Think Write - The Process of Translating Thought 0967196701

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Write The Process of Translating Thought

by Joseph Dagher and Jeanice Margosian

Design and format by the Doc-U-Center, Schookraft College © 1987: A Practical Process forWriting Revised January, 1994 December, 1998 Copyright Registration #1 400 236 Schoolcraft College, Livonia, MI 48152

ISBN 0-9671967-0-1



Table of Contents 1111 Step 1 - Chapter 1 The Process of Translating Thought

LANGUAGE: THOUGHT SPOKEN, WRITTEN 1 Process Spoken Language Nonverbal Elements Verbal Elements Thought-Language Thought—How Writers Think Undirected Thinking DirectedThinking The Predetermined Objective APPLICATIONS Application 1-1 Application 1-2 Application 1-3 Application 1-4 Application 1-5 Application 1-6 Application 1-7 Application 1-8 Application 1-9

2 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 6 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 9

Step 2 - Chapter 2 The Process of Discovering the Predetermined Objective

THE SPECIFIC SUBJECT AND THE READER RESPONSE

11

Discovering What to Say 11 The Specific Subject 12 Discovering the Specific Subject 13 Strategies for Discovering 13 Imaginary Details of an Inland Lake Experience 15 The Key of the Main Idea 15 Drifting 17 Kinds of Drifting 18 Judging and Selecting the Specific Subject 20 Interesting and Worthwhile Specific Subjects 21 Basic human needs and desires: 21 APPLICATIONS 23 Application 2-1 23 Application 2-2 23 Application 2-3 23 Application 2-4 23 Application 2-5 24 Application 2-6 25

Application 2-7 Application 2-8 Application 2-9 Application 2-10 Application 2-11

25 25 26 26 27

Step 2 - Chapter 3 Discovering How to Say It

THE READER RESPONSE

29

The Reader How To Know the Reader The Well-informed Reader The Somewhat- Informed Reader The General Reader The Response Kinds of Supporting Ideas To Entertain To Inform To Persuade To Entertain Fences To Inform To Persuade Drifting from the Reader-Response APPLICATIONS Application 3-1 Application 3-2 Application 3-3 Application 3-4 Application 3-5 Application 3-6 Application 3-7 Application 3-8 Application 3-9 Application 3-10 Application 3-11

29 29 30 30 30 31 31 32 32 33 33 34 35 37 38 43 43 43 44 44 44 45 46 46 46 47 47

Step 3 - Chapter 4

Step 4 - Chapter 5

The Process of Communicating the Predetermined Objective

The Process of Organizing Words & Ideas Into Supporting Paragraphs Appropriate for the Predetermined Objective

THE SPECIFIC SUBJECT AND THE READER RESPONSE WRITING THE BEGINNING AND THE END

49

Title Opener Main Paragraph Supporting Paragraphs Concluding Paragraph(s) Opener Main Paragraph Middle End Beginning New Medicine: The Holistice Revolution The Opener The Main Paragraph Regular and Inverted Main Paragraphs Writing Effective Subject Sentence Writing Appropriate Subject Sentences Appropriate for the Specific Subject Appropriate for the Intended Reader: Appropriate for the Intended Response Appropriate for the genre: the research paper Explanatory Sentences Combination of Definers in Explanatory Sentences Explanatory History General-To-Specific Explanatory Sentences Explanatory Illustration Drifting of Explanatory Sentence My Father, My Hero The End of a Composition APPLICATIONS Application 4-1 Application 4-2 Application 4-3 Application 4-4 Application 4-5 Application 4-6 Application 4-7 Application 4-8 Application 4-9

50 50 50 50

50 52 52 52

52 52 52 53 54 55 56 56 56 57 57 58 59 61 61 62 62 63 64 66 67 67 67 68 69 71 71 72 72 73

BUILDING SUPPORTING PARAGRAPHS

75

Standard Pragraph Narrative Paragraph Dialogue Paragraph Journalism-type Paragraph Combinations of the Above Standard Supporting Paragraphs Primary & Secondary Standard Supporting Paragraphs Narrative Supporting Paragraphs Dialogue Supporting Paragraphs Narrative Paragraph, giving case history Journalism-Type Supporting Paragraphs Diet, Exercise, and Other Keys to a Healthy Heart Transition between Supporting Paragraphs Transition within Paragraphs APPLICATIONS Application 5-1 Application 5-2 Application 5-3 Application 5-4 Application 5-5 Application 5-6 Application 5-7 Application 5-8 Application 5-9 Application 5-10 Application 5-11 Application 5-12 Application 5-13 Application 5-14 Student Evaluation —1 Student Evaluation —2

76 76 76 77 77 77 80 80 82 82 83 84 84 86 87 87 87 88 88 89 89 89 90 90 90 90 91 92 92 93 94

Step 4 - Chapter 6 Selecting Words for Meaning and Effect

Dramatic Explanation Context General and Specific Word Meanings Specific Vivid General More Specific Denotation and Connotation Words Denotations Connotations Appropriate Word Uvge

95

95 96 97 98 99 99 99 99 100 100 100 101

Standard Words Colloquial Words Nonstandard words Verbal Drifting from the Predetermined Objective APPLICATIONS Application 6-1 Application 6-2 Application 6-3 Application 6-4 Application 6-5 Application 6-6 Application 6-7 Application 6-8 Application 6-9 Application 6-10 Application 6-11 Application 6-12 Application 6-13 Application 6-14 Application 6-15 Application 6-16 Application 6-17 Application 6-18

101 102 104 106 107 107 107 107 107 107 108 108 108 108 109 109 109 110 110 110 111 111 111

Step 4 - Chapter 7 Selecting and Writing Effective Supporting Ideas

DETAILS AND CONCLUSIONS

113

Deriils Concrete Details Abstract Details Concrete Abstract Using the Right Amount of the Right Kinds of Details Objective and Subjective Details Conclusions Narrative Paragraph Standard Paragraph Opinion Inference Fact Narrative continues in Dialogue paragraphs Faulty Conclusions APPLICATIONS Application 7-1 Application 7-2 Application 7-3 Application 7-4 Application 7-5 Application 7-6 Application 7-7 Application 7-8 Application 7-9 Application 7-10

113 113 113 114 116 116 118 122 122 122 122 122 122 123 126 126 126 126 127 127 127 128 128 129 129

Application 7-11 Application 7-12 Application 7-13

130 130 131

Step 5 - Chapter 8 The Process of Organizing Supporting Paragraph Content in Patterns of Development Appropriate for the Predetermined Objective DEVELOPING FORMS

133

Basic Forms 133 Analysis 134 Synthesis 135 The Main Developing Forms 135 Description 136 Kinds of Description: Objective, Subjective, General, Specific 137 Signaling Space Transition 138 Narration 140 SignalingTime Transition 141 Kinds of Narration 141 Causation 144 Kinds of Causation 145 Signaling Transition in Causation 145 Narration (History) 146 Description (Specific) 146 Causation (Deductive Reasoning) 146 APPLICATIONS 147 Application 8-1 147 Application 8-2 147 Application 8-3 148 Application 8-4 149 Application 8-5 149 Application 8-6 151 Application 8-7 151 Application 8-8 152 Application 8-9 152 Application 8-10 152

Step 5 - Chapter 9 Adapting the Main Developing Forms to the Reader 155

Developing Forms Definition Illustration Classification Combination of Developing Forms APPLICATIONS Application 9-1 Application 9-2 Application 9-3 Application 9-4 Application 9-5 Application 9-6

155 156 159 162 166 167 167 167 167 167 167 168

Application 9-7 Application 9-8 Application 9-9 Application 9-10 Application 9-11 Application 9-12 Application 9-13

Step 5

168 169 170 170 170 170 171

- Chapter 10

More Ways to Adapt and Develop the Main Forms 173

Additional Developing Forms Comparison Contrast Analogy Analogy Comparison Illustration Cause-Effect Contrast APPLICATIONS Application 10-1 Application 10-2 Application 10-3 Application 10-4 Application 10-5 Application 10-6 Applications 10-7 Application 10-8 Application 10-9 Application 10-10 Application 10-11 Application 10-12 Application 10-13 Application 10-14 (Revision ofApplication 10-12 Composition)

Step 6

173 174 177 179 182 182 182 182 182 185 185 185 186 186 187 189 192 192 192 192 192 193 193 195 195

- Chapter 11

Writing the Research Paper

197

Kinds Of Research Papers 198-199 200 The Research Process 200 The Main Reference Room 202 Researching a Specific Thesis Topic and Main Checking the Qualifications and Reliability of the Sources 204 Gathering Related Information 204 Works Cited Cards 205 206 Note-Taking 207 Working Out the Format 207 TheTitle 208 The Opener 208 The Main Paragraph The Developing and Supporting Section 208 208 The Concluding Section

Outlines Marginal Headings Parenthetical Documentation A Critique ofJapanese K-12 Education APPLICATIONS Application ll-1 (Class discussion and writing} Application ll-2 Application ll-3 Application 11-4 Application ll-5 Application ll-6 Application 11-7 Application ll-8 Application ll-9

209 210 211 213 218 218 218 218 218 218 218 218 218 219 219

Appendix HANDBOOK OF CORRECT AND EFFECTIVE 221 USAGE

Spelling and Vocabulary List 246 Troublesome Words and Other Confusing Expressions 252 Vocabulary Building 265 266 Prefixes Roots 269

The main purpose of this book is to teach students how to apply the process of translating thought fluently into effective written communication. To do that, we first help them to understand what written communication is. We direct everything in this book toward teaching students that written communication is much more than written expression. Right from the beginning, we show that a written communication originates and evolves as a process. It progresses through a series of interdependent steps leading toward achieving a predetermined objective. We show students that writing a composition requires that they structure each of its components so that it efficiently performs its function(s). By understanding that, they can see how each contributes to the writing of those before and after it and how all of that particular communication's parts are simultaneously focused at the achievement of a certain main purpose. By learning this, students acquire the skill of writing by directing their ideas, words, and paragraphs individually and collectively toward this overall goal. We propose that to understand what the process of writing a composition is, students must be made aware of the important differences between the language with which they think, their thought-lang;ige, and the language in which they write. We explain and show these differences between the silently spoken, abbreviated, more general, and highly personalized code with which they think and the written language into which it must be translated to arouse a certain kind of response from an intended type of reader. Students are made aware of this process of translating thought-language by focusing upon the importance of the nonverbal elements as well as the words. Some serious writing faults occur in student communications because they neglect to translate the ideas identified by the nonverbal elements of their thought-language. These result when students translate only the verbals, short circuiting the logical relationships which are needed to maintain coherence. To enable them to translate both the verbal and nonverbal language elements, students are taught how to compensate for these nonverbals by using precise as well as affective diction. They are also taught the importance of applying other essential nonverbals to effect this translation: appropriate context, adequate amplification, and the essentials of effective organization. By first understanding what written communication is and the process of translating thought from both the verbal and nonverbal elements of thoughtlanguage, students will be able to avoid many of the frustrations that weaken their confidence in writing. It is this lack of confidence that makes writing a slow, difficult, and, too often, an ineffective activity.

Here are a few more features of this book that will help students in the study of the process of translating-thought language more fluently and more confidently. 1. Each chapter explains main writing principles and demonstrates their application with examples from student as well as professional writers. 2. Some related illustrations are inserted immediately after the discussion of each important principle. These enable better understanding along with providing incentive and retention reinforcement. 3. An assortment of added applications have been included to meet the needs of students and to satisfy instructor pedagogical preferences. Some of these are collaborative exercises suitable for student one-to-one or larger group applications. 4. The peer-evaluation applications at the end of some chapters give students practical "hands-on" experience in judging the effectiveness of a written composition. Consequently they will be able to compare their own writing with that of their peers. Since they must be the first judges of their own work, before they submit it to a reader, this exercise gives them essential practice as critics. As a result, they discipline themselves to impose a more objective attitude when judging their own writing. 5. Organization and context are stressed as important nonverbals needed to enable more complete and accurate translation of thought and thoughtlanguage into effective written communication. 6. The importance of word effects is stressed, not just the importance of their meanings. The careful explanations of various kinds of thought, including conclusions (facts, inferences and opinions), along with their uses in informing and persuading, 7. In Chapter 11, we prepare students to write "across the Curriculum." We ask them to review the discussion of the purposes of a research paper and the writing of effective theses previously explained in Chapter 4. We then correlate many of the writing principles studied in Chapter 1- 10 with writing the format and contents of a research paper and other technical reports students later may be expected to write in their academic or in their employment pursuits. The process of doing the research, note taking, and formal documentation as prescribed by the Modern Language Association guidelines are explained with illustrations and again with a demonstration of one by a student's complete research paper.

The Process of Translating Thought LANGUAGE: THOUGHT, SPOKEN, WRITTEN Here is what this chapter explains: I. Relationship of thought-language to spoken 2. Relationship of thought-language to written 3. The importance of translating both nonverbals (other than words) along with the verbals (words) 4. Using directed and undirected thinking to translate thought into written communication Simply stated, all we want to learn from this book is how to discover what to write about, what to write mainly about it, and how to write it. In other words, all we want to learn from this book is how to write something worthwhile effectively. That is our main objective. But to succeed in achieving that, we first have to understand exactly what we mean by "to write," by "something worthwhile" and by "effectively" Chapter I explains what we mean by "to write." Chapter 2 tells what a worthwhile" main idea is, and the rest of the book tells and shows how to communicate effectively" in writing. By "to write" we mean "to communicate." Therefore, a good place for us to start is to learn that written communication is much

more than writing. That is why we need this whole book to achieve our objective. The following definition of written communication specifically identifies what we mainly want to learn from this book, its main objective. Written Communication is the process of translating thought and thought-language into effective written language to achieve a certain predetermined objective. Students learn to write before they enroll in college, but much of that writing is not written communication. Putting their personal thoughts in a diary strictly for personal reading is "writing." A diary is one kind of c`thinking on paper". That is true also of class notes, research notes, working oudines, and often the rough drafts of an essay, or anything else written solely for the use of the person writing it. None of these is intended to arouse a certain response from another person. Therefore, none of them is a form of written communication. But business letters, research papers, technical reports, novels, and many other kinds of writing are. That is true because they are intended for the reactions of one or more readers other than the writer. Our preceding definition of written comnlimication contains several important things which should be understood before learning to communicate in writing is achievable. These are:

(1) process, (2) language: spoken, thought, and written, and (3) predetermined objective. Process

Here is what a process is: A process is a series of interdependent steps directed at achieving a certain objective. Written communication is a process because it requires several important steps all performing certain functions individually and collectively to achieve a single goal. There are four steps in the process of written communication: (1) Discovering the predetermined objective. (2) Planning the content and organization (3) Writing the communication, and (4) Revising the communication. We will study steps 1 and 2 in the next two chapters and steps 3 and 4 in the rest of the book. Spoken Language

To understand how to translate thoughtlanguage into written communication, we have to start with understanding spoken language because we think with spoken language. , Reliable studies have shown that we talk to ourselves when we think. Scientists who study how the mind works say that to tell another person in writing what a single word means, a person first tells himself or herself in personal language what it means and then translates it into silently-spoken language to see if it ((sounds right" for the reader. Next, the definition of that word is written and revised until it

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is thought to have the wanted effect. All writers go through somewhat the same steps in the process of writing a communication. While thinking, a writer is both the speaker and the listener. In other words, the writer, the speaker, and the listener are all the same person. Therefore, writers may need to use only the thought- language with which they alone are satisfied. Consequently, personal, abbreviated, and general words accompanied by facial expressions, silently expressed vocal intonations, and imagined limb gestures that are habitually used in spoken communication are all that is needed for clear thinking and accurate understanding. Much of what we say in spoken communication is not expressed with words. Studies have shown that in very close family relationships much of a spoken communication, as much as 97%, is often expressed by nonverbal language: other than words. Even in much more formal situations at work, usually at least 60% of the spoken ideas are communicated by various kinds of vocal intonations and body language. This also is true when we think: when we are communicating only with ourselves. The list below shows the different kinds of verbal (word) and nonverbal (other than word) elements used in spoken language. Understanding them will help us to realize their importance in thought and in thought-language so we can effectively communicate them.

Nonverbal Elements (Express more than half of the ideas.)

1. Body language and vocal intonations: Overtly expressed, they communicate a large part of the meanings intended by the words. They also take the place of meanings

expressed by punctuation and capitalization. They enable accurate meanings even though there may be errors in grammar. 2. Context: (External, outside the speaker's mind) The words expressed in a court room or in a cathedral are affected by the atmosphere. The expression "Mercy" in each of these places would take on a different meaning.

Verbal Elements in Speech (Express less than half of the ideas.)

1. Appropriate Words: Words must be appropriate for the listener and the wanted response. Selecting them is easier because the speaker is in direct contact with the listener: 2. Shortened word forms, contractions, abbreviated phrases, colloquialisms, and nonstandard diction are more often used because overt body language (limb gestures, facial expressions, etc.), and variations in vocal intonations (volume, pitch, word stress, and pace) make them appropriate for what is being communicated. 3. Less formal standard words and phrases with which the listener is familiar are used, for example, "ate" for "dined or "stomach" for belly instead of "abdomen." 4. General Words and Phrases: Words and phrases that express general meanings are very common in spoken language. They are made more accurate and precise by the use of overtly expressed body language and vocal intonations. For example, writing "No" would just make a statement. But saying; the same word and at the same time raising a shoulder and voice pitch instead would ask the question "No?" Therefore, body language, as in this example, enables general words to be used to express specific meanings.

The following dialogue clearly suggests the kinds ofverbals and nonverbals in a spoken communication between people who are closely related. Notice the personal style of expression, consisting of shortened words, colloquialisms (Informal conversational language), and abbreviated words and phrases. These along with the implied nonverbals, are translated into spoken language (in parentheses) appropriate for the listener. "Feel like eating?" (colloquial for "Are you hungry?") "A bit." (abbreviated for "Yes, I am a little hungry." "Like what?" (abbreviated for "What would you like to eat?") "Wanna cook?" (abbreviated, personalized, nonstandard for "Do you want to cook?") "Why? Just for us? No kids." (abbreviated and nonstandard for "Because the children are not here, there is no need to cook just for us.") "Then let's go out. (Shortened and colloquial for "Let us go to a restaurant.") "Chinese sounds good." (colloquial and personalized for "Eating Chinese food appeals to me.") "Me too." (abbreviated for "That appeals to me also.") Thought-Language

As the preceding list and dialogue show, spoken language, with which we think and with which we orally communicate, usually relies on word usage different from that in written communication. 'While thinking, writers, as we all do, often use many more general, personal, and abbreviated words, phrases, and sentences that are less precise than they do in their spoken or written language. That is because these Page 3

general, less precise words are clearly understood by thinker-writers themselves, from the body language and silently expressed vocal intonations that shade and focus their word meanings. Therefore, writers must be careful to accurately and completely translate both the words as well as their nonverbal helpers for effective written communication. To do that, they must translate this general, less precise thought- language into complete and more specific expressions. (The use of words to communicate thought will be discussed extensively in Chapter 6.)

Thought—How Writers Think

To learn to translate thought into written communication, a person will find it very helpful to know something about the way we think During different situations, we all think with varying degrees of concentration along with different combinations of thoughtlanguage elements. Much of our thinking is done automatically, without our full awareness of the language we are using and the kind of thinking we are doing. We may allow our minds to recognize ideas, sensations, and emotions in their verbal forms or in their nonverbal forms. There are two common kinds of thought that we all do. These are: (1) Undirected and (2) Directed. In undirected thinking, we allow ideas in their verbal and nonverbal forms to enter the window of our consciousness whether or not they help us to achieve a certain objective. In directed thinking, the second kind, we intentionally avoid or reject unrelated ideas before they become a part of our chain of ideas.

Page 4

Therefore, in such instances, we deliberately direct our thoughts by selecting only those related to our purpose in writing. Undirected Thinking

Undirected thinking is the kind of brainstorming, a kind of think-speaking, we do when not aiming toward a certain main idea and a predetermined goal. It is a kind of free association, sometimes even called free-thinking. While doing it, a person tends to thinkspeak in scatterings of vaguely related images, sensations, emotions (with or without words). The words used often are very general, shortened words and phrases, informal language, and other forms of personal language. There may even be a few incomplete sentences. 'When allowing themselves to do this kind of thinking, writers allow their minds to rove freely, aimlessly. This kind of thinking makes available many of a writer's past experiences; It, therefore, opens up a huge inventory of ideas from which to choose while trying to discover what to write about and what to say about it. Undirected thinking like free association, requires little or no conscious selecting or aiming of thought. The ideas that slip into our minds call up others (some authorities say thousands) stored away in our memories. Here is an example of this kind of thinking taped first on a recorder just as each word-idea popped into the student's mind and immediately written down as it appears below. Notice how abbreviated the phrases are: fall.... chilly dawn carnations praying aphids in broccoli brutality of nature broken limbs bolero in fireplace fish in racoon bug lights birds fattening on thistle wood deck needs paint.... birds of paradise Suez.

It is hard to understand what the writer is mainly thinking about in this disorderly example. This is chaotic because there are gaps in the interrelationships between the ideas, and, also, because their relationship to a single, overall main idea is not clear. Creativity is the process of detecting unusual orderly relationships in what appears to be disorder. In the preceding example, there are several outcroppings of good quality, almost poetic, and even profound ideas that could be developed in a worthwhile essay. Here are some: .... `carnations praying" "brutality of nature" "bolero in fireplace.), This excerpt of undirected thinking does a good job of showing how it can be used to discover an idea worthy of development in a composition. This will be studied again later. The preceding illustration shows how condensed, abbreviated, and disconnected undirected thinking is. However, this kind of thinking is often done in "brainstorming" the solutions for problems in science. Writers also often use it to discover a worthwhile topic.

related to the purpose for writing the composition. Here is an example of directed thinking we are rnIling freewriting: Need carefully built pool deck partially finished clean mess before doing more lumber cuttings make good work hard sawdust in pool need more 2x10's for benches save right pole for supports must paint or stain buy fasteners for anchors needed for pool cover protect deck from ice damage long nails to hold surface boards tightly hope to finish before first frost. There is nothing in this preceding collection of ideas about the "pool deck" that could not be developed into complete sentences developing the main idea "carefully built." The mind of this student is directed at a certain objective, a solution for the problem. Here is another example of directed thinking from another student: Oh no! Have to do Mrs. Feenstern's hair. Don't like her Act nice She's twenty-bucks Start cutting pronto

Directed Thinking

Directed thinking is a kind of "freewriting." It is done after the writer has selected a topic. A topic is what he or she mainly wants to write about. Consequently, it is done with more focused concentration than that done in undirected thinking while brainstorming This difference in focus can be illustrated by comparing the range between the wide beams of a flashlight to a narrow, concentrated laser beam. Directed thinking, like a laser, narrows its span and focuses on discovering ideas related to what is being thought about, on the topic. As in the following example, the writer quickly jots down what comes to mind about the topic, and later will decide which are closely enough

Heck, she's griping already Can't wait to get her out of my hair.... "My hair?" That's a good one Smile at her brat Feet are killing me Spray Take off cape I'm done Bye, bye Feenstem. Did you see the way the tone of voice communicates added meaning? Notice how the personal language expresses the writer's feelings about doing Mrs. Feenstern's hair. Do the grammatical errors and personal language add or detract from the overall idea?

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Before writers develop a composition, they must know their topic and the main idea about it. They also must know for whom that main idea is intended and, consequently, how the composition should be worded and organized. These will be studied throughout this book as parts of the predetermined objective. Writers have the option of changing any of these later while writing the first draft and/or while revising, but they must at least start with them. The Predetermined Objective (The main purpose)

From our definition of written communication on Page 1 of this chapter and after our study of the next two chapters, it will be easy to understand why the predetermined objective is so important. Writers cannot really know which ideas are worthwhile or how to express them during the various phases of writing (discovery, planning, writing, and revising) until they identify the predetermined objective, both its specific subject and its reader-response. Knowing the objective of a written communication before starting to write is very helpful in revising. This is the last stage of the writing process. Revision often requires more time to accomplish than writing the "quickdraft," the first draft of the whole composition. In writing this draft, writers mainly aim at putting their ideas down roughly and quickly. They usually do not devote extensive time in selecting words, checking spelling grammar, punctuation, and sentence structure. The writer checks how well most of the principles studied in this book were applied, along with the mechanics: spelling, grammar, capitalization, and punctuation analytically and extensively during the revision stage. The first revision of a writer's thoughts usually takes place one idea or sentence at a time before it is written.. What is written is mentally rehearsed quickly, just as speakers do, Page 6

"to see if a word or sentence sounds right" a second or two before either is written the first time. The revision of the whole composition usually is done again much more carefully one or more times later, after the quick-draft (the first draft) of the whole composition is completed. However, to revise correctly at any time a writer should know what he or she is trying to do, what the predetermined objective is. We now understand what written communication is, what the steps in the writing process are, and some important things about translating thought-language into written language We will focus our attention on the Predetermined objective in the next two chapters because we must understand its two important parts: the worthwhile message and the reader-response. The "worthwhile message" will be discussed as the specific subject in Chapter 2. The reader and the intended response are explained in Chapter 3-as the readerresponse. Everything in-the rest of this book is related to explaining how knowing the predetermined objective helps writers to translate their thoughts and thought- language into effective written communication.

APPLICATIONS The following exercises may be used and assigned in anyway your instructor chooses. The notations in parentheses are merely suggestions. Application 11 (Class Discussion and Writing)

After reading this chapter carefully, summarize the correct answers for the following questions. Study these answers because your instructor may include one or more of them on a test or quiz. 1. Specifically, how is it helpful for a writer to understand the similarities and differences between the verbal and nonverbal elements in spoken language and those in thoughtlanguage? 2. How is it helpful for a writer to understand the similarities and differences between thought-language and written communication?

machines "Smile" They smile too Am unqualified? Relax melt flow down the corridor. C.

hotel lobby hundreds of guests there he is will he remember he looks my heart skips His eyes question Mine reply "Yes, me!" candy apples Ferris wheel ride Life is a carnival awaiting room for something not meant to be Maybe in heaven there's no waiting.

Application 1-3 (Writing in class)

With undirected thinking, list recent happenings in your life, paying close attention to the words and images with which these thoughts occur. Write your ideas instantly and in the order in which you become aware-of them, using your own abbreviated, personal language, words and word groups, without judging whether or not your ideas are funny, clever, original, or stated correctly. (See examples in Applications 2, 7, 8.). Now circle the whole ideas (main words and their modifiers) that you think would be worth writing about.

Application 1-2 (Group (collaborative) activity)

On your paper, to the left of each of the following, tell whether it represents directed or undirected thinking: a. Somebody's out there green leaves in pickle jar cascades of white gushing over tonsils dark skies green mountains knee deep in sea lasagna on beach laser brain bark at the moon. b. new job new faces apprehension long hollow hallways threatening doorways terrified shiny desk in cramped cubical monster office

Application 1-4 (Writing in class)

By undirected thinking, discover a topic which you judge to be worth developing for college students. Next, by directed thinking, under the topic list immediately in personal language ideas related to the topic as soon as they occur to you. Select a main idea from this list. Cross out words or groups of words not closely enough related to either the topic or the main idea. Now write a paragraph developing the main idea.

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Application 1-5 (Writing in class)

Think of a problem you need to solve, perhaps where to get a job. List under the topic in personal abbreviated language the ideas that occur to you. Cross out the ideas not related or not closely enough related. Now write a short paragraph expressing the problem and the listed related ideas to develop it in complete sentences.

Application 1-6 (Writing)

Open one of your college notebooks in which you made entrees during class lectures. List a few of your abbreviated phrases, shortened words, along with other forms of personal expressions. Also describe how you made the meanings of these words clear to yourself (vocal intonations, facial expressions, etc.) Next rewrite two of the notes into brief paragraphs. Be sure your sentences and paragraphs communicate precisely and completely what your notes say.

Application 1-7 (Group activity)

On your paper, print D or U to indicate whether each of the following represents directed or undirected thinking. 1. fresh coffee brewing humid daughter on phone pouring out soul zoom, zooming motorcycle prattle the rustle of leaves kids crunching crackers cranking crickets dog slurping slush dreaming on sail boat while eating childhood in a many-gabled house apple picking chopping firewood rooster crowing reality is an air conditioner humming. Page 8

2. cars casting shadows on ceiling crickets croaking It's been a sleazy day dog whining at delicious moon smell of boiling cabbage place ad hope house sells winter coming airplane flying to anyplace else Someday, I'll bye bye on it. 3. balloon man in Rome red, blue, green dreams colorful church domes cobblestone streets Naples Via Roma hanging tomatoes for pasta hush of evening over SantaLucia area vino russo hang my soul in Sicily on an olive tree churches dignifying rocky protrusions. 4. penetrating stillness peace lurks deer hushed in underbrush rifle loaded with chunk of death.....whitetail tip toes innocently out stay steady move finger slowly.... put him in your good eye breathe deeply squeeze eternity out like tooth paste watch buck curl up in death cruel revenge for something bound to happen to all. 5. orange and black tropical fish Halloween pumpkins pears on pikes outboard motor buzzing no cold beer math equations candy apples cream puffs on polished silver splattered consciousness.

Application 1-8 Do the same as for 1-7.

luggage advertisements along corridors TV monitors restaurants luggage carriers attached to stewardesses, gates probably famous people in disguises blue collar workers on holiday...night planes bats with radar.... people pursuing phantoms

1. airport

wagonless gypsies hummingbirds pollinating their dreams escapees from one disappointment to another 2. chestnut horse steaming horses in paddock hoof trails in center field straining muscles flared nostrils hooves clipping stones slippery reins circle of spectators visions of red ribbon with white center promises of sugar second place carrots mixed with grain. 3. penguin eggs saltwater music of humpback Russian and Japanese slaughtering them Thomas Jefferson prayed Constitution the Berlin Wall Eastern Block Shakespeare democracy inspires creativity. 4. sport is good bowling ball keeping score strikes turkey is three trophies banquets other incentives friendship good exercise for elderly no need for calisthenics 5. late for work waiting for traffic left turn stalled car tires spin on wet road sand truck splatters windshield..., sudden thud something hit me bent fender

Application 1-9 (For class evaluation and discussion)

By undirected thinking discover a specific topic. Do that by immediately writing whatever pops into your mind for a few minutes, even repetitions. Now, place circles around possible topics (usually nouns or verbs with their modifiers). Next, write a selected topic and do directed thinking about it (writing whatever occurs to you related to it, just as you did to discover the topic). Circle potential creative (new, different, unusual) main ideas. Select the best main idea and write a subject sentence, identifying the selected complete topic and main idea. Now develop this subject sentence into a paragraph. Turn in the undirected thinking, the directed thinking, and the final paragraph. Place the final version on top.

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chapter 2 The Process of Discovering the Predetermined Objective: THE SPECIFIC SUBJECT AND THE READER-RESPONSE DISCOVERING WHAT TO SAY: THE SPECIFIC SUBJECT

As stated before, there are four important phases in writing a composition. These are: (1) Discovering,

Here is what this chapter explains: 1. Discovering a specific subject and stating it clearly 2. Discovering a worthwhile main idea 3. Discovering how the specific subject guides the writer in translating thought-language and in planning a communication 4. Discovering how to select related supporting ideas 5. Discovering how to avoid certain common errors in developing the specific subject The specific subject is one of the two main parts of the predetermined objective. The other part, the reader-response, will be studied in the next chapter. Together, as the predetermined objective, these two parts guide, first, the writer and later the reader. First, they act as a beacon to help the writer to select the ideas and language needed to arouse the wanted response from the intended reader. After studying the reader and the intended response in the next chapter, students will clearly see how the predetermined objective also enables the reader to understand what is written and to respond as the writer intends.

(2)Planning, (3)Writing, and (4) Revising. (Some of these overlap.) After focusing on the Discovering and Planning phases in Chapters 1, 2, and 3, in which the writer discovers the two parts of the predetermined objective (the specific subject and the reader-response), we will study the other two (Writing and Revising) in every chapter of the rest of the book. In this chapter, we focus on Discovery: the process of, (1) Selecting (2) judging, and (3) stating clearly the specific subject: the topic and the main idea. Either the specific subject or the readerresponse may occur to writers first. When writers know the specific subject first, they must select a reader-response that is suitable for it. However, when the reader-response is known first, for example, to inform, the writer must select a specific subject that is appropriate for that intended response.

The Specific Subject

The specific subject of a communication is much more than the topic alone. The topic is often a broad, general idea. By itself, it is usually too broad for adequate treatment in a composition. It has to be narrowed by having a main idea attached to it. Therefore, the specific subject must state or clearly imply in a complete sentence two main parts:

still more specific one, "Swiss bred Saint Bernard dogs." But these are just complete topics, not specific subjects, and are too broad without a main idea. They would be only of little help in aiding the writer in deciding which specific ideas to express and with which words to communicate them. The following specific subject (topic and main idea) will suggest what needs to be said and how it should be expressed:

(1) the complete topic and (2) the main idea. The complete topic is what the writer intends to write about. It consists of the topic and the words that limit or modify it (See below). The main idea is what the writer mainly intends to state about it. These two parts of the specific subject play a vital role in enabling writers to translate the thoughtlanguage in which ideas originate into whatever written language is needed to achieve the predetermined objective, both the specific subject and reader-response. The main idea of a specific subject is what the writer mainly wants to say about the topic. Therefore, it is the main thing the writer wants to say in the whole composition. The main idea is more important than the topic. It suggests how to plan the whole composition. It helps determine the kinds of supporting ideas (those written in the rest of the composition to arouse the wanted response from the reader) along with the way they should be expressed. It suggests to the writer: the kind of writing (essay, research paper, technical report, etc.) the whole communication should be, including its approximate length (its scope). It also tells the writer how to organize the development of the composition in order to arouse the wanted reader-response. The complete topic for a certain composition might be a general idea like "dogs," a more specific one, such as "Saint Bernard Dogs" or a Page 12

The Saint Bernard in Switzerland is the most popular dog. To develop this main idea, "is the most popular dog," the writer probably will give statistics and other reasons related to "most popular." Here are a few more examples with the complete topics in italics and main ideas in bold type. Two years of college should be compulsory. Professionalfootball is very commercialized. A successfiul marriage is a "50-50" partnership.

Each of these preceding examples has only one point in the main idea. It is not unusual to have two and sometimes even three points in a single one. If writers don't intend to develop all of them to some degree, they should not include them in the specific subject. Here are examples of specific subjects with main ideas having more than a single point. Early American settlers were courageous and hardworking. Modern medicine reduces human suffering and extends life.

Colorado beckons the hunter, the skier, and the naturalist.

Discovering the Specific Subject To identify a specific subject, a writer must first ask two questions: 1) 'What is the topic? (What is the composition to be about?) 2) What is the main idea? (What do I mainly want to say about the topic?)

Strategies for Discovering the SPECIFIC SUBJECT

Discovering the two parts of the specific subject, the topic and the main idea, is done during the discovery phase of writing. This is the time when the writer aims at identifying a specific topic and a worthwhile main idea about that topic. I. Sometimes this discovery is done first by reviewing a whole subject area lightly, perhaps, by reading an encyclopedia article about one, to get the "big picture." Doing this would give a writer some understanding of the general nature, characteristics, and size of this general topic to enable the discovery of a specific topic. 2. The discovery phase, which is done long before the writer does serious research for supporting ideas to develop the main idea, may be done by undirected thinking (brainstorming). When writing about personal experiences, writers may allow their minds to meander aimlessly among their memories until finding a topic and main idea that is worth communicating.

Brainstorming is a type of undirected thinking which may be used to discover a topic. It also is sometimes called free association or free thinking. Notice how the following ideas randomly enter the writer's mind while brainstorming. The ones underlined in the brainstorming below are topics the writer may consider writing about. hunting... boating... college... my future... my car... homework.., missionary work... relationships... soda fountains... a rainbow of balloons... shopping mall... babies.., swimming.. children's bedtime... toyland... my cat Willie... movie stars.., my son.. teaching... Disneyland... Hollywood... European trip.., eating spaghetti... fraternity life.., unpleasant people... true friendship 3. Freewriting is a more limited kind of thinking than brainstorming (sometimes r1led free association or free-thinking). It is a kind of directed thinking focused on the topic to discover a main idea about it. This thinking is a bit more directed than brainstorming because writers instantly jot down those ideas clearly related to the topic. Later, they will choose one of these main ideas for a composition, as illustrated below. '. Children's bed1 time (This topic is from the preceding list.)

clothes for tomorrow... brush teeth.... fearful of soap... nerve-wracking chore... stepping on toys... yelling, screaming, crying... waitressing easier... finding right pajamas... lights out... check for ghosts in closets, under beds... lights out (repetition)... Page 13

Here is one of these in a complete sentence specific subject which may be developed in a whole composition later. Children's bedtime at our house is a nervewracking chore.

Here is another example of freewriting suggested by the brainstorming on the preceding page. ("My car" is the topic chosen from this preceding list.) paid only $500... looks rich.., sporty... 1984 model.., girls look twice... go north fishing... poor gas mileage.., good for trip to college... rusty.. not reliable.., a junker... cooling system drips.., cracked windshield.., fenders loose.., muffler is a boomer...

Here is a possible subject sentence with the main idea underlined: My car is a junker. 4. Helpful Warm-up Exercises Writers use a variety of other strategies to discover a specific subject. Some writers, like athletes, use a kind of "warm up" exercise. Every day at a certain time they sit at their desks and immediately start writing whatever comes into their minds, even repetition. They write, write, and continue doing it until some worthwhile idea intrigues them. Here is the way the novelist John Hersey says he does this:

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To be a writer is to sit down at one's desk in the chill portion of every day, and to write; not waiting for the little jet of blue flame of genius to start from the breastbone 5. DailyJournal Entries Other writers say that regularly they make an entry in a journal of something they want to remember, an unusual event, a startling insight, bit of wisdom, or a strange person, etc. When they are in need of an idea, they search in their journal, which serves as a warehouse for writing ideas. 6. Memory Scanning For some kinds of writing, especially about a personal experience, the needed search for a specific subject may be done in the writer's own head, by vividly imagining a series of past experiences until a suitable one is found. In the illustration that follows, the writer recalled a vivid experience at an inland lake, re-created it (or projected it) on the screen of his consciousness so that he could see it and feel, smell, and hear parts of it. The writer's mind was then allowed to browse over these sense and emotional details until more than one specific subject formed. As each became identified, it was written down. Later, after discovering the intended reader-response, the writer will be able to select the one that will arouse the wanted response from the reader and, consequently, achieve the predetermined objective best. In other words, when the writer knows, for example, that he or she wants to entertain a certain type of reader, the specific subject that will do that best can be identified and selected more easily.

Imaginary Details of an Inland Lake Experience

tall pines, deep forest, cool lake water, aroma of bacon frying, screams and laughter of children, warm beach sand, music from radio, sounds of rippling and splashing water, peacefulness, happiness Here are some suggested specific subjects that may result from mulling over the details listed about this remembered inland lake experience. The main ideas are in italics. 1. Tall pines and cool clean water make Elk Lake a pleasant escapefrom hectic city life. 2. The clear deep pools of Elk Lake tell where the bass and perch hide. 3. Fond memories of deep restful forests and of warm beach sand between my toes make me yearn for my boyhood at Elk Lake.

Another good source is THE READER'S GUIDE TO PERIODICAL INDEX which has very colorful titles. While reading these interesting tides, main ideas will pop into the mind. They should be jotted down for further consideration after the writer knows the type of reader and the intended response. Then he or she will be able to select the best one for the objective of that composition. After identifying what they are going to write about and mainly what they intend to say about it in the whole communication, writers are much better able to determine the needed supporting ideas and how they should be expressed. This is important in helping them to avoid doing much wasteful thinking and writing about ideas not closely related to the main idea.

The Key of the Main Idea

The indicated ideas in these specific subjects clearly show what the writer may want to tell the reader mainly. The best one of these for a composition really can't be selected until the reader and response are known. 7. Using Library Resources When students need to write about a topic that is not a personal experience, for example, the social behavior of a gorilla family, they may have to discover their main idea with some outside help. They can't "brainstorm' it in the way done for a personal experience. One way of stimulating their minds to discover a specific subject is to use a library computer or card catalogue file to help freewrite one. This can be done by fingering through the card catalogue, reading titles to allow main words of titles to suggest a main idea.

The Key is the single word or group of words identifying the focal point in the subject sentence main idea. The Key is the central thought, the core, the main focus not just of the main idea but of the whole composition. The Key is the heart of the main idea in the subject sentence. To identify it, writers should first find the complete topic and then the main idea. After identifying the main idea, writers should then ask themselves "What is the most important word(s) in this main idea?" To illustrate, by asking this question of the main ideas in the following, the key becomes obvious. In those below, the complete topics are in italics, the Key is in darker, type, and the whole main idea (including the key) is underlined. 1. Martha and Henry are excellent runners. 2. Undisciplined children misbehave flagrantly.

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In these preceding examples, the Key is a single main word. This is also true of the following (The complete topic is in italics.) 1. Shoppingfor groceries is a trying experience. 2. Airplanes are vital for modern transportation.

However, sometimes the Key consists of more than one main word: 1. The main industries ofAlaska are fishing, foresting. and oil. 2. The author writes skillfully and delightfully. (If writers do not intend to develop any of these key ideas to the extent needed by the reader to get the wanted response, they should not put them in the sentence identifying the specific subject.) Writers, themselves, may know what their main ideas and, especially their keys are. To communicate effectively, however, they must write subject sentences that clearly tell intended readers what they are. The Key of the main idea should be placed in the subject sentence so it is easily identified and so it gets the needed amount of emphasis. As in the examples above, the end of a sentence often is the best for emphasis; however, the beginning is the best to gain immediate attention. When it is possible, student writers should avoid placing the main ideas and their keys in the middle of the sentence. The Key in the middle of the following is shrouded by the other words; therefore, it may not be easily identified by the reader. (For other examples see page 56.) Elmer Johnson pursued his college ambitions diligently because his parents stressed the value of education. Page 16

In the following revision, the writer splits his main idea, inserting a part of it at the beginning to enable placing the key at the end, under the spotlight. The whole main idea is underlined with one line and the key is in bold type. Because his parents stressed the value of education. Elmer Johnson pursued his college ambitions diligently. Sometimes, a vivid, explicit, forceful word, such as a strong active voice verb, may be conspicuous enough to be placed in the middle of a subject sentence. Here is an example: The oriental restaurant exuded vapors of Chinese spices.

For clearer writing, however, placing most keys at the end would give more emphasis and would be easily understood by the reader. Preliminary Planning of the development of the specific subject can be done before the writer prepares the working outline for a certain composition. The Keywords, as illustrated in the preceding examples, guide the writer in deciding before starting to write some very important things needed to plan the whole composition. Of course, writers can't be sure about them until the reader and the response are also decided upon later. Here are the main ones: 1. The type of reader intended and the response wanted 2. The kind of writing (the genre) for the whole composition (essay, research paper, process reports, etc.) 3. The approximate length, the scope, (number of words) that will be needed to develop it enough to get the response wanted from a type of reader

4. The kind of verbal and nonverbal language needed

3. liked by Europeans (Not closely enough related.)

5. The supporting ideas that should be used to develop it

4. more assertive and aggressive than natives

When the composition is read later, the key of the main idea also will help readers to interpret what is written and to respond as the writer intends. In the next chapter, we will see how this also is true in standard supporting paragraphs in the body, which also have main ideas and keys. The keys in that kind of supporting paragraph also help readers in interpreting and understanding the language and ideas written in each of them.

6. spend more money impulsively

Drifting (Incoherence)

It is important that writers identify the Key in the main idea before trying to develop it or even before starting to do serious research for what to say about it. Those who start writing without knowing exactly what they should develop often make some very common serious mistakes. They select a topic and a main idea that are inappropriate for each other, or they choose a main idea or its Key not right for the intended response. Doing this also causes them to insert ideas not closely enough related. Once writers know their specific subject, especially the main idea, it's much easier to recognize and delete those ideas that shouldn't be in the writing. Here is an illustration showing how simple it is to check the relationships of all supporting ideas to the main idea "easily recognized." American tourists in Europe are easily recognized.

5. less inhibited children

(Each of these related supporting ideas may later be written as complete sentences or developed into whole supporting paragraphs. The writer can plan the composition based on these supporting ideas.) The main idea, as in the preceding example, acts as a beacon to guide the writer in determining what should and what should not go into the composition. Both the complete topic "American tourists in Europe" and the main idea, "easily recognized" both will determine which ideas are related. If any words and/or ideas are not related at all or not closely enough related, especially to the main idea, they should not be included in the composition because they cause incoherence. In the next chapter we will learn that if they are not at the same time related to the reader and the response wanted as well as to the complete topic and the main idea, they, too, will cause incoherence. In this book, we will refer to incoherence as "drifting" because writers don't unnecessarily switch from related ideas to unrelated ones abruptly; usually, they switch gradually, a little at a time. One slightly unrelated word or idea leads to another a bit less related, then to another that is hardly related or completely unrelated. This causes some particles of the composition not to stick together. It makes the communication confusing and much less effective in achieving the predetermined objective of a certain piece of writing.

