Thematic Teaching of Women's Rights Issues with Social Studies Trade Books 166693500X, 9781666935004

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Thematic Teaching of Women’s Rights Issues with Social Studies Trade Books

Thematic Teaching of Women’s Rights Issues with Social Studies Trade Books Edited by Natalie Keefer and Jeremiah Clabough

Foreword by Tina L. Heafner

LEXINGTON BOOKS

Lanham • Boulder • New York • London

Published by Lexington Books An imprint of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www​.rowman​.com 86-90 Paul Street, London EC2A 4NE Copyright © 2024 by The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Available ISBN 978-1-66693-500-4 (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN 978-1-66693-501-1 (electronic) ∞ ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.

Contents

List of Figures and Tables

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Foreword ix Tina L. Heafner Introduction 1 Jeremiah Clabough 1 Women’s Rights and Classroom Literature: Theory, Scholarship, and Practice Natalie Keefer and Tori K. Flint

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2 Thoroughly Modern Nellie Bly: Trailblazing Journalist, Feminist, and Activist Caroline C. Sheffield

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3 “The People Must Know Before They Can Act”: Examining Ida B. Wells’s Legacy of Activism, Courage, and Resistance Amy J. Samuels

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4 Dr. Mabel Ping-Hua Lee: Chinese American Pioneer of the Women’s Suffrage Movement in the Era of the Chinese Exclusion Act Yali Zhao

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5 Mamie on the Mound: Using Interdisciplinary, Critical Literacy to Explore the Life and Impact of Mamie “Peanut” Johnson Alyssa Whitford

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6 Protecting Our Mother: Rachel Carson and the American Environmental Movement Sarah M. Denney v

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Contents

7 Finding Our Way: Women’s Stories of Migration Margit E. McGuire

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8 The Notorious R. B. G.: Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Her Fight for Equality Rebecca Macon Bidwell and Nefertari Yancie

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9 Future Directions for Thematic Teaching of Women’s Rights Issues Jeremiah Clabough and Natalie Keefer

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Appendix A: Graphic Organizers for Learning Activities

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Appendix B: Primary Sources for Learning Activities

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Appendix C: Summative Assessment

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Appendix D: Additional Nellie Bly-related Resources

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Appendix E: Ida B. Wells Graphic Organizer

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Appendix F: Examining Ida B. Wells’s Legacy of Activism

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Appendix G: Interactive Read-Aloud Questions

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Appendix H: Summary of Project Activities

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Appendix I: Ruth Bader Ginsburg Trade Book Graphic Organizer

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Index 207 About the Contributors

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List of Figures and Tables

FIGURES Figure 0.1 WordArt of Thematic Teaching of Women’s Rights Issues with Social Studies Trade Books x Figure 7.1 Economic Push and Pull Factors 130 Figure B.1 Image from Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, 1890 181 Figure B.2 Excerpt from the 4/28/1895 Minneapolis Daily Times article 182 Figure B.3 Excerpt from the 4/28/1895 Minneapolis Daily Times article, continued 183 Figure E.1 Ida B. Wells Graphic Organizer 189 TABLES Table 4.1 Timeline of Mabel Lee’s Life (1897–1966) Table 9.1 Notable Social Studies Trade Books and UN Sustainable Development Goals Table A.1 Becoming Nelly Bly Table A.2 “The Girl Puzzle” (Video 2:24−4:48; Incredible Nellie Bly pages 12−0, Excerpt from “The Girl Puzzle” article written by Nellie Bly) Table A.3 “Inside the Mad-House” (Video 4:49−8:34; Incredible Nellie Bly pages 40-59; Excerpt from “Inside the Madhouse,” article written by Nellie Bly)

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78 167 172 174 174

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List of Figures and Tables

Table A.4 “Around the World in 72 Days” Part 1 (Video 8:35−13:25, Incredible Nellie Bly pages 81−110, Image of Nellie Bly’s return to New Jersey) 175 Table A.5 “Around the World in 72 Days” Part 2 (Video 8:3513:25, Incredible Nellie Bly pages 81-110, Image of Nellie Bly’s return to New Jersey) 176 Table A.6 Guiding Question 176 Table C.1 Summative Assessment 186 Table F.1 Examining Ida B. Wells’s Legacy of Activism 191 Table G.1 Interactive Read-Aloud Questions 195 Table H.1 Summary of Project Activities 197 Table H.2 A Comparison of the C3 Framework and Project-Based Learning 199 Table H.3 Comparing Rama’s Life in Syria Before the War and Our Everyday Life 201 Table H.4 Researching Women’s Migration 202 Table H.5 Teacher Model: Researching Women’s Migration 203 Table I.1 Ruth Bader Ginsburg Trade Book Graphic Organizer 205

Foreword Tina L. Heafner

In Thematic Teaching of Women’s Rights Issues with Social Studies Trade Books, Dr. Natalie Keefer and Dr. Jeremiah Clabough have compiled an insightful and timely collection of chapters which center women’s voices through the use of trade books and emphasize the teaching of women’s rights issues across U.S. history. The focus of this book (see figure 0.1) makes it an invaluable curricular and instructional resource for upper elementary through middle school social studies educators. It presents stories of women catalysts who have fought to confront and dismantle injustices to pave a path for a brighter and more promising future for girls, women, and society. In subsequent sections, I highlight the important contributions of the book, which are, in theirown right, a catalyst for change in social studies teaching and learning. CATALYSTS FOR CHANGE Women’s history in the United States of America is a complicated and difficult history that has been largely overlooked in traditional social studies curricula. Women’s rights, gender issues, women’s suffrage, reproductive rights, and women’s agency have all been areas of struggle for women in the United States of America (USA). Despite these struggles, women have served as catalysts of change throughout history and have played significant and crucial roles in the development of this country by shaping society, politics, and culture, as well as holding this nation accountable to its democratic ideals. Primary sources, trade books, graphic novels, and non-fiction literature highlighting women’s history and social studies provide a window into this rich and complex history, shedding light on the struggles, triumphs, and achievements of women in the USA. ix

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Figure 0.1  WordArt of Thematic Teaching of Women’s Rights Issues with Social Studies Trade Books.

Women’s history in the the United States dates back to the colonial period, when women played important roles in the survival and growth of the early settlements. However, their contributions were often relegated to the domestic sphere, and their voices were seldom heard in public life. Women’s suffrage, or the right to vote, emerged as a central issue in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries as women organized and fought for political and social rights. The 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1920, granted women the right to vote after decades of struggle. The Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s provided another important platform for women’s activism, as women fought for equal rights and opportunities in education, employment, and politics. The feminist movement of the 1960s and 1970s challenged traditional gender roles and norms and called for greater recognition and respect for women’s contributions and perspectives. The movement led to important gains in reproductive rights, workplace equality, and political representation. It is important to note, however, that the study of women’s history in the United States is an ongoing and evolving process. While much progress has been made in recent decades, there are still many voices and experiences that have been marginalized or excluded from mainstream narratives of U.S. history. Women of color, LGBTQ+ individuals, and other marginalized groups have played significant roles in the fight for social, economic, political, and environmental justice in the USA, but their stories have often been silenced or erased from history. In recent years, there has been a growing awareness of the need for more inclusive and equitable

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education, including social studies education that highlights the voices and histories of girls and women. This includes understanding the interconnectedness of patriarchal social structures, structural violence against women, feminization of poverty, and gender-related economic inequalities, as well as the recognition of the inherent dignity and equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family, including transgender, gender diverse, and intersex women. Considering the intersections of race, class, gender, nation, and sexuality in different communities of women begins with the use of non-traditional sources in social studies which address the invisibility of women. Updated, relevant, inclusive, and diverse trade books with female or non-binary authors, characters, or topics offer students opportunities to expand their learning and examine critical issues throughout history, including gender and race. Underrepresentation in textbooks, standards, and curriculum is amplified when considering the limited political representation of women in the USA. This has significant consequences for policymaking, as policies which disproportionately impact women are often overlooked. Due to their unique perspectives and experiences, as well as their advocacy for issues such as healthcare, education, and social welfare, women are essential for creating a more inclusive and effective government and society. Yet, women still face significant challenges due to gender stereotypes, biases, and intersectional discrimination. As such, it is important to continue to seek out diverse and inclusive perspectives on women’s history and contemporary stories of agentic women who challenge and disrupt dominant narratives that erase or minimize the contributions of women. Incorporating women’s voices and experiences through children’s literature, trade books, graphic novels, nonfiction, and primary sources in social studies can help to counteract the effects of gender stereotypes and biases and encourage the next generation to value diversity in history, politics, and society. Social studies education, and in particular the sources used in teaching and learning history, holds much promise in addressing important social issues such as gender-based violence, pay gaps, inequality, limited economic opportunities, feminization of poverty, and environmental justice when women’s history and voices are centered in the school curriculum.

REFLECTING NARRATIVES OF WOMEN AS AGENTIC LEADERS IN U.S. HISTORY In recent years, there has been a growing interest in women’s history and social studies as scholars, educators, and activists seek to recover and celebrate the contributions and achievements of women throughout history. Trade

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books on women’s history and social studies provide a valuable resource for this work, offering diverse and nuanced perspectives on the complex and multifaceted experiences of women in the United States. By engaging with these texts, readers can gain a deeper understanding of the rich and complex histories of women and the ongoing struggles and triumphs of women in the present day. Moreover, trade books emphasizing women’s lived experiences serve as a source of inspiration and empowerment for women and girls as they learn about the achievements of women who have made a difference in their communities and the world despite encountering significant barriers. Reading about women scientists, biologists, activists, economists, environmentalists, authors, lawyers, and athletes who have broken barriers and overcome obstacles to pave the way for a more equitable, greener, safer, and just future for others can be especially valuable for young girls, who may face societal pressures and stereotypes that limit their potential. In addition to trade books, there are also a variety of resources available for teaching and learning about women’s history in the US. Graphic novels and nonfiction literature have become increasingly popular in classrooms due to their unique and effective ways of engaging students and providing diverse perspectives on historical events and social issues. These works help enhance comprehension and retention of historical events and social issues, promote empathy and critical thinking skills by immersing readers in the experiences and emotions of historical figures, and serve as powerful examples of the impact women have had on society. Stories of women, such as Ida B. Wells, Mamie “Peanut” Johnson, and Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsberg, who challenged dominant discourses and power structures in social institutions, worked to dismantle the pervasive effects of racism in society, challenged gender stereotypes, and fought for gender equality and economic justice, are powerful narratives which teach critical literacy, intersectionality, and emphasize alternative perspectives. Using various sources like trade books and graphic novels to intimately describe the experiences, emotions, and agency of women catalysts highlights the importance of fostering cultural competence, anti-bias education, and critical examination of power relations in social studies education. Thematic Teaching of Women’s Rights Issues with Social Studies Trade Books emphasizes the tenacity, resilience, and perseverance of marginalized women, including immigrant women and women of color, in pursuit of the democratic ideals and the American Dream by highlighting the challenges they faced and the triumphs they achieved. These diverse women surmounted hurdles related to discrimination, racism, xenophobia, gender inequality, cultural differences, language barriers, social isolation, and immigration status. Women like Dr. Mabel Pin-Hua Lee persevered by drawing on their cultural values, support networks, and entrepreneurial spirit to achieve a better life for

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themselves, their families, their communities, and the nation. These inspiring women and others like Nellie Bly and Rachel Carson who made significant contributions to the struggle for gender equity, women’s human rights, and environmental and social justice are the featured narratives of this book. Compelling Narratives and a Transformative Resource for K-8 Social Studies Educators As a society, we rely on our education system to equip our children with the understanding, knowledge, and empathy necessary to navigate the complexities of the world and the human experience. Social studies education holds a critical place in shaping the future, preserving democracy, and amplifying diverse perspectives necessary for living in harmony in a pluralistic society. Social studies is the foundation upon which we build our understanding of the world, and it is essential that this foundation is inclusive and representative of the diverse range of experiences and perspectives that make up our society. For too long, social studies has presented a narrow and incomplete view of history and society, dominated by the hegemonic and perspectives of a few privileged groups. This has resulted in the marginalization and erasure of many other groups, including women and people of color. Thematic Teaching of Women’s Rights Issues with Social Studies Trade Books is a timely contribution to break this cycle and create a more accurate and comprehensive representation of history and society. Thematic Teaching of Women’s Rights Issues with Social Studies Trade Books is attentive to the experiences of oppression and exploitation that women have faced throughout history. Authors’ insights into the historical marginalization of diverse, gendered, and intersectional perspectives articulate the benefits of a more inclusive approach and are particularly poignant. The various contributing authors provide a compelling argument for the importance of social studies to draw on a variety of sources emphasizing women’s experiences and contributions in U.S. history as well as related research in the field. Through their thoughtful rationales for studying the histories of women as catalysts of change, authors highlight the central role that social studies plays in promoting democratic decision-making by teaching students to think critically and systemically about historical events and women actors as well as how they relate to contemporary society. Through understanding the choices that these women leaders made and the forces that shaped those choices, students can better appreciate the complexities and messiness of cultural, racial, and gender histories and the importance of agency in democratic society. By promoting empathy and understanding through the integration of gender issues and non-dominate and decolonized perspectives, as recommend in Thematic Teaching of Women’s Rights Issues with Social Studies Trade Books, social studies can help build a more just, equitable, and greener society for all individuals.

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Dr. Natalie Keefer and Dr. Jeremiah Clabough, as editors and authors, emphasize the need for women’s history to be accessible to all students, regardless of their background or learning abilities. They point out that social studies texts can be challenging for students to understand and offer practical strategies to support comprehension through the use of trade books, graphic novels, and primary sources. They and contributing authors advocate for diverse perspectives in social studies to help students understand the complexity of historical events and how they relate to contemporary issues. All stress text-inspired inquiry, critical thinking, and civic learning as opportunities for students to actively engage in their communities and develop their civic identities. They emphasize discussions of gender and social issues, which encourage students to think about representation and varied perspectives, diversity of experiences, social responsibility, sustainability and justice, and possible solutions which can be achieved through informed civic engagement. The trade book choices promoted in each chapter reflect the lived experiences, understandings, and emotions of agentic women trailblazers. Concluding Thoughts The future of feminist perspectives and women’s representation in social studies depends on the extent to which the curriculum includes, marginalizes, or silences the stories and voices of women, especially women of color and LGBTQ+ individuals. This includes recognizing how patriarchal social structures intersect with other forms of oppression and exploitation, such as environmental degradation, war, famine, exclusion from education global capitalism, and poverty. As recommended in Thematic Teaching of Women’s Rights Issues with Social Studies Trade Books, trade books provide a pathway to improve the visibility of women and girls in the social studies curriculum and to expose students to feminist perspectives. Carefully selected trade books can challenge gendered norms and expose students to rich and varied narratives of women and girls who have served as leaders to overcome obstacles in the quest for social, economic, and civic advancement. Access to exemplary literature and engaging strategies as suggested in the book will empower teachers to bring these important narratives to life in the elementary and middle school social studies classroom. Dr. Natalie Keefer and Dr. Jeremiah Clabough provide a way to expand the narrative beyond the textbook and to include stories and perspectives that are often excluded from the standard curriculum and offer an essential tool for educators who want to teach students about women’s history, women’s rights, gender issues, and women’s agency. The intersectional approach Thematic Teaching of Women’s Rights Issues with Social Studies Trade Books models for teaching women’s history

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recognizes the intersections of race, class, gender, nation, and sexuality in different communities of women. The approach of integrating trade books and graphic novels centers an attentiveness to the interweaving of the histories of these communities and an understanding of the struggle and resistance experienced by different groups of women. This book also acknowledges women’s agency as workers, leaders, trailblazers, and agents of change in history and the broader global society. Feminist perspectives represented in this book are exceptionally relevant to social studies education, as they provide a framework for understanding power and privilege, inequality, social justice, economic equality, governmental structures, and environmental issues. In conclusion, the study of women’s history in the United States is an important field of inquiry that sheds light on the diverse and complex experiences of women throughout history and recognizes the inherent dignity and equal rights of all members of the human family. Thematic Teaching of Women’s Rights Issues with Social Studies Trade Books provides valuable resources for understanding and exploring this history, offering diverse and nuanced perspectives on the struggles, triumphs, and achievements of women in the United States. By engaging with these trade books and resources curated by Dr. Keefer and Dr. Clabough, elementary and middle school teachers and students will gain a deeper understanding of the role that women have played in shaping society, politics, and culture and continue to work toward a more inclusive, equitable, just, and greener future. Tina L. Heafner, Ph.D. National Council for the Social Studies, 2019−2020 President Professor of Social Studies and Urban Education University of North Carolina at Charlotte

Introduction Jeremiah Clabough

Public issues in the United States rarely stay confined to one historical era. Instead, they are messier. Often, people grapple with many public issues across numerous time periods. People’s solutions to these issues are often rooted in their regional, economic, political, cultural, social, and religious values, biases, and beliefs (Blevins et al., 2018; Levstik & Barton, 2015). Some examples of public issues like this include debates over the best ways to cut the costs of healthcare for average Americans, eliminate economic inequality, and reduce carbon emissions that play a pivotal role in leading to global warming. Conflicts naturally arise among different groups as they jockey for their policies to take precedent, which helps explain the ever-present sectionalism throughout U.S. history. There are numerous historical and contemporary examples that abound to support this argument. For example, the division over slavery in the middle of the nineteenth century played an outsized role in leading to the U.S. Civil War. The numerous examples of topics spilling into different historical eras help to explain the prominent role that teaching public issues has played over the last century in the social studies education movement (Dewey, 1916; Evans, 2004, 2021; Oliver & Shaver, 1966). Social studies teachers should embrace the discussion of public issues, even though these topics do introduce elements of controversy into their classrooms. Controversial issues are not topics that social studies teachers can stick their collective heads in the sand and ignore. These topics are an integral part of our social studies curriculums. This is due to the fact that many issues and events unfolding throughout U.S. history are impacted by historical and contemporary figures’ values, biases, and beliefs that often differ (Hess, 2009; Hess & McAvoy, 2015; Journell, 2016, 2017). Being a social studies teacher and trying to avoid controversial issues is like asking a carpenter 1

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not to use a hammer. Both are integral tools in social studies teachers and carpenters’ respective toolboxes that they must use in order to do their jobs. Social studies teachers need to construct learning opportunities that allow their students to analyze different solutions to public issues (Clabough, 2017, 2022). These learning opportunities play a vital role in giving students experience working with issues that they will grapple with as future democratic citizens (Clabough, 2017; Engle & Ochoa, 1988; NCSS, 2013a). In this way, activities focusing on teaching public issues help to prepare students for their future roles as democratic citizens. This begs the question, how do we teach public issues that are controversial in our social studies classrooms? Our central argument is that thematic teaching has a great deal of potential to teach public issues that are controversial.

THEMATIC TEACHING IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES CLASSROOM Thematic teaching is designed to enable students to connect related issues, historical and contemporary figures’ actions, and events around larger historical themes that might appear within one time period or be spread over multiple historical eras (Metro, 2017). For example, women did not generally have the democratic rights espoused in the U.S. Constitution at the founding of this country. Women could not vote, in most cases own property, or take on roles of cultural, economic, social, or political power based on their gender in the late eighteenth century. This demonstrates a stark contrast between what the United States is supposed to be and the continuous inequalities that oft-marginalized groups have and continue to experience (Hubbard, 2019). Thematic teaching allows students to make connections among related historical issues, events, and figures by examining connections that these items share based on similar struggles, goals, and obstacles. Often, issues in U.S. history are not completely resolved in one time period. Instead, compromises and partial solutions are created instead of solving the root problem. For example, the Compromise of 1850 was a band aid placed on the political, social, economic, and cultural conflicts between Northern and Southern states. The five laws that would come to be known as the Compromise of 1850 did not completely address the divisions caused by the issue of slavery. Instead, the Compromise of 1850 addressed the immediate conflict and kicked the problem down the road to be solved at a later time. Often, controversial public issues are not resolved in one era but continue across multiple historical eras (Oliver & Shaver, 1966). It is important that students are able to make connections among related historical issues, events, and figures. The ability to articulate these kinds of

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connections among historical and contemporary issues, figures, and events allows students to grasp why people struggle and are motivated to take certain actions (Metro, 2017). In this way, students contextualize how people’s actions fit within the broader historical narrative of a time period and help to shape future eras. People’s actions, motivations, fears, and hopes can be grasped, and thus, the content being analyzed allows students to connect on a personal level with historical topics being examined (Endacott, 2010; Endacott & Brooks, 2013). This awareness of how the past connects to contemporary issues allows students to see how they can be the next generation of activists to move certain issues forward in U.S. society (Clabough, 2021). One topic ideal for thematic teaching in U.S. history is women’s rights issues.

BRIEF OVERVIEW OF WOMEN’S RIGHTS ISSUES IN U.S. HISTORY Women’s rights issues have always been prominent topics throughout U.S. history. This is because women have always struggled to gain their rights set forth in the U.S. Constitution. Women have also had to consistently push back against the cultural norms of a time period. Women could not vote at beginning of U.S. history. Therefore, advocates for women’s suffrage struggled to be granted the right to vote for almost 150 years. Women have had to remove barriers based on gender discrimination. Regardless of the time period in U.S. history, one can find examples of women advocating for their rights to actualize the democratic principles espoused in the U.S. Constitution. These struggles continue into contemporary U.S. society as women try to break down the barriers of being represented in higher numbers as elected officials. Another prominent issue that many women are facing in contemporary U.S. society is the struggle for their own choices connected to their reproductive rights, especially with the recent overturning by the Supreme Court of the Roe v. Wade case. The examples highlighted here demonstrate the ever-present struggle in U.S. history for women’s rights issues. Exploring issues of women’s rights throughout U.S. history has much potential for the social studies classroom. Unfortunately, women do not appear in great numbers in state social studies standards (Crocco, 2020; Schmeichel, 2015; Schocker, 2014). Social studies teachers need to work to change this by making a concerted effort to include more examples of women being change agents in U.S. society (Whitford, 2020). There are numerous benefits of exploring women as change agents throughout U.S. history. The exploration of women as change agents can work to remove students’ gender stereotypes. It is important to remember that students enter our classrooms with many preconceived notions about women due to cultural

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influences. One of our goals as social studies teachers is to work toward erasing the erroneous belief that women have not impacted the course of U.S. history (Schmeichel, 2015; Schocker, 2014; Whitford, 2020). For example, students can explore how women’s clubs in some cities emerged in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to address issues within a local community (Woyshner, 2002). Social studies teachers need to use numerous examples to show how women acted as change agents to address issues. I would argue that women focused on should not just be well-known historical figures like Abigail Adams and Eleanor Roosevelt, but instead, social studies teachers need to integrate lesser-known women such as Nellie Bly and Fannie Lou Hamer into their classrooms. The inclusion of lesser-known women reinforces the idea that all democratic citizens possess the agency to be change agents (Sdunzik & Johnson, 2020; Woyshner, 2002). Exploring women’s rights issues in U.S. history helps students engage in meaningful discussions about systems of power and privilege that certain groups occupy (Crocco, 2020; Whitford, 2020). For example, Jane Addams worked to address issues caused in the Gilded Age by immigrant families moving to the U.S. to work in emerging industries. She played an instrumental role in opening and operating the Hull House to provide support for immigrant families through daycare for working mothers and classes for newly arrived groups to learn English. Through her various projects at the Hull House, Jane Addams tried to push back on an economic system established during the Gilded Age that looked to exploit cheap immigrant labor for financial profits. A discussion of the work by Jane Addams helps students to explore in more depth the financial and political systems that exploited immigrants’ labor for low wages while generating vast wealth for the captains of industry at the time. In this way, students explore the intersectional aspects of power structures in U.S. society (Crocco, 2020; Schocker, 2014; Sdunzik & Johnson, 2020). There are numerous other examples throughout U.S. history that students can examine. Each example explored helps students to dig beneath the surface and see the economic, social, cultural, and political systems that give certain groups advantages at the expense of others. Studying these historical and contemporary systems of power and privilege prepares students with the knowledge and skills to address issues of inequity in contemporary U.S. society (Engebretson, 2020; Sdunzik & Johnson, 2020).

C3 FRAMEWORK AND DISCIPLINARY LITERACY SKILLS Over the last decade, social studies education on the state and national level has been driven in large part by the C3 Framework from the National

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Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). The lead authors of the C3 Framework argue that K-12 social studies teachers need to place an emphasis on classroom instruction where students analyze primary and secondary sources to strengthen their disciplinary thinking, literacy, and argumentation skills. These learning processes should be a focal point in the four core social science disciplines: civics, economics, history, and geography (NCSS, 2013b; Swan & Griffin, 2013). Students need to use evidence from analyzing primary and secondary sources to take informed civic action about an historical or contemporary issue or event (Levinson & Levine, 2013; NCSS, 2013a; VanSledright, 2013). Best teaching practices advocated for in the C3 Framework have the potential to positively impact classroom instruction. Through the teaching practices stressed in the C3 Framework, the social studies classroom can be transformed as students go from being passive to actively involved in their learning through analyzing primary and secondary sources and doing independent research. All of these learning procedures prepare students with the knowledge and skills that they will need as future democratic citizens to take informed civic action (NCSS, 2013a, 2013b). There have been many social studies and educational scholars over the last several decades who have focused on historical thinking. These scholars have argued for a multitude of classroom activities to train students with the historical thinking, literacy, and argumentation skills employed by historians to analyze primary and secondary sources (Nokes, 2013, 2019; Seixas & Morton, 2012; VanSledright, 2014; Wineburg, 2001; Wineburg et al., 2013). However, there is not as much scholarship on how to develop students’ civic thinking, literacy, and argumentation skills (Clabough, 2018; Cook & Yoder, 2019; Journell, 2017; Journell et al., 2015). Civic thinking differs from historical thinking. With civic thinking, social studies teachers look to design classroom activities that model the heuristics employed by political scientists. Some examples of civic thinking include, but are not limited to, students analyzing the contents of a public policy solution proposed by a political candidate, deconstructing the subtle messages conveyed by words and images within a candidate’s political advertisements, and protesting social injustices within a local community (Clabough, 2018). One part of civic thinking that social studies teachers need to stress is the agency that democratic citizens possess. Agency as a democratic citizen is one of the most important aspects of civic thinking. Agency refers to the idea that all democratic citizens have the power to impact and cause change in social, cultural, economic, and political institutions through their actions (Barton, 2012; Levstik & Barton, 2015). One of the core values upon which American democracy is built is its citizens’ abilitiy to guide the course of U.S. society. There are numerous components within U.S. democracy that are dependent upon democratic citizens

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applying their agency. Some of these include democratic citizens electing officials to public office, voting to pass or reject issues on a local ballot, and leading rallies to draw attention to social injustices in their communities. The idea of confronting and attempting to address social injustices is especially important. The United States has not always lived up to the democratic principles and individual liberties espoused in the Declaration of Independence and U.S. Constitution. Slavery in U.S. democracy is a contradiction, but nonetheless existed at the founding of this country. Women were treated as second-class citizens as they were denied the vote for much of U.S. history. Unfortunately, U.S. history is replete with numerous examples, and even in contemporary society where the United States has not lived up to its democratic principles and values. Therefore, social studies teachers need to construct learning opportunities where students gain the analysis skills and knowledge to research and address issues in their community (Barton, 2012; Clabough, 2018; Journell, 2017). One learning tool that can be used to explore the agency of democratic citizens is the social studies trade book.

USING TRADE BOOKS IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES The term “trade book” refers to the novels, biographies, informational texts, picture books, and graphic novels available in brick and mortar and online book stores and libraries (McGowan & Guzzetti, 1991; NCSS, 2022a). Social studies teachers have for decades championed trade books as teaching tools. Since 1972, NCSS, in collaboration with the Children’s Book Council (CBC), has published the “Notable Social Studies Trade Books for Young People” list in the May/June issue of Social Education (NCSS, 2022a). Two years later, NCSS created the Carter G. Woodson Book Awards to annually recognize outstanding informational trade books for depicting ethnicity and issues connected to race in the United States (NCSS, 2022b). There are numerous benefits to using trade books in the K-12 social studies classrooms. Trade books tend to be more engaging and better written than the majority of social studies textbooks (Bickford & Schuette, 2016; Palmer & Stewart, 1997). Trade books capture historical figures, events, and issues in depth and tend to be easier to read, which especially helps struggling readers (Berkeley et al., 2016; Chick, 2008; Richgels et al., 1993; Tracy, 2003). With trade books focusing on a particular historical figure, students are also able to analyze that individual’s views about issues and events in an historical time period and be introduced to lesser-known historical figures (Palmer & Stewart, 1997; Shelton et al., 2020). This is important because trade books focusing on an individual’s perspective have the potential to allow students

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to examine issues and events from different viewpoints (Liang, 2002; Saul & Dieckman, 2005). Trade books also allow students the opportunity to contextualize life in different places and eras (Beck & McKeown, 1991). In this way, students can make affective connections to the people, issues, and events depicted in the trade book (Shelton et al., 2020). It is through these connections that trade books can be used as learning tools to develop students’ historical empathy skills. By historical empathy skills, I refer to students’ abilities to better understand historical figures and their actions, decisions, and lived experiences (Endacott & Brooks, 2013). Trade books are valuable learning tools to help students see historical and contemporary figures being studied as threedimensional individuals with hopes, dreams, and fears; this is important to engage our students in the content being explored while also helping them to see its relevance to their daily lives (Endacott & Brooks, 2013). Trade books also offer social studies teachers a way to teach disciplinary literacy skills (Shanahan & Shanahan 2008). Analyzing trade books for perspective, bias, and purpose helps students to develop the thinking, literacy, and argumentation skills employed by social scientists. For example, Brave Girl: Clara and the Shirtwaist Makers’ Strike of 1909 (Markel & Sweet, 2013) captures Clara Lemlich’s protests about the horrible working conditions that played a pivotal role in leading to the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire. By the teacher doing a read-aloud of Brave Girl (Markel & Sweet, 2013) and asking well-constructed analysis prompts, students can analyze Clara’s perspective about the need for protests following the fire as well as contextualize life in the New York factory in 1911 that would leave 146 dead. Trade books have the potential to drive and extend students’ exploration and discussions of historical figures, events, and issues.

OVERVIEW OF THIS EDITED COLLECTION This edited collection looks at teaching women’s rights issues thematically across U.S. history for upper elementary through middle school social studies classrooms. Specifically, the women covered in this edited volume are from the Gilded Age in the late 1800s to contemporary U.S. society. In each chapter, the author focuses on one woman who advocated for women’s rights issues with a trade book about the selected individual. Oft-marginalized groups advocating for their rights confront repressive systems in the United States that impact cultural, social, economic, political, and geographical factors. In this way, each chapter author will confront the intersectionality of how teaching women’s rights issues pulls on numerous factors that cause women to have their rights denied (Crocco, 2020;

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Schocker, 2014; Sdunzik & Johnson, 2020). For example, the exclusion of women from sports covered in Dr. Whitford’s chapter with Mamie Johnson has an economic impact on women’s incomes. The exploration of the intersectional elements with a selected woman’s experiences will be guided by one trade book focusing on that individual. The author will provide a brief overview of the trade book and the steps for an activity using the selected trade book to examine how one woman advocated for women’s rights issues. The steps in the activity will reflect the inquiry-based and disciplinary literacy approaches argued for in the C3 Framework (NCSS, 2013b). In the following paragraphs, a brief synopsis of each chapter is given. In chapter one, Drs. Natalie Keefer and Tori K. Flint give an overview of best teaching practices, theory, and research on women’s rights issues. They provide arguments by leading scholars on how to teach women’s rights issues in the social studies classroom. Additionally, best practices, theory, and research on women’s rights issues are connected to an emphasis on disciplinary literacy skills. In this way, the authors connect best teaching practices advocated for in the C3 Framework by NCSS to teaching women’s rights issues. In chapter two, Dr. Caroline C. Sheffield looks at the ways that Nelly Bly expanded women’s roles as journalists. Nelly Bly gained fame in the late 1800s for her investigations into the horrible conditions of New York City’s mental institute and her travels around the world. Nelly Bly: Journalist, Investigator, Feminist, and Philanthropist (Cimino & Algozzino, 2021) is used to explore how Nelly Bly extended the boundaries for women as journalists. In chapter three, Dr. Amy J. Samuels focuses on Ida B. Wells. Specifically, she discusses Ida B. Wells’s advocacies for non-white women to be meaningfully included in the suffragette movement in the early twentieth century. Another focus of Dr. Samuel’s chapter is on Ida B. Wells’s civil rights advocacies to try and lead to public policies against lynching. Who Was Ida B. Wells (Fabiny & Hammond, 2020) is the trade book used to drive the exploration of this impactful woman in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In chapter four, Dr. Yali Zhao looks at the contributions of Dr. Mabel Ping-Hua Lee to the suffragette movement. Dr. Zhao also discusses Dr Lee’s contributions as the first Chinese woman to earn a doctorate in economics from Columbia University. The trade book used to examine Dr. Lee’s contributions will be Bold Women in History: 15 Women’s Rights Activists You Should Know (Vestal, 2021). In chapter five, Dr. Alyssa Whitford examines the contributions of Mamie “Peanut” Johnson for breaking down boundaries in women’s sports. Mamie Johnson was the first female pitcher in professional baseball to play in the Negro League. Mamie on the Mound: A Woman in Baseball’s Negro Leagues

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(Henderson & Doutsiopoulos, 2020) is the trade book used to examine the ways that Mamie Johnson helped to open the doors for women to make progress in sports. In chapter six, Dr. Sarah M. Denney discusses the impact of women breaking down barriers in the sciences by examining Rachel Carson. Rachel Carson played a pivotal role in the middle of the twentieth century connected to the environmental movement with the release of her seminal book Silent Spring (Carson, 1962). Spring after Spring: How Rachel Carson Inspired the Environmental Movement (Sisson, 2018) is the trade book that Dr. Denney uses to focus on Rachel Carson’s contributions to women’s rights issues and the environmental movement. In chapter seven, Dr. Margit E. McGuire examines women’s rights issues through looking at immigration issues in the twenty-first century. Specifically, she looks at a Syrian girl, Rama, fleeing her war-torn country for Canada, as discussed in Stepping Stones: A Refugee Family’s Journey (Ruurs & Ali Badr, 2016). In this way, the intersectional aspects of women’s rights issues and immigration are discussed. The examination of Rama’s story also highlights the international nature of women’s rights issues. In chapter eight, Drs. Rebecca Macon Bidwell and Nefertari Yancie provide an activity to discuss the contributions of Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsberg. They use Ruth Objects: The Life of Ruth Bader Ginsburg (Rappaport, 2020). The focus of the activity is to highlight Ruth Bader Ginsberg’s contributions as a prominent woman working within the U.S. government while also addressing women’s underrepresentation as elected and appointed officials for higher offices.

CONCLUSION There is a multitude of public issues that social studies teachers must meaningfully address in their curriculums. This edited collection attempts to show classroom strategies for how upper elementary and middle school social studies teachers can thematically teach women’s rights issues in U.S. history with trade books. Women’s roles have too often been minimized in the U.S. history curriculum (Crocco, 2020; Schmeichel, 2015; Schocker, 2014). The activities discussed within chapters of this edited volume showcase classroom strategies to focus on women’s rights issues. These learning experiences focusing on women as change agents equip students with the knowledge and skills of how to take civic action, which they can apply to address contemporary issues where women still face inequalities in U.S. society.

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REFERENCES Barton, K. (2012). Agency, choice, and historical action: How history teaching can help students think about democratic decision making. Citizenship Teaching and Learning, 7(2), 131-142. Beck, I. L., & McKeown, M.G. (1991). Research directions: Social studies texts are hard to understanding: Mediating some of the difficulties. Language Arts, 68(6), 482-490. Berkeley, S., King-Sears, M.E., Vilbas, J., & Conklin, S. (2016). Textbook characteristics that support or thwart comprehension: The current state of social studies texts. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 32(3), 247-272. Bickford, J.H., & Schuette, L.N. (2016). Trade book’s historical representation of the black freedom movement, slavery through civil rights. Journal of Children’s Literature, 42(1), 20-43. Blevins, B., LeCompte, K., & Ellis, T. (2018). Students at the heart of civic learning: Best practices in implementing action civics. In J. Clabough & T. Litner (Eds.), No reluctant citizen: Teaching civics in K-12 classrooms (pp. 83-96). Information Age Publishing. Carson, R. (1962). Silent spring. Houghton Mifflin. Chick, K.A. (2008). Teaching women’s history through literature: Standards-based lesson plans for grades K-12. NCSS. Cimino, L., & Algozzino, S. (2021). The incredible Nellie Bly: Journalist, investigator, feminist, and philanthropist. Harry N. Abrams. Clabough, J. (2017). Helping develop students’ civic identities through exploring public issues. The Councilor: A Journal of the Social Studies, 78(2), Article 2. Clabough, J. (2018). Analyzing Richard Nixon’s “political death and resurrection” to strengthen students’ civic thinking skills. The Social Studies, 109(4), 177-185. Clabough, J. (2021). Using thematic social studies teaching to explore the civil rights movement. The Social Studies, 112(4), 177-189. Clabough, J. (2022). Examining public policies from Progressive Democrats with U.S. healthcare system. The Councilor: A Journal of the Social Studies, 83(2), Article 2. Cook, R., & Yoder, P.J. (2019). Finding Dewey and the C3 Framework: Lessons from a government unit on local history. The Oregon Journal of the Social Studies, 7(2), 55-67. Crocco, M.S. (2020). Teaching gender and social studies in the #METOOERA. Social Studies Journal, 38(1), 6-16. Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. Macmillan. Endacott, J. L. (2010). Reconsidering affective engagement in historical empathy. Theory & Research in Social Education, 38(1), 6–47. Endacott, J., & Brooks, S. (2013). An updated theoretical practical model for promoting historical empathy. Social Studies Research and Practice, 8(1), 41-58. Engebretson, K.E. (2020). What does it look like? Telling the story of global women’s political participation through photographs. Social Education, 84(4), 224-228.

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Engle, S.H., & Ochoa, A.S. (1988). Education for democratic citizenship: Decision making in the social studies. Teachers College Press. Evans, R.W. (2004). The social studies wars: What should we teach the children? Teachers College Press. Evans, R.W. (Ed.) (2021). Handbook on teaching social issues (2nd ed.). Information Age Publishing. Fabiny, S., & Hammond, T. (2020). Who was Ida B. Wells? Penguin Workshop. Henderson, L., & Doutsiopoulos, G. (2020). Mamie on the mound: A woman in baseball’s Negro Leagues. Capstone Editions. Hess, D.E. (2009). Controversy in the classroom: The democratic power of discussion. Routledge. Hess, D.E., & McAvoy, P. (2015). The political classroom: Evidence and ethics in democratic education. Routledge. Hubbard, J. (2019). Introduction. In J. Hubbard (Ed.), Extending the ground of public confidence: Teaching civil liberties in K-16 social studies education (pp. ix–xvi). Information Age Publishing. Journell, W. (2016). Teaching social issues in the social studies classroom. In W. Journell (Ed.), Teaching social studies in an era of divisiveness: The challenges of discussing social issues in a non-partisan way (pp. 1-12). Rowman & Littlefield. Journell, W. (2017). Teaching politics in secondary education: Engaging with contentious issues. State University of New York Press. Journell, W., Beeson, M., & Ayers, C. (2015). Learning to think politically: Toward more complete disciplinary knowledge in civics and government courses. Theory and Research in Social Education, 43(1), 28–67. Levinson, M., & Levine, P. (2013). Taking informed action to engage students in civic life. Social Education, 77(6), 339-341. Levstik, L., & Barton, K. (2015). Doing history: Investigating with elementary and middle schools (5th ed.). Routledge. Liang, L.A. (2002). On the shelves of the local library: High-interest, easy reading trade books for struggling middle and high school readers. Preventing School Failure, 46(4), 183-188. Markel, M., & Sweet, M. (2013). Brave girl: Clara and the Shirtwaist Makers’ Strike of 1909. Balzer + Bray. McGowan, T., & Guzzetti, B. (1991). Promoting social studies understanding through literature-based instruction. The Social Studies, 82(1), 16. Metro, R. (2017). Teaching U.S. history thematically: Document-based lessons for the secondary classroom. Teachers College Press. NCSS. (2013a). Revitalizing civic learning in our schools. https://www​.socialstudies​ .org​/position​-statements​/revitalizing​-civic​-learning​-our​-schools NCSS. (2013b). The College, Career, and Civic Life Framework for Social Studies State Standards: Guidance for enhancing the rigor of K-12 civics, economics, geography, and history. Author. NCSS. (2022a). Notable Social Studies Trade Books for Young People. https://www​ .socialstudies​.org​/notable​-trade​-books

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NCSS. (2022b). Carter G. Woodson Book Awards. https://www​.socialstudies​.org​/ membership​/awards​/carter​-g​-woodson​-book​-awards Nokes, J. (2013). Building students’ historical literacies: Learning to read and reason with historical texts and evidence (1st ed.). Routledge. Nokes, J. (2019). Teaching history, learning citizenship: Tools for civic engagement. Teachers College Press. Oliver, D., & Shaver, J. (1966). Teaching public issues in the high school. Houghton Mifflin Company. Palmer, R.G., & Stewart, R.A. (1997). Nonfiction trade books in content area instruction: Realities and potential. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 40(8), 630-641. Rappaport, D. (2020). Ruth objects: The life of Ruth Bader Ginsburg. Little, Brown Books for Young Readers. Richgels, D.J., Tomlinson, C.M., & Tunnell, M.O. (1993). Comparisons of elementary students’ history textbooks and trade books. Journal of Education Research, 86(3), 161-171. Ruurs, M., & Ali Badr, N. (2016). Stepping stones: A refugee family’s journey. Orca Book Publishers. Saul, E.W., & Dieckman, D. (2005). Choosing and using information trade books. Theory and Research into Practice, 40(4), 502-513. Schmeichel, M. (2015). Skirting around critical feminist rationales for teaching women in social studies. Theory & Research in Social Education, 43(1), 1-27. Schocker, J.B. (2014). A case for using images to teach women’s history. The History Teacher, 47(3), 421-450. Sdunzik, J., & Johnson, C.S. (2020). Working the democracy: The long fight for the ballot from Ida to Stacey. Social Education, 84(4), 214-218. Seixas, P., & Morton, T. (2012). The big six historical thinking concepts. Nelson College Indigenous. Shanahan, T., & Shanahan, C. (2008). Teaching disciplinary literacy to adolescents: Rethinking content-area literacy. Harvard Educational Review, 78(1), 40-59. Shelton, A.L., Sheffield, C.C., & Chisholm, J.S. (2020). From image to inference: Three eighth grade students’ meaning making with an informational historythemed graphic novel. Social Studies Teaching and Learning, 1(1), 18-42. Sisson, S.R. (2018). Spring after spring: How Rachel Carson inspired the environmental movement. Roaring Brook Press. Swan, K., & Griffin, S. (2013). Beating the odds: The College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Standards. Social Education, 77(6), 317-321. Tracy, J. (2003). Racing through history. Journal of Education, 184(2), 63-68. VanSledright, B. (2013). Can assessment improve learning? Thoughts on the C3 Framework. Social Education, 77(6), 334-338. VanSledright, B.A. (2014). Assessing historical thinking and understanding: Innovative designs for new standards. Routledge. Vestal, M. (2021). Bold women in history: 15 women’s rights activists you should know. Rockridge Press.

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Whitford, A. (2020). “I can’t believe a girl did that!”: An introductory lesson for teaching women’s history. Iowa Journal for the Social Studies, 28(2), 64-88. Wineburg, S. (2001). Historical thinking and other unnatural acts: Charting the future of teaching the past. Temple University Press. Wineburg, S., Martin, D., & Monte-Sano, C. (2013). Reading like a historian: Teaching literacy in middle and high school history classrooms. Teachers College Press. Woyshner, C. (2002). Political history as women’s history: Toward a more inclusive curriculum. Theory & Research in Social Education, 30(3), 354-380.

Chapter 1

Women’s Rights and Classroom Literature Theory, Scholarship, and Practice Natalie Keefer and Tori K. Flint

In this chapter, the authors situate this edited volume within the context of the history, theory, and scholarship on women’s human rights. To frame this edited collection, we approach women’s human rights issues from a theoretical lens of feminist solidarity (hooks, 1986) to recognize, respect, and celebrate differences in race, class, gender, sexuality, and/or nation while attempting to decolonize those differences (Littler & Rottenberg, 2021). Feminist solidarity is concerned with power and patriarchal social structures at global, national, and local scales, including how they produce and reproduce inequities based on intersectional identities (Crenshaw, 2017). Since this edited volume is pedagogically centered on teaching about women’s human rights using social studies trade books, we also devote considerable attention to the (in)visibility and representation of women and girls in the curriculum. As the National Council for the Social Studies (2020) Position Statement on Supporting Curricular Promotion and Intersectional Valuing of Women in History and Current Events notes, despite the fact that “women represent over half the world’s population, the social studies curriculum largely overlooks and underrepresents their stories and perspectives and marginalizes their voices, positions of power, and influence throughout the larger society” (p. 1). In terms of research on women’s rights and education, this chapter advances a discussion of implications and considerations for the role representation in literature has in improving women’s rights in North America and around the world. Girls and women are often less visible than boys and men in school curricula, standards, and textbooks (National Council for the Social Studies, 2020). Accordingly, we problematize and discuss the invisibility of girls and women in textbooks and trade books, and suggest resources and 15

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strategies for countering this invisibility in the classroom by using diverse trade books and literature. Further, we acknowledge that gender is a social construct and, as such, representations of gender in children’s literature can reflect normative standards that may render invisible children and adults with non-binary gender identities. Feminist scholars have problematized western notions of human rights and made valid critiques of approaching human rights from a female/male gender binary. In order to provide a more balanced approach to women’s human rights, it is important to address these concerns and offer suggestions for how to decenter Western and white ideologies about human rights and gender. Accordingly, as we (the authors) discuss “girls/women” and “boys/ men” in this chapter, these terms include those who use personally selected pronouns to signify identification as transgender girls/women, transgender boys/men, genderqueer, and genderfluid. Our intent is not to reify the gender binary when discussing gender representations in text and trade books, but to be fully inclusive of all identities along/within the broad gender spectrum. WOMEN’S HUMAN RIGHTS To address the concept of women’s rights in educational contexts, it is imperative to consider how human rights, as applied to women and girls, have developed and advanced nationally and globally. This edited volume casts its gaze mainly on women’s rights in the United States. However, since women’s rights have largely been defined on a global scale, it is important to understand how supranational doctrines created by the United Nations have influenced U.S. policy and laws that guarantee equitable rights for women. To provide historical context in sequential order, we first focus on the Women’s Rights Movement in the United States before we discuss the emergence of supranational doctrines that affect equitable access to education for women and girls. Then, we explore recent critiques from the fields of gender studies and decolonizing studies to decenter normative Western conceptualizations of human rights and gender. Women’s Rights in the United States In the United States, a distinct and cohesive Women’s Rights Movement emerged after the U.S. Civil War with the 1848 Seneca Falls Woman’s Rights Convention. At the convention, the Declaration of Sentiments was drafted and unanimously endorsed by women’s rights leaders to communicate grievances to the public regarding the dismal status of women in the United States at this time. This document specifically highlighted women’s inferior legal

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status in areas including the right to vote and divorce and economic status, including the right to own property and access higher education (National Park Service, n.d.). Notably, the glaring absence of Indigenous and Black women at the convention underscores the more profound invisibility and exclusion of Women of Color at this time. Frederick Douglass played a prominent role at the convention and was the only Black person to sign the Declaration of Sentiments. However, there is no evidence that Black female advocates for women’s rights were invited to the Seneca Falls Convention (Terborg-Penn, 1998; Tretrault, 2014). Following the signing of the Declaration of Sentiments, the struggle for women’s rights focused on suffrage as a means to provide women with representation as citizens through elective franchise. In 1920, Black and white women were granted the right to vote in the United States. It was not until 1924, with the passage of the Snyder Act, that Indigenous women were granted full citizenship and the right to vote. In 1952, first-generation immigrants, including Asian American women, were guaranteed the right to vote with the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act (see Zhao in this edited volume). Regardless of the passage of these national laws, literacy tests and other means of obstructing voting access plagued women’s suffrage until the extension of the Voting Rights Act in 1975. In addition to suffrage, the Women’s Rights Movement in the 1960s and 1970s continued to champion women’s reproductive rights, equal employment opportunities, equal access to education and athletic programs, and financial self-sufficiency (Eisenberg & Ruthsdotter, 1998/2021). A recent and more cosmopolitan lens for examining human rights has moved away from merely examining the organizational history of women toward focusing on issues related to heteronormative orientations, representation, identity, culture, and difference (Colley, 2019; Schmeichel, 2015). Women’s Human Rights on a Global Scale Since we live in an interdependent world, women’s struggle for human rights is not a phenomenon unique to the United States. The United Nations acknowledges the need for continued work on gender equality and recognizes the intersectional aspects of human rights because women, “including transgender, gender diverse and intersex women, face compounded forms of discrimination—due to factors such as their age, race, ethnicity, disability, or socio-economic status—in addition to gender-based discrimination” (United Nations, 1996−2022a, para. 3). In addition to these issues of representation and intersectionality, the United Nations has made concerted efforts to highlight women’s human rights and gender equity, including forced marriage, gender-based violence, and reproductive health and rights. In terms of gender

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equity and education, the United Nations acknowledges that “without inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong opportunities for all, countries will not achieve gender equality” (United Nations, 1996−2022b, para. 1). To assist with realizing gender equitable education, the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4 aims to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” and Sustainable Development Goal 5 seeks to achieve “gender equality and empowering all women and girls” (UN Women, n.d.). To reach these lofty goals by 2030, the UN has identified specific targets, including supporting equitable access to early childhood, primary, and secondary education for all girls and boys. In their support for lifelong learning opportunities, the UN aims to ensure affordable access to tertiary education for all men and women, including access to technical, vocational, and university institutions (UN Women, n.d.). Unfortunately, a UN Women (2022) report on the progress of these Sustainable Development Goals suggests that gender goals in many regions of the world have stagnated or even reversed. In fact, the report indicates that “biased gender norms and stereotypes in curricula, textbooks, and teaching and learning practices” continue to limit career and employment opportunities for women (p. 5). Throughout the twentieth century and to this day, human rights on a global scale continue to be clarified and contested as a result of global conflicts and the unraveling of Western colonialism. According to the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights, human rights are grounded in the “recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family” (UN, 1948, Preamble). These rights are considered universal because they are derived from shared humanity and struggles (Osler, 2015). However, feminist critiques of the Sustainable Development goals point to the UN’s failure to address structural causes and social norms that reproduce gender inequalities (Esquivel, 2016). These critiques also suggest that the Sustainable Development goals do not offer a transformational approach to gender-related economic inequalities within and between countries, nor do they provide solutions to address the feminization of poverty (Center for Women’s Global Leadership, 2017). Additionally, feminist scholars have critiqued the United Nations notion of universality as ignorant of the realities of colonial and hegemonic discourses and asymmetrical power relationships where non-Western women are othered, objectified, exoticized, and/or viewed as victims without acknowledging their agency within social contexts (Mohanty, 2003; Osler, 2015; Spivak, 1988). Such “claims to universality in human rights discourse presuppose how oppression manifests culturally, socially, and politically” without a nuanced and intersectional understanding of differences between race, ethnicity, class, and geography (McCoy, 2015, p. 58).

