The Vanishing Past: Studies in Medieval Art, Liturgy and Metrology Presented to Christopher Hohler (BAR International) [1 ed.] 0860541320, 9780860541325

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The Vanishing Past Studies of Medieval Art, Liturgy and Metrology presented to

Christopher Hohler edited by

Alan Borg and Andrew Martindale

BAR International Series 1981

III

B.A.R.

B.A.R., 122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., :\LA ., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R . S-111, 1981:

"The Vanishing Past"

© The Individual Authors, 1981 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860541325 paperback ISBN 9781407325187 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541325 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

P age I ntroduct ion 1 .

The l ost a pse mosa ic o f t he Ho ly S epu lchre, J erusa lem A lan Borg : S a insbury Centre f or V isua l Arts, Un ivers i ty o f E ast Ang l ia

7

2 .

P ega lott i 's C loth L engths E r ic F ern ie: S choo l o f F ine Arts a nd Mus ic, Un ivers i ty o f E ast Ang l ia

1 3

3 .

S ome F ranc iscan a l tars o f t he 1 3th a nd 1 4th c entur ies J u l ian Gardner: Department o f t he H istory o f Art, Un ivers ity o f Warw ick

2 9

4 .

The Damnat ion o f Nero, a nd r e lated t hemes George Henderson: Department o f H istory o f Art, Un ivers ity o f Cambr idge

3 9

5 .

The V irg in Mary 's Rega l ia a nd 1 2th c entury Eng l ish s ea ls T A He s lop: S choo l o f F ine Arts a nd Mus ic, Un ivers ity o f E ast Ang l ia

5 3

6 .

The S ogn-Va ldres d es ign E r la Bergendah l Hoh ler : I nst ituttet f or Kunsth istor ie og K lass isk Arke log i, Un ivers itet iOs lo

6 3

7 .

An unnot iced l eaf o f aL ate Ant ique i vory d iptych a nd t he Temp le o f Mercury i n Rome P eter L asko: Courtau ld I nst itute o f Art, Un ivers ity o f L ondon

8 9

8 .

The i nf luence o f Canterbury o n t he c o l lect ion a nd p roduct ion o f manuscr ipts a t Durham i n t he Ang loNorman p er iod Anne L awrence: Department o f Extra-Mura l S tud ies, Queen 's Un ivers ity, Be lfast

9 5

9 .

An Eng l ish s tonemason i n s ta ined g lass R ichard Marks: The Burre l l Co l lect ion, G lasgow Museums a nd Art Ga l ler ies

1 05

1 0.

P a inting f or P leasure —some l ost 1 5th c entury s ecu lar d ecorat ions o f Northern I ta ly Andrew Mart inda le: S choo l o f F ine Arts a nd Mus ic, Un ivers i ty o f E ast Ang l ia

1 09

1 1.

Notes o n t he P ost-Conquest Ca lendar, L itany a nd Martyro logy o f t he Ca thedra l P r iory o f W inchester w ith a c ons idera t ion o f W inchester D iocese Ca lendars o f t he P re-Sarum p er iod N ige l Morgan: Westf ie ld Co l lege, Un ivers ity o f L ondon

1 33

P age 1 2.

A l ost t omb f rom S aw ley Veron ica S eku les: S a insbury Centre f or V isua l Arts, Un ivers ity o f E ast Ang l ia

1 73

1 3.

The Romanesque S cu lpture o f Tuam Roger S ta l ley : Tr in ity Co l lege, Un ivers ity o f Dubl in

1 79

1 4.

F our i l lustrated J acobus manuscr ipts A l ison S tones: Department o f Art H istory, Un ivers i ty o f M innesota

1 97

1 5 .

A Romanesque marb le a ltar f ronta l i n Beaune a nd s ome C i teaux manuscr ipts Ne i l S tratford: Department o f Med ieva l &L ater Ant iqu it ies, Br i t ish Museum

2 23

I NTRODUCTION

Chr istopher Hoh ler r et ired f rom f u l l-t ime t each ing a t t he Courtau ld I nst itute i n 1 979. He h ad t aught t here s ince 1 947 a nd h is r et irement, a l though i t t ook p lace i n g ood o rder a t t he a ppo inted h our, s t i l l t ook many p eop le by s urpr ise. I n c ircumstances wh ich r ema in o bscure, a c o l lect ive w ish d eve loped amongst t hose who h ad b een h is pup i ls t ha t t he p ass ing o f s uch a n e ra s hou ld b e marked by a s u itab le monument. A c o l lection o f e ssays w i l l s carce ly b e j udged a n o r ig ina l c ho ice o f monument; but t h is c o l lect ion h as c erta in c haracter ist ics wh ich we h ope make i t d ifferent f rom o thers. I t i s , f irst a nd f oremost, a g roup o f e ssays f rom t hose who h ave l earnt f rom Chr istopher Hoh ler. The c ontr ibutors h ave n ot a l l b een o ff ic ia l ly r eg istered a s h is s tudents but t hey a re a l l o f a n a ge t o h ave h ad t he ir i nte l lectua l d eve lopment p rofound ly a ffected—a l l w i th s ay ' en l ivened ', s ome m ight a dd ' dented ' —by h is p resence a nd e xamp le. I t i s i mportant t o make t h is p o int s ince t he l i st o f c ontr ibutors m ight e as i ly h ave b een e xtended by t he i nclus ion o f a number o f C. H.'s em inent c ontemporar ies, many o f whom wou ld c erta in ly h ave b een p leased t o a dd t he ir o ffer ing t o t h is c o l lect ive c omp l iment. We d ec ided a t a n e ar ly s tage a ga inst t h is s ince t he b ook wou ld a t t hat p o int h ave s tarted t o t e l l ad ifferent s tory. Wha t i s t he s tory t o ld by t h is b ook? The a nswer i s s imp le. C . H . h as n ot, i n t ruth, pub l ished a t g reat l ength. I n p ract ice a c omp lete b ibl i ography h as b een d iff icu lt t o c omp i le b ecause t he a rt ic les a nd r ev iews a re s pread a cross a n e xtraord inary r ange o f books a nd p er iod ica ls. N everthe less, we h ave a ttempted t he t ask a nd t he r esu lts w i l l b e f ound b e low. The b rev ity o f t he l i st i s , h owever, m is lead ing. L ength a nd g reatness, t hough f requent ly c onfused, a re n orma l ly d ist inct a nd s eparab le. F ew s cho lars c an s o s tud ious ly a vo id g o ing i nto p r int un less t hey have s ometh ing worthwh i le t o s ay ; a nd f ew c an wr ite w ith s uch e conomy o f words wh i le s t i l l ma inta in ing a j ust b a lance b etween s ap ientia a nd h i lar itas. E ach e ssay i s , i n i ts own way, a masterp iece o f e xpos it ion; a nd i f t h is b ook d id n oth ing e xcept make t hem more r ead i ly a ccess ib le, i t wou ld h ave a ch ieved, i n a cadem ic c irc les a t l east, a publ ic s erv ice. We ight o f s cho larsh ip i s n ot, o f c ourse, s ynonymous w ith w eight o f publ icat ions. There i s , i n t he a rch ives o f t he Courtau ld I nst i tute, a memorab le l e tter wh ich C . H. s ent t o t he Reg istrar 's s ecretary i n r ep ly t o ar out ine e nqu iry s eek ing e v idence o f a cademic a ct iv ity t o i nsert i n t he a nnua l r eport. Those who h ave e xper ience o f t h is p er iod ica l e xcerc ise w i l l r ea l ise t hat by ' ev idence o f a cadem ic a ct iv ity ' i s n orma l ly meant ' words p r inted ' ( a lthough t here i s u sua l ly a r ider t o t he e ffect t hat b ook r ev iews s hou ld n ot b e i nc luded—how wrong t hey a re, s ee b ib l iography b e low). The r ep ly went a s f o l lows: " I have publ ished n o b ooks o r a rt ic les i n t he p er iod ment ioned. Noth ing I h ave b een work ing o n c ou ld b e c a l led a b ook. Wha t Ih ave b een d o ing i s p repar ing a n a rt ic le o n S ome E ar ly Manuscr ipts o f Eng l ish P o lyphony a nd a nother on W i l l iam o f Ma lmesbury a nd G lastonbury : a nd i nvest igat ing , f or t he b enef it o f t wo Ph. D c and idates I am s uperv is ing, t he med ieva l c a lendars a nd l i tan ies o f c hurches i n t he e cc les iast ica l p rov ince o f Re ims. The f i rst a rt ic le i s meant t o b e pub l ished a s p art o f ac o l lection

1

o f e ssays by t he P la insong a nd Med ieva l Mus ic S oc iety : t he s econd h as a t t he moment n o h ome ( and n eeds t yp ing). The c a lendars a nd l i tan ies w i l l n o t r esu l t i n a nyth ing i n p r int, t hough t he e ffects s hou ld b e v is ib le i n t he t wo t heses. I n a dd i t ion I h ave managed t o put i n s ome work o n a n e d i t ion o f t he S ixteenth C entury Churchwardens ' Accounts o f Buck inghams h ire wh ich I am p repar ing . Ih ave b een f or a y ear j o int g enera l e d itor—and a m n ow s o le g enera l e d i tor—of t he Buck inghamsh ire Record S oc iety wh ich h as i nvo lved my a ct ing a s as pec ies o f ' unpa id s uperv isor ' f or t he p repara t ion o f a n e d i t ion o f t he E ar l iest R ecords o f t he Archdeaconry o f Budk ingham a nd a nother o f t he Bucks Muster Ro l l f or 1 522. Ia m s t i l l o n t he c ounc i ls o f b oth t he P la insong a nd Med ieva l Mus ic S oc iety a nd t he Henry Bradshaw S oc iety, t he l atter a ga in a p os i t ion a l l t oo l i ab le t o t ang le me up a s ' unpa id s uperv isor '. Is ay a l l t h is t o meet p oss ib le c ommen t i n v iew o f t he f act t hat, f orma l ly, my a ct iv i t ies f or t he y ear i n t he Report w i l l , a s It h ink t hey must, a ppear a s " n i l" . You know, a nd e veryone e lse knows what I t h ink o f t h is k ind o f Report. The unpr intab le f acts a re, h owever, a s a bove." I t i s t rue t o s ay t hat much o f C .H.'s t ime h as b een s pent i n i nvest igat ing t he i nte l lectua l a nd a cadem ic p rob lems o f o thers—bo th pup i ls a nd f r iends : a nd t he w ide r ange o f s uch a ss istance w i l l b eg in t o b ecome c lear f rom t he t heses wh ich h e h as s uperv ised ( see b e low). He h as h imse lf put t h is i n a more p os i t ive f orm when h e r emarked t ha t i f y ou a lways ' t each ' s ub jects t o wh ich t he a nswers a re a lready known, y ou t end t o r emove f rom y our t each ing t he e xc i temen t o f t ry ing t o f ind t h ings o ut a nd y ou may m iss t he s ense o f d iscovery. F ew p eop le who h ave b een t aught by h im—or h ave b rought p rob lems t o h im—can h ave f a i led t o f ee l t hat s ense o f e xc i tement i n wh ich n ove lty i n t hought a nd ' heret ica l ' p ropos i t ions a re b oth w e lcomed but a lso s ub jected t o t he most s earch ing c r i t ic ism. F or f ew a ud iences c an t he o ld l ecturer 's max im ' weak p o int, t hump t ab le ' b e l ess a ppropr ia te. I ndeed, o ne qu ick ly l earnt t ha t i nte l lectua l d iscourse i s , p erhaps a bove a l l, c iv i l ised. I t a vo ids p retent iousness, b ombas t, humbug a nd v erb iage; a nd i t i s i mbued w i th c ommon-sense. C .H.'s pup i ls h ave a lso qu ick ly b ecome aware o f a number o f e as i ly c ontracted t ypes o f a cadem ic ma la ise a s, f or i nstance, t he s pur ious l abe l, t he f ac i le c lass if ica t ion o r t he s i lence t rea tment. These a re most ly means by wh ich t he l azy h istor ian bund les i nconv en ient ' peop le ' o ut o f t he way. But a l l h istor ica l e v idence o f whatever s ort p resents t o u s i n Marc B loch 's phrase i l es v est iges d e l ' homme '. Under C .H. o ne i s c ons tant ly a ware t hat c ar tu lar ies a nd c hron ic les d o n o t e x ist s imp ly i n v acuo t o p rov ide t he a rt h istor ian w i th d a tes; n e i ther d o r u ins e x ist s imp ly t o p rov ide e mp loyment f or a rchaeo log ists. He h as a lways a sserted t hat h e i s a n h istor ian, n ot a n ' ar t h istor ian '; a nd c erta in ly o ne o f t he p leasures o f h is t each ing h as b een t he s ense t ha t ' art ' a nd a l l t hat g oes w i th i t i s but a p art o f al arger s cene wh ich o ne i gnores a t o ne 's p er i l a nd t o o ne 's own i nte l lectua l i mpover ishment. P eop le emerge f rom h is h ands w i th a s trong c onv ict ion t hat t he Truth, h owever ph i losoph ica l ly unfash iona b le , i s i mportant; t ha t i t i s a matter o f c oncern t o f ind o ut a s n ear ly a s p oss ib le wha t r ea l ly h appened; t ha t ' peop le ' may p rove t o b e t i resome a nd unpred ictab le but a re u lt imate ly f ar more i nterest ing t han ' isms '; t hat a ny h istor ica l p rob lem, i f worth i nvest iga t ing a t a l l, i s worth i nvest igat ing w e l l; t hat t h is w i l l r equ ire a lmost i nf in i te d i l igence c oup led w ith ar are c omb ina t ion o f c ommonsense a nd human i ns ight; a nd t ha t c utt ing c orners w i l l a lmost c erta in ly l and o ne i n t he d i tch. 2

We d ec ided t ha t t hose who h ad b een s ub jected t o wha t i s n owadays c a l led i n e ducat ion is t c irc les t he ' l earn ing p rocess ' under C . H. a nd p art i cu lar ly t hose who h ad s ubsequent ly e ntered t he un ivers ity a nd museum wor ld s hou ld b e i nv i ted t o c ontr ibute t o t h is v o lume. S ome, t hrough e d i tor ia l m ismanagement, h ave n ot r ece ived i nv i tat ions a nd o thers w ere c ontacted t oo l a te. O thers, t hough c ontacted i n g ood t ime, w ere unab le t o c ontr ibute ow ing t o p ressure f rom o ther c omm itments. T o a l l o f t hese w e o ffer, a s a ppropr ia te, o ur a po log ies o r r egrets. The ir a bsence f rom t hese p ages i s n ot t o b e t aken a s as ign o f h ost i l i ty t o t he c ause. We h ope t ha t t hose e ssays wh ich w e h ave g ot t ogether w i l l b e a n a dequate r ef lect ion o f s ome a spects o f C. H.'s c areer a s as cho lar a nd t eacher, f or h e h as a c ons iderab le number o f ' pup i ls ' n ow s pread a round t he wor ld o f l earn ing b oth i n t he Br i t ish I s les a nd i n Amer ica . The e ssays a re h eterogeneous b o th i n s ub ject ma tter a nd l ength. The e d i tors o ffered m in ima l g u idance o n b oth a nd t he r esu lts t ru ly r ef lect t he i nc l inat ions o f t he i nd iv idua l wr i ters. A s hort c ontr ibut ion may s peak o f a busy l i fe—or n o t, a s t he c ase may b e. I t i s i ndeed a m isce l lany but i t s r ange o f i nterest i s v ery much a p art o f t he s tory o f t he b ook. We h ad o r ig ina l ly h oped t o e xtend t he mater ia l c hrono log ica l ly i nto t he 1 6th c entury a t l east; but t hat p art o f o ur g rand iose a rch i tectura l s cheme n ever g o t p ast t he d raw ing b oard. I t w i l l b e a pparen t t ha t al arge p rop or t ion o f t he c ontr ibutors e xh ib i t wha t may s eem t o b e a n unhea lthy i nterest i n works o f a rt wh ich a re ' l ost '. But c op ing w ith ' l ost ' o b jects i s ac ruc ia l a nd unavo idab le p art o f t he t ra in ing o f a ny med ieva l ist; a nd s ome o f t he most i mportant l essons l earnt under C . H. c oncern t he v agar ies o f s urv iva l a nd t he p art ia lness a nd p art ia l i ty o f h istor ica l e v idence. We h ad t hought t o c a l l t he c o l lect ion ' great l ost med ieva l a rt ' but i n t he e nd s ett led f or s ometh ing l ess e xtreme. The p ast may b e v an ish ing but t he s k i lfu l h istor ian c an s t i l l r eca l l i t t o l i fe w i thout n ecessar i ly i nvo lv ing t he s erv ices e i ther o f t he w i tch o f Endor o r Metro-Go ldwyn Mayer. To a ttempt t h is e xerc ise i n C. 1 1.'s c ompany h as a lways b een a memorab le e xper ience. I t r ema ins t o a cknow ledge a g rea t d ea l o f h e lp i n t he p roduct ion o f t h is v o lume. E l izabeth Hase lock o f t he Courtau ld I nst itute k ind ly d id ac ons iderab le amoun t o f ' r esearch ' o n o ur b eha lf . Many members o f t he s taff f rom b oth t he a cadem ic a nd c ura tor ia l s ides o f t he S a insbury Centre f or V isua l Arts a t t he Un ivers i ty o f E ast Ang l ia were a lso i nvo lved ( we s hou ld l i ke i n p art icu lar t o a cknow ledge much s ympathet ic a ss istance f rom t he S choo l photographers).

3

Doctora l t heses s uperv ised by Chr istopher Hoh ler

N Hoffman:

The Romanesque Churches o f Oxfordsh ire

M Wenze l :

Ornamenta l mot ifs o n t ombstones f rom Med ieva l Bosn ia a nd s urround ing r eg ions ( 1966)

J Gardner:

The I nf luence o f P opes ' a nd Card ina ls ' P atronage i n t he I ntroduct ion o f t he Goth ic S ty le i nto Rome a nd t he S urroundi ng Area, 1 250-1305 ( 1969)

A Borg :

Arch i tectura l Decorat ion o f t he Romanesque P er iod i n P rovence ( 1970)

M A S tones:

The I l lustrat ion o f t he F rench P rose L ance lot i n Be lg ium, F landers a nd P ar is, 1 250-1340 ( 1971)

E Temp le:

The Twe lf th-Century P sa lter i n t he Bod le ian L ibrary MS Douce 2 93 ( 1972)

R Marks:

The S ta ined G lass o f t he Co l leg iate Church o f t he Ho ly Tr in ity, Tattersha l l ( L ines) ( 1976)

J Cannon :

Dom in ican P atronage o f t he Arts i n Centra l I ta ly: P rov incia Romana, c . 1 220-c. 1 320 ( 1980)

4

( 1963)

The

B IBLIOGRAPHY ' Med ieva l P av ing T i les i n Buckinghamsh ire '. X IV ( 1941-6) p . 1 , P. 9 9.

Records o f Buck inghamsh ire

Rev iew o f J oan Evans C lun iac Art o f t he Romanesque P er iod. Magaz ine XCIV ( 1952) p . 1 20.

Bur l ington

' The t ype o f s acramentary u sed by S t Bon iface '. S ankte Bon ifat ius Gedenkgabe z um z wö lfhundertsten Todestag Raabe e t a l . ( ed.) ( Fu lda 1 954) p . 8 9. ' Les s a ints i nsu la ires d ans l e m issa l d e P archeve 'que Robert '. J umf äges. Congres S c ient if ique du X IIIe Centena ire ( Rouen 1 955) p . 2 93. ' The Durham s erv ices i n h onour o f S t Cuthbert ' ( in c o l laborat ion w i th Dom Anse lm Hughes) a nd ' The i conography o f t he S to le a nd Man ip les ' i n The Re l ics o f S t Cuthbert e d. C . F . Ba ttescombe ( Oxford 1 956). Rev iew o f G . E l lard Master A lcu in, L iturg ist: a p artner o f o ur p iety ( Ch icago 1 956) J ourna l o f E cc les iast ica l H istory 8 ( 1957) p . 2 22. ' The Badge o f S t J ames '. The S ca l lop. S tud ies o f as he l l a nd i t s i nf luence o n humank ind . e d. I an Cox ( London 1 957) p . 4 9. ' Twe lf th Century I ta l ian P a inting '. Rev iew o f E . B . Garr ison S tud ies i n t he H is tory o f Med ieva l I ta l ian P a inting . The Bur l ing ton Magazine 1 04 ( 1964) p . 5 14 . ' The Cathedra l o f S t Swi th in a t S tavanger i n t he Twe lf th Century ' J ourna l o f t he Br it ish Archaeo log ica l Assoc iat ion 3 rd s er ies XXVII ( 1964) p . 9 2. ' Kings a nd Cast les. Court L ife i n P eace a nd War ' i n The F lower ing o f t he M idd le Ages e d. J oan Evans ( London 1 966). ' St Osyth a nd Ay lesbury '. p . 6 1.

Records o f Buck inghamsh ire XVIII p t 1 . ( 1966)

' The p roper o ff ice o f S t N icho las a nd r e lated matters w i th r eference t o a r ecent b ook '. Rev iew o f C . W . J ones The S t N icho las L iturgy a nd i t s l i terary r e lat ionsh ips ( Berke ley a nd L os Ange les 1 963) Med ium Aevum XXXII ( 1968) p . 4 0. ' A n ote o n J acobus '. ( 1972) p . 3 1 .

J ourna l o f t he Warburg a nd Courtau ld I nst itutes XXXV

Rev iew o f F . B irke l i Norske S te inkors it id l ig M idde la lder ( Os lo 1 973) J ourna l o f E cc les iast ica l H istory 2 6 ( 1975) p . 8 3. ' Some s erv ice b ooks o f t he l ater S axon Church ' i n Tenth Century S tud ies e d. D . P arsons ( London a nd Ch ichester 1 975). ' Ref lect ions o n s ome manuscr ipts c onta in ing 1 3th c entury p o lyphony ' J ourna l o f t he Med ieva l Mus ic a nd P la insong S oc iety I ( 1978) p . 2 . Rev iew o f N . R . Ker, Med ieva l Manuscr ipts i n Br i tish L ibrar ies, Vo l. I Abbotsford-Kee le ( Oxford 1 977). J ourna l o f t he Br it ish Archaeol og ica l Assoc iat ion CXXXI ( 1978) p . 1 43. Rev iew o f R . L . Crocker, The E ar ly Med ieva l S equence ( Un ivers i ty o f Ca l iforn ia 1 977). J ourna l o f t he Med ieva l Mus ic a nd P la insong S oc iety 2( 1979) p . 6 5. Rev iew o f B la ise d e Montesqu iou - F ezensac a nd Dan ie l le Gabor it-Chopin L e Trgsor d e S a int Den is. The Bur l ington Magaz ine CXXI ( 1979) p . 4 52. Un ivers ity o f E ast Ang l ia J anuary 1 981

A .C.N. B. A . H. R. M.

1 . THE LOST APSE MOSA IC OF THE HOLY S EPULCHRE , J ERUSALE M A lan B org

S o much o f t he a r t p roduced i n a nd f or t he C rusader K ingdo m o f J erusa le m h as b een d estroyed , t ha t works wh ich a re l ost b u t a bou t wh ich i nfor ma t ion e x ists a cqu ire a s pec ia l impor tance .

The s ub ject o f t h is s hor t

p aper i s wha t must h ave b een o ne o f t he most f a mous o f a l l Crusader a r t ist i c a ch ieve men ts , a nd i ndeed o ne o f t he most h igh ly r egarded o f a l l C hr ist ian d ecora t ive s che mes , n a me ly t he l ost a pse mosa ic o f t he H o ly S epu lchre , J erusa le m .

T h is work i s k nown t o u s f ro m a n u mber o f d escr ip t ions g iven

b y p i lgr i ms a nd s cho lars ;

i n a dd it ion , i ft he c onc lus ions o f t h is p aper a re

a ccep ted , i ts erved a s t he mode l f or o ther , „ s t i l l e x tan t works o f a r t wh ich w ere made i n J erusa le m i n t he 1 2th c en tury . The mosa ic i n t he a pse o f t he C rusader ' sc hurch o f t he Ho ly S epu lchre i s k nown t o h ave r epresen ted t he Anastasis .

1

Over t he c en tur ies i tb eca me

b ad ly d ecayed , a nd t he r e ma ins were d estroyed i n t he f i re o f 1 808 .

Any

r e ma in ing t races o f d ecora t ion were f ina l ly l ost when t he a pse i t se lf was r ebu i lt i n 1 810 .

H owever , t here a re e nough d escr ip t ions o f t he mosa ic b y

p i lgr i ms a nd t rave l lers t o g ive u s af a ir ly c lear i dea o f i t s a ppearance .

I n

p ar t icu lar , t hree a ccoun ts o f t he mosa ic , t wo f ro m t he 1 2th c en tury a nd o ne f ro m t he 1 7th , p rov ide q u ite d eta i led i n for ma t ion , a nd we may b eg in b y q uo t ing t hese .

2

Wha t a ppears t o b e t he e ar l iest o f a l l d escr ip t ions o f t he mosa ic i s g iven b y J ohn o f Würzburg , C . 1 165 :3 E t c on t inet i l lud n ovu m e t d e n ovo a dd itu m a ed if ic iu m s a t is amp lu m c horu m d om inoru m e t s a t is l ongu m s anctuar iu m , c on t inens ma jus a l tare i n h onore m a nas taseos , i d e s t , s anc tae r esurrec t ion is , c onsecra tu m , q uod e t s uper ius a ppos ita p ictura i n o pere mus ivo d ec lara t .

C on t inetur e n im i n e a imago C hr ist i , s er is c on fract is

i n fern i , r esurgen t is , a n t iquu m p a tre m n ostru m Ada m i nde e x trah en t is . On ly a f ew y ears l a ter , C . 1 172 , t he most d eta i led o f a l l t he med ieva l d escr ip t ions o f t he mosa ic was g iven b y Theoder ic :4 I n i psa a u te m s anctuar i i c ae la tura i pse D om inus n oster J esus C hr istus , i n s in istra c ruce m f erens , d ex tra Adam t enens , c oe lu m imper ia l iter i n tuens , g igan teo p assu s in istro p ede l eva to , d ex tro a dhuc i n t erra p os ito , c oe la p enetra t , c ircu mstan t ibus h is :

s ua

s c i l icet ma tre e t b ea to b ap t ista J ohanne e t omn ibus a posto l is . c u jus p ed ibus l i nea d e muro a d muru m p er i psu m h em icyc lu m p orrecta h anc c on t ine t s cr ip tura m : 7

S ub

Cruc ifu m i n c a me l auda te e t s epu ltu m p rop ter n os g lor if ica te r esurgen te mque a mor te a dora te D eh inc i n l inea s uper iore p er i de m h em icyc lu m d uc ta h aec c on t inetur s cr ip tura : A scendens C hr is tus i n a l tu m c ap t iva m d ux it c arne m , d ed it d ona h om in ibus . An u mber o f o ther med ieva l wr iters men t ion t he mosa ic , b u t d o n o t a dd t o o ur k now ledge o f i t , a nd i ti s f ro m t he monu men ta l work o f F rancesco Quares m ius , H istor ia , T heo log ica e t Mora l is T errae S anctae E luc ida t io ( 1 625 )5 t ha t o ur f ina l d escr ip t ion i s d rawn .

I t was d if f icu lt t o make o u t t he

s ub ject ma t ter b y t h is d a te , b u t Quares m ius d oes g ive a n u mber o f d eta i ls wh ich a re n o t r ecorded e lsewhere .

H owever , t he g enera l a ccuracy o f h is

work i s e x tre me ly h igh a nd we c an a ccep t h is d escr ip t ion w ithou t q ua l ms . F orn ice m , u t e xp l ica t E useb ius , e t i n p raesen t ia c ern i mus ; l i ce t o pus musa icu m , q uo e xornaba tur , a deo c onsu mp tu m , u t q uae H istor ia e sset i n e o d ep icta , n on f ac i le c l iv inar i p oss it ; q uod t ar nen d i l igen t i i ndag ine d eprehend i mus , h ic t i b i s ub i ic i mus . I n f orn ic is med io e st d ep ictus C hr istus p erfora t is man ibus ; s upra c apu t e t i n e x tre m ita te f orn ic is l eg itur HANACZ : h inc i nde i ux ta e t p aene s upra s un t Ange l i , e t d uae t abe l lae , i n a l tera i n d ex tera e t a l tera i n s in istra : i n u traque t er l eg itur Ag ios Graec is l i t ter is , i d e st S anctus , u t s equ itur :

A roc A roc A roc

A roc A T OC A T OC

A b u troque l a tere h om ines a sp ic ien tes , A posto l i e t a l i i , e t b ea t iss i ma V irgo Mar ia :

s ub p ed ibus d uo m inores Ange l i :

q uoru m u nus

c horda m t rah it , a l ter i n a ltu m r esp ic it . We c an n ow s um u p t hese t hree d escr ip t ions i n E ng l ish , c onf la t ing t he v ar ious e le men ts a s f o l lows : t he s cene was i den t i f ied a s t he Anas tas is b y a n i nscr ip t ion p laced a bove t he h ead o f C hr is t .

The c o mpos i t ion i nc luded

ac en tra l f igure o f C hr ist , s hown t ak ing a g rea t s tep w i th h is l e f t f oot , t he r igh t r e ma in ing o n t he g round .

H e h e ld a c ross i n h is l e f t h and , a nd g r ipped

Ada m i n h is r igh t , a nd h is wounds w ere c lear ly v is ib le . t ha t t he b roken g a tes o f h e l l l ay b enea th h is f ee t .

6

I t may b e p resu med

I n a dd i t ion t o Adam ,

t here was a lso t he V irg in , S t . J ohn t he Bap t is t , a nd a l l t he Apos t les .

T here

were t wo a nge ls b enea th t he f eet o f C hr is t , a nd t wo more i n t he s ky , t he l a t ter p a ir b ear ing s tandards ( tabe l lae ) w i th t he w ord H o ly wr i t ten t hr ice o n e ach . Th is , a nd t he i nscr ip t ion i den t ify ing t he s cene , were wr it ten i n G reek c harac ters , b u t t here were t wo L a t in i nscr ip t ions a t t he b ase o f t he s cene , t he s econd o f wh ich i s E phes ians I V , 8 . T h is d escr ip t ion i s q u ite s uf f ic ien t t o e stab l ish b o th t he b as ic t ype o f t he r epresen ta t ion a nd i t s v ar ian ts f ro m t he n or m .

I tc lear ly b e longed t o

t he t ype o f Anastas is i n wh ich C hr ist d rags Ada m b eh ind h im ( ra ther t han r each ing t owards Ada m i n f ron t o f h im ) .

7

T he b est k nown e x tan t r epresen-

t a t ion o f t h is t ype i s t o b e f ound i n t he mosa ics a t H os ios L ukas ( 2 . 1 020 ) . ( P 1 1 .1 ) .

J erusa le m wou ld s ee m t o h ave b een s im i lar t o -Hos ios L ukas , e xcep t 8

t ha t t he c o mpos i t ion was r eversed , C hr ist s tepp ing f orward w i th h is l ef t l eg a nd h o ld ing t he c ross i n h is l ef t h and .

T h is r eversa l o f t he s cene i s o f

s o me s ign if icance , s ince i n a l l t he v ar ious t ypes o f Anastas is r epresen ta t ion C hr ist n or ma l ly s teps t o t he r igh t a nd h o lds t he c ross i n h is r igh t h and . T he a nge ls , wh ich a re men t ioned b y Quares m ius , a re t he most u nusua l e le men ts i n t he s cene —both t hose b enea th C hr ist ' sf eet a nd t hose i n t he s ky b ear ing t he Tr ishag ion :

H o ly , H o ly , H o ly .

With a l l t h is v erba l i n for ma t ion , i ti s e x traord inar i ly f or tuna te t ha t we c an s upp le men t o ur k now ledge f ro m p ictor ia l s ources , s ince t here a re a n u mber o f e x tan t r epresen ta t ions o f t he Anastas is wh ich a re k nown t o h ave b een made i n J erusa le m i n t he 1 2th c en tury .

One o f t hese o ccurs i n t he

w e l l k nown Me l isende P sa lter ( B . L . Ms Eger ton 1 139 , f9 v ) , wh ich was s tud ied i n d eta i l b y B uch tha l .

8

T he r e ma inder o ccur o n as er ies o f s ea ls

o f t he L a t in p a tr iarchs o f J erusa le m , wh ich h ave b een l arge ly i gnored b y a r t h istor ians .

9

T hey a re , h owever , o f i mpor tance b o th i n t erms o f i cono-

g raphy a nd o f d a t ing . I tw i l l b e r eca l led t ha t t he c onsecra t ion o f t he C rusader c hurch o f t he H o ly S epu lchre t ook p lace i n 1 149 , o n t he 5 0th a nn iversary o f t he f a l l o f J erusa le m .

S ign if ican t ly , t herefore , t he f i rst p a tr iarch o f J erusa le m

t o u se a s ea l w ith a r epresen ta t ion o f t he Anastas is o n i t was F oucher d ' Angou leme ( 1 146-57 ) , t he man who c arr ied o u t t he c onsecra t ion c ere mony i n 1 149 .

F ur ther more , t he Anastas is s cene o n t he s ea l i s am in ia ture

1 0

v ers ion o f t he a pse mosa ic , a s we h ave i td escr ibed .

F oucher ' ss ea l s hows

as cene wh ich i s i den t if ied b y t he l egend H . ANACTACIC , p laced b eh ind t he h ead o f C hr ist .

The c en tra l ly p laced f igure o f C hr ist d om ina tes t he c o mpo-

s i t ion , s tepp ing t o t he l ef t a nd h o ld ing t he c ross i n h is l ef t h and , wh i le p u l l ing A da m w ith h is r igh t .

The s cene i s r educed t o i t s b as ic c o mponen ts , w ith

o n ly a f ew o ther f igures v is ib le , a nd w ithou t t he a irborn a nge ls b ear ing t he T r ishag ion .

B uch tha l b e l ieved t ha t t he s ea l d id i nc lude t hese a nge ls , b u t

t h is a ppears t o b e a n e rror , a nd wha t h e t ook f or a n a nge l was i n f act t he b eg inn ing o f t he i nscr ip t ion .

The sma l l s ize a nd worn s ta te o f s urv iv ing

impress ions make i td if f icu l t t o i n terpret t he d eta i ls , a nd f or t h is r eason t he i l lustra t ion g iven h ere ( P l . 1 .2 ) i s o f a n 1 8th c en tury e ngrav ing o f t he s ea l o f F oucher ' ss uccessor a s p a tr iarch , Ama lr ic .

1 1

I n a l l d eta i ls t he A nastas is

s cene o n t he t wo s ea ls i s i den t ica l . D esp ite t he a bsence o f t he a irborn a nge ls , t he u se o f t he l ef t-stepp ing C hr ist , t ogether w ith t he c ongruence o f d a tes a nd h istor ica l c ircu mstance , s trong ly s uggests t he p oss ib i l ity o f ac onnect ion b etween t he s ea l a nd t he mosa ic .

T h is p oss ib i l ity i s e nhanced i f we e xa m ine t he s ea ls o f t he p rev ious

p a tr iarchs o f J erusa le m , s ince t hese a l l s how , i n p lace o f t he Anastas is , t he H o ly S epu lchre i t se lf , i n t he f or m o f a n emp ty s arcophagus g uarded b y a n a nge l o n t he r igh t a nd w ith t he t hree Mar ies o n t he l ef t .

E qua l ly , t hey

a l l b ear a n i nscr ip t ion wh ich p resen ts a v ers ion o f t he words S epu lchru m D om in i I esu C hr ist i .

On t he r everse t hese s ea ls a l l s how a mitred b ishop ,

who i s n a med a nd d escr ibed e i ther a s p a tr iarch o f J erusa le m o r s i mp ly a s p a tr iarch .

1 2

The c hange w ith F oucher ' ss ea l i n 1 146 i s d ra ma t ic , h av ing

t he Anastas is o n t he f ace a nd o n t he r everse t he l egend F u lcher ius S ancte R esurrect ion is E cc les iae Pa tr iacha ( l eav ing n o r oo m f or a m itred f igure ).

9

T he most l ike ly e xp lana t ion f or t h is c o mp le te c hange i n b oth t i t le a nd i conography f ound o n p a tr iarcha l s ea ls i s t o b e s ough t i n t he e ven ts o f J u ly 1 5 , 1 149 , when F oucher c onsecra ted t he n ew c hurch .

J ohn o f Würzburg

t e l ls u s t ha t t he ma in a l tar was d ed icated t o t he A nastas is , a nd t he s ea l r epresen ts a n a bbrev ia ted v ers ion o f t he mosa ic wh ich d ecora ted t he a pse a bove t ha t a l tar .

T he Crusader c hurch was c once ived s hor t ly a f ter t he

c onquest o f t he c i ty , b u t t he b u i ld ing p rogressed s low ly a nd s urv iv ing f o l iage c ap ita ls i n t he c hurch s uggest f our o r f i ve d ist inct b u i ld ing c a mpa igns .1 3 I ti s v ery p robab le t ha t t he f in ish ing t ouches , t he i n terna l d ecora t ion i n mosa ic a nd p a in t , w ere o n ly j ust r eady i n t ime f or t he 1 149 c ere mony . Wha t wou ld b e more n a tura l t han f or t he p a tr iarch t o a dop t f or h is s ea l t he ma jor d ecora t ive p rogra m me a nd s y mbo l o f h is n ew ly c o mp leted c hurch? Once e stab l ished , t he A nastas is b eca me t he n or m f or p a tr iarcha l s ea ls , w ith v ery m inor v ar ia t ions , f or o ver a c en tury .

1 4

I ti s o n ly w ith t he a cces-

s ion o f Wi l l ia m I a s p a tr iarch i n 1 261 t ha t t he s ea ls r ever t t o t he t he me o f t he H ol y S epu lchre i t se lf , a nd t h is i s p erhaps b ecause i t was n o l onger a pparen t t o n on-res iden t p a tr iarchs why t he u nusua l s ub ject o f t he Anastas is was p ar t icu lar ly a ppropr ia te . The s econd s ource f or a n Anastasis r epresen ta t ion f ro m 1 2th c en tury J erusa le m i s f o l io 9 v o f B . L . Ms Eger ton 1 139 , u n iversa l ly k nown a s t he Me l isende P sa lter .

I ti s p erhaps wor th r e me mber ing , h owever , t ha t t he

a ssoc ia t ion w ith Me l isende i s n ot c er ta in , a nd h er s ister Yvet te , a bbess o f t he n unnery a t B ethany , h as a lso b een s uggested a s t he owner o f t he P sa lter . Equa l ly , t he t er m inus a n te q ue m o f 1 143 s uggested b y B uch tha l f or t he P sa l ter r ests u pon t he f act t ha t t he d ea th i n t ha t y ear o f F u lk o f An jou , Me l isende ' s h usband , i s n o t r ecorded i n t he c a lendar .

T h is i s n o t awho l ly c onv inc ing

a rgu men t , s ince t he o n ly t wo o b its i n t he c a lendar a re t hose o f Ba ldw in a nd Emorf ia , t he p aren ts o f Me l isende a nd Yve t te .

N o t o n ly i s F u lk , t h ird k ing

o f J erusa le m , m iss ing , b u t a lso B a ldw in , t he f i rst k ing .

Thus , as afer

t er m inus a n te q ue m i s 1 149 , s ince t he e n try i n t he c a lendar f or 1 5 J u ly r ecords o n ly t he c apture o f J erusa le m a nd n ot t he n ew c onsecra t ion . T he r epresen ta t ion o f t he Anastas is i n t he P sa lter ( P l . 1 .3 ) i s c lose t o t ha t f ound o n t he s ea ls , a nd e ven c loser t o t ha t d escr ibed i n t he mosa ic . Aga in , we h ave t he l ef t-s tepp ing C hr ist , a nd , a s o n t he s ea ls , h is r obe b i l lows o u t b eh ind h is r igh t s hou lder .

T h is i s o f c ourse a v ery c o m mon

B yzan t ine d ev ice , b u t i s n or ma l ly f ound when t he c o mpos it ion i s r eversed , a s a t H os ios L ukas .

T he most

s tr ik ing f eature o f t he s cene i n t he P sa lter ,

h owever , i s t he i nc lus ion o f t wo a irborn a nge ls b ear ing t he Tr ishag ion , j ust a s Quares m ius d escr ibes t he mosa ic .

1 5

T o t he a u thor ' sk now ledge , t h is

d eta i l d oes n o t o ccur i n a ny o ther r epresen ta t ion o f t he s cene .

1 6

I td oes n o t

s ee m p oss ib le t ha t t h is o therw ise u nknown f ea ture c ou ld h ave o ccurred i n t wo r epresen ta t ions o f t he s cene made i n J erusa le m i n t he s a me d ecade o f t he 1 2th c en tury w ithou t t here b e ing a d irect c onnect ion b e tween t he m .

We

mus t s ure ly s ee i n t he m in ia ture a v ery c lose r e la t ive o f t he l ost a pse mosa ic . T he V irg in i s t here , a s i s J ohn t he B ap t ist a nd t he A post les , n ecessar i ly a bbrev ia ted i n t he P sa lter , a nd i n t he l ower r igh t h and c orner a re t he c rowned ma le a nd f e ma le f i gures , r epresen t ing t he O ld T esta men t monarchs , wh ich a lso a ppear c lear ly o n t he s ea ls . 1 0

T he f act t ha t t he p or traya l o f t he A nastas is i n t he P sa lter a nd o n t he s ea ls i s s o s im i lar , a nd t ha t t h is p or traya l c on for ms c lose ly t o t he d escr ipt ions o f t hose who a c tua l ly s aw t he a pse mosa ic , s trong ly s uggests t ha t a l l t hree d ep ict ions were d er ived f ro m t he s ame p ro to type .

I t a lso s ee ms

c er ta in t ha t i n J erusa le m t he most impor tan t o f t he t hree r epresen ta t ions was t he a pse mosa ic , p rov id ing , l oca l ly a t l east , t he p roto type , a nd t ha t t he s urv iv ing r epresen ta t ions a re f a i th fu l r ef lect ions o f t he s cene a s i t a ppeared i n t he mosa ic .

An a dd it iona l p o in ter i s t ha t wh i le b o th s ea ls a nd

P sa lter g ive a n a bbrev ia ted v ers ion o f t he mosa ic , n e ither i nc ludes e le men ts wh ich were n o t f ound i n t he mosa ic , a ccord ing t o t he d escr ip t ions we h ave o f i t . O ne f ur ther p o in t may b e made .

I ft he a bove c onc lus ions a re a ccep ted ,

t he a ppearance o f t he A nastas is i n t he P sa lter , whose c a lendar d oes n o t men t ion t he c onsecrat ion o f 1 149 , a s we l l a s o n t he s ea l o f F oucher , wou ld s ee m t o p rov ide f ina l p roof t ha t t he b u i ld ing a nd d ecora t ion o f t he c hurch was c o mp le te b y t he t ime o f t he c onsecra t ion . F ur ther s pecu la t ion i s u ndoub ted ly r ash , b u t i ti s d if f icu lt t o r es ist o ne f ina l s ur m ise . I ti s we l l k nown t ha t t he N ew T esta men t c yc le i n t he Me l isende P sa lter was s igned b y a n a r t ist w ith t he words B as i l ius me f ec it , i n La t in c harac ters .

H e was c er ta in ly a w es tern a r t is t , b u t work ing u nder

s trong B yzan t ine i nf luence .

1 7

I ti s a lso we l l k nown t hat o ne o f t he a nge ls

a dded b y t he C rusaders t o t he c hurch o f t he N a t iv i ty a t B e th lehe m was s igned b y B as i l ius p ictor , wr i t ten i n L a t in c haracters . T here h as b een s pecu la t ion a s t o whether o r n o t t he t wo were c onnected , a nd , d esp i te B uch tha l ' s s cep t ic is m ,

i ts ee ms t o me s o mewha t u n l ike ly t ha t t here were t wo w estern

1 8

p a in ters i n t he L a t in K ingdo m i n t he midd le y ears o f t he 1 2th c en tury who b o th d ec ided t o a dop t t he Greek n a me o f B as i l ( bas ic c o m merc ia l s ense wou ld s uggest t he a dop t ion o f d if feren t n a mes b y a r t ists , s o a s n ot t o c onfuse t he c l ien te le ) .

N ow , i n v iew o f t he s im i lar ity b etween t he P sa lter , t he s ea l ,

a nd t he l ost mosa ic , may we n ot a t l east e n terta in t he p oss ib il ity t ha t Master B as i l was t o t he H o ly S epu lchre wha t Master H ugo was t o B ury S t . Edmunds?

NOTES 1 . T he b est g enera l d iscussion o f t he C rusaders ' c hurch r e ma ins H . V incen t a nd F . M . A be l , J erusa le m , R echerches d e T opograph ie , d 'a rcheo log ie e t d 'h isto ire , v o l . I J erusa le m n ouve l le , P ar is 1 914 p p . 2 60-290 . 2 . T hese a ccoun ts a re r eferred t o b y many a u thors , b u t s e ldo m d irect ly q uo ted .

T h is c an l ead t o ma jor e rrors .

F or e xa mp le , Chandon d e

B r ia i l les ( see b e low , n o te 1 0 ) s ta tes t ha t t here i s n o r e la t ion b etween F oucher ' ss ea l a nd t he Anastas is mosa ic , a ccord ing t o t he d escr ipt ion o f Quares m ius .

H owever , h is f ootno te r efers t o d e V og i ie , Eg l ises d e

T erre S a in te , P ar is 1 860 p . 1 90 , who i s n ot q uot ing Quares m ius when h e men t ions t he mosa ic . 3 . T . Tob ler ( ed .) D escr ip t iones T errae S anctae e x s aecu lo V I I I , I X , e t XV , L e ipz ig , 1 874 , p . 1 50 .

1 1

4 . T . T ob ler ( ed .) Theoder ic i , L ibe l lus d e L oc is S anc t is , c . 1 172 , S t . G a l l/Par is , 1 865 , p p . 1 9-20 & n o tes p p . 1 79-80 . 5 . P ub l ished i n A n twerp .

T he d escr ip t ion i s f ound i n v o l . I , Bk . V ,

Cap . V I I , p . 3 72 . 6 . S ince J ohn o f Würzburg men t ions t he g a tes , a nd t hey a re n or ma l ly p resen t i n Anastas is r epresen ta t ion . 7 . On Anastas is r epresen ta t ions s ee Wesse l , K . ( ed .) R ea l lex icon z ur B yzan t in ischen K uns t , S tu t tgar t , I( 1966 ) , p p . 1 42-8 , a nd K irschbau m , E . ( ed . ) L ex icon d er C hr ist l ichen I konograph ie , F re iburg , I ( 1970 ) , p p . 3 31-332 a nd t he b ib l iography g iven t here . 8 . H . B uch tha l , M in ia ture P a in t ing i n t he L a t in K ingdo m o f J erusa le m , Ox ford , 1 957 p p . 1 -23 . 9 . T hey a re men t ioned b y B uch tha l , l oc . c i t . a nd b y T . S . R . B oase , i n H . W. Hazard ( ed .) The A r t a nd A rch itecture o f t he C rusader S ta tes ( A H istory o f t he C rusades , v o l . I V ) Wiscons in , 1 977 , p . 1 18 . 1 0 . T he s ea l was i n t he c o l lect ion o f C handon d e B r ia i l les , who p ub l ished i ti n "S ur d eux b u l les d e l tO r ien t L a t in"

( Me langes s yr iens o f fer ts a

Mons ieur R ene D ussand p ar s es am is e t s es e leves ,

( Hau t C o mm issar ia t

d e l a R epub l ique f ranca ise e n S yr ie e t a u L iban , S erv ice d es a n t iqu ites , B ib l io theque a rcheo log ique e t h istor ique , v o l . XXX ) P ar is , 1 939 , Ip p . 1 39-150 . 1 1 . S ee S . P ao l i , C od ice d ip lo ma t ico d e l s agro m i l itare O rd ine g eroso l im itaus , o gg i d i Ma lta , L ucca 1 733-38 , 2v o ls . IP l .

I I , n o . 3 5 .

1 2 . S ee G . S ch lu mberger , F . C ha landon , A . B lanche t , S ig i l lograph ie d e l 'O r ien t L a t in , P ar is , 1 943 . 1 3 . T h is s ta te men t i s b ased o n my own s tudy o f t he c hurch , wh ich w i l l b e p ub l ished e lsewhere . 1 4 . S ch lu mberger , 2 2 . c it . 1 5 . Excep t t ha t t he s tandards b ear t he L a t in c haracters S SS . 1 6 . B uch tha l c a l ls t h is f eature e x tre me ly r are , a nd c i tes C . R . Morey , East Chr ist ian P a in t ings i n t he F reer C o l lec t ion , N ew York , 1 914 , p p . 4 5 f . who p rov ides n o o ther e xa mp les .

N one a re k nown t o me ,

a l though f ly ing a nge ls w ithou t s tandards d o o ccas iona l ly o ccur , wh i le a nge ls s tand ing o n t he g round h o ld ing s tandards c an a lso b e f ound .

I

am most g ra tefu l t o P rofessor Rosa l ie G reen o f P r inceton Un ivers i ty f or h er a dv ice o n t h is p o in t . 1 7 . T h is was B uch tha l ' sc onc lus ion , a nd i s e spec ia l ly a pparen t when o ne e xa m ines t he manuscr ip t i t se lf , r a ther t han p ho tograph ic r eproduct ions . 1 8 . 2 E . c i t . p . XXV I I I- XX IX .

1 2

2 .

PEGOLOTTP S CLOTH LENGTHS Er ic F ern ie

T he n in th s tory o f t he s econd d ay o f t he D eca meron o pens i n P ar is w ith ag roup o f merchan ts d iscours ing o n t he i nconstancy o f wo men .

O ne ,

B ernabö o f G enoa , d e murrs a nd wagers t ha t n o-one w i l l t e mp t h is w ife G inevra f ro m t he p a th o f v ir tue .

The c ha l lenge i s a ccep ted b y Ambrog iuo lo

who g oes t o Genoa a nd f inds B ernabö ' sc la im t o b e c orrect , b u t s pends t he n igh t i n t he l ady ' sb edroo m b y h id ing i n ac hest .

H av ing w i tnessed h er

u nc lothed b ody a nd t he a rrange men t o f h er b oudo ir h e r eturns t o P ar is t o t he d isco mf iture o f Bernabö who im med ia te ly r e turns h o me t o k i l l h is w i fe. S he h owever e scapes , a nd , d isgu ised a s al ad , t akes s h ip a t A lbenga w ith a C a ta lan f re ighter e n r ou te t o A lexandr ia , where s he e n ters t hs s erv ice o f t he S u ltan .

I n t h is c apac i ty s he v is its a f air a t A cre where s he h ears Ambrog iuo lo

b oast ing o f h ow h e t r icked B ernabö o f b o th h is wea lth a nd h is h onour .

S he

p ersuades t he S u ltan t o c a l l h er h usband a nd t he r ogue t o h is c our t where i n ac l i mact ic s cene s he r evea ls t he o r ig ina l t r ick a nd h er o wn impersona t ion , t o Ambrog iuo lo ' sh orror , B ernab ' o ' ss ha me a nd t he S u ltan ' sd e l igh t . Ambrog iuo lo i s p acked o f f t o af r igh t fu l d ea th a nd t he h appy c oup le a re r et urned t o G enoa l aden w ith r iches . O ther s tor ies i n t he D eca meron a re s et i n p laces s uch a s L ondon , An twerp , P icardy , Gascony , N arbonne , Mon tpe l l ier , Ma jorca , t he A lgarve , B arbary , C h iarenza o r Ky lene i n t he Morea , Ar men ia , L a iazzo o r A yas , C yprus a nd C h ina .

These p laces w ou ld o f c ourse b e k nown b y n a me a t l eas t t o a ny e duca ted

I ta l ian i n t he midd le y ears o f t he f our teen th c en tury , b u t B occacc io i s b e t ter i n for med t han t hat . r easonab le :

T he s e t t ing o f G inevra ' sv oyage f or i nstance i s e n t ire ly

a nyone t ak ing s h ip w ith a Ca ta lan i n A lbenga n eed n ot h ave b een

s urpr ised t o f ind t he mse lves i n A lexandr ia o r v is it ing t he S u ltan ' sf a ir i n A cre .

Now t ha t t he c la im t ha t t he a uthor was a b as tard b orn i n P ar is s ee ms

t o h ave b een l a id t o r est , I t a ly .

1

t here i s n o e v idence t ha t h e e ver t rave l led o u ts ide

Where t hen d id h e r ece ive t h is e xo t ic p ar t o f h is e duca t ion?

F rancesco Ba lducc i P ego lo t t i , a u thor o f ac o mp i lat ion o f mercan t i le p ract i ces a nd a k now ledgeab le s ervan t o f t he b ank ing h ouse o f t he B ard i b etween 1 310 a nd 1 347 ,

2

men t ions a l l o f Boccacc io ' sp lace n a mes a nd i n ac on tex t

wh ich p rov ides s tr ik ing p ara l le ls w i th t he t a le o f G inevra a nd B ernabö . I t may t hen b e s ign if ican t t ha t Boccacc io ' sf a ther a lso worked f or t he B ar t h i n t he s a me y ears ,

3

a nd t ha t ac haracter c a l led F eder igo d i N er i P ego lo t t i

c ucko lds a master-weaver i n t he f irst s tory o f t he s even th d ay .

I ti s t hus

n o t e n t ire ly f anc ifu l t o s uggest t ha t B occacc io c o l lected a g rea t d ea l o f h is ma ter ia l d ur ing h is y ou th i n t he s oc iety o f t he F loren t ine b ank ing wor ld , a nd p erhaps e ven f ro m P ego lo tt i h i mse lf . 1 3

I On ly a f ew s tandards f or t he measur ing o f l eng th s urv ive f ro m An t iqu ity , wh i le t he e ar l iest med ieva l o ne i s t he y ard o f H enry V I I i n t he S ou th K ens ingt on S c ience Museu m .4

P ego lo t t i i s c onsequen t ly o f c en tra l impor tance f or

t he r econstruct ion o f l ost med ieva l c lo th l eng ths .

Th is impor tance h as l ong

b een r ecogn ised , b u t h is t ex t h as h ither to b een r ansacked o n ly f or a nswers t o i nd iv idua l p rob le ms — most s uccessfu l ly b y Ar mand Machabey—lead ing t o s uch c on trad ict ions a s aC ypr iot c anne o f 2 22 c en t i metres d er ived f ro m P ego lo t t i b y D es i mon i , a longs ide Machabey ' s Mon tpe l l ier c anne o f 1 98 c en t ime tres wh ich , a ccord ing t o P ego lo t i i , i s t he s a me l eng th a s t he C ypr io t c anne .

5

I ti s t he p urpose o f t he p resen t e ssay t o a na lyse P ego lot t i ' sc on tr ibu t ion s yste ma t ica l ly , f or i t s own s ake .

P ego lo t t i g ives t he c lo th l eng ths o f s o me

s even ty t owns i n t he f or m o f e qu iva lences w i th o ne o r more o f t he o ther l eng ths . A s r epe t i t ion i s af ea ture o f h is s ty le , t here a re n u merous c ross-references w ith wh ich t o c heck c orrespondences , a s we l l a s a pparen t e rrors a nd c ont rad ic t ions .

These i n f act a re f ew , a nd t he p lethora o f i n for ma t ion r evea ls

as tr ik ing c ons istency , s ub jec t o n ly t o t he e x istence o f t wo l eng ths f or many o f t he measures , w ith t he o dd p ropor t ion o f 1 4 t o 1 5 . i n d ue c ourse .

Th is w i l l b e e xa m ined

O f t he s even ty t owns , f ive h ave measures t he v a lue o f wh ich

c an b e e stab l ished b efore t he F rench Revo lu t ion , n a me ly t he L ondon y ard , t he Par is ian a une , t he Ro man b racc io , t he F loren t ine b racc io a nd t he Mon tpe l l ier c anne i n t he f our teen th , s ix teen th , s ix teen th , s even teen th a nd e ighteen th c en tur ies r espect ive ly .

Wh i le a l l b u t t he f i rst o f t hese migh t h ave

c hanged i n t he i n terven ing t wo o r t hree c en tur ies s ince P ego lo t t i ' sd ay , i t i s wor thwh i le a ssu m ing t ha t t hey d id n o t , a s t h is e nab les o ne t o r econstruc t t he a bso lu te v a lue o f mos t o f t he l eng ths i n t he t ex t , a s we l l a s p rov id ing a no ther c heck o n t he a u thor ' sc ons istency . I I We w i l l b eg in b y t rac ing a s ing le t hread o f e qu iva lences f ro m kmwn l eng ths a t L ondon a nd P ar is t hrough Cyprus , Mon tpe l l ier , C onstan t inop le a nd V en ice t o F lorence . o ne C ypr io t c anne .

6

A ccord ing t o P ego lo t t i 2 1/8 L ondon y ards e qua l

S ince t here i s e very r eason t o b e l ieve t ha t t he E ng l ish

y ard was t he s a me i n t he f our teen th c entury a s i ti s n ow , t he c anne w i l l b e 9 1 .44 x 2 .125 o r 1 94 cm l ong .

7

S im i lar ly , f or P ego lo t t i , o ne Par is ian a une

e qua ls 5 C ypr io t p a l ms , a nd 8 s uch p a l ms c onst itu te a c anne .

8

The v a lue o f

t h is a une v ar ies b etween 1 18 a nd 1 21 cm , a nd 1 21 x 8 /5 e qua ls 1 94 , s o t ha t t he t hree p laces s uppor t o ne a nother .9 L ondon a nd P ar is a re p er iphera l t o P ego lot t i ' ss che me , e ach b e ing l inked t o o n ly t wo o r t hree o ther p laces , whereas C yprus i s c en tra l , w i th a l arge n u mber o f c onnect ions p rov id ing a b as is f or e stab l ish ing t he l eng th o f t he c o m monest c anne i n t he Med iterranean , t ha t o f 1 94 t o 1 98 cm , a pprox i ma te ly t he d istance b etween t he f ingers o f t he o u tstretched a r ms , an a tura l measure f or c loth .

The Cypr io t c anne i s t he

s a me a s t hose o f Mon tpe l l ier , N i mes , A v ignon a nd A cre , wh ich t owns i n t urn a dd e qu iva len t c annes a t Mess ina , Bar let ta , Ancona , S af i , K y lene , P a tras , Rhodes a nd A r men ia ( see map ) .1 0

1 5

I n 1 730 t he c anne o f Mon tpe l l ier was r ecorded a s 8 81 .2 l ignes i n l eng th , o r 1 98 .7 cm where t here a re 1 44 l ignes i n ap ied d e r o i o f 3 2 .48 cm .

1 1

T he d if ference o f f our c en t i me tres b etween 1 94 a nd 1 98 c an b e a pproached i n av ar ie ty o f ways :

t he v a lue o f t he Mon tpe l l ier c anne c ou ld h ave c hanged

b e tween t he f our teen th a nd e igh teen th c entur ies , o r t he f igure c ou ld s i mp ly b e a n a l lowab le marg in o f e rror o n t he p ar t o f t he p r inc ipa ls . a ssu mp t ions c ou ld b e c orrect ,b u t t here i s e v idence f or n e ither . p oss ib i l it ies a re h owever b ased o n o bserva t ion :

Bo th o ft hese Two o ther

t he Eng l ish a nd P ar is ian

f igures c ou ld b e a pprox i ma t ions p er m it t ing t he u se o f r easonab le f ract ions , a s t wo E ng l ish y ards e qua l 1 83 cm a nd t wo a nd a q uar ter 2 06 cm , wh i le f our C ypr iot p a l ms o f a1 94 cm c anne e qua l 9 7 cm a nd s ix e qua l 1 45 , s o t ha t 5i s t he c losest n u mber o f who le p a l ms t o t he l eng th o f t he P ar is ian a une .

F ur ther , when r e la t ing t he c annes o f A cre a nd K y lene t o t hose o f

Ancona a nd P a tras , P ego lot t i n o tes t he d eta i l t ha t t hey a re n o t e xac t ly e qua l , b ut a s 1 00 i s t o 1 02 .

1 2

A s 1 94 r e la tes t o 1 98 i n t h is way t he t wo v a lues o f

1 94 a nd 1 98 cm f or t he C ypr io t c anne may d eno te s uch a d iscrepancy b etween t wo v ers ions o f t he measure .

T he e x istence o f as pread b etween 1 94 a nd

1 98 cm i s a lso s uppor ted b y t he e v idence o f t he V enet ian b racc io , 1 00 o f wh ich e qua l 3 1

C ypr io t c annes , wh i le 1q e qua l 6N i mes c annes ( 194 x 3 12 -

4 -100 = 6 1 , a nd 6 1 x1 9

2 . - 6= 1 98 ) .

1 3

T o f ac i l ita te c a lcu la t ion a nd b ecause

o f t he d irec t e v idence f or t he Mon tpe l l ier c anne , we w i l l h ereaf ter a ssu me t he l eng th o f t he "Med i terranean" c anne t o b e 1 98 cm .1 4 Under t he c hap ter h eaded " Gostan t inopo l i"

P ego lo t t i c o mpares t he c ub its

o f C onstan t inop le , P era ( now t ha t p ar t o f I stanbu l wh ich l i es a cross t he H orn ) a nd t he Cr i mea o n t he o ne h and , w ith t he measures o f F lorence , Nap les , G enoa , a nd N i mes o n t he o ther , i n s uch a way a s t o make i tc lear t ha t t he t hree p laces o n t he B lack S ea u se t he s a me c ub it .

1 5

Th is c an b e r e la ted

t o t he measures d iscussed a bove , a s 6N i mes c ords e qua l 1 00 P era c ub its , a nd t he N i mes c ord c ons ists o f 6N i mes c annes .

T hus 1 00 P era c ub i ts

e qua l 4 0 N i mes c annes , a nd o ne c ub it e qua ls 1 98 x 4 0

1 00 o r 7 9 cm .1 6

T he V enet ian f igures a ga in c orrobora te t h is , a s we l l a s t he i den t if ica t ion o f P era w ith Constan t inop le :

1 28 V ene t ian b racc ia e qua l 1 00 C ons tan t inopo l itan

c ub its , s o t ha t ab racc io o f 6 2 cm g ives a c ub it o f 7 9 cm .1 7 Two e n tr ies i n t he l a te f our teen th c en tury V ene t ian d ocu men t e n t it led Tar ifa z oe n o t ic ia d e i p ex i e mexure a ppear t o c on trad ict t h is c ub it o f 7 9 cm . 1 00 C onstan t inopo l itan c ub i ts e qua l 8 32 1 V ene t ian b racc ia ,

1 8

wh ich c onf l icts

w ith P ego lo t t i ' s1 00 :128 a nd p roduces a c ub it o f 5 2 cm where t he b racc io i s 6 2 cm .

Aga in , o n t he s a me p age o f t he Tar ifa , 1 00 l inen c ub its o f

C onstan t inop le a nd t he C r i mea e qua l 4 0 F a magustan c annes , wh i le 1 00 C onstan t inopo l itan c ub its e qua l 2 6 F a magustan c annes . i s r eso lved b y P ego lo t t i , u nder C onstan t inop le :

The c on trad ict ion

" the c ub i t b y wh ich c lo ths

( pann i ) a re measured i s i t se lf a c ub it s epara te f ro m t ha t f or l inens , a nd i s sma l ler t han t he c ub i t o f t he C r i mea b y wh ich l inens a re measured , s uch t ha t 1 1 c ub its f or woo l c lo ths ( pann i l an i ) make o ne c ub it o f t he C r i mea". T hus t he t wo c ub its r e la te a s 1 :4 , a nd 5 2 x 1 =7 8 , o r 7 9 x2 /3 = 5 2 .6 . B ear ing t h is i n m ind we c an r esu me t he o r ig ina l s equence .

4 8 t o 5 0

C ons tan t inopo l i tan woo l c ub its e qua l 1 2 F loren t ine c annes , s o t ha t ac ub it o f 5 3 cm p roduces a c anne o f 2 20 cm . 2 0 S im ilar ly 3 6 V ene t ian b racc ia e qua l 1 0 F loren t ine c annes , s o t ha t ab racc io o f 6 2 cm p roduces a c anne 1 6

1 9

o f 2 23 cm . 2 1 The 1 98 cm c annes o f N i mes , Marse i l les , Av ignon , Mess ina a nd K y lene r e la te t o t he F loren t ine c anne a s 1 0 t o 1 1 1/4 , t ha t i s a s 1 98 t o 2 2 3.2 2 T hus f ar t he s equence i s i n terna l ly c onsisten t a nd i s c orrobora ted b y t hree k nown l eng ths f ro m L ondon , P ar is a nd Mon tpe l l ier .

T he Ro man

b racc io h owever s ha t ters t h is p a t tern a nd i n troduces t he n eed f or a s econd r edact ion o f l eng ths . Av a lue o f 6 3 .6 cm i s r ecorded f or t he Ro man " bracc io d i t ess ito d i t e la " i n t he m id-s ix teen th c en tury , a nd s ince P ego lo t t i makes 3 8 Ro man b racc ia e qua l 1 0 F loren t ine c annes , t he c anne w i l l b e 2 42 cm .

2 3

T he e as iest e xp lana t ion f or t h is d iscrepancy b etween 2 23 a nd 2 42 cm m igh t o nce a ga in a ppear t o b e t ha t t he Ro man l eng th h ad c hanged b e tween t he f ourt een th c en tury a nd t he s ix teen th , were i tn ot f or t he f act t ha t t he d if ference o f 1 4 :15 i s c o mp lete ly woven i n to P ego lo t t i ' ss yste m , s o t ha t a longs ide t he C ypr io t c anne o f 1 98 cm o ne must c on te mp la te a nother o f 2 12 cm , w ith t he C onstan t inopo l itan c ub it o f 7 9 cm , o ne o f 8 5 cm , t wo V enet ian b racc ia o f 6 2 a nd 6 6 cm , a nd s o o n . T h is i s n o t j ust a s i mp le e rror i n wh ich o ne o r o ther o f t he s e ts o f n u mbers i fc orrect .

P ego lo t t i ' sf igures f or a ) t he c annes o f C yprus a nd

Rhodes , b ) t he Cypr io t b racc io , c ) t he N eapo l itan c anne a nd f ina l ly d ) t he B raban t ine a une , i l lustra te t he p aradox t ha t e i ther f igure may b e t he r igh t o ne , a nd i n s o me c ases b o th a re . a ) I th as a lready b een e stab l ished t ha t , a ccord ing t o P ego lo t t i , t he c annes o f C yprus , Rhodes a nd N i mes a re e qua l , y et i n a no ther c on tex t h e makes 1 0 F loren t ine c annes e qua l 1 1 1 /4 c annes o f N i mes a ga ins t 1 1 1 5/16 o f t hose o f C yprus a nd Rhodes .

I ft he c annes o f N i mes , C yprus a nd Rhodes

a re 1 98 cm l ong , t hen t he F loren t ine c anne must h ave t wo v a lues , 2 23 a nd 2 37 cm , t he l a t ter p resu mab ly r e la ted t o t he 2 42 cm l eng th p roduced b y t he R o man b racc io .

2 4

2 23 i s t o 2 37 a s 1 4 i s t o 1 5.

The a nswer may i n p ar t

l i e i n t he h ab it o f a dd ing s o meth ing t o al eng th l ike t he h andfu l o r t he t hu mb t o t he y ard i n f i f teen th c en tury Eng land .

2 5

P ego lot t i , f or i nstance , e qua tes

1 0 F loren t ine c annes w ith 1 1 1 5/16 C ypr io t c annes " fusto a f us to s enza p resa" a nd " la p resa

e mezzo p a l mo p er c iascuna c anna d i C ipr i" .2 6

H a lf a

C ypr io t p a lm i s b etween 1 2 a nd 1 3 cm , a nd t here a re 1 4 cm b etween t wo F loren t ine c annes o f 2 23 a nd 2 37 cm . b ) A s w ith t he c annes o f C yprus a nd Rhodes , s o w ith t he C ypr io t l inen b racc io .

1 50 o f t hese e qua l 1 00 C onstan t inopo l itan c ub its , s o t ha t i fe ach

c ub i t i s 7 9 cm l ong , e ach b racc io w i l l b e 5 3 cm l ong . 33 /4 b racc ia i n aC ypr io t c anne o f 1 98 cm .