1. different eating habits and schedules 2. distinctive behaviorisms in public places

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Kinds of Drifting (Incoherence) In general, there are two kinds of drifting: (1) In relationship and (2) In development. Drifting in relationship results when inserted words and/or ideas are not related or are not closely enough related to the topic or main idea. This kind of drifting sometimes is continuous and at other times may be interrupted. When continuous drifting occurs, the writer doesn't keep his or her mind's eye on the key; consequently, once an unrelated idea is inserted, all subsequent ones are unrelated to the main idea. This would be like an automobile driver who intends to go to New York from Detroit, but at an intersection makes the wrong turn and ends up in Chicago without knowing a wrong turn was made. Because even though all of the supporting ideas are related to the topic but not all are related to the main idea as well, notice how hard it is to understand completely and precisely what the writer intended in the following example of continuous drifting. (The key is in bold type and the drifters are in italics.) Scuba diving is no longer as dangerous as it. was just a few years ago. With modern equipment, for example, the aqua-lung, a safer underwater breathing apparatus, the diver is not as likely to get tangled up in the air lines. The buoyancy compensator, replacing the CO2 safety vest, improves diving safety by giving divers freedom of movement. Many courses are now being offered to learn about scuba diving. The learner's standard package usually consists oftwo sessions. Thefirst is an introduction to equipment and diving techniques. This is followed with lessons in how to dive along a reef. Other lessons qualify people who complete the course to teach others how to scuba dive. Page 18

Here is a more complete and, consequently, a more accurate translation of what the writer intended to communicate in this preceding example. The important words and ideas needed to correct the drifting in relationships to the Key are in italics. Scuba diving is no longer as dangerous as it was just a few years ago. With modern equipment, for example, the aqua-lung, a safer underwater breathing apparatus, the diver is not as likely to get tangled up in the air lines. The buoyancy compensator replacing the CO2 safety vest improves diving safety by giving divers freedom of movement. Many courses are now being offered in safe scuba diving. The learner's standard package usually consists of sessions in identifying its dangers. This is followed with lessons in how to avoid the hazards of diving along a reef. Some lessons qualify people who complete the course to teach others how to dive safely.

Interrupted drifting often results when writers think that all they have to do is maintain a relationship with the topic alone, not with both the topic and the key of the main idea. This often results in student writing in which writers become so emotionally attached to their words or supporting ideas that they don't have the heart to delete them. This kind of incoherence is of the zig-zag variety, in which words or ideas drift off-and-on in their relationships to the specific subject. One may be closely related, the next hardly related, the following completely unrelated, perhaps, the next closely related again, and so on with a mixture of related and unrelated particles. This is as irritating as rapidly flashing the room lights off and on as the reader is trying to read the composition. -

Here is an illustration of interrupted (zigzag) drifting. The main idea is in bold type. The parts that drift are in italics. Judging wine requires great skill. Knowing how to determine its quality by observation, smell, and taste is essential. It is a good idea for a judge to know where the best markets for a certain wine are. Knowing its history: where the grapes were grown, when they were picked, how long they set in the vats, and when the wine was bottled are also needed by the connoisseur. Skillful use of certain taste and smell techniques are essential. Tasting wineprofessionallj however, doesn't cause alcoholism. A good wine judge must be able to detect the fragrance of good wine.

Below is another example of interrupted (zig-zag) drifting. This is an example of drifting that is caused when writers become too attached to their ideas, right or wrong. It shows how the writer's emotions lure the supporting ideas off course. As in the preceding example, the words and ideas in the sentences that drift are on-and-off in their relationship to the Key, "most beautiful." Again, the sentences that drift are in italics. Ways to correct this kind of drifting follow the paragraph. Golf courses on the Caribbean islands offer the sports person some of the most beautiful fairways. From Jamaica south along a crescent of islands that form the West Indies are some of the most pleasant to see over the hood of a golf cart. The most inviting of these is the sensational Tryall Golf Course with its handsomely tailored 6,309 yards of manicured fairways. Crosswinds over the Tryalifairways make it hard to hit a 90 par. The lush, welltrimmed course of the Paradise Island Golf Club is another place one can experience the

beauty of nature and the pleasure of golf at the same time. Family members can go scuba diving in the blue Caribbean. There is no better selection a golfer who loves nature can make than to play on a beautiful Caribbean island.

The drifting in this illustration may be corrected by one or by a combination of the following kinds of revision: 1. By deletion, by simply eliminating the unrelated ideas. Example: Because they are not needed nor related closely enough to the main idea and the key "most beautiful," delete from the above "Crosswinds over the Tryall fairways make it hard to hit a 90 par" and "Family members who don't play golf can go scuba diving in the blue Caribbean." 2. By revision of the unrelated sentences so that their words and ideas become related, if possible. For example, rewriting the first unrelated one in the above example to read, "Cross- winds that make it hard to hit a 90 par do not detract from the joy experienced while driving the ball over its expanse of green fairways." The other unrelated one could be changed to read: 'After a match, golfers can join family members on beautiful Caribbean beaches." 3. By revision of the main sentence, the one that identifies the main idea, so it acts as an "umbrell' sentence to which everything under it is related (like the ribs of an umbrella to the handle rod). For example, "The Caribbean island courses challenge the golfer and offer everybody in the golfer's family something pleasant to do in or near beautiful country clubs."

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Drifting in Development results in a composition from having the wrong amount of supporting ideas, either too many or too few. When the drifting is caused by underdevelopment, the writing is anemic. Consequently, the reader understands only a portion of what the writer wants to communicate. As a result, he or she can respond only partially to the specific subject main idea, not completely. Therefore, the specific subject development doesn't enable the composition to achieve the predetermined objectives completely. Drifting by underdevelopment also results from incomplete translation of thought language. This kind of drifting happens when a writer neglects to translate the more general words and phrases or the abbreviated, and very personal thought-language into specific language needed by the intended reader. Here is an illustration. This one is mainly caused by incomplete translation of the nonverbal language elements in the writer's mind. Although the word meanings are translated, there are gaps in idea-relationships resulting from not writing all that is expressed by the nonverbals (vocal intonations, facial expressions, etc.) in the writer's thought-language. Notice how only the skeleton of the writer's main idea is communiated in this example. The main idea is in bold type. Leg and knee injuries are difficult to treat successfully during a hockey season. Injuries of this kind often occur during the same game. Sudden turns may cause severe damage to hidden leg muscles and deeper knee ligaments. Sometimes a player is allowed to go right back into a game shortly after an injury. Even minor injuries seldom heal completely during a season. Team physicians and trainers should be allowed enough time to make an accurate diagnosis of each injury.

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Next is a revision of this paragraph. Words and phrases (italics) have been added to complete the translation from the thought-language of the writer. Inserting these missing ideas clarifies the interrelationships of the supporting ideas along with their relationship to the main thing that the writer wants to tell the reader. This main idea is in bold print. Leg and knee injuries are difficult to treat successfully during a hockey season. Injuries of this kind often occur during the same game to the same leg, delaying the healingprocess. Sudden turns may cause severe damages to hidden leg muscles and deeper knee ligaments. These require more time to diagnose accurately than can be allowed during a game. Sometimes a player is allowed to go right back into a game shortly after an injury, permitting added damage and increasing its seriousness. Because ofthese recurring injuries, even minor ones seldom heal during a season. Team physicians and trainers should be allowed enough time to make a thorough diagnosis of each injury before deciding whether or not the player should be allowed to continue. Judging and Selecting the Specific Subject

Writers are the first judges of what they write, especially of each specific subject, of both its topic and, especially, of its main idea. After they discover and select one, they must check it to be sure that each is suitable for the predetermined objective of a certain communication. First, they must decide whether or not they themselves have or are able to get the ideas needed to develop it to the extent and in the way necessary for the reader. (We will study the reader in the next chapter.) Also, they must ask themselves the following questions about each

of the specific subjects they select. Let's assume that the following are for short compositions of about 500 words: 1. Is the specific topic, the main idea, or both too broad for the intended scope (intended extent of discussion or length of the composition)? (Both are too broad.) Education throughout the world does not measure up to American education. (Better) Russian elementary schools do not teach arithmetic as well as those in America.

2. Is the specific topic, the main idea, or both too narrow? (Main idea is too narrow.) Newport News, Virginia is on the James River. (Better) Newport News, Virginia is one of the largest shipbuilding centers in the U. S.

3. Is the specific subject complete; does it have both a worth-while topic and main idea? (Needs a main idea) Recently revealed corruption of high government officials in a European country (Better) Recently revealed corruption of high government officials in a European country illustrates how biased a government controlled press operates.

4. Is the specific subject a new or different thought that is worthwhile?

(Worthless: not new or different) To survive, people must have drinking water. (Better) To survive, people will have to develop cheaper ways to remove salt from ocean water.

Interesting and Worthwhile Specific Subjects

Readers become interested and willing to read when writers offer them something worthwhile. To be worthwhile, a specific subject must have an idea which is new for the intended reader or type of reader, at least different from what is already known. It also should be related to the basic human needs and/or desires of that particular reader. These are the needs and desires related to the physical, psychological, or social necessities or comforts, of certain readers, including pleasure and entertainment. These basic human needs become more complex as readers' lives become more sophisticated. Following are the basic human needs and desires about which writers can arouse interest by offering some worthwhile ideas. Anything new or different that the writer can offer the reader to acquire, improve, or defend these needs or desires will arouse interest because they will be considered worthwhile. In writing about these, a writer should be aware that they vary in degree of interest, depending upon the age bracket of the reader. Basic human needs and desires: 1. Biological (Physical): Related to physical survival and comfort, for example, clothing, food, shelter. Of course, quantities and qualities vary with the background and status of readers.

Examples (Specific Subjects): 1. Eating a Texas steak an inch thick is glorious. (Pleasure) 2. Spraying garden vegetables is one way of committing suicide. 3. Death on our freeways is on the run uphill.

Examples (Specific Subjects):

4. Some gourmets relish rattle snake steak. (Entertains)

1. Everyone loves you when you're the life of the party.

5. Third-world nations are now capable of nuclear warfare.

2. Conversing comfortably can be the essence of your charm.

2. Psychological: Related to the needs and desires of the reader's self-concept. This is the reader's self-image, the role-model the reader respects and admires. It is the person the reader thinks he or she is or wants to be. Readers will consider worthwhile (interesting) anything that will help achieve, reinforce, or protect that self-concept. Sometimes people are willing to give up their physical comfort and even survival to maintain their self-image, for example, parents, law officers, firefighters, and competitive athletes. Examples (Specific Subjects): 1. Your personality needs a haph71 rd independent look. 2. Call for the help of a miracle, your unique mind. 3. Imagine dating the Hollywood star of your dreams. (Entertain) 4. You deserve a job that lets you be you. 5. You are qualified to become a millionaire. 3. Social: Related to the needs and desires of having others accept and respect the selfconcept. Readers are always eager for others Page 22

to accept the person they think they are or want to be. They will be interested and will regard worthwhile any ideas that will induce others to recognize and accept their selfimages.

3. True friendship results from a sense of mutual security. 4. Satisfy the urge for togetherness by being a leader. 5. Here are some strategies for choosing fashionable clothing In the next chapter, we will study the different types of readers and responses to help us become more skillful in selecting words and ideas to translate our thoughts into effective written communication.

APPLICATIONS The following exercises may be used and assigned in any way your instructor chooses. The notations in parentheses are merely suggestions.

Application 2-1 (Group Activity: Class discussion question and writing)

Your instructor may guide the class in a discussion of these questions. Listen carefully and take notes because any of them may be assigned for a composition or as an examination essay question. 1. What makes a specific subject worthwhile?

Application 2-3 (In-class group (collaborative) activity; for two or more students)

Underline the main idea in each following specific subject: 1. Skiing in Michigan is a pleasant winter sport. 2. Writers need a keen sensitivity to words. 3. Working with metal is both a science and an art. 4. A Thanksgiving feast may be a harmful experience. 5. Professional football players are like Roman gladiators. 6. The sounds of an acoustic guitar are mellow and soothing.

2. Why is the main idea of a specific subject more important to the writer and reader than just the topic?

7. Junk food restaurants actually serve healthful foods.

3. What are the two main kinds of drifting and how can they be corrected?

8. Taking vitamins daily may not always be a good habit. 9. Vultures, some scientists say, evolved from dinosaurs.

Application 2-2 (In-class writing)

Add a worthwhile main idea to each of the following topics so it forms a complete specific subject that is not too broad nor too narrow for an approximately 500 word composition. 1. popular music 2. TV commercials 3. Sex education in schools 4. Foreign cars 5. "Blind dates"

10. Slaughtering baby seals is brutal unnecessarily.

Application 2-4 (Possible blackboard activity)

First read the supporting ideas listed below. Next write a complete specific subject that is not too broad nor too narrow for a 500-word composition. Be sure that your main idea is worthwhile for your readers, college students. Do a good job because your instructor may ask you to place your answers on the board for class discussion. Write one specific subject for each of the following groups: A, B, and C. Page 23

3. soft leather seat A 1. gentle waves

4. powerful engine 5. license required

2. deep blue water 3. soft breeze 4. swaying of deck 5. flap of sails 6. full moon and bright stars

B. Television can be an important educational tool. 1. Informative documentaries are interesting. 2. College credits can be earned.

B.

3. The amount of violence is excessive.

1. collision with other skiers

4. an electronic babysitter.

2. hazards of rocks, stumps, ice patches

5. enables busy people to be wellinformed.

3. careless use of chairlifts 4. boot bindings may not release 5. losing balance on slope

C. Drinking and driving affects those who don't drink 1. general increase in insurance premiums.

C.

2. Italians drink wine daily.

1. suspense mounts while hanging on to the fishing rod

3. increase in taxes for additional needed police.

2. physical alertness initiated by the sudden jerk of a nibble.

4. tragic deaths and many cripplings.

3. excitement of observers as the bass breaks the surface

6. increase in number of courts needed

4. Screaming seagulls dive in to get their share.

Application 2-5

Underline the main ideas in the following specific subjects, and circle the numbers of the details under each not closely enough related to it. A. The motorcycle seen in the showroom flickered in John's dreams. 1. bright chrome 2. helmet should be worn Page 24

5. subcompact cars offer little protection

D. The Soviet Union has a history of belligerence. 1. invasion of Hungary in 1956 2. needs to import no petroleum 3. invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 4. improving relationship with China 5. crushed the rebellion in Czechoslovakia in 1958 6. Support of Cuba's agriculture.

Application 2-6

You may have to do some research for supporting ideas for this assignment. After underlining the main idea in each specific subject, list the supporting ideas you would use to develop each into at least a 500 word composition.

B. My Chinese rug is great. 1. intricate oriental detail 2. bright shades of orange and red 3. artistic oriental designs 4. Patterns relate ancient Chinese history 5. thick hand-woven pile

1. Going fishing is for everyone, especially women. 2. Forest conservation must concern all Americans. 3. Industries move from one city to another for good reasons. 4. Dating on the inflated dollar requires ingenuity.

C. During a thunder storm, I don't like to be in the woods. 1. growling thunder 2. streaks of flashing lightning 3. sheets of rain 4. falling trees and limbs 5. getting soaked from head to foot

Application 2-7 (For class evaluation of peer writing)

The main idea in each of the specific subjects below is too general or not closely enough related for the supporting ideas listed. For each, write a better specific subject and underline its Key idea. Your instructor may project on a screen or have you write your sentences on the board for class discussion. A. A carnival is an interesting place. 1. garish lights.

Application 2-8 (Student One-to-One)

In each of the following, underline the main idea with one line and the key with two. One sentence has an implied main idea and Key; underline only the word that implies the key. Three have a divided (split) main idea, with a part of it at the beginning. 1. Violinists are put through extensive training.

2. vendors with rasping voices

2. For urban or rural living, .an automobile is a necessity.

3. screaming kids and popping balloons

3. Cooking lobster over an open fire is simple.

4. terrifying roller-coaster rides

4. The per capita income in the United States exceeds that in Europe.

5. discordant merry-go-round music

5. What is hydroponics?

6. Structural steel is a durable building material. 7. Learning how to build a swimming pool is self-fulfilling. 8. Both employee working hours and their pay are not satisfactory. 9. Photography, like painting, music, and writing, is an art. 10.Today's human is a superior being, supposedly.

2. A stock-car driver is skillful and cautious. 3. Leslie is a dreamer and an idealist. 4. A vacation in Spain would be expensive but fascinating. 5. The tools of any trade must be handled carefully and skillfully. 6. Courageously and unquestioningly, the students followed the directions. 7. Skiing is exciting and dangerous.

11.An automobile transmission is a complex mechanism. 12.The abandoned old house was in need of extensive repair.

Application 2-10 (Group activity)

13.A marathon racer needs determination.

The following specific subjects are intended for a 500 word communication. First tell what is wrong with each faulty one by matching it with one of the letters. Next identify the main idea in each.

14.The cost of television advertising is increasing. 15.Becoming a psychiatrist is Sally's main dream. 16.For the newly married, a trip to Bermuda is expensive. 17.The saucer-shaped object was visible. 18.For extending human life, modern medicine is a great aid. 19.Pitch in roof construction is very important.

Some will have more than one weakness; identify only the main one. A. Either or both the topic and main idea are too broad. B. Either or both the topic and main idea are too narrow. C. Either or both are not worthwhile: offering little or nothing that is pleasant, new, different, or useful. D. The specific subject is incomplete.

Application 2-9 (Student group (team) activity)

E. The specific subject is a good one.

Each of the following subject (or controlling) sentences has a Key with more than one word. Underline all the Keywords in each main idea.

1. Serving with the Detroit Police, my dog Sam helped solve crimes.

1. The major causes of traffic accidents are speeding, tailgating, and alcohol.

3. The expenses of updating an older house to pass local standards in order to get a license to remodel.

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2. Salt and pepper make food taste better.

4. While driving through Nevada, I saw a saguaro cactus.

Application 2-11 (Writing Assignment) •

5. The world's buildings have many different architectural designs.

Discover a topic by brainstorming. Next, by free-writing, discover a worthwhile main idea about the selected topic. Be sure to circle the possible topics and the potential main ideas. Write a subject sentence identifying the complete topic and the main idea selected. Be sure that your main idea is not too broad nor too narrow for the assigned scope and that it is worthwhile for college students. Now as fast as you can, without much judging or editing, write at least five or six related sentences developing the key of the main idea into a single paragraph. Revise the first draft. Be sure that nothing drifts from the topic, main idea, and especially from the key of the subject sentence, the first sentence. On the final draft, be sure to underline the main idea with one line and the key with two. Turn in all four with the final draft on top.

6. Today's use of automated machines for production of automobiles at lower cost to compete with foreign production. 7. To commemorate an important American historical event, a folk song may be an effective way. 8. To solve the problems of overpopulation and starvation in Chad, Ethiopia, and South America, the United States, Canada, England, and France must do their share. 9. Disobeying the law can cause a college student trouble. 10. Lucerne, Switzerland has snow in the winter. 11. Parenting an active teenager strains your debating skills. 12. Dangerous canoeing going down whitewater rapids. 13. The hi-tech improvements in combat weapons enable women to serve in battle as effectively as men. 14. Sometimes candy apples drip. 15. The night my date lost his wallet.

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Step 2 chapter 3 Discovering How to Say It: THE READER RESPONSE

Here is what this chapter explains: 1. Discovering the reader' 2. Discovering the kind of response 3. The different kinds of reader-responses 4. How the reader-response helps discover the needed language 5. How the reader-response helps discover the needed supporting ideas Discovering who the intended reader or type of reader will be and the wanted response are two very important things writers must do before starting to write. The reader plus the response makeup what we are calling the readerresponse. This is the second important part of the Predetermined Objective, the beacon that guides the writer. In the last chapter, we explained how the writer can tell what the readerresponse should be from the main idea of the specific subject when that occurs to her or him first. Even though writers have good specific subjects, they can't tell completely what to say or how to say it until they also discover the reader and the response wanted. Knowing that will help them later to plan and to write: (1) the most effective language, (2) the most appropriate supporting ideas,

(3) the kind of paper (the genre) that has to be written, (4) the extent of development needed (the scope), and (5) the best way to assemble the words and ideas into the right patterns of organization. We will study all of these as we go. The Reader Writers should know the reader or the type of reader before starting to write. Any topic or main idea can be written about in a variety of ways, depending upon who the reader is to be. How To Know the Reader To know the reader or type of reader they are writing to, writers can ask themselves certain questions. The answers to one or more of them will greatly aid them in knowing to whom they are writing. Having some understanding of who the reader is will help a person to decide what to write and how to write it. Knowing the reader's approximate age may be of some help. Discovering the amount of education or work experience in a certain field can be of great help. Knowing readers' social, ethnic, religious, or political interests is often useful. Even gender is sometimes good to know. By knowing as many of the answers to these questions as possible, writers will be able to place the intended reader

into one of the three classes below. By doing that they will be able to select and aim their language and supporting ideas more specifically to achieve the intended response. 1. Well-informed reader (the expert) 2. Somewhat- informed reader (the technician) 3. General reader (the layperson) The Well-informed Reader (Expert) The well-informed or highly educated reader, often considered the expert, is very proficient in a certain field. He or she may, for example, understand the theory and technical principles involved along with their practical applications. When writing to this type of reader, a person can be highly technical and write about complex aspects of the topk or main idea. Also, the general vocabulary may be more formal and academic. Even the sentences may be longer and structurally more complex. Theory may be dealt with more without as much explanation of the technical terms and principles as when writing to other types of readers. Of course, there are different degrees of reader expertise, and writers should know to which one they are writing. It should be pointed out, also, that just because a person is considered an expert in one area doesn't make him or her one in another. For example, when writing to a physician, the writer may be able to write very technical ideas about medicine. However, when writing to this same reader about the fuel system of an automobile, the writer may have to regard him or her as a general reader and use a different set of language and ideas.

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The Somewhat- Informed Reader (Technician) The Somewhat-informed readers have a great deal of knowledge about an area. Much of that may be very technical, but it is mainly the kind that can be used regularly for practical purposes related to an occupation or a hobby. This kind of reader is often referred to as a technician because of having extensive knowledge and skill in applying technology, but may know little about related theory, equations, and formulas. When writing to a good auto mechanic about repairing a complex carburetor, a writer can express highly technical terminology and ideas. However, those ideas would not deal extensively with the related theories of physics or the mathematics unless they are needed for practical purposes. The language used when writing to the technician will consist of some technical terms, but fewer than the amount used when writing to the expert. Most words will be usually less formal and those commonly used when writing about commerce, industry, and practical science. The General Reader (Layperson) All of us are general readers in many areas outside of the field in which we spend much of our time. Although we spend some time reading as experts or technicians, we probably spend most of our reading time as laypersons, which is another word for general readers.. Most newspapers and magazines are aimed at the general reader. Many government and business reports are written for that type of reader. It would be safe to say that most writing is done for the general reader. For the general reader, writers have to use down-to-earth, "workhorse," language. Discussion of technical ideas and terminology related to them should be kept to a minimum. Whenever any are used, they may have to be defined and extensively illustrated with examples.

When informing or persuading the layperson, writers often have to soften the hard information or the cold logic and evidence-inproof with bits of emotion or pleasant sensation. However, they should always be careful not to allow the sense and emotional appeal to detract from the accuracy of the information.

One of the following kinds of supporting ideas mainly will be in a composition, depending upon which of the three reader-responses listed before will be the most important.

Kinds of Supporting Ideas

1. Words expressing sense and emotional ideas

THE RESPONSE To make written communication easier to do and more successful, writers should know the response, the reaction, wanted from the intended reader, as soon as possible. As we said earlier, if the specific subject occurs to the writer first, by examining it, the person writing should be able to tell what the most appropriate response for it would be. Even if the reader is known before the response, writers should be able to determine not just which specific subject would be suitable but also which response to it would be. Student writers should know before even doing research in their own minds or in the library which of the following reader-responses will be appropriate for the main idea and the reader intended: 1. Entertain 2. Inform 3. Persuade It is not unusual to have a mixture of two or three of these in one composition, but one will be the main one. Only one, consequently, will predetermine what is written and how it is said. By knowing which will be the main reader- response, writers also will be able to select the needed kinds of language and, especially the kinds of supporting ideas that will do the best job for its development.

2. Accurate reliable information from qualified sources (including logical causes and reasons as supporting information) 3. Logical Causes and reasons to persuade: Causes and reasons may serve: (1) As logical support (2) as evidence-in-proof, or (3) as incentive to do (or not do) something

It should be easy to see from the words and ideas in bold print in the specific subjects on the next page how each clearly suggests the appropriate reader-response. Each also clearly identifies the most useful kinds of words and supporting ideas needed to arouse that response. The suggested one is in parentheses along with a number identifying the kind of ideas in the preceding list that will play the main role in achieving it. 1. Being scuba- diving enthusiasts, the bride and groom were married in an underwater ceremony. (Entertain-1) 2. Our galaxy has more than 100 billion stars. (Inform-2) 3. State laws should regulate the cost of funerals. (Persuade-3)

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Notice in the following illustrations how both the specific subject main idea (underlined) and the indicated reader- response helped the writer to select the needed words and ideas along with how to organize them. All of these are based on the pictures. TO ENTERTAIN

Kinds of words and ideas: Specific, vivid sense and emotion (Seen and imagined from what is seen) rounded mounds of white wind sounds crunching of snow

cold wind against face

glistening snow

shushing of skis

rolling fields in valley deep breathing TO INFORM

(Notice how even the texture of the words blend with the specific, vivid sense and emotional details to entertain in the following.) Downhill skiing is exhilarating. Stand on your skis on a rise, looking down over the white mounds of snow. Watch the magic of the rolling fields on the other side of the glistening hills in the valley below rushing toward you. The cold wind against your face cools your warm breath and turns it to whisps of steam. A tingling sense of expectancy builds up as you slice and slip forward. Your speed increases, and your skis, pressing the ice crystals beneath them, make a shushing sound. Steadily you move forward up and down the powdery mounds and then faster and faster toward the valley, the momentum carrying you along while the wind reassuringly whispers to you.

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Kinds of Words and Ideas: Accurate reliable information: stocking cap leather boots with clamps shape of poles

heavy knickers

dimensions of skis

breaker type jacket

leather mittens Cross-country ski clothing and equipment consist of a few basic pieces. The boots are similar to light weight shoes with laces up the front. The bindings are metal with clamps to fasten the toe of the boot to the center of the ski, to leave the heel free. The skis are three to four inches wide and from six to eight feet in length. The two poles are pointed at one end, and each has a circular three-inch ring, fastened with spokes, six inches above each point. Leather straps at the top of the poles are large enough for the gloved hands. The mittens, jacket, and knickers are of the wind breaker type, with a light weight but warm lining. The gloves usually are heavy mittens, and the tasseled stocking cap worn by most skiers adds color to the activity.

TO PERSUADE Kinds of Words and Ideas: Causes and reasons serving as support or as logical evidence nearer to skiing areas gear is not as bulky less expensive equipment

no lift problems

fewer incidental expenses

easier to learn

In the next chapter, we will see how the writer clearly implies what the intended response for a communication is. By clearly indicating this at the very beginning of a composition, the writer enables readers to understand the literal along with the implied meanings of words so they can interpret the language better. The readers are then able to respond as the writer intends.

equipment is easier to handle TO ENTERTAIN

Cross-country skiing is better than down-hill. Unlike the bulkier, more rigid down hill gear, cross-country equipment is lighter and more comfortable to use. Also, it is usually much cheaper for quality gear than for that used in down-hill. Since crosscountry does not require steep slopes and as much packed snow, suitable areas are often much closer. Consequently, travel time and costs are reduced drastically. Tow and Lift tickets are avoided. Injuries are few and less severe. Finally, it is much easier to learn.

'When the intended reader-response is to entertain a reader or type reader, writers mainly aim at arousing a sense or an emotional response by narrating, by telling about some funny, amusing, peculiar, or exciting experience. By "narrating" we mean that writers, in a sense, stand back mentally and, like reporters, report observations. They tell about what happens or occurs rather than give their personal feelings and thoughts that occur while experiencing something. For example, observing and writing entertainingly about how bees air-condition their hives would be fascinating and, consequently, entertaining for many readers. In this instance, writers don't re-create vividly life in a bee hive so that readers imaginatively become bees and intimately experience their sensations and emotions. To entertain, writers also often narrate exciting happenings: adventures with wild animals, earthquakes and other life-threatening activities of nature, or even about murders and other crimes, not just about humorous subjects. When intending to entertain with humor, however, writers must make this clear to the reader right at the very beginning of the composition, by implying it. Doing this will tell readers that they may choose not to hold the writer accountable for the reliability and accuracy of what is written. The reader, therefore, will expect to be entertained and, consequently,

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will allow the writer's exaggerations, inexact words, and other kinds of expressions not suitable for informing or persuading. Writers also may entertain by vividly creating or re-creating an experience, enabling readers to become personally involved so intimately that they feel that they are actually having the same experience as the writer. To do that, writers have to use specific words that arouse certain sensory and emotional experiences vividly, making readers feel that they are experiencing something real. Most people have, in a sense jumped out of their skins and into the skin of a character in a movie or in a novel to have an experience outside of themselves. Some people say that this is the way we have some of the most meaningful experiences of our lives. Often it is the only way, for example, to experience living in another place or time: Ancient Rome, Egypt, heaven, hell. There are many ways to amuse readers. Making them laugh can be easy and fun to do. Today, television programs provide us with a whole assortment of this kind of entertainment. Satire may be very subtle; it is often written to ridicule human nature. Comedy usually is not subtle, it includes commonsensical essays. A short humorous one by Andy Rooney, from his book A FEW MINUTES WITH ANDY ROONEY follows. You probably know him better for his wry essays presented on the TV program entitled 60 MINUTES. FENCES

Our brains have a way of jumping around a lot, thinking of one thing for a few seconds and then flitting off to think of another. For me as a writer, it's always been fun to see if I could stop one subject in my head for long enough to take a good look at it.

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For instance, I was thinking about fences. There are as many kinds of fences in this country as there are people. You couldn't count all the fences there are. There are big fences, small fences, teeny-tiny fences. The biggest difference between one fence and another fence is whether the fence was built to protect what's inside from what's outside or to protect what's outside from what's inside. To protect the people outside, for instance, a mean dog has to be fenced in. It's a mystery why some fences are ever built at all. Most cemeteries have fences, even though no one outside really wants to get in and no one inside ever tries to get out. Sometimes, you can't tell what a fence is keeping in—or keeping out. You can't tell what a fence is protecting from what. You suspect that sometimes people just put up fences from habit or as to show off strength or wealth. I hate anyone who has a fence that costs more than my house costs. The best looking fences are often the simplest. A simple fence around a beautiful home can be like a frame around a picture. The house isn't hidden; its beauty is enhanced by the frame. But a fence can be a massive, ugly thing, too, made of bricks and mortar. Sometimes the insignificant little fences do their job just as well as the tenfoot walls. Maybe it's only a string stretched between here and there in a field. The message is clear; don't cross here. There's often a question about whether a barrier is a fence or a wall. Fences, I think, are thinner than walls. And, of course, there are people who confuse us further by building fences on top of walls.

Every fence has its own personality and some don't have much. There are friendly fences. A friendly fence takes kindly to being leaned on There are friendly fences around playgrounds. And some playground fences are more fun to play on than anything they surround. There are more mean fences than friendly fences overall, though. Some have their own built-in invitation not to be sat upon. Unfriendly fences get it right back sometimes. You seldom see one that hasn't been hit, bashed, bumped or in some way broken or knocked down. One of the phenomena of fences is their tendency to proliferate. Note, if you Will, how often one fence brings on another fence. People often seem to want their own fence, even if it's back to back, cheek by jowl with the neighbor's fence, almost as though the fence was put up to keep the fence out. The other thing I thought about fences; I thought maybe the world wouldn't be very much changed if tomorrow morning every fence was gone (AndyA. Rooney, "Fences." A FEW MINUTES WITH ANDY ROONEY, Copyright 1981, Ecsy Productions, Inc. With permission ofAtheneum Pub. Inc.)

It is easy to see from Andy Rooney's exaggerations in the form of overstatements understatements, and illogical statements that he intends to entertain. Here are examples: overstatement: "There are as many kinds of fences in this country as there are people." Understatement: "The best looking fences are often the simplest." Illogical statement: "One of the phenomena of fences is their tendency to proliferate..." Andy Rooney implies he intends to entertain from the exaggeration in his first

sentence: "Our brains have a way of jumping around a lot...." Consequently, readers don't hold him accountable for the accuracy of most of what is said. However, they will hold him accountable mainly for what he promised them by the first sentence, to be entertained.

To Inform

The kind of writing people do most often in their lifetime is that intended to inform. When informing, writers try to arouse a mental response. They aim their ideas at increasing the reader's inventory of knowledge about some idea. To succeed in doing that, they present accurate worthwhile information in a manner that achieves understanding. Understanding results when readers can see the relationship between something they already know and the new or different information the writer is giving. It is hard to inform readers unless they can see a value in the information being offered. However, they can't see the value unless they first understand it. Once they understand and recognize the value, they then become receptive and open up their minds to receive the information so they can place it in their memory inventory of related knowledge. As was stated earlier, when writing to less informed readers, writers often sprinkle a few sensory and emotional words and ideas to flavor or soften the information, making it more intellectually digestible. Remember that when readers are promised at the beginning of a composition that the writer is going to inform, the readers will hold him accountable for the reliability and accuracy of the information along with the qualifications of the sources. Therefore, the sensory and emotional details given to the general reader should not distort the accuracy and reliability.

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Although the following article from the WALL STREET JOURNAL has many entertaining ideas, the main reader-response wanted by Beth Nissen, the author, is to inform readers about animal conditioned behavior and training techniques. Since it is not intended for the expert or technician in animal psychology, the hard knowledge is made interesting to the general reader by flavoring it with some amusing ideas expressed in colloquial, conversational (spoken), language. Animal Behavior Enterprises, Inc. is a small organization of biologists and technicians that can control the actions of animals as large as whales and as small as cockroaches with behavior modification. At the company's 25-acre farm in central Arkansas, parrots roller-skate, raccoons play basketball, bunnies run roulette wheels, and chickens do card tricks. "We can train any animal to do anything within its physical limits," says Marian Breland Bailey, who founded Animal Behavior Enterprises with her late husband, Keller Breland, in 1947. Since then she has helped train more than 8,000 animals from almost 200 species including turkeys, dolphins, cows, snakes, and reindeer. To make research and animal training economically feasible, the organization uses its trained animals commercially for entertainment - leasing them to shopping malls and fairs for coin-operated shows and exhibiting them at Animal Wonderland and the I.Q. Zoo, the company's own tourist attractions in Hot Springs, Arkansas. Animal Behavior's training technique, which is approved by the American Humane Association, strengthens and then controls part of an animal's natural random behavior—say, a chicken's pecking, by immediate positive reinforcement. If reinforcement is consistent, the desired Page 36

behavior is likely to be performed again and with increased frequency, and eventually on command. To show how foolproof the technique is, Mrs. Bailey has this reporter train a chicken, the animal used most often by Animal Behavior Enterprises in its trained acts. "If you can train a chicken, you can train anything," says Mrs. Bailey, a tiny, white-haired woman who everyone rather aptly calls "Mouse." I am to teach my common barnyard hen ("If she wasn't here, she'd be stew," says one trainer.) to pick a winning poker hand by pecking a card marked with a black dot. I have a hand-held button connected to an automatic feeder; when I press it, there is a dull bang and bits of grain fall to a feed tray. The chicken is first conditioned to run to the feeder and eat at the sound of the bang. "At the beginning of training, reinforce the animal for even a good try at the desired behavior," instructs Mrs. Bailey. My chicken struts around a bit before she finally gives the eagle eye to the three cards I'm holding. Bang, I reinforce her for looking in the right place. On her next try, she comes close and takes an inquisitive peck at my hand. Bang, I reinforce the pecking action. She pecks a card, any card. Bang, I again reinforce the correct action. The hen is thereafter reinforced only for pecking the marked card, until, after two hours, she has become an unerring cardsharp. Mastering the training of this barnyard animal carries a special-satisfaction for me. At the Texas State Fair last summer, another chicken from Hot Springs dealt me a humiliating defeat in tic-tac-toe.

Once trained, the animals never "forget" the correct response. "You can take Burt Backquack, the piano-playing duck, away from his piano for two years and he'll still remember what to do," says Mrs. Bailey. "There just aren't that many pianos in the life of a duck." (Adapted from an article entitled "Can a Chicken Play Poker?—Maybe If It's Been to Hot Springs" by Beth Nissen. Reprinted by permission ofTHE WALL STREET JOURNAL, DowJones & Company, Inc., 1979.)

To Persuade

Written communication intended to persuade is different from that which is to inform. It goes beyond informing. When the purpose of writers is to persuade, their written communications do more than just increase readers' knowledge. Their information mainly consists of persuasive causes and reasons intended to induce their readers to abandon certain attitudes (ways of thinking about something) and /or convictions (firm beliefs) and to replace either with what the writers contend in certain compositions. Writers write to persuade mainly when they are reasonably sure that they are writing to an adversary. An adversary is a person who doubts, challenges, or disagrees with what the writer is saying. It doesn't make sense to try to persuade someone who already agrees. In this case, it would be better to inform instead. Because the intended readers are adversaries, writers have to be accurate and sure of the correctness of their ideas and the logic with which they interrelate them. Also, they will have to make certain that the reader is aware of the credibility of the evidence and the qualifications of the sources from which it is derived. Therefore, this evidence will mainly consist of facts and logical inferences.

Following is an article that is directed at changing an adversary's attitude and convictions about women serving in military combat. Notice how enough logical causes and reasons, the main supporting ideas, are inserted. Also observe the several qualified sources the writer calls into support the conclusion. The main idea's Key is underlined. (See examples of To Persuade on pages 132 and 153.) Even if they volunteer, women should not serve in infantry combat duty. This is true even though women have served this country faithfully and bravely during our wars. They did and still do as doctors, nurses, pilots, drivers, and in many highly technical positions. In some military duties, they serve more skillfully than men, but as yet, not as combat infantry soldiers. There is no question that women could increase the size of our armed forces; however, the physical effects on them make combat duty not practical . Most women lack the physical strength that men have. Major General John K. Singlaub (USARetired) an infantry general, says women lack the upper body strength to perform such essential combat related duties as carrying ammunition, climbing out of foxholes, quickly changing tires, and pulling vehicles out of the mud. Their lack of physical strength could slow down combat units, and, therefore, serve as a detriment in an actual war. Not only are some of the male generals of the Pentagon opposed to placing women in combat but so are female general staff members. Brigadier General Elizabeth Holsington (USA-Retired) states, "In my whole lifetime, I have never known ten women who I thought could endure three months under actual combat Women also lack the psychological strength that men have and need for combat. Veteran Soviet Page 37

military officers have told countless tales of women becoming hysterical under the sound of exploding shells. General Singlaub is another who tells of emotional instability of women during combat while he was organizing resistance behind German lines during World War II.

rewards (or punishment) that are to be gained as incentive. In this kind of writing, these incentives often play as important a role as the evidence-in-support. Isn't advertising for blood donations or to make charitable contributions, along with all the other advertising this kind of persuasion?

It is true that the Soviet Union used women in combat during World War II, but only during the darkest hours of the war, after millions of men had been killed and the country was desperate. The Russian leaders learned of the inability of women in combat and discontinued their active combat duties immediately after the war.

Combinations of Reader-Responses often occur, but only one will be the main reaction wanted from the reader. Some of the same kinds of ideas as those commonly used for one may play a minor part in another. As stated before, sometimes, for example, writers may insert a few entertaining ideas in a communication directed at informing. In these, however, writers make sure that the largest part of their words and ideas will consist of accurate reliable information. On the other hand, to persuade, they may have to tell what a word means or give some other kind of background information, but the largest part of the writing will contain a chain of causes and reasons and/or as evidence-in-proof that logirIly leads the reader to the intended conclusion.

Before using women as infantry combat soldiers, we first must pay careful consideration to what other countries discovered when doing so. We have to think about the effects of combat upon their physical and psychological natures. It is important for us to debate this issue now, during peace, when we have the time.

Another common kind of persuasion is that which wants the reader to be more than just convinced. It wants him or her to do or be willing to do (or not do) something. In addition to giving some good reasons when writing this kind of persuasion, writers also have to provide readers with worthwhile incentive, some reward (fame, money, self-fulfillment, comfort, etc.). For example, if writers want to tell how computer dating is conducted, they will write to inform. However, if they want to change readers' attitudes or convictions to persuade them that the government should provide them with free computer- dating services to assure better marriages, they will have to provide sound logical evidence- inproof. But if they want to persuade readers to participate (or not participate) in a computer dating service, they will have to identify the Page 38

Drifting from the Reader-Response

In the discussion of drifting from the specific subject in Chapter 2, we said that writers write incoherently when they drift in either of two ways: (1) by inserting words or ideas unrelated or not closely enough related to the specific subject and/or (2) by inadequate development, not putting in the right amount of the supporting ideas needed to develop it. Drifting from the reader-response may occur in the same two ways: a in relationship and b. in development.

Unrelated words and/or supporting ideas (including those not closely enough related) to the reader to arouse the intended response cause the composition to drift. Let's say that writers want to persuade, but insert mainly reliable information instead of causes and reasons as evidence- in -proof to do the job. In such instances, they probably will inform, not persuade. Even when trying to entertain, if they don't give words and ideas related to the kind of entertainment they promise, they will drift. More than likely, instead of entertaining, they will irritate readers. (Review drifting from the specific subject in Chapter 2.) Underdevelopment- drifting from the reader response is illustrated next. The writer of this composition wants to entertain readers by allowing them to share a fond memory. But the writing is skimpy. There isn't enough of the needed specific, vivid sensory and emotional words and ideas to enable readers to imaginatively share the writer's remembered experience. True, they get a general idea, a lukewarm, feeling, but not the deep emotional experience that the writer wants to communicate. Consequently, instead of entertaining, it informs. The Key of the main idea is in bold type. Time has a way of erasing, but it never can erase the fond memory of my grandparents' country home. I remember the porch with its swing, where I spent much time as a child. I also remember the umbrella rack and the powder horn at the parlor entrance. I recall the strange looking piano, which sat inside the parlor, the seat box at one of the windows, an over stuffed davenport, a rocking chair, and old lamps and shades around the parlor. Last of all, I distinctly remember the huge clock, which was given to my grandparents on their wedding day.

Here is the same paragraph rewritten with enough specific vivid sensory and emotional ideas. By adding these, the writing succeeds in enabling readers to share a warm, pleasant memory imaginatively. It no longer drifts. The added details are underlined. Time has a way of erasing, but it never can erase the fond memories of my grandparents' country home. I remember well the circular front porch, so sunny and pleasant during peaceful summer mornings. There, as a child, I whiled away hours on the large wooden swing. I also remember the china-painted umbrella rack beside the parlor entrance and the mother-of-pearl powder horn attached above its mahogany door. I can't forget the high parlor walls, papered with scatterings of purple lilacs and the piano, just inside the parlor, with the colorful musical instruments painted on its sidepanels. Above it hung the family tree, a puzzle that still intrigues me. In my mind, the carefully spaced old lamps and shades still pour a special warmth into the room. I remember, also, how much fun it was for me as a child to sit on thewindow-seat of the north bay-window. It was there that grandma hid her supply of lace-crafted goods. Some doilies she made were always neatly placed on the backs and arm-rests of every chair. I remember, too, the plush davenport with its green, white, and cranberry covering, and the hand-made high-backed cherry rocker with its yellow quilted cushion. "Remember, remember me!" the grandfather clock, given to my grandparents on their wedding day, keeps pleading. "I won't forget you you manipulate the beat of my heart. "I promise.

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In this example, even the style of the writing, along with its words and ideas, is appropriate for the reader-response. Did you notice the play on the words, "remember", for example? When writers want to inform, they must put in enough of the information needed to arouse the response wanted. If they don't develop the main idea enough, the composition usually drifts from both the main idea as well as from successfully informing the reader to the extent required. Also, enough new, different (something the reader doesn't already know) worthwhile information must be given; otherwise, the reader will not be informed. Notice the difference between the two following efforts to inform about the "isolation" of Burma. The first drifts from the intended reader- response to inform because it doesn't provide needed supporting ideas to develop the main idea "isolated" enough. Although it is located in the heaviest populated area of the world, Burma is isolated. Facing the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea on the west and south, it contains an area of 262,000 square miles. It shares land borders with Thailand, Laos, China, India, and East Pakistan.