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FEMINIST SOLIDARITY THEORY AND EDUCATION Informed by feminist solidarity theory, the quest for women’s rights has shifted to reflect an increased awareness of patriarchal social structures and forms of structural violence against women, including environmental degradation, war, famine, exclusion from education, and global capitalism and poverty (Keefer & Bousalis, 2015; Mohanty, 2003). From a feminist solidarity lens, scholars are interested in examining: The interconnectedness of the histories, experiences, and struggles of U.S. women of color, white women, and women [from the less developed world/ global South]. Thus, the focus is not just on the intersections of race, class, gender, nation, and sexuality in different communities of women but on mutuality and coimplication, which suggests attentiveness to the interweaving of the histories of these communities. In addition, the focus is simultaneously on individual and collective experiences of oppression and exploitation and of struggle and resistance. (Mohanty, 2003, p. 522)

In the United States, public education policy reflects a patriarchal social structure and “the present-day vulnerability of public school teachers and the students they serve” (Brown & Stern, 2018, p. 175). As Brown and Stern (2018) note, to view teachers work as women’s work subjects women to “embody and support state-sanctioned ideologies of gender, class, and race” (p. 192). For teachers concerned with the nexus of women’s human rights and education, a critical lens grounded in feminist theory provides a means to decipher structural aspects of schooling that render women and girls powerless and invisible in education, both in terms of agency as workers and representation in the curriculum. When teachers have the autonomy to supplement curriculum with trade books that provide historically accurate narratives and a more equitable representation of women and girls into the curriculum, they support students’ ability to critique normative narratives of gender and human rights (McCoy, 2015). Accordingly, McCoy (2015) notes: What stories we teach and how we teach those stories in our classrooms matter greatly. Therefore, if we wish to affect the kinds of change we hope to see in students’ perception and understanding of social justice and human rights, we must consider the choices we make for the contents of our curricula and how we teach students to critically read and write in our classrooms. (p. 67)

When teachers select and use trade books in order to decenter the dominance of male narratives in state-sponsored curriculum and textbooks, it represents an act of resistance on their part. Social studies teachers in many states have been at the center of attacks on politically charged concerns with teaching

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about structural causes of inequality in schools, including those stemming from gender discrimination, racism, and intersectionality (Dunn, 2021; National Council for the Social Studies, 2021). Regardless, as Schmeichel (2015) notes, feminist perspectives are exceptionally relevant to social studies education due to their “responsiveness to positionality, situatedness, identity, location, and history—the same kinds of understandings upon which the implementation of multiple perspectives in history education relies” (p. 2−3). Most importantly, feminist perspectives decenter heteronormative and normative male curricula and standards and allow issues of gender, equity, and antifeminist rhetoric to be brought to the forefront of classroom discussions about representation, human rights, and civic life. Social studies education scholars have observed a disheartening lack of feminist perspectives and the absence of women and girls in social studies textbooks and state standards (National Council for the Social Studies, 2020). Stereotypical representations and/or the absence of women and girls in U.S. history curricula and textbooks betray society’s normative beliefs about the role of women (Schmeichel, 2015; Schmidt, 2012). For example, when women are represented in the curriculum and textbooks in passive roles or relegated to the domestic sphere, it marginalizes their accomplishments as leaders in socio-political movements and their contributions to advancements in technology and the labor market. Thus, it is imperative that social studies educators are aware of the power of the manifest and latent curriculum to define, produce, and reproduce gender norms in our society. Social studies teachers can take informed action to incorporate feminist perspectives and more inclusive gender representations in the curriculum through the incorporation of trade books in their lessons. As opposed to the curriculum-driven expository format of textbooks, trade books often provide a more humanizing narrative of historical figures that allows issues related to women’s human rights and gender equity to be presented in a more multidimensional, engaging, and thought-provoking manner (Chick, 2008). THE (IN)VISIBILITY OF GIRLS AND WOMEN In Classroom Textbooks Textbooks play a central role in education. In particular, history textbooks play a vital role in supporting students’ learning about the past. These types of texts are widely used in classrooms to illustrate historical information, concepts, skills, and to facilitate learning. As such, history textbooks act as channels through which legitimated past knowledge, as contained and/or presented within curricula, is shared with students (Apple, 2012). Thus, textbooks are powerful historical, cultural, ideological, and political classroom

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tools and resources. Yet, the American history that most students are taught in school is often incomplete and/or misleading and incorrect. Gender bias is pervasive in education and classroom textbooks often reflect outdated and exclusionary attitudes that are predominantly white male-oriented (Gospe, 2015). Accordingly, Dr. Gerda Lerner, the late feminist scholar, suggested in an interview (Stimpson, 1981) that: Everything that explains the world has in fact explained a world that does not exist, a world in which men are at the center of the human enterprise and women are at the margin “helping” them. Such a world does not exist—never has. (p. 95)

In other words, what has happened throughout history and what we have learned about this history, are often two very different things. There is a perceptible imbalance in the importance given to men’s roles as opposed to women’s roles in the history books used in schools (Bernard & Flint, 2020). In fact, research has found that female heroes and their historical contributions to freedom movements are rarely seen in traditional classroom textbooks (Allard et al., 2004; Bernard & Flint, 2020; Chick, 2006; Clabough et al., 2017; Ullah et al., 2014). This historical invisibility is especially true for Girls and Women of Color, and Black girls and women in particular. For instance, Sojourner Truth, Harriet Purvis, and Maria W. Stewart played pivotal roles in the Women’s Suffrage Movement. Despite this fact, their contributions are largely downplayed, ignored, and/or overlooked in most history books. Similarly, Marsha P. Johnson, a Black transgender activist who is now credited for starting the Stonewall riots in 1969, sparking the LGBTQ liberation movement, was not given proper credit for her critical contributions until after her passing. In recent times, Black women have been behind some of the world’s most impactful social justice movements, including Black Lives Matter, yet their contributions have been downplayed and/or ignored in a similar manner (Coles & Pasek, 2020; Elassar, 2020). Throughout history, girls and women have been portrayed as bystanders rather than active participants and key players. When girls and women are represented in history books, they are often minimized in terms of their contributions and/or portrayed in stereotypical ways—in subservient domestic roles, as inferior, inadequate, unintelligent, unmotivated, non-essential, meek/weak, voiceless/powerless, etc. (O’Kelly, 1983). Consequently, this absence of and/or the inaccurate portrayals of historically prominent women’s stories inhibits students’ abilities to move away from stereotypical views of women in contemporary society (Ullah et al., 2014). The lack of girls and women in textbooks and curricula sends a very clear message about the relative stature of boys/men and girls/ women in our society. These textbooks and curricula, focused mainly on

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the accomplishments of white males, expand upon the message that the historical and contemporary contributions of girls and women simply do not matter. If education reflects our societal values and if textbooks provide the foundation(s) of education, then history books are perpetuating the notion that girls and women are worthless in comparison to boys and men. In Trade Books Textbooks, by design, are used for the purpose of instruction. Trade books, including picturebooks/storybooks, novels, graphic novels, and young adult literature, are published for a general audience, and are used primarily for entertainment, and are often used across grade levels to supplement textbooks and curricula (Short et al., 2014). Trade books play an important role in the process of learning and identity development in early, elementary, and secondary classroom contexts (Filipović, 2018; Ruterana, 2012). They cover “. . . topics of relevance and interest to children through prose and poetry, fiction and nonfiction. They are books that children often see as reflecting their life experiences, understandings and emotions’’ (Short et al., 2014, p. 4). Yet, just like textbooks, girls and women have historically been missing from or stereotyped within the pages of these books. Gender inequalities and stereotypes have historically been present in the content, character depictions, language, and illustrations in trade books. Research suggests that up until fairly recently, (mainly white) boys/men have been included in trade book titles nearly twice as often as girls/women (Chick & Corle, 2012; Ernst, 1995; Frawley, 2008). Similarly, children’s book illustrations have historically contained significantly more images of boys and men than girls and women, and when girls and women were depicted in illustrations, they were generally shown in stereotypical ways, often performing domestic chores (Poarch & Monk-Turner, 2001). Gender bias in trade books used in the classroom can be harmful to students (Diekman & Murnen, 2004). Notable children’s author Mem Fox (1993) suggests that “everything we read, from sexist advertisements and women’s magazines to romance novels and children’s books, constructs us, makes us who we are, by presenting our image of ourselves as girls and women, as boys and men” (p. 84). Children learn to ‘do girl’ and/or ‘do boy’ through their memberships in multiple communities of practice, including the classroom, which often enculturate them into these roles (Blaise, 2005; Flint, 2020; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Paetcher, 2003). Trade books can provide students with understandings and expectations related to gender roles and identities, which can help to shape their conceptions of their own gendered places in society in positive and/or negative ways (Filipović, 2018; McCabe, et al., 2011). Accordingly, Mem Fox (1993) further suggests that “We who

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write children’s books, and we who teach through literature, need to be sure we are opening the doors to full human potential, not closing them” (p. 84). Classroom teachers must make purposeful trade book selections that depict the full range of human potential and that share the full and diverse lives, experiences, and stories of girls and women (Chick & Corle, 2012). COUNTERING INVISIBILITY WITH INCLUSIVE AND DIVERSE TRADE BOOKS In her groundbreaking piece, “Mirrors, Windows, and Sliding Glass Doors,” Dr. Rudine Sims Bishop (1990) suggests that: Books are sometimes windows, offering views of worlds that may be real or imagined, familiar or strange. These windows are also sliding glass doors, and readers have only to walk through in imagination to become part of whatever world has been created or recreated by the author. When lighting conditions are just right, however, a window can also be a mirror. Literature transforms human experience and reflects it back to us, and in that reflection we can see our own lives and experiences as part of the larger human experience. Reading, then, becomes a means of self-affirmation, and readers often seek their mirrors in books. (p. ix)

This apt metaphor suggests that books can transform the human experience and reflect it back to readers (as mirrors), offer views of real and imagined and/or strange and familiar worlds (as windows), and allow readers to walk into books and become a part of the world created by the author (as sliding glass doors). This speaks to the importance of all children being able to see themselves and others in the books that they read. This metaphor also asks educators and scholars to consider who has multiple mirrors and whose mirrors are singular, distorted, broken, or missing. It begs us to consider which children must “walk through texts in search of empowering images they may never find” and to reflect upon the messages we foreground when those images are absent and/or stereotypical (Toliver, 2021, p. 29). While Bishop used the metaphor mainly in regard to race, it can also be thought about in ways that move beyond race. Just as there are multiple aspects to our identities, there are numerous ways that we can see ourselves reflected (or not reflected) in books (McNair, 2016; McNair & Edwards, 2021), including those related to gender. According to the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), including girls and women in the dialogue about history is important for helping students develop their own identities and for advocating for important women’s rights issues (NCSS, 2010). As noted above, although stories do matter (Fox & Short, 2003), not all stories

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are equally presented in today’s classrooms. “The absence, in education, of the history of women seriously deprives women” of knowing role models and “a proud heritage from which we can draw inspiration and courage as we face contemporary issues and struggles” (Lerner, 1979, p. 109−110). When stories, voices, and histories are missing from classroom conversations, those who are left out (girls and women) often “infer that they are undervalued in our society, and those whose lives are constantly reflected (boys and men) gain a false sense of their own importance, a sense that they are the privileged ‘norm.’” (Bishop, 2016, p. 120). To counter this, teachers can use updated, relevant, inclusive, and diverse trade books in the classroom that offer students opportunities to expand their learning and examine critical issues throughout history, including gender and race. Critically choosing and purposefully using diverse and inclusive trade books can provide students access to the mirrors, windows, and sliding glass doors that are missing in their classroom texts. For example, teachers can integrate trade books that have won the NCSS Septima Clark Women in Literature Award. Authors who have won this award are recognized for producing trade books that center the challenges and achievements of women, nationally and internationally (NCSS, 2022). By utilizing the strength of high-quality literature, teachers have the opportunity to include and highlight the voices and histories of girls and women, allow all students to see themselves in the pages of the books read in their classrooms, share worlds and possibilities beyond the pages, and support students as they interact with/in/through new realities (Jiménez, 2021). Doing the Work Researchers have found that students are much more engaged in instruction and activities when they find themselves in the books and/or topics presented in their classrooms (Dutro, 2001, 2009; Emdin, 2016; Souto-Manning, 2013). The power of windows, mirrors, and sliding glass doors applies to representations of all aspects of identity, including (but not limited to) gender. In order to ‘do the work’ of expanding gender representation in social studies (and other) classrooms, teachers must first actively consider and take account of what representation is already present in their curriculum, textbooks, and trade books, and what is missing. They must then ask themselves how they can expand these curricula and texts to include a wider range of human experiences and potentialities (Ryan & Hermann−Wilmarth, 2018). After these questions are considered, teachers must critically and purposefully reflect upon their classroom trade book selections. One way to avoid problematic texts that exclude or stereotype girls and women is to prioritize texts written by women authors and to purposefully include and highlight

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book authors and characters who are Women of Color and who represent the LGBTQ+ community. Further, teachers can draw from proven resources such as We Need Diverse Books (diversebooks​.o​rg), Humanizing Stories (@ healingfictions), #DisruptTexts, Septima Clark Book Awards, and the NCSS Notable Trade Books for Young People database (https://www​.socialstudies​ .org​/notable​-trade​-books) to choose diverse trade books for their classroom instruction. We recognize that, in today’s political landscape of school boards and administrators banning books that foreground LGBTQ+ characters and themes, allude to Critical Race Theory, center Characters of Color, highlight minoritized religions, and generally make white, Christian, cisgender, and heterosexuals uncomfortable, it can be difficult to introduce and use diverse trade books with these authors/characters/topics in the classroom. Yet, many educators, including librarians, have been essential in ‘doing the work’ of pushing back against the censorship of literature in schools. They attend school board meetings, voice their concerns to legislatures, and vote. They advocate for diverse literature on local, state, and national levels, and they build relationships with families and students in order to host critical discussions about banned and/or challenged books. Many educators have also been essential supporters of students as they raise their own voices in this conversation. This is important and necessary work. Children’s book author Christopher Myers (2014) says that young people view books as maps. They “create, through the stories they are given, an atlas of their world, of their relationship with others, of their possible destinations” (Myers, 2014, n.p.). ‘Doing the work’ and using diverse and inclusive trade books in the classroom as road maps can offer young people alternative landscapes in which to see themselves, leading them, as readers, to undiscovered locations and new destinations (Marshall, 2016). As educators, we have a responsibility to chart alternative landscapes and possibilities with young people and to prepare them for and support them on their journeys.

CONCLUSION In her introduction to a special issue of Social Education focused on women’s suffrage, Crocco (2020) posed several pertinent questions related to the future of feminist perspectives and women’s representation in social studies. She suggests that social studies educators consider and ask: to what extent does the curriculum out of which [civic] issues have emerged include, marginalize, or silence the stories and voices of women? Of Women of Color? Of LGBTQ+individuals? Trade books provide a pathway to improve the visibility of women and girls in the social studies curriculum and to expose

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students feminist perspectives (Chick, 2008). Trade books can also challenge gendered norms and expose students to rich and varied narratives of women and girls who have served as leaders to overcome obstacles in the quest for social, economic, and civic advancement. Thus, in this edited volume, chapter authors have synthesized compelling narratives of women who fought to advance human rights in the United States with instructional strategies aimed at strengthening students’ literacy and disciplinary thinking skills as advocated for in the C3 Framework (NCSS, 2013). The following chapters highlight women from different eras and diverse backgrounds as well as divergent interests and approaches in terms of human rights. Nevertheless, at the theoretical forefront of these chapters is the understanding that meaningful representation is necessary and empowering and that students should have access to exemplary literature and engaging strategies so they can explore and examine women’s struggle for human rights from critical perspectives.

REFERENCES Allard, J., Clark, R., & Mahoney, T. (2004). How much of the sky? Women in American high school history textbooks from the 1960s, 1980s and 1990s. Social Education, 68(1), 57-67. Apple, M. W. (2012). The culture and commerce of the textbook. In M. W. Apple (Ed.), Knowledge, power, and education (pp. 152-167). Routledge. Bernard, A. M., & Flint, T. K. (2020). ‘Unscripting’ the curriculum: A teacher’s reflections on moving toward culturally relevant pedagogy. In T. K. Flint & N. Keefer (Eds.), Critical perspectives on teaching in the Southern United States (pp. 53-65). Lexington Books. Bishop, R. S. (1990). Mirrors, windows, and sliding glass doors. Perspectives: Choosing and using books for the classroom, 6(3), ix–xi. Bishop, R. S. (2016). A ride with Nana and CJ: Engagement, appreciation, and social action. Language Arts, 94(2), 120. Blaise, M. (2005). Playing it straight: Uncovering gender discourses in the early childhood classroom. Routledge. Brown, A.E., & Stern, M. (2018). Teachers’ work as women’s work: Reflections on gender, activism, and solidarity in new teacher movements. Feminist Formations, 30(3), 172–197. Center for Women’s Global Leadership. (2017). Feminist response and recommendations: Proposed goals and targets on sustainable development for the post 2015 development agenda. Center for Women’s Global Leadership. Chick, K. A. (2006). Gender balance in K-12 American history textbooks. Social Studies Research and Practice, 1(3), 284-290. Chick, K.A. (2008). Teaching women’s history through literature: Standards-based lesson plans for grades K-12. NCSS.

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Chick, K. A., & Corle, S. (2012). A gender analysis of NCSS Notable Trade Books for the intermediate grades. Social Studies Research and Practice, 7(2), 1-14. https://doi​.org​/10​.1108​/SSRP​-02​-2012​-B0001 Clabough, J., Turner, T., & Carano, K. (2017). When the lion roars everyone listens: Scary good middle school social studies. Association for Middle Level Education. Coles, S. M., & Pasek, J. (2020). Intersectional invisibility revisited: How group prototypes lead to the erasure and exclusion of Black women. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 6(4), 314–324. https://doi​.org​/10​.1037​/tps0000256 Colley, L. (2019). (Un)Restricting feminism: High school students’ definitions of gender and feminism in the context of the historic struggle for women’s rights. Theory & Research in Social Education, 47(3), 426-455, DOI: 10.1080/00933104.2019.1593268 Crenshaw, K. (2017). On intersectionality: Essential writings. The New Press. Crocco, M.S. (2020). Looking back, looking forward: The limitations of past perspectives. Social Education, 84(4), 192-196. Diekman, A., & Murnen, S. (2004). Learning to be little women and little men: The inequitable gender equality of nonsexist children’s literature. Sex Roles, 50(5/6), 373. Dunn, J. (2021). Critical Race Theory collides with the law: Can a school require students to “confess their privilege” in class? Education Next, 21(4), 6-7. Dutro, E. (2001). “But that’s a girl’s book!” Exploring gender boundaries in children’s reading practices. The Reading Teacher, 55(4), 376-384. Dutro, E. (2009). Children writing “hard times”: Lived experiences of poverty and the class-privileged assumptions of a mandated curriculum. Language Arts, 87(2), 89-98. Eisenberg, B., & Ruthsdotter, M. (1998/2021). History of the women’s rights movement. National Women’s History Alliance. https://nat​iona​lwom​ensh​isto​ryal​liance​ .org​/history​-of​-the​-womens​-rights​-movement/ Elassar, A. (2020). Black women are often overlooked by social justice movements, a new study finds. CNN. https://www​.cnn​.com​/2020​/07​/18​/us​/black​-women​-overlooked​-social​-justice​-movements​-trnd​/index​.html Emdin, C. (2016). For white folks who teach in the hood and the rest of y’all, too: Reality pedagogy and urban education. Beacon Press. Ernst, S. (1995). Gender issues in books for children and young adults. In S. Lehr (Ed.), Battling dragons: Issues and controversy in children’s literature (pp. 67-78). Heinemann. Esquivel, V. (2016). Power and the sustainable development goals: A feminist analysis. Gender & Development, 24(1), 9-23. DOI: 10.1080/13552074.2016.1147872 Filipović, K. (2018). Gender representations in children’s books: Case of an early childhood setting. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 32(3), 310-325. Flint, T. K. (2020). Children’s critical reflections on gender and beauty through responsive play in the classroom context. Early Childhood Education Journal, 48(6), 739-749. Fox, M. (1993). Men who weep, boys who dance: The gender agenda between the lines in children’s literature. Language Arts, 70(2), 84-88.

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Fox, D. L., & Short, K. G. (2003). Stories matter: The complexity of cultural authenticity in children’s literature. National Council of Teachers of English. Frawley, T. (2008). Gender schema and prejudicial recall: How children misremember, fabricate, and distort gendered picture book information. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 22(3), 291-303. Gospe, M. (2015, October 30). Women underrepresented in history books. University of Idaho Women’s Center. https://uiwomenscenter​.wordpress​.com​/2015​/10​/30​/ women​-misrepresented​-in​-history​-textbooks/ hooks, b. (1986). Sisterhood: Political solidarity between women. Feminist Review, 23(2), 125–138. https://doi​.org​/10​.1057​/fr​.1986​.25 Jiménez, L. M. (2021). Mirrors and windows with texts and readers: Intersectional social justice at work in the classroom. Language Arts, 98(3), 156-161. Keefer, N., & Bousalis, R. (2015). How do you get your water?: Structural violence pedagogy and women’s access to water. The Social Studies, 106(6), 256-263. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press. Lerner, G. (1979, December). Lost from the ‘official’ record. Ms. Magazine. Littler J., & Rottenberg, C. (2021). Feminist solidarities: Theoretical and practical complexities. Gender, Work and Organization, 28, 864–877. https://doi​.org​/10​ .1111​/gwao Marshall, E. (2016). Counter-storytelling through graphic life writing. Language Arts, 94(2), 79-93. McCabe, J., Fairchild, E., Grauerholz, L., Pescosolido, B. A., & Tope, D. (2011). Gender in twentieth-century children’s books: Patterns of disparity in titles and central characters. Gender & Society, 25(2), 197–226. doi:10.1177/ 0891243211398358 McCoy, S. (2015). “Reading the ‘Outsider Within’: Counter-narratives of human rights in Black women’s fiction.” The Radical Teacher, 103, 56–70. McNair J. C. (2016). #WeNeedMirrorsAndWindows: Diverse classroom libraries for K-6 libraries. The Reading Teacher, 70(3), 375–381. McNair, J. C., & Edwards, P. A. (2021). The lasting legacy of Rudine Sims Bishop: Mirrors, windows, sliding glass doors, and more. Literacy Research: Theory, Method, and Practice, 70(1), 202-212. Mohanty, C. T. (2003). “Under Western eyes” revisited: Feminist solidarity through anticapitalist struggles. Signs, 28(2), 499-535. https://doi​-org​.ezproxyprod​.ucs​ .louisiana​.edu​/10​.1086​/342914 Myers, C. (2014, March 15). The apartheid of children’s literature. The New York Times. https://www​.nytimes​.com​/2014​/03​/16​/opinion​/sunday​/the​-apartheid​-of​ -childrens​-literature​.html NCSS (2010). National Curriculum Standards for Social Studies: A framework for teaching, learning, and assessment. Author. National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). (2013). The College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Standards: Guidance for enhancing the rigor of K-12 civics, economics, geography, and history. Author. National Council for the Social Studies. (2020). Supporting curricular promotion and intersectional valuing of women in history and current events: A position

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statement of the National Council for the Social Studies. https://www​.socialstudies​ .org​/position​-statements​/supporting​-curricular​-promotion​-and​-intersectional​-valuing​-women​-history​-and National Council for the Social Studies. (2021). A response to the attacks on social studies education in state legislatures and local boards of education. https://www​ .socialstudies​.org​/current​-events​-response​/response​-attacks​-social​-studies​-education​-state​-legislatures​-and​-local National Council for the Social Studies. (2022). The Septima Clark Women in Literature Award, 2022. https://www​.socialstudies​.org​/social​-education​/86​/3​/septima​ -clark​-women​-literature​-award​-2022 National Park Service (n.d.). Declaration of sentiments. https://www​.nps​.gov​/wori​/ learn​/historyculture​/declaration​-of​-sentiments​.htm O’Kelly, C. G. (1983). Gender role stereotypes in fine art: a content analysis of art history books. Qualitative Sociology, 6(2), 136-148. Osler, A. (2015). Human rights education, postcolonial scholarship, and action for social justice. Theory & Research in Social Education, 43(2), 244-274. DOI: 10.1080/00933104.2015.1034393 Paetcher, C. (2003). Masculinities and femininities as community of practice. Women’s Studies International Forum, 26(1), 69–77. Poarch, R., & Monk-Turner, E. (2001). Gender roles in children’s literature: A review of non-awarding “easy-to-read” books. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 16(1), 70- 76. Ruterana, P. C. (2012). Children’s reflections on gender equality in fairy tales: A Rwanda case study. Journal of Pan African Studies, 4, 85–101. Ryan, C. L., & Hermann-Wilmarth, J. M. (2018). Reading the rainbow: LGBTQinclusive literacy instruction in the elementary classroom. Teachers College Press. Schmeichel, M. (2015). Skirting around critical feminist rationales for teaching women in social studies. Theory & Research in Social Education, 43(1), 1-27. DOI: 10.1080/00933104.2014.1002648 Schmidt, S. (2012). Am I a woman? The normalisation of woman in US history. Gender and Education, 24, 707–724. doi:10.1080/09540253.2012.674491 Short, K. G., Lynch-Brown, C., & Tomlinson, C. M. (Eds.) (2014). Essentials of children’s literature (8th edition). Pearson. Souto-Manning, M. (2013). Multicultural teaching in the early childhood classroom. Teachers College Press. Spivak G. C. (1988). Can the subaltern speak? Macmillan. Stimpson, C. R. (1981, September). Gerda Lerner on the future of our past. Ms. Magazine, 10, 94-95. Terborg-Penn, R. (1998). African American women in the struggle for the vote, 1850–1920. Indiana University Press. Toliver, S. R. (2021). On mirrors, windows, and telescopes. Council Chronicle, 31(1), 29-30. Tretrault, L. (2014). The myth of Seneca Falls: Memory and the Women’s Suffrage Movement, 1848-1898. University of North Carolina Press.

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Ullah, H., Ali, J., & Naz, A. (2014). Gender representation in children’s books: A critical review of empirical studies. World Applied Sciences Journal, 29(1), 134-141. United Nations. (1948). Universal declaration of human rights. https://www​.un​.org​/ en​/udhrbook​/pdf​/udhr​_booklet​_en​_web​.pdf United Nations. (1996-2022a). About gender equality and the human rights of women and LGBTI persons. https://www​.ohchr​.org​/en​/women United Nations. (1996-2022b). Education and cultural rights. https://www​.ohchr​.org​ /en​/topic​/education​-and​-cultural​-rights UN Women. (n.d.) SDG 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. https://www​.unwomen​.org​/en​/news​/in​ -focus​/women​-and​-the​-sdgs​/sdg​-4​-quality​-education UN Women. (2022). Progress on the sustainable development goals: The gender snapshot 2022. https://www​.unwomen​.org​/en​/digital​-library​/publications​/2022​/09​/ progress​-on​-the​-sustainable​-development​-goals​-the​-gender​-snapshot​-2022

Chapter 2

Thoroughly Modern Nellie Bly Trailblazing Journalist, Feminist, and Activist Caroline C. Sheffield

For nearly a decade, social studies educators and the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) have embraced the inquiry-driven approach to instruction called for in The College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework (NCSS, 2013). The C3 Framework outlines a four-stage inquiry process that tasks students with asking and answering questions, employing a variety of discipline-specific literacy strategies to gather and synthesize information in order to make supported claims and share findings. The C3 Framework not only highlights the central role asking and answering questions play in the social studies (Swan et al., 2018), it also encourages the development of disciplinary literacies, which are the literacy practices employed by experts in a given field. Historians, geographers, political scientists, and economists all approach texts in a different way, with different processes, questions, and lenses (Hubbard, 2019; Journell et al., 2015; NCSS, 2013; Nokes, 2022). Proponents of disciplinary literacy argue that in order for students to be truly literate, they are going to have to move beyond generic content area literacy strategies (Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008). Instead, students in a history class should be taught to approach texts the way a historian does, using sourcing, corroboration, contextualization, and perspective recognition (Nokes, 2022). An effective way to employ disciplinary-specific literacy practices in the social studies class is through the use of trade books (Nokes, 2022), which are books available for purchase or loan in bookstores and libraries (McGowan & Guzzetti, 1991). Trade books allow teachers to introduce students to lesserknown topics and people (Chick, 2008), explore multiple perspectives about a specific event or topic using a set of trade books (Sheffield & Clabough, 2022a), offer students a way to make emotional connections to events and people of the past (Brugar & Clabough, 2017), and are more interesting and 31

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better written than most textbooks (Bickford & Schuette, 2016; Palmer & Stewart, 1997). This chapter explores the life and career of famed journalist Nellie Bly using the graphic novel The Incredible Nellie Bly: Journalist, Investigator, Feminist, and Philanthropist (Cimino & Algozzino, 2021). Nellie Bly was the first and best-known of the female stunt journalists of the late nineteenth century (Logan, 1998; Lutes, 2006). In an era when most women were “wellbehaved” (Ulrich, 2008), anonymously raising families, running households, or working as teachers and factory workers, Nellie Bly did the opposite. She refused to conform to societal expectations and remain anonymous, ensuring that she would not be one of the “well-behaved” women forgotten by history (Vengadasalam, 2018). During her lifetime, her writing made her one of the most famous women in the United States. A century after her death, she is still remembered for her daring, and frequently dangerous, exploits as a journalist uncovering and exposing injustices against women and other marginalized groups (Kroeger, 1994). This chapter is organized into three sections. The first section provides an overview of graphic novels and comics as instructional tools, exploring the use of graphic novels to engage students in historical literacy. The second section offers an overview of Nellie Bly’s life and career. The third section outlines an inquiry-driven lesson sequence using excerpts from The Incredible Nellie Bly (Cimino & Algozzino, 2021) graphic novel as an anchor text in conjunction with selected primary and secondary sources. Materials to teach the suggested lesson and additional Nellie Bly-related resources are also provided in appendix D.

GRAPHIC NOVELS AND THE SOCIAL STUDIES Comics are incredibly popular. In 2021, sales of print comics grew by 65 percent to a record breaking $2 billion (Salkowitz, 2022). Interestingly, contrary to what is seen with other print-based media, printed comics have not been adversely impacted by rise of digital comics. Indeed, print comics are thriving in conjunction with their digital counterparts (DiChristopher, 2016). Additionally, they are regularly mined by Hollywood. Based on box office revenue, adapting comics and graphic novels is both a frequent and successful endeavor. In 2021, the four movies with the highest domestic box office revenue were based on Marvel characters (IMBD, n.d.). The movie with the third highest lifetime gross box office is the John Watts (2021) directed Spiderman: No Way Home (IMBD, 2022). What makes this a truly amazing feat is that it was released in the midst of a world-wide pandemic.

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Graphic novels are book-length comics of either original work or a reprint of comics within a cohesive story arc (Eisner, 2008; Weiner, 2003). Comics convey information through images, icons, and text. Narratives are told through the action occurring within the panels and the implied action within the gutters between the panels (McCloud, 1993). Western comics, as opposed to Manga, are read left to right, from top to bottom, and front to back. Manga, a Japanese form of comics is read from right to left and from back to front. Contrary to the idea that comics are simplistic texts for young audiences, graphic novels can be highly complex, addressing significant issues, weaving multiple narratives, and employing the intentional use of symbolic imagery. The possible complexity of graphic novels is exemplified by the Pulitzer Prize winner Maus II: And Here My Troubles Began (Spiegelman, 1992), which tells a multilevel narrative addressing the lives of the author and his father, and readily uses both symbols and icons throughout the novel to visually convey locations, people, and events (Spiegelman, 2011). Beyond the omnipresent superheroes of Marvel and DC Comics, there are graphic novels in every literary genre, including non-fiction, science fiction/ fantasy, romance, historical fiction, action/thriller, and even horror (Sheffield et al., 2015). There is a plethora of graphic novels appropriate for use in the social studies. There are reference texts like The Great American Documents: Volume I: 1620–1830 (Ashby & Colón, 2014), non-fiction texts such as Gettysburg: The Graphic Novel (Butzer, 2008), biographies like The Life of Frederick Douglass (Walker et al., 2019), memoirs such as Darkroom (Weaver, 2012), and historical fiction like Laika (Abadzis, 2007). Each of the books listed above would be appropriate for a U.S. History class, addressing topics as diverse as the nation’s origin and slavery to the civil rights movement and the Space Race. The content and images of graphic novels like the ones listed above offer teachers a number of pathways to develop historical literacy and historical empathy. We know that students respond emotionally to images, which is helpful when encouraging the development of students’ historical empathy skills (Endacott & Brooks, 2013). However, some photographic images can be too intense for students to process, possibly resulting in emotional trauma (Miles, 2019). Fortunately, their affective connection with images is not limited to photographs, students have also been observed making emotional connections with graphic novels (Chisholm et al., 2017). The images drawn in a graphic novel, while often realistic, are not likely to seem as violent, lessening the possibility of trauma associated with graphic photographs. Additionally, if the graphic novel is a memoir, which some of the most famous are, such as Persepolis (Satrapi, 2004), Maus I & II (Spiegelman, 1986, 1992), and March Books 1–3 (Lewis, et al., 2013, 2015, 2016), it offers the reader a window into the author’s perspective on the depicted event.

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When analyzing a graphic novel, students must examine the images, the text, and even the way the author structures the panels to understand the narrative being told. The centrality of elements beyond text allows for all students, even those who struggle with text-based reading, access to the narrative (Sheffield et al., 2015) and the opportunity to analyze the document for the author’s perspective. Trade books should not stand alone when used to teach history. It is imperative that when using a trade book, whether informational text, novel, picture book, or graphic novel, supplementary materials should be included, allowing students the opportunity to corroborate information across texts (Sheffield & Clabough, 2022b). Including appropriate primary and secondary sources encourages students to compare documents, determine accuracy, and look for bias and perspective. The corroboration process is an important facet of historical literacy (Nokes, 2022) and the larger Inquiry Arc of the C3 Framework (NCSS, 2013). The following lesson sequence utilizes several primary sources, in combination with a short video, and excerpts from the Cimino and Algozzino (2021) graphic novel, The Incredible Nellie Bly to investigate how she resisted the confines placed on women in the late nineteenth century. In doing so, Nellie Bly emerged as a successful journalist, who was not only famous, but through the stories she chose to tell advocated for the marginalized and those at risk.

WHO WAS NELLIE BLY? Nellie Bly was the pen name of Elizabeth Jane Cochran, arguably the most famous journalist of the late nineteenth century. Born on May 5, 1864, in Cochran’s Mill, a small town in Western Pennsylvania named for her father, Judge Michael Cochran. Elizabeth Cochran’s early life was one of comfort and prosperity. Two months before her sixth birthday, her life abruptly changed. Judge Cochrane died in 1870 without a will to delineate how the estate should be distributed. In order to divide the sizable estate among his widow and his fifteen children (ten from his first marriage), all properties were sold, and assets were distributed. Suddenly, Mary Jane Cochran (Elizabeth’s mother) and her children were left with little, existing on the small, fixed allotment guaranteed to her as a widow with children (Kroeger, 1994). The disparity between the family’s life before and after Judge Cochran’s death was significant. In an attempt to provide support for her family in the way typically available to women, Mary Jane Cochran married U.S. Civil War veteran, John Jackson Ford. Throughout their marriage, Ford was intoxicated and aggressive. He both emotionally and physically abused Mary Jane, calling her a “whore” or a “bitch,” assaulting her, and threatening to kill her. He even held a

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loaded gun on Elizabeth’s older brother, Albert. Approximately six years after marrying Ford, Mary Jane filed for divorce. Both Elizabeth and Albert testified in court as witnesses to the abuse they observed their stepfather inflict on their mother. At the time, divorce was rare, and a divorce petitioned by a woman, was rarer still. However, in light of the over-whelming evidence of abuse, Mary Jane was granted a divorce from Ford (Bradner, 2018; Kroeger, 1994). While both events, her father’s death, and her mother’s marriage to Ford were terrible, they helped to form the woman who would become Nellie Bly. After observing her mother struggle through the loss of her father and a disastrous marriage, Elizabeth Cochrane vowed that she would be self-sufficient. She would not rely on a man to support her or define her life. She started the training to become a teacher but had to leave school due to a lack of funds. She worked sporadically for four years in the Pittsburgh area, where her family relocated after the divorce, struggling to find a way to support herself. That all changed with a letter to the editor. In 1885, Elizabeth Cochran, writing as “Lonely Orphan Girl” penned a blistering response to an article in The Pittsburgh Dispatch written by Erasmus Wilson. In response to a letter from an “Anxious Father,” who was concerned with what to do with his five unmarried daughters, Wilson wrote an essay entitled “What are Women Good For” suggesting that a woman’s value is limited to the home. The managing editor was impressed with her response and published an excerpt from her letter, asking the author to come to the paper. When Elizabeth Cochran arrived at The Dispatch, she was offered employment as a reporter. Her first article, “The Girl Puzzle,” a response to Wilson’s essay, was written under the name “Orphan Girl.” Following the advice of her editor, Elizabeth Cochran changed her pen name to Nellie Bly, taking the name from the popular Stephen Foster (1850) song, Nelly Bly (Kroeger, 1994). Stephen Foster is the famed nineteenth century songwriter, who is credited as the first professional songwriter. He wrote more than 200 songs, including the well-known “Oh, Susanna” (1948), “My Old Kentucky Home” (1853), and “Beautiful Dreamer” (1864) (Hampson & Verdino-Süllwold, n.d.) While reporting for The Dispatch, she went undercover to investigate the experiences of female factory workers, and worked as a foreign correspondent in Mexico, traveling around the country reporting on the conditions of its society, particularly about the wide-spread poverty and political corruption. The paper received complaints from both the Mexican government and businesses owners investigated by Nellie. Newspapers require advertising to survive; unhappy business owners mean less advertising. Consequently, she was moved to cover theater and arts stories, where she was less likely to negatively impact the newspaper’s bottom line. Nellie lasted three months in this role, leaving The Pittsburgh Dispatch for New York in 1887 (Kroeger, 1994).

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It took four months in New York City before Nellie received an offer of employment from Joseph Pulitzer’s The New York World, where she became a staff writer. Her first assignment with The World was to investigate the conditions of Blackwell Island, New York City’s mental institution for women. Nellie was able to have herself committed to the island, where she stayed for ten days, experiencing the abuse and neglect received by the island’s patients. Her articles about her ten days at Blackwell became a book, entitled Ten Days in a Mad-House (Bly, 1887). The revelations from the articles and book led to the improved funding and reforms on the island (Bradner, 2018; Kroeger, 1994; Markel, 2018). Bly’s reporting on Blackwell Island cemented her role as a the first, and most famous stunt reporter, which is a term coined for journalists who frequently went undercover in potentially dangerous settings to investigate a story (Lutes, 2006). Her other investigative work included going undercover in a paper box factory, uncovering the corruption of famed lobbyist, Edward Phelps, and exposing the black-market sale of children (Kroeger, 1994). Arguably her most famous journalistic adventure was her 72-day journey around the world. When she pitched the idea to The World, she was told that it would be impossible for a woman to travel alone at that speed, that only a man would be successful. She countered this by suggesting they hire a man. She would start out at the same time and would beat him. The World relented and Nellie set sail, headed East to Southampton, England on November 14, 1889. Unbeknownst to Nellie, another female reporter writing for Cosmopolitan, Elizabeth Bisland, began her own journey around the world, heading West, in a head-to-head race with Bly. Both women bested the fictitious Phileas Fogg, with Nellie having the faster trip of seventy-two days, six hours, eleven mins, arriving four days ahead of Bisland (Bradner, 2018; Kroeger, 1994; Ruddick, 1999). Her trip made Nellie Bly an international name. Board games, advertisements, and sheet music were among the paraphernalia printed with Bly’s image in order to capitalize on her trip around the globe (Bradner, 2018). Despite her fame as a reporter, and the newspaper’s profits made from her trip, The World failed to provide her with either a bonus or a raise. As a result, Bly resigned from the paper. Three years later, following an editor change and slumping sales, Nellie was re-hired by The World, this time with her own column. The next years saw Bly continue to grow as a reporter. Some of her noteworthy assignments included an interview of anarchist Emma Goldman and covering the Chicago Pullman strike (Kroeger, 1994). In 1895, Bly married the much older, and wealthy, Robert Seaman, the owner of the Iron Clad Manufacturing Company. Although married, Nellie continued to work as a reporter, interviewing the likes of Susan B. Anthony (Kroeger, 1994). She eventually went to work for her husband’s company,

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becoming the company’s President following her husband’s death. Unfortunately, the company was bankrupted due to mismanagement of funds attributed to the company’s chief cashier (Kroeger, 1994). Following the bankruptcy, Nellie returned to journalism, spending four years abroad as a war correspondent during World War I. After the war, Bly worked for The New York Evening Journal, writing a column answering letters, offering advice, and helping those in need (Kroeger, 1994). Nellie continued to work until her untimely death from pneumonia on January 27, 1922. She was fifty-seven years old. Throughout her career, Nellie Bly focused on the struggles of women, children, and the working class. These themes can be seen throughout her work, from her first article through her later work for the Evening Journal.

LESSON SEQUENCE Before outlining the specifics of the lesson sequence, it is essential to note the importance of teaching students how to read a comic/graphic novel. Some students may frequently read graphic novels for pleasure, but they are not necessarily using them as a reference. Other students in the class may not even be familiar with the mechanics of comics. Taking the time to demonstrate to students not only the basics of reading a comic, but also the way information is conveyed, will not be wasted time. The students will have a richer learning experience with the graphic novel if they are sufficiently prepared to read it. The lesson sequence explores Nellie Bly’s life and work, specifically focusing on the article that began her career (“The Girl Puzzle”), and two feats that made her famous (Inside the Mad-House and her record-breaking trip around the world). The lesson sequence is designed for students to answer the essential question, “How did Nellie Bly both reflect and refuse to conform to society’s expectations for nineteenth-century women?” To do this, students will complete two learning activities using the Cimino and Algozzino (2021) graphic novel, The Incredible Nellie Bly as an anchor text. Prior to teaching this instructional sequence, it may be helpful for students to be introduced to the gender norms for women in the nineteenth century. The British Library (2014) has a short video that highlights the realities for middle class women at this time. The seven-minute video can be accessed at https://www​.youtube​.com​/watch​?v​=vkJJFX8Qn90. To complement this video, teachers can have students analyze “The Woman’s Sphere” image from Life Magazine in 1913. The image depicts a middle-class woman at a table thinking about the evils of an urban society, including child labor, prostitution, human trafficking, and substance abuse. The image can be accessed from the New York Historical Society’s (n.d.) website, https://

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wams​.nyhistory​.org​/modernizing​-america​/modern​-womanhood​/expanding​ -role​-and​-fighting​-public​-evils/#. Introducing students to the reality women, especially middle-class women, experienced during the nineteenth century will help to provide context for the posed essential question and may engage students, especially those with a strong sense of justice and fairness. Instead of reading the entire graphic novel, which would be ideal but is impractical due to time constraints, students will read selected excerpts from the novel. Each of the four selected excerpts address a different phase of Bly’s life, or a significant story from her career. The first excerpt (pgs. 12–20) includes information about her childhood and the publication of her article, “The Girl Puzzle” in The Pittsburgh Dispatch. The second excerpt (pp. 40–59) focuses on Bly’s first assignment at The New York World, investigating the Blackwell Island Insane Asylum. In the third section (pp. 79–110) students will read about her seventy-two-day journey around the globe. The final excerpt (pp. 125–135) focuses on Bly’s life and career after her marriage to Robert Seaman, including her time as a war correspondent and as a columnist for The New York Evening Journal. All four excerpts will be read in the first learning task, with the first three to be re-read for the second. Learning Task 1: Becoming Nellie Bly The first learning task provides the contextual information needed to answer the essential question. In this first lesson, students will read the selected excerpts from the graphic novel and watch an online video, Nellie Bly: Pioneer of Undercover Journalism (Biographics, 2018), to answer the guiding question, “How did Nellie Bly’s childhood and time period influence her career as a journalist in the nineteenth century?” To scaffold the task, a graphic organizer, entitled “Becoming Nellie Bly,” is provided in appendix A, table A.1. The graphic organizer is a table with four column and two rows. Each column is dedicated to a different phase of Bly’s life and career (Early Life, At the Pittsburgh Dispatch, At the New York World, and After Marriage.) The rows ask two questions that students will consider while watching the video and reading the graphic novel excerpts. 1. What happened during this period of her (Nellie Bly) life? 2. How did her (Nellie Bly) actions compare with the role women in the nineteenth century were expected to have? Each graphic novel excerpt is accompanied by a segment of the Biographics (2018) video. The pages of the excerpt and the segment times are provided under the title of each column of the graphic organizer. When recording information culled from the excerpts and the video, students should indicate

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from where that information was collected. If the information was found in the graphic novel, they will need to indicate from which page it was gathered. If it is from the video, students will need to indicate in which video segment the information is addressed. There are several ways a teacher could choose to lead this first learning experience: as an individual assignment, as a group assignment, or as part of a learning center experience. I would suggest that the teacher guide the students through this first learning experience using a mixed approach of individual reading combined with small group and whole-class discussions. In order to avoid having too many recordings of the video running simultaneously, which can be distracting for students who struggle with noise, I suggest watching the video segments as a class. Have students discuss what they observed in the video in their small groups, recording their findings on the graphic organizers in appendix A, tables A.2, A.3, A.4, and A.5. Follow the small group discussion with a whole class debrief of the information gathered from video. Have students read the graphic novel excerpts independently, or in pairs. Follow the independent reading with small group discussions where they can share their findings and record the group’s information into the graphic organizer. The small groups would then share their findings with the class, allowing the teacher the opportunity to correct any misconceptions or inaccuracies, as well to ask probing questions related to the lesson guiding question. As a formative assessment for this learning task, students will answer the lesson’s guiding question in the form found in appendix A, table A.6. As this lesson sequence is inquiry-based, centered around asking and answer questions with evidentiary support, it is important that students have the opportunity to think of and ask questions that they still have about the topic. There is a place for students to record these questions below the formative assessment. Learning Task 2: Nellie Bly’s Career: Three Key Stories The second learning task answers the guiding question, “How did Nellie Bly’s career challenge society’s expectations (roles and behavior) for women in the late nineteenth century?” To answer this question, students will gather and synthesize information from the video segments and the graphic novel excerpts used in the previous lesson, as well as selected primary sources (excerpts from Bly’s articles, an image from 1890, and an excerpt from a newspaper article written about Nellie Bly after her wedding). Students will analyze three stories that played a significant role in Bly’s career as a journalist. For each of story, there is a video segment, a graphic novel excerpt, and a primary source. For each article, students will complete a five-part graphic organizer found in appendix A entitled “Nellie Bly’s Career:

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Three Key Stories.” Students will record information about the article and its impact within the graphic organizer. For the first article, “The Girl Puzzle,” and the second article, “Inside the Mad-House,” the primary source is an excerpt of Bly’s article. However, for the third article, “Around the World in 72 Days,” the primary source is an image published in Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (Bunnell, 1890) depicting Nellie’s return after circumnavigating the globe (Appendix B, figure B.1). The provided primary documents contain some vocabulary that may not be familiar to students. One way to address this is to read the document as a class, stopping when a challenging word appears. Identify a synonym for the word that is more familiar; then, have students annotate their copy of the document with the new word. All of the primary sources used in Learning Task 2 are found in appendix B (tables B.1, B.2, B.3). When students record their answers to the five questions in the article-based graphic organizers, they will need to record where that information was found. If it was from the graphic novel, list the page; from the video, identify the segment; and from the article excerpt, include a quote. In addition to the three article graphic organizers, students will also analyze the woodcarving of Nellie Bly’s return (found in appendix B). Provide each student with a hard copy of the image. Have them fold the page in half, twice, resulting in the picture being divided into four quadrants. Students will then fold the page in such a way that they are looking at only one quadrant of the image at a time, recording what they observe in each quadrant on the provided image analysis graphic organizer. After analyzing the four quadrants, task students with drawing conclusions about Nellie Bly, her reputation, the public’s perception of her around the world trip, and the role of women. Students will record their conclusions in the box under their image observations. They will need to provide evidence from the image that justifies their conclusions. Corroboration is an important part of historical literacy (Nokes, 2022). As mentioned earlier in this chapter, whenever trade books, or other ancillary texts are used, it is imperative to include additional resources in order to corroborate, or triangulate, the information from the text with primary sources and well-regarded secondary sources. For this learning task, students will read the excerpt from the Minneapolis Daily Times from 1895 entitled “Nellie Bly’s Career.” This article excerpt is also available in appendix B. After reading the Daily Times excerpt, students will highlight the information in their three article graphic organizers that they could corroborate with this document. On the page below the Around the World in 72 Days graphic organizer, there is a place to record information in the charts that they were not able to corroborate, as well as a place to record new information they gleaned from the Daily Times article.

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Upon finishing the corroboration portion of Learning Task 2, students will complete the formative assessment tasking them with answering the lesson’s guiding question. There is a form provided in appendix A where students can record their answer. As previously stated, students will be expected to provide evidence to support their answers, noting from where the information was gathered. As in Learning Task 1, there is a place for students to record any questions that they have about Nellie Bly and her career not answered in the learning tasks. Similar to Learning Task 1, there are several ways the teacher can choose to structure the learning experience. For this learning task, a blended approach is also recommended. Have the class watch the video segments as a group and independently read the graphic novel and article excerpts. Or, read the article as a class, following the suggestion above, if the vocabulary is too difficult for the students. Similar to the suggested process for the first learning task, students can form small groups to discuss and revise their findings, and then discuss what they recorded with the entire class. For the image analysis, however, a more teacher-centered guided discovery might work best. Lead students through the paper folding. Give students 1–2 minutes to record their observations from the first quadrant, and then regroup as a class and list what was observed in the quadrant. Follow this process for the three remaining quadrants. In the Conclusions part of the image analysis, a think-pair-share approach is suggested. Have students spend 3–5 minutes recording the conclusions they draw from the image. Then, working in pairs or small groups, compare their conclusions and revise or add to their own documents. Follow this small group work with a whole class share and discussion in which each group presents their conclusions with the class. The teacher can ask follow-up questions, correct misconceptions, or redirect student thinking during the whole-class share. It is suggested that the students complete the image analysis prior to starting the graphic organizer for “Around the World in 72 Days.” By doing the image analysis before the article graphic organizer, students will have all the provided information at their disposal. Summative Assessment In order for students to demonstrate what they have learned in this lesson sequence, they will be required to write a newspaper article answering the sequence’s essential question, “How did Nellie Bly both reflect and refuse to conform to society’s expectations for nineteenth-century women?” It seemed appropriate for a summative assessment about a journalist to be written as a newspaper article. If done well, a newspaper format requires students to be both concise and accurate in their writing.

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A document with the summative assessment directions and graphic organizer is available in appendix C. To complete the assessment, the students will need to follow a two-step process: 1. Complete the “Who?, What?, Where?, When?, Why?, and How?” graphic organizer (appendix C, table C.1) with information to answer the essential question. Within the with graphic organizer, students will be expected to indicate where they found the included information. 2. Once the organizer is completed, students will convert the gathered information into a one-page, approximately 250-word, newspaper article that follows journalistic writing conventions: main idea presented early, all claims and statements are supported, language and word choices are accessible to a wide audience. This writing activity allows students to demonstrate content knowledge gained about Nelly Bly’s advocacies. Although this lesson sequence does not utilize the Inquiry Design Model described by Swan, Lee, and Grant (2018), there are opportunities for extensions, taking informed action, and future inquiries embedded in the learning tasks. Students were asked to record questions that they still had about Nellie Bly and her career. A potential learning extension is to have students research and answer their remaining questions. As for taking informed action, Nellie Bly’s actions could be a template. She reported on abuses to women, children, and other marginalized groups. Her reporting caused change, as exemplified by the additional funding to and regulation of Blackwell Island following the publication of Bly’s articles. There are plenty of current examples of people abused, neglected, or preyed upon (e.g., the homeless, refugees, and human trafficking). Students can select a group or person for which they can advocate. In order to do so, the students would need to research the issue and write an article, or letter to the editor, that conveys their findings and suggested solutions. CONCLUSION This chapter demonstrates the possibilities associated with the thoughtful use of a graphic novels to encourage the development of students’ historical literacy skills. The described lessons were inquiry-based, included multiple supplemental sources, both primary and secondary, and required students to gather and synthesize information into a cohesive narrative. It also tasked them with corroborating their findings across multiple texts. Beyond the intentional efforts to engage students with historical literacy skills, the visual nature of the

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graphic novel, and the subjects explored in this particular text, will likely lead to an emotional response from the students. Teachers can use these emotions to help students develop historical empathy skills. Beyond the historical literacy focus of this lesson sequence lies the underlying themes associated with Nellie Bly and her work, the role of women and the advocating for those in need. If “well behaved” women of the past were anonymous, then, Nellie Bly was anything but well behaved. She challenged the social norms of the nineteenth century, proving that a woman could accomplish as much as their male counterparts. Through her tenacity, she survived a difficult childhood and had a highly successful career in an almost exclusively male field. She undertook daring, and dangerous, feats of undercover journalism, aiding those in need along the way. Despite living in a century in which women were little more than property, had few rights of their own, and were expected to remain at home, Nellie Bly found independence, fulfillment, and fame. Her desire to be self-sufficient, her want of satisfaction in her work, and her expectations that appropriate action be taken as a result of her reporting, sounds more like the expectations of a woman from the twenty-first century than the nineteenth century. It could be said that the “badly behaved” Nellie Bly was a thoroughly modern woman.

REFERENCES Abadzis, N. (2007). Laika. First Second. Ashby, R., & Colón, E. (2014). The great American documents: Volume I: 16201830. Hill and Wang. Bickford, J.H., & Schuette, L.N. (2016). Trade book’s historical representation of the black freedom movement, slavery through civil rights. Journal of Children’s Literature, 42(1), 20-43. Biographics. (2018, February 5). Nellie Bly: Pioneer of undercover journalism. [Video]. YouTube. https://www​.youtube​.com​/watch​?v​=uQ1zfwtgXXE​&t​=3s Bly, N. (1887). Ten days in a mad-house. Ian L. Munro. Bradner, L. (2018). Troublemaker: Journalism took reporter Nellie Bly undercover and around the World in 72 Days. American History. https://www​.historynet​.com​ /nellie​-bly​-troublemaker/ British Library. (2014, December 19). Gender in 19th century Britain. [Video]. https:// www​.youtube​.com​/watch​?v​=vkJJFX8Qn90 Brugger, K., & Clabough, J. (2017). Fred Korematsu speaks up: Using nonfiction with the Inquiry Arc of the C3 Framework: Middle Level Learning, 60, 2-12. Bunnell, C. (1890, February 8). Around the world in seventy-two days and six hours reception of Nellie Bly at Jersey City on the completion of her journey [Woodcarving]. Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, 70(1795). Library of Congress. https:// www​.loc​.gov​/item​/99613984/.