2 8

2 7

There w i l l t hus b e

P eg o lo t t i h owever s ta tes

c a tegor ica l ly i n t wo p laces t ha t t here a re 3 b racc ia t o t he C ypr iot c anne , wh ich g ives a l eng th o f 5 6 .5 cm f ro m 1 98 cm , a nd o f c ourse 3 11i s t o 3 3/4 a s 1 4 i s t o 1 5 .

2 9

c ) One N eapo l itan c anne e qua ls 8 /9 o f aF loren t ine c anne , g iv ing 1 98 a nd 2 11 cm r espect ive ly f or t he t wo v a lues o f 2 23 a nd 2 37 cm f or t he F loren t ine measure .

C on trar iw ise 4* N eapo l itan l inen c annes e qua l 1 00

C onstan t inopo l itan c ub i ts , t he t wo v a lues o f t he l a t ter , 7 9 a nd 8 5 cm , p rod uc ing c annes o f 1 84 a nd 1 98 cm r espect ive ly .

3 0

A c anne o f 1 84 cm h as n o

p ara l le ls , s o t he more a ccep tab le s e t o f f igures i s 1 98 , 2 23 a nd 8 5 , t he f irst t wo o f wh ich a re p art o f t he s hor ter r eg ister , a nd t he t h ird f ro m t he l onger . 1 7

d ) I n t he e ar ly p ar t o f t he s even teen th c en tury Ma lynes r ecorded t ha t 1 00 An twerp , t ha t i s Braban t ine , a unes e qua l led 6 0 Eng l ish e l ls o r 7 5 y ards , wh ich i s p robab ly s ay ing t he s a me t h ing a s t he f i f teen th c en tury Eng l ish d ocu men t wh ich r efers t o t he F le m ish e l l a s e qua l t o t hree-quar ters o f a y ard .

7 5 y ards e qua l 6 858 cm , s o t ha t o ne An twerp a une w i l l b e 6 8 .58 cm .

3 1

N ow P ego lo t t i e qua tes 1 02 B raban t ine a unes w ith 1 00 f ro m Bruges , t ha t i s 6 8 .58 x 1 02 ÷ 1 00 = 6 9 .95 cm , a nd i n t urn o ne Bruges a une w ith 2 5 /8 C ypr io t p a l ms :

1 98 ÷ 8 x 2 = 6 5 cm .

3 2

6 5 i s t o 6 9 .6 a s 1 4 i s t o 1 5 .

P ego lo t t i

makes o ne o ther p o in t a bou t Bruges . wh ich i s w or th r epea t ing h ere , t o t he e f fect t ha t 2 11 B ruges c anvas a unes e qua l 1 00 L ondon c anvas y ards .

A t

f irst s igh t t h is m igh t a ppear t o d ea l w i th t wo v ery o dd l eng ths , a s 6 9 .95 cm x2 11 ÷ 1 00 = 1 47 .6 cm a ga inst t he n or ma l 9 1 .4 cm f or t he L ondon y ard , a nd c onverse ly 9 1 .4 x 1 00 ÷ 2 11 = 4 3 .3 cm , h ard ly r ecogn isab le a s t he B ruges a une o f n ear ly 7 0 cm .

P ego lot t i h owever p rov ides t he e xp lana t ion

b y p o in t ing o u t f i rst ly t ha t aL ondon c anvas y ard e qua ls 5 q uar ters o f a n o rd inary y ard , t ha t i s 9 1 .4 x 5 /4 = 1 14 cm , a nd s econd ly t ha t 1 00 c anvas y ards i n L ondon means 1 20 y ards , o r t he l ong h undred , s o t ha t 1 14 x 6 /5 =1 37 cm .

I to n ly r e ma ins t o r everse t he o r ig ina l e qua t ion ( 1 37 x 1 00

t o d iscover a Bruges a une o f 6 5 cm .

2 11 )

3 3

T h is r eturn t o t he s o l id g round o f t he 9 1 .4 cm Eng l ish y ard i l lustra tes u nequ ivoca l ly t he e x istence o f b oth u pper a nd l ower , o r l onger a nd s hor ter , r eg isters n o t o n ly i n P ego lot t i b ut a lso , i t wou ld a ppear , i n P ego lo t t i ' s ma ter ia l . I V S o much f or P ego lot t i a s a who le .

T h is i s p erhaps t he mo men t t o

i n troduce t he r ich e v idence wh ich s urv ives o n t he metro log ica l s ystems o f Ar men ia .

T he t hree c en tra l t ex ts a re S irakac '

sG eography o f t he s even th

c en tury , a n a nony mous t ract o n measures , a nd A l ishan ' s Aryrara t , a l l d iscussed b y Manand ian .

3 4

S ince , t o t ake o ne e xa mp le , t he o r ig ina l

G eography i s k nown i n p ar t f ro m a f i f teen th c entury c opy i n V en ice , e d i ted i n t he n ine teen th c entur y b y Awger ian , wh ich was u t i l ized i n 1 930 i n a n e ssay i n A r men ian b y Manand ian , i t se lf i n t urn t rans la ted i n to F rench a nd h ere t urned i n to Eng l ish , t he r eader s hou ld b e warned t ha t t he a u thor 's i n ten t ions may h ave s uf fered s o me d istor t ion .

These s ources o f fer a s er ies o f mea-

s ures o f a pparen t ly s trange v in tage s uch a s t he mlon , t he a sparez , o r u tawan , t he n e ta j ig o r x rasx ( no t t o b e c on fused w ith p ' a rsax o r h rasax ) , t he g irk , t he k angun , t he n erban , t he t 'i z , t he b urn , t he k oé a nd t he e lung , b ut wh ich t urn o u t o n i nspec t ion t o b e , r espect ive ly , t he mi le , s tade , p le thron o r a rrow f l igh t , f a tho m o r p ace , c ub it , f oo t , s pan , p a lm , p ha lanx a nd d ig it . The ma in e le men ts c an b e s e t o u t a s f o l lows . S irakac '

ss yste m

1 mi le = 7 s tades = 7 00/750 p aces = 4 200/4500 f eet . 1s tade

=1 00/107 p aces = 6 00/642 1p ace

1 8

=

f eet .

6 f eet .

Anony mous o r P ers ian s ys te m 1 mi le = 7 s tades = 1 000 p aces = 6 000 f ee t . 1s tade

= 1 43/150 p aces = 8 58/900 f eet . 1p ace

=

6f eet .

Anshan ' ss econd s yste m 3 5 1m i le = ? S tades 1s tade

=1 67 f a tho ms 1f a tho m

=6 s pans .

Th is r evea ls t he e ssen t ia l ly An t ique c haracter o f t he t hree s yste ms . S irakac ' U ss equence i s p ar t icu lar ly c lose ly r e la ted t o t he H eron ian t ab les o f t he P h i leta ire ian o r A lexandr ian s yste m , w ith a mi le o f e ither 4 200 o r 4 500 f ee t , a nd e i ther 7 o r ' T A s tades o f 6 00 f eet , h ere g iven a s 7s tades o f 6 00 o r 6 42 f eet .

3 6

P ers ian a dd it ions .

T he v ar ia t ions i n t he o ther t wo s ys te ms a re p resu mab ly A bso lu te v a lues a re v ery h ard t o s et , b u t t he Greek

p ara l le l p er m its a n i n te l l igen t g uess .

Al eng th o f c . 3 5 cm f or S irakac ' Us

f oo t p roduces a p ace o r f a tho m o f 2 23 o r 2 09 cm , as tade o f 2 23 .5 m a nd a m i le o f 1 565 m .

3 7

I ti s a s much embarrass ing a s i n terest ing t ha t t he 7 1

m i les h e g ives t o ad egree p rov ide o n t h is b as is a c orrec t f i gure f or t he c ircu mference o f t he e ar th .

3 8

A pp ly ing t h is mi le a nd s tade t o t he s econd

a nd t h ird s yste ms p roduces p aces o f 1 56 , 1 48 a nd 1 34 cm . P ego lot t i makes o n ly o ne r eference t o a n Ar men ian l eng th , s ay ing t hat 1 00 Ar men ian c annes e qua l 3 15 Venet ian b racc ia , wh ich a t 6 2 cm t o t he b racc io g ives a c anne o f 1 95 cm .

3 9

T h is h as n o th ing t o d o w ith a ny f igure

i n t he A r men ian s e ts , a nd l ooks i n f act l ike t he u b iqu itous "Med iterranean" c anne o f C yprus , N i mes a nd s o o n .

A s s uch i ti s a l most c er ta in ly t he

c anne o f L esser A r men ia , o n t he s ou thern c oast o f Turkey , a nd i ndeed P ego lot t i a lso men t ions "L a iazzo d ' Er m in ia ", t ha t i s A yas , o ppos ite An t ioch o n t he Gu lf o f I skenderun .

4°

Ar men ia may h owever a lso b e r epresen ted

b y t he u n it wh ich P ego lo t t i c a l ls t he a ncono 41

a nd wh ich a ppears u nder t he

h ead ing A l to luogo , o n t he western c oast o f A sia M inor . 42

T h is a ppears t o

b e t he s a me t er m a s t he word k angun u sed i n t he s even th c en tury t ex ts f or ac ub it .

The c onnec t ion may n ot b e imed ia te ly o bv ious , b u t i tb eco mes

p laus ib le o n t he a pp l ica t ion o f t he ma in r u le o f A r men ian r eg iona l p ronunc ia t ion .

T h is i s t ha t c onsonan ts v o iced i n t he western p ar t o f t he c oun try

a re u nvo iced i n t he e ast a nd v ice v ersa , a s i ft he l et ters " Ca mbr idge" were p ronounced k e i mbr idl i n G od manchester a nd g e i mpr itg i n C hester .

Thus

k angun i s a lso g ankun wh ich ( g iven t he t ranspos it ion t o I ta l ian a nd t he l oss o f t he i n t ia l g ) b eco mes i nd ist ingu ishab le f ro m a ncono . 43

F or P ego lot t i

t hen t he F loren t ine c anne e qua ls 1 5 /12 a ncone , o r 1 57 cm when t he c anne i s 2 23 , a nd t he C yprus c anne e qua ls 1 . 1 a ncone , o r 1 32 cm when t he c a me i s 1 98 .

4 4

There a re t wo l eng ths i n t he a nc ien t s yste ms s im i lar t o t hese ,

n a me ly t he p aces o f 1 57 a nd 1 34 cm o f t he s econd a nd t h ird s yste ms .

I n

a dd it ion , t he a lterna t ive p ace o f t he s econd s yste m , w i th 1 50 t o t he s tade , w i l l b e a bou t 1 48 cm l ong , a nd 1 48 i s t o 1 58 a s 1 4 i s t o 1 5 , t he s tandard c on trad ict ion i n P ego lo t t i .

I fo ne a ccep ts t he p oss ib i l ity t ha t t he t er m u sed 1 9

f or t he c ub it o r h a lf-pace i n t he s even th c en tury was t ransferred b y t he f our teen th c en tury t o t he p ace , a nd g eograph ica l ly f ro m t he e ast e nd o f Ana to l ia t o t he west , t hen t he c orrespondence b etween t he l eng ths p os i ts ac ase f or a r e markab le c on t ink ity . V The l argest s ing le q uest ion f ac ing t he h istor ian o f western metro logy i s t he e x ten t t o wh ich t he Ro man a nd o ther s yste ms o f An t iqu ity e n joyed a n u nbroken s urv iva l t hrough t he M idd le Ages t o b eco me t he b as is o f modern p re- me tr ic s yste ms .

T he A r men ian e v idence may i nd ica te s uch t enac i ty ;

t he s a me i s t rue o f t he d istr ibu t ion o f t he p laces d iscussed b y P ego lo t t i i n c onnect ion w ith t he c loth t rade .

Apar t f ro m t hose o n t he r outes t o I nd ia

( v ia Tabr iz a nd B aghdad ) a nd C h ina , a l l l i e w i th in t he b oundar ies o f t he R o man Emp ire o f at housand y ears e ar l ier . 45 T hey e ven c oncede n o th ing t o t he e f fects o f I s la m : S ev i l le i s t he o n ly p lace men t ioned i n C hr ist ian S pa in , wh i le Morocco a nd T un is ia a re we l l r epresen ted , a nd A lexandr ia , A cre , Da mascus , Ra m leh , B e iru t , L a tak ia , T r ipo l i a nd An ta lya a re p rom iscuous w ith C yprus , Rhodes , C onstan t inp le , G enoa a nd V en ice .

P erhaps

P irenne ' st hes is c oncern ing t he I s la m ic d estruct ion o f t he R o man Emp ire o n ly a pp l ies i n t he t wo c en tur ies f o l low ing Moha mmed , a nd o n t he c on trary t he e f fects o f t he H eg ira were , i n o ne s ense , n o more p ro tracted t han t hose o f t he Crusades . 46

NOTES I . B occacc io , D eca meron , e d . G . Mc W i l l ia m ,

H ar mondswor th , 1 972 ,

p . 3 0 . 2 . P ego lo t t i p p .

XV-30 (V.

A l l r eferences a re t o E vans ' e d i t ion , wh ich

s upercedes G . F . P agn in i , D e l la D ec i ma , L isbon a nd L ucca , 1 765-6 . 3 . D eca meron ,

2 2 . c i t . p . 2 1 .

4 . S ee L ondon , i n t he t ab le . 5 . P ego lo t t i , p . 6 8 ;

C . D es i mon i , "Observa t ions s ur l es ....actes d u

n ota ire g eno is L a mber to d i S a mbuce to", Revue d e 1 ' Or ien t L a t in , 3 , 1 895 , p . 2 3 .

S ee G enoa i n t he t ab le .

•

6 . P ego lot t i , p . 1 01 . 7 . F or t he y ard , s ee L ondon , i n t he t ab le . a re t o t he n earest c en t i metre .

Wherever p oss ib le f igures

P ego lo t t i ' ss tandards o f a ccuracy

r ender g rea ter p rec is ion n ot o n ly s uperf luous b u t m is lead ing , a nd many o f h is e n tr ies ( such a s 1 00 F er mo c annes e qua l 1 25 t o 1 28 Ancona c annes , p . 1 60 ) i nd ica te t he e x istence o f marg ins i n t he ma ter ia l i t se lf . a lso t he Tar ifa

S ee

p . 6 4 , where t he merchan t i s warned t ha t a t Damascus

1 00 V ene t ian b racc ia s hou ld p roduce b e tween 1 14 a nd 1 18 D a mascus c ub its , b ut i n f act s e ldo m r each e ven 1 12 "p erche s e mexura ma l" . 8 . P ego lo t t i , p p . 7 7 , 1 01 . 9 . S ee P ar is , i n t he t ab le . 2 0

1 0 . P ego lo t t i , p p . 6 1 , 6 5 , 6 8 , 9 2 , 1 19 , 1 27 , 2 27 a nd 2 74 . 1 1 . P . Gu i lh ier moz , " Re marques d iverses s ur l es p o ids e t mesures d u moyen

a ge",

B ib l io theque d e l 'E co le d es C har tres , 8 0 , 1 919 , p p .

9 5-7. 1 2 . P ego lot t i , p p . 6 5 , 1 19 . 1 3 . P ego lot t i , p p . 9 7 , 1 48 . 1 4 . I ti s o f c ourse p oss ib le t ha t t he c annes o f A cre a nd K y lene c ou ld b e t he s a me a s t ha t o f Mon tpe l l ier , * t ha t i s 1 98 cm , e spec ia l ly i ft he 1 94 cm v a lue f or t he C ypr io t c anne i s mere ly t he r esu lt o f t he u se o f a pprox i mat ions .

I n t h is c ase t he c annes o f Ancona a nd P a tras wou ld b e 2 02 cm

l ong , a nd i ndeed Machabey , p . 1 77 , p roduces f i f teen th a nd s ix teen th c en tury e v idence i nd ica t ing v a lues o f 1 95 , 1 98 a nd 2 02 cm f or c annes c onnected w ith A r les , A v ignon a nd V i l leneuve . t h is c anne a re e ven w ider .

T he r am if ica t ions o f

P eto ' ss lab o n t he Cap i to l c on ta ined a

s ix teen th c entury R o man c anna mercan t i le o f 1 99 cm ( L . Paetus , D e mensur is e t p onder ibus Ro man is e t Graec is , V en ice , 1 573 , p . 1 7 , a nd M . F o lkes , "An a ccoun t o f t he s tandard measures p reserved o n t he C ap ito l a t Ro me", P h i losoph ica l T ransact ions , 3 9 , 1 736 , p p . 2 62 t o 6 ) . The Par is ian t o ise , a lthough o f 6f eet r a ther t han 8 p a l ms , i s 3 2 .4 x 6 =1 95 cm l ong , ( H . Moreau , "L a t o ise", R evue d e Metro log ie , 1 3 1 953 , p p . 4 73-5 ) .

L ast ly , a l though t he c anne i s n or ma l ly d iv ided i n to 8 p a l ms

( Pego lo t t i , p p . 7 7 , 1 12 , 2 29 , 1 02 , a nd U zzano , p . 1 73 ) , t he 2 18 cm G enoese c anne c ons is ts o f 9o f t hese p a l ms ( Pego lot t i , p p . 1 47 , 1 21 ; s ee a lso t he t ab le ) . 1 5 . P ego lo t t i , p p . 3 7 t o 5 4 . 1 6 . P ego lo t t i , p p . 4 9 , 1 48 . 1 7 . P ego lot t i , p . 5 0 . 1 8 . Tar ifa

S ee a lso T ar ifa , p p . 4 3 , 2 0 a nd 4 6 .

p . 1 6.

1 9 . P ego lo t t i , p . 3 7 . 2 0 . P ego lot t i , p p . 3 7 , 1 99 ;

5 3 x5 0 4 1 2 =2 20 .

U zzano , p . 8 9 :

1 3

F loren t ine c annes = 5 4 C onstan t inopo l itan c ub its . 2 1 . P ego lo t t i , p . 1 46 ;

6 2 x3 6

=2 23 .

2 2 . P ego lot t i , p p . 6 7 , 1 15 , 1 28 , 1 98 , 2 00 , 2 01. 2 3 . P ego lot t i , p . 1 98 .

F or t he v a lue s ee Ro me , i n t he t ab le .

2 4 . P ego lot t i , p p . 9 6 , 1 05 . 2 5 . S ee P . Gr ierson , Eng l ish L inear Measures i R ead ing , 1 972 , p . 1 7 , a nd P . Gu i lh ier moz , "D e 1 'e qu iva lence d es a nc iennes mesures", B ib l io theque d e l 'E co le d es C har tes , 7 4 , 1 913 , p p . 2 93-4 . 2 6 . P ego lo t t i , p . 9 6 . 2 7 . P ego lo t t i , p . 9 3 . 2 8 . T he Tar ifa , p . 4 8 , s uppor ts t h is : 2 1

1 00 C onstan t inopo l itan l i nen c ub i ts =

4 0 F a magusta , i .e . C ypr io t c annes , t herefore 4 0 c annes = 1 50 l inen b racc ia , t herefore 1 c anne e qua ls 3 3 /4 b racc ia . 2 9 . P ego lot t i , p p . 7 7 , 9 2 .

Even 1 94 cm

=5 5 .4 cm .

T h is C ypr io t

b racc io o f a bou t 5 6 cm i s s uppor ted b y t he measures o f Rhodes ( pp . 9 2 , 1 02 ) . 3 0 . P ego lo t t i , p p . 1 88 , 5 1 ;

s ee a lso U zzano , p p . 9 3 , 9 8 .

A . Mar t in i ,

Ma nua le d i Me tro log ia ? T ur in , 1 883 , p p . 3 91 , 3 94 , c on ta ins a t an ta lyz ing r epor t t ha t i n 1 480 F erd inand o f A ragon i n troduced a n ew s yste m o f measures i n to N ap les , i nc lud ing a c anne o f 2 11 cm . 3 1 . G u i lh ier moz , 1 919 , p . 1 8 , n . 1( see o ur n ote 1 1 ) ;

H . Ha l l , e d .,

"S e lect t racts a nd t ab le b ooks r e la t ing t o Eng l ish we igh ts a nd measures , 1 100-1742", C a mden S oc iety 4 1 , 1 929 , p p . 1 4 , 2 7 . 3 2 . P ego lo t t i , p p . 2 44 , 1 00 . 3 3 . P ego lo t t i , p p . 2 45 , 2 55 . 3 4 . Manand ian s hou ld b e c o mpared w i th H . v on M z vi k , "E rdmessung , G rad , Me i le u nd S tad ion n ach a ltar men ische Que l len ", S tud ien z ur A r men ische G esch ich te ? V I , V ienna , 1 933 . 3 5 . A l ishan ' sf irst s yste m i s P ers ian . 3 6 . F . H u ltsch , Metro log icoru m S cr ip toru m R e l iqu iae , I , L e ipz ig , 1 864 , p . 1 80f . 3 7 . T he P h i leta ire ian f oo t i s d ispu ted b etween 3 3 a nd 3 5 cm ; more l ike ly t o b e c orrect .

t he l a t ter i s

S ee E . F ern ie , "H istor ica l me tro logy a nd

a rch itectura l h istory", Ar t H is tory 1 , 1 978 , p . 3 95 , n . 9 . 3 8 . T h is r a ises t he q uest ion o f whether t he a nc ien ts measured t he g lobe , wh ich Ih ave n o d oub t t hey d id w ith t o lerab le a ccuracy . I td oes n o t h owever r a ise t he p oss ib i l ity t ha t a n t ique u n its o f measure were d er ived f ro m s ubd iv is ions o f t h is measure men t , a s i s t he c ase a s w ith metres a nd m i l l i metres .

T he l arge n u mber o f f a tho ms , c on ta in ing 1 00 , 1 07 ,

1 43 , 1 50 a nd 1 67 p aces , s uggests t ha t t h is u n it a cted a s a n a cco m moda t ion b e tween t wo s e ts o f measures , l ike Ma it land ' sd escr ip t ion o f t he 14 f oo t p erch b etween t he i nch , f oo t , y ard s yste m , a nd t he a cres a nd s o o n o f t he a gr icu l tura l s yste m . F . Ma it land , D o mesday B ook a nd B eyond ? Ca mbr idge , 1 921, p p . 3 70-2 . 3 9 . P ego lot t i , p . 6 1 . 4 0 . P ego lo t t i , p . 5 9 . 4 1 . P ego lot t i , p p . 5 7 , 9 2 . 4 2 . P ego lo t t i , p . 3 97 . 4 3 . P ego lo t t i , p . 5 5 , n . 5 . 4 4 . P ego lot t i , p p . 5 7 , 5 5 , 9 2 . 4 5 . T here a re p ass ing r eferences t o p laces s uch a s G os lar a nd P o land , b u t t hey a re n o p ar t o f t he a rea i n wh ich P ego lo t t i e xpects merchan ts t o 2 2

o pera te .

F ifesh ire i s t he o n ly e xcept ion :

t rea ted w ith t he ma in a reas .

b eyond t he An ton ine wa l l y et

T he map c on ta ins a l l t he p laces u sed b y

P ego lot t i a s s ect ion h ead ings , a s we l l a s a l l p laces men t ioned i n t h is e ssay . 4 6 . H . P irenne , Moha m med a nd C har le magne , L ondon , 1 958 , p p . 2 84-5 a nd p ass im . 4 7 . T he c ord i s al ong measure a nd 1 6 i s ar ound n u mber , s o t ha t o ne may s uspect a d egree o f a pprox i ma t ion i n t he 1 91 cm l eng th .

The Tar ifa ,

p . 3 1 , g ives 1 t o 3 1/3 V enet ian b racc ia , o r 2 06/220 a t 6 2/66 cm . Th is 2 06 cm i s more d if f icu lt t o e xp la in , e spec ia l ly a s 1 91 :206 = 1 4 :15 . 4 8 . Ma lynes ( seven teen th c en tury ) d escr ibes a n A lexandr ian p ic w i th a v a lue e qua l t o 5 5 cm .

S ee Machabey , p . 8 2 .

4 9 . An A pug l ian d ocu men t c on te mporary w ith P ego lot t i c onf ir ms t h is f i gure , g iv ing 6 0 Apug l ian c annes a s e qua l t o 2 00 V enet ian b racc ia , o r 3 1/3 b racc ia t o t he c a me .

Bracc ia o f 5 9 .4 , 6 1 a nd 6 2 cm g ive c annes o f

1 98 , 2 02 a nd 2 06 cm r espect ive ly , a nd a s 3 1/3 i s c lear ly a n a pprox ima t ion t he r e la t ive v a lues o f t he t wo measures , 1 98 t o 2 02 cm a nd c . 6 2 cm , a re c orrobora ted .

S ee B . C o lange lo , "Ip es i , l e mone te e l e

misure n e l c o m merc io v eneto - p ug l iese ...", Rassegna P ug l iese ; 1 901 , p p . 2 86-7 . 5 0 . P ego lot t i , p . 2 27 : =7 4 , n o t 7 9 .

1 6 Cha mpange a unes = 1 N i mes c ord :

1 98 x 6

T h is wou ld s ee m t o b e as tra igh t forward e rror .

1 6

T he

P rov ins a une o f 8 2 cm may r e la te t o t he C ha mpagne a une ( as s uggested b y Machabey ) , s o t ha t i fa nyth ing 7 9 cm e rrs o n t he l ow s ide . 5 1 . G enoa i s u nusua l i n h av ing a l arge c anne o f 1 3 p a l ms a nd a sma l l o ne o f 9r espect ive ly 3 16 a nd 2 18 cm l ong .

I ti s t hrough i gnor ing t h is t ha t

D es i mon i , 1 895 , p . 2 3 ( see o ur n o te 5 ) , p roduces a n e rroneous C ypr io t c anne o f 2 22 cm , f ro m a 1 0 p a lm G enoese c anne o f 2 44 cm ( a c orrect l eng th ) a nd P ego lo t t i ' se qua t ing o f 1 0 G enoese c annes w ith 1 1 o f C yprus : o f 1 98 cm .

1 0 G enoese c annes o f 2 18 cm p roduce 1 1 C ypr iot c annes

Machabey , p . 8 1 , p roposes a c o mparab le l eng th o f 2 14 cm

f or t he s hor ter c anne , b ut s uggests t wo p oss ib le r ead ings f or t he l onger , 3 66 a nd 3 28 cm . 5 2 . T h is i s "t he k ing ' si ron e lne"; u sed p r i mar i ly i n t he c lo th t rade , e s tab l ished b y s ta tu te a t ag iven l eng th i n t he l a te t we l f th c en tury , a nd f requen t ly c on f ir med i n e nsu ing c en tur ies w ith n o i nd ica t ion o f ar eva luat ion .

T hus t he e ar l iest e x tan t r od ( Sou th K ens ing ton S c ience Museu m ,

1 931-984 ) , o f Tudor d a te a nd 3 6 modern i nches l ong , s hou ld r epresen t t he y ard o f t he e ar ly f our teen th c en tury .

T he p o in t i s s uppor ted b y t he

s o-ca l led f oo t o f S t . P au l ' s , men t ioned i n b o th t he e ar ly t we lf th a nd t he f i f teen th c en tur ies , b y t he s econd o f wh ich i ti s c lear t ha t i th as t he s a me l eng th a s t he Eng l ish f oo t o f 3 0 .48 cm , g iv ing a y ard o f 9 1 .44 cm . S ee G r ierson , 1 972 , p . 1 8 a nd p ass im ( our n ote 2 5 ) . 5 3 . P ego lo t t i p . 1 29 : 1 48 :65 o r 1 57 :69 .

4 4 Ma jorcan c annes = 1 00 B ruges a unes , i .e . e ither 1 57 cm i s s uppor ted b y U zzano , p . 1 15 , 2 2/3

F loren t ine b racc ia = t he Ma jorcan c anne , a nd 5 8 x 2 2/3 = 1 55 cm . 2 3

5 4 . C on trast h owever t he Marse i l les c ord o f 6 .8 c annes ( Machabey , p . 2 8 ) w ith t ha t o f 6i n N i mes . 5 5 . T he C onserva to ire N a t iona l d es Ar ts e t Met iers i n P ar is h ouses a P ar is ian a une o f 1 19 cm i nscr ibed w i th t he y ear 1 554 . O ther r ecorded l eng ths p lace t he v a lue o f t he a une b e tween 1 18 a nd 1 21 cm , w ith t he l onger f igure l ike ly t o b e t he e ar l ier f or m .

S ee a lso Machabey , p . 8 8 .

5 6 . T he l eng th o f t he Ro man b racc io was r ecorded o n as lab s et u p o n t he C ap ito l b y L uca P eto i n t he m id-s ix teen th c en tury .

Th is i s n ow l ost ,

b ut t he b racc io was i n t urn r ecorded a s 2f t .1 1/4 i n ., o r 6 3 .6 cm , b y F o lkes i n t he e igh teen th c en tury .

F or P e to a nd F o lkes s ee n o te 1 4 .

B IBL IOGRAPHY A non , 1 925 .

T ar ifa , z oe n ot ic ia d y p ex i e mexurq d i l uog i et ere e he

s 'adovra marcadan t ia p er e l mondo , c 1400 . Machabey , A ., 1 962 .

V en ice , 1 925 .

L a me tro log ie d ans l es mus es d e p rov ince , P ar is ,

1 962 . Manand ian , H ., 1 968 .

" Les mesures a t tr ibuees a Anan ia S irakac ' i

c onver t ies e n p o ids e t mesures a ctue ls" , R evue d es E tudes A .r men iennes , n .s . 5 , 1 968 , 3 69-419 ( at rans la t ion o f at ex t p ub l ished i n 1 930 ) . P ego lot t i , F . B ., 1 936 . U zzano , G . d a , 1 925 .

L a P ra t ica d e l la Merca tura , e d . A . E vans , 1 936 . F if teen th c en tury t ex t , a va i lab le i n G . F . P agn in i ,

D e l la D ec i ma , Vo lu me I V , L isbon a nd L ucca , 1 766 .

2 4

T able o f P egolotti 's C loth L engths A ll h ead w ords a re m odern n ames w here a vailable.

P egolotti 's e quivalents m ay b e

l ocated o n t he m ap.

A cre

A ntalya

C anna l Aym

p 68 :

c annes o f N imes, C yprus, M ontpellier ( at 1 98 ).

B raccio 5 2/55cm

p 69 : 1 00

B raccio 1 08cm

P 22 :

9 8 C ypriot b r.

( at 5 3/56 ).

2 2 = 1 2 C ypriot c annes ( at 1 98 ).

P 9i :

A lexandria

C anna 1 91cm

2 2 S etalia b r. = 1 2 C ypriot w ool c annes ( at 1 98 ) 4 7 p 76 : 1 00 = 1 6 N imes c ords ( at 1 98 x 6 ).

B raccio 5 5cm

P 72 :

A ncono 1 57/168cm

P 57 : kkancone = 1 F lorentine c anne ( at 2 23/238 ).

A ncono 1 32cm

P 92 : i j a ncone = 1 C ypriot c anna ( at 1 98 ).

C anna 2 22pm

p 65: 1 00= 1 02 A cre c annes ( at 1 98 ).

C anvas c anne 2 02/

P 94 : 1 00= 1 02 C ypriot c annes ( at 1 98 ).

4 8

" Altoluogon

A ncona

2 25cm B raccio 6 0/64cm

3 i = 1C ypriot c anne ( at 1 98 ).

P 52 : 1 00 = 285 C onst. c ubits ( at 7 9 ). p 160: 3 7i = 3 6 V enetian b r.

( at 6 2/66 ).

p 161: s ee B arletta .

A pulia A rmenia

C anne 1 25/209cm

p 61: 1 00 = 3 15 V enetian b r.

A rras

A une 1 73cm

p 228 : 1 6 = 1 4 N imes c annes ( at 1 98 ).

A scoli

C anna 2 58cm

p 160: 1 00 . 1 28/130 A ncona c annes ( at 2 02 ).

A utun

L une 1 06cm

p 232 : 1 1i = 1 A vignon c ord ( at 1 98 x 6 ).

kam _ i o n

C anne 12 2pm

p 227 : 1= 1 N imes c anne ( at 1 98 ).

P alm 2 5 cm

p 229 : 8= 1 A vignon c anne ( at 1 98 ).

A zov

C ubit 7 9cm

p 53: 1 = 1 P era c ubit ( at 7 9 ).

B arletta

C i inne 1 98/202cm

p 170: 1 = 1 C . hiar enza c ann e ( a t 1 98 )& A n cona ( a t 2 02 ).

4 9

p 171 :

= 4 V enetian b r.

( at 5 9/61 ).

p 90: s ee D amascus.

B eirut B ologna

( at 6 2/66 ).

B raccio 6 1/65cm

p l46 :

3 7 =3 6 V enetian b r. ( at 6 2/66 ).

p 160: 1 00 = 1 02 A ncona b r. ( at 6 0/64 ). B rabant

A une 6 4/68cm

p 244: 1 02 .100 B ruges w ines ( at 6 5/69 ).

B ruges

A une 6 5/69cm

p 100: 1 =

2 1 r

C ypriot p alms ( at 1 98 r 8 ).

p 246 : 1= i k F lorentine b r. ( at 56/5 9 ). L inen w ine 6 5/68cm

p 248 ; 1 00 = 1 04 V enetian b r. ( at 6 2/66 ).

C anvas A une 6 5cm

p 245:

2 11 = 1 00 ( 120) L ondon c anvas y ards ( at 1 14 ).

B urgundY

A une 1 25cm

p 232 :

9 i =1 A vignon c ord ( at 1 98 x 6 ).

C aen

A une 8 7cm

P 257 : 1 00 = 9 5i L ondon y ards ( at 9 1.4 ).

C andia

B raccio 6 0/61cm

p 105:

30 = 1 00 Ancona cannes ( at 1 98/20 2 ).

T arifa p p32, 5 9 : 1 04 . 1 00 V entian b r.

2 5

( at 6 2 ).

‚ Cava

C anne 1 8 6/20 0cm

C halons

p p51, 5 4 : 4 2i =100 P era c ubits ( at 7 9/85). p 232 : s ee B urgundy. 5 0

C hampazne

t une 7 9cm

p 227 :

2 i .1 N imes c anne ( at 1 98 ).

C ivitanova

C anne 2 1 8/22 2cm

p 160: 1 00 = 1 10 A ncona c annes ( at 1 98/20 2 ).

C onstantinople

C ubit 2 2/85cm

p 49 : 1 00 =

6 i N imes & A vignon c ords ( at 1 98 x 6 ).

P 56 : 1 00 = 1 28 V enetian b r. W ool c ubit 5 3/57cm

p 199 : 4 8 t o 5 0 = 1 2 F lorentine c annes ( at 2 23/238 ). T arifa p 16 : 1 00

C remona

B raccio 5 5/59cm

C rimea C yprus

( at 6 2/66 ).

p 199 : 4 0 P 37 :

8 3i - V enetian b r. ( at 6 3/67 ).

1 0 F lorentine c annes ( at 2 23/238 ).

s ee C onstantinople.

C anne 1 . 22/191 m

s ee t ext.

B raccio 5 3/56cm

s ee t ext.

D amascus

B raccio 5 1/55cm

p 90: 1 00 = 9 7 C ypriot b r.

E uboea

B ra ccio 5 8cm

p 118 :

( at 5 3/56 ).

3 40 = 1 00 C hiarenza c annes ( at 1 98 ).

T arifa p 41: 1 06 ( wool ) = 1 00 V enetian b r. ( 62 ). F ermo

C anne 2 52-258cm

p 160: 1 00 = 1 25 t o 1 28 A ncona c annes ( at 2 02 ).

B raccio 6 0/64cm

p 146 : 1 00 = 9 6 V entian b r. ( at 6 2/66 ).

F landers F lorence

G enoa

p 222 :

s ee B ruges.

C a me 2 23/238cm

s ee t ext.

B raccio 5 6/ Q cm

p 197 : 4 0 = 3 4 P isan b r.

G reat C anne o f

P 221: 1 G reat c anne = 1 3 G enoese p alms.

1 3 p alms, . 3 1 9m

p 221:

( 66/68 ).

1 00 = 2 6 1 N imes c ords ( at 1 98 x 6 ).

p 48 : 1 00 . 4 00 P era c ubits ( at 7 9 ). C anne o f

9

p 147 : 1 0 =

3 5 V enetian b r. ( at 6 2 ). 5 1

p alms, 21 4 1 cm Pass° d el m are

p 98 : 1 0 . 1 1 C ypriot c annes n scarsen(at 1 98 ). P 216 : 1

=7G enoese p alms ( at 3 16 : 4 »1 3 ).

1 70cm G ovito d el M are 7 3cm B raccio 7 2/77cm

I etip

B raccio 5 7cm

K oroni L . IL L21 .

C anne 1 98cm

P 216 : 1.

3G enoese p alms ( at 3 16 4 .1 3 ).

=1 Genoese

p 216 :

2

p aaso d el m are ( at 1 70).

p 198 :

3 1 = 1 0 F lorentine c annes ( at 2 23/238 ).

p 222 :

9 0j i= 1 00 B ruges a unes ( at 6 5).

p l18 :

3 i .1 C hiarenza c anne ( at 1 98 ).

p 153:

s ee M ethone.

p 93: 1 = 1 C yprus c anne

( at 1 98 ).

U zzano p 92 : 1= 1 c anne o f M essina, N aples & A cre ( at 1 98 ). L a takia L ondon

B ra ccio 6 4/68cm 5 2 y ard 9 1.4

p 91: 1 0 = 1 2 C ypriot b r .

26

( at 5 3/56 ).

C anvas y ard 1 14.3cm P 255: 1 = 5 q uarters

( je o f ay ard o f 9 1.4cm ); 12 0 9 1.4 x ç x 1 00 = 1 37, 5

1 00 . 1 20; p 245:

1 00 = 2 11 B ruges c anvas a unes ( at 6 5).

L ucca

B ra ccio 5 4cm

p 197:

3 0 = 2 8 F lorentine b r.

( at 5 8).

M ajorca ,

C anne 1 96/210cm

p 128:

1 13 . = 1 0 F lorentine c annes

se N imes.

( at 2 23/238).

5 3 o r 1 48/157cm 5 4 Marseilles

C anne 128pm

p 226 :

M essina

C a me 2 j em

P 94: 1 = 1 C ypriot c anne

M ilan

B raccio

66/71 cm

p 115:

1 13 . = 1 0 F lorentine c annes ( at 2 23).

p 198:

3 4 . 1 0 F lorentine c annes

p 222 :

3 4 = 3 1 G enoese b raccia ( at 7 2/77 ). 1 20 = 1 00 V enetian b raccia ( at 6 2/66 ).

M ethone

E r tweic 5 2/55cm

p 153:

M mtpellier

C anne 1.2 . §. 9 m

p 68:

N aples

C anne 1 98/210cm

( at 2 23/238 ).

1= 1 N imes c anne

p 274:

M orocco

( at 1 98).

s ee S afi.

p 188: 1 . 8 p alms w here F lorentine c anne : =

9

( at 2 23/238). N imes

C anne l esm

C ord 1 192cm

p 68 :

1. 1M ontpellier c anne

( at 1 98 ).

p 200:

1 11 = 1 0 F lorentine c annes

p 148:

1=

( at 2 23).

6N imes c annes & 1 9 3 . V enetian b r. ( at 1 98 & 6 1 ).

5 P aris

A une 12Qpm

Patras

C anne 2 2 1 asm

p 119 : 1 00 = 1 02 C hiarenza c annes ( at 1 96 ). P 37:

P era

s ee C onstantinople.

P erugia

C anne 2 44/261cm

p 197:

9= 4 0 F lorentine b r.

P iacenza

B raccio 59cm

P 228:

3 * = 1 N imes c annes

Pisa

C anna 2 63cm

p 96 : 1 0 = 1 31 C ypriot c annes p 67 :

B raccio 6 6/71cm

1 0 . 1 3f A cre c annes

p 147: p 1 97 : P 24 9 :

( at 5 5/59 ).

( at 1 98 ). ( at 1 98).

( at 1 98 ).

1 7 = 1 8 V enetian b r.

( at 6 2/66 ).

3 4 = 4 0 F lorentine b r. 9 9 = 1 00 B ruges a unes

( at 6 5/69 ).

Provins

A une 8 2cm

P 23 6 : 1 46 = 1 00 P arisian a unes

R amleh

B raccio 5 7cm

p lO1:

R eims

C anne 1 98cm

p 124: 1 = 1 M ontpellier c anne

A une 6 0cm

p 228:

C anne 122cm

p 96 : 1 0 F lorentine c annes = 1 1

R hodes

p l05:

( at 5 6/59 ).

( at 1 20).

3 =1C ypriot c anne ( at 1 98). ( at 1 98).

2 0 = 1 N imes c ord ( at 1 98x

1 0 F lorentine c annes = 1 1

6 ). C ypriot c annes. R hodian c annes,

R hodian c anne = C ypriot c anna ( at 1 98). C ubit 2/pm

P P92, 1 02 :

2 7

1= 3 i r palms o f t he 8 p alm c anne ( at 1 98).

5 6 R ome

B raccio 6 3.6cm

p 198:

3 8 . 1 0 F lorentine c annes

S afi

C anne 2 03cm

p 274:

1= M ontpellier c anne

S eville

V ara 7 3/7 8 c m

p 201:

1= 1 * F lorentine b ra ccia ( at 5 5/58).

p p110, 1 15:

S icily

( at 2 42 ).

2 4 1% ( at 1 98).

s ee M essina.

S ivas

C ubit 9 5cm

p 65:

2 08i = 1 00 A cre c annes

T abriz

C ubit 5 6cm

p 30:

1 40 = 1 00 P era c ubits

( at 1 98). ( at 7 9 ).

P 30 : 1 10 = 1 00 V enice b raccia ( at 6 2 ). T ripoli

T unisia

( Syria )

C anne 2 28cm

p 229 :

B raccio 5 1/54cm

P 91:

C anne 2 17/242c±

p 136 : 9 3 =1 00 Ancona c anvas c annes ( 202/225).

2 12cm

V enice

B raccia 6 2cm

p l35:

1 00 = 1 15 N imes c annes

( at 1 98).

1 00 = 9 7 C ypriot b raccia ( at 5 3/56 ).

1 01 b raccia ( recta c anne?) = 3 25 P isan c loth b raccia ( at 6 6 )

p 50:

1 28 . 1 00 C onstantinopolitan p ies

p 97 :

1 00 = 3 1i C ypriot c annes

6 . 1 cm

p 148:

1 9i = 6 N imes c annes

6 2/66cm

p 248:

1 04 = 1 00 B ruges a unes

2 8

( at 7 9 ).

( at 1 98).

( at 1 98 ). ( at 6 5/69 ).

3 .

S O ME FRANCISCAN ALTARS OF THE

TH IRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTUR IES J u l ian Gardner

T he f i rst e ssay i n t he c o l lec t ion o f p arod ies o n Winn ie t he P ooh b y F reder ick C rews i n troduces i t s r eaders t o t he s p lend id c oncep t o f t he " Chr istophor ic e ar ".

N o-one c on tr ibu t ing t o t h is v o lu me o f e ssays w i l l

e as i ly f orget t ha t a ctua l c r it ica l o rgan , l i sten ing c our teous ly t o a n a pparen t ly p laus ib le t heory d er ived f ro m s o me em inen t a u thor ity , b efore t he f ina l , g leefu l d e mo l it ion . S ince t he p resen t c on tr ibu t ion i s a bou t t he F ranc iscans , a n o rder o n wh ich t he r ec ip ien t ' sv iews s tand s o mewhere b etween t hose o f Radu lphus d e R ivo a nd t he l a ter o p in ions o f Ma t thew P ar is , t u mbr i l . c an b e h eard a pproach ing .

1

a lready t he

I n i t s e ar l iest y ears t he F ranc iscan o rder p ossessed n o c hurches , a nd t he f r iars h eard mass , o r c e lebra ted i ti ft hey were p r iests , i n l oca l c hurches . T h is d ependence o n o thers c ou ld c ause s evere p rob le ms , a s E cc leston ' s a ccoun t o f t he a rr iva l o f t he M inors i n Eng land i l lustra tes v iv id ly , a nd d oub t less t h is was o ne o f t he ma in c on tr ibu tory c auses t o t he d ec is ion t o b u i ld c onven ts .

2

B u t t he f ounder ' so ppos i t ion t o b u i ld ings f or h is f o l lowers

makes i tv ery u n l ike ly t ha t much c hurch b u i ld ing t ook p lace d ur ing h is l i fet ime .

3

N one the less t he e ar l iest a nd most s ign if ican t o f t he n ew c hurches

were s e t i n t he h ear t land o f t he O rder .

Yet t he d oub le b asi l ica a t A ss is i

where S a in t F ranc is h i mse lf was b ur ied r e ma ined r e la t ive ly w ithou t i n f luence a s a n a rch itectura l mode l , a nd more c haracter ist ic o f t he O rder ' s Umbr ian c hurches was t he a is le less , wooden r oofed S an F rancesco a t C or tona .4 A l though s tead fas t ly r efus ing t o p roceed b eyond t he s ub-d iacona te h i mse lf , F ranc is ' r everence f or t he C orpus Chr ist i i s we l l a t tested .

H e c oncerned

h is b rethren d irect ly a nd p rac t ica l ly i n t he c lean ing o f t he c hurches a nd t he ir a l tars .5 I tf o l lows f ro m t h is t ha t t he a l tar o ccup ied a n otab ly impor tan t r o le i n t he n ew c hurches o f t he F ranc iscan O rder .

T he s ide a ltars o f t he U pper

C hurch a t A ss is i were d ed ica ted t o S a in t M ichae l a nd t o t he Apost les r esp ect ive ly , c u lts t o wh ich F ranc is was p ar t icu lar ly d evo ted .

I ti s p robab le t ha t

t here were e ar ly s ide a l tars i n t he t ransep ts a nd n ave o f t he L ower Church a lso , d esp ite t he r educed r o le o f t he p r iva te mass i n t he F ranc iscan Order .

6

Y et i ti s t he h igh a l tars o f t he U pper a nd L ower Churches wh ich a re u nusua l , a nd wh ich d eserve t o b e s et i n aw ider c on tex t . I nnocen t I V c onsecra ted t he b as i l ica o f S an Francesco a t A ss is i i n J u ly 1 253 .

I n h is b iography o f I nnocen t , t he p apa l c hap la in N icco lb d a Ca lv i n oted

t ha t h e a lso c onsecra ted ( or r econsecra ted ) t he p r inc ipa l c hurches a t A ss is i —a lthough o n ly S an F rancesco c ou ld b e c onsidered i n a ny s ense a " new" c hurch .

7

Th is i n i t se lf wou ld s ee m t o imp ly t ha t J u ly 1 253 c an o n ly b e t aken

a s ab road t er m inus a n te q ue m f or t he c o mp let ion o f S an F rancesco .

2 9

P erhaps

n o t e nough n o t ice h as b een t aken o f ap assage i n E cc leston wh ich o ccurs i n h is b iograph ica l s ketch o f B ro ther A ugust ine .

T h is f r iar r eca l led a n o cca-

s ion a t A ss is i when P ope G regory I X o n t he F eas t o f S a in t Franc is " ce lebrav i t e x tra e cc les ia m s uper t abu lam s ub d ivo q u ia n on p o tu i t e sse i n e cc les ia p rae mu lt itud ine p opu l i". Th is e ven t c an o n ly h ave t aken p lace i n 1 235 , a nd a c o mp let ion d a te , a t l east f or t he L ower C hurch b efore t hen a ppears i nescapab le , a s i ndeed K le insch m id t b as ing h i mse lf o n o ther e v idence was p repared t o a rgue .

8

I n a ny c ase i ti s c er ta in t ha t b o th h igh a l tars were i n e x istence b y

1 253 , a nd p robab ly c ons iderab ly e ar l ier . F ro m i t s i ncep t ion S an F rancesco a t A ss is i e n joyed a s pec ia l r e la t ionsh ip w ith t he p apacy , a nd t h is Ro man c onnect ion i s d iscern ib le i n an umber o f ways . T he g round p lan o f t he L ower C hurch , w i th i t s s a l ien t , o r ig ina l ly f l a t-ended t ransep ts a nd r ound western a pse i s s trong ly r em in iscen t o f t he e ar ly C hr ist i an b as i l ica o f S an P ietro i n Va t icano , l i ke A ssis i i t se lf a t o mb c hurch .9 T he U pper C hurch c on ta ined a p apa l t hrone , s et i n t he c entre o f t he a pse , wh i lst t he h igh a l tar i n f ron t o f i t was o ne o f p apa l p r iv i lege . 1° B o th ma in a l tars a t A ss is i a re n o tab ly e labora te .

H owever t ha t i n t he

U pper C hurch h as b een t o ta l ly r econstructed , a nd s h if ted f orward f ro m i t s o r ig ina l p os i t ion b enea th t he c ross ing v au lt .

T he mosa ic i n la id s labs o f t he

a l tar s ides a re o r ig ina l b u t t he a l tar s teps a re n ew .

I n o r ig in t hese s teps

were f aced w ith c era m ic t i les c arry ing a g eometr ic p a t tern , a nd t hese t i les a re n ow p reserved i n t he u pper s acr isty . v iv ing e xa mp les o ft he t echn ique .1 1

T hey a re among t he e ar l iest s ur-

I ti s h owever t he h igh a l tar o f t he L ower C hurch wh ich w i l l c oncern u s most h ere . T he e leva ted p od iu m o ft hree s teps o n wh ich i tn ow s tands was p robab ly i nser ted d ur ing t he C inquecen to .1 2 The mensa measures 3 80 c en t imetres i n w id th , a nd i ti s 1 80 c en t i metres d eep .1 3 ( P la tes 3 .1 a nd 3 .2 ) . H ere t he c o mpar ison w ith o ld S an P ietro i s i nstruc t ive .

T he t we lf th c en tury

a l tar o f Ca l ix tus I ( 1 119-1124 ) was i n u se t hroughou t t he t h ir teen th a nd f ourt een th c en tur ies . I t was a c ube measur ing 2 70 c en t i metres i n w id th , c lad w ith p aonazzet to marb le . I n c on trast t he h igh a l tar o f t he L ower C hurch was 1 10 c en t i metres w ider , a nd i t s s ize i ndeed was s uf f ic ien t ly n o tab le t o g ive r ise t o al i ve ly t rad it ion o f m irac les .

1 4

T he s tructure o f t he a l tar c ons ists

o f as o l id c en tra l b lock w ith a s urround ing a rcade wh ich s uppor ts c usped a rches whose s pandre ls a re i n la id w i th C os ma t i work . I n d ecora t ion a s i n s hape t he h igh a l tar o f t he L ower Church d i f fered r ad ica l ly f ro m e ar l ier a l tars i n Umbr ia .1 5 I t was e qua l ly u npreceden ted , a s f ar a s s urv iv ing ma ter ia l g oes , among t h ir teen th c en tury a l tars i n R ome a nd L az io .

T here c on t inued t he t rad it iona l p reference f or f l a t s ided a l tars ,

e nr iched w ith mosa ic i n lay , o f wh ich t he h igh a l tar o f t he D uo mo a t F eren t ino i s af ine e xa mp le , a nd t ha t a t S an t ' Agap ito , P a lestr ina a n e xcep t ion . " ( P la te 3 .3 ) . T he a ltar a t A ss is i i s a lso c ons iderab ly l arger t han t he t we lf th c en tury Umbr ian a l tars , a nd i s i ndeed s tr ik ing ly w ide f or t he L ower C hurch , T he c usped a rches , i n la id s pandre ls a nd f o l ia te a nd f i gura l c ap i ta ls a re a lso n ove l f or c en tra l I ta ly . One o ft he c ap ita ls h as a monster i n.i t s f o l iage , wh ich h as b een i den t if ied a s ab as i l isk .

Many f ea tures o f t he A ss is i a l tar

a re r em in iscen t o f as hr ine , a nd t h is may we l l h ave b een d e l ibera te i n v iew

3 0

o f i t s c onnect ion w ith t he r e ma ins o f S a in t F ranc is .

1 7

I ti s a lso p oss ib le

t ha t , a s w ith s o much o f t he a rch itectura l i nsp ira t ion a t A ss is i , ap receden t s hou ld b e s ough t i n n or thern E urope .

T here t oo h owever i ti s i n t he f i e ld

o f s hr ines a nd t o mbs r a ther t han among a ltars , o f wh ich f ew t h irteen th c ent ury e xa mp les h ave c o me d own t o u s , t ha t as earch f or mode ls s hou ld b e made .1 8 Whereas t he a rch itecture o f A ss is i was t o h ave o n ly l im ited i n f lue nce i n Umbr ia a nd L az io , t he a ltar o f t he L ower C hurch was t o p roduce a d ist ingu ished s er ies o f im ita t ions . The ma in a ltar o f t he L ower . Church i s d ed ica ted t o S a in t J ohn t he Bap t ist , a nd c on ta ins a r ib o f t he s a in t , p laced t here b y P ope I nnocen t I V .

T h is em-

p has ises a no ther R o man l i nk , t ha t w ith S an G iovann i i n L a terano .

I n A pr i l

1 230 G regory I X h ad d es igna ted A ss is i " capu t .. e t ma ter" o f t he O rder , at i t le s ign if ican t ly r em in iscen t o f t he L a teran—"capu t e t ma ter omn iu m e cc les iaru m" .19

N e i ther o f t he h igh h igh a ltars a t A ss is i i t s hou ld b e n oted

was d ed ica ted t o S a in t F ranc is , f or t he h igh a l tar o f t he U pper C hurch was d ed ica ted t o t he V irg in . I t was n o t o n ly i n mend ican t c hurches d ur ing t he t h ir teen th c en tury t ha t a l tars were i ncreas ing i n s ize .

The n ear ly c ub ic a l tar b lock f avoured i n

t he t we lf th a nd e ar ly t h ir teen th c entur ies b eca me v ery much w ider t han i t was d eep .

Whe ther t h is f unda men ta l c hange i n s hape was s t i mu la ted b y

d eve lop men ts i n l i turg ica l f ash ion , t o d o w ith s uch t h ings a s t he s e t t ing o f c and les o n t he a ltar , o r a s was t o b e t he c ase l a ter i n t he c en tury i n I ta ly a t l east , o f p lac ing a l tarp ieces o f e ver-increas ing d i mens ions u pon t he a ltar i s ac o mp lex p rob le m n o t y et s a t isfactor i ly s o lved .

2 0

E ven among t he n ewer

w ider a ltars , s o me were p la in ly b locks wh i le o thers t ended t owards t he more s cu lp tura l t rea t men t o f t he L ower Church h igh a ltar . I n t er ms o fs heer s ize t he L ower Church a ltar was l arge , b ut n o t e xcept i ona l ly s o .

The w id th o f t he o r ig ina l h igh a ltar o f S an F rascenso a t B o logna ,

c onsecra ted b y I nnocen t I V i n 1 251 may b e d educed f ro m t he l a ter c on tract b e tween t he f r iars a nd J acobe l lo a nd P ierpao lo d a l le Masegne o f N ove mber 1 388 f or t he s et t ing o f a n e labora te marb le a l tarp iece o n t he e ar l ier mensa— a l though t he ma t ter i s n o t q u ite s i mp le .

2 1

I n t he r ad ica l r estora t ions o f t he

b as i l ica i n t he l a te n ineteen th c en tury d irected b y A lfonso Rubb ian i t he p resen t a l tar was manufactured a s a n im ita t ion o f t he o r ig ina l h igh a l tar .

2 2

I t c an

s carce ly b e r egarded a s e v idence f or a nyth ing e lse t han t he s ca le o f o ther m id-th ir teen th c en tury h igh a ltars i n ma jor mend ican t c hurches .

A t B o logna

t oo t he h igh a l tar was f ro m t he s tar t d ed ica ted t o t he V irg in Annunc ia te i n me mory o f t he f irs t F ranciscan h ouse i n t he c i ty , d e l le P ug l io le .

S an ta Mar ia Annunz ia ta

2 3

More s ubstan t ia l e v idence r e ma ins h owever e lsewhere .

I n t he h uge

b r ick c hurch o f S an L orenzo b u i lt b y t he F r iars a t V icenza i n t he l a te t h irt een th c en tury t he mensa s t i l l s urv ives a s p ar t o f t he l a ter a l tar s tructure . I tc arr ies t he f o l low ing i nscr ipt ion o n i t s r ear e dge : -DE PORT IS PROLES GU IDON IS CO (ND ID ) I T ARA+ M ILLO DVC OCT . OBV ITANDA M PESTE M T (0 )RTOR IS AMARA M . h ave b een c o mp lete b y t h is d a te .

NONO S CDE I ND + ( HA )NC 2 4

T he b u i ld ing must t hus

The s ize o f t he s urv iv ing mensa , a nd i ndeed

t he t ower ing s ca le o f t he b u i ld ing i t se lf g ive r ise t o a no ther p rob le m t o wh ich we s ha l l r e turn—the p reserva t ion o f t he a ltarp iece wh ich , i ti s c o m mon ly 3 1

a l leged o ccup ied t he 1 289 a ltar .

Whereas t he mensa p rov ides i nd isputab le

2 5

e v ider ice f or t he w id th o f t he t h ir teen th c en tury h igh a l tar ( 376 c en t i me tres ) a nd i t s r e la t ionsh ip t o t he ma in c ho ir ( 784 c en t i me tres ) , t he ma in b ody o f t he a ltar i s n ow l ost . T he a l tar b lock a t S an F rancesco i n S ansepo lcro b ears a n i nscr ip t ion o n t he e dge o f t he mensa wh ich r eads : -ANNO .D .M . CCC .I I I I I N FESTO O IU M S C04 .S CS RAN IERUS M IGRAU IT AD DN M . QUO: ANNO . HOC ALTARE . COE BURG I . F IER I . FECIT AD HONORE . DE I & MAGN IF ICET IA M . DE I S C I AM . The a ltar i s 3 42 .5 c en t i me tres i n w id th , 1 81 d eep a nd 1 23 .5 c en t i metres h igh .

( P la te 3 .4 ) .

I n i t s a rcad ing i ti s man ifest ly a s i mp l if ied im ita t ion

o f t he h igh a l tar o f t he L ower C hurch a t A ssis i .

A mass ive c en tra l s uppor t

i s s urrounded b y a n a rcade o f t w isted c o lonet tes s uppor t ing c usped a rches . T he o bscure l oca l B ea to Ran iero was a pparen t ly i n terred i n t he c ryp t b e low .

2 6

T he h igh a l tar o f t he F ranc iscan c hurch a t S ansepo lcro d oes n o t s ee m l ike ly i n f act t o h ave b een d ed ica ted t o h im o r ig ina l ly .

2 7

Canon iza t ion , a t

l east s ince t he p on t if ica te o f I nnocen t I I was b eco m ing s tead i ly a more s yst e ma t ised p rocess u nder p apa l c on trd .

2 8

O rd inar ies t oo were t igh ten ing

t he r e ins , a s i s s hown b y t he e p iscopa l d ecrees o f t he l ead ing p apa l j ur ist a nd l ega te Gu i l lau me D urand f or h is s ee a t Mende , where h e was q u i te s pec if ic i n h is l eg is la t ion o n a l tars .

"Praec ip i mus u t i n u naquaque e cc les ia

a n te v e l p ost v e l s upra q uod l ibe t a l tar s it ymago v e l s cu lp tura v e l p ictura v e l s cr ip tura e xpresse d es ignans e t c u i l ibe t i n tuen t i man i fes tans i n c u jus s anc t i n o men e t h onore m s i t i psu m a l tare c onstructu m" .2 9 T he s pread o f s uch a t t itudes among t he I ta l ian e p iscopa te c an b e t raced i n t he l eg is la t ion o f P ap in iano d e l la Rovere b ishop o f Novara , a nd a lso a t F lorence a nd B o logna . " P ap in iano e v iden t ly k new o f Durand ' sr ecen t l eg is la t ion a nd b orrowed f ro m i t .

A t S ansepo lcro t he c en tra l images o f S asse t ta ' sd oub le s ided a ltarr iece

a re o f t he V irg in e n throned a nd o f S a in t F ranc is i n E cs tasy . T he a l tarb lock a t S ansepo lcro i s r em in iscen t o f A ss is i i n i t s f or m . L ess r ich i n i t s ma ter ia ls , i th as a s ty l ist ic c oherence n ot p resen t i n i t s mode l .

T he b ond b e tween t o mb a nd a l tar was n o t a n e xc lus ive ly F ranc iscan

p heno menon .

Ar e markab le e ar ly Trecen to e xa mp le i s t he h igh a l tar o f t he

D uo mo a t Massa Mar it t i ma . H ere t he l arge mensa s he ltered t he a rca o f t he l oca l s a in t C erbone c arved b y t he Tuscan mason G oro d i Gregor io .3 1 The a ltar a lso o nce b ore t he impor tan t d oub le s ided a l tarp iece im ita t ing D ucc io t sS iena c a thedra l Maestä . .

3 2

The Massa Mar it t i ma p o lyp tych was ,

when c o mp lete , d e monstrab ly n arrower t han i t s mode l .

T he o r ig ina l w id th

o f t he c a thedra l a l tar a t S iena may b e d educed a pprox i ma te ly f ro m i nd irect e v idence —the r econstructed w id th o f D ucc io ' sp a in t ing , a nd a f abr ic a n tep end iu m r eferred t o i n af i f teen th c entury i nven tory o ft he Duo mo .

3 3

B u t

t he r eason f or t he e xcep t iona l w id th o f t he h igh a ltar o f S iena c a thedra l s ee ms t o b e b ased e n t ire ly o n r easons o f l oca l p res t ige a nd l i turg ica l f ash ion — t here was n ot t he e xcuse o f a ma jor r e l ic e nc losed i n t he a ltar .

3 4

Th is s er ies o f F ranc iscan h igh a ltars c an b e e x tended b y t he h igh a l tar o f t he g rea t N eapo l itcan n unnery o f S an ta Ch iara . S evera l f ea tures o f t h is a ltar mer it d iscuss ion . Un for tuna te ly a n u mber o f t he p rob le ms r a ised a re u n l ike ly t o b e r eso lved , s ince t he a ltar h as b een t horough ly r econs tructed

3 2

an u mber o f t imes i n t he wake o fb o th ab aroque r e mode l l ing a nd a l l ied b o mb ardmen t .3 5 ( P la tes 3 .5 , 3 .6 ) . T he a l tar b lock i s o nce a ga in o f c ons iderab le s ize , a nd t he s ides e labora te ly a rcaded . T he s pandre ls o f t he s urround ing a rcade a re d ecora ted w i th r e l ief s cu lp ture , b u t t he p rogramme i s o n ly p art i a l ly r etr ievab le . B enea th t he t r i lobed a rched s tood a s er ies o f f igures wh ich p robab ly o nce i nc luded t he t we lve a post les .

3 6

t he a l tar b lock i s o ne t o wh ich we s ha l l r eturn .

T h is s cu lp tura l e nr ichmen t o f Wha tever may b e t he p rob le ms

o f a t tr ibu t ing t he s cu lpture o ft he a l tar o f S an ta C h iara , i ta ppears c er ta in t ha t i t was i n s o me way c onnected w ith t he t o mb o f K ing R ober t wh ich was s et b eh ind i ti n a manner u lt i ma te ly d er ived f ro m t he t o mb c hape l o f P ope B on iface V I I I a t S an P ietro i n V a t icano , most p robab ly t hrough t he i n termed iary c hanne l o f t he t o mb o f t he Emperor H enry V I I i n t he D uo mo a t P isa .3 7 T here t he t o mb was s et b eh ind t he h igh a l tar , a nd t he s arcophagus was d ecora ted w ith t he t we lve a post les . I t was t he work o f T ino d i Cama ino who was l a ter t o h ave ap ro l if ic c areer a s at o mb mason i n N ap les .

( P la te 3 .7 ) .

A t Nap les t here-

f ore t he i n ter-connect ion b etween a l tar a nd t o mb was e nr iched b y Angev in emu la t ion o ft he i mper ia l t o mb , wh ich i t se lf r ef lected t he p apa l mode l . E labora te t hough t he d es ign o f t he h igh a l tar o f S an ta C h iara was , t he s et t ing o f f igures b enea th a rcades was n ot a n i nnova t ion . An e ar l ier , l arger a nd f ar more magn if icen t e xa mp le i s t he h igh a l tar o f t he c a thedra l a t C o logne where t he a post les f l anked a c en tra l C orona t ion o f t he V irg in .3 8 I t may b e i n I t a ly t ha t F ranc iscan p receden t c an b e f ound f or S an ta Ch iara . Ra ther c rude f igures b enea th g oth ic a rcad ing a ppeared a lso o n t he r everse o f t he o r ig ina l h igh a l tar o f t he c a thedra l a t Arezzo .3 9 T here c an b e l i t t le l ike l ihood o f a d irect i nf luence f ro m C o logne a t N ap les , a nd s o many h igh a l tars h ave p er ished t ha t i t may e ven b e at r if le h azardous t o a dduce t he h igh a l tar o f S an ta C h iara a s a no ther i nstance where Angev in p a tronage b rough t N eapo l i tcan a r t w ith in t he amb it o f n or thern E uropean i nf luence . I n S an F rancesco a t A ssis i t he s ide a l tars w ere p robab ly i n s i tu f ro m t he mo men t o f c o mp let ion o ft he Upper C hurch . C erta in ly t he ir e x istence i s p red ica ted b y t he t wo f rescoed Cruc if ix ions o n t he t ransept wa l ls a nd t he p rogra m me o f t he mura l d ecorat ion . A n e ven e ar l ier s ide a l tar i n t he n ave o f t he L ower C hurch i s s uggested b y t he r e mnan ts o f a mura l t r ip tych b y t he Maestro d i S an F rancesco t o t he l ef t o f t he e n trance o f t he Cappe l la d e l la Madda lena . 4° ( P la te 3 .8 ) .

Yet d ist inct ive ly F ranc iscan s ide a l tars i n

F ranc iscan c hurches a re r are , a nd a n e ar ly a nd impor tan t s urv iva l i s t ha t i n t he C appe l la B aronce l l i i n S an ta C roce a t F lorence . 41 ( P la te 3 .9 ) . T he B aronce l l i a l tar o nce a ga in s upported a n importan t p ane l p a in t ing , i n t h is c ase t he p o ly tych o f t he C orona t ion o f t he V irg in wh ich o nce b ore G io t to ' s s igna ture .

T he c hape l i t se lf , a t t he e nd o f t he r igh t t ransep t o f S an ta C roce

was o ne o ft he l argest a nd most e labora te ly d ecora ted t o h ave b een e rected d ur ing t he l i fet i me o f G iot to . T he a l tar b lock h as s o me c la im t o b e t he e ar l iest a l tar w ith a s cu lptured p rogram me t o b e p reserved i n aF ranc iscan c hurch .

T he f ron t s ur face i s d ecora ted w ith t wo r oset tes wh ich f l ank r e l iefs

o f t he Agnus D e i a nd a s eraph , t he l a t ter n o d oub t ar eference t o t he S t igma t izat i on o f S a in t F ranc is wh ich i s p ro m inen t i n t he s ta ined g lass o f t he w indow b eh ind t he a l tar . L ike t he a l tars a t A ss is i t he a l tar b lock i s s epara ted f ro m t he wa l l b y an arrow s pace .

3 3

Wh i le t he a ltar i n t he Cappe l la B aronce l l i b ears n o r e la t ion t o t he a l tar o f t he L ower C hurch a t A ssis i , i n f or m o r i n ar ese mb lance t o as hr ine , i t f orms a n impor tan t p ar t o f t he c o mp l ica ted d ecora t ive p rogra m me o ft he F loren t ine c hape l .

I t marks n ever the less a s ign if ican t s tage i n t he d eve lop-

men t o f t he F ranc iscan a l tar .

I tc arr ies , p robab ly f or t he f i rst t ime a n

a ltarp iece o f t he Corona t ion o f t he V irg in , wh ich was t o b eco me a l most t he p referred t he me o f F ranc iscan h igh a l tarp ieces .

T he s cene r eappears i n

t he s tone a ltarp iece b y t he Masegne b ro thers a t B o logna , a nd l a ter , t o n a me o n ly t wo o u tstand ing e xa mp les , i n t he h igh a ltarp ieces b y G iovann i B e l l in i f or S an F rancesco a t P esaro a nd Car lo C r ive l l i f ro m F abr iano . 42

T h is

s h if t h owever t owards a l tarp iece p rogra m me r a ther t han t he i conography o f t he a l tar i t se lf a lready t akes u s b eyond t he l im its o f t h is p aper .

I n t he

e ar l iest y ears o f t he Order i t was t he a ltar b lock i t se lf wh ich was t he f ocus o f embe l l ish men t , a nd h ere t he h igh a l tar o f t he L ower Church o f S an F rancesco a t A ss is i was i n f luen t ia l f or a n u mber o f i t s g rea t s uccessor b u i ld ings i n Umbr ia a nd b eyond .

