three of them for one of ours. Garsile had his standard raised on high, And the pagans said, “Let’s joust with them! Let’s shatter our lances upon them! Let the agile youths come forward, All those eager to inherit France; Go win it with your steel swords, And let each of you show his courage. We have the advantage, so let’s kill them!” 55. The French rode forward in great force, And the Saracens most arrogantly. A single Turk rode ahead of the others, He was Florient, from mighty Syria; He had killed a thousand men with this sharp-edged sword. He asked King Garsile for the glove, The honor of the first blow to kill Roland Or Olivier or mighty Otinel, Whichever he met first; he’d seek out no other. He was nobly arrayed in expensive armor, And the cruel Turk was exceptionally strong. His Algerian hauberk was covered By a silk cloth from Bonivent, And his horse, which was very restive, Could not have been caught by a swift greyhound. His gonfanon was a sleeve That the daughter of the tyrant King Garsande Had happily given him that very morning. The name of this comely maiden was Cormande. The girl had inspired such boldness in him That he would be dead before noon. He raised his lance’s point to the wind And the gonfanon, attached by four silver nails, Began to blow in the breeze. He spurred his Algerian warhorse And came charging toward our knights, Shouting loudly as he rode. He called for Roland, the noble warrior,

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And threatened to do him harm And slay him upon the green grass. He said that France belonged to King Garsile And Charlemagne should have no part of it. Hearing this, Roland grew red with anger And spurred his warhorse toward the pagan. Florient fiercely rode straight at him, Striking Roland upon his shining shield. It was not the blow of a young boy or child, And it took manly strength to withstand it. 56. The Turk struck Roland’s shield, Smashing and shattering it beneath the boss. He broke off a section of Roland’s hauberk, Sending pieces flying from his fine burnished lance. He had struck Roland a glancing blow That cut off his right stirrup. Though the blow was violent, it was to no avail, For his lance broke, and Roland dealt him A mighty blow beneath the boss. He pierced the Turk’s shield, shattered his hauberk, Rammed his strong burnished lance into his body, And flung him dead on the lush grass. He cried “Monjoie!” and the pagans heard him. Said the count, “Filthy treacherous infidels, You will never be spoken of in France!” Said the emir, who was filled with sorrow: “By Mohammed, we have lost this man. It is Roland who took him from us! If I don’t avenge him, I will consider myself worthless.” 57. The emir galloped toward Olivier, And the count spurred Fauvel, his fine horse. The Saracen struck first, Piercing Olivier’s shield of iron and steel, Slicing a hundred links off his fine double hauberk, And causing blood to flow from his side. The count struck him on his quartered shield, Which was not worth a penny; Nor was his hauberk worth an olive branch.

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Olivier thrust the applewood shaft into his body And flung him down on the path before him. “Monjoie!” he cried, “strike, fellow knights!” Then the men of Flanders and Hainaut began to strike, Along with the Lorrainers, who are no cowards, Normans, Bretons, Angevins, and Berruiers. War cries sounded as the banners were lowered. The bold knights arranged their forces and joined battle. The despicable wretches were strong and fierce. May God, who governs all, confound them! 58. The battle was fierce and the melee brutal. Many of our knights were unhorsed, For which the pagans would pay dearly. The French showed fine swordsmanship, Slashing chests and cutting out entrails. Many a Saracen lay open-mouthed on the ground. Now hear about this faithless people: When they saw their army facing defeat, Each raised his head high: The wicked heathens knew much about evil. Each sliced a flap off his tunic And attached it to the blade of his lance. They did this – and it is a proven truth – To frighten the French army. The Saracens galloped toward them at full speed. They pursued our army with such force That they drove them back considerably. They could not resist the pagan attack; There were so many of these accursed people That the mountains and valleys were covered with them. 59. Ten thousand barbarians set out Under the standard raised by the Saracens. Each of them had a double hauberk, A shield, a helmet, and a banner of fine cloth – Red, white, green, or samite. They were guided by Alfan, a duke from Palestine Who carried King Alepantin’s banner. The Manceaux attacked them and sent them on their way.

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The Saracens shot their Turkish bows And hurled javelins and poisonous crossbow bolts. Otinel pressed on his fine golden stirrups And grasped his shield from Beauvais by the strap. He brandished his lance with its bright red banner And attacked the king of Palestine. Then he struck the king’s cousin Alfan right through the buckler And ripped apart his hauberk with his fine steel blade. He plunged the wooden shaft right through his body And flung him to the ground on his back. Now Geoffrey and Morion joined battle, As did Hugh of Sées and Bove, son of Gaunin. Geoffrey killed the treacherous barbarian, And Hugh of Sées killed Balsadrin. Otinel took revenge upon a treacherous pagan Who had killed Guinemant of Salin, Striking him dead in front of Alepantin. “Monjoie!” he cried, “forward, Poitevins! No pagans or Saracens will be spared!” 60. King Corsabré came down a hill, Bringing a battalion of ten thousand warriors In tight formation and led by Barbaré, Who brought them to join the fighting. Count Elin met them With four hundred well-trained Bretons. Hoel of Nantes came ready for battle: “Malo!” he shouted. “Noble knights, charge!” Guy of Coutances brought an army With seven hundred helmets, banners raised. Many of them would soon be unconscious. Valiant Troias fought Malfruit; The pagan carried four crossbow bolts: He shot the best of them at Troias, And the heathen shot it so accurately When he aimed at Troias that it hit the mark, Piercing and ripping off his flesh And bursting the links of his good hauberk. The bolt flew into his thigh, But Troias fought back as a brave knight should; The pagan’s shield and shiny hauberk were no match for him,

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As the blade of his lance plunged into his body. Troias struck him dead and went on his way, But Corsabré attacked him from the side Below his breast and into his ribs; He ripped apart his banner. His heart failed; the good knight fell And met his end; may God rest his soul! Alarmed, Count Elin rushed toward Corsabré. He deeply lamented Troias, the son of his sister. He would have wreaked revenge on King Corsabré, But Barbaré came at him from the side. Count Elin turned toward him And brandished his lance with its sturdy blade. It pierced Barbaré’s shield, which was inlaid with gold And edged all around with precious stones. He knocked him dead, saying “Now you’ve had it! You would have been better off staying behind!” The day was beautiful, and much time had passed. Clouds of dust filled the air. The pagans fought fiercely and their army rallied: They shouted, drummed, and sounded their horns. What can I say? They did our forces great harm. They pursued us so vigorously for such a long distance That not a single hauberk or shield could turn to face the enemy. Lambert of Avranches met his death, And Raoul of Blaye was pierced by arrows on both sides. He would not last long, for he was unconscious. Guy of Coutances had his head cut off, As did Tibaut of Rue and many others. These losses could never be restored. There was a squire named Amiré, A vavasor born in Paris, Son of the powerful Droon des Fossez. He was accompanied by a hundred young men: The oldest among them was barely twenty years old. They had taken weapons from the dead, And used their tunics to make banners. Seeing our terrified knights retreating, They advanced, ready to turn the tide. Our Frenchmen retreated More than a thousand yards. The entire battlefield was strewn

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With fallen and mutilated knights. The pagans battered them mercilessly. Corsabré stopped beside a block of stone: He was strong and fierce, sturdy and robust. The Turk cried out in a loud voice: “Now we shall see, pagans, what you will do!” He grasped his shield and rode toward our knights. He was about to do great damage When one of our men galloped toward him. His name was Hardouin: He was a young man, brave and wise, And he had recently been knighted. Hardouin struck the pagan on his golden shield; So violently did he smash his forehead That his eyes almost popped out of their sockets. The pagan was so stunned by the blow That he knew not where his horse had gone. Brave Hardouin grabbed him by the shoulders: Corsabré was now his prisoner and pledged to him. The young knight summoned five of his men: Gaudin, Fouque the Wise, Baudouin, the distinguished Lambert, And the renowned knight from Aurence. Said young Hardouin: “Guard this pagan for me And deliver him to my lord Charlemagne; You will turn the prisoner over to him on my behalf.” And they replied, “Just as you command; We will do so willingly.” The newly dubbed knight did well for himself. He raised the sword that was hanging at his side And chopped the heads off ten pagans. Everyone who saw this was terrified. They would not wait around, even for a thousand gold marks. Hardouin cried “Monjoie!” and the French returned. Thanks to his prowess, the battle was renewed. A hundred fallen knights mounted their horses And fought with their fine steel swords. Their strength was reinforced by bravery. A knight named Hellin, born in Brittany To a distinguished lineage, Struck a pagan king On his bejewelled gold helmet.

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The valiant knight struck such a mighty blow That the blade sliced all the way down to his shoulders. Hellin struck him dead and cried “Monjoie!” Then you would have seen the Bretons ride forth, Each of them prepared to strike mighty blows. The armed French knights gathered around Hellin, Each of them determined To slay the accursed heathens. It would be a dark day for the pagans. God! If only brave Otinel had been there! He would already have seized Barbaré’s banner. But he was elsewhere, and not idle in the least: He had killed and injured a thousand pagans, And his hands were drenched in their blood. He had already smashed into their standard three times, And decapitated three kings. 61. King Garsile said to Adragant: “My friend, things are going badly for me. I am heartbroken for my barons, Who have been slain before my very eyes. But if I don’t hang the greybeard Charlemagne, Along with Olivier, Otinel, and Roland From the gallows by the end of the day, I will never know joy for the rest of my life. If I don’t strike down Charlemagne, And if I do not defeat him in battle, I will never be able to lay claim to anything in France.” Said Adragant, “How can you be making threats? By Mohammed in whom I believe, And by the faith I owe to Jupiter and Tervagant, He doesn’t fear you in the slightest, For he has his nephew Roland with him, Along with Olivier, a skilled fighter. I saw them right from the beginning. Roland killed valiant Sinagon, Slicing both the knight and his horse in two. He is a devil, a demon, a tyrant! No one is safe against his sword. Any man would be crazy to wait around for him to strike. By Mohammed, in whom I believe,

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If he comes toward me, I will flee immediately!” And Garsile said, “He will not be safe From death, as long as I am alive.” Then he summoned Lanquedin of Aquilant And said, “My friend, do not linger here. Take command of ten thousand pagans And rescue my men straightaway.” And he replied, “Just as you command.” Lanquedin mounted a fine swift horse And had his men mount quickly. He spurred his horse toward the battleground. Thus the brutal battle flared up again; No man has ever seen a greater one. Count Roland broke through the battle lines, Defying the enemy with Durendal. No one he pursued was safe from death. The Bavarians and Germans fought well, As did the Burgundians, the Picards, and the Flemish: They tormented and killed many men. But the Saracens were not at all dismayed, For they sought neither peace nor mutual agreement. They conducted themselves proudly: Whoever fell was poorly rewarded. There was no weakness anywhere in their ranks. There were so many Saracens – may God destroy them! – That no living man could count them: They covered the meadows and fields. Then came Otinel, spurring his horse. Looking to his right, he saw Guinemant, Who had been unhorsed by three Persian Saracens. He was about to be slain when Otinel came charging toward him. He drew Corrouçouse from its scabbard And killed two of them, but the third escaped. He then returned Guinemant’s horse to him. Guinemant mounted joyfully: He had never been happier in his life. He would not have traded that horse for a thousand gold marks. After thanking Otinel profusely, He quickly drew his sword from its sheath And began to follow the pagan who had escaped. He sliced him all the way down to his front teeth. For his part, Otinel cried “Monjoie!”