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Butzer, C.M. (2008). Gettysburg: The graphic novel. Harper Alley. Chick, K.A. (2008). Teaching women’s history through literature: Standards-based lesson plans for grades K-12. NCSS. Chisholm, J.S., Shelton, A.L., & Sheffield, C.C. (2017). Mediating emotive empathy with informational text. Three students’ think-aloud protocols of Gettsyburg: The graphic novel. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 61(3), 289-298. Cimino, L., & Algozzino, S. (2021). The incredible Nellie Bly: Journalist, investigator, feminist, and philanthropist. Abrams ComicArts. DiChristopher, T. (2016, June 5). Comic books buck trend as print and digital sales flourish. CNBC. https://www​.cnbc​.com​/2016​/06​/05​/comic​-books​-buck​-trend​-as​ -print​-and​-digital​-sales​-flourish​.html. Eisner, W. (2008). Comics and sequential art: Principles and practices from the legendary cartoonist. W.W. Norton Endacott, J., & Brooks, S. (2013). An updated theoretical practical model for promoting historical empathy. Social Studies Research and Practice, 8(1), 41-57. Foster, S. (1850). Nelly Bly. [Song]. Hampson, T., & Verdino-Süllwold, C.M. (n.d.). Stephen Foster, 1826-1864. Song of America. https://songofamerica​.net​/composer​/foster​-stephen/# Hubbard, J. (2019). K-6 students’ geographic thinking and inquiry into Earth’s landforms. Oregon Journal of the Social Studies, 7(2), 81-92. IMBD Pro. (n.d.) Domestic box office for 2021. Box Office Mojo. https://www​.boxofficemojo​.com​/year​/2021/ IMBD Pro. (2022, December 26). Top lifetime grosses. Box Office Mojo. https://www​ .boxofficemojo​.com​/chart​/top​_lifetime​_gross/ Journell, W., Beeson, M., & Ayers, C. (2015). Learning to think politically: Toward more complete disciplinary knowledge in civics and government courses. Theory & Research in Social Education, 43(1), 28-67. Kroeger, B. (1994). Nellie Bly: Daredevil, reporter, feminist. Times Books. Lewis, J., Aydin, A., Powell, N. (2013). March: Book one. Top Shelf Productions. Lewis, J., Aydin, A., Powell, N. (2015). March: Book two. Top Shelf Productions. Lewis, J., Aydin, A., Powell, N. (2016). March: Book three. Top Shelf Productions. Logan, D.A. (1998). Stunt journalism, professional norms, and public mistrust of the media. University of Florida Journal of Law and Public Policy, 9(2), 151-176. Lutes, J.M. (2006). Front page girls: Women journalists in American culture and fiction 1880-1930. Cornell University Press. Markel, H. (2018, May 5). How Nellie Bly went undercover to expose abuse of the mentally ill. PBS Newshour. https://www​.pbs​.org​/newshour​/nation​/how​-nellie​-bly​ -went​-undercover​-to​-expose​-abuse​-of​-the​-mentally​-ill McCloud, S. (1993). Understanding comics: The invisible art. Harper Perennial. McGowan, T., & Guzzetti, B. (1991). Promoting social students understanding through literature-based instruction. The Social Studies, 82(1), 16-21. Miles, J. (2019). Seeing and feeling difficult history: A case study of how Canadian students make sense of photographs of Indian Residential Schools. Theory & Research in Social Education, 47(4), 472-496).

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NCSS. (2013). Social studies for the next generation: Purposes, practices, and implication of the College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies Standards. Author. New York Historical Society. (n.d.). Expanding women’s roles and fighting public evils. https://wams​.nyhistory​.org​/modernizing​-america​/modern​-womanhood​/ expanding​-role​-and​-fighting​-public​-evils/# Nokes, J.D. (2022). Building students’ historical literacies: Learning to read and reason with historical text and evidence (2nd ed.). Routledge. Palmer, R.G., & Stewart, R.A. (1997). Nonfiction trade books in content area instruction: Realities and potential. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 40(8), 630-641. Ruddick, N. (1999). Nellie Bly, Jules Verne, and the World on the threshold of the American Age. Canadian Review of American Studies, 29(1), 1-11. Salkowitz, R. (2022, July 5). 2021 comic sales were ‘up, up and away,’ at a record $2 billion. Forbes. https://www​.forbes​.com​/sites​/robsalkowitz​/2022​/07​/05​/2021​ -comic​-sales​-were​-up​-up​-and​-away​-at​-a​-record​-2​-billion/. Satrapi, M. (2004). Persepolis. Pantheon. Shanahan, T., & Shanahan, C. (2008). Teaching disciplinary literacy to adolescents: Rethinking content-area literacy. Harvard Educational Review, 78(1), 40-59. Sheffield, C.C., Chisholm, J.S. & Howell, P.B. (2015). More than superheroes and villains: Graphic novels and multimodal literacy in social studies education. Social Education, 79(3), 147-150. Sheffield, C.C. & Clabough, J.C. (2022a). Peeking behind the iron curtain: Using trade books to contextualize current events. The Oregon Journal of the Social Studies, 10(1), 63-68. Sheffield, C.C. & Clabough, J.C. (2022b). Memoir of oppression: George Takei and the Imprisonment of Japanese Americans. Middle Level Learning, 73 (January/ February), 9-21. Spiegelman, A. (1986). Maus I: A survivor’s tale: My father bleeds history. Pantheon Books. Spiegelman, A. (1992). Maus II: A survivor’s tale: And here my troubles began. Pantheon Books. Spiegelman, A. (2011). Meta Maus. Pantheon Books. Swan, K., Lee, J., & Grant, S.G. (2018). Inquiry design model: Building inquiries in social studies. National Council for the Social Studies & C3 Teachers. Ulrich, L. T. (2008). Well-behaved women seldom make history. Vintage. Vengadasalam, P. (2018). Dislocating the masculine: How Nellie Bly feminized her report. Social Change, 48(3), 451-458, Walker, D.F., Smyth, D., & Louise, M. (2019). The life of Frederick Douglass. Ten Speed Press. Watts, J. (Director). (2021). Spiderman: No way home [Film]. Sony Pictures. Weaver, L.Q. (2012). Darkroom: A memoir in black and white. University of Alabama Press. Weiner, S. (2003). Faster than a speeding bullet: The rise of the graphic novel. Minoustchine Publishing, Inc.

Chapter 3

“The People Must Know Before They Can Act” Examining Ida B. Wells’s Legacy of Activism, Courage, and Resistance Amy J. Samuels

From the perspective of a female social studies education scholar, this chapter explores the history, contributions, and activism of Ida B. Wells. It also underscores her influential role in U. S. history, while discussing curricular approaches to teach about her contributions and achievements in the upper elementary setting. I begin with an introduction, where Wells’s background is presented along with her established legacy of advancing the cause of women’s suffrage and civil rights. While Wells was a woman of color who identified as a suffragist, I present the narrative of Wells as a counterstory as it relates to Critical Race Theory (CRT). As such, I problematize the approaches of white suffragists who claimed to fight for representation and inclusion yet failed to confront and expose racism and racial injustice, specifically the horrors of racial terror lynching in the United States. It should also be noted that even though white is generally capitalized in formal writing, I will use lower-case white throughout the chapter as a means of decentering white narratives in history, an approach commonly used by CRT scholars. Critical Race Theory will be employed as the theoretical framework for the chapter because, when applied to education, it deepens understanding of educational barriers faced by people of color in both real-world contexts and curricular representations. It serves to advance increased understanding, awareness, and informed action, because it acknowledges and centers the construct of race and its powerful and persistent role in society. The tenets of CRT that will be discussed in this chapter relate to the permanence of racism, the need to include and promote counterstories, and the value of examining how intersectionality supports understanding how various identity components such as 47

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race and gender influence experiences, perceptions, and positionings. These tenets will be explored from two perspectives: (1) how they impacted and influenced the life of Ida B. Wells, and (2) how they impact representation (or lack thereof) of information related to Ida B. Wells in United States history. In addition, the chapter examines how the College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Standards (National Council for the Social Studies, 2013) and the Social Justice Standards (Learning for Justice, 2022) can be used to frame the design of curriculum. Next, I present pedagogical strategies to introduce children’s literature in the upper elementary school classroom through the use of Who Was Ida B. Wells? (Fabiny, 2020) to provide students the opportunity to discover how a young girl, who was born into slavery in Mississippi, navigated the challenges of sexism and racism to prevail as a famous journalist, newspaper publisher, suffragist, and early leader in the civil rights movement who advocated for equality and social justice. The learning activities prompt students to reflect on the compelling question “Can movements for equality also encourage inequality?” and the overarching concept of how to influence democratic change. Content related to the Emancipation Proclamation, U. S. Reconstruction, the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the U.S. Constitution, Jim Crow laws, segregation, lynching, and suffrage will be examined as students describe and characterize Ida B. Wells.

WHO WAS IDA B. WELLS? Ida Bell Wells dedicated her life to the advancement of women’s rights and civil rights, explicitly advocating for women’s suffrage and challenging the vast racial injustices faced by Black Americans during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. She was born an enslaved person in Holly Springs, Mississippi, in July 1862, to Elizabeth Wells and James Wells. The Emancipation Proclamation was issued just six months after her birth, which (in theory) emancipated all enslaved persons living in states in the American South. The U.S. Civil War ended when Ida was three years of age, thereby ending the enslavement of her and her family. Mr. Wells, a skilled carpenter who had started his own business, and Mrs. Wells were committed to their children’s education, sending Ida and her siblings to Shaw University, a school founded by a Northern minister who was dedicated to providing educational access to Black Americans living in the South (Welch, 2000). Ida was a disciplined student, an avid reader, and a devout Christian. While Ida witnessed her father’s deep political activism, she also knew far too well of the widespread racism faced by Black people in her community and across the country during Reconstruction, as well as

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the racial terror caused by members of the Ku Klux Klan and their efforts to instill fear and bring violence to those working to advance the lives and conditions of Black Americans. When Ida was sixteen, both her mother and father died of yellow fever, leaving her to care for her younger siblings. Then, at the age of nineteen, Ida moved to Memphis, Tennessee, where she took a job teaching and enjoyed an active social life. During her early years in Memphis, she observed and experienced the deeply rooted evils of racism and segregation, which further motivated her activism and quest for justice. When she became the editor of the Evening Star newsletter as well as a journalist for the Living Way, she focused on exposing injustices and became known for her courageous honesty and truth telling, especially as it related to racial tension, segregation, and lynching (Fabiny, 2020; Welch, 2000). Terrified of the conditions to which Black Americans were subjected in Memphis, which did not grant legal protection and exposed many individuals to daily harassment and violence, she urged people to protest the horrors of lynching by boycotting businesses and transportation, as well as migrating out of the South. She engaged in thorough investigative reporting to promote anti-lynching activism and questioned why many, particularly those who advocated for human rights and justice, failed to confront and expose racism and maintained a deafening silence regarding anti-lynching. In 1889, Ida B. Wells became the editor and part owner of the newspaper Free Speech and Headlight, making her one of only a few Black female newspaper editors in the country (Fabiny, 2020). In addition to her journalism, Ida spoke extensively throughout Northern cities, as well as Great Britain, about racism, sexism, and equality and formed relationships with other activists such as Susan B. Anthony and Frederick Douglass. While Wells and Anthony worked closely together, Wells was troubled by Anthony’s hesitation to actively counter racial injustices; Anthony clearly stated her goal was to focus on securing women’s suffrage and, then, turn the focus to civil rights and racial equality. Ida married Ferdinand Barnett, a lawyer and publisher of Chicago’s first Black newspaper, the Conservator (Fabiny, 2020). They settled in Chicago and had four children. During this time, she continued to advocate for civil rights and establish a legacy of activism. She was a co-founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), an organization committed to protecting and advancing the lives of Black Americans, as well as other organizations focused on women’s rights and racial justice. Wells emphatically understood that opportunities and access for women would not improve until women were granted the right to vote. Consequently, in 1913, at the age of 50, she became involved with the suffrage movement (Fabiny, 2020). That year, in Washington D.C., 5,000 women, both Black

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and white, organized a march to highlight their commitment to women’s voting rights. In a harsh contradiction for justice, many of the white advocates believed the women should hold separate marches (one Black, one white), as they felt some people would be uncomfortable with an integrated march (Fabiny, 2020). Ida and other Black suffragists criticized the hypocrisy and insisted on a collaborative march; however, even though Wells marched in the front, the march remained segregated, with other Black suffragists marching in the back. While Montana and Nevada adopted women’s suffrage in 1914, many states continued to resist. In 1916, Woodrow Wilson proclaimed the Democratic Party’s support for women’s suffrage. Then, in 1918, Wilson publicly declared his commitment to a federal women’s suffrage amendment. The 19th Amendment was passed in 1920, which gave women the right to vote. Wells was steadfast in her anti-lynching campaign, speaking widely and writing extensively. She adamantly declared, “Our country’s national crime is lynching” (Wells-Barnett, 1900) and underscored the critical need to expose the truth as she emphasized, “The people must know before they can act, and there is no educator to compare with the press” (Wells, 1892). Ninety years after her death, in 2020, Ida B. Wells was honored with a posthumous Pulitzer Prize for her legacy as an “anti-lynching crusader and pioneering journalist” and “‘[f]or her outstanding and courageous reporting on the horrific and vicious violence against African Americans during the era of lynching’” (Equal Justice Initiative, 2020, para. 1).

CRITICAL RACE THEORY Critical Race Theory establishes the idea that racism is prevalent in the United States and considers the impact of U.S. race laws and policies on systems and structures, not simply the thoughts and behaviors of individuals. CRT is a theoretical perspective that systematically explores the construct of race by establishing racism as a structural precursor to legal oppression and identifying race as the key component in social inequalities (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017; Lynn, 1999; Lynn et al., 2006). Delgado and Stefancic (2017), highly-esteemed legal scholars, explain, “The critical race theory (CRT) movement is a collection of activists and scholars engaged in studying and transforming the relationship among race, racism, and power” (p. 3). LadsonBillings (1998), one of the first scholars to specifically apply CRT to education, underscores that “critical race theory begins with the notion that racism is normal in American society” (p. 7), as it was created and sustained by legal principles (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017; Ladson-Billings, 2021). Furthermore, critical race theorists contend that race is an influential and significant factor

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in examining and understanding inequalities in the United States, because the disparities and inequalities are “logical and predictable results of a racialized society in which discussions of race and racism continue to be muted and marginalized” (Ladson-Billings, 2021, p. 17). While CRT is interdisciplinary, it can be used to explore various educational components and provide a framework to examine the impact of race and racism on sociocultural and historical contexts (Solórzano & Yosso, 2001). CRT is based on six central tenets: 1. racism is endemic; 2. race is socially constructed; 3. racialized concepts change over time; 4. interest convergence is beneficial for social progress; 5. inclusion of counterstories is critical for underscoring alternative perspectives; 6. intersectionality supports understanding how various identity components such as race, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, and socioeconomic status influence experiences, perceptions, and positionings (Abrams & Moio, 2013). These six tenets of Critical Race Theory help educators have a broader overview of principles when teaching about issues of race. Reflecting on how CRT can be used to inform teaching and learning, I argue all tenets of CRT can be applied in a variety of ways; however, for the purposes of this chapter and for the learning unit on Ida B. Wells, I will focus explicitly on the permanence of racism, the need to include and promote counterstories, and the application of intersectionality to understand how various identity components (race and gender) influence views and experiences of individuals and groups of people. Activities in the learning unit highlight the truth-telling dispositions and courageous actions of Ida B. Wells, particularly in relation to oppression and discrimination against both women and people of color, so they are strategically designed to underscore the permanence of racism and intersectionality. In addition, since Wells’s contributions to this period in history are often overlooked, this unit provides students the opportunity to consider the unique perspectives of Black suffragists and compare and contrast them to those of white suffragists. Permanence of Racism Derrick Bell (2002), who many consider to be the father of CRT, explained that “racism lies in the center, not the periphery; in the permanent, not the

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fleeting; in the real lives of Black and white people, not in the caverns of the mind” (p. 37). When considering whose knowledge is visible, voiced, valued, and validated in the curriculum, the master narrative that has developed often normalizes a Eurocentric perspective while misrepresenting or minimizing perspectives and experiences of minoritized groups (An, 2020; Au et al., 2016; Dunbar-Ortiz, 2015; Hannah-Jones, 2021; King, 2014; Loewen, 2018; Takaki, 2008). The racial script that has transpired emphasizes a Eurocentric, exclusive narrative while systematically omitting or distorting the voices, stories, and experiences of people of color (LadsonBillings, 2003). I argue the need for a curricular paradigm shift since many existing curriculums and supporting materials are designed to teach about the suffrage movement from a very limited and exclusionary perspective. For example, when I reflect on my learning related to the suffrage movement, I remember detailed discussions about Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and Lucretia Mott. And, when researching in preparation for this chapter, I conducted a basic Google search on suffragists, where nearly all of the results were articles and images of white women. It was not until I came upon an article titled, Four African American Suffragists You Should Know (Price et al., n.d.), that the voice and experiences of Black women in the suffrage movement entered the conversation, as the story of Ida B. Wells, as well as those of Mary Church Terrell, Nannie Helen Burroughs, and Mary Burnett Talbert, were featured. So, I find myself wondering, how many students learn about the suffrage movement as an exclusively white time period? Ladson-Billings (2003) highlights, “CRT examines the way racism is made invisible through the curriculum” (p. 9), thereby exposing systematic exclusion and disenfranchisement. Misrepresentation, distortion, and complete lack of representation of the experiences of people of color in the curriculum encourage a belief, either explicitly or implicitly, that suggests people of color are not significant in the history and development of the United States (King, 2020; Takaki, 2008). To challenge the permanence of racism, not only must educators counter the lack of racial diversity and racial dialogue in the content but also provide students with opportunities to explicitly inquire about the unique role of race and racism in society, particularly how race-based laws, ordinances, and policies have shaped economic, political, and social spheres. In relation to the suffrage movement, this means not only including the experiences of suffragists of color, such as Ida B. Wells, but also problematizing the approaches of white suffragists who claimed to be fighting for representation and inclusion yet often failed to confront and expose racism and racial injustice, specifically the horrors of racial terror lynching in the United States.

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Counterstories Delgado and Stefancic (2017) explain that “critical race theorists have built on everyday experiences with perspective, viewpoint, and the power of stories and persuasion to come to a deeper understanding of how Americans see race” (p. 45). Counterstories (also referred to as counter-narratives) challenge singular, monolithic perspectives of the world and counter dominant narratives that have been created and sustained by those in positions of power (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017). Counterstories are often positioned as firstperson accounts that describe the experiences, perspectives, and realities of minoritized people (Ladson-Billings, 2021). They emphasize alternate viewpoints and provide situational and interpretive context to increase the voices of those who have traditionally been placed on the margins, and explore how structures and systems “work to re-inscribe racism and deny people of their full rights” (Ladson-Billings, 2021, p. 53). “Powerfully written stories and narratives may begin a process of correction in our system of beliefs and categories by calling attention to neglected evidence and reminding readers of our common humanity” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017, p. 15). Additionally, counterstories can provide a form of validation and affirmation for people in racialized communities by reinforcing the idea that their experiences are not isolated events because they give “voice and reveal other people have similar experiences” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017, p. 51). Thoughtful revisions of historical narratives are required to present a holistic and accurate representation that highlights contributions of minoritized people, characterizes their unique and complex positions as citizens, and counters the idea of “Whiteness as the quintessential and normalized idea of citizenship” (King, 2014, p. 8). Representation is critical, not just to present an accurate and inclusive view of history, but because when students see themselves in the curriculum, learning becomes more purposeful and worthwhile. They have a more favorable perception of the subject and demonstrate a greater commitment to the overall schooling experience (Antrop-Gonzàlez, 2006; Busey & Russell, 2016). Consequently, when considering teaching and learning related to the suffrage movement, the lives and experiences of suffragists of color should be incorporated into lessons and units to allow students the opportunity to explore underrepresented stories, analyze how race and racism impacted economic, political, and sociocultural dynamics, and evaluate how such forces impacted the representation of not only Ida B. Wells’s story but similar stories in the overall suffrage movement. Intersectionality Curriculum must be reshaped and redefined to ensure the voices and experiences of minoritized or underrepresented people are not just included but

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positioned in a way that their complexity is valued and informs understanding of multidimensional historical narratives. Intersectionality is the “belief that individuals and classes often have shared or overlapping interests or traits” (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017, p. 177). It supports an understanding of how various identity components such as race, ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, and sexuality influence experiences, perceptions, and positionings of individuals and groups of people (Abrams & Moio, 2013) and considers how they intersect in complex and multifaceted ways (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017). For example, while suffragists shared commonalities in advocating for voting rights to be extended to include women and they encountered similar challenges, resistance, and even triumphs on their journeys, it is also true that the experiences of Black suffragists and white suffragists differed dramatically. As Delgado and Stefancic (2017) explain, “No person has a single, easily stated, unitary identity. . . Everyone has potentially conflicting, overlapping identities, loyalties, and allegiances” (pp. 10–11). Connecting to the suffragist movement, although Black women and white women were oppressed because of their gender and experienced sexism, Black women were also discriminated against, both explicitly and implicitly, because of their race. Subsequently, while suffragists shared similar allegiances and advocated for increased rights, representation, and inclusion of women in the U.S. society and democracy, conflict can be seen when the fight for increased equality and humanity was not extended to Black women (or men), who were subjected to the blatant discrimination of legal segregation, evils of Jim Crow, and the horrors of racial terror lynching. Contradiction is evident when white suffragists, who were courageously fighting for gender equality, fail to do the same for racial equality. For that reason, when unpacking the history of the suffrage movement, it is imperative that students are given the opportunity to examine multiple perspectives that highlight the complex, multidimensional, and conflicting realities of the movement, not a monolithic, unitary, whitewashed version. C3 FRAMEWORK The College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Standards (National Council for the Social Studies, 2013) is a valuable resource that can be used to help design and construct curriculum. The Inquiry Arc of the C3 Framework (NCSS, 2013) comprises four dimensions: 1. developing questions and planning inquires; 2. applying disciplinary concepts and tools, which includes civics, economics, geography, and history;

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3. evaluating sources and using evidence; 4. communicating conclusions and taking informed action. The Inquiry Arc argues that “questioning is key to student learning” (NCSS, 2013, p. 17) and emphasizes the need for both compelling questions and supporting questions. Compelling questions promote intellectual rigor, student interest, and student agency, while supporting questions help students anchor inquiry to address the larger, overarching idea in the compelling question (Mueller, 2017). A compelling question such as “Can movements for equality also promote inequality?” could be informed by supporting questions such as “For what rights and freedoms were those in the suffrage movement fighting?” and “What social and economic inequalities and injustices existed in the United States during the time of the suffrage movement?” Such supporting questions should aid students in understanding the multifaceted dynamics of sociocultural and socioeconomic dimensions as they gather and evaluate evidence to understand the problem and make informed claims about the compelling question (Mueller, 2017). Ultimately, to promote civic readiness, students should be equipped with the knowledge and tools to take informed action based on their conclusion to the question as well as their collective learning. SOCIAL JUSTICE STANDARDS The Social Justice Standards (Learning for Justice, 2022) is another resource that educators can use in an effort to guide the development of inclusive educational experiences that promote anti-bias and social justice education. The standards are divided into four domains: 1. identity; 2. diversity; 3. justice; 4. action and they emphasize knowledge, skills, and dispositions students need to reduce and minimize prejudices and biases and engage collective action. The standards are organized by age-appropriate learning outcomes that are structured in relation to the four domains. Similar to the C3 Framework, collective and informed action, with an explicit focus on countering biases, prejudices, and injustices, is an integral part of the guide. While compelling and supporting questions aligned with the C3 Framework can be used to inquire about content-specific skills related to civics, economics, geography

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and history, the Social Justice Standards can be used to shape ideas and questions related to the larger sociocultural context. For example, lessons on the suffrage movement might explore how to change the attitudes and behaviors of the dominant group or consider how “Collective action challenges inequality directly by raising consciousness and focusing on improving conditions for underrepresented groups” (Learning for Justice, 2022, p. 3). Specifically, students might examine “How the attitudes and behaviors of white suffragists might be expanded to include racial equality?” or “What collective action could be taken to simultaneously promote women’s rights and racial justice?” INQUIRY-BASED TEACHING PRACTICES To strengthen students’ literacy and social studies disciplinary thinking, it is advantageous to incorporate trade books into social studies instruction. For the purposes of this chapter, I will focus on a unit that uses Who Was Ida B. Wells? (Fabiny, 2020) to guide instruction. Aligned with the C3 Framework for Social Studies State Standards (NCSS, 2013), the unit is designed to support

1. 2. 3. 4.

the development of questions and inquires; application of historical concepts and tools; evaluation of sources and use of evidence; communication of informed claims related to the compelling question.

Underscoring the inclusion of multiple perspectives and untold stories, the unit provides students the opportunity to learn about the journey of Ida B. Wells, including her activism, resistance, accomplishments, challenges, conflicts, and triumphs. The unit is designed around the following learning objectives: • summarize the contributions of Ida B. Wells to the suffrage movement and the civil rights movement; • describe how Ida B. Wells increased awareness of social inequalities; • analyze strategies Ida B. Wells and other activists used to influence democratic change. These learning objectives allow students to focus on the impact of Ida B. Wells on women’s rights issues and civil rights issues. Since the unit is designed to engage students in learning about the truthtelling dispositions and courageous actions of Ida B. Wells, particularly in relation to oppression and discrimination against both women and people

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of color, activities provide students with the opportunity to inquire about the role of racism and sexism in economic, political, and social spaces. As such, when exploring the suffrage movement, students will not only have the opportunity to learn explicitly about a suffragist of color but also consider how the experiences and perspectives of Black suffragists and white suffragists were both similar and different. Consequently, the compelling question that centers the learning is, “Can movements for equality also encourage inequality?” Supporting questions are: 1. “Who was Ida B. Wells?”; 2. “For what rights and freedoms were those in the suffrage movement fighting?”; 3. “In what ways did suffragists influence historical change and for who?”; 4. “How might the perspectives and experiences of Black suffragists and white suffragists differ?” These questions help students explore main ideas of Ida B. Wells’s advocacies as well as contextualize issues from her era. Who Was Ida B. Wells? (Fabiny, 2020) will be used by students to gather the majority of historical concepts because the book provides a detailed account of the life of Ida B. Wells, exploring her story related to the suffrage movement and the civil rights movement, including her anti-lynching efforts. The book also provides a detailed description of the related vocabulary for the unit (13th Amendment, 14th Amendment, 15th Amendment, Emancipation Proclamation, Jim Crow Laws, lynching, Reconstruction, segregation, and suffrage). To encourage anticipation for reading and build background knowledge, the unit begins with a pre-reading activity in which students examine photographs from the suffrage movement. Teachers should select three images from “Photos: The Battle for Women’s Suffrage in the U.S.” (Taylor, 2019), a collection of common images that represent suffrage marches, parades, protests, and related activities. Displaying the images, one at a time the teacher will ask students a series of questions related to the images: • What do you see in the picture? • What do you think is happening in the picture? • When do you think the picture was taken? • What are the major takeaways from the picture? • How do you think the people in the picture felt? • Is there anything missing from the picture that might be helpful to know? Then, after looking at all three pictures, the teacher will ask students to consider additional questions:

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• What similarities are seen between the pictures? • Whose stories are being told in the pictures? • Are there any stories that seem to be missing? These questions help deconstruct the contents of the images. Next, the teacher introduces and defines the term suffrage and asks students to brainstorm what they might know about this time period in history. Students are expected to keep a record of vocabulary from the unit in the format they would generally record vocabulary in the course (i.e., an interactive notebook). The vocabulary list begins with suffrage and, through the course of reading the text, will be extended to include 13th Amendment, 14th Amendment, 15th Amendment, Emancipation Proclamation, Jim Crow laws, lynching, Reconstruction, and segregation. To build additional background knowledge, students watch a video clip that provides an overview of the women’s suffrage movement from History in A Nutshell (South Carolina ETV Commission, n.d.). Prior to watching the video, students should be directed to focus their attention on the following questions: • What was the 19th Amendment? • Describe how views conflicted over equal rights and who should be given the right to vote. • In what ways were the experiences of Black suffragists and white suffragists similar? • In what ways did they differ? These questions are designed to help students dig deeper into issues connected to the 19th Amendment. At the conclusion of the video, the teacher leads a large group discussion about the questions. Then, students are asked to reflect on the images from the pre-reading activity, revisit the question of whose stories were not being told in the pictures, and discuss the idea as it relates to the information presented in the History in A Nutshell video (South Carolina ETV Commission, n.d.). The teacher explains that they will read Who Was Ida B. Wells? (Fabiny, 2020) to develop an inclusive representation of the suffrage movement that includes diverse perspectives and to learn about Ida B. Wells’s contributions to both the suffrage movement and the civil rights movement. Prior to beginning to read the book, the teacher should introduce the compelling question for the unit as well as the supporting questions. Additionally, the teacher should introduce the graphic organizer (appendix E, figure E.1) that will be used to record information learned about Ida B. Wells while reading the book related to:

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• character traits; • timeline of significant life events; • contributions to civil rights and racial equality; • contributions to the suffrage movement and gender equality. These details help students view Wells as a three-dimensional person with hopes, dreams, values, and beliefs. Now it is time to begin reading Who Was Ida B. Wells? (Fabiny, 2020). Based on students’ needs, the teacher can determine the best way for the book to be read; however, it is encouraged that the book be read aloud in a large group so the teacher can ask questions to check for understanding. At the end of each chapter, students are expected to update the graphic organizer with information learned in the chapter. In addition, the teacher should ask guiding questions to connect to and inform both the compelling question and supporting questions. For example, to support discussion that connects to the compelling question, when appropriate, the teacher could ask: • Was there anything we learned in the chapter that demonstrated existing inequalities, where people were treated differently or did not have the same rights? • Was there anything people did in the chapter to encourage equality or increased rights for certain people or groups of people? These questions help students contextualize issues in Wells’s life as well as highlight the civic action taken to confront and change racist laws. When the concept of lynching is introduced in chapter three, students should be given the opportunity to explore the Racial Terror Lynchings (Equal Justice Initiative, n.d.) map and consider questions to emphasize that, while most racial terror lynchings occurred in the American South, it was not limited exclusively to that region. Possible questions to ask related to the Racial Terror Lynchings graphic are found in appendix F, figure F.1. At the conclusion of the book, students should be directed to reflect on the compelling question of the unit, as well as the supporting questions. In order to gather additional information related to the questions and fill in any gaps on their graphic organizers, students will watch the video titled, Untold Stories of Black Women in the Suffrage Movement (Seattle Channel, n.d.). Possible questions to ask related to the video and to support the Social Justice Standards are included in appendix F, figure F.1. To provide students with the opportunity to process their learning related to the unit objectives, compelling questions, and supporting questions, they will complete performance tasks. It is recommended that students have a choice to complete either Option A or Option B, but all students should complete

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Option C. Option A requires students to create an identity chart/concept map for Ida B. Wells. They should include experiences that shaped her identity, significant events on her life’s journey, descriptors, and achievements. For Option B, students prepare a RAFT writing assignment. RAFT is an acronym and is designed to address: Role of the Writer—Who are you as the writer? Audience—To whom are you writing? Format—What form will the writing take? and Topic—What is the subject of the piece? Students can select the Role of Ida B. Wells or any of the people represented in the book, as well as the Audience of any people or groups mentioned or referred to in the book. The Format is up to the discretion of the student. The Topic should directly address racial equality and gender equality. Then, for Option C, students should prepare a video (2–4 minutes in length) to describe their views on the compelling question: Can movements for equality also encourage inequality? Students are expected to refer to civil rights, as well as the suffrage movement, in their video and should mention at least four of nine vocabulary words. Teachers can elect a video platform that best meets their students’ needs and aligns with available resources. Alternatively, the teacher could use a video discussion sharing app, such as Flip (formerly Flipgrid). If videos are posted in a format where they can be viewed by peers, students could also be required to watch and respond to a select number of their peers’ videos. Regardless of the option selected, students are applying evidence from the trade book about Ida B. Wells to discuss her contributions to civil rights and women’s rights issues.

CONCLUSION Ida B. Wells is a vanguard for civil rights, women’s rights, and social justice, not only historically but in contemporary U.S. society. This unit demonstrates that concepts related to gender, race, and social justice are intricately intertwined and cannot (and should not) be presented in isolation. As such, Wells’s life and experiences are a strong example of how thematic teaching can be approached in the social studies classroom since issues raised by Wells can be seen in different historical issues throughout U.S. history. Additionally, the learning activities presented in this chapter serve as a practical example of how to apply academic frameworks such as Critical Race Theory, through the inclusion of counterstories and attention to intersectionality, to provide students with the opportunity to consider suffrage and issues related to equality. These activities encourage students to form a more inclusive and representative perspective to promote an accurate portrayal of history that informs an understanding of multidimensional historical narratives.

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REFERENCES Abrams, L., & Moio, J. (2013). Critical Race Theory and the cultural competence dilemma in social work education. Journal of Social Work Education. 45(2), 245261. Doi: 10.5175/JSWE.2009.200700109 An, S. (2020). Learning racial literacy while navigating White social studies. The Social Studies, 111(4), 174-181. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​/00377996​.2020​.1718584 Antrop-Gonzàlez, R (2006). Toward the school as sanctuary concept in multicultural urban education: Implications for small high school reform. Curriculum Inquiry, 36(3), 273- 301. Au, W., Brown, A., & Calderón, D. (2016). Reclaiming the multicultural roots of U.S. curriculum: communities of color and official knowledge in education. Teachers College Press. Bell. D. (2002). Learning the three “I’s” of America’s slavery heritage. In P. Finkelman (Ed.), Slavery and the Law, (pp. 29-42). Rowman & Littlefield. Busey, C. L., & Russell, W. B. (2016). “We want to learn”: Middle school Latino/a students discuss social studies curriculum and pedagogy. Research in Middle Level Education, 39(4), 1-20. Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2017). Critical Race Theory: An introduction (3rd ed.). New York University. Dunbar-Ortiz, R. (2015). An indigenous peoples’ history of the United States. Beacon Press. Equal Justice Initiative. (2020, May 4). Ida B. Wells honored with posthumous Pulitzer. https://eji​.org​/news​/ida​-b​-wells​-honored​-with​-posthumous​-pulitzer/ Equal Justice Initiative. (n.d.). Racial terror lynchings. https://lynchinginamerica​.eji​ .org​/explore Fabiny, S. (2020). Who was Ida B. Wells? Penguin Random House. Hannah-Jones, N. (2021). Origins. In N. Hannah-Jones, C. Roper, I. Silverman, & J. Silverstein (Eds.), The 1619 Project (pp. xvii-xxxiii). The New York Times Company. King, L.J. (2014). When lions write history: Black history textbooks, African-American educators, & the alternative Black curriculum in social studies education, 1890-1940. Multicultural Education, 22(1), 2-11. King, L. J. (2020). Black history is not American history: Toward a framework of Black historical consciousness. Social Education, 84(6), 335-341. https://www​ .socialstudies​.org​/sites​/default​/files​/view​-article​-2020​-12​/se8406335​.pdf Ladson-Billings, G. (1998). Just what is Critical Race Theory and what’s it doing in a nice field like education? Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 11(1), 7-24. Ladson-Billings, G. (2003). Critical race theory perspectives on the social studies: The profession, policies, and curriculum. Information Age Publishing. Ladson-Billings, G. (2021). Critical Race Theory in education: A scholar’s journey. Teachers College Press. Learning for Justice. (2022). Social justice standards: The learning for justice antibias framework (2nd ed.). The Southern Poverty Law Center, Inc. Loewen, J. (2018). Lies my teacher told me: Everything your American history textbook got wrong. NEW PRESS.

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Lynn, M. (1999). Toward a critical race pedagogy: A research note. Urban Education, 33(5), 606-627. Lynn, M., Williams, A. D., Park, G., Benigno, G., & Mitchell, C. (2006). Critical theories of race, class, and gender in urban education. ENCOUNTER: Education for Meaning and Social justice, 19(2), 17-25. Mueller, R. (2017). Calibrating your “compelling compass”: Teacher-constructed prompts to assist question development. Social Education, 81(6), 343-345. National Council for the Social Studies. (2013). The College, Career, and Civic Life C3 Framework or Social Studies State Standards: Guidance for enhancing the rigor of K-12 civics, economics, geography, and history. http://www.socialstudies.org/c3. Price, A., Williams, C., & Sobel, A. (n.d.). Four African American suffragists you should know. National Park Foundation. https://www​.nationalparks​.org​/connect​/ blog​/four​-african​-american​-suffragists​-you​-should​-know Seattle Channel (n.d.). Untold stories of Black women in the suffrage movement. https://www​.youtube​.com​/watch​?v​=Br6b9sIuIDU Solórzano, D., & Yosso, T. (2001). From racial stereotyping and deficit discourse toward a critical race theory in teacher education. Multicultural Education, 9(1), 2-8. South Carolina ETV Commission. (n.d). Women’s suffrage movement, part I: History in a nutshell. https://www​.knowitall​.org​/video​/womens​-suffrage​-movement​ -part​-1​-history​-nutshell Takaki, R. (2008). Different mirror: A history of multicultural America. Back Bay Books. Taylor, A. (2019, June 5). Photos: The battle for women’s suffrage in the U.S. The Atlantic. https://www​.theatlantic​.com​/photo​/2019​/06​/the​-battle​-for​-womens​-suffrage​-in​-hotos​/591103/ Welch, C.A. (2000). Ida B. Wells-Barnett: Powerhouse with a pen. Carolrhoda Books, Inc. Wells, I. B. (1892). Southern horrors: Lynch law in all its phases. Gutenberg. Wells-Barnett, I. B. (1900). Lynch Law in America. The Arena 23, 15-24.

Chapter 4

Dr. Mabel Ping-Hua Lee Chinese American Pioneer of the Women’s Suffrage Movement in the Era of the Chinese Exclusion Act Yali Zhao

Throughout history, many brave women fought for equality and women’s rights. As we celebrate the Centennial Anniversary of the 19th Amendment (1920–2020), we must commemorate women’s rights movement and its fearless women who fought and contributed to women’s rights and equality. Suffragists such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-–1902), Susan B. Anthony (1820–1906), and Ida B. Wells (1862–1931) are well known and taught in schools; however, few teachers and students ever hear or know about Dr. Mabel Ping-Hua Lee, the Chinese American suffrage pioneer. People have vague ideas of how Mabel Lee and her fellow Chinese American women made contributions and even helped shape the American women’s suffrage movement in the early twentieth century (Cahill, 2020a, 2020b; Davis, 2019; Lee, 2021; Zhang, 2022). In this chapter, I will first provide an overview of Mabel Lee’s early years of fighting for women’s rights and her significant contributions to the American women’s suffrage movement in the early twentieth century. I will then use inquiry-based thematic teaching to explore Mabel Lee’s struggles and efforts in civic participation despite being prohibited from obtaining citizenship and voting rights due to the Chinese Exclusion Act. Through various activities, I will challenge students to consider gender and racial equality issues and encourage them to reflect on actions they can take to continue improving human rights in the twenty-first century.

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A LONG OVERLOOKED CHINESE AMERICAN SUFFRAGIST Mabel Lee (1897–1966) was the first Chinese woman to graduate from Columbia, and she was the first person from China to earn a doctorate in economics (Alexander, 2020; Cahill, 2020a; Elfman, 2020; Hond, 2020). As a teenager, Mabel Lee was already well-known in the women’s suffrage movement. She was an activist and eloquent speaker for women’s rights and equality for the Chinese community in the United States in the early twentieth century. However, Mabel Lee was long overlooked and received little attention until the recent centennial celebrations of the women’s suffrage movement across the nation. National Public Radio (NPR), The New York Times, The Washington Post, and her alma mater, Columbia University, excitedly reported stories about her extraordinary contributions to the women’s suffrage movement 100 years ago (Block, 2020; Elfman, 2020; Yang, 2020). The National Archives, museum exhibitions, and university lectures recognized and highlighted Mabel Lee and other Chinese American women’s contributions to the women’s suffrage movement in the United States (Alexander, 2020; Bahr, 2020; Cahill, 2020a; Cahill, 2020b; Chambers et al., 2020; Columbia University, 2021; Elfman, 2020; Lee, 2021; The Morning Bell, 2022; Yang, 2020). A Chinese Immigrant and a Teenage Suffrage Pioneer Mabel Lee was born in Guangdong, China, in 1897. Her father, Dr Lee Towe, was a missionary pastor and moved to the United States when Mabel Lee was four years old. The Chinese Exclusion Act implemented by the federal government in 1882 banned most Chinese immigration and created deep antiAsian prejudice nationwide (Asia Society, 2023; Ngai, 2021, April 21; Gillian, March 26, 2021). The laws only allowed Chinese students, merchants, and missionaries to enter the country, but they were forbidden to bring their family members (Lee, 2002). Mabel Lee immigrated to the United States on an academic scholarship when she was about nine years old. She reunited with her father and lived in Chinatown, New York, for the rest of her life. She attended school in Brooklyn with students of diverse racial and cultural backgrounds while remaining close to her Chinese community and cultural heritage. As a teenager, Mabel Lee developed a deep interest in the debate over women’s suffrage, activism, and the women’s rights movement. She wrote papers and made speeches, arguing that the United States would not have a thriving democracy without giving women the right to vote. Her powerful address caught the attention of the media. By the time she was sixteen years

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old, Mabel Lee was already a highly recognized suffragist and activist. New York Tribune and The New York Times both featured coverage of Lee’s active involvement in the movement. A New York Tribune article in 1912 regarded Mabel Lee as “the symbol of the new era, when all women will be free and unhampered” (“Chinese Girl Wants Vote,” 1912, April 13, p. 3). On May 4th, 1912, as a member of the New York Women’s Political Equality League, Mabel Lee helped organize a historical women’s suffrage parade through New York City. Mabel Lee was the only non-white woman riding on horseback, leading one of the biggest parades for women’s suffrage that the nation had ever seen. About 10,000 people marched behind her, waving signs supporting women’s suffrage, and thousands of people watched along the street (Elfman, 2020; Lee, 2021, March 19). This parade brought immediate national attention to the women’s suffrage movement, and newspapers throughout the country covered this historical event. This parade and continuing campaigns by the suffragists eventually led to the passage of an amendment to the New York State Constitution granting full suffrage to women in New York state and the 19th Amendment that extended voting rights to women in all states in 1920. However, Mabel Lee was a Chinese American, and she was not a citizen. Therefore, she was barred from citizenship and voting because of the discriminatory Chinese Exclusion Act. Despite the injustice, Mabel Lee fervently and courageously fought for women’s rights and gender equality in both the United States and China. Discrimination Against Chinese and Asian Americans Chinese Americans were not the only victims of discriminatory policies. Other Asian ethnic groups were also deprived of these rights by the government because white nativists had economic fears about losing professional jobs to non-white immigrants. Stereotypes and racial discrimination against the Asian population were prevalent in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Congress passed two laws to exclude Chinese people from entering the United States. The Chinese Exclusion Act was a piece of legislation to limit immigration from China to the United States based on country of origin, with the exceptions only for specific students, merchants, and missionaries (Lee, 2002; National Archives, 1882). An earlier law, the Page Act of 1875, aimed to limit Chinese women entering the United States (Loh-Hagan et al., 2022). These two discriminatory laws dramatically limited the number of Chinese immigrants (men and women) in the United States and rejected their citizenship and democratic participation. The Chinese Exclusion law was renewed every ten years and extended to other Asian countries in 1924. Later, nearly all Asian immigration was cut off when the United States imposed ethnic quotas to keep the country largely white and Protestant (Yang, 2020).

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Chinese Revolution and Its Impact on the American Women’s Suffrage Movement Mabel Lee was one of the very few Chinese women who lived in the United States in the early twentieth century. Despite the injustice, Mabel Lee and other American Chinese women played a visible and vital part and helped shape the suffrage movement (Cahill, 2020a, 2020b; Liang, 1998). The women’s suffrage movement was not always willing to accept women of color, especially Chinese American women, because of the Chinese Exclusion Act. However, suffrage leaders felt the need to learn from Chinese Americans thanks to the Chinese Revolution of 1911, whch led to increased rights for women. The Chinese Revolution originated in Wuhan, China, in October 1911 and overthrew China’s Qing Dynasty (1644–1911). This revolution is of epoch-making significance in Chinese history and had a profound political influence on Chinese society. The historical impact of the revolution was that it put an end to China’s over 2,000-year-old monarchy. It led to the establishment of the Republic of China, which lasted from 1912 to 1949 under the leadership of Dr Sun Yat-Sen (孙中山). Dr. Sun championed the Three Principles of the People: nationalism, democracy, and socialism (Editors of Encyclopedia, 2021; Ling, 2012). The Revolution and its accompanying ideology brought about recognizable social changes in China as it promoted the ideological literation of the Chinese nation, disseminated the concepts of democracy and republicanism (China Global Television Network, 2021) and opened the door for China’s progress (People’s Daily, 2011). It advocated and embraced equality of all ethnic groups, including women, removed many old-fashioned habits and ideas, promoted democracy among the Chinese people, and improved the moral standards and economic growth of China at the time (People’s Daily, 2011). Mabel Lee’s family and Chinese women in the United States paid close attention to the historical events in China and supported the republican revolution. They shared Dr. Sun’s vision of modernizing China, including offering women’s rights for equal education and political participation. They followed events in China, kept active in their local communities, raised money for Chinese famine victims, and fervently supported Dr. Sun by giving speeches at his fundraisers (Cahill, 2020a; Liang, 1998; Shui, 2022; Zhang, 2022). The white suffragists heard that the Chinese government had enfranchised women, so they reached out to Chinese communities for inspiration in their efforts (Alexander, 2020; Cahill, 2020a, 2020b; Lee, 2021; Zhang, 2022). In early 1912, white suffragists invited Mabel Lee and other Chinese women to speak at suffrage meetings about women’s role in the Chinese revolution. Mabel Lee and other Chinese women shared how Chinese women contributed to the founding of their new nation and the enfranchisement of Chinese

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women. They also appealed to the audience to help address the needs of Chinese communities in the United States caused by the discriminatory laws they faced as immigrants (Cahill, 2020a; Cahill, 2020b; Laing, 1998; Zhang, 2022). Speaking up for Women’s Rights in the United States and China Mabel Lee could not benefit from the gains of the suffrage movement even after the ratification of the 19th Amendment, but she still chose to fight for women’s rights. She believed it was the right thing to do to help other women gain equal rights. She continued her activism and fought for equal rights and opportunities for women in the United States and China. When she was sixteen, Mabel Lee attended Barnard College, the women’s college connected to the all-male Columbia University. She received her master’s degree in education from Columbia Teacher’s College, and later, in 1921, she obtained a doctorate in economics from Columbia University, earning her the title Dr Mabel Lee. In the same year, Lee published her Ph.D. research in a book entitled The Economic History of China (Alexander, 2020; Cahill, 2020a; Chinese Exclusion Act Case Files, 2020). In those days, very few women pursued doctorate degrees. Mabel Lee became the first Chinese American woman to receive a doctoral degree in the United States (Alexander, 2020; Cahill, 2020a; Elfman, 2020; Hond, 2020). Throughout college, Mabel Lee continued her fight for women’s rights in the United States and China. She was actively involved in the Chinese Students Association and advocated for the rights of Chinese students studying at American colleges and universities on the Boxer Indemnity Scholarship. The scholarship program trains future Chinese political and business leaders. She wrote articles for Barnard College’s The Chinese Students’ Monthly and urged the future leaders of China to incorporate women’s rights into their new republic. One of these articles was published in 1914 and was titled “The Meaning of Woman Suffrage.” She argued that the fundamental principle of democracy is equality of opportunity and that women should be encouraged to gain an education (Lee, 1914). Mabel Lee gave speeches to white suffragist audiences and updated them on women’s rights in China. In 1915, she spoke at the Suffrage Shop run by the Women’s Political Union to promote the women’s movement. In this famous speech, “The Submerged Half” (Lee, 1915), Mabel Lee passionately argued for gender equality in China and urged the Chinese community to promote girls’ education and women’s political equality. In 1917, Mabel Lee led Chinese and Chinese American women in another New York suffrage parade on Fifth Avenue as part of the Women’s Political Equality League (Arlington

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Public Library, 2020, May 7; Museum of the City of New York, 2020). When New York state enfranchised women in 1917, Mabel Lee could not vote as a Chinese woman and non-citizen. While known as an active champion of women’s suffrage, Mabel Lee and her fellow Chinese would only be eligible to vote until the Chinese Exclusion Act was repealed in 1943, when China fought as an ally with the United States in World War II. There was no record of Mabel Lee ever becoming an American citizen and voting (Alexander, 2020; Cahill, 2020a, 2020b; Zhang, 2022). After earning her doctoral degree in 1921, Mabel Lee intended to move back to China because few opportunities were available for highly educated Chinese women in the United States. She was offered a university teaching position in China but ultimately chose to remain in the United States after her father suddenly died. Mabel Lee took over her father’s position as the pastor at the First Chinese Baptist Church in New York City. She also founded the Chinese Christianity Center, offering job training, health care, and English lessons to the Chinese community. She used this center to continue advocating for the Chinese American community until she passed away in 1966. Regretfully, there is little record of Mabel Lee’s later life. Regardless, Mabel Lee was one of the distinguished women suffragists whose stories and documents were recorded in the holdings of the National Archives. Mabel Lee and her fellow Chinese American suffragists were overlooked for most of the century (Bahr, 2020; Davis, 2019). The centennial celebrations of the women’s suffrage movement finally brought stories like Mabel Lee’s to light. Newspaper articles, museum exhibitions, and university lectures recognized and highlighted Mabel Lee and other Chinese American women’s contributions to the women’s suffrage movement in the United States. They allowed people today to be aware of Chinese American suffragists’ fight for both gender equality and racial justice in the early twentieth century (Alexander, 2020; Cahill, 2020a, 2020b; Bahr, 2020; Chambers et al., 2020; Lee, 2021; Yang, 2020).

INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING ABOUT MABEL LEE The National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS, 2010) national curriculum standards and the C3 Framework (NCSS, 2013) provide a lens for social studies teachers to engage their students in a deeper understanding of historical events and figures. When teaching about Mabel Lee and her fellow Chinese American contributions to the women’s suffrage movement, all ten NCSS themes are relevant, but themes two, four, nine, and are the most pertinent. The following section explains how teaching about Mabel Lee relates to these NCSS themes.

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Teaching about Mabel Lee provides a context for teaching the NCSS theme “Time, Continuity, and Change” (NCSS, 2010). Chinese American suffragists like Mabel Lee played a visible and important part in the American women’s suffrage movement in the era of the Chinese Exclusion Act. Teaching about Mabel Lee will help students develop an analytical view of the causes and consequences of the historical events during that period, Mabel Lee’s active involvement in the women’s suffrage movement, and her fight for equal rights and opportunities for Chinese American immigrants. Teaching activities centering on Mabel Lee inspire and empower Asian American students as they can see their history and influential Asian American historical figures who helped shape American political and social discourse (Reichmuth & Chong, 2022). This knowledge applies to the NCSS theme “Individual Development and Identity” (NCSS, 2010). Mabel Lee and fellow Chinese American suffragists fought for gender and racial equality. Students will understand the global scope of the fight for women’s rights and how the Chinese Revolution inspired the American women’s suffrage movement in the early twentieth century. Chinese American women suffragists fought for women’s rights in the United States and the new Chinese nation in the early twentieth century. This teaching aligns well with the NCSS theme “Global Connections” (NCSS, 2010). Mostly importantly, teaching about Mabel Lee’s contributions to the women’s suffrage movement relates to the NCSS theme “Civil Ideals and Practices” and purpose of social studies (NCSS, 2010). It helps students understand the fundamental human rights in a democracy and how people defended and fought for these rights even at challenging times. Seeing how others, especially young and minority ethnic groups, fought for their civil rights helps students understand the impact of civic participation of diverse cultural communities. Furthermore, the centennial celebration of women’s suffrage movement and anti-Asian crimes in recent years due to the COVID19 pandemic give students an excellent opportunity to learn and build critical thinking and civic participatory skills in this increasingly diverse society and interconnected, challenging world. The Inquiry Arc of the C3 Framework by the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) is a powerful guide to help teachers strengthen social studies instruction, build students’ critical thinking, problem-solving, and participatory skills to become engaged citizens (NCSS, 2013). The C3 Framework aligns academic programs to the Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts and Literacy in History/Social Studies. The C3 Framework emphasizes applying knowledge within the core disciplines of civics, economics, geography, and history as students develop questions and plan inquiries; apply disciplinary concepts and tools; evaluate and use evidence; communicate conclusions, and take informed action (NCSS, 2013).

