The World Almanac of World War II [First Revised Edition] 0886872758, 0345337255

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THE WORLD ALMANAC OF

WORLD

The Complete and Comprehensive

fentary of World

War 11

t.Xr-7;

at

BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY

THE WORLD ALMANAC OF

WORLD WAR n WORLD ALMANAC OF WORLD WAR II D743.5 W67/1986 «70 16070-70

SE

No longer the

property of the

Boston Public

Lsbrar/. t

Sale of this material

THE WORLD AIJIANAC OF

WORLD WAR n

The Complete and Comprehensive Documentary of World War II

Edited by Birigadicir Peter Young First

Revised Edition

World Almanac

An

Imprint of Pharos Books

New

York,

A

New York

Bison Book

Copyright©

1981 by Bison

Books Corporation

World Almanac

An First published in the

United States

in 1981 as

The World Almanac Book of World War

No

II

book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the All rights reserved.

imprint of Pharos Books

A

Scripps-Howard Company 200 Park Avenue New York, NY 10166

part of this

publisher. First revised edition published in 1986.

Distributed in the United States by Ballantine

Books, a division of Random House, Inc., and Canada by Random House of Canada Ltd.

in

Library of Congress Catalog Card 80-54779

Number

Pharos Books

ISBN 0-88687-275-8 Ballantine Books ISBN 0-345-33725-5 Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

CONTENTS INTRODUCTION

6

CHRONOLOGY The Approach The War Years

to

War

10

September 1939

36

January 1940 January 1941

45

January 1942 January 1943

141

January 1944

244

January 1945

315

The Aftermath

353

85 193

Weapons and Equipment

LAND WARFARE SEA WARFARE AIR WARFARE

416 458

BIOGRAPHIES

520

CASUALTIES, A Summing-up

614

INDEX

615

358

INTRODUCTION BY BRIGADIER PETER YOUNG World War

II

was the

greatest cataclysm in

Tens of millions of people died in battle. Millions more were murdered simply because of the ethnic or religious group they belonged to. Millions still more were innocent civilians, who were caught up in a conflict of which they knew little and understood less. For those who lived through the war, the conflict was history.

complex and, for most, largely unintelligible apart from the anxieties and hardships which the war thrust upon them. To most people living today who were born after the war came to an end, the events seem far away and still less comprehensible. Nevertheless, as the greatest collective human endeavor ever undertaken, it

demands understanding. The war was

fought,

with varying intensity, on every continent of the

military historians in the world, John Keegan of the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst,

considered military histories to have

whose book. The Face of

Battle,

is

one of the finest appeared in the last decade. He was assisted in this task by Catherine Bradley of New Hall, Cambridge University. The world conflict introduced a series of new weapons, and many more weapons from earlier wars were used by the armies, navies and air forces of the great and lesser powers. An analysis of these weapons was to be

prepared by William Newby-Grant, a leading small arms and artillery expert from the Royal Military

Academy, Sandhurst, and

Ian

V.

Hogg, perhaps the world's foremost authority on small arms and artillery. The naval section was written by Antony Preston, editor of Defence Magazine and author ot dozens of naval histories, considered by many to be the world’s most outstanding historian of ships and naval actions. The aircraft section was prepared by John Pimlott, expert historian of the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst. The entire work was supervised by its general editor S. L. Mayer, recently of the University of Southern California,

who

has

written

or edited

over 20

books on military history and World War II. The editor-in-chief of this almanac is Brigadier Peter Young, who served in the British Army at

globe and it has touched and sometimes scarred the lives of all those who lived through its terrors or those who live today. All of us live in the shadow of World War II. It is for that reason that this book was undertaken. of this almanac is a chronology of the major events leading up to

The

principal

part

World War 11, a detailed day-by-day analysis and commentary about what took place on every

front;

the

final

section

of the chron-

ology covers the immediate postwar years up until the start of the Korean War in 1950. This chronology was largely prepared by Donald Sommerville, historian of University College, Oxford University. It is followed by a biographical dictionary of the most important people who played a role in the war. This was prepared by .one of the most outstanding

Dunkirk, Vaagso, the Dieppe Raids, D-Day and the last stages of the Burma campaign. One of Britain's most decorated war heroes. Brigadier Young went on to write and edit some 25 military histories during and after his period as Director of Historical Studies at the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst. This book has been designed and set out to be useful both to the general reader and the specialist.