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And battered the pagans with Corrouçouse. They all wished to be as far from him as possible. They fled before him, and he pursued them; They fled before him as fast as they could. Otinel found Olivier, Turpin, and Roland, Engeler and Gautier the Norman, Geoffrey of Anjou and Hernaut the German. Then they began to strike down the pagans, Tormenting and killing many. “God!” said Otinel, “true Almighty Father, These are the companions I was seeking!” Now the valiant knights were all together; Their weapons were as noisy as a falcon in flight. They fought so hard with their steel swords That one could not even have heard God thundering. The wretched infidels feared them greatly, And with good reason: this was not child’s play. King Garsile was much dismayed; He did not know what to do, or whether he should flee. 62. King Corsuble charged into the fray. Amidst the clatter of lances, he shouted his battle cry; He shouted three times and then drew his sword: He dealt a great blow to Fromont of Troyes, Striking his shield so swiftly That it served him no better than a peeled apple. He separated his whole shoulder from his body. But Otinel appeared, sword drawn, And shouted to Corsuble: “Vile wretch, you won’t last long! Turn your banded shield toward me: You are about to perish by my hand. Soon you will die a most unfortunate death.” The king replied, “Cursed be the day you made this pledge!” He struck Otinel so hard on his banded shield That he knocked half of it onto the field. He then hacked off a large portion of Otinel’s hauberk And sliced his horse in half, right through its spine: It fell dead in two pieces on the field. But Otinel quickly leapt up And came charging furiously toward the pagan.

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He dealt him such a blow with Corrouçouse That neither helmet nor coif nor gleaming hauberk Served him any better than a peeled apple. He split his head into four pieces And cut right through his chest and entrails, All the way down to his saddle. Corsuble could not survive such a blow: He fell to the ground and the war was finished. Said Otinel, “I am pleased with that. May his soul be commended to the devil!” He took the horse by its golden reins And leapt up onto the floral-trimmed saddle. He would not have traded that horse for all the gold in the land. There was no such horse from here to the sea. Then a loud cry of “Monjoie!” could be heard. Duke Naimes carried the banner inside enemy lines The distance of a crossbow shot. The foul and frenzied pagans pursued him: They thought it was their lucky day When they saw Naimes separated from his troops. But he charged right at them with his head held high, Riding Volant at great speed; He did not pause until he reached the battlefield. Then the clamor and the fighting began again. The Frenchmen drew their swords and joined battle; There has never been such a melee. It lasted the entire day, until nightfall. They slaughtered the foul and frenzied pagans. No one has ever seen such a battle. May God grant the pagans a short life! And that is what happened before nightfall. 63. Our emperor was glad and joyful To see his barons safe and sound. But he was sorrowful and angry That Ogier was in prison, bound and chained; Only his hands and feet were unshackled. His body was firmly attached By sturdy chains, to his great dismay. He was well guarded by five pagans at all times. Ogier politely beseeched the infidels:

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“In the name of God, my lords, loosen these chains. They are hurting my body: you have bound me too tightly.” The pagans replied, “Your appeal is pure folly. Soon you will suffer even greater torment, Once Charles is defeated and banished. Then you will be condemned to death, Hanged or burned or drowned in the sea, Or flayed alive. That wretched renegade Otinel Has slain the esteemed Clarel: You are the one who will suffer for that evil deed.” When Ogier heard this, he nearly lost his mind; His blood boiled with sorrow and anger. If at all possible, he would get his revenge. He waited until the guards had moved away; Then he took the chains that were restraining him And broke them with his bare hands. When he was free, he rushed toward the pagans And punched them so hard with his solid fists That their eyes popped out of their heads. He killed and cut all five of them to pieces. 64. Once the good duke Ogier was freed, He went to the stable to retrieve his horse. He found everything he had lost earlier. He immediately readied his horse Properly – there was no squire to be found – With bridle, saddle, and everything else required. Then he took his armor – he did not wish to change it, For he could never have found finer – And equipped himself as should a knight. He mounted up immediately And took his shield and steel sword. He rode forth fully armed upon his warhorse And began to shout to the Saracens: “My lords, I don’t plan to deceive you: I am heading off to help my companions In the battle where the fighting is the fiercest. I will return if you beg me to, But it will be to your great regret.” Hearing this, they all grew angry,

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And the cowardly wretches all shouted: “By Mohammed, you’ll not escape, liar!” They ran to get their arms at once, But the Dane had no wish to wait. He rushed to the gate and found the gate keeper, Who tried to lock the doors against him, But the Dane made him pay with his life: He struck off his head with his strong steel sword. He rode through the gate, Spurred on his steed, and began to strike. The pagans pursued him, praying to Mohammed To bring him harm, but they could not overtake him. Ogier the praiseworthy rode on And did not pull up until he reached the skirmish. There he found Garnier, Count Roland and bold Olivier, Otinel, the valiant knight, Naimes the bold, and count Gautier. He greeted them in the name of righteous God, And when they saw him, they rushed to kiss him And then asked if he were hale and hearty. He replied as a true knight should: “My lords, I’ve never felt better Or stronger, or more ready to fight, Thanks be to God, the righteous Father.” 65. Now our brave fighters were all together; They rejoiced over the arrival of the Dane And immediately reentered the fray. They ripped apart and brought grief to the pagans, And soon a thousand were dead and lost. Garsile saw his men in pain and dying, And his heart was filled with grief. He said to himself that he’d lost everything. He spurred his horse and left the battle, It was no wonder if he was greatly frightened And fled toward the city with all speed. When the brave horseman Otinel saw this He pursued Garsile with rage in his heart, Saying to himself that if Garsile escaped He would lose all honor.

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66. Otinel spurred across a valley, Holding his sword unsheathed in his hand. He saw Garsile fleeing furtively And jerked his rein to follow. As he approached, he said: “Sir Garsile, are you abandoning the fight? You’re leaving your frightened men Without a leader, sad and lost! Oh, wicked king! Your life is at its end: It’s a shame you lived to see this day, If God and my sharp sword protect me!” 67. Said Otinel, “For the love of God, sir king, Reject Mohammed and his laws And believe in the One who was crucified And suffered great torment for sinners. Be baptized into the French faith. My lord Charles will grant you all your rights And you will not lose a pea’s worth.” Garsile replied, “Mohammed, what will you do With this foul wretch, if you do not avenge me? Son of a bitch, evil apostate, You’ll regret abandoning Mohammed and his laws! This very day you’ll pay dearly for it. If I don’t take vengeance, I’m not worth a pea!” 68. King Garsile was very angry and shot two crossbow bolts At Otinel for his apostasy. He pricked his horse with his spurs, Raised his spear, and charged toward him, Striking Otinel upon his banded helmet And knocking off its flowery and gemmed decorations. The king would have well repaid Otinel And been very cruelly avenged on him If one of his stirrups had not been broken By the devil that had ensnared him; In spite of himself, he fell to the ground, Fracturing his right arm irreparably. King Garsile fainted from the pain of his wound.

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Roland looked across the hedgerow And saw Garsile where he had fallen; You can be sure he was not upset by this! He spurred his horse, holding on tightly, And raced to where Garsile lay. Before he was able to right himself, Count Roland rode up to him And grabbed his hands, as happy as could be. Once he had seized him, he was ready to kill him, But Garsile cried out, “My lord, don’t touch me! I surrender to you; let me live. I beg you not to kill me!” 69. The twelve peers gathered there And saw that Garsile had been defeated and captured; They all escorted him to the king. But the Dane remained behind And saw a pagan fleeing across the fields Toward safe haven within the citadel. He was huge and fierce And an emir of high parentage. All of his men had been slaughtered and slain. On that day he had wreaked havoc on our men, Killing, I think, more than three hundred of them. But the Dane moved in to face him. They lowered their lances and charged; The pagan missed and did not touch him, But Ogier struck him fiercely, Passing his lance through his heart. “So there, arrogant wretch,” he said, “You’ll never bother a Frenchman again!” He shouted “Monjoie!” and rode on, Not pulling up until he reached the melee. Our emperor took charge of his prisoner,41 Threw him into a locked dungeon, Where he died vilely and painfully. He would leave no inheritance. Our Frenchmen regained their courage, Each one striking with his engraved steel sword. 41

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They killed and defiled the pagans. Before vespers and the setting of the sun, They had defeated them and captured the citadel. Our men entered the town And killed anyone they could find. They found provisions aplenty. King Charles summoned Otinel, Who came and made a magnificent entrance. Charles had bearded Naimes fetch his daughter. He brought her at once And Charles gave her to wise Otinel. They went immediately to the church, Where an archbishop sang the Mass, And they were married according to God’s law. Once blessed, they turned to leave And went into the upper palace. The cooks had prepared the feast; They brought water and the king washed. The splendid celebration lasted for two weeks, And no man alive had ever witnessed finer. Our emperor remembered his duty: After the feast he summoned his nephew Roland, Olivier the brave and wise, And his most trusted barons. Then he divided his conquests among them, And paid them one after another as he desired. Otinel remained in the land With the noble and beautiful Belissent. He was granted and accorded land And was afterwards proclaimed its king and lord. 70. Our emperor prepared for his voyage. He wished to return to his kingdom in France. He asked leave of Otinel And of his daughter with the soft, slender body. Otinel granted it graciously and gladly. When the king departed, many people pulled their hair, Many shed tears, and there was great sadness. Charles kissed illustrious Otinel, And Belissent, for he loved her dearly. With these words he rode off

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And Otinel remained to guard the citadel. Our king rode for many long days Until he reached the city of Paris. There he was greatly honored by his French people, Who were overjoyed that God had brought him safely back. Charles retired to his castles And Otinel guarded the kingdom. He watched fiercely over every corner. He was a handsome, tall, and feared man, Brave and loyal, And a defender of holy Christianity. He ruled well all the days of his life And died a beautiful, saintly death. God in His mercy received his soul. Here ends the romance of Otinel.