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One appropriate and robust strategy to help students make the connection between current and historical issues is utilizing social studies trade books (Clabough, 2021). Teaching about Mabel Lee Using Themed Social Studies Trade Book Many educators in the United States struggle with how to teach about Asian Americans because Asian Americans’ efforts, voices, and experiences are often ignored or excluded from the mainstream social studies and history curriculum (An, 2016; Wu et al., 2022). This is particularly the case in elementary grades, where social studies curriculum and instruction is marginalized (Fitchett et al., 2014; Heather & Fitchett, 2012; Leming et al., 2006). Using appropriately themed social studies trade books can be a meaningful and effective way to integrate social studies, to develop students’ literacy skills, and to strengthen social studies disciplinary literacy skills. Chapter books, picture books, fiction, and non-fiction books are all examples of trade books. Using trade books in teaching helps spark students’ interest and make content come alive. It can humanize historical figures by showing their motivations, fears, biases, hopes, and challenging and inspiring experiences. It can help students make real-life and personal connections with historical figures and contemporary society (Bickford & Schuette, 2016; Clabough, 2021; Libresco, 2020; Moore, 2018). Lessons centered on the Asian American struggle and contributions to the women’s suffrage and human rights movements help students develop “a deeper understanding of the community, its challenges, and achievements while hopefully disrupting harmful stereotypes against Asian Americans” (Reichmuth & Chong, 2022, p. 12). At present, lessons focusing on Asian Americans are especially needed considering recent Anti-Asian racism due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Historically, the relationship between the United States and China experienced many ups and downs. The two countries have been on good terms for the past four decades. However, the relationship has severely deteriorated in recent years due to several factors, especially the United States−China trade war that started in 2018 under President Trump’s administration and the COVID-19 pandemic. The centennial celebrations of the 19th amendment and the women’s suffrage movement took place right during the COVID19 pandemic. There has been a new wave of anti-Chinese and anti-Asian discrimination, violence, and hate crimes in the United States during this public health crisis and economic anxieties. Numerous physical and verbal attacks against Asian Americans made national headlines (The Associated Press, 2021; Chan, 2022; Ruiz et al., 2021). The violence forced many Asian Americans to take to the streets, marching against hate crimes, and gladly,

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many ethnic groups stood in solidarity with Asian Americans. For many Asian Americans, especially Chinese Americans, the Chinese Exclusion Act seems to have been reactivated. Many Chinese Americans have lived in fear, stress, and uncertainty over the past few years (Ruiz et al., 2021). Regrettably, since Mabel Lee has been overlooked for so long and did not receive much attention until recently, there have been no books specifically published about Mabel Lee. A few books include Mabel Lee as a distinguished pioneer for women’s suffrage and activism in American history, along with other historical figures. One book, Bold Women in History: 15 Women’s Rights Activists You Should Know by Meghan Vestal (2021), is a highly regarded chapter book of biographies for young readers (K-8th grades). It explores fifteen critical women’s rights activists, including a chapter on Mabel Ping-Hua Lee (p. 57–61). This short biography provides a vivid story of Mabel Lee, who dedicated her early life to women’s suffrage even though she knew she would not be able to vote (Vestal, 2021). The following section will focus on inquiry-based teaching about Mabel Lee’s biography from Bold Women in History: 15 Women’s Rights Activists You Should Know (Vestal, 2021). The described activities aim to engage elementary and middle school students in exploring some critical themes and events directly related to Mabel Lee’s early life journey as a Chinese immigrant and a pioneer for women’s suffrage and human rights in the era of the Chinese Exclusion Act. This section will describe five inquiry-based learning activities related to this book chapter. Activity One: Trade Book Reading and Discussion For the first activity, students will read the five-page biography of Mabel Lee, discuss it, and respond to a set of inquiry questions using evidence from the chapter to support their arguments. The social studies teacher will start by asking students what they know about the 19th Amendment and noteworthy women suffragists who played important roles in the early twentieth century women’s suffrage movement. Afterward, the teacher will engage the students in a brief discussion about how a Chinese teenage girl could champion American women’s voting rights despite being excluded from the same rights. This discussion is intended to pique the students’ curiosity in learning about Mabel Lee’s exceptional experience and contribution to the American women’s suffrage movement. Students will then read Mabel Lee’s biography chapter, discuss provided inquiry questions in small groups, and then have a whole class discussion. These inquiry questions will help students better understand how Chinese Americans fought for women’s equal rights and helped shape the women’s suffrage movement even when they faced gender and racial discrimination

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under the Chinese Exclusion Act. The teacher must emphasize that students use evidence from this biography and additional reliable resources to support their arguments in the discussion. Inquiry Questions Concerning the Chinese Exclusion Act: 1. Why did the United States pass the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882? 2. How did this law affect Mabel Lee, her family, and Chinese community? 3. When did the Chinese Exclusion Act end? Why did federal government decide to end this law? And why was this law in place for more than five decades (1882–1943)? 4. Why were many women still banned from voting even after the Congress ratified the 19th Amendment and extended the right to all states in 1920? 5. Why would a woman like Mabel Lee, who would be prohibited from voting because of her race even after the passage of the national suffrage amendment, still campaign for women’s right to vote? Inquiry Questions pertaining to Mabel Lee as a Young Pioneer for Women’s Suffrage: 1. What motivated Mabel Lee to get involved in the women’s suffrage movement as a teenager? 2. Why was the women’s suffrage movement reluctant to accept women of color? 3. How did the Chinese 1911 Revolution inspire the American suffrage movement? 4. What role did Mabel Lee play in the 1912 women’s suffrage parade in New York City? 5. What do you want to say to Mabel Lee, who fought for your rights 100 years ago? Inquiry Questions pertaining to Mabel Lee’s fight for Equal Rights of Chinese and American Chinese communities: 1. What university did Mabel Lee attend for her college and doctoral degrees? How did she continue to advocate equality for women and Chinese Americans while attending college? 2. Why was Mabel Lee heavily involved in the Chinese Students Association at college? What did she do to advocate rights for Chinese students in American institutions and women in China? 3. Why do you think Mabel Lee advocated for women’s equal rights in both China and the United States?

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There are many benefits to students for engaging with these inquiry questions about the Chinese Exclusion Act, Mabel Lee’s involvement in the women’s suffrage movement, and her fight for the equal rights of the Chinese and American Chinese communities. First, students will gain a deeper understanding of historical events, including the motivations behind the Chinese Exclusion Act, the impact of this law on Chinese communities in the United States, and the efforts of activists like Mabel Lee to fight for equal rights. By exploring these questions, students will develop critical thinking skills, including the ability to analyze primary and secondary sources, evaluate historical evidence, and draw conclusions based on the evidence. Second, by examining the experiences of Mabel Lee and other women of color who fought for suffrage, students will develop a more nuanced understanding of the women’s suffrage movement and its limitations. Students will learn about the challenges that women of color faced when trying to join the movement as well as the contributions that activists like Mabel Lee made to the fight for women’s rights. Lastly, students will develop empathy and appreciation for the struggles of marginalized groups, including Chinese Americans and women of color. By studying Mabel Lee’s life and activism, students will gain a better understanding of the obstacles that she and others faced and the impact that their work had on future generations. This can help students develop a greater sense of social responsibility and a commitment to working for justice and equality in their own lives. Activity Two: Primary Source Document Analysis Document analysis is the first step in working with primary sources, the original records or documents created by the firsthand witness of an event. Photos, letters, diaries, artifacts, speeches, newspapers, interviews, maps, posters, political cartoons, and video recordings are all examples of primary sources created at the time of the event. Primary sources provide a “window into the past” and bring students into close contact with events, ideas, and documents produced by the people during that period, which can help them better understand what it was like to be alive during various time periods throughout history (Potter, 2002; Sandwell, 2008). Teachers can teach students to think through primary source documents for contextual understanding and make informed judgments about an event based on the analysis of the primary source documents. Analysis of primary documents such as Mabel Lee’s immigration documents, writings, speeches, photography, and newspaper articles about her role in the suffrage movement will help students develop analytic skills, historical thinking, and perspective-taking (Claravall & Irey, 2022; Metro, 2017; Potter, 2002; Sandwell, 2008).

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Photo Analysis American students rarely know about Asian women suffragists, let alone a 16-year-old Chinese girl leading the American suffrage movement 100 years ago. Viewing the images of Mabel Lee and women suffragists and examining the primary source documents published by newspapers at that time will help students develop perspective-taking skills and have a refreshing, enlightening, and holistic view of the sophisticated political and cultural context. Students will examine the following four photos related to Mabel Lee. For image copyright issues, hyperlinks are provided for each photo, followed by a brief description. Teachers can access the photos and share with students for the photo analysis activity. • Photo #1: Chinese Girl Wants Vote. (https://chroniclingamerica​.loc​.gov​/ lccn​/sn83030214​/1912​-04​-13​/ed​-1​/seq-3). In this photo, Mabel Lee was featured in an April 13, 1912, New York Tribune article prior to her participation in the women’s march in New York City on May 4. • Photo #2: Mabel Ping-Hua Lee. (https://www​.docsteach​.org​/documents​ /document​ /mabel​ -lee). This unidentified newspaper clipping shows Dr. Mabel Ping-Hua Lee, the first Chinese woman to earn a Ph.D. from Columbia University. This photo is held in the National Archives at New York City (National Archives, 1923). • Photo #3: Youngest Parade in New York City Suffrage Parade. (https://www​ .loc​.gov​/resource​/ppmsca​.58365). This photo is a snapshot of the women’s suffrage parade in New York City on May 4, 1912. According to American Press Association (1912), this photo was created/published on May 4, 1912, during the parade in New York City. It shows women lining up for parade; woman in front leading with baby and carriage; women dressed in white and wearing sashes “Votes for women” carrying flags and banners. • Photo #4: Radiogram about Mabel Ping-Hua Lee. (https://www.docsteach. org​/documents​/document​/radiogram​-mabel​-lee). This radiogram comes from Mabel Lee’s Chinese Exclusion Act case file and is held in the National Archives at New York City. It was confirmed in Mabel’s travel document by the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) on June 26, 1937, that Mabel Lee had boarded the steamer Yokohama Maru on October 20, 1929. It corroborated what Lee had told the INS in an immigration interview conducted when Lee wanted to travel abroad in 1937. Before having students analyze these primary source photos related to Mabel Lee, the teacher can first explain the importance of analyzing primary sources to develop critical thinking skills and discuss the value of primary sources in providing firsthand accounts and perspectives of historical events and individuals. Then the teachers can provide guidance on how to analyze

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primary sources, including strategies for evaluating the reliability and validity of the sources and interpreting the information they provide. Once students have some basic knowledge, they can begin analyzing the photos related to Mabel Lee. As they analyze the photos, they can consider the context in which they were taken, the individuals and events depicted, and the messages conveyed by the images. Photo analysis questions: 1. What does photo #1 tell us about Mabel Lee? 2. What do you think it implies about attitudes at the time about which people could participate in civics? 3. How is Mabel different from the other women suffragists in photo #3? 4. Why do you think newspapers featured Mabel Lee? 5. What are the signs and slogans suffragists held in photo #3? What do they mean? 6. How do you believe Mabel felt about leading the parade as a Chinese American? How do you think suffragists may think about a young Chinese immigrant girl leading the parade? 7. What do you learn about Mabel Lee in photo #2? 8. What do you learn about Mabel Lee in photo #4? How do you think the Chinese Exclusion Act affected Mabel Lee’s travel? Students can gain several benefits from analyzing these primary sources documents related to Mabel Lee and the women’s suffrage movement. Photo #1 shows Mabel Lee before her participation in the women’s march in New York City on May 4, 1912. It tells students that Mabel was an active participant in the women’s suffrage movement at a young age. The fact that Mabel Lee, a sixteen-year-old Chinese girl, was acclaimed to lead the American suffrage movement at that time suggests that there were restrictions on civic participation, particularly for non-white individuals. Photo #2 recognizes Mabel Lee’s scholarly achievement, indicating that she was not only a suffragist but also an accomplished scholar. This is very spectacular for a young Chinese immigrant woman. Photo #3 is a snapshot of women’s suffrage parade in New York City on May 4, 1912. Mabel Lee was horse-riding in the front and is not shown in this photo. Mabel Lee was different from other women suffragists in photo #3 because she was a Chinese immigrant, which was not a common demographic in the suffrage movement at the time. Photo #4 is Mabel’s confirmed travel document by the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) in 1937. The Chinese Exclusion Act may have affected Mabel Lee’s travel by limiting her ability to leave the country and restricting her access to certain opportunities based on her ethnicity. Examining these photos can help students gain knowledge about the history of the women’s suffrage movement and the role of individuals like

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Mabel Lee in advancing the cause. They can better understand the sophisticated political and cultural context of the suffrage movement and develop perspective-taking skills. Analyzing these photos can help students enhance their critical thinking skills and broaden their cultural awareness and understanding of the immigrant experience in the United States. Activity Three: Analysis of Essays and Speeches by Mabel Lee The book chapter about Mabel Lee does not include primary source documents, except for one short citation from Mabel’s feminist essay “The Meaning of Women Suffrage,” published in the Chinese Student Monthly in May 1914. This essay was photographed and covered in the newspapers throughout the United States during the women’s suffrage movement. The citation in the chapter is: “[Feminism] is nothing more than the extension of democracy or social justice and equality of opportunities to women.” Teachers can use the full version of this essay available online (https://timtsengdotnet​.files​.wordpress​.com​/2013​/12​/mabel​-lee​-the​-meaning​-of​-woman​-suffrage​ -1914​.pdf) as a complimentary document to provide a holistic picture and better understanding of this citation and engage students in further reading, text analysis, and discussion about these key concepts, including feminism, democracy, social justice, and equality of opportunities for women. A quote from this essay can be used for further discussion about these concepts: And in the feministic movement these opportunities are again applying the same misrepresentation by saying that the feminists wish to make women like men; whereas the feminists want nothing more than the equality of opportunity for women to prove their merits and what they are best suited to do. This is a purely scientific attitude, for we can never determine anything until it has been tried. (Lee, 1914, p. 527)

Teachers can select key sentences from this essay and have students read, analyze, and discuss what beliefs Mabel held about the principles of democracy and how they can be applied in modern society. For instance, they can explore what Mabel meant by saying, “Feminism is nothing more than the extension of democracy or social justice and equality of opportunities to women?” and “The fundamental principle of democracy is equality of opportunity.” Students can also read Mabel’s “China’s Submerged Half” speech in 1914, which is available online at https://timtsengdotnet​.files​.wordpress​.com​/2013​ /12​/mabel​-lee​-speech​-china​_s​-submerged​.pdf. This speech at Barnard College reflected the optimism and hope for a modern China among young adult Chinese students. Mabel Lee believed that gender equality was necessary for China’s new republic. This speech was covered in The New York Times and caught much attention at the time. Below is one paragraph of her address

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arguing for equal opportunities for Chinese women. Students can read and discuss Mabel’s attitude toward knowledge and gender equality. I plead for a wider sphere of usefulness for the long-submerged women of China. I ask for our girls the open door to the treasury of knowledge, the same opportunities for physical development as boys and the same rights of participation in all human activities of which they are individually capable. (Lee, 1914, p.1)

The analysis of Mabel Lee’s essays and speech offers several benefits for students. First, it provides a more comprehensive understanding of Lee’s beliefs about feminism, democracy, social justice, and equality of opportunity for women. It can also spark students’ critical thinking and discussion about these key concepts and their relevance in modern society. Additionally, it offers an opportunity for students to explore Mabel Lee’s perspectives on gender equality in China during a time when such ideas were not widely accepted. Activity Four: Perspective-Writing and Speech Writing To begin this activity, students read the chapter on Mabel Lee from Vestal’s book. Then, they discuss their responses to the inquiry questions in small groups. Next, the teacher leads a whole-group discussion of their findings. After the discussion, students will conduct two writing activities: perspective writing and speech writing. Students can write a short perspective piece either, from Mabel Lee’s or their own perspectives. Perspective writing can be a powerful tool for helping students gain a deeper understanding of historical events and figures. By encouraging students to consider how people in the past viewed and processed what was happening, they can gain insight into the social, cultural, and political contexts that shaped those events and figures. Studying the lives of women civil rights activists, such as Mabel Lee, and exploring the challenges and obstacles these women faced will allow students to think critically about issues of power, privilege, and social justice and become active and engaged citizens (Davis, 2019; Reichmuth & Chong, 2022). Teachers need to emphasize that students use evidence from this biography and additional reliable resources provided to support their arguments in their perspective writing. The second writing activity is speech writing. Throughout her early years, Mabel Lee used her essays and speeches to advocate for women’s suffrage and human rights as a young Chinese immigrant girl and college student. Her writings and speeches were so influential that they were covered in the most prominent newspapers, greatly enlightening the readers. They inspired more people to support and participate in the women’s suffrage movement in the early twentieth century. The centennial celebrations of the women’s suffrage movement inspired more people today to learn about Mabel Lee, her writings

Chinese History

Mabel Lee’s Life (1897–1966)

(1644–1911) Qing Dynasty (1882–1943) Chinese Exclusion Act was in effect, preventing Chinese from entering the United States, barring Chinese immigrants from become citizens and political participation. (1872) Mabel was born in Guangdong, China. (1876) Mabel’s father, Dr. Lee Towe, a Chinese missionary pastor, moved to the United States. (1872–1905) Mabel lived with her mother, a teacher in China. (1905) Mabel won an academic scholarship that allowed her to come to the United States to attend school and reunited with her father. (1911) Chinese Revolution led to the ending of Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) and establishment of the Republic of China (1912–1949) (1905) Mabel’s family lived in Chinatown in New York City. (1911) Mabel supported Chinese Revolution and raised funding for it. At high school, Mabel became an activist and suffragist by writing articles and making speech arguing for women’s rights. (1911) New York Tribune and The New York Times featured Lee’s teenage activism and involvement in women’s suffrage movement in spring. Lee was acclaimed as “the symbol of the new era, when all women will be free and unhampered” in The New York Times article released in 1912. On May 4, 1912, Mabel led 10,000 women’ suffrage parade on horseback through New York city. She was sixteen years old. (1916) At sixteen, Mabel attended Barnard College connected Columbia University, majoring in history and philosophy. Later, she received her master’s degree from Columbia’ Teacher College. At college, Mabel was actively involved in the Chinese Students Association and advocated rights for Chinese students. (1914) Mabel wrote feminist essay “The Meaning of Woman Suffrage” in The Chinese Student Monthly arguing for equal rights and opportunities for women. (1914) Mabel made a famous speech “The Submerged Half” and it was covered by The New York Times.

American History

Table 4.1  Timeline of Mabel Lee’s Life (1897–1966)

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Mabel and Chinese Americans were unable to become citizen and had no right to vote.

Mabel and Chinese Americans were unable to become citizen and had no right to vote.

Source: Created by the Chapter Author

(1921) Mabel became the first Chinese with doctorate from Columbia University and published her dissertation as a book entitled The Economic History of China. (1924) Mabel’s father passed away. Mabel took over his role as director of the First Chinese Baptist Church of New York City. (1924) The Chinese Exclusion law was renewed every ten years and extended to other Asian countries. (1943) The Chinese Exclusion Act ended because China was ally of the United States in World War II. Lee worked as a pastor and director of the First Chinese Baptist Church and Chinese Christian Center and continued advocating for the Chinese American community until she passed away in 1966. (1949) The People’s Republic of China (PRC) was founded under the leadership of Chinese Communist Party. (1952) The McCarran-Walter Act grants all Asian Americans citizenship and the right to vote.

(1917) New York gave women the right to move. (1920) 19th Amendment was ratified and extended voting rights to all states.

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and speeches, and her unique contributions to the human rights movement in the era of the Chinese Exclusion Act. Students can write a short speech independently or collaborate with a partner from their standpoint or Mabel Lee’s perspective, advocating for people’s rights to vote, equal education, equal rights, or social justice issues they deem necessary in contemporary society. The teacher can encourage students to research their topic and provide resources that students can use to conduct the research. The teacher can encourage students to share their thoughts and opinions on the topic and give examples of speeches from historical figures. In addition, the teacher needs to set clear expectations for the speech assignment and provide feedback as needed. Students should use evidence from sources examined to support their arguments. Students will share and make a public speech to the class after finishing the writing. During the speech, they should engage their audience and persuade them to support their viewpoint. To make their speech effective, students can use various techniques such as rhetorical questions, appealing to emotions, and using facts and real-life examples. After the speech, students can provide feedback to their peers. These activities help students improve their logical and critical thinking, and presentation skills. Activity Five: Creating Timelines for Mabel Lee and for Students’ Own Life Mabel Lee experienced much in her early years as a Chinese immigrant and pioneer of the women’s suffrage movement. Students will create their timeline of Mabel Lee’s life based on the biography of Mabel Lee in the social studies trade book Bold Women in History: 15 Women’s Rights Activists You Should Know (Vestal, 2021). Afterward, students will create their own timeline with important historical moments/ local events that have happened and that they cared about during their lifetime. In this timeline, they can include images of historical figures, events, and artifacts related to their own lives. The timeline activity will help students organize the information in chronological order to better understand the origin, growth, change, cause, and effects of the historical events in the local, national, and global contexts (Chapman, 1993; Ferreras-Stone, 2020). The author created an example of a timeline (table 4.1) of Mabel Lee’s life, alongside key events in American and Chinese history relevant to her fight for women’s rights. ​ CONCLUSION Asian American history is a history of exclusion, erasure, and invisibility and their stories are missing from many U.S. classrooms (Waxman, 2021). Asian

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Americans are an integral part of American society and have contributed much to American history. It is important for students to learn about Asian American community’s struggles and involvement in the fight for human rights and social justice (Reichmuth & Chong, 2022; Wu et al., 2022; Yi, 2022). As we celebrate the women’s suffrage movement, we should remember that many courageous Asian Americans are like Mabel Lee and have contributed to the success and development in all walks of American life, despite the challenges and racial discrimination they faced. Teachers should give students opportunities to learn and critically think about the struggles, experiences, voices, and contributions of diverse cultural and ethnic groups in this country. Hopefully, students will gain sufficient knowledge and thinking skills to become more engaged citizens through these inquirylearning activities about Mabel Lee and Chinese Asian immigrants. Young people can make a difference by fighting for equal rights for all and social justice, just as Mabel Lee did 100 years ago in the era of the Chinese Exclusion Act. REFERENCES Alexander, K. L. (2020). Mabel Ping-Hua Lee (1897-1966).National Women’s History Museum. https://www​.womenshistory​.org​/education​-resources​/biographies​/ mabel​-ping​-hua​-lee American Press Association. (1912) Youngest parader in New York City suffragist parade. The Library of Congress. https://www​.loc​.gov​/resource​/ppmsca​.58365 An, S. (2016). Asian Americans in American history: An AsianCrit perspective on Asian American inclusion in state U.S. history curriculum standards,” Theory & Research in Social Education, 44 (2), 244–276. Arlington Public Library. (2020, May 7). This week in 19th Amendment history: Suffragist Mabel Ping-Hua Lee. https://library​.arlingtonva​.us​/2020​/05​/07​/this​-week​-in​ -19th​-amendment​-history​-suffragist​-mabel​-ping​-hua​-lee Asia Society. (2003). Asian Americans then and now: Linking past to present. https:// asiasociety​.org​/education​/asian​-americans​-then​-and​-now The Associated Press. (2021, August 12). More than 9,000 Anti-Asian incidents have been reported since the Pandemic began. https://www​.npr​.org​/2021​/08​/12​ /1027236499​/anti​-asian​-hate​-crimes​-assaults​-pandemic​-incidents​-aapi Bahr, S. (2020, August 17). In women’s suffrage, a spotlight for unsung pioneers. The New York Times: Times Insider, p.2. https://www​.nytimes​.com​/2020​/08​/13​/insider​ /suffrage​-anniversary​.html Bickford, J., & Schuette, L. (2016). Trade books’ historical representation of the Black Freedom Movement, slavery through civil rights. Journal of Children’s Literature, 42(1), 20–43.

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Block, M. (2020, August 26). Yes, women could vote after the 19th Amendment — But not all women or men. NPR Morning Edition. https://www​.npr​.org​/2020​/08​/26​ /904730251​/yes​-women​-could​-vote​-after​-the​-19th​-amendment​-but​-not​-all​-women​ -or​-men​?t​=1656689816666 Cahill, C. (2020a). Mabel Ping-Hua Lee: How Chinese American women helped shape the suffrage movement. National Park Service. https://www​.nps​.gov​/ articles​/000​/mabel​-ping​-hua​-lee​-how​-chinese​-american​-women​-helped​-shape​-the​ -suffrage​-movement​.htm Cahill, C. (2020b). Recasting the vote: How women of color transformed the suffrage movement. The University of North Caroline Press. Chambers, V., Schuessler, J., Padnani, A., Harlan, J., Garcia, S. E., & Wang, V. (2020, July 24). Meet the brave but overlooked women of color who fought for the vote. The New York Times. https://www​.nytimes​.com​/2020​/07​/24​/books​/finish​-the​ -fight​-excerpt​.html Chan, M. (2022, March 16). A year after the Atlanta Spa shootings, Asians in America are facing a different kind of abuse. Time Magazine. https://time​.com​/6157468​ /asian​-americans​-abuse​-atlanta​-spa​-shootings​-anniversary China Global Television Network (CGTN). (2021, October 9). Why the 1911 Revolution is a significant event in China. https://news​.cgtn​.com​/news​/2021​-10​ -09​/Why​-the​-1911​-Revolution​-is​-a​-significant​-event​-in​-China​-14dC6ZgmD4Y​/ index​.html Chinese Exclusion Act. (1882). National Archives. https://www​.archives​.gov​/milestone​-documents​/chinese​-exclusion​-act Chinese Exclusion Act Case Files. (2020). 2020 National Women’s History Alliance honoree: Dr. Mabel Ping-Hua Lee (1896-1966). https://chi​nese​excl​usio​nfiles​.com​/ tag​/economic​-history​-of​-china Chinese Girl Wants Vote. (1912, April 13). The New York Tribune. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Library of Congress. https://chroniclingamerica​.loc​.gov​/lccn​/sn83030214​/1912​-04​-13​/ed​-1​/seq-3 Clabough, J. (2021). Using thematic social studies teaching to explore the Civil Rights Movement. The Social Studies, 112(4), 177–189. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​ /00377996​.2021​.1871579 Claravall, E. B., & Irey, R. (2022). Fostering historical thinking: The use of document-based instruction for students with learning differences. Journal of Social Studies Research, 46(3), 249-264. Columbia University. (2021, November 5). Columbia University honors 100th anniversary of Dr. Mabel Ping-Hua Lee’s Ph.D. in economics. https://bostonese​.com​ /2021​/11​/columbia​-university​-honors​-100th​-anniversary​-of​-dr​-mabel​-ping​-hua​ -lees​-phd​-in​-economics Davis, S. L. (2019). Suffrage, activism, and education in the era of Chinese Exclusion: Dr. Mabel Ping-Hua Lee. Social Education 83(6), p. 356–360. Editors of Encyclopedia. (2021, November 1). Three principles of the people. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www​.britannica​.com​/event​/Three​-Principles​-of​ -the​-People

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Elfman, L. (2020, fall). Mabel Ping-Hua Lee’ 1916: A pioneer of the suffrage movement. Barnard Magazine. https://barnard​.edu​/magazine​/fall​-2020​/mabel​-ping​-hua​ -lee​-1916​-pioneer​-suffrage​-movement Fitchett, P. G., Heafner, T. L., & Lambert, R. G. (2014). Examining elementary social studies marginalization: A multilevel model. Educational Policy, 28(1), 40-68. Gillian, R. (2021, March 26). The long, ugly history of Anti-Asian racism and violence in the U.S. New India Times, 52(12), 5-6. Heafner, T., & Fitchett, P. (2012). National trends in elementary instruction: Exploring the role of social studies curricula. The Social Studies, 103(2), 67-72. Hond, P. (2020). How Columbia Suffragists Fought for the Right of Women to Vote. Columbia Magazine. https://magazine​.columbia​.edu​/article​/how​-columbia​-suffragists​-fought​-right​-women​-vote Lee, E. (2002). ”The Chinese Exclusion example: Race, immigration, and American gatekeeping, 1882-1924.” Journal of American Ethnic History, 21(3): 36–62. Lee, Mabel. (1914, May). The meaning of woman suffrage. The Chinese Student Monthly, 526–529. Accessed via Tim Tseng Blog. https://timtsengdotnet​ .files​ .wordpress​.com​/2013​/12​/mabel​-lee​-the​-meaning​-of​-woman​-suffrage​-1914​.pdf Lee, Mabel. (1915). The submerged half. Accessed via Tim Tseng Blog. https://timtsengdotnet​.files​.wordpress​.com​/2013​/12​/mabel​-lee​-speech​-china​_s​-submerged​.pdf Lee, M. (2021, March 19). The 16-year-old immigrant who helped lead a 1912 U.S. suffrage march: Mabel Ping-Hua Lee fought for the rights for women on two sides of the world. History Channel. https://www​.history​.com​/news​/chinese​-american​ -womens​-suffrage​-mabel​-ping​-hua​-lee Leming, J. S., Ellington, L., & Schug, M. (2006). The state of social studies: A national random survey of elementary and middle school social studies teachers. Social Education, 70(5), 322-326. Libresco, A. (2020). The fraught relationship of women’s suffrage and race in picture books. Social Education, 84(3), 171–175. Liang, H. (1998). Fighting for a new life: Social and patriotic activism of Chinese American women in New York City, 1900 to 1945. Journal of American Ethnic History, 17(2), 22-38. Ling, Y. (2012). Dr. Sun Yat-Sen’s doctrine and impact on the modern world. American Journal of Chinese Studies, 19(1), 1-11. Loh-Hagan, V., Kwoh,J., Chang, J. , & Kwoh, P. (2022). Excluded from history: The Page Act of 1875. Social Education, 82(2), 73-78. Metro, R. (2017). Teaching U.S. history thematically: Document-based lessons for the secondary classroom. Teachers College Press. Moore, M. (2018). Using trade books to identify and change discriminatory practices. The Councilor: A Journal of the Social Studies, 79 (2), Article 1. https://thekeep​.eiu​ .edu​/the​_councilor​/vol79​/iss2/1 The Morning Bell. (2022, May 26). Hidden voices: Mabel Ping-Hua Lee, suffragist and community leader. https://morningbellnyc​.com​/2022​/hidden​-voices​-mabel​ -ping​-hua​-lee​-suffragist​-and​-community​-leader

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Museum of the City of New York (2020). Beyond suffrage: ‘Working together, working apart’ How identity shaped suffragists’ politics. https://www​.mcny​.org​/lesson​-plans​ /beyond​-suffrage​-working​-together​-working​-apart​-how​-identity​-shaped​-suffragists National Archives. (1882). Chinese Exclusion Act. https://www​.archives​.gov​/milestone​-documents​/chinese​-exclusion​-act National Archives. (1923). Unidentified newspaper clipping of Mabel Ping-Hua Lee. Chinese Exclusion Act case file for Mabel Lee (Ping Hua Lee); Records of the Immigration and Naturalization Service. https://www​.docsteach​.org​/documents​/ document​/mabel​-lee NCSS. (2010). National curriculum standards for social studies: A framework for teaching, learning, and assessment. https://www​.socialstudies​.org​/national​-curriculum​-standards​-social​-studies​-chapter​-2​-themes​-social​-studies NCSS. (2013). The College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Standards: Guidance for enhancing the rigor of K-12 civics, economics, geography, and history. National Council for the Social Studies, Silver Spring, MD. The New York Times. (1912, May 5). Suffrage army out on parade; Perhaps 10,000 women and men sympathizers march for the cause. https://www​ .nytimes​ .com​ /1912​/05​/05​/archives​/suffrage​-army​-out​-on​-parade​-perhaps​-10000​-women​-and ​ -men​.html New York Tribune. (1912, April 13). Chinese girl wants vote: Miss Lee ready to enter Barnard, to ride in Suffrage Parade. Library of Congress. https://www​.loc​.gov​/item​ /sn83030214​/1912​-04​-13​/ed​-1/ Ngai, M. (2021, April 21). Racism has always been part of the Asian American experience. The Atlantic. https://www​.theatlantic​.com​/ideas​/archive​/2021​/04​/we​-are​ -constantly​-reproducing​-anti​-asian​-racism​/618647 People’s Daily. (2011, September 22). 1911 Revolution opened door for China’s progress. http://www​.china​.org​.cn​/opinion​/2011​-09​/22​/content​_23466843​.htm Potter, L. A. (2002). Teaching with documents. Social Education, 66(7), 390-399. Reichmuth, H. L., & Chong, K. L. (2022). Teaching Asian American contributions to the Civil Rights Movement through children’s literature. Social Studies and the Young Learner, 35 (2), 11–18. Ruiz, N., Edward, K., & Lopez, M. (2021). One-third of Asian Americans fear threats, physical attacks and most say violence against them is rising. Pew Research Center. https://www​.pewresearch​.org​/fact​-tank​/2021​/04​/21​/one​-third​-of​-asian​-americans​-fear​-threats​-physical​-attacks​-and​-most​-say​-violence​-against​-them​-is​-rising Sandwell, R.W. (2008). Using primary documents in social studies and history. In R. Case & P. Clark (Eds.), The Canadian Anthology of Social Studies: Issues and Strategies for Teachers (2nd Edition) (pp. 295–307). Pacific Educational Press. Shui, W. (2022). Mabel Ping-Hua Lee: Pioneer of women’s suffrage. Historical Record of Chinese Americans: Our Shared Memories. https://usdandelion​.com​/ archives​/7473 Vestal. M. (2021). Bold women in history: 15 women’s rights activists you should know. Rockridge Press.

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Waxman, O. (2021, March 30). A ‘History of exclusion, of erasure, of invisibility.’ Why the Asian-American story is missing from many U.S. classrooms. https://time​ .com​/5949028​/asian​-american​-history​-schools/ Wu, L., Hsiung, H., & Bogucharova, T. (2022). Finding light among uncertainty. Social Studies and the Young Learner, 34 (3), 3-7. Yang, J. L. (2020, Sep 19). Overlooked no more: Mabel Ping-Hua lee, suffragist with a distinction. The New York Times. https://www​.nytimes​.com​/2020​/09​/19​/obituaries​/mabel​-ping​-hua​-lee​-overlooked​.html Yi, J. (2022). Reading Diverse Books Is Not Enough: Challenging Racist Assumptions Using Asian American Children’s Literature. Social Studies and the Young Learner, 34 (3), 8–13. Zhang, S.J. (2022). Mabel Ping-Hua Lee – Pioneer in the pursuing the suffrage. Historical Records of Chinese Americans. https://usdandelion​.com​/archives​/7627

Chapter 5

Mamie on the Mound Using Interdisciplinary, Critical Literacy to Explore the Life and Impact of Mamie “Peanut” Johnson Alyssa Whitford

In the early 1950s, Mamie Johnson found herself facing seemingly indomitable hurdles. A passionate and talented baseball player, Johnson was barred from playing in Major League Baseball because of her gender and unwelcome in the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League because of her race. Her persistence and drive, however, allowed her to break new ground as the first woman pitcher on a major league team as she joined the Negro Leagues in 1953. The systemic barriers Johnson faced and her subsequent trailblazing toward women’s rights make her an inspirational and impactful historical figure and also provide an interesting study in systemic injustices in American sports. In this chapter, I describe how to use interdisciplinary, critical literacy practices to support thematic teaching. I also provide a lesson intended to help students investigate Johnson’s impact on women’s rights through such practices. Specifically, this chapter will 1. support interdisciplinary and critical literacy to thematically teach women’s history; 2. introduce Mamie Johnson, who broke boundaries in women’s sports; 3. provide activities that utilize interdisciplinary and critical literacy practices to teach about Mamie Johnson through the text Mamie on the Mound: A Woman in Baseball’s Negro Leagues (Henderson, 2020). The steps and resources needed to implement my activities will be provided. 87

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THE LIFE AND HISTORICAL IMPACT OF MAMIE JOHNSON Born in 1935, Mamie was a remarkable pitcher who fell in love with baseball at an early age. According to Katz (2017), young Johnson would craft baseball gear from rocks and sticks in order to play with the neighborhood children. Often the only girl on the team, Johnson played sandlot, church league, and semi-professional baseball into her teenage years. Inspired by Jackie Robinson, Johnson left home at age seventeen to try out for the AllAmerican Girls Professional Baseball League. However, she was turned away based solely on her identity as a Black woman. In interviews, Johnson remembers this day saying, ““They didn’t let us try out. They just looked at us like we were crazy as if to say, ‘What do you want?’” (Edwards, 2003, p. 1). Johnson persevered, continuing to play ball until catching the eye of a recruiter for the Clowns, a professional team in the Negro Leagues. Although Johnson was nicknamed Peanut for being small, she made a big impression. During her three years on the Clowns, she held a pitching record of 33–8 and a batting average of .270. She boasted a variety of pitches, learning her curveball from well-known baseball great Satchel Paige (Langs, n.d.). She played with only two other women in the league, and she continues to be the first and only woman pitcher on a major league team (Katz, 2017). The book Mamie on the Mound: A Woman in Baseball’s Major Leagues (Henderson, 2020) illustrates a defining moment in Johnson’s career by describing the moment in which she earned her nickname of “Peanut.” The text states, “How do you expect to strike anyone out and you’re not as big as a peanut?” the opposing batter yelled. Only 5 feet 4 inches tall, and barely 120 pounds, Mamie smirked . . . the batter found himself back on the bench quickly, but the name Peanut stuck. And on that day in 1953, another individual learned not to underestimate Mamie “Peanut” Johnson.

Johnson, who passed away in 2017, was recognized at the presidential level for her contributions to women’s right in athletics by Bill and Hillary Clinton in 1996. She was also recognized in an honorary draft to the Washington Nationals by Major League Baseball (MLB) in 2008. She is cited as a trailblazer, a barrier breaker, and an inspiration to many young women athletes. Johnson herself has been quoted as saying, “To know that I was good enough to be with these gentlemen made me the proudest woman in the world. Now I can say that I’ve done something that no other woman has ever done” (Katz, 2017, p. 1).

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It is important to note that Johnson’s accomplishments do not negate the systemic racism and sexism she faced. Although she broke barriers due to her talent and perseverance, she continued to face discrimination by fans who viewed women players as an oddity and managers who hoped the uniqueness of having women in baseball might increase ticket sales (Rosengren, n.d.). She was barred from the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League due to her race and, despite a stunning pitching record, was unwelcome in the MLB until her honorary draft in 2008 (Katz, 2017). This discrimination is still widely felt by women athletes. Women have historically had less opportunities to engage in sports. Even the passing of Title IX, or the Education Amendments to the Civil Rights Act, in 1972 has failed to fully provide all women with equal rights and access to athletics. A significant gap in access remains between men and women athletes, and wealthy white women have been shown to have disproportionate opportunities to join sports teams even at the high school level (Stevenson, 2007). Inequity in athletics persists into professional sports, where a significant pay gap continues to favor male athletes (Gersch, 2021). For educators seeking to teach about equitable rights in athletics, Mamie Johnson provides a fascinating case study. Despite her trailblazing, which has inspired and broken barriers for women in athletics, Mamie Johnson remains relatively unknown. Learning about her legacy not only provides opportunities to learn about women’s rights in athletics, but it also allows students to expand their view on women athletes in a way that focusing on a better-known athlete might not. This is because understanding the impact of a lesser-known woman demonstrates the tendency of history to silence women and shows students that women have a broader impact on rights in sports than they may be aware. Learning about women’s rights should, therefore, include lesser-known women in order to help students see that history is comprised of more people and experiences than they may already know, and that this is especially true in the field of women’s rights. In addition, lessons on Johnson allow students to explore the complex topic of intersectionality, as Johnson faced very clear and explicit barriers based on both gender and race. For this reason, Johnson’s impact on women’s rights in athletics and the ongoing need for these rights are the focus of the lesson detailed below.

UTILIZING INTERDISCIPLINARY AND CRITICAL LITERACY STRATEGIES TO SUPPORT THE THEMATIC TEACHING OF WOMEN’S RIGHTS In the quest to support thematic teaching, interdisciplinary and critical literacy practices can serve as a promising foundation. This is important, as

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thematic teaching allows students to examine concepts in meaningful, connected ways (Clabough, 2020), which may be especially vital in relation to women’s history. Women’s lives and accomplishments have a long history of being ignored in social studies education (Hahn et al., 2007). Social studies materials tend to amplify a male-dominated narrative that positions men as historical powerhouses, often reducing the roles of women to only those related to caregiving (Coughlin, 2007). In addition, time devoted to social studies education continues to decline (Heafner, 2018). Opportunities for students to connect meaningfully to women’s history have therefore become increasingly scarce. One area of women’s history which may be exceptionally lacking is the history of women in athletics. Due to decades of discrimination and unequal opportunities, sports continue to be more commonly associated with men (Plaza et al., 2017). While women’s rights in sports have advanced in some ways, unequal treatment and unequal pay continue to make headlines due in large part to systemic and internalized sexism (Gregory, 2022; Morgan, 2021). Fortunately, interdisciplinary and critical literacy practices provide a foundation for making thematic connections that highlight women’s impact on sports throughout history. Utilizing Interdisciplinary Literacy and Social Studies Research has consistently supported the benefits of interdisciplinary literacy instruction, or literacy instruction that is integrated with content from other academic disciplines, such as social studies or science (Cabell & Hwang, 2020; Duke et al., 2016). While time dedicated to social studies may be declining, literacy instruction remains a strong focus in classrooms. In fact, students spend a large portion of their day engaged in literacy practices such as reading, writing, speaking, and listening (Jennings & Rentner, 2006), and this time has a large influence on how students perceive the social world (Vasquez et al., 2019). Integrating social studies into literacy not only allows more time for social studies instruction, but it can also support both literacy and content knowledge in students (Strachan, 2015). Authentically connecting literacy to subject area knowledge has been shown to support students’ literacy development, especially in the areas of vocabulary, comprehension, and motivation (Cabell & Hwang, 2020), creating powerful opportunities for students to grow as readers and writers. However, when teachers prioritize discipline-oriented, democratic, and higher-order thinking, interdisciplinary literacy and social studies also increase content knowledge and allow teachers to purposefully connect literacy to issues of equity and justice in both historical and contemporary times (Barton & Levstik, 2004; Heafner, 2018).

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Ideally, such issues of equity and justice are an integral part of social studies education. NCSS (2017) directly advocates for justice-focused education and describes students receiving quality social studies instruction as being “concerned for the rights and welfare of others, socially responsible, willing to listen to alternative perspectives, confident in their capacity to make a difference, and ready to contribute personally to civic and political action” (p. 1). By integrating literacy and social studies education, teachers have the potential to provide quality instruction by leveraging materials such as trade books to help students investigate women’s history (Whitford, 2021). Using Trade Books for Interdisciplinary Literacy Trade books, which can be generally defined as a book that is intended for commercial sale and wide readership (Merriam-Webster, n.d.), are distinct from classroom textbooks and offer many advantages. First, trade books are widely available through libraries, bookstores, and even online repositories. Second, trade books can be selected by teachers. Thus, teachers can choose trade books that are engaging, developmentally appropriate, and aligned with their learning goals (Moss et al., 1997). In addition, movements such as #WeNeed DiverseBooks have led to a higher availability of books that challenge dominant historical narratives and better feature traditionally marginalized characters and historical figures (Huyck & Dahlen, 2019; Killeen, 2015). Therefore, teachers are more able to choose books that highlight diverse voices and may therefore be better equipped to teach women’s history. When choosing trade books, resources such as the NCSS Notable Trade Books for Young People lists (NCSS, 2020) are valuable. The NCSS Notable Trade Books lists are compiled and reviewed by teachers and literacy experts to provide teachers with several options for quality trade books that can be utilized with students of any age. The books are organized by subject and coded with the information such as the type of book and intended grade level, making them easy to navigate. However, simply presenting the trade book to students may not help them to think critically about the social world and the impact of women’s history. Once a teacher has chosen to engage in interdisciplinary literacy with trade books, critical literacy practices become an important next step. Incorporating Critical Literacy Practices When using trade books to support thematic teaching about women’s history, using critical literacy practices can be a valuable approach. Broadly, critical literacy practices include literacy instruction that guides students to think critically about the social world (Bishop, 2014). Critical literacy practices are justice-focused and often promote activism (Brownell & Rashid, 2020; Luke,

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2018; Vasquez et al., 2019). In relation to addressing women’s history, these practices provide excellent opportunities to include counterstereotypical imagery and diverse narratives. Children’s books have a profound influence on how students perceive gender issues such as women’s roles in history, as books and storytelling tend to reflect cultural truths to students as they navigate and gain understanding of the world around them (Crocco, 1997; Murphy & Ribarsky, 2013). Because critical literacy practices guide students to think critically about the world, these practices provide a strong foundation for considering women’s rights and gender inequity (Bishop, 2014). The lesson described in this chapter focuses on pairing two critical literacy practices: Interactive readalouds and text-pairing. Interactive Read-Alouds Interactive read-alouds provide a useful entry point into critical literacy practices, as such read-alouds are already widely used in K-12 classrooms. Interactive read-alouds can be conducted in many ways for a variety of purposes; however, they can be broadly defined as read-alouds that include intentional, pre-planned communication between teachers and students. Typically, a teacher begins to create an interactive read-aloud by choosing a book that aligns with their specific learning goal. Next, teachers develop questions and discussion prompts related to the chosen topic. Interactive read-alouds can be a valuable method for investigating women’s history, as teachers have freedom to choose books that emphasize traditionally marginalized historical figures. Trade books such as Flying Free: How Bessie Coleman’s Dreams Took Flight (Parsons, 2020), The Power of Her Pen: The Story of Groundbreaking Journalist Ethel L. Payne (Cline-Ransome, 2020), and Miss Mary Reporting: The True Story of Sportswriter Mary Garber (Macy, 2016), among many others, all use engaging text and illustrations to teach about typically overlooked historical women and can each be found on the NCSS Notable Trade Books for Young People lists (NCSS, 2020). Such trade books are therefore a welcome supplement to the classroom curriculum materials. Importantly, the interaction between students and teachers creates opportunities for teachers to purposefully highlight, analyze, and discuss women’s history. An interactive read-aloud of the text Mamie on the Mound: A Woman in Baseball’s Negro Leagues (Henderson, 2020) serves as the foundation for the sample lesson in this chapter. Text-Pairing Activities Text-pairing activities are critical literacy activities that allow students to make thematic connections across multiple texts and can also guide students

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in thinking critically about society (Demoiny & Ferraras-Stone, 2018). Textpairing practice occurs when students engage with two or more related texts or mediums (such as videos or photographs). Text-pairing can be used to show different perspectives on an issue (Clarke & Whitney, 2009), highlight multiple languages (Soltero-González et al., 2016), explore fiction and nonfiction texts (Ward et al., 2019), or use texts in different formats, such as traditional and graphic novels (Roberts, 2012). Text-pairing allows students to question and analyze materials, form new ideas about content, and develop critical literacy skills (Behrman, 2006). When presented with narratives that challenge students’ initial perceptions, text-pairing may help students restructure their thinking about history and the social world (Clarke & Whitney, 2009). In the sample activity, students will pair Mamie on the Mound (Henderson, 2020) with a video about a modern-day woman in sports titled Mo’ne Davis: 2014 Sports Illustrated Kids SportsKid of the Year (Sports Illustrated, 2014). Both interdisciplinary and critical literacy can be utilized in thematic teaching. Teachers can easily connect activities featuring social studies-themed trade books, such as interactive read-alouds and text-pairing, by choosing books that feature different women throughout history. In the sample lesson described below, students will explore the life, achievements, and impact of Mamie Johnson, the first woman to become a professional pitcher on a major league baseball team. If desired, teachers could replicate this lesson using trade books about other women in sports. Leveraging Interdisciplinary and Critical Literacy to Support the C3 Framework The integration of literacy into social studies is vital to the C3 Framework (NCSS, 2013). Literacy serves as a foundation on which to build inquiry, as described by NCSS, and critical literacy may be especially powerful for engaging in such inquiry. Reading, writing, speaking, and listening are purposefully involved in each step of the Inquiry Arc as students question, collaborate, research, and share findings. In the following lesson, students will use critical literacy practices such as interactive read-alouds and textpairing to investigate compelling questions. They will apply historical and civic-oriented lenses to consider women’s rights in athletics and will develop claims regarding both the progress and barriers to achieving gender equity. They will also share their thinking throughout, sharing their conclusions with partners and with the whole group. Thus, these sample lessons will allow teachers to truly capitalize on interdisciplinary and critical literacy practices to consider women’s rights through the lens of the C3 Framework.

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EXAMPLE ACTIVITY: MAMIE ON THE MOUND This lesson utilizes Mamie on the Mound: A Woman in Baseball’s Negro Leagues (Henderson, 2020), a text from the NCSS Notable Trade Books list. This lesson targets upper elementary students but will include adaptations for older and younger students. I recommend teaching this lesson across two days, and I have added a suggested timeline to the lesson headings. However, you may choose any timeline that makes sense for your classroom and students. Day One: What Makes a Great Baseball Player? Lesson Introduction To introduce this lesson, display a sheet of poster paper that features a large image of a baseball. This paper, which can be created by the teacher, should leave room for writing both inside and outside of the baseball. This paper serves as a method for capturing students’ interest and allows students to visually track their learning from the beginning to the end of the lesson. After displaying the paper, ask the following discussion question: What makes someone a great baseball player? Students should share their answers in a whole-group format, with every child having a chance to participate. As they share their initial responses to the question, record their initial thoughts on the inside of the baseball on the poster. Keep this chart displayed throughout as you move on to the next step in the lesson. You will refer back to and add to this poster at the conclusion of the lesson. A Contemporary Sports Connection: Mo’ne Davis Once each child has had the opportunity to share answers to the initial discussion question, announce that you will play a video about a great athlete. Be sure to refrain from offering specific information about the video, as students will provide and later examine their predictions about this athlete. Using a pair-share format, allow students to make these predictions. Such predictions might include the identity of the athlete, the sport they play, and the athlete’s attributes. If time allows, select volunteers to share their thoughts with the larger group. Pay specific attention to the pronouns and any indicators of age used by students, who may initially focus on adult male athletes due to the continued gender stereotypes attached to sports and athletic achievement (Plaza et al., 2017). After students complete their discussion, introduce the video Mo’ne Davis: 2014 Sports Illustrated Kids SportsKid of the Year (Sports Illustrated, 2014).

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This video introduces talented athlete Mo’ne Davis, who was named the SportsKid of the Year at only thirteen years old. Playing for the Taney Dragons of Philadelphia, Davis became widely known across the country for her impressive 70mph fastball during the 2014 Little League World Series. Not only was Davis the first Black girl to play in the Series, she was also the first girl to ever pitch a winning game and the first girl to throw a shutout during a Series game. Introduced by Davis herself, this short video shows news clips, photos, and commentary related to Davis’s 2014 World Series performance. It also highlights the role of gender, showing numerous tweets and reactions that focus on Davis as a female athlete, such as “This youngster is striking everybody out, and she is a girl. I love it,” and “Who said girls can’t play baseball?” One newscaster can be heard stating that Davis is “redefining what it means to throw like a girl.” In the video, Davis discusses her position as a role model and an inspiration to younger athletes. She also discusses her passion for basketball and soccer. After viewing the video, lead students to consider Davis’s success and the surprised reactions from society based on her gender with the following discussion questions: 1. What did you notice in this video? What, if anything, surprised you? 2. Is Mo’ne Davis the athlete we expected to see in the video? Were our predictions correct? Why or why not? 3. Most of the reporters and other people featured in the video pointed out that Mo’ne Davis is a girl. Why do you think this is? After this discussion, ask students to write a reflective answer to the following prompt: Do you believe that women are treated equitably in sports? Why or why not? As an extension for older classes or classes in which students have demonstrated a readiness for more complex writing tasks, you may want to add the following prompt as well: How have women in sports been treated historically? How is this the same and/or different today? Be sure to collect the students’ work, as their writing will serve as a window into their current thinking about women in sports. This conversation and final reflection are intended to provide a foundation for the lesson’s guiding questions: 1) How have women worked for equity in sports? 2) How do women continue to work for equity in sports? Inform students that they will further explore these questions in the following sections of the lesson.