The main chronological

section

is

turn so that, for example, machine guns of

all

nations are dealt with together. In the chronology most of the campaigns are dealt with on a

day-to-day basis with appropriate geographical headings. A few campaigns are discussed month by month because their significance is

understood by an account of their cumulative effects over a period of time. Particularly important individual actions are, of course, best

included

within

As

treatment.

this

well

as

subdivided by subject headings, so that the

military developments there are also series of

events and significance of a particular campaign

entries

can be followed in detail by a newcomer to the subject. Equally a specialist already familiar with certain aspects of the history of the war will now have a world-wide framework to illuminate and extend previous knowledge. The value of

many

the biographical

and weapons sections

on

political changes, resistance

work and

other subjects like inter-allied planning.

There are many published accounts in all these fields as well as a mass of official histories and records, but unfortunately their versions of any one story often differ. The editors have made

per-

every effort to reconcile these discrepancies to

haps greatest for cross reference, but they can also be used to suggest new areas for study and

reach a reliable synthesis, but clearly opinions

research.

Where

is

better to begin this than in the

and analysis of the chronology section? Like most reference works this almanac is not designed to be read straight through from beginning to end (does anyone read a dictionary facts

but by judicious use of the subheadings and index this book can serve many purposes. The biography of a general serving in North Africa in 1942 can lead to his career in like that?),

other theaters at other times, and Allied aircraft used over

similarly

Europe also played

section

is

organized simply

weapons sections equipment is dealt with in

in alphabetical ^prder. In the

each major class ,pf

which variant is best. Whatever conclusions are reached on differ as to

cular issues

we

are

all

Second World War.

Its

Straits

China, or

if

we Communist-

legacy haunts us

gaze across the Berlin Wall into controlled Europe, if we look

Taiwan

parti-

the stepchildren of the if

across

the

toward the People's Republic of

we look

at the

maps of Africa

the Middle East. The Arab-Israeli

or

were a direct result of World War II. So were the Korean and Vietnam Wars. The waxing and waning of the Cold War between the Western conflicts

nations and the Soviet Union and

their part in the Pacific war.

The biographical

may

its

client

states is a constant reminder of the importance of World War II in the daily headlines. It has been said that were it not for the peace settlement of World War 1, that World War II would never have taken place. It is certainly true that the unfulfilled aspirations of nations and peoples at the end of World War I were the

hair-trigger pulled by the dictators

who

arose

from the ashes of that terrible conflict. This, almost inevitably, led to the still greater horrors of World War II. In 1945 national aspirations

and a natural human desire for a better life the conflicts between nations and within them that we face today. It can only be hoped that the lessons taught by World War II, among the most important of which is that

created

uncontrolled craving for world hegemony can only lead to a third world war, have been sufficiently understood. It is the purpose of this

book to add to the knowledge of the Second World War in the fervent hope that a third one

may

never take place.

CHRONOLOGY THE APPROACH TO WAR JUNE

1919

concluded. This treaty, and the similar Treaty of St Germain

The Treaty of

Versailles

is

between Austria-Hungary and the Allies

to-

gether help to foster some of the grievances and weaknesses which will form the causes of World to be largely disarmed and occupied by Allied forces. be the Rhineland is to Considerable reparations are to be paid but the

War

11.

Germany

is

not yet fixed. The map substantially redrawn. From the

amount of the burden

is

of Europe is wreck of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire a whole group of new states is created. Each of these states has grievances against the others and none has a wholly homogeneous population.

Poland too has been created and will fight successfully in 1920 to retain its independence against the Soviets. Japan (still allied with

mandate over islands in the Pacific; in the Marshalls, Marianas and Carolines. The Charter of the League of Nations is

about to begin is halted. The British and Americans accept parity in their main forces. The Japanese are to have about two-thirds of this strength and the French and Italians about one-half of the Japanese force. Although none of the signatories, with the possible exception of the United States,

is

particularly

happy with the

conform, largely because of economic pressure. The effects for the Japanese terms they

all

are particularly important.