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Glossary Abbreviations: G = Gui of Burgundy; O = Otinel; R = Roland at Saragossa Line numbers are given for the first three occurrences in each text. besant (G 895, 3033; R 204, 392, 855 et passim; O 1425)  a Byzantine gold coin first minted under Constantine, and see the Introduction, pp. 13–14 for other medieval coins mentioned in our poems boss (G 2780; R 211, 754; O 310, 494, 835 et passim)  circular protuberance in the center of a shield to deflect weapons buckler (O 573, 1834)  small round shield byrnie (G 62, 64, 741; O 836, 864, 873 et passim)  leather or padded coat, often covered with metal links; a coat of mail, also called a hauberk carbuncle (G 1902; R 562)  red gemstone cut without facets, usually to decorate helmets; said to have the capacity to emit a light in the dark chamberlain (O 251)  chief steward responsible for the household affairs of a medieval noble chausses (R 181)  leggings to cover an armed knight’s thighs cleric (G 1970, 2314; R 559)  member of the clergy, men set apart by ordination for the service of God; in general, a learned man coif (G 2840, 2868, 2900; O 1606, 1621, 2075)  hood of chain mail that was pulled over the head, worn with a hauberk emir (G 17, 178; R 563, 1086; O 242, 423, 1020 et passim)  high-ranking, independent Muslim leader, also referred to as a king fauchard (G 911; O 1194)  infantry staff weapon with a curved blade, wielded with both hands fief (G 1597, 1616, 1948 et passim; O 27)  landed estate held by a vassal under another noble or the king fleur de lis (G 724)  heraldic device, consisting of three leaves or petals resembling those of a lily, a traditional symbol of France and French royalty fleury shield (G 723)  heraldic device, consisting of a cross ending in the three leaves of a fleur de lis

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gambeson (G 2869)  coat of leather or cloth, stuffed with padding and quilted, used as armor or under the hauberk for extra protection geste (R 46, 239, 686 et passim; O 3)  exploits or deeds, in particular celebrated actions; also, stories and tales about those actions, notably the chansons de geste (and see footnote at R46) gonfanon (G 2822, 4261; O 1105, 1738, 1746)  banner, pennon, or standard usually long and tapered, affixed to a lance or other weapon to identify a knight (cf. pennon, standard) gorget (O 1144)  plate defense for the neck and tops of the shoulders hauberk (G 39, 606, 693 et passim; R 102, 183, 213 et passim; O 189, 298, 341 et passim)  coat consisting of double or triple interlocking links of mail, also called a byrnie. It weighed sixty pounds or so and extended to mid-thigh. The double hauberk is mentioned in O 1508, 1785, and 1822 hilt (G 1102)  handle of a sword, dagger, or similar weapon jerkin (G 2841)  a close-fitting jacket or vest, often of leather and usually sleeveless jongleur (G 1515; R 252, 366, 370 et passim; O 16)  wandering entertainer of medieval Europe who earned his living singing or reciting epic poems, lyric songs, and the like liege(men) (G 56, 3302, 3346, 3534 et passim)  a vassal or servant owing feudal service to an overlord, generally called a liege lord mace (R 105)  heavy medieval war club, usually with a spiked head mantle (G 3243, 3249; R 547, 609, 620 et passim)  a long outer garment or cloak, worn over the shoulders and attached at the neck by a clasp monjoie (G 744, 4518; O 944, 1098, 1156 et passim)  battle cry used to rouse French troops by both Charlemagne and others (and see footnote at G 744) nasal (R 113; O 456, 1252)  small rectangular plate of metal attached to the helmet to protect a knight’s nose niello (R349)  black alloy used to fill incised designs paladin (R 177, 191, 331 et passim)  any of the twelve peers of Charlemagne; more generally, a worthy knight palfrey (G 1611; R 74, 99, 550 et passim)  a smooth-gaited saddle horse ridden to spare the war horses; often ridden by women peer (G 223, 257, 564 et passim; R 1097; O 5, 57, 273 et passim)  any of the twelve members of Charlemagne’s close council; more generally, any male noble pennon (R 214, 325, 342 et passim; O 323, 441, 847 et passim)  a banner or flag with tails, attached to the end of a lance (cf. gonfanon, standard)

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peytral (G 2695)  here, a cloth covering for the breast and shoulders of a horse; often richly decorated pommel (R 745, 786, 866 et passim; O 115, 547, 1279 et passim)  the knob on the hilt of a sword, or the raised part at the front of a saddle psalter (G 3758; O 641)  devotional book containing the psalms samite (G 2418; R 546; O 1824)  an expensive oriental silk brocade seneschal (G 2606)  steward responsible for running the domestic affairs of a noble, administering justice, and representing him at court standard (G 156; O 1145, 1158, 1177 et passim)  a banner or flag attached to the end of a lance (cf. gonfanon, pennon) vassal (G 291, 687, 888 et passim; R 48, 1313; O 146, 1310, 1495)  within the medieval feudal system, a person holding land from an overlord and owing him fealty, generally in the form of military service vavasor (O 1899)  vassal holding lands from a greater vassal or lord ventail (R 184, 213; O 367)  adjustable lower part of the helmet for covering the face and neck; a sort of collar

Select Bibliography Editions and Translations “Aigar et Maurin, fragments d’une chanson de geste provençale inconnue.” Edited by A. Scheler, Le bibliophile belge, vol. 12, 1877, pp. 89–151. Aiol: A Chanson de Geste. Edited and translated by Sandra C. Malicote and A. Richard Hartman, New York, Italica Press, 2014. The Anglo-Norman Alexander (Le Roman de Toute Chevalerie) by Thomas of Kent. Edited by Brian Foster with Ian Short, vol. I, Text and Variants, London, Anglo-Norman Text Society, 1976. Anseïs von Karthago. Edited by Johann Alton, Stuttgart, Bibliothek des Litterarischen Vereins in Stuttgart, 194, 1892. Aspremont: chanson de geste du XIIe siècle. Edited and translated by François Suard, Paris, H. Champion, 2008. Benoît de Sainte-Maure, The Roman de Troie. Translated by Glyn S. Burgess and Douglas Kelly, Cambridge, D. S. Brewer, 2017. Berinus, roman en prose du XIVe siècle. Edited by Robert Bossuat, Paris, Société des anciens textes français, 2 vols., 1931–33. Jean Bodel. La Chanson des Saisnes. Edited by Annette Brasseur, Geneva, Droz, 1989. The Canso d’Antioca: An Occitan Epic Chronicle of the First Crusade. Edited by Carol Sweetenham and Linda M. Paterson, Burlington, VT, Ashgate, 2003. La Chanson de la Croisade albigeoise: La chanson de Guillaume de Tudèle. Edited and translated by Eugène Martin-Chabot, Paris, Champion, 1931, 2nd ed., 1950; reprint 1960. La Chanson de la Croisade albigeoise: Tomes II–III: Le poème de l’auteur anonyme. Edited and translated by Eugène Martin-Chabot, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1957–61; reprint 1973–76. La Chanson d’Otinel: édition complète du corpus manuscrit et prolégomènes à l’édition critique. Edited by Jean-Baptiste Camps, Littératures, Université Paris-Sorbonne – Paris IV, 2016. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-01664932 La Chanson de Roland – The Song of Roland: The French Corpus. General Editor Joseph J. Duggan, Turnhaut, Brepols, 3 vols., 2005. Une Chanson de Roland provençale. https://archives.vaucluse.fr/documentsa-savourer/tresors-en-ligne/une-chanson-de-roland-provencale-1887.html Accessed 10/25/2022. Contains Roland at Saragossa in digital form as well as information about the manuscript.

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La Chevalerie d’Ogier de Danemarche: Canzone Di Gesta. Edited by Mario Eusebi, Milano-Verese, Istituto editoriale cisalpino, 1963. Chrétien de Troyes. Arthurian Romances. Translated by William W. Kibler and Carleton W. Carroll, New York, Penguin Group USA, 1991. ——. Le Roman de Perceval ou Le Conte du Graal. Edited by Keith Busby, Tübingen, Max Niemeyer Verlag, 1993. ——. Le Chevalier au lion. Edited by Mario Roques, Paris, H. Champion, 1968. Daurel et Beton: A Critical Edition of the Old Provençal Epic “Daurel et Beton.” Edited by Arthur S. Kimmel, Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press (University of North Carolina. Studies in the Romance Languages and Literatures, 108), 1971. La Destruction de Rome (d’après le ms. de Hanovre IV, 578). Edited by Johann Heinrich Speich, Berne, Lang, 1988. Enfances Guillaume. Edited by Joseph Louis Perrier, New York, Publication of the Institute of French Studies, 1933. Fierabras: Chanson de geste du XIIe siècle. Edited by Marc Le Person, Paris, H. Champion, 2003. Gaydon: Chanson de geste du XIIIe siècle. Edited and translated by Jean Subrenat, Louvain, Peeters, 2007. Girart de Roussillon. Edited by Winifred Mary Hackett, Paris, Société des anciens textes français, 3 vols., 1953–55. Gui de Bourgogne. Edited by F. Guessard and H. Michelant, Les Anciens poëtes de la France, Paris, Jannet, 1858. Gui de Bourgogne: Chanson de geste du XIIIe siècle. Edited by Françoise Denis and William W. Kibler, Paris, H. Champion, 2019. Guillem de Berguedà: Edición critica, traducción, notas, y glosario. Edited by Martín de Riquer, 2 vols., Abadía de Poblet, 1971. The Jerusalem Bible. Edited by Alexander Jones, Garden City, New York, Doubleday, 1966. The Journey of Charlemagne to Jerusalem and Constantinople. Edited and translated by Jean-Louis Picherit, Birmingham, AL, Summa Publications, 1984. Lion de Bourges: Poème épique du XIVe siècle. Edited by William W. Kibler, Jean-Louis Picherit, and Thelma Fenster, 2 vols., Geneva, Droz, 1980. An Old French Trilogy: Texts from the William of Orange Cycle. Translated by Catherine M. Jones, William W. Kibler, and Logan E. Whalen, Gainesville, UP of Florida, 2020. Otinel. Edited by F. Guessard and H. Michelant, Les Anciens poëtes de la France, Paris, Jannet, 1858. La Prise d’Orange: Chanson de geste (fin XIIe, début XIIIe siècle). Edited and translated by Claude Lachet, Paris, Champion Classiques, 2010. Renaut de Montauban: Édition critique du ms. de Paris, B.N., Fr. 764 (R). Edited by Philippe Verelst, Ghent, Rijksuniversiteit te Gent, 1988. Roland à Saragosse. Edited by Mario Roques, Paris, H. Champion, 1956. The Roland and Otuel Romances and the Anglo-French Otinel. Edited by Elizabeth Melick, Susanna Fein, and David Raybin, Kalamazoo, Medieval Institute Publications, 2020.