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Day Two: Women Athletes Across Time Connecting Present to Past: Mo’ne and Mamie In this section of the lesson, the video Mo’ne Davis: 2014 Sports Illustrated Kids SportsKid of the Year is paired with a historical narrative trade book titled Mamie on the Mound (Henderson, 2020). These mediums are connected for two reasons. First, to show how Johnson’s trailblazing has impacted women athletes. In fact, as a contemporary woman athlete, Davis has met Johnson and has cited her as a personal inspiration (Langs, nd). Second, they are connected to show how inequitable rights for women in professional sports persist in society over time. To begin, the students will engage in an interactive read-aloud of Mamie on the Mound (Henderson, 2020). This book utilizes realistic, colorful illustrations and engaging text to tell the story of Johnson’s life, beginning with her discovering her love of baseball at age six. The text provides context regarding some of the sexism and racism Johnson faced along her path to playing professional baseball. For example, the text reads, “The more Mamie played baseball, the better she got and the more she wanted to play. Mamie realized, however, that she already had two strikes against her. She was a girl. She was black” (Henderson, 2020, p. 8). The text describes the inspiration Mamie took from Jackie Robinson’s professional career and her persistence in trying out for professional baseball teams despite discrimination and discouragement. The book also includes experiences Johnson had after joining a professional team, where baseball fans came to gawk at women players and her male teammates initially resisted her presence. Her experiences with segregation while traveling with her team are also detailed. Lastly, the text describes her legacy and her continued passion for baseball. Introduce the read-aloud by asking the class to define the word “perseverance.” After creating and posting a class definition, ask students to use a hand signal, such as placing a hand over their heart, to signify any moment in the text that they believe shows perseverance. Remind students that they should use this signal throughout the read-aloud. Prior to beginning the read-aloud, you may need to provide historical context regarding segregation. You may also want to define terms such as sexism, racism, and discrimination. The amount of context provided should be based on your unique student groups and their prior knowledge on these topics. After introducing the text, conduct an interactive read-aloud of Mamie on the Mound (Henderson, 2020) focused on the racial and gendered discrimination faced by Johnson, her perseverance and accomplishments, and how she has inspired future women athletes. Allow students to answer questions using both partner and whole-group methods to maximize participation and engagement. See appendix G, table G.1 for possible read-aloud questions.

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The students should conclude the read-aloud with a whole group discussion of the following questions: 1. How do you think Mamie made a difference for future athletes? 2. How did Mamie show perseverance? How did this help her overcome obstacles? 3. The book says: “Her dream did have a limit. Major League Baseball wasn’t willing to give her or any other woman a try.” Do you think this has changed since the 1950s? Why or why not? Timeline Activity To help students examine women’s experiences with sports across time, lead the students in creating a timeline that includes Johnson’s accomplishments, Davis’s achievements, and the modern-day world of baseball. While the events included on the timeline may be chosen by the students based on their interpretation of the important points in both the book and the video, the timeline should ultimately highlight the progress made by Johnson and Davis and the continued underrepresentation of women in professional baseball. The goal is to help students examine how women have created change in the past, how they continue to fight to break barriers in the present, and the ongoing fight for equity in women’s sports. Reflecting on Johnson’s Historical Impact and the Ongoing Women’s Rights Equity in Sports After reading, students should form small groups. In their small groups, students should consider the quote, “She is a history maker .  .  . the Major Leagues broke the race barrier and the Negro Leagues broke the gender barrier” (Swartz, 2010, p. 1). Then they should discuss the following questions: 1. Have the race and gender barriers truly been broken? Why or why not? 2. How can we continue to work toward equitable rights in sports? After students complete their small group discussion, they should share it with the larger group. Where needed, help students examine the complexity of progress for women in sports. As the first woman to pitch in the major leagues, Mamie Johnson created important change and inspired many young athletes. It is worth noting, however, that the video regarding Mo’ne Davis shows that conversations about women’s roles in professional baseball are still ongoing. Newscasters on the video are shown still speculating whether a woman will ever pitch in the MLB, and there continues to be an element

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of surprise within the outpouring of support Davis received. The goal is for students to recognize the hard work, persistence, and accomplishments of women athletes while still acknowledging the need for future work toward equity. As a culminating group activity, revisit the baseball poster created together at the beginning of the lesson. Now, writing on the outside of the baseball, record student thinking about the question: What makes someone a great baseball player? As a class, examine and reflect on any changes in students’ own thinking after examining the contributions of women such as Johnson and Davis. As an individual assessment, students should write their response to the guiding questions: 1. How have women worked for equity in sports? 2. How do women continue to work for equity in sports? Student writing from Day One and Day Two can be compared and examined to assess student thinking and comprehension of the topic. Adaptations for Different Grades As written, this lesson targets students in upper elementary classrooms. However, adaptations can be used to reach both a younger and an older audience. For younger students, you may choose to begin with the read-aloud. This lesson intentionally begins with a modern athlete in order to better help students examine their perceptions and predictions about women in sports even today. However, moving backward in time might be confusing for younger students. In addition, the culminating writing prompt could be adapted for beginning writers by incorporating pictures. For example, you might ask early elementary school children to draw a picture of what an equitable future for women athletes looks like and ask them to discuss what they can do to help make this picture a reality. Older students might be interested in a deeper dive into Johnson’s life and accomplishments. You might provide them time to research Johnson, or you might even assign them a book study using the chapter book A Strong Right Arm: The Story of Mamie “Peanut” Johnson (Green, 2004). Older students might also connect across different sports. They might do this by investigating the controversy about pay between men’s and women’s soccer teams (Gregory, 2022), the history and impact of Title IX (Stevenson, 2007), or other inequities across men’s and women’s sports. In addition, older students might benefit from making personal connections to their own experiences in athletics or other extracurriculars in their written reflections.

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CONCLUSION Throughout history, women have worked toward equity through their perseverance and talent. Despite systems of sexism that impact all parts of the social world, including sports, women like Mamie Johnson have made history, broken barriers toward more equal rights, and inspired many young athletes. Johnson showed that women have not only the ability but also the right to participate in sports such as baseball. Her tenacity and her legacy provide a strong foundation for teaching thematically about women’s rights. By connecting Johnson’s experiences and impact with that of other female athletes, teachers can provide a much broader and more complex look at women’s rights within athletics. Among others, athletes such as Billie Jean King and the 2019 U.S. women’s soccer team have advocated for equal pay, and Serena Williams has been vocal about the double standard that exists between men and women athletes showing emotion while playing. Thematically connecting Johnson to such athletes could allow a much deeper exploration of the ongoing fight for women’s rights in sports. Johnson also provides fascinating opportunities for thematically teaching about women’s rights across a vast variety of contexts. Rules that uphold inequity in sports can certainly be extrapolated and applied to laws that exclude or silence women in politics, employment, and other important areas. Johnson’s experiences, along with her perseverance in the face of discrimination, allowed her to work with women’s rights in ways that could certainly connect to the advocacy of other women changemakers. Work toward equity in sports is still needed, but Mamie Johnson’s groundbreaking influence continues to serve as an inspiration to women athletes today. As Mo’ne Davis once said, “Every time I pitch, [Johnson’s expertise is] what I think about. She inspired me, and she’s one of the greats that I’ve modeled my pitching after” (Silver, 2018). Investigating women’s history related to sports through interdisciplinary, critical literacy practices allows students to understand need for further activism and justice while also learning about the incredible legacy of women like Mamie “Peanut” Johnson.

REFERENCES Barton, K. C., & Levstik, L. S. (2004). Teaching history for the common good. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Behrman, E. H. (2006). Teaching about language, power, and text: A review of classroom practices that support critical literacy. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 49(6), 490−498.

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Bishop, E. (2014). Critical literacy: Bringing theory to praxis. Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, 30(1), 51−63. Brownell, C. J., & Rashid, A. (2020). Building bridges instead of walls: Engaging young children in critical literacy read alouds. Journal of Curriculum Studies Research, 2(1), 76−94. Cabell, S. Q., & Hwang, H. (2020). Building content knowledge to boost comprehension in the primary grades. Reading Research Quarterly, 55, S99−S107. Clabough, J. (2020). Can the “Magical City” really be magical with convict leasing? A qualitative study. Research Issues in Contemporary Education, 5(2), 1−23. Clarke, L. W., & Whitney, E. (2009). Walking in their shoes: Using multiple perspectives texts as a bridge to critical literacy. The Reading Teacher, 62(6), 530−534. Cline-Ransome, L. (2020). The power of her pen: The story of groundbreaking journalist Ethel L. Payne. Simon & Schuster. Coughlin, M. (2007). Women and history: Outside the academy. The History Teacher, 40(4), 471−479. Crocco, M. S. (1997). Making time for women’s history. Social Education, 61(1), 32−37. Demoiny, S. B., & Ferraras-Stone, J. (2018). Critical literacy in elementary social studies: Juxtaposing historical master and counter narratives in picture books. The Social Studies, 109(2), 64−73. ​​Duke, N. K., Halvorsen, A. L., & Strachan, S. L. (2016). Project-based learning not just for STEM anymore. Phi Delta Kappan, 98(1), 14−19. Edwards, B. (2003). Mamie ‘Peanut’ Johnson, Pitching Pioneer. NPR Morning Edition. https://www​.npr​.org​/2003​/02​/18​/1164167​/mamie​-peanut​-johnson​-pitching​ -pioneer Gersch, T. K. (2021). The gender pay gap: Seeking fairness for women in professional sports. Or. Rev. Int’l L., 22, 147. Green, M. (2004). A strong right arm: The story of Mamie ‘Peanut’ Johnson. Puffin Books. Gregory, S. (2022). The U.S. Women’s Soccer Team has signed a historic equal pay agreement. Here’s how it happened. Time Magazine. https://time​.com​/6178467​/us​ -women​-soccer​-equal​-pay​-deal/ Hahn, C. L., Bernard-Powers, J., Crocco, M. S., & Woyshner, C. (2007). Gender equity in social studies. In Klein et  al. (Eds.), Handbook for achieving gender equity through education (pp. 335−358). Routledge. Heafner, T. L. (2018). Elementary ELA/social studies integration: Challenges and limitations. The Social Studies, 109(1), 1−12. Henderson, L. (2020). Mamie on the mound: A woman in baseball’s Negro Leagues. Capstone Publishers. Huyck, D., & Dahlen, S. P. (2019 June 19). Diversity in children’s books 2018. sarahpark​.c​om blog. Created in consultation with Edith Campbell, Molly Beth Griffin, K. T. Horning, Debbie Reese, Ebony Elizabeth Thomas, and Madeline Tyner, with statistics compiled by the Cooperative Children’s Book Center, School of Education, University of Wisconsin-Madison:

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Jennings, J., & Rentner, D. S. (2006). Ten big effects of the No Child Left Behind Act on public schools. Phi Delta Kappan, 88(2), 110−113. Katz, B. (2017). Remembering Mamie ‘Peanut’ Johnson, the first woman to take the mound as a major-league pitcher. Smithsonian Magazine. https://www​.smithsonianmag​.com​/smart​-news​/mamie​-peanut​-johnson​-first​-female​-pitcher​-negro​ -leagues​-has​-died​-82​-180967642/ Killeen, E. B. (2015). # WeNeedDiverseBooks!. Teacher Librarian, 42(5), 52. Langs, S. (n.d.). The Negro Leagues’ only female pitcher. The official site of Major League Baseball. https://www​.mlb​.com​/history​/negro​-leagues​/players​/mamie​ -johnson Luke, A. (2018). Regrounding critical literacy: Representation, facts and reality. In Theoretical models and processes of literacy (pp. 349−361). Routledge. Macy, S. (2016). Miss Mary reporting: The true story of sportswriter Mary Garber. Simon & Schuster. Merriam-Webster (n.d.). Trade book. In Merriam​-Webster​.​com dictionary. https:// www​.merriam​-webster​.com​/dictionary​/trade​%20book Morgan, S. N. (2021). Working twice as hard for less than half as much: A sociolegal critique of the gendered justifications perpetuating unequal pay in sports. Colum. JL & Arts, 45, 121. Moss, B., Leone, S., & Dipillo, M. L. (1997). Exploring the literature of fact: Linking reading and writing through information trade books. Language Arts, 74(6), 418−429. Murphy, M., & Ribarsky, E. (2013). Activities for teaching gender and sexuality in the university classroom. R&L Education. NCSS (2013). The College, Career, and Civic Life Framework for Social Studies State Standards: Guidance for enhancing the rigor of K-12 civics, economics, geography, and history. Author. N C S S. (2017). Supporting curricular promotion and intersectional valuing of women in history and current events: A position statement of the national council for the social studies. https://www​.socialstudies​.org​/position​-statements​/supporting​-curricular​-promotion​-and​-intersectional​-valuing​-women​-history N C S S. (2020). Notable Social Studies Trade Books for Young People. https://www​ .socialstudies​.org​/notable​-social​-studies​-trade​-books Parsons, K. (2020). Flying free: How Bessie Coleman’s dreams took flight. Little, Brown Books for Young Readers. Plaza, M., Boiché, J., Brunel, L., & Ruchaud, F. (2017). Sport= male. . . . But not all sports: Investigating the gender stereotypes of sport activities at the explicit and implicit levels. Sex roles, 76(3), 202−217. Roberts, N. J. (2012). Toward a literate future: Pairing graphic novels and traditional texts in the high school classroom (Doctoral dissertation, Colorado State University). Rosengren, J. (n.d.). Toni Stone, Connie Morgan, and Mamie Johnson blazes a trail for women in the Negro Leagues. Baseball Hall of Fame. https://baseballhall​.org​ /discover​/baseball​-history​/toni​-stone​-connie​-morgan​-and​-mamie​-johnson​-blazed​ -trail​-for​-women​-in​-negro​-leagues

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Schwarz, A. (2010). Breaking gender barriers in the major league. New York Times. https://www​.nytimes​.com​/2010​/06​/13​/sports​/baseball​/13pitcher​.html Silver, Z. (2018). Mo’ne Davis honors ‘Peanut’ at mural unveiling. Major League Baseball. https://www​.mlb​.com​/news​/mo​-ne​-davis​-honors​-mamie​-peanut​-johnson​ -c285500306 Soltero-González, L., Sparrow, W., Butvilofsky, S., Escamilla, K., & Hopewell, S. (2016). Effects of a paired literacy program on emerging bilingual children’s biliteracy outcomes in third grade. Journal of Literacy Research, 48(1), 80−104. Sports Illustrated Kids. (2014). Mo’ne Davis: 2014 Sports Illustrated Kids SportsKid of the Year. Youtube. https://www​.youtube​.com​/watch​?v​=VIeBrcP38cw Strachan, S. L. (2015). Kindergarten students’ social studies and content literacy learning from interactive read-alouds. The Journal of Social Studies Research, 39(4), 207−223. Stevenson, B. (2007). Title IX and the evolution of high school sports. Contemporary Economic Policy, 25(4), 486−505. Vasquez, V. M., Janks, H., & Comber, B. (2019). Critical literacy as a way of being and doing. Language Arts, 96(5), 300−311. Ward, N., Schell, R. F., Brown, C. L., & Thomason, B. (2019). Pairing fiction and nonfiction texts to promote literacy and language development of adolescent English Learners. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 92(6), 193−201. Whitford, A. J. (2021). Exploring the impact of interactive read-alouds on student perceptions of women’s history. Social Studies Research and Practice, 16(2), 144−157.

Chapter 6

Protecting Our Mother Rachel Carson and the American Environmental Movement Sarah M. Denney

Women’s rights issues are easily reserved for specific moments in U.S. history generally understood to be about women, such as the speeches of the Seneca Falls convention or tales from the “home front” during wartime. An emphasis on barrier breakers, or “firsts,” makes it easy to overlook the depth of women’s roles in shaping U.S. history. In this chapter, I will present a “second” whose significance to our history and shared future is inescapable. A marine biologist by training, Rachel Carson was the second woman to be hired by the United States Bureau of Fisheries. Although not a self-described feminist (Howard, 1962), Rachel Carson spent her life giving a voice to mother nature and bringing awareness to the connection and interdependence of all living things. At a time when women were generally not permitted to work after marriage and when universities who allowed women to attend served more as a training ground for marriage than the workforce, Carson took every opportunity to expand her understanding of marine life and explain its complexity. Her ability to marvel at the natural world led to a prolific career as a nature writer. She had an uncanny ability to communicate rhythms of nature in a manner that was as poetic as it was informative. Carson’s keen observations of the environmental impacts associated with the unrestrained use of pesticides propelled her to more closely examine the dangerous chemicals being sold to the American people as the cure-all to any garden nuisance. Carson famously shared her findings with the public in her 1962 work, Silent Spring, a publication which changed the future of U.S. environmental policy. Carson’s work exemplifies the ways in which a determined woman can harness the tools of scientific inquiry to change the course of U.S. environmental policy and ultimately the direction of a society. In a 1962 Life 103

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Magazine profile, Carson claimed she had “no wish to start a Carrie Nation crusade” (Howard, 1962, p. 105). Yet her calls for a sustainable relationship with the earth have long outlasted calls for prohibition. In the same vein as Nation, Carson’s writings and testimony provided a much-needed feminist perspective on a matter of public health and safety. Women throughout history have played an important role in public dialogue on matters of importance. Carson’s ability to utilize the tools of scientific inquiry to make her case and take informed action require that she take a special position in both the history of women and science. Following the release of Silent Spring (Carson, 1962/2022), the U.S. experienced a landmark period of bipartisan environmental activism and legislation addressing air, water, endangered species, and more. However, there is still work to be done. In the time since Carson’s work, we have learned about the disparate burden minority and low-income communities face with regard to exposure to environmental degradation and pollution (Sierra Club, 2001). The effects of global climate change are becoming more widely and frequently felt, and young people such as Greta Thunberg echo the calls of Rachel Carson, asking the public to hold governing bodies and corporations accountable for their role in protecting the future of our planet (Associated Press, 2022). We are at a critical juncture in the climate crisis. According to the United Nations (2022), we are not on track to meet the Paris Climate Agreement target of keeping global temperatures rises from exceeding 1.5˚ Celsius over pre-industrial levels. On our current trajectory of carbon dioxide emissions, temperatures could increase by as much as 4.4˚ Celsius by the end of the century (United Nations, 2022). Environmental issues are at the nexus of the sciences and the social studies and are of utmost importance for current and future generations of students. This chapter will explore the life and work of Rachel Carson, explain strategies for the thematic teaching of women’s rights in U.S. History through an environmental lens, and examine the ways in which a well-planned inquiry can generate social change utilizing the Inquiry Arc from the National Council for the Social Studies’ (NCSS) C3 Framework (NCSS, 2013a).

THE LIFE AND WORK OF RACHEL CARSON Rachel Carson is best characterized by her dual life-long loves of the natural world and writing. Her love of nature was largely inspired by her mother, a former teacher, who trained her in the art of nature study, a practice aided by their residence on a homestead in rural Pennsylvania on the banks of the Allegheny River (Levine, 2008). At the age of 10, Carson published her first

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short story in a children’s literary magazine (Lear, 1997). Rachel attended Pennsylvania College for Women (PCW) in Pittsburgh, where she majored in literature. In her first year, Rachel published a short story in the school’s literary magazine entitled “The Master of the Ship’s Light,” in which the ocean played a prominent role (Lear, 1997). Although land-locked as a child, Rachel often dreamed of visiting the sea (Sisson, 2018). Her studies deviated when her sophomore zoology instructor revealed a shared passion and enthusiasm for the natural world and urged Carson to change her major from literature to biology (Lear, 1997). Rachel graduated from PCW magna cum laude with a major in biology in 1929 and was awarded a summer scholarship to study at the Woods Hole Marine Biology Laboratory following her graduation (Levine, 2008). At home, Rachel bore witness to the lack of foresight and accountability of the leaders of the steel industry surrounding the Pittsburgh area. Her childhood home along the Allegheny River was tarnished by pollution in the air and water, and she could not wait to journey to the coast (Lear, 1997). Ready to escape the wasteland that was her home, Rachel moved to Baltimore for her graduate studies in zoology at Johns Hopkins University. During her first year, the stock market collapsed. Financial trouble caused the Carson family to relocate to Maryland to join Rachel. Rachel went part-time in her studies to work and help support her family, taking jobs as a research assistant and biology instructor (Lear, 1997). While she did not graduate with her master’s degree in accordance with her original schedule, she received high praise on her thesis and graduated in the spring of 1932. Although Rachel originally intended to continue her academic work at Johns Hopkins and earn a Ph.D., the death of her father and Rachel’s role as head of household required her to drop her advanced studies (Levine, 2008). Unable to find a full-time teaching position, Rachel renewed her love of writing, penning short stories and poems and submitting them to magazines (Lear, 1997). Without any publications to speak of, Rachel took the federal civil service exam in zoology and reached out to the division chief at the Bureau of Fisheries at the advice of her former PCW zoology instructor (Lear, 1997). In 1935, Rachel was hired part-time to write radio scripts for educational broadcasts in a series entitled “Romance Under the Waters,” produced by the Bureau (Lear, 1997). She expanded some of the scripts into full articles for the Baltimore Sun’s Sunday magazine (Levine, 2008). At the time, Rachel chose to publish under the moniker “R.L. Carson,” as she felt readers would be more accepting of her scientific writing if they believed she was a man (Levine, 2008). Rachel had a talent for communicating the intricacies of marine life in a manner that was both accessible and enthralling for the layperson. Her writing impressed her supervisor, and Rachel was eventually hired as a fulltime junior aquatic biologist, one of two women to work at the Bureau in a

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professional position. Throughout her time at the Bureau, Rachel continued to submit articles to the Baltimore Sun, and at the prompting of her division chief, she submitted one of her more captivating pieces to the Atlantic Monthly (Lear, 1997). The publication of “Undersea” in Atlantic Monthly was the catalyst for Carson’s career as a full-time writer (Lear, 1997). She continued to work full-time for the newly named U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) while drafting the chapters of her first book, Under the SeaWind (Carson, 1941/2007), and also maintaining regular submissions to the Baltimore Sun in which she revisited earlier themes of destructive industry practices and pollution (Levine, 2008). Following the loss of her sister, Rachel became the caretaker for her mother, two young nieces, and two Persian cats (Lear, 1997). Rachel continued with her work, and Under the Sea-Wind was published in 1941 (Carson, 1941/2007). Despite rave reviews, the publication date occurred just one month prior to the bombing of Pearl Harbor. A public preoccupied with war was not purchasing books about oceanic creatures, leaving Rachel still unable to support herself on her writing alone. She continued her work for the FWS while submitting informational articles to magazines such as Reader’s Digest (Levine, 2008). Rachel faced sexism in the workplace that was typical of the time. For example, when her male supervisor was promoted, Rachel assumed all editorial responsibilities for the FWS publications department, yet she received neither a raise nor a title promotion (Levine, 2008). She ran the department like a small publishing house, producing educational broadcasts, brochures, and pamphlets for public consumption. All the while holding out hope that she would one day be able to support herself on her writing alone. After applying for a series of grants and scholarships, Rachel was able to take leave from her work at FWS to engage in research for her second book, The Sea Around Us (Carson, 1951/2018). The popularity of this second book launched Rachel into the public sphere, winning several awards and accolades, including an honorary doctorate from her alma mater, Pennsylvania College for Women. Speaking to a group of engineering graduates at Drexel Institute of Technology, Rachel spoke about the relationship between science and literature, stating: Scientists are often accused of writing only for other scientists. They are even charged with opposing any attempt to interpret their findings in language the layman can understand. Literature is merely the expression of truth. And scientific truth has the power to improve our world only if it is expressed. (Levine, 2008, p. 120)

Despite the overwhelming positive response to her work, Rachel faced sexist reactions to her success, such as comments on her imagined appearance, with male reviewers feeling the need to point out her gender as if surprised by her

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capability to communicate science (Stoll, 2020). After taking several leaves of absence to engage in research and writing, the publication of The Sea Around Us (Carson, 1951/2018) allowed Rachel to finally leave her government post and work full-time as a writer. After the loss of her niece and a close family friend, Rachel assumed custody of her grandnephew while continuing to care for her elderly mother (Lear, 1997). Rachel worked on several projects, but the inspiration for her most famous work came when the widespread use of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) was endorsed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) for commercial and agricultural use. Early in her career at FWS, Rachel and her colleagues warned about the wanton use of DDT to control pests without concern for larger ecosystems (Levine, 2008). Around this time, Rachel received a letter from a friend in Boston whose birds from her bird sanctuary had been poisoned (Levine, 2008). Rachel, among others, began to connect the dots. Rachel reached out to the plaintiffs in a Long Island case in which residents filed suit to stop the federal government from spraying their lands. After research into pesticides and correspondence with the Long Island plaintiffs and fellow scientists, Rachel felt that the health of the environment and humans was at stake (Levine, 2008). Aware of the connections of the chemical industry to the USDA, Rachel kept much of her work private as she laid out a plan to release her book in chapters via The New Yorker (Lear, 1997). She also grieved the loss of her mother, who had been by her side throughout her life. Meanwhile, the public was primed for a much-needed call to action. Chemical worries occupied headlines in 1959, such as the “cranberry scare,” referring to a potentially cancerous herbicide sprayed on the nation’s cranberries, and an article published in Consumer Reports detailed the presence of the radioactive and cancer-linked substance, strontium-90, in milk (Levine, 2008). In the slow and meticulous years spent writing her final book, Rachel was plagued by illness. The discovery of cysts in her breasts, a recurring ailment, led Rachel to undergo a radical mastectomy. Undeterred by poor health, Rachel prepared to stave off criticism expected with the eventual publication of Silent Spring by sending advance copies to colleagues in science and in government (Levine, 2008). The release of Silent Spring in 1961 received both acclaim from those sympathetic to the cause and threats of challenges from the deep-pocketed chemical industry. Rachel battled privately with breast cancer while arranging for the public defense of her work. Silent Spring begins with “A Fable for Tomorrow,” describing a small town that could be anywhere in America. Once a countryside blooming with life, the scene is overtaken by sudden and unexplained deaths and illnesses plaguing wildlife and vegetation. The opening chapter warns, “No witchcraft, no enemy action had silenced the rebirth of new life in this stricken world.

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The people had done it themselves,” (Carson, 1962/2022, p. 4). Carson illustrated the interconnected nature of ecosystems, emphasizing the fact that chemical pollutants seep well beyond the perimeters of their application. She questioned the government-sanctioned use of such dangerous chemical poisons without any available investigations of long-term consequences and described in illuminating detail the ways in which individuals, communities, and habitats were suffering as a result of rampant chemical use. Rachel saw her role just as she had throughout her career, to communicate the phenomena of science and life in a way that was both intelligent and accessible, and perhaps with a bit of narrative flourish. She affirmed, “The public must decide whether it wishes to continue on the present road, and it can only do so in full possession of the facts” (Carson, 1962/2022, p. 13). Rachel challenged the chemical industry directly, noting human hubris and financial self-interest as the crux of the problem. Silent Spring (Carson, 1962/2022) ends on a positive note, describing potential biological controls and other natural methods for managing pests. In the final paragraph, Rachel challenges, “The ‘control’ of nature’ is a phrase conceived in arrogance, born of the Neanderthal age of biology and philosophy, when it was supposed that nature exists for the convenience of man” (Carson, 1962/2022, p. 296), with her ultimate call for a change in the way humankind viewed the world. As anticipated, Carson faced criticism from the chemical industry, who, in the face of her evidence-based claims, attacked her person as a way to undermine her arguments. She was called a cat lady and a “spinster,” and one Time magazine review referred to her as “hysterically overemphatic” and having “a mystical attachment to the balance of nature” (Levine, 2008, p. 178). In other words, and as we have seen before and since in history, Carson was called a witch. Researchers sponsored by the chemical industry scrambled to refute her claims, but the scientific truth was on Carson’s side. President John F. Kennedy took notice and assembled a special committee to review her findings. In addition to being number one on the New York Times Best Seller list, Silent Spring (Carson, 1962/2022) was also an international best seller. Still battling cancer, Rachel turned down many media requests but agreed to be interviewed by CBS Reports, and her work and ideas were shared with millions of Americans, many of whom had not yet read the book. Following the broadcast, the president’s special committee released its report corroborating her claims. Rachel Carson was vindicated and has been credited with launching the American environmental movement. She retired shortly after the success of Silent Spring (Carson, 1962/2022) and died in 1964 after her long battle with cancer. Following the President’s Science Advisory Committee’s 1962 report upholding Carson’s findings, a series of environmental legislation was passed by Congress, including The Clean Air Act, The Clean Water Act, The Marine

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Mammal Protection Act, The Endangered Species Act, The Safe Drinking Water Act, and The Environmental Pesticides Control Act (Levine, 2008). In 1970, President Nixon established the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). By 1972, most uses of DDT had been banned in the United States. Many disappearing species of birds, such as the bald eagle, saw increases in their populations within a decade of the ban (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1983). As recounted in the EPA Journal, “the EPA today may be described without exaggeration to be the extended shadow of Rachel Carson,” (Lewis, 1985, p. 6). Carson’s work compels one to ask: In what ways can we nurture both ourselves and our planet? While the question of industry seems to remain: How can we exploit as much as possible from the earth for the largest profit? Carson never referred to herself as a feminist. In fact, she maintained, “I’m not interested in things done by women or by men, but in things done by people” (Howard, 1962, p. 105). Yet she was an experienced female scientist and writer, directly confronting accepted practices of the chemical industry establishment during a time when social conformity and capitalist expansion were peaking in American society. She held firm in her reverence for nature and did not shy away from alerting the nation to a public and planetary health crisis. Her position and action during her time represent an exercise of both women’s and human rights to push the boundaries of what women could do and accomplish in U.S. society. Examining the Thematic Teaching of Women Rights in U.S. History through an Environmental Lens The thematic teaching of women’s rights brings a unique opportunity to incorporate the life and work of Rachel Carson into social studies curricula. Feminism is most concisely defined as “a movement to end sexism, sexist exploitation, and oppression” (Hooks, 2015, p. 20). The term ecofeminism emerged to provide a framework for understanding the connections between the oppression of women and the exploitation of nature. Mies and Shiva (1993) argue that a patriarchal capitalist power structure enables the accumulation and generation of wealth for men to occur at the expense of women and nature. While the argument against a patriarchal capitalist system is beyond the scope of this chapter, what is unavoidable is the reality that women bear a larger share of the burden with regard to environmental problems such as climate change. In developing countries, women experience greater suffering following climate events due to rigid cultural norms, inequitable distribution of resources and humanitarian aid, and lack of decision-making power (Daza, 2019; Yavinsky, 2012). In the United States, data suggests that natural disasters such as hurricanes correspond with increases in domestic violence.

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For instance, following Hurricane Andrew in 1992, spousal abuse calls to the local hotline in Miami increased by 50 percent, and the Louisiana Coalition Against Domestic Violence reported cases of domestic violence occurring within emergency shelters after Katrina in 2004 (Salam, 2017). An ecofeminist framework is a helpful tool for understanding how the intentional inclusion of the environment in social studies curricula is both an act of environmentalism and feminism. The story of Rachel Carson demonstrates the value of women influencing environmental decision-making for students of all genders and opens the door for a more holistic perspective of U.S. history and current events that incorporates the nonhuman environment. U.S. history is rich with interactions between humans and the natural environment. There are many examples throughout U.S. history demonstrating American citizens’ attitude of sustainability toward the natural resources of the earth. For example, in some instances, commonwealths in the New England colonies put ordinances into place to prevent the overuse or misuse of shared resources, indicating a shared sense of responsibility for environment in which they lived (Chapman, 2020). There are also countless cases of exploitation of the land, such as the over-farmed and overgrazed land that led to the Dust Bowl of the 1930s. The appreciation for, and protection of mother nature are necessary for the progress of the nation. As a champion of mother nature, Rachel Carson’s work serves as a template for those who wish to advocate for a sustainable future. Situating Rachel Carson in American Environmentalism Rachel Carson is often given credit for launching the American environmental movement. Yet Carson followed in the tradition of many nature lovers who came before her, beginning with her mother—Maria Carson— who was a teacher, birdwatcher, and believer in the benefits of nature study for children. Nature study was an educational method proposed as a part of Progressive Era education reform movements at the turn of twentieth century in which firsthand experience with the natural world was an ideal way to learn about science (Armitage, 2009). Rachel Carson’s childhood love of nature was intimately intertwined with grassroots Progressive Era conservation efforts that sought to cultivate a citizenry versed equally in science and morality. Carson’s work was in the tradition of both the transcendentalists and conservationists who came before her and gave rise to environmentalism as we know it today. The publication of Silent Spring (Carson, 1962/2022) offered citizens a renewed awareness of the interconnectedness of ecology and asked them to weigh the need for progress against the costs of altering our natural world. Advancements in technology, industry, and consumer culture continue to require a consciousness of the people to consider the ways in which we

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can conserve resources for the future and maintain the wonders of the natural world. Carson’s work compels one to consider questions of morality when evaluating the relationship of humans to the environment and, in effect, the relationship of humans to one another. Incorporate the Environment as a Historical Agent In addition to engaging students directly with the story of Rachel Carson, the U.S. policy response to DDT and other pollutants, and inquiries into the natural world in their community, educators can incorporate the environment as a historical actor in the telling of U.S. history. In line with an ecofeminist framework, I propose that a more thoughtful inclusion of the environment as a historical actor amounts to a feminist lens in the telling of history. The field of environmental history is interdisciplinary, includes themes of power and justice, and allows students to see not only the interdependence of ecosystems but also academic disciplines (Berry, 2019). For example, many students have heard of the Liberty Bell as an important symbol of American Revolution, but fewer have heard of Liberty Tree, the site of the first colonial act of rebellion that came to be a central congregating space in Boston (Trickey, 2016). The ancient American elm was a symbol of revolution that spread across the colonies, with “Liberty Trees” being named across New England. Just as the spirit of American Revolution moved across the Atlantic, so too did the symbol of the liberty tree, with French revolutionaries planting liberty trees of their own across the pond (Blakemore, 2018). The Liberty Tree in Boston bore witness—and was accessory—to colonial acts of protest in the decade leading up to the American Revolutionary War. The ancient elm was not only a popular meeting place for colonists but also served as a council tree for tribal gatherings of indigenous Americans (Paratley, n.d.). Students might be interested to learn the fate of the Liberty Tree, the fate of the American elm, or perhaps just considering the benefits of a mature elm as a meeting place. Human actions and interactions throughout history take place within the natural environment, which are often lost in the discussion of historical and political matters. Emphasize Environmental History in Topics You Already Teach The incorporation of environmental history requires the teacher to consider ways in which decentering the human experience might offer a more complete narrative (Waklid & Berry, 2018). Berry (2019) recommends several events in U.S. history ripe for the infusion of environmental history, including the Salem Witch Trials, the building of the railroads, nuclear testing and

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the atomic bomb, the Chicago World’s Fair, the Gilded Age, the proliferation of McDonald’s in the 1950s, and more. Such events also document the changing role and rights of women throughout history. The infusion might be an additional primary source or discussion question, the addition of a lesson, or more, depending on the flexibility of one’s curriculum. Incorporating environmental history has the power to increase relevance of the course for students and allow them to participate in growing national dialogue surrounding environmental issues. As Berry (2019) plainly states, “it’s fun. And it is urgent” (para. 11).

REPLICATING RACHEL CARSON’S INQUIRY ARC It would be nice if Carson’s story ended in a massive paradigm shift and if, following two decades of bipartisan environmental reform, U.S. citizens persisted in their interconnected attitude toward the natural world without hesitation. It would also be nice if the need to keep feeding the bottom line of profit-hungry industries was outweighed by our desire to maintain the health and well-being of humanity and the earth. However, this is not how the story ends. In a capitalist society now marked by conglomerates the size we have not seen before, we must continue to evaluate environmental impact of industry and determine if those endeavors are conducive to both human and nonhuman life. Each new generation must ask questions about the sustainability of our societal practices and work to ensure proper protections of our planet are in place. In the thematic teaching of women’s rights through an environmental lens, Greta Thunberg serves as a modern woman facing similar sexist challenges while steadfastly standing up for a sustainable future, which will be discussed in more detail later in the chapter. While the current climate situation is critical, it is not without hope. Ronald Reagan signed the Montreal Protocol in 1987—a global treaty to reduce pollution and phase out chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)—which has resulted in a healing ozone layer that scientists predict will be closed by the 2060s (Waxman, 2019). This is a noteworthy win for a generation of students growing up in a world filled with seemingly endless catastrophes. On his first day in office, President Joe Biden brought the United States back into the Paris Agreement, a global action framework intended to avoid devastating warming temperatures and build resilience to extreme climate events around the world (Blinken, 2021). Yet, real change in our relationship with our environment remains a pressing matter. The United States continues to face concerns about air pollution, water pollution, drought and water shortages, wildfires, plastic pollution, and food waste (Igini, 2022). Researchers and activists carry on bringing awareness to environmental issues. In the quest for a sustainable

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future that allows us to preserve the life of our planet and ourselves, it is imperative that we engage the younger generation in experiencing their natural world, asking important questions about the ways in which humans are expending and altering the earth’s natural resources, finding answers, and taking informed action. Rachel Carson’s story exemplifies the Inquiry Arc from the National Council for the Social Studies’ (NCSS) C3 Framework. Carson’s familiarity with nature alerted her to changes in the environment that then led to the development of compelling questions about the unsettling disappearances of flora and fauna from various locales (Dimension 1). Centering compelling questions as a source for inquiry and learning feeds the curiosity of students (Grant, 2013). In Carson’s case, her inquiry relied upon disciplinary tools from the fields of biology and chemistry, in addition to knowledge of physical geography and of the related historical events that may have caused the alarming changes, such as the growth of the burgeoning chemical industry and the rising use of DDT (Dimension 2). The inclusion of such disciplinary literacies in approaching an inquiry allows students to recognize the tools used by experts in their respective fields (Lee & Swan, 2013). Carson painstakingly evaluated evidence she gathered from towns across the United States and made careful claims regarding the use of pesticides (Dimension 3). The gathering and evaluation of evidence are important steps in the Inquiry Arc, as are important literacies to develop in inquiry and questioning across content areas (Lee & Swan, 2013). Most notably, Carson shared her work with the American public in her book, Silent Spring (Carson, 1962/2022), and took action to ensure her arguments could respond appropriately to criticism (Dimension 4). Carson’s story epitomizes the concept of taking informed action and can provide a model for students to consider in practicing civic engagement, especially on a question of public health and safety (Levinson & Levine, 2013). The Inquiry Arc followed by Carson is wonderfully illustrated in Stephanie Roth Sisson’s (2018) book, Spring after Spring: How Rachel Carson Inspired the Environmental Movement, a social studies trade book with a reading level appropriate for grades K-2. In this book, the reader is introduced to a young Rachel Carson as she observes the natural rhythms of wildlife in her backyard. Then, the reader follows Rachel as she comes upon the problem of the apparent poisoning of birds and then works to investigate the problem through independent research. The reader sees Rachel courageously present her findings to the American public and impact positive change in the world. In addition to following the clear path of the Inquiry Arc, this study of Rachel Carson’s work lends itself to the NCSS Theme, “People, Places, and Environments,” emphasizing the relationship between human populations and the natural world and asking students to evaluate the consequences of those interactions (NCSS, 2010).

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Planning a Classroom Inquiry Reading Spring after Spring: How Rachel Carson Inspired the Environmental Movement (Sisson, 2018) is an opportunity to inspire students to explore the natural world in their community and consider ways they might contribute to the modern environmental movement. The story of young Rachel Carson and her desire to observe and learn about the natural world is accessible and relatable to students in grades K-2. Spring after Spring (Sisson, 2018) presents the Inquiry Arc in a manner that is attainable for young learners. While reading, students can trace Rachel’s movement through the four dimensions of the C3 Framework. Additionally, students may be motivated to go outside and observe their natural surroundings. Teachers should harness this energy to assist students in planning their own inquiry related to a natural resource in the community. The following is a sample classroom inquiry that might accompany the reading of Spring after Spring (Sisson, 2018). In the state of Indiana, where I currently prepare pre-service teachers, I pose the following compelling question to my pre-service teachers: “Is the White River more or less polluted today than it was 100 years ago?” Surprisingly, the pre-service teachers often respond with an idyllic version of the past and tend to guess that the river is more polluted today than it was a century ago. After students share their hypotheses, the planning of the inquiry can begin. In line with the C3 Framework, once a compelling question is determined, supporting questions can be generated (Grant, 2013; NCSS, 2013a). A class of students shares the larger, compelling question while breaking into small groups to decide what supporting questions must be answered first before a final conclusion can be drawn. Such supporting questions might include, “What type of pollution goes into the White River today?”, “What type of pollution went into the White River a century ago?”, and “What rules have been in place regarding pollution in the White River?” Then, the class returns together to determine helpful sources, for example, newspapers, scientific articles, and experts in the community. Dimension 2 of the Inquiry Arc requires students to apply appropriate disciplinary tools in their inquiry (Lee & Swan, 2013; NCSS, 2013a). In the question of the White River, the social studies disciplines of geography and history are best suited to support the inquiry. Students investigate how human activities surrounding the White River have affected the water source over the past century and create a chronology of various events related to significant human interactions with the river. Our local newspaper, the IndyStar, has an investigative series reporting on the health of the White River and efforts to clean the polluted waters. As it turns out, one hundred years ago, Indiana industries were required to dispose of their wastewater by dumping it directly into the river (Hopkins, 2019). In Indianapolis, as in river towns around the

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United States, the Clean Water Act and related legislation following the publication of Silent Spring (Carson, 1962/2022) had great impacts on the water quality in the area. However, untreated sewage continues to be dumped into the White River today (Hopkins, 2019). Students create a timeline of policies regulating pollution in the river over time, charting advances and setbacks throughout the last century. At this point in the inquiry, they typically discover new supporting questions for which to seek answers. Once students identify current and historical sources of evidence, Dimension 3 of the Inquiry Arc encourages the evaluation of evidence and development of claims (Lee & Swan, 2013; NCSS, 2013a). Students in the elementary grades will need support with the latter. They can compare primary source evidence with firsthand accounts from residents recreating around the White River and scientific reports on the quality of the water. Additionally, students may begin to connect the evidence they have gathered to potential responses to the compelling question, “Is the White River more or less polluted today than it was 100 years ago?” Answers may vary based on evidence gathered, and students may need guidance in developing claims. For instance, while local and national initiatives such as the Clean Water Act have resulted in a White River that is cleaner today than it was in generations past, there is still a concern for the impacts of climate change on the health of rivers as well as stormwater runoff from lawns, streets, and farmlands. The final step in the Inquiry Arc, Dimension 4, asks students to communicate their conclusions and take informed action (Levinson & Levine, 2013; NCSS, 2013a). A possible response to our inquiry is that the White River is less polluted today than it was 100 years ago, but its waters are not safe for swimming or drinking. At this point, students brainstorm possible courses of action. Some action steps may include communicating safe water recreation guidelines to residents, sharing information about the dangers associated with fertilizer runoff from farms and lawns, or writing to state and local legislators about the need to increase regulations of pollution in stormwater runoff (Hopkins, 2019). In this stage, I guide students in drawing comparisons from the work of Rachel Carson communicating her concerns about DDT with their own investigation and concerns for the current health of the local river. The problems of pollution in the White River are not unique. The White River in particular empties into the Wabash River, which then continues on to the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, carrying all of the runoff from farms, lawns, parking lots, and sewage overflows along the way to its final end in the Gulf of Mexico. Inquiries related to the health of local water sources are ripe for presenting the interconnected nature of our world, as what happens upstream will undoubtedly affect what happens downstream. Students may choose to interview local community members as a part of their data collection and invite those same community members back to hear their findings.

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Learning about local geography, discussing the water cycle, and examining the chronology of a place are likely all included in state standards. By engaging students with an Inquiry Arc as modeled by Rachel Carson in Spring after Spring: How Rachel Carson Inspired the Environmental Movement (Sisson, 2018), they are intrinsically motivated to address these standards as they quest for answers to compelling questions and seek to make their own mark on efforts to protect our environment. While such an inquiry is not connected to the teaching of women’s rights on the surface, an inquiry into water and other natural resources opens the door to discuss the ways in which women in developing countries are responsible for providing water and other natural resources for their families (Keefer & Bousalis, 2015). When a local drinking water source is contaminated, it provides additional burdens and challenges to this chore, typically designated as a female task. Democratic citizens need to be stewards for their local communities and environments in order to address issues such as contaminated water sources (NCSS, 2013b). If curriculum pacing does not permit for a larger inquiry project, teachers may choose to use Spring after Spring (Sisson, 2018) as an opportunity to take students outside and engage in their own study of nature. Students can conduct mini-inquiries in a short amount of time by simply choosing a quiet place to sit and observe the natural world around them. The reading of this book can prompt a discussion about why humans need to take care of the environment. Sisson (2018) also provides an excellent occasion to consider the trait of bravery and the qualities in Rachel Carson that allowed her to present her findings in front of Congress and the world. Students will likely relate to Carson’s fears about doing something that was objectively intimidating but being able to do it anyway because it was the right thing to do (The Tiny Activist, 2021). Beyond the elementary level, students in grades 6+ may enjoy Levine’s (2008) biography, Up Close: Rachel Carson. This more detailed telling of Carson’s life provides the same framework for inquiry at a reading level accessible for middle grades students. Up Close: Rachel Carson gives more attention to Rachel’s academic career and early professional life. The Up Close biography also presents personal and historical contexts surrounding Carson’s major life events. While subjects tend to be more compartmentalized at the secondary level, students in social studies courses may still examine the impact of Carson’s work with regard to the disciplines of geography, civics, and history. Students at the secondary level will likely be able to tackle an inquiry related to a natural resource in the community with more independence and fewer instructional scaffolds. Secondary students may even read excerpts or chapters directly from Silent Spring (Carson, 1962/2022). While not as apparent in Sisson’s (2018) work, Levine (2008) takes care to address the sexism Carson faced at all levels of her career. From clear gender norms

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during her time in college to differential treatment in the workplace and sexist responses to her written works, Carson persevered (Levine, 2008). Carson’s story embodies the fight for the rights of not only women taking their fair place in society but also the rights of citizens in a democratic republic to make informed decisions regarding matters that will impact the health of people and the environments in which they inhabit (Engle & Ochoa, 1988; NCSS, 2013b).

TEACHING ENVIRONMENTALISM TODAY The current climate crisis, along with water shortages, food security, and other environmental issues, are all connected. In the United States and beyond, humans must continuously re-examine their relationship with the natural world. In a democratic society, it is the duty of our citizens to take informed action, and it is the chosen obligation of social studies educators to prepare such an informed citizenry (NCSS, 2013b). Leaving out the environment in our telling of history leaves our students with an incomplete understanding of the world in which they live. The story of Rachel Carson and the thematic teaching of women’s rights through an environmental lens both lead effortlessly into a discussion of current environmental problems, causes, and solutions. Rachel Carson’s story highlights the power of the Inquiry Arc in supporting citizens in taking informed action on environmental issues despite facing gender bias and opposition from big businesses. Her role in resisting the exploitation of the earth is echoed in environmental activism today. The activism of Greta Thunberg comes to mind immediately in current conversations surrounding global climate change. Greta Thunberg also exemplifies the process of taking informed action, but is unique in that she has done so since the age of 15. Thunberg first appeared in the public sphere in 2018, after protesting outside the Swedish parliament with a sign that read, “School Strike for Climate” (Kraemer, 2021). She has made bold accusations against world leaders and aroused great debate over carbon emissions, but most importantly, she has called out older generations for not protecting the future stability of our planet. Like Carson, Thunberg’s claims reflect scientific truth, and her critics are left only with attacks on her person in an attempt to discredit her work. Thunberg’s bravery in the face of the public and standing firm in her cause are reminiscent of Rachel Carson. Yet today, the criticism of the public is available 24 hours a day, seven days a week, via the internet. Sadly, just as with Carson, comments on Thunberg’s appearance seem to satisfy those who stand to profit from her silence (Way, 2019). Students might evaluate Thunberg’s claims for themselves, consider the effectiveness

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of her actions with regard to furthering her cause, or look to her as a model for determination. Beyond the work of Thunberg, there are countless other individuals and organizations working to solve the environmental problems of today. Students need only prompting to think about where their place might be with regard to the environment. The C3 Framework and the Inquiry Arc are powerful tools for supporting the next generation of leaders who are able to tackle the complexity of environmental issues in the present and future. If and whenever possible, students should immerse themselves in the natural world of their local community to address current issues (Evans, 2021). We do not need to look across oceans or continents to find environmental concerns worthy of further inquiry. The education of our students should bring them closer to the concerns of their community so that they may positively impact the world in which they inhabit (NCSS, 2013b). Several U.S. organizations currently produce or have produced classroomready environmental history and environmental education materials. Environmental History is a quarterly journal produced by the American Society for Environmental History and the Forest History Society. The website for Environmental History (EH) has a page of online resources, including a series of “Teach EH” articles that provide lesson plans, teaching strategies, and primary sources to accompany articles from the publication (See https:// env​iron​ment​alhistory​.net​/multimedia/). The Forest History Society created a middle school curriculum entitled “If Trees Could Talk.” The 11-module curriculum includes social studies activities examining the role of forests in periods throughout U.S. history, with a series of primary source documents to accompany each topic (See https://foresthistory​.org​/education​/trees​ -talk​-curriculum/). Greenpeace has a host of informational resources on their website, but specifically for educators, they offer a plastic-free future toolkit with lesson plans, games, and field trip ideas tailored to different age groups (See https://www​.greenpeace​.org​/international​/campaign​/toolkit​ -plastic​-free​-future/). While not classroom-ready, the Environmental History Resources has a timeline charting major environmental events across the globe from 8000 BCE through the present (See https://www​.eh​-resources​ .org​/timeline/). Population Connection is an organization founded with the aim of stabilizing the earth’s population at a level that is sustainable with natural resources. Population Connection created the Population Education program to provide lesson plans and professional development resources related to the impact of human population growth on the environment (See https://populationeducation​.org/). Finally, for teachers of Advanced Placement U.S. History, the environment is featured prominently in two of the eight themes described in the course description, looking at both the influence of natural environment on social and political developments as well

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as the impact of migration on the physical environment; thus, higher-level environmental history resources are likely available via the College Board and professional networks of Advanced Placement Teachers (College Board, 2020). To be sure, it is my intention that learning about the work of Rachel Carson, inquiring about the natural world, and appreciating the role of the environment are undertakings accessible to all students at all grade levels and levels of coursework.

RACHEL CARSON AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE FOR ALL Social studies educators are in a position to guide younger generations in learning about environmental history and developing systematic inquiries into the most sustainable solutions for the environmental issues we face today. Rachel Carson is a powerful figure to present to students demonstrating the value of studying nature and standing, up for it. The trouble is that when you ask former students if they know who Rachel Carson was or what she did, the responses are mixed. Often, it is the Advanced Placement students who faintly remember her name from their U.S. History course. The life and work of Rachel Carson are worthy of a more discernible position in social studies curricula (Crocco, 2020; Whitford, 2020). For young learners, her story shows how your passions in childhood can both translate into your career goals and have a positive impact on the world (Barton, 2012; Levstik & Barton, 2015). For secondary students, her work provides a clear template for a well-planned inquiry to inform civic action. For all students, her ability to stand strong in her moral conviction at a time when women were often not taken seriously is a lesson in character. While Rachel Carson did not explicitly call herself a feminist, it is quite clear that her concern was for higher truths such as justice for all living things, which aligns with some of feminists’ goals to remake society without the use of exploitation or oppression. Carson’s work provides an avenue to broadening social studies curricula to include environmental history while also strengthening students’ disciplinary skills as advocated in the indicators in the C3 Framework. There are various teaching ideas outlined in this chapter, but the first step is to simply turn students’ attention to the natural world. Not every student can or will be an environmental activist, but it is my hope they will be active and informed citizens aware of their natural world and invested in its future. At the very least, it is my hope they will know the name of Rachel Carson, the second woman to be hired by the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, champion of citizens, and protector of mother earth.