Although this preceding paragraph gives readers some related worthwhile information, it doesn't give them enough specific information to enable them to understand why Burma is "isolated" even though it has many neighboring countries and is located in a heavily populated area. In contrast, consider this next version. (The added ideas are underlined.) Although it is located in the heaviest populated area of the world, Burma is isolated. Facing the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea on the west and south, it Page 40

contains 262,000 square miles of mountainous terrain. It shares land borders with Thailand, Laos, China, India, and East Pakistan, but is rimmed by mountain ranges that are as high as 15.000 feet. Her rivers and dense forests discourage east-west movement of its people for trade or pleasure. Its climate also contributes to this isolation because of the many days during the year when it is too wet or too hot to travel on unimproved roads. Burma has a tropical monsoon climate, with heavy rainfall in the coastal region. During the hot season, March to May, the temperature often exceeds 100 degrees Fahrenheit, when it's too hot to travel extensively.

When aiming to persuade, writers must support their main points with enough related causes and reasons from qualified sources as evidence. When this is not done, the main supporting argument is underdeveloped. Consequently, the skimpy development is too weak to cause the reader to discard a firm attitude or conviction and to replace it with the writer's. In other words, it is inadequate to cause the intended intellectual change in the reader. The first paragraph in the next composition illustrates how drifting results from underdevelopment of a composition intending to persuade; consequently, it informs instead. It doesn't give enough logical causes and reasons from qualified sources as evidence-in-proof or support of the conclusion "must enlist and keep its technicians longer than it does its infantry soldier." To maintain its strength, the U.S. Army must enlist and keep its technicians longer than it does its infantry soldiers. Since World War II, its reliance on military technology has increased so extensively that the need for technicians now exceeds that for infantry. Consequently, under present

laws, the Department of Defense cannot satisfy that need. This is because technicians are required to spend only a short time in service after they have completed the highly technical training they need today. In contrast, the revised paragraph below has enough logical evidence-in-support to counteract the argument that this isn't true. The evidence given is reliable because it is from qualified sources. The main idea is in bold type, and the added ideas are underlined. To maintain its strength, the U.S. Army must enlist and keep its technicians longer than it does its infantry soldiers. Since World War II, its reliance on military technology has increased so extensively that the need for technicians today exceeds that for infantry. Consequently, under present laws, the Department of Defense cannot satisfy that need. This is because technicians are required to spend only a short time in service after they have completed the highly technical training they now must be given. The development of nuclear weapons, ballistic missiles, and sophisticated computerization of logistics, as well as combat weapons has caused this need for highly trained technicians. According to House Armed Services Committee Report #275, the combat soldier accounted for 23.6 percent of enlisted personnel at the end of World War II. This ratio dropped to 14 per cent by 1988. During the same period, the ratio of electronics technicians rose from 6 to 14 percent, and that of mechanics and other technicians rose from 28 to 32. After 6 months of basic training, technicians need several months of technical training, leaving little remaining time for them to spend in military service. They soon apply for discharge so they can offer their newly acquired knowledge and skills to industry for much higher pay than they can get in the Army.

It is difficult to develop a composition without knowing both parts of the predetermined objective: the specific subject and both the reader and the response intended. By knowing that before starting to write the first draft, writers will know more precisely what is needed in the composition. Before starting to write, writers should remind themselves of the differences between the two general kinds of prose: fiction and nonfiction because their structure and organization are different. Fiction is usually a re-creation of a partially or a completely imaginary happening. Consequently, it is a story telling about imagined characters and the sequence of happenings involving them in the narrative. Therefore, when writing fiction, most of the time, the beginning paragraphs tell the name of the event, where it is happening, when it occurs, the main characters, etc. Fiction usually doesn't start out with a subject sentence identifying the main idea that the writer wants to communicate as in nonfiction. In fiction, that main idea most often is implied by the whole novel or short story, and readers have to read all or a large part of it before they discover what that main idea is. Nonfiction is the kind of writing most people are required to do during their lives. It is the kind written most often in conducting their personal business and while performing their occupations. Some of its structure and organization is different from that of fiction. Although much of the instruction in this book is needed for writing both fiction or nonfiction, it is mainly directed at teaching students to write effective nonfiction. The instructions it contains about words and supporting ideas, for example, are important for writing either. The next chapter tells and shows how the parts of the beginning (title, opener, and main paragraph) of nonfiction identify the specific subject (complete topic and main idea) and the intended reader-response, not the identification of the main happening and the circumstances as in fiction. Page 41

Chapter 4 is aimed at explaining how the structure, content, and organization of the beginning section of nonfiction should be written. It also tells how by writing one effectively, the writer will also suggest to the intended readers some or all of the items in the list below, enabling them to interpret, understand, and respond as the writer intended: 1. The genre, the overall kind of composition (essay, research paper, etc.) 2. The kinds of language (verbal and nonverbal) 3. The kinds of supporting ideas (See page 31.) 4. The length of the paper (the scope) 5

The organizational scheme of the supporting paragraphs

In the next chapter, we will study how the writer, in a sense, programs the reader's mind so that the reader knows what is coming and helps the writer in the communication process.

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APPLICATIONS The notations in parentheses after the application numbers are just suggestions. Your instructor may give new directions for them.

Application 3-1 Class Discussion Questions (Your instructor may use one or more of these in a test; study them carefully.) 1.How does knowing the reader and the response help the writer? 2.What is the main kind of supporting ideas for each kind of response? 3.Explain the differences between the two ways to entertain. 4.Explain the differences between the two ways to persuade. 5.Explain two main kinds of drifting from the reader-response. 6.To inform, what steps m6Rhe writer enable the reader to achiee?

A =To Entertain B =To Inform C =To Persuade 1.Today, environmental contamination by the world's industries is a greater threat to humanity than the next nuclear world war will be. 2.Statistics by the U.S. Office of Education reveal the seriousness of adult illiteracy. 3.Private country clubs do not intentionally discriminate against minority groups. 4.His jalopy, a pile of nuts and bolts, trundled pertly down the expressway. 5.Fall for me is a bundle of color. 6.People refer to the swimming pool under construction in our backyard for two years as "Phil's Folly." 7.There is a red Panda sports-model in your dealer's showroom waiting just for you with its lights on and its engine humming. 8.In a recent study, the American Medical Association found the misuse of alcohol is increasing. 9.Let me tell you about some embarrassing moments stemming from my short stature.

Application 3-2 (Group activity: Class discussion and writing) The main sentences below were taken from longer compositions intended to arouse a certain reader-response. Judging from what is expressed and how each is stated, tell which of the three responses in the heading best identifies it. Use the letters to indicate which response. Also tell the main kind of supporting ideas and the kind of causes and reasons to inform or to persuade. (Seepage 31.)

10. Before work on a suspension bridge can begin, extensive research must be done. 11. According to the ENCYCLOPAEDIA AMERICANA, early American Indians sometimes carried fire on horseback. 12. In a burst of culinary inspiration, my husband decided to concoct a banquet of Lebanese food.

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Application 3-3 (Writing—In class) Write three sentences, each clearly aimed at arousing a different reader-response (entertain, inform, or persuade). Beneath each, list several supporting ideas that will help achieve the response intended. Before each sentence, tell the reader-response. Be sure to underline the Key idea in each.

Application 3-4 (Group activity) Read the sentences below and first, tell which reader-response would be most appropriate. Underline the key idea in the main idea. Then under each, list several supporting ideas that are suitable to include in subsequent sentences. Finally, tell which kinds of ideas would best develop each: sense and emotional, accurate information, or causes and reasons and the kind of causes and reasons needed to inform or to persuade. (Seepage 31.) 1. American immigration laws favor people of certain nations. 2. If you think there's a quiet spot in my house, you can be sure that the kids will find it first. 3. Some colonial buildings in Williamsburg, Virginia are accurately restored.

Application 3-5 Review what you read in this unit about the kinds of ideas writers use to entertain, to inform, or to persuade. Now, read each of the sentences below, and tell: (1) the Key of the main idea, (2) which of the reader-responses would be most suitable and, (3) under each response, tell the kind of supporting ideas that should be used mainly to develop it. Also, if to inform or to persuade, be sure to tell the main kind of causes and reasons.

(1) The sun spilled shades of copper and amber across the sky. (2) Tennis is a more healthful sport than swimming. (3) Transfer of knowledge, according to noted psychologists, helps (4) Writers communicate about things they never have experienced. (5) Brilliant orange flames bellydanced on the fireplace logs. (6) Cut down your driving by carpooling. (7) Nitrogen fertilizer is essential for some farm crops. (8) The increased crime rate may indicate high unemployment. (9) It pays to know your child's teacher.

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Application 3-6 (Group Activity)

For each of the following, first tell what the intended reader-response is; second, the kind of ideas each mainly contains. If any contain causes and reasons, tell the kind they are, if used to inform or to persuade. 1. To be different, try skydiving. You've probably tried everything else. You have gone camping, hunted alligators, taken white- water rafts down fierce rivers, and climbed the Himalayas. Now do something that will increase your zest for life. Try parachuting, an exhilarating sport meant for an energetic, adventuresome person. You can get everything you need to know in just one day. A government licensed instructor will give you step-bystep instructions to make your first jump easy. Think of it; you can tell your friends to watch you make your first jump shortly after you decide to experience the thrill and excitement of skydiving. Why not? 2. Before my chute opened after somersaulting from the Cessna 182, I fell forever. Faster and faster my body turned and tumbled through the soft blue filament. I felt the way my cheeks were flattened by the cold wind and the way my lips were stretched across my face. My body throbbed with excitement, and my spirit sang the numbers of my count like a Gregorian chant in a vast monastery. Devoutly, I called out two-thousand one, two thousand-two Periodically, I squeezed my eyes open. I saw a vast whirling kaleidoscope of indistinguishable shapes and colors. Closing my eyes, again I continued my count, knowing that death was doing his best to make me forget to pull my ripcord. At two-thousand-ten, I pulled at the ring of my pack. I felt a sudden jerk, and the huge canopy opened

above me. Gently, I swayed in the breeze and listened to the wind humming through the cords as I floated down to the good solid earth. 3. Student parachutists are taught basic techniques in their beginning ground-school training. During their first days, these students are introduced to the important technical parachuting terms along with their meanings. Next, they are taught the principles of chute aerodynamics, proper exiting from the plane, body stabilization during free-fall, ripcord pulling, and the techniques of deploying the canopy after opening. Later, they study emergency procedures, including the use of the reserve chute. Finally, students are required to demonstrate how well they understand the studied principles by actually applying them in ground-school practice sessions. 4. Parachuting in the United States today is safer than most popular sports. One reason for this is it is much more closely regulated than most of the others. Because chuting is not as wildly practiced as football, surfing, boating, etc., it is much easier to supervise. The United States Parachuting Association (US PA) establishes, supervises, and enforces standards and procedures for safe jumping. It requires a parachutist to pack a very maneuverable main chute that sets a chutist on the ground so gently he or she need not fall to the ground. It insists that the jumper must wear certified protective clothing: a helmet, boots, jumpsuit, goggles, and gloves. Other federal agencies, through USPA, inspect and enforce certain "Basic Safety Regulations." For example, the chutist is required to jump with two parachutes. The first must be self-packed; the reserve must be packed by a government certified rigger. New and modern equipment, improved techniques, and

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adequate instruction and supervision have made parachuting less dangerous than most other sports activities. 5. This was his first jump. The novice parachutist's waited nervously to bail out from the Cessna 182. Anxiety was all over his face, in the bulging of his eyeballs and in the tightness of his lips. With jaws clamped shut, he tumbled out of the plane head first, legs and arms flapping. Hysterically he screamed his count as he fell. On twothousand ten, he fumbled wildly for the ripcord, but he couldn't find it. "0, no! You forgot to pack it," he screamed to himself. He was now falling at 130 miles per hour, the ground came rushing up like a huge fly swatter to smash him against the sky. Frantically, he tried to remember what he was supposed to do next. He reached for the reserve chute ring; he pulled something desperately. Instantly, he felt the reassuring sudden tug at his shoulders. Over him the glorious canopy quickly unfolded. Muttering to himself, he swayed slowly toward the ground.

Application 3-7 (Writing for projection on overhead and for class discussion)

Write three specific subject sentences aimed at arousing a different reader-response. Underline the Key of the main idea. Under each identify the intended reader-response and list a group of needed supporting ideas. In the left margin opposite each group, tell the kind the ideas are (see page 31.) Finally, write a composition of about 100 words developing one of the three sentences so that it does what it is supposed to do. Place the subject sentence first in the beginning paragraph.

Application 3-8 (In-class writing, judging, editing, and revising)

Write a specific subject sentence suitable for one of the reader-responses studied and underline its Key idea. Then as fast as you can, without judging or editing, at least five or six sentences developing its Key in a first-draft (a quick-draft,). Next, review, judge, edit, and revise the quick-draft into a final draft. Turn both drafts in, with the final draft on top. Be sure: a. Your main idea is worthwhile. b. To place the subject sentence first in the beginning paragraph c. To underline your main idea with one line and your key with two. d. To tell the intended reader-response above the paragraph. e. To avoid drifting from either the specific subject or the reader-response.

Application 3-9 (Group activity: class discussion and writing)

Your instructor will present one of the following issues for class discussion. After listening to what is said and taking notes, write a composition presenting your conclusion and try to persuade an adversary to agree with you, using what you heard in the class discussion along with any other related arguments. a. Men and women should marry their intellectual equals. b. American cars are better than foreign cars. C.

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Two years of college education should be compulsory.

Application 3-10 (Writing)

Using undirected thinking, discover a predetermined objective and write a quick-draft of a composition at least 300 words long. Be sure to do the following: 1. Place the subject sentence first in the beginning paragraph. 2. Underline the Key. 3. In the left margin opposite the first paragraph, tell the intended reader response. 4. Be sure you have enough of the right kinds of supporting ideas. 5. Tell which kind they mainly are. If causes and reasons are included, tell which kind. 6. Be sure to do the final critical judging, editing, and revising before writing your final draft. 7. Turn in both drafts, the quick-draft and the final, with the final on top.

Application 3-11 (Group critical judgment activity and writing)

Your instructor may wish to give you this as a practice assignment in critically judging other students' papers so that you will be better able to judge your own more objectively. After projecting one or two of the preceding compositions on the class screen, your instructor will ask one half of the class to look for the good qualities in the compositions being evaluated, especially those related to the instructions given above, and the other half will look for needed improvements.

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chapter 4 The Process of Communicating the Predetermined Objective: THE SPECIFIC SUBJECT AND THE READER RESPONSE WRITING THE BEGINNING & THE END Here is what this chapter explains: 1.How to write a good beginning section. 2.How to write good subject sentences. 3.How to write good explanatory sentences. 4.How to write good conclusions The next step in the process of translating thought into written communication is to write down the plan, the outline, and then the first draft. The writers have completed "the discovery phase." They now know their predetermined objective. They have done their research and have some idea about the kind of language, the kind of supporting ideas, the approximate length, the organization, and the kind of composition they have to write. Much of the preliminary planning is done. The planning phase, the second step in the writing process usually starts with writing the working outline A working outline is a kind of specification sheet, listing the main supporting ideas in the order in which the writer is going to discuss them. Any time writers want to make changes in a working outline, they simply cross parts out, draw arrows to transpose them, or put notations to remind themselves to do something, perhaps to do more research. Writers often write the formal outline when they are finished with the whole composition. This outline reflects the final revision of the

composition (see Chapter 11). It often is submitted with the final draft to the reader; therefore, it may be as much help to the reader as it is to the writer in understanding the important interrelationships and organization of what is written. The writing phase, the third step in the writing process, is where we are now. This is the stage the rest of the book will deal with mainly. In this chapter, we focus our efforts at learning to write the beginning section of a composition. This is the hardest part to write; it is here that writers must establish contact with their readers and tell them what they mainly intend to say and why they want to say it. They do that by telling the reader what the predetermined objective is: the specific subject and the readerresponse. They do this right at the beginning, after establishing contact, to make readers active participants. We explain now how they write (1) the opener (2) the main paragraph, and the conclusion. (3) We show how the opener establishes contact with the reader, and how the main paragraph subject sentence tells readers what writers intend to say and how they intend to say it. In this way, they, in a sense, program the minds of their readers to expect certain things. In the last part of this chapter, we will explain how to

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write a conclusion. The middle part of the composition will be explained in the rest of the book. The chart below shows that a-composition usually has three divisions; (1) The beginning (title, opener, and main paragraph), (2) middle, and the (3) end. Since each of these performs important duties, each needs certain parts containing words and ideas organized in the way that will help it to do what it should.

Title

1.Establishes reader contact by arousing willingness to read 2.Suggests the predetermined objective by stating or by implying the specific subject (specific topic and main idea) and the intended reader-response.

Opener Main Paragraph 1. Subject Sentence lanatory Sentences

OPENER (when needed) Reinforces reader contact and intensifies willingness to read. MAIN PARAGRAPH 1.Subject sentence identifies the predetermined objective: the specific subject (specific topic and main idea) and the reader-response (to entertain, to inform, to persuade). The specific subject sentence main idea and key in this sentence now guide the reader's interpretation and understanding the language and supporting ideas contained in the whole composition, enabling the writer to achieve the predetermined objective.

2.Explanatory sentences in the main paragraph clarifythe words and the ideas in the subject sentence so readers will understand it and what is said in the rest of the composition well enough to respond as the writer intends. SUPPORTING PARAGRAPHS Supporting Paragraphs Supporting Paragraph #1 _Supporting Paragraph #2 Supporting Paragraph #3

Concluding Paragraph(s)

Standard, Narrative, Dialogue, and/or Journalism-type supporting paragraphs help achieve the predetermined objective by adapting the specific subject to the intended reader in a manner that will arouse the wanted response needed to achieve the predetermined objective. Each will help doing the adapting to the reader by clarifying, amplifying, and/or supporting the main idea of the specific subject sentence. CONCLUDING CONCLUSION (One or more concluding paragraphs) 1.Paraphrases the specific subject sentence and summarizes the main ideas in the supporting paragraphs. 2.Sometimes explains relationship of main idea to the future. 3.Rarely contains ideas not previously discussed in the composition.

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Readers must be able to expect what is coming in a communication based on what is promised in the subject sentence of the main paragraph. (In fiction writing this is called foreshadowing.) A good analogy to explain this would be that of offering a guest a piece of pumpkin pie. Before biting into it, usually the guest will first recall the sensations expected based on past experience (the kind of sweetness, texture, aroma, etc.). After the first taste, if satisfied that the pie measures up to expectations, he or she will be pleased and will continue eating. But if the pie is not what was expected, the person becomes confused or irritated and may stop eating. This is somewhat true in writing. If disappointed, the reader may stop reading. Below is an example of a whole communication which is just a single paragraph. It has the same divii Ps, each of which performs the same funcdons as those shown in the chart on the preceding page. The main sentence, the subject sentence, tells what the writer mainly wants to communicate. The supporting sentences (those between the subject sentence and the conclusion,) make clear what the writer said in the subject sentence, and the conclusion tells the reader what the writer said by paraphrasing and summarizing. If the composition were a thousand pages long, it would do the same things in somewhat the same order. The Key of the main idea is in bold print and the concluding sentence is underlined.

improvement. Consequently, better door locks were installed in every vehicle. Their tests also showed that people were seriously injured or killed in head-on collisions when steering columns, engines, and front end parts were pushed into the passenger compartment. As a result they installed collapsible steering columns, engines supported in break-away mounts, and energy absorbing front ends. These changes imposed by the government in the rate of travel and the interior of cars along with the redesign of the structural components in automobiles have succeeded in reducing the number of injuries and fatalities on our highways.

On the next page is a multiple paragraph composition. It has the same parts as the preceding single paragraph composition. However, only-the main sentences for the supporting paragraphs in the middle section are shown.

In an effort to reduce the large number of deaths and injuries that happen on our highways, both the government and the automobile manufacturers have made important changes. The Department of Transportation established speed limits on interstate roads. It also requires changes in interior design, for example, by requiring energy absorbing materials in dashboard construction. Tests conducted by the auto companies showed that door locks needed Page 51

Beginning Title

Opener

New Medicine: The Holistic Revolution

Illustrative Sketch

When Robert Jones, M.D., started his general practice twenty years ago, he found that he wasn't using much of what he had learned about medicine. His training focused mainly on organic diseases and terminal illnesses. However most of the people he treated then came in with complaints of headache, asthma, backache, arthritis, and other stress related problems. He treated these patients with pills, as he was taught to do. Seldom were they cured; some became hooked on the drugs. Although Dr. Jones continues to treat patients with traditional medicine because it is good for many illnesses, more and more he is administering other types of treatment today.

Main Paragraph

Doctors are now prescribing "holistic medicine," a new method for treating patients. Holistic is the word that identifies methods of healing the whole person: body, mind, and emotions. It is drugless treatment based on the idea that under the right circumstances, the sick can do much toward, curing themselves. The holistic doctor mainly treats patients with diet, breathing, control of emotions, and exercise, instead of medicine and surgery.

1.Subject sentence 2. Explanatory sentences (definition)

Middle Supporting paragraph Controlling Sentences only (Each contains a main idea related to and developing the subject sentence key.)

1. Holistics regards symptoms as messages that something about a patient's habits must be changed. 2. Holistic physicians regard the patient's contributions within the range of the body's self-healing ability. 3. They regard 90% of human illnesses within the range of the body's selfhealing ability. 4. They believe that much of the patient's environment must be considered during diagnosis: work conditions, living conditions, climate, water, etc.

End Concluding paragraph (Paraphrases subject sentence and summarizes supporting paragraphs. This one also points out relationship of the main ideas to the future.)

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More and more doctors are resorting to the treatment of patients with holistic medicine. They are breaking away from prescribing drugs and surgery that may cause serious side-effects. They rely more on the help the patient can offer by changing living habits and attitudes, but they do not oppose conventional medicine. They are laying the base for future medicine when, they believe, the general practitioner will be trained in medicine with more courses focused on the study of environmental effects and the prescribing of changes in it for treatment of patients.

The Opener An opener is placed at the beginning of a composition, either in a separate paragraph before the main paragraph or at the beginning of the main paragraph, especially when writing to the general reader. When writing to someone who already is strongly interested in what the composition is about, writers may not have to include an opener. If the subject sentence has a good idea, it alone might do the job of reinforcing reader-contact and intensifying the reader's willingness to read.. 'When, for example, writing an article about a machine that will decrease the cost of making a certain product, an opener may not be needed for the reader or type of reader interested in saving this cost. Here are some of the most common kinds of openers: 1. Startling Statement Any idea that shocks or startles. (Often consists of large dimensions: large numbers, enormous, huge, gigantic anything.) Example: Millions of Americans are turning desperately to magic, voodooism, and superstitions to find cures for their terminal illnesses 2. Provocative Question One that challenges, arouses curiosity, or intrigues with concerns related to readers' needs or desires (See pages 21 and 22.) Examples: "Can hospitals be unhealthy. "Do you want to earn a fortune in sports (or in acting, medicine, law, etc.")? 3. Related Quotation A quotation from someone the reader respects or admires Example: "'Water" is the word that taught me the magic of language," said Helen Keller.

4. Dramatic Narrative (or anecdote) A brief story with action, conflict, or suspense that captures the readers' interest. Example: The union negotiating team came into the room briskly and sat down opposite their management counterparts at the long table. The management team leader looked across at the person opposite him and smiled weakly. Fingering his tie and brushing strands of hair across a bald spot "Gentlemen," he said sheepishly, "these extremely technical negotiations are not suitable for a member of the fairer sex." The 98 pound spitfire he referred to sarcastically smiled back. "I am Dr. Larkin," she said; "My PhD is in Labor Relations". 5. Vivid Illustrative Sketches used as examples (Clear images serving as examples) Using a verbal sketch of a person, place, animal, or object, the writer helps readers to experience an idea at close range, through a close- up example of it. Example: My Uncle Ben is a natural comedian. Being a connoisseur of fine foods, he is slightly obese. His pear-shaped face, spectacles, and silver hair give him an appearance of reverence and distinction. But his bulb-like nose arouses unrestrainable silent laughter. His humor is often unpredictable. When asked how many languages he speaks, he quickly replies, "Only one—profanity!" 6. Any Combination of the Above It is not unusual for a combination of these different kinds of openers to be used. Here is an example of one in the beginning section of an article about the drought in Chad, a country in Africa.

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More than 10,000 people starve to death in Chad each year. How can people of civilized nations witness on television women and children crying for food and suffering the anguish of slow death without helping? This brief illustration does both: (1) It first startles readers with a large number; (2) It then asks a provocative question.

The Main Paragraph

Students often find the beginning section of a composition the hardest part to write. Most of them can remember the agony of staring at a blank sheet of paper not knowing how to start. This is often true because either they can't think of a suitable main idea or they can't write an effective subject sentence, one with an easily detected main idea. Once students discover what they intend to write about (the topic) and what they mainly want to say about it (the main idea), they should immediately write something down that can serve as a subject sentence. They then can continue writing with the explanatory sentences, etc. A student writer should start writing even if the beginning is left in rough form until the rest of the communication is finished. Then, he or she must return and rewrite the beginning as often as is necessary to make the main paragraph effective. Doing this will help them to overcome the "paralysis" that makes it difficult for most people to start writing. The main paragraph is the most important one in a composition because it contains the most important sentence, the subject sentence. Another reason is that it prepares readers to respond the way the writer wants them to by clearly implying what that response is. By doing that, it, along with the explanatory sentences, makes readers cooperative particiPage 54

pants, and the communication becomes a joint effort directed at achieving the intended predetermined objective (specific subject and readerresponse). Next is an example of a main paragraph for a short communication. It shows a beginning section consisting of all three parts: (1) an opener, (2) a subject sentence, and (3) some explanatory sentences. These three parts perform the important jobs of establishing reader-contact along with identifying and explaining the topic and the main idea in a way that clearly implies the intended reader-response. (Opener) Some 100,000 women in one Asian country still work underground dragging tubs of coal; some are even pregnant. During wars, when men are scarce, even in the United States some women worked in the mines. (Subject Sentence) Women can and will do hard work as skillfully as men when they must. Explanatory Sentences) The strength and endurance of women have been verified by studies made of imprisoned women who worked underground In 1933, George Orwell, who was then living among British miners, states "There are still living a few old women who in their youth worked underground with harnesses around their waists...."

Often the beginning section, especially in a long composition, may consist of two or more separate paragraphs. The opener itself may be one or more paragraphs and the main paragraph with the subject sentence and its explanatory sentences may be another. In very long communications, writers often include one or more separate explanatory paragraphs to provide the reader with necessary background information. To do this, they must ask themselves questions such as: Is my reader an expert, a well-informed technician, or a general reader, etc.? By arriving at answers to questions such as these, writers are

then able to provide the needed background information required by the reader to understand the rest of the communication and to respond accordingly. Regular and Inverted Main Paragraphs

V/hether a main paragraph has its own opener or not, it may be written in either of two forms: (1) regular or (2) inverted. The preceding example, about the abilities of women to do hard labo4 illustrates a regular main paragraph because its subject sentence is placed before its explanatory sentences (right after the opener in this instance). Inverted Main Paragraphs are those in which writers place their explanatory sentences before the subject sentence. They are not used as often as regular ones. Students will find it easier to write regular main paragraphs; however, they should invert main paragraphs for a few special purposes. Here are some: I. When it is necessary to give readers explanation (history, definition, or general background information) essential before they can understand the topic and/or, especially, the main idea of the subject sentence itself along with what is written about it in the rest of the composition. 2. When the specific subject's topic or main idea may irritate or antagonize the intended readers. Loss of reader-contact easily occurs when writers discuss sensitive religious, political, ethnic, and other issues about which readers may feel defensive. Therefore these explanatory sentences help make readers receptive to the specific subject and what is said about it later in the supporting paragraphs.

3. When it is helpful or necessary to withhold the subject sentence until the end of the main paragraph to gain a high degree of suspense or curiosity. (For example see "Soldier Statesman" on page 135.) Next is a beginning section in which the opener is in a separate paragraph. Its main paragraph is inverted because it deals with divorces, which may be a sensitive issue for some readers. (Opener) What should married couples who have strong investments in their marriages do when they discover that divorce is inevitable? How should they pre are themselves and their childre suffering they may have to, **A can they get help? (Inverted Main Paragraph) In climate of disengagement, it is difficult to convince people involved in divorce that painless disengagement is possible. A couple going into a marriage gets all the ceremonial and institutional support that society can give, but little assistance is offered by society to those who are ending a marriage. The emotional scars of divorce may be untouched by traditional forms of therapy and may last for generations. It has been only in the last few years that society has begun to recognize the great need for a separate form of treatment, with its own goals and techniques, known as divorce therapy. (Subject Sentence) Divorce therapy, helping a couple to disengage from an unsuccessful marriage, should be provided by society.

(Forexample, see "Divorce Therapy" in the next column.)

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Writing Effective Subject Sentence

For the subject sentence to be effective it must indicate the specific topic (what the composition is about), what mainly is to be said about it (the main idea and key), and the intended reader-response. Also, this important sentence should be stated so that these predetermined objective parts are clearly stated or implied. Even if writers themselves know what their main ideas and keys are, for effective communication they also must tell their readers clearly what the specific topic and main idea (and key) are. The reader-response is usually implied. Here is an example of a subject sentence that confuses the reader as to what the topic and the main idea are. (Review clearly written subject sentences on page 16.) There are certain important techniques required for Olympic swimmers to get needed workout. It is not easy for the reader to determine from the preceding subject sentence what the whole composition is mainly going to tell. Does the writer intend mainly to tell the reader about the "certain important techniques" or mainly about why they are "required for Olympic swimmers to get needed workout"? If the writer mainly intends to tell about the techniques, the sentence would better indicate that by being stated as follows: For Olympic swimmers to get needed workout, certain important techniques are required. Here is another example. The way the following is written identifies "A frightening experience after getting divorced" as the topic and "is the starting over again" as the main idea. A frightening experience after getting divorced is the starting over again. Page 56

Unless the writer intends mainly to tell about the problems of "the starting over again," it should not be written as the main idea. The following revision of this subject sentence clearly indicates that the writer intends mainly to tell about "a frightening experience" the main idea, not mainly about the topic, "The starting over again after getting divorced." The starting over again after getting divorced is a frightening experience. Writing Appropriate Subject Sentences

The subject sentences that follow may have more than a single fault, but each has only one main fault. Some are faulty because they are not effectively written, and others are faulty because the specific subject, the reader, and response intended are not appropriate for each other and, consequently, for the intended predetermined objective. (Let's assume that the following subject sentences are intended for a composition about two typed-pages long. A-i, 2, and C-2 were discussed previously in Chapter 2.) Appropriate for the Specific Subject

1. Too Broad or Too Narrow. Neither the topic nor the main idea should be too broad nor too narrow for the length (the scope) of the intended composition. Example: Many new medicines have been introduced since World War II. (Both are too broad.) Better: New forms of penicillin have been introduced since 1985.

2. Too Narrow. The main idea doesn't need much development. Example: During hot summer months, people come to Michigan to enjoy the sunshine. Better: During hot summer months, people come to Michigan to chase a huge fish, the muskellunge.

2. Worthless: Offers the intended reader nothing or little that is not already known, useful, needed, wanted, or perhaps, that is entertaining. To be worthwhile, the subject sentence must offer readers something that appeals to their needs and/or desires. (See pages 21 and 22.) Example: Travel is educational. (This is a cliché, an over used expression that no longer has much meaning.)

3. Incomplete. It should have both a topic and a clearly stated or implied main idea. Example: Freedom of the press in a democratic government. Better: Freedom of the press should be used constructively. An implied main idea: "Men think they can cook better than women." (This implies "Men can't cook better than women" as the main idea.) Appropriate for the Intended Reader: 1. Ambiguous: Hard to understand even though it is well stated: the ideas expressed or the words used are too complex or just not clearly stated.

Example: In later development of pecuniary culture, the requirement for withdrawal from the industrial process in order to avoid social odium is carried on so far as to comprise absention from emulative employment. (This would be suitable for the expert in economics, but it is too hard for the general reader.) Better: In the later development of capitalism, public anger against industrial competitive practices forced some companies out of business to avoid public violence.

Better: While traveling down the Egyptian Nile, a person can see birds that fly across the Atlantic. Appropriate for the Intended Response 1. Inappropriate for the intended readerresponse. To persuade for example, the subject sentence must have an arguable issue in order to have an adversarial reader. No one would argue with the following; therefore it can only promise to inform, not to persuade.

Example: Science has caused someserious problems. Better: Science will solve the nuclear threat to human life soon. 2. Unnecessarily Apologetic. Unneeded excuses weaken the reliability and credibility when the purpose is to inform or to persuade. Example: Not being a doctor, I will do my best to tell you about some of the causes of Diabetes. (A person doesn't have to be a doctor to do this.) Better: Diabetes can be attributed to several causes. 3. Illogical: Not suitable to inform or to persuade because what it says is incorrect or not true, or because it doesn't make good sense. Sometimes a subject sentence is Page 57

illogical because the wrong term or word is used. (See examples on pages 230 and 242: T-6, 12, 14, 18, 19, 23, 43.) This error also may be caused by the misuse of homonyms (words that are spelled or sound the same, e.g. emigrate—immigrate). (Also see examples on pages 230-242: T-71, 75, 77, 82, 84, 86, 89, 93.) Example: (Doesn't make sense) All things being equal, Americans work harder. (How can somethings be equal and different at the same time? Also, "harder" than what? It's an incomplete comparison.) Better: Americans work harder than Russians. Example: (Wrong Term) Whales are classified as mammals because they live in the sea. (We can't logically conclude that living in the sea makes a mammal. Humans are mammals, but they don't live in the sea.) Better: Whales are mammals because they suckle their young. Illogical statements often result from errors in grammar. (See E-6, page 214 for one example.) 4. Too Wordy for the Intended Response. It is poorly stated. Even though understandable, it has unnecessary words Example: A play which is a tragedy in most cases often involves a hero or heroine who never comes to realize that the responsibility for his or her failure is a subconscious personality weakness. (32 words) Better: A dramatic tragedy usually has a leading character who fails because of a subconscious personality weakness. (The same idea is stated here in 16 words mainly by using more specific ones.) Page 58

"Redundancies" (unnecessary or repetitious expressions) also, cause wordiness. (See examples on pages 230-242: T-13, 51, 54, 69, 80, 81, 83.) Appropriate for the genre: the research paper

One important purpose for studying research papers in English composition classes is to prepare students to write "across the college curriculum". In college courses other than English, they also will be required to write research papers. In their occupational careers later, they again may be expected to know how to write technical research reports. Academic research papers and technical reports have a great deal in common. Learning to write one will greatly help in learning to write the other. A research paper is a formal report presenting a conclusion that is derived logically from an adequate amount of documented reliable information from qualified sources. . To write an effective research paper, a person needs to search in more than just two or three sources. As many as ten or more qualified sources usually are needed for an average length paper. The amount of supporting information and the length of the report depends upon the thesis. Learning about some of the common thesis sentence faults is important. The word "thesis" is just another word for the subject sentence of a technical, professional, or academic research paper. It presents the conclusion that the writer will develop with the supporting information found while doing the research. In technical report writing, the thesis sentence (the subject sentence) is often referred to as "the proposiiion." Here are some other things a writer should carefully consider when selecting a thesis fora research paper: 1. The topic and the main idea of a thesis must be those not too simple nor too complex for the writer as well as for the

reader. The specific subject should be one for which the writer can find enough material that the reader also will later judge to be worthwhile. 2. The thesis should not be a current topic," an idea currently popular in the media, unless the writer can present something, different, new, or not already over-discussed. 3. The selected thesis should enable a person, especially a student, to demonstrate the following: a. Ability to do good quality research: (1) To know how to use a library (2) To be able to recognize reliable information

course, be more suitable for a certain area of study. The subject in parentheses indicates one area for which each thesis would be appropriate. A. (Social Sciences, perhaps, anthropology) The wedding rituals of the Phoenicians have several important similarities to those of the Mayan culture. B. (History, perhaps, ancient history) The victories of Hannibal over Rome resulted from superior military strategy still practiced in tank warfare. C. (Philosophy, perhaps, religion) Between the religious practices of theAmerican Indians and those of the Far East religions, distinct similarities exist.

(3) To be able to identify qualified sources (4) To be able to do research efficiently: a. Ability to arrive at logical conclusions from the research findings b. Ability to organize research findings so they logically support the thesis. c. Ability to use formal documentation correctly: (1) Parenthetical references (source identification in body) (2) End references (alphabetical listing at the end of report) (3) Footnotes (Numbered source or comment listing placed at the bottom of the page on which something is cited.) Here are some examples of good theses because they would allow for enough research in available qualified sources. They would, of

The following are some which are not suitable for a research paper mainly because they require little research. However, they might be appropriate for a short paper of some kind. 1. The whooping crane is still not extinct. 2. Abraham Lincoln suffered some marital problems 3. Ernest Hemingway's attitude toward Castro was not warm. Explanatory Sentences

The explanatory sentences of a main paragraph mainly explain words and ideas in the subject sentence. They do the important job of enabling the reader to understand accurately and completely what the writer said in the subject sentence. They fine-tune the reader's understanding so that the subject sentence is understood well enough for the reader to be able to respond as the writer intends. By doing that,

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these sentences also help the reader to understand better what the writer puts in the supporting paragraphs about the subject sentence.

happened, or why it is a problem. These sentences may define the topic and/or the main idea.

Most main paragraphs need explanatory sentences, especially when the intended readerresponse is to inform or to persuade. When the writer's purpose is to entertain, usually the explanatory sentences mainly amplify and reinforce the entertaining ideas or style. However, when the communication is intended to affect the reader intellectually, the explanatory sentences eliminate confusion regarding either the specific topic or the main idea. In this way they prepare the reader to respond to the whole communication as the writer intends.

Following are two main paragraphs with explanatory sentences that define. The first tells what the topic is and what the main idea "tightly knit ecosystem" means. The second defines by telling where the park is and what the term "wild community" means. (The subject sentence in each is underlined and the main ideas are in bold print.)

To explain successfully the subject sentence and to prepare readers for what is to follow, it is not enough that the explanatory sentences just be related to the specific subject. They must be related to it in a certain way. Here are the most common kinds of these relationships: 1. Definition 2. History 3. Illustration 4. General-to-Specific 5. A combination of these (Definition and illustration are often combined.)

Explanatory Definition. Explanatory sentences that define tell what is meant by the terms in the subject sentence, or they tell what they are. They also ma define by telling who someone in it is or by giving background information that reveals the person's qualifications. Some tell where or when something in the subject sentence exists or happens. If needed, they may explain by giving the causes or the reasons why something in the subject sentence is what the writer says it is, why it

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1. Yellowstone National Park is a tightly knit ecosystem. (Explanatory Definition) It composes what biologists call an "ecological system," for which ecosystem is an abbreviated form. An ecosystem is a natural order of life in which one form depends upon another for survival. A network of rivers acts as a drainage system for Yellowstone National Park, allowing just enough water to meet the different needs of avariety of plants and animals. Gently curving through the canyons, these rivers nourish the willows along their banks. Many of the smaller animals couldn't survive the severe winters without the willows to eat. These smaller creatures become food for the wolves, coyotes, bears, eagles, owls, and other predators. An ecosystem is just one of the grand balancing acts that nature performs. The explanatory sentences for the following main paragraph explain where Yellowstone National Park is and what the writer means by "Wild community." 2. Yellowstone National Park is a wild community. (Explanatory Definition) It is made-up of five million acres located at the juncture of Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana. Outside ofAlaska, it is the largest expanse of land remaining in its natural state. Its wild untamed character is protected by the

United States as a refuge area for plant and wildlife. Its millions of acres of waterways, mountains, dense woods, and grassy valleys are occupied by large numbers of coyotes, buffaloes, elk, deer, and variety of birds, unaffected by harmful human intrusion. Next is a main paragraph with explanatory sentences that define by telling who the topic or the source of the main idea is. It gives the qualifications of the person by telling where he works and what he has achieved, indicating that he is recognized by other qualified people and that he is a credible source for the main idea. (Subject Sentence) Dr. John Money says that our gender is a matter of choice, not of genetic chance. (Explanatory Definition) At John Hopkins School of Medicine, Dr. Money is a noted sexologist. He is the Director of the Psychohormonal Research Unit. Coming from Dr. Money, this theory has added impact. Combination of Definers in Explanatory Sentences

Following is an example of composition explanatory sentences that define with a combination of definers. It tells who the adversaries are what the issues are, and why there is disagreement. It does that by explaining the issues more precisely and why the two sides disagree in their solutions for the problem. (The main idea of the subject sentence is underlined and its key is in bold type.) Because the California condor, an ancient bird and the largest flying bird in North America, is a dying species, its death throes have set off a nasty human conflict. (Explanatory Combination) (WHO) The battle lines are drawn between the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Audubon Society on one side and The

Friends of the Earth and the Sierra Club on the other. (WHAT) The U.S. Fish and Wild- Life Service and the National Audubon Society want to trap Condors, breed them, clip radio transmitters to their wings, and monitor their habits. (WHY) The Friends of the Earth and the Sierra Club protest this action. They want to continue studying the birds without taking direct action and to set aside preserves to give the birds more room to feed and breed. Also, they insist that the birds will not survive if the others go ahead with their proposals. Explanatory History

These explanatory sentences briefly give historical background information by telling how the topic or main idea in the subject sentence developed or happened. They usually trace the origin and development through time by giving the step-by-step series of events. This is done when it is necessary to give the reader needed background information to enable clearer understanding of ideas in the subject sentence. Also, and just as important, this history prepares the reader to understand clearly and completely what the writer says later in the supporting paragraphs. Here is a main paragraph with explanatory sentences tracing origin and development. The main idea is underlined. (When needed, history also may be given before the subject sentence.) The Wisconsin Dells is one of the most spectacular phenomena in our country. (Explanatory History) These rock formations took shape 500 million years ago, during the Camian Period of the Paleozoic Era. After that time, the land was under water for 80 million years. Later, the land formed by layers of sand became exposed to the earth's weather and temperatures, causing these spectacular Page: 6 1

changes in shape and size. Glacier activity then helped to form the Dells as we see them today.

General-To-Specific Explanatory Sentences This type of explanatory sentences provides the reader with definition, history; and/or general background information needed to understand the following subject sentence better and to understand what is said in the supporting paragraphs more completely. When this type of explanatory sentences is introduced, the paragraph is inverted. (This was pointed out earlier, as one of the reasons for inverting a main paragraph.) In the following example, the paragraph is inverted so the writer can give needed background: (Explanatory General-to-Specific) People of all ages suffer from temporary loss of memory; This may be induced by stress, medication, fever, delirium, anxiety; depression, and other causes. Occasional disorientation is experienced by most people. However, if these instances of forgetfulness happen frequently, they may indicate the presence of any of several serious illnesses. Dementia—Alzheimer's Type is the most common one indicated by these symptoms.

Here is another example. This time the writer starts with a general idea, moves into a more specific one, then to another, and then to the idea to be discussed. (The Key is in bold type.) (Explanatory General-to-Specific) Electromagnetic radiation ranges from very energetic gamma rays to the less energetic waves used in broadcasting. Microwaves fall Page 62

into the class of less energetic ones. They are reflected by metal; they pass through glass and are absorbed by foods. Consequently, they can be used for cooking. (Subject Sentence) If used properly, microwave ovens are safe.

Explanatory Illustration Explanatory sentences of illustration are easy to use. They give examples of ideas in the specific subject. The next main paragraph starts out with the subject sentence, and the explanatory sentences clarify it. They do that by giving Charles Darwin's attitude as an illustration. (The Key of the main idea is underlined.) When they have insufficient evidence, no matter how qualified scientists may be, they must defend their theories lightly. (Explanatory sentences:) Charles Darwin, for example, often stated that he did not intend that his theory of "Survival of the Fittest" to be accepted as fact. He realized that he had only enough evidence to support it as a theory, not as a fact. He was always ready to abandon his belief without sorrow if enough evidence were found to disprove it even as a theory. Each of the following main paragraphs contains different kinds of explanatory sentences, even though they all develop the same Key, "as lively as ever," in the same subject sentence. The one that the writer decides to use will depend upon the intended reader and the wanted response. The last paragraph contains a combination of definition and illustration. All three of them again show how the explanatory sentences clarify the subject sentence or provide additional information to prepare the reader to respond better to the contents of the rest of the composition. (The subject sentences are underlined and the main idea is in bold print.)