They

feel that in a

sense they have been denied an equal position in the world by the Western Powers and are, therefore, impelled to look more toward Asian affairs. More- or less-overtly racist immigration measures taken by the Western countries during the next few years contribute to this hurt

dependence of the Japanese on outside sources for their raw materials can only increase this tendency to look for foreign gains and be wary of restrictions. attitude.

The almost

total

Britain) gains a

part of the Versailles agreement but its scope is left substantially weakened by the refusal of the

United States Congress to

SEPTEMBER

ratify

young German army officer named Adolf Hitler gate

a

small

blackshirts begin operations to eliminate oppo-

JANUARY political-instruction is

ordered to investi-

right-wing political

1922

Mussolini’s Fascists stage a ‘March on Rome’ to demand power. They succeed and the party sition.

it.

1919

A

OCTOBER

party,

the

Party (DAP), in Munich. He becomes its leading public speaker and

German Workers’

1923

France and Belgium occupy the Ruhr in an attempt to enforce the payment of reparations in which Germany has fallen behind. In 1921 a provisional figure of 132,000,000,000 marks has

(NSDAP).

$33,000,000,000 or £6,850,000,000). One of the reasons for Germany’s failure to keep up with payments is the decline in the value of the mark. In 1918 it stood

political

at

joins

it,

by July 1921 is its leader. He changes its title to the National Socialist German Workers’ Party

He obtains money from army funds to purchase a newspaper, the Volkischer Beobachter (this title can be translated as Racist Observer). Hitler leaves the army in April 1920 but retains some of his former Major Roehm. His and its combination of anti-Communism and nationalist

contacts, especially with a

program, with

its

unashamedly with violence.

1922 naval powers meet in Washington The leading limitation of their forces. The discuss to

conference was originally planned as a general disarmament meeting but the French refused to discuss army reductions because the guarantees of their security which had formed part of the Versailles agreement have not come into force

because of the United States’ refusal to

10

(equivalent

to

four marks to the dollar, in the summer of 1921 at 75, in 1922 at 400, it is now over 7000 and by July it will be 160,000. The peak is not until

November 1

1923

when

the

rate

will

be

30,000,000,000 marks to the dollar.

NOVEMBER

1923

The financial weakness

in

Germany

contributes

to political unrest, to the benefit of the radical parties. One such is Hitler’s

more-

NSDAP

NOVEMBER 1921-FEBRUARY

The

set

radical tone

opposition to Versailles, is designed to have wide appeal. His technique and the reforms advocated are backed

been

ratify.

battleship-building race which had been

in

Munich. In conjunction with the wartime leader General Ludendorff he attempts a putsch to seize power in Bavaria. It fails, partly because it is ill planned and led, but mainly because the army is not brought in to the scheme. Hitler is tried early in 1924 and is sentenced to serve two years. He stays in prison for nine months and spends his time writing Mein KampJ. This book explains his political ideas, notably his anti-

Communism,

his violent

anti-Semitism and his

intention to look for Lehensraum for

Germany

MAY in

Eastern Europe. His connection with Luden-

him some prominence. From

dorff brings

the

importance of which he of legality an appearance maintaining will try to keep up until the war begins. The appearance of legality does not prevent the party thugs from intimidating opponents.

the

and

left

right

1930

have a considerable following,

they are not yet a major force

in

German

affairs.

failure of the putsch he learns the

JANUARY The

first

1924

1927

Shanghai falls to the Kuomintang. Chiang Kaishek chooses to have the support of the rich merchants of the port rather than the Communists and eliminates many of their officials there.

national congress of the

held. This party represents the

Kuomintang

is

growing forces of

Chinese nationalism. Its leader at this stage is Sun Yat-sen but General Chiang Kai-shek has an increasing influence. It is only loosely a party in the Western sense, with little formal structure. It draws support from a variety of groups in Chinese society, generally among the more affluent. Its army is the main basis of its power. The Chinese Communist Party was founded in 1922 and it also has a growing appeal. The

Communists and

APRIL

the

Kuomintang

are not yet

AUGUST

1928

The Kellogg-Briand Pact

is

signed.