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REFERENCES Armitage, K. C. (2009). The Nature Study Movement: The forgotten popularizer of America’s conservation ethic. University Press of Kansas. Associated Press. (2022, November 25). Greta Thunberg joins march as activists sue Sweden over its climate policies. NBC News. https://www​.nbcnews​.com​ /news​/world​/greta​-thunberg​-joins​-march​-activists​-sue​-sweden​-climate​-policies​ -rcna58741 Barton, K. (2012). Agency, choice, and historical action: How history teaching can help students think about democratic decision making. Citizenship Teaching and Learning, 7(2), 131-142. Berry, M. K. (2019). “Possible, fun, and urgent: Designing U.S. history courses to include environmental history.” The American Historian, N/A. doi:https://www. oah.org/tah/issues/2019/environmental-history/possible-fun-and-urgent-designingu.s-history-courses-to-include-environmental-history/ Blakemore, E. (2018, July 5). Why ‘Liberty Trees’ became an obsession after the Revolutionary War. History. https://www​.history​.com​/news​/liberty​-trees​-symbol​ -revolutionary​-war Blinken, A. J. (2021, February 19). The United States officially rejoins the Paris Agreement - United States Department of State. State Department. https://www​ .state​.gov​/the​-united​-states​-officially​-rejoins​-the​-paris​-agreement/ Carson, R. (1941/2007). Under the sea-wind. Penguin Classics. Carson, R. (1951/2018). The sea around us. Oxford University Press. Carson, R. (1962/2022). Silent spring. Houghton Mifflin. Chapman, A. E. (2020). Nineteenth Century Trends in American Conservation (U.S. National Park Service. https://www​.nps​.gov​/articles​/000​/nineteenth​-century​-trends​ -in​-american​-conservation​.htm College Board. (2020). A.P. U.S. history course and exam description. https:// apcentral​.collegeboard​.org​/media​/pdf​/ap​-us​-history​-course​-and​-exam​-description​.pdf Crocco, M.S. (2020). Teaching gender and social studies in the #METOOERA. Social Studies Journal, 38(1), 6-16. Daza, V. (2019, April 22). Two fights in one: Feminism and environmentalism. Dejusticia. https://www​.dejusticia​.org​/en​/column​/two​-fights​-in​-one​-feminism​-and​ -environmentalism/ Engle, S.H., & Ochoa, A.S. (1988). Education for democratic citizenship: Decision making the social studies. Teachers College Press. Evans, R. (Ed.). (2021). Handbook on teaching social issues (2nd ed.). Information Age Publishing. Grant, S. G. (2013). From Inquiry Arc to instructional practice: The potential for the C3 Framework. Social Education, 77(6), 322-326. Hooks, B. (2015). Feminism is for everybody: Passionate politics (2nd ed.). Routledge.

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Hopkins, E. (2019, September 23). The White River: The truth about its cleanliness. IndyStar. https://www​.indystar​.com​/in​-depth​/news​/environment​/2019​/09​/23​/white​ -river​-getting​-cleaner​-but​-is​-it​-safe​/2164251001/ Howard, J. (1962). The gentle storm center. Life, 53(15), 105–110. Igini, M. (2022, August 30). Top 6 environmental issues in the U.S. in 2022. Earth. Org. https://earth​.org​/top​-environmental​-issues​-us/ Keefer, N., & Bousalis, R. (2015). How do you get your water? Structural Violence Pedagogy and women’s access to water. The Social Studies, 106(6), 256-263. Kraemer, D. (2021, November 5). Greta Thunberg: Who is the climate campaigner and what are her aims? BBC. https://www​.bbc​.com​/news​/world​-europe​ -49918719 Lear, L. (1997). Rachel Carson: The life of the author of Silent Spring. Henry Holt and Company. Lee, J. & Swan, K. (2013). Is the Common Core good for social studies? Yes, but…. Social Education, 77(6), 327-330. Levine, E. (2008). Up Close: Rachel Carson. Penguin Young Readers Group. Levinson, M. & Levine, P. (2013). Taking informed action to engage students in civic life. Social Education, 77(6), 339-341. Levstik, L., & Barton, K. (2015). Doing history: Investigating with elementary and middle schools (5th ed.). Routledge. Lewis, J. (1985). The birth of the EPA. EPA Journal, 11(9), 6-11. Mies, M., & Shiva, V. (1993). Ecofeminism. Zed Books Ltd. National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). (2010). National curriculum standards for social studies: A framework for teaching, learning, and assessment. Author. National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). (2013a). The College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Standards: Guidance for enhancing the rigor of K-12 civics, economics, geography, and history. Author. National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). (2013b). Revitalizing civic learning in our schools. https://www​.socialstudies​.org​/position​-statements​/revitalizing​ -civic​-learning​-our​-schools Paratley, R. (n.d.). Economic botany and cultural history: American elm | Urban Forest Initiative. Urban Forest Initiative. https://ufi​.ca​.uky​.edu​/treetalk​/ecobot​ -american​-elm Salam, M. (2017, September 12). Amid hurricane chaos, domestic abuse victims risk being overlooked. The New York Times. https://www​.nytimes​.com​/2017​/09​/12​/us​/ domestic​-violence​-hurricanes​.html Sierra Club. (2001, February 17). History of environmental justice. Sierra Club. https://www​.sierraclub​.org​/environmental​-justice​/history​-environmental​-justice Sisson, S. R. (2018). Spring after spring: How Rachel Carson inspired the environmental movement. Roaring Brook Press. Stoll, M. (2020). Rachel Carson’s silent spring, a book that changed the world. Environment & Society Portal, Virtual Exhibitions, 2012 (1) [updated 6 February 2020]. Version 2.0. Rachel Carson Center for Environment and Society. https://doi​ .org​/10​.5282​/rcc​/8842.

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The Tiny Activist. (2021). Lesson plan: Spring after spring: How Rachel Carson inspired the environmental movement. The Tiny Activist. https://thetinyactivist​ .com​/shop​/free​-downloads​/lesson​-plans​/spring​-after​-spring/ Trickey, E. (2016, May 19). The story behind a forgotten symbol of the American revolution: The liberty tree. Smithsonian Magazine. https://www​.smithsonianmag​.com​/history​/story​-behind​-forgotten​-symbol​-american​-revolution​-liberty​-tree​ -180959162/ United Nations. (2022). Climate action fast facts. United Nations. https://www​.un​.org​ /en​/climatechange​/science​/key​-findings U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1983). Eagles, other birds, thrive after EPA’s 1972 DDT ban. EPA Journal 9,(1), 12-13. Waklid, E., & Berry, M. K. (2018). A primer for teaching environmental history: Ten design principles. Duke University Press. Waxman, O. B. (2019, April 10). What convinced Ronald Reagan to take action on ozone hole? TIME. https://time​.com​/5564651​/reagan​-ozone​-hole/ Way, K. (2019, September 23). Greta Thunberg’s appearance is being attacked by sexist trolls. VICE. https://www​.vice​.com​/en​/article​/xweabw​/trolls​-attacks​-on​ -greta​-thunbergs​-appearance​-are​-sadly​-predictable Whitford, A. (2020). “I can’t believe a girl did that!”: An introductory lesson for teaching women’s history. Iowa Journal for the Social Studies, 28(2), 64-88. Yavinsky, R. (2012, December 26). Women more vulnerable than men to climate change. Population Reference Bureau. https://www​.prb​.org​/resources​/women​ -more​-vulnerable​-than​-men​-to​-climate​-change/

Chapter 7

Finding Our Way Women’s Stories of Migration Margit E. McGuire

Since time immemorial, human migration has had an impact on world events. However, the examination of human migration generally has overlooked the unique experiences of women. A gender-based approach focusing on women’s migration experiences can contribute to the national and international dialogue often absent in media and in national and international policy. Why do women immigrate, and what are their experiences during migration and after they have reached a new place? Limited information presents a challenge in addressing this important question. In this chapter, I explore how the issues connected to migration shed light on women’s rights issues. BOOKS THAT ADDRESS WOMEN’S MIGRATION Weatherford’s (1995) book, Foreign and Female: Immigrant Women in America, 1840–1930, highlights the considerable number of European women who immigrated to the United States alone or without husbands or families. Weatherford argues that these women vastly contributed to the national economy, often taking low-paying jobs as domestic workers. This situation continues as women immigrants and refugees from around the world still take on such roles today (UN Women, 2016). Weatherford’s book intentionally focuses on women who immigrated from Europe to the United States, and she acknowledges that other women’s experiences are worthy of investigation. Clearly, there is more to the story. Boyd and Grieco (2003) provide a helpful overview of women’s migration and the complexities of their unique experiences and reasons for migrating, acknowledging the socially constructed notion of gender and how such notions vary among societies. “There are three distinct stages where gender 123

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relations, roles, and hierarchies influence the migration process and produce differential outcomes for women: the pre-migration stage, the transition across state boundaries, and the experiences of migrants in the receiving country” (para.12). The pre-migration stage is dependent on the country of origin and the economic conditions of the country as well as: “1) gender relations and hierarchies; 2) status and roles; and 3) structural characteristics of the country of origin” (para.13). Transition across national boundaries varies from country to country and, as noted above, relates to specific circumstances of women within the society. Laws and regulations factor into countries of destination and how women are viewed: independent or dependent in relation to men. Countries seeking women laborers for domestic work, for example, often have intermediaries that support women’s migration. Once immigrants arrive, they have different experiences based on their ability to be employed, among other factors (Boyd & Grieco, 2003). A key factor in resettlement, however, is employment because it shapes women’s experiences that lead to social mobility, a living wage, and more independence. Personal narratives passed down through families could provide more information and insights, but these usually are not shared beyond the family. In their edited collection A Map Is Only One Story, Chung and Demary (2020) include a number of women’s migration stories as well as stories of cultural contrasts between their home countries and the new countries to which they have immigrated. Some of the stories are suitable for middle school and offer a broad range of experiences, primarily focusing on cultural differences between their home country and their new homes in the United States. HOW EDUCATORS CAN HELP STUDENTS UNDERSTAND WOMEN’S MIGRATION AND ITS INEQUITIES Knowingly or unknowingly, elementary and middle school students are forming ideas and attitudes about immigration and refugees. Students understand that people move, whether it involves their immediate family, extended family, friends, or people in other communities, regions, and nations. The personal experience of the movement of people is one dimension of young people’s knowledge base, but another one that is unavoidable is the media’s attention to the movement of people. The reality is that the media’s coverage of these events often focuses on racism, images of war, starvation, and drownings, and fear of others simply because of their circumstances. The list goes on. How then do we as educators reframe these events to develop student understanding and empathy for the movement of people, especially the experiences of women? This does not mean that the human tragedies

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associated with the movement of people should be ignored, but there is more to the story, including the hopefulness that also exists as women and their families seek a better life. Project-Based Learning Approach This chapter will examine women’s migration experiences, drawing on the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS, 2013) C3 Framework, starting with compelling questions: “How and why is migration more difficult for women than men? How can we address this inequity?” “How” leads to exploring the ways in which migration is more difficult for women than men. “Why” leads to exploring what causes such events to happen. These questions will frame the investigation of the geographic, economic, and civic circumstances that cause women to move. Using a project-based approach, students will research women’s migration as a backdrop for interviewing women about their experiences, and then they will create a book to engage readers in thinking about the impact on women as they move from one place to another. See table H.1 in appendix H, “Summary of Project Activities.” While this chapter highlights a book project, adaptations of the project can include a series of podcasts or other multimedia forms of communication. A related aspect of this project is to consider who the audience is. The book could be shared with the local library, newcomer centers, and government officials. Ultimately, students could expand this project to determine where it could have the greatest impact in addressing inequities so common to the women’s migration experiences. Understanding the Basics of Migration Migration is defined as “the movement of persons or groups who permanently relocate their homes to a new place” (Hardwick & Holtgrieve, 1996, p. 273). In this chapter, a focus will be on women’s migration experiences, inclusive of migrant, refugee, asylum seeker, or immigrant status. Immigrants are people who intend to settle permanently in another country, while migrants are people who move temporarily to another country or region within a country, often in search of seasonal work (International Rescue Committee, 2022). Refugees are defined as individuals or groups who are forced to migrate because of political unrest, natural and human-made disasters, and/or profound social, economic, or environmental change (Hardwick & Holtgrieve, 1996). The International Rescue Committee (2022) defines an asylum seeker as “…someone who is…seeking international protection from dangers in his or her home country, but whose claim for refugee status hasn’t been determined legally” (para. 8). Once asylum seekers reach their destination, they must apply for and make the case that they meet that country’s criteria for asylum.

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Another way to frame the investigation of migration experiences is to consider the “push-pull” factors that cause people to migrate (Lee, 1966). People leave because they are “pushed” from their homes because of limited opportunities to meet their daily needs due to sparse work or job opportunities; discrimination based on their gender identity, ethnicity, religion, class, and political affiliation; environmental factors such as climate change that leads to famine; serious conflicts such as war; or a combination of factors that affect personal security and well-being. Alternatively, people are “pulled” for a variety of reasons, including economic or educational opportunities, friends or family who have already migrated, greater freedom and safety, or simply a spirit of adventure. While the topic of migration is complex, the unit of study that is described in this chapter aims to focus on the disciplinary understandings related to the movement of women. The United States has more immigrants than any other country in the world. Today, more than 40 million people living in the U.S. were born in another country, accounting for about one-fifth of the world’s migrants. The population of immigrants is also very diverse, with just about every country in the world represented among U.S. immigrants. (Budiman, 2020, para. 1)

In a country of over 333 million people, there are approximately 21 million women who have migrated to the United States, which is just over 13 percent of the female population (Institute for Women’s Policy Research, n.d.). G ­ lobally, about 50 percent of those migrating are women. These facts make it even more striking that the experience of women’s migration is often overlooked because typically the focus is on a more generalized migration experience. Trauma-Informed Instruction In schools across the United States, some students have had first-hand experiences with migration, so a word of caution: Sensitivity to this topic is essential. Knowing students’ experiences and their ability to engage with this topic will guide the development of the inquiry. If migration experiences were traumatizing for individual students, it is important that strong, supportive, caring relationships are developed prior to the inquiry so that these students are not retraumatized. Zacarian et al. (2020, pp. 70–71) provide guidance for teaching such topics as: 1. Build Asset Based Relationships with Students 2. Encourage Student Voice and Choice 3. Connect the Curriculum to Students’ Lives For example, we know that the first twenty days of school are foundational in building relationships necessary for engaging with hard issues and creating a

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sense of belonging. Acknowledging that the subject will be difficult and creating a classroom that is a safe place for learning are essential (Dotson Davis, 2019; Minahan, 2019; Terrasi & de Galarce, 2017). Freewriting is a practice that is anonymous, can provide an avenue for students to express their ideas about the topic in informal writing, and can allow teachers to assess readiness for delving deeper or redirecting the learning. Because interviewing and writing about women’s migration experiences can be personal, such writing can facilitate meaning-making for students who have been traumatized because of migration (Park & Blumberg, 2002). Martin-Beltrán et  al. (2020) also highlight the benefits for students who can share their own migration stories. Their research describes how students’ identities, agency, learning, and advocacy are supported when provided opportunities to tell their own stories. Classrooms with students with personal migration stories can be adapted accordingly. An important consideration for this topic is that some students may themselves be undocumented immigrants or come from families without documentation. Such students are likely to be unwilling to share their status or reluctant to talk about their migration experiences. Identifying as undocumented can put their family at risk of being deported, and depending on where they live can place some students at higher risk, for example, on the United States southern border but in other locations as well (Abrego, 2019; Gómez Cervantes, 2021; Sibley & Brabeck, 2017). Thus, when setting up the parameters for the project, consider how to explore migration without compounding this anxiety. PROJECT BASED LEARNING AND THE C3 FRAMEWORK: A SYNERGETIC UNION FOR DEVELOPING A PROJECT In framing the learning about women’s rights and migration in the project described in this chapter, two pedagogical approaches will be utilized: Project Based Learning (PBL) and the C3 Framework (NCSS, 2013) (See appendix H, table H.1 “Summary of Project Activities” and table H.2 “A Comparison of the C3 Framework and Project-Based Learning”). “In Project Based Learning, the project is the vehicle for teaching important knowledge and skills students need to learn. The project contains and frames curriculum and instruction” (Buck Institute for Education, n.d., para 7). Key components of PBL include critical thinking, problem solving, and student collaboration framed around a “driving question.” A PBL question must be challenging and meaningful, promote sustained inquiry, and be authentic, involving realworld issues and personal concerns of students. Similarly, the C3 Framework’s “compelling question” should engage students in learning disciplinary concepts and tools, evaluating sources, and then taking informed action based on the answer to the compelling question (NCSS, 2013).

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Crafting compelling questions is a way to find the common ground between content and students. But . . . for compelling questions to sing, they must hit two notes—they need to represent big content ideas and they need to express those ideas in ways that resonate with those things students know and value. (Swan et al., 2018, p. 31)

The first challenge in organizing the curriculum to examine how migration is a gender equality issue is to frame the project to hit those two notes: the easy note is the content (gender equality and migration); the harder note is making it personal to the students. Within school districts, classrooms can vary, with some students having firsthand experiences (and subsequent trauma) with migration compared to students whose primary information is from the media. Assuming the teacher navigates the students’ firsthand experiences with sensitivity, compelling questions are: How and why is migration more difficult for women than it is for men? How can we address this inequity? This project that explores these questions is a student-created book based on interviews of women’s migration experiences and concluding with a statement of action to address the inequities. An important dimension of this project is to personalize the migration stories—real women’s experiences that move student understanding beyond media headlines—so that the book project raises awareness of the inequities through women’s personal stories and moves people to take informed action. Using a Trade Book to Introduce the Project To launch the project on women’s migration, students are introduced to the topic using the trade book Stepping Stones: A Refugee Family’s Journey (Ruurs, 2016).1 The story begins with Rama, a young Syrian refugee, describing her life in a Syrian village before the war. When war arrives and the family flees, Rama describes the family’s journey, first by foot and then by boat, as they leave Syria ultimately to settle in Canada. Rama describes the emotions of leaving her homeland, the trauma of the journey, and the hope for a new home that is safe from war. This short story allows the teacher, through Rama’s first-person account, to transport students quickly into a personal story of migration and its impact on those involved. The book, written in English and Arabic, also introduces students to Arabic writing, which adds an important dimension to the story. A unique aspect of the story is the artwork. The author, Margriet Ruurs, invited Nizar Ali Badr, a Syrian artist, to illustrate the book with stone art that entails photographing pebbles that the artist has arranged in ways that depict such things as people, objects, and scenes. The artist uses small, smooth river stones to create “stone” people and settings. The stone illustrations enhance the written story,

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connecting with visual learners and providing opportunities for students to recall the events of the story and intuit the range of emotions people experience when migrating. The author has shared that the migration experiences depicted through the stone art transcend place and cultural conditions, thereby capturing the universality of migration and refugees’ experiences (M. Ruurs, personal communication, May 27, 2022). Starting with a read aloud captures in words and illustrations “big ideas” related to migration. The story also provides a common experience for all students to enter into the exploration of the topic, with the added benefit that when upper elementary and middle school students see the teacher engaged with a compelling story and modeling literacy skills, students can become better readers themselves (Campbell & Rodgers, 2021). To begin to develop students’ understanding of migration, guiding questions touch on both the social studies disciplinary content and the dispositional response to women’s migration. Depending on students’ firsthand experiences with migration, dispositional responses can range from “fear of others,” most likely based on news stories, to personal trauma experienced by individual students or their families. Being mindful of these possibilities is important for the classroom to become a safe place to explore this topic authentically. To build on Rama’s migration story, the questions below can guide students in creating a chart about Rama’s life before the Syrian Civil War; see the chart in appendix H, table H.3, “Comparing Rama’s Life in Syria Before the War and Our Everyday Life.” RAMA’S LIFE IN SYRIA Before the Syrian Civil War Our Everyday Life • What do you recall about Rama’s life in Syria before the war began? • How was her life like your life? • In what ways did Rama’s life change when war came to her country? • What remained the same for Rama? • How would you feel if you experienced these changes? • Do you think Rama as a girl might respond differently to migrating than a boy? Why or why not? Explain that there are many untold stories about women’s migration and the special challenges they face, but in this project, students can create a book

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that can help others learn about the special challenges of women as well as their contributions to their families and society once they have settled into their new homes. Researching Women’s Migration The next step in PBL is sustained inquiry that aligns with the C3 Framework’s Dimension 2, applying disciplinary concepts and tools. Guiding students to construct their own questions for research on women’s migration builds ­necessary background knowledge for them to later in the unit develop their own interview questions for gathering information to write women’s migration stories. Introducing the concept of push-pull factors in migration, as shown in figure 7.1, can help students think about the reasons for migration as they begin their own research, figure 7.1. Economic Push and Pull Factors From Push and Pull Factors of Emigration, by M. Tidmarsh, 2014 (http:// www​.emigration​.link). Copyright 2017 Updated 2018 by Marcus Tidmarsh, Siteseen Limited. Reprinted with permission. A graphic organizer or chart also can assist students in gathering information about women’s migration. Appendix H, table H.4 “Researching Women’s Migration” provides a sample chart for students and table H.5 “Teacher Model: Researching Women’s Migration” provides a model chart for the teacher’s use. A helpful place to begin the research is the website, How Migration Is a Gender Equality Issue (UN Women, 2020). The important, overarching question for students to ask themselves as they use this, or any,

Figure 7.1  Economic Push and Pull Factors

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website for research is: Is this a credible and reliable source? How do I know? To answer this question, they need to consider the following questions:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Who is the author of the website? Is this an author I can trust? How do I decide? Why do I think the author believed this was an important message? Is the message based on facts or opinions? How do I know? When I read information on this website, how does it make me feel?

This website is well organized, starting with an overview of the issues. The introduction contains concepts that may be unfamiliar to students, so highlighting these concepts will be an important foundation for understanding women’s migration experiences. Such concepts include livelihood, financial remittance, norms, and social and cultural capital. There may be more concepts depending on students’ background knowledge. A caution, however: Plan in advance how to address sexual and genderbased violence. Handling this topic sensitively or setting it aside will depend on the students’ community and developmental readiness. The website clearly links topics for further information. The topics are organized into these categories: women migrant workers, migrant domestic workers, social protection, remittances, sexual and gender-based violence, LGBTIQ+ migrants, human trafficking and smuggling, and COVID-19. Because each link (page) includes clear graphics and a small amount of text, paper copies of age-appropriate topics can be easily prepared for students and form the basis for further study. The categories also make cooperative group research straightforward, with each group or pairs of groups focusing on specific topics using a jigsaw approach. Another reason to start with this webpage is that for students who need guidance in note-taking, the information is manageable for modeling the process—quoting text verses identifying key ideas or phrases, for example. Later, when students conduct their interviews, they will have had this practice and can build on these note-taking skills. The Migration Policy Institute, a nonpartisan organization located in Washington D.C., has a series of articles on women migrants, and the website allows one to search by dates and topics. The text is dense, so select manageable amounts of information for student research. The University of Minnesota Libraries UMedia (n.d.) “Immigrant Stories” has an extensive collection of first-person stories of migration. The website provides the names of the immigrants, their countries of origin, and brief written synopses of their stories. The videos are short, averaging only three to six minutes. For students who would benefit from a video and oral presentation of personal migration stories, this resource is invaluable. Deciding on a

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number of women to research using a jigsaw approach would allow students to investigate common themes among women’s experiences. The Pew Research Center (Budiman, 2020) includes statistics and information about migration. This website’s main page is useful for students to explore, but it is hoped that they will conclude that the information is not gender specific. A civic statement of action later in the unit could be a letter to this research center making the case for providing statistics and analyses that are gender-based. Throughout the first stages of the research, classroom discussions based on students’ findings will deepen understanding of the compelling questions and keep students on track. Creating a “whole class” graphic organizer or chart will affirm individual and group contributions and reinforce learning. Also, highlighting the inequities prepares students early on in the project to plan the action that they and others can take to help address such inequities. Guiding the Interview Process In addition to the class graphic organizer or chart, figure 7.1 is a helpful organizing tool for students to use in constructing their inquiry. As a whole-class activity, students can generate their questions for research. Guide this process so that students have agency and choice in determining their interview questions. Then, model how to formulate questions that will help guide the students’ informational writing, such as what motivates women to leave their home country, what special challenges do they face in making the move, and what issues are relevant to settlement in a new home. Also, prompt students to consider questions that address policy or challenging migration circumstances because these form a foundation for thinking about actions that address these situations. Students can return to their interviews to reflect on such questions and their answers. As students consider the questions they want to ask, they also should decide who they want to interview. Considering specific circumstances, the teacher can provide guidance regarding who to interview and the most suitable approach for interviewing. Ideally, students, with the help of their families, can decide on someone to interview. However, that may not be possible; thus, the teacher can guide students to think about whom they might interview as a group. Many communities have newcomer centers or faith groups that support women, and they can help facilitate setting up interviews with women via videoconferencing or through invitations to visit the classroom. If live interviewing is not possible, then students can view videos of women’s migration stories. As noted earlier in the chapter, the University of Minnesota Libraries UMedia (n.d.) has a substantial collection of first-person stories of migration. Teachers can select the women’s stories most appropriate to the classroom’s learning goals. If this option is chosen, students can view more than one story and expand the learning task to collectively examine the reasons that women migrate. Another adaptation is to change the

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project from a book to an advocacy poster that draws attention to the common themes and special challenges of women’s migration experiences. Practicing interviewing prior to conducting them allows Common Core English Language Arts & Literacy Standards (Council of Chief State School Officers [CCSSO] and National Governors Association [NGA], 2010) to be integrated into the project through the teaching of interviewing skills. The speaking and listening standards address comprehension and collaboration: “SL.2 Integrate and evaluate information presented . . . orally. SL.3 Evaluate a speaker’s point of view, reasoning, and use of evidence and rhetoric” (p. 22). Modeling an interview for students can bring these skills to the forefront, especially if students provide feedback to the teacher. Also, modeling an interview allows the teacher to highlight specific understandings from the interview, deepening students’ understanding while simultaneously weaving together content knowledge and skill development. Students can then practice interviewing in the classroom by rehearsing the skills of asking questions and follow-up questions, making eye contact with the interviewee, and speaking clearly and confidently. Note-taking, practiced earlier in the project, is reinforced, including capturing key words or phrases and organizing notes under headings or questions. Discussions about quotations, when to use them, and what kinds of quotations can bring information to life for the reader and can guide students in thinking about their writing in the next step of the project. Students can consider such categories as something that was surprising or unusual in the interview or something that evoked an emotional response to the information shared, in addition to the more basic information that was communicated. Sharing the Results of the Interviews and Writing the Informational Texts Once the interviews are completed, students can share their findings. One way to manage this is through both small-group and whole-class discussions where students share their findings to identify common themes. Figure 7.1 can help categorize themes and connect them to women’s experiences. Encourage students to connect what they learned from their interviews to their prior research. Now students are ready to write their informational texts using the compelling questions as the overarching organizer, paying attention to answering all aspects of the questions. Spandel (2013) describes good informational writing as “. . . marked by clarity, accuracy, a strong central message, ­credible support for that message, and surprising, intriguing or unusual details that teach the reader something new—or cause the reader to see things in a new way” (p. 268). A writing program with which teachers and students already are familiar can be adapted to this informational writing task. Spandel (2013) encourages teachers to coach writers to teach something new in their writing

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about the topic. “Teach me something worth knowing, something I’ll remember—something not everyone knows . . .” (p. 291). The Common Core Literacy Standards (2010) align with this task of informational writing. Guiding students through the drafting phase of writing takes time, and the 6+1 Trait® Writing Rubrics Grade 3–12 (Education Northwest, 2021) can be a helpful tool in drafting, revising, and producing a final product. PBL highlights the importance of collaborative work, so having students provide feedback to each other on their drafts not only addresses skill building but also increases their knowledge about women’s migration. While students can assess their writing using 6+1 Trait® rubrics, Spandel’s (2013) definition of good informational writing also can guide the feedback process with questions such as:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Is the writing clear and accurate? What is the main idea you are trying to convey (a strong central message)? Have you included details to support your main idea? Have you included surprising, intriguing, or unusual details? Will readers learn new information about women’s migration? Will readers be moved to action to address inequities?

Once the writing is complete, students assemble and share the book. Just as published authors are invited to do book readings, so too can students read their book to an authentic audience. Ideally, inviting families and interviewees to the occasion is a powerful connection to the community and highlights students’ learning. Video conferencing is also an option for sharing. Consider differentiating this project by having students construct their own stone art representing what they have learned about women’s migration experiences. An analysis of Nizar Ali Badr’s illustrations and how he captures the human experience through stones is well suited to visual learners who can soar with such opportunities for demonstrating their learning. Badr’s work is an inspiration and a model for expressing such an experience of migration. Students may have their own ideas of other creative and impactful ways to share their research. Reflecting on the Learning and Planning Action Steps Once the books are completed and distributed, it is helpful to reflect on the experience as highlighted in PBL. Questions for reflection can include: 1. Did our writing make an impact? 2. If we were to do this project again, what might we do differently? 3. In what ways can we build on this project?

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4. What was personally meaningful to me? 5. What else can we do to raise awareness about women’s migration experiences? PBL concludes with a critique and revise approach, while the C3 Framework’s final step is to communicate conclusions and take informed actions. Threading together the critique process with action steps frames such questions as: How successful was the book in shining a light on women’s migration? Did the book move people to action? What else can we do to have our voices heard on the matter? It is hoped that after students have written their personal accounts of women’s migration experiences, they will be moved to take informed action. Brainstorming action steps can foster student agency in making a difference. Small steps taken together can have an impact, and examples drawn from young people’s advocacy—Malala Yousafzai (education for girls), Greta Thunberg (climate change), Nupol Kiazolu (racial justice), and Yuri Suzuki (animal rights)—can provide inspiration for students’ own advocacies. Guide them in considering their own communities and where their book might change people’s hearts and minds to ensure that women migrating to their community have safe housing, access to jobs, educational opportunities, and support for childcare. Encourage students to consider other avenues of civic action—letters to civic leaders, testimony at school board meetings, and communication through websites that tell only part of the migration story. It is likely that students will have many other ideas about actions they can take, which is the ultimate success of the project. Further Exploration Beyond the scope of this chapter is an excellent book, Female Immigrant Entrepreneurs: The Economic and Social Impact of a Global Phenomenon (Halkias et al., 2011). It explores significant gender distinctions through examining the impact on economics by women migrant entrepreneurs. The editors merged quantitative and qualitative research, which resulted in “. . . an innovative research approach for holistically studying female immigrant entrepreneurship—that of combining the life-cycle business concept and biographical narration into a single assessment tool to study the cross-national profile of female immigrant entrepreneurship” (p. 7). Interestingly, many of the businesses described were started by one woman and were born out of necessity—the need to make a living with limited opportunities elsewhere. Such businesses often serve immigrant communities in which the entrepreneur is providing needed goods and services and creating jobs for both immigrants and nonimmigrants. The authors highlight the importance of developing policies to foster such entrepreneurship, which provides social and economic benefits to communities worldwide. Highlighting these stories

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can inspire other women immigrants to pursue entrepreneurial activities that open doors for a better life for themselves and their loved ones.

FINAL THOUGHTS Women will continue to migrate, and how they experience migration will be tied directly to their gender, determining how they make the journey and the futures they will have in their new homes. It is risky, often dangerous, for them to migrate, and yet there are safeguards that can make their journeys less arduous, both for single women and for women with children. In this way, issues connected to migration illuminate the international dimensions of women’s rights issues and help students to grasp that women’s rights issues are not only confined to the United States but exist on an international level. Women often are the stabilizing force in immigrant communities and, with support, can become contributing and productive members of the community. It behooves all of us to advocate for policies that ensure that every woman’s search for a better life can be, and ultimately is, achieved.

NOTE 1. There is a paucity of trade books that explore women’s migration experiences, and those reviewed for this chapter raised additional concerns. For example, Someone Like Me: How One Undocumented Girl Fought for Her American Dream (Arce, 2018) is Arce’s migration story from Mexico. In her book, she describes beatings by her father, which raises questions about how developmentally appropriate is the content. Herein lies the challenge of this topic: finding developmentally appropriate trade books to frame student learning. In Stepping Stones, Rama’s story, while simply told and developmentally appropriate, captures common themes of migration and allows the teacher to decide appropriate next steps for student learning.

REFERENCES Abrego, L. (2019). Relational legal consciousness of U.S. citizenship: Privilege, responsibility, guilt, and love in Latino mixed-status families. Law & Society Review (53)3, 641-670. DOI: 10.1111/lasr.12414 Arce, J. (2018). Someone like me: How one undocumented girl fought for her American dream. Little, Brown and Company. Boyd, M., & Grieco, E. (2003, March 1). Women and migration: Incorporating gender into international migration theory. Migration Policy Institute. https://www​

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.migrationpolicy​.org​/article​/women​-and​-migration​-incorporating​-gender​-international​-migration​-theory Buck Institute for Education. (n.d.). How does PBL differ from “doing a project”? PBL WORKS. https://www​.pblworks​.org​/what​-is​-pbl Budiman, A. (2020, August 20). Key findings about U.S. immigrants. Pew Research Center. https://www​.pewresearch​.org​/fact​-tank​/2020​/08​/20​/key​-findings​-about​-u​-s​ -immigrants/ Campbell, L., & Rodgers, C. (2021, July 26). How read-alouds can benefit older students. Edutopia. https://www​.edutopia​.org​/article​/how​-read​-alouds​-can​-benefit​ -older​-students/ Chung, N., & Demary, M. (Eds.). (2020). A map is only one story: Twenty writers on immigration, family, and the meaning of home. Cutapult. Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) and National Governors Association (NGA). (2010). Common core state standards for English language arts & literacy in history/social studies, science, and technical subjects. Retrieved from www​ .corestandards​.org​/wp​-content​/uploads​/ELA​_Standards1​.pdf Dotson Davis, L. (2019). Implications of trauma-sensitive practices at the middle level. Middle Grades Review, 5(1), Article 3. https://scholarworks​.uvm​.edu​/mgreview​/vol5​/iss1/3 Education Northwest. (2021). 6+1 trait® writing rubrics grade 3–12. https://educationnorthwest​.org​/sites​/default​/files​/resources​/traits​-rubrics​-3​-12​.pdf Gómez Cervantes, A. (2021). “Looking Mexican”: Indigenous and non- Indigenous Latina/o immigrants and the racialization of illegality in the Midwest. Social Problems (68)1, 100-117. Halkias, D., Thurman, P. W., Harkiolakis, N., & Caracatsanis, S. M. (2011). Female immigrant entrepreneurs: The economic and social impact of a global phenomenon. Gower Publishing Company. Hardwick, S. W., & Holtgrieve, D. G. (1996). Geography for educators: Standards, themes, and concepts. Prentice Hall. International Rescue Committee. (2022, July 13). Migrants, asylum seekers, refugees, and immigrants: What’s the difference? https://www​.rescue​.org​/article​/migrants​ -asylum​-seekers​-refugees​-and​-immigrants​-whats​-difference Institute for Women’s Policy Research. (n.d.). Spotlight on immigrant women. Status of Women in the United States. https://statusofwomendata​.org​/explore​-the​-data/ Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, F. P. (2017). Joining together: Group theory and group skills (12th ed.). Pearson Education. Lee, E.S. (1966). A theory of migration. Demography, 3(1), 47-57. http://links​.jstor​ .org​/sici​?sici​=0070​-3370​%281966​%293​%3A1​%3C47​%3AATOM​%3E2​.0​.CO​ %3B2-B Martin-Beltrán, M., Montoya-Ávila, A., & García, A. A. (2020). Becoming advocates: Positioning immigrant youth to share, connect, and apply their stories as tools for social change. TESOL J. 2020;11:e567. https://doi​.org​/10​.1002​/tesj​.567 Migration Policy Institute. (n.d.). https://www​.migrationpolicy​.org Minahan, J. (2019). Trauma-informed teaching strategies. Educational Leadership, 77(2), 30-35.

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National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). (2013). College, career and civic life (C3) framework for social studies state standards: Guidelines for enhancing the rigor of K–12 civics, economics, geography, and history. https://www​.socialstudies​ .org​/standards​/c3 Park, C. L., & Blumberg, C. J. (2002). Disclosing trauma through writing: Testing the meaning-making hypothesis. Cognitive Therapy and Research 26(5), 597–616. https://doi​.org​/10​.1023​/A​:1020353109229 Ruurs, M. (2016). Stepping stones: A refugee family’s journey. Orca Book Publishers. Sibley, E. & Brabeck, K. (2017). Latino immigrant students’ school experiences in the United States: The importance of family– school–community collaborations. School Community Journal 27(1), 137-158. Spandel, V. (2013). Creating writers: 6 traits, process, workshop, and literature (6th ed.). Pearson. Swan, K., Lee, J., & Grant, S. G. (2018). Inquiry design model: Building inquiries in social studies. National Council for the Social Studies, 31. Terrasi, S., & de Galarce, P. C. (2017). Trauma and learning in America’s classrooms. Phi Delta Kappan, 98(6), 35–41. Tidmarsh, M. (2014). Push and pull factors of emigration. http://www​.emigration​ .link UN Women. (2016, September 9). Infographic: Migrant domestic workers— Facts everyone should know. https://www​.unwomen​.org​/en​/digital​-library​/multimedia​ /2016​/9​/infographic​-migrant​-domestic​-workers UN Women. (2020, December). How migration is a gender equality issue. https:// interactive​.unwomen​.org​/multimedia​/explainer​/migration​/en​/index​.html University of Minnesota Libraries UMedia. (n.d.). Immigrant stories. https://umedia​.lib​.umn​.edu​/search​?facets​%5Bcollection​_name​_s​%5D​%5B​%5D​=Immigrant​ +Stories Weatherford, D. (1995). Foreign and female: Immigrant women in America, 1840– 1930. Facts on File. Zacarian, D., Avarez-Ortiz, L., & Haynes, J. (2020). Meeting student trauma with an asset-based approach. Educational Leadership, 78(2), 69–73.

Chapter 8

The Notorious R. B. G. Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Her Fight for Equality Rebecca Macon Bidwell and Nefertari Yancie

The 2020 presidential election resulted in the appointment of Kamala Harris to one of the most powerful political positions in America. She is the first woman, African American, and Asian American to be elected vice president of the United States. While her election arguably marks a remarkable step forward in women’s sharing equally in the decision-making processes at the highest level of government, there are still certain spheres that women have yet to completely conquer in the battle for women’s rights issues. Breakthroughs in areas such as the passage of the 19th U.S. Amendment, equal opportunities in education, and sports may give the illusion that gender bias is no longer an issue in America. However, one sphere where women remain disproportionately underrepresented is in U.S. politics, which may be the most important. Women’s full participation in American politics promotes a democracy that fulfills a promise of inclusiveness and equity for all. According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2021), 50.5 percent of the population are women. Given this figure, equal representation is vital to ensure equal attention is given to the issues that uniquely affect women. Issues such as equal pay, reproductive rights, and violence against women are just a few topics where men should not have the dominant voice or power regarding laws that impact the lives of women. The U.S. Congress is the most powerful decisionmaking body in the nation. Yet, women comprise 27.3 percent of its members (Center for American Women and Politics, 2022). This number appears to confirm that women have yet to break the glass ceiling in U.S. politics. This chapter examines the life of Ruth Bader Ginsburg, a political genius and activist. She devoted her life and career to fighting civil and human injustices and made sure the United States was a place where women would have access to the same rights as men. The moniker “Notorious R. B. G.” was given 139

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to her in 2013, a pop culture reference that was meant to draw a comparison between her diminutive stature and her formidable and influential voice (Carmon & Knizhnik, 2015). It has been stated that if she had never donned the robe of a Supreme Court justice, she still would have been one of the greatest advocates for gender equality and fair treatment for women in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries (Cotter, 2020). This chapter includes a brief historical overview of Ginsburg’s personal life and professional career. The authors provide an activity that utilizes the trade book Ruth Objects: The Life of Ruth Bader Ginsburg (Rappaport, 2020) to explore certain enduring public issues, such as equal rights for women. Students are guided to consider the unique challenges women faced in the past and still encounter in the present. Ruth Objects: The Life of Ruth Bader Ginsburg (Rappaport, 2020) provides an opportunity for students to examine how social, political, and cultural factors shaped Ginsburg’s world views, thus understanding how historical figures are complex and multi-layered (Pugh & Garcia, 1994; Yancie & Bidwell, 2019). Focusing on Ruth Bader Ginsburg also emphasizes the need to learn about elected officials at all levels of government as opposed to just focusing on presidential power. Robert A. Caro (2002) argued that Americans tend to view political power only through the power and agency of the American presidency, disregarding legislative and judicial power. Students apply interdisciplinary concepts by exploring issues through civic and historical lenses that show judicial power. Therefore, social studies teachers need to design learning activities to help students grasp judicial power to change and address social injustices. They analyze primary and secondary sources and subsequently use these sources as evidence to draw informed conclusions. These skills align with the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) C3 Framework (NCSS, 2013). The steps and resources needed to implement the activity are provided.

WOMEN IN POLITICS Women in U.S. politics face unique challenges (Stabile et al., 2019; Trucotte & Paul, 2015). This was no more evident than in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, where the Democratic nominee, Hillary Clinton, ran against the Republican nominee, Donald Trump. Hillary Clinton’s campaign marked the first time a woman had ever been chosen by the Democratic Party to represent it in a presidential race. This landmark event did not protect Clinton from misogynist and derisive insults from her contender or his constituents. Donald Trump set out on a campaign that questioned Clinton’s integrity, ethics, and even her health. After suffering through a coughing fit at a Labor Day rally, Trump commented that Clinton was not mentally or physically

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fit to run for the presidency (Allen & Parnes, 2017; Dovere, 2021). Others questioned whether Trump was insinuating that, as a woman, she did not have the same fortitude as a man. Additionally, the leaking of Clinton’s emails from her personal server provided an opportunity for Trump to claim that she was untrustworthy, stating Clinton was attempting to hide government correspondences (Stabile et al., 2019). These accusations were made despite Trump’s own numerous pitfalls that exposed him as a man who did not shy away from making denigrating remarks about women, as was seen when a 2005 interview with Billy Bush on Access Hollywood was leaked during the 2016 campaign. In addition, Trump’s political resume was almost nil when compared to Clinton’s decades-long career in U.S. politics (Allen & Parnes, 2017; Dovere, 2021). Hillary Clinton’s challenges during her 2016 campaign reflect the obstacles women face when entering U.S. politics. Women who run for or hold political positions may find that they have to battle gender stereotypes (Bauer, 2015; Fox & Lawless, 2011; Trucotte & Paul, 2015). Historically, women have been an integral part in the social, cultural, and political shaping of American history. However, women’s achievements in these areas have been viewed as insignificant or marginal because they have often been denied leadership positions (NCSS, 2020; Stabile et al., 2019). In addition, in the greater picture of men’s accomplishments, women’s accomplishments are often seen as peripheral, being relegated to the role of supporters or the “woman behind the man.” Women’s accomplishments are seen as “contributions” and not as having a true presence in the historical and political story (NCSS, 2020). As a consequence, they are often viewed as less serious competitors when compared to men, with their femininity seen as a physical, mental, and/or emotional weakness. Females who enter the political arena may contend with having their accomplishments questioned more than their male peers. However, the most damaging may be having to face gender stereotypes (Bauer, 2015; Trucotte & Paul, 2015). Women are judged if they are too masculine, being perceived as aggressive, bold, and assertive. Yet they are also judged if they are too feminine, seen as compassionate, emotional, and cautious (Stabile et al., 2019). These characteristics may indicate that women are less qualified and unable to handle the hard issues that are endemic to government. Another challenge women face in U.S. politics is the idea that they are a homogeneous group, who are not diverse and varied (Crocco, 2020; Piscopo, 2020). Recognizing the intersection of women’s struggles for equity, race, and social justice deepens the understanding of what it means to be a woman in the political sphere (Tyson & Hinton-Johnson, 2003). With the passing of the 15th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which guaranteed the right to vote for all male citizens regardless of race, women suffragists argued that they were entitled to the same right to participate in the election process as

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those who had been formerly enslaved (Rooney, 2022). Notably, Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton argued that white women should have the right to vote and make laws over the sons of slaves who have never even read, or have the capability to read, the Declaration of Independence (NPR, 2011). The issue of race divided the suffrage movement, as many women felt it was more important to secure enfranchisement for women, rather than fight for racial equality (Poirot, 2010; Rooney, 2022). The separate challenges African American women faced due to their gender and race were largely ignored. Reformers such as Ida B. Wells and Nannie Helen Burroughs tended to focus on civil rights and the importance of African American and White women working together to attain political rights versus enfranchisement for a particular group. In contrast, the National American Woman Suffrage Association prevented African American women from attending conventions. White women were seen as the face of the suffrage movement, and the contributions of African American women were mostly discounted (Bailey, 2022). After the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920, women were granted the right to vote; however, African American women were still subjected to disenfranchisement as many states passed laws that enacted restrictions such as poll taxes, land requirements, and literacy tests (Bailey, 2022; NCSS, 2020). The complexities of the suffrage movement are still evident today. Geography, race, socioeconomics, culture, and political party affiliations influence the issues that women across the United States deem important (Crocco, 2020). An upper-middle-class African American woman living in New York City may have a different political agenda than a White woman who lives in a small rural town in Wyoming. Yet, there are certain issues that are the great equalizer, such as poverty, that may drive women of different races and economic status to vote for the same policies and laws. Therefore, women are heterogenous; they do not think or vote the same. Representation in local and national government should reflect the diversity in women’s social, economic, and political beliefs (Crocco, 2020). There is a need for more women to be involved in American politics to ensure a more equal representation in government and that a wider range of policies are considered and enacted. There are women today who represent the diversity needed in U.S. politics. They serve as models for leadership in politics and actively advocate for women and human rights. These women have emerged onto the political scene and possess abilities and accomplishments that cannot be denied and are therefore unable to be ignored. Their understanding and knowledge are of such magnitude that they cannot be pushed into the figurative no man’s land of politics. These women’s stories teach about adversity and what it means to overcome barriers and injustices (Tyson & Hinton-Johnson, 2003). One such woman is Dolores C. Huerta, a labor activist and prominent member of the Chicano civil rights movement. Huerta has lobbied for legislation to improve

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the working and living conditions for agricultural workers and challenge gender discrimination in the farmer workers’ movement (Michals, 2015). Another woman who has emerged as a political force in the twenty-first century is Rashida Tlaib, the first Muslim woman elected to the Michigan legislature and one of the first two Muslim women to serve in the U.S. Congress. She fights to stop corporate companies from taking advantage of marginal neighborhoods and holds them accountable for pollution and unethical practices that are detrimental to the success of these communities. The accomplishments of Dolores Huerta, Rashida Tlaib, and many other women in politics send the message, especially to young girls, that their own future possibilities are limitless and that despite gender, race, or class, they are able to participate fully in all aspects of American society (Biography, 2021). Ruth Bader Ginsburg is the ultimate example of a trailblazer in the U.S. political and judicial realms. As a lawyer, an advocate, and a Justice on the Supreme Court, she fought against sexism and used the law to ensure that all people, no matter their gender, would enjoy full equality as promised in the U.S. Constitution. The next section provides a brief overview about the life of Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg.

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF RUTH BADER GINSBURG Ruth Bader Ginsburg was a champion for gender equality. First as a lawyer and later as a U.S. Supreme Court Justice, she helped to alter how the courts evaluated cases involving gender discrimination (Ginsburg, 1979; Olney, 2000-–2001; Smiler, 1998). Her strategy of changing how the U.S. Supreme Court viewed gender discrimination cases helped connect such cases to the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution (Ginsburg, 1979, 2013; Kay, 2004; Olney, 2000–2001; Smiler, 1998). Ginsburg attributed her successes in life to her mother, describing her as the most intelligent person she had ever known (Carmon & Knizhnik, 2015; Ginsburg, 2016; Olney, 2000–2001). Celia Amster Bader missed her opportunity for college because her parents paid only for their eldest son to attend college. Ginsburg sensed her mother’s intense disappointment in not attending college. For this reason, Celia made sure that her daughter would have the college education she was denied (Carmon & Knizhnik, 2015). Inspired by her mother’s determination and persistence, Ginsburg graduated from Cornell University in June 1954. A few days later, she married Marty Ginsburg, who served in the ROTC while at Cornell. After the two were married, Marty was stationed at Fort Sill in Oklahoma. While Ginsburg was there, she took a job at the social security office (Kay, 2004). After innocently mentioning that she was three months pregnant, Ruth was reassigned to a lesser paying

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job because it was assumed a pregnant woman could not attend the required training. Ginsburg entered Harvard Law School in 1956 and was one of only nine women out of a class of 552 students (Ginsburg, 2013). When Ginsburg’s husband accepted a job at a New York law firm, the Dean of Harvard Law School denied her request to finish her last year of law school at Columbia Law School in satisfaction of her Harvard law degree. Similar requests made by male students were frequently granted (Kay, 2004; Olney, 2000–2001). Ginsburg decided to transfer to Columbia to finish her law degree without the Harvard endorsement. When the Dean of Harvard Law School later offered her a degree from Harvard and asked if she would renunciate her Columbia law degree, she reportedly answered, “I hold only one earned law degree. It is from Columbia. I treasure it and will have no other” (Kay, 2004, p. 9). Ginsburg graduated tied for first place in her class from Columbia Law School. Despite her overwhelming success, no law firm offered her a position, and clerkships were scarce. Ginsburg used to jest that she had three strikes against her: she was a woman, Jewish, and a mother (Carmon & Knizhnik, 2015; Ginsburg, 2016). Edmund Palmieri, judge for the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York, was persuaded by one of Ginsburg’s Columbia professors to offer her a clerkship in his office (Carmon & Knizhnik, 2015). After two successful years clerking for Judge Palmieri, Ginsburg received several offers from different law firms. However, she decided to accept an assistant professorship at Rutgers Law School (Carmon & Knizhnik, 2015; Kay, 2004; Olney, 2000–2001). While at Rutgers, Ginsburg worked with the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). She became the co-founder of the ACLU’s Women’s Rights Project (WRP) (Ginsburg, 2016; Kay, 2004). Ginsburg looked for gender discrimination cases meriting Supreme Court review and prepared briefs and arguments supporting them. She specifically looked for cases in which gender was clearly the basis for the ruling but had nothing to do with facts of the case (Ginsburg, 1979, 2016). While working with the ACLU, Ginsburg developed a plan she hoped would change how the Supreme Court scrutinized gender equality cases (Ginsburg, 1979, 2016; Olney, 2000–2001; Smiler, 1998). She wanted the Supreme Court to shift from using a policy called rational judicial scrutiny. This policy was based on historical and inaccurate stereotypes promoted by paternalistic views of women. Ginsburg supported strict judicial scrutiny, which would call for applying the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment to gender equality cases (Ginsburg, 1979, 2016; Kay, 2004; Olney, 2000−2001; Smiler, 1998). Ginsburg argued several cases before the Supreme Court utilizing the concept of judicial scrutiny. Such cases included Frontiero v. Richardson (1973), where U.S. Air Force Lieutenant Frontiero requested a supplemental

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housing allowance and medical benefits for her husband. However, the Air Force required her to prove that she provided over half of the support for her husband, a stipulation which men were not required to meet. Ginsburg proposed that such policies providing deferential treatment to males were clear violations of the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment. The Supreme Court agreed and ruled that gender-specific rules about dependency were unconstitutional (Ginsburg, 2016; Olney, 2000–2001; Smiler, 1998). Additionally, in Weinberger v. Wiesenfeld (1975), a widower was denied social security benefits after his wife died during childbirth. Weinberger was only allowed survivor’s benefits for his children, not himself, the argument being that a man could better provide for himself than a woman could in the event of a spouse’s death. Ginsburg used statistics about women in the workforce and sociological evidence to challenge the stereotypes at the heart of the social security policy. The Supreme Court ruled in Ginsburg’s favor (Carmon & Knizhnik, 2015). Ginsburg’s successes and devotion to equality earned her a position as the first tenured female law professor at Columbia. She also served as general counsel for the ACLU, director of the WRP, and earned a reputation as the foremost legal expert on gender equality in the United States (Kay, 2004; Rappaport, 2020). That reputation resulted in President Jimmy Carter appointing her to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Washington D.C. district, and thirteen years later an appointment to the Supreme Court by President Bill Clinton in 1993 (Carmon & Knizhnik, 2015; Ginsburg, 2016). Justice Ginsburg was only the second woman and the first Jewish woman appointed to the Supreme Court. She had been a Supreme Court Justice for only three years when she heard a case against the Virginia Military Institute (VMI). VMI was an all-male military university that promoted the development of civic leaders with military training. Attorneys for Virginia argued that if women were enrolled at VMI, it would destroy the VMI program. The Supreme Court struck down Virginia’s argument. In her opinion, Ginsburg stated that Virginia’s remedial plan of offering women alternative education at the Virginia Women’s Institute for Leadership failed to show “exceedingly persuasive justification” (U.S. v. Virginia, 1996, p. 524). In other words, there was no convincing reason for barring women from inclusion due to their gender. The ruling clarified that “all gender-based classification today warrants heightened scrutiny” (U.S. v. Virginia, 1996, p. 555). The heightened scrutiny classification became the equivalent of strict judicial scrutiny. Justice Ginsburg saw the culmination of her career’s work to have the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment applied to gender equality cases (Carmon & Knizhnik, 2015; Ginsburg, 2016; Smiler, 1998). Justice Ginsburg served on the Supreme Court for twenty-seven years. Ginsburg made her mark by fighting injustice based on gender. She found

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a way to change how U.S. courts viewed gender cases, ending the centuries long system of deferential treatment of women (Carmon & Knizhnik, 2015; Olney, 2000–2001; Smiler, 1998). Ginsburg passed away on September 18, 2020, leaving as her legacy a reputation for fairness and impartiality in terms of the law.