Although circuses are rapidly becoming extinct in the United States, The Circus World Museum at Baraboo, Wisconsin is as lively as ever. (Explanatory Definition) It still allows children of all ages to feel the excitement of a circus. More than a quartermillion visitors travel from distant places each year to Baraboo. They walk through what is called the "back lot" and experience, perhaps for the first time, the sounds and smells of a circus. Wide-eyed, they examine the animals and ornate wagons just as people have always done.

Although circuses are rapidly becoming extinct in the United States, The Circus World Museum at Baraboo, Wisconsin is as lively as ever. (Explanatory History) For centuries circuses have brought happiness to children of all ages throughout the world. They originated in Europe, moved to Russia, and then later flourished in China and Japan. The American circus, however, which is more spectacular than the European and Oriental, started as a horse show. Later in the 1800's, magic exhibits and performances by more animals were added. When these American performances became too popular to accommodate all the spectators in buildings, large outdoor tents were erected for shows to be presented in all kinds of weather. As the demand for circus performances increased in all parts of the U.S., giant railroad circuses were established to effect quick movement around the circuit. Today, however, only a few of these large circuses have survived the coming of television, but this one at Baraboo lives on.

Although circuses are rapidly becoming extinct in the United States, The Circus World Museum at Baraboo, Wisconsin is as lively as ever. (Explanatory Combination:

Definition and Illustration) Even if it no longer travels around the circuit, people of all ages from many parts of America come to watch this spectacle and admire the colors on display. Visitors who are children in spirit, from two to eighty years old, come to see the animals and to marvel at the tricks and acrobatics of clowns and trapeze artists. The carnivals that come to the state fairs each fall are just small samples of what a person can see at Baraboo. The few remaining "big tops," such as the Barnum and Bailey, that still make the circuit to the large cities like Detroit, Chicago, and New York closely resemble what you see at the Circus World Museum.

Remember, that any of the parts of a beginning section may consist of only a single sentence or of two or more paragraphs, not necessarily just a single paragraph of more than one sentence. In very long compositions, for example, in professional or academic technical reports, the explanatory section may consist of several paragraphs. In very short communications, on the other hand, it is not unusual for the opener, the main paragraph, or the explanatory section to consist of just one or two sentences. Drifting of Explanatory Sentence

As we said before, the main job of the explanatory sentences is to clarify the meaning of the subject sentence and to prepare the reader for what is to follow. They drift when they introduce ideas that do not help to do either of these. Usually, it would be better to insert and, if necessary; to develop these in the supporting paragraphs. They disrupt the main paragraph by introducing ideas that are unrelated, not closely enough related, or are unnecessary. Even though these added ideas are related to the subject

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sentence topic and /or main idea, they will drift when they just give additional information that does not help explain the subject sentence. The following main paragraph contains sentences that drift (underlined) because they just give unnecessary additional information. These ideas are worthwhile, and with slight changes, could be placed in the supporting paragraphs. Americans, inhabiting one of the wealthy nations of the world, are seriously malnutritioned. Many of the rich and poor alike in this country today are to some degree starving themselves unknowingly. Their many ethnic backgrounds cause them to have a variety of food preferences. In remote regions of Peru, more people are known to live longer because of the high nutritional value of their diets. The consumption of foods that have little or no vitamins or minerals, "junk foods," by both young and old Americans contributes to extensive malnutrition. This serious condition is caused also by eating large amounts of harmful ingredients, for example, sugar. If writers don't control this tendency to insert unneeded ideas into the main paragraph explanatory sentences, another very common problem results: All or most of the main supporting ideas are crammed into the main paragraph, leaving little or nothing worthwhile to say in the supporting paragraphs. In other words, they write the main part of the whole composition in the main paragraph. Consequently, because there is little left to say, thinking of something new or different to put in the rest of the composition is difficult. The following is not very clearly written, but it might be acceptable as a single paragraph whole composition. However, if it is intended as just the main paragraph of a composition, it doesn't clearly tell what the writer mainly wants Page 64

to tell the reader. It has sentences with ideas that are related but are not needed to explain clearly the subject sentence topic and/or main idea. However, some may be good for use in one or more of the supporting paragraphs, as indicated.

My Father, My Hero My father always acted as Put in though he were a bit of a superthe Opener 'man. I think he thought he could skydive, climb Mt. Everest, swing through trees like Tarzan, and if given half a chance, even walk on the moon. In my eyes as a child, a The main task my father couldn't handle paragraph"* didn't exist. I just knew he could accomplish anything. I believed that leaping tall buildings in a single bound for him was incidental, and my mother never said Put in otherwise. Even though he was supporting very busy working, he always had paragraph 1,* time for my sister and me. I miss his sincere, caring comments to us during our family discussions around the dinner table. Never did a day go by without his telling us how special we were. As Put in supporting I grew up and began to face life's paragraph 2* difficulties, I always turned to him for advice. When I experienced traumatic quandaries with romantic situations in high school, my father knew the right answer for everyone of those tragic moments; he helped me The Conclusion '* survive them. He was my superhero. My father had the solution for every problem, and I was convinced that he could do anything and everything.

Below is a revision of the above into a beginning section, with a tide, opener, and main paragraph. The sentences containing ideas that are not needed in the main paragraph are used to form supporting paragraphs and a conclusion. Notice how much clearer it is. Father, My Hero Opener My father always acted as startling though he were a bit of a superstatement man. I think he thought he could skydive, climb Mt. Everest, swing through trees like Tarzan, and if given half a chance, even walk on the moon. In my eyes as a child, a task Main paragraph 11* my father couldn't handle didn't Sub. sentence exist. I just knew he could (definition) accomplish anything. I believed that leaping tall buildings in a single bound for him was incidental, and my mother never said otherwise. Even though he was very Supporting paragraph 1 m*busy working, he always had time for my sister and me. I miss his sincere, caring comments to us during our family discussions around the dinner table. Never did a day go by without his telling us how special we were. As I grew up and began to Supporting paragraph 2 1 * face life's difficulties, I always turned to him for advice. When I experienced traumatic quandaries with romantic situations in high school, my father knew the right answer for everyone of those tragic moments; he helped me survive them. He was my superhero. My father had the solution The Conclusion III*for every problem, and I was convinced that he could do anything and everything. Title in*

My

Main paragraphs should be trim: each with a well-written subject sentence and with only explanatory sentence(s) that are needed to explain it. Below is a whole composition crammed into the main paragraph, confusing the reader with more than one possible subject sentence. Also, one or more sentences in it would serve better as an opener. Some would be better as good ideas that should be developed in supporting paragraphs. Pulling Together in Russia There is no room for

communism, socialism, or even Chauvinism disputes in Russia today. To survive, all Russians Put in main . need to pull together. It is not , paragraph Put in opener"n*uncommon for a Russian man to steer a plow while his wife straddles the furrow and pulls with all her might during potato planting. Russians have to put Put in explana- aside their differences so they can tory sentences stay alive. Hard work and the 11* struggle to live have a way of pulling people together, despite their many disagreements. Russians have to quell social, economic, and political conflicts Supporting so that they can rebuild the paragraph 1 "0 framework of their country. Russian men and women also have to avoid gender and marital Supporting paragraph 211* disputes. Seldom should one hear, "That's not my job dear" or "That's a woman's work." A woman should be just as -apt to build roads in Siberia as a man to wash clothes in an almost The completely frozen stream. All Conclusion that should matter in Russia today is that the work be done by everyone. What the Russian people should think about now is survival and how to-work together to achieve it. Put in support paragraph 1 n*

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Following is a revision of this preceding composition into proper paragraphing: Pulling Together in Russia It is not uncommon for a Opener 1* Russian man to steer a plow while his wife straddles the furrow to pull with all her might during potato planting. Subject sentence underlined ,-* Explanatory sentences '

Supporting paragraph 1

1*

Supporting paragraph 2"

The Conclusion I'.

To survive, Russians have to pull together. Russians have to put aside their differences so they can stay alive. Hard work and the struggle to live have a way of pulling people together, despite their many disagreements. There is no room for communism, socialism, or even chauvinism disputes in Russia today. Russians have to quell social, economic, and political conflicts so that they can rebuild the framework of their country. Russian men and women also have to avoid gender and marital disputes. Seldom should one hear, "That's not my job dear or"That's a woman's work. A woman should be just as apt to build roads as a man to wash clothes in an almost completely frozen stream. All that should matter in Russia today is that the work be done by everyone. What the Russian people should think about now is survival and how to work together to achieve it.

The End of a Composition

Usually, when the purpose of a communication is to entertain, in the conclusion a writer may just continue with the same quality of Page 66

entertainment as in the main and supporting paragraphs The conclusion then is just something that clinches or 'rounds off the ending. (See ending of "Fences" on page 25.) When the purpose is to inform or to persuade, the conclusion should mainly paraphrase the subject sentence and summarize the main ideas in the rest of the composition. This is true because readers remember best what they read last. Therefore, the conclusion is a good place to emphasize and reinforce what is needed for the reader-response. (See conclusion on page 52.) Just as the main paragraph should not include ideas that do not prepare readers to understand better the subject sentence and what is to follow it, the conclusion should not have ideas that are not needed to paraphrase the subject sentence or to summarize the main ideas in the supporting paragraphs (See Application 46.) However, occasionally in the conclusion, writers may explain how what was said is related to the future. This is often true when writing about business trends and scientific research, etc. (See how this is done in "Holistic Medicine") When a composition discusses a problem or a controversial issue, the writer may include a solution for the problem or some other type of recommendation related to it in the conclusion. Another thing a writer must be very careful about in the conclusion is avoiding being repetitious. Unnecessary repetition causes the composition to droop, dangle, or drag at the end, making it ineffective. To avoid being repetitious, writers should paraphrase their subject sentence and summarize their supporting paragraphs with new or different expressions, not exactly the same as those with which they were previously stated. Especially in a short composition, when paraphrasing or summarizing may be too repetitious, then a writer should just conclude by stating an idea that clearly indicates that all that is needed has been said.

APPLICATIONS

C. Provocative Question D. Startling Statement it•;.

The notations in parentheses after the application numbers are just suggestions. Your instructor may give new directions for them..

E. Illustrative Sketch or example (of a person, place, animal, or object)

Application 4-1 (Group Activity: Class discussion and writing)

1. Are your dreams and ideas just different kinds of chemical reactions? Important chemical happenings in the human brain are being studied by modern scientists.

Your instructor will guide the class in a discussion of one or more of the following questions. Listen carefully and take notes because your instructor may choose to give a writing assignment related to these questions and to the writing principles studied in this chapter.

2. "Teach us delight in simple things," wrote Rudyard Kipling years ago.. Today, in an era of computers, lasers, space exploration, and a maze of other science and technology, urban man yearns for the simple life of the past.

1. What are three good reasons for inverting the main paragraph? 2. What should a good research thesis enable a college student to demonstrate? 3. What are the main parts of a main paragraph and what do they do? 4. What causes a main paragraph to drift from the predetermined objective? 5. What causes a conclusion to drift from the predetermined objective? 6. How does the writer communicate the predetermined objective. Application 4-2

The following are combinations of the opener and the subject sentence, without explanatory sentences. Write the letter for the kind of opener. Next, underline the key A. Related Quotation B. Dramatic Narrative

3. The mother was having a hectic Saturday morning. While putting the last load of clothes in the washer in the basement, she left her three-year-old daughter alone upstairs in the kitchen. During her play, the child opened the cupboard under the sink Innocently, she slowly lifted a bottle to her mouth and began to swallow. The mother heard the child cry out in pain. She darted upstairs and in a glance knew what happened. Obtaining milk from the refrigerator she poured it down the child's throat. In all high schools parenting should be taught. 4. After entering the lobby, one's senses immediately begin to energize. The intricately carved fountain plays upon the consciousness a delicate tune while it sprinkles droplets into a marble basin. Softly tinted flower clusters around its rim send delicate fragrances of an early spring evening into the air. In the center, of the flower cluster, the timid pink hibiscus with its lemon chiffon center poses demurely beside a lovely orchid. Living at the Hotel Fountainbleu is a brief sojourn in paradise.

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5. "In my boyhood, the woods were full of game, and the sky was black with ducks," said Charles A. Lindbergh to one audience. In an effort to preserve vanishing wildlife, Lindbergh, deeply concerned, crusaded all over the world.

Application 4-3 (Group Activity)

Some of the following are good subject sentences; however, most are faulty. Print G opposite the number of each that is good for a composition intended for college students. Some of these are not good for more than one reason. Print one of the other letters that best identifies the main reason why each of the other sentences is not suitable. Those that are intended to persuade or to be used in research papers are clearly identified. A. Doesn't require enough research for a research paper. B. Intended to persuade, but it isn't aimed at an adversary because it doesn't have an arguable issue. C. Wordy (Not succinct, has unnecessary words). D. Illogical (Doesn't make good sense or is an incorrect statement). E. Ambiguous (It is confusing, unclear, hard to understand.) F. Worthless (has little or nothing that the intended reader enjoys, needs, wants, or doesn't already know. G. Good H. Unnecessarily apologetic (Writer apologizes for something that he or she could have avoided with a bit of effort).

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1. A balance between production and consumption must be related to the leisure that is consumable so that leisure cannot be consumed without consuming goods and services so that leisure results from increased man-hour productivity, creating new needs and new and broader markets. 2. (For research paper) Crime was a way of life for some during Prohibition. 3. Just a student, I can only explain some of the causes of diabetis mellitus in this research paper. 4. Man now has some of the technology needed to communicate with civilizations that may exist in outer space. 5. (To Persuade) Some industries formerly located in Northern states have moved to the Sunbelt. 6. King Henry VIII of England married at least six different women. 7. People paid attention to what the speaker was saying because of her expressive body language, her casual manner of speaking, and the way she used her eyes, face, and limb gestures to state the ideas that she was expressing. 8. (To persuade) The U.S. Supreme Court should concern itself mainly with the interpretation of the Constitution. 9. (For research paper) The diaries, speeches, and private conversations of Roman emperors indicate that some recognized the psychological need of the populace for violent entertainment. 10. People who own property and other forms of wealth have to deal with certain important problems, and even though they are very busy, they have to find the needed solutions, whether or not they have other things that must be done.

11.(To persuade) People can be taught to recognize the early warning signs of depression that lead to suicide so they can intervene at the crucial moment. 12.12 Federal funds for religious education should be permitted by the U. S. government. 13.Dinosaurs have become extinct. 14.I need your tolerance while I tell you how to repair your car's transmission because I have never done it myself. 15.Detroit's River Rouge area once radiated the vibrant confidence of the American attitude toward life. 16.Because tennis pros are great, many people enjoy the sport. 17.College instructors must battle against ignorance and illiteracy by creating instructional strategies that maximize comprehension of conceptual and manual skills to eliminate obfuscation.

Application 4 - 4 (Group Activity)

The subject sentence in each of the following main paragraphs is underlined. First, underline the Key. Then, place one of the letters to indicate the kind of explanatory sentence each has. A = Definition B = History

1. "People in glass houses shouldn't throw stones" is still good advice." No one should freely condemn others until he or she is free of fault. A person should have sympathetic understanding of the mistakes others make. Jim Bracken, my neighbor, urges that all traffic law violators under twenty-one have their licenses suspended for every offense; yet he himself has received speeding tickets. 2. The U.S. has the misfortune of being designated the "tornado capital of the world. The word tornado comes to us from "tornada," the Spanish word for thunderstorm. A tornado is a violently rotating column of air spinning around a vacuum. It is a cloud that erupts from a thunder cloud, and its funnel is made of condensed water. 3. Psychotherapy is being applied today in treating what at first may appear to be physical illness. It is a therapy used often instead of drugs and surgery for various ailments. Hypnotism is a specific example of this type of treatment. Today, it is very often used in helping people to overcome various afflictions such as stuttering, stammering, and similar problems. 4. Wise students should adopt the consistent attitude of the turtle in AESOP'S FABLES. A consistent attitude is characterized by constant determination to achieve success. That success must result from doing worthwhile things, not just those easy to accomplish. Worthwhile goals require an intense commitment. They often also demand a great deal of patience and effort.

C = General-to specific D = Illustration E = Combination (Tell which are combined)

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5. Professor Michel Jouvet believes that, like human eyes, cats' eyes flicker when they dream. He is the head of all psychological research at Claude-Bernard University in Lyons, France. Professor Jouvet and assistants have been studying REM (rapid eye movement) sleep in animals. They are closely observing the way cats' eyes react during sleep. 6. Parents are always reminding their children to be careful when crossing streets, but they themselves are not sometimes as careful as they should be. Some family doctors caution us to quit smoking, at least to cut down; yet they continue to puff away. Wise advice is seldom heeded when given free of costs. 7. A 720-mile-long range of jagged peaks stretches across the arctic north. A certain stretch of this range is known as the Brooks Section. It runs completely across Alaska to the frigid waters of the Bering Sea. A hundred miles north of the Bering Sea, a short portion of this Brooks Section known as the Romansoff Range contains enormous quantities of coal and iron. 8. If you were an astronaut, riding a space ship high above in the stratosphere, you would marvel at the insignificance of the earth, just a small rolling agate. The markings seen through irregular cloud formations would be similar to those on the glass "agies" with which little boys play in the school yards. The channels of great rivers would be no more than creases across the world's continents. One that you would recognize immediately would be that of the Mississippi River, running across America. Nothing would be more impressive, however, than the shape and strange markings of the state of Michigan, one part a little mitten reaching out for the other part, both parts rich in natural resources, trees, minerals, and surrounded by miles of fresh water. Page 70

9. In Shisendo, Japan today, the sensuous and spiritual atmosphere again prevails. This sanctuary was founded deep in the history of Japan. Sleep and peace were not always mated here. Once when nearby Kyoto was the capital, the shrine was the center of long winding processions of people chanting their prayers. Then, when Tokyo became the capital in 1867, this city receded into the quiet place of numerous little shrines with softly tinkling bells. 10. The abundance of natural resources in America at one time seemed inexhaustible. In the beginning of this nation, there was the land. Broad, rich, seemingly endless, the earth beckoned early pioneers toward the Pacific Ocean. On this soil, later immigrants began to build their fortunes and their Nation. At the start, land meant only raw resources, an incredible array of minerals, wildlife, grassy prairies, deep forests, and the wild rivers. Today, only about one-fifth of the original public domain and of these natural resources remain.

Application 4-5

Place the letter that identifies the kind of explanatory sentence(s) that would best prepare the reader to understand and respond. Underline the key in each. D = Definition H = History I = Illustration C = Combination (Tell which are combined.) 1. Sleep and peace are sometimes antagonists. 2. India has been perpetually poor. 3. According to Dr. J. Lionel, spats in marriage are therapeutic. 4. Religious men of different creeds preach some similar doctrines. 5. Gentle persuasion is sometimes more powerful than physical force. 6. Hearsay evidence is of little legal value. 7. Joseph Stalin controlled Russia with an iron will for many years.

Application 4-6

Do the following for the main paragraph shown below. (1) Examine it and tell what the Key is. (2) Tell which kind of explanatory sentences it contains. (3) Put a line through any sentences that drift from explaining the subject sentence. Water is a country's most valuable resource. Nations have prospered or perished not just by trade or by the gold in their coffers. Often a nation's prosperity may have resulted from the amount of clean water in its reservoirs. Clean water is rapidly becoming polluted. We continue to dump garbage into the water adjacent to our great cities. Oil is another cause of water pollution. This, of course, affects the wild life that depend upon the water for survival. An adequate water supply is vital for agriculture and industry, both of which are needed to make a country prosperous.

8. Ghosts are real for me 9. General MacArthur is still highly respected in Japan. 10. The "outdoorsy" look for men is popular today.

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Application 4-7 (Group Activity)

The composition that follows illustrates a common composition error. It has much more than is needed in the main paragraph. Actually, it has the whole composition crammed into the main paragraph. First, underline the key in the subject sentence. Then revise the rest into a properly organized composition by placing the number shown before each of the sentences in the blank opposite the most appropriate heading. The number of blanks suggests the number of sentences for each indicated part of the composition. Opener Subject Sentence in Main Paragraph Explanatory Sentences Supporting Paragraph 1 Supporting Paragraph 2 Supporting Paragraph 3

unbelievable, they may not be so farfetched. (9) For example, some scientists do believe that a major shift in the Earth's axis or collision with a comet is possible. (10) Will all of us die within ten years? (11) Is the end of the world less than a decade away? (12) According to some people, the day of the Last Judgement is not far off. (13) The condition the present world is in suggests that some of these predictions should be considered justifiable worries for humans. (14) The most obvious is the threat of nuclear destruction. (15) Another is the greenhouse effect, caused by the extensive burning of fuels. (16) Along with that, the tremendous pollution from other sources can make significant enough change in the Earth's atmosphere to alter severely its temperature and balanced condition. (17) Extinction of the world may not be probable by the year 2000, but the advent of tragic changes is more than possible.

Conclusion Anno ID omini 2000—Dooms-Day (1) The year 2000, according to some prophets, will be the end of the world. (2) Through the ages, religious people have foretold the destruction of the world. (3) Some have predicted the specific day, the year, or the century and how it would happen. (4) Books have been written stating catastrophic predictions for humanity. (5) The French prophet Nostradamus in his book foresaw 19992000 as a time of tremendous upheavals, wars, and nuclear annihilation. (6) Edgar Cayce, the famous "sleeping prophet" told of a shift of the Earth's axis and resulting earthquakes and floods. (7) Psychic Jeanne Dixon forecast an evil Antichrist and the Earth colliding with a huge comet or asteroid. (8) While these prophecies seem Page 72

Application 4 -8 (Out of class writing activity)

Find a picture in a newspaper, magazine, or use a photograph, postcard, etc. Examine the picture and discover a specific subject and a reader-response. Next, write only the beginning section of a composition: (1) a tide, (2) an opener, and (3) a main paragraph. Be sure to do the following: (a) Tell the intended readerresponse. (b) Underline the key, (c) Opposite each tell: the kind of opener, and the kind of explanatory sentences. Turn in the picture and the composition beginning. Identify the readerresponse and underline the key (Use the beginning section of the composition on page 52 as a guide.)



Application 4 -9 (Writing)

By undirected thinking, discover your predetermined objective (both specific subject and reader-response). Now, carefully following the directions in the outline below, write a composition. (Use "Holistic Medicine" on page 52 as a guide.) Write: 1. a title 2. an opener in a separate paragraph 3. a main paragraph (Underline the key) 4. only a main sentence, one that identifies the main idea for each of three supporting paragraphs ( Do not write complete supporting paragraphs.) 5. Write a concluding paragraph.

Be sure to do the following: 1. In the left margin opposite the title, tell the intended reader response. 2. In the left margin opposite each, tell: a. The kind of opener b. The kind of explanatory sentences intended (If you use a combination of them, tell which.) 3. Be sure that your explanatory sentences prepare the reader by explaining the subject sentence; be sure they don't drift from it. 4. Be sure that your conclusion has nothing that is not related to what you discussed in the preceding paragraphs.

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Step 4 chapter 5 } The Process of Organizing Words & Ideas into Supporting Paragraphs Appropriate for the Predetermined Objective BUILDING SUPPORTING PARAGRAPHS

Here is what this chapter explains: 1. What supporting paragraphs are and what they do. 2. The kinds of supporting paragraphs: standard, narrative, dialogue, journalismtype. 3. When to begin and end each kind of supporting paragraph. 4. Levels of relationships between supporting sentences in supporting paragraphs. 5. Using transitional signals to establish relationships between supporting paragraphs To learn to translate thought and thoughtlanguage into effective written communication, students should know what supporting paragraphs are, the different kinds, and how to build and organize them skillfully. To do that, they also should know when to begin and when to end each kind. Supporting paragraphs are those between the main paragraph and the conclusion of a composition. A supporting paragraph is a unit of one or more related sentences serving as a visual segment of the predetermined objective (specific subject and reader-response).

We don't use paragraphs when we speak nor when we think. We use them in writing to make it easier for the reader to understand what we are saying. Paragraphs also enable writers to organize their thoughts to communicate them more efficiently. Supporting paragraphs perform the very important job of adapting the main idea of the whole communication to the type of reader aimed at to arouse a certain kind of response. They do this by clarifying that main idea, amplifying it, and/or by giving causes and reasons that support it or act as evidence-inproof. Therefore, they usually form the largest part of a composition, forming as much as 80 or 90 per cent of one. In this chapter, we are mainly going to explain how these paragraphs are structured. In the rest of this book, we will discuss the way these "skeletons" are embodied, filled in with a variety of words and ideas into different patterns of organization, giving them body and style (personality). Next are the different kinds of supporting paragraphs. Notice the differences in the way each begins, and when each is separated from the one before and after it.

Standard Pragraph

Develops its main idea so its relationship to the subject sentence main idea (the main idea for the whole composition) is clear. 1. Has a dearly stated or implied controlling sentence that introduces a topic and main idea related to the Predetermined Objective of the whole composition (specific subject and the reader-response). 2. A new paragraph is started when a new main supporting idea is introduced. 3. The paragraph ends when the controlling sentence main idea, especially its key, is developed enough to help arouse the aimed at response from the intended reader. 4. Usually contains one or more primary sentences, those directly related to the topic and to the main idea of the controlling sentence in that particular paragraph. 5. May contain one or more secondary sentences, those directly related to a preceding primary or secondary sentence; consequently, they are always indirectly related to the controlling sentence main idea.

2. Usually starts by identifying the event and giving characteristics of the situation (time, place,weather, atmosphere, mood, the people involved, etc.) existing at the time of the first happening in each main segment of the overall event. 3. A new paragraph is started with each new main event introduced by the new situation circumstances. Each subsequent event is related to the overall happening of the whole composition (the one named in the first paragraph). 4. Since there is no controlling sentence, the primary sentences give the chronological sequence of happenings direchly related to the event identified in that paragraph (usually in the first sentence).The secondary sentences develop a preceding primary or secondary one. Therefore, they are directly related to the preceding supporting sentences and indirectly to the main event of that paragraph. 5. A narrative section or block consists of two or more consecutive narrative paragraphs in a series related to the same overall event (usimlly identified in the main paragraph.or in the first paragraph of the narrative section.}

6. A standard paragraph controlling sentence may be developed by primary and secondary sentences giving a chronological sequence. (See "Fermi" on page 143.)

Dialogue Paragraph

7. Occasionally ends with a summarizing concluding sentence.

(Present the exact-word interchange between two or more people).

Narrative Paragraph

Gives a chronological (time) sequence of happenings of an event. 1. Contains no controlling sentence (one with the main idea of the whole supporting paragraph). Page 76

1. A new paragraph begins with each change in speaker. 2. They are used in all kinds of writing, both fiction and nonfiction, business, medical, and court reports along with newspaper and magazine articles, etc. 3. Are often used in combination with standard and narrative paragraphs.

4. Are especially used to reveal the inn er,the psychological, character of human beings. 5. Quotation marks are used to identify the exact words of each statement. 6. Dialogue paragraphs have to consist of more than one of them; otherwise, there can't be an interchange.

main idea to the reader. By doing that, it causes the reader to respond as the writer intended. In other words, a standard paragraph adapts the composition main idea to the reader in a way needed to achieve the composition's predetermined objective.

2. Most consist of just one or two sentences, only occasionally more than three or four.

A standard paragraph is different from the other kinds (narrative, dialogue, and journalismtype) because it begins and ends with each change of main supporting idea. Occasionally, one may consist of just a single sentence, which, of course, would be a controlling sentence. Most often, these paragraphs are clusters of more than one sentence that identify a division of the composition's main idea. The other supporting paragraphs also adapt the main idea to the predetermined objective, but they do it in a different manner.

3. Are often used in business letters, government publications, and other publications for the general reader.

Following are the main kinds of sentences that are often used to develop standard supporting paragraphs:

Journalism-type Paragraph (Used not just in newspapers) 1. May be separated at random; there is no set pattern for ending one and beginning the next, except common sense

Combinations of the Above These preceding paragraphs may be used in combination: standard, narrative, and dialogue are often combined. Journalism-type and dialogue are also often used together. It is very helpful for a writer to understand the differences between these different kinds of supporting paragraphs. They are used in all kinds of writing. Therefore, to learn to translate thought into effective written communication fluently, writers should know how to write them and how to use them. Standard Supporting Paragraphs A standard supporting paragraph is a unit of thought with a clearly stated or implied controlling sentence. Like the other paragraphs, it contributes to developing the main idea of the subject sentence (in the main paragraph). It helps develop it in the way needed to adapt that

1. controlling sentences 2. primary sentences 3. secondary sentences 4. concluding sentences The controlling sentence is the most important sentence in a standard paragraph. It is the one that states the main supporting idea of that particular paragraph. This sentence must contain a main idea developing the main idea of the whole composition. Also, this sentence must be stated in a manner suitable for the reader and the response wanted. Implied controlling sentences of standard supporting paragraphs are often used in subtle writing, especially the kind done in quality fiction. In our study, we will mainly learn to write standard paragraphs that have a wellwritten clearly stated controlling sentence. The controlling sentence is different from the subject sentence of the main paragraph. A controlling sentence guides writers in determinPage 77

ing the content and structure of just that standard supporting paragraph. It helps them to determine which ideas and words are needed and in which pattern of organization they should be assembled (description, narration, or causation—See Chapter 8). The main paragraph subject sentence, on the other hand, guides writers in writing the whole composition: the kind it should be ( research paper, essay, etc.), the kind(s) of supporting paragraphs in it, along with the needed kinds of words and ideas in all of it. Both of these, the subject sentence and the controlling sentence, also guide the reader. They tell the reader the type of response wanted so that he or she can interpret the literal meanings of the words as well as their implications in the way the writer intends them. Supporting sentences are all those that develop the standard paragraph's controlling sentence. They contain the thoughts and supporting ideas needed to develop the controlling sentence so its relationship to the main idea of the whole communication is clear. Therefore, these sentences also must be related to the intended reader-response. Their first job, therefore, is to develop the controlling sentence main idea of the paragraph in a way that will achieve the intended reader-response of the whole composition, identified in the subject sentence of the main paragraph. Primary supporting sentences in standard supporting paragraphs are those that are directly related to the controlling sentence. One or more of these sentences may explain its topic directly in a way related to the main idea. Usually, however ,they develop the main idea of the controlling sentence. Secondary supporting sentences are those directly related to a preceding primary or secondary sentence. Therefore, they are indirectly related to the controlling sentence topic or main idea. This preceding sentence is most

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often a primary sentence. It is not unusual, though, for one of them to develop another secondary one right before it. Here is a good illustration of a standard supporting paragraph. It illustrates how primary and secondary sentences together translate the controlling sentence's main idea for the reader's understanding. Notice how the writer inserts secondary sentences to explain the ideas in the primary sentences. This is done to enable the reader to understand better the relationship of the thought in the primary sentence to the main idea, "some of the most iridescent feathers," in the controlling sentence. A (1) precedes the primary sentences; a (2) precedes the secondary ones. The underlined words in the supporting sentences amplify the main idea's key words most iridescent." Of the various birds of the Corvidae family, the paradise magpies display some of the most iridescent feathers. (1) The feathers of one of these bird's tail and wings have a velvety black iridescence along with a sheen of malachite- green. (1) Its head, throat and nape are brilliantly colorful. (2) The feathers on these three parts gleam mostly in emerald green which has golden undertones. (1) A "necklace" of fiery red gold-tipped feathers begins behind the eyes and forms a half—moon on the bird's breast. (2) These red feathers glow like live coals when the light is right. (2) However, their bright iridescence seems to come most often from beneath the surface. Concluding sentences in standard paragraphs are used only occasionally. They may be inserted to round-off a paragraph. Also, sometimes they are applied to summarize the important paragraph ideas to gain emphasis by restating them. These concluding sentences play a very important part when the whole communication consists of just one paragraph. Following is an example of one that has the main parts of a

whole composition by itself or just a supporting paragraph with a concluding sentence in a longer communication.. Again, the primary sentences are preceded by a 1 and the secondary ones by a 2. The Key idea is in bold print, and both the controlling and the concluding sentences are underlined. The sensory receptors of the human body arouse certain common responses. (1) The skin receptors, located in the deeper areas of the skin and in some internal organs cause sensations of heat, cold, and pain. (2) These receptors are most numerous, for they are found in nearly every cell in the body. (1) The taste receptors, found in the taste buds on the surface of the tongue and in parts of the roof of the mouth, bring about the sensations of sweet, sour, bitter, and salty (2) These taste receptors, however, are inherited in a definite pattern, and the degree of each specific taste varies with each individual. (1) The receptors for smell, located in the nasal membranes, cause the sensations of chemical odors: camphoraceous, musky, floral, etheral, pungent, and putrid. (2) These receptors for smell, like for taste, vary with each individual. (1) The vision receptors, the eyes, enable sensitivity to light. (2) An eye consists of a lens, cornea, iris, retina, and aqueous humor, all working together to enable vision. (1) The hearing receptor, the ear, enables sounds to be heard. (2) It consists of three important parts: The outer pinna, the middle, and the inner ear with its balance receptors. All sense receptors allow human beings to experience the sensations needed to develop an awareness of the environment in which they live. As they are writing it, writers should check each primary sentence to make sure that it is directly related to the controlling sentence main idea. They should also determine if each needs

any secondary sentence(s) at this time.. This checking should be done more carefully again during the final revision stage, when the rough draft of the whole composition is being prepared for the final draft. Here is another example of a standard paragraph. Notice how important the secondary sentences are in amplifying the emotional appeal on which the condusion in the main idea is based. Examine how the writer uses this figure of speech "...newly-made clones like cigarettes on a tobacco manufacturer's conveyor belt" to enable the reader to visualize the manufacturing of human-like clones. Observe how carefully the writer chooses words with emotional connotations to help the reader sense the metallic sounds the clones make as they churn, wheeze, clink along on the conveyor belt. In Chapter 6, how single words as well as how figures of speech are also used to make abstract ideas more concrete and vivid is explained and demonstrated more extensively. (The main idea of the following example is underlined, the key words are in bold type, the primary sentences are preceded by 1 and the secondary ones by 2.) Splicing human genes would reduce the miracle of birth to a harsh, clinicali laboratory fabrication of the human body and spirit. (1) Wires, levers, and rods, would form the machines that replace the soft warm maternal body. (2) Gone would be the tender care of a devoted human mother. (1) The reassurance and consolation of today's parents would be replaced by the test tube, the other fabricating apparatus, and the conveyor belt. (2) These devices would efficiently manufacture, assemble, and package the newly-made clones like cigarettes on a tobacco manufacturer's conveyor belt. (2) One robot after another, the churning, wheezing, clinking machine would fabricate each new done, squeeze electrical juice into its circuitry to program it so to perform an important function. Page 79

Primary and Secondary Standard Supporting Paragraphs

Writers will find it very helpful understanding that whole standard paragraphs may have primary or secondary relationships to the main idea of the specific subject sentence, in the main paragraph. One directly related to it is a primary supporting paragraph, and one indirectly related to it is a secondary one (See Application 5-2). Narrative Supporting Paragraphs

Narrative supporting paragraphs list or explain in time-order a series of interrelated happenings. They do not begin with a controlling sentence as the standard paragraphs do. Later, we will learn that when the paragraph begins with a controlling sentence and is developed by chronological happenings, it is a standard paragraph developed by narration (see pages 143, 161, 162) or it may be a standard paragraph developed by narrative illustration. A narrative paragraph is a chronological sequence of related events. Each begins usually by naming the event and by giving the circumstances of the situation, not with a controlling sentence. These circumstances often consist of who is involved, where and /or when the event is occurring. Sometimes, writers describe the mood, atmosphere, and maybe the weather or climate at the time of the event. Since there is no controlling sentence in a narrative supporting paragraph, there are no primary or secondary sentences that develop a main idea; they develop an event. Below is a narrative supporting paragraph. Notice that it has no controlling sentence, and that it begins by identifying the event (underlined) and the situation The primary sentences (preceded by a 1) are related directly to the event by giving the next happening. The secondary sentences (preceded by 2) are related directly to their preceding primary or secondary sentence. Page 80

Standing around a small circular table with a large globe emitting a flickering blue light, the six participants of the Golden Dawn Society seance clasped hands and waited. (1) The presiding shaman then began a weird chant. (1) The coven participants joined with their own weird incantations. (1) The shaman then laid out The Tarot on the table in a mysterious pattern. (2) The Tarot is a deck of 78 cards divided into 22 Arcana. (2) The significance of each is based on its relationship to each of the other cards.(1) The presiding witch, the shaman, then lighted an incense candle and called upon the Spirit of Time to manifest itself with a knock. (2) That knock is a signal for all the members to start asking individual questions about the future. (1) A muffled rapping sounded, and the questioning started. (2) The coven members believe their answers will be revealed by each participant's own interpretation of the laidout Tarot cards. (1) Periodically, one or more of the participants ecstatically shouted to acknowledge a joyous or sad response from the Spirit of Time. (1) The weird incantations then suddenly stopped, and the mysterious seance abruptly ended at the sound of a second rapping. Narrative supporting paragraphs are used in many kinds of writing, not just in fiction. They are used in writing history, biography, and various kinds of process reports. Following is a section (or block) from a larger selection of history. Notice how the paragraphs begin with explanation of changes in the situations: in time, place, and people. They then proceed to narrate in a step-by-step chronological sequence (mainly by primary sentences in this instance) the series of happenings in the sequence. Dawn awoke the fleet to gale winds. These raked down from the northeast against the Gulf Stream current, stirring confused cross seas.

Most of the passengers and soldiers aboard Santa Margerita, even the experienced sailors, were soon seasick.

Tall-stemmed goblet of choice vintage 6. Dish of relishes-> Cheese wedges, lemon sections, sprigs of fresh parsley, slices of pimento 7. Place setting-> Neatly arranged china and silver setting on a decorative woven mat

When students learn to decide in advance how to think about a specific subject objectively or subjectively, it becomes much easier for them to know what to say and how to say it. Knowing how to think about it, of course, is determined by the response wanted from the intended reader. Knowing how to regard it will increase fluency as well as confidence in translating thoughts and thought-language into effective written communication.

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Conclusions Thinking is the process of establishing relationships between words and ideas. Conclusions are the end-products of one or more of these chains of interrelationships. Almost every sentence states a conclusion. Except often when entertaining, most written communications require logical thinking and writing. Logical reasoning is correct thinking that results when two or more qualified people arrive at the same conclusion from the same reliable evidence. The following is a logical conclusion derived from the two preceding premises (Premise #1) All humans die. (Premise #2) John is a man. (Logical conclusion)) John will die some day. Facts, inferences, and opinions are the three main kinds of conclusions . All three are of equal importance. However, when they are a part of a longer communication, any of them may be the most important kind expressed, depending on what the main idea and what the intended reader- response of the communication are. In other words, it depends upon what the predetermined objective is. When the purpose is to entertain, the main thoughts or conclusions expressed may be opinions. If the purpose is to inform or to persuade, on the other hand, facts and/or logical inferences are usually the main kinds of thoughts. Correct facts, inferences, and opinions must be expressed in writing, but just as important, they must be expressed as they are intended to be understood. Writing opinions or inferences as facts even though the writer may know they are not facts detracts from a writer's credibility. In spoken communication a person can indicate what each is intended to be by the way it is expressed: vocal intonations, facial expressions, andJor limb gestures, not so in writing. Even

though a writer is sure that "Whales are mammals" is a fact, but writes," I think whales are mammals," he or she is expressing the thought as an opinion, not as a fact. Facts are conclusions that have been proved true. It is generally agreed that truth may be either of two kinds. These are (1) philosophical (rational or reasoned) truth and (2) scientific (empirical) truth. It is important to understand that to avoid a great deal of confusion about what is and what is not true and/or real. Philosophical truths are mainly based on logical reasons as evidence- in-proof, not mainly on evidence that can be sensed (heard, smelled, tasted, felt, and/or seen. Many of our most important conclusions about ethics, philosophy, psychology, social science, and religion, are accepted as philosophical truths, as facts. Some of the main principles stated in our legal code are philosophical truths. Here is one: A person accused of murder is innocent. This is true until proven guilty beyond all doubt. Scientists can tell us facts about what the universe is, but the philosopher can tell us why it exists. Here is an example: The universe must have a first cause. Can that first cause be proved scientifically? Without one there could be no effects, including human beings. Can many of the unconscious ideas that cause us to interpret and react to life a certain way be verified by the scientific method? What about our dreams? Can any be proved by scientists? Scientific truth does not have to be only about science. It is any truth that can be verified as real by being actually sensed (seen, heard, smelled, felt, and/or tasted) by two or more qualified sources. More than one verification is needed because all humans, including scientists, are subject to error. Therefore, we can define a scientific fact as a conclusion that is recognized as having been proved true by reliable concrete evidence from more than one qualified source.

Qualified sources, whether books or persons, are those considered qualified by other qualified sources. Earning a college degree in a certain field is one kind of recognition of qualifications. Publishing books and articles is another. Years of experience in an occupation and demonstration of the knowledge in a field of work so that a person's qualification become known helps achieve recognition,as being qualified. When information from these kinds of sources is used as evidence-in support or proof, it is readily accepted as reliable. Reliable evidence, therefore, is that derived from sources that are recognized as being qualified. Writers need not give supporting evidence nor their sources for every fact. Mainly those facts that the intended reader may question, doubt, challenge, or contradict need to be supported either with the source or the evidence-in-proof. Therefore, the type of reader at which a communication is aimed plays an important part in helping writers to decide which facts need supporting evidence. Here are examples of facts that need no proofwhen writing to college students. 1. The United States has never had a female President. 2. Benjamin Franklin proved that lightning is a form of electricity. 3. Thomas Jefferson was the third president of the United States. Conclusions about anything before humans had the ability to record (by witnessing and writing about them) cannot be proved; therefore, they should not be regarded or stated as scientific facts. However, those about the distant past time or distant space (in geology or astronomy) that are beyond our ability to prove and record can be stated as logical inferences. Inferences, therefore, enable us to go beyond the limitations of time and space to make progress.

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Nor can future objects or events (those beyond the "N" be proved as fact, but they can be logically reasoned as inferences.

1. Giving the name of the author and/or the title of the book in the body, right next to the fact or the inference.

Inferences are conclusions logically reasoned from facts and/or other logical inferences, but for which there is not enough evidence to prove or to enable qualified people to accept them as true (real). Many scientific facts started out as inferences, and after enough evidence was gathered, they were proved to be facts. For example, much of our factual knowledge about the moon was a mass of logical scientific inferences for centuries. Only recently have some of them been proved to be facts. Others, however, are no longer accepted as facts or inferences.

2. Supporting a point by quoting a qualified source's exact words.

It is important to remember that inferences, like facts, are based on reliable evidence from qualified sources. Therefore, they are sound conclusions, resulting from logical reasoning. Logical reasoning, as stated before is establishing a chain of relationships that lead more than one qualified person to the same inevitable conclusion. However, any inference may be incorrect or become illogical later when more related evidence is discovered. Here are a few illustrations of logical inferences. Notice that the writer sometimes tells the reader that a statement is intended as an inference, not a fact, by inserting certain qualifying words (underlined). 1. The sign on the door said "Wet paint" therefore, I concluded that I shouldn't touch it because it may still be wet. 2. Lauri's use of words indicated that she might be a native Italian. 3. The Drakes probably areaway because no car is in their garage. When informing or persuading, writers should know how to provide the needed supporting evidence. Here are some of the common kinds: Page 720

3. Supporting a.point by paraphrasing (in your own words) what a qualified source said. 4. Giving needed formal documentation (reference notes as parenthetical body notes, footnotes, or endnotes). 5. If your conclusion results from your own research, you may have to tell exactly how you did the research, presenting the methods, procedure, and results involved in and/or stemming from the investigation. Opinions are conclusions mainly based on personal attitudes, belief, and/or emotions. They too are based on evidence, but that evidence is personal, not facts and/or logical inferences from qualified sources. A person may accept a conclusion as fact even though it is mainly based on personal feelings, but one should not write any as fact or inference and expect others to accept it as such. A person is entitled to his or her opinions. A good writer, however, knows better than to expect readers to accept opinions as facts or inferences. That is one reason why it is important to know the difference. Understanding this difference is very important not only in writing but in everyday living as well. Knowing these differences is essential to help making right decisions about important things. Sometimes good decisions are made because people base their important life and occupational judgments upon opinions which they realize are opinions, not facts or logical inferences. The people we marryithe cars we buy, and the people who govern us are good examples of these choices that are often determined by our attitudes and the resulting opin-

ions. Recognizing opinions as such, we elicit the help of facts and inferences to assist us in making some of these important decisions. Many of the attitudes that color the way we regard the things we think about are formed by our own personal experiences. Our past sense and emotional experiences cause us to regard objects, animals, people, or ideas a certain way. Writers must discipline themselves to recognize their opinions so they can temporarily put them aside when necessary or to express them when they are right for the reader and the response wanted. Here are a few examples with notations in parentheses to indicate whether the opinion probably is based on an attitude or on a limited personal sense or emotional experience. 1. Camping is fun. (Past personal sense and emotional experience.)