NOTES 1 . F . C . C rews :

The P ooh P erp lex .

( London 1 964 ) .

Paradox ica l P ersona :

T he H ierarchy o f H ero is m i n Winn ie the-Pooh , p . 6 .

W . R . T ho mpson :

" The image o f t he Mend ican ts i n t he C hron ic les o f Ma t thew Par is". A rch ivu m F ra tru m P raed ica toru m , 7 0 , ( 1977 ) , p p . 3 -34 . 2 . A . G . L i t t le e d ., Tracta tus F r . Tho mae v u lgo d ict i d e E cc leston d e Adven tu f ra tru m m inoru m i n Ang l ia m . D ocu men ts V I I I ) .

P ar is 1 907 , p . 1 6f f .

( Co l lec t ion d 'E tudes e t d e V . f ra tres e n im n on c e lebraban t

i n l oco s ed i ban t a d a ud iendu m d iv ina e t a d c e lebrandu m a d e cc les ia m p aroch ia le m .. ( = E cc leston ) . 3 . C f . R . Brooke e d ., S cr ip ta L eon is , Ruf in i e t A nge l l S oc ioru m S . F ranc isc i , ( Ox ford Med iaeva l T ex ts ) ( Ox ford 1 970 ) , p p . 1 06 , 1 14 , 1 16 , 2 22 .

( =

B rooke 1 970 ) . 4 . S ee i n g enera l R . Wagner-R ieger : o rdensk irchen ".

" Zur T ypo log ie i ta l ien ischer B et te l-

Rö m ische H istor ische M it te i lungen , I , ( 1957/8 ) , p p .

2 66-298 , p p . 2 68 f . 5 . B rooke , 1 970 , p . 1 18 , p p . 1 18 f . F ranc isc i .

S . B onaventura :

( Ana lecta F ranc iscana ,

L egenda Ma jor S .

( Quarracch i 1 926-1941 ) p . 5 62 .

" Sacerdo t ibus q uoque pauper ibus r everen ter s ubven ieba t e tp ie , p raec ipue i n o rna men t is a ltar is , q uo e t c u l tus d iv in i p ar t iceps f i eret e t c u ltoru m i nop iae s upp le men ta p raebere t". 6 . C f . J . Gardner :

( = LM ) .

Rev iew o f H . B e lt ing :

D ie O berk irche v on S an F rancesco

i n A ss is i ( Ber l in 1 977 ) I n Kunstchron ik , 3 2 , ( 1979 ) , p p . 6 3-84 .

p . 6 6.

On t he F ranc iscans a nd t he p r iva te mass c f . S . J . P . v an D i jk a nd J . H aze lden Wa lker : 1 960 ) p . 5 1 . 7 . F . P agno t t i :

The O r ig ins o f t he Modern Ro man L iturgy ( London

( = Or ig ins ) . "N icco lö d a Ca lv i el a s ua V ita d i I nnocenzo I V ".

Arch iv io

d e l la S oc ietä Ro mana d i S tor ia P a tr ia , XX I , ( 1898 ) , p p . 7 -120 , p . 1 10 . 3 4

8 . E cc leston p . 1 11 .

F or a v ind ica t ion o f E cc leston a s as ource i n t hese

ma tters s ee R . B rooke : 1 959 ) p p . 2 7 f .

E ar ly F ranc iscan Governmen t ( Ca mbr idge

Bas ic i s B . K le insch m id t :

D ie Bas i l ica S . F rancesco

i n A ss is i .

I( Ber l in 1 914 ) p p . 1 5 f .

s ch m id t ) .

The most r ecen t monograph o n t he a rch itec ture o f A ss is i i s

E . H er t le in : 2 35 f .

( two b e l ls d a ted 1 239 ) .

( = K le in-

D ie Bas i l ika S an F rancesco i n 'Ass is i , ( Florence 1 964 ) p p .

( = H er t le in ) .

9 . Wagner-R ieger :

a r t . c i t . ( no te 4 a bove ) p p . 2 76 f . a nd p . 2 83 .

H er t le in p . 1 08 . 1 0 . K le insch m id t p . 1 51 .

H er t le in p p . 1 11 f .

1 1 . G . P a lu mbo a nd H . B lake :

C era m iche med ioeva l i A ss isane ( Ass is i

1 971 ) ( separa t im f ro m A t t i d e l I V C onvegno d e l la C era m ica . 1 971 ) .

p p . 7f .

F igs . 8 -10 .

D . Wh itehouse :

A lb iso la

"T he med iaeva l g lazed

p o t tery o f L az io" . P apers o f t he B r it ish S choo l a t R o me , XXXV , ( 1967 ) , p p . 4 0-86 .

p . 6 7 .

1 2 . E . Z occa :

A ss is i .

K le insch m id t p . 1 36 . ( Ca ta logo d e l le C ose d 'A r te e d i An t ich itä d 'I t a l ia

( Ro me n .d . )p . 2 1 . 1 3 . Z occa :

2 2 . c i t . p . 2 0 .

J . B raun :

D er C hr ist l iche A ltar ( Fre iburg im

B re isgau 1 924 ) p . 1 77 g ives t he d i mens ions a s 3 72 x 1 77 ems . most d e ta i led t rea t men t r e ma ins B . Mar inange l i :

T he

"L ' A ltar Magg iore

d e l la b as i l ica d i S . F rancesco d i A ss is i" . S . F rancesco d i A ss is i , I I , ( 1923 ) p p . 1 50-152 . 1 4 . B . M . A ppo lon i j G het t i , A . F errua , E . K irschbau m :

E sp loraz ion i s ot to

l a c on fess ione d i S an P ie tro i n Va t ican° e segu ite n eg l i a nn i 1 940-1949 ( C i t tä d e l Va t icano 1 951 ) p . 1 92 .

Mar inange l i :

2 2 . c i t . p . 1 50 c a lcu la tes

t he we igh t o f t he L ower C hurch mensa t o b e 3 500 k i logra m mes .

I n t he

s ect ion o f t he L egenda Ma ior c on ta if ing m irac les o f S a in t F ranc is p os t mor te m ( 21 . . c i t . n ote 5 a bove p . 6 35 ) t he s ize o f t he A ss is i a l tar mensa i s t w ice men t ioned .

( Nos . 6 , 7 ) .

N o . 7s peaks o f" .lap is p raegrand is

d e C onstan t inopo l i a pporta tus .." wh ich i s t he s ource o f t he t rad it ion , r epor ted b y Z occa :

9 E .c i t . p . 2 1 t ha t t he L ower C hurch mensa c a me

f ro m C onstan t inop le . 1 5 . U . Gno l i :

"Gl i a n t ich i a l tar i i n Umbr ia ".

Augus ta P erus ia , I , ( 1906 ) ,

p p . 1 41-146 . 1 6 . The F eren t ino a l tar i s r eproduced i n E . H u t ton : 1 950 , F ig . 2 3 .

The C os ma t i .

L ondon

T he P a lestr ina a ltar , wh ich must d a te f ro m t he s econd

h a lf o f t he t h ir teen th c en tury , i s u npub l ished . t he k indness o f D oro thy G lass .

Iowe t he p hotograph

t o

I ti s u npreceden ted i n i t s i ncorpora t ion

o f t he C o lonna a r ms i n to i t s d es ign .

As im i lar t endency i s t o b e f ound

i n t he f am i ly s ea ls . C f . J . G ardner : " So me C ard ina ls ' s ea ls o f t he t h ir teen th c en tury " . J ourna l o f t he Warburg a nd C our tau ld I nst itu tes , XXXV I I I,

( 1 975 ) , p p . 7 2-96 .

F ig . 1 2e , a nd p . 8 8 .

T he B arber in i b ees

were a dded i n t he s even teen th c en tury . 1 7 . C f . N . C o ldstrea m :

"Eng l ish D ecora ted S hr ine Bases".

J ourna l o f t he

B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l A ssoc ia t ion , CXX IX , ( 1976 ) , p p . 1 5-34 . p . 1 6 .

3 5

1 8 . B raun :

9 _ 2 .c it . p . 1 77 i n c on trast s tresses t he I ta l ian n ature o f t he

L ower Church a l tar . 1 9 . K le insch m id t p . 1 0 . 2 0 . E . B ishop : D endy :

Her t le in p p . 1 09 f .

L iturg ica H istor ica ( Ox ford 1 918 ) C hap . 2p ass im .

The U se o f L ights i n Chr ist ian Worsh ip .

D . R .

( A lcu in C lub XL I )

( London 1 959 ) p p . 6 9 f . 2 1 . I . B . S up ino :

"La p a la d 'a ltare d i I acobe l lo e P ier Pao lo d a l le Masegne

n e l la c h iesa d i S . F rancesco i n . Bo logna". l i bera l i d i B o logna .

Me mor ie .

I st itu to d e l le s c ienze e d a r t i

( Classe d i S c ienze Mora l i S ez ione

S tor ich e F i lo log ice ) , s er . I , v o l . I X , ( 1914/1915 ) , p p . 1 11-131 .

p p .

1 32 f . p r in ts t he c on tract . Good r eproduct ions i n W. Wo lters : S cu l tura G o t ica V eneziana ( Ven ice 1 976) p p . 2 16-219 , a nd F igs. 4 00-418 , 4 22-425 , 4 54. 2 2 . A . Rubbian i :

La Ch iesa d i S . F rancesco e l e T o mbe d e i G lossa tor i

i n Bo logna ( Bo logna 1 900 ) p p . 9 3 f ., 9 7 f .

C f . A . Barbacc i :

"La

b as i l ica d i S an F rancesco i n B o logna e l e s ue s eco lar i v icende" . Bo l let t ino d ' Ar te , XXXV I I I ,

( 1953 ) , p p . 6 9-75 .

p7 1 .

2 3 . S up ino ,

c it . p . 2 30 .

a rt . c i t . p . 1 16.

2 4 . S . Ru mor :

I lT e mp io d i S an L orenzo i n V icenza ( V icenza 1 927 ) .

The

r ead ing g iven h ere d if fers s l ight ly f ro m t hat g iven b y Ru mor p . 7 3 . C f . H . D e l lw ing :

S tud ien z ur Baukunst d er B et te lorden im Veneto .

( Kunstw issenschaf t l iche S tud ien XL I I I ) ( Mun ich 1 970 ) p p . 4 5 f . 2 5 . F . Barb ier i :

I l Museo C iv ico d i V icenza .

a l XV s eco lo ( Ven ice 1 962 ) p p . 1 96 f . ( Un ivers ity Park 1 970 ) p p . 1 31 f .

D ip in t i eS cu lture d a l X IV

M . Muraro :

Pao lo d a V enez ia

The s ca le o f t he p o lyp tych wou ld h ave

b een more a ppropr ia te f or o ne o f t he f l ank ing c hape ls .

Tha t t o t he r ight

was d ed ica ted t o S a in t Franc is , a nd a n a l tar d ed icated t o t he s a in t was s et u p s hor t ly a f ter 1 304 .

C f . G . Man tese :

Me mor ie S tor iche d e l la

Ch iesa V icen t ina , I I ( V icenza 1 958 ) p . 6 05. 2 6. G . Carocc i :

"L ' a n t ico a ltare d i S an F rancesco".

( August 1 0th 1 893 ) , p p . 1 26-127.

L . K ern :

Ar te e S tor ia , 1 6 ,

"Le b ienheureux Ra in ier

d e B orgo S an S epo lcro d e l ' Ordre d es F reres M ineurs". F ranc isca ine , 7 , ( 1930 ) , p p . 2 33-283 . 2 7 . K ern :

a r t . c i t . p . 2 53.

Carocc i :

a r t . c it . p . 1 27.

was g iven t o t he F ranc iscans a t S ansepo lcro i n 1 258 : p . 2 40 .

Revue d 'H isto ire

p . 2 41 . L and f or a c hurch c f . Kern :

a r t . c it .

The a l tar a t S ansepo lcro was i t se lf t o p rovoke a l oca l im ita t ion

i n t he Abbey o f S . G iovann i .

A . d ocu men t o f 1 4th J anuary 1 368 c omm i-

s s ions a h igh a l tar f or t he a bbey ". d e b on is l ap id ibus a ct is i n f or ma u t e st p etrone a l tar is ma ior is i n e cc les ia S anct i F ranc isc i d e d icto Burgo , e xcept is c o lonne l l is q u i e sse n on i b i e s t v e t a l i ter ..." C h iasser in i :

C f . V .

L a p it tura a S ansepo lcro e n e l l ' a l ta Va l le T iber ina p r i ma

d i P iero d e l la F rancesca ( F lorence 1 951 ) p . 9 0 . t o D r . Chr ista Gardner v on T euf fe l .

3 6

Iowe t h is r eference

2 8 . C . R . C heney :

P ope I nnocen t I I a nd Eng land .

9 ) ( S tu t tgar t 1 976 ) p p . 5 1 f .

M . R . T oynbee :

( Päpste u nd P apst tu m S . L ou is o f T ou louse

a nd t he P rocess o f C anon isa t ion i n t he f our teen th c en tury ( Manchester 1 929 ) p p . 1 38 f .

T here i s n o c on te mporary a ccoun t o f ab ea t if ica t ion

p rocess f or Ra i i iero : i n 1 802 .

C f . K ern :

h is im me mor ia l c u l t was r ecogn ised b y P ius V I I a r t . c i t . p . 2 34 .

Ih ave b enef ited much f ro m t he

a dv ice o f Rev . P rof . Marc D ykmanns S . J . f or wha t f o l lows , b u t h e i s i n n o way t o b e h e ld r espons ib le f or my c onc lus ions . 2 9 . J . B er the le :

" Les i nstruct ions e t c onst itu t ions d e Gu i l lau me D urand l e

S peeu la teur d 'a pres l e manuscr it d e C essenon ". e t l et tres d e Mon tpe l l ier .

Me mo ires d e l a S ect ion d es L et tres , 2 e .

s er ie , I I , ( 1900-1907 ) , p p . 1 -148 . 3 0 . G . B r iacca e d .: ( a . 1 298 ) .

A cade m ie d es S c iences

p . 1 07.

G l i s ta tu t i s inoda l i n ovares i d i P ap in iano d e l la Rovere

( Pubb l icaz ion i d e l l ' Un ivers itä c a t to l ica d e l S . C uore .

S agg i er icerche s er ie i i , s c ienze s tor iche 5 ( M i lan 1 971 ) p p . 1 92 f . 2 25 f .

R . T rex ler :

S ynoda l L aw i n F lorence a nd F ieso le 1 306-1518 .

( S tud ! eT est i 2 68 ) ( C it tä d e l Vat icano 1 971 ) p p . 2 67 f . N ove l l i :

L .

"C ost ituz ion i d e l la Ch iesa B o lognese emana te n e l s inodo

d iocesano d e l 1 310 a l t e mpo d e l v escovo U ber to". ( 1972 ) , c ap . x xv i i i , p . 5 05 . c f . B r iacca :

S tud ia G ra t iana , V I I I ,

F or P ap in iano ' sd ependence o n D urand

2 2 . c it . p p . 1 9 , 8 1 .

V I I I ' sl i brary . 3 1 . E . Car l i :

p . 2 69 .

Ac opy o f D urand was i n B on iface

C f . Br iacca p . 8 1 .

G oro d i G regor io ( F lorence 1 946 ) p p . 1 3 f ., 6 3 f .

3 2 . J . G ardner :

F ron ts a nd B acks :

s e t t ing a nd s tructure .

I n terna t iona l C ongress o f A r t H istor ians .

A cts o f t he XX IV

B o logna 1 979 .

( f or thco m ing ) .

F or t he a l tarp iece c f . most r ecen t ly Mostra d i O pere d 'A r te R estaura te n e ue p rov inc ie d i S iena e Grosseto ( Genoa 1 979 ) p p . 2 5 f . 3 3 . J . Wh ite :

D ucc io ( London 1 979 ) p . 9 4 , p p . 2 01 f .

Mag inn is :

N o . 6 .

C f . h owever H .

" The L itera ture o f S ienese Trecen to P ain t ing 1 945-1975".

Z e itschr if t f ür Kunstgesch ich te , 4 0 , ( 1977 ) , p p . 2 76-309 . p ar t icu lar ly C . G ardner v on T euf fe l :

p . 2 80 a nd

" The b u t tressed a l tarp iece :

a

f orgo t ten a spect o f T uscan f ourteen th c en tury a l tarp iece d es ign ." J ahrbuch d er B er l inen Museen , 2 1 , ( 1979 ) , p p . 2 1-65 .

p p . 3 6 f .

3 4 . F or t h ir teen th c en tury a t t itudes t o r e l ics i n a l tars c f . N . H er mann Mascard :

L es r e l iques d es S a in ts .

( Soc iete d 'H isto ire d u D ro it .

C o l lect ion d 'H isto ire I nst itu t ione l le e t

S oc ia le 6 ) ( Par is 1 975 ) p p . 1 58 f . ma t ion o f t hese a t t itudes . Moyen Age .

I I .

F or ma t ion c ou tu m iere d 'u n d ro it . D urand was i n f luen t ia l i n t he f or-

C f . M. Andr ieu :

L e P on t if ica l Ro man a u

L e P on t if ica l d e G u i l lau me D urand .

( S tu d ! eT est i

8 8 ) , ( C it tä d e l Va t icano 1 940 ) , p . 4 86 . 3 5 . E . B er taux :

" San ta C h iara d e Nap les ."

d 'H isto ire , 1 8 , ( 1 898 ) , p p . 1 65-198 .

Me langes d 'A rcheo log ie e t

B . C ercan i d i Varese :

G u ide

d e l la monu men ta le c h iesa d i S . C h iara i n Napo l i ( M i lan 1 913 ) p p . 3 1 f . A . d e R ina ld is :

S an ta Ch iara , ( Nap les 1 920 ) p p . 1 98 f .

b o mbardmen t a nd r econstruct ion ) .

T . Ga l l ino :

men ta le d i S an ta C h iara i n Napo l i ( Nap les 1 963 ) p p . 3 6 f .

3 7

( a l l b efore

I ic o mp lesso monu( subsequen t ) .

3 6 . A . V en tur i : n ote 2 .

S tor ia d e l l ' A r te I ta l iana ( M i lan 1 901 ) i f . I V , p . 3 11 ,

O . Mor isan i :

" Tre c on tr ibu t i p er l a s cu l tura p isana a N apo l i".

B e l le Ar t i , I , ( 1946 ) , p p . 3 0-38 .

p p . 3 4 I f .

3 7 . F or t he t o mb o f B on iface V I I I c f . J . Gardner : R o man T o mb D es ign ". p . 4 37 .

" Arno lfo d i Ca mb io a nd

B ur l ing ton Magaz ine e CXV , ( 1973 ) , p p . 4 20-439 .

F or t he imper ia l t o mb c f . W. R . V a len t iner :

P ar is 1 935 .

p p . 3 9 f .

u nd T ino d i Ca ma ino".

M . S e ide l :

T ino d a Ca ma ino .

" S tud ien u ber G iovann i d i Ba lducc io

S taede l J ahrbuch , n .f . 5 , ( 1975 ) , p p . 3 7-84 .

p . 6 3 . 3 8 . C f . Rhe in u nd Maas . 0 1 .

K unst u nd Ku ltur 8 00-1400 ( Co logne 1 972 ) N o .

p p . 3 71 f .

3 9 . A . d e l la V ita : 4 0 . J . S chu ltze : J ahrbuch

I iD uo mo d i A rezzo ( M i lan n .d .) p . 2 2 . " Zur Kunst d es

F ranz iskus me isters ' " .

) O CV , ( 1963 ) , p p . 1 09-150 .

F ig . 1 16 .

Wa l lraf-R ichar tz

Gardner :

a r t . c i t .

( no te 4 2 a bove ) p . 4 39 . 4 1 . J . G ardner : " The d ecora t ion o f t he B aronce l l i C hape l i n S an ta C roce" Z ei tschr if t, f ür Kunstgesch ich te , 3 4 , ( 1971 ) , p p . 8 9-113 . p . 1 00 . 4 2 . G . Rober tson : A .

B overo :

G iovann i B e l l in i ( Ox ford 1 978 ) P p . 6 6 f .

L ' O pera c o mp leta d e l C r ive l l i .

Tay . L IX .

3 8

M i lan 1 975 .

a nd P la te XLV I . N o . 1 78 a nd

4 .

THE DA MNAT ION OF NERO , AND RELATED THE MES G eorge H enderson

'N ero i s a n a ng ler i n t he l ake o f d arkness ', s ays Edgar i n t he d ev i lr idden t ex t o f K ing L ear , A ct I I , S cene v i .

1

N ero i s t hus t he v ery a n t ithes is

o f S t P e ter t he F isher man , who c a tches s ou ls f or C hr ist .

T h is e ssay i s

c oncerned w ith s o me t we lf th a nd t h ir teen th c en tury images o f t he P sycho mach ia t he me a s i tc oncerns t he P r ince o f t he A post les t r iu mph ing o ver h is t e mp ora l a nd s p ir itua l e ne m ies , N ero a nd h is min ions . On t he r everse o f t he s ea l o f S t A ugus t ine ' sA bbey , Can terbury , f ra med b y t he i nscr ip t ion wh ich d a tes t he s ea l t o t he t en th y ear o f t he r e ign o f K ing R ichard I , t ha t i s 1 198-99 , S S P eter a nd P au l a re r epresen ted s i t t ing o n a l ong a rcaded b ench o r t hrone , S t P eter a t t he s pecta tor ' sr igh t , S t P au l a t t he l ef t .

2

E ach A post le h o lds h is a t tr ibu te o f k eys o r sword i n o ne h and ,

a nd r a ises h is o ther h and t o h e lp s uppor t a sma l l c usped meda l l ion p erhaps o r ig ina l ly c on ta in ing ab ustleng th p or tra it o f Chr ist , t owards wh ich b oth A post les l ook .

T hese t wo mass ive ly d raped f igures , s ea ted s ide b y s ide

f ra med b y ac irc le , b r ing t o m ind t he n ear c on te mporary c o mpos i t ion o f t he u n f in ished i n it ia l t o t he V u lga te v ers ion o f P sa lm 1 09 i n t he Winchester B ib le . T he A post les i n t he s ea l , h owever , h ave s l igh ter p ropor t ions , b igger h eads , a nd t he b ackward t i l t o f t he ir h eads a nd S t P au l ' sp ose o f sw ive l l ing r ound i n h is s ea t a dd t ens ion t o t he g roup l ack ing i n t he p lac id p a ir o f G ods i n t he W inchester B ib le i n it ia l .

I n t he s ea l e ach Apost le r ests o ne f oo t o n t op o f

as em i-c ircu lar a rch t ha t o pens i n t he m idd le o f t he b ase o f t he ir t hrone , a nd e ach p laces h is o ther f oo t o n t he r im o f al ower a rch p ar t ly s een a t t he e x tre me l ef t a nd r igh t .

I n t he Winchester B ib le P sa lm i n it ia l t he i l lustra tor

h as om it ted t he f igure o f t he p rostra te e ne my who m G od t he F a ther p ro m ises i n t he P sa lm t ex t t o make t he f ootstoo l o f t he v ictor ious S on .

Bu t i n t he s ea l

ah udd led c ra mped f igure i s r epresen ted i n t he c en tra l a rched c o mpar t men t u nder t he t hrone .

I rregu lar-s ized a rches l ike t hose o n t he s ea l a re d rawn

u nder t he t o mb o f C hr ist i n t he R esurrect ion s cene i n t he S oc ie ty o f An t iq uar ies P sa lter , MS .5 9 , t he l argest c en tra l o ne c on ta in ing t he p rostra te f igures o f t he s leep ing g uards .

I n t he r ound i n it ia l t o P sa lm 1 09 i n t he

T r in ity C o l lege P sa l ter , MS . B .11 .4 , ar ow o f a rches i s p laced u nder t he p la t for m o f t he t hrone o f G od , a nd i n b e low t hese a re s quashed t hree e ne m ies , t wo J ews w ith p o in ted h a ts a nd a c rowned K ing , p resu mab ly H erod .4

On t he

S t A ugust ine ' s Abbey s ea l -t he c en tra l a rch wh ich impr isons t he c rouch ing e ne my u nder t he f eet o f t he A post les i s i nscr ibed w i th t he n a me N ero , t he t yran t who o rdered t he e xecu t ion o f S S P eter a nd P au l . T he mo t if o f as a in t t r iu mph ing o ver h is e rstwh i le o pponen t o r p ersecu tor i s a n a nc ien t o ne .

I tg oes b ack t o s cenes o f m i l itary t r iu mph i n a n t ique a r t .

3 9

5

3

S t Gregory t he Grea t was s t i l l f ir m ly i n t he a n t ique wor ld when h e wro te i n h is Mora l ia i n J ob o f p erson if ied Br ita in , a t l ast p ac if ied , l y ing d own b efore t he f eet o f t he s a in ts .

6

Th is t he me o f t he t r iu mph o f S t A ugust ine , A post le

o f t he E ng l ish , o ver b arbar ic i gnorance i s n o t h owever c e leb tra ted o n t he o bverse o f h is A bbey ' ss ea l .

T he a rchb ishop i s r epresen ted e n throned ,

n i mbed , v ested , wear ing t he p a l l iu m , h o ld ing h is s ta f f c ross i n h is l ef t h and a nd w ith h is r igh t h and r a ised i n b ened ict ion . s lop ing b ase o f h is t hrone .

H is f eet r est o n t he p ro ject ing

B e low h is f eet i s o n ly t he t er m ina t ion o f h is own

n a me , p ar t o f t he i nscr ip t ion a round t he e dge o f t he s ea l .

B u t i n as l igh t ly

l a ter s ea l t he mo t if o f t he d efea ted e ne my i s t aken u p a ga in a nd o sten ta t ious ly d isp layed o n b o th o bverse a nd r everse . A bbey .

7

( P ls . 4 .1 & 2 ) .

T h is i s t he s ea l o f West m ins ter

On t he r everse K ing Edward t he C on fessor ,

b u i lder o f t he p re-Conquest a bbey c hurch , s i ts o n ab road b ench t hrone , h o ld ing u p a mode l o f t he c hurch i n h is l ef t h and a nd w ith h is r igh t h and g r ipp ing a s cep tre w ith l ong f o l ia te f ronds s pr ing ing o u t f ro m t he t op . T h is e legan t ly d ecora t ive s cep tre a nd t he s p lend id s pread o f t he r oya l man t le b ack o ver t he b ench o n e i ther s ide o f t he K ing c onnect t he s ea l d es ign w ith t he v igorous d raw ing o f t he y oung K ing A lexander i n a Ca mbr idge Un ivers ity L ibrary v o lu me o f v ar ious t rea t ises a nd a b est iary , MS . Kk .i v .2 5 .

8

O n t he

o ther h and , Edward t he C on fessor ' sh ead w ith i t s mass ive p ropor t ions , s trong f ea tures , c r isp moustache a nd u ndu la t ing b eard , o f fers a n a na logy , e ven t hough o n am inu te s ca le , f or t he f orcefu l h eads o f t he A post les o r P rophe ts f ro m S t Mary ' sA bbey , York .

9

K ing Edward r ests h is f ee t s quare ly o n t he b ody o f af a l len e ne my , l y ing a cross t he who le l eng th o f t he t hrone w ith h is h ead a t t he s pecta tor ' sr igh t a nd h is l ef t l eg a nd f oo t s t if f ly o u tstreched t o t he l ef t ;

t he e ne my ' sr igh t

l eg i s a brup t ly b en t a t t he k nee a nd w ith a f lurry o f t h in s harp d rapery-fo lds h angs d own v er t ica l ly b e low h im .

Th is c on trast i n t he p os it ion o fh is t wo

l egs i s p ara l le led i n t he i l lustra t ion o f t he d ea th t hroes o f t he Dan ish K ing H ar thacanu te i n t he Ca mbr idge U n ivers i ty . L ibrary V ie d e S e in t A edward where o ne o f t he K ing ' sl egs i s l i f ted f an tast ica l ly u p a nd o ver t he d in ing t ab le .1 0 E ither H ar thacanu te h i mse lf , Edward ' sa l ien p redecessor a s K ing o f t he E ng l ish , o r H aro ld Harefoo t , t he murderer o f E dward 's b ro ther , migh t s ee m a ppropr ia te c and ida tes f or t he r o le o f E dward 's f oo ts too l . B u t t he b en t p os it ion o f t he e ne my ' sa r ms , h is r igh t h and h e ld u p a t t he l eve l o f h is mou th w ith e x tended f ingers , h is u g ly h ead t hrown b ack , a s i fl ike G u la h e was g reed i ly p ly ing h i mse lf w ith f ood , s uggests r a ther t ha t we h ave h ere Ear l G odw in , wr ith ing a t E dward ' sf eet a t t he v ery mo men t t ha t h is p er jury c hokes h im . " The o bverse o f t he West m inster Abbey s ea l s hows a p owerfu l p a tr iarcha l f igure ,

s ty l is t ica l ly v ery c lose t o t he S t A ugust ine o n t he C an terbury s ea l .

H e i s S t P eter , p a tron a nd c onsecra tor o f t he A bbey c hurch , e n throned a nd v ested a s P ope , d isp lay ing h is k eys a nd a c ross s ta f f whose t i p t ouches t he b row o f a man l y ing s up ine u nder h is f eet .

T h is man wears p o in ted s hoes ,

al ong t ex tured r obe , a man t le o ver h is s hou lders a nd a h eavy c rown . A lthough u n inscr ibed , h e must a ga in b e N ero . I n e ar ly t h ir teen th c en tury s tone s cu lp ture i n F rance t he n or ma l d isp os it ion o f t he ma jor s tatues f l ank ing p or ta ls a nd s tand ing o n c orbe ls a l lowed t he e xp lo ita t ion o f t he t he me o f as a in t ' st r iu mph o ver h is e ne my . z 1 1 1

On t he

l ef t o f t he r ight p or ta l o f t he s ou th t ransep t o f C har tres Ca thedra l , f or e xa mp le , an i mbed a rch ib ishop s tands c a lm ly b less ing o ver a sma l l a g ita ted f igure o f ac rowned k ing who r uns o r c rouches , w ith o utstretched a rms , l ook ing u p t owards t he s a in t a nd r ece iv ing t he t hrust o f t he s a in t ' sc ross s taf f b etween h is t h ick l ips .

T he s a in t may b e S t Ambrose a nd h is d efea ted

o pponen t t he u surper Max i mus .

1 2

On t he l ef t o f t he l ef t p orta l o f t he n or th

t ransep t o f C har tres t he V irg in i n t he Annunc ia t ion g roup t ramp les o n t he w inged b ipeda l s erpen t p erched i n t he c lef t t runk o f t he t ree o f k now ledge o f g ood a nd e v i l .

A longs ide , Gabr ie l s tands a bove a h oofed h orned d e mon

who s ee ms t o s qu irm o u t o f t he a rchange l ' ss igh t u nder t he c orbe l .1 3 T here i s o f c ourse a t C har tres a nd e lsewhere c ons iderab le f or ma l a nd i conog raph ic l i cence i n t he d ecora t ion o f c orbe ls . i s n ot a lways a s uppressed e ne my .

T he mot if d isp layed o n t he m

F or e xa mp le , S t P e ter a s P ope o n t he

r igh t o f t he c en tra l p or ta l o f t he n or th t ransep t a t C har tres h as h is f ee t o n a n u ndu la t ing n odu led mass o f s tone , s y mbo l is ing t he r ock o f t he c hurch .1 4 B u t o n t he s ou th t ransep t a t t he l ef t o f t he c en tra l , J udge men t , p or ta l S t P eter a s A post le a nd mar tyr , h as b enea th h is f eet t he s qua t f igure o f a b earded man wear ing a h eavy money b ag r ound h is n eck .

1 5

T h is i s t he

s orcerer S i mon who i n A cts V I I I s ough t t o b uy t he p ower o f l ay ing-on o f h ands f ro m t he A pos t les a nd who was t hrea tened b y S t P e ter w ith t he words 'T hy money p er ish w ith t hee '.

T he A pocrypha l A cts o f P eter a re l arge ly

c oncerned w ith S t P e ter ' sc ha l lenge i n R o me t o t he s a me s orcerer .1 6 S i mon c oun terfe its d iv ine p owers .

A s h e f l ies b y mag ic a r ts a bove t he

t e mp les a nd h i l ls o f R o me , S t P eter c auses h im t o f a l l t o e ar th a nd h is d ea th f ro m h is i n jur ies a nd t he m isa t ten t ions o f q uack d octors s oon f o l lows .

S t

P eter i s t hen p u t t o d ea th b y o rder o f t he p refect Agr ippa , t o t he Emperor N ero ' sa nnoyance b ecause h e h ad p lanned e ven k eener t or men ts f or S t P eter . T he Apocrypha l A cts o f S t P au l a scr ibe t he d eco l la t ion o f S t Pau l t o t he d irect o rders o f N ero .

1 7

The f igure o f S t P au l , h o ld ing t he s word o f h is

mar tyrdo m a t t he r igh t o f t he c en tra l p or ta l o n t he s ou th t ransep t o f C har tres , s y m me tr ica l ly o ppos i te S t P e ter , s tands a bove t he c rowned f igure o f N ero .1 8 I n t he M idd le Ages N ero was d irect ly c onv icted o f t he mar tyrdo m o f S S P eter a nd Pau l , f or e xa mp le , J ohn o f S a l isbury wr ites o f h im

h e p u t t o d ea th t he

most b lessed A post les o f C hr ist , P e ter b y t he c ross , Pau l b y t he s word .'

1 9

H ence N ero ' sp resence u nder t he ir f eet i n t he s ea l o f S t A ugust ine ' sA bbey , a nd a s S t P eter ' sf oo tstoo l i n t he s ea l o f West m inster Abbey . L ong a go Dr M . R . J a mes i den t if ied a s S i mon t he S orcerer t he f igure o f a man i n ap icturesque f a l l ing p osture o n t he s oc le o f t he c en tra l c o lu mn o f t he c en tra l p or ta l o f P eterb Drough Ca thedra l .

2 0

( P ls . 4 .3 & 4 ) .

T he s oc le

c ons ists o f an arrow b arre l-shaped b lock o f d ark b rown s tone , al oca l v ar ian t o f P urbeck marb le .

I ti s c arved i n h igh r e l ief o n t he s ides a nd f ron t , t he

s a me a rrange men t o f s cu lp ture a s t he mercan t i le s cenes o r s cenes o f m irac les o f t he V irg in b e low t he f eet o f C hr ist o n t he t ru meau o f t he J udge men t p or ta l o n t he n or th t ransep t o f Rhe i ms Ca thedra l .

2 1

A lthough i n r espect o f t h is

c on t inuous c arv ing a round t he b lock , r eadab le o n t hree s ides , t he F rench a nd E ng l ish p or ta ls a re a l ike , i n a l l o ther ways t hey make a s tr ik ing c on trast . T he P eterborough s oc le d oes n ot r ise t o e ye l eve l , b u t i s s et l ow o n t he g round , a nd i nstead o f t he s o l id a rch itectura l me mber o f t he Rhe i ms t ru meau s upport i ng t he l in te l a nd t y mpanu m a nd d iv id ing t he p or ta l i n t wo , t he P eterborough

4 1

p or ta l i s d iv ided b y as ing le s l im s ha f t wh ich r ises f ro m t he c en tre o f t he s oc le a nd a scends t o a sma l l f o l ia ted c ap ita l , s uppor t ing t w in a rches a bove . I n t he c en tra l s pandre l o f t hese a rches i s t he f o l ia ted b ase o f ac orbe l ( cu t o f f s hor t b y t he v au lt o f t he l a ter p orch ) o n wh ich p resu mab ly a f igure o f S t P e ter o nce s tood , h igh o ver t he s pecta tor ' sh ead , n ot d irec t ly c on fron t ing h im l ike t he b less ing C hr ist o n t he Rhe i ms t ru meau .

Th is d istanc ing o f t he

P e terborough S t P e ter f ro m h is f a l l ing o pponen t i s v ery d if feren t f ro m t he ir im med ia te j ux tapos it ion i n t he F rench c orbe ls t ha t we h ave n o ted i n t he p rev ious p aragraph , a nd a ppears h igh ly c haracter ist ic o f t he p ic tor ia l , n ona rch itecton ic d ispos i t ion o f Eng l ish ' Go th ic f acade s cu lptures . T he f la i l ing p ose o f t he man o n t he P e terborough s oc le i s n ot u n l ike t ha t o f Max i mus u nder t he f eet o f S t Ambrose a t Char tres , w ith o ne impor tan t d if ference , h owever , n a me ly t ha t t he P eterborough man i s u pside d own . H e i s f a l l ing h ead f irst a nd h is l egs a re k ick ing i n t he a ir . a nd c lose ly b ese t b y f our d ev i ls , t wo o n e ach s ide .

2 2

H e i s a cco mpan ied

T hose a t t he l ef t ,

mov ing f orward o ne i n f ron t o f t he o ther t owards t he f a l l ing man , h ave t he ir h eads b roken a way a nd d o n o t n ow make much impact when t he b lock i s v iewed f ron ta l ly .

T he r ear most d ev i l l i f ts a h eavy s erpen t b y t he n eck a nd a l lows

i tt o b ite t he s hou lder o f t he d ev i l i n f ron t .

Th is d ev i l h as h oofed f eet .

A t

t he r igh t , at h ird d ev i l s tr ides away f ro m t he f a l l ing man , t urn ing t owards h im a nd t owards t he s pec ta tor a r ound s avage l i onl ike f ace , w i th s hagg y l ocks a nd w ide g r in .

H is f ixed g r i mace a nd mou th fu l o f t ee th a re l ike t hose

o f t he d ev i ls i n t he w ine-press s cene i n t he T r in ity C o l lege A poca lypse . H e h as a l arge w ing o n h is r igh t s hou lder .

2 3

H is f ee t a re p aws , a r med w i th

c laws l ike a l i on ' s , a nd a w ing g rows o n b oth h is h ee ls .

L arge s upernu merary

w ings a re a f ea ture o f d e mons i n t wo o f t he T e mp ta t ion s cenes among t he G ospe l p ictures p refac ing t he l ast c opy f ro m Can terbury o f t he U trech t P sa lter , P ar is BN . L a t . MS 8 846 .

2 4

I n t he marg ina l s ke tch o f t he Tro jans s acr if ic ing

t o D iana o n f .4 o f t he C hron ica Ma iora , Ca mbr idge , C orpus C hr ist i C o l lege MS . 2 6 , Ma t thew P ar is i nvests t he i do l ' sh u man f ee t w i th w ings .

T he d ev i l

s u m moned b y t he v ir tuous ma iden o f Burgundy t o f e tch away a t roub leso me y outh i n t he d raw ing o n f .6 512 o f t he C hron ica Ma iora , C orpus Chr ist i C o l lege Ms .1 6 , h as l i on 's o r b ear ' sc laws a nd s hor t w ings s pr ing f ro m h is h ee ls , v ery l ike t hose o f t he t h ird P eterborough d ev i l .

2 5

T he a rt istry o f t he c o m-

p os it ion o f t he P eterborough s oc le s cu lp ture i s s een when we l ook d irect ly a t t he l i on-faced d ev i l . Im med ia te ly t o h is r igh t t he menac ing ly l owered s ku l ll ike p a te o f t he f our th d ev i l l oo ms i n to v iew . L ooked a t f ron ta l ly o n t he s ide o f t he s oc le , t h is f our th d ev i l wa lks t owards t he l ef t w ith b owed h ead . H e h as a w ing o n h is v is ib le s hou lder , an aked h u man t orso , at h in s erpen t ' s h ead g row ing f ro m h is n ave l .

H e h as s haggy t h ighs a nd n ea t h oofed f ee t l i ke

t he s a tyr S ag it tar ius i n t he Nove mber Ca lendar p age o f t he S t A lbans P sa lter o r , n earer h is own t ime , i n t he N ove mber Z od iac meda l l ion o n t he l ef t p or ta l o f t he west f ron t o f Am iens C a thedra l .

2 6

I n c onven t iona l t we lf th a nd t h ir teen th c en tury H e l l s cenes , d ev i ls a re o f ten s een ma ltrea t ing d a mned s ou ls who f a l l o r h ang i n who l ly i nver ted p oses , l ike t he P eterborough man .

An aked c rowned k ing h angs v ery s t iff ly

u ps ide-down i n t he s cene o f t he f ina l l ock ing o f H e l l- mouth i n t he m id-twe lf th c entury P sa l ter B . L . C o t ton MS . N ero c .i v , wh i le o ther n aked s ou ls t umb le i n more b en t o r c rooked p oses .

2 7

T he v ery f or ma l c lass ica l ly b ased t or men ts4 2

o f-he l l s cenes o ppos i te t he B ea tus i n it ia l i n t he Mun ich P sa lter c on ta ins o ne c o mpar tmen t where s ou ls h ang t i ed b y t he ir f eet t o ab eam . c o mpar t men t s ou ls a re p itched h ead-f irst i n to ah ea ted v a t .

I n a nother T he more

2 8

s pr igh t ly a nd a g i le s ou ls d rawn b y t he a r t ist o f t he p re l im inary l eaves i n T r in ity C o l lege MS .B .11 .4 u ndergo t he s ame t ormen ts c op ied f rom t he Mun ich P sa lter , a nd i n t he ir t urn p rov ide t he s ty l ist ic b as is f or t he l i the d ev i ls a nd t he s ou ls t ha t t hey sw ing r ound a nd f l ing d own i n to H e l l- mou th i n t he L ast J udge men t p icture o n f .2 4E2 o f t he T r in ity C o l lege Apoca lypse .

2 9

A t t he b o t to m o f t he o uter a rch o f t he r igh t a rch ivo lts o f t he J udge men t p or ta l a t C har tres a s turdy d ev i l w ith c lawed f eet c arr ies a n aked s ou l u ps ide-down o ver h is s hou lder , i t s h a ir t ra i l ing o n t he g ro u nd .3 0 I n t we lf th a nd t h ir teen th c entury L ast J udge men t s cenes t he d amned b e ing marched o f f i n c o mpan ies t owards H e l l- mou th a re u sua l ly c lo thed a nd w ear c ostu mes p roper t o t he ir s ta tus o r p rofess ion .

3 1

T he s ou ls a ctua l ly

i ns ide H e l l , manhand led b y d ev i ls , a re n orma l ly n aked , t hough t hey may s t i l l wear t he ir c rowns o r m itres . H owever t here a re s o me e xcep t ions t o t h is r u le . O n t he i nner most a rch ivo lt o n t he r igh t o f t he J udge men t p or ta l a t N o tre-Dame i n P ar is a wo man wear ing a l ong b e l ted r obe h as p lunged h ead-f irst t hrough t he d ragon mou th o f H e l l .

H er f eet s t i l l p ro jec t f ro m i t s

j aws wh i le h er t orso , h ead , a nd a r ms a ppear , a s i t were , i n af i ery o pen ing i n t he d ragon ' st hroa t . B e low h er a c lothed man i s f a l l ing h ead-f irst i n to av a t s tand ing o n ab ed o ff la mes . 32 I n t he s a me way o ne s ou l i n t he H e l l s cenes i n t he W inchester P sa l ter , c ha ined b y h is l eg t o ap i l lar a nd h av ing h is h ands s evered b y t wo d e mon e xecu t ioners , i s wear ing a r ich ly p leated t un ic a nd h as s hoes o n h is f eet .

3 3

G iven t hese p receden ts o r p ara l le ls , t he c lothed man f a l l ing o n t he P eterborough s oc le c ou ld r epresen t as ou l p un ished i n H e l l . B u t h e m igh t e qua l ly we l l , a nd i ndeed m igh t more p robab ly , r epresen t al i v ing man f a l len s udden t ly i n to t he h ands o f d ev i ls , l ike t he y ou th o n f . 6 5E2 o f t he C hron ica ma iora .

T he d ev i l i n Ma t thew P ar is ' sd raw ing a ppears t o b e d ragg ing t he

y ou th a long t he g round b y h is o u tstretched l eg , h is o ther l eg b en t u nder h im , a nd t he s k ir t o fh is t un ic d iv ided o n t he t h igh .

T he P eterborough man i s

s im i lar ly p osed , a l though u p-s ide d own , n ot s ideways , t he s k ir t o f h is r obe b e ing s im i lar ly s p l it . B u t h is r obe i s much l onger , r each ing d own t o t he a nk le o f h is l ef t l eg , l i ke t he r obe , s im i lar ly s p l i t o pen , o f A be l s ink ing d own u nder C a in ' s murder b low o n f . 8o f t he H un t ing f ie ld P sa l ter .

3 4

Al iv ing man , c lo thed a nd f a l l ing h ead long i n to t he c lu tches o f t he d ev i l c ou ld b e S i mon t he S orcerer , a s J a mes s uggested .3 5 H is l egend was o ne o f t he e ar l iest h ag iograph ica l t rad it ions k nown i n E ng land . T ho mas o f E l mha m i nc luded among t he b ooks s en t b y P ope G regory t o S t A ugust ine a v o lu me o f t he P ass ion o f t he A post les , c on ta in ing t he c onf l ict o f S S P eter a nd P au l w ith S i mon Magus . T he b ook was p reserved a bove t he H igh A ltar o f S t A ugus t ine ' sA bbey i n t he f i f teen th c en tury .3 6 I t may h ave b een i l lustra ted , l i ke t he P ass ion o f S t P au l l en t t o B ede b yB ishop C u thw ine o f East Ang l ia .

3 7

A t B ury S t E dmunds t he L ady C hape l b u i lt i n t he l a te t h ir teen th c en tury was d ecora ted w ith p a in ted meda l l ions o f t he h istory o f S i mon t he S orcerer , t he Emperor N ero ' sa l l iance w ith h im a ga inst t he A pos t les , S i mon ' s mag ica l f l igh t a nd f a l l , a nd t he s ubsequen t mar tyrdo m o f S S P eter a nd P au l a t N ero ' s

4 3

o rders .

3 8

S i mon ' si conography i s f ound s ca t tered a bou t E urope i n t he h igh

M idd le Ages .

I n at we lf th c en tury p i laster c ap ita l i n t he n ave o f A utun C a thedra l

h e t akes t o t he a ir , wa tched b y S S P au l a nd P eter , t he l a t ter a r med w ith a g ian t k ey .

T he s orcerer r ises , s us ta ined b y w ings s trapped t o h is k nees

a nd e lbows .

I n a n a d jacen t c ap ita l h e h ur t les h ead long t o t he g round , h is

mou th g ap ing w ide i n ay e l l o f d espa ir a nd h is w ings s t i l l a t tached b u t r ig id ly v er t ica l a nd u se less .

T he A post les wa tch h is f a l la t t he r igh t , a nd a d ev i l ,

i t se lf w inged a nd w ith g ap ing mou th , s i ts a cross t he f l ank o f t he c ap ita l a nd p ro jec ts i n to t he p lane o f t he f a l l s cene , r eady t o s e ize h is p rey .

A c an ia ,

t we lf th c en tury f on t a t Va l leberga ,

O n t he

3 9

s ou thern S weden , t he h ead , n eck

a nd h oofed f ore legs o f ad ev i l , w ith o pen mouth a nd l o l l ing t ongue , p ro ject f ro m a g a teway b eh ind t he f igures o f t he A post les , who l ook t o t he l ef t a t t he f a l l ing f igure o f S i mon , h is l ong b are l egs s t ick ing u p , h is d raper ies g a thered l i ke a n ea t ly f o lded n apk in a round h is v acan t f ace .

The d eco l la t ion o f S t P au l

i s r epresen ted im med ia te ly t o t he r igh t o f S i mon , t he A post le ' sd e tached h ead h e ld u p b y t he e xecut ioner e cho ing ( i n r everse ) t he p o in ted o va l o f t he i nver ted v ir tua l ly b od i less h ead o f S i mon .4 0 T he s t if f i nver ted p ose o f t he Va l leberga S i mon i s r em in iscen t o f R o mane sque j ugg ler c ap i ta ls where a n e n ter ta iner p osed u ps ide d own i s d e l ibera te ly c on trasted w ith u pr igh t c o mpan ion f igures .

I ti s i n t h is s ense a n a ppropr ia te

p ose f or t he c har la tan S i mon , q u ite a par t f ro m h is f l igh t a nd f a l 1 . 41

T he

v isua l t he me o f c lose ly j ux taposed a nd c on trasted i nver ted a nd u pr igh t f igures c an b e t raced b ack t o p re-Ro manesque a r t , f or e xamp le i n t he f orc ib ly d irect imagery o f t he e ar ly I r ish p sa l ters where G o l ia th ' sp rone c orpse i s r epres en ted a s i t were h ang ing u ps ide d own i n f ron t o f t he v ictor ious Dav id . 42 I nver ted f igures , h owever , a re v ery c haracter ist ic o f d yna m ic Ro manesque d es ign .

The mo t if was emp loyed i n t he t we lf th c en tury t o g ive v isua l i n terest

a nd a v ar iab le v iewpo in t t o sma l l i vory d raugh ts p ieces .

One E ng l ish e xamp le

s hows D io medes f l ung h ead long b y a n u pr igh t H ercu les t o t he man-ea t ing mares , l ined u p h or izon ta l ly .

A no ther , f ragmen tary , d raugh tsp iece s hows J ere m iah

c ast h ead f irst i n to a d ungeon a t Z edek iah ' so rders . 43

T he r esu lt ing c on-

t rasts o f p ose e v iden t ly h ad a s trong a esthet ic a ppea l . I n t we lf th a nd t h ir teen th c en tury u sage t he i nver ted f a l l ing p ose c an l i tera l ly e xpress o ver throw ,

aj udge men t o f G od o n h is e ne m ies .

I n

L ev i t icus X Nadab a nd A b ihu , t he s ons o f A aron , o f fer ' strange f ire ' b efore t he L ord , b reak ing G od ' sc o mmand men t .

'And t here wen t o u t f i re f ro m

t he L ord , a nd d evoured t he m , a nd t hey d ied b efore t he L ord '.

The h istor ia ted

i n it ia l t o L ev it icus i n t he W inchester B ib le i l lustra tes t h is i nc iden t .

I n t he

u pper p ar t o f t he i n it ia l V ( f or V ind icav it ) t he t wo p r iests s w ing c ensers b es ide a n a l tar .

A t t he l ef t o f t he l ower c urve o f t he i n it ia l t hey r ee l a nd s ee m

t o f l ee a s f ire s trea ms d iagona l ly d own o n t he m f ro m a c loud .

T h is p ar t icu lar

p or t ion o f t he i l lustra t ion i s s im i lar t o t he m in ia ture o f t he d estruct ion o f Aaron ' ss ons i n t he G reek O cta teuchs .

4 4

B u t a t t he r igh t o f t he l ower c urve

o f t he W inchester B ib le i n it ia l a n a dd it iona l s cene o f t he ir d ea th o ccurs , wh ich s ee ms i nf luenced b y t he r e la ted s tory i n N u mbers XV I o f t he d estruct ion o f t he r ebe l l ious K orah a nd Da than .

Moses d es ires f or t hose r ebe ls a s pec ia l

d ea th , t ha t 't he e ar th w i l l o pen h er mou th a nd swa l low t he m a l ive '.

S o i n

t he W inchester B ib le L ev it icus i n t ia l o ne o f Aaron ' ss ons s taggers f orward a nd a ppears t o s ink i n to t he e ar th u p t o t he k nees .

T he o ther i s s hown who l ly

i nver ted , f a l l ing h ead long , w ith h is f eet k ick ing u p i n t he a ir l ike t he P eterborough man .

4 4

The g enera l s y mbo l ic s ense o f t h is image i s f requen t ly d isp layed i n t he U trech t P sa lter a nd i t s c op ies , i n l i tera l i l lustra t ion o f t he mon itory t ex t o f t he P sa l ms .

I n t he i l lus tra t ion t o Psa l m Ii n t he T r in ity C o l lege Eadw ine

P sa l ter t he u ngod ly who ' sha l l n ot s tand ' i n t he J udge men t a re b lasted b y t he b rea th o f t he p erson if ied w ind t ha t 'w i l l d r ive t he m away l ike c haf f ' . T hey a re a ssa i led a lso b y ad e mon w ith a h uge t r iden t , a nd t wo o f t he m a re d is lodged f ro m among t he ir s t i l l e rect c o mpan ions .

T hey a re c lothed ,

c lear ly d if feren t ia ted i n t h is r espect f ro m t he s ou ls who i nhab it H e l l a t t he b o t to m r igh t c orner o f t he p icture .

One o f t he t wo d is lodged s inners i s

b end ing t he u pper p ar t o f h is b ody t o o ne s ide , b u t h is c o mpan ion i s f a l l ing , h is a r ms f l ung o u t , h is h ead d ownwards a nd h is l egs k ick ing i n t he a ir . 45 T he t ex t o f P sa lm 3 3 r efers t o G od ' sj udge men t o n t he works o f men . migh ty man i s n o t d e l ivered b y much s treng th .

' A

Ah orse i s av a in t h ing f or

s afety ' . T he l ast c opy o f t he U trech t P sa lter , BN . MS . L a t . 8 846 , r epresen ts t hese j udge men ts w ith t wo f igures i n e ar ly i den t ica l p oses .

T he m igh ty man

i s ag ian t , l y ing p rostra te , o n d iagona l ly s lop ing g round , h is h ead d own a t t he l ef t , h is l egs k ick ing i n t he a ir a t t he t op r igh t .

T he s inner who f l ees

o n h orseback i s p itched o f fh ead f irst o ver t he n eck o f h is d im inu t ive h orse . H is c loak s w ir ls a round h is s hou lders , h is h ands r each f orward v a in ly t o s ave h i mse lf , h is l egs k ick i n t he a ir . 46 P sa lm 5 1 r ehearses Dav id ' sa ddress t o S au l , p ro m is ing v engeance o n t he t ra i tor D oeg t he E do m ite . migh ty man?

Why b oastest t hou t hyse lf i n m isch ief , 0

G od s ha l l l ikew ise d estroy t hee f or e ver , h e s ha l l t ake

t hee away , a nd p luck t hee o u t o f t hy dwe l l ing p lace , a nd r oo t t hee o ut o f t he l and o f t he l iv ing ....

L o , t h is i s t he man t ha t made n o t G od h is s treng th ;

b u t t rusted i n t he a bundance o f h is r iches, w ickedness '.

a nd s treng thened h i mse lf i n h is

I n t he Eadw ine P sa lter t h is j ust j udge men t o f G od i s mere ly

a f f ir med b y t he r he tor ica l ly p osed f igure o f t he P sa lm ist , h o ld ing i n o ne h and t he r azor s y mbo l ic o f D oeg 's d ece i t a nd ma l ice a nd w ith t he o ther i nd ica t ing G od i n h eaven , wh i le a t t he l ef t D oeg i s i n t he a ct o fb etray ing D av id ' s whereabou ts a nd c on federa tes t o S au l .

T he e qu iva len t i l lustrat ion

i n Ms . L a t . 8 846 , i n terest ing ly e nough , i n troduces a t t he r igh t o f t he P sa lm ist ar epresen ta t ion o f S au l h i mse lf a s t he p r i me s inner , f a l l ing h ead long f ro m h is t hrone , h is a r ms t hrown f orward t o s ave h i mse lf , h is c rowned h ead j erked s ideways a s i fp ressed o n t he g round , h is man t le sw ir l ing a cross h is c hes t l ike t ha t o f t he f a l l ing h orse man i n P sa lm 3 3 , h is s k irts c l ing ing r ound h is l egs .

O ne l eg i s b en t t o t he r igh t , t he o ther i s s tra igh t u p i n t he a ir .

T h is a dd it ion t o t he i l lustra t ion t o t he P sa lm , made a round 1 200 , s uggests t ha t t he C hr istchurch a r t ist a s we l l a s t he d es igner o f t he S t August ine ' s A bbey s ea l f e lt a k ind l ing o f i n terest i n t he mo t if o f t he o ver throw o f t he p roud u ngod ly man . 47 On f . 3 4 o f t he F rench t h ir teen th c en tury V ie d e S t D enys . P ar is BN . MS . f r . 1 098 , N ero t akes t he r o le o f t he u ngod ly man f lung f ro m h is h orse , l ike t he v a in r ider o f P sa lm 3 3 ( P l . 4 .5 ) .

S S P eter a nd Pau l p reside o ver N ero ' s

d own fa l l , a s t hey d o i n t he S t A ugust ine ' sA bbey s ea l , t hough i n t he min ia ture t hey a re w ithdrawn b ustleng th i n to r ounde ls a t t he t op o f t he p age , a nd a re o f fered t he ir mar tyrs ' c rowns b y a n a nge l a t t he c en tre o f t he u pper marg in . B e low t he m i s ar ectangu lar p icture o f H erod ' sd own fa l l .

Two d ev i ls u se

l ong h and led imp le men ts t o u nsea t h im , l i ke t he d ev i l w i th t he p i tch fork i n 4 5

t he i l lustrat ion t o P sa l m Ii n t he Eadw ine P sa lter .

One o f t hese d ev i ls

c a tches t he h ee l o f N ero ' sr igh t l eg , k ick ing i n t he a ir . o f f t he s ide o f h is h orse .

H e f a l ls f orwards

H is h orse i s wa lk ing o n ah uge H e l l- mou th , f ro m

t he c orners o f whose l ips t wo o ther d ev i ls a re emerg ing .

V erses a cco mpany

t h is p icture , c on trast ing t he s p ir itua l f or tunes o f t he A post les a nd N ero : D itan tur c e lo P etrus Pau lusque c oron is . Mors e terna d a tur , merces c ond igna N eron is . 48 I n a ssess ing t he p oss ib le r ange .of mean ing o f t he f a l l ing man o n t he s oc le a t P e terborough , i ti s wor th n ot ing t he k ind o f e ne m ies t ha t t he c hron ic lers o f P eterborough A bbey e nv isaged o r p ar t icu lar ly d epreca ted .

R ober t o f

Swaf fha m 49 wr ites t ha t i n t he t ime o f Abbo t Akar ius ( d ied 1 210 ) t here was g rea t d iscord b etween t he R egnu m a nd t he S acerdo t iu m .

'Who s hou ld h ave

d efended t he C hurch c a me a ga inst i tw ith a r ms , a nd who s hou ld h ave b een s een a s t he f r iends o f r e l ig ion s trove t o e x t ingu ish i t ' . Akar ius i s r ecorded a s mak ing c ryp t ic c o m men ts a bou t me mbers o f t he P eterborough c o m mun i ty who o bstructed h im .

Rober t o f Swa f fha m h in ts t ha t t hough t hey were a f ter-

wards r a ised h igh t hey were e ven tua l ly c ast d own b y G od .

When Akar ius

d ied K ing J ohn h e ld t he A bbey a nd i t s r evenues i n h is own h ands f or f our y ears , u n t i l t he a ccess ion o f Abbo t Rober t d e L indesey i n 1 214 .

5°

T he

r eferences i n Rober t o f Swa f fha m ' sC hron ic le t o t hese t roub les b r ings t o mind t he p r iv i leges a nd c har ters q uo ted b y H ugh Cand idus i n t he t ex t o f h is P eterborough C hron ic le .

5 1

K ing Wu lphere 's p r iv i lege s ta tes ' Whosoever

s ha l l p resu me t o d im in ish o r t ake away t hese t h ings t ha t were c onsecra ted whether b y o ur g if t o r t he g if t o f o thers o f t he f a i th fu l t o t he u se o f t he B lessed P eter , l e t t he k eeper o f t he g a te o f H eaven d im in ish h is s hare i n e verl ast ing r eward .

B u t whosoever s ha l l o f h is g eneros ity i ncrease t he m , may

G od i ncrease f or h im e terna l b l iss . '52 P eterborough a s econd Ro me .

T he B u l l o f P ope Aga tho c reated

We g ran t i n a ccordance w ith y our p et i t ion

t ha t t he a foresa id c hurch i n Medesha mstede s ha l l b e R o man a nd A posto l ic , where y ou a re t o p ossess t he B lessed P eter a lways p resen t w i th y ou i n s p ir it , a s i ndeed w ith u s i n b ody , where a lso p rayer s ha l l b e made b y y ou a nd b y y our who le k ingdo m a s a t Ro me i t se lf .... who(ever ) a re u nab le t o v is it t he B lessed P eter i n h is own c i ty o f Ro me may s eek h im w ith p erfect f a i th h ere , where h e dwe l leth w ith y ou i n t he s p ir it ....

B u t i fa nyone , wh ich G od f orb id , s ha l l

p resu me t o v io la te t h is i n a ny p o in t , o f wha tsoever d ign ity o r r ank h e b e , l et h im b e c ut o f fb y t he sword o f e xco m mun ica t ion o f S t P eter h i mse lf , u n less h e made amends .

B u t l et h i m who s ha l l g uard t he m , a nd who s ha l l

p refer t o i ncrease t he p roper ty o f t he Church , b e r ece ived a bove b y t he g race o f t he b earer o f t he k eys h i mse lf , a nd a s H e l l i s t o b e o pened f or t he m who r ob i t , s o l e t P arad ise b e o pened f or t he m who d efend i t .

5 3

S o le mn c urses

a re q uo ted b y H ugh Cand idus f ro m t he c har ters o f c on f ir ma t ion o f K ing Edgar , Edward t he C on fessor , a nd Wi l l ia m t he Conqueror :

Whosoever s ha l l p re-

s u me i n a ny manner t o v io la te i t , l et h im b e c onde mned f or e ver t o t he i n ferna l r eg ions b y t he c ensure o f P eter h i mse lf

; 'whoever s ha l l p resu me t o

t ransgress o ur d ecrees , l e t h im b e a ccused t o G od a nd h is S a in ts .., a nd i fh e s ha l l n o t make amends wor th i ly , l et h im b e s wa l lowed i n to t he d ep ths o f H e l l , a nd b urn t w ith t he D ev i l f or e ver ';

't herefore l et n one o f my h e irs o r

ä uccessors r ash ly d are [ to g a insay ] t hese t h ings l es t h e p er ish b y t he sword o f e xco m mun ica t ion , a nd p ossess H e l l i n p lace o f t he i nher itance o f t he c hurch ' .54 4 6

I n t he l igh t o f s uch impreca t ions d irected l arge ly a t o ppress ive r u lers , t he man who f a l ls o n t he t hresho ld o f S t P e ter ' sc hurch s ee ms u n l ike ly t o b e t he c har la tan S i mon i n a ny mere n arra t ive r o le , p lung ing t o e ar th i n t he m idst o f h is mag ica l f l igh t .

I fh e i s S i mon , i t must b e h is a t te mp ted

u surpat ion o f s pr i tua l p ower t ha t i s s een t o b e p un ished , a s au n iversa l i mage o f g reed a nd b lasphe my .

B u t i n o ur p er iod S t P eter i s f requen t ly

p i t ted a ga inst N ero , a nd N ero i s em inen t ly s u itab le a s t he t ype o f t hose p ersecu tors o f t he p a tr i mony o f S t P eter who m t he monast ic c o m mun ity was a t p a ins t o t ry t o r epe l .

T he man f a l l ing a t P eterborough wears n o c rown .

I n ap ub l ic p o le m ic image t h is migh t a rgue o n ly a r easonab le c au t ion .

I n

t he r e ign o f H enry I I ap erson if ica t ion o f v ir tue migh t a ppear r oya l ly a rrayed b u t p erson if ied v ice p erhaps wou ld n ot .

5 5

H enry I I made amends t o t he

A bbey f or h is f a ther ' ss po l ia t ion o f i t s p roper ty , b y e s tab l ish ing a w eek ly market a nd a n a nnua l f a ir .

5 6

I ti s mere ly a s ty l ist ic c o inc idence t ha t t he

P eterborough man r ese mb les t he e f f igy o f K ing J ohn a t Worcester , u s ing t he s a me k ind o f d ark p o l ished s tone , t he s a me d eep ly f urrowed a nd f l ow ing d raper ies , t he s a me h ead t ype w ith f lared n ostr i ls , w ide mou th , e ars l i ke h and les , h eavy j aw s e t i n at h ick n eck , t he b eard n o t p rotrud ing b u t e ngraved o n t he r ounded c h in .

5 7

T he c ostu me o f t he P eterborough man , w i th a b rooch

a t t he t hroa t , a nd f u l l t un ic a nd man t le , g ives t he e f fect o f ar ich ly d ressed l ay man , l ike t he e legan t r ider i n V i l lard d e H onnecour t ' sd raw ing o f' H ow P r ide s tu mb les ' o r t he c loaked r ider a lso r epresen t ing P r ide t u mb l ing f ro m h is h orse o n t he p i l lar o n t he o u ts ide o f t he p orch o n t he r igh t o f t he l e f t ( west ) d oor o f t he s ou th t ransep t o f C har tres . 'P r ide ',

w ickedness ',

e v i l ',

5 8

t he f oo l ish ', 'workers o f i n iqu ity ',

't he m t ha t s peak l eas ing ', 't he b loody a nd d ece it fu l man ' —a s ing le p sa lm l i sts t h is r ange o f s ynony ms f or t he v ic ious who m G od a bhors a nd w i l l d est roy .

We c an i n terpre t t he P eterborough s oc le s cu lpture a s t he c ast ing d own

o f a l l t hose who

s ha l l n ot s tand ' i n t he s igh t o f G od .

c arved image i s a t o nce c onsp icuous a nd d ebased .

T he p os it ion o f t he

Dan te s aw a nd l earned

f ro m s uch images , e ngraved o n t he p av ing s tones i n t he f i rst t errace o f P urga tory , b eg inn ing w ith a r epresen ta t ion o f S a tan ' sf a l l , a f terwards t he d own fa l l o f p roud t yran ts i n c lass ica l l egends , a nd t he f a l l o f S au l o n Moun t G i lboa .

F ro m t he s toop ing p osture wh ich e nab led h im t o s cru t in ise t hese

c arved me mor ia ls o f 't he p roud s ons o f Eve ', D an te was s u m moned b y V irg i l : ' L i f t u p y our h ead . '

I ti s n o l onger t ime t o g o t hus a bsorbed ' .59

T ha t s or t

o f mora l a nd s p ir itua l c on trast o r c ho ice was s ucc inct ly a nd p owerfu l ly p resen ted e ar ly i n t he t h ir teen th c en tury t o t he v is itor t o P e terborough b y t he s inner ' sf a l l t o e terna l d ea th b e low , a nd t he e leva ted f igure o f t he A post le a bove , g uard ing t he g a tes .

'A s f or me ' s ays t he p sa lm is t , mak ing h is c ho ice ,

Iw i l l c o me i n to t hy h ouse i n t he mu lt itude o f mercy , a nd i n t hy f ear w i l l I worsh ip t owards t hy h o ly T e mp le ....

6°

NOTES 1 . A s r epor ted b y

F ra teret to '.

F or N ero a s af i sher man s ee S ueton ius ,

N ero , e d . B . H . War m ing ton , B r isto l C lass ica l P ress , 1 977 , p . 3 3 , p aragraph 3 0 :3 .

A lso J ohn o f S a l isbury , P o l icra t icus , e d . C . C . I . Webb ,

Ox ford , 1 909 , B ook V I I I , c h . XV I I I , p . 3 63 , L uxur iae t am e f frena tae f u i t u t r e t ibus a ure is p iscaretur p urpure is f un ibus .... Ar 7

2 . W. d e G . B irch , C a ta logue o f S ea ls i n t he D epar t men t o f Manuscr ip ts i n t he Br it ish Museu m , I , L ondon , 1 887 , N o . 2 843 ,

P .

4 85 .

3 . W . O akesho t t , The A r t ists o f t he Winchester B ib le , L ondon , 1 945 , p l . XXXV I I I . 4 . C onven ien t ly r eproduced t ogether b y P . Br ieger , Eng l ish A rt 1 216-1307 , Ox ford , 1 957 , p ls . 2 4b , 2 5 . 5 . S ue ton ius i n h is b iography o f N ero r epor ts t ha t t he Emperor , f aced b y Ga lba ' sr ebe l l ion , was e ncouraged b y t he s igh t o f a monu men ta l s cu lpt ure o f a n o ver thrown G au l d ragged a long b y t he h a ir b y a moun ted R o man ; s ee N ero , e d . War m ing ton , p . 4 3 , p aragraph 4 1 :2 . 6 . S t . G regory , Mora l ia i n J ob , B ook XXV I I , c h . X E , J .-P . M igne , P a tro log ia L a t ina ,

7 6 , c o l . 4 11 :

E cce q uonda m t um idus , j am s ubs tra tus

s anctoru m p ed ibus s erv i t o ceanos ...