By

its

terms

the United States, Great Britain, France, Ger-

many,

Italy

and Japan agree

to

renounce

aggressive war.

JUNE 1929 A committee of experts

under the chairmanship of the American banker Owen Young presents

Young Plan for the final German reparations bill. It the

settlement of the fixes the

amount

confirmed enemies.

which is owed and gives a date by which payments are to be completed. Although the terms

APRIL

are less harsh than those previously fixed they

1924 The Dawes Plan provides new arrangements for the payment of German reparations and forms the

background

German

of the currency. About $250,000,000 is to be

paid each year and

to

the

much

stabilization

of the

money to finance

and Germany’s economic recovery, borrowed from abroad. this,

is

to be

are not as

23

APRIL Field

1925

Marshal von Hindenburg becomes

presi-

dent of Germany.

OCTOBER

1925

The Locarno

treaties are

agreements Britain and Italy promise to guarantee the Franco-German frontier against violation by either side. No similar promise is made for Germany’s eastern borders. This is a blow to the French because their policy has been to try to keep Germany contained by the threat of attack from the west and by having allies in the Little Entente (Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia

and Rumania) in the east. Britain prefers to be friendly toward Germany and wants to avoid being entangled in Balkan problems. In this way armaments can be kept low and there will be no need to call for help from the British Empire.

SEPTEMBER

1926

are,

OCTOBER

1929

The New York Stock Exchange collapses. A worldwide economic depression begins. There has been a worldwide tendency for agricultural overproduction which combined with a decline in

concluded. By these

good as the German

authorities hoped. however, accepted. Hitler joins with the Nationalist Party, led by the industrialist Hugenberg, in opposing the settlement. This campaign brings new financial backing for the Nazis and makes Hitler a national figure.

They

international trade has led to protectionist

measures. The economic system has been unbalanced by the reparations and other war debts. The debts have been largely covered by loans from the United States but, because of protection, other countries have been unable to sell in the United States and therefore have had to borrow still more. This borrowing will now come to an end.

APRIL

1930

The London Naval Treaty is agreed. By its terms there are to be no new battleships before 1937. Limitations are also agreed to cover submarines, cruisers

MAY

and destroyers.

1930

Germany joins the League of Nations. This step illustrates the progress being made by the Weimar regime during this comparatively un-

The Japanese Prime Minister Inukai is assassinated by a group of young army officers because of his support for the London Treaty.

troubled period. Although the radical parties of

The

militants

had hoped

for parity with Britain

CHROHOLOGY and the United

States.

The

fixing of the

number

after the attack

the

begins,

League

on

calls

of cruisers allowed to Japan as an arbitrary fraction of that of Britain and the United States is seen as particularly obnoxious. This murder is only one token of a growing anarchy within the Japanese ruling class. Various pressure groups and ‘patriotic’ societies are developing in which junior officers are becoming deeply involved. They are prepared to take the law into their own

Japan to withdraw and appoints a Commission to investigate the rights and wrongs of the situation. This is the first time the League has been asked to intervene in a case where a great power is involved and the eventual failure of the

hands and act without regard for the more cautious policies which some Japanese statesmen and many of the Japanese people prefer.

JANUARY

SEPTEMBER

Treaty port. Early in February the Japanese bring their forces up to four divisions

In the

German

intervention

elections the Nazis

become

the

only

too clearly the

weakness of the League. 1932 In Shanghai a boycott of Japanese goods by the Chinese leads to riots and then fighting, with Japanese troops protecting the Japanese enclave in

1930

illustrates

the

second-largest party.

They receive 20 percent of the vote. The Communists also do well. The Nazis are still a long way from being in a dominant position but they have taken over

and by March control the port and the area around it.

from Hugenberg’s National Party as the leading

Japan declares the independence of the former Manchuria as the puppet state Manchukuo. The puppet government is headed by a descendant of the Manchu emperors. The Japanese make little attempt either to make themselves popular or to give the Manchukuo government even the appearance of power. There is much direct, open economic exploitation in which the power of the Japanese-owned railroad company is extended

party of the right.