A TV repair truck is in front of Helen's house; she is having her set repaired. (This can only be an inference, but it is incorrectly stated as a fact.) A TV repair truck is in front of Helen's house; she may be having her set repaired. (This is one correct way of stating it as a inference.) The picture below and the comments under it help to clarify the differences of facts, inferences, and opinions. The fact and inference before the camel are based just on the evidence in this picture. The opinion, however, is based on the personal attitude or feelings of the writer, evidence which is not in the picture. (Fact) 1. This is not a Bactrain, a two-humped camel.

3. "Delicious" best describes a thick slice of melon. (Personal past sense and emotional experience.)

(Inference) 2. The shape of this camel's hump indicates that it has a reserve of water.

4. Men are more stubborn than women. (Personal attitude toward men, based on limited past experience.)

(Opinion) 3. I was very pleased with this single humped camel I rode.

5. Italians have a natural talent for music. (Personal attitude based on limited experience)

When writers clearly indicate at the beginning of a composition that they intend to entertain with humor, readers do not hold them accountable for the accuracy of their statements. They accept those opinions for what they are, expressions of the writer's personal likes, dislikes, preferences, etc. However, when the main sentence at the beginning (the subject sentence) indicates that the writer intends to inform or to persuade, readers have a right to hold the writer accountable for the accuracy of statements.

2. Michigan is the best place to live. (Personal attitude based on limited experience)

6. Talisman roses are the most fragrant flowers. (Personal attitude based on limited experience.) Writers are responsible to state facts, inferences, and opinions so their readers can understand clearly what they are intended to be. When writers write facts, inferences, or opinions in a context which may cause their readers to misunderstand, it is their responsibility to clarify what they intend them to be.

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Sir Arthur Conan Doyle provides us with good illustration of facts, inferences, and opinions in his Sherlock Holmes stories. The illustration below is from "The Red-Headed League" in which the author and Holmes allow Dr. Watson to identify a set of facts. Then Sherlock Holmes logically draws several inferences and provides the evidence supporting them. Periodically, he allows Mr. Wilson to verify the inferences as facts and to render his own opinions. (Also, observe how the author starts out by setting up the situation in a narrative paragraph, proceeds with a standard second paragraph, and continues the narrative in dialogue paragraphs.) The facts, inferences, and opinions in the following are also identified as follows:

Narrative continues in Dialogue paragraphs

Inference "Oh," he saie4 :you can't tell much about him, Watson. He has done some hard work in his lifi. He takes snuff He belongs to the Masons. He's been in China. He's done a lot of writing lately. That's about all."

Wilson jumped out of his chair. "How did you know all that, Mt Holmes?" he said. "How did you know I've done hard work? It's true. I Fact was a ship's carpenter once." Fact "Your hands, Mr. 'Wilson. Your

right hand is a little bigger than the Inference left one. You've worked with it. The Fact muscles are bigger."

"Well, the Masons, then?" Facts = bold print

Fact Holmes pointed to the pin on his

Inferences = italics

coat.

Opinions = underlined

"Oh, yes, I forgot that. But the writing? How did you know that?" "Look at the right cuff. Five inches of it is shiny. And there's a shiny spot near the left elbow. That's Inference where you lay it on the desk." Fact

Narrative Paragraph

The fat Mr. Wilson pulled a dirty newspaper from his overcoat. He put the paper on his knee and turned to the ads. I looked at him very carefully as Holmes had taught me to do.

"How did you know I've been in China?" Fact

Standard Paragraph Opinion I didn't see anything unusual Inference about him. He was just a business Fact man of some kind. He wore a pair of

gray trousers and a black coat. A thick watch chain hung from his vest pocket. I noticed a square piece of metal on the chain. A worn black hat and a wrinkled brown overcoat lay on a chair. I looked and looked Opinion again, but I could see nothing Fact unusual. Nothing except that he had Inference bright red hair and was any about something. Page 122

Opinion

"By that fish you have tattooed on your right wrist. It can be done only in China. "I've made a study of tattoo marks. Only the Chinese can get that pink color on the fish scales. Also, you've got a Chinese coin on your watch chain." Wilson laughed. "Well, well," he said. "I thought you'd done something very clever. I see it was easy, after all."

Faulty Conclusions

It is not unreasonable for readers to expect writers to know the differences of facts, inferences, and opinions. Just as important, however, they will expect them to state the conclusions of a composition, whether they be facts, inferences, or opinions, as they intend them to be understood by the reader. Successful writers know that it is what the reader understands, not just what the writer understands, that really determines whether or not a composition is effective. Much of this confusion in the writing of facts, inferences, and opinions, especially when writing to inform or to persuade, results from stating opinions as facts or inferences, or from expressing inferences as facts. That is because writers may not translate conclusions from thought-language correctly. When in their thoughts they identify an opinion by nonverbals (vocal intonations, etc.) but just write the verbal expressions of the thought, stating it as a fact, the reader unavoidably regards it as a mistake, as an illogical statement. Faulty conclusions are acceptable only as opinions. When writers intend them as facts or inferences, they are faulty conclusions. Most illogical statements are written unintentionally. They most often are incorrectly expressed conclusions. When they are intentionally made in writing not intended to entertain, they most often are devices of persuasion, not faulty conclusions. Everyone has seen how they are used as devices of persuasion in many forms of advertising in newspapers, magazines, and in television commercials. Faulty conclusions are mistakenly written in the form of distorted facts, illogical inferences, or unreliable opinions for the following reasons. Writers may: 1. Not know the differences of facts, inferences, or opinions; consequently, they express them incorrectly.

2. Become emotionally attached to their attitudes; consequently, they permit their emotions to control their reasoning, and they present opinions defensively, as though they were facts or logical inferences. 3. Neglect to translate their thoughts accurately by using the right terms and by inserting the needed qualifying words. 4. Not provide needed supporting evidence. 5. Express opinions as facts or inferences, or, inferences as facts. The following kinds of faulty conclusions may result from any of the causes listed above. These kinds of faulty reasoning can be used intentionally to entertain, but when stated to inform accurately or to persuade logically, they are forms of fallacious reasoning. These are only some of the more common ones: 1. Sweeping Generalizations 2. Black-or-White Fallacy 3. Ignoring the Question 4. It Doesn't Follow Sweeping Generalizations are broad conclusions based on not enough evidence, on unreliable evidence, and/or on evidence from unqualified sources. In a sense, a sweeping generalization is a conclusion resembling a huge mushroom cap resting on the ground because its skinny stem is too thin to support it upright. A sweeping generalization may result when writers allow a biased or prejudiced attitude to affect the way something is regarded. Therefore, instead of the real evidence, the writer allows personal evidence to cause the opinion to be stated as though it were a fact or an inference. Here is an example: "Watching television is good for children. Page 123

When accuracy is important, this conclusion should be stated, perhaps, as: "Educational television programs are good for children. Here is another: "Men don't know how to cook" More accurate: My father doesn't know how to cook Hungarian goulash. Black-or-White Fallacies are conclusions expressing opposing extremes when some condition in between would be more accurate. They, too, are just opinions incorrectly expressed as facts or inferences. A person who writes "You are either for me or against me." is guilty of Black-or-White" reasoning. Many shades of gray exist between the two extremes of black and white. Most conclusions, also, have many degrees or shades of rightness or wrongness between the two extremes. A person who is not a saint is not necessarily a criminal. Black-or-White fallacies usually result from a writer's neglecting to include the needed qualifiers when translating conclusions from thought into written communication. For example: (Black-or- White Fallacy) Athletes are brawny, not brainy. (Corrected with qualifier) Some athletes are brawny, not brainy. Ignoring the Question dodges arguing the real issue by distracting the reader's mind to something else. There are several ways that this is done. One very common one is resorting to venting emotions about something other than what is being argued. Most often this invective Page 124

type of ignoring the question attacks the character, ethnic identity, or appearance of the person defending the opposite side of the question. By explicit ranting and raving, by subtle derogatory implications, or by outright name calling, people who argue this way divert the focus of attention from the issue that should be under discussion. The use of invective degrades a communication into being a quarrel, not a logical argument. No one ever communicates successfully by quarreling. "No one ever wins a quarrel." Here is an example of Ignoring the Question conclusion. One person states "Every unemployed head of a family should be given enough food, clothing, and shelter for the whole family until re-employed." The other person retorts, "If we do that, this country will be like the Communist or Socialist countries in which everything belongs to everybody and where nobody has to work to eat." Students who argue against good study habits by saying that they don't want to become "book worms" are ignoring-the-question by resorting to invective. Sometimes this kind of arguing is called "Red Herring" argument. It resembles the way people used to brush fish across the trail of hunting dogs in pursuit of a fox to divert them. The words "Communist" and "Socialist" serve the purpose of herring in the preceding illustration. It Doesn't Follow argument concludes that if one thing is next to another or if it follows another in space or time, it undoubtedly is caused by the thing it is next to or it follows. Consequently, it is an unjustified jump to an illogical conclusion. For example, when a person writes, "Linus Pauling won the Nobel Prize in chemistry; therefore, he is an authority about the way medicine should be practiced." the conclusion doesn't follow logically.

Many of our superstitions can be classified as "It Doesn't Follow" reasoning. "Carrying a rabbit foot brings good luck." " If you were born on February 29th, you will many before turning 21 years old." Some people would say much of astrology falls into this kind of reasoning. By understanding the language with which they think, writers should be better able to translate their thoughts as they want them to be understood. This skill will help them in distinguishing conclusions from the way they are expressed in their thoughts so that they can translate them accurately into written communication. Knowing this also will enable writers to select and express supporting ideas, both details, and conclusions, for their meanings as well as for their effects upon the reader. This knowledge and ability also enables writers to recognize faulty conclusions so that they can avoid trying to communicate them as logical ones. Knowing this also will help writers to use illogical conclusions intentionally when needed as devices of persuasion.

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APPLICATIONS The notations in parentheses after the application numbers are just suggestions. Your instructor may choose to give new instructions for them. Application 7-1 (Group Activity: Class Discussion Questions and Writing)

These items are for class discussion. Your instructor, however, may choose to give one or more of them for questions on a quiz or an examination. Contribute to the class discussion and listen carefully so that you will understand the writing principle and, consequently, be prepared. 1. What are the main kinds of details and how do writers use them? 2. When should writers support their conclusions? 3. What are different ways to provide supporting evidence for facts, inferences, and reliable opinions? 4. What are the discussed causes for faulty conclusions? 5. What differentiates devices of persuasion from faulty conclusions? 6. What is a writer's attitude? Name two kinds, and tell their differences.

The "flats" is a very special place for me. It immerses me into its vastness, muffling my loudest outcries, and soothing my deepest worries. A river partially surrounds it with green murky water that slowly slides over dead trees and slabs of concrete. Willows huddle by the river bank and droop their stringy branches into the sluggish current. The wind, working its way across the flats, filters through my hair and entices me to follow to some peaceful place. Steel mills along the river rumble and belch black smoke against the pale sky by day and lick the night's ceiling with tongues of flame.

Application 7-3 (Group activity)

Based only on the evidence in the following picture, indicate whether each statement is fact, inference, or opinion by placing F, I, or 0 after its number. 1. There are only five people in this room. 2. No. 4 has a cupful of coffee before him. 3. The cigarette in the ashtray probably is No. l's. 4. No.3 is the oldest in the room. 5. No. 5 is wearing bifocals. 6. No. 1 owns the eyeglasses on the table. 7. No. 3 is listening to No. l's conversation.

Application 7-2 (In-class writing activity)

Read the paragraph following and under column headings of SENSE, ACTION, and EMOTION list each underlined detail in the appropriate column.

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8. No. 1 was seated beside No. 5 9. The picture depicts daytime activities. 10. No. 1 is talking into the receiver. 11. Two people in this picture wear eyeglasses. 12. No. 1 and No. 2 are executives.

13. These people are conducting a business meeting. 14. No. 5 is wearing a wig. 15. These people are business acquaintances.

6. universe 7. terror 8. To scratch 9. ignorance 10. To dance 11. a crystal 12. pain 13. sweet 14. To attack 15. hateful 16. absolute

Application 7-4 (In-Class Writing)

Write two short compositions one paragraph for each. The first should develop a main idea about yourself as a student with objective details. The second should also have a main idea about yourself as a student, but it should be developed with subjective details. Right above each paragraph, tell the intended reader-response. Be sure to underline the key of the main idea in each.

Application 7-5

Opposite the number of each item below, place a letter that indicates which kind of supporting idea (detail) it is: A = Action, C = Concept, E = Emotion, S = Sense 1. womanhood

17. geometry 18. idea. 19. anguish 20. Devotion

Application 7-6 (Out-of -class writing activity)

Paste a postcard, a personal photograph, or a small picture from a newspaper or magazine on a sheet of paper. Under the picture, arrange these three column headings, identifying the various kinds of details: sense, action, and emotion. Examine the picture and list as many sense details as you can detect, including those which you can imagine from what you see. Indicate those you actually sense directly in the picture and those you imagine from what you sense by inserting S for sense or I for imagined opposite each.

2. supreme 3. depressed 4. bee sting 5. to cut Page 127

Application 7-7 (In -Class Writing activity)

Write three controlling sentences with worthwhile main ideas for standard paragraphs. Select one of the three, and beneath it, write a list of main concrete and abstract details you will use to write related supporting sentences. Beneath the details, write a paragraph with the controlling sentence placed first. Each supporting sentence should be related to the main idea either directly or indirectly. Place al before the primary sentences or a 2 before the secondary ones. In the heading, be sure to tell the intended response. Also, be sure to underline the key of the main idea.

Application 7-8

After each of the numbers below, print E I, or 0 to indicate whether the sentence after it is a fact, an inference, or an opinion, depending upon what it says or upon the way it is expressed. 1. New movies are not as good as the old ones. 2. Robotic development foretells a 4-day work week. 3. Not all birds fly south for the winter. 4. Sarasota, Florida is a comfortable place to live. 5. The cold front, the weather bureau forecasts, will cause frost. 6. Java man is about 5000 years old, some scientists believe. 7. Each state in the United States is entitled to two senators. 8. Beef tastes better than pork. 9. Every state should legalize capital punishment. Page 128

10. America is ruled by the wealthy. 11. According to insurance company statistics, Mary Brown will probably live longer than her husband. 12. Girls with long dark brown hair are beautiful. 13. Biology is the study of life. 14. To obtain a pilot's certificate, the FAA requires at least thirty-five hours of flight time. 15. Mahatma Gandhi died in 1948, according to his biographer. 16. Smaller, lighter cars, usually get better gas mileage than large ones. 17. Purple is a heavy color. 18. Long ago, Detroit was under an ice sheet a mile deep, geologists say. 19. Football is the greatest of all sports. 20. President Franklin Roosevelt was elected to four terms. 21. Pants are more practical than dresses for women. 22. An excessive amount of sugar in the blood is a symptom of diabetes. 23. Total population of the U.S. in 1950 was 150,697, 361. 24. The only thing nice about winter is Christmas. 25. The doctor heard two infant heart beats and predicted twins.

Application 7-9 (Group activity)

On your paper, place one of the letters below opposite the number of each of the sentences to indicate which kind of faulty conclusion it is. A = Sweeping Generalization C = Ignoring the Question B = Black-or-White Fallacy D = It Doesn't Follow 1. Only traitors are against nuclear power plants. 2. The social program for Latino people is just another form of Facism. 3. Judging from the cars he drives, he must be wealthy. 4. Because John graduated from Wittenberg University, he probably is very smart.

Application 7-10 (Group Activity: Class Discussion and Writing)

Your instructor will guide the class discussion of the issue shown below. Listen and take notes of what is said because later, your instructor may give a writing assignment about the issue. He or she may select one or two of the best compositions and project them for class evaluation in relation to the principles studied in this and the preceding chapters. Half of the class will point out the good qualities of the compositions and the other half will suggest improvements for it. Your instructor may allow you to choose another issue for discussion, but here is ours: The state should require IQ tests satisfactorily completed before granting drivers' licenses.

5. Women are more cautious than men. 6. With high inflation, we can't avoid a severe depression. 7. If you are not a part of a solution, you are part of a problem. 8. If you are a Scorpio, you are stubborn, but have creative skills. 9. Without destroying Russia, we'll never have peace. 10. Everyone loves animals. 11. The judge will not give a stiff sentence because he is a coward. 12. Ellie was in a movie; that is why we know she is a great actress. 13. Swimming is the best sport. 14. The watch my grandfather gave me assures me of good fortune. 15. You can tell she is a socialite from the clothes she wears. Page 129

Application 7-11

A. Look at this picture of fruit, and opposite number 1 for each fruit listed below, write a single-word concrete detail. Opposite number 2, write an abstract single-word detail. banana 1. 2. lemon 1. 2. B. Opposite number 1 for the following, insert an objective detail, and opposite number 2, a subjective detail pear

C. Opposite number 1 for each of the following , write a fact in a complete sentence. Opposite number 2, in a complete sentence write an inference based on the fact.

1.

cherry

2.

1.

grapes

2.

1.

strawberry

2.

1. 2.

Application 7-12

(Out -of -class writing activity) Write a full-length composition re-creating a pleasant, fascinating, or exciting personal experience, not a humorous one (unless your instructor allows it) intended to entertain readers by enabling them to live it imaginatively. Opposite the title, identify the reader response. Be sure to: 1. Write a title, a separate paragraph opener, a main paragraph, supporting paragraphs consisting of at least one narrative paragraph, some paragraphs of dialogue, and a concluding paragraph. Page 130

2. Have ample specific, vivid sense and emotional details that enable the reader imaginatively to experience what you are recreating. Be sure that you have some specific vivid sense details other than just sight. 3. Opposite the opener, the explanatory sentences, and each of the supporting paragraphs tell which kind each is supporting paragraphs: description, narration, or causation.

Application 7-13 (Out-of-class writing activity)

5. In the left margin opposite the opener, tell which kind it is.

Write a full-length composition with at least three standard supporting paragraphs intended to persuade the reader of the pro or con conclusion of one of the issues below. The essay should consist of: title, separate-paragraph opener, main paragraph, at least three standard supporting paragraphs, and a concluding paragraph. Be sure to underline the complete main idea with one line and the key with two. Refer to the example on the next page.

6. Opposite the explanatory sentences of the main paragraph, tell which kind they are. your explanatory sentences should be only those needed to enable the reader to understand the subject sentence better. Avoid inserting superfluous additional ideas, which, perhaps, would serve better in a supporting paragraph.

1. The automobile is (is not) an inexpensive form of transportation. 2. Drivers under the influence of alcohol should (should not) have drivers' licenses revoked.

7. Remember that your argument should lead to a sound conclusion derived from logical reasoning based on reliable evidence. 8. Your concluding paragraph(s) should mainly paraphrase and summarize.

3. Mercy killings should (should not) be legalized. 4. Sexual liberation has (has not) gone too Far 5. Human happiness (does or does not) require wealth..

Be sure to: 1. Avoid all faulty conclusions 2. In only one supporting paragraph Place a F before facts, an I before inferences, or an 0 before any opinions. (See examples on the next page.) 3. Do any research in qualified sources, if needed, to help you support your own attitudes, beliefs, or feelings. 4. In your supporting sentences, not by formal documentation, (not by parenthetical body references, end references, or by footnotes references. See para 3) identify needed or helpful sources within a sentence and underline them; this is an essay, not research paper. Page 131

Can English Serve as an International Language? Opener Proactive Ques. & Startling Statement

Will human beings ever stop killing each other? Wars are caused by the inability of human beings to communicate by the medium of a common language. Can English be that language?

Main paragraph Issue to be argued (Writer's contentin) Explanatory Sentence (Definition)

English can not serve successfully as an international language. An international language is one by which all nations can interact officially. English is not suitable for this purpose because it does not possess the necessary specifications. These specifications are: it must be grammatically regular, phonetic, and easily pronounceable.

Supporting Paragraph 1 Evidence in support and/or proof

English satisfies some of these requirements, but not enough of them. I It is not as regular as it must be. F For example, there is not a standard method for changing the tense of verbs. F For the verb to be there are seven principal parts: a, arn, are, was, were, 12q, and been F All other verbs have only three parts. F Some of the many other irregular verbs are: awake, burst, choose, dr.), eat, freeze, ring, take, and write. F The ways in which nouns are made plural in English are also irregular. F While the plural of horse is horses, the plural of man is men, not mans.

Supporting Paragraph 2 Evidence in support and/or proof

English words are not phonetically consistent as needed to be international. F The "f" in fish represents the same sound as the "ph" in photograph. 1, Also, the same letter clusters do not represent the same sounds. F The "ough" group is pronounced in several different ways: thought, thorough, trough.

Supporting Paragraph 3 Evidence in support and/or proof

Some English language sounds are hard to pronounce by people of other lands. F Orientals find English r's hard to pronounce. F Europeans struggle to differentiate between the th combination and the "t" when speaking English. F Even English dictionaries, for example, The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language must use phonetic spellings, rather than the regular letters of the alphabet, to indicate how some letters or letter groups should be pronounced.

Informal source identification Supporting Paragraph 4 1. Acknowledgement of opposition 2. Refutation of opposition

Because English is spoken by people in powerful and heavily populated lands does not justify its establishment as a world language. 1. I It's use in the U.S. and England does not justify its international use. F True, English is the second most often used language. I However, if we are using numbers to select the international language, many of us would have to use Chinese Mandarin, the most often used language. I Nor can we use political and military strength of nations as a reason to justify English as an international language. F The United States and England did not become powerful because English is their people's native language.

Conclusion 1. Paraphrase of contention 2. Summary of opposition 3. Summary of support and/or proof

Patriotic emotions and attachment to native languages of people throughout the world make it difficult, if not impossible, for nations to relinquish the belief that their own tongue is the best international language. Consequently, English, French, German, or any other established language would not be accepted willingly by most people in preference to their own native one. To become an international means of communication, English, or any other established language, must develop a simple grammatical form and a practical phonetic nature to make it easy for people of all parts of the earth to use it in both oral and written communication.

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chapter 8 The Process of Organizing Supporting Paragraph Content in Patterns of Development Appropriate for the Predetermined Objective DEVELOPING FORMS Here is what this chapter explains: 1. Selecting and organizing content into form(s) (pattem(s) of organization) needed to add appropriate character and style to description, narration, and causation 2. The Basic and the Main forms of Development 3. Translating thought by Basic Forms: analysis and/or synthesis 4. Writing Main Forms: description, narration, or causation. 5. Using analysis or synthesis to adapt Main Forms of description, narration, or causation to the predetermined objective. 6. Selecting words and supporting ideas (details and conclusions) appropriate for the intended kind of description, narration, or causation. 7. Using needed time, space, and logical transitional signals in description, narration, or causation. The Middle is the longest part of a composition. It is there that writers really focus their efforts on translating the main idea of the whole communication (the one in the subject sentence). It is by the supporting paragraphs in the Middle that writers adapt that main idea to

the intended reader. In these supporting paragraphs the writer selects and inserts the needed kinds of words and supporting ideas assembled in pattern(s) of organization (forms) needed to achieve the predetermined objective. In Chapter 5, we studied the structures, the skeletons, of these supporting paragraphs. In Chapters 6 and 7, we learned about selecting appropriate words and supporting ideas. Now we begin our study of how to assemble this composition content into appropriate forms (patterns of organization). When writers know in advance into which pattern the words and supporting ideas (details and conclusions) have to be organized, they will know how to express them.

Basic Forms While doing the necessary thinking to discover what to say and how to say it, writers follow basic patterns of organization (forms) of human thought: analysis and synthesis. They take ideas apart to analyze them or put them together in a new way to synthesize them. In this chapter, we will take a look at the two basic forms of analysis and synthesis to learn how to use them in developing description, narration, and causation.

Analysis

The philosopher John Dewey points out that in thinking, the mind starts out by establishing relationships among ideas in one of two ways: either by analysis, breaking down an idea into its parts to see how they go together, or by synthesis, taking a given set of ideas and putting them together in a new way. What Dewey is saying, in a sense, is that the mind goes two ways—from the whole to its parts by analysis or from the parts to the whole by synthesis. However to communicate these ideas, a person has to point out similarities or differences (to be studied in Chapters 9 and 10) between them and what the receiver already has experienced. It may shed some light on the direction of these processes of analysis and synthesis if we associate them with two modes of thought which we also need to understand: deduction and induction. In analysis, the mind goes from the whole to its parts, just as in deduction it goes from a broader idea to its parts, a series of causes or reasons supporting it. Both movements are from large to small, broad to narrow. In synthesis, the mind goes from the parts to the whole; just as in induction, it goes from a collection of causes or reasons leading to a broader conclusion about them. The contents of a paragraph are organized in either of two Basic developing forms: analysis or synthesis. Here is an example of a supporting paragraph developing description by means of analysis. By examining it, a person can see how the writer takes apart the main idea (in italics), a conclusion about the coral reef. A tropical coral reef, a self-contained community, has a great variety of marine lzfè. Many kinds of colorful exotic plant and animal life known as plankton thrive in the area within and around the reef. Snails, crabs, shrimp, oysters, clams, and a host of different kinds ofjellyfish live in and around it. The wily octopus pushes his way Page 134

through its waters, and the vicious moray eel weaves its way in and out, making sure that nothing goes to waste and that order prevails. As we shall see, it is very helpful to understand analysis and synthesis along with how to use them to develop description and narration. Knowing how to use analysis as deduction and synthesis as induction is also especially helpful in developing causation. (See examples on pages 145 and 146.) Now look at the next supporting paragraph developed by analysis. The main difference between the following one and the preceding illustration is in their patterns of development; the first is description and the next is reasoning by deductive causation. (Both of them, along with narration will be studied in this chapter). Consequently, there needs to be different kinds of supporting ideas and different relationships between them. The opening word "because" introduces the theme of cause and result, hence, causation, telling why the community is "selfcontained" (the key idea). Because of the tight interdependency of the marine life which inhabits the area in and around it, the tropical coral reef is a selfcontained community. Colorful exotic plants which feed on marine microorganisms are devoured by fish and other sea urchins inhabiting the area. Sea snails nibble at these exotic plants, and the wily octopus devours the snails. The octopus itself then becomes nourishment for the vicious moray eel. Each form of life in the coral reef community derives its sustenance by consuming another of its members, and later, it itself becomes nourishment to maintain the cruel but beautiful balance of nature.

Synthesis

The next example is one of synthesis developing a supporting paragraph. This paragraph of inductive causation is reasoning by induction because it starts with the more specific causes and leads the reader to a larger conclusion, "is a self-contained community" It reaches that more general conclusion about the coral reef at its end by establishing logical interrelationships between it and the more specific supporting ideas leading to it. The controlling sentence, containing the main idea puts it all together at the end. Colorful exotic plants which feed on marine micro- organisms are devoured by fish and other sea urchins inhabiting the area in and around a coral reef. Sea snails nibble at these exotic plants, and the wily octopus devours the snails. The octopus itself th En becomes a tasty banquet for the vicious moray eel. Each form of life in the coral reef community derives its sustenance by consuming another, and later itself becomes nourishment to maintain the cruel but beautiful balance of nature. Because of this tight inter- dependency of the marine life which inhabits the area in and around it, the tropical coral reef is a self-contained community As we have seen, both synthesis and analysis have their special uses, especially when needed in deductive and inductive reasoning to inform or to persuade. Synthesis (inductive reasoning) is also used to gain emotional impact by withholding a main idea to the end. The following paragraph of description builds suspense through a series of details leading to the main idea at its end (underlined).

His selfless devotion in search for peace was his dominant virtue. "My experience in Europe convinces me that the settlement of controversy's largely a matter of knowing how to work with people, convincing them of your sincerity and infusing in them good will and spirit of cooperation," was the philosophy that served as the key to the popularity of this statesman with the famous grin. So as it was said at his funeral, "Well done, thou good and faithful servant," Dwight David Eisenhower has fully earned these famous words of praise. We don't know whom the above paragraph is about nor what is mainly being said about him until the topic, "Dwight David Eisenhower," and the main idea, "has fully earned these famous words of praise" are given in the controlling sentence at the end. The Main Developing Forms

In the first chapter of this book, we pointed out that organization is one of the most important nonverbal language elements used to translate thought into written communication. A Main Developing form, whether it be a supporting sentence, a paragraph, or a section (a series of paragraphs developing the same main idea or event idea) must be mainly one of the following: 1. Description 2. Narration 3. Causation These three are "main" or "general" patterns because they are used in all writing. It is very difficult, if at all possible, to write without using one of them mainly. Description, narration, or causation may be developed in supporting standard, dialogue, or journalism-type paragraphs. Page135

The main idea of a whole composition, the one in the subject sentence of the main paragraph, will suggest to the writer whether there should be supporting paragraphs of description, narration, or causation mainly in the middle section of a composition. The predetermined objective identified by the subject sentence also will suggest whether the description, narration, or causation may be developed in standard, narrative, dialogue, or journalistic-type supporting paragraphs. In this chapter, however, we are concerned mainly with the content-organization of description, narration, and causation in supporting paragraphs. The controlling sentence main idea usually will suggest to the writer whether that particular paragraph should be developed mainly by description, narration, or causation. Although standard supporting paragraphs often are developed by a combination of description, narration, and/or causation, only one will play the main role. Sometimes there may be a hairline narration, for example, combined with description, but the description will be the main pattern of organization. Nor is it unusual for a supporting paragraph mainly developed by narration or causation to have some description in it. However, only one of either will be the main kind of development in each supporting paragraph. Description

Description is a collection of real or imaginary sense and/or emotional words and ideas that tells how something looks, sounds, smells, feels, and/or tastes. It also may communicate emotional responses to any of these sense experiences. When describing living things, especially animals and people, description may reveal their inner nature: psychological, moral, spiritual, etc. It does that by telling about their mannerisms or behaviorisms, by their clothing, and other characteristics that can be sensed. Page 136

Sound also plays an important role in describing the psychology of animals and humans. The way a dog barks pretty well describes its emotions. What people say and how they say it helps convey their personalities. When describing the nature of a person by telling about the glint in that person's eyes or a typical hand gesture, a great deal about the person is revealed. Here are some single sentence examples taken from supporting paragraphs of description. (Note how these reveal the inner nature by describing mannerisms, behaviorisms, appearance, and sounds). 1. When he saw us, Hercules, our two thousand pound Brahman bull tossed his head, snorted, and pawed the ground. 2. She was a young lady with fine brown hair, a devilish smile, and delicate mannerisms. 3. Squirrels, with their bushy tails and blackbutton eyes are cunning creatures. When writing description, it is important to write not just sight details. True, writers should give the needed visual details of form or shape, color, components, materials (steel, plastic, wood, flesh, etc.), dimensions, and/or behaviorisms. They also should try to detect what they experience with their other senses: What they hear, smell, feel, taste, along with what they see. These other sense details add depth and perspective to the writing. Doing this is especially helpful when writers need vivid details to achieve the response wanted from a particular reader (or type of reader).

Kinds of Description: Objective, Subjective, General, Specific

Before starting to write a single supporting paragraph or a supporting section (a unit of two or more consecutive paragraphs developing the same idea) of description, writers should decide whether their controlling sentence and readerresponse need development by objective or subjective description. In Chapter 7, objective and subjective details were explained. Therefore, it should be easier to understand that when describing objectively, writers should be alert to avoiding subjective details if they are not helpful. Understanding this will enable them to write mainly either objective or subjective description, whichever is needed for the readerresponse wanted. Some description may be very clinical in its objectivity. Other description may contain a tint of emotion, but not enough to disrupt the response aimed at by the writer. When writing to general readers about something technical, writers sometimes may insert a bit of color to soften the hard objective information to make it mentally digestible. Subjective description is richer in personal sense and emotional ideas. Therefore it is not as suitable to inform or to persuade. Its main use, consequently, is to entertain, Here is an example: Matthew, my grandson, is an angel and an imp all in one, and you can see both in his twinlding eyes. He has a short, square, muscular build, making it suitable for getting him into mischief. He stands thirty inches tall and weighs twenty-six pounds at the age of sixteen months. When he is not intensely searching for trouble, which is seldom, he is as soft as cotton candy. His innocent smile plays the heart strings of his gruff Uncle Max. The peanut on his face, his nose, is constantly being poked into places it shouldn't be, but it doesn't look

like a tulip bulb when he snickers after kicking you in the shins. His lips shelter a mouth full of poorly spaced teeth, giving him the appearance of a devilish Jack-olantern. He is a mixture of angelic sweetness and devilish fun, and it is too early for me to tell which will win out. General description is helpful when writers do not mainly need distinguishing details to achieve their predetermined objective. A general description, which is either objective or subjective, results when writers search out and write the typical characteristics of the subject. In a sense, the resulting description is a stereotype, one that has the traits very common to the subject. Next is an objective general description of a Morgan horse from an article by Peter Chew in the SMITHSONIAN magazine entitled "The Morgan Horse" The following description from the article was published first in 1857 by C. C. Linsley and holds as true for Morgan horses today as it did when originally written. (The Key idea in the controlling sentence is underlined.) The horse was typical Morgan. It stood fourteen hands high, and weighed about nine hundred and fifty pounds. His color was dark-bay with black legs, mane and tail. He had no white hairs on him. His mane and tail were coarse and heavy His head was good, not extremely small, but lean and bony, the face straight, forehead broad, ears small and very fine, but set rather wide apart. His eyes were medium size, very dark, and prominent with a spirited but pleasant expression, and showed no white round the edge of the lid. His nostrils were very large, the muzzle small, and the lips close and firm His back and legs were perhaps his most noticeable points. The former was very short; the shoulder-blades and hip bones being very long and oblique, and the Page 137

loins exceedingly broad and muscular. His bodywas rather long, round and deep, close ribbed up; chest deep and wide with breastbone projecting a good deal in front. His legs were short, close jointed, thin, but very wide, hard and free from meat, with muscles that were remarkably large for a horse of his size, and this superabundance of muscle exhibited itself at every step. (Adapted from SMITHSONIAN, August, 1976, P.48.) Specific description is different from general description because it requires searching out some distinguishing features of a particular subject. These are characteristics that set the subject apart from others. This kind of description would have some of the common traits, but it would focus on those characteristics that are different, that differentiate the subject from others. The preceding general objective description of a Morgan Horse could be written as specific description by focusing on a scar, perhaps, caused by an accidental entanglement with barbed wire fence. That scar would distinguish this horse from all others. The following specific description of a certain place is subjective. Its Key idea in the controlling sentence is underlined. The distinguishing characteristics are also underlined: The valley of the Nahr Ibrahim must be one of the most beautiful canyons in the world. The narrow tarmac road leading to it curves through vineyards and orchards. It curves through small villages with whitewashed houses, and then winds up a mountain from which there is a dizzying view of the valley below. The step-like walls of the river valley are gleaming brown and almost violet at the top, sprinkled with flashes of green. At the end of the plateau, the last of the old Crusader fortifications stands, still facing east defiantly. The tarmac road then shoots steeply downwards, passes Page 138

a half-ruined Roman temple, skirts a rockface in the middle of which there is a great cave mouth. A broad stream of water gushes from the cave. It falls into a stony river-bed and laps past a second minaret pointing sharply upward from the redly glowing ravine: Signaling Space Transition

Space-relationships often play an important role in description. When describing a place, a building, an object, or even a person, writers may have to move the reader through space in an orderly manner. To do that, the right transitional signals must be inserted when they are needed because the context alone doesn't clearly imply the transition. These transitional devices are single words or word clusters that shift the focus of the reader's mind, to enable one to imaginatively sense (see, hear, smell, feel, and/or taste) more preciselywhat the writer is experiencing. Here are some of the more common transitional devices that act as signals, indicating to the reader movement from one place to another. Remember that the reader can see only what the writer wants him or her to imagine from a certain spot in space. The reader reads through the writer's mental eyes. In a sense, these transitional words and phrases act as connectors by establishing the needed kin,d of relationships between words and details and between them and the reader in a way needed to get the wanted response. below next to on the other side across in the distance returning to above as far as looking up (or down)

against to the left (or right) walk to (across, from, etc.) beyond in the same place in the upper (or lower) between to the east (west, etc.)

The underlined transitional signals in the example shown below allow the writer and the reader to look at the subject from the same viewpoint in space. They, therefore, enable both the writer and the reader to see the same things. The Key idea is in bold type. After parking, a short walk to the overlook on the southeast reveals a splendid view of Split Mountain. Between that broad arch of eroded sandstone and the quarry lie steeply tilted sedimentary rocks of varied composition and hues. Buff and gray sandstones that weather into soft shapes are separated by reddish- brown shale. Directly to the east is a section of varicosed shale whose pastel pinks, reds, greens, grays, and whites justify the name of "rainbow beds" that was given them by geologists. In the upper part of this section are hard stones and limestone layers that resist the erosive action of wind and water. They stand higher than the softer shales and form hogbacks that rim Split Mountain. This, of course, is an objective description of a place. It is specific description because it describes the characteristics that distinguish this from other similar places. The standard supporting paragraph of description that follows clearly illustrates the importance of transitional words and phrases to maintain orderly development. It shows how incoherence, disorderly drifting, results when the needed transitional signals are not inserted. The dots indicate the location of the missing transitional elements. Approaching Dinosaur National Monument from Jensen, Utah, you see the mass of Split Mountain and the deep, short canyons that scar many of the Green River's gorge the grand view is lost and you begin to notice the details. The masses of

gray shale, that seem to be carelessly piled against the tilted sandstone layers, are bare of vegetation covered with sagebrush and greasewood, while along the river itself are a few large cottonwood trees and many bushes and the pronounced tilt of the rocks becomes more obvious. Now, in the following revision of the preceding paragraph, you can see how the _ drifting is avoided once the transitional elements are inserted. These make the intersentence space relationships more easily understood. The added transitional signals are underlined. Approaching Dinosaur National Monument from Jensen, Utah, you see the mass of Split Mountain and the deep, short canyons that scar many of the Green River's gorge. As you cross the National Monument boundary, the grand view is lost, and you begin to notice the details. The masses of gray shale that seem to be carelessly piled against the tilted sand- stone layers are bare of vegetation. The ground between the hills and the Green River is covered with sagebrush and greasewood, while along the river itself are a few large cottonwood trees and many bushes. A sharp turn right brings a change of scene as your car enters a portal in the wall you have been following, and the pronounced tilt of the rocks becomes more obvious. It is easy to see from the preceding illustration how important transitional elements are in establishing the needed kinds of relationships. Using good transition is necessary in description, narration, and causation to maintain essential relationships in time, space, and logic.

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The following illustration consists of two standard paragraphs of description. Each paragraph has a controlling sentence, with a main idea (underlined). Each vividly describes the fond memory of a train, what it looks and sounds like, at a moment of time, not in a time sequence (first this happened, then that happened, etc.) Therefore, it is description, not narration (which is written in a time sequence). The key idea in each controlling sentence is underlined.

mainly sense details, the language in them usually is more direct and less emotional. This is needed because accuracy is very important. Here is an example consisting of a standard paragraph. Its main idea is underlined. The ocean floors along the U.S. coastlines are made-up of practically the same things as the U.S. itself. A plateau under the ocean called a continental shelf runs along the eastern and western coasts. Its width ranges from as little as ten ,miles. This shelf isn't perfectly flat; it does have depressions. At the continental shelf's edge, there is a drop-off called the continental slope with deep canyons running through it. Then the steep slopes start to level off or gradually incline in what is known as a continental rise. These end in ocean basins, having seamounts, deeps, and fissures too deep to measure.

Every freight train passing through my boyhood deposited a bit of its cargo in the warehouse of my memory. The distant puffs of curling smoke and the sounds of rattling cars announced its coming. The thundering wheels holding up the engine shook the ground with their determined thumping and pounding while rushing to some faraway place. Today, in my law office or even in the courtroom, that massive locomotive of my boyhood still steams and spits for a moment. In my imagination, it still pulls a hundred freight cars with th-e- might of a thousand stallions. Each car rolls by me, tightly knuckled to the one before and after it. Over the steel rails, clickety-click, the cars slide by, loaded with wheat from Kansas, cotton from Texas, peanuts from Georgia, and hoppers of coal for the blast furnaces of South Bend, Indiana. The hooting engine again beckons me to follow. Suddenly, bang! bang! the judge's gavel startles me back to today and to the defense of my client. Not all description always has vivid sense and emotional details as does this preceding example. Technical writing, for example, has much description to depict pieces of machinery or many other things, such as building materials or parts of the human body, using less colorful language. Although these will have Page 140

Narration

Narration is distinctly different from description and causation. It is a chronological sequence of happenings relating changes that occurred in its subject. A time-sequence of related happenings is illustrated in the following single sentence narration. The sequence of happenings are preceded by a number in parentheses. Notice that the time changes are signaled by the transitional words in bold type. The majestic condor flying overhead (1) first started to descend slowly, (2) then faster, (3) next, it leveled off, obviously wounded, and (4) finally fell against the ground with a thud. Supporting paragraphs of narration may start in either of two ways: (1) 'When one is a narrative supporting paragraph of narration, it starts by giving the situation (with the setting as •

discussed in Chapter 5) or (2) when one is a standard supporting paragraph, it is introduced by a controlling sentence. "Narrative" identifies a kind of supporting paragraph structure. "Narration," however, identifies a kind of supporting paragraph organization of content. Here is a single standard supporting paragraph developed by narration. It is a revised version of the description of the train memory (on page 140), but the one below is a standard supporting paragraph of narration. It begins with a controlling sentence, not with the situation circumstances as a narrative paragraph does. Each happening in the sequence has a number before it, and the words that signal the time changes are in bold type. The main idea is underlined. Every freight train passing through my boyhood deposited a bit of its cargo in the warehouse of my memory. (1) As a distant sound at first, it always came as punctual as the sun. (2) A bit later, it proclaimed its approach with curled puffs of smoke. (3) Soon, its splendor and glory exploded forward on thundering wheels that shook the ground with their thumping and pounding. (4) Before long, the massive locomotive, steaming and spitting fire, pulled a hundred freight cars toward us. (5) Finally, the engine yanked its cars through town, I remember, one-by-one, knuckled together, carrying wheat from Kansas, cotton from Texas, peanuts from Georgia, and hoppers of coal for the blast furnaces of South Ben4 Indiana. It is important to remember that a supporting paragraph of narration may. have chunks of description, perhaps, telling what the place in which the events occurred was. It may even have bits of causation explaining the reasons for the happenings. However, when writing narration, writers should build up the sequence of incidents so they are the main details, the main superstructure of the writing. The descrip-

tion and causation in it serve just as supporting details for the narration. The main part should be the time sequence of happenings. Also, pay close attention to the quality and correctness of the action words, the verbs and the verb als when writing narration. (See pages 197-200.) Signaling Time Transition In description, the sense and emotional details and their inter-relationships in space are the main ingredients, but in narration, care must be taken to state clearly the action details of the happenings and the time-relationships between them. To do that, the reader must be given the right chronological signals when the context alone doesn't clearly indicate changes in time. Here are some common transitional words and phrases that signal to the reader these changes in time: finally later immediately now up to now temporarily before last soon last meanwhile instantly first (second, etc.) suddenly from then on just then afterward

Kinds of Narration The two main kinds of narration are important in written communication. These are (1) Climactic (2) Straightline. Students should learn to develop these types of narration, not just in standard and narrative paragraphs, but in dialogue and journalism-type as well. Climactic narration, as the name suggests, results when writers deliberately arrange the time sequence of happenings so that each event Page 141

increases suspense and emotional tension. This sequence of events leads up to the crisis event, the happening which causes the climax. Sometimes this means leaving out some incidents that do not contribute to the intensity of the struggle or conflict. Below is an example of a standard supporting paragraph (one starting with a controlling sentence) that is developed by climatic narration.. The Key idea, "most terrifying" is in bold type. Note how the suspense increases until the crisis-event, the climax (in italics). The transitional signals are underlined. On the day I went hunting with my husband, I experienced the most terrifying moment of my life. It was the time my baby son and I went with him hunting 'bear. At dawn one morning, my husband went out looking for bear tracks, leaving me and my son in the tent. An hour or so later, I heard terrifying sounds of something breaking through the woods. Immediately, I fastened the tent flap, knowing it wouldn't be much help, and held my son close to me. Then a moment of strange silence elapsed. I could hear how heavily I was breathing. Later, I again heard the crashing and thumping of something. After a few moments, wild snarling and growling sounded. Instantly, I reached for a loaded gun and pointed it toward the tent entrance. At that moment, a very loud sound startled me, and I pressed the trigger with closed eyes, expecting a large black bear to barge through. The gun discharged. My husband yelled. Luckily, the shell put a hole in the tent flap and not in him. He has never invited me to go hunting again. Straighdine narration is more the way events actually happen in life than climactic narration is. Climactic narration has to be deliberately arranged to increase the tenon with each event. This leads to the crisis that will Page 142 •

cause the climax. However, straightline tells what happens first, second, etc. without leaving out events that may not increase the tension. News reports are common examples, but they often are developed in journalism-type paragraphs. Straightline narration also may be written in the form of dialogue. The main kinds of straightline narration are: (1) history, (2) biography (or autobiography), (3) prorPcs. Even though they may never be expected to write climactic narration, most people are expected to know how to write (and to read) stxaighdine. History traces in chronological order the origin and development of something. It starts at a point of beginning and in a step-by-step sequence, traces through time the subsequent happenings, along with changes that occur in the subject. Like any other kind of narration, history may be developed by narrative supporting paragraphs or by standard supporting paragraphs of narration. (See pages 80 and 141.) Of course, it may also be communicated by dialogue or by journalism-type paragraphs. The following example of history does not start out with a controlling sentence, but with the situation. It, therefore, is a narrative paragraph of narration Before the planet Earth was able to sustain complex life-forms, billions of years elapsed. For the next half- billion years, various life-forms grew, multiplied, and evolved. Then human beings made their appearance. Their presence represents only a hairline of time in the existence of Earth. Some seven to ten thousand years ago, the dim beginnings of civilization broke through. This was when human beings first

domesticated animals, formed communities, and made other adjustments to make life more pleasant. These improvements in living conditions gradually lead to an industrial society, with nature tamed and harnessed to make life comfortable. Biography is a kind of history, a history of a life. The prefix "bio" means life. Therefore, biography traces the origin and development of a person's life. The following biography of Enrico Fermi is an example of a narration in a standard supporting paragraph, starting with a controlling sentence. The rest of the paragraph just develops its main idea (underlined). It is a standard paragraph developed by narration. Becoming interested in science early, like many inventors, Enrico Fermi remained dedicated to it throughout his life. Born in Rome, Italy, he was studying physics and mathematics at an early age. When he was thirteen, an engineer who was a friend of his father taught him advanced mathematics. During his eighteenth year, Enrico won a scholarship at the University of Pisa. Later he received scholarships to other European colleges, and before long, he was giving lectures himself. Shortly afterward, he came to America. He left Europe unhappily because he disagreed with the political philosophy of the new rulers there then. In the United States, Fermi soon became Professor of Physics at Columbia University, where he began to experiment with atoms. He continued his scientific investigations until his death.