T he C h ludov P sa l ter , 1 . 5 112 ,

a t P sa lm 5 1 , i l lustra tes S t P e ter t ra mp l ing S i mon Magus , a nd t he P a tr iarch N icephorus t ra mp l ing o n J ohn t he G ram mar ian , f or wh ich s ee A . G rabar ,

I conoc las me b yzan t in , d oss ier a rcheo log ique , P ar is , 1 957 ,

p p . 1 99 , 2 16 , a nd p l . 1 52 . 7 . B irch , 2 2 . c it ., No . 4 300 , p . 8 00 . 8 . C .U . L . MS . Kk .i v . 2 5 , f . 1 8M . , i n B r ieger , 2 2 . c i t ., p l . 5 0 . 9 . R . Marcouse , F igure S cu lp ture i n S t Mary ' sA bbey , York , T he Yorksh ire P h i losoph ica l S oc ie ty , York , 1 951 , p ls . 4 , 5 . 1 0 . C .U . L . MS .E e .i i i .5 9 , f . 7 , f or wh ich s ee M . R . J a mes , L a E sto ire d e S e in t A edward l e Re i , Roxburghe C lub , Ox ford , 1 920 . 1 1 . L a E sto ire d e S e in t A edward l e Re i , 1 . 3 312-3340 , L ives o f E dward t he C on fessor , e d . H . R . L uard , Ro l ls S er ies , 3 , L ondon , 1 858 , p p . 1 18-119 . 1 2 . W. S auer länder , G o th ic S cu lp ture i n F rance , 1 140-1270 , L ondon , 1 972 , p . 4 34 a nd p l . 1 20 . 1 3 . A . Ka tzene l lenbogen , The S cu lp tura l P rogra ms o f C har tres Ca thedra l , Ba lt i more , 1 959 , p l . 5 4 . 1 4 . S auer länder , 2 2 . c i t . ,p l . 8 3 .

A t Ba mberg S t S tephen f ro m t he Ada m

p or ta l , n ow i n t he D iözesan-museu m , s tands o n ac orbe l c unn ing ly s haped l ike a g rea t f l in t n odu le , a nd h o lds a nother f l in t i n h is h and , r epresen t ing t he manner o f h is mar tyrdo m , f or wh ich s ee W . P inder , D er B a mberger D om u nd s e ine B i ldwerke , B er l in , 1 933 , p l . 1 2 . 1 5 . S auer länder 2 2 . c it ., p l . 1 10 . 1 6 . A cts o f P eter , T he A pocrypha l N ew T esta men t , t r . M . R . J a mes , Ox ford , 1 926 , p p . 3 31-2 . 1 7 . A c ts o f P au l , i b id ., p p . 2 93-296 . 1 8 . S auer länder , 2 p . c it ., p l. 1 11 .

4 8

1 9 . J ohn o f S a l isbury , P o l icra t icus , e d . Webb , B ook V I I I , c h . XV I I I , p . 3 63 : I psu mque n o men e xst irpare c ona tus b ea t iss i mos Chr ist i a posto los P etru m c ruce P au lu m g lad io i n ter fec it . 2 0 . M . R . J ames , 'O n t he Pa in t ings F or mer ly i n t he Cho ir a t P eterborough ', P roceed ings o f t he Ca mbr idge An t iquar ian S oc iety , I X , n ew s er ies I I , 1 895-6 ,

p . 1 87-8 :

'I ti s ... t he d isgrace o f S i mon Magus , who i s s hown

a t t he mo men t when t he d ev i ls l ef t h o ld o fh im , t ha t i s r epresen ted o n t he b ase o f t he c en tra l s ha f t o f P eterborough West F ron t .' 2 1 . S auer länder , _ 2 2 . c i t ., p ls . 2 36 , 2 37 , 2 42 . 2 2 . J ames , 2 2 . c i t ., p . 1 87 , s ees 't wo d e mons ';

t he a u thor o f t he d es-

c r ip t ion o f t he s cu lp ture i n The V ictor ia H istory o f t he C oun ty o f N or tha mp ton , I , L ondon , 1 906 , p . 4 43 , s ees 't hree d ev i ls '. 2 3 . Cambr idge , Tr in i ty C o l lege MS .R .16.2 , f .17 , f or wh ich s ee M . R . J ames , T he T r in ity Co l lege A poca lypse , Roxburghe C lub , L ondon , 1 909 . 2 4 . F o l io 3 , f or wh ich s ee H . Omon t , P sau t ier i l lustre ( X I I Ie s iec le ) : R eproduc t ion d es 1 07 m in ia tures d u manuscr it L a t in 8 846 d e l a B ib l iot he u e n a t iona le , P ar is , n o d a te , p l . 6 ;

s ee a lso t he d e mon a t tend ing

t he u ngod ly man i n P sa lm I , f . 5 . ‘:), i b id ., p l . 9 . 2 5 . M. R . J a mes ,

T he D raw ings o f Ma t thew P ar is ', T he Wa lpo le S oc iety ,

X IV , 1 925-26 , p . 3a nd p l . I : p . 1 0 a nd p l . X I . 2 6 . 0 . Päch t a nd F . Wor ma ld , T he S t A lbans P sa lter ( A lban i P sa l ter ) , L ondon , 1 960 , p l . 1 2 ;

f or Am iens , s ee S auer länder , 2 2 . c it ., p l . 1 69 .

2 7 . B . L . C o t ton MS . N ero C . i v . f .39 , f or wh ich s ee F . Wor ma ld , The Winchester P sa lter , L ondon , 1 973 , p l . 4 2 . 2 8 . Mun ich S ta te L ibrary C od . L a t . 8 35 , f .130 .Y2 , r eproduced i n F . S ax l , Eng l ish S cu lptures o f t he Twe lf th C en tury , L ondon , 1 954 , f ig . 3 8 , O pp . P .

5 5

.

2 9 . C a mbr idge , T r in ity C o l lege MS . B .11 .4 ,

f. 5VO;

M . R . J a mes ,

T he Western Manuscr ip ts i n t he L ibrary o f Tr in ity C o l lege , C a mbr idge , Ca mbr idge , 1 900 , I ,

P .

3 36 .

F or Tr in ity MS . R .16 .2 , f .24Z2 , s ee

J a mes , T he Tr in ity C o l lege A poca lypse . 3 0 . T he C har tres d ev i l a nd h is v ict im a re r eproduced c onven ien t ly i n H . F ied ler , D er Me ister im Ba mberber D om , K e mp ten im A l lgäu , 1 965 , p l . 7 0 . 3 1 . S ee f or e xa mp le t he L ast J udge men t p or ta l a t Ba mberg ; 'D as F ürstenpor ta l d es B a mberger D o mes :

Egon V erheyen ,

z um P rob le m d es "B a mberger

Meis ters" ‚ , Z e i tschr i f t f ür Kuns tw issenscha f t , XV I , 1 962 , p ls . 8 , 1 8 . 3 2 . S auer länder , 2 p . c i t ., p l . 1 50 . 3 3 . Wor ma ld , T he Winchester P sa lter , p l . 4 1 . 3 4 . N ew Y ork , P ierpon t Morgan MS . 4 3 , f .8 .

4 9

3 5 , J a mes , h owever , s ees t he P eterborough f igure a s f a l l ing o u t o f , n ot i n to , t he h ands o f d ev i ls .

They h ave b een c arry ing h im d ur ing h is mag ic

f l igh t , a nd a t S t P eter ' sc o m mand h ave l et h im d rop .

Aw ing less S i mon

i s h e ld u p b y t wo d ev i ls a nd i s t hen d ropped , s t i l l i n a n h or izon ta l p os it ion , i n a n e ar ly f our teen th c entury w indow a t S t-Pere , C hartres , f or wh ich s ee M . P . L i l l ich , The S ta ined G lass o f S a in t-Pere d e Chartres , Wesleyan Un ivers ity Press , M idd letown , Connect icut , 1 978 , c o lour p l . O pp . P . 6 4. 3 6. M . R . J a mes , The Anc ien t L ibrar ies o f Can terbury a nd Dover , Ca mbr idge , 1 903 , p p . 5 01-2 . 3 7 . D . Wh ite lock , A f ter B ede , J arrow L ecture , 1 960 , p p . 5 -6 ;

a lso

Wh ite lock , 'B ede a nd h is T eachers a nd F r iends ', F a mu lus Chr ist i , e d . G . Bonner , L ondon , 1 976 , p . 2 3 . 3 8 . M . R . J a mes , On t he Abbey o f S . Ed mund a t B ury , Ca mbr idge , 1 895 , p p . 1 43 , 1 94. 3 9 . D . Gr ivot , a nd G . Z arneck i , G isleber tus S cu lptor o f Autun , P ar is , 1 960 , N ew York , 1 961 , p ls . 3 5 , 3 8 . 4 0 . A . Andersson , T he Art o f S cand inav ia , 2 , P au l Ha m lyn , L ondon , N ew York , 1 970 , p . 1 31 a nd p l . 8 5 . 4 1 . S ee t he a croba ts i n c ap ita ls a t S an t P ere d e Ga l l igans a nd S an t C uga t d e l Va l lbs , i n J . Ba l trusa it is , 'La t ro is ie me s cu lpture r o mane ', i n J . Gan tner , F or mositas Ro man ica ,

Frauenfe ld , 1 958 , p . 5 3 , f ig . 2 .

The p ose i s a lso p erhaps a ppropr ia te f or N ero , who m J ohn o f S a l isbury a ssoc ia ted i n t he most c aust ic t er ms w ith j ugg lers , mag ic ians .... .

a ctors , mi m ics .., wrest lers ,

S ee Po l icrat icus e d . Webb , Book I , c h .

V I I I , p . 4 7 . 4 2 . Ca mbr idge , S t J ohn ' s Co llege MS . C .9 , f or wh ich s ee F . Henry , I r ish Ar t D ur ing t he V ik ing I nvasions ( 800-1020 A .D .) , L ondon , 1 973 , c o lour p l . N a f ter

P .

9 6 .

4 3 . J . B eckw ith , I vory Carv ings i n Ear ly Med ieva l Eng land ,

L ondon , 1 972 ,

Ca t . N os . 1 24 , 1 27 , p p . 1 46-7 a nd p ls . 2 27 , 2 30 . 4 4 . T he Winchester B ib le , f .3 4v°

s ee a lso t he S erag l io Octa teuch ,

f .278M2 , i n T . Ouspensky , L ' O cta teuque d u S era i l äC onstan t inop le , A lbu m d u X I Ie Vo lu me d u Bu l let in d e l 'I nst itu t Archeo log ique Russe aC onstan t inop le , 1 907 , p l . XXV , 1 51 . 4 5 . Ca mbr idge , Tr in ity Co l lege MS . R .17.1 , f .51 .42 , f or wh ich s ee M . R . J a mes , The Can terbury P sa lter , L ondon , 1 935 . 4 6 . P ar is , B .N . MS . L a t . 8 846 , f .54v 0 i n Omon t , P sau t ier i l lustre ( X I I Ie s iec le ) , p l . 4 1 . 4 7 . F or P sa lm 5 1 i n Eadw ine P sa lter , Tr in ity Co l lege MS . R .17.1 , f .9 0 Y2 , s ee J a mes , The Can terbury P sa lter .

S ee a lso Par is , B . N . MS . La t .

8 846 , f .9 022 , i n Omon t , 22 . c it ., p l . 6 0 .

5 0

4 8 . P ar is , B .N . MS .fr . n .a . 1 098 , 1 .34 ; H . Omon t , V ie e t H isto ire d e S a in t D enys, R eproduct ion d es 3 0 m in ia tures d u manuscr it f ranca is n .a .

1 098 d e l a B ib l io theque n a t iona le , P ar is , n .d ., p . 6 .

4 9 . Rober t i S wapha m i h istor ia c oenob i i B urgens is , i n J . S parke , H istor iae Ang l icanae s cr ip tores v ar i i ec od ic ibus manuscr ip t is n unc p r i mu m e d i t i , L ondon , 1 723 , I , p p . 9 7-122 , e sp . p p . 1 06-107 :

D e p ersecut ione v ero

e jus , q uae max i ma f u it , d e d uro , v ide l icet , p r inc ipe , d e t yrann is i ndo m it is , d e f orestar i is s aev ien t ibus , t aed iosu m e sset e narrare . f uerun t .

D ies ma l i t une

N am d iscord ia magna e ra t i n ter r egnu m , & s acer tod iu m .

e n im d ebuerun t e cc lesia m d efendere , c on tra i l la m a r ma e rexerun t :

Qu i &

q u i v ideban tur r e l ig ion is am ic i , r e l ig ione m n iteban tur e x t inguere e leva t i s un t , &d e jec it e os D om inus 5 0 . F or t he h istory o f t he a bbey a nd a bbey c hurch o f P e terborough s ee T he V ictor ia H istory o f t he C oun ty o f N or tha mp ton , L ondon , 1 906 , 2 , p p . 4 33-443 .

T he a bbey a s a n e cono m ic i nst itu t ion h as b een s tud ied b y

E . K ing , P eterborough Abbey 1 086-1310 :

AS tudy i n t he L and Market ,

Ca mbr idge , 1 973 . 5 1 . T he C hron ic le o f H ugh Cand idus , a monk o f P eterborough , e d . W. T . Me l lows , F r iends o f P eterborough Ca thedra l , Ox ford , 1 949 . 5 2 . K ing Wu lphere ' sp r iv i lege a scr ibed t o A .D . 6 64 :

Qu icu mque h ec q ue

n ostra v e l c unc toru m f ide l iu m d onac ione b ea to P etro c onsecra ta s un t a uferre n e l d im inuere p resu mpser it , i pse i an itor c e l i d im inua t e ius p ar te m i n r e tr ibuc ione e terna .

E ius v ero q u i h ec l arg ius a uxer i t ,

a ugea t e i d eus g audea s em r iterna ... 5 3 . I b id ., p p . 1 7-19 ;

i b id ., p . 1 3 .

t he l ast p assage r eads :

E t s icu t i n fernus r ap tor ibus

i ta d efensor ibus p aradysus a per ia tur 5 4 . I b id ., p p . 4 0-42 : i n e ternu m i n fernu m d a mpnetur ....; i nfer iore m c um d iabo lo s e mper a rsurus d i merga tur ...;

i n i n fernu m H ic e rgo n e mo

h eredu m v e l s uccessoru m meoru m t e merare a udea t n e e xco m mun icac ion is g lad io i n terea t e t p ro h ered ita te i n fernu m e cc les ie p oss idea t . 5 5 . Br ieger , 2 2 . c i t ., p . 1 56 a nd p l . 5 4a , f or t he c rowned v ir tues i n t he P a in ted Cha mber a t West m inster . 5 6 . V ic tor ia H is tory o f t he Coun ty o f N or tha mp ton , 2 , p . 8 8 . 5 7. L . S tone , S cu lp ture i n B r ita in :

The M idd le Ages , Har mondswor th , 1 955 ,

p . 1 16 a nd p . 8 7 . 5 8 . H . R . Hahn loser , V i l lard d e H onnecour t :

k r it ische G esa m tausgabe d es

Bauhü t tenbuches ms . f r 1 9093 d er P ar iser N a t iona lb ib l iothek , V ienna , 1 935 , p p . 1 9-20 , A bb . 5 0-51 . 5 9 . D an te A l igh ier i , L a C o m med ia , s econdo

a n t ica v u lga ta , e d . G .

P etrocch i , M i lan , 1 967 , 3 , P urga tor io , Can to X L I , 1 . 1 3-79 , p p . 1 93-201 . 6 0 . P sa lm 5 .

5 1

5 .

THE V IRG IN MARY ' S REGAL IA

AND 1 2th CENTURY ENGL ISH S EALS T . A . Hes lop

F ro m a bout 1 100 i tb eca me c o m mon i n Eng land t o d ep ict O ur L ady a s Q ueen .

H er r oya lty i s c lear n ot o n ly f ro m t he c rown s he wears b u t a lso f ro m

t he o b jects r ese mb l ing o rb a nd s cep tre wh ich s he f requen t ly h o lds .

I n e x-

p lor ing t he r ange o f mean ing o f t hese a pparen t ly s i mp le images , wh ich i s w ha t t h is p aper s e ts o u t t o d o , t he v isua l e v idence w i l l l arge ly b e t aken f ro m t he s ea ls o f monast ic a nd c a thedra l c hapters whose c hurches were d ed ica ted t o Mary s ince i ti s o n ly i n t h is b ody o f ma ter ia l t ha t we h ave a ny q uan t i ty o f i con ic r epresen ta t ions o f h er f ro m t we lf th c en tury Eng land .

A s i th appens ,

t he b eg inn ing o f t he w idespread u se o f s ea ls o n c har ters c o inc ides w ith t he p er iod a t wh ich t he r epresen ta t ion i n Eng land o f Mar ia Reg ina was b e ing d eve loped , s o t ha t i n t he f irst t wo s ea ls we s ha l l c ons ider , t hose o f S t . Mary ' s A bbey York a nd L inco ln Ca thedra l , we s ee t he image i n embryo .

I t s ee ms

l i ke ly t ha t t he s urv iv ing s ea l wh ich i s i conograph ica l ly t he l east a dvanced i s a lso t he e ar l iest a nd s o i tf or ms a n o bv ious s tar t ing p o in t . Un for tuna te ly t he s ea l o f S t . Mary 's A bbey ( p ls . 5 .1 , 5 .2 ) i s n ot c lose ly d a tab le .

1

I tc an h ard ly b e e ar l ier t han t he A bbey ' sf ounda t ion i n t he 1 080s ,

a nd t he s tr ik ing s im i lar i ty b etween t he h ead o f t he V irg in a nd h eads o n s even th a nd e igh th c en tury H iberno-Ce lt ic meta lwork must b e t he r esu lt o f d e l ibera te r ev iva l is m .

Overa l l , i th as a s im i lar q ua l ity o f t wo-d i mens iona l d es ign t o

t he m id-e leven th c en tury g roup o f s cu lpture wh ich c en tres o n t he N unburnho lm c ross .

2

H owever , o ur k now ledge o f t he d eve lop men t o f a rt ist ic s ty le i n t he

a rchd iocese o f York w ith t he e xcep t ion o f D urha m i n t he l a te e leven th a nd e ar ly t we lf th c en tur ies i s s o meagre t ha t i t may d a te f ro m a ny t ime u p t o t he m id-twe lf th c en tury . A s as ea l i ti s c ur ious i n h av ing t he l egend s tar t ing a t t he b ase r a ther t han t he a pex , a n u nusua l f ea ture p ara l le led o n o n ly a f ew o ther e ar ly s ea ls .

3

E ven more c ur ious ly , t he image o f t he V irg in a nd Ch i ld ,

b o th o f who m a re c rowned , i s s upp le men ted w ith a f ru it-bear ing t ree a nd a s tar . I n s ea ls o f t he R o manesque p er iod , i ti s n ot a lways e asy t o d ec ide whether a t tr ibu tes a re t he r esu l t o f ac arefu l a nd c onsc ious d es ire t o c onvey a mean ing o r whe ther t hey a re s i mp ly t he a cc iden ta l ama lga ma t ion o f misquota t ions f ro m s ketchbooks w ith g enera l s pace-f i l lers a nd h and-occup iers . T he t ree ' s p resence h ere i s more t han a cc iden ta l . I to ccup ies t he f u l l h e igh t o ft he s ea l , a nd Mary h o lds i t s f ru it .

The d e l ibera teness o f i t s i nc lus ion e n t i t les t he

v iewer t o s uppose t ha t i ti s impor tan t a nd l ends s uppor t t o t he i n ference t ha t t he s tar a bove Chr is t ' sh ead i s a lso t here f or a p urpose .

I n s hor t , s ince t he

d esign o f p ar t o f t h is s ea l h as b een c arefu l ly c on tr ived , p resu mab ly t o c onvey a mean ing , i ti s a t l east r easonab le t o s uppose t ha t o ther s y mbo ls may h ave b een i nc luded f or a s pec if ic p urpose .

The q ues t ion i s : 5 3

wha t?

The B ib l ica l t ex t wh ich r e lates a s tar a nd a 't ree ' i s t he p rophecy o f 1 . 3111 m ( Nu mbers 2 4 .17 ) : V idebo e um s ed n on modo , i n tuebor i l le , s ed n on p rope .

O r ie tur

s te l la e x J acob e t c onsurget v irga d e I srae l . T h is i s c lear ly mess ian ic i n t one a nd f ro m a n e ar ly d a te was a ssoc ia ted w i th more f a mous p rophec ies , f or e xamp le t ha t o f I sa iah : A tque I sa ias a l ius p ropheta e ade m v erb is d ivers is p raed icens s ic f a tur :

O r ietur s te l la e x J acob e t f l os e r ad ice J esse a scendet , e t

i n b rach iu m e ius g en tes s perabun t .

4

A lthough i ti s n o t o ne o f t he most f a mous O ld T esta men t r eferences t o t he Me ss iah i th as e n joyed s o me p opu lar ity .

N o t o n ly was i tu sed l i turg ica l ly ,

o f ten a s ar esponse d ur ing Adven t , b ut i t made a n a ppearance i n t he p lays k nown a s t he P rocess ion o f t he P rophe ts .

An impor tan t e xamp le o f Ba laam 's

p rophecy i n s uch a c on tex t i s t o b e f ound i n t he t h ird p ar t o f t he mid-twe lf th c en tury J eu d ' Ada m , a nd t h is t ex t i s wor thy o f c ons idera t ion h ere s ince i t a lso c on ta ins o ther p rophec ies wh ich dwe l l o n t he a t tr ibu tes o f r od , f ru i t , f l ower a nd s eed wh ich w i l l b e o ur ma in c oncern .

5

I th as l ong s ince b een d e monstra ted t ha t t he s ource o f t he P rocess ion o f t he P rophe ts i s t he

C on tra J udeos , P aganos e t A r ianos , S er mo d e

S y mbo lo ' wh ich was a t tr ibued t hroughou t t he M idd le Ages t o S t . A ugust ine .

6

I ti s a pparen t t hough t ha t t he P rocession i n t he J eu d ' Ada m i s a dap ted i n a p ar t icu lar way t o i nc lude r eferences p ar t icu lar ly t o t he v irga . t h is i th as a dded p rophets who d o n o t o ccur i n t he S er mo .

T o a ch ieve

O f t hese t he

a dd it ion o f Aaron a nd B a laa m a l lows t he i nc lus ion o f t wo v irga r eferences , wh i le t he a dd it ion o f I sa iah 1 1 .1 , t o s upp le men t t he S er mo ' sI sa i h7 .4 , a l lows a no ther .

A braha m i s a lso a n a dd it ion , a nd h e i s g iven t he p rophecy

f ro m G enes is 2 2 .18 :

P oss ideb it s e men t uu m p or tas i n im icoru m t uoru m e t

i n s em ine t uo b ened icen tur omnes g en tes .

Thus f our , o r f ive i f Dav id ' s :

e t e n im d om inus d ab it b en ign i ta te m , e t t erra n os tra d ab it f ruc tu m s uu m ( Psa lm 8 4 .13 ) i s a l lowed , o f t he p rophec ies c hosen t o s upp le men t t hose i n t he S er mo r efer t o v irga , f ruc tus , f l os a nd s e men .

E spec ia l ly s tr ik ing i s

Aaron ' sp rophecy : H ec e st v irga g ignens f l ore m Qu i s a lu t is d a t o dore m H u ius v irge d u lc is f ructus N ostre mor t is t erget l uc tus 7 wh ich h as h ad t o b e i nven ted s ince n o b ib l ica l q uota t ion makes t he r equ ired p o in t . Wha tever i t s p rec ise g eograph ica l o r ig ins , t he P rocess ion o f t he P rophe ts i n t he J eu d ' Ada m i s ag ood e xa mp le b o th o f t he u se t o wh ich B a laa m ' s p rophecy was p u t i n t he m id-twe lf th c en tury a nd o f t he i n terest i n p lan t metaphors g enera l ly wh ich was f ind ing c on te mporary e xpress ion i n t he r epr esen ta t ion o f t he Tree o f J esse .

H owever , i tw i l l h ave b eco me a pparen t

f ro m t he f act t ha t I sa iah , Aaron a nd Ba laa m a l l c on tr ibu te p rophec ies c onc ern ing t he v irga t ha t t here i s more t han o ne 't ree ' a t i ssue . s ub t ly d if feren t .

T hey a re

Aaron ' sr od ' ( Nu mbers 1 7.8 ) b roke i n to f l owers wh ich

5 4

b eca me a l monds wh i le J esse ' sh ad a s ing le f l ower u pon wh ich t he S p ir it d escended .

O f B a laam ' s we k now n o more t han t ha t i tr ose o u t o f I srae l .

C lear ly t he t ree o n t he York s ea l , i fi ti s t ha t f ro m B a laa m ' sp rophecy , h as b orrowed d eta i ls n o t s tr ict ly s pec if ied f or i t , a nd t he q uest ion a r ises : c nn o ne i den t ify a p ar t icu lar v irga w i th a ny p rec is ion f ro m i t s a t tr ibu tes? An i nd ica t ion t ha t t he a nswer i s

n o ' a nd t ha t t hese v ar ious f igures were

c o mb ined i n to a g ian t me taphor c o mes f ro m t he u se o f t he Tree o f J esse i n E ng l ish P sa lters a round 1 200 .

9

H ere i to f ten o ccup ies t he i n i t ia l Bo f t he

f irst P sa lm , wh ich i s a bou t t he r ewards o f r igh teousness : B eatus v ir q u i n on a b i it i n c ons i l io imp ioru m .. e t e r it t anqua m l ignu m q uod p lan tatu m e st s ecus d ecursus a quaru m q uod f ructu m s uu m d ab it i n t e mpore s uo . D esp ite t he f act t ha t s tr ict ly s peak ing J esse ' si s av irga w ith a f l os , b ecause i t s mean ing i s t he s a me a nd i ti s ap lan t metaphor , i tc an a cco mpany a p sa lm whose r eference i s t o al ignu m wh ich b r ings f or th f ructus .

An e x tre me

e xa mp le o f t h is me taphor ic c ross-po l l ina t ion o ccurs i n t he R ouen P rophet p lay , t he F estu m A s inoru m , where Aaron : o rna tus p on t if ica l ibus i ndu men t is e t m itra , b arba tus , t enens f l ore m , d ica t :

' V irga J esse f l or ida '

A no ther i nd ica t ion t ha t i t was o f ten t he g enera l i dea o f t he metaphor wh ich was impor tan t r a ther t han a ny s pec if ic d eta i ls c an b e f ound i n t he u se o f t he s y mbo l is m i n o ther l i terary g enres .

F or e xa mp le , t he e leven th c en tury

L ife o f Edward t he C on fessor e xp la ins h ow G od c ut d own t he l ineage o f Cnu t , b u t s aved a s eed ; i t ... e ius t o tam s t irpe m s ucc id it .

S ucc id it i nqua m , q u ia i n

e ius s em ine r eservav i t , c u i a ng l ic i r egn i a nnueret v irga m ". I tc on t inues : D e i p ietas A l igns p ost g rave m s ue c orrep t ion is p ressura m p arcens , d e a n t iquoru m r egu m s t irpe s erva tu m f l ore m o stend i t ...."

1 1

W e may s u m mar ise b r ief ly b y s ay ing t ha t t he o n ly p oss ib le b ib l ica l e xp lana t ion f or t he image o n t he York s ea l i s Ba laa m ' sp rophecy b u t t ha t , i ft h is i s a ctua l ly t he s ource , Ba laa m ' sc ryp t ic r eference t o t he v irga h as b een s upp le men ted , w ith f ructus , f ro m t he g enera l r eper to ire o f B ib l ica l p lan t metaphor . F ortuna te ly t he o ther Mar ian s ea l wh ich c an b e r egarded a s t ypo log ica l ly e ar ly , t he f i rst s ea l o f L inco ln Ca thedra l ( p l . 5 .3 ) o ccurs o n ac har ter wh ich c an b e d a ted c . 1 140-47 , t hus p rov id ing u s w ith a u sefu l t er m inus a n te q ue m . On t he L inco ln s ea l Mary i s s hown c rowned a nd i n a dd i t ion , a rguab ly a s f ur ther a t tr ibut e s o f h er r oya lty , s he h o lds a s hor t r od i n o ne h and a nd a b a l l i n t he o ther .

T he i den t if ica t ion o f t hese o b jects i s d eba tab le .

We migh t

e as i ly c a l l t he m s cep tre a nd o rb . The E ng l ish c orona t ion s erv ice was c onsc ious o f t wo r ods , t he s ceptru m a nd t he v irga .

1 3

A lthough i ti s n ot p oss ib le t o d e mons tra te i t , i ts ee ms

r easonab le t ha t ab udd ing r od , s uch a s t ha t o n t he L inco ln s ea l , wh ich h as t wo p a irs o f l eaves a nd a t er m ina l b ud , wou ld b e ac and ida te f or a v irga . 5 5

1 2

F ur ther more , t h is r od i s d evo id o f a ny o f t he t rapp ings o f a man- made o b ject s uch a s h and le , I c nop , c ross o r p end i lae wh ich f requen t ly o ccur o n t he r oya l r ods s hown o n s ea ls , c o ins a nd i n o ther r epresen ta t ions o f t he monarch w ith h is r ega l ia .

T h is may b e a n i nd ica t ion t ha t w e a re d ea l ing

h ere w ith s o meth ing o ther t han j ust a r oya l s y mbo l . Wha t o f t he b a l l i n Mary ' so ther h and?

We s hou ld e xpect t h is t o b e

s o me k ind o f o rb s ince Mary i s c rowned a nd c arr ies a v irga wh ich i s , among o ther t h ings , ar oya l s y mbo l . wh ich s he h o lds i t .

Ad if f icu lty a r ises t hough f ro m t he way i n

Roya l o rbs a re u sua l ly h e ld e i ther w ith t he p a lm o f t he

h and s uppor t ing t he ir we igh t o r b a lanced o n t he k nee w ith t he h and o n t op . H ere Mary ' sh and i s v er t ica l a nd h o lds t he b a l l b e tween t hu mb a nd f i ngers n ex t t o C hr ist ' sh ead .

S he i s n ot o f fer ing i tt o C hr ist n or h o ld ing i ti n a n

a ppropr ia te way i fi t mere ly r efers t o h er r o le a s Queen o f H eaven .

O ne

p oss ib le e xp lana t ion i s t ha t i ti l lustra tes t he metaphor " fructus v en t irs t u i" a nd t ha t we a re b e ing a sked t o a ssoc ia te t he f ru i t w i th C hr ist .

I tw i l l b e

n ecessary t o r e turn t o t h is t heory when d ea l ing w i th o ther images o f t he V irg in a nd Ch i ld f ro m t we lf th c en tury Eng land .

A t t h is p o in t i ts hou ld b e

s tressed t ha t t he ' na tura l ' f or m o f t he r od , t he l ack o f ac ross o n t he b a l l , wh ich i s u sua l i n r epresen ta t ions o f monarchs w ith o rbs , a nd t he way i n w h ich t he b a l l i s h e ld , a l l s uggest t ha t we a re d ea l ing h ere w i th s o me th ing o ther t han r ega l ia a s i t was u sed b y c on te mporary r u lers .

1 4

Un l ike York a nd L inco ln , wh ich s how t he C hr is t C h i ld p laced s ideways o n Mary ' sl ef t k nee , t he ma jor i ty o f Mar ian s ea ls wh ich c an b e d a ted 1 125-75 s how t he C h i ld s it t ing f ron ta l ly o n Ma ry ' sl ap .

T he s y m me tr ica l image

wh ich r esu lts i s t yp ica l ly Ro manesque a nd i ts ee ms t o b e u nknown i n Eng land b efore t he a rr iva l o f a ma ture Ro manesque s ty le d ur ing t he f irst q uar ter o f t he t we lf th c en tury .

I ti s l ike ly t ha t t he f or ma t g a ined c urrency t hrough c u lt

s ta tues o f t he V irg in , o f wh ich a n e ar ly s urv iv ing e xamp le i s a t H i ldeshe im . C er ta in ly t he t we lf th c en tury F rench wooden Madonnas a re l arge ly i n t h is f or m .

There a re r ecords o f t hree-d i mens iona l c u l t images o f t he V irg in i n

E ng land b efore t he C onquest , b ut t he ir a ppearance i s q u ite l ost t o u s . Arguab ly t hough i ft hey h ad b een o f t he f ron ta l t ype t h is wou ld h ave f ound s o me e cho i n manuscr ip t p a in t ing a nd i vory c arv ing .

I ts ee ms h owever t ha t t hey

were a sy m metr ica l , l ike t he f a mous E ssen Madonna ,

1 5

a nd r ef lec ted n o t o n ly

i n i l lu m ina t ion , s uch a s t he I n P r inc ip io p age o f t he G r i mba ld G ospe ls ,1 6 b u t a lso i n t he t wo s ea ls we h ave j ust c ons idered . was a c hange .

A f ter a bou t 1 125 t here

T he b eau t ifu l V irg in a nd Ch i ld g roup i n t he S haf tesbury P sa l ter

( p l . 5 .7 ) may we l l b e a p ing a t hree-d i mens iona l c u lt f igure o f t he n ew t ype , b u t i s a nyway e v idence o f ad if feren t s ource , a nd s ee ms more l ike t he e ar ly G er man f i gures , f or e xa mp le H i ldeshe im , t han a ny th ing i n F rance . T he l argest i den t if iab le g roup o f s ea ls w ith t he s y m metr ica l c o mpos it ion o f Mary a nd C h i ld c an b e d a ted t o t he s econd q uar ter o f t he t we lf th c en tury . T he s ea l o f Worcester Ca thedra l i s p robab ly t he p aren t , a nd t he ofspr ing i nc lude t he s ea ls o f G rea t Ma lvern p r iory ( p l . 5 .4 ) a nd t he a bbeys o f Read ing ( p l . 5 .5 ) a nd Ab ingdon , P ershore , K e lso ( p l . 5 .6) a nd L indores .

1 7

A l though

f or ma l ly d ist inc t f ro m t he York a nd L inco ln s ea ls t he i conograph ic c oncerns o f t he Worcester g roup a re v ery s im i lar . ar od i n h er r igh t h and .

A l l s even s ea ls s how Mary h o ld ing

I n t he c ases o f Ma lvern a nd Worcester t he r od h as

5 6

ab u lbous e nd wh ich r ests i n Mary ' sp a lm , t he s te m b e ing h e ld s l igh t ly h igher u p b etween t humb a nd f oref inger . g row ing p lan t .

Th is b u lb p resu mab ly imp l ies a

A t t he t op i s af l eur-de-lys .

T he who le i s r em in iscen t o f

A aron ' s" Iceste v erge s enz p lan ter p oet f a ire f l ors" f ro m t he J eu d ' Ada m . I n t he c ases o f Read ing ( p l . 5 .5 ) a nd L indores t he s te m emerges f ro m a b a l l wh ich i s h e ld b e tween t hu mb a nd f oref inger , a nd a b ird p erches o n t op o f t he f l ower o n t he r od . b e low Mary ' sh and .

A t K e lso ( p l . 5 .6 ) a nd A b ingdon t he s te m e x tends

I n t he f or mer i s t opped b y ab ird , i n t he l a t ter i th as

t wo p a irs o f s ide s hoo ts i n a dd it ion t o t he t refo i l t op . The d e ta i ls o f s urv iv ing impress ions a re n o t a lways e asy t o s ee , b u t t he s a me r ange o f mo t ifs i s v is ib le i n , f or e xa mp le , t he V irg in a nd C h i ld i n t he S ha f tesbury P sa lter ( p l . 5 .7 ) a nd t he f ron t isp iece t o S t . Augus t ine 's c o m men tary o n t he P sa l ms i n B od ley Ms 2 69 ( p l . 5 .8 ) .

T he p resence o f

t he b ird i n t he B od ley ms i s i nd ica t ive o f t he s ource , wh ich i s I sa iah 1 1 .1. Egred ietur v irga d e r ad ice J esse e t f l os d e r ad ice e ius a scendet .

E t r equ iescet s uper e um s pr irtus d om in i .

B ecause o f Ma t thew 3 .16 S p ir itu m D e i d escendentu m s icut c o lu mba m t he s p ir it was v isua l ised a s ab ird , a nd t here c an b e n o d oubt t ha t t he r od i n t he B od ley f ron t isp iece i s t he V irga J esse .

1 8

With t he e xcep t ion o f t he

b ird t he o b ject o n t he Worcester a nd Ma lvern ( p l . 5 .4 ) s ea ls i s t he s a me a s i n t he Ox ford d raw ing , a nd i ti s h e ld i n n ear ly t he s a me way .

The b ird d oes

a ppear a t K e lso ( p l . 5 .6 ) a nd a t R ead ing ( p l . 5 .5 ) a nd L indores where t he r od i s r a ther d if feren t , h av ing s ide s hoots a nd a b a l l a t t he b ase .

I n t ype

i ti s much c loser t o t he f l ower ing b a l l i n t he S ha f tesbury P sa lter p icture ( t hough t h is l acks t he d ove ) . A lthough i tv ar ies i n f or m , Mary ' sr od i s s pec ia l a nd n o t s i mp ly a s tandard i t em o f r ega l ia .

I th as b een d ev ised f or h er , a nd a l though i t

c o mp le men ts t he c rown b y b e ing r em in iscen t o f ar oya l r od i th as o ther p ar t icu lar mea ings .

N ever the less i tp resen ts p rob le ms b ecause i ti s n o t

c lear whe ther i tr efers t o Mary h erse lf o r t o C hr ist o r e ven t o t he I ncarna t ion . The u sua l i n terpre ta t ion o f J esse ' sr od i n I sa iah 1 1 .1 was t ha t Mary was t he v irga a nd C hr ist t he f l os .

F or e xa mp le , F u lber t o f C har tres wro te :

V irgo D e i g ene tr ix v irga e st , f l os f i l ius e ius 1 9 a nd E ad mer o f Can terbury , who i s p erhaps more r e levan t f or o ur p resen t p urpose : Haec i taque v irga q uae t a le m e x s e p rotu l it f l ore m , n u l lo d issen t ien te , V irgo Mar ia f u it , e t f los q u i d e r ad ice e ius a scend it , b ened ictus f i l ius .

2 0

S im i lar ly i n a r t C hr ist i s t he f l ower o n most J esse t rees , f or e xa mp le i n t he C apuch ins ' B ib le where h e h o lds t he words Ego f los c a mp i .

2 1

H owever ,

t here i s s o me c on fus ion , s ince o n a t l east o ne t we lf th c en tury r epresen ta t ion o f t he t ree i ti s Mary who h o lds t ha t s cro l l ,

2 2

a nd o n am id-century i l lu m ina t ion

f ro m Eng land b o th Mary a nd Chr ist a re s hown w ith t he S p ir it , i n t he f or m o f ad ove d escend ing , a nd t ha t o ugh t t o b e a n a t tr ibu te o f t he f l os . 5 7

2 3

On b a lance

t hough i ts ee ms t ha t t he r od r efers p r inc ipa l ly t o Mary b ecause o f t he a ssonance o f v irgo a nd v irga . I f , o n t he o ther h and , t he r od h e ld b y Mary i s Aaron ' st hen i tc an a lso b e i n terpre ted a s s y mbo l is ing t he I ncarna t ion .

A aron ' sr od i s a we l l k nown

t ype o f t he V irg in b ir th a nd o ccurs i n a r t a nd l i tera ture i n r e la t ion t o b oth t he Annunc ia t ion a nd t he Na t iv ity .

H onor ius A ugustodunens is u ses i ti n t he

S pecu lu m E cc les iae i n t he s ect ion I n Annunc ia t ione S ancte Mar iae : Aaron q uoque i ussu D om in i a r ida m v irga m i n t abernacu lu m p osu it q uae i n c rast ino f l orens n uCes p ro tu l i t .

.. Ar ida v irga q uae

muce m p rotu l it e st V irgo Mar ia q uae C hr is tu m D om inu m e t h om ine m mundo p rogenu it 2 4 a nd i ta ppears a s at ype a bove t he A nnunc ia t ion i n , f or e xa mp le , t he H i ldeshe im M issa l o f c . 1 160 .

2 5

One c an s uggest t ha t t hese v iews o f t he

Annunc ia t ion w ere h e ld i n e ar ly t we lf th c en tury E ng land , n ot o n ly b y c i t ing H onor ius , who was wr i t ing i n t h is i nstance f or Can terbury ,

2 6

b u t b y e xa m in ing

t wo r epresen ta t ions o f t he Annunc ia t ion , i n t he P sa lter o f C hr ist ina o f Ma rkya te ( p l . 5 .9 ) a nd o n t he s ea l o f B inha m P r iory ( p l . 5 .10 ) .

I n t he

2 7

f ormer a wh i te s te m i s p a in ted o n t he b ackground im med ia te ly i n f ron t o f G abr ie l a nd , wh i le t he t ree t op wh ich emerges a bove h is h ead i s q u ite c o mmon i n t he P sa l ter 's m in ia tures , t he ' f rond ' i s u n ique t o t h is s cene .

O n

t he s ea l o f B inha m , Mary i s h o ld ing a n o pen b ook i n h er l ef t h and , a nd b eh ind i t af rond wh ich s he s ee ms t o i nd ica te w ith h er r igh t h and .

The s im i lest

e xp lana t ion o fb oth t hese r ods s ee ms t o b e t ha t t hey r epresen t Aaron ' sr od a nd a re t here t o r em ind t he s pecta tor o f t h is metaphor ic p rophecy o ft he I ncarna t ion .

I ta lso s ee ms l ike ly t ha t t he u lt i ma te ly u b iqu itous p o t w ith a

l i ly wh ich a cco mpan ies s o many l a ter Annunc ia t ion s cenes s hou ld b e s een a s h av ing i t s o r ig in i n j ust s uch a n image a s t he r epresen ta t ion o f Aaron ' sr od i n t he P sa lter o f Chr ist ina o f Markya te .

H owever , more impor tan t f or o ur

p urposes i s t he f act t ha t o n t he B inha m s ea l Mary h o lds t he r od .

I ti s as hor t

s tep f ro m h er h o ld ing i ti n an arra t ive c on tex t t o u s ing i ti n a n i con ic o ne a nd i t s treng thens t he p oss ib i l ity t ha t o n t he s ea ls o f t he V irg in a nd Ch i ld e nt hroned t he r od may b e ar eference t o t he m irac le o f t he I ncarna t ion a s s uch i nstead o f , o r e ven a s we l l a s , ar eference t o I sa iah ' sp rophecy t ha t t he Mess iah wou ld b e d escended f ro m J esse . A l l i n a l l i ti s n o t a s c lear a s i t migh t b e whether t he r od wh ich Mary h o lds , o r a ny o f t he p ar ts o f i t , s hou ld b e t aken a s A aron ' sr od r eferr ing t o t he V irg in b ir th o r J esse ' sr od r eferr ing t o h erse lf o r t o h er s on .

I ti s

c lear t ha t i ti s n o t s i mp ly a n i t em o f r ega l ia b ut r a ther t ha t i ti s a ma ter ia l ised metaphor , r eca l l ing p rophecy . I n a dd it ion t o t he v irga , t he s ea ls o f A b ingdon , P ershore , Worcester a nd Grea t Ma lvern ( p l . 5 .4 ) s how i n Mary ' sl ef t h and a sma l l s phere wh ich i s h e ld b es ide C hr ist ' sh ead .

I t was s uggested e ar l ier , i n t he c on tex t o f t he

L inco ln s ea l , t ha t t h is m igh t b e i den t if ied a s f ructus .

I n S t . Anse lm ' s

p rayers t o Our L ady men t ion i s made s evera l t imes o f "f ruc tus v en tr is t u i" a nd " fecund itas", a nd we a re f or tuna te i n p ossess ing a r ecens ion o f p ic tures f or S t . Anse lm ' sp rayers , i n a manuscr ip t a t Admon t ( p l . 5 .16 ) , wh ich s hows Mary h o ld ing a sma l l r ound o b jec t b es ide C hr ist ' sh ead .

H ere i ti s v ir tua l ly

c er ta in t ha t i to ccurs a s a n i l lustra t ion t o t he f ructus me taphor . 5 8

2 8

T he d if fus ion o f t h is image d oes n ot n ecessar i ly d epend o n i l lu m ina ted c op ies o f Anse lm ' sp rayers .

F ructus v en tr is t u i , wh ich i s p ar t o f E l isabeth ' s

g reet ing t o Mary a t t he V is ita t ion , o ccurs i n s uch we l l k nown Mar ian p rayers a s Ave Mar ia a nd S a lve Reg ina , Ma ter M iser icord iae , t he f or mer c er ta in ly i n e x istence b y t he s even th c en tury , a nd t he l a t ter wr it ten i n t he e leven th o r t we lfth c en tury , d epend ing o n o nes v iew o f i t s a u thorsh ip .

2 9

Hence i ti s

u n l ike ly t ha t i t was f i rst r ea l ised i n v isua l f or m o n ly a t t he t ime o f Anse lm . H owever , t he k insh ip o f t he Ad mon t d raw ing a nd t he Eng l ish s ea ls i s s uch t ha t we may i n f act b e d ea l ing w ith a s ing le t rad i t ion . A par t f ro m t he s ea ls a lready c ited , many o thers s how Mary w ith t he a t tr ibu tes u nder d iscuss ion .

T hose o f T horn ton a nd Car tme l l ( p l . 5 .12 ) 30

i nc lude t he r od w i th l eaves t opped b y ab ird .

A t N ewstead ( p l . 5 .11 )3 1

s he

h o lds a f l ower ing s eed s im i lar t o t ha t s een i n t he S haf tesbury P sa lter a nd s o d oes s he a t C heshun t ( p l . 5 .13 ) 32 where s he a lso h o lds a sma l l s phere i n h er o ther h and .

I ti s a s t hough we were b e ing s hown t he p rophecy f i rst d or man t

a nd t hen b reak ing i n to f l ower .

T he s ea ls a lready d iscussed a re t yp ica l o f t he

e ar l ies t Mar ian s ea ls i n Br i ta in , a nd u n t i l t he l a te t we lf th c en tury t he i deas t hey r epresen t r e ma ined v ery p opu lar . p resen t .

N o t a l l t he a t tr ibu tes were a lways

Mary d oes n ot a lways wear a c rown .

A t C lerkenwe l l ( p l . 5 .14 ) ,

3 3

,

f or e xa mp le , s he i s a ppropr ia te ly v e i led l ike a n un , b u t s t i l l h o lds t he f lower ing s eed .

A t B u t ley P r iory ( p l . 5 .15 )3 4

l ong f l ower ing r od w ith t he b ird o n i t .

a ga in s he h as n o c rown , b u t h o lds t he I ti s o n s ea ls s uch a s t hese where t he

a t tr ibutes a re d issoc ia ted f ro m q ueensh ip t ha t i ti s most a pparen t t ha t t he r od f or e xa mp le i s n ot s i mp ly a n i t em o f r ega l ia b ut t ha t i th as a p rophet ic t ypo log ica l s ign if icance .

H owever , t hese a re t he e xcep t ion , t he c rown p lus o ne o r

more v irga , f ruc tus , s eed a nd f l ower i s t he r u le . The t he ma t ic c onsistency e v idenced b y t hese s ea ls i s q u ite r e markab le , b u t i ti s p erhaps n o t s urpr is ing when o ne c ons iders t ha t t he image i s s uch ah appy o ne .

I t must h ave c on f ir med t he d es ire t o r egard Mary a s Q ueen t o

f ind t ha t , i n p rophesy ing t he b ir th o f C hr ist , t he B ib le h ad p rov ided , i n i t s metaphors , a t tr ibu tes r ese mb l ing r ega l ia .

3 5

I tc rea ted a mu tua l ly r e in forc ing

a rgu men t t ha t s he was p roper ly t o b e r egarded a s Queen a nd t ha t s he was t he c hosen a gen t o f t he I ncarna t ion .

NOTES 1 . W. d e G . B irch , C a ta logue o f S ea ls i n t he D epar t men t o f Manuscr ip ts i n t he B r it ish Museu m ; v o l , 1( London 1 887 ) ( hereaf ter B .M . Ca t .) n os . 4 385-6 .

T here a re t wo impress ions a t t he P ub l ic Record O f f ice ,

DL 2 5/59 a nd DL 2 5/60 , b oth d a t ing f ro m 1 257 . 2 . F or a c o mparab le h ead i n e ar ly me ta lwork s ee f or e xa mp le F . H enry , I r ish A r t i n t he E ar ly C hr ist ian P er iod ,

( New Y ork 1 965 ) p la te B .

On t he N unburnho l m Cross , I . D . P a t t ison , The N unburnho lm C ross a nd Ang lo-Dan ish S cu lpture i n York , Archaeo log ia v o l . 1 04 , 1 973 , p . 2 09-34 . 3 . F or e xa mp le B .M . Ca t . n o . 1 899 , R ichard d e B ea mes I , B ishop o f L ondon f ro m 1 108-1127 .

On s ty l ist ic g rounds t h is s ea l i s l ike ly t o d a te

f ro m t he e ar ly p ar t o f R ichard ' se p iscopa te . 5 9

4 . J ust in Mar tyr , A po log ia p r i ma p ro C hr ist ian is , p r in ted i n J .-P . M igne , P a tro lög iae c ursus c o mp letae , s er ies Graeca v o l . 6 , ( Par is 1 857 ) c o l . 3 79-80 a nd n o te 7 7 .

L ike J ust in Mar tyr t he J eu d ' Ada m ( see b e low )

c ons iders t ha t t he s tar p ref igures C hr ist .

I n t he p lay B a laa m e xp lans :

( l ines 8 22-4 ) Char d e I srae l C hr itus i s tera • Qu i e r t e ste i l le d e c lar te To t e r t d e l u i e n lu m ine . O ther wr iters c ons idered t ha t Mary was t he s tar , e .g . P e ter D am ian , S er mon o n t he E p iphany ( P . L . 1 44 , c o l . 5 07-8 ) a nd G u iber t o f N ogen t , Tracta tus d e I ncarna t ione , c on tra J udeos ( P . L . 1 56 c o l . 5 14 ) . 5 . O n t he P rophet p lays g enera l ly s ee Kar l Young , T he Drama o f t he Med ieva l C hurch ( Ox ford 1 933 ) v o l . 2 , c hap ter 2 2 .

F or t he J eu dy kda m

s ee t he e d it ions o f L e if S le ts joe , L e Mystere d ' Ada m , P ar is 1 968 , wh ich h as p ho tographs o f t he c o mp lete t ex t , Car l J . Odenk irchen , T he P lay o f Ada m ( Brook l ine , Mass . a nd L eyden 1 976 ) a nd Pau l A eb isoher , L e Mystere d ' Ada m , ( Geneva a nd P ar is 1 963 ). 6 . Th is d er iva t ion i s c lear b o th f ro m t he o pe i rg words o f t he P rocess ion : V os , i nqua m , c onven io , oJ ude i , wh ich a lso b eg ins c hap ter 1 1 o f t he S er mo ( i .e . t he p ar t wh ich i s s pec if ica l ly C on tra J udeos ) a nd f ro m t he f ac t t ha t Dan ie l , Moses , Habakkuk , N ebuchadnezzar a nd , i n o ne i nstance , I sa iah h ave t he s ame p rophe ices i n e ach . d u C hr is t , ( Par is 1 878 ) p . 2f . 4 2 , c o ls . 1 117-30 .

S ee M . S epe t , L es P rophetes

T he C on tra J udeos i s p r in ted i n P . L .

7 . T h is p rophecy , l ike t he o thers i s g iven a F rench g loss .

Aaron c on t inues :

I ceste v erge s enz p la tner P oet f a ire f l ors e t f ro i t p or ter T e l v erge i stra d e mon l ignage Qu i aS a tan f ra d a mage Qu i s anz c harna l e ngendreure D e h o me p or tera l a n a tura I co e st f ru it d e s a lvac ion C u i Adam t rar. r a d e p r ison . 8 . I th as l ong b een d eba ted whe ther t he J eu d ' Ada m , wh ich i s l arge ly wr it ten i n ad octored Ang lo-Nor man F rench , o r ig ina ted a cross t he C hanne l o ri n Eng land .

T he T ree o f J esse p age , f o l io 1 5 , o f t he s o-

c a l led S ha f tesbury P sa l ter ( Br it ish L ibrary ms . L ansdowne 3 83 ) r eprod uced b y A r thur Wa tson ( 22 . c i t . n o te 3 1 b e low ) p l . 1 8 , s hows A braha m a nd Moses f l ank ing t he t ree .

T hey a re t he f irst t wo p rophe ts i n t he

p rocess ion i n ' Ada m ' a nd t hey h ave s ubstan t ia l ly t he s a me p rophec ies . T hese f actors may i nd ica te t ha t as im i lar s equence was k nown i n Eng land e ven i fi td oes n o t p rove t ha t ' Ada m ' i s E ng l ish . 9 . S ee G . Hase lof f , D ie P sa lter i l lustra t ion im 1 3 J ahrhunder t ( 1938 ) p . 1 0 , 1 6 , a nd 1 00 .

An i nd ica t ion o f a move i n t h is d irect ion c an b e

s een i n t he S haf tesbury P sa l ter ( see p rev ious n ote ) where t he Tree immed ia te ly p recedes t he B ea tus p age .

6 0

I n t he Hun ter ian P sa l ter o f a bou t

1 170 a nge ls w ith p resu mab ly l ignu m a nd f ruc tus a re f ound i n t he c orner meda l l ions o f t he B ea tus p age , s ee , T . S . R . B oase , T he York P sa lter ( London 1 962 ) p l . 8 . 1 0 . Kar l Young , 2 2 . c i t ., ( note 5 a bove ) v o l . 2 , p . 1 57 . 1 1 . T he L ife o f K ing E dward t he C on fessor , e d . F . B ar low ( 1962 ) 1 2 . B .M . Ca t . n os . 1 785-6 .

p . 7 .

T he o ther s urv iv ing impress ion i s o n P ub l ic

Record O f f ice E 4 2/280 wh ich i s w itnessed b y J ohn , c lerk t oA rchdeacon R ober t .

Rober t b eca me B ishop o f L inco ln i n S ep te mber 1 147 .

1 3 . P oss ib ly f ro m a s e ar ly a s 9 25 b ut a nyway f ro m 9 73 .

S ee D . H . T urner

e d . T he C laud ius P on t if ica ls ( Henry B radshaw S oc iety v o l . 9 7 , 1 971 ) p .

2 00 Cii-XXXiii

f or t he d a t ing a nd p . 8 9-95 f or t he most r ecen t e d i t ion o f

t he s o-ca l led s econd C orona t ion S erv ice. S ee a lso C . H oh ler , S o me S erv ice Books o f t he L a ter S axon C hurch , i n T en th C en tury S tud ies , e d . D . P arsons ( London a nd Ch ichester 1 975 ) e sp . p . 6 7-9 . 1 4 .

T he o n ly a dequa te c o l lect ion o f c on te mporary r u ler images r e la tes t o G er many , P . E . S chra m m , D ie d eu tschen K a iser u nd Kön ige i n B i ldern i hrer Z e it , ( Leipzig 1 928 ) s t i l l s ca t tered .

F or Eng land a nd S co t land t he ma ter ia l i s

S ee A l lan a nd A lfred B en ja m in Wyon , T he G rea t S ea ls

o f E ng land ? ( London 1 887 ) a nd W. d e G . B irch , H is tory o f S co t t ish S ea ls ,v o l . 1( 1905 ) f or t he mos t r ead i ly a ccess ib le i l lustra t ions . 1 5 . O n t he c u lt images o f Mary s ee I l ene H . F orsyth , The Throne o f Wisdo m ( Pr ince ton 1 972 ) 2 8-32 .

T he H i ldeshe im V irg in i s p ls . 3 7-41 a nd E ssen p ls .

T he r e ma inder o f t he b ook i s l arge ly d evoted t o t he F rench

mater ia l . 1 6 . Reproduced i n E . T e mp le , Ang lo-Saxon Manuscr ip ts , 9 00-1066 , ( London 1 976 ) i l lus . 2 18 . 1 7 . T . A . H es lop , T he R o manesque s ea l o f Worcester Ca thedra l , i n Med ieva l A r t a nd A rch itecture a t Worcester Ca thedra l , The B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l A ssoc ia t ion C on ference T ransact ions f or 1 975 , ( 1978 ) p . 7 1-9 .

L indores i s f or ma l ly , r a ther t han c hrono log ica l ly a me mber

o f t he g roup s ince i t was n ot f ounded u n t i l t he l a te t we lf th c en tury . 1 8 . Th is was r ecogn ised b y F ranc is Wor ma ld , A Ro manesque D raw ing a t Ox ford , An t iquar ies J ourna l , v o l . 2 2 , 1 942 , p . 1 5 , a nd e labora ted b y C . M . Kau f fmann , R o manesque Manuscr ip ts 1 066-1190 , ( London 1 975 ) p . 8 6 . 1 9 . F u lber t o f C har tres , D e B ea te Mar ie ( P . L . 1 41 c o l . 3 45 ). 2 0 . E ad mer , D e C oncep t ione B ea tae Mar iae V irg in is ( P . L . 1 59 c o l . 3 04 ) . 2 1 . Ar thur Wa tson , T he Ear ly I conography o f t he Tree o f J esse , ( Oxford a nd L ondon 1 934 ) p l . 2 3 . 2 2 . I b id ., p l . 3 1 . 2 3 . I b id ., p l . 2 8 .

T he r eason f or t he c on fus ion c o mes o ver i n P eter D am ian ,

H om i l ia i n Na t iv ita te B ea t iss i mae V irg in is Mar iae ( P . L . 1 44 c o ls . 7 53-4 ) . Hav ing q uoted I sa iah 1 1 .1 a nd Nu mbers 2 4 .17 h e c on t inues : 6 1

E t b ene h aec i nco mparab i l is V irgo v irga d ic i tur ... d e q ua v irga Rede mp tor N os ter q uas i f l os a scend it ...

L i l iu m v oca tur C hr istus ,

l i l iu m d ic itur e t ma ter Chr ist i s icut i n e ode m Can t ico s ub in fer tur s icu t l i l iu m i n ter s p inas , s ic ar n ica mea i n ter f i l ias '.

S icut l i l iu m

i n ter s p inas s ic b ea t iss i ma V irgo Mar ia e n itu it i n ter f i l ias . 2 4 . P . L . 1 72 c o l . 9 04 . 2 5 . Reproduced i n Ernst G u ldan , Eva

u nd Mar ia , ( Co logne 1 966 ) p l . 2 6.

I t s u se a s at ype o f t he Na t iv ity i s f ound i n as er ies o f i conograph ica l ly r e la ted Eng l ish monu men ts , s ee M . R . J a mes , On t wo s er ies o f p a in t ings f or mer ly a t Worcester P r iory , P roceed ings o f t he Ca mbr idge An t iquar ian S oc iety , v o l . 1 0 ( 1898-1903 ) p . 1 01 . 2 6 . R . W. S ou thern , S a in t Anse lm a nd h is b iographer , ( Cambr idge 1 966 ) p . 2 09-17 , e sp . p . 2 12 a nd n o te 2 . 2 7 . 0 . Pach t , C . R . D odwe l l a nd F . Worma ld , T he S t . A lbans P sa lter , ( London 1 960 ) d iscuss t he r e la t ionsh ip o f s ea l a nd min ia ture p . 1 76 a nd n otes 3 a nd 4 a nd men t ion t he 'l i ly ' i n t he m in iature , p . 8 1 .

T he

B inha m s ea l s hows t he r od i n c on junct ion w ith a n o pen b ook a nd i ts ee ms l ike ly t ha t t h is i s t o i nd ica te wh ich p rophecy Mary h as b een r ead ing . I t may h ave b een I sa iah 1 1 .1 , s ee T he S t . A lbans P sa lter p . 6 6 . 2 8 . T . A . He s lop , 9 _ 2 . c i t ., n ote 1 7 a bove , p . 7 5-6 . 2 9 . H . Barre , P r ieres a nc iennes d e 1 'o cc iden t äl a Mere d u S auveur ? ( Par is 1 963 ) p . 1 9 , 3 0 , 3 5 f or Ave Mar ia a nd 1 26 n o te 5 a nd 2 60 a nd n o te 6 f or S a lve R eg ina . 3 0 . B .M . Ca t . n os . 4 176 ( Thorn ton ) a nd 2 882 ( Car t me l l ) . 3 1 . I b id ., n os . 3 728-31 . 3 2 . I b id ., n os 2 924 . 3 3 . I b id ., n os . 2 962-3 . 3 4 . There i s a n impress ion a t S t . Bar tho lo mew ' sH osp i ta l , s ee N e l l ie J . M . K er l ing , The Car tu lary o f S t . B ar tho lo mew ' sH osp ita l , L ondon ( London 1 973 ) n o . 6 09 . 3 5 . I ti s b eyond t he s cope o f t h is p aper t o d iscuss e ither t he e ar ly c on t inen ta l o r a ny o f t he l a ter ma ter ia l .

H owever t he c on t inu ing i n terest i n r epre-

s en t ing Mary h o ld ing a f l ower , o r f ru i t , o r af l ower ing s eed o r C hr ist h o ld ing f ru it o r ab ird , t o n a me o n ly s o me o f t he p er mu ta t ions , may we l l i nd ica te a s urv iv ing awareness o f t he mean ing o f t hese images .

6 2

6 .

THE SOGN — VA LDRES DES IGN E r la B ergendah l H oh ler

Th is a r t ic le i s p ar t—and o n ly a p ar t— o f t he p ro lego mena t o al arger work .

The wr iter h as f or s evera l y ears n ow b een e ngaged o n ac a ta logue

o f s tave c hurch p or ta ls a nd o ther N orweg ian d ecora t ive woodcarv ing f ro m t he M idd le Ages .

1

T he ma ter ia l i s v ar ied , a nd c overs a t ime s pan f ro m

t he e leven th c en tury t o t he f our teen th , b u t t he s ty le o f t he o rna men t i s b y a nd l arge " Ro manesque"

The s tave c hurch p or ta ls c on tr ibu te t he b u lk o f

t h is ma ter ia l , s ince t he ir d ecora t ion i s p ar t icu lar ly r ich .

They h ave b een

ac on t inu ing c en tre o f i n terest i n S cand inav ia f or a l ong t ime , a nd t here i s as ubstan t ia l , i f s o mewha t r epet it ious , l i tera ture 2 ( P la tes 1 -4 ). T hese p or ta ls w i l l o f c ourse b e p resen ted i n t he e ven tua l c a ta logue i n t he u sua l way w ith d escr ip t ion a nd p hotographs .

B u t a s t hey a re , o n a n

a verage , 3 -5 m h igh a nd 2 -2 .5 m w ide , a nd t he ir o rna men ted d ecora t ion i s v ery c o mp l ica ted , i ti s f requen t ly a d if f icu lt t ask t o d ist ingu ish t he d if feren t c onst ituen ts o f t he ir d es ign a nd s ee h ow t hey h ave b een c o mposed— let a lone k eep t he d eta i ls o f o ne i n mind when t urn ing t o t he n ex t .

Ih ave t herefore

a lso f ound i te ssen t ia l t o d isen tang le a nd d raw o u t s epara te ly t he ma in c ons t ituen t e le men ts o f t he p or ta l . d one s yste ma t ica l ly b efore .

The i dea i s n o t n ew , b u t i th as n ever b een

( P la tes 1 9-39 ).

The d raw ings Ih ave made a re n or ma l ly t raced f ro m p hotographs , b u t t he d raw ings o f t he d ecora t ion o f c o lu mns , a nd o f s o me d eta i ls , h ave b een made f ro m t he p or ta ls t he mse lves . n ot a s e xact r ecords .

A l l a re t o b e r egarded a s d iagra m ma t ica l ,

Wea ther ing , a nd t h ick l ayers o f o ld t ar o f ten make

t he a bso lu te d e ter m ina t ion o f d eta i ls impossib le i n a ny c ase , a nd Ih ave n ot a i med a t a ny e xact itude i n s how ing , f or e xa mp le , t he s econdary s ta lks o r l eaves —far l ess i n c heck ing whether t here a re 5 o r 6l obes w ith in a ny o ne l eaf .

The d raw ings , f ur ther more , embody c orrect ions .

Many o f t he p or ta ls

h ave s hrunk i rregu lar ly , s o t ha t t he p a t tern o n t he h or izon ta l p lanks n o l onger j o ins u p p roper ly w ith t he p a t tern o n t he v er t ica l p lanks e i ther s ide . Ih ave s i mp ly a d justed t he d raw ing s o t ha t i td oes j o in u p .

And where p ar ts

o f t he p a t tern h ave b een d estroyed b y m inor d a mage t o t he o b ject b u t t he c o mp let ion i s n o t i n d oub t , Ih ave c o mp leted i t , t hough w ith d o t ted l ines . I n t he c a ta logue d escr ip t ions Ih ave b een p repar ing , Ih ave a i med , n o t a t d eta i led o b ject iv ity , wh ich i s n otor ious ly u na t ta inab le , b u t a t s or t ing o u t t he d if ferences a nd r ese mb lances w ith in g roups o f works wh ich a re v ery s im i lar t o o ne a no ther .

Th is r a ises , among many o thers , a lso t he q uest ion

o f t he n a ture o f ap oss ib le c o m mon p roto type , a nd t he n a ture o f t he p rocess t ha t l ed t o t he c rea t ion o f t he s evera l v ar ian ts t ha t we a ctua l ly h ave .

B y

n ow a s tage h as b een r eached where s o me o f t he q uest ions o n t h is p o in t s ee m t o c a l l f or v en t i la t ion a nd g enera l d iscuss ion . 6 3

Iwan t t o s et o u t h ere a n u mber

o f o bserva t ions Ih ave made i n t he c ourse o f work , a nd t o i nd ica te t he c onc lus ions , s uch a s t hey a re , wh ich s ee m t o emerge w ith s o me d egree o f p robab i l ity o u t o f t he e v idence . Tak ing i ta l l t ogether , t he p orta l ma ter ia l t o b e c a ta logued amoun ts t o 1 39 e n tr ies .

T hese c an b e s ub-d iv ided i n to many l esser g roups , u s ing

a rch itecton ic a nd o rna men ta l c r iter ia .

S even ty-four o f t hese e n tr ies b e-

l ong t o at ype where t he t wo p lanks f lank ing t he d oor o pen ing , a nd t hose s urmoun t ing i t , a re a l most e n t ire ly c overed w ith o rna men ta l c arv ing . O f t hose , t here a re f or ty-seven i n wh ich t he ma in a rch itecton ic s che me , t he c o mpos it ion o f t he d ecora t ive e le men ts , a nd t he d ecora t ive e le men ts t he mse lves a re s o s im i lar t ha t o ne m igh t s peak o f o ne s ing le d es ign .

A s t he a na lyt ica l d raw ings

s how , t he s ame f ea tures a re r eproduced t ime a nd a ga in , v ary ing o n ly i n m inor d eta i ls . B u t when o ne c ons iders t hese f or ty-seven p or ta ls f ro m t he p o in t o f v iew o f s ty le , t he impress ion o f n eariden t ity v an ishes .

S o me o f t he m wou ld ,

i n aN orweg ian c on tex t , b e c a l led " ear ly Ro manesque" i n s ty le . T hey s how e legan t ly d rawn , o pen , smoo th o rna men t , c lose ly r e la ted t o t he p reced ing U rnes s ty le .

O thers emp loy a c lose-kn it , h eavy , l a te Ro manesque manner ,

wh ich a i ms a t q u ite a d if feren t s or t o f o rna men ta l e f fect .

N or f ro m t he

t echn ica l p o in t o f v iew , a l low ing f or t he l im ited p oss ib le r ange o f woodc arv ing , i s t he r e l ief e xecu ted i n t he s a me way .

T he impress ion g iven ,

c lear ly a nd im med ia te ly , i s t ha t t hese p or ta ls a re t he work o f ac ons iderab le n u mber o f d if feren t c arvers , o pera t ing o ver a n o t i ncons iderab le p er iod o f t ime .

( P la tes 5 -9 ) .

T h is i s a l l c o m mon ly a ccep ted . a s ac en tury , more o r l ess .

3

The p er iod o ft ime i s n or ma l ly g iven

T he g roup h as , s ince 1 892 when t he f irst

( and v ery e xce l len t ) s tudy b y L oren tz D iethr ichson c ame o u t ,

4

b een k nown

a s t he " Sogn-Va ldres-and-Te le mark" g roup , t ak ing i t s n a me f ro m a reas i n Norway where r epresen ta t ive works c an b e f ound . v ac i l la t ion i n t he u se o f t h is t er m . v ey ;

T here i s h owever s o me

Th is i s n o t t he p lace f or a g enera l s ur-

E ng l ish s peak ing r eaders c an b e r eferred t o P . Anker 1 969 a nd M .

B l indhe im 1 965 f or t ha t .