MAY

1931

Austrian bank, the CreditAnstalt, fails. This is a result of French-led financial pressure because of the Austro-German negotiations for a customs union, which the

The

principal

French think

is

a prelude to

German

unification.

DarmstadterIn July a German bank, National, also fails. These failures only increase the economic problems in Germany, which are acute anyway because of the depression. The plan for the customs union has to be abandoned. This is a real humiliation for the government and a bonus for the nationalist parties. Although reparations payments are suspended for a year and then abandoned altogether, this is of little consequence for the German unemployed. the

FEBRUARY

considerably.

1932

The opium trade

is

also

en-

couraged.

MARCH-APRIL

1932

There are presidential elections in

Germany

in

which Hitler stands unsuccessfully against Hindenburg. During April the Nazi SA is

coup are discovered. denies knowledge of these plans and that the Party continues to work within

banned Hitler insists

after plans for a

the electoral system.

SEPTEMBER

1931

Following an incident at Mukden on the South Manchurian Railroad (the railroad line was sabotaged), the Japanese army sends forces to occupy south and central Manchuria. Chinese resistance is comparatively weak and by early in 1932 the conquest is complete. From the speed of the army reaction it seems likely that the incident at Mukden has not been entirely accidental. The Japanese government is not consulted by the army and can do little except follow on. The Japanese constitution provides that any government must have serving officers

navy and army ministers and this means that set on a course of action it can if either service is bring down a government which tries to

as

oppose it. China appeals 12

to the

League of Nations soon

Above: Chancellor Hitler and President Hindenburg meet in 1934. Goering stands behind Hitler wearing steel helmet.

JUNE 1934 MAY

nominees.

1932 conservative

The becomes Cabinet

JUNE

is

Franz von Papen The leading member of his

leader

chancellor.

the

SA

promised to give

is

lifted after the

some support

Nazis have

to the govern-

ment. Later, in July, the Nazis become the largest party in the Reichstag after elections in which the thugs of the SA have done much to intimidate opponents. The Nazis now hold 230 out of 608 seats but this is not a majority. Papen remains chancellor but in September his government is defeated by a combination of the Nazis

and Communists.

NOVEMBER new

1932 elections the Nazis are

still

the

largest party in the Reichstag, but their share of

the vote has declined from 37 percent to 33

The Communist vote increases. General

worried by this and by Papen’s failure to put together a solid parliamentary majority. Papen resigns believing that he will be recalled once coalition negotiations with the Nazis fail. Schleicher

is

increases these powers.

1933

DECEMBER

1932

Papen when Schleicher declares that the army has no in

they only have a bare majority.

is

ready to

Most of

the

Communist deputies are arrested along with some of the Social Democrats. When the Reichstag assembles the Nazis have succeeded, with

support from the Vatican, in winning the votes of the mainly Catholic Center Party for a special constitutional law. This Enabling Act is passed on the 23rd and with it Hitler becomes independent of the presidential power. A token of the ability the Nazis now have to eliminate all opposition is that in this month the first concentration camp, Dachau, is established near

Munich. Japan announces that it intends to leave the League of Nations. This follows the report of the investigating commission on Manchuria. Although it concedes that Japan had important interests to protect and may have been provoked, it also makes no bones about accusing Japan of aggression. Japan’s exit from the League only

makes

the position of the

more

of opinion stronger. Money modernization plans.

President Hindenburg

confidence

special presidential decree, granted

In the elections the Nazis poll 43 percent of the vote but even with the support of the Nationalists

The ban on

percent.

fire,

MARCH

General Schleicher.

1932

After the

after the

A

is

militant sections

granted for army

recall

him. Instead Schleicher himself

OCTOBER

Hitler leaves the

German

becomes chancellor.

1933

League of Nations and ends disarmament con-

participation in the

ferences, ostensibly because other countries have

JANUARY

refused to reduce their military to the

1933

Adolf Hitler becomes chancellor of Germany. In the political maneuverings during the month Schleicher cannot conit becomes clear that struct a coalition government and that Hitler, Papen and the other right-wing parties probably can.

The

powers

president refuses to give Schleicher

to rule without the Reichstag

and he

of the key posts. The coalition talks with the Center Party fail, as the Nazis hope,

many

and Hitler

is

able to call for elections for

FEBRUARY On fire.