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Le Roland occitan. Edited and translated by Gérard Gouiran and Robert Lafont, Paris, Éditions 10/18, 1991. Roques, Mario. “Roland à Saragosse, poème épique provençal (Premier Article).” Romania, vol. 67, no. 267, Jan. 1942, pp. 289–330. ——“Roland à Saragosse, poème épique provençal (Deuxième Article).” Romania, vol. 68, no. 269–70, Jan. 1944, pp. 18–42. —— “Roland à Saragosse (Troisième Article).” Roland à Saragosse et Ronsasvals. Examen Comparatif.” Romania, vol. 69, no. 275, Jan. 1946, pp. 317–61. La saga de Charlemagne. Translated by Daniel Lacroix, Paris, Librairie générale française, 2000. The Song of Roland. Translated by Glyn S. Burgess, London and New York, Penguin, 1990.

Literary and Historical Studies Ailes, Marianne. “Chivalry and Conversion: The Chivalrous Saracen in the Old French Epics Fierabras and Otinel.” Al-Masaq: Islam and the Medieval Mediterranean, vol. 9, no. 1, Jan. 1996, pp. 1–21. —— “Desiring the Other: Subjugation and Resistance of the Female Saracen in the chanson de geste.” French Studies, vol. 4, 2015, pp. 173–88. —— “Otinel: An Epic in Dialogue with the Tradition.” Olifant, vol. 27, 2012, pp. 9–40. Akbari, Suzanne Conklin. Idols in the East: European Representations of Islam and the Orient, 1100–1450. Ithaca, Cornell UP, 2009. Braet, Herman. Le Songe dans la chanson de geste au XIIe siècle. Droz; U of Ghent, Romanica Gandensia, 1975. Daniel, Norman. Heroes and Saracens: An Interpretation of the Chansons de Geste. Edinburgh, Edinburgh UP, 1984. de Weever, Jacqueline. Sheba’s Daughters: Whitening and Demonizing the Saracen Woman in Medieval French Epic. New York, Garland, 1998. Fangé, Augustin. Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire de la barbe de l’homme. Liège, Jean-François Brancart, 1774. Gîrbea, Catalina. Le Bon Sarrasin dans le roman médiéval (1100–1225). Paris, Classiques Garnier, 2014. Hardman, Phillipa, and Marianne Ailes. The Legend of Charlemagne in Medieval England: The Matter of France in Middle English and Anglo-Norman Literature. Cambridge, D.S. Brewer, 2017. Horrent, Jules. “Nouvelle rêverie sur l’épopée en langue d’oc: à propos de Roland à Saragosse.” Studia occitanica in memoriam P. Remy, Ann Arbor, U of Michigan P, vol. 2, 1986, pp. 75–86. Huet, Gédéon. “La légende de la Montagne d’Aimant dans le Roman de Berinus.” Romania, vols. 175–76, 1916, pp. 427–53. Jewers, Caroline. “Becoming Saracen: Seduction, Conquest, and Exchange in Rollan a Saragossa.” Romance Studies, vol. 27, no. 2, Apr. 2009, pp. 95–105. Jones, Catherine M. An Introduction to the Chansons de Geste, Gainesville, UP of Florida, 2014.

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—— “Roland vs. Oliver.” Approaches to Teaching the Song of Roland. Edited by William W. Kibler and Leslie Zarker Morgan, New York, Modern Language Association of America, 2006, pp. 201–06. Kay, Sarah. The Chansons de Geste in the Age of Romance: Political Fictions. Oxford, Clarendon, 1995. —— “Représentations de la féminité dans les chansons de geste.” Charlemagne in the North: Proceedings of the Twelfth International Congress of the Société Rencesvals, edited by Philip E. Bennett, Anne Elizabeth Cobby, and Graham Runnalls, Edinburgh, Société Rencesvals, British Branch, 1993, pp. 223–40. Keller, Hans-Erich. “Roland à Saragosse ou la vengeance d’Olivier.” Atti Del Secondo Congresso Internazionale Della “Association Internationale d’Etudes Occitanes.” Edited by Giuliano Gasca Queirazza, Turin, U di Torino, 1993, pp. 221–29. —— “Roland à Saragosse: rencontre de deux cultures.” Mélanges offerts à Rita Lejeune, Gembloux, Duculot, 1969, vol. 1, pp. 137–58. —— “Roland à Saragosse: sa position dans la production rolandienne.” Studia occitanica in memoriam P. Remy, edited by Hans Keller et al., Kalamazoo, Medieval Institute, vol. 2, 1986, pp. 93–106. Kinoshita, Sharon. Medieval Boundaries: Rethinking Difference in Old French Literature. Philadelphia, U of Pennsylvania P, 2006. Kullmann, Dorothea, “Roland à Saragosse parodie-t-il la courtoisie?” Parodies courtoises, parodies de la courtoisie: Actes du 14e congrès international de la Société internationale de littérature courtoise. Edited by Margarida Madureira, Carlos F. Clamote Carrero, and Ana Paiva Morais, Paris, Classiques Garnier, Rencontres, 2016, pp. 293–307. “Légende dorée” in Dictionnaire des lettres françaises: Le Moyen Âge, edited by Robert Bossuat, Louis Pichard, and Guy Raynaud de Lage, updated by Geneviève Hasenohr and Michel Zink, Paris, Fayard, 1992. Lafont, Robert. La Geste de Roland. Paris, L’Harmattan, 1991. Lejeune, Rita. “La naissance du couple littéraire Roland et Olivier.” Mélanges Henri Grégoire, vol. 2, Brussels, Secrétariat des Éditions de l’Institut, 1949– 53, pp. 371–401. —— “Le problème de l’épopée occitane.” 1972. Rpt. in Littérature et société occitane au moyen âge, Liège, Marche Romane, 1979, pp. 67–99. Lombard-Jourdan, Anne. “‘Munjoie!’ Montjoie et Monjoie. Histoire d’un mot.” Nouvelle Revue d’onomastique, vol. 21–22, no. 1, Jan. 1993, pp. 159–80. Ménard, Philippe. Le rire et le sourire dans le roman courtois en France au moyen âge (1150-1250). Geneva, Droz, 1969. Menegaldo, Silvère. Le jongleur dans la littérature narrative des XIIe et XIIIe siècles: Du personnage au masque. Paris, H. Champion, 2005. Raguin-Barthelmebs, Marjolaine. “Note sur la convergence des traditions du Ronsasvals et de Roland à Saragosse.” Revue des Langues Romanes, vol. 121, no. 1, 2017, pp. 139–58. Rajabzadeh, Shokoofeh. “The Depoliticized Saracen and Muslim Erasure.” Literature Compass, vol. 16, 2019, no. 9–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/ lic3.12548.



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Ramey, Lynn Tarte. Christian, Saracen and Genre in Medieval French Literature. New York, Routledge, 2001. Rychner, Jean. La chanson de geste: Essai sur l’art épique des jongleurs. Geneva, Droz; Lille, Giard, 1955. Skemer, Don C. Binding Words: Textual Amulets in the Middle Ages. University Park, The Pennsylvania State UP, 2006. Vallecalle, Jean-Claude. Messages et ambassades dans l’épopée française médiévale: l’illusion du dialogue. Paris, H. Champion, 2006. Wright, Monica. Weaving Narrative: Clothing in Twelfth-Century French Romance. University Park, The Pennsylvania State UP, 2009.

Reference Works and the Old French and Old Occitan Languages Godefroy, Frédéric. Dictionnaire de l’ancienne langue française, et de tous ses dialectes du IXe au XVe siècle, Paris, F. Vieweg, 1881–1902. http://micmap. org/dicfro/search/dictionnaire-godefroy/ Greimas, Algirdas Julien. Dictionnaire de l’ancien français. Paris, Larousse, 1992. Levy, Emil. Petit dictionnaire provençal-franc̦ ais. 4th ed., Heidelberg, Winter, 1961. Kibler, William W. An Introduction to Old French. New York, Modern Language Association of America, 1984. Moisan, André. Répertoire des noms propres de personnes et de lieux cités dans les chansons de geste françaises et les ɶuvres étrangères dérivées. 2 vols., Geneva, Droz, 1986. Plouzeau, May. “‘Vert Heaume,’ approches d’un syntagme.” Les Couleurs au moyen âge, Senefiance 24 (CUERMA), Aix-en-Provence, 1988, pp. 591–650. Raynaud de Lage, Guy, and Geneviève Hasenohr-Esnos. Introduction à l’ancien français. 2e ed., revised by Geneviève Hasenohr, Paris, SEDES, 1993. Ross, D. J. A. “Pleine sa hanste.” Medium Aevum, vol. 20, 1951, pp. 1–10. Suard, François. Guide de la chanson de geste et de sa postérité littéraire: XIeXVe siècle. Paris, H. Champion, 2011. Tyl-Labory, Gillette.“Chronique du Pseudo-Turpin.” Dictionnaire des Lettres Françaises, Moyen Age, edited by Robert Bossuat, Louis Pichard, and Guy Raynaud de Lage, updated by Geneviève Hasenohr and Michel Zink, Paris, Fayard, 1992, pp. 292–95.