Bu t , f or c lar i ty o f e xpos i t ion , i th as s ee med

b est n ever the less t o s et o u t , y et a ga in , ac er ta in n u mber o f f am i l iar , o r e as i ly a ccess ib le , f acts . The n or ma l " Sogn-Va ldres" d es ign c o mpr ises , f irst , t he c o lu mn-por ta l mot ive , f ram ing t he a ctua l e n trance . i ti s f ound i n e very me mber o f i t .

The c o lu mns s tand f orward i n h igh r e l ief ,

b u t c an b e more o r l ess a r t icu la ted . t angu lar h ead ( " type I ") .

Th is i s n ot p ecu l iar t o t he g roup , b u t The e n trance i t se lf c an h ave a r ec-

( P la tes 1 0B , 2 ) .

I fi td oes , t he a rch ivo l t o f t he

p or ta l- mot ive i s more o r l ess c oncea led i n t he r est o f t he o rna men t a bove t he e n trance , a nd t he o rna men t wh ich c overs t he c o lu mns i s l iab le t o s p i l l o ver t o o r r ece ive e le men ts f ro m t ha t o n t he p lanks e i ther s ide .

A l terna t ive ly ,

t he e n trance c an b e r ound-headed , t he a rch ivo l t b e ing t hen c lear ly marked a nd h av ing a f o l ia te s cro l l-decora t ion o f i t s own , wh i le t he c o lu mns a lso h ave t he ir own , s cro l l d ecora t ion ( " type I " )( P la tes 1 0C , 4 , 8 ) . I n b o th t ypes Ia nd I t he r est o f t he d ecora t ion i s a rranged a s f o l lows . T here i s an arrow u ndecora ted a rea t op a nd b o t to m ,

6 4

A t t he l ower e nd t he

o rna men t n or ma l ly s tar ts e ach s ide w ith a p a l me t te f r ieze . monster ' sh ead ( l ion o r d ragon ).

N ex t c o mes a

S pr ing ing f ro m i t s mou th c o mes a f o l ia te

s cro l l , g row ing u pwards , n or ma l ly w ith a s ide b ranch a t e ach u ndu la t ion , wh ich f or ms a s p ira l e nd ing i n at hree- o r f ive-peta l led f l ower . t id i ly t i l l i tr eaches t he l eve l where t he a rch ivo l t s pr ings .

I tg rows

Therea f ter

t id iness e nds , a nd t he s cro l l c on t inues more o r l ess i rregu lar ly a nd u nsy mmetr ica l ly , f i lter ing i n a nd o u t among t he o ther d ecorat ive e le men ts . Above t he e n trance t hree d ragons a re p laced . d ragons"

Two c on fron ted " top

w ith s pread w ings f lank a nd b ite i n to a "c en tre d ragon", wh ich

h ur ls i t se lf d own t owards t he e n trance . e i ther o n o r a bove t he a rch ivo lt .

The c en tre-dragon c an b e p laced

The n eck a nd t a i l a re a rranged i n n on-

s tandard l oops , b u t u sua l ly b ased o n t he f i gure-of-e igh t , o r t he "t hree-loop" mo t ive .

T he t op-dragons ' w ings a re s tre tched s o t ha t t he ir t ips p o in t t o

t he r espect ive u pper c orners o f t he o rna men ta l f i e ld , a nd t he ir t a i ls s weep d own e ach s ide o f t he e n trance . I n among t he c onvo lu t ions o f t hese ma in mo t ives , sma l ler d ragons a re e n tw ined .

T here a re s evera l b as ic t ypes :

w ith c urved b acks a nd c rouch ing

l egs ( P la tes 1 5B , 1 , 6 ) , o r s tand ing h o l lowbacked w ith t wo s tra igh t l egs a nd t wo w ings ( P la tes 1 5C , 9 ) ;

a lso a r a ther e le men tary s nake .

T he d ragons '

n ecks a nd t a i ls a re u sed t o c over s paces n o t c overed b y t he ma in mo t ives , a nd d o n ot s ee m t o b e i n troduced o n a ny e v iden t p r inc ip le . a re more o r l ess s y m metr ica l ly p laced , s o met i mes n o t .

S o me t i mes t hey

5

T he c o lu mn-shaf ts o f t he p or ta ls w i l l c onfor m t o o ne o u t o f t hree b as ic t ypes , wh ich k eep r eappear ing i n v ar ious c o mb ina t ions .

O f ten t ha t c hosen

f or t he r igh t-hand o ne i s d if feren t f ro m t ha t c hosen f or t he l ef t-hand o ne . T he c o m monest t ype i s a n u ndu la t ing s te m w ith s ide-branches , a s o n t he j a mb-p lanks ( P la tes 1 1B a nd D ).

As econd i s ap a ir o f u ndu la t ing s te ms

( "doub le s cro l l" ) , w i th r ings o r masks h o ld ing t he m t ogether where t hey t ouch ( P la tes 1 1A , E , 1 4B ) . t he s ur face t o b e c overed . i s a n " ivy" -mot ive :

B oth t hese a re s tra igh t-forward ly a pp l ied t o The t h ird i s more c o mp l ica ted , i n p r inc ip le i t

t he ma in s te m t w in ing r ound u p as ha f t .

Bu t a s t h is

i s n o s ha f t , o n ly a n a t tached h a lf-sha f t , t he s te m h as t o b e e nv isaged a s c ur l ing r ound a n imag inary s haf t a nd c om ing i n to v iew a ga in h igher u p , o n t he s ide o ppos ite t o t he o ne where i tv an ished .

I n tr icac ies o f p a t tern a re

p rov ided b y i t s s ide-branches ( P la tes 1 1C , 1 3A , B , C , 1 4A ).

A l l t hree t ypes

c an b e e n l ivened b y t he i n troduct ion o f sma l l d ragons , whose n ecks a nd t a i ls may b e t rea ted a s i ft w ined r ound t he s haf t i n t he " ivy" way. ( P la tes 1 2A a nd B ) . The d ecora t ion o f c ap ita ls i s u sua l ly a lso b ased o n t he f o l ia ted s te m . C o m monest i s ac onfron ted p a ir o f s p ira ls , s o met i mes t wo s uch p a irs . T here may b e ab order : p la in f i l let , o r made o f as er ies o f l i t t le l eaves , t op o r b o t to m ( P la tes 1 3A a nd 8 ) . The a rch ivo lt , where i ti s s epara te ly d ecora ted , h as a n u ndu la t ing s te m w ith s ide b ranches , o r as er ies o f s p ira ls g row ing d own f ro m i t s o u ter b ord er ( P la te 7 ) . I n a dd it ion t here may ( t hough t h is a pp l ies a l most e xc lus ive ly t o t ype I ) , b e al i on c arved i n t he r ound s et o n e ach o f t he c ap ita ls ( o f ten om it ted i n my d raw ings ) ( P la te 1 0A ). 6 5

These v ar ious mo t ives whose c o mb ina t ion p rov ides t he d ecora t ion o f t he S ogn-Va ldres p or ta ls h ave b een b rough t t ogether f ro m d i f feren t s ources . T he c o lu mn d oorway , o f c ourse , r eaches t he c oun try a long w ith R o manesque s tone a rch itecture i n g enera l , t he l i on o n t he c ap ita l a nd t he f l a t o rna men t o n t he a rch ivo l t , a s h ere u sed , g iv ing a Rhen ish-Lombard ic o ver tone . T he p a l me t te f r ieze i s a n i n terna t iona l a nd v ery c o mmon mot ive . L ess c o mmon , b u tb y n o means r are , i s t he a n i ma l h ead s pew ing o u t a s cro l l , B o th a re o f a n t ique o r ig in , t hough a n t ique s cro l ls a re more l i ke ly t o g row f ro m u rns . T he d ragon , t oo , i s av ery c o m mon mo t ive i n E uropean 1 2th c en tury o rnamen t . B u t a s i ti s h and led h ere , w ith immense ly e longa ted n eck a nd t a il , i ts hows t he i nf luence o ft he o lder N orweg ian t rad it ions o f i n ter lace a nd a n i ma l o rna men t .

T h is i s a lso t rue o f t he c o mposi t ion .

T he s evera l

i n ter tw ined d ragons o ver t he e n trance s ee ms t o b e a n i nher itance f rom 1 1th c en tury p or ta ls , a s s een f or e xa mp le i n U rnes I . T hese mot ives h ave b een l ong s ince d iscussed a nd t he ir s ources n o t iced i n t he l i tera ture . T here i s a lso b road a gree men t o n t he d a t ing o f t he p or ta ls whose d ecora t ion k eeps r epea t ing t h is c o mpos it ion a nd t hese e le men ts . A s men t ioned a bove , i ti s g enera lly a ccep ted t ha t t he p er iod o ver wh ich t hese p or ta ls w ere i n p roduct ion must h ave b een n ear ly a c en tury . Wha t h as n o t b een d iscussed i s t he f act t ha t t h is i s r ea l ly r a ther c ur ious . Is tar t f ro m t he o bv ious f act t ha t t h is d es ign , c o mp lete w ith a l l i t s e le men ts , i s im mense ly c o mp l ica ted . A n i nexper ienced b eho lder h as g rea t d if f icu lty i n g et t ing a p roper g rasp o f j ust wha t i ti s t hat h e i s l ook ing a t . A t f i rst h e w i l l a pprehend t he who le a s at igh t ly i n terwoven c arpet p a t tern . O n c loser i nspect ion s epara te m inor e le men ts emerge .

D ragons c an b e

d ist ingu ished f ro m l eaves , a nd l eaves c an b e a ssoc ia ted w ith t he ir s ta lks , a nd t he w ind ing o f as ta lk c an b e f o l lowed .

B u t e ven f or t h is , t he o bserver

must p ract ica l ly k now b eforehand wha t h e i s l ook ing f or , a nd h e must b e a b le t o a na lyze o ne mo t ive s epara te ly a t at ime , d isregard ing t he r est . A mo t ive t ha t t he u na ided e ye h as p ar t icu lar d if f icu l ty i n a pprehend ing , i s e .g . t he i vy a nd t he sma l l d ragons t hat t w ine r ound a c o lu mn s ha f t , d isa ppear ing s o mewhere a nd r eappear ing s o mewhere e lse . Ic an s ay f rom my own e xper ience t ha t t h is i s n ex t t o imposs ib le w ithou t a n e xp lana t ion o r af l a t tened d raw ing . F orewarned , o ne r ecogn izes i tb ecause t here i s a s uccess ion o f d iagona l e le men ts u p t he s ha f t a t r egu lar i n terva ls—bu t t h is i s n o t t he s a me a s u nderstand ing h ow i n d eta i l i t works ( P la tes 5 a nd 1 2A , 1 4A , 9a nd 1 3A ). A l l t h is a pp l ies t o t he b eho lder who i s f aced w ith a f i n ished p roduc t . Wha t a bou t t he c rea tor , t he c arver? Can h e k eep t he who le c o mpos it ion c lear i n h is m ind wh i le h e i s b usy c arv ing i t? C ons ider ing t he m inor m istakes t ha t a bound i n m inor d e ta i ls o n t hese p or ta ls , t he c arvers were n ot s uperhuman . Ic an c i te a t l eas t t hree i ns tances where a sma l l d ragons ' n eck a nd t a i l e nd h ave b een i n terchanged , s o t ha t t he h ead i s s tuck a t t he e nd o f wha t i s ,l og ica l ly , t he t a i l ; 6 6

a nd t here a re a v ast

n u mber o f e xa mp les o f s te ms wh ich s udden ly p e ter o u t , l eaves wh ich g row o u t o f n oth ing , a nd o ther i ncons istencies . C er ta in ly , t he c arver h ad h is d if f icu lt mo men ts . B u t , a s f ar a s t he ma in f ea tures a re c oncerned—the ir e le men ts , t he ir f or ms a nd t he ir r e la t ive p os i t ions—he l ands o n h is f eet e very t ime . H av ing o nce me mor ized t he v ar ious c onst ituen t e le men ts , i ts hou ld , i n t heory , n o t b e s pec ia l ly h ard . T hey a re n o t t oo n umerous t o b e r e me mbered . Moreover t o p lace t he m r ough ly i n t he p os i t ions t hey must o ccupy a t t he s ides o f , a nd o ver , t he d oor , s hou ld n o t b e s pec ia l ly h ard e i ther , s ince t h is p roc ess i s ag radua l o ne , u nder h is c on tro l , a nd o n ly a t t he e nd d oes h e r each t he c o mp l ica ted r esu l t wh ich meets t he b eho lder o f t he f i n ished work . B u t t he c arver h as t o g o t hrough t he s ame p rocess o f g e t t ing t he e le men ts c lear i n h is m ind a s t he b eholder . h im .

H e , t oo , must h ave t he m p o in ted o ut t o

And a f ter t ha t , f ur ther more , h e must l earn t o p lan h is c o mpos i t ion .

T he d raw ing u p o f t he a ctua l p a t tern o n t he p lanks n eeds v ery c arefu l f oret hough t i fa l l t he e le men ts a re g o ing t o f i t i n to t he r igh t p laces , h ave e nough s pace , a nd j o in c orrect ly u p w ith t he n ex t l i nk . Withou t t h is k ind o f u nders tand ing a nd p lann ing , h e w i l l s oon g et l ost i n t he j ung le . Hav ing o nce l earn t i t , h owever , h e c an d ev ise a no ther p or ta l i n t he s ame way , a nd g o o n d es ign ing t he m . B u t t hen c o mes t he n ex t c arver d own t he l i ne , wan t ing t o d es ign h is own . ( I emphas ize t he word d es ign . An e xact r eproduct ion wou ld b e e asy e nough , b u t t ha t i s n ot wha t we a re d ea l ing w ith .)

T h is n ew man h as t o g o t hrough

t he s a me p rocess o f t ra in ing i n o rder t o a cqu ire h is p ersona l u nderstand ing o f t he e le men ts , h is g rasp o n t he ma in p lan . N ow i fa l l S ogn-Va ldres p or ta ls h ad b een d esigned b y as ing le master , o r b y a sma l l g roup o f s cu lp tors work ing o ver a s hor t p er iod , o ne c ou ld r eg ard t he who le g roup a s t he s tandard o u tpu t o f a workshop , a nd t he c on t inu ity o f d es ign wou ld p resen t n o p rob le m .

P ersona l c on tact , c o l labora t ion , a nd

d e monstra t ion , wou ld s uf f ice t o t each b o th t he e le men ts a nd t he way t o c o mb ine t he m t o a l l i nvo lved . T h is i s t he e xp lana t ion most u sua l ly o f fered b y t he a r t-h istor ian , when h e s po ts mass-product ion , d ur ing a s hor t p er iod , o f works c lose ly r ese mb l ing o ne a no ther : a workshop . I ft he workshop b reaks u p , t he p roduc t ion o f c lose ly s im i lar works s oon c o mes t o a n e nd . B u t w i th t hese p or ta ls , t he p os it ion i s q u ite d if feren t .

T he f i rst s uggest ion ,

t ha t a l l r e levan t p or ta ls c ou ld h ave b een d esigned b y as ing le master , c an b e d is m issed o u t o f h and—one h as o n ly t o c ons ider t he t ime-factor . T he i dea t ha t a l l c a me f ro m t he s ame workshop i s e qua l ly u n tenab le . H ere , among o ther c ons idera t ions , t echn ica l c ons idera t ions a re d ec is ive—re la t ing t o t he d egree o f c urv ing o f s urface o f t he p lanks ( P la te 1 0E ) , t he h e igh t o f t he r e l ief f ro m t he b ackground , a nd t he d ep th o f t he s urface mode l l ing . A pprox i ma te s im i lar ity i n s uch t echn ica l d eta i ls i s o ne o f t he n ecessary c r i ter ia f or s po t t ing a workshop a t a l l . A nd , whereas o ne c an i n f act d iscern s evera l sma l ler g roups w ith p rec ise ly t hese t echn ica l s im i lar it ies , i nd ica t ing t ha t w e a lso h ave t o d o w ith workshops , t h is o n ly a pp l ies t o a sma l l p ar t o f t he ma ter ia l .

6 7

T hen i th as b een s uggested t ha t t he p or ta ls m igh t c o me f ro m a c o mmon c en tre o fp roduct ion—no t made i n as ing le workshop , b u t i n ac en tra l p lace , s uch a s B ergen . B u t t he t ype o f c arv ing o n t he p or ta ls q u i te of ten g oes w i th s im i lar c arv ing o n s tructura l me mbers i n t he s ame c hurch , a nd t hus must h ave b een c arved i n c onnect ion w ith work o n t he a ctua l b u i ld ing , t ha t i s , o n e ach s epara te b u i ld ing s i te . ( Cou ld a l l t he b u i ld ings t he mse lves h ave b een p refabr ica ted i n B ergen? Med ieva l t ranspor t p rob le ms wou ld s ee m t o e xc lude t h is i dea , t oo .) I n t heory , t he d urab i l ity o f t he d es ign m igh t a ga in b e d ue t o t he d urab i l ity o f impor tan t r e l ig ious i deas wh ich t hey m igh t e xpress . B u t Ih ave a rgued e lsewhere 6 a nd s ha l l d o s o a ga in a t g reater l eng th o n s o me o ther o ccas ion , 7 t ha t t he b as ic d es ign o f t hese p or ta ls i s d evo id o f a ny r e l ig ious s ign if icance . A l l t he mo t ives o n t he m c an b e f ound u sed f or p ure ly d ecora t ive e nds i n Ro manesque a r t e lsewhere .

T he c en tra l mot if , t he t hree d ragons i n ter tw ined

a bove t he d oor , i s n o t , a nd n ever h as b een ab ib l ica l o r i n a ny way C hr ist ian s y mbo l . N e i ther f or t ha t ma t ter i s i t p agan ' — f igh t ing a n ima ls i n ter tw ined w ith o ne a nother a re u sed w ithou t s pec ia l s ign if icance i n b o th I nsu lar a nd C aro l ing ian a r t . T he l i on a nd t he g row ing v ine o nce i ndeed c onveyed a mean ing—bu t r are ly a s emp loyed i n 1 2th c en tury c o mp lex c o mpos it ions . Thus , i tc annot h ave b een a ny r e l ig ious o r s y mbo l ic i dea t ha t k ep t t he c omp os it ion s o u na lterab le . T h is u nshakeab le c on t inu ity i n o rnamen ta l d es ign i s r are i n a n a r th istor ica l c on tex t , i ndeed a l most s tar t l ing . A dm it ted ly , a s h as b een s a id e ar l ier , t here a re n ot more e le men ts i n t he c o mpos it ion t han o ne c an k eep c oun t o f , n o more d e ta i ls , p oses a nd a rrange men ts t han c an b e l earn t .

I n

ac u ltura l c l i ma te where i nnova t ion i s n o t n ecessar i ly d e manded , where n ew impu lses may b e f ew , why s hou ld t he a r t ists n ot s t ick t o t he s ame o ld d es ign? T he a nswer t o t ha t i s a no ther q uest ion .

Why o n e ar th s hou ld t hey?

T o i l lustra te what Imean , Iw i l l a dduce a c oup le o f e xa mp les f rom more o r l ess c on te mporary E uropean a r t .

T he s er ies o f 1 2th c en tury p or ta l

c o mpos it ions i n B urgundy a nd S ou th- West F rance , b oth ma jor a nd m inor , h ave among t he mse lves a n o bv ious g enera l s im i lar ity .

T he d om inan t f ea ture

i s at y mpanu m d ecora ted w ith a n e n throned C hr ist i n a mandor la i n n ear ly e very c ase s urrounded b y t he f our B easts a nd/or t wo o r more a nge ls , t h is we l l k nown a nd t rad it iona l mo t ive i n E uropean a r t . B e low i s ah or izon ta l f r ieze , p opu la ted w ith s ea ted , s tand ing o r a ct ing f igures o f v ary ing k ind . T he t y mpanon i s f ra med b y h eavy mou ld ings d ecora ted w ith f o l ia te s cro l ls o r o ther p a t terns , a nd r ests o n a n e labora te a rch i tec ton ic s ubs truc ture embe l l ished w ith h eav i ly d ecora ted c o mpos ite c ap i ta ls , c onso les , a bacus f r iezes e tc . T hese mot ives , b oth p ictor ia l , o rnamen ta l a nd a rch i tectura l , a re a l l c lose ly r e la ted w i th in t he g roup a nd p rov ide , a s i t were , af und o f i deas f ro m wh ich t o s e lect . T he g eograph ic a rea c overed i s r e la t ive ly sma l l , t he p er iod i s a mere 4 0-50 y ears , a nd t he s ty le i s s uf f ic ien t ly u n ifor m f or a l l e xa mp les t o b e g rouped w ithou t p ro test a s " French R o manesque" .

T he

p rob le m wh ich t he F rench a r t ists were s et was p rec ise ly a na logous t o t ha t f aced b y t he S ogn-Va ldres c arver .

B o th g roups were c a l led u pon t o p roduce

ad ecora t ive p or ta l c o mpos i t ion u sing a p redeter m ined r ange o f i nd iv idua l mo t ives . 6 8

And wha t was t he r esu lt?

E very F rench a r t ist d ev ised a c o mpos i t ion

o fh is own a nd made h is own s e lect ion o f t he g iven e lemen ts . I n t he t y mpanu m , h e v ar ied t he r e la t ive s ize o f t he f igures a nd p u t t he m i n to d if feren t p oses , g rouped t he m d if feren t ly a nd i n troduced n ew f igures— a nd a J udgmen t s cene c hanged i n to P en tecost .

H e a l tered t he f igures o n t he l i n te l f r ieze , a nd a

V is ion c hanged i n to a n A scens ion .

H e p layed a bou t w i th t he a rch i tectura l

s et t ing , a l ter ing c ap i ta ls , mou ld ings a nd f r iezes , s wapp ing meda l l ions f or s cro l ls .

E very p or ta l l ooks d i f feren t f rom a l l t he o thers .

I n t he c ourse o f

ap er iod f ar s hor ter t han t ha t p ostu la ted f or t he p roduc t ion o f t he S ogn-Va ldres p or ta ls , t he F rench " group" h ad d ivers i f ied i n a l l d irec t ions . C lear ly , g eograph ica l a nd c hrono log ica l p rox im ity , ac o mmon v ocabu lary , a nd s ty l ist ic u n ity i s n o t e nough t o k eep t he a ct iv ity o f a r t ists , e ven mere c opy ists , w ith in c lose b ounds . Another e xa mp le , t he U trech t P sa lter a nd i t s c op ies , w i l l s upp le men t t h is p icture . S evera l c op ies o f t h is j ust ly a dm ired manuscr ip t w ere made i n t he p er iod 1 000-1200 , p resu mab ly i n Can terbury e ither d irec t ly , o r a s c op ies o f o ne a no ther .

8

T he a r t ists i n e ach c ase were t echn ica l ly g enu ine

' copy ists ' a nd t he t ex t t o b e i l lustra ted was i den t ica l .

H ere , i fa nywhere ,

o ne m igh t e xpect p ious r eproduct ion , i dent ica l c o mpos it ion .

B u t a l l c opy ists ,

e ven t he f i rst , who was t he most f a ithfu l t o t he o r ig ina l , b rough t i n n ew e lemen ts , n o tab ly c o lour , n ew f or ms , n ew d eta i ls ; a nd t he l a ter o nes a l tered r e la t ive p os it ion ing o f f igures , c hanged r e la t ive s izes , a nd i n troduced s quare f rames r ound i nd iv idua l s cenes . T hese a re " crea t ive c op ies" ( Swarzensk i ). T he a r t ists were b ound o n ly b y t he e ssen t ia l c o mpos it iona l i deas , o therw ise t hey f e l t f ree .

E ach h ad h is own a r t ist ic o b ject ive , a nd r epresen ted a f resh

s ty l ist ic d irect ion .

H ere n o t e ven a n i mpor tan t c o m mon mode l , ac o m mon

t heo log ica l s uperstructure , o r a workshop t rad it ion was e nough t o p reserve ag enu ine s im i lar ity . Th is i s t he s i tua t ion n orma l ly t o b e f ound i n t he M idd le Ages .

Where a

s er ies o f works o f a r t i s p roduced , t ha t a re i den t ica l s o f ar a s mo t ives , ma ter ia l , a nd i n ten t ion a re c oncerned , t here w i l l s t i l l p ass o n ly a v ery s hor t t ime b efore wha t i s p roduced c eases t o b e s tereo typed c op ies , a nd t urns i n to i nd iv idua l works o f a r t whose c o mpos i t ions , d eta i ls , a nd s ty le a l l d iverge . We k now a c er ta in amoun t a bou t t he med ieva l a t t itude t o t he n o t ion o f "a c opy" . J ust ly r enowned i s Krau the i mer ' swork 9 a nd a lso Swarzensk i 's . 1 0 T he p 'eture p resen ted i s t ha t t he s ame l ack o f p rec ise o bserva t ion t ha t c haracur izes t he a rt ist i n h is a t t i tude t o n a ture , a lso c haracter izes h is r e lat i onsh ip t l " the mode l" i n g enera l . " Copy ing " a no ther work o f a r t t o h im mean t s o meth ing o ther t han t he l i ne-forl ine r eproduct ion t ha t i tt ends t o mean t oday .

I n t he 1 2th c en tury s cu lp ture i n E urope t here i s l i t t le d irect

c opy ing t o b e n o t iced ;

wha t t here i s , i s v ery n ot iceab le , p rec ise ly b ecause

i ti s e xcep t iona l , a nd c an n or ma l ly b e c onnected w ith a t te mp ts t o r eproduce s o me v ery s pec ia l , s acred , o b jec t s uch a s amirac le-work ing c ruc i f ix . i n S cand inav ia were t h ings t rad it iona l ly d if feren t .

N or

Exa mp les o f " crea t ive

c opy ing " a re p rov ided , o n ap r im it ive s ca le , b y t he G ot land p ic ture s tones , o r t he Upp land r unestones .

S cho lars a re f u l ly aware o ft h is s ta te o f a f fa irs ,

a nd , when u s ing t he word " copy", a ccep t ag enerous marg in o f imprec is ion .

6 9

B u t t here i s n o g enerous marg in o f i mprec is ion t o b e d iscerned w hen p or ta ls o ft he S ogn-Va ldres s er ies a re c ompared . T here a re a f ew p or ta ls , s uch a s H y lestad I , wh ich , b ecause o f t he ir c on tex t , mus t b e b y a r t is ts who a lso worked w ith t he S ogn-Va ldres d es ign , b u t wh ich a re s o e n t ire ly d i f feren t t ha t t hey must r epresen t d e l ibera te r e ject ions o f t he c o mpos i t ion—tha t i s a nother ma t ter . B u t t he o nes t ha t b e long t o t he s er ies a t a l l , d o s o =cond it i ona l ly , D ur ing t he p er iod o ft he ir p roduct ion a bso lu te ly n o n ew e le men t c o mes i n . D eta i ls a re s l igh t ly a l tered . P o megrana tes o n s ta lks , u sed i n U lv ik , d isappear b etween f o l iage l obes i n Hurum ( P la tes 1 5A , 6 ) . l ea ft i ps g et r oughened i n to " f inger n a i ls"

V ibra t ing

( P la tes 5 a nd 7 ) , f l ower l eaves

s tre tch a nd mu l t ip ly—bu t i ti s a l l a ma t ter o f s low s ty l ist ic c hanges , a f fec t ing o n ly t he u se o f e le men ts a lready p resen t o n t he e ar l iest o f t he p or ta ls . N o g enu ine ly n ove l l ea f-forms , n o f resh mo t ives a re i n troduced , a nd t he c omp onen ts o f t he c o mpos it ion , t he ir r e la t ive p os it ion , a nd t he ir r e la t ive s ize r e ma in u nchanged .1 1 Ima in ta in t ha t t h is i s s o s ingu lar a s ta te o f a f fa irs i n aE uropean c on tex t t ha t i tc a l ls f or e xp lana t ion . I s i td ue t o ap heno mena l wan t o f i nven t ion a nd c rea t ive p ower—or t o s o me f i rm d irect ive t ha t a ct ive ly r epressed n ew t hough t a nd n ew i deas? T he i dea o f ac o m mon p ro totype f or t hese p or ta ls h as o ccurred t o e veryone who h as s tud ied t he g roup .

S p lend id c hurches , a nd r oya l p a laces b u i lt i n

wood w en t u p i n N orweg ian t owns p rec ise ly a t t he r e levan t p er iod , a nd w ere h igh ly p ra ised i n c on te mporary s ources .

T hese b u i ld ings h ave b een a ssumed

t o p rov ide i nsp ira t ion a nd c oncre te mode ls , a nd n obody c ou ld p oss ib ly q uarre l w i th t h is a s ab as ic a ssu mp t ion .1 2 B u t t he s or t o f amorphous " insp ira t ion " o r u nspec if ied "mode l" i mp l ic it i n t h is a rgu men t i s p rec ise ly t he s or t o f mode l t ha t g enera l ly g ives r ise t o a med ieva l " copy" s er ies , t ha t i s , a monumen t wh ich l ends i t se lf f ree ly t o i nd iv idua l ist ic t rea t men t when c op ied , a nd a l lows f or , o r e ven i nv ites , a l tera t ion . T h is i s c er ta in ly , i n g enera l , t he N orweg ian p icture . 4 7 s pec if ic p or ta ls ;

Iw ish t o d iscuss

b u t a l l t he r e ma in ing ma ter ia l i s e v idence o f t he n orma l

c opy ing p rocedures i n wh ich s o me i n it ia l c o mmon mode l i s f o l lowed b y e ndl ess v ar ia t ions . F aced b y t h is c on trast , i ti s d if icu lt n ot t o s pecu la te t ha t t he mode l c o m mon t o t he S ogn-Va ldres g roup must h ave b een v ery d ef in i te . I t must h ave b een s o meth ing t ha t i n i t se lf c o mpe l led r ea l c opy ing .

I to ugh t

t o h ave b een e asy t o u nderstand , e asy t o d istr ibu te a nd t ranspor t .

I n o ther

words , Iam e nv isag ing s o meth ing i n t he n a ture o f a work-draw ing o r as ketch . We k now q u ite a l o t a bou t p re l im inary s ketches i n t he M idd le Ages .

I t

i s e v iden t t hey were q u ite c o m mon , a nd t he methods o f work t hen c urren t b eco me c learer a s r esearch i s o n t he l ook-ou t f or i nd ica t ions o f h ow t hey were u sed . Al o t o f s ketches a re p reserved , s tuck i n to manuscr ip ts d ea l ing w ith o ther ma t ters , o r s urv iv ing a s l oose l eaves e v iden t ly mean t f or u se b y i nd iv idua l a r t ists o r workshops .1 3 T hey c an h ave s l igh t ly d if feren t p urposes : s o me a re a ctua l " b luepr in ts", s o me o n ly p r iva te ' a ide- me mo ires '.

I ti s

c o m mon t o i nc lude i so la ted mo t ives i n tended t o p u t t ogether i n s o me w ider c on tex t . T hese c an b e s ing le f igures , wh ich c an b e a dap ted t o r epresen t

7 0

d if feren t p ersonages b y c hang ing a t tr ibu tes ;

o r t hey c an b e f u l ly d rawn o u t

o rnamen ta l mo t ives ; o r t hey c an b e c o mp lete ly d etached e le men ts s uch a s l ea f-for ms , e ach d rawn s epara te ly , r eady t o b e g a thered i n to b losso m ing f l owered i n it ia ls . S ince r e la t ive ly f ew s pec i mens o f s uch s ketches s urv ive , we must s uppose t ha t t he ma jor ity h ave g one t he way o f g ood c ookery-books a nd b eco me w orn t o t a t ters . B u t o ne c onstan t ly c o mes o n f resh i l lustra t ions o f t he f act t ha t med ieva l a r t ists t hough t i n t h is a na ly t ica l way , a nd c once ived o f t he ir l arge c o mpos it ions a s ag a ther ing t ogether o f p re-ex ist ing mo t ives , a nd t hese mot i ves a ga in a s a sse mb lages o f m inor a nd i ndependen t e le men ts .

T h is i s

c onv inc ing ly s hown f or e xamp le i n K itz inger ' s work o n t he mosa ics i n Monrea le . e nough .

1 4

I n t he c ase o f a rch itecture , o f c ourse , t he a pproach i s f am i l iar

A rch itects o f a l l p er iods h ave b orrowed i nd iv idua l mo t ives f rom o ne

a nother , t o c o mb ine t he m i n n ew ways .

B u t when i tc o mes t o r epresen ta t iona l

a r t , o ur modern c oncep t ion o f a work o f a r t a s a metaphys ica l u n i ty t ends t o ; o bstruct t he i dea .

T he g row ing r ea l iza t ion t ha t med ieva l a r t ists t oo t ook a

h igh v iew o ft he ir own i n tegr ity must n o t b e a l lowed t o b lo t o u t o f o ur c onsc iousn ess t he f unda men ta l f act t ha t t he ir a t t itudes a nd methods were f i rst a nd f oremost t hose o f t he a r t isan who i s p ly ing h is c raf t . C hance h as b rough t a t a ny r a te t wo c lear c ases t o t he wr iter ' sn o t ice w ith in N orweg ian med ieva l a r t , where wha t may b e c a l led a r t ist ic m in ie le men ts h ave b een u sed a s ma ter ia l t o c onstruct l arger c o mpos it ions . O ne i s o n t he a l tar f ron ta l f ro m U lv ik ,

1 5

where t we lve s ea ted a post les c an b e

b roken d own t o av ery l im ited n u mber o f h ead-types , h ead-pos i t ions , t orsos , l ower l imbs a nd f oo t p os it ions , p u t t ogether i n as uf f ic ien t n u mber o f d if feren t c o mb ina t ions t o g ive t he impress ion t ha t t we lve d ist inct f igures h ave b een s epara te ly c once ived .

T h is d oes n o t p rove t ha t t he a r t ist p ossessed i nd iv idua l

s ketches o f f ee t e tc . —on ly t ha t h e t hough t i n t h is a na ly t ica l way a nd men ta l ly d is me mbered h is s ketches o f o ne o r t wo c o mp lete f i gures t o b eco me a s tore o f sma l ler mot ives wh ich h e c ou ld r eco mpose . T he s econd c ase i s t o b e f ound i n t he d ecora t ive c arv ings i ns ide t he c hurch a t U rnes ( Urnes I ) . H ere , s o me 3 0 l i ons a nd monsters h ave b een r epresen ted i n t he most f an tast ic c on tor t ions a nd wr ith ings , y et emp loy ing n o more t han t wo d ist inct f ore-quar ter a nd t hree d ist inct h ind-quar ter d es igns , p u t t ogether i n d if feren t ways a nd c o mb ined w ith d if feren t d etai l ing .1 6 ( P la te 1 5D ) . T hese f ore- a nd h ind-quar ters a re s o s tandard i n s ize a nd s hape a s t o s uggest t ha t t e mp la tes h ave b een u sed . T h is i dea i s s uppor ted b y r ecen t E ng l ish r esearch , where i th as b een p roposed t ha t t e mp la tes were u sed i n t he s er ia l p roduct ion o f 1 0th c en tury s tone monumen ts 1 7 —aga in , amongs t o ther t h ings , f or p ar ts o f mot ives . A t U rnes t he f orms u sed a re n o t r igorous ly i den t ica l , b u t n e ither a re t hey i n E ng land . B oth s ets o f e xa mp les c ou ld imp ly d raw ing a r ough l i ne r ound t he e dge o f at e mp la te , a s ag u ide wh ich was n ot f o l lowed w ith e x tre me n icety i n t he a ctua l c arv ing . T he u se o f s uch t e mp la tes wou ld b e o ne e x tre me o f t he " ana ly t ica l" a pproach t o a r t . A t t he o ther e nd o f t he s ca le l i es t he method wh ich c ons ists i n c opy ing who le c o mpos it ions . H ere a ga in o ne c an e as i ly p o in t t o work ing

7 1

d raw ings , p repared e xpress ly f or workshop u se , o f wh ich s evera l e xamp les a re l i sted b y S che uer .1 8 T h is s ee ms t o c over t he r ange o fp oss ib i l it ies . B ut when o ne t akes i n to a ccoun t , i n a dd it ion t o t hese , a s i t were , t echn ica l a spects o f t he c o mpos it ion o f a work , t he med ieva l a t t i tude t o c opy ing j ust c ons idered , i tb eco mes c lear t ha t o ne must r eckon w ith a n i n f in ity o fp ossib le g rada t ions o f f a ith fu lness i n c opy ing . And t h is i s i n my m ind a s Ir eturn t o t he S ogn-Va ldres p or ta ls a nd t he q uest ion o f ap oss ib le work ing d raw ing f or t h is d es ign . F or t he s ake o f c lar ity , Is ha l l r epea t my f ac ts , a nd my c on ten t ions : 1 )

T he ma in c o mpos it ion i s k ep t b as ica l ly u nchanged o ver a n a bnor ma l ly l ong t ime

2 )

a n o verwhe lm ing p ropor t ion o f t he d eta i ls a lso r e ma in r e la t ive ly u nchanged

3 )

n o t wo v ers ions a re c o mp lete ly i den t ica l .

Ih ave a rgued t ha t n e ither o f t he e xp lana t ions u sua l ly f ound f or s uch c on t inued s im i lar i ty ( t ha t i s , c en tra l ized p roduc t ion , o r p ersona l c on tac t b et ween a r t ists ) h o lds g ood i n t h is c ase ; n or d o Ib e l ieve i n am irac le-work ing a rchetype .

It herefore wonder whe ther t he d es ign was k ep t u n ifor m b y t he

u se o f s o me p repara tory s ketch , a nd Ih ave g iven e xamp les o f v ar ious t ypes o f p repara tory s ke tches wh ich m igh t b e s upposed r e levan t i n t h is c ase . I ti s n ow t ime t o s ee i fa ny th ing c an b e d educed f ro m t he ma ter ia l i t se lf a bou t t he f orm s uch s ke tches m igh t h ave t aken , h ow c o mprehens ive t hey c ou ld h ave b een , t he e x ten t t o wh ich t hey c ou ld h ave d eterm ined d eta i ls o r l ef t s cope f or a master t o d isp lay h is i nd iv idua l p references . I t was e ar l ier r e marked t ha t t he p or ta ls c an b e d iv ided , o n a rch itecton ic c r i ter ia , i n to t wo g roups ,

T ype Ia nd T ype I .

T he ma in l i nes o f t he d es ign

a re h owever t he s a me i n b o th . T he mot ives a pparen t ly a t t he d isposa l o f t he c arver , a re : a )

t wo s y m metr ica l ly c on fron ted t op-dragons

b )

ac en tre-dragon

c )

as cro l l o n e ach j a mb-p lank

d )

a monster ' sh ead s pew ing o u t t he s cro l l

e ) t hree k inds o f sma l l d ragon f ) t hree t ypes o f s cro l l-co mpos it ion f or j a mb-sha f ts g )

ap a ir o f f o l ia te s p ira ls f or c ap ita ls , w i th v ar ia t ions

h )

t wo t ypes o f s cro l l c o mpos i t ion f or a rch ivo l ts

i ) masks a nd r ings f or b ind ing s te ms t oge ther j ) l i ons t o s tand o n c ap ita ls k )

p a l me t te f r ieze

7 2

Mot ives a -d a ppear o n a l l me mbers o f t he g roup . b een r egarded a s o b l iga tory .

1 9

T hese must h ave

T he o ther mo t ives c onst itu te a s tock where a

s e lect ion c an b e made f ro m v ar ious p oss ib i l it ies .

I n t he c ases o f j -k , o ne

a l terna t ive i s t ota l om iss ion . T ha t t h is a na lys is i s r igh t , s ee ms c on f irmed b y t hose o ccas ions o n wh ich t wo c arved p or ta ls s urv ive f ro m t he s ame c hurch , e .g . T orpo . I-I I ( P la tes 3 3 , 3 4 ) o r S ted je I I I ( P la tes 3 1 , 3 2 ).

E ach p a ir must

c lear ly h ave b een c arved o r s uperv ised b y t he s ame master , e ach a grees o n mo t ives a -d , b u t d if fers p rec ise ly i n t he s e lect ions made among t he a ccep tab le a l terna t ives f or mo t ives e -k . T he p lac ing o ft he o b l iga tory mot ives was , w i th in l im i ts , a pparen t ly f i xed . T he p a l met te f r ieze , when t here a t a l l , i s a t t he b ot tom , f o l lowed b y t he s cro l l-spew ing h ead .

T he j a mb s cro l l c an b e s a fe ly e xpected t o r un u p t o a

p o in t a pprox i ma te ly where t he a rch ivo lt s pr ings .

T he ' t op d ragons ' a lways

f l ank t he ' cen tre d ragon ', t he ir g rea t , a rched b acks t ouch ing t he o uter e dges o f t he p or ta l , t he t wo l arge t a i ls d irected d own t he j ambs , a nd t he w ings i nvar iab ly p o in ted t owards t he u pper c orners .

2 0

T he o pt iona l mot ives a re a lso a ss igned t o p ar t icu lar p laces .

S ha f t-

c o mpos it ions a re n ever u sed o n a rch ivo lts , a nd t he masks , t he r ings , a nd t he l i ons n ever s tray o n t o t he ma in f i e ld o f t he p orta l . S im i lar ly t he r e la t ive s ize o f t he d i f feren t mo t ives i s , w ith in n arrow l im its , u nchang ing . N o mo t ive i s a l lowed t o .s pread i t se lf a t t he e xpense o f a no ther w ith in t he e stab l ished s che me ( a l though t he n umber o f sma l l d ragons emp loyed may v ary , e x tens ions o f t he ma in f l or ia te s cro l l b e ing p referred t o f i l l emp ty s paces i nstead ) . F ro m t h is Ic onc lude t ha t t here must i ndeed h ave b een s o me c o mprehens ive d irect ive d eter m in ing wh ich mot ives must b e u sed , wh ich m igh t b e u sed , where t hey must b e p u t , a nd wha t s hou ld b e t he ir r e la t ive d i mens ions . r estr ict ions must h ave h ad a p o in t o f d epar ture .

S uch

Was i tt he o r ig ina l ,

' pro to type ', s t i l l s tand ing , v is ib le , a s i t were , i n B ergen a nd a va i lab le f or c opy ing t hroughou t t he p er iod? O r was i tr a ther a d raw ing o f t ha t p or ta l ( p erhaps t he p repara tory d raw ing f or t ha t p or ta l ) , c ircu la ted t o a l l t hose c oncerned? N ow i th as a lready b een r e marked t ha t i ti s n o t t he ma in mo t ives a lone t ha t a re p rede ter m ined . T here i s a lso a p redeter m ined s tock o f o p t iona l f or ms f or s econdary mot ives b etween wh ich a c ho ice i s made . T h is e xc ludes t he f i rs t o f t he a l terna t ives j ust s et o u t , n ame ly t ha t t he mode l was a s ing le d oor o r d raw ing . B y e x tend ing t he s ame a rgu men t , o ne m igh t i ndeed s uggest awho le s er ies o fp or ta ls o r d raw ings wh ich , b etween t he m , made u se o f a l l t he a ccep tab le a l terna t ives a nd g ave a c hance t o s cu lptors t o s e lect s o me d et a i ls f ro m o ne , s o me f ro m a no ther . B u t i n r ea l ity i ti s n o t n eccesary t o e nv isage a nyth ing a s c o mp l ica ted a s t h is . T he o b l iga tory ma in c o mpos it ion i s a ctua l ly v ery s i mp le . A s a lready s ta ted , a nyone who h ad a ctua l ly s een i td rawn o r s ketched o u t , o r g radua l ly e xecu ted a s an ew p or ta l was b e ing c arved , c ou ld h ave me mor ized t hese f ew s tra igh t forward mo t ives . H e c ou ld e as i ly h ave r e me mbered , t oo , t he ir p os it ions a nd t he ir r e la t ive s ize . Wha t wou ld h ave b een h arder , wou ld h ave b een t o a cqu ire a p roper v iew o f t he v ar ious o pt iona l mo t ives . T hese a re 7 3

l i ab le t o b e q u ite c o mp l ica ted , p ar t icu lar ly a s r egards t he c o lumn s ha f ts , where t he mo t ive , o nce o bserved i n t he r ound , wou ld h ave t o b e c arr ied i n t he a r t ist ' sm ind a s " f la t" a nd t hen t ransferred b ack t o "r ound" i n t he p rocess o f c arv ing t he n ew p or ta l . A t t h is p o in t i t wou ld h ave b een o f i nv a luab le a ss istance t o h ave a c o l lect ion o f s ke tches , o f fer ing t he v ar ious " perm it ted" mo t ives . T he n a ture o f t he s urv iv ing e v idence t herefore , s uggests a s ing le g enera l s ke tch , s how ing t he o b l iga tory mot ives a nd where t hey must g o , c o mb ined w ith a c o l lect ion o f more d eta i led d raw ings o f t he v ar ious o p t iona l f or ms f or s econdary mo t ives . B ear ing i n m ind t he g enera l c onc lus ions a lready n o ted a bou t t he u se o f p repara tory d es igns a nd s ketches i n t he M idd le Ages , t hese i deas w i l l n ot s ee m a ny th ing b u t r easonab le .

T he n orma l , u nder ly ing i dea o f t hese s ketches

w ou ld h ave b een p rec ise ly t he p resen ta t ion o f o p t iona l a l terna t ives .

I f we

a re i n f act f aced , i n t he S ogn-Va ldres p or ta ls , w ith t he c onsequences o f s o me s ketch o r mode l b e ing p u t i n to c ircu la t ion , i ts hou ld h ave b een manda tory i n i t s ma in f ea tures , b u t o f fer ing v ar ied s o lut ions a t ad eta i led l eve l a nd a l low ing w ide p oss ib i l it ies f or i nd iv idua l c o mb ina t ions a s r equ ired . T h is wou ld e xp la in t he s im ilar it ies .

Wha t n ow a bou t t he d i f ferences?

I nd iv idua l ity i s f ound , f i rst o f a l l , i n t he way i n wh ich t he p r inc ipa l mo t ives t he mse lves a re c o mb ined . Ag lance a t t he a na lyt ica l d raw ings w i l l s how a t o nce t ha t t here a re p ar t icu lar p o in ts where d i f ferences a re immed ia te ly o bv ious , a nd a lso t ha t t hese a re t he s a me p o in ts wh ichever t wo d oorways a re c o mpared .

T hey s how t ha t :

I ) T he u ndu la t ions o f t he s te m o n t he s ide p lanks c an b e t au t o r l oose a nd t hus p rov ide more o r f ewer s ide b ranches u p t o t he l eve l o f t he a rch ivo lt . I )

t he s cro l ls , where t hey c o l l ide w i th t he t op-dragons ' t a i ls , a re c o mb ined w ith t hese i n many v ar ious ways

I I )

t he t rea t men t o f t he s cro l ls i n r e la t ion t o a nd a bove t he t op d ragons p rov ide a s many s o lut ions a s t here a re p or ta ls

I V )

t he l oop ing o ft he c en tre d ragon ' sn eck a nd t a i l i s a lso h igh ly i nd iv idua l

V )

t he c urva ture o f t he t op d ragons ' b od ies , a l though s how ing a g enera l s im i lar ity , a lso s hows e nd less t r if l ing v ar ia t ions i n a ng le a nd c urvat ure , i n t he e x ten t t o wh ich n eck a nd t a i l a re s tretched o r b en t , w ings r a ised o r l owered .

Two p or ta ls s tand o u t a t o nce w i th e xcep t iona l c ompos it ions : a nd A arda l .

B orgund

B orgund h as a c en tre d ragon wh ich b reaks t he n orma l ly

i nf lex ib le r u le t ha t i ts hou ld t hrow i t se lf d ownwards , a nd i nstead c ur ls i t se lf h or izon ta l ly a bove t he a rch ivo lt ( P la te 2 2 ) . Aarda l h as n o c en tre d ragon a t a l l , a nd t he t op-dragons , h av ing n o th ing t o i n terest t he m a t t he c en tre , t urn t he ir h eads o u twards , away f ro m i t ( P la te 2 0 ) . A t B orgund , f ur ther more , t here i s n o p a l met te-fr ieze a t t he b ase o f t he c o mpos it ion , a nd t here i s n o u ncarved a rea a t t he t op o f e i ther o f t he p or ta ls .

7 4

T he e xp lana t ion o f t hese i rregu lar it ies i s n o t p rob le ma t ic .

B oth p or ta ls

s tand i n u nusua l ly l ow wa l ls ( Borgund 2 84 cm , Aarda l 2 75 cm ) , a nd , s ince t he d oor o pen ing was t o b e o f " nor ma l" h e igh t t here was n o r oo m f or t he s tandard c o mpos it ion t o b e c arved a bove i t .

2 1

T h is s i mp le o bserva t ion a t o nce g ives r ise t o ag enera l q uest ion . G ran ted t ha t t he c arver s tar ts w i th a r eady- made d es ign , a s h ere p roposed , h ow i s h e t o a d just i tt o t he v ary ing h e igh ts o f t he wa l ls a nd d oors f or wh ich i tw i l l b e n eeded i n p ract ice? The h e igh t o f t he wa l l o f as tave-church i s a ny th ing b u t s tandard . T he most impor tan t c ause o f v ar ia t ion i s t ha t s o me c hurches h ave a c lerestory , a nd s o me d o n o t .

T hose t ha t d o n ot w i l l t end t o h ave r a ther h igher wa l ls

t han t hose t ha t d o . B u t , e ven w i th in t he t wo g roups , t he h e igh t w i l l v ary— l arger c hurches u sua l ly h ave h igher wa l ls .2 2 Ag igan t ic c hurch l i ke S ted je ( 12 .60 m x 9 .60 m ) h ad i nco mparab ly h igher wa l ls ( 5 .40 m ) t han a d im inu t ive o ne l ike B orgund ( 6 .90 m x 5 .70 m , h e igh t o f wa l ls 2 .84 m ).

T he j a mb-

p lanks o f t he p or ta l a re , o f c ourse , n oth ing b u t s pec ia l ly o rna men ted wa l l p lanks . Th is was a n a spect o f t he c rea t ion o f ap or ta l wh ich was n o t u nder t he c arver ' sc on tro l .

T he h e igh t o f t he j a mb p lanks was a f unct ion o f t he s ize

o f t he b u i ld ing , a nd t herefore i tv ar ied . S im i lar ity t he w id th o f t hese j a mb p lanks was o uts ide t he c arver ' s c on tro l .

T h is was d eter m ined b y t he w id th o f t he w idest p oss ib le p ine t runks

a va i lab le ( average w id th o f j a mbs 5 0-60 cm ). T he j a mb p lanks o f ap or ta l a re n or ma l ly w ider t han t he a verage wa l l p lanks o f t he c hurch .

The b est o nes may h ave b een k ept f or t he p or ta l , o r

t he c arver may h ave k ep t as tock o f s pec ia l ly c hosen w ide p lanks —we c anno t t e l l .

2 3

B u t t he v ar ia t ions w ith in t he ma ter ia l c annot , f or p ure ly n a tura l

r easons , h ave b een v ery g rea t , a nd i n a ny c ase , t he c arver was c o mpe l led t o make d o w ith wha t was a va i lab le.

( I n mos t c ases , t he w id th o f t he t wo

s ide p lanks o n a ny o ne p or ta l d if fers w ith in a r ange o f c . 5 cm , t hus i nd ica t ing t ha t h e d id i ndeed s e ize o n t he t wo b es t p lanks .) N ow , t he c arvers o f t hese p or ta ls s ee m t o h ave b een o b l iged t o c on f ine t he ir o rna men t t o o ne s ing le wa l l-p lank e i ther s ide o f t he d oor o pen ing . Why t h is s hou ld h ave b een s o , a nd why h e s hou ld n ot h ave s pread t he d ecorat ion w ider , o n to t he n ex t t wo p lanks , i s aq uest ion Is ha l l n ot c ons ider h ere , e xcep t t o s ta te t ha t h e n ever d id . o rnamen t :

T he s a me a pp l ies t o t he h e igh t o f t he

i ta lways c overs t he f u l l p lanks f ro m b ase t o t op , ( excep t f or a

b lank a rea e i ther e nd , wh ich d oes n o t v ary v ery much i n s ize .)

T hese a re

c lear ly f ixed r u les , a s f ar a s t he c arver i s c oncerned . P lay ing t he g a me w ith t hese r u les h as d ec is ive c onsequences f or t he p ropor t ions o f t he p or ta l .

F aced w ith t a l ler j a mb-p lanks , wh ich h e must

d ecora te f ro m t op t o b o t to m ;

a nd u nab le t o make h is j a mb d ecora t ion a ny

w ider t o make u p f or t h is , t he p or ta l , s een a s af i e ld t o b e d ecora ted , w i l l h ave t o b eco me p roport iona l ly n arrower . T he p ropor t ions c an b e r ect if ied b y b roaden ing t he c en tre-p iece b etween t he t wo j amb p lanks ( Average w id th 6 0-80 cm ) . 7 5

B u t t h is w i l l d isturb t he

r e la t ive p ropor t ions b etween j a mb-p lanks a nd c en tre-p iece , a nd b etween c en tre-p iece a nd t he who le t op a rea .

I tw i l l a lso mean t ha t t he d oor o pen ing

i t se lf , a lways a f unct ion o f t he w id th o f t he c en tre-p iece , b eco mes w ider . F ur ther t hen , i ft he p ropor t ions o f t he d oorway i t se lf a re t o c on form t o s o me i dea l , when i ti s t hus made w ider i t must a lso b e made t a l ler .

T h is a ga i n

w il l make t he j a mb-p lanks p ropor t iona l ly t a l ler i n r e la t ion t o t he t op a rea— a nd s o o n . T he r eader w i l l a pprec ia te t ha t h ere , a s i n e very a spec t o f s tave c hurch a rch itecture t here i s a n i n tr ica te r e la t ionsh ip b etween t he h e igh ts a nd w id ths o f t he v ar ious e le men ts .

I fo ne d i mens ion i s v ar ied , s uch a s h ere t he h e igh t

o f t he wa l l , as er ies o f p ropor t iona l r e la t ionsh ips i s s i mu ltaneous ly d istorted , a nd t he n a tura l c haracter o f t he ma ter ia l c o mp l ica tes r edress ing t he d istor t ion , s uppos ing t h is i s e ven d es ired .

B u t , i ft here was a mode l , i tw i l l h ave b een

o f ad eter m ina te s ize a nd f i xed p ropor t ions ; w i l l a t l east h ave h ad f ixed p ropor t ions .

a nd i ft here was a s ketch i t

Thus , ap rob le m p resen ted i t se lf

a new w ith e very s ing le p or ta l . T he master was c ons tan t ly f aced w ith d if feren t p ropor t iona l r e la t ionsh ips b etween h e igh t a nd b read th i n g enera l , a nd b e tween t he s ides o f h is d oor o pen ing a nd t he a rea t o b e d ecora ted a bove i t .

C onse-

q uen t ly n o p re-ex ist ing d es ign w ith i t s p ropor t ions f ixed c ou ld e ver b e d irect ly u sed f or a no ther p or ta l .

Once h e h ad a greed t o b ound h is c o mpos it ion b y t he

t wo s ing le s ide-p lanks , t he w id th o f wh ich was f ixed b y n a tura l l im ita t ions , t here w ou ld h ave t o b e a dap ta t ion . The most im med ia te p rob le m r e la ted t o h e igh t .

I ti s a ga inst t h is b ack-

g round t ha t o ne must s ee t he u ndecora ted f i e lds t op a nd b o t to m .

B y mak ing

t hese h igher o r l ower , i t was p ossib le t o s o me e x ten t t o c o mpensa te f or v ar ia t ions i n h e igh t ;

a nd , n ot s urpr is ing ly , i ti s t he t a l lest p or ta ls t ha t h ave

t he h ighest u ndecorated b ands .

B u t i n g enera l , r ea l ly e xcess ive u ndecorated

f i e lds were p a ten t ly most u nwe lco me . S im i lar ly , t he p a l me t te-fr ieze an " op t iona l" mot ive- may h ave b een r ecogn ized a s a n o bv ious e le men t t o b e d iscarded i f ap or ta l was e xcessive ly l ow , a s a t B org-u nd , ( bu t n ot a t Aarda l ). Ad just ing t he d es ign t o at a l l p or ta l c ou ld a lso , t o s o me e x ten t , b e a ch ieved b y r a is ing t he h ead o f t he d oor-open ing , t o l eave t he h e igh t o f t he t op a rea c onstan t .

The u se o f p or ta l-type I , w i th a s em i-c ircu lar h ead t o

t he d oor , a nd a n a rch ivo l t f r ieze f ra m ing i t , c ou ld p robab ly b e b rough t i n a s a "s o lu t ion" o f t h is k ind , s ince t he u ndue h e igh t o f t he u pper p ar t i s "e a ten u p" b y t he s em i-c irc le , a nd t he t hree d ragons a re p ushed h igher u p , s o t ha t t here i s l ess o f av o id a bove t he m t o f i l l .

2 4

A ny master h ad t hus a n u mber o f q u i te e le men tary methods a t h is d isposa l f or d ea l ing w ith t he p rob le m o f h ow t o a d jus t t h is d es ign t o ad if feren t ly p rop or t ioned f i e ld . B u t t hey w i l l n ot n ecessar i ly b e a dequa te . T he r ange o f v ar ia t ion h ere i s g rea t .

H opperstad i s 3 00 cm t a l l a nd 2 00 cm w ide , H uru m

4 17 x 1 90 cm a nd S ted je 5 40 x 2 00 cm . a nd t ha t i s f a ir e nough .

T he t wo t a l ler o nes a re o f t ype I ,

B u t wha t e lse h as b een d one?

T here a re s o me a reas i n p ar t icu lar where t he d es ign h as t o b e s tre tched o r e x tended t he mo men t t he p ropor t ions c hange .

When t he c hurch wa l l , a nd

t herefore t he d ecora t ive f i e ld , g ets t a l ler , t he a rea a bove t he d oor g e ts 7 6

p rogress ive ly t a l ler , t oo .

I f , n ex t , t he h e igh t o f t he d oor o pen ing i s i ncreased ,

t he h e igh to f t he j a mb p lanks u p t he p o in t where t he c en tre-p iece p lanks b eg in , i ncreases .

And i ft he d oorway i s made b roader , t he d istance f ro m t he c en tre

d ragon t o t he j a mb p lank i ncreases .

Aw ider d oorway w i l l , f ur ther more ,

r equ ire a n a rch ivo l t w ith a g rea ter r ad ius , a nd t herefore p ush t he t wo b ig d ragons h igher u p a nd f ur ther a par t . I th as b een o bserved e ar l ier t ha t p ar t icu lar p o in ts o f t he d es ign a re l iab le t o v ary o n e very p or ta l . F ive c onstan t ly r ecurr ing p o in ts were l i sted . I tw i l l b e s een , n ow , t ha t t hese v ar ia t ions o ccur p rec ise ly i n t he a reas j ust men t ioned .

Th is , t hen , i s t he r eason f or t he d e ta i led d if ferences i n d es ign :

t hey r epresen t a d h oc s o lu t ions t o p rob le ms a r is ing when t he p ropor t ions o f t he a reas t o b e c overed w ith c arv ing were n ot t he s a me a s i n t he a rchetype o r e nv isaged i n t he s ketch . F irst o f a l l , t he s cro l l i s c a l led o n t o f i l l i n aj a mb- a rea , t he w id th o f wh ich i s s e t t led b y t he ( var iab le ) w id th o f t he p lank i t se lf , t he h e igh t b y t he ( var iab le ) h e igh t o f t he wa l l .

T he s cro l l w i l l h ave t o s tre tch a nd u ndu la te

a ccord ing ly , t he c hanges b e ing met b y e i ther a c hange i n t he n u mber o f u ndu la t ions , o r ac hange o f t he ir c urve . N ex t , t he l eve l a t wh ich t he t op d ragon ' sb ody i s p laced i s , a s w i l l b e s een l a ter , s et t led i n r e la t ion t o t he d oor o pen ing .

A ny v ar ia t ion h ere makes

i t imposs ib le t o f oresee p rec ise ly where t he s cro l l w i l l meet t he t op d ragon ' s t a i l , s o t ha t as et s che me f or c o mb in ing t hese t wo e le men ts w i l l b e u nusab le . F ur ther , t he c urva ture o f t he t op d ragon ' st a i l must v ary w i th t he d istance b etween i t s b ody a nd t he j a mb p lank d own wh ich i th as t o r un , a nd t ha t o f i t s n eck w i th t he d istance b etween i t s b ody a nd t ha t o f t he c en tre d ragon .

T he

f i rst v ar iab le i s af unct ion o f , a ga in , t he w id th o f t he j a mb p lank , t he s econd o f t he l eng th o f t he h or izon ta l p lanks t ha t g o t o make u p t he c en tre p iece . T he a ng le a nd l eng th o f i t s w ings w i l l v ary w ith t he d istance b etween i t s b ody a nd t he u pper c orners o f t he p or ta l —and t h is i s af unc t ion o f t he h e igh t o f t he wa l l . A s f or t he c en tre d ragon , t he c o i ls o f n eck a nd b ody n ecessary t o f i l l t he a ppo in ted s pace o n t he c en tre-p iece , w i l l h ave t o v ary a long w ith t he l eng th o f t he c en tre-p iece p lanks .

T h is i s o f c ourse a no ther u n i t u npred ic tab le t o t he

o r ig ina l p a t tern- maker , b ecause i n t i ma te ly t i ed u p w ith c ons idera t ions a bou t w id th o f d oor o pen ing .

And t he c en tre d ragon ' st a i l , f i na l ly , must b e emp loyed

a t t he t op o f t he p or ta l , t o f i l l i n a ny s t i l l r e ma in ing v o id h ere , c aused b y i t s u npred ictab le h e igh t . These w ere t he a reas where t he s ke tch c ou ld b e o f n o f ur ther a ss is tance. I n t hese e xpanded o r c on tracted f i e lds t he master wou ld h ave b een who l ly d ependen t o n h is own i nven t iveness —and i ti s i n t hese v ery p laces t ha t d iso rder i s l iab le t o s et i n . S o t he i nd iv idua l d if ferences b etween t he v ar ious p or ta ls a re d ue t o t he v ary ing l eng ths a nd w id ths o f t he wa l l p lanks i n e ach d if feren t b u i ld ing— the v ery e le men ts o ver wh ich t he master h ad n o c on tro l . And t he d es ign h as t o b e s tretched—or s quashed—in o ne o r s evera l d irect i ons s i mu ltaneous ly , e ach t ime i ti s a pp l ied . 7 7

N ow , s ure ly , t h is p rob le m o f e nd less ly c hang ing p ropor t ions c ou ld h ave b een me t i n a much more r eso lu te way—by d ev ia t ing f ro m t he s ketch a l tog e ther . G ran ted t ha t minor a d just men ts a re b oth n ecessary a nd p erm iss ib le , wha t s tops t he a d just men tb efore i tb ecomes e xcessive , a nd d eve lops i n to r ea l d ev ia t ions? One s urpr is ing ly c onstan t f ea ture i s t he p os it ion ing o f t he t hree d ragons . T hey c rouch t oge ther j ust a bove t he a rch ivo lt , aw ide b e lt o f t hree b od ies c over ing t he l ower h a lf o ft he t op a rea f ro m o ne s ide o ft he p or ta l t o t he o ther . V ary ing i n t he c urva ture o f t he ir n ecks , a nd i n t he a ng le a t wh ich t he ir w ings r ise a nd t he ir l egs s tre tch , t here i s n ever the less a c erta in s a meness , e ven mono tony , a bou t t he t h icker p ar t o ft he ir b od ies , a nd i t s c urve . As tudy o ft he s urv iv ing t op d ragons ( no t s uf f ic ien t i s p reserved o f a l l p or ta ls t o d raw c onc lus ions a bou t c en tre d ragons a t a l l ) s hows t hree t h ings : 1 )

T he ir c urved b acks a nd t a i ls f orm a n ear-c irc le , o r p ar t o f o ne , wh ich i n 2 1 e xa mp les o u t o ft he 2 8 where t h is f ea ture i s p reserved , i s t angen t t o t he o u ter e dges o f t he p or ta l , a nd i n t he r e ma in ing e xa mp les ( t he T e le mark s ub-group ) v ery n ear ly t ouch t he e dges .

2 )

T he d ia meter o f t hese c irc les i s i n a l l c ases i den t ica l w ith t he w id th o ft he j a mb p lank t ha t e ach d ragon i s c arved o n ( and t hus s l igh t ly d iferen t w ith in t he p a ir , i nsofar a s t he t wo p lanks o n t he s ame p or ta l d if fer s l igh t ly i n w id th ) .

3 )

T he c en tre o f t he c irc les i s n orma l ly p laced b e low t he c en tra l h or izon ta l l ine o f t he t op r ectang le .

I n t h is c on tex t , c irc les a nd r ectang les s ee m p ro m is ing . Med iaeva l a rch i tects a nd masons a re of ten d ep icted c o mpass i n h and ; a nd a s i mp le g eo metr ica l s yste m f or a dap t ing a b asic s ketch wou ld o f fer a c onv inc ing p rac t ica l s o lut ion . Two c irc les , t hen ( or , r a ther , h a lf- o r t hree-quar ter c irc les ) a re Another s em i-c irc le i s r epresen ted b y

f or med b y t he t op d ragons ' b od ies . t he a rch ivo lt .

And t hen t here i s t he t op r ectang le i t se lf a s av ar iab le f i e ld

t o p lay a bou t w ith , a nd d istr ibu te t he c irc les i n . L e t u s d ef ine t he r ectang le f i rst , i n t he t er ms i n wh ich t he master must h ave t hough t o f i t when s et t ing o u t t he d es ign . T echn ica l ly , t he l ower l im it o ft he " top r ectang le" i s d eterm ined b y t he p o in t where t he c en tre p lanks r est i n t he j amb p lanks , t he " l in te l l eve l" ( P la tes 1 0D , 7 , 8 ) . T h is , o f c ourse , w i l l b as ica l ly s et t le t he h e igh t o f t he d oor o pen ing . T he s e t t ing o u t o f t h is l eve l , h owever , i s l i ke ly t o h ave d ep ended o n c ons idera t ions b ased o n f ar o lder t rad it ions t han t he—w ith in s tave c hurch a rch i tec ture—re la t ive ly n ew-fang led S ogn-Va ldres d es ign , a nd i s a s ub ject o n wh ich i n t h is p resen t p aper Id o n o t p ropose t o t ouch . S u f f ice i t t o s ay t ha t t he l i n te lleve l v ar ies , a nd n ot i n ap a t tern v is ib ly r e la ted t o t he S ogn-Va ldres d es ign . Is uspect t ha t " l in te lleve l" was t he f i rs t d ec is ion t ha t h ad t o b e t aken , i ndependen t ly o f , b u t o f c ourse d ec is ive ly f or t he who le s equence o f l a ter c ons idera t ions .

7 8

T he H opperstad p or ta l , f or s ty l ist ic r easons n or ma l ly c ons idered t he o ldest o f t he who le g roup 2 5 i s a n o bv ious monu men t o n wh ich t o b eg in t h is a na lys is , i n s p ite o ft he f act t ha t ag rea t p ar t o f i t s u pper h a lf i s am isgu ided r estora t ion .2 6 ( P la te 2 , 3 , 1 6A ) T h is p or ta l p rov ides u s w ith a c lue t o t he g eo metr ica l l ayou t , a nd t he p o in t o f d epar ture i s s l igh t ly d if feren t . T he l ower b oundary o f t he t op r ectang le s ee ms t o b e t he l eve l f ro m wh ich t he a rch ivo lt s pr ings , t he "a bacus l eve l".

T h is a ssu mp t ion i s b ased o n t he

f o l low ing o bserva t ions ( P la te 1 6A ) .. A t t he p o in t where t he d iagona ls o f s uch a r ectang le i n tersect , t he " cross ing p o in t", t he c en tre d ragon , p laced h ere , h as i t s " hear t" marked b y al i t t le b und le o f l obes o r f ea thers , t y ing i t s w ings t ogether , a s af ocuss ing p o in t .

Th is " cross ing p o in t " o ft he t wo d iagona ls marks f or t he H opperstad

master a n i mag inary h or izon ta l l i ne b isec t ing t he a ssu med t op r ec tang le i n to a n u pper a nd a l ower f i e ld . T o t h is imag inary l ine h is a rch ivo lt i s a t angen t , a nd t angen t t o i ta re a lso t he s em i-c irc les f ormed b y t he t op d ragons ' b od ies , p laced e i ther s ide o f t he a rch ivo lt .