Four Communists are in

it it.

1934

Germany and Poland conclude pact. This

is

seems

tried

is

a setback for France’s system of

MARCH

1934 Mussolini makes agreements with Hungary and Austria. German and Italian policy on Austria

want to any form of union between the Germanspeaking nations and, therefore, supports Chan-

is

entirely different. Mussolini does not

see

is

on

both to socialism

and Nazism.

and executed

likely that the

Whoever

set

a nonaggression

Eastern European alliances.

cellor Dollfuss in opposition

the night of the 27th the Reichstag

have a hand

March.

1933

for this crime but

JANUARY

is

forced to resign. Papen becomes vice-chancellor in the new Hitler government and his supporters

hold

German

level.

Nazis

responsible

it

works to the Nazis' advantage. The intimidation campaign against their opponents is stepped up, backed by the Prussian police who are now controlled by Goering and packed with Nazi

JUNE On

1934

the Night of the

Long Knives

Hitler destroys

enemies, particularly within the SA. Ernst Roehm, the leader of the SA, Gregor Strasser, who leads the working-class left ol the Nazi his

party,

and General Schleicher are

the

most 13

CHRONOLOGY 6000 miles. There are many casualties on the way but the regime established in Shensi is better placed to fight off the

to

draw

recruits.

in

favor

Kuomintang and The Communists are strongly

of war with the Japanese.

DECEMBER

1934 the Washington Naval abrogate Japanese The Treaty.

There is a clash between Italian and Abyssinian troops in a disputed area of the and Somaliland Italian between border Abyssinia.

JANUARY Above: Nazis boycott Jewish businesses.

prominent of the victims. The SA is subjected to tighter party control and Himmler's SS becomes more important. The purge takes place on the night of the 30th. Over 000 people are executed. 1

JULY

1934 The Austrian Nazis stage a coup and assassinate Chancellor Dollfuss. Mussolini sends troops to the Italian border and Hitler does not intervene. The Austrian authorities recover and Schuschnigg

is

the

new chancellor.

AUGUST

1934

President Hindenburg dies. Hitler proclaims himself Fuehrer and chancellor. The Armed

Forces are prevailed upon to swear personal allegiance to the new head of state.

SEPTEMBER

MARCH

1935

Hitler introduces

compulsory military

service

and announces the existence of a German

air

This is in direct contravention of the Versailles Treaty. The so-called Nuremberg

force.

decrees are issued, which greatly increase the persecution of the Jews in Germany.

APRIL

1935

At Stresa, Britain, France and Italy join in condemning breaches of the Versailles Treaty. There is little substance to this agreement. The Anglo-German naval talks which soon follow and the growing Italian involvement in Africa will end this brief anti-German unity. The Neutrality Act is passed in the United States. This prevents financial assistance being

given to any country involved in war and states that no protection can be offered to US citizens

1934

The Soviet Union

1935

In a referendum the people of the Saar region vote overwhelmingly for union with Germany. This is an important success for the Nazis.

League of Nations. Stalin is obviously disturbed by the possibility of a threat from the new Germany. joins the

who

enter a

May

war zone. The War Policy Act of

1937 modifies these provisions a

giving the president

some

little,

discretion in their

application.

OCTOBER

1934

King Alexander of Yugoslavia and Foreign Minister Barthou of France are assassinated by a Croat terrorist group. The assassins have Italian backing and the aim is to disrupt the alliance. Franco- Yugoslav The Yugoslav follows which is indeed weak and open regency to German and Italian pressure. Barthou has been distinguished also by his opposition to Hitler.

OCTOBER 1934-NOVEMBER

1935

The Chinese Communists move their main forces from Kiangsi to Shensi province in the Long March. Some groups travel as much as 14

MAY France

1935

and the

USSR

conclude

mutual

a

assistance pact. Later in the year a similar pact

made between Czechoslovakia and the Soviets. The Franco-Soviet agreement is not ratified for nine months. The British are still reluctant to think of the Soviets as friends against Germany is

and although Foreign Secretary Eden visits Moscow later in the year, no agreement is made.