Index of Proper Names This Index contains all proper names of persons or places. Occurrences are cited in the order of the texts included in this volume: Gui of Burgundy (G), Roland at Saragossa (R), and Otinel (O). If there are more than six occurrences of a proper name, we cite only the first three or four, and the final one, to indicate the range. We have not included frequently used religious terms, such as God, Jesus, Christ, Christians, Christianity, Easter, etc. Adam  G3009, 3014, the first man. Adragant  O1968, 1979, Muslim advisor to Garsile. African  R203, 545, 553, 1258, describes a type of silk fabric. Aix  G69, town in southern France (Gascony) conquered by Charlemagne. Alberic (of Burgundy)  G231, 1864, 1967, 2122….4040, companion of Gui and son of Basin of Burgundy. Alberic  G293 relative of Maucion and Ganelon. Alepantin  O1826, 1844, Muslim king. Alexandria  O139, city in Egypt. Alfamie  O984, 1033, 1039, 1412, 1591, 1632, a beautiful Muslim, cousin of the caliph of Nubia and Clarel’s sweetheart. Alfan  O1825, 1834, Muslim duke from Palestine. Algerian  R183, 675, 817….1371; O298, 492, 1385, 1735, 1748, type of hauberk made in Algiers, a city in northern Africa on the Mediterranean. (See note at R183.) Also, at O438 and O726, it describes a valuable horse. Almerian (silk)  G2079, 3382, Muslim city or territory, possibly Almeria, a Spanish town in Andalousia captured by the Muslims in the eleventh century and recaptured by the Christians in 1147. Alori (1)  G1415, 1504, 4168, 4198, 4213, relative of Ganelon and one of his companions in Charlemagne’s army. Alori (2)  G286, 464, 470, nephew of Maucion. Alyrant  R674, Muslim warrior slain by Roland. Amalrant  R519, 956, Muslim king summoned by Marsile, slain by Roland. Amargot  O1228, Muslim killed by Girart of Orléans. Amaudras  G184, 3632, 3825, 3878….4092, Muslim ruler of Maudrane and uncle or nephew of Escorfaut of Aumarie. Killed by Archbishop Turpin for refusing to convert. Line 3826 says he is the son of Escorfaut’s sister, whereas in G3914 Escorfaut calls him his uncle. (See note at G3914)

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Amauri  G4039, one of Gui of Burgundy’s companions. Amiré  O1898, a vavassor, son of Droon des Fossez. Angeler  G230; R236, the father of Savari the Gascon. Angers  O1281, city in the Loire valley. Angevin  G431, 3719; O1795, from Angers. Anseïs  G234, father of an unnamed companion of Gui. Ansel  O715, one of Charlemagne’s twelve peers. Apollin  G2603; O602, 793, 1413; O602, 793, 1413, Muslim “god.” Apostle  see Peter. Aquilant (1)  G1687, 1711, 1716, 1718.…4534, king of the city of Luserne. Aquilant (2)  O1995, unidentified Muslim city. (See Lanquedin.) Arabian  G459; R123, 428, 446; O1168, much-admired breed of horses. Arabs  G3825; O1417, another name for Muslims. Arapater  O1234, 1247, 1254, Muslim from Florient beyond India, killed by Otinel. Ardennes  G23, 327, 1009, 1039, 1238, 1246.…3213, the Ardennes. Range of mountains in northeastern France and Belgium often associated with Thierry and his son Berard. Ascension  G2939, Feast of the Ascension, commemoration of the day that Christ ascended into Heaven after his Resurrection. Askanard  O783, 834, Muslim king, called “the Tyrant.” Astorga  G70, Spanish city in the present-day province of León conquered by Charlemagne. Atilie  O191, 673, 677….1435, Garsile’s capital in Lombardy. Aude  G1410, 1607, 4348, 4358….4398; R280, Olivier’s sister and Roland’s fiancée. Augorie  G99, 115, 168, 169….4424, imaginary Spanish city along the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostella between Logroño and León, probably near Burgos. Ruled by Huidelon’s nephew Escorfaut. Aurence  O1932, unidentified locale in Charlemagne’s realm. Avalon  G3883, possibly the Arthurian mythical city of Avalon, or perhaps an actual town in the Yonne near Vézelay (see the note at G3883.) Avranches  O1972, town in Normandy. (See Lambert) Ayrant (king of)  R518, territory of a Muslim king summoned by Marsile. Babylon (emir of)  G1510; R563, in our chansons de geste, Babylon generally designates Cairo in Egypt, founded near a Roman city of that name, rather than the better-known city in Mesopotamia. Baddass (Old French Malveisin)  G289, companion of Ganelon. Balagant  R650, Muslim emir. Balant  R517, 1044, 1063, 1149, Muslim king summoned by Marsile. Balsadrin  O1841, Muslim slain by Hugh of Sées. Balsamin  O780, 860, 864, Muslim king of Ninivent, killed by Olivier. Balsan (of Montpellier)  O949, Muslim killed by Olivier. Balyrant  R667, Muslim warrior slain by Roland. Baratron  O1500, from Greek barathon, i.e., Hell. Barbaré  O1849, 1878, 1881, 1962, Muslim leader under King Corsabré, killed by Count Elin. Barbarin  G620, 665, 674, 687….988, interpreter for Escorfaut of Carsade. He



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converts and helps Gui, then seems to reappear with the name Boidant (G1981, 1982, 1984) when Gui turns over his army to him. Barbary  O140, North Africa west of Egypt. Basin (of Burgundy)  G231, father of Alberic of Burgundy. Baudouin  O1931, one of Hardouin’s companions. Bavaria  G1181, 3248, 3256, 4116, 4246; O256, Naimes of Bavaria; G1206, Bavaria, region in Germany. Bavarian  G1666, gate of Luserne through which Charlemagne enters in disguise; G2947 (helmet), from Bavaria; O720, 2008, men from Bavaria, coupled with Germans. Beauvais  O1831, city north of Paris, source of Otinel’s shield. Belamer  O1035, one of Alfamie’s ladies-in-waiting. Beline  G532, small impoverished town in the Landes (Gironde), near Bordeaux and on the pilgrimage route to Compostella. Belissent  O353, 362, 392….2307, Charlemagne’s daughter. Benoas  O238, unidentified lands claimed by Otinel. Beranger  G293 relative of Maucion and Ganelon. Berangier  G625, 1060, 1436, one of Charlemagne’s twelve peers. Berard (of Ardennes, of Montdidier)  G227, 327, 344, 786.…4334, Gui’s companion and Thierry of Ardennes’ son, one of Charlemagne’s peers. Berbers  O241, desert dwellers of north Africa claimed by Otinel. Berruier  O946, black Muslim killed by Roland. Berruiers  O1795, men from Berry in central France. Bertolais  O717, one of Charlemagne’s twelve peers. Bertrand  G226, 242, 244, 259….4561, Gui’s companion, son of Duke Naimes. Besançon  G1320, French city in central France. Bethlehem  G1879, 3987, 4216, 4273; O513, town where Christ was born. Blanchart  O316, Roland’s horse, slain by Otinel. Blaviet  R125, horse captured by Charlemagne and given to Olivier. Blaye  O1893, city in the Loire valley. (See Raoul) Boidan (of Moride)  G1681, 1684, interpreter in Luserne who recognizes the disguised Charles and is then killed by the emperor. Boidant  G1981, 1982, 1984, see Barbarin. Bonivent  O1736, origin of a silk fabric. Bonmatin  R1051, name given by Balant to Roland’s horse Malmatin after capturing it. Boozer (Old French Hendevins)  G291, relative of Maucion and Ganelon. Bordeaux  G68, 529, 2226, city in France, conquered by Charlemagne. Bove  O1839, Christian knight. Brachant  O302, Muslim killed by Charlemagne, from whom he took Goliath’s helmet. Braslimonda  R59, 328, 347, 354….1283, wife of Marsile, enamoured of Roland. Bravis  R701, 702, 721, 737 aged count who seeks revenge against Roland. Braynant  R859, Muslim slain by Charlemagne, from whom he took Roland’s sword, Durendal. (See the note at R859.) Bretons  O725, 1795, 1852, 1955, men from Brittany serving in Charlemagne’s army.

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Brihan  G288, relative of Maucion. Brittany  G238; O1948, region in northwestern France. Bruillant  G2343, son of Haltebriez, slain by Gui of Burgundy. Burgundians  O723, 1373, 2009, men from Burgundy serving in Charlemagne’s army. Burgundy  G231, 375, 389, 420….4456; O745, province in southwestern France. (See Gui and Samson.) Butor (of Saulorie)  G3631, ally of Escorfaut of Augorie. Cain  G995 (Cain’s descendents) 994, Muslims and Infidels said to descend from the Biblical Cain, who betrayed his brother Abel. Carmel (of Tabarie)  O963, 975, 978, 991, Muslim warrior slain by Roland. Carsade  G98, 117, 157, 161, 1265.…4317, imaginary town on the pilgrimage route to Compostella, associated with Escorfaut. Castilla (king of)  R520, territory of a Muslim king summoned by Marsile. Champenois  G210, from the Champagne region of France. Charles, Charlemagne  G3, 5, 26, 29….4578; R32, 109, 120….1407; O15, 18, 21….2314, the emperor Charlemagne. Clarel  O785, 789, 797….2123, Muslim champion called “The Cheerful.” Clariados (of Numilliant)  O1166, Muslim slain by Engeler. Clarvent  O1281, unidentified city in France. Combie  G105, an unidentified locale. (See Floriant.) Córdoba  G16, 34, 134, Cordova, capital of a Muslim kingdom in Spain. Cormande  O1742, daughter of the Muslim king Garsande. Cornius  G3910, 4035, gatekeeper in Maudrane, killed by Huidelon. Corrouçouse  O86, 115, 350….2074, name of Otinel’s sword. Corsable  O781, 845, 853, Muslim king, killed by Ogier. Corsabré  O1847, 1870, 1874….1928, Muslim king. Corsabrin  G178, emir who successfully defended Montesclair against Charles. Corsuble  O2053, 2061, 2080, Muslim killed by Otinel. Corteine  G1099, 1102; O961, 1003, name of Ogier the Dane’s sword. Coutances  O1855, 1895, city in Normandy. (See Guy) Dane  G35, 1059, 1117, 1640….4247; O257, 400, 718….2254, from Denmark, used with Ogier. Danemon (the Bearded)  G291, relative of Maucion and Ganelon. Danemont  G877, 888, 893, 909….4037, one of two sons of Huidelon of Montorgueil. He meets Gui in single combat. Daniel  G2928, saved from the lion’s den in the Old Testament. Here, the miracle is attributed to Christ. Defiance (Old French hastie)  O193, river near Atilie. Denis (saint)  G53, 811, 1322, 2051….3592, St. Denis, first bishop of Paris in the third century, who gave his name to the Royal Abbey there. Dirtbag (Old French Nules)  G289, relative of Maucion and Ganelon. Dogface (Old French Forrez)  G289, relative of Maucion and Ganelon. Dragolant  G2735, 3056, 3110….4037, son of Huidelon of Montorgueil and brother of Danemont. Droon (1) (the German)  O1247, Christian warrior slain by Arapater. Droon (2) (des Fossez)  O1900, father of Amiré.