T hese t hree s em i-c irc les f i l l

t he l ower f i e ld . T he u pper f i e ld a pparen t ly g ave ( and t he r eader w i l l h ave t o t ake my w ord f or t h is , a s t he r e levan t p ho tograph f ro m 1 884 w i l l n o t r ep roduce v ery w e l l i n t h is p aper ) , af ur ther c lue t o t he d iv is ion o f t h is r ect ang le i n to f i e lds , a s o ne o bserves t ha t t he t op d ragons ' w ings s ee m t o h ave b een a ng led a pprox i ma te ly a long t hese d iagona l l i nes ( see n ote 2 6 ) . T he p or ta ls H eda len ( P la te 2 6 ) , Aa l ( P la te 1 9 ) , a nd T orpo I ( P la te 3 4 ) r epea t most o f t h is . T he c irc les o u t l ined b y t he t op d ragon ' sb od ies , a nd t he e x trados o f t he a rch ivo lt , a re a l l l eve l w ith o ne a nother ( a t Aa l a dm it ted ly o ne h as t o a ssu me a " nor ma l" a rch ivo lt ) .

T hese p or ta ls a re a l l t hree t a l ler

t han H opperstad , a nd t he "c ross ing p o in t " a ccord ing ly f a l ls a t ah igher l eve l . A t H eda len , t he c en tre d ragon i s n ever the less p laced p rec ise ly a t t h is p o in t , a nd t he p o in t i s marked w ith t he s ame l i t t le b und le o f l obes a s i n H opperstad . A t T orpo , t he c ross ing p o in t i s n o t r ea l ly marked b y a ny s pec ia l d eta i l , b u t wha t must b e r egarded a s t he c en tra l f ea ture o f t he c o mposi t ion i s n everthel ess c arefu l ly p laced a t t h is p o in t . A t A a l , t he c en tre d ragon i s p laced t oo l ow d own , a nd i t s l i t t le l obe f ea ture d oes n o t mark t he c ross ing p o in t—nor d oes a ny th ing e lse i n p ar t icu lar .

B u t a l l t op d ragons ' w ings , e xcep t H eda len ,

r igh t-hand , f o l low q u i te r easonab ly t he d iagona l l i nes d rawn f rom t he t op c orners o f t he d ecora ted a rea d own t o t he o ppos ite c orners a t " the a rch ivo l t l eve l" l i ne . T hese f our p or ta ls , t herefore , i n s p ite o f t he ir d if ferences , s ee m t o a gree o n t he ir d ef in it ion o f t he t op f i e ld , a nd o n t he p r inc ip le o f i t s s ub-d iv is ion . T he f our b e long t o t ype I , where t he o rna men t i n tersec ts t he a rch ivo lt , a nd t he t op

d rag ons '

h eads d ive d own b e low i t .

T ype I , t he r ound-headed d oorway

w ith a n a rch ivo l t f r ieze , f orb ids t h is , a nd , g ran ted t ha t i ti s i n f ac t c ons idered impor tan t t o k eep t he b as ic s hape o f t he d ragons i n tact , a u to ma t ica l ly p ushes t he b od ies o ft he d ragons h igher u p i n r e la t ion t o t he a rch ivo lt , a s men t ioned e ar l ier .

( An i l lustra t ion o f t h is p o in t i s g iven b y t he p or ta ls o f T orpo .

T hese

t wo a re a ctua l ly a m ix ture o f t ype Ia nd I , b ecause , i n s p ite o f h av ing a s quareh eaded d oor o pen ing , t hey h ave a v ery d e ter m ined , n ear-fr ieze a rch ivo lt , w h ich r efuses t o l e t t he t op-dragons t hrough . T he d ragons o n t he s ou th d oorway ( Torpo I ) , who i n a ccordance w i th t ype Ih ave t he ir b od ies p laced

7 9

l eve l w ith t he a rch ivo lt , c onsequen t ly g et f la t tened o u t i n o rder t o a vo id i t ( P la te 3 4 ) . T he west d oorway ( Torpo I )o n t he o ther h and , h av ing t he d ragons d ef in ite ly p laced a bove t he a rch ivo lt , i s a b le t o r eta in t he ir n or ma l , c rouch ing p os it ion more i n tact ( P la te 3 3 ) ) . B u t t he e v idence o f p or ta ls o f t ype I i s n o t q u ite s o u nan i mous a s t ype I . A t t h is p o in t , Imust a ga in c onfess t o t he s can t iness o f my ma ter ia l . On ly s ix p or ta ls a l together a re p reserved i n t he ir p r ist ine s ta te . A no ther s ix teen h ave s usta ined m inor d a mages , r esu lt ing i n l acunae a t o ne p o in t o r a no ther t ha t a f fects my o bserva t ions .

O f t he r e ma in ing t wen ty-f ive , a l l h ave

l ost t he ir c en tre-p iece , a nd many o f t he m h ave a lso b een c u t , p ared d own , o r a re r epresen ted , i ndeed , b y n o more t han a p ar t o f o ne s ing le j a mb-p lank . "S ta t ist ica l ly" b ased s ta te men ts a bout d iagona ls a nd r e la t ive l eve ls t hus b eco me imposs ib le , a nd wha t Is ay i s t he r esu lt o f as er ies o f n ear-guesses , b ased o n o n ly h a lf t he ma ter ia l a nd o therw ise s uch p oor r ema ins a s t here a re . Is eem , n ever the less , t o s ee much t he s ame p a t tern i n t ype I a s i n t ype I . O f e igh teen p or ta ls s tud ied , t we lve h ave t he c en tre o f t he t op d ragon c irc les p laced l eve l w ith t he a pex o f t he a rch ivo lt e x trados ( P la te 1 6B ) . ( Hegge I , F laa ) h ave c en tres p laced a t t he l eve l o f t he c ross ing p o in t , whereas y ang Ia nd I h ave c en tres p laced a bove t h is p o in t .

T he d iametre o f t he

d ragons ' c irc les i s s t i l l t he s ame w id th a s t ha t o f t he j a mb p lank . A nd t he d iametre o f t he i n trados o ft he a rch ivo lt a rch ( i .e . t he s ame a s t he w id th o f t he c en tre p iece ) , i s o f ten a pprox i ma te ly i den t ica l w ith t he d iagona l o f t he s quare o f t he j a mb w id th . T he t h ickness o f t he a rch ivo lt f r ieze i t se lf , o n t he o ther h and , v ar ies , a nd t herefore t he l eve l o f t he a pex o f i t s e x trados— a nd a long w ith t h is t he c en tre o f t he t op d ragon c irc les , b ecomes a v ar iab le . T he c en tre d ragon i s , i n most c ases , p laced w ith i t s b ody more o r l ess o n t he c ross ing p o in t o f t he d iagona ls , a nd o ccas iona l ly h as s o me mark—a b unch o f l obes , ar ing o r j ust a l i ne—prec ise ly a t t he r e levan t p o in t . ( Somet imes t he mark i s t here , b u t n ot i n q u ite t he c orrect p lace .) B u t a s t h is c ross ing p o in t moves u p o r d own , a ccord ing t o t he b as ic f orm o f t he r ectang le s o d oes t he c en tre d ragon . R e la t ions b etween t h is a nd t he t op d ragons w i l l t herefore a lso v ary . T he t op d ragons ' w ings , a ga in i n t he ma jor i ty o f c ases , f o l low r ough ly t he d irect ion i nd ica ted b y t he imag inary d iagona l l i nes .

A s t he h e igh t a nd

w id th o f t h is r ec tang le v ar ies , s o d oes t he a ng le o f t he w ings i n r e la t ion t o t he d ragons ' b od ies . T hese o bserva t ions , a nd my measure men ts wh ich h e lp t o s uppor t t he m , a re a l l v ery a pprox i ma te .

Moreover t here a re q u ite a n umber o f imperfect

c oord ina t ions . B u t t hen , Id o n o t e xpect t he c arver t o h ave d rawn h is c irc les a nd d iagona ls v ery c arefu l ly , o r t o h ave met icu lously k ep t t o t he m o n s uch al arge s ca le .

A lso , h is t wo j a mb p lanks a re , a s men t ioned , n ear ly a lways

o f d if fer ing w id ths , wh ich means t ha t h e , t oo , must h ave " approx imated " a l i t t le . B u t Ic er ta in ly f ind t he p a t tern s uf f ic ien t ly c ons isten t t o b e o f g rea t i n terest .

The f o l low ing c onc lus ions migh t r easonab ly b e d rawn : 8 0

1 )

T he t op d ragons a re p os it ioned , w ith t he a id o f ac o mpass , i n s o me a greed r e la t ion t o t he a rch ivo lt a rch .

2 )

3 )

T he c en tre d ragon i s p laced w ith r eference t o t he c ross ing p o in t o f t he t wo d iagona ls o ft he t op r ectang le , a nd t he t op d ragons ' w ings f o l low t he s ame d iagona l l ines . T he c irc les wh ich b as ica l ly d eterm ine t he s izes o f t he a rch ivo lt a nd t he t op d ragons , h ave t he ir r ad ius s et t led w ith r eference t o t he a ctua l j amb p lank p ropor t ions .

4 )

T he a ng le o ft he d iagona ls , a nd t he p lac ing o f t he c ross ing p o in t , a re s et t led , i n t he l ast i nstance , b y t he h e igh t- a nd w id th-propor t ions o f t he who le p or ta l i t se lf .

T h is v ery s i mp le g eo me tr ica l f ra mework o ugh t i n f act t o b e e nough t o k eep t he t hree d ragons i n t he ir r e la t ive p laces , k eep t he m f ro m s tray ing , f ro m g et t ing t oo l arge o r t oo sma l l , a nd t o make i te asy a nd a t tract ive f or t he c arver t o k eep t o h is p re-packed d es ign , r a ther t han t ry h is own h and . T hese c onc lus ions a bou t d iagona ls a nd c irc les c an p erhaps b e s tretched al i t t le f ur ther . O ther f ea tures o f t he d es ign s ee m a lso t o s tand i n s o me r e la t ionsh ip t o t he s et o f d iagona ls o f t he t op s quare , n otab ly t he s cro l ls o n t he j a mb-p lanks . A s r e marked e ar l ier , t he g rad ien t o f t he s te m h ere i s o ne o ft he o bv ious v ar iab les . C ur ious ly , o n at a l ler j a mb , w e d o n ot , a s o ne m igh t e xpect , g e t more u ndu la t ions w ith t he s ame g rad ien t a s b efore , b u t as teeper g rad ien t , w ith r esu lt ing f ewer u ndu la t ions —sure ly , a more c o mp l ica ted a d just men t .

B u t a s o ne n o t ices h ow o f ten t he g rad ien t i s p ara l le l—

o r r ough ly s o— w ith t he a ng les o f t he t op d iagona ls , a nd f ur ther t ha t t h is a lso a pp l ies t o ac er ta in n u mber o f s te m a ng les o n t he t op s quare i t se lf , ( par t ic u lar ly o bv ious where t he c arver h as t i red o f t he who le t h ing , a nd h as l ef t t he s te m t o r un i n l ong , s tra igh t l ines , a s a t S au land , Vang )—one g ets t he i dea t ha t t he who le d es ign migh t b e s o mehow r e la ted t o as yste m o f d iagona l g u ide-l ines . A s t he l i nes i n t he f i n ished work a re a l l s of t a nd c urved , a nd t he s tra igh t l i nes wh ich t he a r t ist may h ave i n it ia l ly d rawn a re n o l onger t here , t h is c annot b e p roved . B u t t he c orrespondences o f g rad ien ts a re s uf f ic ien t ly c lose a nd n u merous f or t he i dea t o b e e n ter ta ined . T here wou ld b e n oth ing n ew a bou t t h is .

The t echn ique i s d e monstrab le

i n t he L ind isfarne G ospe ls , 2 7 a nd i td id n ot f a l l o u t o f u se i n I re land , a s i s s hown b y t he C ross o f C ong a nd s im i lar works f ro m t he 1 2th c en tury . I n n e ither work i s a ny th ing s o c rude a s as tra igh t g r id o f d iagona ls u sed—th is i s mod if ied b y as et o f c irc les j o ined b y t angen ts , wh ich f orm a nother g r id whose l i nes a re n o t p ara l le l t o t hose o f t he f i rst—a d ev ice r espons ib le f or t he f l u id , " s l ithery", e f fect o f t he p a t tern . T h is k ind o f d oub le g r id w ith t angen ts , was , Is uspect , u sed b y t he b et ter a r t ists i n S cand inav ia a s we l l i n p re-Ro manesque p er iods .

P robab le w itnesses

a re t he O seberg ' Baroque Master 's ' work , a nd t he U rnes d oorway , It h ink , t hough Iam n o t a t t he mo men t i n ap os it ion t o g ive s ubstance t o t h is i dea .

8 1

B u t Id o n o t , i n a ny c ase , b e l ieve t ha t i n S cand inav ian a r t , a ny s uch s yste m wou ld h ave b een v ery e labora te , c er ta in ly n o t i n monu men ta l woodwork , a med iu m r a ther d iferen t f ro m me t icu lous manuscr ip t i l lu m ina t ion . Ra ther d o Ie nv isage s o me s i mp le k ind o f f ramework , d rawn o u t more o r l ess f ree-hand , a nd n o t e ven t hen v ery c lose ly a dhered t o . T he L ind isfarne a na lys is was made p oss ib le b y t he f or tuna te s urv iva l o f t he h o les made b y c o mpasses , a nd b y r u led l i nes o n t he p archmen t , a nd t here i s n oth ing l ef t , n ow , t o c orrespond t o t h is o n t he p or ta ls . B u t af ew y ears b ack t here was f ound a p lank •in I ce land , d ecora ted i n R inger ike s ty le , where s uch h o les a nd i nd ica t ions o f c irc les wh ich must s o mehow h ave c on tr ib u ted t o o rgan is ing t he d es ign were p er fect ly v is ib le .2 8 T h is p iece o f work i s n earer t o h o me , a nd t he t echn ique s hou ld h ave b een k nown i n N orway , t oo . Is ee n o r eason why t he s tave-church c arvers s hou ld n o t h ave p u t i tt o g ood u se . Ib egan t h is p aper w ith a s earch f or i nd ica t ions o f af i r m mode l o r d es ign , f ro m wh ich d ivergence was n ot a l lowed , i n t he S ogn-Va ldres p or ta ls .

T h is

s ketch , o r wha tever i t may h ave b een , s ee ms t o h ave d isso lved a l i t t le ,

a s

t he v ar ia t ions w ith in t he ma ter ia l h ave b egun t o c o me o u t more c lear ly .

I

am l ef t w ith a n u mber o f manda tory b as ic mot ives , a nd t he ir o b l iga tory p l ac ing i n ap ar t icu lar r e la t ionsh ip t o e ach o ther , a long w ith a s er ies o f o p t ions f or o ther e le men ts a nd sma l ler d e ta i ls o f t he c o mposit ion .

B eyond t ha t Ih ave

( Ih ope ) c lar if ied c er ta in i nescapab le t echn ica l r easons why t he r e la t ive p os it ion o ft he e le men ts h ad t o v ary a l i t t le f rom p or ta l t o p orta l , a nd I t h ink Iam o n t he t ra i l o f ag eo me tr ica l a id , n a me ly a n u nder ly ing g r id o f l i nes , wh ich g overned t he way i n wh ich t he d es ign was n ecessar i ly a dap ted . B u t i t i s n o t o n ly t he c o mpos it ion t ha t s tays c onstan t . T he i nd iv idua l mot ives , t oo s tay s tr ik ing ly u n iform t hroughou t t he p er iod , i n s p ite o f t he g rea t v ar ia t ions i n wha t o ne wou ld d escr ibe a s " sty le". A nd b eh ind t h is u n iform ity i n d e ta i ls i td oes s ee m a s i fo ne c an s o met i mes g l i mpse a h in t o f s ketches o f o ne o f t he t ypes f am i l iar f ro m med ieva l p a t ternbooks—the k ind t ha t p rov ides t he a r t ist w ith a f und o f i deas , s uggest ions f or m inor mot ives , a nd w ith d irect h e lp i n t he d e ter m ina t ion o f f or m .2 9 Ap o in t t o i l lustra te t h is i s p rov ided b y T orpo I , t he p or ta l i n t he s ou th wa l l o ft h is c hurch . T he l ef t j amb h ere h as a r are mo t ive . Two a l most i den t ica l ( bu t n ot g eo metr ica l ly c ongruen t ) b easts a re t w ined t ogether , o ne u ps ide d own ( P la tes 9 , 1 7A ) . T h is c annot b e d one w ith t he a id o f d iagona l l i nes . I ti s , o n t he c on trary , away o f c o mpos ing wh ich s hows t ha t t he master h ad t he b easts i n h is m ind a s u n its , t ha t i s , a s c o mp le te b easts , b efore h e wen t o n t o c o mpose t he t wo o f t he m t ogether .

T h is c onc lus ion c an

c onf iden t ly b e t ransferred t o a l l t he o ther mot ives i n t he d es ign . T hey w ere , f or t he c arver , n ot f or ms t ha t t ook s hape g radua l ly a s t hey were n eeded , b u t p re-ex ist ing e le men ts t o b e f i t ted t oge ther .

T h is way o f r egard ing mo t ives

i s i n t i ma te ly r e la ted t o t he u se o fp a t tern-books .

I ti s a ctua l ly a c on trary

a pproach t o t ha t o f t he L ind isfarne g r id , wh ich l e ts t he f orm o f t he mo t ive g row f or th g radua l ly , a s f l esh i s a dded t o t he s ke le ton .

T ha t i s why Id o n ot

w ish t o p ursue t he d iagona ls a nd c irc les much f ur ther t han Ih ave d one .

I

t h ink t ha t t h is method o f work , s o a ppropr ia te t o c er ta in a n i ma l o rnamen t , was o n t he way o u t when t he p or ta ls were d es igned .

8 2

A no ther i nd ica t ion o f t he u se o f p re l im inary s ketches f or t he d eta i ls i s p rov ided b y t he l ef t-hand c o lu mn s ha f t o n t he Aa l p or ta l ( P la te 1 2B ). i s d ecorated w i th a n ( i nd if feren t ly u nderstood ) d oub le s cro l l .

T h is

U p t he s haf t

e n tw ined w ith t h is a re f our sma l l d ragons . T he ir n ecks a nd t a i ls s p ira l r ound t he s ha f t , t o r eappear h igher u p o r l ower d own . A nd t he o ne n earest t he b o t to m h as t a i l , b ody a nd w ings—bu t n o h ead .

I n o ther words , t he d ra-

g ons were s o d isposed t ha t t here was n o t r ea l ly r oo m f or t he l owest o ne . T h is i s ar e markab le p iece o f c are lessness o n t he p ar t o f a n o therw ise h igh ly c o mpeten t man , s uch a s t he Aa l. master i n f act was ; h ave f a l len d own h ere?

why s hou ld h e s udden ly

It h ink t he a nswer must b e t h is :

h e was t rust ing t o

as ketch , a nd d iscovered t oo l a te t ha t i t was t oo l ong ( or t oo s hor t ) .

I n a ny

c ase i td id n o t f i t , a nd h e h ad t o a dap t i ta s b est h e c ou ld o n h is own . Ar e la ted , b u t r a ther more s uccessfu l , a dap ta t ion i s e xh ib i ted o n a c o lup in s ha f t f ro m H eda len ( P la te 1 1C ) .

T he s haf t i s s l igh t ly u nusua l i n

f or m , b e ing a t hree-quar ter s ha f t , n ot a h a lf-sha f t .

The c arver n eeded

t herefore a p a t tern r a ther b roader t han u sua l , t o r each r igh t r ound i t .

My

p ro ject ion d ra w ing s hows h is s o lu t ion : as er ies o f e x tra s ide s hoo ts h ave b een a dded a l l u p o ne s ide . T he c arver must h ave b een t i ed h ere b y h is r eady- made d es ign , b u t h as most i ngen ious ly c orrected i ta ccord ing t o h is n eeds . T he l e f t-hand s ha f t a s H eda len ( P la te 1 1D ) i s d if feren t t o t he r igh t-hand o ne , a nd i s d ecora ted w ith a p erfect ly o rd inary u ndu la t ing s cro l l . T h is a sy m metry b e tween r igh t a nd l ef t j amb i s n o t u nusua l i n R o manesque p or ta ls i n g enera l b u t n ear ly o b l iga tory i n s tave c hurches . Is uspect t ha t t h is m igh t b e d ue t o t he v ery f ac t t ha t s evera l v ar iet ies were o f fered a s o p t iona ls , a nd t here in l ay a t e mp ta t ion t o p u t t he m a l l i n to u se . ( Th is o bserva t ion , b y t he way , migh t e xp la in v ar ious n on-sy m metr ica l a rrange men ts , a nd t he s ee m ing ly v ast i nven t iveness o n R o manesque d oorways i n g enera l—not s o much d ue t o t he g enerous imag ina t ion o f t he a r t ist , a s t o t he r ichness o fh is p a t tern c o l lect ion .) Af ur ther m inor o bserva t ion wh ich s ee ms r e levan t i n t h is c onnect ion may b e made a bou t t he s ha f t d es igns o n B orgund . B o th s ides s how a n " ivy" w ith r a ther c o mp l ica ted s ide b ranches , o n t he r igh t-hand s ide t h is g rows u pwards i n t he o rd inary way— b u t o n t he l ef t i tt w ines d ownwards ( P la te 1 3C ) . I s t h is d ue t o aw ish f or v ar ia t ion—or was i t as ketch i nadver ten t ly t urned u ps ide d own? C er ta in e v idence o f as yste ma t ic work method o f s o me k ind i s h owever p rov ided b y t he a rch ivo lt t oday moun ted o n t he p or ta l H uru m I . T h is d oes n ot b e long o n t he d oorway , b u t i s as epara te p iece n a i led o n ( and ma tches u p w ith t wo c o lu mns t oday p laced i n t he c ho ir-screen o f t he i n ter ior .)

N ever-

t he less , t h is a rch ivo l t i s s uch a n ear-per fect f i t o n t he p or ta l where i ts i ts t oday , b oth i n measure men ts a nd mo t ive , t ha t t he f ac t h as e luded s tuden ts t i l l t h is d ay .

I t imp l ies a c ons iderab le d egree o f s tandard isa t ion o f d es ign ,

p ropor t ion a nd c ons truc t ion . One f i na l p o in t i s o f g rea t i n terest i n t h is c onnect ion .

D ur ing r estora t ion

w ork i n T orpo c hurch i n 1 977, t wo s ketches ( P la tes 1 7B , )were f ound s cra tched w i th t he p o in t o f ak n ife . " B o th a re q u ite i naccess ib le i n t he c hurch 8 3

a s c onstructed , a nd must h ave b een d rawn o n t he p lanks a s t hey l ay o n t he g round b efore e rect ion . One i s as hoo t o f f o l iage , t he o ther p ar t o f ad ragon . T hey a re q u ick ly a nd c o mpe ten t ly d rawn , b u t embody s l igh t c orrec t ions o f d irect ion , a nd a t hought fu l a nd c arefu l work ing o u t o f a n o ver-and-under i n ter lac ing , i nc lud ing a f ew o ft he m istakes a l mos t i nev itab le i n t h is p rocess . I tl ooks l ike a f reehand d raw ing , n o t d one t o d ecora te t he p lank b u t more a s as ke tch , o r t he work ing o u t o f a mo t ive .

T he d raw ings a re b o th n ear-

i den t ica l t o f or ms a ctua l ly f ound o n t he f i n ished p or ta ls . T he b ody , w ings a nd l egs o ft he d ragon r eappear o n t he west p or ta l , j a mb , b ot tom ( P la te 3 3D ) w ith i t s t a i l c onvo lut ions s o mewha t a l tered b u t w ith t he s ame p roud l i f t o f w ing . T he f o l iage s hoo t r eappears o n t he s ou th d oorway , ( l ef t c o lumn s haf t ) ( P la te 3 4A ) . T he d es ign h ere i s a n o ld a qua in tance , t he " ivy" s cro l l t ha t s p ira ls r ound a s ha f t , a nd t he s hoo t s ke tched i s o ne o f t he e le men ts u sed i n t he d es ign a s w orked o u t h ere .

T he a ctua l r un o f t he l eaves d oes n ot q u ite

r eappear o n a ny o ft he l i t t le s hoo ts o n t he s ha f t , b u t i s i n p r inc ip le r epea ted o n e very o ne o ft he m .

T he s hapes o f t he l eaves l ook s l igh t ly d i f feren t , b ut

t ha t i s b ecause t he d eta i ls , t he l i t t le l obes , h ave n ot y e t b een

c arved ' o n to

t he s ketch . I t s d i mens ions a re t he s ame a s t hose o ft he e qu iva len t e le men ts o n t he a ctua l s haf t . T h is p ar t icu lar l i t t le s hoo t o f f o l iage , w ith i t s d oub le s p ira l , i s i n f act t he s tandard s ide b ranch o n a l l s haf t s cro l ls o f " ivy" d esign ( P la te 9 , 1 3A ) . I t may g row u pwards o r d ownwards , a nd e ach l eaf may b e d if feren t ly d istr ib u ted a nd d irected , t he v ar ia t ions d eterm ined , a s d e monstra ted a bove f or t he H eda len s ha f t , b y t he n eed t o d ecora te n arrower o r w ider s ha f ts . T he s ketch a t T orpo wou ld a ppear t o b e d rawn a s ad e monstra t ion , o r f or p rac t ice , a nd Ib e l ieve i t was d one b y t he c arver o f t he p or ta ls h i mse lf , p repara tory t o mak ing t he b us iness s ketch , r eady f or c arv ing , o n t he a ctua l s haf t . Adm it ted ly t he e x istence o f t h is d raw ing n e ither p roves n or d isproves t he u se o f s ketches i n t he s ense o fp or tab le p a t terns .

B u t i tg oes t o s how t ha t

t he c o mpos it ion , e ven o f t h is a bso lute ly s tandard mo t ive , was f e l t t o b e s o d if f icu lt t ha t t he c arver n eeded t o s ee i tb roken d own i n to i t s c onst i tuen t e le men ts f i rst , b efore h e j o ined t hese e le men ts t ogether i n to o ne e n tang led d es ign . T h is p aper i s wr it ten o n ab as ic a ssu mp t ion :

t ha t b eh ind " s im i lar it ies"

a nd " d if ferences" i n works o f a r t t here a re c oncre te a nd t ang ib le r easons , a nd t ha t t o r evea l , i fp oss ib le , s o me o ft he h idden mechan is ms t ha t d eterm ine t hese , i s p ar t o f wha t t he a r t h istor ian i s t ry ing t o d o . Ih ave p roceeded o n t he h ypo thes is t ha t t here was i n e x is tence s o me k ind o f d e r igueur p a t tern , ap or tab le s ke tch , wh ich r egu la ted t he p roduc t ion o f S ogn-Va ldres p or ta ls , a nd k ep t i tu n iform .

T hen Ih ave , a s i tw ere , s haken

o u t ab ag o f p oss ib le c lues , t o s ee i ft hey wou ld o f fer s uppor t f or my t heory— s o me th ing wh ich , w ith a l i t t le g en t le p rodd ing , t hey more o r l ess s ee m t o d o . B u t whereas my o r ig ina l i dea was more i n t he d irec t ion o f ac o mp lete " b luep r in t " ,—a d eta i led c o mpos it ion , t he r eproduct ion o f wh ich must b e a ch ieved a s f a ithfu l ly a s p oss ib le , Is hou ld n ow a rgue i n f avour o f s o meth ing more im med ia te ly p ract ica l :

as i mp le s ke tch , c o mpr is ing t he ma in mo t ives , l ay ing

d own r u les a bou t t he ir r e la t ive s ize a nd p ropor t ion , a nd d e monstra t ing h ow t o

8 4

d es ign a n ew work o ft he s a me k ind , a d just ing t h is d es ign t o t he v ary ing d i mens ions a nd p ropor t ions o f e ach n ew p or ta l , b y u s ing s i mp le t oo ls l ike c o mpasses a nd s tr ing . Id on o t p re tend t o h ave worked o u t t he f u l l p rocedure o f t h is method f or a d just men t , b u t b e l ieve Ih ave g o t t he g enera l i dea . A s f or t he e x is tence t hroughou t t he p er iod o f m inor s ketches , t e mp la tes , o r p or t fo l ios o f p a t terns " on t he f la t " f or c o mp l ica ted t h ings l ike t he " ivy" d es ign , Ih ave p u t t he more p ro m is ing o f my o bserva t ions a t t he r eader ' s d isposa l . d es ign :

M inor mot ives a re s ub ject t o t he s a me q ua l if ica t ion a s t he ma in t hey mus t b e a dap ted i n e ach n ew c ase .

T h is n eed f or a dap tab i l ity

i n d irect p a t tern s ketches i s r ecogn ized b y a l l , a nd n eed n ot e ven b e a rgued . Wha t r e ma ins t o b e worked o u t h ere , i s t he l ook o f t he o r ig ina l p a t terns . Ia sked a t t he b eg inn ing :

Why d oes t h is d es ign s urv ive u na l tered f or

s uch a l ong t ime? G ran ted t ha t s ke tches e x isted , t h is wou ld e xp la in h ow i tm igh t h ave h appened .

T he a nswer t o why i s l ess o bv ious .

Why d id t he w oodcarvers

f ee l impe l led t o f o l low t he s ketches? T he c onven t iona l a nswer t o t he l ongev ity o f t he S ogm-Va ldres d es ign h as h i ther to b een o n t he l ines o f "s treng th o f t rad i t ion" . B u t t h is i s mere ly e vad ing t he i ssue .

Wha t c o mpe ls a n a r t ist t o k eep w i th in t rad i t ion?

N orway

s ee ms , a t t he p er iod i n q uest ion , n o more o r l ess h ost i le t o i nnova t ion i n a r t t han a ny o ther s oc ie ty? One o f t he many f acets o f " trad i t ion " i s t ha t i t r epresen ts s o meth ing f am i l iar , w ith r ecogn ized r u les . t o move o u t o f i t .

I ti s s i mp ly e as ier t o s tay w ith in i tt han

T h is v ery s tra igh tforward a nswer m igh t p erhaps a pp ly

i n t he c ase o f t he S ogn-Va ldres d es ign .

B ecause t h is s et o f r u les was a ctua l ly

i n e x istence , b ecause a n e asy , u n fa i l ing me thod h ad b een worked o ut f or s et t ing o u t t he d esign , a d jus t ing i t , a nd g e t t ing i tr ight e very t ime , t he impu lse t o f o l low i t must h ave b een s trong .

Brave a nd c rea t ive a r t is ts w ou ld p resu mab ly

move o u t o f t h is g roove—so me c lear ly d id .

T he r est c lu tched t he ir s ketches

a nd s tayed h app i ly i n " trad it ion " .

NOTES 1 . T h is c ata logue w i l l p ub l ish a l l t he med ieva l o rna men ta l c arv ing f ro m N orweg ian s tave c hurches .

I ti s f inanced b y NAVF ( Norweg ian Research

C ounc i l ,) , i t s s ponsor b e ing Mart in B l indhe im . 2 . An ear-co mp lete l i st o f t he l i tera ture i s g iven i n R . Haug l id : s tavk irker ( Os lo 1 965 ) .

Norske

Most o f t he ma ter ia l i s i l lustra ted i n h is N orske

s tavk irker , d ekor o g u tstyr ( Os lo 1 973 ) .

I n Eng l ish , a bove a l l M . B l indhe im :

T he R o manesque D ragon D oorways o f t he Norweg ian S tave C hurches ( I nst . Ro manu m N orveg iae .

A cta a d a rch . e t a r t . h is t . p er t . V o l . I

R o ma 1 965 ) , a nd P . Anker The Ar t o f S cand inav ia 1 ( London 1 970 ). 3 . P . Anker

Da ter ingsprob le me t is tavk irkeforskn ingen '.

T idsskr if t 1 977 , 2 ;

a lso 2 2 . c i t ., p . 4 12 .

8 5

H istor isk

T he d a t ing o f t he p or ta ls h as t o b e d one p ract ica l ly w ithou t wr it ten r eferences , a nd l eans o n s tyl is t ic a rgu men t . r egarded a s t he e ar l ies t .

H opperstad-U lv ik a re

These s how Rheno-Lo mbard mot ives , u n l ike ly

i n N orway b efore s econd q uar ter o f t he 1 2th c en tury , b u t a lso a s trong r es idue o f Urnes s ty le f ro m t he l a ter 1 1th c en tury , a nd t hey a re n orma l ly p u t 1 130-50 . P or ta ls o f t ype I a re r egarded a s d er ived f ro m t ype I , a nd t herefore l a ter .

Var ious s aga r eferences a nd r un ic i nscr ip t ions o f ac ryp t ic k ind

c oncern t wo k nown c hurches Hüru m a nd S ted je , d ecora ted w ith t h is t ype o f p or ta l wh ich t herefore a re p laced i n t he 1 170-80s .

A tra c hurch h as

ad ed ica t ion i nscr ip t ion " before 1 191" , N es land was d ed ica ted 1 242 . A t t he o ther e nd o f t he s ca le a re t he t wo p or ta ls f ro m H e mseda l , o f wh ich H e mseda l Ih as a d es ign i n t he S ogn-Va ldres t rad it ion .

I t s n ear-

t w in H e mseda l Ii s d ecora ted w ith sma l l f i gure r e l iefs n o e ar l ier t han s econd q uar ter o f 1 3th c en tury , o r a s l a te a s 1 250 . P lac ing a nd r e-p lac ing o ther i nd iv idua l works w ith in t h is f ra mework i s a much-en joyed s por t , b u t t he ma in p i l lars h ere l i sted s hou ld s tand u p . 4 . L . D iethr ichson :

D e N orske S tavk irker ( Kra . 1 892 ) .

T h is i s s t i l l

i nco mparab ly t he b est s ource f or i nforma t ion a bou t e ach s ing le b u i ld ing . 5 . T o t h is g enera l p icture t here a re s evera l e xcep t ions , l i sted i n n ote 1 1 a nd 2 0 . 6 . G y ldenda ls N orsk Kunsth istor ie , v o l . I , c h . 4 , d ue t o a ppear t h is y ear . 7 . I n t he f or thco m ing c o mp lete c a ta logue ( no te 1 ) . 8 . C . M . Kauf fmann

Ro manesque Manuscr ip ts 1 066-1198 ( London 1 975 ) ,

c a t . n o . 6 8 ( Eadw ine P sa lter ) . 9 . R . K rau the i mer

'I n troduct ion t o An I conography o f med ieva l a rch i tec ture '

J ourna l o f t he Warburg a nd C our tau ld I ns t itu tes 5 ( 1942 ) . 1 0 . H . S warzensk i

'T he r o le o f c op ies i n t he f or mat ion o f t he s ty les o f t he

e leven th c en tury '

A cts o f t he XX . I n t . C ongress o f H istory o f Ar t

( Pr inceton 1 963 ) . 1 1 . I t must b e c onceded t ha t s o me p or ta ls i nc lude mo t ives wh ich d o n o t f orm p ar t o f a ny s tandard d es ign , b u t s ee m t o b e i n troduced f ro m q u i te d i ff eren t s ources . o f t h is .

T he " S igurd F avnesbane" mo t ives a re a n o bv ious e xa mp le

A no ther e xa mp le i s t he t wo c ases o f aj a mb s cro l l b e ing r ep laced

o n o ne s ide b y t he mot ive o f s yste ma t ica l ly a l terna t ing sma l l d ragons ( Torpo I , Ode ) .

T h is Ib e l ieve t o b e a mo t ive b rough t i n f ro m a t ota l ly

d if feren t mode l a ltogether , p erhaps a n U rnes-Vaga-Oye-Vang I I-R ingebu s er ies .

A t t h is p o in t i ts hou ld b e r e me mbered h ow many s tave c hurch

p or ta ls , n otab ly i n T rondhe im d iocese , we must h ave l ost .

T h ird ly ,

t he master o f t he Vang Ia nd I p or ta ls b r ings i n at refo i l a rch ivo lt a nd a r oset te mo t ive .

T hese a re g enu ine ly n ew , a nd s trong ly r em in iscen t o f

s im i lar mot ives i n t he O ctagon o f T rondhe im C a thedra l .

T he Vang master

a nd h is p lace i n t he S ogn-Va ldres s er ies i s ap rob le m wh ich w i l l r ece ive f ur ther d iscuss ion i n my f or thco m ing c a ta logue . 8 6

F ina l ly , t he f o l iage o f

H e mseda l I s hows a s oupcon o f s t if flea f—bu t t hen , t h is p orta l i s t he v ery l ast w ith in t he S ogn-Va ldres s er ies , a nd must b e d a ted b y i t s c o mp an ion H e mseda l Iwh ich d oes n ot b e long t o t he s er ies a t a l l ( note 3 ) . 1 2 . D ie tr ichson 2 p . c i t . p . 1 94 f . 1 3 . R . W . S che l ler 1 4 . E . K itz inger

As urvey o f med ieva l mode l b ooks

T he mosa ics o f Monrea le

1 5 . I l lustra t ion i n H . F et t

( Haar le m 1 963 ) .

( Pa ler mo 1 960 ) .

N orges ma lerkunst im idde la lderen

( Kra , 1 917) ,

p . 2 4 f . 1 6 . E . H oh ler

T he c ap ita ls o f U rnes c hurch a nd t he ir b ackground '

A cta A rchaeo log ica 4 6 ( 1975 ) p . 1 9 . 1 7 . R . B a i ley

T he c hrono logy o f V ik ing-age s cu lp ture i n N or thu mbr ia .

Ang lo-Saxon a nd V ik ing Age S cu lp ture '

BAR , B r i t ish S er ies 4 9 , 1 978 .

Iam v ery g ra tefu l t o Mr . B a i ley f or p u t t ing h is i deas a t my d isposa l a t a n e ar ly s tage o f h is work ( 1977 ) t hus e nab l ing me t o i ncorpora te t he m i n to my own s pecu la t ions . 1 8 . e .g . c a t . n o . 1 1 , t he V erce l l i Ro l l ( Verce l l i B ib l . Cap ito l .) wh ich c la i ms , i n i t s own words , t o b e a mode l f ro m wh ich t o work . 1 9 . Excep t ions l i sted n o te 1 1 . 2 0 . Aga in , t here a re e xcep t ions wh ich must b e n oted .

T he s cro l l-spew ing

h ead c an b e p laced i n ac orner o r a t t he c en tre o f aj a mb , a nd t wo d oors ( A tra , F lesberg ) h ave i ts cu lpted i n t he r ound . i s a rranged i n ah or izon ta l p osture .

B orgund ' sc en tre d ragon

On s evera l T e le mark d oors t he t op

d ragons ' w ings s tray o u t o f d irect ion—surpr is ing ly a lso o n F aberg Ia nd I .

T he Vang master ' st op d ragons a re c o mp le te ly a berran t .

2 1 . T he h e igh t o f t he d oor o pen ings i s 2 29 cm a t B orgund a nd 2 50 cm a t Aarde l . T he " average" r ange i s 2 40-70 cm . 2 2 . A" Go th ic" p reference f or t a l l a nd n arrow p ropor t ions h as b een p ostu la ted b y s o me s cho lars .

A s f ar a s t he a rch i tec ture i s c oncerned , o ne wou ld

l ike t o s ee t h is a sser t ion s uppor ted b y p roport ion t ab les f or c lear ly d a teab le s tave c hurches f ro m t he " ro manesque" a nd t he " go th ic" p er iods , —bu t a s f or t he p or ta ls t he mse lves —is n o t U rnes It a l ler a nd n arrower t han a ny o ther2 2 3 . D endrochrono log ica l a na lyses m igh t a nswer t h is q uest ion , b u t s uch h ave n ot y e t b een a t te mpted . 2 4 . One w onders whether t ype I was n ot c once ived f or t h is v ery p urpose . T ype I i s n or ma l ly r egarded a s l a ter t han t ype I ( e .g . A nker 1 970 p . 4 04 ) a nd d eve loped " fro m" i t .

T he r e la t ion b etween t he t wo t ypes —or

r a ther , t he ir p ro to types — i s aq uest ion wh ich c er ta in ly awa its d iscuss ion , —bu t n o t a t t h is mo men t . 2 5 . S ee Anker 1 970 p . 4 02 . 2 6 . T he l ower p ar ts o f t he t op d ragons ' w ings a re s t i l l e x tan t o n t he o r ig ina l p ar t o f t he d oor , b ut h ave b een i gnored b y t he r estorer .

8 7

T he l ines o f t he

f ea thers i nd ica te t he g enera l d irec t ion o f t he w ings , p o in ted t owards t he u pper c orners .

I n my c orrected s ke tch ( P la te 1 6A ) Ih ave f ur ther

c on jectured a " threeloop" d es ign f or t he c en tre d ragon , a na logous w ith t he d es ign o f t he sma l ler d ragons o n t h is p or ta l . 2 7. E vange l ioru m Qua t tuor C odex L ind isfarnensis

e d . T . K endr ick

( O lten-Lausanne 1 960 ) , s ee R . L . S . B ruce- M it ford , p . 2 26 f . 2 8 . T . Magnusson

Hr ingar i l c isu tskurdur f ra G au lver jaboe Ärbök

F orn le ifa fe lags ins 1 974 . 2 9 . Iwou ld d raw a t ten t ion t o S ch i l ler c a t . n o . 3( B ib l . Na t . ms . E a t . 8 318 1 .64 v .) f ig . 8 , a nd n o . 5( E ins iede ln , S t if tsb ib l . ms . 1 12 ) f ig . 1 8 , b o th o f wh ich s how a pprox i ma te ly t he k ind o f s ke tch Ih ave i n m ind . 3 0 . T he s ketches were f ound o n t he l ower wa l l-p la tes o f r espec t ive ly t he n ave a nd t he a is le .

F or my i n for ma t ion Iam o b l iged t o t he d iscoverer ,

a n t ikvar J . J ensen ius , who v ery k ind ly p ut h is t rac ings a t my d isposa l .

8 8

7 . AN UNNOT ICED LEAF OF A LATE ANT IQUE I VORY D IPTYCH , AND THE TE MPLE OF MERCURY I N RO ME P eter L asko

S ince t he p ub l ica t ion o f R ichard D e lbrueck ' sc orpus o f c onsu lar d ip tychs i n 1 929 i th as n ot b een p oss ib le t o a dd a ny p iece t o i t .

B ut o ne more l eaf

o f a n i vory d ip tych i s r ecorded , a lthough i t s p resen t whereabou ts i s n ot k nown . I n t he e ar ly 1 8th c en tury i t was i n t he p r iva te c o l lect ion o f P Abbe F auve l i n P ar is , a nd i t was p ub l ished b y D om B ernard d e Mon t faucon i n h is L ' An t iqu ite e xp l iquee e t r epresen t ier e n f igures , t o me s econd , p re m iere p ar t ie , Par is 1 719 , a nd r eproduced i n a n e xce l len t e ngrav ing o n p la te 8 3 .1 ( P l . 7 .1 ) . T he d escr ip t ion o f i t , a t t he b eg inn ing o f c hap ter XV I , p . 1 90 , i s a s f o l lows : 1 .

L e s acr if ice ä Mercure .

"L e S acr if ice s u ivan t f a i t d evan t u n t e mp le , q u i a u f ron t isp ice d eux H er mes , a u l i eu d e c o lonnes :

l e s acr if ice , d isje , d o it are ä

Mercure d on t l e t e mp le q u i e to it ä Ro me e to it o rne d e H er mes a u f ron t isp ice ;

c 'e st u ne f e m me q u i s acr if ice .

d isposez d 'u ne man iere a ssez p art icu l iere : r ond d 'o ü e i le t ire q ue lque c hose ;

S es c heveus s on t e i le t i en t u n v a isseau

c 'e st u n s acr if ice n on s ang lan t :

d evan t e i le e st u ne p et ite f i l le q u i t i en t d 'u ne ma in u n p la t p le in a ppare men t d es p e t its g a teaux , d on t o n s e s ervo ir s ouven t d ans l es s acr if ices ;

&d e Pa u tre u np rae f er icu lu m .

& au ne b ordure s ur l e h au t : p ied d e l ong ."

L ' a u te l e st q uarre ,

Po r ig ina l e st d 'y vo ire & a e nv iron u n

AF rench f oo t i n t he 1 7th c en tury was 1 2 .7892 i n . ( 32 .484 cm ) a nd t he c onc lus ion h e d raws , t ha t t he s acr if ice s hown i s t o Mercury , i s s ure ly a ccep tab le .

A lthough o ne c annot a ssu me t ha t t he t wo H er mes o f t he t e mp le

f acade s hown i n t he i vory must b e r epresen ta t ions o f Mercury— many o ther g ods , e spec ia l ly D ionys ius , were r epresen ted i n t h is way i n t he R o man p er iod—Her mes d id o r ig ina te f ro m r epresen ta t ions o f Mercury .

Moreover ,

t he c arefu l e ngrav ing d oes s ee m t o s how sma l l p a irs o f w ings o n t he h eads o f t he H er mes , wh ich s trong ly s uppor t t he i den t if ica t ion . O bv ious ly , t he i vory c an b e c lose ly c o mpared t o t he S y m machoru m l ea f o f t he N ico machoru m-Sy m machoru m d iptych i n t he V ic tor ia a nd A lber t Museu m ( P l . 7 .2 ).

1

T he ma in f igure o f t he p r iestess i s a l most i den t ica l , a nd e xcep t

f or t he ' t e mp le ' b eh ind t he s cene , o n ly m inor d if ferences b etween t he t wo i vor ies c an b e n o ted .

T he t ree i s sma l ler , t he a ltar i s s i mp ler i n d esign , t he

sma l l Ca m i l la ' sc h iton f a l ls o f f h er l ef t s hou lder i nstead o f h er r igh t s hou lder a nd t he Kan tharos s he h o lds i n h er r igh t h and i n t he S y m machrou m l eaf i s r e' l aced h ere b y aw ine j ug—an O inochoe . T he d ecora t ive b order a lso d if fers . T he d esign i s i den t ica l w ith t ha t u sed i n t he f ra me o f t he Tr ivu lz io p ane l w ith

8 9

t he Two Mar ies a t t he T o mb , n ow i n t he Cas te l lo S forzesco i n M i lan , wh i le t he b order o f t he S y mmachrou m l eaf a lso a ppears o n t he M i lanese i vory a round t he d oor i n t he l ower s cene .

T he c onnect ions t ha t h ave o f ten b een

2

n oted b etween t he S y m machrou m l ea f a nd t he " Two Mar ies" l ea f a re t heref ore f ur ther s treng thened , a nd t he a t tr ibu t ion t o Mi lan o r n or thern I t a ly o f t he C hr ist ian p ane l made t ha t much l ess l ike ly .

3

T he g roup t o wh ich o ur i vory c lear ly b e longs , a nd o ne m igh t e ven s uggest t ha t i ti s n ot o n ly f ro m t he s a me workshop a s t he N ico machorum-Sy m machoru m d ip tych , b u t e ven f ro m t he s a me h and , i s more o f ten a t tr ibu te t o R o me .4 O ther c arv ings i n t he g roup , a longs ide t he Caste l lo S forzesco p ane l , a re t he d ip tych o f t he Wicar ius Urb is Ro mae ' Ru f ius P rob ianus , n ow i n B er l in , a nd t he A scu lap is-Hyge ia d ip tych n ow i n t he L iverpoo l Museu ms .

6

5

T he p ane l

f ro m a sma l l c asket i n t he B ib l iotheque d e l 'Arsena l i n P ar is , s how ing a muse b etween t wo p oets , o ne s ea ted , o ne s tand ing , h as b een l inked q u ite c onv inc ing ly w ith t h is g roup ,

7

a l though i ti s al i t t le h eav ier i n d raw ing a nd p erhaps j ust

f a i ls t o r each t he r e markab ly h igh q ua l ity o f t he o ther p ieces . T he d a t ing o f t he g roup i s n o t t oo d if f icu lt . a l though t he o f f ic ia l i s n ot o therw ise r ecorded ,

F or t he P rob ianus d ip tych , D e lbrueck h as a rgued a

d a te i n t he r e ign o f t he Emperors A rcad ius a nd H onor ius , b etween 3 99 a nd 4 02 , a nd mos t p robab ly t he y ear 4 02 ,

8

wh i le t he N ico machoru m-Sy m machoru m

d iptych was a l most c er ta in ly made t o c e lebra te a märr iage b etween t hose t wo impor tan t Ro man s ena tor ia l f am i l ies , e ither o f N ico machus F lav ianus t o t he d augh ter o f Qu in tus A ure l ius S y m machus , wh ich t ook p lace b e tween 3 92 a nd 3 94 , o r t ha t o f Q u in tus F ab ius N emm ius S y m machus w ith Ga l la , d augh ter o f N ico machus i n 4 01 .

Un for tunate ly t he i nscr ip t ion , s o c arefu l ly r ecorded b y

t he e ngraver i n Mon t faucon ' sp ub l ica t ion , d oes n o t h e lp u s —the n a me ENNOBERTUS i s n ot o therw ise r ecorded .

9

Mon tfaucon b e l ieved t ha t i t was t he f acade o ft he T e mp le o f Me rcury i n Ro me wh ich i s s hown b eh ind t he p r iestess c e lebra t ing t he s acr if ice .

I ti s ,

o f c ourse , p oss ib le t ha t n o p ar t icu lar l oca t ion was i n tended b y t he c arver , b u t t ha t h e d es igned a mere ly d ecora t ive b ackground o f t he k ind f ound i n o ther c on te mporary i vor ies l ike t he S t i l icho d ip tych o f c . 3 95 , n ow i n Monza Ca thedra l ,

1 0

o r t he A sk lep ios a nd H yge ia d ip tych f ro m o ur Ro man workshop ,

where , a l though t he f igures a re a l most c er ta in ly d er ived f ro m c lass ica l s ta tues , t he s e t t ing i s n ot d er ived f ro m a c tua l ity .

1 1

N ever the less , t he u se o f t he t wo H er mes a s s uppor ts , i nstead o f c o lu mns , i s s o u nusua l t ha t o ne must b e t e mp ted t o b e l ieve t ha t t he i vory c arver h ad a p ar t icu lar monu men t i n m ind .

I ndeed , i ts ee ms v ery u n l ike ly t ha t , h ad a

p ure ly d ecora t ive b ackground b een i n tended , a ny c raf ts man o f t he l a te 4 th c entury wou ld h ave i nven ted s uch a s trange c on f igura t ion . L i t t le i s k nown o f t he T e mp le o f Mercury i n Ro me , e xcep t t ha t a n e ar ly b u i ld ing was c onsecra ted t o t he g od o n May 1 5th 4 95 B .C ., l oca ted b etween t he C ircus Max i mus a nd t he Aven t ine h i l l .

1 2 1 3

a nd t ha t i t was I ti s p oss ib le ,

h owever , t ha t t races o f i t were f ound i n t he 1 7th c en tury b y t he Ro man a n t iq uary F ranc is P assen.

F rancesco Ange lon i r epor ts

1 4

t ha t P assen it o ld

h im t ha t p ar ts o f t he t e mp le were d iscovered b y s o me l abourers b etween t he C ircus Max i mus a nd Moun t Aven t ine , w ith a n a l tar , o n t he s ides o f wh ich t he

9 0

C aduceus a nd P eta tus o f Mercury were c arved .

H e g oes o n :

" Severa l s teps

l ead u p i n to t he t e mp le , i n t he s a me manner a s t he meda l r epresen ts , w ith t he H ermes [ wh ich h e j ust men t ioned ] s tand ing u pr igh t i n t he ir p roper p lace . A t t he b o t to m o f t he s teps t here were t wo p yra m ids o f T ibru t ine s tone u pon o ne o f wh ich was t he f o l low ing i nscr ip t ion ' Ex v o to s uscep to e tc .". T h is r epor t p resen ts s o me d if f icu lt ies .

I t may , o f c ourse , b e p oss ib le t ha t

t he f inds were c o loured b y wha t Ange lon i a nd P assen ik new f ro m t he "meda l" r eproduced i n Ange lon i ' sb ook o n p la te 1 93 , 2 2 .

More o f t ha t l a ter .

T he

i nscr ip t ion s a id t o h ave b een f ound o n t h is s i te , wh ich s peaks o f at e mp le d estroyed b y t he n ine d ays '

f i re d ur ing N ero ' sr e ign a nd r ebu i lt a nd n ew ly

c onsecra ted " af ter b e ing l ong n eg lected ", was a l most c er ta in ly n o t f ound t here .

A n e ye-w itness a ccoun t o f i t s d iscovery i n c . 1 640 n ear t he c hurch

o f S . Andrea i n Qu ir ina le , b y L ucas H o lsten ius who s ubsequen t ly p ub l ished t he i nscr ip t ion , s urv ives .

1 5

B u t t ha t e rror i n A nge lon i ' sp ub l ica t ion o f

P assen' s r epor t d oes n o t n ecessar i ly i nva l ida te t he i n for ma t ion t ha t i s g iven c oncern ing t he f ind ing o f t he a l tar o r t he r e ma ins o f t he t e mp le a nd t he "H ermes s tand ing u pr igh t i n t he ir p roper p lace".

O r d id P assen imere ly

i nven t t he s tory—connect ing i tw ith t he r everse o f t he b ronze s estert ius i ssued b y t he Emperor Marcus A ure l ius f ro m t he Ro man m in t b etween D ece mber 1 72 a nd D ece mber 1 73?

( P l . 7 .3 ) .

Mercury i s r epresen ted .

1 6

On t h is c o in , t he f acade o f at e mp le o f

I ts hows f our h er mes s tand ing o n ap od iu m o f f our

s teps , c arry ing a s em ic ircu lar p ed i men t c on ta in ing a t or to ise , c ock , r am , p eta tus , w inged c aduceus a nd a p urse —a l l s y mbo ls o f Mercury—and a s ta tue o f t he g od h i mse lf wear ing t he P etasus a nd h o ld ing a p urse i n h is r igh t h and a nd t he c aduceus i n h is l ef t , o n ab ase b etween t he t wo c en tre h er mes . Marcus A ure l ius h ad g ood c ause t o b e g ra tefu l t o Mercury , a nd h e may w e l l h ave b een r espons ib le f or r ebu i ld ing h is t e mp le i n R o me .

I n t he

Marco mann ic wars , h is g enera l f ough t ac a mpa ign a ga inst t he Quai l o n t he f ur ther s ide o f t he Danube , when t he Ro man a r my was h ard p ressed b y t he e ne my a nd d istressed b y t h irst .

Thereupon Arnuph is , a n Egyp t ian mag ic ian ,

c a l led o n Mercury , t he g od o f t he a ir , a nd miracu lous ly t he h eavens o pened a nd s udden r a in r efreshed t he t roops , who were t hen a b le t o d efea t t he e ne my .

1 7

T he m irca le i s r epresen ted o n t he c o lu mn o f Marcus A ure l ius i n

R o me , b u t t he e xact d a te o f t he b a t t le i s a ma t ter o f d ispu te .

C lear ly , i f

t he t e mp le r epresen ted o n t he c o in i s c onnected w i th i t , a nd i ti s h ard t o b e l ieve i ti s n o t , i t must h ave t aken p lace n o l a ter t han t he s u m mer c a mpa ign o f 1 73 a nd i ti s more l ike ly t o h ave h appened i n t he s u m mer o f 1 72 o r e ven 1 71 .

1 8

T here i s n o e v idence o ther t han t h is c o in t ha t t he Emperor b u i lt o r

r e-bu i lt a t e mp le t o Mercury i n Ro me , a l though i ti s o f ten a ssu med b y h ist or ians , e ven a s e ar ly a s A nge lon i a nd Mon tfaucon . T he q uest ion a r ises whether t he t e mp le r epresen ted o n Marcus ' s ester t ius i s ac once ivab le a rch i tectura l s tructure .

On ly Wi lhe l m Weber h as d iscussed

t h is monu men t s er ious ly , a nd h e c a l ls i tu n ique , b u t b e l ieves i tt o b e al ong it ud ina l ly b arre lvau lted s tructure b u i lt i n Ro me u nder s trong Egyp t ian i n f luence . T he u se o f h er mes t o s uppor t al in te l o r p ed i men t h e b e l ieved t o b e aG reek i dea—"he l len ist ic" —bu t a l though h e g ives q u i te a f ew e xa mp les o f s egmen ta l p ed i men ts i n p ic tor ia l r epresen ta t ions , h e g ives n o a rch itectura l p ara l le ls .

1 9

S ince h e wrote , h owever , s o me e v idence h as c o me t o l igh t t ha t may we l l s uppor t h is h ypo thes is . T he e xcava t ions o f t he Agora b y t he Amer ican S choo l i n A thens 9 1

h as e stab l ished a more d eta i led h istory o f o ne o f t he ma jor monu men ts o f t he Agora , t he s o-ca l led Ode ion o f Agr ippa .

I td a tes f ro m t he A ugustan

2 0

p er iod a nd i s n a med a f ter t he d onor M . V ipsan ius Agr ippa , s on-inlaw o f t he Emperor A ugustus , who v is ited A thens i n o r a bou t t he y ear 1 5 B . C . I n t he 2 nd c en tury t he Ode ion was r econstructed , a f ter t he c o l lapse o ft he o r ig ina l , p erhaps b ecause o f t he o ver amb it ious r oo f s pan .

D ur ing t h is r e-

c onstruct ion , wh ich r educed t he s ea t ing c apac i ty b y h a lf , t he e n trance v est ibu le was c cnver ted i n to a n o pen a rcade , i n wh ich t he l i n te l was c arr ied b y s ix g ian t h er mes i n t hree p a irs , e ach o f aT r iton , c rea ture o f t he s ea a nd a g ian t , c rea ture o f t he e ar th .

2 1

T he d a te o f t h is r econstruc t ion i s g iven b y s ta mps

o n t he n ew r oof t i les , t he g rea t ma jor i ty o f wh ich b ear t he n a me D ionys ios a s e pony mous a rchon .

H e i s k nown t o h ave h e ld o f f ice a round t he midd le o f

t he 2 nd c en tury A .D ., a d a te we l l i n k eep ing w i th t he s ty le o f t he s cu lpture a nd t he " sp ir i t o f l earned a rcha iz ing t ha t u nder l ies t he ir c oncep t ion" a s T ho mpson p u ts i t . T he a rch itectura l u se o fh er mes t hen , i n t he r e ign o f An ton inus P ius , t he f a ther s o much a dm ired b y Marcus Aure l ius , o r e ven i n t he e ar ly y ears o f Marcus ' own r e ign , i s f ound i n a t l east o ne ma jor b u i ld ing i n t he Emp ire . T aken t ogether w i th t he e v idence o f t he c o in , i ts ee ms n o t a t a l l imposs ib le t ha t t he T e mp le o f Mercury i n Ro me , r econstruc ted a s at hank-of fer ing f or t he " Ra in M irac le" b y t he Emperor , s hOu ld h ave u sed h er mes i n t h is u nusua l way , a nd t ha t al a te 4 th c en tury i vory c arver , wan t ing t o g ive a s et t ing t o h is s cene o f as acr if ice t o Mercury , made r eference t h is monu men t .

I ti s t rue

t he c o in s hows a s em i-c ircu lar p ed i men t c arr ied o n f our h er mes , wh i le t he i vory s hows o n ly t wo h er mes b etween C or in th ian c o lu mns u nder a more u sua l t r iangu lar p ed i men t . a ccura te . mode l .

A f ter a l l , n e ither r epresen ta t ion may b e a l l t ha t v isua l ly

T he c o in may b e p red ict ing t he i n tended t e mp le f ro m a p re l im inary

T he t ime b etween t he b a t t le a nd t he i ssue o f t he c o in may n ot h ave

b een e nough f or t he b u i ld ing t o h ave b een c o mp leted .

I ti s c er ta in ly p oss ib le ,

e ven i ft he t e mp le d id l ook much l ike i td oes o n t he c o in—and i ti s i n tr ins ica l ly more l i ke ly t ha t t he 2 nd c en tury v ers ion was i n tended t o s how a v isua l ly more a ccura te r epresen ta t ion—the r eference t o t he s e t t ing o n t he l a te a n t ique i vory i s q u ite a ccep tab le a s a" concep tua l" r a ther t han a p ure ly v isua l r eference . T he i vory c lear ly p resen ts u s w ith a t l east s o me a dd it iona l e v idence t ha t t he T e mp le o f Mercury i n Ro me may we l l h ave h ad h er mes s uppor t ing i t s f acade . When t he i vory was p ub l ished b y Mon tfaucon i n 1 719 i t was i n t he p ossess ion o f l 'A bbe F auve l .

Un for tuna te ly , l i t t le i s k nown o f t he A bbe a nd n oth ing i s

k nown o f wha t h as h appened t o h is c o l lect ion .

H e was c hap la in t o K ing L ou is

X IV a nd l ived i n r ue d e Mon t morency i n P ar is .

2 2

H e o bv ious ly h ad q u i te a

l arge c o l lec t ion o f a n t iqu it ies , most ly o f s ea ls a nd e ngraved g e ms , s o b e loved o f 1 6th a nd 1 7th c en tury a n t iquar ians .

I n t he p reface o f Mon tfaucon ' s1 725

e d i t ion t he A bbe i s men t ioned a s ag ood f r iend o f t he a u thor , a nd a l earned a n t iquary who i s s a id t o b e c on t inua l ly e nr ich ing h is c ab inet w ith n ew p urchases o f c ur ios it ies , a nd who g ave h im s evera l d raw ings a nd a t t imes b rough o r ig ina ls t oo "many o f wh ich a re d ispersed t hroughou t t h is s upp le men t". I ti s n o t imposs ib le , a nd i ti s t o b e h oped , t ha t t he o r ig ina l i vory d ip tych o nce owned b y t he l earned A bbe may o ne d ay r e-appear .

9 2

NOTES 1 . R . D e lbrueck , D ie Consu lar D ip tychen u nd v erwand te Denk mä ler , 1 929 , N 54 .

The •N ico machoru m l eaf i s i n t he C luny Museu m , Par is .

2 . W. F . Volbach , E lfenbe inarbe iten d er S pä tan t ike u nd d es f rühen Mit te la lters , 3 rd e d i t ion , 1 976 , No . 1 11 ,

P .

8 0 .

Accord ing t o E . Ba ldw in

Sm ith t he o u ter b order i s t yp ica l o f Ro man d ecora t ion a nd h e p ara l le ls i tt o ab order u sed o n t he Arch o f Constan t ine , s ee "A s ource o f Med ieva l s ty le i n F rance", Ar t S tud ies , I , 1 924 , p . 1 09 , n ote 2 2 . 3 . Vo lbach , o p . c i t ., a nd A . C . S oper , " The I ta lo-Ga l l ic S choo l o f Ear ly Chr ist ian Ar t", Art Bu l let in , XX , 1 938 , p p . 1 67-8 . 4 . J . B eckw ith , Ear ly Chr ist ian a nd B yzan t ine Ar t , P e l ican H istory o f Ar t , 1 970 , p p . 2 0-1 . 5 . D e lbrueck ,

.c i t ., N .65 a nd Vo lbach , 22 . c it ., N o . 6 2 .

6 . D e lbrueck ,

.c i t ., N .55 a nd Vo lbach , 2 p . c it ., N o . 5 7. p . 2 1.

7 . Beckw ith , 2.

8 . De lbrueck , p _ p.. c i t ., p . 2 56. 9 . The n a me i s n ot f ound i n t he u npub l ished f i les o f t he P rosopography o f t he l a ter Ro man Emp ire wh ich i s b e ing c o mp i led u nder t he a usp ieces o f t he Br it ish A cade my .

Th is i nfor ma t ion h as k ind ly b een g iven t o me b y

Mr . J . R . Mar t inda le , o ne o f t he e d itors . 1 0 . De lbrueck , . 2 2..c i t ., N .6 3 .

Vo lbach , 22 . c i t ., No . 6 3 .

1 1. De lbrueck , 2 2 . c i t ., p . 2 17 r efers t o t he s ources u sed f or t he f igures . 1 2 . L ivy , Book I , c hap ters XXI a nd XXV I I . 1 3 . H . J ordan , Topograph ie d er S tad t Ro m im A lter thum , Erster Band , d r it te Ab the i lung ( bearbe itet v on Ch . Hue lsch ) , 1 907, p p . 1 18-9 . 1 4. F . Ange lon i , L ' H istor ia Augusta d a G iu l io C esare a C onstan t ino i l Magno 1 685 , p p . 1 52-3 .

The s a me r epor t i s q uo ted b y Mon t faucon , 2 E..c i t . ( i n

t ex t ) 1 719 v o l . 2 , p ar t 1 , Chap ter X . 1 5 . C h . H ue lsen , i n M it the i lungen d es Ka iser l . d . Archaeo l . I nst itu ts , ( Roe m ische Ab t .) , Band I X , 1 894 , p . 9 6. 1 6. H . Ma t t ing ly , C o ins o f t he Ro man Emp ire i n t he Br it ish Museu m , v o l . I V , An ton inus P ius t o Co m modus , 2 nd e d ., 1 968 , p . 6 28 , s hows e igh t e xa mp les s truck f ro m e igh t d if feren t d ies : 1 7. D io Cass ius , LXX E , 8 .

N os . 1 441-1448 .

N o . 1 442 i s i l lustra ted .

The s a me mirca le was l a ter g iven a Chr ist ian

mean ing b y X iph i l inus , who a t tr ibuted i tt o t he p rayers o f t he C hr ist ian s o ld iers o f t he 1 2th l eg ion-the " Thunder ing L eg ion". 1 8 . S ee A . B ir ley , Marcus Aure l ius , 1 966 , p p . 2 37 i f . a nd Append ix I I , p p . 3 23-7.

The r e l ief o n t he c o lu mn i s r eproduced o n p la te 1 2 .

1 9 . W. Weber , " Ein H er mes-Te mpe l d es Ka isers Marcus" , S i tzungsber ich te d er H e ide lberger Akade m ie d er Wissenschaf ten ( Ph i los .- h ist . K lasse ) , 1 910 , 7 Abhand lung . 9 3

2 0 . H o mer A . Tho mpson a nd R . E . Wycher ley , T he A then ian Agora , v o l . X IV , 1 972 , p p . 1 11 f .

Iam g ra tefu l t o Kenneth Pa in ter o f t he B r it ish

Museu m f or b r ing ing t h is t o my n ot ice . 2 1 . Tho mpson , 2 2 . c it ., p . 1 13 , p la te 5 9b ; t he s urv iv ing "Tr iton" h er mes .

p la te 1 07b r eproduces o ne o f

Dur ing t he s ack o f A thens b y t he H eru l i

i n A .D . 2 67 , t he Ode ion was a ga in d estroyed , a nd o n t he s i te a g y mnas iu m was c onstructed a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 5 th c en tury , wh ich made u se o f o ne p a ir o f h er mes f ro m t he Ode ion f or i t s t r ip le a rched e ntrance .

I b id .,

p p . 2 08 , 1 2 . 2 2 . E . B onnaf fe , D ict ionna ire d es Ama teurs f ranca is a u XV I Ie S iec le , 1 884 , p . 1 04 .

G er ma in Br ice , D escr ipt ion d e l a V i l le d e Par is , 6 th e d .,

1 713 , p . 3 61 a nd 7 th e d ., 1 717 , p . 4 27.

9 4

8 .

THE I NFLUENCE OF CANTERBURY ON THE

COLLECT ION AND PRODUCT ION OF MANUSCR IPTS AT DURHA M I N THE ANGLO-NOR MAN PER IOD Anne L awrence

I n 1 083 W i l l ia m C ar i lef r ep laced t he s ecu lar c o m mun ity o f S t C u thber t a t D urha m w i th a n ew c o m mun i ty o f B ened ict ine monks , c o mposed o f t hose who h ad r ecen t ly r ese t t led Wear mou th a nd J arrow .

H e was l a ter t o l eave

a n impress ive c o l lect ion o f s o me 4 6 b ooks t o h is f ounda t ion .

T hese v o lu mes

a re l i sted o n t he f l y leaf o f D urha m D ean a nd C hap ter l i brary ms A I 4 ,

1

k nown a s t he Car i lef B ib le , a nd t hey s uggest a c oncern t o s upp ly many o f t he c o m mun ity ' sn eeds a s t hey i nc lude n o t o n ly most o f t he works o f t heo logy l i sted b y K er a s t he b as is o f ap ost-Conquest monast ic c o l lect ion ,

2

b u t a lso

s erv ice b ooks a nd t ex ts f or u se i n C hap ter . Mynors a nd o thers h ave t en ta t ive ly i den t if ied 2 1 o f t hese v o lu mes w ith manuscr ip ts s t i l l i n t he l i brary o f t he D ean a nd C hap ter , s hou ld b e made a bou t t h is .