USING TRADE BOOKS TO TEACH ABOUT RUTH BADER GINSBURG Trade books are useful in many different ways. They can be used to offer more in-depth and meaningful study of influential women in history and other under-represented groups in history (Chick, 2008; Whitford, 2020). In comparison to history textbooks, the structure and coherence of trade books make them more user-friendly, more suitable for struggling readers who are older, and more engaging. This makes the content more meaningful for students (Ackerman et al., 2013; Bickford, 2013; Bickford & Rich, 2017; Brophy & Alleman, 2008; Chick, 2008; Liang, 2002; Palmer & Stewart, 1997; Richgels et al., 1993). The trade book Ruth Objects: The Life of Ruth Bader Ginsburg (Rappaport, 2020) is an excellent example of providing a more nuanced understanding about her life and legacy. Activities like the one in this chapter help students see that women played a more active role in U.S. history and were more powerful than the stories typically told in history textbooks. Using trade books focused on important women in history helps challenge ideas that historical women were passive and submissive and helps change these stereotypical perceptions (Koenig, 2018; Whitford, 2020). In this activity, students compare sources from different periods in Justice Ginsburg’s career concerning the groundbreaking U.S. v. Virginia (1996) Supreme Court case. They annotate, analyze, and compare the different sources. Once students have completed annotating and analyzing the primary and secondary sources, they complete a graphic organizer that includes questions about each text. The final step is an extension activity where students write a faux opinion in the voice of Ruth Bader Ginsburg on whether women should be included in the U.S. draft. Each of these steps are discussed in detail in the following sections. To introduce students to Justice Ginsburg, her life, and career, students read an excerpt from Ruth Objects: The Life of Ruth Bader Ginsburg (Rappaport, 2020). Students enjoy reading trade books because they are usually more interesting than history books and are more engaging (Bickford & Shuette, 2016; Palmer & Stewart, 1997). The teacher separates the class into pairs and provides each one with a copy of the excerpt. The lower readability

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level and rich illustrations typically found in trade books help struggling readers (Berkeley et al., 2016; Chick, 2008; Richgels et al., 1993; Tracy, 2003). While reading the text, the teacher monitors the class, ensuring students are staying on task. Once students are finished reading, the teacher brings the class together to discuss the trade book and answer any questions students may have about Justice Ginsburg and the VMI case. Discussion prompts serve to shine a light on students’ own perceptions and encourage them to analyze the role of classroom materials in shaping those perceptions (Whitford, 2020). For instance, the teacher could ask students to explain Justice Ginsburg’s quote, “It is not women’s liberation; it is women’s and men’s liberation” (Rappaport, 2020, p. 23). Another guiding question prompts students to decide whether they agree with Justice Ginsburg’s verdict in the VMI case. A question about how the information from the trade book compares to the textbook can elicit comments from students when they notice the lack of detail about her. Focusing on Ginsburg’s perspectives and views about men’s and women’s rights in the context of the historical time period helps students become more knowledgeable about lesser-known historical figures (Palmer & Stewart, 1997; Shelton et al., 2020). Additionally, analyzing the perspectives of historical figures like Ginsburg has the potential to help students see the world from different viewpoints (Liang, 2002; Saul & Dieckman, 2005). After students have read the trade book, they compare three primary sources to develop a deeper understanding of Ginsburg as both a lawyer and a judge. (The three primary sources are described in the next section.) According to NCSS (2016), social studies instruction is more effective when the lessons have students use disciplinary thinking, information gathering, and analysis (Levstick & Barton, 2015; VanSledright, 2011; Wineburg, 2001; Wineburg et al., 2013). The analysis of primary sources and use of textual evidence to support conclusions reflect the C3 Framework published by NCSS (2013). These skills are essential for preparing students to be effective participants in democratic societies (Barr et al., 1977; Clabough, 2017, 2018; Engle, 1960; Engle & Ochoa, 1988; Nokes, 2013). Primary Sources in the Activity The first is a quote from the trade book Ruth Objects (Rappaport, 2020) that focuses on the background and ruling in the U.S. v Virginia (1996) case, also known as the VMI case. The excerpt includes primary sources, such as the following quote from Justice Ginsburg “If women are to be leaders in life and in the military, men have got to become accustomed to taking commands from women, and men won’t become accustomed to that if women aren’t let in” (Rappaport, 2020, p. 29). Quotes such as these provide insight into Justice Ginsburg’s thinking and perspective.

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The second text is a primary source that comes from remarks made by Justice Ginsburg (2002) at the 75th Commemoration of Women Enrolling at Columbia Law School. This primary source shows how Ginsburg’s thinking about the VMI case has evolved in the eight years since the ruling. The text may be accessed at https://www​.jstor​.org​/stable​/1123788. The third text is the Supreme Court’s VMI ruling and the opinion, which was written by Justice Ginsburg. In her opinion, she responded to each of the arguments presented by the state of Virginia. Justice Ginsburg provided precedents that laid the groundwork for having gender equality cases judged with the same scrutiny as other special categories like race and ethnicity (Ginsburg, 1979; 2016). Students use this resource to establish the timeline of court cases related to gender equality. The primary source may be accessed at https://supreme​.justia​.com​/cases​/federal​/us​/518​/515/. These sources give voice to an important female figure in the political history of the United States, and they show how the VMI court case has been interpreted over time. Students annotate the primary source excerpted from the majority opinion from the VMI case. Annotating text is a method of marking up text to make the information more manageable. It is also a method for engaging students with the text (Fisher & Frey, 2014; Zywica & Gomez, 2008). The process for annotating the text includes two steps. The first step is to identify words that students do not know. With technical readings like court opinions, it is important to help students make connections to the text. Unfamiliar vocabulary words are one of the reasons why students disconnect with social studies (Levstik & Barton, 2015). Students may define the words in the margin, or the teacher could provide images or artifacts demonstrating difficult vocabulary. Both strategies improve comprehension and understanding of complex texts (Fisher & Frey, 2014; Levstik & Barton, 2015; Zywica & Gomez, 2008). In the next step, students conduct a close reading of the texts. The close reading activity helps struggling readers better understand the texts (Fisher & Frey, 2014). In close reading, they read through the text once, and then on the second reading, they interrogate the resource by asking questions about the sources used, by interpreting what they think the author meant, the date the source was published, and analyzing how the text is structured (Hinchman & Moore, 2013). Close reading helps students process text in manageable pieces and delve more deeply into the text. (Fisher & Frey, 2012, 2014). Text dependent questions cause students to use evidence from the texts to support their answers to the questions. 1. How did Ruth’s experiences in law school and work influence her work as a lawyer and justice on the Supreme Court? Use evidence from sources examined to support your arguments.

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2. How did Justice Ginsburg view the law? Use evidence from sources examined to support your arguments. 3. How does Ruth’s actions in response to her husband’s cancer and the firing of housekeepers at Columbia University reflect her character? Use evidence from sources examined to support your arguments. These questions help students analyze the information from the trade book and help them reach a conclusion and support it with evidence (Fisher & Frey, 2014). Students write their answers to the questions in the margins of the text. The process is repeated as they read the text again, looking for perspective, bias, and purpose. Engaging in close reading helps students better understand the nuances of the judicial opinion and helps them reach conclusions about the text and its meaning (Boyles, 2016). In this case, it helps them to create a timeline using the precedents cited in the opinion. Once students have finished annotating the texts, they complete a graphic organizer (see appendix I, table I.1). The purpose of the graphic organizer is to help students structure their ideas from the text. The graphic organizer includes questions such as 1. What do you think is the main idea of the text? Provide text evidence to support your answer. 2. What are text-to-text connections you can make among the texts? In other words, what is alike/different, or what other texts does it remind you of? 3. What social changes took place that prompted changes to the law? 4. Based on the texts, how would you have ruled? Provide text evidence to support your answer. 5. How did Justice Ginsburg change the standard for scrutiny in gender equality cases? Use evidence from sources examined to support your arguments. Graphic organizers help teach students how to organize the information they have collected and interpreted. They are also excellent for drawing students’ attention to important themes that develop from the information in the trade book (Levstik & Barton, 2015). In this instance, Ginsburg’s actions played an important role in the women’s rights movement. When students complete their graphic organizers, the teacher conducts a debriefing session where they share their ideas. Discussions as part of the debriefing help to gauge students’ understanding of the texts. Hess (2009) argues that discussing students’ understandings of the evidence can be crucial. To encourage these discussions, the teacher should ask guiding questions that help students to extend their thinking. Examples of guiding questions are:

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“How did the VMI case possibly impact women’s issues that are still prevalent today?” “In your opinion, how does this case speak to Justice Ginsburg’s legacy regarding women’s rights issues?” and “Do you think the courts still use Justice Ginsburg strict judicial standard when ruling on cases concerning gender bias? Explain your reasoning.” Such questions provide students with the opportunity to consider how certain issues are enduring and have an impact on contemporary society (NCSS, 2013). Providing students with an extension activity heightens engagement with the content and makes the topic more meaningful. Shanahan and Shanahan (2008) argued that using trade books was an engaging way to teach disciplinary literacy skills. Clabough and colleagues (2016) explained that writing is thinking made permanent. Writing is a way of organizing our thoughts into meaningful conclusions. Short writing assignments like the one described next help struggling writers feel like they have something to offer. They also help build students’ confidence (Clabough et al., 2017; Schur, 2020). A writing activity that extends students’ thinking and learning about Justice Ginsburg asks students to use the information from the analysis of the texts and graphic organizer to respond to a writing prompt. The writing prompt asks students to take the perspective of Justice Ginsburg and write a fictional opinion on a court case deciding whether women should register for the draft. The prompt for the opinion is below: Pretend that you are Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg. You and the other Justices are hearing a case brought before the Supreme Court about whether women should be required to register for the draft. Currently, women are not required to register, but it has been argued that this violates the U.S. Constitution because it shows gender bias. Your vote is going to break a 4 to 4 vote, declaring the motion unconstitutional or not. Write an opinion explaining your decision and justifying your reasoning. Give at least three reasons to support your decision, using the texts from the activity as your supporting evidence. Remember to write in first person, using pronouns, such as I, me, us, and we.

The writing activity allows students to synthesize their understanding (Clabough et al., 2016) of Justice Ginsburg’s view on gender equality. It also requires them to support their thinking with textual evidence and to draw informed conclusions based on evidence, which are important skills promoted in the C3 Framework (Clabough et al., 2016; Clabough et al., 2017; MonteSano & Harris, 2012; NCSS, 2013). Furthermore, analytic writing activities like this one help students learn more content while helping them to refine and clarify their understanding through writing (Monte−Sano et al., 2014). Finally, discussing and writing about Ruth Bader Ginsburg’s judicial activism helps fulfill the aims of the C3 Framework. The C3 Framework promotes

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the idea that students should learn the skills to become active citizens in our democracy, which has been part of the decades-long battle over what to teach children in social studies (Evans, 2004; NCSS, 2013, 2016). Talking about Ginsburg’s experiences with discrimination can lead to discussion of students’ own experiences with discrimination. These discussions help students clarify their own understanding of the public issues, but they also help solidify their understanding of content (Hess, 2009; Hess & McAvoy, 2015; Journell, 2013, 2016; McAvoy, 2016; Ochoa-Becker, 1996; Oliver & Newmann, 1992; Oliver & Shaver, 1966). Students can examine Ginsburg’s judicial activism and be inspired to take civic action themselves (Bickford & Clabough, 2019; Clabough et al., 2017; Kahne & Sporte, 2008; Levy, 2018; Parker, 2015). The writing activity requires students to examine how Ruth Bader Ginsburg fought for women’s rights through judicial action and write their own conclusion in the form of an opinion written on whether women should be required to register for the draft.

CONCLUSION Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg was an influential female leader in U.S. politics. Inspired by her law students at Rutgers and Columbia Schools of Law, she became the preeminent leader for gender equality. Her death in 2020 highlighted the lack of females in male-dominated institutions like the Supreme Court. The need for more female representation in civics and politics has never been greater. Female participation in the most powerful decision-making body in the U.S. Congress is 27.3 percent despite women comprising 50.5 percent of the U.S. population (Center for American Women and Politics, 2022; U.S. Census Bureau, 2021). The appointment of Ketanji Brown Jackson to the Supreme Court demonstrates the slow process of increasing female participation in civics and politics. While she represents the groundbreaking appointment as the first female African American justice, she is still only the fifth woman appointed to the Supreme Court. Activities like the one presented in this chapter are an important part of social studies instruction. These activities cast a spotlight on history-making women while developing important critical and disciplinary thinking skills. Lessons like the one described in this chapter help social studies teachers incorporate skills that align with the C3 Framework while also connecting to issues relevant to the topic of the lesson (NCSS, 2013). Not only does the in-depth analysis of primary sources make the learning more meaningful for students, but the activity also uses topics that are relevant to their lives and interests (NCSS, 2016). The focus on Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg allows students to see the important role that women have played throughout U.S.

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history, particularly in politics. Without activities like this one, teachers continue to misrepresent the power held by individuals at all levels of government. Thematic instruction focusing on the power wielded by women in other branches of government and at the state and local levels helps change the misperception that only presidential power matters (Caro, 2002). Thematic teaching helps students associate the actions of women like Ginsburg, look at how those actions have been fueled by issues from previous time periods, and connect them to larger themes over multiple time periods (Chick, 2008; Hubbard, 2019; Metro, 2017). Finally, lessons like the one described in this chapter allow female students to learn about leaders like Justice Ginsburg and how she advocated for change. Young ladies may, in turn, feel empowered to break down barriers of discrimination and continue Ginsburg’s fight for gender equality. REFERENCES Ackerman, A. T., Howson, P. H., & Mulrey, B. C. (2013). Getting the story right: Developing critical analysis skills through children’s literature. Social Studies and the Young Learner, 26(1), 22–28. Allen, J., & Parnes, A. (2017). Shattered: Inside Hillary Clinton’s doomed campaign. Crown Publishing. Bailey, M. (2022, September 13). Between two worlds: Black women and the fight for voting rights. National Park Service. https://www​.nps​.gov​/articles​/black​-women​ -and​-the​-fight​-for​-voting​-rights​.htm Barr, R.D., Barth, J.L., & Shermis, S.S. (1977). Defining the social studies [Bulletin 51]. NCSS. Bauer, N. M. (2015). Emotional, sensitive, and unfit for office? Gender stereotype activation and support for female candidates. Political Psychology, 36(6), 691-708. http://dx​.doi​.org​/10​.1111​/pops​.12186 Berkeley, S., King-Sears, M.E., Vilbas, J., & Conklin, S. (2016). Textbook characteristics that support or thwart comprehension: The current state of social studies texts. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 32(3), 247-272. Bickford, J. H. (2013). Initiating historical thinking in elementary schools. Social Studies Research and Practice, 8(3), 60-77. http://dx​.doi​.org​/10​.1108​/SSRP​-03​ -2013​-B0004 Bickford, J.H., & Clabough, J. (2019). Civic action, historical agency, and grassroots advocacy: Historical inquiry into Freedom Summer. The Social Studies, 111(1), 39-49. Bickford, J.H., & Rich, C.W. (2014). Examining the representation of slavery within children’s literature. Social Studies Research and Practice, 5(1), 66-94. Bickford, J. H., & Rich, C. W. (2017). Using disciplinary literacy to fill the historical gaps in trade books. Social Studies and the Young Learner, 30(2), 8–11.

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Bickford, J.H., & Schuette, L.N. (2016). Trade book’s historical representation of the black freedom movement, slavery through civil rights. Journal of Children’s Literature, 42(1), 20-43. Biography. (2021, April 20). Rashida Tlaib. Biography. Boyles, N. (2016). Closing in on close reading. In M.Scherer (Ed.), EL essentials: On developing readers: Readings from Educational Leadership (pp. 89-99). ASCD. Brophy, J., & Alleman, J. (2008). Early elementary social studies. In L.S. Levstik & C.A. Tyson (Eds.), Handbook of research in social studies education (pp. 33-49). Routledge. Carmon, I., & Knizhnik, S. (2015). Notorious RBG: The life and times of Ruth Bader Ginsburg. HarperCollins. Caro, R.A. (2002). Master of the Senate: The years of Lyndon B. Johnson. Vintage. Center for American Women and Politics. (2022). Women in elective office 2022. Center for American Women and Politics: Eagleton Institute of Politics. https:// cawp​.rutgers​.edu​/facts​/current​-numbers​/women​-elective​-office​-2022 Chick, K.A. (2008). Teaching women’s history through literature: Standards-based lesson plans for grades K-12. NCSS. Clabough, J. (2017). Helping develop students’ civic identities through exploring public issues. The Councilor, 78(2), 1-9. Clabough, J. (2018). Civic literacy: The building blocks for creating an active and informed citizenry. In J. Clabough & T. Lintner (Eds.), No reluctant citizens: Teaching civics in K-12 classrooms (pp. 9-22). Information Age Publishing. Clabough, J., Turner, T., Russell, W., & Waters, S. (2016). Twice told social studies: Unpuzzling history with primary sources. Information Age Publishing. Clabough, J., Turner, T.N., & Carano, K.T. (2017). When the lion roars everyone listens: Scary good middle school social studies. AMLE. Cotter, D. (2020). “Rest in power, notorious RBG.” Human Rights, 46(1), 6-9. Craig v Boren, 429 U.S. 190 (1976). https://supreme​.justia​.com​/cases​/federal​/us​/429​ /190/ Crocco M. S. (2020). Looking back, looking forward: The limitations of past perspectives. Social Education, 84(4), 192-196. Dovere, E. I. (2021). Battle for the soul: Inside the Democrats’ campaigns to defeat Trump. Viking. Engle, S. H. (1960). Decision making: The heart of social studies instruction. Social Education, 24(7), 301-306. Engle, S.H., & Ochoa, A.S. (1988). Education for democratic citizenship: Decision making the social studies. Teachers College Press. Evans, R.W. (2004). The social studies wars: What should we teach the children? Teachers College Press. Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2012). Close reading in elementary schools. The Reading Teacher, 66(3), 179-188. http://dx​.doi​.org​/10​.1002​/TRTR​.01117 Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2014). Close reading as an intervention for struggling middle school readers. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 57(5), 367-376. http://dx​ .doi​.org​/10​.1002​/jaal​.266

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Fox, R. L., & Lawless, J. L. (2011). Gendered perceptions and political candidates: A central barrier to women’s equality in electoral politics. American Journal of Political Science, 55(1), 59-73. Frontiero v. Richardson, 411 U.S. 677 (1973). https://supreme​ .justia​ .com​ /cases​ / federal​/us​/411​/677/ Ginsburg, R. B. (1979). Sexual equality under the fourteenth and equal rights amendments. Washington University Law Quarterly, 161(1), 161-178. Ginsburg, R. B. (2002). Remarks for the celebration of 75 years of women’s enrollment at Columbia Law School October 19, 2002. Columbia Law Review, 102(6), 1441–1448. https://doi​.org​/10​.2307​/1123788 Ginsburg, R. B. (2013). Conversation with Associate Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg. University of Colorado Law Review, 84(4), 909-932. Ginsburg, R. B. (with Hartnett, M. & Williams, W.W.). (2016). My own words. Simon and Schuster. Hess, D.E. (2009). Controversy in the classroom: The democratic power of discussion. Routledge. Hess, D.E. & McAvoy, P. (2015). The political classroom: Evidence and ethics in democratic education. Routledge. Hinchman, K., & Moore, D. (2013). Close reading: A cautionary interpretation. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 56(6), 441-450. Hubbard, J. (2019). Introduction. In J. Hubbard (Ed.), Extending the ground of public confidence: Teaching civil liberties in K-16 social studies education (pp. ix–xvi). Information Age Publishing. Journell, W. (2013). What preservice social studies teachers (don’t) know about politics and current events—and why it matters. Theory & Research in Social Education, 41(3), 316-351. Journell, W. (2016). Teaching social issues in the social studies classroom. In W. Journell (Ed.), Teaching social studies in an era of divisiveness: The challenges of discussing social issues in a non-partisan way (pp. 1-12). Rowman & Littlefield. Kahne, J.E., & Sporte, S.E. (2008). Developing citizens: The impact of civic learning on students’ commitment to civic participation. American Educational Research Journal, 45(3), 738-766. Kay, H. H. (2004). Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Professor of law. Columbia Law Review, 104(1), 2-20. Koenig, A. M. (2018). Comparing prescriptive and descriptive gender stereotypes about children, adults, and the elderly. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(1), 1086. Levstik, L. S., & Barton, K. C. (2015). Doing history: Investigating with children in elementary and middle schools (5th ed.). Routledge. Levy, B.L.M. (2018). Youth developing political efficacy through social learning experiences: Becoming active participants in a supportive model United Nations club. Theory and Research in Education, 46(1), 410-448. Liang, L.A. (2002). On the shelves of the local library: High-interest, easy reading trade books for struggling middle and high school readers. Preventing School Failure, 46(4), 183-188.

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McAvoy, P. (2016). Preparing young adults for polarized America. In W. Journell (Ed.), Teaching social studies in an era of divisiveness: The challenges of discussing social issues in a non-partisan way (pp. 31-46). Rowman & Littlefield. Metro, R. (2017). Teaching U.S. history thematically: Document-based lessons for the secondary classroom. Teachers College Press. Michals, D. (2015). Dolores Huerta. National Women’s History Museum. https:// www​.womenshistory​.org​/education​-resources​/biographies​/dolores​-huerta Monte-Sano, C., & Harris, K. (2012). Recitation and reasoning in novice history teachers’ use of writing. The Elementary School Journal, 113(1), 105-129. Monte-Sano, C., Paz De La, S., & Felton, M. (2014). Reading, thinking, and writing about history: Teaching argument writing to diverse learners in the Common Core classroom, grades 6-12. Teachers College Press. NCSS. (2013). The College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Standards: Guidance for enhancing the rigor of K-12 civics, economics, geography, and history. Author. NCSS. (2016). A vision of powerful teaching and learning in the social studies: Building social understanding and civic efficacy. Social Education, 80(3), 180-182. NCSS. (2020). Supporting curricular promotion and intersectional valuing of women in history and current events. National Council for the Social Studies. https://www​ .socialstudies​.org​/position​-statements​/supporting​-curricular​-promotion​-and​-intersectional​-valuing​-women​-history​-and Nokes, J. (2013). Building students’ historical literacies: Learning to read and reason with historical texts and evidence (1st ed.). Routledge. NPR. (2011, July 13). For Stanton, all women were not created equal. NPR. https:// www​.npr​.org​/2011​/07​/13​/137681070​/for​-stanton​-all​-women​-were​-not​-created​ -equal Ochoa-Becker, A.S. (1996). Building a rationale for issues-centered education. In R.W. Evans & D.W. Saxe (Eds.), Handbook on teaching social issues (pp. 6-13). NCSS. Oliver, D.W., & Newmann, F.M. (1992). Teaching public issues in the secondary school classroom. The Social Studies, 83(3), 100-104. Oliver, D.W., & Shaver, J.P. (1966). Teaching public issues in the high school. Houghton Mifflin Company. Olney, C. (2000-2001). Better bitch than mouse: Ruth Bader Ginsburg, feminism, and VMI. Buffalo Women’s Law Journal, 9(1), 97-168. Palmer, R.G., & Stewart, R.A. (1997). Nonfiction trade books in content area instruction: Realities and potential. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 40(8), 630-641. Parker, W. (2015). Social studies education ec21. In W. Parker (Ed.), Social studies today: Research and practice (pp. 3-13). Routledge. Piscopo, J. M. (2020, October 6). How women vote: Separating myth from reality. Smithsonian Magazine. Reed v Reed, 404 U.S. 71 (1971). https://supreme​.justia​.com​/cases​/federal​/us​/404​ /71/

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Poirot, K. (2010). (Un) making sex, making race: Nineteenth-century liberalism, difference, and the rhetoric of Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 96(2), 185-208. http://dx​.doi​.org​/10​.1080​/00335631003796677 Pugh S. L., & Garcia, J. (1994). Multicultural trade books in the social studies classroom. The Social Studies, 85(2), 62-67. http://dx​.doi​.org​/10​.1080​/00377996​.1994​ .9956277 Rappaport, D. (2020). Ruth objects: The life of Ruth Bader Ginsburg. Disney. Richgels, D.J., Tomlinson, C.M, & Tunnell, M.O. (1993). Comparisons of elementary students’ history textbooks and trade books. Journal of Education Research, 86(3), 161-171. Rooney, S. (2022). The politics of commemorating the woman suffrage movement in New York city: On the women’s rights pioneers monument. Journal of Urban History, 48(2), 265-284. http://dx​.doi​.org​/10​.1177​/0096144220944120 Saul, E.W., & Dieckman, D. (2005). Choosing and using information trade books. Theory and Research into Practice, 40(4), 502-513. Schur, J.B. (2020). Teaching writing in the social studies. NCSS. Shanahan, T., & Shanahan, C. (2008). Teaching disciplinary literacy to adolescents: Rethinking content-area literacy. Harvard Educational Review, 78(1), 40-59. Shelton, A. L., Sheffield, C. C., & Chisholm, J. S. (2020). From image to inference: Three eighth grade students’ meaning making with an informational historythemed graphic novel. Social Studies Teaching and Learning, 1 (1), 18-42. Smiler, S. M. (1998). Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg and the Virginia Military Institute: Culmination of strategic success. Cardozo Women’s Law Journal, 4(2), 541-584. Stabile, B., Grant, A., Purohit, H., & Harris, K. (2019). Sex, lies and stereotypes: Gender implications of fake news for women in politics. Public Integrity, 21(5), 491-502. http://dx​.doi​.org​/10​.1080​/10999922​.2019​.1626695 Tracy, J. (2003). Racing through history. Journal of Education, 184(2), 63-68. Trucotte, J., & Paul, N. (2015). A case of more is less: The role of gender in the U.S. presidential debates. Political Research Quarterly, 68(4), 773-784. http://dx​.doi​ .org​/10​.1177​/1065912915605581 Tyson, C. A., & Hinton-Johnson, K. (2003). Once upon a time: Teaching about women and social justice through literature. Social Education, 67(1), 54-57. U.S. Census Bureau. (2021). Quick facts: United States. https://www​.census​.gov​/ quickfacts​/fact​/table​/US​/LFE046221 United States v Virginia, 518 US 515 (1996). https://www​.oyez​.org​/cases​/1995​/94​ -1941 Vansledright, B.A. (2011). The challenge of rethinking history education: On practices, theories, and policy. Routledge. Weinberger v Wiesenfeld, 420 US 636 (1975). https://supreme​.justia​.com​/cases​/federal​/us​/420​/636/ Whitford, A. (2020). “I can’t believe a girl did that!”: An introductory lesson for teaching women’s history. Iowa Journal for the Social Studies, 28(2), 64-88. Wineburg, S. (2001). Historical thinking and other unnatural acts: Charting the future of teaching the past. Temple University Press.

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Wineburg, S., Martin, D., & Monte-Sano, C. (2013). Reading like a historian: Teaching literacy in middle and high school history classrooms. Teachers College Press. Yancie, N., & Bidwell, R. M. (2019). Revealing hidden figures in social studies: Using trade books to teach women’s contributions throughout history. Teaching Social Studies, 19(1), 128-135. Zywica, J., & Gomez, K. (2008). Annotating to support learning in the content areas: Teaching and learning science. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 52(2), 155-165.

Chapter 9

Future Directions for Thematic Teaching of Women’s Rights Issues Jeremiah Clabough and Natalie Keefer

In this chapter, we build on items from this edited volume in two ways. First, we model how elementary and middle school social studies teachers can make thematic connections in their classrooms. Specifically, three activities are given to demonstrate how to make thematic connections among the historical figures that chapter authors in this edited volume focused on to teach women’s rights issues. For each activity, we discuss how to help students make thematic connections between two women. Second, there was no way to discuss all the pertinent public and private issues in U.S. history connected to women’s rights in one edited volume. Furthermore, women’s rights concerns are not confined within the borders of the United States. Women’s rights issues are global concerns. Therefore, in this chapter, we also discuss additional topics that could be used to thematically teach women’s rights issues domestically and from a global perspective. These topics, including gender-based violence, women’s health and reproductive rights, and women’s education, are connected to select trade books and aligned with the UN Sustainable Development Goals. CLASSROOM STRATEGIES FOR MAKING THEMATIC CONNECTIONS Some of the chapter authors in this edited volume gave specific classroom activities to make thematic connections with other individuals who advocated for the same or related issues in their respective chapters. We wanted to provide elementary and middle school teachers with classroom activities to help their students make thematic connections among people who took civic action about women’s rights issues discussed in this edited volume. In the 159

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next section, we give three classroom strategies that could help elementary and middle school social studies teachers design learning experiences to help their students make thematic connections. Helping Students to Make Thematic Connections with Questioning Techniques Given that thematic teaching is not prevalent in social studies education, the odds are most elementary and middle school students have had little to no exposure with this type of classroom instruction. Therefore, the social studies teacher needs to begin by modeling for students how to make thematic connections between two historical figures being studied. It would make sense to select two historical figures around a central topic where students can easily make thematic connections. For example, the teacher could pair Dr. Mabel Ping-Hua Lee and Ida B. Wells to explore how two different people both advocated for women’s suffrage but were not fully accepted into this movement. The social studies teacher could read both trade books about Dr. Mabel Ping-Hua Lee and Ida B. Wells referenced in Drs. Zhao and Whitford’s respective chapters. After the teacher implements some of the activities discussed in Drs. Zhao and Whitford’s chapters, students can discuss similarities and differences between Dr. Mabel Ping-Hua Lee and Ida B. Wells. The teacher needs to design targeted analysis prompts to help students make connections between these two women and guide a class discussion about these questions. Some potential analysis prompts that could be utilized are provided below. 1. What public issues do Dr. Mabel Ping-Hua Lee and Ida B. Wells both argue for? What evidence from sources examined can be used to support your claims? 2. What common reasons do Dr. Mabel Ping-Hua Lee and Ida B. Wells both have in advocating for a specific public issue? What evidence from sources examined can be used to support your claims? 3. How were Dr. Mabel Ping-Hua Lee and Ida B. Wells’s experiences similar and different in arguing for a certain public issue? What evidence from sources examined can be used to support your claims? 4. How did Dr. Mabel Ping-Hua Lee and Ida B. Wells both take civic action to advocate for a certain public issue? What evidence from sources examined can be used to support your claims? 5. How did Dr. Mabel Ping-Hua Lee and Ida B. Wells both impact women’s rights issues at the beginning of the twentieth century? What evidence from sources examined can be used to support your claims?

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These analysis prompts help students draw connections between two historical figures studied to explore women’s rights issues. Social studies teachers cannot assume students can make these connections without their help. After all, historical thinking is an unnatural act for K-12 students (Wineburg, 2001). Students can see how Dr. Mabel Ping-Hua Lee and Ida B. Wells both advocated for women’s suffrage and took civic action in similar and different ways for this cause. One commonality that we included in the analysis prompts above is that all of the questions ask students to use evidence from sources examined to support their claims. To strengthen students’ disciplinary thinking skills in the manner argued for in the indicators of the C3 Framework (NCSS, 2013), they need to make evidence-based arguments. Evidence-based arguments reflect the skills employed by social scientists. Social studies teachers need to design classroom activities that allow their students to replicate these same kinds of thinking processes (Hubbard, 2019; Journell et al., 2015; Nokes, 2013). These kinds of classroom activities engage students on a deeper level and equip them with the ability to make arguments with evidence that they will utilize as future democratic citizens to support or oppose public policy initiatives (Levinson & Levine, 2013; NCSS, 2013; Swan & Griffin, 2013; VanSledright, 2013). Making Comparisons with Janus Figures Social studies teachers need to design classroom activities to capture students’ content knowledge about historical figures in order to make thematic connections between two people. Once students have captured this information, they can read their answers about two people and grasp similarities in public issues that both advocated for in U.S. society. One ideal activity to accomplish this goal that can be used is the Janus Figure Activity. The Janus Figure Activity allows students to split a person into two parts to color and add details with two different historical figures. The teacher can tailor information that students record about each historical figure with specific analysis prompts, which sets up students to make comparisons between two people. There are several free Janus Figures templates that elementary and middle school teachers can use online. Click on the following link for one free template https://soc​ials​tudi​estoolbox​.pbworks​.com​/w​/page​/108682768​/Janus. In addition to adding images on each side for two selected historical figures, the teacher can add three to four analysis prompts for students to answer. The analysis prompts should be the same for both historical figures. These common questions help students to make connections between two individuals by grasping shared goals and public policies that both advocate for in U.S. society. The Janus Figure activity appeals to students with different learning styles and gives them numerous ways through words and images to convey content information (Sheffield & Clabough, 2022).

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In regards to women’s rights issues with the historical figures examined in this edited volume, the Janus Figure Activity could be used with numerous combinations of women. Two historical figures that could be used with the Janus Figure Activity are Ida B. Wells and Nelly Bly. The teacher could ask the three analysis prompts provided below on each side of the Janus Figure template. 1. What challenges did she face as a teenager? Use evidence from sources examined to support your arguments. 2. How did she use the written word to argue for certain public policies? Use evidence from sources examined to support your arguments. 3. How did she challenge barriers women faced in U.S. society? Use evidence from sources examined to support your arguments. The three analysis prompts above help students to make thematic connections between Nelly Bly and Ida B. Wells. Specifically, students can grasp how Wells and Bly both used the power of the pen through newspapers to strongly advocate for public issues in their respective communities. Their advocacies were designed to shine a light on social injustices in U.S. society and point out the contradictions of such issues existing in a democratic country that is supposed to honor, value, and respect the rights of the individual (Sdunzik & Johnson, 2020). The third analysis prompt helps students to see how both Wells and Bly pushed beyond existing gender roles and norms within U.S. society that many expected from women at the end of the nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth century (Mueller, 2017). After students complete the Janus Figure Activity with Nelly Bly and Ida B. Wells, there should be a class gallery walk. The gallery walk allows the teacher to add movement to the class by having students circulate the classroom to see their peers’ Janus Figures Activities. Students are also able to learn from their peers through viewing information on the Janus Figures Activities during the gallery walk. After the gallery walk, the teacher should guide a class discussion where students share their findings from the Janus Figure Activity. The class discussion helps students cement their connections between Ida B. Wells and Nelly Bly using similar questions, as can be seen in the first activity above. Like the first activity, the Janus Figure template can be used with many combinations of women to make thematic connections. The key is to select two women that students can make connections between through shared lived experiences, beliefs, and civic actions taken (Clabough, 2021). The analysis prompts asked on the Janus Figure Activity will be different than those provided above based on the types of thematic connections that the teacher wants students to make between two historical figures.

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Role Playing and Thematic Teaching Role-playing activities have been advocated for in social studies education over the last half century (Lo, 2018; Shaftel & Shaftel, 1982). Role-playing activities allow students to assume the role of historical figures and articulate individuals’ values, biases, and beliefs about various issues, events, and topics (Cole, 2014; Wright-Maley, 2019). There are a variety of ways that roleplaying activities can be connected to thematic teaching. In our activity, we model one way that writing activities in conjunction with a discussion panel can be used to do thematic teaching with women’s rights issues. First, we encourage elementary and middle school social studies teachers to have their students complete two perspective writing activities with two women. Writing activities allow students to organize their information, draw on sources examined to shape their claims, and communicate content knowledge about historical figures, events, and issues (Clabough et al., 2017; Monte-Sano, 2012). Our two selected women for this activity will be from those discussed by chapter authors in this edited volume: Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Rachel Carson. After completing the activities about Rachel Carson mentioned in Dr. Denney’s chapter, students assume the role of Carson and write a blog arguing public issues that she advocated for and challenges she faced doing so in U.S. society. The length of the blog can be adjusted based on students’ writing proficiency, but an ideal length would be about a half page. The same processes are replicated for Ruth Bader Ginsburg after completing the steps of the activity discussed in Drs. Bidwell and Yancie’s chapter. Students assume the role of Ruth Bader Ginsburg and write a blog arguing public issues that she advocated for and challenges she faced doing so in U.S. society. This writing activity enables students to think about how historical figures would frame issues that they fought for and contextualize the challenges they faced while taking civic action (Bickford & Clabough, 2020; Clabough et al., 2017). After students complete both historical blogs, the social studies teacher can implement a variety of role-playing activities. One activity we would urge the teacher to use is for students to do a discussion panel on women’s rights issues in groups of three. Students are usually familiar with discussion panels through different pop culture mediums, such as selecting winners for sporting events like College Game Day for NCAA Football and through San Diego Comic Con, where a panel of actors talk about their upcoming movie. The discussion panel activity allows students to assume the role of historical figures and articulate these individuals’ different voices and perspectives about connected issues (Turner, 2004). With our discussion panel activity, one student assumes the role of Rachel Carson; another assumes the role of Ruth Bader Ginsburg; and the third

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student acts as the moderator. The two students assuming the roles of Ginsburg and Carson will make arguments drawing on the information in the two historical blogs. The moderator will ask questions to both Ginsburg and Carson as well as follow-up questions based on their responses. The groups of three will need to use their blogs and design some questions to ask before performing their group panel discussion. The questions should be connected to the two prompts given for the historical blog assignments and allow students to communicate the public issues that both women grappled with as well as societal challenges faced due to their advocacies. After students write their questions to use, each group performs their discussion panel in class. The group’s peers will serve as audience members to ask additional questions at the end; the teacher can also ask additional questions to help students better unpack their arguments. Each group should perform the discussion panel activity. The teacher can adjust the length of the discussion panel based on time constraints. The discussion panel activity allows students to learn from their peers. Students can consider and attempt to articulate, by assuming the roles of Carson and Ginsburg, how both would respond to certain questions. This aspect of the role-playing activity helps students consider the two historical figures’ perspectives, values, biases, and beliefs (Turner, 2004; Wright-Maley, 2019). Questions posed by the moderator help students to make connections about shared experiences that Carson and Ginsburg faced because they were both making arguments as women to address public issues and faced societal pushback for doing so. Other Women’s Rights Issues to Explore The chapters in our edited collection explored some women’s rights issues with trade books, and there are other issues connected to women’s rights to explore, both nationally and transnationally. In chapter one, Natalie Keefer and Tori K. Flint utilize the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals to identify and clarify women’s rights issues. Going further, they offer a critique of how these goals may fail to adequately recognize and confront the legacy of colonialism and its oppressive impact on women. The UN Sustainable Development Goals are not perfect. Regardless, they allow social studies teachers and students to recognize contemporary women’s issues that most national governments have acknowledged and are attempting to remedy. Although all seventeen of the UN Sustainable Development Goals affect women, Sustainable Development Goal 5 explicitly calls to “achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.” Regrettably, this goal is not projected to be met by the target date of 2030 (United Nations, n.d.). The UN Women’s (2022a) report Progress on the Sustainable Development Goals: The Gender Snapshot highlights ways in which women and

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girls are disproportionately disenfranchised. The UN report cited a plethora of indicators on poverty and hunger, health and wellbeing, education, access to water and affordable clean energy, work and financial growth, industry, innovation, and safe, sustainable living to paint a bleak picture of the state of gender equality today, and in the future should trends persist. As with many topics on a global scale, these indicators are interrelated and interdependent. Although addressing all sustainable development goals is beyond the scope of this chapter, three main themes on the frontier of women’s rights will be discussed below. These larger, interrelated themes include gender-based violence, women’s health, and women’s education. Gender-Based Violence Gender-based violence (GBV) is a foundational reflection of gender inequality and refers to “violence that is directed against a person on the basis of their sex or gender, and it includes acts that inflict emotional, physical, mental or sexual harm or suffering, threats of such acts, coercion and other deprivations of liberty” (Dlamini, 2021, p. 583). Unfortunately, the COVID-19 Pandemic exacerbated GBV in many parts of the world, with 1 in 4 women reporting that social isolation due to COVID-19 made them feel less safe at home (UN Women, 2021). In the United States, research indicates chronically underfunded organizations that support victims of GBV were unprepared for the increase of GBV during the pandemic (Sapire et al., 2022). Globally, there is a noteworthy increase in women and LGBTQ+ people who report feeling unsafe walking alone at night in urban areas (UN Women, 2022a). Violence against members of the LGBTQ+ community is an aspect of GBV that warrants attention since gender is a social construct. UN agencies have called for “an end to violence and discrimination against lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex (LGBTI) adults, adolescents, and children, and set out specific steps to protect these individuals” (UN, 2015, para. 1). GBV on its own is a dire human rights issue. Yet, an obvious consequence of GBV are poor mental and physical health outcomes for all victims, and especially for gender non-confirming people. This is due to social stigma and an acute lack of legal protections for LGBTQ+ individuals (Wirtz et al., 2020). Women’s Health and Reproductive Rights Women’s health, including reproductive rights, is linked to multiple human rights, including “the right to life, the right to be free from torture, the right to health, the right to privacy, the right to education, and the prohibition of discrimination” (UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, n.d., para. 1). Examples of violations if these rights include, but are not limited to, lack of access to services women require or disproportionately poor health

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services when compared to males. A lack of access to reproductive health services leads to severe consequences for women, including unsafe pregnancy and repeated pregnancies that pose a risk to women’s life and wellbeing. Women enjoy health and reproductive rights when they are provided with information, education, and health services that allow them to choose, without coercion, “the number and spacing of their children” (UN Women, 2022b, para. 1). For women, repeated pregnancies cause a lack of access to education and the job market, thus diminishing their economic opportunities. Women’s Education For girls and women, lack of access to reproductive healthcare and genderbased violence contribute to exclusion from formal education (UN Women, 2022a). Of relevance to this edited collection is the fact that “curricula, textbooks, and teaching and learning practices often derail girls’ choices of what to study in school, and ultimately, their careers and employment opportunities as adults” (UN Women, 2022a, p. 5). For example, gender stereotypes and societal norms around the world limit women’s access to education within STEM fields. Yet, education as a human right for women is about more than basic literacy and equitable access to the job market. Educating women and girls unlocks knowledge needed to empower them in economic, political, social, and psychological ways. Through these forms of empowerment, women gain the insight and ability to understand and challenge existing social inequalities (Stromquist, 2015). Social Studies Trade Books on Global Human Rights We know women and girls are marginalized within the field of education writ large, and this includes social studies education. In terms of social studies in the United States, women’s history is an afterthought in state standards (National Council for the Social Studies, 2020a; National Women’s History Museum, 2017). Regardless, research by Whitford (2021) indicates that integrating social studies trade books with critical literacy practices can support students in dismantling their internalized gender-based stereotypes. Although most chapters in this edited collection examined cases of women’s rights in the United States, several chapters included global aspects of human rights. Specifically, chapters by Margit McGuire and Yali Zhao addressed women’s status as immigrants. Below is a table of Notable Social Studies Trade Books from 2020-2022 that teachers can use to incorporate women’s rights in a global perspective. In table 9.1, four trade books are described and paired with the UN Sustainable Development Goal(s) they address. It is important to point out many Notable Social Studies Trade Books cover issues pertinent to women’s rights. So, this list is not exhaustive.

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The criteria for inclusion in the table were that the book centered on women and girls and addressed contemporary human rights issues. ​ CONCLUSION The struggle for equal gender rights benefits all people and ultimately contributes to a sustainable future. Women’s rights are not only a concern for women. Around the world, social norms that contribute to toxic masculinity Table 9.1  Notable Social Studies Trade Books and UN Sustainable Development Goals Title of Trade Book and Author(s) Latinitas: Celebrating 40 Big Dreamers, Juliet Menéndez

Jane Against the World: Roe V. Wade and the Fight for Reproductive Rights, Karen Blumenthal Shout, Laurie Halse Anderson

Watch Us Rise, Renée Watson and Ellen Hagan

Description Book from NCSS List of Notable Trade Books An anthology of brief biographies about influential Latina women from different parts of the Americas. Includes well-known women like Justice Sonia Sotomayor as well as lesser-known women like forensic anthropologist Mercedes Doretti and spy Policarpa Salavarrieta (NCSS, 2022, p. 3). This informational text shares compelling tales of freedom-fighters for reproductive rights. From “Jane” and early abortion advocates to the modern fight for reproductive justice, readers will be enthralled by the twists and turns that bring us to the present-day struggle (NCSS 2021, p. 11). In this powerful freeverse memoir, the author shares her own story of sexual assault, recovery, and the path that led her to become an influential advocate for anyone with a reason to say #MeToo (NCSS, 2020, p. 6). With narration from two viewpoints, Jasmine and Chelsea “resolve to shut down systems of oppression like a girl,” while engaging in writing and activism related to gender, race, voice, privilege, body image, assault, and challenging authority (NCSS, 2020b, p. 6).

Source: Created by the Chapter Authors

UN Sustainable Development Goals 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11

3, 5, 10

4, 5, 10

3, 4, 5, 10

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exacerbate gender inequality. Human rights-based education and genderinclusive school curricula have the capacity to transform students’ personal attitudes, beliefs, and actions concerning the role women, girls, men, boys, and people of all genders can have as allies and stakeholders for gender equality (United Nations General Assembly, 2023; Whitford, 2021). Social studies educators can leverage social studies disciplinary literacies (Lee & Swan, 2013) through inquiry-based learning that challenges students’ patriarchal thinking. Students in social studies courses should be guided to approach women’s rights as intersectional issues through civic, economic, historical, and geographical lenses. For this to happen, social studies teachers need to examine their own implicit gender biases and commit to teaching about women’s rights as an integral part of the social studies curriculum instead of the additive approach that is systemic today (National Council for the Social Studies, 2020a).

REFERENCES Bickford, J., & Clabough, J. (2020). Complicating master narratives with primary sources in a fourth grade guided inquiry. Social Studies and the Young Learner, 32(3), 20−25. Clabough, J. (2021). Using thematic social studies teaching to explore the Civil Rights Movement. The Social Studies, 112(4), 177−189. Clabough, J., Turner, T., & Carano, K. (2017). When the lion roars everyone listens: Scary good middle school social studies. Association for Middle Level Education. Cole, W.G. (2014). Getting to the “core” of the problem: Decision-making activities and Common Core State Standards. In T. Turner, J. Clabough, & W. Cole (Eds.), Getting at the core of the Common Core with social studies (pp. 41−52). Information Age Publishing. Dlamini, N. J. (2021). Gender-based violence, twin pandemic to COVID-19. Critical Sociology, 47(4−5), 583−590. Hubbard, J. (2019). K-6 students’ geographic thinking and inquiry into Earth’s landform. The Oregon Journal of the Social Studies, 7(2), 81−92. Journell, W., Beeson, M., & Ayers, C. (2015). Learning to think politically: Toward more complete disciplinary knowledge in civics and government courses. Theory and Research in Social Education, 43(1), 28–67. Lee, J., & Swan, K. (2013). Is the Common Core good for social studies? Yes, but…. Social Education, 77(6), 327-330. Levinson, M., & Levine, P. (2013). Taking informed action to engage students in civic life. Social Education, 77(6), 339−341. Lo, J. (2018). “Can we do this every day?” Engaging students in controversial issues through role-play. Social Education, 82(6), 330−335. Monte-Sano, C. (2012). What makes a good history essay? Assessing historical aspects of argumentative writing. Social Education, 76(6), 294−298.

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Mueller, R. (2017). Calibrating your “Compelling Compass”: Teacher-constructed prompts to assist question development. Social Education, 81(6), 343−345. NCSS. (2022). Notable social studies trade books for young people. Author. NCSS. (2021). Notable social studies trade books for young people. Author. National Council for the Social Studies. (2020a). Supporting curricular promotion and intersectional valuing of women in history and current events: A position statement of the National Council for the Social Studies. https://www​.socialstudies​ .org​/position​-statements​/supporting​-curricular​-promotion​-and​-intersectional​-valuing​-women​-history​-and NCSS. (2020b). Notable social studies trade books for young people. Author. NCSS. (2013). The College, Career, and Civic Life Framework for Social Studies State Standards: Guidance for enhancing the rigor of K-12 civics, economics, geography, and history. Author. National Women’s History Museum. (2017). Where are the women? A report on the status of women in the United States curricula. https://www​.womenshistory​.org​/ sites​/default​/files​/museum​-assets​/document​/2018​-02​/NWHM​_Status​-of​-Women​-in​ -State​-Social​-Studies​-Standards​_2​-27​-18​.pdf Nokes, J. (2013). Building students’ historical literacies: Learning to read and reason with historical texts and evidence (1st ed.). Routledge. Sapire, R., Ostrowski, J., Maier, M, Samari, G, & Bencomo, C. (2022). COVID-19 and gender-based violence service provision in the United States. PLOS ONE, 17(2), 1−18. https://doi​.org​/10​.1371​/journal​.pone​.0263970 Sdunzik, J., & Johnson, C.S. (2020). Working the democracy: The long fight for the ballot from Ida to Stacey. Social Education, 84(4), 214−218. Shaftel, F.S., & Shaftel, G. (1982). Role playing in the curriculum (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall Inc. Sheffield, C., & Clabough, J. (2022). Memoirs of oppression: George Takei and the imprisonment of Japanese Americans. Middle Level Learning, 73, 9−21. Stromquist, N. P. (2015). Women’s empowerment and education: Linking knowledge to transformative action. European Journal of Education, 50(3), 307–324. https:// www​.jstor​.org​/stable​/26609280 Swan, K., & Griffin, S. (2013). Beating the odds: The College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Standards. Social Education, 77(6), 317−321. Turner, T.N. (2004). Essentials of elementary social studies (3rd ed.). Pearson. United Nations. (2015). UN agencies call for end to violence and discrimination against LGBTI community. Sustainable Development Goals. https://www​.un​.org​ /sus​tain​able​deve​lopment​/blog​/2015​/09​/un​-agencies​-call​-for​-end​-to​-violence​-and​ -discrimination​-against​-lgbti​-community/ United Nations. (n.d.). Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls. Sustainable Development Goals. https://www​.un​.org​/sus​tain​able​deve​ lopment​/gender​-equality/ United Nations General Assembly. (2023). Men’s accountability for gender equality. https://www​.ohchr​.org​/sites​/default​/files​/documents​/issues​/women​/wg​/Men ​ -accountablity​-27​-12​-2022​-EN​.pdf

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UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. (n.d.). Sexual and reproductive health and rights. https://www​.ohchr​.org​/en​/women​/sexual​-and​-reproductive​ -health​-and​-rights#:~​:text​=Women’s%20​sexua​l%20a​nd%20​repro​ducti​ve%20​healt​ h,and​%20th​e%20p​rohib​ition​%20of​%20di​scrim​inati​on. UN Women. (2021). Measuring the shadow pandemic: Violence against women during COVID-19. https://data​.unwomen​.org​/sites​/default​/files​/documents​/Publications​/Measuring​-shadow​-pandemic​.pdf UN Women. (2022a). Progress on the sustainable development goals: The gender snapshot. https://www​.unwomen​.org​/sites​/default​/files​/2022​-09​/Progress​-on​-the​ -sustainable​-development​-goals​-the​-gender​-snapshot​-2022​-en​_0​.pdf UN Women. (2022b). Statement: Reproductive rights are women’s rights and human rights. https://www​.unwomen​.org​/en​/news​-stories​/statement​/2022​/06​/statement​ -reproductive​-rights​-are​-womens​-rights​-and​-human​-rights VanSledright, B. (2013). Can assessment improve learning? Thoughts on the C3 Framework. Social Education, 77(6), 334-338. Whitford, A. (2021). From then to now: Elementary students’ perceptions of gender equity in history and today. Research Issues in Contemporary Education, 6(2), 125−153. Wineburg, S. (2001). Historical thinking and other unnatural acts: Charting the future of teaching the past. Temple University Press. Wirtz, A. L., Poteat, T. C., Malik, M., & Glass, N. (2020). Gender-based violence against transgender people in the United States: A call for research and programming. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 21(2), 227–241. https://doi​.org​/10​.1177​ /1524838018757749 Wright-Maley, C. (2019). Thinking through simulation design: Toward the mediation of choice architectures. In C. Wright-Maley (Ed.), More like life itself: Simulations as powerful and purposeful social studies (pp. iii−xxiii). Information Age Publishing.

Appendix A

Graphic Organizers for Learning Activities

BECOMING NELLIE BLY The tasks listed below will help you to answer the guiding question, “How did Nellie Bly’s childhood and time period influence her career as a journalist in the nineteenth century?” Gather the information to complete the graphic organizer from the Biographics video about Nellie Bly available at https:// www​.youtube​.com​/watch​?v​=uQ1zfwtgXXE and from identified excerpts from the Cimino and Algozzino graphic novel, The Incredible Nellie Bly: Journalist, Investigator, Feminist, and Philanthropist. Be sure to include the source and/or page number where you found the information you record in the table below. ​ Nellie Bly’s Career: Three Key Stories Now that you have explored the events and context of Elizabeth Cochrane’s life, and the influences that helped her become Nellie Bly, you are going to dive deeper into three articles that were important to her career. Use the Biographics video, the provided primary sources, and the listed pages for the Incredible Nellie Bly to gather the information needed to complete the tables below. Be sure to include where you found the information you recorded in the table below. ​​ Analyzing the Nellie Bly returns to New Jersey image from Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, 1890 (Appendix B, figure B.1): Fold the picture into four equal sections of a square. Record what you observe in each quadrant of the image in the space below. Fold the image in such a way that you are only looking at one quadrant at a time. ​​ 171

How did her (Nellie Bly) actions compare with the role women in the nineteenth century were expected to have?