Process narration is a chronological (time) sequence telling how something is done, should be done, or occurs. It is probably the most often written kind of narration. It is used in all

forms of written communication, especially in business, scientific, and other kinds of technical writing. It is used to give step-by-step procedures for making steel, glass fiber, building a house, etc. Some may give directions for filing income tax or how to get a marriage license. Of course, it is often used in fiction. When giving general or specific information telling how something is done or should be done, for example, how to make cheese, process narration is written. The writers will give the ingredients, the apparatus, the personnel, and the step-by-step sequence of what is done. Sometimes it is necessary to explain the scientific principles involved in the process. Often this kind of narration is written as directions for someone who actually is going to do it or who is responsible for supervising its being done by others. When writing for someone who plans to do the work, the writer must not only explain some of the technical principles of finance, law, science, or other technology, but must also give the precautions. These may include warnings of what to do or not to do to avoid wastage of money, supplies, and/or physical injury to employees. Process narration also may be written to explain how something occurs or happens in nature. It may give, for example, the step-bystep sequence of happenings that explain how a silkworm makes silk, bees make honey, or birds determine direction of flight. Here is a supporting paragraph with a process narration that explains how grunion (a small fish) spawn. It is based on a discussion of them by Rachel L. Carson in her book THE SEA AROUND US. It is narration developed in a narrative, supporting paragraph, not in a standard supporting paragraph. It starts by giving the situation, not with a main idea in a controlling sentence. Therefore, it is a narrative supporting paragraph of narration. Also, note the good quality of the action details.

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Shortly after the full moon of the months from March to August, the grunion (small fish) appear in the surf on the beaches of California. The tide reaches flood stage, slackens, hesitates, and begins to ebb. Now on these waves of ebbing tide, the fish begin to come in. Their bodies shimmer in the light of the moon as they are borne up the beach on the crest of a wave. They lie glittering on the wet sand for a perceptible moment of time, then fling themselves into the wash of the next wave to be carried back to sea. For about an hour after the turn of the tide this continues, thousands upon thousands of grunion coming up onto the beach, leaving the water, and returning to it. Following is a four paragraph section of process narration by Peter Chew in his long SMITHSONIAN article quoted earlier in this book, "The Morgan Horse." This example also starts with the setting of the event; therefore, it is a series (a section) of narrative supporting paragraphs of narration. At the time Evans had this horse, a small tavern, a gristmill, and saw-mill were in operation on the branch ofWhite River, in Randolph, and at this place the strength of men and horses in that settlement, were generally tested. On one occasion....I went to these mills, where I spent most of a day, and many trials were had, for a small wager, to draw a certain pine log, which lay some ten rods from the saw-mill. Some horses were hitched to it that would weigh twelve hundred pounds, but none of them could move its length. About dusk, Evans came down from hisjogging field, which was nearby, and I told him the particulars of the drawing match. Evans requested me to show him the log, which I did; he then ran back to the tavern and challenged the company to bet a gallon of Page 144 •

rum that he could draw the log fairly on to the logway at three pulls with his colt. The challenge was promptly accepted When Evans arrived with his horse, he said he was ashamed to hitch his animal to such a small log. He asked three of the men to ride on the log and promised to forfeit his money if the horse failed the assignment. I was present with a lantern, and cautioned those on the log to look out for their legs, as I had seen the horse draw before, and knew something had to come. At the word of command the horse started, log and men, and went more than half the distance before stopping. At the next pull, he landed his load at the spot agreed upon, to the astonishment of all. In the discussion of narrative supporting paragraphs in Chapter 5, we explained that they begin and end when the main events in the series change from one to another. Usually that is indicated by important time and place changes, by changes in the situation. Notice how that occurs in the preceding section of narrative supporting paragraphs. Causation

Causation explains something by giving the causes or reasons for it. Description develops an idea by telling what it looks like, sounds like, etc. Narration tells how it happened by giving the chronological sequence of steps. Causation, however, explains why it is what it is or why it happened the way it did. Therefore, it mainly presents causes and reasons. The list of the various kinds of supporting ideas in Chapter 3 (page 31) shows that, depending upon the reader-response intended, causes and reasons may serve: (1) as logical support, (2) as evidence-in- proof, or (3) as incentive. Learning to write supporting paragraphs of causation is just as important as learning to write description and narration. It would be

very difficult to write to persuade without causation. It also is often used when writers inform by giving the causes and reasons for something. Even when entertaining readers, we can give them humorous, amusing, or pleasant causes and reasons. It is hard to write without causation. Everything has a cause, a reason for being. Whenever students write to explain why they are attending college, why they study English, or why they want to pursue a certain career, causation will be their main general form of development. A doctor needs to write causation when writing to explain a certain illness. A lawyer uses it to tell why a person is innocent or guilty. Here are examples of causation in single sentences that explain why: 1. Swelling in ankles and feet may result from faulty circulation. 2. Seeing the ocean at sunrise makes a person feel insignificant. 3. Emotional depression often causes a disinterest in food. Kinds of Causation As explained on page 134, there are two kinds of causation: (1) by deductive reasoning and (2) by inductive reasoning. Following is a standard paragraph of causation by deduction intended to inform. It is aimed at the general reader as indicated by the down-to-earth standard English in it. (The Key of the main idea is underlined.) Motorists who try to make the small engines of their oampacts sound like jets by regularly using high-performance gasoline may one day hear them go "boom." 'When high-octane gasoline instead of regular is used, the pressure of explosion may become so great that a piston head may blow off,

causing the connecting rod to wrap around the crankshaft and possibly break through the engine wall. Jed Lackey, Assistant Professor of Industrial Technology at the University of Michigan states "The higher the octane number and the slower the fuel burns, the more energy the gasoline produces. People driving cars with smaller engines who use high-octane gas may burn out their valves because of the intense heat and longer burning time of the gas." Signaling Transition in Causation Just as using transitional words to establish spatial relationships in description and using time transition to maintain chronological relationships in narration, certain words are commonly used to show the logical relationships in causation. Following are some that are often used for this purpose. since consequently in spite of this because therefore as a result of nevertheless hence accordingly besides For these reasons The causal relationships in and between the causes and reasons in the next standard paragraph of causation by inductive reasoning are established by some of the transitional words in the preceding list. They are underlined and the Key of the main idea in the controlling sentence at the end is in bold print.

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Some kind of fuel must be burned to heat the air just below a balloon's neck. Consequently, the heated air rises into the balloon's cavity, causing the balloon to ascend and stay aloft. When straw is burned as fuel, the flight is limited by the heavy firepot that is needed and by the small amount of fuel that can be carried. Therefore, many balloonists prefer a lighter means for heating the air. As a result, propane burners instead of firepots are used to generate heat. Nevertheless, even they limit the length of time a balloon can stay aloft. Propane tanks can carry only a small amount of gas safely. Hence, they too, limit the length of a balloon's flight. For these reasons, the fuel used to keep a balloon aloft limits its length of flight. The three following standard supporting paragraphs are about the same topic, shopping malls, but each deliberately is organized in a different Main form. Therefore, each contains a different main idea, one that needs to be developed by description, narration, or causation. The different kinds of words and details needed for each of these forms also are clearly illustrated. (The Key of the main idea in each is underlined.) Narration (History) To look different and to function unlike those built yesterday, the modern mall evolved in distinct stages. The first architectural plans provided sheltered walkways connecting several lines of shops arranged around a central department store in the pattern of a pinwheel. In later designs, each unit was covered with a roof and sidewalks. Once the interior was enclosed, architects then began to design the malls as a large court with anchor stores and a variety of smaller shops to line the perimeter. Later improvisations on this plan formed the essence of the shopping mall as we know it today. Page 146

Description (Specific) The unusual design of the Sunrise Mall provides shoppers with a unique experience. The architect placed the two anchor stores in partially detached blocks set at opposite ends of a long marble-column concourse. Domed skylights brighten the ends of the concourse with daylight and at night by wedges of soft fluorescent light. Beneath these domes are large surrealistic metal sculptures. The center of the mall is emphasized by another skylight along with *tall windows, both lighting up a sunken cafe and two fountains of running water. The cool elegance of the whole mall makes a special appeal to the kind of clientele that the shops along its concourse hope to attract. Causation (Deductive Reasoning) Knowing what attracts prosperous shoppers, architects design today's malls so their elegance promotes sales. Completely enclosed, they allow comfortable shopping everyday of the year and in any part of the country, from Alaska to Florida. Tropical plants, water dancing in fountains, large scale sculptures, and terrace-restaurants create a vacation atmosphere. Consequently, they offer a comparatively inexpensive short vacation, a convenient escape from mundane activities of everyday life. This festival atmosphere engenders and increases the willingness to buy, to spend for necessities, and for pleasurable things that shoppers have been putting-off. This mood causes them to loosen up, to be a little less fearful about spending savings. Therefore, the great cost of building such a magnificent structure to replace the old market place has proven to be worthwhile for the architect, the owner of the establishment, and for the business men who open shops along the concourse.

APPLICATIONS The notations in parentheses after the application numbers are just suggestions. Your instructor may choose to give new instructions for them. Application 8-1 (Group Activity: Class discussion and writing)

Application 8-2 (Group Activity) These are specimens of supporting sentences (not controlling sentences) with patterns of relationships between words, details, and/or conclusions which were studied in this chapter. Opposite the number, place the letter that best identifies which each is.

Any of these may be assigned for a composition or as an examination essay question; therefore, look up the answers and study them carefully so you also can discuss them in class. Take careful notes because your instructor may choose to prepare a test, quiz, or writing assignment based on the class discussion.

D = Description N = Narration C = Causation 1. The two cars traveling at high speeds in opposite directions came to the same point in the road, suddenly stopped; then one turned instantly and started to chase the other.

1. How do writers know which Main (description, narration, or causation) form should be written in a supporting paragraph?

2. Lack of rest and improper nutrition often cause depression.

2. What are the differences in the kinds of details used in the three general forms? 3. What are the differences in the transitional words in these general forms? 4. Name and explain the different kinds of description. 5. Name and explain the different kinds of narration.

3. During the long winter nights, my grandmother used to sit by the fireplace quietly knitting and rocking away. 4. Traffic accidents among 18-20 year-olds have decreased because of the raising of the legal drinking-age. By 7 a.m., I was at the airport; at 12 noon, I went to lunch in Chicago, and by 7 p.m., I was back in Cleveland with an order. 6. As we ran through the doorway into the theater, we saw the lights dim, then the sound began, and finally the movie started. 7. The litde girl ran down the street crying for her father. 8. Five years ago, an infant was blinded by Xray exposure. 9. The boy fell and broke his leg because the driveway was slippery. 10. The industrial revolution led to a radical change in European tastes. Page 147

Application 8-3 (Out-of-dass activity)

Working alone, do the same for the following as you did for the preceding exercise.

10. To get to main street, follow Route 66 to Cherry Road, turn left for two blocks, then turn right.

1. The ferocious bull, with its hooves scratching the ground, waited for the child to reach the middle of the pasture.

11. His extremely early interest in playing baseball and the alertness and muscular coordination he displayed in his youth were two good reasons for his selection to play college baseball.

2. The direct passage of the moon between the sun and the earth makes the darkness in the middle of the eclipse day.

12. Typical characteristics of the Labrador Retriever are its smooth shiny black coat, a sturdy square body, and its friendly nature.

3.` When baking bread, always measure accurately, use active yeast's, and good kneading techniques to allow the dough to rise properly.

13. Their cabin was set back on a rolling hill, overlooking a clear lake a mile in diameter.

4. Anxiety mounted as the bride walked down the aisle beside her father; approaching the minister, her eyes began to water, "0!" she exclaimed, "another sinus attack." 5. The sailor thought of home and his friends as he stared at the black still water of the vast Atlantic that night. 6. Tantalizing seemed a feeble word to describe the succulent array of glazed ham, mountains of buttered squash, bowls of broccoli smothered with cheese sauce, and the tempting variety of warm homemade bread. 7. A steady rainstorm and freezing temperature, causing a thin sheet of ice on the road, resulted in many accidents that Christmas. 8. The coroner concluded that Myron's death was a drowning accident; the body was found near the pool. 9. My first date started with a pleasant dinner; then we went to a concert; and finally, we visited friends.

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14. Jane carefully locked her car door, proceeded cautiously to check first out of her window on the left, then out of the right window; and just as the man reached the car, she turned her key to start the engine, and quickly drove away. 15. The rose starts out as a seed from which emerges a tiny sprout that grows and grows until one morning it blooms into a colorful architectural masterpiece. 16. Lying in a hospital bed for twenty-four hours makes the body muscles weak, accounting for a person's inability to do what is customary immediately after being released. 17. Looking out upon the lake, they saw the fluffy , white swan gliding smoothly through the water in graceful splendor. 18. Although it was only a picture, I felt the sincerity of her smile the sparkle in her eyes, and the warm glow of eternal youth. 19. An effective way to memorize is to first read something, write it down, then read it back two or three times. 20. Because the alley was so poorly lighted, the witnesses were unable to give a good description of the man who robbed them.

Application 8-4

Opposite each number, tell whether the following are mainly description (D), narration (N), or causation (C). 1. Everyone should learn to sew The sense of pride and accomplishment in a finished garment is unmatched in anything you might buy. You can save at least two-thirds of the price of the same item in the store. A handmade garment can be tailored to fit just you, and that, you can't find in purchased garments. You have a choice of fabric, not just the selection that can be found in a store, and the fabric is usually of a much better quality. One of the main advantages to sewing your own clothing, however, is workmanship. When you put something together, it'll stay together much longer. 2. To begin making a pair of pants, lay the pattern pieces on the floor and cut them out, making sure you cut all the notches and make the markings. After that is done, you should match the inner leg seams and sew them together, making sure you sew from the bottom to the top. Now, you are ready to sew the crotch seam. Start at the back and sew to where the bottom of the zipper will come to in the front. Next, place the zipper, and sew it in. When that is done, sew up the outer leg seams and attach the waistband. Now you have a brand new pair of pants. 3. When I sit down at my sewing machine, the march of time seems to stand still. I can sit and sew, and listen to the quiet whirr of the machine for hours, and it will seem as if just minutes have passed. The needle is so shiny and sharp as it pierces the fabric. The cloth is so soft and supple under my fingers. I look down at the garment I am creating, at the small uniform stitches, and I am in awe that I am able to make such a beautiful article. What a feeling of elation

when I can take the garment away from the machine, put it on, and know it is my own creation.

Application 8-5

Opposite the number of each paragraph, print one of the following capital letters to explain that the paragraph is mainly description, narration, or causation. C = Causation D = Description N = Narration 1. The dimly-lit hospital corridor was quiet and deserted except for a business-like nurse seated at the front desk. Graying curls sprang pertly from beneath the front of her stiffly-starched white cap. In the back, her hair had been expertly coiffured into a sensible twist, with only a few stray wisps touching the tailored collar of her pressed uniform. Resting comfortably on her pug nose were fragile gold-rimmed spectacles, and with head slightly bowed, she focused her attention on the chart before her. A fountain pen held in her soft, manicured hand expertly scratched her latest observations of the patient in 101. 2. Atoms can be broken up if they are bombarded with tiny fragments of other atoms. When an atom of certain elements is split into the right kind of fragments, these pieces cause other atoms to break and, in turn, set off still others. Soon all the atoms in this element break up in a "chain reaction." This causes an explosion that is many times more forceful than any occurring before the invention of the atom bomb.

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3. Frank Baker was in no sense brutal. He understood and loved animals and children. He adopted and reared a little girl. When three of his own children died within three years, he nearly despaired of life. Hot tempered, but soon appeased, as strong men often are, he was generous and hospitable. Independent, he always seemed to have time to pursue his interests in writing poetry. Above all, he was blessed with radiant health. 4. The planet Earth, freshly torn from its parent sun, first was a ball of whirling gases, intensely hot, rushing through the black spaces of the universe on a path and at a speed controlled by immense forces. Later, the ball of flaming gases gradually cooled. Next, these gases began to liquefy. Then, rth became a molten mass. Eventi Inlly, the materials of this mass became sorted out in a definite pattern; the heaviest in the center, the less heavy in layers surrounding them, and least heavy forming the outer rim. 5. A typical ocean freighter begins on its way to the Great Lakes near the Atlantic Ocean. First, it travels up the St. Lawrence River to Montreal. Next, from Montreal it travels through the seven St. Lawrence Seaway locks to Lake Ontario. During that journey, the ship is raised 246 feet above sea level. Then, the ship travels to the Welland Canal, which raises it another 125 feet to Lake Erie. Finally, from there it may travel to Chicago or Milwaukee without any appreciable change in elevation. 6. Windmills •are built with a windwheel mounted on a steel structure for several reasons. The primary reason is to produce useful power from the energy of the wind. Here are other reasons for the windwheel's use. By means of sail cloth, it can be adjusted to wind velocity. It doesn't contribute to air or water pollution and is virtually noiseless when operating. It Page 150

requires little maintenance and no fuel. It can be used to help pump water for irrigation, livestock, and for other farm uses: Some are used to grind grains and to generate electricity for rural areas. 7. The water that poured out of the mouth of the Clark Fork Valley first swept through Pend Oreille Lake. It then spread across Ratharum Prairie and later roared down Spokane Valley. Next, an arm of the flood surged up Coeur D' Alene Lake and spilled across the divide between Lake Creek and Rock Creek. Finally, most of the water flowed down Spokane Valley to the north rim of the lava field. 8. The colony orbiting the earth in outer space will comfortably accommodate a population of around 400,000. It will be a huge cylinder about four miles in diameter and about 118 miles in length. People will live in cozy cottages, surrounded by flower gardens, stands of tall trees, and clear pools of clean water. The streets leading to a nearby shopping center will have bicycles and electric cars silently running to various destinations. The perfectly controlled climate will be pleasant even when it rains. In the distance, a crescent shaped range of mountains will rise, some as high as 8000 feet. 9. We owe some of the most beautiful and interesting shoreline scenery to the sculpturing effect of moving water. Sea caves are almost literally blasted out of the cliffs by waves, which pour into crevices in the rocks and force them apart by hydraulic pressure. The widening fissures and the steady working away of fine rock particles result in the excavation of a cave. Within such a cavern, the weight of incoming water and the strange suction and pressure caused by the movements of water in an enclosed space may continue the excavation upward or downward.

10. No life stirred on the white sand of the beach; everything has vanished. All that is left is an emerald sea and the orange setting sun. Radiant in its last moments, the sun, a rust like shadow now, spreads over the beach in reds and oranges. An amber bottle makes one small spot of deep red on the sand. Slowly, the early tide stretches thin scraggly fingers over the sand, desperately reaching for the light impressions of a child's feet; it never quite reaches them. 11. Even now, as I ride the London Metro, my mind lingers fondly over memories of late fall on my uncle's beet farm in Broken Sword, Ohio. I remember the days growing colder and the changing colors of the stately old maples. The front lawn now could be colored with the blanket of red, yellow, and orange leaves. Through them, the squirrels would be running, gathering winter food. In the barn, horses, with heavy winter coats would be sniffing the brisk air for hints of the coming snow. Except for the brown of a few remaining cornstalks, the surrounding fields would be almost barren, ready for the blanket of early frost.

3. Because of inflation, people have been buying fewer homes. 4. The candidate for mayor conducted such a vigorous campaign that the incumbent was badly defeated. 5. Pneumonia is often a fatal illness for the elderly. 6. The restaurant reeked with savory fragrances of oriental herbs. 7. Cooking clams in a sand pit is not as easy as it looks. Application 8-7

Do the same for the following as you did for the preceding application. Remember these are controlling sentences; underline the key and tell how you would develop each by matching it with one of the following: D = Description N = Narration C = Causation 1. Leaning on his hoe, the peasant looked at the sunset through weary eyes.

Application 8-6 (Group Activity)

2. Tracking the criminal down required the following of a certain plan.

Below are controlling sentences (not supporting sentences) that should be developed by description, narration, or causation. Find the main idea and the Key, and opposite the sentence number, print one of the following letters to identify the form that would be the best Main Form for developing the paragraph. • D = Description N = Narration C = Causation

3. To be a good pet owner demands a great deal of patience.

1. Before the author entered the library, it bubbled with excitement. 2. Here is how to construct your own guitar.

4. My tennis instructor is as fascinating as the lessons she gave. 5. The grotesqueness of the Mardi Gras figures was enchanting. 6. In my mind's eye, I still see Grandpa, puffing on his pipe and telling yarns. 7. The bets were laid, the gun was fired, then the race began. 8. Unless harmful to a child, attention-getting behavior is better ignored. Page 151

Application 8-8 (In-class writing)

Select one or more of the following for development in a standard supporting paragraph of description, narration, or causation. Be sure to tell which Main Form you intended. Also, underline the Key and tell the intended reader-response.

Application 8-10 (Out-of-class writing)

4. We watched overhead for a bluish ball with a yellow tail.

Select one of the general topics listed below and write a whole composition of at least 600 words, containing a title, an opener in a separate paragraph, a main paragraph, at least three standard supporting paragraphs, and a condusion. a phobia food classical music a playground comic strips restaurant folk songs an athletic event a job factory a tyrant a legend

5. Football for college coeds should be promoted.

Be sure to do the following:

1. Standing in the muted light of the oblong foyer, I could see that the motif of the house's interior decoration was Spanish (or some other motif). 2. The evergreen stood straight and tall at the top of the hill. 3. Preparing for an examination has to be done methodically.

Application 8-9 (Group Discussion, Writing, and Evaluating

Your instructor will guide the class discussion of the issue shown below. Listen and take notes of what is said because later, your instructor may give a writing assignment about this same issue. She (or He) may select one or two of the best compositions and project them (or have them read aloud) for dass evaluation in relation to the principles studied in this and the preceding chapters. Half of the class will point out the good qualities of the compositions and the other half will suggest improvements. (Another issue may be assigned.) (See examples on pages 132 and 153.) Restrictions on immigration to America should be kept to a minimum. Page, 152

I. In the left margin opposite the title, write the intended reader-response. (See the example on the next page.) 2. In the left margin opposite each, identify the kind of opener(s) and the kind(s) of explanatory sentences. (See pages 52, 132, 153.) 3. Underline the subject sentence Key idea with two lines and those in the controlling sentences with one line. 4. Opposite each supporting paragraph, tell which Main Form it is: description, narration, or causation. (See the example.)

For Mature Audiences Only To Persuade Opener Illustrative Sketch

David Lawson was strapped into the chair when he asked that the death mask not be placed over his head. The warden nodded and the guards removed the mask. At exactly: 12:01 a.m. the warden gave the order to press the red button and release the cyanide pellet into the acid just behind the death chair. David's head involuntarily snapped back at the first whiff of the gas; he gasped for breath for a minute as he turned blue from lack of oxygen. He lowered his head for a few minutes. Then, suddenly his body shook violently in convulsions as he crossed from life to death. His body went motionless.

Main Paragraph States issue to be argued. Explanatory Sentences Illustration and Definition

Despite the arguments of some law enforcement officials, public execution of criminals should not be legalized. The crucifixion and display of captured enemy soldiers along the Via Roma by the Romans, the spectacles of early Christians being chewed and torn apart by lions on one day and the mortal combats of gladiators on another in the Coliseum, the public beheadings of the nobility under the guillotine in Paris, the hanging of outlaws on public scaffolds in American frontier towns, all of these examples of past public execution, reveal the savagery of human nature, not the willful activities that generate pride in human character.

Supporting Paragraph 1 Causation giving evidence in support and/or proof

Even the U.S. Supreme Court has been divided about the death penalty, regardless whether it is administered publicly or privately. On June 29, 1972, a split 5-4 Supreme Court Vote held that "as the statutes are administered... imposition and carrying out of the death penalty [constitutes] cruel and unusual punishment in violation of the Eight and Fourteenth Amendments." Therefore, the death penalty was left up to each of the states. Thirteen states still consider execution, either private or public, as "cruel and Unusual punishment" in violation of the Constitution.

Supporting Paragraph 2 Causation giving evidence in support and/or proof

Despite the refinements that have made it more humane, execution is still cruel and violent. Whether it is by electrocution, gas chamber, hanging, injection, or firing squad, the observing of human execution should not be considered a suitable public spectacle. The First Amendment was established to ensure that the media, including television, should be defended so that the public's "right to know," and the right of "free speech," are guaranteed. At the same time, however, the courts have clearly upheld the right of the government to provide regulation of certain forms of media content. The Federal Communication Commission has been empowered by Congress to regulate the broadcast spectrum, issue licenses, and restrict showing of offensive programming.

Supporting Paragraph 3 Causation giving evidence in support and/or proof

Some who favor public execution argue that it is a good form of entertainment. Perhaps, at one time witnessing the death of a criminal comforted terrified people by dispelling their fears. Watching the body coiling and twisting in the convolutions of human death, however hardly can be entertaining in today's civilized society. Furthermore, current rapid and fluent news reporting media almost immediately inform frightened people about the elimination of criminals who threaten their lives. The death of the murderer Pretty Boy Floyd became the frontpage feature of newspapers immediately throughout the world. Why would a replay on prime-time television be necessary; for entertainment? Page 153

Supporting Paragraph 4 Causation giving refutation of the opposition

Others argue public executions of criminals is a good deterrent to crime. Historically, public executions may have delayed crime, but not eliminated it. Rebellions and military campaigns against Rome certainly were not stopped, nor was the Christian religion. The revolutions around the world were not discouraged by the guillotine, and we in America know The James Gang and The Valentine Day executions. did little to stop the robbing of banks and gang warfare in Dodge, Kansas, New York city, Chicago, Detroit, and in other places around the world.

Supporting Paragraph 5 Causation giving refutation of the opposition

Besides revenge, deterrence to crime is often given as a justification for public execution of criminals. However, there is a great deal of dispute as to whether capital punishment is an effective deterrent. Walter Berns, Resident Scholar, American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, on May 1, 1981, before the Committee on the Judiciary of the United States stated:

Supporting Paragraph 6 Causation giving evidence in support and/or proof

The evidence on this question—that is to say, whether executions have a differential deterrence capacity or whether they, better than imprisonment, serve to deter potential murderers, for example- that evidence is disputed. ...executions do not deter; social science evidence demonstrates that executions do not deter any better than imprisonment....

Conclusion 1. Paraphrase of contention 2. Summary of opposition = 3. Summary of the refutation 4. Summary of support and/or proof

Execution of criminals on public television, especially on prime-time television when children are exposed to it, should not be legalized. At the present time, even private executions are not upheld by the U. S Supreme Court because it is "cruel and unusual". Today, viewers throughout the world have access to our cable networks; they, like Americans may not find the death throes of a human being either entertainment or a crime deterrent. Therefore, The Federal communications Commission is empowered by the Supreme Court to prevent networks from broadcasting to all U.S. states what thirteen of them still consider unconstitutional. Mike Easley, North Carolina's Attorney General, said it best when he spoke out against Phil Donahue's assertion that David Lawson's execution should be shown on prime-time television: "I wouldn't care to see the execution any more than I would have cared to see Lawson execute Wayne Shinn (Lawson's victim) when he shot him in the head? There is too much gruesome and gory violence, both fictional and real, on television already. The U.S. government doesn't need to add to it by performing executions of criminals on prime-time television.

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chapter 9 Adapting the Main Developing Forms to the Reader Here is what this chapter explains: 1. Using Developing Forms to adapt description, narration, and causation to the reader by pointing out similarities and differences between ideas readers already understand and the main ideas needed to entertain, inform, or persuade. 2. Using definition, illustration, or classification to point out similarities and differences in developing description, narration, or causation. 3. Using definition, illustration, and/or classification to amplify, clarify, and/or support description, narration, or causation. 4. Translating thought-language by inserting the needed transitional signals. While thinking about what to say and how to say it as well as while thinking during the writing process, writers have to use analysis and synthesis. To communicate their thoughts, howevef, they also may point out similarities and/or differences to bridge the gap between the writer's mind and that of the reader. Developing Forms

Developing forms are patterns of organization by which writers adapt (clarify, amplify, and support) description, narration, and causation to the intended reader in a way that will

get the wanted response. The relationships between the ideas in these developing forms enable writers, when needed, to point out similarities or differences with what the reader has previously experienced and already understands and the new or different ideas, especially the main ideas being communicated. There are several different kinds of relationships. In one way or another, they help writers point out similarities or differences to develop description, narration, or causation. They are: definition comparison se—effect illustration contrast classification analogy any combination of these Everyone uses these patterns of relationships to clarify their own thoughts when thinking as well as when speaking. But they apply them automatically and unconsciously. However, when translating the verbal and nonverbal thought-language into written communication, they should learn to use them deliberately. These Developing Forms may be expressed in a single sentence (This is often true in dialogue and journalism-type paragraphs) or in a cluster of two or more.

A supporting paragraph of description, narration, or causation may be written without any of these Developing Forms. When writers think that they can get the wanted readerresponse by writing plain description, narration, or causation, without using any of them, they may. However, most of the time at least one of these forms is used in a supporting paragraph. Here is what the Developing Forms do to develop and adapt description, narration, and causation to achieve the predetermined objective: 1. Amplify a thought, emotion, or sensation in the proportion needed to achieve the predetermined objective 2. Clarify by explaining what the topic, main idea, or one of the supporting ideas means in relation to the predetermined objective. 3. Support a conclusion, whether it is a main idea or a supporting one by presenting causes, reasons, and/or sources needed as reliable support or evidence-in- proof Although all of the Developing Forms may be used to do the job of adapting by amplifying, clarifying, or supporting a main idea, some do certain jobs better than others. The chart below is a great help in enabling students to learn which does each job best. Amplify

Definition Illustration X Classification Comparison X Contrast X Analogy X Cause—Effect

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Clarify

Support

X X X X X X X

X X

X X

As was emphasized before, any combination of these Developing Forms may be used to develop description, narration, or causation. From what has been said so far, it is easy to understand how writers use these patterns of relationships to translate coded thought-language. That is why students should learn to use them intentionally, not just unconsciously or automatic:211y. In the rest of this chapter, we mainly will focus our study on recognizing and using the first three in the preceding chart of Developing Forms: definition, illustration, and classification. The others will be studied in the next chapter. Definition and illustration probably are used more often than the other forms, except, perhaps, a combination of them. Classification may not be used as often, but it is used many times to arrange for the orderly development of a main idea whether that be for the whole composition or a single standard supporting paragraph. Definition

In thought-language, as in spoken language, many definitions are provided by vocal intonations and other nonverbals; therefore, not as many verbal definitions are needed. While thinking, in other words, communicating with ourselves, we understand the words, details, and conclusions in our chains of thought. However, to translate them and adapt them to the background of readers, definition is essential. In written communication, writers have to rely extensively on definition to clarify ideas needed for the reader-response. Definition clarifies an idea by telling a reader what it is or what it means as it is being used in a certain context. Most of the time the meaning a word expresses in a certain communication corresponds to that in dictionaries. For a word to be used in a special way, one not even shown in most dictionaries, is not unusual.

Definition is probably the most often used form of development. It is used to entertain, to inform, or to persuade. It is used as primary or secondary sentences to develop controlling sentences in standard paragraphs. When intending to entertain, writers may deliberately use odd, unusual, or incorrect definitions. If they have established the right relationship with their readers, the readers will go along with those definitions because they will understand the purpose in using them. When the readerresponse, however, is intended to persuade or to inform, readers will expect writers to provide all needed definitions accurately. Writers use definition to develop supporting paragraphs or supporting sections of description, narration, or causation. If a paragraph or section, for example, mainly tells "what progress really is," it probably will be mainly description developed by definition. By learning to write good definitions; therefore, writers should be able to communicate better. These common kinds of definition are used in all kinds of supporting paragraphs (dialogue, journalism-type, narrative, and standard): 1. Formal 2. Synonym 3. Derivative Formal definition is used in spoken communication often because it is given automatically. Whenever one person asks another what something is or means, a formal definition is given usually, almost as a reflex action. Ask a friend to give a quick definition for baseball, and he or she will quickly give a reply that sounds something like, "It is a game played on a baseball diamond between two teams of nine players each. The team at bat tries to earn the most runs before the opposing team causes it to make three outs." Of course, when talking to a fellow American, the person defining will shrug shoulders, use vocal intonations, limb gestures,

etc. to express much of this definition. Therefore, the meaning given will not be as carefully expressed with spoken language as is needed with written language. Formal definitions have two main parts: (1) the term defined and (2) the definer. The term identifies exactly what is being defined. The definer clearly distinguishes this term from all others that have similar meanings. Here is an example: Tex r_n Definer.... A machete is a large, heavy knife used for cutting underbrush. (It is easy to see how this definition points out the similarity between a "machete" and a "large, heavy knife" also, the difference between any "large, heavy knife" and one "for cutting underbrush.") A formal definition is faulty if its definer does not give a complete distinction between it and the other things in its class. In spoken communication, the listener might understand what you mean when you say "A fakir is a Muslim." That would be true because you will make what you mean clear by your added nonverbals (facial expressions, etc.) and the context in which the sentence is placed. These nonverbals will help the definer to differentiate adequately. But in written communication, the definer "a Muslim" doesn't clearly enough distinguish a fakir from other Muslims. A better definition in writing would be "A fakir is a Muslim holy man who depends upon alms foi a living." Another example of this kind of faulty definition is "ice is water." The definer "water" doesn't tell how ice is different from well water, lake water, faucet water, etc. "Ice is water in solid form." is a much better definition because it gives a clear differentiation. Here are three good formal definitions. Any of them could be Page 157

used in any of the kinds of supporting paragraphs: dialogue, journalism-type, or standard paragraphs of description, narration, or causation. 1. Hydrodynamics is the study of liquid motion and the forces that effect it. 2. A gabion is a cylindrical wicker basket used in building trades to carry earth and stones. 3. An impala is an African antelope having a reddish coat and ridged curved horns in the male. -When writers intend to inform or to persuade and need to give very accurate meanings, they use formal definition. To entertain, however, they may use formal definitions more loosely, less accurately, because readers will not hold them accountable.

The next example is a standard supporting paragraph of description by analysis developed with several formal definitions in addition to the one in the first sentence. (The formal definitions are in bold type.) The continental shelf is a plateau under the ocean. Its width ranges from as little as ten miles up to hundreds of miles. This shelf at the bottom of the sea has hills and vales. At its edge, there is usually a "continental slope." This is a drop-off with deep-sea canyons running through it. Continental slopes level off in what is called a "continental rise." These rises end in ocean basins, which have seamounts, deeps, and abyssal plains. Seamounts are isolated sea mountains. The deeps are the deepest drops, and an abyssal plain is just a flat ocean floor. The supporting paragraph that follows is historical narration with a formal definition in the last sentence that is different from the dictionary meanings: Page 158

Nursing has existed since the beginnings of man, but it had its occupational beginnings with Florence Nightingale, in the middle of the nineteenth century. Under her guidance, the Nightingale School was founded in London. In the United States, nursing schools were established in 1873, and now there are hospitals, nursing schools, along with colleges and universities throughout the United States preparing people to become nurses. Today, nursing is a science blended with a spirit of unselfish devotion. It is an art in which dedicated practitioners help the afflicted to overcome their illnesses. Synonym definitions are single words or word groups that express a meaning similar or the same as the one being defined. Here are a few examples (underlined): 1. That night she wore her boa, a long scarf made of feathers. 2. A coot, an aquatic bird, floated on the marsh. 3. The little oriental found a fen, a Chinese coin. Synonym definitions are used when writers think that their readers are already somewhat familiar with the term defined. Therefore, they conclude that the readers may need just a reminder or a bit of added information. Sometimes synonyms are used to add a dash of color or a bit of texture thickness to a supporting paragraph. They are used in all kinds of writing to give quick, brief meanings. Following is a standard paragraph of causation by analysis with a synonym definition (in bold type): Breathing is difficult in high altitudes because of the scarcity of oxygen. Air is much denser at low than at high altitudes.

Oxygen, the gas humans need, is thinner where air is thinner. In high altitudes, oxygen is scarcer in the thin air. Consequently, people must breathe harder to get the same amount to which they are accustomed. The harder they work breathing; however, the more oxygen they use, making breathing even more difficult. Very few synonyms have exactly the same meanings. They should be used carefully because they usually have only approximately the same meaning. This you can see from the definitions opposite each of the following synonyms for the verb "to state":

Here is another example in a standard paragraph of description by analysis with a derivative definition (inbold type). A pagoda is a many-storied oriental tower erected as a shrine. The word ((pagoda," meaning, "idol tower" is derived from ancient Persian "buticad.ah ("but" = "idols" and "kadah" = "temple"). These towers usually have massive walls built of brick, but occasionally of cut-stone. Each story of a tower is capped by a projecting roof-like structure, curving upward at the eaves. Often, these curved roofs are festooned with bells or other pendants.

state one's position boldly assert to = declare = to state formally in an authoritative manner affirm = to state less forcefully, but stresses the writer's confidence that the statement is true avow to = state in a way that stresses the writer's moral commitment to what is expressed allege to = state something that is arguable, that needs proof Derivative definitions have definers that trace the etymology the origin and history of a word. They often are used to provide readers with some worthwhile background information. By using this kind of definition, writers can give more extensive meaning. Since many of the English words originated in other languages, they often have colorful histories related to what is being written. A good example of a derivative definition is the one for the word "salary" The soldiers of the Roman Empire were paid salt as a part of their wages. The Latin word "solarium" from which the English word "salary" is derived means "salt money." This is also the derivation of such expressions as "not worth his salt."

Illustration

Illustration is an example, a specimen, a piece, or a portion of a larger idea, or it is a short narrative. Either or both of these two kinds of illustration may be used to point out a similarity or a difference to clarify, amplify, or support a main idea or any idea related to it. Because illustration is very easy to use, most people use it without even being fully aware of doing it. Both definition and illustration are used so often in written communication it is difficult to say which is used more. As shown in the chart on page 156 of this chapter, illustration performs any of the functions of adapting by amplifying, clarifying, or supporting an idea in description, narration, or causation. The idea might be one in any of the kinds of supporting paragraphs studied in this book: dialogue, journalism-type, narrative, or standard. Illustration is very versatile. It is easily used as any of a standard paragraph's supporting sentences: controlling, primary, secondary, or concluding.

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Often, illustrations are introduced by transitional signals such as the following: for example suppose (or let's suppose) for instance look at it this way to illustrate take (or let's take) However, writers do not always introduce their illustrations with an introductory transitional word such as these. When they are certain that their readers are made aware by the context that an illustration is being submitted, they simply give it without any transitional word or phrase. This, also, is done to tighten the writing and to move it along more smoothly. Illustrations are an easy way to add texture or color to a part of a communication. They are especially useful in amplifying ideas so they are clarified for readers. Amplifying ideas with illustration is especially helpful when the writer wants readers to become involved, to vicariously experience what is being communicated. It is very effective in making abstract ideas concrete, consequently, easier for the reader to understand. It is very helpful for writers to distinguish the three main kinds of illustration so they can select the kind that will be most effective for a certain situation. These three main kinds are: (1) Individual examples (presented singly or in a series of them), (2) Narrative illustrations, and (3) Hypothetical illustrations • Individual examples are easy for adapting ideas to readers. Although they are not effective in developing complex ideas by themselves, they are very helpful to "spot weld" a complex idea to the reader's past experience. To avoid analyzing a difficult idea with a great deal of explanation when that is not needed, a writer can just give the reader one appropriate individual example or a series of them. To develop Page 160

this controlling sentence: "Electronics have revolutionized high school education." a writer can choose one or more examples with which the reader already is familiar to illustrate the point. More specifically, a good example might be the use of computers in high school. Here are some supporting sentences, not controlling sentences, containing individual illustration (in bold type): 1. Police officers have been known by a variety of names, such as cop, law enforcement agent, constable, deputy, and police matron. 2. My dog is a vigilant sentinel; for example, he lies on the front porch and growls whenever a stranger comes toward the house. Next is a standard supporting paragraph of description by analysis with a series of vivid illustrations (Numbered) related to the Key idea "Egyptian" (in Italics). Since there is only one word in the main idea, both the Key and the main idea are the same. Also note how this concept, "Egyptian„" becomes clearer with each vivid detail. Everything that moves in the Nile Delta is Egyptian. (1) A camel, huge against the sky, strides slowly along carrying away a rocking mountain of dry coconut husks to be burned. (2) A man rides along the dam on his donkey with the new waterwheel he has bought in the town tied on behind. (3) Two black women and five children are sticking yellow maize straw at equal intervals into the soil, getting ready for tomorrow's bean planting. (4) Slowly, two white double sails drive a Nile dhow before the north- west wind. With its cargo, hills of foamy white cotton, it silently slides down the Nile toward the mill in Cairo.