3

b u t t wo p o in ts

The f irst i s t ha t o n ly t wo b ooks b es ides t he

B ib le h ave i n terna l e v idence t ha t t hey a re 'C ar i lef ' b ooks , a nd t ha t t he l i st i t se lf g ives n o s econd f o l io ,

i nc ip it ' o r o ther c lear means o f i den t if ica t ion .

T he s econd i s t ha t , a s t he b ooks wou ld h ave b een o rdered a nd p a id f or b y C ar i lef h i mse lf , i ti s b y n o means n ecessary t o r egard t he m a s h av ing b een made i n D urha m .

I ndeed , t he s econd b ook wh ich b ears a n i nscr ip t ion ,

D urha m D ean a nd C hap ter L ibrary ms B I 1 4 , ( manuscr ip ts f ro m t h is l i brary w i l l s ubsequen t ly b e c a l led Durha m manuscr ip ts ) i s s uggested i n t ha t i nscr ipt i on t o h ave b een made d ur ing Wi l l ia m ' se x i le i n N or mandy ;

t he b ook wh ich

i s most p robab ly i t s c o mpan ion v o lu me , D urha m ms B I 1 3 , wh ich was i n a l l p robab i l ity made i n t he s a me p lace , h as a we l l-known i n t i ta l s how ing Car i lef a s p a tron , w i th a n a r t ist n a med Rober t B en ja m in , a pparen t ly f ro m h is n ame a nd a r t ist ic s ty le a N or man .

4

I n a ny c ase we k now f ro m a c on te mporary

s ource t ha t Car i lef b rough t b ack b ooks f ro m h is e x i le .

I n t h is a r t ic le I

p ropose t o l ook a ga in a t t hese ' Car i lef ' b ooks a ga inst t he b ackground o f manuscr ip ts f ro m D urha m a nd e lsewhere , a nd a t t he ir i n f luence o n t he D urha m s cr ip tor iu m .

5

S evera l o f t he b ooks i den t if ied w ith i t e ms o n t he Car i lef l i st a re c lear ly N or man i n a ppearance , a nd s im i lar i n v ar ious a spects o f s ty le t o t he manus cr ipts a lready men t ioned . i n it ia ls :

P lates 8 .1 a nd 8 .2 s how t wo o f Rober t Ben ja m in 's

b oth s how h is u se o f l ong , t h in d ragons t o d ecora te l et ters a nd t o

f or m p ar t o f t he m , a s we l l a s h is t endency t o e longa te t he c urves o f l e t ters a nd t o r e la te t he c urves o n ly r a ther l oose ly t o t he u pr igh ts .

B o th r e ly o n a

c on trast b e tween i nk d raw ing a nd b r igh t , b ut r a ther u neven ly a pp l ied , c o lour . F o l iage a nd d ragons a l ike a re e n l ivened b y i nk d ots , wh i le f ine l ines a r t icu la te t he l et ter , a nd s uggest l ea fr ibs a nd s ubd iv is ions i n t he f o l iage .

T h is f o l iage

i t se lf i s b ased o n av ersion o f Ang lo-Saxon s ty les , b oth i n t he r ound-headed 9 5

t ype wh ich c ur ls o ver a s i fo u t o f t he s urface o f t he v e l lu m , a nd i n t he p rof i le t ype where t he t er m ina ls a re s ca l loped . J o in ts a nd f orks i n t he s te ms a re marked b y a n e nc irc l ing r ing .

P la te 8 .3 s hows a n i n it ia l f ro m D urha m ms

BI9 , ac opy o f J ero me ' sC o m men tar ies o n t he Twe lve M inor P rophets . H ere , a lthough t he c o lour u sed i s p a ler , t he d raw ing s ty le a nd f o l iage a re s im i lar , t hough t he e nc irc l ing r ings a re a bsen t .

I n it ia ls o f e qua l ly N orman

a ppearance o ccur i n t he B ib le i t se lf , a s we l l a s i n D urha m ms B I 2 1 , a v o lu me o f S t A ugust ine ' sl et ters ( p la te 8 .4 ) , i n D urha m ms B I I 1 , ac o l lect ion o f h om i l ies b y Or igen ( p la te 8 .5 ) a nd i n D urham ms B I 3 5 ( p la te 8 .6 ) . T h is d oes n o t n ecessar i ly mean , h owever , t ha t t hese manuscr ip ts were a l l made i n N or mandy , mere ly t ha t t hey were made b y N or man s cr ibes a nd a r t ists . S o me f ur ther l igh t c an b e s hed o n t h is q uest ion b y a n e xa m ina t ion o f t he ir s econdary , s cro l lwork-decora ted i n it ia ls 6 wh ich f a l l i n to g roups . One b as ic t ype c an b e i l lus tra ted f ro m a n i n it ia l i n D urha m ms B I I 1 ( p la te 8 .7 ) .

T he most c o m mon c o lours u sed i n t hese l et ters a re r ed , am id-

b lue , g reen a nd y e l low .

I n t he more e labora te t ypes , a s h ere , t he s te m o f

t he l e t ter i s s p l it , l eav ing a n arrow s tr ip o f p la in v e l lu m d own t he c en tre ; i n t he c ase o f t h is D , t he c urve o f t he b ow i s b a lanced b y t wo sma l l c oun terc urves , wh ich l eave a n e x tended p e lta-shape o f p la in v e l lu m .

A l l t h is i s i n

o ne c o lour , b u t t he a dd i t iona l d ecora t ion may b e i n t wo o r more .

Where t he

l e t ter i s n arrow , sma l l c irc les a re p laced a ga inst o r a cross i t , a nd sma l l f l orets h ang f ro m t he e nds o f t he l et ter .

I t s s hape i s emphas ised b y l i nes

f o l low ing t he o u t l ines , o n t he i nner s ides o f c urves , a nd o n b o th s ides o f u pr igh ts , a nd t hese l ines a re made more d ecora t ive b y b e ing p unctua ted b y g roups o f s ca l lops : u sua l ly , o ne l arger c urve f lanked b y t wo sma l ler o nes marks t he c en tre o f ap or t ion o f t he l et ter , wh i le p a irs o r s ing le c urves mark f ur ther s ubd iv is ions .

When a d enser e f fec t i s r equ ired , t he s pace b e tween

t h is l ine a nd t he l et ter i s f i l led i n , most o f ten w ith y e l low .

I n it ia ls o f t he s a me

t ype o ccur i n s evera l manuscr ip ts i n t he ' Car i lef ' g roup a s d es igna ted b y Mynors :

D urha m ms B I 6 , ac o l lect ion o f works b y S t Ambrose ;

ms B I I 1 6 , Rabanus Maurus ' C o m men tary o n S t Ma t thew ; 4 , t he Car i lef B ib le ;

D urha m

D urha m ms A I

a nd D urha m ms B I 1 1 , v ar ious works b y S t J ero me .

S uch l et ters a s t hese o ccur i n manuscr ip ts f ro m s evera l N or man c en tres , a s we l l a s i n Ang lo-Nor man b ooks , i nc lud ing s o me f ro m Can terbury a nd Exe ter .

7

O ther D urha m manuscr ip ts a lso d isp lay t he m , f or i nstance B od le ian

L ibrary ms L aud m isc 3 92 , aH ugh o f S t V ictor , a nd D urha m ms B I V 1 5 , a n I s idore o f S ev i l le , b o th n ecessar i ly s o mewha t l a ter . H owever , as econd t ype o f s ubsid iary i n it ia l i s a lso f ound among t hese manuscr ip ts , a nd i n t h is c ase , i nstead o f b eco m ing r arer i n l a ter manuscr ip ts , i td eve lops , a nd t akes o n af or m wh ich s ee ms c haracter ist ic o f D urha m , t hus s uggest ing t he e stab l ish men t o f o rgan ised p roduct ion a nd d ecora t ion o fb ooks , most p robab ly amongst t he c o m mun ity i t se lf a s an u mber o f d if feren t h ands a re i nvo lved .

T h is i s t he t ype o f l et ter wh ich i s d ecora ted w i th h igh ly s ty l ised

f o l ia te d ecora t ion , s o met i mes c o mb ined w ith s i mp le f or ms o f t he s ca l lop p a t terns d iscussed a bove .

I n t he Car i lef B ib le , a nd i n D urham mss B I 1 3

a nd 1 4 t h is f o l ia te d ecora t ion i s p resen t i n ar a ther s cra tchy f or m , u sing v ers ions o f t he s i mp le t r ipar t ite f l oret s een i n t he s ca l loped i n it ia ls , c o mb ined w ith l ong , s aw-too thed , c ur l ing f ronds .

9 6

P la te 8 .8 s hows s uch a n i n i t ia l

V ery s im i lar l e t ters a re f ound i n D urha m ms B I I 1 0 , ac opy o f G regory t he G rea t ' s Mora l ia i n J ob ( a lso o f Myror ' s' Carn a l g roup ) , wh i le s im i lar f o l ia te f or ms , t hough u sed r a ther more s par ing ly , o ccur i n D urham ms B I 2 , ac o l lect ion o f h om i l ies . Among D urha m manuscr ip ts o u ts ide Mynor ' s' Car i lef ' g roup s im i lar f o l iage o ccurs i n D urha m ms B I V 7 , S t August ine ' sD e C ar i ta te -( p la te 8 .9 ) , a manuscr ip t wh ich a lso c on ta ins a v ery s cra tch i ly d rawn d ragon S o n 1 25r , af o l io wh ich w i l l b e men t ioned a ga in l a ter ( p la te 8 .10 ) . The more d eve loped a nd d ist inct ive v ers ion o f t h is f o l iage i s g iven t he n ame ' c love c ur l ' b y Mynors , 8b ecause i tc on ta ins a n e le men t r em in iscen t o f ac love , f or med f ro m a c urved t eardrop s hape w ith a s p ike a dded o n e i ther s ide o f i t s r ound e nd .

Af a ir ly s i mp le f or m o f i to ccurs i n D urha m ms B I V

1 4 , av o lu me o f S a in ts ' 8 .11 ) .

L ives , wh ich w i l l a lso b e men t ioned a ga in l a ter ( p la te

O f Mynor ' s' Car i lef ' g roup i to ccurs o n ly i n D urha m ms B I 3 5 , a

c o l lect ion o f h istor ica l t ex ts , where i ti s s a id b y Mynors t o b e al a ter a dd i t ion , a nd i n D urha m ms B I I 9 , aR eg istru m G regor i i .

E lsewhere i ti s f ound i n

D urha m ms B I 7 , ac opy o f S t J ero me ' sB rev iar iu m i n P sa l mos ; ms B I 2 6 , S t A ugust ine ' sD e T r in ita te ; C o m men tary o n I sa iah ; G ospe l ;

i n D urha m

i n D urha m ms B I 8 , S t J ero me ' s

i n D urha m ms A I1 0 , aC o m men tary o n S t Ma t thew ' s

a nd i n J esus C o l lege C a mbr idge ms Q A 1 4 , ac o l lect ion o f minor

works b y S t J ero me .

I n s l igh t ly a l tered f or ms i to ccurs i n D urha m mss B

I V 4a nd B I I 3 , b o th t heo log ica l works .

I n o ther words t he s ty l ised f o l iage

d ecora t ion , l ike t he s ca l lops , a ppears t o b e d er ived f ro m N ornan s ources , b u t t o h ave t aken o n ar ecogn isab le ' house s ty le '.

F ur ther , i f Mynors i s

r igh t i n h is i den t if ica t ion o f D urha m ms B I I 9a s a' Car i lef ' b ook , t h is d eve lop men t , a nd t herefore manuscr ip t p roduct ion a t D urha m i n a n o rgan ised s cr ip tor iu m , must h ave t aken p lace b efore 1 096 . F ur ther e v id e nce f or t he e stab l ish men t o f as cr ip tor iu m a t D urha m w i l l b e c ons idered l a ter , b u t i ti s n ow n ecessary t o r eturn t o t he o r ig ins o f t he e ar ly D urha m b ooks , a nd t he s ources o n wh ich C ar i lef may h ave d rawn . Th is q uest ion l eads t o t he c ons idera t ion o f ag roup o f manuscr ip ts wh ich h ave c onnect ions w ith Can terbury .9

D urha m ms B I 1 0 i s ac opy o f t he L et ters

o f S t J ero me , o f wh ich , u n for tuna te ly , n o c on te mporary c opy i s k nown f ro m t he Can terbury l i brar ies .

H owever , t he s cr ip t o f t h is manuscr ip t i s i n t he

d ist inct ive l a te e leven th c en tury s ty le o f C hr ist Church , Can terbury , d iscussed

b y M. R . J a mes

1 0

a nd N . R . K er ,

1 1

a nd i t s ma in i n it ia l , wh ich h as a s truc-

t ure a nd o rna men ta t ion u nusua l i n D urha m b ooks ( p la te 8 .12 ) , h as s evera l p ara l le ls i n b ooks f ro m b o th C an terbury h ouses .

An i n it ia l Dw ith a s im i lar

c lear f or m , wh ich i s a lso t rea ted a s a n o pen ' f ra me ' a nd wh ich h as a s im i lar d iv is ion i n t he c en tre o f t he b ow a nd a s im i lar s po t ted ' l ion ', o ccurs i n C an terbury Ca thedra l L ibrary ms A 8 ( p la te 8 .13 ) wh ich i s wr it ten i n t he r ound , u pr igh t S t A ugust ine ' sh and ;1 2 a nd a n i n it ia l C wh ich o ccurs i n C orpus C hr ist i C o l lege Cambr idge ms 2 67 , a lso f ro m S t A ugust ine ' s , i s s im i lar i n a l l t hese r espects e xcep t t ha t t he l et ter i t se lf i s n ot u sed a s a' c l i mb ing f ra me ' b y b easts o r f o l iage .

Af u l ly-pa in ted v ers ion o f t h is t ype o f l et ter i s f ound i n

aC an terbury manuscr ip t n ow Ca mbr idge Un ivers ity L ibrary ms F f 3 .9 ( p la te 8 .14 ) a nd t h is a ga in s hows t he u se o f c irc les t o s tress t he f or m o f t he b easts , a s we l l a s c lasps a nd f o l iage wh ich may b e c o mpared t o t hose a lready i l lustra ted . 9 7

A no ther v ery s im i lar l e t ter , q u i te p robab ly b y t he s a me a r t ist a s t ha t i n p la te 8 .12 f ro m D urha m , o ccurs i n T r in ity C o l lege Ca mbr idge ms B 4 2 6 f ro m C hr ist C hurch C an terbury ( p la te 8 .15 ) wh ich u ses t he d ist inct ive d o ta nd-str ipe d ecora t ion o f t he l e t ter i t se lf , a nd c o mb ines sma l l , k nobbed l eaves w i th l arge , c upped , p o in ted l eaves s een i n p rof i le a s d oes t he D urham manus cr ip t .

I ta lso h as t he l arge , p o in ted , t r ipar t ite l eaf s een f ro m a bove t ha t

o ccurs i n C a mbr idge Un ivers ity L ibrary ms F f 39 , a nd C an terbury C a thedra l ms A 8 .1 3

T hus t he C an terbury o r ig in o f t he D urha m i n it ia l s ee ms v ir tua l ly

c er ta in . A no ther manuscr ip t w ith c lear Can terbury c onnect ions , a nd a ga in o ne o f t hose p oss ib ly g iven b y C ar i lef , i s D urha m ms B I 1 6 ( p la te 8 .16 ) ac opy o f S t A ugust ine ' sC o m men tary o n S t J ohn 's G ospe l , wh ich i s , a s B ishop p o in ts o u t , i n t he l a te e leven th a nd e ar ly t we lf th c en tury s cr ip t o f S t A ugust ine 's ,1 4 ( co mpare p la te 8 .13 ) .

F ur ther , i t s t ex t a nd r ubr ics a re a l most i den t ica l t o

t hose o f T r in ity C o l lege Ca mbr idge ms B 4 2 , t he c on te mporary c opy o f t he t ex t wh ich b e longed t o C hr ist C hurch , a nd i th as a s er ies o f marg ina l c o m men ts a nd a l terna t ive r ead ings e nc losed i n r ed b oxes wh ich a re a l l i n word ing a nd f or ma t t he s ame a s t hose f ound i n t he Can terbury b ook , a l though t he l a t ter h as f ur ther s uch b oxes n ot f ound i n t he D urha m c opy . I n o ther words , t he b ooks most p robab ly g o b ack t o t he s a me s ource , a nd t h is a dds f ur ther f orce t o t he s uggest ion t ha t D urha m ms B I 1 6 was wr it ten b y a Can terbury s cr ibe , a lthough f u l ly-pa in ted i n it ia ls i n t h is s ty le a re u npara l le led i n a ny o ther b ook f ro m e i ther c en tre . T here a re a n u mber o f o ther b ooks :

Ma lco lm B aker men t ions t he g radua l

( Durha m Un ivers i ty L ibrary C os in ms V v 6 ) a nd a h y mna l ( Br it ish L ibrary ms J u l ius A V I ) .

1 5

A lso o f impor tance i n t he c onduct o f t he monastery a f ter

i t s r efounda t ion wou ld b e D urha m ms B I V 2 4 , ac o mpos ite manuscr ip t c ont a in ing a k a lendar , a martyro logy , ac opy o f L an franc 's C onst itu t ions , a nd t he B ened ict ine Ru le i n L a t in a nd Ang lo-Saxon .

T he who le v o lu me i s p oss ib ly

t he Mar t iro log iu m e t R egu la men t ioned i n Car i lef 's l i st .

1 6

Much o f t he b ook ,

i nc lud ing n u merous n otes a nd a dd it ions , i s i n as cr ip t r e la ted t o t ha t s een i n many o f t he D urha m b ooks a lready men t ioned , a nd s ee ms l ike ly t o h ave b een wr i t ten a t D urha m , b u t t he c opy o f L an franc ' sC onst itu t ions i s i n aC hr ist C hurch h and ( see p la te 8 .17 ) a nd may b e c o mpared w ith t ha t o f D urham ms BI 1 0 a nd C a mbr idge Un ivers ity L ibrary ms F f 39 . T hese a re a l l t he manuscr ip ts wh ich c on ta in work b y Can terbury s cr ibes , b u t D urha m ms B I 2 2

( p la te 8 .18 ) r a ises a d if feren t p rob le m .

I t s s cr ip t

i s r e la ted , f or i nstance , t o t ha t f ound i n t he Mar tyro logy a lready men t ioned ( p la te 8 .19 ) , a nd t he s ty le o f i t s m inor i n i t ia ls ( see p la te 8 .20 ) i s f ound , f or i nstance , i n D urha m mss B I V 1 3 a nd B I I 9( p la tes 8 .21 a nd 8 .22 ) , b o th me mbers o f Mynors "Car i lef ' g roup wh ich a lso s how c o mparab le s cr ip ts . T hey a l l u se f ir m ly d rawn , u n ifor m i nk o u t l ines , w ith t he b ackgrounds c o loured i n washes o f b lue , mauve a nd y e l low , l eav ing t he l e t ter a nd i t s d ecora t ion , w ith d ist inct ive , p lu mp , d oub le-ve ined f o l iage , i n p la in v e l lu m .

I ti s q u ite

p oss ib le t ha t t hey a re a l l t he work o f o ne man , who p resu mab ly l ived i n D urha m , a nd i ti s i n terest ing t ha t a n i n it ia l o f t he s a me t ype o ccurs i n aL ife o f S t C u thber t wh ich f or ms p ar t o f B od le ian L ibrary ms B od l 5 96 , ac o mpos i te v o lu me wh ich b e longed t o C an terbury ( p la te 8 .23 ) .

9 8

T he s cr ip t o f t he B od le ian

b ook i s a lso s im i lar t o t ha t o f D urha m ms B I 2 2 , s ugges t ing p erhaps t ha t i n i t s c ase a D urha m b ook made i t s way t o Can terbury . H owever , t he ma in i n it ia l o f BI 2 2 , a s p la te 8 .18 s hows , i s u n l ike ' o thers f ound a t D urham .

1 7

T he l e t ter h as a n o pen f or m , t hrough a nd a round

wh ich s evera l sma l l g ro tesque b easts a re c l i mb ing , a nd i s s tudded w i th meda l l ions c on ta in ing b usts .

T he t er m ina ls a nd c lasps a re g ro tesque h eads ,

a nd i n t he c en tre o f t he l e t ter-space i s a n a u thor ' por tra it ' o f S t A ugust ine ( t he b ook i s ac opy o f t he D e C iv ita te D e l . ) .

T he s a in t i s s hown w i th t h ick ,

a rched e yebrows a nd a s trong , s tra igh t n ose i n ab road , h eavyjawed f ace . H is g armen ts a re s harp ly d rawn ; b u t s how s o me Ang lo-Saxon i nf luence i n t he d raw ing o f t he f r i l ly h em a nd t he k nees , a s we l l a s i n t he c o lour ing o f t he l e t ter a s a who le . I n it ia ls v ery c lose t o t h is o ne i n t he ir b as ic s tructure a re f ound i n t wo manuscr ip ts f ro m C hr ist C hurch a s s econdary i n it ia ls .

B oth b ooks , wr it ten

i n t he C hr ist Church s cr ip t , a re c op ies o f works o f B oeth ius a nd t he d eta i ls o f t he ir ma jor i n it ia ls a re s uf f ic ien t ly s im i lar t o s uggest t hey a re t he work o f o ne a r t ist .

They a re n ow C a mbr idge , T r in ity C o l lege ms R 1 5 2 2 , a

Mus ica B oe th i i e t G u idon is a nd C a mbr idge Un ivers ity L ibr ary ms I iI I 1 2 , aB oe th ius D e A r ith met ica e t Mus ica .

T he f or mer h as a n i n it ia l So n f 49

( p la te 8 .24 ) wh ich s hows t he f ea tures d escr ibed i n t he Durha m l e t ter .

T h is

Sa nd t he i n it ia l o n f 28 o f t he s a me manuscr ip t ( p la te 8 .25 ) may b e c o mpared w ith t ha t o n . f 65v ' o f I iI I 1 2 ( p la te 8 .26 ) .

The Can terbury p ed igree o f a l l

t hese i n it ia ls i s v ery c lear i n t he ir f o l iage , t he ir d ot-and-str ipe d ecora t ion a nd t he ir l e t ter s tructure , a s c o mpar isons w i th t he g roup r e la ted t o D urha m ms B I 1 0 w i l l s how , a lthough t he i n it ia ls o f t he l a t ter g roup a re s i mp ler i n t he ir d ecora t ion .

P rofessor B oase d iscussed t he o r ig in o f s uch ' gy mnast ic

i n it ia ls ' a t C an terbury .

1 8

F ur ther , t he t r ick o f h av ing g ro tesques c lutch ing

f i sh s een i n p la te 8 .24 i s a lso

s een i n B r it ish L ibrary ms A runde l 9 1 a nd

o ther C an terbury manuscr ip ts , a s we l l a s o n t he c ryp t c ap ita ls o f C an terbury C a thedra l . P erhaps t he b est c o mpar ison f or t he i n it ia l i n t he Durha m August ine i s i n a no ther C hr ist C hurch manuscr ip t , ac opy o f J ero me 's C o m men tary o n t he P sa l ms n ow T r in ity C o l lege C a mbr idge ms B 3 4 ( p la te 8 .27 ) .

H ere t he

ma in l e t ter u ses t he d ot-and-str ipe d ecora t ion , wh i le t he sma l ler l et ter i n p ar t icu lar h as f o l iage a nd b easts wh ich may b e c o mpared w ith t hose i n t he g roup a round D urha m ms B I 1 0 ( p la te 8 .12 ) .

L e t ters o f t he s a me t ype ,

t hough n ow i n p oor c ond it ion , a re s een i n C an terbury Ca thedra l L ibrary ms 4 6 ( p la te 8 .28 ) a nd ms L it E 4 2 , wh i le a s l igh t ly s i mp ler s tage i n t he ir d eve lop men t i s f ound i n Ca mbr idge , Tr in ity C o l lege ms B 5 2 8 , wr i t ten b y t he o r ig ina tor o f t he C hr ist C hurch s er ip t .1 9 T h is e v idence wou ld s uggest t ha t t he a r t ist o f t he D urha m Augus t ine i n it ia l h ad r ece ived h is t ra in ing a t Can terbury , i n wha t was c lear ly a h igh ly o rgan ised s cr ip tor iu m w ith a d ist inc t ive ' house s ty le ' . T he i n it ia ls men t ioned i n T r in ity C o l lege mss R 1 5 2 2 a nd B 3 4 a nd C a mbr idge Un ivers ity L ibrary ms I iI I 1 2 a re q u ite p ossib ly a l l b y h im , a l though t he c ircu mstances o f h is c on tr ibu t ion t o t he D urham b ook a re u nknown .

T he Can terbury o r ig in o f

D urha m ms B I 1 0 a nd B I 1 6 , d iscussed a bove , s uggests t ha t C an terbury

9 9

was a g ood s ource o f ' good ' t ex ts f or t he D urha m l i brary , s o i ti s p oss ib le t ha t , i n t h is c ase , ac opy ist was s en t f ro m D urha m t o Can terbury , a nd h is c opy was g iven i t s ma jor i n i t ia l b y a Can terbury a r t is t .

The minor i n i t ia ls

w ou ld b e s upp l ied , p resu mab ly , b y t he c opyis t h i mse lf , o r a f ter h is r e turn t o Durha m . H owever , i ts hou ld a lso b e r ecogn ised t ha t , i n t he c ase o f t he t wo C an terbury B oeth ius manuscr ip ts , t h is a r t ist was s econdary t o a man who u sed a r ather d if feren t s ty le .

P la tes 8 .29 a nd 3 0 s how t h is a r t ist ' swork ,

wh ich i s v ery s im i lar i n s ty le t o t he wa l l p a in t ings i n t he S t G abr ie l 's C hape l a t C an terbury C a thedra l a nd t o t he m in ia tures i n t he g ospe l b ook n ow i n t he l i brary o f S ees i n N or mandy , wh ich was most p robab ly wr it ten i n N ormandy . 2 0 T h is s ty le s ee ms t o h ave i n f luenced t he h arder , more h eav i ly-drawn a nd more s i mp ly-hand led i n it ia ls wh ich a ppear i n T r in ity C o l lege ms R 1 5 2 2 i t se lf ( p la te 8 .31 ) , a nd t o b e r e la ted t o t he f i r mer d raw ing s een i n B od le ian L ibrary ms B od l 2 71 , i n F lorence L aurenz iana ms P lu t 1 2 1 7 ( p la te 8 .32 ) a nd i n B r it ish L ibrary ms Arunde l 9 1 .

The o u t l ine d raw ings o f t he f igures i n a l l

t hese C an terbury i n it ia ls , h owever , s how r em in iscences o f Ang lo-Saxon c o lour ing a nd s harpness o f l ine a s s een i n s uch e ar l ier Can terbury manus cr ip ts a s D urha m ms B I I 3 2 a nd B r it ish L ibrary ms T iber ius A I I .

2 1

A l l t h is wou ld s uggest t hat c on tacts b etween D urha m a nd Can terbury a t t he e nd o f t he e leven th c en tury were s trong , a l though t he s cr ip ts o f t he C an terbury manuscr ip ts , a nd t he ir minor i h it ia ls , a ppear t o h ave h ad l i t t le i n f luence a t D urha m .

T he o n ly e xcep t ion t o t h is i s D urha m ms B I 7 , whose d ecora ted

i n it ia ls s how a t ype o f f o l iage d ist inct f ro m t hose a lready s een a t D urham a nd more c lose ly r e la ted t o t he l a te e leven th c en tury S t August ine 's t ype d iscussed a nd i l lustra ted b y J ona than A lexander .

2 2

S uch s trong c on tacts wou ld make i tp robab le , a s Ma lco lm B aker a lso s uggests ,

2 3

t ha t t he o u t l ine d raw ing s ty le wh ich a ppears i n D urham manu-

s cr ip ts was i n f luenced b y C an terbury , a nd t he e v idence d iscussed a bove makes i tl ike ly t ha t t he D urha m manuscr ip ts wh ich c on ta in t hese d raw ings , n ow t o b e d iscussed , a re c on te mporary w ith t he t wo Ca mbr idge Boe th ius manuscr ip ts , a nd t hose g rouped w ith t he m .

T hese b ooks , h owever , p resen t c ons iderab le

d a t ing p rob le ms r e la ted t o t he p rob le m o f d a t ing t he S t Gabr iePs C hape l wa l lp a in t ings ,

2 4

s o t he D urha m e v idence may b e c ons idered f irst .

A n a r t ist whose work i s o f h igh q ua l ity was r esponsib le f or t he m in ia tures i n D urha m ms H un ter 1 00 , ac o l lect ion o f a stro log ica l a nd med ica l t ex ts . T he s cr ip t o f t h is v o lu me i s N or man i n a ppearance , a nd i s n o t d ef in ite ly a t tr ibu tab le t o D urha m , 2 5 b u t D urha m ms B I V 5 , a c o l lec t ion o f e igh t s hor t works b y S t Ambrose , h as a ma jor i n it ia l wh ich i nc ludes a f igure wh ich , i n p osture , p rof i le a nd d rapery s ty le i s v ery s im i lar t o t hose o f D urha m ms H un ter 1 00 ( p la te 8 .33 ) .

T h is manuscr ip t i s o ne o f t hose wh ich p ossess t he

' c love c ur l ' t ype o f s econdary i n it ia l d iscussed a bove a s af ea ture o f D urha m manuscr ip ts , a nd i t s s cr ip t may b e c o mpared w ith t he e xa mp les o f D urham s cr ip t a lready i l lus tra ted . Ano ther , e ven more f ine ly i l lustra ted , manuscr ip t wh ich c an b e a t tr ibu ted t o D urha m d ur ing t h is p er iod i s t he L ife o f S t C u thber t n ow ms 1 65 o f U n ivers i ty C o l lege Ox ford ( p la te 8 .34 ) wh ich i s d a tab le o n t ex tua l g rounds c . 1 1001 104 .

2 6

T h is h as a c o mp an ion i n D urham ms B I V 1 4 , where a n i n it ia l Bo n

f 170 , f or t he L ife o f S t N icho las h as v ery s im i lar f i gures ( p la te 8 .35 ) .

1 00

T he

l a t ter manuscr ip t i s ac o mpos ite v o lu me , b u t c on ta ins work a l most c er ta in ly b y D urha m s cr ibes , a nd o ne f ea ture i n p ar t icu lar i s s tr ik ing :

o ne o f t he

s cr ibes h as a t r ick o f f in ish ing h is r ubr ics d own t he marg in o f ap age ( pres u mab ly t o s ave s pace ) ( p la te 8 .36 ) , s o meth ing wh ich h e r epea ted i n o ther manuscr ip ts , f or i nstance D urha m ms B I V 7( see p la te 8 .10 ) .

F ur ther ,

N . R . K er h as p o in ted o u t t ha t t he s cr ip t o f Un ivers ity C o l lege ms 1 65 i s c o mparab le t o t ha t o f Durha m Un ivers i ty L ibrary ms C os in V i 6 , ac opy o f S i meon 's H istor ia D une l mens is E cc les iae o f c er ta in D urha m o r ig in .

27

T hus t here i s c ons iderab le e v idence o f t he o rgan ised p roduct ion o f manus cr ip ts a t D urha m a t t he e nd o f t he e leven th c en tury a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he t we lf th , i nvo lv ing s evera l s cr ibes , n one o f whose work i s o f v ery h igh q ua l ity ; s cr ibes o r a r t ists who c o l labora ted t o p roduce t he ' c love c ur l ' t ype o f i n it ia l ; a nd o ne o r more s cr ibes who p roduced t he p lu mp-leaved , p aste l-co loured t ype o f i n it ia l a nd t he s l igh t ly more r egu lar , r ounder t ype o f s cr ip t a ssoc ia ted w ith i t .

F ur ther e v idence o f s uch o rgan ised p roduct ion i s p rov ided b y t he

makeup o f t he manuscr ip ts t he mse lves .

A l l t he Durha m b ooks o f N or man o r

C an terbury o r ig in a re b ound i n g a ther ings o f e igh t , e xcep t o ne wh ich w i l l b e d iscussed b e low , a nd t he ma jor ity o f t he l a te e leven th c en tury b ooks o f p rob ab le D urha m o r ig in f o l low t h is mode l .

T here i s , h owever , a lso a s trong

t endency t o u se g a ther ings o f t en , wh ich s ee ms t o g row more f requen t i n t he t we lf th c en tury , a nd a n u mber o f b ooks m ix t he t wo , a s h appens i n J esus C o l lege C a mbr idge mss Q C 2 9 a nd Q G 1 6 .

D urha m mss B I V 1 6 , BI I 1 4 ,

BI V 5 , BI V 1 4 a nd B I V 1 5 a lso u se g a ther ings o f t we lve .

T he a bove-

men t ioned e xcep t ion amongst t he N or man manuscr ip ts i s , i n terest ing ly e nough , t he Car i lef B ib le , wh ich u ses g a ther ings o f e igh t f or t he O ld T esta men t , a nd o f t en f or t he N ew .

I ti s t hus p ossib le t ha t t h is manuscr ip t s erved a s a mode l

f or s uch a mixed make-up , a nd t ha t i ti s n ot o n ly a q uest ion o f r e la t ive l ack o f o rgan isa t ion a s c o mpared , s ay , w ith C an terbury . P ar t icu lar ly i n terest ing a re t he manuscr ip ts wh ich u se o n ly g a ther ings o f t en , a s t hree o f t hese were b e l ieved b y Mynors t o b e ' Car l ler b ooks . T he manuscr ip ts i n q uest ion a re D urha m mss B I 2 1 , BI I 9a nd B I V 1 3 . T he t wo l ast h ave a lready b een men t ioned a s h av ing d ecora ted i n it ia ls o f t he t ype f ound i n D urha m ms B I 2 2 , a nd i th as a lso b een s een t ha t ms B I I 9 a lso h as t he ' c love c ur l ' t ype .

B o th a re wr i t ten i n l ong l ines , w ith s i mp le

h ard p o in t r u l ing o f d oub le b ound ing l ines , t hough Durha m ms B I V 1 3 i s c ons iderab ly sma l ler , a nd b oth s how v ers ions o f t he D urha m s cr ip t ment i oned a bove , w ith i t s l ong , s lan ted f ee t a nd h eav ier , f la t ter s er ifs a t t he t ops o f b o th m in i ms a nd a scenders . T he o ther manuscr ip t wh ich u se g a ther ings o f t en ( t ha t i s , J esus C o l lege C a mbr idge ms Q A 1 4 a nd Durha m mss A 1 1 0 , BI 7 , B I 8a nd B I V 4 ) a re r ecogn isably l a ter i n s ty le a nd u se v ers ions o f t he l arger , r ounder D urha m v ers ion o f t he t we lf th c en tury ' Eng l ish ' s cr ip t , p a t terns .

2 8

a nd more c o mp lex r u l ing

T hey a l l h ave i n it ia ls o f t he ' c love c ur l ' t ype .

T here i s a lso a

t endency i n t he t we lf th c en tury manuscr ip ts t o u se v e l lu m o f a more u n ifor m a nd r ecogn isab le t ype . I n o ther words , t here i s c ons iderab le e v idence t ha t , wh i le many o f C ar i lef 's b ooks were o f Nor man o r ig in s o me were o b ta ined f ro m C an terbury .

F ur ther ,

i ti s p robab le t ha t s o me may h ave b een made i n D urha m i t se lf , a nd i t s ee ms 1 01

c lear t ha t s evera l s cr ibes w ere a ct ive i n D urha m b y t he e nd o f t he e leven th c en tury , a nd e vo lv ing r ecogn isab le s ty les o f s cr ip t a nd d ecora ted i n it ia ls . D ur ing t h is t ime Can terbury s ee ms t o h ave p rov ided a s ource o f n ecessary monast ic a nd s erv ice b ooks , a nd o f ' good ' c op ies o f t heo log ica l works r eq u ired f or t he monast ic l i brary .

M in ia tures a nd i n it ia ls c on ta in ing f igures

i n t he o ut l ine d raw ing t echn ique a ppear t o h ave b een made a t t he t urn o f t he t we lf th c en tury , most ly i n b ooks o f a more s ecu lar n a ture , b y t wo ma in a r t ists , whose s ty le s hows i nf luence f ro m t ha t o f Can terbury , p erhaps d rawn f ro m works s uch a s t he ma in i n it ia l o f D urha m ms B I 2 2 , a nd who i l lustra ted b ooks c op ied o u t b y monast ic s cr ibes , b ut whose t ra in ing i s o therw ise o bscure . L a ter i n t he t we lf th c en tury t he p roduct ion o f manuscr ipts a t D urha m was r egu lar ised , a nd a v ers ion o f t he ' Eng l ish ' s cr ip t was d eve loped ;

b u t a

manuscr ip t s uch a s D urha m ms B I 8 r eferred t o a bove , ac opy o f J ero me 's C o m men tary o n I sa iah , s t i l l s hows C an terbury i n f luence i n i t s o u t l ine d raw ings o f f i gures .

2 9

A cknow ledge men ts Is hou ld l ike t o t hank a l l t he f o l low ing f or t he ir k indness i n a l low ing me t o r eproduce manuscr ip ts o r p ho tographs i n t he ir p ossess ion .

T he D ean a nd

C hap ter o f D urha m Ca thedra l f or p la tes 1 -12 , 1 6-22 , 3 3 , 3 5 a nd 3 6 ;

t he

Master a nd F e l lows o f T r in ity C o l lege L ibrary f or p la tes 1 5 , 2 4 , 2 5 , 2 7 , 3 0 a nd 3 1 ;

t he B od le ian L ibrary , Ox ford , f or p la te 2 3 ;

t he D ean a nd C hap ter

o f C an terbury C a thedra l f or p la tes 1 3 a nd 2 8 ; P rofessor G . Z arneck i f or p la te 1 3 ;

t he S ynd ics o f Ca mbr idge Un ivers ity L ibrary f or p la tes 1 4 , 2 6 a nd 2 9 ;

P rofessor C . R . D odwe l l f or p la tes 1 2 , 2 8 a nd 3 0 ;

t he C our tau ld I nst i tu te o f

A r t f or p la tes 1 2 , 2 4 , 2 5 , 2 6 , 2 7 , 2 8 , 2 9 , 3 0 , 3 1 , 3 2 a nd 3 4 ;

a nd Un ivers i ty

C o l lege Oxford f or p la te 3 4 . Is hou ld a lso l ike t o t hank Mr . T . A . H es lop f or h is h e lp a nd a dv ice .

NOTES 1 . S ee Mynors , R . A . B ., D urha m Ca thedra l Manuscr ip ts t o t he End o f t he Twe lf th C en tury , Oxford 1 939 , p . 3 2 . 2 . S ee N . R . K er , Eng l ish Manuscr ipts i n t he C en tury a f ter t he N or man C onquest , 1 960 , p . 1 0f f . 3 . S ee Mynors ,

c it ., p p . 3 2-45 .

4 . S ee 0 . P ach t , ' Hugo P ictor ', B od le ian L ibrary R ecord , v o l . 3 , 1 950 , p . 9 6 . 5 . F or c o mpar isons s ee H ans S warzensk i , ' Der S t i l d es B ibe l Car i lefs v on D urham ', F or m u nd I nha lt :

K unstgesch ich t l iche S tud ien f ur O t to S ch m it t

z um 6 0 . G ebur tstag , 1 950 , p p . 8 9-95 . 6 . S ee J . J . G . A lexander , ' Scr ibes a s Ar t ists :

t he a rabesque i n it ia l i n

t we lf th-cen tury Eng l ish manuscr ip ts ', Med ieva l S cr ibes , Manuscr ip ts a nd L ibrar ies , E ssays i xe sen ted t o N . R . K er , 1 978 , p p . 8 7-116 , p . 9 1 f or a d iscuss ion o f t er ms a ppropr ia te t o s uch i n i t ia ls . 1 02

7 . F or a s e lect ion f ro m Exeter , s ee c op ies b y M iss D . M . Ca l lard , r eproduced i n B od le ian L ibrary c o lour f i lm r o l ls 2 26 1 -5. 8 . S ee Mynors , 2 E . c it ., p . 7 . 9 . F or d iscuss ion o f a l l t hese manuscr ipts . s ee C . R . D odwe l l , T he Can terbury S choo l o f I l lu m ina t ion 1 066-1200 , Ca mbr idge 1 954 . 1 0 . S ee M . R . J a mes , T he Anc ien t L ibrar ies o f Can terbury a nd Dover , 1 903 , p .

2 00 C.

1 1 . S ee N . R . K er ,

c it ., p p . 2 5-30 .

1 2 . F or a d iscuss ion o f t h is h and a nd t he manuscr ip ts i n wh ich i to ccurs s ee T . A . M . B ishop , ' Can terbury S cr ibe ' s Work ',

Durha m P h i lob ib lon

p t 1 , ( Dec 1 955 ) . 1 3 . Th is f o l ia te f or m a lso a ppears i n manuscr ip ts f ro m Mon t S t M iche l , s ee J . J . G . A lexander , Nor man I l lu m ina t ion a t Mon t S t M iche l 9 66-1100 , Ox ford , 1 970 ;

a nd Bourgeo is-Lechart ier a nd A vr i l , L e S cr ip tor iu m d u

Mon t S t M iche l , Par is , 1 967. 1 4 . S ee T . A . M . B ishop , 2 2 . c it . 1 5. S ee M . Baker , " Bede 's ' L i fe o f S t Cu thber t ' "J ourna l o f t he Warburg a nd Courtau ld I nst itu tes , v o l . 4 1 , 1 978 , p p . 1 6-49 , p . 1 9. 1 6 . S ee n ote ( 1 ) a bove , a nd A . J . P iper , " The L ibrar ies o f t he Monks o f Durha m" , E ssays p resen ted t o N . R . Ker , p p . 2 13-49 , p . 2 16. 1 7 . Mynors , 22 . c i t ., p . 3 6. 1 8 . S ee T . S . R . B oase , Eng l ish Ar t 1 100-1216 , 1 953 , p . 4 0 ;

a nd Dodwel l ,

Can terbury S choo l , p p . 1 1-13 . 1 9 . S ee N . R . Ker ,

c it ., p p . 2 5-30 .

2 0 . W. M . H ink le , i n ' The Gospe ls o f C yso ing :

The Ang lo-Saxon a nd N or man

S ources o f t he M in ia tures ', Ar t Bu l let in , v o l . 5 8 , 1 976 , p p . 4 81-510 , q uotes t h is a s t he o p in ion o f F . Avr i l o n p . 5 02 . 2 1 . S ee F . Wor ma ld , Eng l ish Draw ings o f t he T en th a nd E leven th Cen tur ies , 1 952 , p p . 4 5-47 , p ls . 2 3 a nd 2 9 . 2 2 . S ee J . J . G . A lexander , E ssays p resen ted t o N . R . Ker , p p . 8 7-116 . 2 3 . S ee M . Baker , 2 E . c it ., p . 1 9 , where h e d iscusses s o me o f t he Can terbury b ooks a t Durha m . 2 4 . Ev idence o n t h is s ub ject h as b een s u m mar ised b y Mr Dav id Park i n a f or thco m ing a r t ic le . 2 5. F or Hun ter 1 00 s ee Mynors , 22 . c it ., p ls . 3 6-37 . 2 6 . S ee M . Baker , 2 2 . c it ., p p . 2 0-21. 2 7 . S ee K er , 2E . c i t ., p . 2 5. 2 8 . S ee K er , 2 2 . c i t ., i n h is c hap ter o n t h is s cr ipt . 2 9 . S ee T . S . R . B oase , 2 2 . c i t ., p l . 3 3b . 1 03

9 .

AN ENGL ISH S TONE MASON I N S TA INED GLASS R ichard Marks

T he p ar ish c hurch o f S t . Mary Magda lene a t H e l mdon , n ear B rack ley i n N or tha mp tonsh ire , r e ta ins med ieva l g lass i n s evera l w indows . T he most i n teres t ing i s a n i n s i tu p ane l d ep ic t ing a s tone mason i n t he a pex o f t he e asternmost w indow i n t he n ave n or th a is le wa l l ( nV , f o l low ing t he C orpus V i trearu m w indow n o ta t ion s yste m ) . H enry Dryden i n 1 873 ,

1

A l though i den t if ied a s s uch b y S ir

u n t i l r ecen t ly i t s p oor c ond it ion ( p l . 9 .1 ) h as p re-

c luded a d eta i led s tudy .

Th is h as n ow p roved p oss ib le a s ar esu lt o f t he

c lean ing a nd c onserva t ion c arr ied o u t b etween O ctober 1 976 a nd J une 1 977 b y t he Y ork G laz iers T rust ( see b e low ) . T he c ost o f t h is work was me t b y ag ran t f ro m t he P i lgr i m Trust . D escr ip t ion a nd A na lys is T he p ane l ( p l . 9 .2 ) measures 4 2 x3 9 cm .

T he s tone mason i s s hown

f u l lleng th a ga inst a p la in r uby g round . H e f aces t o t he l ef t a nd wears a p o t y e l low k neeleng th t un ic o ver b lue h ose a nd p o in ted s hoes . H e h as a p ink u nbearded h ead w ith wavy h a ir .

I n h is h ands ( a lso p ink ) h e w ie lds a wh ite

p ick o ver a p iece o f wh ite g lass w i th a l i on s ta tan t g ardan t o u t l ined u pon i t ; t h is p iece i s a n a l ien i nser t ion , r ep lac ing t he o r ig ina l g lass wh ich v ery p rob ab ly d ep icted a b lock o f s tone ( f or t h is a nd o ther r epa irs s ee P l . 9 .3 . F i l l ing t he t op o f t he p ane l i s t h is i nco mp lete l egend i n L o mbard ic s cr ip t o n a wh ite g round : iWILL 'S ;CA MP IUN

OP '

[ modern i nser t ion

F

r ep lacing missing

O

s ect ion ]

;LAPI ; DNI h V I

C [ modern i i nser t ion ]; T he o ther t wo s ides h ave a b order c ons ist ing o f p o t y e l low q ua trefo i l f l owers s epara ted b y p la in b lue g lass . I ti s u n for tuna te t ha t p ar t o f t he i nscr ip t ion i s m iss ing .

T he s urv iv ing

p or t ion p rov ides u s w ith t he man 's n a me , Wi l l ia m Camp iun , a nd h is o ccupa t ion i s i nd ica ted b y t he p ick . G iven t he a va i lab le s pace i n t he p ane l , t he most l ike ly r econs truct ion f or t he c o mp le te l egend i s a s f o l lows : WILL 'S ;CA MPIUN DNI: g IC

F [ECIT

HOC ;] OP ' ;LAPI [DIS

ANNE ) ;

KC X [1 ] .

( W i l l ia m C a mp iun made t h is s tonework i n t he y ear o f Our L ord 1 313 ) . T he e v idence f or t he d a te o f 1 313 i s p rov ided b y D ryden 's n otes . g ives t he l egend much a s i ti s n ow , e xcep t t ha t h e e nds w i th 'MN .'

H e P oss ib ly

h e m is took t he b ar s epara t ing t he l ines o f t he i nscr ipt ion f or a c ap j o in ing 1 05

t he s econd a nd t h ird n u mera ls .

Dryden 's r ead ing i s s uppor ted b y t he f igure

s ty le a nd a bsence o f y e l low-sta in .

A lthough t he p lace where t he t echn ique

o f y e l low-sta in was f irst d iscovered ( or r a ther r e-d iscovered ) i s s t i l l o pen t o d oub t , i ti s g enera l ly a greed t ha t i th appened s oon a f ter 1 300 i n e i ther ( or b o th ) F rance o r Eng land , a nd t ha t i to n ly c ame i n to c o m mon u se f ro m c . 1 320 . 2 A s f or s ty le , t he l ack o f mode l l ing o n t he d rapery a nd h ead o f Ca mp iun a re c haracter ist ic o f Eng l ish g lass p a in t ing o f t he f i rst t wo d ecades o f t he f our teen th c en tury .

S ty le a nd t echn ique d o n o t , o f c ourse , p rove t ha t

Dryden 's i n terpreta t ion o f t he d a te was c orrect , b u t a t l east t hey imp ly t ha t e ven i fh is r ead ing was wrong , t he p ane l i s l ike ly t o h ave b een e xecu ted w ith in a f ew y ears o f 1 313 . T he i nscr ip t ion s hows t ha t t he s tone mason was c oncerned w ith t he f abr ic o f t he c hurch .

A lthough n o r eference t o Wi l l ia m C a mp iun h as b een t raced ,

i ti s ar easonab le a ssu mp t ion t ha t h e was a ssoc ia ted w ith t he o o l ite l imestone q uarr ies a t H e l mdon , wh ich h ave b een i n e x istence s ince t he M idd le A ges . T he e ar l iest d ocu men t i n wh ich t hey a re men t ioned i s i n t he C a lendar o f I nqu is it ions P os t Mor te m.

A t s o me t ime p r ior t o 1 356 S u lgrave c hurch was

r epa ired w ith s tone b rough t f ro m H e l mdon .3 T he H e l mdon p ane l i s o ne o f t he v ery f ew i n Eng l ish med ieva l s ta ined g lass t o d ep ict a n a r t isan w ith t he t oo ls o f h is t rade .

I n F rance a n umber

o f s uch w indows s urv ive , most ly d a t ing b ack t o t he t h ir teen th c en tury , a nd i nc lude s evera l w ith s tone masons p ly ing t he ir c raf t .4

A par t f ro m H e i mdon ,

t he o n ly k nown e xa mp les o f a r t isans i n E ng l ish g lass a re i n t he B e l l-founders w indow i n t he n ave o f York M inster a nd t he west w indow o f S t . G eorge 's C hape l , W indsor .

T he York w indow was g iven b y R ichard T unnoc ( d . 1 330 ) ,

t he owner o f ab e l l-foundry , a nd s cenes o f c ast ing a re s hown i n t he g lass .

5

T he v ast west w indow i n S t . G eorge 's C hape l i nc ludes i n t he r igh t-hand l igh t o f t he l owest r ow a mason w ith h is ma l le t a nd c h ise l .

A lthough t here i s n o

i den t ify ing l abe l , t he f igure i s g enera l ly c ons idered t o r epresen t W i l l ia m V er tue ( f l . 1 501 - d . 1 527 ) .

B etween 1 506 a nd 1 508 t ogether w ith J ohn A y l mer

h e d es igned a nd b u i lt t he c ho ir v au lt o f S t . G eorge 's Chape l a nd i n 1 511 h e c on trac ted t o b u i ld t he L ady C hape l v au lt a nd f in ish t he e x ter ior o f t he b u i ld ing w ith p arapets a nd b u t tresses .

6

T here i s o ne f ur ther d ep ict ion o f a n E ng l ish

mason k nown t o h ave e x isted i n med ieva l g lass .

I n t he b o t to m r ange o f p ane ls

i n t he e ast w indow o f Winchester C o l lege C hape l i s t he k nee l ing f igure o f W i l l ia m Wynford , master mason , a cco mpan ied b y h is f e l low-cra f ts man H ugh H er land ' carpen tar ius ', a nd t he g laz ier T ho mas o f Ox ford . c op ies made i n 1 822 o f t he o r ig ina l g lass o f 1 393 .

T hese a re a l l

7

C onservat ion A s was s a id e ar l ier , t he C a mp iun p ane l was c onserved i n t he Y ork G laz iers T rust workshop b etween O ctober 1 976 a nd J une 1 977 .

Med ieva l

g lass i n o ther w indows ( sh ie lds o f a r ms i n w indows sV I I a nd nV I , t he h eads o f t he t hree ma in l ights i n s I I , a t t he s a me t ime . G ibson .

a nd f rag men ts i n s V , sV I a nd nV I I ) was t rea ted

The work was c arr ied o u t u nder t he d irect ion o f P e ter

T he C a mp iun p ane l was i n a n e x tre me ly f rag i le c ond i t ion ( p l . 9 .1 ) .

C orros ion was s o a dvanced o n t he h ead a nd h ands t ha t t hey h ad b eco me o paque . P ar t o f t he i nscr ip t ion was m iss ing a nd t here were s evera l b reaks i n t he g lass . I n o rder t o c onserve t he p ane l i th ad t o b e d is man t led f ro m i t s a l most i n tact 1 06

med ieva l l ead ing .

T h is l ead ing was t oo weak t o b e r e-used , b u t i th as b een

p reserved a s as ke leton f or d isp lay i n t he c hurch .

The g lass was f u l ly r e-

l eaded a f ter h and-c lean ing a nd ' ai r-bras ive ' t rea tmen t o f t he s tone mason 's f ace a nd h ands .

T he b reaks were g lued w ith s i l icone c o mpound a nd t he

m iss ing s ec t ion o f t he i nscr ip t ion was f i l led i n b y ap iece o f wh ite a n t ique g lass t oned d own b y s t ipp l ing .

As econd p iece r ep laced a n a l ien i nser t ion

o f med ieva l g lass i n t he i nscr ip t ion a rea ( see p l . 9 .3 f or t he e xact l oca t ion o f t h is a n t ique wh ite g lass ) .

T he o r ig ina l s ect ions o f t he i nscr ip t ion were

s treng thened b y e x terna l p la t ing p a in ted w i th c op ies o f t he med ieva l l e t ter ing i n o rder t o make t he l egend more l eg ib le .

F ina l ly , o n t he r e-insta l la t ion o f

t he p ane l i tr ece ived a g a lvan ised w ire e x terna l g uard . A cknow ledge men ts T he wr iter w ishes t o t hank Mr . P e ter G ibson , F . S . A . f or a ccess t o a nd p ho tographs o f t he p ane l d ur ing c onserva t ion , a nd f or n o tes o n t he t rea tmen t .

T he d iagram i l lustra ted i n P l . 9 .3 was made b y M iss M . 0 . M i l ler .

NOTES 1 . D ryden 's n o tes a re i n t he s pec ia l c o l lect ion b ear ing h is n a me i n N or tha mp ton P ub l ic L ibrary .

T he f igure was ' re-d iscovered ' a nd

c orrect ly i den t if ied i ndependen t ly b y Mr . E . G . P arry , a f or mer p ar ish ioner , a nd t he p resen t wr i ter .

I ti s n oted i n N .

P evsner , The

o f E ng land N or tha mp tonsh ire , 2 nd e d . ( Har mondswor th 1 97 ) , p . 2 53 .

Iam most g ra tefu l t o Mr . P arry a nd D r . Mar t in B radshaw

o f t he D epar t men t o f G eo logy a nd M inera logy , Un iversi ty o f Ox ford , f or i n for ma t ion o n t he H e l mdon s tone q uarr ies . 2 . T he e ar l iest s ecure ly d a ted w indow i n wh ich y e l low-sta in o ccurs i s i n t he c hurch o f Mesn i l-V i l le man ( Nor mandy ) ; al abe l .

t h is h as t he y ear 1 313 o n

T he t echn ique a lso o ccurs i n t he P eter d e D ene w indow i n t he

n ave o f York M ins ter , t he d a t ing o f wh ich h as r anged f ro m 1 306-7 t o t he 1 320 's .

T he most c o mprehens ive s tud ies o n t h is s ub ject a re b y J ean

L a fond :

T ro is E tudes s ur l a t echn ique d u V i tra i l ( Rouen 1 943 ) , p p .

3 9-116 , a nd ' Un v itra i l d u Mesn i l-V i l le man ( 1 313 ) e t l es o r ig ines d u j aune &argen t ', B u l let in d e l a S oc iete Na t iona le d es . An t iqua ires d e F rance , ( Seance d u 8D bce mbre1954 ) , 9 4-5 . 3 . C a lendar o f I nqu is it ions P ost Mor te m , X E dward I I ( London 1 921 ) , N o . 2 70 , p p . 2 37-8 . 4 . F or a s u m mary o f t he F rench ' cra f t ' w indows s ee T . L egge , ' Trade Gu i ld Windows ', J ourna l o f t he B r i t ish S oc iety o f Master G lass-Pa in ters , 4( 1931-32 ) , 5 1-64 . 5 . S ee A H istory o f York M inster , e d . G . E . A y l mer a nd R . C an t ( Ox ford 1 977 ) , p p . 3 50-3 , p ls . 1 09-10 . 6 . F or Wi l l ia m V ertue 's c areer s ee J . Harvey, Eng l ish Med iaeva l Arch i tec ts : aB iograph ica l D ict ionary d own t o 1 550 ( London 1 954 ) , p p . 2 71-4 . 7 . J . H . Harvey a nd D . G . K ing , ' W inchester C o l lege S ta ined G lass ', A rchaeo log ia , C I I I ( 1971 ) , p l . LXV I I . 1 07

1 0 .

PA INT ING FOR PLEASURE -

S O ME LOST F IFTEENTH CENTURY S ECULAR DECORAT IONS OF NORTHERN I TALY Andrew Mar t inda le

S o me y ears a go , Chr is topher H oh ler wro te a n e ssay o n a r istocra t ic l i fe i n wha t a ne ar ly med ieva l h is tor ian w ou ld c a l l t he ' l a te midd le a ges ' ( see T he F lower ing o f t he M idd le Ages , L ondon 1 966 , e d . J oan E vans , p . 1 33 ' K ings a nd C ast les .

C our t L i fe i n P eace a nd War ' ).

The c ircu ms tances

o f i t s p ub l ica t ion e nsured t ha t i t wou ld h ave a sma l l c ircu la t ion—wh ich i s a p ity s ince t he wr it ing i s w it ty , t erse a nd c o mpe l l ing ly i n for ma t ive .

T hose

who h ave r ead i tw i l l r ea l ise wha t t hose who k now t he a u thor a lready r ea l ised —na me ly , t ha t h e wou ld p robab ly f ee l v ery much a t h o me amongst t he E uropean a r t istocracy o f t he 1 3th-15th c en tur ies .

N o c o l lect ion o f p apers o f fered t o

h i m wou ld b e c o mp le te w ithout a n ' ar istocra t ic ' a ng le a nd t h is e ssay g oes s o me way t o s upp ly ing t h is n eed . I ti s p ar t icu lar ly s ad t ha t s o much o f t he s ecu lar d ecora t ion o f t he M idd le A ges h as b een d estroyed .

C lear ly we must a lso d ep lore t he l oss o f l i turg ica l

manuscr ip ts , t he d ecay a nd f ina l c o l lapse o f s ta ined g lass w indows , t he d est ruct ion o f c hurch f resco c yc les —the d isappearance , i n f act , o f much e cc les iast i ca l a r t w ithou t wh ich h istory h as b eco me p ar t ia l a nd f ragmen tary a nd t he wor ld h as b eco me impover ished .

S ecu lar d ecora t ion , h owever , h ad a c har-

a c ter ist ic c har m a nd i nsouc iance o f i t s own wh ich i s a bsen t f ro m much c hurch d ecora t ion .

I ti s —or was —there s i mp ly t o b e a dm ired , t o d e l igh t t he e ye ,

t o s t i mu la te c ur ios ity o r amaze men t .

I t s s er ious mora l c on ten t was n eg l ig ib le ;

a nd i ts erved a s o f ten a s n o t t o r em ind t he p a tron mere ly o f t h ings o f wh ich h e wan ted t o b e r em inded i n a ny c ase ( such a s h is i l lustr ious a nces tors ) . T he t an ta l is ing ly sma l l r es idue o f t h is s ecu lar a r t l eaves u s i n n o d oub t t ha t i t s q ua l ity was , a t b est , s uperb . N o s urv iv ing e cc les iast ica l p icture c yc le s urpasses , a s ap iece o f s toryte l l ing , t he c onsu m ma te mas tery o f t he Bayeux t apestry .

F ew e cc les iast ica l d ecora t ive e nse mb les s urpass t he s p lendour ,

p rec is ion a nd d eta i led f asc ina t ion o f t he s o-ca l led S a la d i Rugg iero a t P a ler mo . I ti s a bso lu te ly c er ta in t ha t t he b est a va i lab le a r t ists ( such a s G iot to ) were u sed b y t he p r inc ipa l s ecu lar p a trons f or a rt wh ich was t here e ssen t ia l ly t o b egu i le t he ir wak ing h ours , t o c har m t he ir g uests a nd t o amaze t he ir r iva ls .

1

I tr e ma ins t rue , h owever , t ha t n ot v ery much h as b een wr i t ten o n t h is s ub ject—wh ich i s s t i l l i ndeed d om ina ted b y S ch losser 's mag ister ia l s urvey o f t he ma ter ia l , wr it ten n ow s o me e igh ty-f ive y ears a go . u nsurpr is ing .

2

Th is i s , p erhaps ,

With s o l i t t le s urv iv ing , t he h istor ian i s t ime a nd a ga in d r iven

b ack o n t o wr it ten s ources a nd d escr ip t ions —a p oor s ubst itu te f or t he r ea l t h ing a nd i n a ny c ase o f ten g iv ing a v ery i nco mp le te a ccoun t o f i t . t he less a p i ty t ha t t he s ub ject i s i n g enera l n eg lected . 1 09

I ti s n ever-

I ti s o f s o me i n terest

t o k now h ow p a trons i n d if feren t p ar ts o f E urope a nd a t d if feren t t imes e xpected t o d ecora te t he ir l i v ing a cco m moda t ion .

C onverse ly i ti s o f s o me

i n terest t o k now a bou t t he g enera l s oc ia l a nd v isua l f ra me o f r eference i n to wh ich monu men ts s uch a s t he P a in ted C ha mber a t West m inster o r t he T orre d e l l 'Aqu i la a t T ren to h ave t o b e f i t ted . A l l t h is was , o f c ourse , v ery much a p ar t o f S ch losser 's c oncern , a nd t he p resen t e ssay f or s o me o f i t s l ength t raverses s im i lar g round .

I ti s

a bou t ap ar t icu lar f ash ion o f i n ter ior d ecora t ion wh ich f l our ished , a pparen t ly b r ief ly , i n t he f i f teen th c en tury .

B y way o f i n troduct ion , i tw i l l b e n ecessary

t o c ons ider wha t i s k nown a bou t s ecu lar d ecora t ion b efore t h is p er iod .

T o

t he e x ten t t ha t i ti s a' re-issue ' o f S ch losser 's ma ter ia l , i tc an c la im t o b r ing c er ta in a spects o f S ch losser 's s o mewha t u nw ie ldy t rea t men t i n to s harper f ocus .

T o t he e x ten t t ha t i te x tends t ha t ma ter ia l , t he c onc lus ions

w i l l b e f ound t o c on f ir m S ch losser 's ma in c on ten t ion—na me ly , t ha t t he d eve lop men ts o f t he f our teen th c en tury h ave much t o t each u s a bou t t he a r t o f t he f i f teen th c en tury . I n for ma t ion a bou t t he i n ter ior d ecora t ion o f med ieva l p a laces i s n ecessar i ly s can ty a nd t he g enera l c a tegor ies o f d ecora t ive s ub ject ma t ter o n ly b eco me c lear t owards t he e nd o f t he f our teen th c en tury w i th t he a ppearance o f t ha t n ew , f ash ionab le a nd im mense ly e xpens ive h ouseho ld amenage men t—the t apestry h ang ing .

3

Wa l l p a in t ings b e ing p ar t o f t he f abr ic o f ab u i ld ing were

n ever i n a n a dm in istra t ive s ense c ons idered a par t f ro m t ha t b u i ld ing ;

a nd

a ccoun ts f or t he p ay men t f or wa l l p a in t ings a re a l most i nvar iab ly c oncerned w ith t he money p a id a nd t ime s pen t r a ther t han t he s ub ject ma t ter o f t he p a in t ing .

T he o n ly t ime when a n a dm in istra tor was c o mpe l led i n t he c ourse

o f h is p rofess iona l d u t ies t o l ook a t wa l l d ecora t ion was when h e h ad t o n a me ar oo m b efore l i st ing i t s c on ten ts . B ut t apestr ies , b e ing p ar t o f a n i nd iv idua l 's movab le g oods , h ad t o b e i nd iv idua l ly l i sted c er ta in ly a t h is o r h er d ea th a nd p oss ib ly a t f ur ther i n ter med ia te p o in ts b efore t ha t .

Moreover a ccoun tan ts

a nd a dm in is tra tors u sua l ly s pec if ied t he s ub ject ma t ter o f t apestr ies p res u mab ly f or c onven ience o f i den t if ica t ion .

T hus f ro m t he 1 380s o nwards —

a t l east a s f ar a s p ub l ished s ources g o4 —the s ub jec ts w i th wh ich t he w ea lthy a nd d iscern ing l iked t o b e s urrounded i n t he ir p r iva te ( or s em i-pr iva te ) l i ves b eco me much c learer . p opu lar .

F a mous wor th ies o r p reux f ro m t he p ast were a lways

H eav i ly r epresen ted a re s tor ies f ro m t he r o mances o f t he t we lf th

a nd t h ir teen th c en tur ies .

S o me o f t hese a re t he l egendary r o mances s ur-

r ound ing s uch p ersons f ro m c lass ica l h istory a s A lexander o r t he h eroes o f T roy .

S o me a re f ro m t he h istor ica l r o mances s urround ing t he p ersons o f

C har le magne a nd A r thur ; R ichard o f E ng land .

o r more r ecen t ly , G od frey o f B ou i l lon a nd K ing

I ti s , moreover , c lear t ha t , a s w ith t he B ayeux T apestry

i n i t s own t ime , t he a t ten t ion o f a r t ists was d irec ted t o more r ecen t e ven ts a nd p ersons —such a s t he b a t t le o f Roosebeq ( 1382 ) o r t he g enera l B er trand d u G uesc l in ( d ied 1 380 ) .

5

F or r easons a lready g iven , i ti s n ow imposs ib le a dequa te ly t o f i l l i n t he e ar l ier h istory o f t h is t ype o f d ecora t ion i n t er ms o f s urv iv ing wa l l-pa in t ing . T he r ecords s uggest , h owever , t ha t t he s ub ject ma t ter o f t he p a in t ings was v ery s im i lar t o t ha t o f t he l ater t apestr ies .

Rev iew ing t he c a tegor ies o f s ub-

j ect ma t ter l i sted a bove , i ti s , f or i nstance , r e markab le t ha t o ne o f t he

10

e ar l iest d escr ip t ions o f ar oya l p a lace i nc ludes a n a ccoun t o f a wa l l-pa in t ing o f f amous men .6

A t t he o ther e nd o f t h is t ime-sca le , t he r o mances a re s t i l l

r epresen ted b y t he wa l l-pa in t ings i n t he P a lazzo Davanza t i ( F lorence ) o f L a C haste la ine d e V erg i ( l a te f our teen th c en tury ) . T hree r oya l p a laces i n Eng land a round t he m idd le o f t he t h ir teen th c en tury h ad ' An t ioch C ha mbers ' —tha t i s , s how ing p robab ly t he l egendary d ue l o f R ichard a nd S a lad in . A lexander ' .8

7

C larendon P a lace h ad a ' cha mber o f

T he P a in ted C ha mber a t W e st m inster was d ecora ted w ith

t hose p ar ts o f t he O ld T esta men t wh ich make e xce l len t r ead ing ( bu t n or ma l ly f a i l t o f ea ture p ro m inen t ly i n modern p rogra m mes o f mora l i nstruct ion ) .

9

T he F rench r oya l c ast le o f Vaudreu i l i n t he m id-four teen th c en tury c on ta ined ac ha mber p a in ted w ith t he s tory o f J u l ius Caesar .1 0 A s f or c on te mporary o r r ecen t e ven ts , Mahau t o f A r to is h ad a g a l lery a t t he c ast le o f C onf lans d ecora ted w ith a n ow n o t v ery c lear ly i den t if ied i nc iden t f ro m t he l i fe o f h er f a ther .

1 1

I n t he V iscon t i c ast le a t Angera a re t he r e ma ins o f ac yc le a p-

p aren t ly o f t he l a te 1 3th c entury c e lebra t ing e ven ts i n t he f am i ly h istory o f 1 278 .

1 z

S o me q ua l ita t ive ly p rov inc ia l p a in t ings , a pparen t ly o f c . 1 300 i n

t he Tour F errande a t P ernes ( Vauc luse ) s how e p isodes f ro m t he c onquest ( 1 266-68 ) o f t he K ingdo m o f S ic i ly b y Char les o f An jou .

1 3

I n f act , t he meagre

e v idence s uggests t ha t wa l lpa in t ing t raversed g round v ery s im i lar t o t he s ub ject ma t ter o f t he t apestry workshops l a ter .1 4 There was a c lass o f d ecora t ion , n ot s o f ar men t ioned , wh ich was o f g rea t impor tance f or t he p resen t s tudy . t i ons r a ther t han e ven ts .