What happened during this period of her (Nellie Bly) life?

Watch video from 4:49 to 8:34 and Watch video from 13:26−15:45 from 8:35 to 13:25 Read pgs. 40−59 and pgs. 79−110 Read pgs. 125−135

Watch video from 2:24 to 4:48 Read pgs. 12−20

Watch video from start to 2:23 Read pgs. 12−20

After Marriage

At The New York World

At The Pittsburgh Dispatch

Early Life

Table A.1  Becoming Nelly Bly

172 Appendix A

What questions about her (Nellie Bly) life and career do you have that were not answered thus far?

Guiding Question: How did Nellie Bly’s childhood and time period influence her career as a journalist in the nineteenth Answer the Century guiding question and provide evidence from the video and graphic novel to support your answer.

Graphic Organizers for Learning Activities 173

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Table A.2  “The Girl Puzzle” (Video 2:24−4:48; Incredible Nellie Bly pages 12−20, Excerpt from “The Girl Puzzle” article written by Nellie Bly) Where was she when she wrote this article? And for which newspaper did she write it? (Provide evidence.)

What did this article show about the experience of women in the late nineteenth century? (Provide evidence.)

What was the subject of this article? How did it relate to issues of poverty, abuse, and women? Why did she write this article? (Provide evidence.)

How did this article impact Nellie’s life? (Provide evidence.)

Source: Created by the Appendix Author

Table A.3  “Inside the Mad-House” (Video 4:49−8:34; Incredible Nellie Bly pages 40-59; Excerpt from “Inside the Madhouse,” article written by Nellie Bly) Where was she when she wrote this article? And for which newspaper did she write it? (Provide evidence.)

What did this article show about the experience of women in the late nineteenth century? (Provide evidence.)

What was the subject of this article? How did it relate to issues of poverty, abuse, and women? Why did she write this article? (Provide evidence.)

How did this article impact Nellie’s life? (Provide evidence.)

Source: Created by the Appendix Author

Corroboration: When historians use a source (either primary or secondary), they corroborate the information with other source material. This process helps the historian know that the information read is valid. Read the Minneapolis Daily Times newspaper article excerpt from 1895 entitled “Nellie Bly’s Career.” In the tables above, highlight (with a highlighter) the information you gathered about the three stories that you can corroborate with information from the 1895 newspaper article. Was there any information about these three articles that you could not corroborate using the newspaper article? If so, list them below and predict why that information may be missing.

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Table A.4  “Around the World in 72 Days” Part 1 (Video 8:35−13:25, Incredible Nellie Bly pages 81−110, Image of Nellie Bly’s return to New Jersey)

What did you observe about the people, events, and setting shown in the top left quadrant?

What did you observe about the people, events, and setting shown in the top right quadrant?

What did you observe about the people, events, and setting shown in the bottom right quadrant?

What did you observe about the people, events, and setting shown in the bottom left quadrant?

Conclusions from the Image: Based on the information recorded above, what conclusions can you draw about Nellie Bly, her reputation, the public perception of the trip, and the role of women in the late 1800s? Provide evidence from the image to support your conclusion.

Source: Created by the Appendix Author

Did you learn something new about Nellie Bly from the 1895 Minneapolis Daily Times article? If so, list the new information below.

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Table A.5  “Around the World in 72 Days” Part 2 (Video 8:35-13:25, Incredible Nellie Bly pages 81-110, Image of Nellie Bly’s return to New Jersey) Where was she when she wrote this article? And for which newspaper did she write it? (Provide evidence.)

What did this article show about the experience of women in the late nineteenth century? (Provide evidence.)

What was the subject of this article? How did it relate to issues of poverty, abuse, and women? Why did she write this article? (Provide evidence.)

How did this article impact Nellie’s life? (Provide evidence.)

Source: Created by the Appendix Author

Using the information you gathered in the tables above, complete the following tasks. ​ Table A.6  Guiding Question Answer the guiding question and provide evidence to support your answer.

Guiding Question: How did Nellie Bly’s career challenge society’s expectations (roles and behavior) for women in the late nineteenth century?

What questions about her (Nellie Bly) life and career do you still have that were not answered in this learning experience? Source: Created by the Appendix Author

Appendix B

Primary Sources for Learning Activities

“The Girl Puzzle” Nellie Bly writing as “Orphan Girl” The Pittsburg Dispatch—January 25, 1885

. . .The anxious father still wants to know what to do with his five daughters. Well indeed may he inquire and wonder. Girls, since the existence of Eve, have been a source of worriment, to themselves as well as to their parents, as to what shall be done with them. They cannot, or will not, as the case may be, all marry. . . . What is to be done with the poor ones? The schools are overrun with teachers, the stores with clerks, the factories with employees. There are more cooks, chambermaids and washerwomen than can find employment. In fact, all places that are filled by women are overrun, and still there are idle girls, some that have aged parents depending on them. We cannot let them starve. Can they that have full and plenty of this world’s goods realize what it is to be a poor working woman, abiding in one or two bare rooms, without fire enough to keep warm, while her threadbare clothes refuse to protect her from the wind and cold, and denying herself necessary food that her little ones may not go hungry; fearing the landlord’s frown and threat to cast her out and sell what little she has, begging for employment of any kind that she may earn enough to pay for the bare rooms she calls home, no one to speak kindly to or encourage her, nothing to make life worth the living? If sin in the form of man comes forward with a sly smile and says, “Fear no more, your debts shall be paid,” she cannot let her children freeze or starve, and so falls. Well, who shall blame her? .  .  . Not only the widow, but the poor maiden needs employment. Perhaps father is dead and mother helpless, or just the reverse; or

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maybe both are depending on her exertions, or an orphan entirely, as the case may be. What is she to do? Perhaps she had not the advantage of a good education, consequently cannot teach; or, providing she is capable, the girl that needs it not half as much, but has the influential friends, gets the preference. Let her get a position as clerk. The salary given would not pay for food, without counting rent or clothing. Let her go to the factory; the pay may in some instances be better, but from 7 a.m. until 6 p.m., except for 30 minutes at noon, she is shut up in a noisy, unwholesome place. When duties are over for the day, with tired limbs and aching head, she hastens sadly to a cheerless home. How eagerly she looks forward to pay day, for that little mite means so much at home. Thus day after day, week after week, sick or well, she labors on that she may live . . . . . . Some say: “Well, such people are used to such things and do not mind it.” Ah, yes, Heaven pity them. They are in most cases used to it. Poor little ones put in factories while yet not in their teens so they can assist a widowed mother, or perhaps father is a drunkard or has run away; well they are used to it, but they mind it. . . . They read of what your last pug dog cost and think of what that vast sum would have done for them—paid father’s doctor bill, bought mother a new dress, shoes for the little ones—and imagine how nice it would be, could baby have the beef tea that is made for your favorite pug, or the care and kindness that is bestowed upon it. . . . As all occupations for women are filled why not start some new ones? Instead of putting the little girls in factories let them be employed in the capacity of messenger boys or office boys. It would be healthier. They would have a chance to learn: their ideas would become broader and they would make as good, if not better, women in the end. It is asserted by storekeepers that women make the best clerks. Why not send them out as merchant travelers? They can talk as well as men—at least men claim that it is a noted fact that they talk a great deal more and faster. If their ability at home for selling exceeds a man’s, why would it not abroad? Their lives would be brighter, their health better, their pocketbooks fuller, unless their employers would do as now—give them half their wages because they are women. We have in mind an incident that happened in your city. A girl was engaged to fill a position that had always been occupied by men, who, for the same, received $2.00 a day. Her employer stated that he never had anyone in the same position that was as accurate, speedy and gave the same satisfaction; however, as she was “just a girl” he gave her $5.00 a week. Some call this equality. . . . Some people claim it would not do to put woman where she will not be protected. In being a merchant traveler or filling similar positions, a true

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woman will protect herself anywhere—as easily on the road as behind a counter, as easily as a Pullman conductor as in an office or factory. In such positions, receiving men’s wages, she would feel independent; she could support herself. No more pinching and starving, no more hard work for little pay; in short, she would be a woman and would not be half as liable to forget the duty she owed her own true womanhood as one pinched by poverty and without means of support . . . Retrieved From: https://davidblixtauthor​.medium​.com​/the​-girl​-puzzle​ -95a9df3ac15a

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Appendix B

“Inside the Madhouse” Nellie Bly The New York World—October 16, 1887

. . . In spite of the knowledge of my sanity and the assurance that I would be released in a few days, my heart gave a sharp twinge. Pronounced insane by four expert doctors and shut up behind the unmerciful bolts and bars of a madhouse! Not to be confined alone, but to be a companion, day and night, of senseless, chattering lunatics; to sleep with them, to eat with them, to be considered one of them, was an uncomfortable position. Timidly we followed the nurse up the long uncarpeted hall to a room filled by so-called crazy women. We were told to sit down, and some of the patients kindly made room for us. They looked at us curiously, and one came up to me and asked: “Who sent you here?” “The doctors,” I answered. “What for?” she persisted. “Well, they say I am insane,” I admitted. “Insane!” she repeated, incredulously. “It cannot be seen in your face.” .  .  . “Come here, Tillie Mayard,” she said. Miss Mayard obeyed, and, though I could not see into the office, I could hear her gently but firmly pleading her case. All her remarks were as rational as any I ever heard, and I thought no good physician could help but be impressed with her story. She told of her recent illness, that she was suffering from nervous debility. She begged that they try all their tests for insanity, if they had any, and give her justice. Poor girl, how my heart ached for her! I determined then and there that I would try by every means to make my mission of benefit to my suffering sisters; that I would show how they are committed without ample trial. Without one word of sympathy or encouragement she was brought back to where we sat. Mrs. Louise Schanz was taken into the presence of Dr. Kinter, the medical man. “Your name?” he asked, loudly. She answered in German, saying she did not speak English nor could she understand it. However, when he said Mrs. Louise Schanz, she said “Yah, yah.” .  .  . Thus was Mrs. Louise Schanz consigned to the asylum without a chance of making herself understood. Can such carelessness be excused, I wonder, when it is so easy to get an interpreter? If the confinement was but for a few days one might question the necessity. But here was a woman taken without her own consent from the free world to an asylum and there given no chance to prove her sanity. Confined most probably for life behind asylum bars, without even being told in her language the why and wherefore. Compare this with a criminal, who is given every chance to prove his innocence. Who would not rather be a murderer and take the chance for life than be declared insane, without hope of escape? Mrs. Schanz begged in German to know where she was and pleaded for liberty.

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. . . I asked if I could not have a night-gown. “We have not such things in this institution,” she said. “I do not like to sleep without,” I replied. “Well, I don’t care about that,” she said. “You are in a public institution now, and you can’t expect to get anything. This is charity, and you should be thankful for what you get.” “But the city pays to keep these places up,” I urged, “and pays people to be kind to the unfortunates brought here.” “Well, you don’t need to expect any kindness here, for you won’t get it,” she said, and she went out and closed the door. . . . I lay in bed picturing to myself the horrors in case a fire should break out in the asylum. Every door is locked separately, and the windows are heavily barred, so that escape is impossible. In the one building alone there are, I think Dr. Ingram told me, some 300 women. They are locked, one to ten to a room. It is impossible to get out unless these doors are unlocked. A fire is not improbable, but one of the most likely occurrences. Should the building burn, the jailers or nurses would never think of releasing their crazy patients. This I can prove to you later when I come to tell of their cruel treatment of the poor things entrusted to their care. As I say, in case of fire, not a dozen women could escape. All would be left to roast to death. . . . Miss Tillie Mayard suffered greatly from cold. One morning she sat on the bench next to me and was livid with the cold. Her limbs shook and her teeth chattered. I spoke to the three attendants who sat with coats on at the

Figure B.1  Image from Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, 1890.

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Appendix B

Figure B.2  Excerpt from the 4/28/1895 Minneapolis Daily Times article.

table in the center of the floor. “It is cruel to lock people up and then freeze them,” I said. They replied she had on as much as any of the rest, and she would get no more. .  .  . Just as I reached there Superintendent Dent came to the door and I told him how we were suffering from the cold, and of Miss Mayard’s condition .  .  . Assuring him that I needed no medical aid, I told him to go to Miss Mayard. He did so. From Miss Neville and other patients I learned what transpired. Miss Mayard was still in the fit, and he caught her roughly between the eyebrows or thereabouts, and pinched until her face was crimson from the rush of blood to the head, and her senses returned. All day afterward she suffered from terrible headache, and from that on she grew worse.

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Figure B.3  Excerpt from the 4/28/1895 Minneapolis Daily Times article, continued.

Insane? Yes, insane; and as I watched the insanity slowly creep over the mind that had appeared to be all right I secretly cursed the doctors, the nurses and all public institutions. . . . Retrieved from: https://thegrandarchive​.wordpress​.com​/inside​-the​ -madhouse/ ​​​

Appendix C

Summative Assessment

Articles written by today’s journalists are expected to follow general patterns. The article’s main idea is provided early in the article. Statements and claims made are supported with evidence, typically written in the third person in a straightforward writing style, without overly descriptive or complex language. The goal of a newspaper article is for the reader to be able to quickly understand the article’s main point. This requires that the main idea of the article is provided in the first third of the article, supporting evidence follows in the rest of the article, which is written at a level understood by the majority of the reading public. In order to concisely arrive at the main idea and key supporting information, journalists subscribe to the “Who?,” “What?,” “Where?,” “When?,” “Why?,” and “How?” format for gathering information to include in an article. You will use the same process. Complete the table below to organize your thoughts for an article addressing the lesson’s essential question (listed below). Once completed, you will turn the information from the graphic organizer into a one-page newspaper article of approximately 250 words. Your final product should follow the conventions listed above and answer the essential question. Essential Question: How did Nellie Bly’s career both reflect and refuse to conform to society’s expectations for women in the nineteenth century? ​

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Table C.1  Summative Assessment Who was Nellie Bly? What did she do? When did she do it? Where was she? Why did she do it? How did she do it? Source: Created by the Appendix Author

Take the information above and convert it to a one-page newspaper article (approximately 250 words) that addresses the essential question in bold above the table.

Appendix D

Additional Nellie Bly-related Resources

BOOKS FOR CHILDREN AND ADULTS Christensen, B. (2009). The daring Nellie Bly: America’s star reporter. Dragonfly Books. This picture book biography chronicles Nellie Bly’s life through her childhood, her career as a reporter, her marriage and running her late husband’s company, and her return to journalism. Hannigan, K., & Gibbon, R. (2022). Nellie vs. Elizabeth: Two daredevil journalists’ breakneck race around the world. Calkins Creek. This picture book takes the reader on Nellie Bly and Elizabeth Bisland’s parallel journeys around the world as they raced against the “record” set by Jules Verne’s character Phileas Fogg. Knudsen, M., Clinton, C., Boiger, A., Flint, G. (2021). She persisted: Nellie Bly. Philomel Books. This book is part of the “She Persisted” book series created by Chelsea Clinton. This short chapter book is written for primary grades students and chronicles the life and achievements of Nellie Bly. At the end of the book, there are options children can take to “persist” in ways similar to Nellie Bly. Kroeger, B. (1994). Nellie Bly: Daredevil, reporter, feminist. Times Books. This book is the most comprehensive biography of Nellie Bly written to date. The author chronicles Bly’s life, starting with her birth on May 5, 1864, through childhood, her career in journalism, marriage, her return to journalism, and ending with her death from pneumonia on January 22, 1922.

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Appendix D

Mahoney, E. (2015). Nellie Bly and investigative journalism for kids: Mighty muckrakers from the golden age to today, with 21 activities (For Kids series). Chicago Review Press. This illustrated informational text provides an overview of Nellie Bly’s career as a journalist and extends the discussion of sensational journalism to one about today’s journalism. Included within the book are 21 learning activities for children to explore the world of Nellie Bly and the field of journalism. Ricca, B., & Sieh, C. (2022). Ten days in a mad-house: Adapted from the work of Nellie Bly. Gallery 13. This graphic novel is an adaptation of Nellie Bly’s account of the Blackwell Island insane asylum. This was her first story for The New York World and cemented her reputation as a stunt reporter. Rose, C.S., & Bye, A. (2019). A race around the world: Nellie Bly & ­Elizabeth Bisland. Albert Whitman & Company. This picture book chronicles the competing journeys of Nellie Bly and Elizabeth Bisland as they circumnavigated the globe in order to best the fictious Phileas Fogg’s 80-day journey in Jules Verne’s’ novel Around the World in Eighty Days. WEB-BASED RESOURCES Biographics. (2018, February 5). Nellie Bly: Pioneer of Undercover Journalism. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uQ1zfwtgXXE&t=3s The 16:29 minute long video offers a biography of Nellie Bly’s life, highlighting key events from her childhood, career, and personal life in a succinct and easily comprehensible presentation. Nellie Bly Online. (2022). Explore the colourful world of investigative journalist Nellie Bly. https://nellieblyonline.net/ Nellie Bly Online is a web-based repository of Bly-related resources. Included on the website are Bly’s original articles, pictures of her and her family, images of Nellie Bly-related ephemera, a listing of books both by and about her, as well as links to videos highlighting her life and work. The Atlantic. (2019, May 30). Undercover in an insane asylum: How a 23-year-old changed journalism. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=ACz2bwF1gEs&t=417s This Penny Lane directed video was produced by Reveal from the Center for Investigative Reporting as part of The Atlantic Selects. The video is an animated documentary that blends dramatization and interviews to tell the story of Bly’s undercover investigation of Blackwell’s Island, New York’s insane asylum for women.

Appendix E

Ida B. Wells Graphic Organizer

Figure E.1  Ida B. Wells Graphic Organizer.

​

189

Appendix F

Examining Ida B. Wells’s Legacy of Activism

Table F.1  Examining Ida B. Wells’s Legacy of Activism Topic Examining Ida B. Wells’s Legacy of Activism Grades 4−6 Objectives Students will be able to: • summarize the contributions of Ida B. Wells to the suffrage movement and the civil rights movement • describe how Ida B. Wells increased awareness of social inequalities • analyze strategies Ida B. Wells and other activists used to influence democratic change Compelling Question Can movements for equality also encourage inequality? Supporting Questions • Who was Ida B. Wells? • For what rights and freedoms were those in the suffrage movement fighting? • In what ways did suffragists influence historical change and for who? • How might the perspectives and experiences of Black suffragists and white suffragists differ? Vocabulary • 13th Amendment • 14th Amendment • 15th Amendment • Emancipation Proclamation • Jim Crow laws • Lynching • Reconstruction • Segregation • Suffrage (continued)

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Appendix F

Table F.1  (Continued) Resources and Materials • Who Was Ida B. Wells? (Fabiny, 2020) • Women's Suffrage Movement, Part 1 | History In A Nutshell (South Carolina ETV Commission, n.d.) • Untold Stories of Black Women in the Suffrage Movement (Seattle Channel, n.d.) Activities Pre-Reading Activity: Select three images from Photos: The Battle for Women’s Suffrage in the United States. (Taylor, 2019). Display the images, one at a time, and ask students a series of questions related to the images. • What do you see in the picture? • What do you think is happening in the picture? • When do you think the picture was taken? • What are the major takeaways from the picture? • Is there anything missing from the picture that might be helpful to know? Then, after looking at all three pictures, ask students to consider the following questions: • What similarities are seen between the pictures? • Whose stories are being told in the pictures? • Are there any stories that seem to be missing? Introduce and define the term suffrage. Ask students to brainstorm what they might know about this time period in history. Discuss in large group. Students are expected to keep a record of vocabulary from the unit in the same format where they generally keep notes for the course (i.e., interactive notebook). The vocabulary list will begin with suffrage and, through the course of reading the book, will be extended to include 13th Amendment, 14th Amendment, 15th Amendment, Emancipation Proclamation, Jim Crow laws, lynching, Reconstruction, and segregation. Watch a video that provides an overview of the women’s suffrage movement from History In A Nutshell (South Carolina ETV Commission, n.d.). Prior to watching the video, students should be directed to focus their attention on the following questions: • What was the 19th Amendment? • Describe how views conflicted over equal rights and who should be given the right to vote • In what ways were the experiences of Black suffragists and white suffragists similar? • In what ways did they differ? • At the conclusion of the video, discuss the questions in large group. Ask students to reflect on the images from the pre-reading activity and revisit the question of whose stories were not being told in the picture. Discuss how this idea relates to the information presented in the History In A Nutshell video. Explain that students will read Who Was Ida B. Wells? (Fabiny, 2020) to ensure an inclusive understanding of the suffrage movement that includes diverse perspectives and to learn about her contributions in both the suffrage movement and the civil rights movement. Introduce the graphic organizer that will be used to record information learned about Ida B. Wells while reading the book. Students will use the document to record facts and ideas related to • character traits • timeline of significant life events (continued)

Examining Ida B. Wells’ Legacy of Activism

193

Table F.1  (Continued) • contributions to civil rights and racial equality • contributions to the suffrage movement and gender equality • Read Who Was Ida B. Wells? (Fabiny, 2020). Based on students’ needs, the teacher can determine the best way for the book to be read; however, it is encouraged that the book be read aloud in large group, so the teacher can ask questions to check for understanding. At the end of each chapter, students are expected to update the graphic organizer with information learned in the chapter. Additionally, the teacher should ask guiding questions to connect to and inform both the compelling question and supporting questions. For example, to support discussion about the compelling question, when appropriate, the teacher should ask: • Was there anything we learned in the chapter that demonstrated existing inequality, where people were treated differently or did not have the same rights? • Was there anything people did in the chapter to encourage equality or increased rights for certain people or groups of people? To explore the first supporting question (Who was Ida B. Wells?), emphasis should be placed on the top row of the graphic organizer. To support the second and third supporting questions (For what rights and freedoms were those in the suffrage movement fighting? & In what ways did suffragists influence historical change and for who?), discussion should emphasize the section of the graphic organizer that examines contributions to the suffrage movement and gender equality. To explore the fourth supporting question (How might the perspectives and experiences of Black suffragists and white suffragists differ?), emphasis should be placed on the bottom row of the graphic organizer. As vocabulary is introduced throughout the book, students should be directed to add to their record of vocabulary from the unit using the format they generally use to take notes. When the concept of lynching is introduced (chapter 3), give students the opportunity to explore the Racial Terror Lynching Map (Equal Justice Initiative, n.d.). Ask questions to emphasize that while most racial terror lynching occurred in the American South, it was not limited exclusively to that region. Possible questions to ask: • Based on the title, what does this map show us? • What is represented by the different colors? • In what areas of the United States. did the most lynchings occur? • Were lynchings limited to the American South? • In what states in the North and the West did lynchings occur? Then, direct students to select two or three of the white dots on the map, so they can learn additional information about people who were victims of racial terror lynching and the circumstances surrounding their lynching. For example, Elizabeth Lawrence of Jefferson County, Alabama who was lynched because she reprimanded a group of young, white school children for throwing rocks at her or Calvin McDowell, William Stewart, and Thomas Moss, successful business owners of a grocery store in Memphis, Tennessee, who were lynched for posing an economic threat to the white community. (continued)

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Appendix F

Table F.1  (Continued) ​ At the conclusion of the book, direct students to reflect on the compelling question and the supporting questions. Explain they will watch one additional video to gather information related to the questions and fill in any gaps on their graphic organizers. Show Untold Stories of Black Women in the Suffrage Movement (Seattle Channel, n.d.), starting at the beginning and ending at 6 minutes 33 seconds. At the conclusion of the video, the teacher should pose questions for reflection, such as: • In what ways were the experiences of Black suffragists and white suffragists similar? • In what ways were they different? • How might the attitudes and behaviors of white suffragists be expanded to include racial equality? • What actions could have been taken to simultaneously promote women’s rights and racial justice?” Performance Tasks To have an opportunity to process their learning related to the unit objectives, compelling question, and supporting questions, students should have the option to complete either Option A or B, and all students should complete Option C. Option A: Create an identity chart for Ida B. Wells. Students should include experiences that shaped her identity, significant events on her life’s journey, descriptors, and achievements. Option B: Prepare a RAFT writing assignment. RAFT is an acronym and is designed to address: Role of the Writer—Who are you as the writer, Audience—To whom you are writing? Format—What form will the writing take? and Topic—What is the subject of the piece. Students can select the Role of Ida B. Wells or any of the people represented in the book, as well as the Audience of any people or groups mentioned or referred to in the book. The Format is up to the discretion of the student. The Topic should directly address racial equality and gender equality. Option C: Students should prepare a video (2–4 minutes in length) to describe their views on the compelling question: Can movements for equality also encourage inequality? Students are expected to refer to civil rights, as well as the suffrage movement, in their video and should mention at least four of nine vocabulary words. Teachers can elect a video platform that best meets their students’ needs and aligns with available resources. Alternatively, the teacher could use a video discussion sharing app, such as Flip (formerly Flipgrid). If videos are posted in a format where they can be viewed by peers, students could also be required to watch and respond to a select number of their peers’ videos. Source: Created by the Appendix Author

Appendix G

Interactive Read-Aloud Questions

Table G.1  Interactive Read-Aloud Questions Page Number 6

10

12

15

20

Text

Question

Whole Group: Why do you think this might be? Why would people doubt her ability just from looking at her? If needed, refer back to the quote on page 3: “Girls at this time weren’t often encouraged to be athletes.” “Could she only have one Partner Share: Turn to a neighbor and strike against her?” share. What do you think the author means by strikes? Whole group: How did Jackie Robinson inspire Mamie? Whole Group: What is the color line? “If Jackie could break the What is the gender line? How did color line and become Major League Baseball’s first these lines affect Mamie’s dream of playing baseball as a Black woman? black player, Mamie could break the gender line.” “All was still not equal.” Whole Group: How has Mamie shown perseverance so far? Partner Share: What do you predict Mamie will do next? “Mamie and Toni knew they Partner Share: Earlier we talked about the color line and the gender line. were hired to draw curious How do you see racism and sexism fans.” impacting Black women athletes like Mamie and Toni? If time allows, choose a few students to share out with the larger group. “She knew people took one look at her and doubted her ability”

(continued)

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Appendix G

Table G.1  (Continued) ​ Page Number 26

28

Text “Don’t emphasize the hardness of it.”

Question

Whole Group: What do you think Mamie means by this? Partner Share: Do you agree with this perspective? Why or why not? Whole Group: How do you think Mamie “She never strayed far from made a difference for future athletes? baseball- the game that she Whole Group: The book says. “Her loved.” dream did have a limit. Major League Baseball wasn’t willing to give her or any other woman a try.” Do you think this has changed since the 1950s? Why or why not?

Source: Created by the Appendix Author.

Appendix H

Summary of Project Activities

Table H.1  Summary of Project Activities Project Tasks Launch the topic of migration.

Introduce the project.

Research women’s migration.

Teacher/Student Activities • Introduce the project with a read aloud: Stepping Stones: A Refugee Family’s Journey. • Ask questions to connect the story to what students know and understand about migration. Compare and contrast to students’ lived experiences and background knowledge. • Facilitate discussion about migration affirming students’ agency and contributions. • Explain that there are many untold stories about women’s migration as most stories focus on men or do not distinguish between men and women’s migration experiences. • Introduce the compelling questions (or an adaptation depending on the particular classroom): How and why is migration more difficult for women than it is for men? How can we address this inequity? • Introduce the student project of a book about women’s migration experiences to highlight their unique challenges and contributions. • Explain that students will interview women migrants to tell their migration story and shine a light on their unique challenges in migrating from one place to another. • Discuss the “push/pull” factors of migration. • Guide students through the research process. • Review guidelines for determining credible and reliable sources (especially related to websites). • Review and practice note-taking and organizing information. • Facilitate students sharing and summarizing of findings to deepen understanding of women’s migration and affirm student collaboration. (continued)

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Appendix H

Table H.1  (Continued) Project Tasks Determine interview questions and practice interviewing. Identify and interview women migrants. Write informational texts on women’s migration. Present information. Determine action steps.

Teacher/Student Activities • Facilitate discussion to decide on questions for interviews (questions can differ based on students’ research and interests). • Model interviewing establishing guidelines for effective interviews. • Provide feedback on students’ interviewing skills. • Facilitate the identification of women for interviewing. • Students conduct interviews collaboratively or individually. • Facilitate student discussion of their interviews. • Determine the audience for the book (or other forms of presentation—podcast, webpage, or other suitable communication platform). • Facilitate the writing of informational texts. • Present information to families/community and/or audience who will be most impacted by the information. • Reflect on the experience and impact. • Facilitate a discussion on next steps for making an impact on the challenges of women’s migration. • Guide the implementation of action steps.

Source: Created by the Appendix Author.

199

Summary of Project Activities Table H.2  A Comparison of the C3 Framework and Project-Based Learning C3 Framework

Project Based Learning

Determine a Develop challenging problem compelling or question. and supporting questions. Apply disciplinary concepts and tools.

Engage in sustained inquiry—pose questions, find resources, apply information, and work collaboratively.

Evaluate sources Ensure authenticity— real-world context, and use tasks and tools, evidence quality standards, or impact. Connect personally to students.

Organize project to prioritize student voice and choice.

Critical Attributes Complementary and Contrasting Both approaches are developmentally appropriate; foster rich and deep engagement with the topic of study; learners believe that such learning is worthy of their time and effort. Both approaches aim to engage students in gathering information about the topic. The C3 Framework focuses specifically on the social studies content primarily civics, geography, economics, and history, while PBL includes a wide array of curriculum content particular to the project. However, both approaches use an inquiry process drawing on disciplines (math, science, the arts and literacy) that will inform the topic/ project. PBL highlights students working collaboratively to produce a product. This is where the pedagogical approaches highlight different but compatible attributes. The social studies prioritizes the evaluating of sources and use of evidence. PBL frames this aspect as quality standards or impact. Both approaches highlight the importance of making learning personally meaningful—the C3 Framework highlights this in its criteria for a compelling question while PBL describes this as a necessary design element for the project. PBL underscores the importance of students working collaboratively and expressing their own ideas in their own voice. The C3 Framework can readily accommodate these attributes in how the tasks are organized for learning. The motivational and learning benefits accrued for weaving in cooperative/ collaborative work are significant (Johnson & Johnson, 2017). (continued)

200

Appendix H

Table H.2  (Continued) C3 Framework

Communicate conclusions and take informed actions.

Critical Attributes Project Based Learning Complementary and Contrasting PBL highlights the importance of reflection Reflect, both teacher to the learning process. While not and students, on emphasized in the C3 Framework their inquiry and as a key attribute, reflection is good project effectiveness. pedagogy that can enhance student learning. The C3 Framework affirms the role of Critique and revise social studies in preparing students to be the process and knowledgeable, thinking, and civically products. engaged. PBL concludes its process with a critical evaluation of the project, and such a process can complement the C3 Frameworks process as well.

Source: Created by the Appendix Author.

Summary of Project Activities

201

​​COMPARING RAMA’S LIFE IN SYRIA BEFORE THE WAR AND OUR EVERYDAY LIFE

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

What do you recall about Rama’s life in Syria before the war began? How was her life like your life?​ In what ways did Rama’s life change when war came to her country? What remained the same for Rama? How would you feel if you experienced these changes? Do you think Rama as a girl might respond differently to migrating than a boy? Why or why not?

Table H.3  Comparing Rama’s Life in Syria Before the War and Our Everyday Life Rama’s Life in Syria Before the Syrian Civil War

Source: Created by the Appendix Author.

Our Everyday Life

202

Appendix H

RESEARCHING WOMEN’S MIGRATION​ Table H.4  Researching Women’s Migration Source: Is this a credible and reliable source? 1. Website name: 2. Who is the author of the website? 3. Is this an author I can trust? How do I decide? 4. Why do I think the author believed this was an important message? 5. Is the message based on facts or opinions? How do I know? 6. When I read information on this website, how does it make me feel? Write your research questions in the first column. Take notes in the second column. Questions

Notes

Source: Created by the Appendix Author.

Summary of Project Activities

203

TEACHER MODEL: RESEARCHING WOMEN’S MIGRATION​ Table H.5  Teacher Model: Researching Women’s Migration Source: Is this a credible and reliable source? 1. Website name:

UN Women​.o​rg

2. Who is the author of the website?

Branch of the United Nations representing women from around the world.

3. Is this an author I can trust? How do I decide?

Yes, a branch of the United Nations

4. Why do I think the author believed this was an important message?

Website focuses on women’s issues globally. Focuses on gender equity and empowerment of women.

5. Is the message based on facts or opinions? How do I know?

Facts with many statistics to support its advocacy for women’s rights; includes information of where they have found their information

6. When I read information I feel concern for women who want to migrate because the facts are compelling. on this website, how does it make me feel? Write your research questions in the first column. Take notes in the second column. Questions

Notes

How and why is migration more difficult for women?

Less safe for women to journey from one place to another ) Not protected in the jobs—labor rights not enforced 1 2) Face violence, racism and xenophobia (disliked because they are from another country).

Source: Created by the Appendix Author.

Appendix I

Ruth Bader Ginsburg Trade Book Graphic Organizer

Table I.1  Ruth Bader Ginsburg Trade Book Graphic Organizer Ruth Objects: The Life of Ruth Bader Ginsburg

U.S. v. Virginia (1996)

75th Commemoration of Women Enrolling at Columbia Law School

What do you think is the main idea of the text? Provide text evidence to support your answer. What are text-to-text connections you can make among the texts? In other words, what is alike/ different, or what other texts does it remind you of? What social changes took place that prompted changes to the law? Based on the texts, how would you have ruled? Provide text evidence to support your answer. How did Justice Ginsburg change the standard for scrutiny in gender equality cases? Provide text evidence to support your answer. Source: Created by the Appendix Author.

​

205

Index

Page references for figures are italicized. 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, 48, 57–58, 191–92​ 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, 48, 57–58, 143–45, 191–92​ 15th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, 48, 57–58, 141, 191–92​ 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, x, 50, 58, 63, 65, 67, 70–72, 79, 139, 142, 192 Abrego, Leisy, 127, 136 action steps: planning action steps, 134– 35; take informed actions, 127–28, 132, 198–200 activism, x, 47–49, 64, 67, 73, 91, 99, 151, 191–93; American environmental movement, 108, 110, 117 All American Girls Professional Baseball League, 87, 89 Anthony, Susan B., 36, 49, 52, 63, 142 anti-lynching, 49, 50, 56, 191 Arce, Julissa, 136 Asian Americans, 65, 69–71, 79–81; Asian immigrants, 65, 81; Chinese American(s), 63–69, 71–73, 75, 79,

81; Chinese American women, 64– 69, 81; immigrant(s) or immigration, 64–65, 67, 69, 71, 73–78, 80–81 assessment, 39, 41–42, 98, 185–86​ asylum seekers, 125 athletics, women’s rights in, 88 Bishop, Rudine Sims, 23–24 Bisland, Elizabeth, 36 Blumberg, Carol, 127, 137 Bly, Nellie, 32, 34–37, 40–43, 171–83; early life, 34–35; The Girl Puzzle, 35, 37, 38, 40, 174, 177–79, 183; Iron Clad Manufacturing Company, 36–37; journalist, 35–37, 177–83; Lonely Orphan Girl, 35; marriage, 36, 172, 182; The New York Evening Journal, 37; The New York World, 36; The Pittsburgh Dispatch, 35; Ten Days in the Madhouse, 36, 38, 40; trip around the world, 36, 38, 40, 171 Boxes Indemnity Scholarship, 67 Boyd, Monica, 123, 124, 136 Brabeck, Kalina, 127, 138 Buck Institute for Education, 127, 137 Budiman, Abby, 126, 132, 137

207

208

Index

C3 Framework. See National Council for the Social Studies Campbell, Linda, 129, 137 Caracatsanis, Sylva, 135, 137 Carson, Rachel, 103–13, 117, 119; career, 105–8; early life, 104–5; legacy, 108–9; Spring after Spring, 113, 114, 116 centennial celebration of the nineteenth amendment, 63, 70; centennial celebration of the women’s suffrage movement, 64, 68–69, 77 Chinese Revolution, 66, 69, 78; the Chinese Revolution of 1911, 66; Dr. Sun Yat-Sen, 66; enfranchisement of Chinese women, 63, 66; Three Principles of the People, 68 Chinese Students Association, 67, 78 Chung, Nicole, 124, 137 citizens, 110, 112, 116, 117, 119 civic participation, 63, 69, 75; citizenship and voting rights, 63; civic participatory skills, 69; rights to vote, 64, 72, 79 Civil rights, 47–49, 56, 58–60, 192, 193–94​ climate change, 104, 109, 112, 115, 117 climate crisis. See climate change Clinton, Hillary, 140–41 Cochran, Elizabeth Jane. See Bly, Nellie compelling questions. See questions controversial issues, 1–2 Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO), 137 COVID-19 pandemic, 69–70 critical literacy practices, 87, 89–93; interactive read-alouds, 92, 93, 96; text-pairing, 92–93, 96 Critical Race Theory, 25, 47, 50–54, 60; counterstory, 47, 51, 53, 60; Derrick Bell, 51; interest convergence, 51; intersectionality, 47, 51, 53–54, 60; permanence of racism, 47, 51, 52; systemic barriers, 87

Davis, Mo’ne, 93–99 Declaration of Sentiments, 16–17 de Galarce, Patricia Crain, 127, 138 Demary, Nicole, 124, 137 discrimination, 3, 17, 20, 89–90, 96, 99. See also gender, discrimination discrimination against Chinese and Asian Americans, 65; AntiAsian crimes, 69; anti-Asian prejudice, 64; anti-Asian racism, 70; anti-Chinese and anti-Asian discrimination, violence, and hate crimes, 70; ethnic quotas, 65; racial discrimination, 65, 71, 81; stereotypes against Asian Americans, 70; stereotypes and racial discrimination, 65, 70 discriminatory laws, 65, 67; Chinese Exclusion Act, 63–69, 71–75, 78–80; Page Act of 1875, 65 discussion, 92, 94–98 diverse books, 91–92 Dotson Davis, Lauren, 127, 137 Douglass, Frederick, 17, 33, 49 Education Northwest, 134, 137 Emancipation Proclamation, 48, 57–58, 191–92 environmental history, 111, 112, 118, 119 environmental justice, 119 Evening Star, 49 exploitation, 109, 110, 117 female immigrant entrepreneurs, 135–36 feminism, 76, 109, 110 feminist perspectives, xiv, xv, 15–16, 19, 25, 103, 104, 109–11, 119; ecofeminism, 109; ecofeminist, 110, 111; feminist movement, x; feminist solidarity, 15–16, 19–20 Foster, Stephen, 35 freewriting, 127 Frontiero v Richardson (1973), 144

Index

García, Andrés, 127, 137 gender: bias, 18, 21–22, 139; discrimination, 3, 17, 20, 71, 89, 96, 126, 143–44; equality, xii, 17–18, 54, 59–60, 65, 67–68, 76–77, 128, 130, 140, 143–45, 148–52, 164–65, 168, 193–94, 205; identity, 16; inequality, 92, 125, 128, 197; justice, 73, 76–77; norms, 18, 37; pay gap, 89–90, 98; sexual and gender-based violence, 131, 165–66; stereotypes, xi, xii, 3, 18, 22, 24, 94, 141, 144–45, 166. See also women’s rights Ginsburg, Ruth Bader, xii, 9, 139–40, 143–52 Gómez Cervantes, Andrea, 127, 137 Grant, S. G., 128, 138 graphic novels, 32–34; genres of, 33; graphic memoirs, 33 graphic organizer, 146, 149–50, 205 Grieco, Elizabeth, 123, 124, 136 Halkias, Daphne, 135, 137 Hardwick, Susan Wiley, 125, 137 Harkiolakis, Nicholas, 135, 137 Haynes, Judie, 126, 138 historical empathy, 33, 42 historical literacy, 32, 34, 42–43; corroboration, 32, 34, 40, 174 Holtgrieve, Donald, 125, 137 Huerta, Dolores C., 142–43 inclusive literature, xi, 16, 23–25; mirrors, windows, sliding glass doors, 23–24 inquiry-based learning, 8, 56, 63, 68, 71, 103–4, 113–19, 168; civic participatory skills, 69–70; critical thinking skills, 69, 73, 74, 76, 77, 80; Inquiry Arc, 112–18; literacy skills, 70; mini-inquiries, 116; perspective-taking skills, 73–74, 76; presentation skills, 80; primary sources, 73–76 Inquiry Design Model, 41

209

Institute for Women’s Policy Research, 126, 137 interdisciplinary practices, 87, 89–91, 93–94, 99 International Rescue Committee, 125, 137 intersectionality, 8, 17, 20, 47, 51, 53–54, 60, 89. See also Critical Race Theory interview process, 131–33, 197–98 Janus figures, 161 Johnson, David, 137, 199 Johnson, Frank, 137, 199 judicial scrutiny, 144–45; Rational scrutiny, 144; Strict scrutiny, 144–45 Ku Klux Klan, 49 Learning for Justice: Social Justice Standards, 48, 55–56, 59 Lee, Everett, 126, 137 Lee, John, 128, 138 Lee, Mabel Ping-Hua, 63–81; timeline of Mabel Lee’s life, 78–79​ literacy skills, 129, 133 Living Way, 49 low-paying jobs, 123; domestic workers, 123–24, 131 Major League Baseball, 87–88, 97; Paige, Satchel, 88; Robinson, Jackie, 88 Martin-Beltrán, Melanda, 127, 137 media, 123–24, 128 migration: European women, 123; migration defined, 125; migration resources, 125–31; pre-migration stage, 124; push-pull factors, 126, 130–31; women’s migration, 123–26, 133–36, 197–98, 202–3 Migration Policy Institute, 131, 137 Minahan, Jessica, 127, 137 Montoya-Ávila, Angélica, 127, 137

210

Index

Nation, Carrie, 104 National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), 49 National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), 123–25, 127, 138; C3 Framework, 31, 34, 48, 54–56, 93, 104, 113–15, 117–19, 127–28, 132, 135, 197, 200 National Governors Association (NGA), 133, 137 Negro League, 87, 88, 97 Park, Crystal, 127, 138 perseverance, 89, 96–97, 99 personal experiences, 127–29, 131–32, 135 personal narratives, 124 perspective-taking, 73–74, 76 pollution, 105, 106, 112, 114, 115 primary sources, 147–48, 151 project-based learning, 125, 127–35, 199–200 Pulitzer, Joseph, 36 Pulitzer Prize, 50 questioning techniques, 160–61 questions: compelling questions, 55–57, 113, 116, 127–28, 132, 191–94, 199–200; guiding questions, 129–30; supporting questions, 55, 57–59, 94, 113–16, 125, 150, 191–94, 199 race: racial equality, 69; racial terror lynching, 47–50, 52, 54, 57, 59, 193; racism, 89, 96 reconstruction, 48, 57, 58, 191, 192 refugees, 123–24; refugees defined, 125 researching women’s migration, 130–33; note-taking, 131, 133, 195; websites, 130–35, 197 Rodgers, Christie, 129, 137 role playing, 163–64 Ruurs, Margriet, 9, 12, 128, 129, 138

scientific truth, 106, 108, 117 segregation, 96 Septima Clark Book Awards, 24–25 sexism, 89, 90, 96, 99, 106, 109, 116 Sibley, Erin, 127, 138 Silent Spring, 103–4, 107–8, 110, 113, 115–16 social studies: courses, 116; curricula, 110, 119; disciplinary literacy, 31; disciplinary thinking, 4–6, 147, 151; educators, 117, 119; textbooks, 6, 15–16, 18, 20–22, 146, 166 Spandel, Vicki, 133, 134, 138 Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 142 stone art, 128–29, 134 sustainability, 110, 112 sustainable, 104, 110, 112, 119 Swan, Kathy, 128, 138 Syrian Civil War, 9, 128–29, 201 Syrian refugees, 128–30 systemic barriers, 87. See also Critical Race Theory Terrasi, Salvatore, 127, 138 thematic teaching, 2–3, 7, 60, 87, 89–91, 99, 104, 109, 112, 117, 152, 159–68 Thunberg, Greta, 104, 112, 117 Thurman, Paul, 135, 137 Tidmarsh, Marcus, 130, 138 timeline, 97 Title IX, 89, 98 Tlaib, Rashida, 143 trade books, 6–7, 22–23, 31, 34, 91–93, 96, 113, 128–30, 136, 146–47, 150, 166–68; NCSS Notable Trade Books for Young People, 25, 94 trailblazing, 87–89, 96 trauma-informed instruction, 126–27. See also gender, sexual and genderbased violence undocumented immigrants, 127 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, 17–18, 164–68

Index

United Nations Women, 130, 138 United States History, 103, 104, 109– 11, 118, 119 United States Supreme Court, 143–46, 148, 150–51 University of Minnesota Libraries UMedia, 131, 132, 138 U.S. v. Virginia (1996), 145–47, 205 Virginia Military Institute (VMI), 145, 147–48, 150 Weatherford, Doris, 123, 138 Weinberger v. Wiesenfeld (1975), 145 Wilson, Woodrow, 50 Women’s Political Equality League, 65 Women’s Political Union, 67; Suffrage Shop, 67

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Women’s rights, 3–4, 16–18, 63–67, 69, 71, 73, 78, 80, 103, 104, 109, 112, 116, 117; citizenship and voting rights, 63; education, 166; genderbased violence, 165–66; global, 17– 18, 164–67; health and reproductive rights, 165–66; social justice, 76–77, 80–81, 111, 119; United States, 16–17; voting rights, 63, 65, 71, 79. See also gender Women’s Suffrage Movement, 63–78, 80–81; Chinese American pioneer of, 63–64, 71–72, 80; Chinese American suffragist(s), 64, 68, 69; suffrage parade, 65, 67, 72, 74–75, 78; suffragist(s), 64–65, 67, 75, 78 writing informational texts, 133–34, 198 Zacarian, Debbie, 126, 138

About the Contributors

Natalie Keefer is an associate professor of Social Studies Education, Graduate Coordinator, and Co-Director of the Louisiana Center for Research and Education on Languages and Literacies (LA CREoLL) at the University of Louisiana Lafayette. Dr. Keefer’s research interests include educational and linguistic anthropology, social studies literacies, and social studies pedagogy in French immersion and multilingual contexts. She has published on these topics in the Journal of Social Studies Education Research, The Social Studies, Social Education, Social Studies and the Young Learner, Teacher Education Quarterly, Research Issues in Contemporary Education, and has published chapters in various edited collections. Dr. Keefer is co-editor of Critical Perspectives on Teaching in the Southern United States and Mindful Social Studies: Frameworks for Social Emotional Learning and Critically Engaged Citizens. Jeremiah Clabough is associate professor of Social Science Education at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. He is a former middle and high school social studies teacher. Dr. Clabough’s research interest focuses on strengthening K-12 students’ civic thinking, literacy, and argumentation skills as outlined in the C3 Framework. Rebecca Macon Bidwell is a social studies teacher at McAdory High School and an adjunct professor at the University of Alabama at Birmingham in Birmingham, Alabama. Her research interests include teaching about public issues and teaching civic literacy skills. Sarah M. Denney is an assistant professor of Secondary Education at the University of Indianapolis. Her research and scholarly interests include 213

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About the Contributors

secondary social studies education, social justice teaching, discussion-based practices, and civic identity development. Tori K. Flint (she/her) is an associate professor of Literacy & Early Childhood Education at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette. She is the CoDirector of the Louisiana Center for Research and Education on Languages and Literacies (LA CREoLL). Her research highlights children’s critical and playful responses to literature. Tina L. Heafner is a professor in the Department of Middle, Secondary, and K-12 Education at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. Her administrative responsibilities include Directing the Ph.D. in Curriculum and Instruction. Tina is the 2019-2020 National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) President and College and University Faculty Assembly (CUFA) 2015−2016 Chair. Tina’s publications include seven co-authored books and six edited collections including recent titles such as: The divide within: Intersections of realities, facts, theories, and practices, Handbook of research on emerging practice and methods for K-12 online and blended learning, and Beginning inquiry: Short texts for inexperienced readers in U.S. History. She has published numerous articles in peer reviewed journals such as: Theory and Research in Social Education, Journal of Social Studies Research, The Social Studies, Social Education, and Social Studies and the Young Learner. Tina’s teaching and research focus on effective practices in social studies education, with particular emphasis on online learning, technological integration, disciplinary literacy, and curriculum, policy, and urban education. Her scholarship, teaching, and service have been recognized with awards from the American Education Research Association (AERA), the Society for Information Technology and Education (SITE), NCSS, CUFA, and Charlotte. Margit E. McGuire, Ph.D., is a professor of Teacher Education at Seattle University and former president of the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). She has been recognized for leadership in teacher education, receiving the Washington Award for Excellence in Teacher Preparation. She has presented nationally and internationally on topics related to social studies, civics, and teacher preparation. As author of the Storypath and the PreK Storypath Programs, she routinely team-teaches with classroom teachers in highly diverse low-income schools. The co-authored articles, “Storypath: A Powerful Tool for Engaging Children in Civic Education” in Democracy and Education and “Cooperative Problem Solving for Environmental Civic Engagement: Exploring Storypath’s Impact on Young Learners” in the International Journal of Educational Research are two of many of her publications in the field of social studies education.

About the Contributors

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Amy J. Samuels is an associate professor of Instructional Leadership, Program Coordinator of Advanced Programs, and co-Principal Investigator of GEAR-UP Jefferson County at the University of Montevallo in Montevallo, Alabama. She is also President of Alabama National Association for Multicultural Education (AL NAME). Dr. Samuels’ research interests include critical multicultural and culturally responsive practices to foster increased equity. She has published on these topics in Multicultural Perspectives, Curriculum and Teaching Dialogue, Journal of Educational Controversy, and Social Studies Research and Practice. In addition, she is co-editor of Fostering Diversity and Inclusion in the Social Sciences and Democracy at a Crossroads: Reconceptualizing Socio-political Issues in Schools and Society. Dr. Samuels has published chapters in edited collections and presented at national and international conferences about culturally responsive pedagogy, racial (in)equity, racial literacy, and whiteness. Dr. Samuels also works collaboratively with school districts and organizations to design and facilitate staff development to support and advance diversity, equity, and inclusivity. Caroline C. Sheffield is an associate professor of Social Studies Education at the University of Louisville in Louisville, Kentucky. Dr. Sheffield’s research interests include the instructional use of trade books in the social studies, multimodal literacy in social studies education, and technology integration in the social studies. She has published on these topics in The Social Studies, Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, Social Education, Social Studies and the Young Learner, Middle Level Learner, Middle School Journal, The History Teacher, and Research Issues in Contemporary Education. Dr. Sheffield is co-editor of Social Studies Teaching and Learning, the official journal of the Kentucky Council for the Social Studies. Alyssa Whitford is a former elementary teacher and current Assistant Professor of Elementary Literacy and Social Studies education at Hope College in Holland, Michigan. Her research is especially focused on literacy and social studies integration, the way young children perceive the social world, and the role of interactive read-alouds to teach and learn about social issues in elementary classrooms. Dr. Whitford’s exploration of these topics can be found in journals such as Theory and Research in Social Education, Social Studies and the Young Learner, Research Issues in Contemporary Education, and Social Studies Research and Practice. Nefertari Yancie is an assistant professor of History Education at Kennesaw State University. Dr. Yancie’s research interests include developing students’ historical empathy skills utilizing first-person perspective writing and historical dialogues. Her research especially focuses on how historical empathy may

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About the Contributors

be utilized in the classroom to explore how enduring issues such as racism and social injustice have their roots in the past and continue to impact the present. Several of her articles on this topic have been published in Research Issues in Contemporary Education, Association for Middle Level Education Magazine, Social Studies Teaching and Learning, and Teaching Social Studies. She has also published in edited collections, such as Mindful Social Studies: Frameworks for Social Emotional Learning and Critical Engage Citizens and Digging Deeper: Activities for Enriching and Expanding Social Studies Instruction K-12. Yali Zhao is an associate professor of social studies and multicultural education in the College of Education and Human Development at Georgia State University (GSU). Dr. Zhao’s research interests include technology integration in social studies, comparative and global education, and virtual exchange. She has published in reputed academic journals, such as The Social Studies, Social Education, the International Journal of Social Education, Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, International Education Journal, Social Studies and the Young Learners, Innovations in Education and Teaching International, and The International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning. Zhao is co-editor of book Seeking the Common Dreams between the Worlds: Stories of Chinese Immigrant Faculty in North American Higher Education. Currently, she also leads international virtual exchange initiatives at GSU as Virtual Exchange Faculty Associate.