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Durendal  R63,155, 190….1380; O274, 311, 397….2006, name of Roland’s sword. Elin  O1851, 1875, 1879, one of Charlemagne’s knights. Ely  G104, 107, one of Charlemagne’s knights. Engeler  O715, 1164, 1169….1210, 2039, one of Charlemagne’s twelve peers. England  O150, 1280, island kingdom in Western Europe. Escorfaut (1)  G613, 671, 686, 691….889, king of Carsade and lord of Nubia, killed in battle by Gui. Escorfaut (2)  G3539, 3614, 3620, 3628….4424, king of Augorie, Huidelon’s nephew, and uncle or nephew of Amaudras of Maudrane. Estella  G72 Spanish city on the pilgrimage route to Compostella captured by Charlemagne. Estout (of Langres)  G228, 301, 306, 311….4334; R238; O101, 105, 716….1514, in G, son of Oton of Langres and companion of Gui. However, in R and O, one of Charlemagne’s twelve peers, and therefore of the earlier generation. (See also the note at G311.) Étampes  G2496, city in the Beauce region, south of Paris. Eve  G3010, 3013, the first woman. Farnagan  R358, 465, 511, 525, 704, Muslim king guarding an orchard outside of Saragossa, killed by Roland. Fauvel  O1782, name of Olivier’s horse. Fécamp  G78, abbey of Fécamp, Seine-Maritime, founded by Richard of Normandy. Fernagu  O244, 432, uncle of Otinel. (See the note at O244) Ferragut  R658, Muslim king who once owned Roland’s horse Malmatin. Flanders  O1793, region in present-day Belgium. Flandrine (de Monbel)  O362, 370, one of Belissent’s ladies-in-waiting. Flemings  O723, 2009, men from Flanders serving in Charlemagne’s army. Flori  O1113, name of Otinel’s horse. Floriant (of Combie)  G105, 108, 110, 118, a converted Muslim and interpreter for Charlemagne. Florient (of Syria)  O154, 1451, 1727, 1758, Muslim to whom Garsile has given France; killed by Roland. Florient  O1234, Muslim city beyond India. Forré  G9, king of Nobles, killed when Charlemagne captured the city. (See the note at G11.) Foucher  G287, relative of Maucion and Ganelon. Fouque  O1930, one of Hardouin’s companions. France  G22, 131, 148, 203….4571; O34, 153, 158….2300, land of the Franks; Charlemagne’s possessions taken as a whole. Franks  G2270, 2760, 2956, 3117, 3658; O1469, Charlemagne’s men. French[men]  R333, 344, 359, 390….1379; O79, 88, 100….2312, from France. Fromont (of Troyes)  O1711, 2056, one of Charlemagne’s knights. Gabriel (saint)  G1703, the archangel Gabriel, sent by God as a messenger to Charlemagne. Gaifier  O1124, king whose banner Belissent gives to Otinel. Galas (king of)  R519, territory of a Muslim king summoned by Marsile.

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Galatas  O1175, Muslim ruler of Tyre. Galatiel  O371, Old Testament figure. (See the note at O371.) Galicia  G4435, province in northwestern Spain. Galien  O236, 1315, Otinel’s father. Galier  O1509, Muslim king from whom Otinel’s helmet was captured. Ganelon  G272, 295, 1414, 1417, 4405, second husband of Charlemagne’s sister Gille, father of Maucion and Roland’s step-father. Garin (of Saint-Omer)  O1710, one of Charlemagne’s knights. Garnier (1)  O253, innkeeper who hosts Otinel. Garnier (2)  O1281, Christian knight killed by Clarel. Garnier (3)  O2168, one of Charlemagne’s men. Garsande  O1740, Muslim king, father of Cormande. Garsile (1)  O10, 29, for Marsile, Muslim emir. Garsile (2) (of Tabarie)  O35, 45, 92….2244, Muslim king who opposes Charlemagne and the French. Gascons  G210, men from Gascony. Gascony  G69, 533, 2227, province in southwestern France. Gaudin  O1930, one of Hardouin’s companions. Gaufroi  G4147, father of Ogier the Dane. Gaunin  O1839, father of Bove. Gautier  O40, 1201, 1695, 2039, 2171, a baron at Charlemagne’s court, variously called “of Termes,” “of Toulouse,” and “the Norman.” It is uncertain whether there is one or are several men by the same name. Geoffrey (of Anjou)  G229, 2123, 2191; O1838, 1840, 2040, son of Solomon, companion of Gui of Burgundy and of Otinel. Gerard  O715, one of Charlemagne’s twelve peers. Gerer  G235, O716 father of an unnamed companion of Gui of Burgundy. Gerin  G235, one of Gui of Burgundy’s companions. Germans  G1189, 1551; O720, 1247, 1373, 2008, 2040, men from Germany who served in Charlemagne’s army. Gille  G1606, 3274, 3582, 4347, 4386, Charlemagne’s sister, Ganelon’s wife, and Roland’s mother. Gilles  R276, son of Sampson, slain by Marsile’s army. Girard (of Valcorant)  G292, relative of Maucion and Ganelon. Girart (1) (of Orléans)  O1201, 1228, 1251, one of Charlemagne’s knights, slain by Arapater. Girart (2) (of Montclair)  O1711, a Christian knight. Gironde  G530, estuary in the southwest of France, formed at the confluence of the Garonne and Dordogne rivers. Golian  R1219, 1220, 1234, 1341, Muslim who betrays a treasure-laden caravan to Olivier. Goliath  O301, Old Testament opponent of David. Gorreya  R1272, 1398, 1403, castle near Saragossa. (See the note at R1272.) Guaïte  O1035, 1187, one of Alfamie’s ladies-in-waiting. Gui  G225, 378, 388, 389, 420….4580, Gui of Burgundy, son of Samson of Burgundy. Guilemer  G766, 1967, 2123, 2192, 2361, a companion of Gui of Burgundy.



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Guinemant (1) (of Salin)  O1694, 1843, Christian avenged by Otinel. Guinemant (2)  2020, 2025, 2026, one of Charlemagne’s men. Guizamant  R401, 402, 405, 421, 426, a Norman merchant. Guy (of Coutances)  O1855, 1895, one of Charlemagne’s men. Hainaut  O1793, region in present-day Belgium. Haltebriez  G2343, father of Bruillant, slain by Gui at Montorgueil. Halteclere  O957, name of Olivier’s sword. Hardouin  O1919, 1922, 1927, 1933, 1943, a young knight who captures Corsabré. Hardré  G286, 293, 1414, 1503, 3276, 4167, 4198, relative of Maucion and Ganelon. Haston  G233, son of Ivoire of Ivorie and companion of Gui. HealAll (Old French seine)  O1071, herb given to the wounded Ogier. Hellin  O1948, 1954, 1958, a Breton knight. Henry  G1002, companion of Charlemagne. Herbert  G290, relative of Maucion and Ganelon. Herkenbalt  G290, relative of Maucion and Ganelon. Hernaut (the German)  O2040, one of Charlemagne’s men. Hoel (of Nantes)  O1853, one of Charlemagne’s men. Honoré (saint)  G601, 1134, 2051, bishop of Amiens, feast day May 16. Hugh (of Sées)  O1839, 1841, Christian knight who kills Balsadrin. Huidelon  G166, 878, 974, 1834….4422, Huidelon of Montorgueil and Montesclair, father of Danemont and Dragolant, husband of Margerite, and uncle of Escorfaut of Augorie. He becomes an important ally of Gui of Burgundy. Hungarian  O740, from Hungary, describing a mule on which Belissent rides. Hungary  O177, country in eastern Europe. Huon (1)  G234, father of one of Gui’s companions whose name is not given. Huon (2)  G954, 1863, 1933, 2121, 2192, companion of Gui. Huon (3) (of Clarvent)  O1281, Frenchman slain by Clarel. Ivoire (of Ivorie)  G233, 569, 625, 1060, 1436 Haston’s father and one of Charlemagne’s twelve peers. Ivorie  G233, unidentified locale associated with Ivoire. Izzy (Old French Isoart li jesnes)  G288, relative of Maucion and Ganelon. James (saint)  G4435, 4498, 4573; R272, St. James the Apostle, whose pilgrimage site at Compostella, in Galicia, was important in the rise of medieval chansons de geste. Jerusalem  G539, 2931, 4013; R312, 600, city in the Holy Land. John (saint)  G445; R867, most likely John the Baptist, whose feast day (June 24) was widely celebrated in the Middle Ages. Jonah  G2929, saved in the Old Testament from the body of a whale. In our poem, the miracle is attributed to Christ. Joseph (saint)  G2914, 2916, spouse of Mary, Christ’s mother. Jove  O602, 1394, Muslim “god.” (See also Jupiter.)