Notice how carefully the vivid examples were selected to add the needed words and ideas suitable to arouse the reader-response wanted, which is to entertain. The transitional words were not needed because the orderly movements in space are clearly indicated by the context, other words in each sentence that imply the coming illustrations. In the next supporting paragraph of narration, the writer selected illustrative details (in bold type) that are appropriate to inform. The sea in the spring of any year is filled with migrations of fish. For months they have been contented living in the vast spaces of the oceans of the world. Upon receiving some mysterious signal from the spring sea or from some change in their bodies, they turn and move back toward the place of their birth. Many will surmount numerous obstacles to reach the mouths of great rivers to deposit their spawn. Some of these are the spring-run chinooks that come in from the deep Pacific to bound the rolling floods of the Columbia, the salmon struggling toward the Penobscot, and the alewives working their way up shallow coastal streams of New England. Narrative illustrations are brief stories that clarify, amplify, or support other ideas. They are used in written communication in several different forms. In religious books, they are called parables, helping to clarify religious precepts by giving familiar concrete details that make abstract ideas clearer. The parable about the prodigal son is a good example. Fables are short narratives in which animals talk. Most people remember how effective AESOP'S FABLES is with its many enjoyable illustrative narratives that amplify and make abstract virtues concrete. Anecdotes are short interesting or humorous yarns. They are often used at the beginning of a communication as an opener, to

establish reader-contact. They also are used to establish a common ground with an adversary, when writing to persuade. Sometimes a student will confuse a standard supporting paragraph which is totally developed by a general form of narration with one which just uses supporting sentences of narrative illustration. When the paragraph starts with a controlling sentence, the primary and/or secondary sentences may form a narrative illustration that is right for the reader and the response intended. The controlling sentence in the following standard paragraph of narration is developed by an anecdote illustration that entertains. The key of the main idea is in italics. Most people would agree that having a poor memory is sometimes a good thing. I remember an incident when having one worked out well for everyone. A friend, having made the "magnanimous" decision to propose to a girl he had been dating for two years actually did so that night at a festivity Frantically, the next day, however, he sat down and wrote her a note. "Dearest," he said, "I'm sincerely sorry, but I'm getting so I can't remember what I hear after I drink wine or beer. I know I proposed to you last night, but believe it or not, I can't remember whether you said yes or no." Right away, the young lady answered his note. "Dearest," she replied, "it was so nice to receive your note. It's startling, but we seem to be having the same problem. I recall saying 'No.' to a proposal the other night, but I can't for the life of me remember the man I said it to." The next example is a causation with a narrative illustration (underlined) that clarifies the main idea in the controlling sentence by amplifying it. The Key of the main idea is in bold type. Page 161

The ability of robots to handle parts too hot for human handling is especially advantageous in forging plants. In one factory, a robot plucks a connecting pin from a magazine feed, inserts it into a groove in the rotary hearth of a heating furnace, releases it, then grasps a red hot pin that it removes from the furnace, and signals the furnace door to close. The robot then places the hot pin in a quencher. This complete cycle takes about one minute. The robot is electrically prevented from loading pins into the furnace until it receives a signal that the furnace hearth has rotated to accept a pin and the furnace door is open. Similarly, the robot cannot load a pin into the quencher until the previously quenched part has been automatically ejected from it. Robots can perform this task repeatedly because they have a digital drum that stores 180 separate commands and can send them back to the arm in the form of electrical impulses that give it the needed orders. Hypothetical illustration may be either individual examples or narrative ones. In either case, they are used when writers do not have some idea or situation to offer the reader to darify , amplify, or support an idea. Consequently, they ask their readers to pretend, to suppose, or to imagine something or set of circumstances as being true. Often, this type of illustration is introduced with words such as "Let's suppose such and such "or "Pretend that so and so " Here is an illustration in which a set of hypothetical circumstances are given to clarify a somewhat complex idea about human relationships by making abstract ideas concrete. Like definition, illustration is often used in combination with other supporting forms. In this example, hypothetical illustration (in bold type) is in combination with definition (underlined) developing causation. Page 162

Just because close friends listen to your problems and say that they understand why you feel so sad doesn't really mean that they are sympathetic. Let's suppose that one of these people knows what you are saying but offers no meaningful solution or any other help for your problem. That person would not be sharing the problem, which being sympathetic would require. Being sympathetic is both under- standing the problem and feeling the same emotions.

Classification Classification is placing an idea in a class with other things with which it has something in common. Each written classification usually has three main parts: (1) The word being classified, (2) the basis or standard by which the classification is made, and (3) the names of the classes and the discussion of them in relation to the main idea. Classification is very helpful in aiding a writer to think in an orderly manner to discover what should be written to develop a description, narration, or causation. It often acts in a way like a pie-marker; a pattern placed over a pie so that it can be marked and divided into equal portions. Classification enables writers to segment (analyze or synthesize) a whole idea, especially a very broad or complex one, so that they can offer it to the reader one portion at a time. A good visual illustration of how classification points out similarities and differences is a supermarket. A person can easily understand how a grocer sorts citrus fruit, for example, by their likenesses and unlikenesses. By classification, the grocer presents groceries to customers in an orderly format, assisting them to respond by purchasing what they need. Another good illustration of classification is the way books are classified in libraries. Look at the way kitchen utensils and dinnerware are classified in most homes so that they can be used conveniently.

Classification is very helpful in enabling writers to develop their main ideas in an orderly manner by pointing out similarities and differences. Unlike illustration, which is just a segment, a piece, a portion of a larger idea, classification is the whole idea. In illustration, writers use just a single section of a pie, to use a familiar analogy, but in classification they use the whole pie. When writing classification, writers must be sure to identify as exactly as possible the term being classified; otherwise, a faulty, confusing classification may result. It probably will be more closely an illustration than a classification; therefore, it will be defective. Classification is really illustration unless all the classes of the term are discussed. Let's say, for example, that a person decides to classify the term "apples." Unless the writer intends to classify all apples, it would be best to write illustration, giving a couple of examples of the kind of apples related to the main idea. It might be better, depending upon the main idea, to classify a more specific term, for example "Northern Michigan Winesaps". There are three kinds of classification, depending upon the standard being applied. These are: 1. parallel 2. ascending 3. descending Parallel classification is simply analyzing (sectioning) the term into portions of equal value or importance. It may be used to divide, perhaps, whales by the standard of their food habits. Here is a brief diagram of this parallel classification of whales based on their food and the geographical locations where they find enough of it. plankton-eaters I fish-eaters I squid-eaters

Below is a standard paragraph of causation (by analysis) developed by parallel classification of places where whales are found, using the standard of their food habit. The Key is in italics. Whales can be classified by the places where the food they need is abundant. These whales can be sorted into three classes: plankton-eaters, fish-eaters, and squid-eaters. Those that exist mainly on plankton can thrive only where dense masses of these small organisms flourish. This limits them to the arctic and antarctic waters. Fish-eating whales are restricted only to ocean areas where great populations of schooling fish exist. Therefore, they have a wider range than the plankton-eaters. Their food needs, however, restrict them from blue water of the tropics and open ocean basins. Squid-eating whales are those that need the abundant sea life that lives in the deepest parts of the oceans. In these areas, which are hundreds of fathoms below, they are able to get enough squid, especially, the giant squid Architeuthis, which is abundant at depths of 1500 feet or more. Ascending classification sorts an idea by placing it into the next larger class upward until all of the classes are identified and discussed. If, for example, writers want their readers to understand the legal responsibilities of the United States court system, they would find this ascending classification a helpful form of synthesis (inductive reasoning). To classify by this standard of "jurisdiction," their classification would start with the lowest court and proceed in the discussion to include the highest. The next chart gives a visual classification of our legal court system. In developing it into a standard supporting paragraph, writers would identify each level of j urisdiction in ascending order, and, if necessary define the extent of each

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court's responsibility. Then, they would proceed to discuss each unit, explaining, perhaps, the differences in court procedure and powers. U.S. Supreme State Supreme Court Local Trial Court

District Court

The next illustration is the preceding graph expressed in the form of a standard supporting paragraph of description by synthesis. It is mainly developed by ascending classification because that best communicates the levels of jurisdiction, from the lowest to the highest court in the American judicial system. This example also shows how any of the supporting forms of development may be used in combination with one or more of the other ones. This description combines definition and classification to clarify this hierarchy concept for the intended reader. The Key is in italics. Our carefully structured court system is intended to assure "liberty and justice for as promised in the Preamble to the Constitution. It is at the trial court (sometimes called the court of original jurisdiction), whether it be local, state, or federal, that the first trial is conducted. This is the initial trial at which the witnesses, attorneys, plaintiff, and the defendant appear to present their case. At the state level, these courts are known as municipal, district, or superior courts. The next higher court at both the state and federal level is the court of appeals. This is where the case is reviewed, or heard, for the second time. At this appellate level, however, the case is heard through written arguments (briefs) Page 164

presented by the attorneys, with the defendant not present. Also, there is a difference in the number of judges who listen to a case. Usually, one judge presides over the trial in the trial court, while several judges hear an appeal. If found guilty in the appellate court of the state, the accused may next appeal to the highest court of that state, the supreme court, to hear or review the case. If the case involves a violation of the Constitution of the United States, an accused who loses in the state supreme court can appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court. Each time people write their names and addresses, they are, in a sense, writing an ascending classification. When people consider all the envelopes addressed each day, they would be more inclined to believe that classification plays an important role in written communication. Each address classifies the receiver of the letter with others in a larger class. Each house number indicates that a person is a member of that household. The city name shows that the families on that street are related to a larger number of families living in that city. The state name relates the families of that city to the other families in that state and, next to those in the United States. A very famous ascending classification is the one in the play OUR TOWN by Thornton Wilder. In the play George's sister Rebecca says to Emily, George's girl friend, "I never told you about the letter Jane Crofut got from her minister when she was sick. He Wrote Jane a letter, and on the envelope, the address was like this: It said: Jane Crofut; The Crofut Farm; Grover's Corners; Sutton County; New Hampshire; United States ofAmerica....Continent of North America; Western Hemisphere, the Earth; the Solar System; the Universe; the Mind of God—that's what it said on the envelope." Now, by reversing this address, starting with the

"Mind of God" and going down to Jane Crofut, this classification would become one of descending order. Descending classification is a kind of division or subclassification. Because it classifies the components of an idea, rather than the whole idea, for some purposes, it may develop ideas better than the other two can. For example, when it is necessary to explain which army orders (political official's directives, business executive's policies, etc.) have precedence, depending upon which level of authority issued them, writers would probably find the descending order more useful. Here is another chart that shows the division or subclassification that makeup an army. It helps a person to understand the chain of command more easily because he or she can see the level of authority from the commanding general of the army to the 2nd Lieutenant of a platoon.

In this classification of the army, there are also three definitions. The first defines a corps, the next defines the company, and the third tells what a platoon is.

Army corps

army may consist of two or more corps, each with a commanding general under the army commander. A corps is a separate unite having a specialized function. Usually, it consists of two or more divisions. The infantry division is the basic combat unit. Some of its orders come directly from the army commander. It receives orders indirectly from or through corps headquarters. The combat division usually is composed of three combat regiments. The regiment, therefore, has three combat command headquarters. A battalion is next in line of command. It consists of a tactical unit and four infantry companies or artillery batteries. A company is the lowest administrative unit in the U. S. Army echelon of command. It consists of three or more platoons. A platoon is a company subdivision usually commanded by a 2nd Lieutenant.

division

The main idea of the controlling sentence usually suggests company platoon which Main Form along with which Developing Form would best develop its main idea. SomeBelow is a standard supporting paragraph of times, however, that main idea may give you a description by analysis developed by descending choice of developing forms. Most of the time, classification. It explains the same idea depicted however, by carefully examining the main idea, by the preceding chart, showing the army chain writers will be clearly guided as to which pattern of covimand from the highest to the lowest of relationships would best develop it so that echelon. the wanted reader-response is achieved. regiment battalion

Army orders must be obeyed in accordance with the issuing officer's rank and the level of the unit he commands. The officer with the most authority in a theater of operations is the army commander when there is only one army in the field. A field

Here are examples of controlling sentences that suggest development mainly by one of the Main Forms (description, narration, or causation) along with Developing Forms of classification, definition, or illustration.

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1. To control gambling, a compulsive gambler must start by learning what obsessions are. (Causation developed with definition) 2. Computers were developed in three important stages. (Narration developed with classification) 3. In this age of high technology; there are still only a few basic machines (Description with illustration) Combination of Developing Forms

It is important for writers to understand that supporting paragraphs maybe developed with a combination of these supporting patterns of development. Description, narration, or causation may be developed with definition and illustration, or with definition and either classification or illustration. Sometimes all three, classification, definition, and illustration may be used in the same paragraph. The following standard supporting paragraph is a good example of description developed with classification, definition, and illustration. Definition is preceded by 1, classification by 2, and illustration by 3. The Key is underlined. People may experience any of three kinds of obsessions. The kind being experienced may be identified by the behavior of the client. (2) These three types are the intellectual, the inhibiting, and the impulsive. The intellectual obsession is demonstrated by a person's constant preoccupation with metaphysics. (1) Metaphysics is the philosophical investigation into the cause and meaning of the universe and the place of human beings in it. (3) For example, an individual may be obsessed with asking why he or she was born and what relationship either has to the causes of the universe. (1) The inhibiting obsessions restrain, hold back, a willingness to act. These inhibitions consist of hidden Page 166

doubts and fears. (3) Phobias are examples of this type of restraint. (1) The impulsive obsessions are associated with action resulting from a whim or strong urge, with little or no thought. (3) A good example of this kind is demonstrated by a kleptomaniac. (1) This is a person who cannot control the urge to steal. From the discussion in this chapter, it is clear that students should train themselves to examine first the standard paragraph's main idea before trying to develop it. From that main idea, they can pretty well determine what to say and how to say it. Even when the controlling sentence allows the writer a choice, he or she must select the single or the combination of Developing Forms that will develop the main idea in the way that will best achieve the wanted response from the intended reader. To decide whether to use definition, classification, or illustration when writing, dialogue, narrative, or journalism type paragraphs, writers cannot get a clue from the controlling sentence. Therefore, they must examine the main idea in the subject sentence, of the main paragraph. It will tell them which kinds of supporting paragraphs to use along with how they should be developed. The next chapter will continue the discussion of these patterns of development by explaining how comparison, contrast, analogy, and cause-effect are used to develop description, narration, or causation. It will explain also how they are sometimes combined with those studied in this chapter.

APPLICATIONS The notations in parentheses after the applications numbers are just suggestions. Your instructor may choose to give new instructions for them. (Also, Your instructor may want you to bring a dictionary so that you can do the next four assignments in class.) Application 9-1 (Group Activity: Class discussion and writing)

Read this chapter carefully and in your own words write the answers for the following. Your instructor also may guide a class discussion of them. Take notes because one or more may be included on a quiz or test. 1. Explain how each definition, illustration, and classification points out similarities and/or differences. 2. Classify and define three kinds of definition.

Application 9-3 (In class activity)

Write a synonym definition for the following in a sentence about each. Underline each synonym. 1. zither 2. epic 3. kelp

Application 9-4 (In class activity)

Write two for each kind of definition indicated. Write the words and any definers. Underline the definers if there are any. 1. Formal definition 2. Synonym definition 3. Derivative definition

3. When is a definition definer faulty? 4. Classify and define three kinds of illustration. 5. Classify and define three kinds of classification.

APPLICATION 9-2 (In class activity)

Write a short definer for the terms shown. Creed pavan effendi zenith tankard cordon

Application 9-5 (Group activity)

Below are controlling sentences (not supporting sentences) for supporting paragraphs. Each would be developed best mainly by one of the supporting patterns of relationships studied in this chapter: classification, definition, or illustration. Opposite the number, tell which would best develop each. 1. College students exhibit three main attitudes toward scholarship. 2. A few sections of Michigan are still wilderness. 3. Education is not just an accumulation of knowledge. Page 167

4. Today, some of your housework can be done while you sleep.

Application 9-7 (Group activity)

5. My beagle hound is a cunning hunter.

Opposite each number, print D, N, or C to indicate that the standard supporting paragraph is mainly description, narration, or causation. Also, after each capital letter, print a lowercase c, d or i to indicate whether each contains classification, definition, or illustration. The Key of the main idea is in bold type.

6. The automobile pioneers experimented with three basic types of engines: steam, electric, and internal combustion. 7. Shankara flourished in India about 800 years ago. 8. The common kinds of blind dates can be identified by their mannerisms. 9. The tools early man used enabled anthropologists to identify the three main phases of human development. 10. Students may be divided into seven main types, depending on their academic achievement.

Application 9-6

The sentences below are supporting sentences, (not controlling sentences) taken from standard supporting paragraphs. Each is classification, definition, or illustration. Place a C. D. or I before each number to tell which. 1. The word "peptic" is derived from the Greek word for digestion. 2. A business enterprise may be organized legally into any of three main kinds: sole proprietorships, partnerships, or corporations.

3. garbon is found in many forms, a diamond is just one of them.

4. Riboflavin is a vitamin B complex. 5. A tomato shows how a fruit can be regarded as a vegetable.

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1. The wild stallion is a defiant leader of a herd of wild horses. He is the one who, for example, struggles to free the members of his herd from captivity by breaking down the corrals. He is the courageous one, the leader seen standing on a bluff, on the alert for those who want to restrict his freedom and that of his herd. 2. Water and wind play the most important role in the development of caves. Wave action erodes weaker zones in unprotected cliffs, producing deep grottoes. The fissures along the coast of southern California and the water-caves in the famous Indian Cliff dwellings in the Canyon de Chelly in Arizona were caused by this kind of action. Rock houses or shelters worn in soft, weak rocks, like sandstone, by the erosive forces of wind are very common throughout the American Southwest. 3. To guarantee a successful hunt, a sportsperson needs a good dog. There are two varieties of good sports hounds. These are scent— hounds and sight-hounds. The scent- hound is a type that has a sharp sense of smell. A good one can trail game for long distances. It is this characteristic, not speed, that identifies a good scent-hound. Sighthounds are those that have keen vision. They can spot camouflaged game birds in the thick underbrush or deep grass at great

distances. This sharp-eyed dog can mark and retrieve a game bird that no human can spot. 4. The plants of the Split Mountain Gorge area survive because some have developed important ways of getting and retaining water. These have developed wide-spread shallow root systems to gather and store moisture. The cactus, for example, has this kind of root system, and its unusually thick stem enables it to survive in the desert. Other plants retain their water by restricting moisture loss; they lose it slowly through their leaves. The spiny greasewood has leaves covered with a waxy substance to inhibit water loss. Many plants just drop their leaves to reduce the loss of moisture.

Application 9-8

The following are developed by a combination of the three Developing Forms studied in this chapter. Opposite the number of each, print D, N, or C, to tell whether it is mainly description, narration, or causation. Next to each D, N, or C, print C, D, or/and I in parentheses to indicate whether it contains any combination of classification, definition, and/or illustration. The Key of the main idea is in bold type. 1. During the Middle Ages, one way of deciding the guilt or innocence of an accused was trial by ordeal. There were two main/kinds of ordeal. One was trial by fire. Members of the nobility were subjected to trial by fire when accused of a crime. One way that was done was to make the accused walk barefoot over red hot irons. If they were guilty, their innocence would cause their wounds to heal within three days. If it took longer, they were considered guilty.

Common people went under ordeal by water when accused of a crime. They, for example, might be thrown into a deep pool. If they floated, they were considered guilty because "even water rejected them." 2. The Arabian is a versatile horse that belongs to the light-legged breed. The light-legged are those horses that use the same three gaits: walk, trot, and gallop. A Tennessee Walking Horse is a good example of this kind. This breed is easily trained for exhibition at horse shows. Either an English or a Western saddle may be used on them. They can be used as riding horses or as working horses. Another example is the Quarter horse, which is famous for its usefulness in herding cattle. Arabians of all varieties are also suitable for being driven in harness as well as being show horses. 3. True friendship is a state of mind that gives a person a feeling of contentment It is knowing that no matter what happens, there is someone who will not desert you easily. It is understanding there is a person who understands who you really are. It is the awareness that there is someone to whom, for example, you can reveal confidential concerns. Real friendship is a consciousness of a source for comfort after experiencing three common kinds of misfortunes: business or employment disappointments, unhappiness with human relationships, and serious physical illness and tragedies. 4. The ancient Phoenicians developed three basic types of ships which were paddled by rowers facing aft. First, they had the war galley. This was a long narrow vessel that had two banks of oars, a convex stern, a ram on the prow, and a small sail. The next was Page 169

the merchantman. This was a short and broad vessel that had a large rectangular yard sail. It had a large hold, but was able to sail into harbors having extremely shallow water depths. The third was the CCmyoparones" meaning mussel boats. These often had no sails and were used as armed merchant men in pirate infested waters.

Application 9-9 (Writing in Class)

On a separate sheet of paper under each of the supporting forms shown below, write two controlling sentences that would be developed best by it. Also, underline the Key of the main idea in each with two lines and the whole main idea with one. Above each, tell whether it is mainly description, narration, or causation. 1. Classification 2. Definition 3. Illustration

Application 9-10 (Out-of-class writing)

Select one controlling sentence from each group of three in the preceding application and write a standard supporting paragraph of description, narration, or causation using any of the indicated Developing Forms. Be sure to tell which form is used.

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Application 9-11 (Writing in Class)

Write a supporting paragraph classifying a small group of merchandise in a grocery, drug, or clothing store, or some other small business. Be sure to underline the Key of the main idea and identify the standard by which the classification was made. Also tell whether it is mainly description, narration, or causation.

Application 9-12 (Group Discussion, Writings, and Peer Evaluation Activity)

Your instructor will guide the class discussion of the issue shown below. Listen and take notes of what is said because later, your instructor may give a writing assignment about this issue. Your instructor also may select one or two of the best compositions and project them (or have the students read them) for class evaluation in relation to the principles studied in this and the preceding chapters. Half of the class will point out the good qualities of the compositions and the other half will suggest needed improvements for it. Your instructor may allow you to choose another issue for discussion. Newspapers reflect rather than control public opinion.

Application 9-13

(Out-of-class Writing activity) Select one of the general topics listed below and write a whole composition of at least 500 words, containing at least three standard supporting paragraphs in addition to the separate opener, main paragraph, and concluding paragraph. If you wish to write additional dialogue and narrative paragraphs, you may do so.

6. Under each Main Form opposite the supporting paragraphs identify any one (or combination) of the Developing Forms studied in this chapter: classification, definition, and/or illustration. If no Developing Form is used, write none. 7. Select one of the standard supporting paragraphs and place a (1) before each primary sentence or (2) before any secondary ones.

flea markets dreams ghosts reunions amusements fruit stands memories TV programs a seance intuition dance halls delicious meals superstition fortune telling a cathedral Be sure to do the following: 1. Underline the Key of the main idea in the subject sentence with two lines and the whole main idea with one. 2. Underline the Keys and main ideas for the controlling sensences of the standard supporting paragraphs in the same way. 3. In the left margin opposite the title, tell the reader-response intended. 4. In the left margin opposite each, tell the kind of opener(s) and the kind of explanatory sentence(s). 5. Opposite each supporting paragraph, tell which Main Form it is. Page 171

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Step 5

chapter 10

More Ways to Adapt and Develop the Main Forms Here is what this chapter explains: 1. Using additional supporting forms 2. Comparison, contrast, analogy; and causeeffect: what they are and how to use them to adapt description, narration, and causation to the reader 3. Using various combinations of these forms 4. Distinguishing between cause—effect and causes and reasons 5. Using transitionals to signal their use In Chapter 9, we discussed how writers adapt description, narration, or causation to their readers by amplifying, clarifying, and/or supporting them with Developing Forms. We explained and demonstrated how definition, illustration, and classification are used to translate thought into written communication by pointing out similarities and differences. Additional Developing Forms

Comparison, contrast, and analogy are especially useful Developing Forms because they more conspicuously adapt description, narration, or causation by pointing out similarities and differences. Cause—effect, the last form discussed in this chapter, does not necessarily point out similarities or differences

explicitly. It mainly points out logical relationships in the form of causes and their effects for something. Like classification, definition, and illustration, studied in the last chapter, any one of the Developing Forms studied in this chapter may be combined in various ways. In standard paragraphs, they may consist of j ust one sentence, perhaps, just the controlling sentence or any of the primary or secondary ones. Often, they are written as clusters of several supporting sentences. The controlling sentence main idea in each standard supporting paragraph usually requires or allows the writer to develop it by comparison, contrast, analogy or cause-effect, along with those forms already studied in Chapter 9. That main idea also helps writers to know which kinds of words, details, and conclusions are needed to develop the paragraph. Consequently, by examining that main idea before starting to write the paragraph, much of the hardest part of the development is done. Regardless which Developing form writers decide to use in a certain supporting paragraph, they must limit the details and the conclusions only to those related to the main idea. For example, if a writer decides to develop a paragraph by comparison, he or she should point out only those likenesses that are related to the main idea. In that sense, the main idea also limits the length of the paragraph.

Comparison, contrast, and analogy are often used for several important purposes. They are written to help writers add informative details and, when necessary; to introduce some of them that give the communication warmth, color, and texture. When the reader-response aimed at is to inform or to persuade, a writer may use cause—effect to clarify and make information or evidence in support or proof more acceptable. Comparison

Comparison establishes relationships by pointing out similarities between two or more persons, objects, or ideas that are related. They are usually related because they are in the same class. A writer can make a comparison between the skin of an orange and that of a lemon, lime, or grapefruit because they are logically related; they are in the same class. However, the same writer could not logically compare the skin of that orange with the skin of an elephant because the skin of the orange and that of the elephant are not closely and logically enough related. They are not in the same class of things. There is a fine, hairline point of similarity between them when used in a certain kind of context, but that would form an analogy, not comparison. The following are individual supporting sentences that are examples of comparison. They are not intended as controlling sentences that require or allow the development of a supporting paragraph by comparison. It is easy to detect:in these sentences how the writer points out the similar characteristics between two or more things that are logically related. They also illustrate how helpful comparison can be used to relate an idea with which the reader may not be familiar to one with which he or she is more familiar, thereby improving the reader's understanding.

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1. Jobs of business executives and laborers share one thing in common: they experience stress, both physical and psychological. 2. In both snow skiing and in water skiing, your weight must be balanced over the center of the skis. 3. Bridge, like pinochle, requires bidding. Some of the transitional words that may signal the introduction of a point of similarity in comparison are: like also likewise no more similar as similarly just as the same no less in the same way no different in like manner, (appearance, attitude, etc.) Following is a standard supporting paragraph of description containing comparison with several transitional elements in the above list (underlined) The key in the main idea is in bold type. The African lion and the common house cat have similar hunting habits. Like the house cat, the lion has retractable claws, making it possible for it to catch fleetfooted prey. Similarly, both have rasping tongues and sharp teeth that allow for the tearing and chewing of raw flesh. In like manner, both are remarkably quick and agile, allowing them to stalk prey skillfully. In away, the African lion is an over-sized house cat.

Sometimes the points of similarity in a comparison are so clearly stated or implied that no transitional elements are used. The supporting paragraph of narration (not narrative) below is developed by comparison. The first sentence, the controlling sentence, clearly implies that the primary and secondary sentences developing it will give points of similarity. Therefore, they do not need transitional words to establish their relationship to it, except for the one in the last sentence. The Key of the main idea is in bold type. The thrill and excitement of today, "the space age," can be compared to the time during the 15th and 16th centuries when European explorers were discovering new lands across the vast oceans of the world. Cautiously these courageous captains sailedaway from secure coasts of the Old World along the shores of the African continent. After developing sailing instruments and skills of navigation, they set out away from the shores to cross boldly the open seas to lands with strange wonders. Some of these wonders, they, like the astronauts of today, brought home for their countrymen to marvel at and their scientists to study.

Comparison can be developed in either of two main patterns: 1. alternating 2. 'simultaneous Alternating comparison is a way of pointing out the traits of similarity to get a bit more emphasis. In this kind of standard supporting paragraph, the controlling sentence identifies the terms to be compared and the main idea that needs (or allows) comparative development. Then in the supporting sentences, the writer first identifies a characteristic in one of

the terms, and in the rest of the same sentence or in the next one, he or .she points out the similarity of the other term to it. This gives the writing a double beat. It allows the writer to gain more emphasis by, in a sense, making the same statement twice. Here is an example of causation developed with alternating comparison. The Key of the main idea is in bold type; it calls for development by comparison. The Taj Mahal of India and the Pyramids in the Valley of the Kings both demonstrate defiance to human forgetfulness. The Taj Mahal was erected as a memorial for Shah Jahan and his favorite wife. The Pyramids, too, were built to establish the immortality of favorite pharaohs and their wives. The artistically crafted details of the Taj Mahal reveal the slow careful effort expended by those who labored for years building it to overcome oblivion. The Egyptian design with the triangle motif demonstrates the precision with which the Pyramids also were built to overcome human forgetfulness.

When writers are sure that their readers are familiar enough with one of the terms in the comparison, they may mainly focus on the term with which readers are not as familiar. Doing that assists in avoiding unnecessary statements that are already clearly understood. This, too ,is a kind of alternating comparison. In that way, the writer points out a characteristic that both terms have in common and alternately implies the similarity in the other. Following is description with comparison. The terms compared are in the controlling sentence. The Key of the main idea is in bold type; it requires development by comparison.

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The life of the later prehistoric farmers of the Ocmulgee community was much the same as that of their predecessors who lived on the bluffs up river many years before them. Farming was doubtless the main activity in the more recent Ocmulgee village. Burned corncobs and beans have been found, indicating two of their important crops. Hunting, likewise, continued as a major pursuit. The small triangular bow was still the favorite weapon even though large dart or spear points remained in use. Shell for ornament continued to be worked extensively, mainly in the same forms of large beads, knobbed pins for use as earrings, and circular gorgets bearing designs similar to those of their predecessors. Simultaneous comparison is another common pattern of relationships in developing standard supporting paragraphs. Sometimes, one of them may be developed by a mixture of alternating and simultaneous, but most of the time one of them will be more extensively developed; therefore, it will be more easily noticed. As the name "simultaneous" suggests, the characteristics that are alike in both terms are expressed in the same statement, at the same time. To do that, writers often use pronouns like "both" to indicate that a characteristic in one of the terms is like one related to the other term (or terms) being compared. Notice how simultaneous comparison is used in the next description. It uses rhythm to enable words in it to affect the reader, along with expressing literal meaning. Also, it enables more concise Ating. The Key of the main idea is in bold type; it calls for comparison. The comparison signals are underlined. Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton were alike in their political attitudes. Neither man was an extremist. Both believed in democratic principles. Therefore, both were sure that to preserve these principles, the government should be Page 176

placed in the hands of qualified leaders, those with education and dedication to democracy. Both also realized that state powers and state interests must not be ignored. Neither was opposed to defending the sovereignty of the United States with military power. Consequently, they favored the creation of a military force, including a strong navy. They both played the game of politics within the rules of democracy. As pointed out earlier in this and the preceding chapter, writers often use Developing Forms, including comparison, in a variety of combinations. It must be pointed out again that highly organized paragraphs developed only by comparison, either alternate or simultaneous, are not used as often as are those with combinations of supporting forms. The individual Developing Forms may consist of a single sentence or a cluster of two or more of them developing each of those in the mixture. Following is a paragraph of causation that consists of groups of sentences developing the different developing patterns of relationships in the combination. Comparison is underlined and illustrations are in bold print. The dinosaurs did not die in the quarry in which they were found. Most of the skeletons discovered there more than likely floated down an eastward flowing river until they became stranded on a shallow sandbar. The stegosaurs skeletons found in the famous Dinosaur Quarry probably came from distant dry areas west of the quarry. Later, travelers on the Missouri River often told of bison and other animals that drowned during spring floods and similarly floated downriver to litter islands and sandbars. Similar events that occur today support this conclusion. When floods come to rural areas in the spring even now, livestock frequently drown. They float downstream until they become stranded on a bar.

As previously stated, by closely examining the controlling sentence's Key and main idea, writers can usually determine how to develop their standard supporting paragraphs. Of course, by looking at the main idea in the main paragraph's subject sentence, they can tell how to develop the supporting paragraphs whether they be standard, narrative, dialogue, or journalism-type. The following controlling sentences (not supporting sentences) are examples of those that suggest or require development by comparison: 1. Space explorations, like those into the atom, open vast frontiers in space for further explorations. 2. The first and the last years at college are important in the life of a student. 3. Some fresh-water fish along with those in the seas require live food.

Contrast Like comparison, contrast helps writers to communicate description, narration, and causation more effectively. Unlike comparison, contrast identifies the differences between two or more things that are related by being in the same class. However, contrast enables writers to gain a bit more emphasis or more focus on the characteristics of the subject by pointing out related unlikenesses. Therefore, contrast does what the contrast knob on a television set does. It helps the reader to understand what is written more cleArly and vividly. Since contrast also points out relationships between two or more ideas, it is very useful to inform readers by moving them from what they already understand to something they may not understand as well. In this way it adapts the writer's information to the knowledge the reader already has. This adapting also may be done the other way around, by leading readers from the new information being offered to the

contrasting ideas which they already understand. In either case, the writer is aiming at doing the same thing, helping the reader to understand better what is being expressed. Of course, like comparison, contrast is sometimes used to entertain. Here are some examples of single supporting sentences, not controlling sentences, of contrast. 1. First-year college students appear to be so fresh, new, and attentive, but upper-class students are more out-spoken and indifferent. 2. Although they are the same breed, my two poodles differ in behavior; one is lively and the other is listless and always sleepy. 3. Many people today are buying small compact cars with good gas mileage; however, some people still prefer the large luxury cars, even though they get less gas mileage. Here is a standard supporting paragraph of description with contrast. The Key of the main idea is in bold print. The impact that the land of the Phoenicians made upon the tough, thirsty, goat herding sons of Sinai when they viewed it through the dryness of the desert must have been overpowering. They saw steep mountain slopes lush with firs and cedars. High above the tree line, were towering snow-covered peaks. Instead of bare desert land, the valleys were fertile, filled with orchards heavy with oranges, figs, and olives, and fertile gardens with an abundance of vegetables. Corn was ready in May, and bananas, grapes, and other kinds of fruit were continually ripening, ready for the table. The land they saw before them could hardly have been more different from the harsh arid region from which these migrating desert people came.

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Contrast, like comparison may be developed in either of two patterns of organization. These are: 1. alternating 2. implied Alternating contrast, like alternating comparison, is mainly written in alternating relationships. This is done by pointing out a characteristic of the first term followed in the same or in a subsequent sentence by a statement of the difference. Since it is almost impossible to point out the difference between two things in a single moment, simultaneous contrast is not used as a pattern of development. Next is an example of alternating contrast developing a description. The Key of the main idea is in bold type. Although the Earth may have looked much like the Moon once, the two took different paths of evolving. The Moon became quiet while the Earth continued to form mountains, volcanoes, oceans, an atmosphere, and life. The Moon preserved its ancient rocks, while the Earth's older rocks were continually destroyed and recreated as younger ones. The Earth's oldest rocks, 3.3 to 3.8 billion years old, tell us that the Earth already had mountains, running water, oceans, and life at a time when the last lava flows were pouring out across the Moon. Implied contrast is usually suggested by the way the terms are stated in a supporting paragraph . A supporting sentence will make a statement about one of the terms and imply the difference in the other term or terms involved. Implied contrast may be used when the writer is sure that the intended reader is sensitive to one of the terms being contrasted. In Page 178

such instances, writers may state the characteristics of the term about which the reader is not sensitive and imply the difference in the one that antagonizes, frightens, offends, or just displeases. Implied contrast is also helpful when the reader is already familiar with one of the terms. Therefore, it may be boring or repetitious to point out characteristics that are obvious. To avoid losing contact with the reader, the writer points out the characteristics with which the reader is not familiar, implying the difference in the other. Next is a standard supporting paragraph of causation developed by implied contrast. The Key of the main idea is in bold type. The kinds of life in the tropical and in the arctic regions of the world display a tremendous difference. The tropical climate increases the speed of reproduction and growth. Many generations grow to maturity and die during a single year in warm climates. This results in a great variety of life because of the greater increase in the opportunities for gene mutations. Freeswimming sea life thrives in deeper water in the tropics; therefore, large forms of life must also remain deep, where there is food. Consequently, there are fewer sea mammals and other surface feeders. Also, because the mineral content of tropical sea water is not as rich and because sea life remains deeper, birds that thrive on what is on the water surface are not as abundant in these areas. (You can tell the writer is writing contrast by the "er" endings on the adjectives and adverbs.)

Contrast is often, not always, introduced by transitional signals in the form of words and phrases such as: unlike in (or by) contrast however different contrary to on the other hand different from on the contrary but at the same time in spite of although actually but

Whether contrast, rather than comparison or some other supporting pattern of relationships, would best develop a supporting paragraph may be determined by the controlling sentence. This sentence, which is often the first one in a standard paragraph, usually contains a main idea that requires, suggests, or allows development by contrast. (It is important to point this out again because understanding it is greatly helpful in reducing the strain and struggle experienced in developing a standard paragraph.) It is easy to see from the following controlling sentences (these are not supporting sentences naming the differences) how the main idea, especially its Key, assists writers to decide to develop the paragraph with contrast.

The next example of alternating contrast below has some of these signals (underlined) used in this supporting paragraph of description The Key of the main idea is in bold type.

1. The people's attitudes about marriage today are different from those of people during the economic depression of the 1930's.

Between the ends and the sides of the moon, there are major differences. These are easily detected today by precise laser devices. They show that although the moon appears to be a sphere to us, it is actually egg-shaped. The small end of the "egg" points toward the Earth, but the larger end faces away from it. Unlike the smaller front (the Earth-facing side), which has large dark areas from eruptions of volcanic lava, the far side of the Moon is almost completely composed of light-colored, rugged, and heavily cratered terrain. Different from the Moqn's crust on its back side, its front side is much thinner. On the front layer, where the maria are, the lunar crust is about thirty-seven miles thick. However, on the back, the crust is sixty-two miles thick.

2. Some college professors demand more from their students than others do. 3. A good mother is not always the same as a good wife. Both comparison and contrast are easy to use patterns of relationships when comparing or contrasting ideas in space or time. They both are used to discuss likenesses or differences of one place with another whether they be in geographic or outer space. Fashions of clothing, living conditions, attitudes, etc. of one era are compared or contrasted with those of another. When writing history, for example, the events occurring at one time are usually discussed with respect to how they were the same or different from those happening during another time period. Analogy

Analogy allows writers to discuss the similarities or differences of two or more things that are not related except in a narrow, a very specialized way. The example used earlier in this Page 179

chapter comparing the skin of an orange with the skin of an elephant is an analogy By using it, a writer is able to allow readers to understand in a special way, perhaps, the appearance, texture, or structure of elephant skin. In that way it associates, adapts, a new idea related to elephant skin, to one the reader already understands, the skin of an orange. Following are some supporting sentences (not controlling sentences), which are analogies in themselves: 1. Your arteries and veins are a network of primary and secondary highways. 2. Stress in the human body builds up just as steam does in a locomotive. 3. Air and water pollution is as destructive to our environment as cancer is to the human body. Analogy is of practical value when it is used to adapt complex technical and scientific concepts to the background of general readers. This type of reader might include those who are experts in other fields, but not in the one being discussed. The following is an illustration using analogy to explain the way the body controls the amount of sugar by means of insulin. It is written for readers who are not highly trained in medicine. Therefore, analogy is somewhat more effective than comparison or contrast. If the writer could use only comparison or contrast, she or he would be limited to the field of medicine to explain points of similarity or differences. This would make it a bit more difficult to adapt the concept to the readsi's background. By deciding to use analogy, a universe of relationships become available to the writer to explain the function of insulin for the layperson's understanding. Note how the analogy does this in the following paragraph of causation. The Key of the main idea is in bold type, and the analogy is underlined.

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Blood sugar levels are controlled by the release of insulin in response to the amount of sugar in the blood. This system is much like the thermostat on a home heating system. As the temperature falls, the furnace receives the signal to generate more heat. When the room air reaches a predetermined temperature, the furnace is automatically turned down. In the body, when sugar levels rise, the amount of insulin released into the bloodstream increases. When sugar levels fall, the amount of insulin released decreases. Unlike comparison or contrast, which can point out only one or the other of similarities or differences, analogy may do either. Here is one in causation developed by a combination with illustration to adapt a complex idea to the reader's background and to enable better understanding of the concept. The Key of the main idea is in bold type, the two analogies are underlined, and the two illustrations are in italics. A computer is not as efficient as the mind of a human being. Even though one is more accurate in solving complex math problems, it cannot perform some of the very difficult thinking that even a child can perform. For a machine to compute the same picture as the human brain recognizes, it must break down that particular image that the eye can see into more than a million squares, and to each it must assign a number. The computer then compares these numbers with others stored in its memory By doing that, it can,for example, determine whether the image is a hammer or a flashlight. A child can make the same decision much more quickly by processing many different kinds of information simultaneously. He or she perceives abstract ideas,for example, and logical relationships between them much more efficiently than the computer.

We learn best through experience. But some of the greatest experiences we have are those experienced indirectly, through the sensitivity of the orderly minds of writers and their ability to use vivid analogy to share their unique perceptions with us. Analogy makes this following description concrete. The Key is in bold type, and the analogy is underlined.

Well-disciplined writers do use analogy whenever they need to do so. Most of the time, analogy, like the other Developing Forms, is inserted in a paragraph of description, narration, or causation as a supporting sentence or a cluster of them. Often, it is combined with other Developing Forms to develop the main idea of a paragraph in a way that will achieve the wanted reader-response best.

The sun's angle creates a steady change, an endless military parade of colors, shapes, and shadows in the Grand Canyon. "There goes God with an Army of banners," Carl Sandburg, the American poet said after looking at its kaleidoscopic array. Continually changing, red shales, yellowgray limestones, white and brown sandstones, and pinkish granite vary minute by minute in this natural spectacle.

The examples below again show that writers can write with less strain if they learn to examine the subject sentence main idea, especially its Key, or the ones in the controlling sentences of standard paragraphs to determine and select content and structure. The sentences below are controlling sentences that require or suggest the use of analogy in their development. (These also may be subject sentences.)

Without analogy, it would be very difficult to communicate this precise perception of Carl Sandburg. Analogy is often used in poetry to make an abstract idea concrete. Analogy is often used to entertain readers. It is especially suitable for this because its nature allows for unusual relationships. Here is an example of description with a vivid entertaining analogy. The Key of the main idea is in bold print, and the analogy is underlined. Marriage is an experience that can be like a five course dinner. The courtship is the hors d'oeuvre, the appetizer, sometimes spicy, but it is usually a tantalizing introduction to the rest of the meal. The engagement is the second course, soup, a small sample of the main course. The wedding ceremony is the salad, a generous portion of dressing added for effect. The marriage is the main course, a delicious meal with all of it prepared so that it is just right. The dessert is the celebration after the vows are made, something to look forward to during the ceremony

1. Creativity can be turned off and on in a child's mind. (Could be developed with an analogy to a table lamp) 2. Some nurses ride their thrashing patients. (Could be developed with an analogy to the way a cowboy rides a bucking bronco) 3. Skydivers think of the wind as something to ride. (Could be developed with an analogy to a magic carpet) Following is another example of the way analogy is used in combination with one or more of the other Developing Forms to develop a standard supporting paragraph. This is a paragraph of description developed with analogy, comparison, contrast, and illustration. The analogy is in bold type and underlined, the comparison is underlined, the contrast is in italics, and the illustration is just in bold print.

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Astronautical explorer vehicles enable scientists on earth to watch and listen to worlds in Analogy distant space. In this way, they serve as human eyes and ears, getting closeup views of objects and events almost a billion miles away from us. Mere specks Comparison in the canopy of night are now being identified as real worlds much like our own. Scientists are discovering that they have clouds,, ice, lightning, and storms similar to those we experience. Some of them have canyons, valleys, volcanoes, and mountains. These Contrast vehicles have discovered some worlds that are sulfuric infernos unlike our own green planet. One Illustration of these infernos is a moon of Jupiter called lo. Cause-Effect

In Chapter 8, we studied Causation, which explains why something exists or happens. Causation may be developed with just causes and reasons or with cause—effect. Causes and reasons have only one part in the supporting sentence(s), the causes or the reasons, even though the cause and effect may be in the controlling sentence. In cause—effect relationships, there are two parts, the cause and the effect; the cause is the producer of the effect. Sometimes the cause is given first followed by the effect. Other times, the effects are given first and then their causes. Here are examples with the cause in bold type and the effect in italics. 1. The rain soaked the grass. 2. The car wouldn't run because the gas tank was empty.