JUNE

1935

The Anglo-German Naval Agreement

Germany

is

is

signed.

up to U-Boats are

to be allowed to build a fleet of

35 percent of the

British

fleet.

MAY 1937 that France lacks the will to protect

permitted.

and

This contravenes both the Versailles Treaty and the Stresa agreement. France is not told of the talks until a late stage and the subsequent

to the east.

protests are ignored.

The war

A more

general naval conference

is

also held

and proposals to continue the limitations on size and numbers of in

London

later in the year

MAY

its allies

1936

Abyssinia comes to an end with the occupation of Addis Ababa and the flight of Haile Selassie. The Italians formally annex the country. in

ships are produced, but these are never finally

JULY

agreed.

OCTOBER

1935 Italy moves against Abyssinia

France lead the

in force. Britain

League of Nations into

and imposing sanctions against

Italy in

November,

but these are halfhearted. Oil supplies are left unhindered and nothing is done to close the Suez Canal to Italian troopships. Mussolini is nonetheless driven to look toward Germany for support. In turn Germany receives a free demonstration of the ineffectiveness of the League and some indication of what can be achieved by

determination and brute force.

1936 Sanctions against Italy come to an end. The Spanish Civil War begins. This is important to wider issues of international relations for several reasons. It sharpens the ideas of a

Fascist-Communist conflict and brings Italy and Germany closer together. It weakens the ties between France and the USSR because France refuses to help the Republicans.

1935 There is an important series of anti-Japanese riots by Chinese students in Peking. These reflect the popular Chinese feeling. The Kuomintang has been growing stronger and its army better trained in the recent months but Chiang

Kai-shek has been using his forces principally to fight the Communists and not the Japanese.

A

for

The war will continue until

NOVEMBER

far-reaching plot by a group of younger

power in Japan only just fails. They have planned a program of assassinations, to he followed by the imposition of a new Cabinet on the emperor. Not all the killings are carried out and after a few days’ confusion senior politicians regain control. Although trials

939.

by

concluded

is

Germany and Japan. Italy joins later. Secret clauses of the pact make it clear that the main aim

is

to threaten the

USSR

from both west and

east. It is not, however, a formal alliance since the Japanese do not want to be drawn in to a

European

strengthening

1936

1

1936

The Anti-Comintern Pact

future

FEBRUARY

British

hypocrisy is confirmed with Britain once again content to take only ineffective steps to prevent foreign interference in the war. It also provides several shattering demonstrations of the power of the new Luftreputation

waffe.

DECEMBER

The

war.

Germany

Britain will be distracted

They hope

by

that

against the Soviets that

from Asian

affairs.

officers to seize

and executions follow the dangerous scope independent action too clear.

MARCH In

at

junior levels

is

for

made only

1936

Hitler's

first

foreign-policy

triumph

the

Rhineland, demilitarized by the provisions of Versailles and the Locarno agreement, is re-

occupied by British

German

troops.

governments do

little

The French and more than briefly

take the step. Hitler has had to overcome opposition from his generals and by being proved right his supremacy over them and protest.

To

confirmed. Implicitly this act suggests that Germany and not France is now the leading power on the continent of Europe his self-esteem are

DECEMBER

1936

Chiang Kai-shek generals,

is

arrested

by one of

Chang Hseuh-liang,

while

his

visiting

some troops employed in blockading the Communist Shensi province. After complicated negotiations involving the Communist Chou En-lai Chiang is eventually released but he has been compelled to agree to take a more definitely anti-Japanese line. A recent defeat for a Japanese-backed warlord in Suiyuan province has shown that the Japanese can be beaten.

JANUARY

1937 Hitler formally abrogates all of the provisions of the Versailles Treaty in a Reichstag speech, claiming that it is impossible for a great power to accept restrictions of this nature.

MAY

1937

.