272

Index of Proper Names

Judas  G2933, apostle and betrayer of Jesus. Jupiter  O792, 802, 1981, Muslim “god.” (See also Jove.) Lambert (of Avranches)  O1892, 1931, one of Charlemagne’s men. Landes  G531, Les Landes, a forested area of southwestern France on the Atlantic coast. Langres (Odon and Estout de)  G228, 301, 318, 343, 358….4354; O1148, 1514, town in Haute-Marne near the Champagne-Ardennes. Lanquedin (of Aquilant)  O1995, 2000, a Muslim. Lazarus (saint)  G2269, 2927, 4337; R867, brother of Mary and Martha, raised from the dead by Jesus. Logroño  G72, city in the north of Spain on the pilgrimage route to Compostella, captured by Charlemagne. Lombardy  O190, 663, 676….1317, region in northwestern Italy. Longinus  G989, 2268, 3841, soldier who pierced Christ’s side with his lance after the Crucifixion. Lorrainers  O721, 1794, men from Lorraine serving in Charlemagne’s army. Ludie  O1315, mother of Otinel. Luserne  G97, 116, 145, 191, 192….4574, Muslim stronghold in Spain held by Aquilant. Macabé  G1728, father of Aquilant of Luserne. Macabré (from Vaulion Hill)  G2004, 2013, 2021, 2040, 2058, 2065, Muslim guard at Montorgueil, tricked by Gui into allowing him and his men to cross the ford and avoid the powerful magnets that protect the town. Maine  G238, men from the province of Maine in the west of France, capital Le Mans. Malfruit  O1858, a Muslim, slain by Troias. Malingerer (Old French Malingres)  G289, relative of Maucion and Ganelon. Malmatin  R193, 199, 288….1165, name of Roland’s horse in Roland at Saragossa. Malo  O1854, war cry of Hoel of Nantes, for Saint-Malo, an important port on the Atlantic. Manceaux  O1827, men in Charlemagne’s army from Le Mans. Marche  O237, unknown Muslim land. Marguerite  G3377, 3380, 3384, 3398, 3407, wife of Huidelon of Montorgueil, mother of Danemont and Dragolant. Marne  O337, river in central France. Marsile  G1511, 4131, 4204, 4393, 4406; R40, 57, 275, 319….1149, Muslim king with whom, in the Song of Roland, Ganelon plots his betrayal of Charlemagne’s rearguard. (See note at O10.) Mary  G717, 727, 915, 2081….4494; R849, 868; O483, 607, 639….1579, Mary, the mother of Christ. Mary Magdalene  G2270, 2930, 2938, repentant sinner forgiven by Christ. Maucion  G273, 278, 305, 314….487, Ganelon’s son, half-brother of Roland. Maudrane  G180, 183, 3421, 3487….4320, imaginary Muslim city along the



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273

pilgrimage route to Compostela, probably near present-day León. Ruled by Amaudras, the nephew of Escorfaut of Augorie. Maugier  O1148, Muslim slain by Estout of Langres Mauré  G1415, companion of Ganelon. Mecca  G1722, Mecca, holy city in present-day Saudi Arabia and place of pilgrimage for Muslims. Meliant  O1167, land ruled by Charlemagne’s peer Renier. Mellee  O891, 1403, 1575, 1595, name of Clarel’s sword. Migrados  O383, 435, name of Otinel’s horse. Mohammed  G636, 650, 667, 678….4057; R357, 394, 698….893; O55, 68, 144….2215, the prophet, but assumed to be a Muslim god, often associated in a Muslim “Trinity” with Apollin and Tervagant. Monbel  O362, 370, unidentified locale in France. (See Flandrine) Monbrant  O808, see Samson (2) Monjardin  G71, town conquered by Charlemagne, along the pilgrimage route to Compostella between Estella and Logroño. Monjeu: O746, the Great St. Bernard Pass through the Alps. (See the note at O746.) Monjoie  G744, 2363, 4518; O944, 1099, 1156….2261, battle cry of Charles and his men. (See the note at G744.) Monpoun  O751, unidentified town in Italy. Mont Negre  R266, 340, 350….1328, unidentified mountain near Saragossa. Montclair  O1711, unidentified locale in France. (See Girart (2).) Montdidier  G227, 1239, 1576, 1864….3889, city in the department of Somme, north of Paris. (See Berard.) Montesclair  G96, 114, 176, 182….4318, imaginary city possessed by Huidelon of Montorgueil. Montferrant  O749, the Monferrato region in Italy. Montlhéry  G451, 462, headquarters of Maucion’s family, in a castle founded by Ganelon. Montmartre  O729, hill in Paris. Montorgueil  G96, 114, 162, 855….4318, imaginary city possessed by Huidelon of Montorgueil along the pilgrimage route to Compostella, between Los Arcos and Logroño. Montpellier  O949, city in Provence. (See Balsan.) Moride  G1681, unidentified locale. (See Boidan.) Morie  O747, possibly Ivrea on the Dora Báltea River in Italy. (See the note at O746.) Morillon  G1314, 1504, unidentified locale associated with Ganelon’s race of traitors. Morion  O1838, Muslim slain by Geoffrey of Anjou. Motier  O950, Muslim killed by Ogier the Dane. Murgalant  G3923, Muslim who plays chess with Amaudras of Maudrane. Naimant  O877, Clarel’s battle cry. Naimes  G10, 44, 130, 189….4463; O179, 207, 256, 402….2277, Duke of Bavaria, father of Bertrand, one of the twelve peers, and Charlemagne’s main counselor.

274

Index of Proper Names

Nantes  O1853, important French port on the Loire. (See Hoel.) Nazareth  R164; O245, town in the Holy Land where Christ was raised. Nero [Meadow]  G1406, 1428, 1962, 2281, in Rome, site of the Vatican and where St. Peter was crucified according to tradition. (See the note at G1406.) Ninivent  O780, 859, 903, Muslim city, possibly Ninive on the Tigris River in ancient Assyria. (See Balsamin.) Nivars  G290, relative of Maucion and Ganelon. Nobles  G8, unidentified Spanish town conquered by Charlemagne. (See Forré.) Norman  R399; O724, 1795, 2039; O1795, 2041, from Normandy. Normandy  G76, 127, 238, 568, 1015, 1491; R399; O149, province in western France, associated with Duke Richard, one of Charlemagne’s twelve peers. Nubia  O982, region in Egypt. Nules (Dirtbag)  G289, relative of Maucion and Ganelon. Numilliant  O1166, Muslim land ruled by Clariados. Ogier (the Dane)  G10, 35, 44, 53….4463; O40, 48, 58….2257, one of Charlemagne’s twelve peers. Olivier  G11, 43, 566, 622….4545; R8, 47, 67, 70….1408; O53, 152, 294, 714….2169, Roland’s closest companion, Aude’s brother, and one of Charlemagne’s twelve peers. Omer (saint)  G811, St. Audomar, bishop of Thérouanne in the seventh century. Feast Day September 9. Orcanie  O975, possibly the Orkney Islands. Orient  O314, 344, 800, the East. Orléans  G648, 1341; O1228, 1251, city on the Loire south of Paris. Otinel  O36, 43, 54….2043, messenger from Garsile who converts to Christianity. Oton [of Langres]  G228, 569, 625, 856….4334, father of Estout of Langres and one of Charlemagne’s twelve peers. Palermo  G1721, town in Sicily where Charlemagne, when he was in disguise, said he was born. Palestine  O1825, 1833, city in the Holy Land. (See Alfan) Pamplona  G72; R127; O809, capital of Navarre (Spain), along the pilgrimage route to Compostella, captured by Charlemagne. Paris  G221, 224, 241, 445….4312; O21, 37, 713….2311, capital of Charlemagne’s kingdom. Gui of Burgundy also claims its kingship. Parisian  G660; O250, 272, from Paris, referring to deniers minted in Paris. (See headnote.) Pavia  O189, city in Italy, renowned for its fine armor. Pennepie  O965, 992, name of Carmel’s horse, later ridden by Olivier. Pepin  O4, Pepin the Short, first king of the Franks (751–78) and father of Charlemagne. Persia  G3603, 4531; O140, country in the Middle East, now called Iran. Persians  G146, 955, 3181….4045; O1243, 1417, 1649, 2021, men from Persia, and by extension Muslims. Peter (saint)  G3867; O1612, Christ’s apostle Simon Peter, also denoted by “the apostle knights venerate” (or a similar phrase) at O1406, 1428, 1644….3688; R53. Picards  O723, men from Picardy serving in Charlemagne’s army.



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275

Poitevins  O722, 1845, men from Poitou serving in Charlemagne’s army. Pontius Pilate  G4533, Roman procurator in Jerusalem who turned Christ over to the Jews. Port-Grasset  R1347, unidentified locale. Priam  O1391, legendary Trojan king whose helmet came down to Clarel. Privers  G488, tower in which Gui encloses Maucion. Provençal  O110, 722, native of Provence (southern France). Puffinup (The Braggart) (Old French Guertades l’alosez)  G292 Raoul (of Blaye)  O1893, one of Charlemagne’s men. Rebla (king of)  R518, territory of a Muslim king summoned by Marsile. Renier (1)  G568, 623, 1001, 1433….4464; O1167, one of Charlemagne’s twelve peers. Renier (2) [Archbishop]  G703, 766, 787, 954.…4091, archbishop/soldier, one of Gui’s companions. Renier (3)  O251, Charlemagne’s chamberlain, possibly the same as Renier 1, above. Renier (4)  O1511, Olivier’s father, possibly the same as Renier 1, above. Rheims  G1341; O640, city in Champagne. Richard (1)  G76, 77, 85, 88….4464, duke of Normandy, father of Terrion, and one of Charlemagne’s twelve peers. Richard (2)  G287, relative of Maucion. Richard (3)  O1280, a count from England in Charlemagne’s army. Richier (saint)  O1130, saint whose name was probably chosen for the rhyme. Robert (of Troyes)  O1694, one of Charlemagne’s men. Roland  G11, 43, 566, 622….4581; R6, 11, 13, 31….1408; O51, 71, 76, 77….2237, Charlemagne’s nephew, Olivier’s companion, one of the twelve peers. He is betrothed to Aude, Olivier’s sister. Rome  G2103; O92, capital of Italy. Roncevaux  G1513, 4407, 4594; R435, 1156; O9, small town in the Spanish Pyrenees on the pilgrimage route to Compostella where Charlemagne’s rearguard was destroyed by the Muslims in the Song of Roland. Rosette (de Ruissel)  O363, 381, one of Belissent’s ladies-in-waiting. Rouen  G77, city in Normandy. Rue  O1896, unidentified city in Charlemagne’s realm. (See Tibaut (2).) Ruissel  O364, 381, unidentified locale in France. (See Rosette.) Russia  O139, 151, country in eastern Europe promised by Garsile to Roland. Saint-Denis (abbey)  G643, 734, 996….4373; O231, 644, 710, 732, Royal Abbey of Saint-Denis north of Paris, usually associated with Charlemagne. Saint-Gilles  O110, town in southern France. Saint-Omer  O270, 1710, city in northwestern France. (See Garin.) Salatré  G1760, Turkish king residing at Aquilant of Luserne’s court. Salin  O1843: unidentified town in Charlemagne’s kingdom. (See Guinemant.) Sampson  R276, father of Gilles. Samson (1) (of Burgundy)  G225, 375, 570, 576….4463; O1104, one of Charlemagne’s twelve peers and father of Gui of Burgundy. Samson (2) (of Monbrant)  O808, brother of Clarel, killed by Roland in a tournament.