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Sometimes a cause produces an effect, and that effect becomes the cause for something else, building a chain of cause—effect. For example: Snow made roads slippery, and they caused many accidents. It is easy to see in this example that Snow causes the effect, slippery roads , which becomes the cause "they" of the effect, "many accidents." Below are single supporting sentences, which may be used as primary or secondary ones, with cause-effect relationships. The cause for each is in bold type and the effect in italics. Note the cause-effect chain in No. 5 below. 1. Excessive sun exposure causes severe burns. 2. Love and other positive emotions quell anger. 3. Some auto accidents result from defective tires. 4. When spanked, the child cried loudly. 5. The high cost of labor may cause prices of goods to rise, and these increased prices will result in inflation. In the next illustration of causation developed by a chain of cause-effect, the causes are underlined and the effects are in italics. The Key of the main idea is in bold type. The large lake formed by a dam of ice is an annual threat to the inhabitants of Yakoo Valley. The level of Lake Ann, the largest one in the area, rises greatly from the melting ice during the spring. A small stream usually begins to flow over the icedam's lip or through a crevice in one of its sidewalls, cutting a breach. The increasing volume of water continuously widens the breach. Sometimes this increasing flow through the widening breach in the lip cuts

completely through the ice before the dam breaks apart. Often, however, the dam collapses because the water undercuts the sidewalls first. This extensive undercutting makes them too weak to support the dam itself In either case, the resulting flood destroys a wide swatch ofthe crops and of buildings in the valley. In the next example of causation developed by cause—effect, the final effect (the one at the end of the paragraph) is really a logical conclusion derived from the preceding chain of cause—effect. The key of the main idea is in bold print, the causes are underlined, and the effects are in italics. Factory workers today have good reasons for being angry and afraid. Automation is rapidly eliminating their jobs. Because of inflation, companies have to cut costs. This reduction in operational funds causes companies to lay offworkers. Union memberships and funds are reduced because of these lay offs. As a result, to overcome the fear and anger oftheir members unions must merge with larger, stronger ones. Sometimes paragraphs of causation start out with a controlling sentence that identifies a main idea that names a cause and its effect. The supporting sentences that develop it may give only the cause(s) for the effect in the controlling sentence. Other times these supporting sentences give only the effects of the cause in the controlling sentence. In either case, these supporting sentences are not cause—effect patterns. But if any of these sentences give both the supporting cause along with its effect, then the paragraph has at least one or more of cause—effect supporting forms. Here is an example of a paragraph of plain causation which has a controlling sentence containing a cause and its effect. The cause is in bold type and the effect is in italics. The

primary and secondary supporting sentences developing it only give more specific causes (underlined) for the effect in the controlling sentence. They do not give units of both cause and effect. Certain favorable conditions make Florida especially suitable for recreation and business conventions. Its well-designed highways are seldom congested. Its international airport is closed an average of only ten hours all year. Golf courses are open there throughout the year. Hotel accommodations are adequate even for the largest of conventions. Business people like to meet in Florida to escape from the inclement weather. Here is another illustration of a supporting paragraph of causation mainly containing development by causes (reasons), not by cause—effect. The controlling sentence has a cause—effect relationship; however, its supporting sentences only give the effects this time. The Key in the main idea is in bold print, the cause in the controlling sentence is underlined, and the effects, in the supporting sentences, are in italics. The technological progress which powerful nations have made doesn't mean much because they continue to distrust each other. Wars between nations are as numerous as ever. Wealthy countries with surplus food remain unwilling to share with poverty stricken people of two- thirds of the thirdworld nations. Leaders of some highly educated populations continue to perpetuate centuries-old ethnic hatreds. Even in countries that profess equality before the law, officials deft the decisions ofinternational courts. Have we made enough real worthwhile technological progress to overcome the distrust we have of each other? Page 183

The next example develops the same controlling sentence as in the preceding example. But this time, the main idea is developed with both causes and effects in the supporting sentences. The causes that were added to complete the cause—effect relationships are underlined. The effects are again expressed in italics. The technological progress which powerful nations have made doesn't mean much because they continue to distrust each other. Wars between nations are as numerous as ever today because people no longer believe that countries will faithfully abide by the treaties they sign. Wealthy countries with surplus food remain unwilling to share with poverty stricken people of third -world nations causing masses to rise against their governments. Leaders of some highly educated populations continue to perpetuate centuries-old race hatreds because they mistrust the military strength of their neighbors. Even in countries that profess equdizy before the law, officials d6 the decisions of international courts because they have lost faith in the impartiality of those courts. Have we made enough real worthwhile technological progress to overcome the distrust of each other? The transitional words commonly used to establish logical relationships between sentences in cause—effect supporting paragraphs are the same as those used in paragraphs of causation. (See those on page 145.) Writers use some cause—effect to develop supporting paragraphs intended to achieve any of the reader-responses studied in this book. To entertain, they may write entertaining causes and/or effects that are exaggerated. To inform, writers give cause-effect along with other Developing Forms, but in paragraphs intended to persuade, cause—effect necessarily is the Page 184

most important supporting form. Even though it is used in description and narration, causeeffect plays the main role in any paragraph of causation whether the response wanted is to entertain, to inform, or to persuade. Remember, now, the main idea in the main paragraph's subject sentence will suggest which Main Form (description, narration, or causation) should be used to write the supporting paragraphs. This subject sentence main idea also especially will suggest which of these Main Form (description, narration, or causation) and which Developing Form(s) (definition, illustration, classification, comparison, contrast, analogy, and/or cause—effect) should be used to develop dialogue and journalism-type supporting paragraphs because they don't have controlling sentences. However, in standard supporting paragraphs, which do have controlling sentences, the main idea in each will suggest which of these Main and which Developing Form(s) will adapt the main ideas in both the subject sentence and in the controlling sentence best to achieve the intended response from a certain reader or type of reader.

APPLICATIONS The notations in parentheses after the application numbers are just suggestions. Your instructor may choose to give new instructions for them. Application 10-1

Read this chapter carefully and in your own words write the answers for the following questions. Your instructor also may guide a class discussion of them. Take notes because one or more may be included on a quiz or test. 1. How are comparison, contrast, and analogy similar in what they do to adapt a main idea to a reader? 2. Cause-effect is used most often to develop which main form? 3. Name two kinds of comparison and tell how they differ.

1. Both the fluent conversationalist and the effective writer are skillful communicators. 2. Today, employees are free to talk to management, unlike the days when workers and managers kept their distances. 3. The hard work in the beet fields calloused the peasant's hands. 4. The molecules of a solid are fixed, but those of liquid flow over one another. 5. Scarcity of food in Ethiopia resulted in mass starvation. 6. For my grandmother, riding her rocking chair is sailing the Caribbean Sea on a gently swaying cruise ship. 7. The antics of our puppy made the cat claw at the dog's wagging tail. 8. Rugby is played without protective equipment, but American football requires a great deal of it.

4. How is contrast especially useful?

9. The tension experienced during a test may make a student misinterpret the question.

5. How is analogy especially useful?

10. Solar energy is safer than nuclear energy.

6. Name two kinds of cause-effect and tell how they differ.

Application 10-2

The sentences below are intended as supporting sentences, not controlling sentence. Opposite the number before each, place one of the following letters to identify the kind of Developing Form each is. A = comparison B = contrast C = analogy D = cause—effect Page 185

Application 10-3 (Group activity)

Application 10-4 (Group activity)

The sentences below are intended as controlling sentences. Judging from the main idea in each, place the letter opposite each number to identify the Developing Form that would best develop the sentence.

The following are controlling sentences representing all seven of the supporting forms studied in Chapters 9 and 10. Place one of the letters below opposite the sentence number to identify the Developing Form that would best develop each sentence.

A = Comparison B = Contrast C = Analogy D = Cause—Effect

A = analogy B = definition C = classification D = comparison

1. Great rivers are forced into new channels when their valleys are overwhelmed by ice sheets. 2. Cowboys are not unlike shepherds. 3. An adult can't do some things that an adolescent can. 4. Electric shock treatment helps patients to forget some terrifying experiences. 5. Alligators and crocodiles are not the same. 6. Courting a woman is like mountain climbing. 7. The Italian language has little in common with Mexican. 8. Pocket billiards and table tennis are usually played indoors. 9. My mother's old dresses are in fashion today. 10. A child's mind is a sponge absorbing information.

E = contrast F = illustration G = cause—effect 1. The man's personality was like sandpaper, rough and abrasive, and his tongue was as sharp and pointed as a stiletto blade. 2. Physicians may be classified by their specialization, for example, a pediatrician treats children mainly. 3. The four fat-soluble vitamins are A, D, E, and K. 4. The structure of old churches in Cleveland, Ohio, differ greatly from the modern, streamlined architecture of those in its suburbs. 5. The invasion of Pearl Harbor forced the U.S. into World War II. 6. The word "clone" is derived from the Greek word klon, meaning twig or offshoot. 7. In the summer, there are variations of green and red in my flower garden, but in winter, muddy brown and black prevail.

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8. While watching the falling snowflakes, I thought of the white appliqued cover my grandmother crocheted for me. 9. The medical profession is making new advancements in the treatment of patients; new treatment for epilepsy is just one. 10. His mother suspected his absence from school because of low grades. 11. The man threw a boomerang, a flat wooden weapon used by Australian aborigines. 12. The Detroit Historical Museum and Art Institute are both beautiful old buildings. 13. The eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A. D. resulted in the destruction of the city of Pompeii. 14. I can tell my poodle is brilliant from the things she does. 15. We rode that night on a pontoon, a kind of boat. 16. The little girl reminded me of her mother. 17. Her rough speech and behavior was her downfall. 18. Sales of that book surpassed the bestseller of the month. 19. Some people are like inverted pyramids; the deeper you go, the less there is. 20. Unlike her aunt, she spoke almost perfect English.

Application 10-5 (Group activity)

Below are standard supporting paragraphs of description, narration, or causation that are developed by one of the Developing Forms listed below. Opposite each number, place the

letter that identifies the main Main Form. Next to each letter, place the number that identifies the Developing Form. Main Forms Developing forms D = Description 1 = comparison N= Narration 2 = contrast C = Causation 3 = analogy 4 = cause—effect 1. Most scientists believe that the earth began some four to six billion years ago. They favor the idea that the sun and its planets, including the earth, were all formed at the same time, out of the same cloud of dust and gas. According to them, our solar system began as one of the great whirling clouds of gas that drifted through the universe. Particles and bits of dust in this cloud were pulled to its center by gravitational and other forces. Here they piled up into a growing ball of hot gas—the sun. Besides the sun, a number of small satellites developed in the cloud that gave it birth. These contracted, too, but were too small to generate the temperatures required to light stellar fires that exist in our sun. Consequently, they became planets, orbiting around the central star, instead of becoming suns themselves. The earth came into existence, therefore, as one of the sun's planets. 2. The first hundred million years of the moon's lifetime were so violent that few traces of its early history remain. Almost immediately after it was formed, its outer part was completely melted to a depth of several hundred miles. While this molten layer gradtially cooled and solidified into different kinds of rocks, it was bombarded by huge asteroids. Some asteroid craters found on it are as large as those on the Page 187

earth's surface. Some are as large as one of our smallest states. Asteroid craters have not been formed on the moon in any large amount for about four billion years. 3. A court trial, in some ways, is often a tragedy being performed before an audience in a theater. The actors on the stage are the judge, jury, prosecutors, defendant, defense counsel, court reporter, bailiff; clerk, and the witnesses. The stage set does not change. It consists of the witness stand, jury box, railing, tables for lawyers, and the judge's bench. The drama unfolds mainly by narrating the sequence of incidence in which the well-being of the plaintiff may have been damaged or threatened. It usually is also a tragedy in which the liberty of the accused is at stake. 4. The moon is quite a small object compared to the earth, and it isn't as beautiful. The earth is fifty times as large. The moon has neither grass, trees, nor life of any kind. It has no air nor water, and it is very monotonous in appearance. Hardly anything happens on the moon, and seldom does anything change. The only excitement is the occasional swift fall of a meteorite that tears up the dusty surface. 5. Lasagna tempts everyone. It is famous for its thick noodles smothered in rich red tomato sauce that arouses appetites. Its pungent aroma, topping of assorted cheese, and Mediterranean spices make your stomach crave a thick slab. The toasted pepperoni chunks almost make a person lose his mind. 6. Chile has one of the most unusual geographical natures of any South American country. Being 4, 870 miles long, it is twice the length of the United States. Its width varies from 56 to 236 miles. Lapped by the Pacific Ocean, it is bordered inland by the snow-capped Andes Mountains. Its extreme north is desert. Page 188

However, central Chile is fertile and temperate, dry in the summer and rainy in the winter. Beyond that point, a thousand windswept icy islands point to the South Pole. 7. Even though solar energy is finding more practical applications today, there are problems that are still to be solved. Although the sun's rays are "free," it costs money to convert them into readily usable forms of energy. Large areas of solar collectors are required to absorb and convert those rays. Because the sun's energy is not dependable at any given time as a result of nightfall and cloud cover, a way must be found to store it. In some parts of the United States, the sun shines during only about half the daylight hours. That means solar energy would be available for producing electricity only about a quarter of the time. 8. Sound consists of vibrations within the range of hearing. When a solid is set in motion suddenly, it vibrates. Next, its vibrating body bumps into the molecules of the surrounding air. Then, the air molecules bob around and strike the molecules next to them. Finally, this bumping and jostling becomes a chain reaction. Imagine a dense crowd of people packed tightly in the campus square. Now, imagine some students at one end abruptly shoving people standing next to them into their neighbors. Each person moves just a little distance, but the initial action moves a great distance from the place it started. This is the way noises start and move. 9. The skin of some dinosaurs probably was very similar to that of an elephant. Dinosaurs were reptiles and must have had scaly skin like that of reptiles or a thick layer of waterproof skin like that of elephants. Those that had this grey coat of naked skin were covered by dead cells and just as waterproof.

10. Ocean waves caused by winds just offshore behave differently from those produced by a distant storm. Waves from distant places rear up and claw at the sky like angry animals. They rise and plunge suddenly as though desperately fighting for their lives, and with booming roars ,finally, they stretch-out on the beach exhausted.

Application 10-6

Opposite each letter, place a capital letter to identify the kind of Main Form each supporting paragraph is. Also, opposite each of these letters place one of the abbreviations shown to identify the Developing Form each numbered item is. Each answer should look like this: C. 1 Def., 2 Illus, 3 comp. Main Form C = Causation D = Description N = Narration Developing Forms Con. = contrast Ill. = Illustration Anal. =Analogy Def.= definition Class.= classification C—E = cause—effect Comp. = comparison a. The ancient Egyptians became civilized long before other ethnic groups because of their early inventions. (1) One of these was the water-wheel that pumped water from the Nile River into the fields for irrigation. (2) Egyptian culture spread rapidly because of the efficient transportation devices they used to carry people and their ideas to distant parts of the country (3) Huge boats, for example, transported large numbers of people and heavy loads from one end of the country to the other much faster than by land.

b. The systematic arrangement of the materials that compose the ocean floor sediment reveal all that has happened to the earth from its beginning. (1) This substance is a sort of epic poem. The dramatic and the tragic in the earth's history can be read in things like the outpourings of volcanoes, the advance and retreat of the ice, and the destruction of raging floods on the coastal lands. A vast amount of geological history is written there. (2) We can not yet interpret all that is in this historical epic because much of it is still a mystery c. Birds are affected little by sudden changes in altitude. (1) Eagles ride updrafts of warm air from a valley floor vertically into high altitudes in a few minutes. (2) Sudden changes would cause a variety of uncomfortable symptoms if man were to rise in the same manner. (3) Bird.s do not suffer these discomforts because they have more efficient lungs. d. The forces of nature are still diligently working at enlarging the Grand Canyon. (1) Rapid variations in temperature crack and crumble surface stones, speeding up the excavation process. Roots pierce cracks in walls, enlarging them so that pieces fall to the canyon floor. (2) Some, as thin as the pages of a Bible, descend and join the prayer-like murmur of the river far below. e. The Arabian horse differs from other pleasure horses. (1) Because the Arabian has fewer ribs, it looks shorter than some other breeds. It has an arched neck and a more delicately shaped head. The head is wedge shaped with a prominent forehead. Unlike other horses, its profile is concave. (2) Because of its desert ancestry, this type of horse is able to go without water for long lengths of time. Although today it is seldom used for such purposes, it is especially suitable for desert transportation.

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f. Today's scientists are able to get an accurate understanding of the things that go on down below in the deep sea. By means of sensitive instruments, they know many things about the environment and the nature of life close to the bottom. (1) Two scientific instruments show that very deep water is not affected as much as the surface water by the pull of the sun and moon. Another instrument reveals that night is permanent down there. There are even cameras that allow scientists to dearly witness episodes in the constant battle for food that occurs in the darkness of the deep. (2) This fief= battle is constant because food is hard to find since its growth depends upon light, something which is scarce or completely absent down there. g. Corduroy is a very popular fabric. It has patterns of wales that are suitable for a wide range of clothing. (1) Wales are the vertical pile ribs that follow the length of the fabric. (2) There are four common kinds of corduroy, depending upon the type of wales each has. These types are pinwale, wide wale, ribless, and the novelty weave. The pinwale corduroy has very narrow wales (16 to 19 ribs per inch). It is mainly used for infants' clothing and sportswear for older people. Wide wale corduroy has two to nine ribs per inch. It comes in different weights, suitable for sportswear, suits, and coats. Ribless corduroy has the appearance of luxurious velveteen, but with a bit more pile. Quilted ribless corduroy makes beautiful robes. The novelty weave variety consists of a combination of wide and narrow wales. It also is used for a variety of clothing. Some of it is even used for different kinds of home furnishings. h. Today, scientists have an understanding of Neanderthal man that depicts him as being physically like us. (1) Shamidar I is a fossil of a male about 41 years old, who died Page 190

approximately 47,000 years ago. (2) Like humans today, full-chested, heavily boned and muscled, he walked upright and had wide-spaced hazel eyes. Other fossils of early man reveal that he suffered some of the same illnesses that we experience. (3) Some, for example, lived nearly blind for much of their lives. (4) A few fossil bones show scars from arthritis, a common ailment even today. i. Stress builds up and must be reduced to avoid human physical ailments. (1) If you build a fire in the boiler of a locomotive and let the engine sit on the tracks while continuing to raise the steam pressure, sooner or later something will blow. However, if you spin the wheels and toot the whistle, the steam pressure can be kept at a safe level. (2) In that way our bodies are like locomotives. Physical activity is a way to spin our wheels to ventilate our pent-up emotions T. H. Huxley, a British biologist, more than a hundred years ago, said that some birds evolved from dinosaurs. He offered Archaeoteryx as evidence for his conclusion. (1) Archaeoteryx, a fossil found in the limestone quarries in Germany has features of both bird and reptile. (2) "Ancient Feathers," a more common name for this half-bird, half-reptile, was similar in size to a cow. (3) Unlike a cow, however, it had a wishbone. (4) Consequently, Huxlels conclusion was not accepted because at that time no dinosaur had been discovered with a wishbone. Since then dinosaurs with wishbones have been found, and Huxley's idea has been accepted. k. In the deep waters of the Pacific Ocean, primitive-type sharks known as "frillsharks" have been captured from time-to-time. (1) This shark, scientists believe, is an almost exact relic derived from very ancient shark ancestors that have become extinct in the

upper waters. Their survival, however, is being carried on in the deep sea. This shark is primitive as indicated by its physical features resembling those of the sharks that lived 25 or 30 millions years ago. (2) It has too many gills and too few dorsal fins for sharks as we know them. Its teeth, like those of fossil sharks, are three-pronged and briar-like, unlike those of sharks captured today. 1. Between 200 and 60 million years ago, two different general kinds of dinosaurs thrived. (1) One was small, agile, and had sharp teeth, enabling it to eat flesh. The other kind, a plant-eater, was larger, and it had long front legs and small blunt teeth. The flesh-eaters of this period remained twofooted. At full maturity plant-eaters would weigh 30 to 40 tons. (2) One of the flesheaters was the Allosaurus which had a length of 34 feet, but half of its length was in its tail. An example of the plant-eaters, Trachodon, had a duckbill and could stand on its hind legs, making it more than twenty feet tall. m. The urban areas we used to call cities before World War II are now often called other things; they are just "downtown" or what one person called "the-hole-in-thedoughnut." (1) Most large cities blame their problems suggested by these names on the vacuum in the city governments. (2) Like the way doughnuts puff out in frying fat, these large cities have swelled out into their suburbs. The city governments for the whole area surrounding them is stuck in the doughnut's hole. (3) Detroit, Chicago, and Cleveland, and their suburbs are typical examples of these ring-shaped fry-cakes.

different sites until they were fully loaded. Then these buses would be driven 150 miles across Germany into the Netherlands to the port city of Eemshaven. They would deliver their passengers to one of the many small ships known as "butter boats." (1) The Dolfjin was a typical butter boat. (2) These small boats then carried the people to the German Island of Borkum to buy as much butter as they could carry. After doing that, the passengers would return to the ship, which took them back to Eemshaven, where they boarded the bus for the trip home. o. Whistling is an art which can be performed in several distinct modes. (1) These are the wolf," the "summons," the "bravado," and the "surprise." (2) The wolf-whistle is an impudent sign of admiration of pretty girls. Its long tw—e--et, tw—e—et is artistically performed by a male when inspired by the sight of an attractive female. The summons whistle is used to attract attention of the inspirer when the pretty one is some distance away. Surprise whistles are discovery whistles; they're a way of saying "What have we here?" Bravado whistles are those that give the whistler courage to display any whistle.

n. After World War II, butter was so scarce in Germany that people traveled long distances for just a few pounds. Buses from West Germany would travel in the early morning darkness, picking up passengers at Page 191

Applications 10-7 (In- class writing) Select one of the sentences under each heading below, and develop it into a supporting paragraph of at least five supporting sentences, in addition to the controlling sentence. Underline the controlling sentence main idea, and in parentheses before each, tell which readerresponse is intended. Next place a 1 before the primary sentences or a 2 before the secondary ones. Don't forget to tell which Developing From each is intended to be.

Application 10-9 Do the same for this application as you did for application 10 - 7.

Analogy 1. The human body is an engine needing certain kinds of fuel. 2.

Soaring gliders are like eagles.

3. Like an airplane, love has its ups and downs

Comparison 1 The medical and legal professions are equally important to society.

Application 10-10 (Out of class writing)

2. Senile patients and young children do some of the same things.

Do the same for this application as you did for Application 10-7.

3. Detroit and Cleveland are on Great Lakes, but both handle unusual export and import merchandise.

Cause—Effect 1. Trial marriages should (should not) be encouraged. 2.

Application 10-8 (In- class writing) Do the same for the following as you did for the preceding application, 10 -7.

Contrast 1. Job opportunities are better in the North than in the South. (or the other way around) 2. Fast-food places are really not restaurants. 3. The atmosphere at a rock concert varies with the character of the featured band.

Computer dating is (or is not) an efficient way to find a mate.

3. I.Q tests should (should not) be required for college entrance.

Application 10 -11 (In -class writing) Write one controlling sentence for each supporting form indicated. In parentheses before each, tell the intended reader-response. Underline the main idea in each controlling sentence, and be sure that it is suitable for development by the indicated form. 1. Comparison 2. Contrast 3. Cause—Effect

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Application 10-12

Select one sentence from the preceding assignment and write a supporting paragraph developing it. If you choose to write anything other than standard paragraphs, be sure to tell which you intended. Underline the main idea, and in parentheses before the paragraph, tell what the intended reader-response is. The paragraph should have enough supporting sentences to arouse the response wanted. Place a 1 before the primary sentences in the standard paragraph or a 2 before each secondary one. Don't forget to indicate the Developing Form intended.

Application 10-13 (Group Activity —Class Discussion and Writing, Peer Evaluation, and Student Revision)

Your instructor may choose to have a fellow student evaluate your composition for this application according to the criteria given in Application 10-13. It would be a good idea for you to read them before doing this writing assignment. Be sure to follow the instructions carefully. Your instructor may wish to guide the class in the discussion of one of the issues listed below and may give a writing assignment based on it. Take notes so that you can write a good composition.

5. Boxing should (should not) be outlawed because it is (or is not) too brutal. The composition must have: 1. At least 600 words. 2. Title 3. Separated opener (Tell its kind in the left margin.) 4. Main paragraph (Underline the main idea with one line and Key with two.) (Tell the kind of explanatory sentences in the opposite left margin.) 5. At least three standard supporting paragraphs (Underline their main ideas and keys as you did for the main paragraph.} 6. A concluding paragraph. 7. Reliable evidence from qualified sources. Name sources in each paragraph, not in footnotes. 8. If necessary, review the discussion of facts, inferences, and opinions in Chapter 7. 9. In one of the standard paragraphs, place a 1 before the primary sentences or a 2 before the secondary ones. 10. In the left margin opposite each supporting paragraph, tell the kind of general form (see Chapter 8). 11. Under each Main Form, abbreviate the Developing Forms in each paragraph.

1. The UN should (should not) be empowered to use military force. 2. Reporters should (should not) be compelled to reveal their sources. 3. Silent prayer in public schools should (should not) be allowed. 4. Women and men should (should not) be equally liable for alimony.

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Application 10-13

Student Evaluator's Initials (three)

Chapter 10 - PEER EVALUATION (Complete this sheet only if your instructor tells you to evaluate a student's composition.) Student Writer's Name

Grade (if required) Good, Fair or Poor, etc.

Your instructor will give you another student's composition to grade (at home or in dass). First print all three of your initials in the provided blank. To keep your evaluation confidential, your instructor may dip off your initials. Remember, your instructor may grade you on how well you evaluate the assigned paper. Read and evaluate the composition twice as follows: 1. The First Reading -Judging the mechanics: spelling, capir2li71t1on, punctuation, grammar, and appearance. a. Cirde each spelling error, and write the word correctly in the margin. b. Circle each capi lizition error, and write the word correctly in the margin. c. Underline errors in grammar and punctuation, and tell where to check in the "Correct and Effective Usage" section on beginning on page 197. 2. The Second Reading - Judging how well the writing principles are understood and applied. Remember you are to look for good features as much as for weaknesses. When you see something good, write "Good" in the margin opposite it, but if something is poor or weak, also write that in the margin. As you read, place a check mark in the appropriate blank below to indicate your judgement.

Very Good 1.

Were directions followed carefully?

2.

Does title suggest predetermined objective? (Topic, main idea, reader, response)?

3.

Does opener reinforce reader contact?

4.

Is the main idea correctly identified?

5.

Is the key correctly identified?

6.

Is the main idea appropriate for the reader-response?

7.

Do the explanatory sentences adequately explain the subject sentence (topic and/or main idea)?

8.

Are any explanatory sentences not needed to explain; are any just additional ideas?

9.

Do all the supporting paragraphs develop the subject sentence main idea?

10. Did the writer correctly write and identify the main forms? (Description, narration and causation?) 11. Did the writer write and correctly identify the developing forms? (Definition, dassification, illustration, comparison, contrast, analogy, and/or cause-effect?) 12. Quality of vocabulary and word usage? 13. Appearance? Page 194

Above Average

OK

Unsatisfactory

Application 10-14 (Revision of Application 1 0- 1 2 Composition) After a student has evaluated your composition for Application 10 - 12 as prescribed by the Application 10- 13 evaluation sheet, he or she will give both the composition and the evaluation to your instructor. After judging how well the student- evaluator did his or her job, your instructor may choose to assign the evaluator a grade. Your instructor will then give the studentevaluation sheet attached to your composition to you for revision. Examine each of the items checked on the student-evaluation sheet as well as the evaluator's comments and suggestions and revi se the composition, improving all the items that need improvement. Also be sure of the following: 1. The supporting information is from qualified sources 2. The composition has enough logical evidence-in-proof. 3. The composition has no faulty conclusions

Now write two or three brief paragraphs giving your reaction to the student-evaluation. Try to react objectively, keeping your personal feelings under control. Since you will be persuading your instructor one way or the other, be sure to give specific evidence from your paper as evidence-in-proof. Now, staple the original composition with the attached evaluation sheet behind the revised draft your paragraph with your reactions and turn all three in to your instructor. Your instructor may decide to give you two grades: one for the original composition and another for the revised one or just a single grade. Page 195

Some very important things first must be answered about questions such as: Specifically what is a research report? 'What are the different kinds? Where and how is the research done? How is the needed formal documentation in the body and in the Works Cited section provided? As defined, a research paper is a formal report presenting a conclusion that is derived logically from an adequate amount of documented reliable information from qualified sources. It follows from this definition that some kinds of subjects are not appropriate for a research paper. Subjects which draw wholly on personal experience, for example, or those which rely heavily on personal opinion, such as "Which is the loveliest season of the year?"— require no special investigation and are not research topics. Moreover, topics on which all the necessary reading can be done in only two or three sources provide no scope for research. Such theses as "The arid climate of Guadalajara, Mexico hinders agriculture." is a poor choice for research because it can be covered by reading a single source., perhaps, an article in an encyclopedia, an atlas, or a general book on Mexico. While investigating, students should keep a careful record of the sources used and of the findings, the facts and inferences discovered. When writing up the results, the sources of the materials used are carefully indicated so that writers as well as readers can check, if they want to, for accuracy or for additional information, etc. There are special techniques for all these processes, and we shall discuss them later in this chapter under the headings of notetaking and documentation. Kinds Of Research Papers

Two general classes of research papers are to communicate information or to provide evidence leading to a persuasive conclusion. Thus each will be either informative or interPage 198

pretive. Research papers are not written to entertain; they are only written either to inform or to persuade. An informative paper mainly provides accurate reliable information. An interpretive paper provides causes and reasons that must be interpreted as evidence in proof. However, an interpretive paper may try to persuade by providing incentive, arousing the reader to take a specific desired action. Here is more information about these two kinds of research papers: The Informative Research Paper

An informative paper is largely objective, accurate, and logical. It may be concerned with presenting the status of the subject, its history, how it originated, how it functions, or how it is used. Such a paper has one main purpose: to give information in a way that enables readers to understand something they did not already know or did not know as well. Typical topics of informative papers are "The Building of the Hoover Dam," "Egyptian Applications of Astronomy," or "The Bolshoie Ballet Company." The Status Research Paper

The simplest kind of informative research paper is the one mainly concerned with describing or defining the status of a person (for example Thomas Jefferson), a place (Pompeii), an object (the newest gas-saving carburetor), an organization (the World Bank), or an idea (Marxism, capitalism, liberalism, atheism, etc.) by telling what it is, what it looks like, or what state of development it is in. The Historical Research Paper

Slightly more complex, the informative paper is one that traces the origin and development of its topic or main conclusion in chronological order. This time factor adds complications to the treatment. The writer must be aware of improvements and deteriora-

tions over time, and these introduce an element of analysis and judgment into the discussion— even if no more than deciding whether changes have been good or bad. The Process or Procedural Research Paper

Informative papers on such topics as solar heating, the "generation of power by atomic energy," "how a digital computer works or how it is programmed," usually will lead the writer into a discussion of the steps in a process or the steps in a procedure. A process tells how something is done, should be done, or occurs in nature. A procedural report tells how something is done or happens, but it does not require extensive personnel, equipment, or material as does the process report. Reporting how bills are introduced and passed democratically in both Europe and Asian countries would require a procedural (not a process) paper. A report telling how different computers are built or operated, on the other hand, would require a process report because it discusses the tools, equipment, material, components, personnel, and sequence of steps required. Whether or not a process or procedural report will be more or less technical depends not only on the thesis but also on the readerresponse intended. For some readers, the discussion can be fairly general, describing in broad terms the main stages in the process or procedure, the significance of each, and who and what is involved. For other more technically oriented readers, a process description may be very specific about ingredients, materials, formulas, specifications, tools, apparatus, and steps or happenings at each stage in the process. Throughout planning, reading, notetaking, and outlining, what is to be done will almost be totally controlled by the basic decisions made about the thesis, the response, and reader.

The Interpretive Research Paper

While some historical papers and many process papers require more than straight reporting of facts, few investigative papers make such demands on thinking processes as do even the simpler interpretive papers. The interpretive paper goes one important step beyond the informative, for it presents not only information gathered, but interpretations and judgements developed logically from the research findings. The interpretive paper thus has a second and higher level of interest: the interaction of the writer's mind with the findings to arrive at sound conclusions. It is this which gives scope to the second level of mental activity mentioned above. Here are main ideas added to the topics shown under the preceding discussion of informative papers, thus making theses that require interpretive reports (The main idea is underlined.): "The Hoover Dam causes dangers of erosion." The ancient builders of the pyramids used the magic of Egyptian astronomy. The Causal Research Paper

Causal interpretive reports not only tell what happened, but how and why it happened, and so require not only facts and inferences but also a logical interpretation of them as the cause of a problem. This type of paper rests on a thesis that states the conclusion reached after examining a problem and interpreting the findings. For example, from research, a writer may conclude that the chief cause of high meat prices is the shortage of feed grain. Consequently, the writer just needs to present enough causes and reasons that show how they cause high meat prices. The Argumentative Paper

The argumentative paper is an interpretive paper designed to prove a contention or to support a point of view. It is directed at a recognized adversary, one who disagrees with or otherwise challenges the thesis. Therefore, it is Page 199

more argumentative than the causal analysis paper and is openly designed to convert or motivate rather than merely to analyze causes and effects. The writer therefore tries hard to establish the reliability and qualifications of sources and to interpret findings as logical evidence that will convert the reader. This is accomplished by identifying points of agreement first and then presenting enough evidence-in-proof to persuade the reader to change attitudes, opinions, or convictions and to accept the thesis. The Research Process

The first essential for efficient investigating for a research paper, whether to discover a thesis or to research it, is knowing how to use the library: Knowing how to use a library efficiendy is essential for either. Two most important things to learn about any library are how to use the card catalog as well as how to use the reference computers. The Main Reference Room

This room is a large room lined with bookshelves containing reference books of all kinds: dictionaries, adases, encyclopedias, annuals, and books listing newspaper and magazine articles—shortcuts to condensed information on all subjects. During the first visit, a student should spend some time just finding out what's there, in particular, the locations of card catalog files, of computers, and of reference books. There are computers programmed in several different ways, for several different purposes. The card catalog consists of a number of large cases containing drawers filled with 3" x 5" cards. These cards list every book the library contains—they do not list magazines or newspapers for which a researcher should check the reference books listed later.

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The cards in the catalog are listed alphabetically and many are assigned a catalog card number. For every book there will be at least three cards, one listing the book by the last name of its author, one by the first important word in its title, and one or more others by subjects with which each book deals. The reference computer, like the card catalog, contains in its memory bank all of the library resources. It also may suggest from which libraries or other sources the needed material may be derived. Simply by pushing a few keys, a bibliography related to a certain topic appears on the computer screen. The researcher can examine it, write down catalog numbers or other identifications of items that may be useful. The researcher may also press the print button to get a complete printed list of the items on the screen. By means of the worldwide internet, library computers open the doors of libraries, museums and other information sources around the world. Library reference computers are made by several manufacturers, and each has a little different method of operation. Usually, there are instruction sheets or pamphlets nearby. Also, any librarian will answer questions and requests for assistance. The library also contains many kinds of reference books and the more a research paper writer knows how to find and use, the better. Here are some of them: Encyclopedia Britannica and Encyclopedia Americana

These are the two biggest and best general encyclopedias in English. They will give excellent introductory articles on almost any subject, except very recent subjects. Others are more specific Encyclopaedia of Physics, Encyclopaedia of American Health, Grizimet's Animal Life Encyclopedia, and McGraw Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.

Winchell's Guide to Reference Books This is a very useful list of reference books. If nothing else, a research writer should look into it to get some idea of how many reference books there are, and what broad fields they cover. Dictionaries (of all types) These provide clear, understandable definitions, authoritative word histories, and many illustrations. New words and terms from the rapidly expanding fields of business, science, and technology are included. They also have a vast quantity of general information about almost any topic. There are, other dictionaries for a variety of technical areas, for example, Dictionary ofBiography. There are, also, more specialized dictionaries for a variety of technical areas. Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature This is the most widely used guide to magazine articles on general subjects. The opening pages of the Guide tell how to use it The New York Times Index This lists important news stories and articles in the largest newspaper in the country, and it is useful by referring to dates that lead to articles in other newspapers. Following are indexes for specialized areas of study: The Social Sciences and Humanities Index Biological and Agricultural Sciences Index Art Index (includes articles on sculpture, ceramics, graphic arts, architecture, archaeology, and landscape architecture) IndustrialArt Index (concerned with sciences in industry, engineering, trade, and business periodicals)

Business Periodical Index (indexes about 126 periodicals dealing with advertising, accounting, banking and finance, marketing, labor management, general business, and insurance) Applied Science and Technology Index (lists articles from about two hundred publications about aeronautics, automation, astronomy, chemistry, physics, construction engineering, and geology) Engineering Index (reviews about a thousand journals and has an abstract or summary for each listed) Cumulative Index to Nursing Literature (gives separate subject and author index to important nursing articles) Abridged Index Medicus (separately lists subject and author index to major articles about medicine.) Cumulative Index to Hospital Literature (contains separate subject and author listings of articles about hospital operation)

Many times other people have tangled with the same research paper problem and have published their conclusions or solutions. When writers don't have time to read all of the publications about a certain problem while doing research, they can use technical abstracts to examine many research reports to find one or more that have what the writer is researching. Anyone who must keep up with new rapid developments in science and technology, along with research writers in these fields, must learn to use the abstracts on the library reference shelves. An abstract is a brief summary or description of a technical report or journal article. Often one consists of a very condensed version of a whole report, a paragraph or two, seldom more. When writers find something in an abstract that is needed for a research paper, they can look for the book in a library, or they Page 201

can write to the source of the full length article to get related information or to get a photocopy of it. Any of the following abstract indexes may be helpful to a research paper writer: ChemicalAbstracts Science Abstracts (Section A is devoted to physics and Section B to electrical engineering Nuclear Science Abstracts BiologicalAbstracts (includes medical science, plants, animals, and related subjects) HistoricalAbstracts (contain summaries of articles on political, social, and economic events worldwide Abstracts of North American Geology AychologicalAbstracts

A research paper writer should not neglect to use the index to the U.S. Government Printing Office publications. Every year the U.S Government Printing Office publishes books, letters, pamphlets, and research reports about many areas for all types of readers: laypersons, technicians, and experts. This institution also publishes an index that will help writers find needed information. Most of these documents are sent to libraries, and librarians are glad to help people to find and to use them. Microfilms and microfiche are two important sources for much technical information. After searching the library shelves. Students can ask the librarian for these microform materials and how to use the "readers," machines that enlarge the microfiche cards and films and light either, making it easy to locate, focus, and examine a selection.

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Many college libraries today also have computers that make information from other sources in all parts of the United States and world available just by pushing a few keys. These computers are keyed into "on-line" sources for a vast amount of general and highly technical information. Most college libraries have librarians that can help a research paper writer use these highly technical computers. Researching a Specific Thesis Topic and Main As with any other paper, the first step is to pick out a general topic. Before research paper writers can start their research, they must know specifically what they are going to write about. Also, before doing any extensive focused research, they must know for what to look In other words, a research writer should know what the thesis is. If one is not assigned by the instructor or the employer, the writer must discover it before doing much work on a research paper. When a writer is not familiar with the area about which he or she intends to write, a moderate amount of "preliminary" research may be needed just to become acquainted with the broad area, the big picture. This may be done in general reference books, in an encyclopedia or some other source. This preliminary research helps writers to discover a specific area upon which later to focus the serious research. Thus the Britannica has a fifteen-page article on the general subject of petroleum, with sections on the more specific topics of exploration, production, offshore drilling, petroleum gas, transportation by pipe- line and tanker, storage, refining, supply and demand, and the history of the petroleum industry In this preliminary search, it is not necessary to read everything word for word; researchers can scan the material with just one purpose in mind: to find a specific topic. At this point, there is no need to take extensive notes; they

would be too general and, probably, would be of little use because the thesis' main idea is not known yet. A research writer shouldn't take notes until after having firmly decided on the thesis of a particular paper. The main notes writers usually take at this time are related to both the general topics and any related main ideas suggested by the preliminary research. After collecting a list of several possible main ideas for these topics, research writers should select the best one and revise the thesis sentence until it clearly states the topic and main idea. Here are some things to consider to help select the appropriate thesis: •

Will the reader be interested enough in it to read it?

•

Is either the topic or the main idea of the thesis too broad or too narrow for the intended length?

•

Does the thesis offer readers something worthwhile (new, different, useful)?

•

Are the sources for a considered thesis conveniently available and adequate?

•

Is the nature of a thesis too subjective: Does it arouse too much emotional reaction in the writer or the reader, hindering objective research and writing (for example: abortion, rock music, sex education, religion)?

•

Is the considered thesis too technical for the writer or the reader (for example: "Gaseous diffusion plant specifications must be stipulated by the Federal Energy Commission.")?

•

Is either the topic or the main idea of the thesis a "Fad" topic, one that has been excessively in the media? If so, the selected thesis must offer something new or different: a new or different way of thinking about it, feeling about it, or a unique conclusion based on unusual findings.

Just as it was explained in Chapter 2, after discovering the general topic for any kind of writing, the research paper writer also must limit it. Research paper writers may write about any of the general topics listed below, but each must be first focused so it identifies a specific topic and a main idea to form a thesis. This is done by limiting a general topic and by inserting: one or more of the following: 1. a more specific topic name 2. modifiers (adjective or adverb) 3. time limitation 4. space limitation (geographical or in outer space) 5. by a main idea. (an appropriate one is always needed) Not all of these limiters are always needed. (Review Chapter 2) The two in the above list that are, however, necessary are numbers 1 and 5: there must be a precise name for the topic and a main idea about it. The first four of the above limit the general topic to a specific topic, and by adding the main idea, the thesis is identified. Here are some examples of general topics: pollution, manufacturing, books, quarrying, glass. The following illustrates how one of these general topics is focused by the methods shown. The general topic is converted into a specific topic, and then into a thesis by adding a main idea with, perhaps, one or more of the following limitations: General topic—> Pollution More specific—> Water contamination by pesticides (by specific name and by modifier) Water contamination during the 1960's (time limitation) Water contamination of the Michigan Great Lakes during the 1960's (Space) The Thesis—> Water contamination of the Michigan Great Lakes by pesticides during the 1960's will decrease by the year 2,000. (by the main idea) Page 203

Here are other theses suitable for a research paper (The main ideas forming each thesis is underlined.): ""Women's changing roles justify a changing morality." or "The Bolshoie Ballet Company encourages new Russian capitalistic attitudes." (Also refer to the others given as examples in the discussion of interpretive papers.) The main idea added to each of these identifies a question, an element of controversy, or a problem that needs extensive research for findings that support the conclusion or lead to logical solution. The main idea of each will suggest to the writer not only the kind of information needed but also the kind which a research paper should be, informative or interpretive. Checking the Qualifications and Reliability of the Sources

To write reliable research papers, writers must be able to judge the quality of sources. To identify reliable information, they must know what reliable information is. As stated in Chapter 7, reliable information is information from a qualified source; therefore, writers of research papers must know what a qualified source is. Here are some things that should be checked to determined if a source is or is not qualified:

source relied on qualified sources. Very often, that author provides the reader with his qualifications in the preface or introduction to the book or other source material. Qualification of the author

By checking the academic degree(s), the amount of experience in the field, the number and kind of publications of the author, the person doing the research can determine the qualifications of the source and, consequently, the reliability of the information. Publisher

Just because a researcher finds something in print doesn't mean the source is qualified nor that the information is reliable. Some publishers are reputable and some are not, as in any business. With experience, a researcher learns to distinguish which publishers are first rate and which are not. Table of Contents

The researcher can quickly scan the table of contents to determine if the author's knowledge and understanding is adequate for the thesis enveloped.

Date of publication

Gathering Related Information

The date of publication and the copyright dates are important when considering the reliability of a source. This is true because with today's rapid change in technology and research, what is true today may not be true tomorrow. There are constant changes in every field.

After research writers decide upon the specific thesis, they are ready to do the searching for needed supporting information. Since they can tell from the main idea the kind of paper that must be written, they are better able to determine which ideas are useful and which are not and how much of the supporting ideas are needed.

Documentation

By examining the works cited (bibliography) and the references within the body or at the end of a report, a researcher can easily determine whether or not the author of a Page 204

The method writers use to gather information will determine whether it is done efficiently. Writing each item that might be needed later on a 3" x 5" card is a good way to prepare the works cited list (bibliography) section as well as to collect supporting ideas.

Works Cited Cards

Since your finished paper will include a works cited list at the end of the final report, an alphabetically arranged list of books, magazines, and other sources from which the information was derived, a researcher should jot down source information immediately and accurately. Sometimes a writer may be not sure about a finding's usefulness. Even if that is true, a works cited card should be made out immediately; it can be discarded later if it proves to be of insufficient use. When preparing a works cited card, a researcher should put only one source on each card. One should record the author, title, facts of publication (name and location of publisher and the copyright date), and, perhaps, the library call number on each one. All information needed for the works cited list must be on the card. It is very unpleasant to have to go back for missing information later. This works cited list is an important part of the final report. Readers may use it to do research for themselves or to go back and check the accuracy and reliability of the report content.

For a book which is a compilation and has an editor rather than an author: de Santillana, Giorgio, ed. The Age of Adventure: The Renaissance Philosophers. Selected, with Introduction and Interpretive Commentary Vol. II of six in The Great Ages of Western Philosophy Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1957

For an article in a magazine or in a journal:

Wagner, Vern, "The Offense of Poetry" 045-1059 College English 35 (May, 1973)

For an article from a newspaper:

Following are some note card specimens of works cited: For a typical single-author book:

Beston, James, "Don't Count Russia Out," The New York Times, Wednesday, January 23, 1993, p. 133, col. 1

Catalog No. Hurlbut, Cornelius S. Minerals and Man New York: Random House, 1968

QE 365 H85 H965

Good section on petroleum