.

minister Neville Chamberlain becomes prime

of Britain. 15

CHRONOLOGY JUNE

1937 The purges of the Soviet Communist Party are extended to take in the army. About 35,000 officers will be arrested and executed or will simply disappear during the coming months. Three of the five marshals of the Soviet Union,

army commanders, all the military district commanders and well over half of all officers of general rank will be included. The most prominent casualty is Marshal Tukha13 out of 15

has been working to convert the army to run on the most modern lines with the emphasis on independent tank forces. These

chevsky

who

ideas are

abandoned

after his

fall.

kept by Colonel Hossbach and

is

known

Hossbach Memorandum. Hitler explains his aim to look for Lebensraum in Eastern Europe and specifically accepts that it will probably be necessary to use force to attain this. In the short term he is considering action against Austria and Czechoslovakia. He is not certain of the timing of these moves, preferring to wait on opportunity, but he intends that the whole process be

over by between 1943 and 1945 because by that time he will be past his peak and other nations will be catching Germany’s lead in arms. Private discussions between Britain and France decide that nothing should be done about

any German move against Austria.

JULY

1937 There is an outbreak of fighting near Peking at the Marco Polo bridge. There is some evidence that this incident has been provoked by junior officers on both sides but during the next few weeks the fighting spreads throughout north

China. Peking and Tientsin are controlled by the Japanese before the end of the month. Throughout this time negotiations are continuing and not ungenerous offers of settlement are made by the Japanese, but by early August Chiang Kaishek has decided to

fight.

AUGUST-NOVEMBER

1937

There is heavy fighting around Shanghai in which the Japanese, for some time seriously outnumbered, are very hard pressed. During September the Communist forces in Shansi score an important, morale-boosting victory over the Japanese 5th Infantry Division. By early November the Japanese forces in Shanghai have been increased and, aided by landings nearby to threaten

the

Chinese

rear,

they

drive

the

Chinese back. They begin to advance toward Nanking. During October and November there are further Japanese proposals for a settlement but these come to nothing. Equally abortive is a conference of Far East powers held in Brussels in November. The Japanese do not attend because they see it as an attempt by the West to deny them the profits of their strength. Although Chiang has hoped for at least economic help, he gets

little

satisfaction

from the conference. The

United States maintains its isolation policy and the Europeans are not prepared to act unless the

1937

Hitler holds an important conference

in

which

he explains his intentions for Germany during the conference is the next few years. A record of 16

France

maintains that its treaty obligations will compel it to fight for Czechoslovakia. Britain would not be able to keep out of such a war for fear of a

French defeat. The British policy is, therefore, to try to obtain an agreement between Germany and Czechoslovakia and the only way to achieve this is to put pressure on the Czechs to make concessions. This pressure

DECEMBER

now begins.

1937

The Japanese forces advancing from Shanghai reach and capture Nanking. The Japanese now offer new, rigorous terms to Chiang Kai-shek but these are not accepted. Many Japanese are prepared to look for peace and consider less harsh terms. The fighting is a growing economic burden and the heavy involvement is an un-

welcome commitment to the Army General Staff who would prefer to prepare to fight the USSR. The army is, however, not easy to control. The incident on 12 December when the American gunboat Panay is sunk, the air attack in August on the British ambassador's car and, w orst of all, the several days rampage of murder and rape which follow the capture of Nanking, all

provide evidence of the army's lack of

restraint.

FEBRUARY British

1938 Foreign Secretary

Eden

resigns.

He

resigns over a quarrel concerning policy toward Italy but this is only part of his disagreement

with Chamberlain over how to combat Hitler. Early in the month Hitler also reorganizes his administration. In January War Minister Blomberg was dismissed for marrying a lady with an unsuitable background and the Army Commander in Chief Fritsch was sacked on trumpedup charges that he is homosexual. At the start of

United States does.

NOVEMBER

as the

February Hitler announces the abolition of the War Ministry and its replacement by a new organization. Armed Forces High Command,

Above: (jcrnian mountain troops

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SSR.

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3 SEPT. 1939

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Above: German e.xpansion

J

Above A :

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9 34-39. 19

Above : A German assault sun

Above: German gains 1939 20

in

40.

Athens.

Above:

British prisoners in the desert.

.

Above : T-J4 tanks hofi^ed down and abandoned during

Above: The war

in the

USSR

and North Africa 1941

the fall of 1941

42. 21

Above; A

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MG 34.

Maps: Germany’s

retreat

and final

Barents Saa

defeat.

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