276

Index of Proper Names

Samson’s Hill  G1996, unidentified. Samuel  O366, Old Testament judge and prophet. (cf. note to O366.) Saracen  G611, 632, 640….4547; R61, 377, 415….1366; O54, 232, 235….2147, general name for the enemies of Christianity in the chansons de geste; Muslims. Saragossa  R39, 272, 284, 468….1278, Muslim city in Spain, ancient capital of the region of Aragon. Satan  G2933, the Devil. Saulorie  G3631, Muslim city in Spain. Savary (of Toulouse, the Gascon)  G230, 788, 953….4039, companion de Gui and son of Angeler. Scummy (Old French Malurez)  G290, relative of Maucion and Ganelon. Sebastian (saint)  G4397, saint whose feast day is January 20. Seine  G446, 523; O337, river that flows through Paris. Sepulcher (Holy)  R108, 168, place where Christ was interred after his Crucifixion. Sidon  O140, Saida, port in Lebanon on the Mediterranean. Simeon (saint)  G2925, high priest to whom Jesus was presented in the temple of Solomon. Simon (saint)  G1486, 2270, the apostle Simon Peter. (See Peter.) Simon  G2270, Pharisee who owned the house where Mary Magdalene washed Jesus’s feet. Sinagon (1)  G2606, 2620, Huidelon of Montorgueil’s seneschal. Sinagon (2)  O1986, Muslim killed by Roland. Slavs  G955, 1091, 1140, 1660….4547; O1012, 1372, Slovenians and, by extension, Muslims. Slovenia  O152, country in central Europe to be granted to Olivier by Garsile. Solomon  G229, father of Geoffroy of Anjou. Solomon (temple of)  2924, the Temple in Jerusalem. Spain  G6, 38, 48, 61….4450; R271, 600, 663; O30, 44, 139, country in southwestern Europe. Spanish  G2079, 2315, 2686; O855, from Spain. Syria  O154, 1452, 1727, Muslim land in the Middle East. (See Florient.) Syrian (mules, horses)  G2077, 2097, epithet applied to quality riding animals. Tabarie  O1328, Muslim kingdom. (See Carmel.) Talhaprima  R119, name given to Olivier’s sword. Talos  O1191, 12 17, 1220, a Turk who does battle with Ysorez. Tartary  O1500, from Latin tartarus, i.e., Hell. Termes  O1201, see Gautier. Terrion  G232, 953, 3569, son of Richard of Normandy, companion of Gui of Burgundy. Tervagant  O347, 601, 793….1981, Muslim “god.” (See the note at G2603.) Thierry (of Ardennes)  G23, 26, 227, 569b….4464, one of Charlemagne’s twelve peers and father of Berard of Montdidier. Tibaut (1)  G1415, 1504, 4168, relative of Ganelon. Tibaut (2) (of Rue)  O1896, one of Charlemagne’s men. Ton (River)  O752, 754, Tonaro River in northern Italy.



Index of Proper Names

277

Tornacant  R520, Muslim king summoned by Marsile. Toulouse  G788, 953, 1863, 1933….4039; O1695 city in southwestern France associated with Savary in Gui of Burgundy and Gautier in Otinel. Troias  O1858, 1860, 1862, 1866, 1869, 1876, one of Charlemagne’s men, killed by Corsabré. Trouble (Old French soigne)  O193, river near Atilie. Troyes  O1694, 1711, 2056, city in the Champagne region. (See Fromont and Robert.) Turk(s)  G762, 960, 986, 1103….2042; O1191, 1234, 1416….1914, Turks, and by extension Muslims. Turkish (Bows)  O1245, 1828, made in Turkey. Turnevent  O1405, name of Clarel’s horse. Turpin (archbishop)  R237, 1125; O640, 716, 2038, archbishop/soldier and one of Charlemagne’s twelve peers. Tyre  O140, 1175, city in Lebanon, source of fine fabrics, ruled by Galatas. Tyrian  G720, 836, 3382; made in Tyre. Valcorant  G292, unidentified locale. Valencia  G70; R657, city in eastern Spain. Vaulion (Hill)  G2004, see Macabré. Verceil  O748, town of Vercelli in the Italian Piedmont. Volant  O1691, 2095, Charlemagne’s warhorse, given to Naimes. Welsh  O852, made in Wales, referring to Ogier’s sword. Ysorez  O1200, 1221, a Christian knight. Yvon  G569, 625, 1060, 1436, one of Charlemagne’s twelve peers and companion of Ivoire. Zachariah  O374, Old Testament king. Zuda  R406, 503, 535, 575, 783, residence of the Muslim governors of Saragossa. (See the note at R406.)

Gallica

Already Published 1. Postcolonial Fictions in the Roman de Perceforest: Cultural Identities and Hybridities, Sylvia Huot 2. A Discourse for the Holy Grail in Old French Romance, Ben Ramm 3. Fashion in Medieval France, Sarah-Grace Heller 4. Christine de Pizan’s Changing Opinion: A Quest for Certainty in the Midst of Chaos, Douglas Kelly 5. Cultural Performances in Medieval France: Essays in Honor of Nancy Freeman Regalado, eds. Eglal Doss-Quinby, Roberta L. Krueger, E. Jane Burns 6. The Medieval Warrior Aristocracy: Gifts, Violence, Performance, and the Sacred, Andrew Cowell 7. Logic and Humour in the Fabliaux: An Essay in Applied Narratology, Roy J. Pearcy 8. Miraculous Rhymes: The Writing of Gautier de Coinci, Tony Hunt 9. Philippe de Vigneulles and the Art of Prose Translation, Catherine M. Jones 10. Desire by Gender and Genre in Trouvère Song, Helen Dell 11. Chartier in Europe, eds. Emma Cayley, Ashby Kinch 12. Medieval Saints’ Lives: The Gift, Kinship and Community in Old French Hagiography, Emma Campbell 13. Poetry, Knowledge and Community in Late Medieval France, eds. Rebecca Dixon, Finn E. Sinclair with Adrian Armstrong, Sylvia Huot, Sarah Kay 14. The Troubadour Tensos and Partimens: A Critical Edition, Ruth Harvey, Linda Paterson 15. Old French Narrative Cycles: Heroism between Ethics and Morality, Luke Sunderland 16. The Cultural and Political Legacy of Anne de Bretagne: Negotiating Convention in Books and Documents, ed. Cynthia J. Brown 17. Lettering the Self in Medieval and Early Modern France, Katherine Kong 18. The Old French Lays of Ignaure, Oiselet and Amours, eds. Glyn S. Burgess, Leslie C. Brook 19. Thinking Through Chrétien de Troyes, Zrinka Stahuljak, Virginie Greene, Sarah Kay, Sharon Kinoshita, Peggy McCracken 20. Blindness and Therapy in Late Medieval French and Italian Poetry, Julie Singer 21. Partonopeus de Blois: Romance in the Making, Penny Eley 22. Illuminating the Roman d’Alexandre: Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Bodley 264: The Manuscript as Monument, Mark Cruse 23. The Conte du Graal Cycle: Chrétien de Troyes’ Perceval, the Continuations, and French Arthurian Romance, Thomas Hinton 24. Marie de France: A Critical Companion, Sharon Kinoshita, Peggy McCracken 25. Constantinople and the West in Medieval French Literature: Renewal and Utopia, Rima Devereaux

26. Authorship and First-Person Allegory in Late Medieval France and England, Stephanie A. Viereck Gibbs Kamath 27. Virgilian Identities in the French Renaissance, eds. Phillip John Usher, Isabelle Fernbach 28. Shaping Courtliness in Medieval France: Essays in Honor of Matilda Tomaryn Bruckner, eds. Daniel E. O’Sullivan, Laurie Shepard 29. Violence and the Writing of History in the Medieval Francophone World, eds. Noah D. Guynn, Zrinka Stahuljak 30. The Refrain and the Rise of the Vernacular in Medieval French Music and Poetry, Jennifer Saltzstein 31. Marco Polo’s Le Devisement du Monde: Narrative Voice, Language and Diversity, Simon Gaunt 32. The Pèlerinage Allegories of Guillaume de Deguileville: Tradition, Authority and Influence, eds. Marco Nievergelt, Stephanie A. Viereck Gibbs Kamath 33. Rewriting Arthurian Romance in Renaissance France: From Manuscript to Printed Book, Jane H. M. Taylor 34. Unsettling Montaigne: Poetics, Ethics and Affect in the Essais and Other Writings, Elizabeth Guild 35. Machaut and the Medieval Apprenticeship Tradition: Truth, Fiction and Poetic Craft, Douglas Kelly 36. Telling the Story in the Middle Ages: Essays in Honor of Evelyn Birge Vitz, eds. Kathryn A. Duys, Elizabeth Emery, Laurie Postlewate 37. The Anglo-Norman Lay of Haveloc: Text and Translation, eds. Glyn S. Burgess, Leslie C. Brook 38. Sacred Fictions of Medieval France: Narrative Theology in the Lives of Christ and the Virgin, 1150–1500, Maureen Barry McCann Boulton 39. Founding Feminisms in Medieval Studies: Essays in Honor of E. Jane Burns, eds. Laine E. Doggett, Daniel E. O’Sullivan 40. Representing the Dead: Epitaph Fictions in Late-Medieval France, Helen J. Swift 41. The Roman de Troie by Benoît de Sainte-Maure: A Translation, translated by Glyn S. Burgess, Douglas Kelly 42. The Medieval Merlin Tradition in France and Italy: Prophecy, Paradox, and Translatio, Laura Chuhan Campbell 43. Representing Mental Illness in Late Medieval France: Machines, Madness, Metaphor, Julie Singer 44. The Logic of Idolatry in Seventeenth-Century French Literature, Ellen McClure 45. The Face and Faciality in Medieval French Literature, 1170–1390, Alice Hazard 46. The Futures of Medieval French: Essays in Honour of Sarah Kay, eds. Jane Gilbert, Miranda Griffin 47. Translation and Temporality in Benoît de Sainte-Maure’s Roman de Troie, Maud Burnett McInerney 48. Marguerite de Navarre: A Critical Companion, Emily Butterworth 49. Anne de Graville and Women’s Literary Networks in Early Modern France, Elizabeth L’Estrange