Th is c oncerned i t se lf w ith o ccupa-

T he g enre s urv ives n o tab ly i n t he T orre d e l l ' Aqu i la ,

T ren to ( be tween 1 390 a nd 1 407 ) where i ti s c har m ing ly c o mb ined w ith t he p ass ing mon ths o f t he y ear ( P la te 1 0 .1 )

D ivorced , a s n or ma l ly h appened ,

f ro m t he c a lendar , t hese o ccupat ions were c usto mar i ly a r istocra t ic o nes w ith ah eavy emphas is o n h un t ing , b u t w ith a l lus ions a lso t o f ur ther p ast i mes a nd v ar ious f or ms o f d a l l iance .

Ac ons iderab le n u mber h owever s howed

s hepherds , s hepherdesses a nd s heep . I t wou ld b e e x tre me ly d if f icu lt t o o f fer g ener ic c a tegor ies f or t hese s ub jects b u t af ew q uota t ions f ro m t he c o l lect ion o f t apestr ies o f C har les V I w i l l g ive s o me i dea o f t he v ar iety o f t h is p ar t o f t he d ecorat ive t rad it ion .1 5 ' ung j eu d !eschez e t p lus ieurs p ersonnages '. ' personnages d e v o ler ie e t d e p la isance e t d e d ine e t y ae scr ip t a u d essus V eez p la isance '. l app iz

d e c hasse ap ersonnages a c heva l '.

' une d a me e t u ng c h ien '. ' de w ( p ersonnages d on t Pun p isse e n me o r ine '. ' personnages q u i menguen t c er ises '. ' personnages d 'enf fans e t a u tres , o yse lez e t r a inceau lx e t o u mi l ieu a u ne f on ta ine e t u ne D a me q u i r e mue l ' eaue ä u ng b a tonnet i. ' qua tres p ersonnages , c 'est a ssavo ir :

u ng c heva l ier e t u ne d a me

äp ie q u i Wen v on t a u b oys j ouer , e t d eux v ar lez d on t Pun t ien t l es c hevau lx e t y au ne v o ler ie d 'oyseau lx d e r iv iere '. ' p lus ieurs p ersonnages d e p et iz e n f fans e t c er is iers '.

1 11

T here a ppears t o b e v ery l i t t le d ocu men tary e v idence f or wa l l p a in t ings o f t h is s or t .

T he g rea t h a l l o f t he P a lace o f t he L ouvre c on ta ined p a in t ings

f ro m t he 1 360s p robab ly s how ing a l andscape w ith b irds a nd a n i ma ls i nc lud ing d eer .

1 6

The D uke o f B erry h ad a ' Ga ler ie d u C erf ' i n h is p a lace a t B ourges .

1 7

T he H o te l S a in t-Po l a t P ar is c on ta ined a f amous g a l lery l ead ing t o t he Q ueen 's a par t men ts d escr ibed i n t he s even teen th c en tury t hus :

' Depu is l es l ambr is

j usqu 'a l a v ou te e ta it r epresen tee s ur u n f ond v er t e t d essus u ne l ongue t erasse q u i r egna it t ou t a u tour , u ne g rande f or k p le ine d 'arbres e t d 'arbr isseaux , d e p o mm iers , p o ir iers , c er is iers e t a u tres s e mb lab les c harges d e f ru its e t e n tre me les d e l ys , d e f l a mbes , d e r oses e t d e t ou te s orte d 'au tres f l eurs . D es e n fan ts r epandus e n p lus ieurs e hdro its d u b o is y c ue i l la ien t d es f l eurs e t y mangea ien t d es f ru its ;

l es a u tres a rbres p oussa ien t l eurs b ranches j usque

d ans l a v ou te p e in te d e b lanc e t d 'azur p our f igurer l e c ie l e t l e j our ' .1 8 N or was t h is t ype o f s ub ject c onf ined t o t he n or th ;

f or i n 1 380 G ianga leazzo

V iscon t i t hen L ord o f M i lan wro te t o L odov ico G onzaga o f Man tua r equest ing t he l oan o f p a in ters f or t he p a in t ing o f c er ta in r oo ms a t Pav ia a d c ax ias e t a d d iversas f i guras .

The G onzaga p a lace a t Man tua may we l l h ave b een f a-

1 9

mous s ince i tc er ta in ly c on ta ined a l arge n u mber o f r oo ms d ecora ted w i th s ecu lar s ub jects .

Th is b eco mes c lear i n 1 407 i n t he g rea t i nven tory made

a t t he d ea th o f F ranc isco I .2 0

T he r eader i s , i n e f fect , t aken o n at our o f

t he p a lace a s t he a dm in istra tors moved f ro m r oo m t o r oo m c oun t ing a pparen t ly e very th ing i n s igh t f ro m p la te , j ewe ls a nd a r mour t o b ooks , b edd ing a nd t ab lel inen ;

a nd i n a dd it ion t o r oo ms p robab ly p a in ted h era ld ica l ly ( ca mera

l i opard i , c a mera l eon is , e tc .) t here was a c a mera e rcu ley , ac a mera l anza lot t i , ac a mera impera toru m a nd a c a mera p a lad inoru m . I ti s l ess e asy t o f i nd i n t he c usto mary n ames o f t hese r oo ms , s ub jects c oncerned w i th o ccupa t ions r a ther t han s tor ies ;

b u t p resu mab ly t he c a mera f a lchon is a nd

t he c amera c ervetr i m igh t h ave c on ta ined h un t ing s cenes .

The c a mera

a rboru m m igh t h ave c on ta ined a l most a ny th ing . F or tuna te ly i ti s p rec ise ly a t t h is p o in t t ha t w e h ave a sma l l n u mber o f s urv iva ls .

T he e ar l iest s ee ms t o b e t he S a la d e l C ons ig l io G enera le o f t he

P a lazzo C o m muna le a t S . G im ignano wh ich h as a n umber o f c heerfu l i f a pparen t ly i nconsequen t ia ls cenes o f h un t ing a nd j ous t ing d a t ing p robab ly f ro m C . 1 300 ( and c er ta in ly b efore 1 317 when t he p a in ted Maestä . i n t he s a me r oo m was c omm iss ioned ) .

2 1

T he p a in t ings i n a nd n ear A v ignon a re b et ter k nown .

O f t hese t he b est i n q ua l ity a nd p reservat ion i s t he s o-ca l led C ha mbre d u C erf o r Cha mbre d u G arderobe i n t he P a lace o f t he P opes i n wh ich a re d e monstra ted d if feren t t ypes o f h un t ing a nd f i sh ing .

2 2

I t s d a te , 1 343-4 , a lso

o f fers a n i nd ica t ion o f t he d a te o f t he g roup . A bou t ac en tury l a ter , t he p a in t ings o f t he C asa B orro meo a t M ilan a nd o f t he V i l la Borro meo a t O rena a lso b e long t o t h is g enera l c a tegory o f s ecu lar p a in t ing a nd s how smar t ly d ressed men a nd wo men ( a mongst o ther o ccupa t ions ) p lay ing c ards a nd b a l lg a mes , a nd ( aga in ) h un t ing .

2 3

I ti s n ot d if f icu lt t o a pprec ia te t he g enera l c haracter o f s ecu lar med ieva l d ecora t ion . I t was im measurab ly e nr iched b y t he i nven t ion o f t he p or tra i t ; a nd s ince t he s che mes o f d ecora t ion a bou t t o b e d iscussed i nvo lved a v ery l arge amoun t o f p ortra iture , s o me s pace must b e d evo ted t o t he d eve lop men t o f t h is f ea ture .

' L ife-l ike c haracter isa t ion ' s ee ms t o h ave b een a b y-product

o f t he i ncreas ing s ecu lar isa t ion o f a r t d ur ing t he t we lf th a nd t h ir teen th c en tur ies . 1 12

Cause a nd e f fect a re n ot e asy t o u nrave l b u t i ts ee ms l ike ly t o b e c onnected w ith t he g row ing e v idence o f ad es ire t o p erpe tua te t hrough a r t t he me mory o f p redecessors o r a ncestors —or i ndeed o f o nese lf .

I mages o f t h is s or t

p osed p ecu l iar p rob le ms o f r ecogn it ion f or t he s pecta tor b u t t he a r t ist h ad a t a l l t imes t wo more-or-less u n fa i l ing i conograph ica l a ids t o h and—na me ly l abe ls a nd s y mbo ls o f o f f ice . t een th c en tury , h era ldry .

2 4

T o t hese was a dded , e f fect ive ly i n t he t h irThe emp loy men t o f t hese d ev ices e i ther

s epara te ly o r i n c o mb ina t ion c an b e s een i n s uch s urv iv ing monu men ts a s t he s pend id s er ies o f emperors i n t he s ta ined g lass o f S trasbourg c a thedra l o r t he images o f t he p a trons i n t he g lass o f T ewkesbury a bbey .

2 5

We must

2 6

s uppose t ha t s im i lar means o f i den t if ica t ion wou ld h ave b een emp loyed i n t he p a in t ing , o rdered i n 1 243 b y H enry I I i n t he g rea t h a l l o f D ub l in C ast le a nd s how ing t he K ing a nd Queen e n throned , a cco mpan ied b y t he b arons ;2 7 a nd when i n 1 320 Mahau t o f Ar to is o rdered t he p a in t ing o f h er f a ther a lready a l luded t o , t he p a in ter b efore s tar t ing t he p icture , wh ich was t o s how t he c oun t o f A r to is w ith h is k n ights , was i nstructed t o f ind o u t ' que les a r mes u s p or to ien t o u t e mps q u 'i ls v ivo ien t ' .2 8 ' L ifel ike c haracter isa t ion ' was a r e la t ive ly l a te a rr iva l o n t he s cene ; a nd s ince i n it ia l ly i t was a lways emp loyed i n ac on tex t wh ich c o mb ined i tw ith wr it ing o r h era ldry o r b o th , i t was i n n o s ense s een a s ar ep lace men t f or e i ther .

I n t h is , t he p a trons a nd a r t ists were e n t ire ly c orrect .

R eg i men ts

o f n a me less p or tra i ts a nd f orgot ten f am i ly p ho tographs t est ify t o t he u t ter i ns ign if icance o f p ersona l a ppearance i n t he t ask o f s e lf-perpetua t ion .

S uch

c haracter isa t ion i s f ound e ar l iest i n f igures wh ich a re i n s o me c lear s ense ' o f t h is wor ld ' —tha t i s , s ecu lar o r c on te mporary o r n ear-con te mporary o r a t l east f ro m t he n o t-too-d istan t h istor ica l p ast .

The e ar l iest s tr ik ing ly

c haracter ised g roup o f s uch f i gures i s t ha t o f t he p r im i f unda tores o f N au mburg .2 9 D ur ing t he s a me p er iod , p erhaps a l i t t le e ar l ier , t he f ash ion s pread—so mewha t i n ter m it ten t ly—to t o mb e f f ig ies . " I ts ee ms t o h ave b een f e lt a ppropr ia te t ha t t hese men a nd wo men s hou ld b e r ecorded i n a s au n ique a nd h u man a way a s p oss ib le ; c ases q u i te l i tera l ly s pe l t o u t .

b u t who t he f igures r epresen ted was i n most Most o f t he f igures a t Nau mburg a re ' l abe l led '

—wh ich i s why we k now who t hey a re .3 1 There i s n o m id-th ir teen th c en tury p ic tor ia l e qu iva len t t o t he ' portra iture ' o f Nau mburg , a nd i t was o n ly i n t he l a te t h ir teen th c en tury i n I ta ly t ha t a p ictor ia l s ty le was d eve loped wh ich was c apab le o f e xpress ing c haracter isat i ons o f t h is s or t .

One o f t he e ar l iest p or tra i t g roups was p erhaps t he

p a in t ing s how ing B on iface V I I I w ith h is c ard ina ls d ec lar ing t he J ub i lee o f 1 300 ( P la te 1 0 .5 ) .

3 2

Among t he e ar l iest s urv iv ing p or tra it f igures a re t he

c o m me mora t ive p a in ted e f f ig ies o f Enr ico S crovegn i ( 2 . 1 305-10 ) Rober t o f An jou , K ing o f N ap les ( 2.. 1 317 ) .

3 4

3 3

a nd

T hereaf ter , t he s tep t o t he

' por tra i t ' a s we k now i t , was a sma l l i fi mpor tan t o ne .

The e ar l ies t r ecorded

p or tra i t p a in t ing i s t he l ost image o f P etrarch 's L aura p a in ted b y S i mone Mar t in i i n 1 336.

3 5

E veryth ing s uggests , h owever , t ha t t h is i s a n e xcrescence

o n t he ma in l ine o f d eve lop men t—tha t i s , t he i dea o f t he f am i ly p or tra it g a l lery wh ich s ee ms t o b e ac rea t ion o f t he f our teen th c en tury .

3 6

There was a s er ies

o f s cu lp ted images o f t he K ings o f F rance i n t he g rea t h a l l o f t he P a la is R oya l o n t he I l e d u C ite wh ich s ee ms t o h ave b een i nst i tuted u nder P h i l ippe l e B e l a nd s ubsequen t ly a ugmen ted a s n ecessary . 1 13

3 7

The C oun ts o f Ar to is i n t he

c ha mber o f t he ir c ast le a t H esd in o rdered i n t he e ar ly f our teen th c en tury as er ies o f h eads mode l led i n p laster o f t he K ings a nd Queens o f F rance— as er ies wh ich a lso s ee ms t o h ave b een a ug men ted o n t he a ccess ion o f a n ew monarch .

3 8

T he Emperor C har les I V h ad t wo g enea log ica l c yc les

r espect ive ly i n t he Cast les o f Kar lste in ( . 1 360 ) a nd P rague .

3 9

T he D uke

o f B erry h ad i n h is c ast le o f B icetre ( Par is ) b efore i t s d estruct ion i n 1 411 ag a l lery o f images wh ich l ac ies e c ia m e t e f f ig ies c orpora les C le men t is p ape d efunct i , c ard ina l iu m s ib i a ss isten tc iu m , d um v iveba t , r egu m e c ia m F rancoru m e t p r inc ipu m , n ee n on e t impera toru m Ro manoru m e t G rec ie p ropr ie r epresen taban t n ec e rud i t iss i moru m p ic toru m j ud ic io t am s u mp tuosu m n ec t am a ccep t iss i mu m o pus i n r egno p otera t r epper irP. 40

T he s urv iv ing

f our teen th c en tury p ane ls s how ing t he h eads o f J ohn I o f F rance ( Par is , L ouvre ) a nd t he a rchduke Rudo lph o f Austr ia ( V ienna , D o mund D iözesanmuseu m ) —bo th c lear ly ' l abe l led ' —were p robab ly o r ig ina l ly i n tended f or a c on tex t o f t h is s or t . Wha t i s l ess c lear i s t he h istory o f p ictor ia l p or tra iture o uts ide t ha t s tr ict ly g enea log ica l c on tex t .

I ts ee ms l ike ly t ha t t he B on iface V I I I p a in t ing

men t ioned a bove was i nf luen t ia l .

B u t a l though f ur ther f our teen th c en tury

e xa mp les c an b e f ound , i t must b e a dm it ted t ha t t hey p roduce p rob le ms when i tc o mes t o i den t ify ing t he e ven t c oncerned .

An o bv ious c ase i s t he f resco

b y Ambrog io L orenzet t i o f t he l a te 1 320s , f or mer ly i n t he c hap ter h ouse a nd n ow i n t he c hurch o f S . F rancesco , S iena ( P la te 1 0 .6 ) .

I ti s t rad it iona l ly

t hough t t o r epresen t S t . L ou is o f T ou louse b e ing p rofessed a s aF ranc iscan ; a nd t he K ing who f ea tures p ro m inen t ly among t he s pecta tors i s h e ld t o b e L ou is ' y ounger b ro ther , Rober t , who b eca me K ing o f Nap les i n 1 309 . f ar t h is i s r easonab le .

S o

T he s cene i s c er ta in ly n ot f ro m t he l i fe o f S t . F ranc is ;

a nd i n t he 1 320s t he p or traya l o f S t . L ou is o f T ou louse wou ld h ave b een t op ica l ( he was c anon ised i n 1 317 ) .

S i mone Mart in i h ad c rea ted a n i conography f or

h im i n h is S t . L ou is a l tar ( Nap les , Museo d i C apod i mon te ) o ne o f whose s cenes was o f S t . L ou is b e ing p rofessed . 41

Rober t o f N ap les , f ro m o ther p or tra i t

f aces , s ee ms t o h ave b orne a r easonab le r ese mb lance t o t he k ing i n t he f resco . H owever , a t t he t ime o f L ou is ' p rofess ion ( 24 D ece mber 1 295 ) h e was n o t k ing n or was h e e ven p resen t i n R o me . 42

Moreover , t he p rofess ion was

made s ecret ly t o t he M in ister-Genera l o f t he O rder a nd n ot i n p ub l ic t o P ope B on iface V I I I .

I t may b e t ha t t he a u thor o f t he i conography was c onfus ing

t he p rofess ion w ith L ou is ' p ub l ic c onsecra t ion a s b ishop o f T ou louse a f ew d ays l a ter ( 29th o r 3 0th D ece mber , 1 296 ) .

I n t ha t c ase , h owever , t he k ing

must b e C har les I o f Nap les ( who was p resen t ). 43 ' h istory ' i s d e monstrab ly c on fused .

H owever o ne r eads i t , t he

I ti s n ot i ndeed d if f icu l t t o imag ine why

a n impor tan t F ranc iscan c onven t s hou ld w ish t o r eca l l t he r ecep t ion i n to t he o rder o f a n i l lustr ious n ew s a in t a s b e ing a t t he h ands o f a magn if icen t p ope i n ap ub l ic a sse mb ly h eav i ly l aced w ith c ard ina ls a nd a r e ign ing monarch . T he h istor ica l a pproach i s af l ex ib le o ne ; h ave b een p resen t .

a nd K ing R ober t c er ta in ly m igh t

We mere ly h appen t o k now b et ter ;

b u t s o q u ite c erta in ly

d id p eop le a t t he t ime t he s cene was p a in ted . As im i lar f l ex ib i l ity o f a pproach i s t o b e f ound i n t he s o-ca l led Re l ic S cenes i n t he c ast le o f Kar lste in ( P la te 1 0 .7 ).

T he s cenes a re e n l ivened b y t hree

p or tra i ts , t wo o f wh ich a re f am i l iar f ro m o ther s ources .

I ti s c o m mon g round

t ha t i n t he s cene o n t he l e f t C har les V o f F rance i s p resen t ing t o t he Emperor 1 14

C har les I V ap iece o f t he True C ross a nd t wo t horns f ro m t he C rown o f T horns .

S o much i s v is ib le ;

b u t i n a ny c ase i n al e t ter o f May 1 356 , J ohn

Io f F rance p ro m ised t o s end C har les I V t he t wo t horns v ia h is s on , t hen D uke o f N or mandy . V itus ( Prague )

4 4

F ur ther , i n a n i nven tory n ow i n t he c a thedra l o f S t .

i t was n o ted t ha t o f t he t hree p ieces o f t he True C ross owned

b y t he Emperor , o ne was g iven h im b y t he K ing o f F rance .

C har les , D uke

o f N or mandy , me t C har les I V t he Emperor a t t he D ie t o f Me tz i n D ece mber 1 356 .

I t was t he a sse mb ly a t wh ich t he D uke o f N or mandy was f or ma l ly

i nvested w i th t he D auph ina te o f V ienne ; i n t he wa l l-pa in t ing . 45

a nd i t must b e t he o ccas ion r eca l led

I tc annot h owever h ave b een p a in ted u n t i l a f ter 1 364

a nd t he d ea th o f J ohn I ;

f or o n ly a t t ha t p o in t wou ld i th ave b een c er ta in

t ha t C har les was d est ined t o b e K ing a nd t he p a in t ing s hows h i m wear ing a c rown .

H e was n ot e n t it led t o i tb efore t ha t d a te ( he was c rowned o n 1 9

May 1 364 ) . 46 The t h ird , r igh t h and s cene s hows t he Emperor h o ld ing t he r e l ic o f t he T rue C ross wh ich h e h as b een g iven i n t he f i rst s cene .

T he t horns a re n ot

i n e v idence a nd t he i n ference i s t ha t h e i s a bou t t o a t tach t he r e l ic t o t he c ross —a g rea t r e l iquary—wh ich was a pparen t ly ( accord ing t o d ocu men ts ) c omm iss ioned b y C har les i n 1 357 . 47

T h is s cene t herefore s ee ms l ike ly t o

r eca l l t he mo men t a t wh ich e i ther t he c ross was b rough t i n to c omm iss ion o r t he P ar is ian r e l ic was i ncorpora ted i n to i t , o r c once ivab ly b oth , s uppos ing t he e ven ts t o h ave b een a s ing le o ccasion . The s ub ject o f t he c en tra l s cene i s v ery f ar f ro m c lear , a lthough i ti s l ike ly o n t he a na logy o f t he o ther s cenes , t ha t t he f ace o f t he K ing p or trayed i s c orrect ly c haracter ised a nd was i den t if iab le .

I th as b een s uggested t ha t

t he d onor i s L odov ico G onzaga , C ap ta in o f Man tua .

4 8

T h is may b e d iscoun ted .

I td epends i n a ny c ase o n t he c rown b e ing a l a ter a dd it ion .

B u t t he o n ly r e l ic

wh ich C har les I V i s k nown t o h ave b rough t b ack f ro m Man tua was a b one o f L ong inus ;

a nd n o b one s ee ms t o b e i n e v idence h ere . 49

T he most f avoured

i den t if ica t ion f or t he c en tra l d onor i s P eter Io f L usignan , K ing o f C yprus . H e v is ited P rague i n 1 363 d ur ing h is t our o f E urope s eek ing t o r a ise f unds f or ac rusade . i n 1 368 .

5°

5 1

A ccord ing t o Mantuan s ources h e a lso met C har les i n Man tua

Bu t i ti s n o t k nown wha t r e l ics h e g ave Char les —if i ndeed h e

p resen ted a ny a t a l l .

The o n ly p oss ib le c lue t o s uch a g if t l i es i n t he S t .

V itus i nven tory a lready r eferred t o wh ich n o tes t ha t o ne o f t he Emperor 's f rag men ts o f t he T rue C ross was g iven t o h im b y t he ' K ing o f G reece ' .52 U nfor tuna te ly s urface l osses make i te x tre me ly d if f icu l t t o s ay wha t i s b e ing t ransferred i n t he c en tre s cene . d en C hr istus- r e l iqu ien '5 3

T he c urren t v iew t ha t i ti s a' Kr ista l l m it

d oes n o t s ee m t o b e b ased o n h is tor ica l t es t i mony

b u t t o t ake i n to a ccoun t t he p robab i l ity t ha t s ince t he t wo monarchs s ee m t o b e e xchang ing s o meth ing wh ich i s i nv is ib le , t he o b ject i n q uest ion may h ave b een t ransparen t .

More r e ma ins t o b e s a id o n t h is s ub ject .

S uppos ing

h owever t ha t we a re l ook ing a t P e ter o f L usignan , ad a te a lso i n t he 1 360s s ee ms a ppropr iate f or t he p a in t ing .

( The s cenes a re n or ma l ly d a ted t o t he

l a te 1 350s ). Once a ga in t he a pproach t o h istory i s f l ex ib le .

C on trary t o a ppearances ,

t he p lace o f t he t wo i nc iden ts was n o t i den t ica l a nd t hey a re l ike ly t o b e s epara ted i n t ime b y s o me y ears .

Wha t C har les I Vs ee ms l ike ly t o h ave

c omm iss ioned f or t he Chape l o f t he V irg in i s ar ecord o f t he t wo o u tstand ing 1 15

mo men ts i n t he h istory o f h is c o l lect ion o f r e l ics — i n wh ich , among o ther t h ings , b o th d ist ingu ished d onors were o f r oya l b lood .

F or t hose who moved

i n i n terna t iona l c irc les , a l l t hree p art ic ipan ts must o r ig ina l ly h ave b een r ecogn isab le . I n t he s a me c a tegory l i es Masacc io 's l ost c o m me mora t ive f resco o f t he c onsecra t ion o f t he c hurch o f t he Car m ine i n F lorence .

Th is e ven t

o ccurred o n 1 9th A pr i l 1 422 a nd t he o n ly d e ta i led a ccoun t o f t he f resco— wh ich was i n t he c lo ister—co mes f ro m V asar i .

H e n o ted a n u mber o fp or-

t ra i ts i nc lud ing t ha t o f t he p or ter o f t he c onven t . T he i ncorpora t ion o f p or tra i t c harac ter isa t ions i n to t he f ina l c a tegory o r d ecora t ion — t ha t wh ich c oncerned i t se lf w ith o ccupa t ions r a ther t han e ven ts—see ms t o h ave b een a d eve lop men t o f t he e ar ly f i f teen th c en tury . A we l l-known e xa mp les o f t he g enre s urv ives i n t he f a mous J anuary i l lustrat ion o f t he T res R iches H eures ( P la te 1 0 .2 ) wh ich s hows t he D uke o f B erry s ea ted a t t ab le ( E . 1 415 ) . Tapestr ies m igh t s ee m a n u npro m is ing f i e ld f or p or tra iture .

B u t c er ta in l a te f our teen th c en tury t apestr ies h ad p ortrayed

s ub jects i nvo lv ing c on te mporary c haracters whose p ersona l a ppearance wou ld p robab ly h ave b een f am i lar t o t hose c oncerned .

( The t wo D u G uesc l in

t apestr ies o rdered b y t he Duke o f B urgundy i n 1 395 a re a c ase i n p o in t .) I n a ny e ven t t he g enre i nc lud ing p or tra i t l ikenesses s ee ms t o b e imp l ied b y t he f o l low ing e n try f ro m t he 1 420 i nven tory o f t he g oods o f D uke P h i l ip t he G ood o f B urgundy . ' Neuf g rans t ap iz e t d eux mendres d e h au lte l i ce o uvrez a o r d e v o ler ie , d e p louv iers e t p erdr iz , e sque lz s on t l es p ersonnages d e f eux MS l e d uc J ehan e t mada me l a d uchesse s a f e m me , t an t äp ie c o m me c heva l . ' 5 4 I n l arge s ca le p a in t ing , h owever , t he s urv iv ing e v idence f or t he d eve lopmen t o f t h is g enre b e longs t o t he s econd h a lf o f t he f i f teen th c en tury .

T he

e v idence s ee ms n ow t o b e e n t ire ly n or th I ta l ian a l though i ti s n o l onger c lear where i to r ig ina ted .

Wha t i s c lear i s t ha t a t P av ia C . 1 470 , M i lan c . 1 472

a nd a t F errara p robab ly i n t he 1 480s l arge p rogra m mes were d ev ised i n wh ich , t o aq u i te a ston ish ing e x ten t , t he ma in s ub ject was t he p ersonne l o f t he r espect ive c our ts .

T he p or tra i ts were g rouped w ith in m in i ma l s ub jects

s uch a s h un t ing , p lay ing g a mes a nd e a t ing ;

a nd t he r esu lt must h ave b een

al ive ly a ccoun t o f f am i l iar c on te mporary p ersona l it ies a longs ide t he o ccas iona l em inen t p erson f ro m t he p ast .5 5 T he a ccoun ts o f t hese d ecora t ive s che mes a re s uf f ic ien t ly u nfa m i l iar t o b ear s o me e labora t ion .

There s urv ives f or t he c ast le a t M i lan a s chedu le

o f p a in ted d ecora t ion r equ ired b y t he D uke , G a leazzo Mar ia S forza , c oup led w ith a n e st i ma te o f i t s c ost b y t he p a in ters wh ich i s d a ted 1 472 .

T he s a la

g rande was t o b e p a in ted t ut ta a b osch i c um c erv i d a i jn i e t a l tr i a n i ma l i . I n i t was t o b e s een t he D uke h i mse lf a l c ava l lo s uso e l Ga l lesse c on u na s pa ta i n mano p er f er ire u no c erv io .

With h im w ere t wen ty-seven n amed

c o mpan ions c um l ic an i t ra t to d e l n a tura le d e l p re fa to s igre .

Amongst t he

c o mpan ions was a n u n for tuna te A lex io who w as t o b e d ep icted i n a 'Wh ite Kn igh t ' p osture ( 'A lex io s ia d ep incto c he u no c erv io l ab ia b u ta to d e c ava l lo , el u i a lc i l e g a mbe s uso a l c e l lo i n p iu b e l l° ,a cto s ia p oss ib i le '.

I t .i s n o t

c lear whether a n a ctua l e ven t was i n m ind o r whether t h is was j ust f e l t t o b e c haracter ist ic .) 1 16

I n t he a d jacen t s a let ta i n M i lan , an u mber o f d ist inct g roups p or trayed f igures f ro m t he p ast h is tory o f t he c our t .

G ianga leazzo V iscon t i ( d ied 1 402 )

a nd h is w ife Ca ter ina d i B ernabö were t here , a s a lso F i l ippo Mar ia V iscon t i d uca F i l ippo ', d ied 1 447 ) a nd F rancesco S forza ( d ied 1 466 ) a nd h is w ife B ianca Mar ia V iscon t i . w ere a lso s hown ;

Ga leazzo Mar ia S forza a nd h is w ife B ona o f S avoy

a nd e ach g enera t ion was s upposed t o b e s urrounded b y a

g roup o f c haracter ist ic c o mpan ions who a re o f ten n a med .

I n t he c on te m-

p orary g roup were i nc luded E r mes S forza ( born 1 470 ) a nd B ianca Mar ia S forza ( born 1 472 ) a d mano a l la I l l ma D uchessa e t l a n u tr ice d acan to c on l a Nanne ta . S o me th ing s im i lar s urv ives f ro m t he a rch ives o f P av ia—tha t i s , a s chedu le o f s cenes r equested a nd a n a ppropr ia te v a lua t ion .

N o men t ion i s

made o f t he s a la g rande—wh ich i s ar em inder t ha t t he c ast le was b u i lt i n t he f our teen th c en tury a nd , a s h as b een n o t iced a lready , i th ad b een d ecora ted i n t he r e ign o f G iange leazzo V iscon t i .

T he p a in t ings i n t he S a la d e l Caste llo

w ere ' renewed ' b y B on i fac io Be mbo i n 1 457.

5 6

T he s ix teen th c en tury a n t i-

q uar ian S tefano B reven tano wr i t ing i n 1 570 r e me mbered t h is ' gran s a lone ' b efore i t s d estruct ion b y t he F rench i n 1 527 .

H e d escr ibed i ta s l ut to

i s tor ia to c on b e l iss i me f igure l e q ua le r apresen tavano c acc ie e p escag ion i eg iostre c an a ltr i d ipor t i d e i Duch i eD uchesse d i q uesto s ta to '.

The

i n ference o f t he d ocu men ts p resen t ly b e ing c ons idered i s t ha t t hose ' sa lone ' p a in t ings were a t l eatt a l i t t le e ar l ier a nd p oss ib ly f our teen th c en tury .

O f

t he r oo ms t o b e p a in ted c . 1 470 s o me were t o s how t he D uke o u t h un t ing . I n o thers h e , o r t he D uchess , were a cco mpan ied b y e x tens ive g roups o f c ourt o f f ic ia ls who were s hown i n av ar iety o f o ccupa t ions i nc lud ing e a t ing .

T he

s a la o f t he d uchess ' l odg ings s howed t he h istory o f h er marr iage , s tart ing w ith h er b e tro tha l i n t he p resence o f t he K ing a nd Queen o f F rance , a nd e nd ing w i th t he c ere mony a t P av ia i n wh ich s he c hanged d e l h ab i to F rancese i n L o mbardo .

T he a d jo in tng s a let ta s howed t he d uchess p lay ing a l b a l lone .

Af ur ther r oo m s howed t he D uke g et t ing d ressed i n t he c o mpany o f h is c ha mber la ins a nd b arber .

Ano ther s howed h im s ea ted w ith ambassadors

' e t d . C icho ( Cecco S i monet ta , h is l ead ing c ounse l lor ) i n p ede i n a t to d e c onsu ltare e t e xped ire f acende i.

Moreover , t he e st i ma ted c ost r ecorded

b y t he p a in ters i nc luded a s ubstan t ia l i t em p er r etrar a l n a tura le h om in i , c ava l l i e t c an i , e tc . S o me th ing v ery s im i lar was a lso p a in ted i n t he s uburban F errarese v i l las o f B e lf iore a nd B e lr iguardo , p robab ly i n t he 1 480s .

5 7

T he s ub jects

a t B e lf iore i nc luded h un t ing , h awk ing , e a t ing , d anc ing a nd p lay ing c hess . Among t hose i den t if ied was A lber to V d 'Este ( d ied 1 393 ) .

A t B e lr iguardo

i n t he s a lo t to E rco le d 'Este was s hown w ith h is c ur ia l i e ach o f who m was ' l abe l led ' a nd g iven h is i ns ign ia o f o f f ice .

I n af ur ther r oo m E rco le was t o

b e s een o n h orseback , t r iu mphan t , w ith h is t wo b rothers S ig is mondo a nd A lber to a nd n ine o ther n a med c our t iers i nc lud ing t wo c oun ts , ab aron a nd t he d uca l d octor . Af ew s urv iva ls o f fer u s t he f lavour o f t h is t ype o f d ecora t ion .

Most

p eop le w i l l im r re d ia te ly t h ink o f t he P a lazzo S ch ifano ia , F errara ( var ious ly J a ted b ut p robab ly c . 1 470 ) .

I tw i l l b e r e me mbered t ha t o n t he wa l ls o f t he

s a la g rande , t i-e l owest r ow o f s cenes s hows D uke B orso d 'Este ( d ied 1 471 )

1 17

i n av ar iety o f c harac ter ist ic s e t t ings a nd o ccupa t ions ( P la te 1 0 .3 ) .

I n many

h e i s o n h orseback— in most c ases p robab ly a nd i n s o me c ases c er ta in ly h un t ing .

H is o ccupa t ions i n o ther s cenes a re l ess c lear a l though i n o ne

( Apr i l ) h e s ee ms t o b e r eward ing a sma l l t h ick-se t man s o met i mes i den t if ied a s h is j ester ( P la te 1 0 .4 ) .

I n s evera l , t he D uke i s j ux taposed t o r ust ic

o ccupa t ions a ppropr ia te t o t he mon th o f t he y ear ; a nd g ran ted t he a stro log ica l f ra mework o f t he i conography , t he who le e nse mb le c an b e s een a s al i ve ly a nd l i nea l d escendan t o f t he d ecora t ion o f t he T orre d e l l 'Aqu i la a t Tren to .

5 8

T he t he me o f t h is p aper h as b een a ' l ost ' g enre o f s ecu lar p a in t ing i n wh ich t he n on-even ts o r m in i ma l e ven ts b eco me a v eh ic le f or e x tens ive p ort ra iture .

I ti s a rguab le t ha t w e k now a bou t i tv ir tua l ly s o le ly f ro m t he

d ocu men ts a lready d escr ibed a nd t ha t t he r a ther s ad r e ma ins o f t he P a lazzo S ch ifano ia o f fer a p a le r ef lect ion o f s o meth ing wh ich , a t i t s b est , must h ave b een f asc ina t ing .

T he l ast p ar t o f t h is p aper , h owever , w i l l b e d evo ted t o

t he c on ten t ion t ha t w e h ave s t i l l o ne f irst r a te e xamp le o f t h is f or m o f a r t— n a me ly , t he s o-ca l led C a mera d eg l i S posi o f Man tegna i n t he C aste l lo S . G iorg io a t Man tua ( P la te 1 0 .8 ) .

I ti s t rue t ha t t h is C a mera i s n or ma l ly

t hough t t o p or tray s ign if ican t e ven ts i n G onzaga f am i ly h istory ; a nd p erhaps a word s hou ld b e s a id a bou t t he p rob le ms wh ich s uch a ssu mp t ions h ave t o f ace . I ts hou ld b e s a id a t o nce t ha t t he n a me c a mera d eg l i s pos i i s al a ter c rea t ion a nd i s i rre levan t t o a ny i n terpreta t ion o f t he p a in t ings .

I n t he

f i f teen th c en tury , t he r oo m was k nown a s t he c amera d ep in ta a nd f or med t he f i rst l arge c ha mber i n t he s u ite o pen ing o f f t he h a l l o f t he c ast le . On a n E ng l ish g round-p lan i t wou ld p robab ly b e l abe l led t he ' so lar '. d ecora t ion i s i n t hree p ar ts . ( P la te 1 0 .9 ) .

The ma in

On t he c e i l ing o r v au l t i s t he f amous o cu lus

F ive g ir ls ( one n egro id ) , n ine p u t t i ( one r epresen ted o n ly b y

a n a rm p ro ject ing t hrough t he p arapet ) a nd a p eacock a re v is ib le .

A round

t h is o cu lus a re r anged f i ct ive r e l iefs s how ing t he f i rst e igh t o f t he t we lve C aesars o f S ueton ius .

I n t he s of f its o f t he l une t tes a re s cenes f ro m c lass ica l

my tho logy . T he ma jor f igure g roups , h owever , a re o n t wo o f t he f our wa l ls .

T hese

h ave o f ten b een d escr ibed a nd a re g enera l ly k nown r espec t ive ly a s t he ' Encoun ter ' a nd t he ' Cour t ' . T he ' Encoun ter ' r e markab le f or b e ing a n a l l- ma le g roup .

( P la te 1 0 .10 ) i s c h ief ly

T he Marchese L odov ico , a t tended

b y t wo g roo ms w ith a h orse , a nd t hree s ervan ts w i th h un t ing d ogs , g ree ts ( or , a l terna t ive ly , s ays f arewe l l t o ) e leven ( ? t en ) men a nd t hree b oys . O f t hose men t he f aces o f o n ly s even a re v isib le ;

b u t t wo may b e n a med

w ith c er ta in ty a s L odov ico 's s ons F eder ico a nd F rancesco .

T he t hree

c h i ldren may b e n a med w ith c er ta in ty a s L odov ico , a nother s on o f t he Marchese ;

a nd F rancesco a nd S ig is mondo , s ons o f F eder ico .

Two f ur ther

men h ave r ecen t ly b een n amed a s t he Emperor F reder ick I I a nd K ing C hr ist ian Io f D en mark ( see b e low , p . 1 19 ). h uge a nd f an tast ic c i ty ;

T he f igures s tand b efore a

a nd u n l ike ly c ast les a re p erched i n al andscape

w h ich a lso c on ta ins a n improbab le r ock-for mat ion—the h uge n atura l a rch o n t he l ef t .

T he ' cour t '

o f r ecogn isab le f aces .

( P la te 1 0 .11 ) h as more f igures w ith a l ower p roport ion Apar t f ro m L odov ico h i mse lf , o n ly t he i den t if ica t ions

o f B arbara o f B randenburg a nd ( aga in ) L odov ico ( t he ir y ounger s on ) a re c er ta in .

T he l i t t le g ir l w ith t he a pp le i s p robab ly P ao la , ad augh ter . 1 18

A l l h istor ica l i n terpreta t ions o f t hese t wo s cenes e ncoun ter o bstac les , t he p r inc ipa l b e ing o ver t he i den t if ica t ion o f t he f igures . t ha t , f or t he most p ar t , t hese i den t if ica t ions a re l ost .

I tw i l l b e a pparen t L odov ico a nd h is

s on F eder ico h ad b etween t he m many o ther c h i ldren who may , a nd p robab ly d o a ppear o n t he wa l ls o f t he c a mera . o f t he ir v ar ious f aces .

B u t t here i s n o i ndependen t r ecord

B u t e ven where i den t if ica t ions a re c er ta in , t hose

i den t if ied c anno t e as i ly b e s i mu ltaneous ly a l igned t o f i t a ny p ar t icu lar e ven t . N ever the less , t he p ro m inence g iven t o L odov ico a nd h is s econd s on F rancesco ( dressed i n c ard ina l 's r obes ) h as l ed t o t he s uggest ion t ha t t h is s cene r ecords t he f irst meet ing b etween f a ther .a nd s on a f ter F rancesco 's e leva t ion .

T he

d a te a nd p lace o f t h is meet ing a re k nown p rec ise ly—lst J anuary 1 462 a t B ozzo lo .

S upposing t h is t o b e c orrect , t he n ex t q uest ions c oncern t he ' Cour t '.

I s i tr e la ted t o t he ' En coun ter ' —i n wh ich c ase , may i tn ot b e L odov ico r ece iv ing t he g ood n ews o f h is s on 's e leva t ion?

B u t t here i s much t ha t i s

p uzz l ing a bou t t h is s cene—no t l east t he a pparen t ly mean ing less f l u t ter o f a c t iv ity amongst t he s ervan ts o n t he r igh t . b u t t hey a re s e ldo m l ef t s peech less . e n ig ma o f t he v au l t .

A r t h istor ians may b e b a ff led

H owever , t here s t i l l r e ma ins t he

Who a re t he g ir ls a nd wha t a re t hey d o ing u p t here?

Why a re t hey m ing led w ith p u t t i?

Wha t i s t he s ign if icance o f t he a ir o f

r estra ined l ev ity wh ich p ervades t h is p ar t o f t he c a mera? I t must b e a dm it ted t ha t i ti s imposs ib le t o i n terpret t hese s cenes a s r ea l ist ic p or traya ls o f e ven ts i n f am i ly h istory . a re t he wrong a ge—or were n o t p resen t ; i nscru tab le ;

The i den t if iab le c h i ldren

t he b ackground i s i n r eal ist ic t er ms

t he a ct ions o f t he c h ief p layers ( espec ia l ly t ha t o f L odov ico

i n t he ' Encoun ter ' )a re u nc lear i n mean ing .

Those who w ish t o p ers ist i n

s ee ing t hese s cenes a s ' h istory ' a re o b l iged t o emphas ise t he p ar ts wh ich f i t a nd e xp la in a way ( u sua l ly i n s y mbo l ic t er ms ) t hose wh ich d o n ot .

5 9

O f

c ourse , t he a ccep tance o f t he ' h istor ica l ' t hes is a t a l l d epends v ery much o n o ne 's p ersona l a ssess men t o f t he s or t o f s ub jects w ith wh ich p r inces m igh t b e e xpected t o a dorn t he ir p a laces .

' H istor ies ' t here c er ta in ly w ere ,

u sua l ly s how ing s o me f or m o f p ub l ic f am i ly c e lebra t ion s uch a s a wedd ing o r t he s tar t o f ap i lgr i mage .

T hose who s eek t h is s or t o f i n terpre ta t ion

w i l l f ind s uppor t i n A lber t i 's p ropos i t ion t ha t t he n ob lest p a in t ing c oncerns a' s tor ia '.

I n t he l igh t o f wha t h as a lready b een d iscussed , h owever , i ti s

c lear t ha t n ob i l ity was o f ten man ifest ly s acr if iced i n t he c ause o f d iver t isse men t ; a nd t he l ike l ihood t ha t t he c a mera d oes n o t r epresen t p ar t icu lar e ven ts h as b een i ncreased b y t he a rch iva l r esearch o f P rofessor S ignor in i .

6 0

R ecen t ly

h e d rew a t ten t ion t o t he e x istence o f a n e ar ly 1 6th c en tury t rad i t ion t hat t he c a mera i nc luded p or tra its o f t he Emperor F reder ick I I a nd K ing C hr ist ian I o f D en mark .

S i mu ltaneous ly h e p ub l ished f ro m t he Arch iv io G onzaga a n

e xchange o f l et ters o f 1 475 b etween t he Man tuan e nvoy i n M i lan a nd L odov ico G onzaga wh ich p roves t ha t t h is t rad it ion was c orrec t , t ha t t he Emperor a nd t he K ing o f D en mark a re i ndeed r epresen ted i n t he c a mera a nd , moreover , t ha t Ga leazzo Mar ia , D uke o f M i lan , h ad e xpected t o b e i nc luded t oo a nd was a nnoyed t o f ind o u t t ha t h e h ad b een om it ted .

S uch a h aphazard s yste m o f

i nc lus ion a ccords i l l w ith t he n ot ion o f a n o rgan ized h istor ica l p rogra m me . I ts ounds h owever v ery l ike t he c on te mporary d ecora t ions a t M i lan wh ich , p erhaps r ec iproca l ly , i nc luded t he ' Marchese d a Man tua ' a nd a lso G iovann i B en t ivog l io , L ord o f B o logna .

6 1

1 19

I ti s , i ndeed , much e as ier t o s ee t h is r oo m a s c on ta in ing a c asua l a sse mb lage o f r u lers , c our t iers a nd h ouseho ld s taf f p resen t i n Man tua o r ( i n t he c ase o f t he Emperor ) I ta ly C . 1 465-74 .

6 2

T ha t i tc on ta ins l ev ity

s ee ms c lear f ro m t he o cu lus where t he g ir ls ( perhaps t he s taf f o f B arbara o f B randenburg 's b ed-cha mber ) a re a pparen t ly c on te mp la t ing p rec ip ita t ing o n to t he h eads o f t hose b e low a l arge p lan t p recar ious ly s uppor ted o n a p o le .

6 3

B e low , i n t he ' Encoun ter ' af an tast ic a nd e nor mous c i ty r ep lete

w ith c ru mb l ing a n t ique r u ins i s c lear ly emb lazoned t w ice w ith t he a r ms .

G onzaga

S ince a r ms n or ma l ly mean ownersh ip , t h is must b e L odov ico 's

c i ty—perhaps a marve l lous b u t imag inary ' Ma n tua ';

c er ta in ly t he s tuf f

o f d rea ms a nd a n u na t ta inab le l and o f a n t iquar ian d e l igh ts .

A longs ide t h is ,

i n t he a d jacen t c orner , t here r ears u p ag rea t b u t n a tura l a rch o f s tone . With t h is , Man tegna e ndowed L odov ico 's ' t err itory ' w ith a n i n f la ted v ers ion o f t he modest P on te V e ia , s et i n t he h i l ls , j ust n or th o f V erona .

N eed less

t o s ay , Man tua h as n ever a t ma ter ia l d a tes a pparen t ly p ossessed a ny R o man r u ins ;

a nd t he t err i tory a round i ti s mono tonous ly f la t .

I n t h is c ase a t

l east A r t h as t r iu mphan t ly e xpe l led Tru th ; a nd ( as Io bserved i n a no ther c on tex t ) w e s ee m t o b e w ith in s tr ik ing d istance o f ap r iva te j oke . T he mag ic o f t hese s cenes , a s o f t he l ost wa l l p a in t ings a t M i lan , P av ia a nd F errara , must h ave l a in i n t he r ecogn isab i l ity o f t hose p or trayed .6 4 P ro fessor S ignor in i h as i ndeed u nderscored t he p robab i l ity t ha t t h is e x tended e ven t o t he a n i ma ls s ince d ur ing t h is p er iod L odov ico i s k nown t o h ave owned af avour i te h ound c a l led Rub ino .

I td ied i n 1 467 a nd S ignor in i h as p laus ib ly

s uggested t ha t i t s p or tra i t s urv ives i n t he a n i ma l s ea ted b enea th L odov ico 's c ha ir i n t he ' Cour t ' s cene . 65 B u t p resu mab ly t he o ther d ogs a nd t he s ing le s p lend id h orse wou ld h ave b een r ecogn isab le—a t t he v ery l east b y t he ir t rapp ings a nd c o l lars .

C er ta in ly t he g roo ms a nd d og-hand lers must h ave

b een r ecogn isab le ( f ro m t he M i lanese a nd P av ian e v idence ) ; t he s ervan ts t oo o n t he r igh t o f t he ' Cour t ' s cene . a lways b een a sked 'wha t a re t hey d o ing? '

a nd p resumab ly

I th as , i nc iden ta l ly ,

T hey a re s ure ly s i mp ly wa it ing

o n t he f am i ly—prec ise ly i n wha t c apac i ty i s p erhaps u nc lear .

B u t t he ir

b ust l ing move men t i s i n c on trast t o t he s eda te p osture o f t he Marchese a nd Marchesa a nd t he c a lm o f t hose p ersons im med ia te ly s urround ing t he m . I ti s t rue t ha t c er ta in f ea tures o f t h is r oo m d e mand e xp lana t ion a long more c onven t iona l l ines . w ith i mper ia l b usts .

N obody h as e ver made much s ense o f t he r ounde ls

S ueton ius ' C aesars s ee m a n a l most u n ifor m ly d is-

a greeab le s et o f p eop le a nd t he c ho ice o f t he f i rst e igh t f or t he c a mera s ee ms a t b est o rder ly a nd a t worst i nd iscr im ina te . s ign if icance s ee ms sma l l :

T he ir mora l o r ' cu ltura l '

a nd i ti s l ike ly t ha t t hey a re t here mere ly t o a dd

a n a ir o f a n t iqu ity t o t he c a mera a nd o f c on trast t o t he i nhab i tan ts o f t he o cu lus 6 6 — in wh ich t hey a re e n t ire ly s uccessfu l .

T he r e main ing p a in t ing o n

t he v au l ts —show ing e p isodes f ro m t he c areer o f A n ion , O rpheus a nd H ercu les a lone p robab ly h ave a c onven t iona l i conograph ic t he me r unn ing t hrough t he m . T he s cenes h ave i ndeed b een i den t if ied b u t t he e xp lana t ion o f t he c ho ice h as s o f ar e luded s cho lars . I n te l lectua l c oherence i n p ar ts o f t he c e l ing h owever d oes n o t i n i t se lf m i l ita te a ga inst t he i dea t ha t t he wa l ls a re e ssen t ia l ly i nconsequen t ia l .

T o

r epea t , t he ' Encoun ter ' a nd ' Cour t ' s ee m t o b e most e as i ly u nderstood a s t he most b r i l l ian t s urv iv ing e xa mp les o f a n e ssen t ia l ly u neven tfu l a nd i ncons equen t ia l g enre o f p a in t ing f ash ionab le d ur ing t h is p ar t icu lar p er iod . 1 20

T he a n teceden ts f ro m wh ich t hese s che mes were g enera ted h ave b een d escr ibed a nd a re n ot p erhaps d if f icu l t t o u nderstand p rov ided t ha t o ne a ccep ts t ha t o ne i s d ea l ing w ith s o me c oncep t o f ' f un ' c ons isten t w ith t he c our t l i fe o f t he p er iod .

T he ir l im ited p opu lar ity i s more b a f f l ing .

H owever ,

i n t he c a mera d eg l i s pos i i t must b e a dm it ted t ha t t he e xce l lence o f t he p a in ter o bscures t he e ssen t ia l t r iv ia l ity o f t he s ub jec t ma t ter .

I ft he ma in j ust if ica t ion

o f t he g enre , c o mp le te w ith p or tra its , l i es i n t he s pecta tor 's s ense o f r ecogn i t ion o f t he f am i l iar , t h is w i l l h ard ly s urv ive f or more t han a f ew y ears . A l most a t o nce f aces w i l l t end t o b e f orgo t ten a nd a n impor tant p ar t o f t he p urpose o f t he p a in t ings w i l l b eg in t o f ade .

T he s ubsequen t a rgu men ts a nd

u ncer ta in t ies a bout t he c a mera a nd i t s ' purpose ' t end t o s uppor t t h is imp ress ion .

B u t t he g enre h as a no ther s er ious d rawback .

More t han most

s ub ject ma t ter , i t s l im ita t ions b eco me d oub ly e v iden t i n t he h ands o f a n i nd if feren t p a in ter .

F ew t h ings a re more t ed ious t han b ad p or tra i ts o f

u nknown p eop le b y s econd-ra te a r t ists .

G enera l ly s peak ing d epr ived o f t he

g en ius o f Man tegna , t he l im ita t ions o f ar oo m s uch a s t he c a mera wou ld b eco me d epress ing ly a pparen t . T he most c o mpe l l ing r eason , h owever , f or t he g enera l a bandon men t o f t h is t ype o f p a in t ing i np r ince ly c irc les must l i e i n t he i mage i tc onveys o f t he r u ler , h is f am i ly a nd h is c our t .

Most p eop le r ead ing a bou t t he 1 5th

c en tury r u lers o f Man tua w i l l b e s truck b y t he i n tense ly p ersona l n ature o f t he ir r u le .

T he ir d ip lo ma t ic a ct iv ity—as w itnessed , f or i nstance , b y t he

n u mber o f marr iage a l l iances s uccessfu l ly c on tracted n or th o f t he A lps —was a s e x tens ive a nd f ar-f lung a s t ha t o f a ny I ta l ian p r ince .

B u t w ith in Man tua

i t se lf , t he s ca le o f g overn men t s ee ms s udden ly t o c on trac t a nd t o b eco me a l most c laustrophob ic , w ith t he Marchese a s t he p ersona l f ocus o f av ast q uan t i ty o f p e t i t ions , i n te l l igence , e cc lesiast ica l p refer men t a nd d ay-to-day manage men t o f a f fa irs .

One g e ts a n impress ion , f ro m t he a rch ives , o f

t he Marchese b e ing i n av ery l i tera l s ense , t he c en tre o f g overnmen t ;

a nd

t he i dea t ha t t he ' Cour t ' r epresen ts L odov ico , s urrounded b y h is r e la t ions a nd m in istered t o b y h is f am i l ia , d espa tch ing t he d a i ly b us iness o f t he s ta te s ee ms t o t he p resen t wr i ter t o b e e n t ire ly p laus ib le . I ft h is i s c orrect , i ta lso f o l lows o f c ourse t ha t t h is was h ow L odov ico w ished t o b e s een a nd c o m me morated .

I ti s d if f icu lt t o imag ine a ny s ix teen th

c en tury p r ince —a t l east a f ter a bou t 1 530 —who wou ld h ave t hough t i td es irab le t o s tr ike t h is s or t o f p osture i n p ub l ic .

T he o u tstand ing s ix teen th c en tury

e xa mp le o f t h is g enre o f p a in t ing i s p robab ly H o lbe in 's g roup p or tra it o f t he More f am i ly .

B u t a t p r ince ly l eve l , t he s ub jec ts o f t he p or tra i t ists were

more i n terested i n s ee ing t he mse lves i n s o me way i dea l ised o r t ransfor med . T he i nfor ma l ity o f t he c a mera d eg l i s pos i s ee ms u n l ike ly t o h ave b een a ccep tab le ;

a nd p r ince ly p or tra i ts s uch a s t ha t o f C har les V , s ea ted , b y

T it ian o r L as Men inas b y V e lasquez a re i ndeed e xceed ing ly u nco m mon . F or wha tever r eason , t he f ash ion f or t h is s or t o f p or tra iture d ec l ined l eav ing , a rguab ly , Man tegna 's Ca mera d eg l i S pos i a t t he b est s urv iv ing e xamp le o f at ype o f p a in t ing o nce a ltogether more e x tens ive a nd f am i l iar .

1 21

NOTES 1 . P erhaps t he e ar l iest r ecord o f ag uest b e ing t aken t o l ook a t t he f am i ly p or tra i ts i s t ha t o f t he B raban t ine h era ld Ed mond d e D yn ter b e ing s hown t he p a in t ings o f t he L uxe mbourg a ncestors b y K ing Wenze l o f B ohe m ia i n 1 44 , p robab ly a t Kar lste in .

S ee P . F . X . d e Ra m

C hron ique d es

D ues d e B raban t p ar Edmond d e D yn ter ( Brusse ls , 1 854-60 ) V o l . I I , 4 P . 7

•

2 . J . S ch losser

J ahrbuch d er K unsth istor ischen S amm lungen d er a l ler-

h öchsten K a iserhauses XV I ( 1 895 ) ' E in v erones isches B i lderbuch u nd d ie h öf ische K unst d es ) ( EV J ahrhunder ts '.

T h is e ssay h as s ince b een

r eissued s epara te ly i n I ta l ian t rans la t ion a s L ' Ar te d i C or te n e l s eco lo d ec i moquar to , E d . G . L . Me l l in i ( Cre mona , 1 965 ). 3 . F or a r ecen t a ccoun t o f t he e ar ly h istory o f t apestr ies s ee J . L estocquoy D eux s iec les d e l 'H isto ire d e l a T ap isser ie ( 1300-1500 ) ( Arras , 1 978 ) . 4 . T he most c o mp lete e ar ly a ccoun ts o f t apestr ies a re a s f o l lows : C hano ine D eha isnes

M . l e

Docu men ts e t e x tra i ts d ivers c oncernan t l ' h isto ire

d e l 'a r t d ans l a F landre , l 'A r to is e t l e H a inau t a van t l e XVe s iec le . ( L i l le , 1 886 ) , p . 6 16 f . f or l a te 1 4th c en tury t apestr ies o rdered b y P h i l ip o f B urgundy , f or t he i nven tory t aken a t h is d ea th i n 1 404 ( p . 8 25f f .) a nd f or t he i nven tory t aken a t t he d ea th o f Margaret o f F landers i n 1 405 ( p . 9 03f f .) .

J . G u if frey I nven ta ires d e J ean D ue d e B erry ( 1 401-1416 )

( Par is , 1 814 , 1 816 ) Ip . 2 06 f or t he t apestr ies i n t he 1 416 i nven tory . J . G u if frey

B ib l io theque d e l 'E c o le d es C hartes XLV I I I ( 1887 ) p . 5 7f f .

' I nven ta ire d es t ap isser ies d u r o i C har les V I ' f or t he F rench r oya l t apestr ies i n 1 422 . 5 . L a b a ta i l le d e Rosebecque was t he s ub ject o f at apestry i n t he 1 404 i nvent ory o f P h i l ip o f B urgundy ( see D eha isnes , 2 4 : E . c i t . p . 8 44 ) . p urchased i ti n 1 386-7 ( T.. , p . 6 39 ) .

H e h ad

T he b a t t le i n wh ich P h i l ip p layed

ap ar t , r esu lted i n t he d efea t o f t he a r my o f Ghen t b y aF rench r oya l a r my s uppor t ing t he C oun t o f F landers .

At apestry o n t he s ub ject o f

B er tra m d e C la iqu in was o rdered b y P h i l ip i n 1 395

p . 7 27 ) .

6 . Iam i ndeb ted t o my w ife f or d raw ing my a t ten t ion t o t he a ccoun t o f t he p a lace o f L ou is t he P ious a t I nge lhe im .

S ee E . F ara l

E r mo ld l e N o ir .

P oe me s ur L ou is l e P ieux e t E p i tres a u R o i P ep in ( Par is , 1 964 ) .

T he

p a lace was b egun b y C har le magne i n 7 87 b u t t he e xact d a te o f t he p a in t ings i s n ot k nown .

S ee p . 1 62-7.

7 . S ee R . A . B rowne , H . M . C o lv in a nd A . J . T ay lor K ing 's Works

T he H istory o f t he

I . T he M idd le Ages ( London , 1 963 ) , p . 1 27.

8 . A s a bove , p . 1 27. 9 . T hose p ar ts s urv iv ing i n t he e ar ly 1 9th c en tury were r ecorded b y C . A . S todhar t—see V etusta Monu men ta V I ( 1842 ) . f ea ture p ro m inen t ly .

T he b ooks o f Maccabees

S ee . 2 p . c i t . i n n ote 7 a bove , p p . 4 99-500 .

1 0 . C o mp leted i n t he s a le i n 1 355 . P ar is iens ( Par is , 1 877 ) .

S ee V . D ufour

Une F am i l ie d e P e in tres

T he p a in ter was J ehan C oste who d eserves t o

1 22

b e b et ter k n own , t hough f or r easons t ha t h ave n o th ing t o d o w ith t h is p aper . D esp i te a pparen t p ressure f ro m t he Treasury , h e n ot o n ly r efused t o k eep a n a ccoun t o f h is e xpenses b ut r efused a lso t he o f fer o f ac lerk t o d o i tf or h im .

E ven tua l ly J ohn I h i mse lf o rdered t he e xpenses t o b e

p a id s i mp ly o n t he t est i mony o f J ean C oste 's o a th .

T he words ' non

o bstan te q uod s im i le n undu m f i er i c onsuer i t ' g ive t he Treasury v iew o f t h is s o lu t ion .

J ean C oste was s a id t o b e ' s i mp lex e t i n f acto c o mpo toru m

e t mone taru m i gnarus ' b u t o ne wonders . 1 1 . J u les- Mar ie R ichard

Mahau t , C om tesse d 'Ar to is ( Par is , 1 887 ) , p . 3 56.

T he d ecora t ion , f or t he c ha teau o f C on f lans , was o rdered i n 1 320 . Mahau t 's f a ther , Rober t I , was k i l led i n 1 302 a t t he b a t t le o f C our tra i ; a nd t he i nc iden t , wh ich a ccord ing t o t he d escr ip t ion i nvo lved s h ips a nd k n igh ts , was t enta t ive ly c onnnected b y R ichard w ith a n u nspec if ied e xped i t ion t o S ic i ly .

S ch losser s uggested i tr eferred t o t he s econd c rusade

o f L ou is I X ( 1270 ) . 1 2 . S ee S . Ma ta lon a nd F . Mazz in i i n L o mbard ia ( M i lan , 1 958 ) , p .

A f fresch i d e l T recen to e Qua t trocen to 1 2 .

T he s urv iv ing s cenes s how t he

o ver throw o f N apo d e l la T orre b y t he a rchb ishop O t tone V iscon t i a t t he b a t t le o f D es io i n 1 278 a nd t he p a in t ings s ee m t o b e t h ir teen th c en tury i n s ty le .

O t tone d ied i n 1 295 a nd i ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he r oo m was c o m-

m iss ioned b y h im a s a monu men t t o h i mse lf .

B etween 1 300 a nd 1 310

t he V iscon t i were o u t o f p ower ( con tro l h ad b een r ega ined b y t he D e l la T orre f am i ly ) a nd i t was n o t u n t i l t he v is it o f t he Emperor H enry V I I t ha t t hey w ere f ina l ly a b le t o o ust t he ir r iva ls ( 1311 ) .

T he Angera s cenes

a re t herefore s o met i mes d a ted t o t he s econd d ecade .

T he s tructure i n

wh ich t hey a re p a in ted i s s a id t o b e l a te t h ir teen th c en tury . 1 3 . S ee P . D escha mps a nd M . T h ibout

L a P e in ture Mura le e n F rance a u

d ebu t d e l ' epoque g o th ique d e P h i l ippe-Auguste ä l a f in d u r egne d e C har les V ( 1 180-1380 ) ( Par is , 1 963 ) , p p . 2 29-34 . 1 4 . N o a ccoun t o f s ecu lar d ecora t ion c an i gnore t he d escr ip t ion o f Baudr i d e B ourgeu i l c . 1 100 i n o ne o f h is p oe ms d ed ica ted t o Ade la C oun tess o f B lo is .

T he p oe m r evo lves r ound a v is it t o Ade la 's c ha mber .

A lthough

a pparen t ly a work o f t he imag ina t ion—the p a lace i s n o t n a med—Baudr i was a t s o me p a ins t o p lace Ade la i n t he most s p lend id s et t ing h e c ou ld d ev ise .

H e n o ted a t l eng th t he s ub jects o f as er ies o f woven h ang ings

wh ich d ecora ted t he wa l ls —sub jects wh ich c o mpr ised a l arge p iece o f t he O ld T esta men t , e x tens ive e xcerp ts f ro m p agan h istory a nd t he f a mous a ccoun t o f t he N or man c onquest o f Eng land .

S ee L es O euvres P oet iques

d e B audr i d e B ourgue i l e d . P hy l l is Abraha ms ( Par is 1 926 ) P oe m CXCV I A de lae C om it issae p . 1 96-253 ( i nc lud ing c o m men tary ) . p a in ted w ith t he s tars , p lane ts a nd s igns o f t he z od iac ;

( The c ei l ing was wh i le t he mosa ic

f l oor d ep icted a s or t o f mappa mund i .) 1 5 . T hese a re t aken p ass im f ro m t he 1 422 i nven tory o f t he t apestr ies o f C har les V I , s ee n o te 4 . 1 6 . S ee H enr i S auva l

H isto ire e t R echerches d es An t iqu ites d e l a V i l le d e

P ar is ( Par is , 1 724 ) I , p . 2 83 .

My c o l league , D av id Tho mpson , h as

p o in ted o ut t o me t ha t av au lt c arved t o l ook l ike s pread ing b ranches 1 23

s urv ives i n P ar is a t t he h ead o f t he s ta ir c ase o f t he T our d e J ean s ans P eur .

T h is i s t he o n ly s urv iv ing p ar t o f t he med ieva l H o te l d 'A r to is ,

t he P ar is ian r es idence o f t he c oun ts o f A r to is a nd ( a f ter ) t he D ukes o f B urgundy .

I t was b u i lt 1 409-11 , s ee R . Vaughan

J ohn t he F ear less ,

( London 1 966 ) p . 8 5. 1 9 . G ianga leazzo a sked s pec if ica l ly f or ' qua tuor v e l s ex b ones d ep ictores q u i s c ian t b ene f acere f iguras e t a n i ma l ia '. i n L . O s io

T he who le l et ter i s p r in ted

D ocu men t i D ip lo ma t ic i t ra t t i d eg l i A rch iv i M i lanes i ( M i lan ,

1 854-72 ) V o l . I , p . 2 12 . 2 0 . T h is r e markab le d ocu men t , c over ing o ver s even ty f o l ios o f p aper , e ven more r e markab ly s urv ives i n d up l ica te .

B o th c op ies , b ound i n p arch-

men t , a re i n t he s a me B usta 3 29 o f t he A rch iv io G onzaga , Man tua . A par t f ro m t he l i brary l i st , i th as n o t u n for tuna te ly b een p ub l ished . Arch iv io G onzaga B usta 3 98 c on ta ins a f ur ther e x tens ive i nven tory d a ted 1 406 . 2 1 . The d ecora t ion o f c iv ic p a laces h ad much i n c o m mon w ith r oya l o r p r iva te p a laces .

T here ,

t oo , c on te mporary o r n ear-con te mporary

e ven ts m igh t f ind a p lace .

T he image , p robab ly o f G u idor icc io d a

F og l iano i n t he P a lazzo P ubb l ico S iena , c lear ly c o m me mora tes b y i t s d a te ( 1328 ) t he t ak ing o f t he t own o f Mon te mass i ; a nd t here i s ap or tra i t o f t he t own i n t he b ackground wh ich wou ld h ave b een i nstan t ly r ecogn isab le t o t hose who k new Mon te mass i .

I n t he B ro let to a t B resc ia t here a re t he

r e ma ins o f as er ies o f l ate 1 3th c en tury p a in t ings wh ich a pparen t ly c o mme mora te r ecen t p o l it ica l e ven ts ( see G . P iovane l l i

IP odesta b resc ian i

n e l l 'I ta l ia Med ieva le B resc ia , 1 977 ) a nd t here s ee m t o b e t he e x iguous r e ma ins o f s o meth ing v ery s im i lar i n t he P a lazzo d e l Rag ione , Man tua . 2 2 . S ee D escha mps a nd T h ibou t2 2 . c it . p . 2 38 .

Ar ecen t t echn ica l a ppra isa l

o f t he p a in t ings i n t he P apa l Pa lace i s t o b e f ound i n L es Monu men ts H istor iques d e l a F rance N . Sr XV I I ( 1971 ) p . 1 .

F . Enaud 'L es f resques

d u P a la is d es P apes a Av ignon '. 2 3 . S ee B aron i a nd L udov ic i 2 2 . c i t . p p . 6 7-73 ; Mazz in i 9 _ 2 . c i t . n o te 1 2 a bove ; e d i P isane l lo ( M i lan , 1 966 ) .

a lso S . Ma ta lon a nd F .

a nd G . C onso l i

It G iuocch i ' B orro meo

The s urv iv ing wa l l-pa in t ings o f t he C asa

B orro meo a re n ow d iv ided b e tween t ha t p a lace ( L r 2 s i tu ) a nd t he Rocca d e i B orro meo , Angera ( cer ta in f rag men ts r e moved t here i n 1 946 ) .

I ti s k nown

t ha t p ay men ts were made t o p a in ters work ing i n t he p a lace i n 1 445-6 b u t t he B orro meo a rch ives were u n for tuna te ly d estroyed i n 1 943 .

T he

Oreno wa l l p a in t ings a re u nda ted b u t s im i lar i n s ty le a nd c ostu me . 2 4 . H era ldry , b e ing i n s o me s ense ' readab le ', s o met i mes b eca me a d ecorat ive s ub jec t i n i t s own r igh t .

Ag ood e xa mp le s urv ives a t t he c ha teau o f

Rave l ( Puy d e D o me ) wh ich h as i n i t s g rande s a l le 4 9 s h ie lds most ly i den t if iab le a nd s uggest ing a d a te o f c . 1 300 . T h ibou t 2 2 .

p . 2 11 .

S ee D escha mps a nd

Ano ther e xce l len t e xa mp le o f s uch h era ld ic

d ecora t ion s urv ives i n t he P a lazzo Davanza t i , F lorence .

F or a n

e xa m ina t ion o f t h is h era ldry s ee Anna Mann in i 's e ssay i n M . F . T odorow P a lazzo D avanza t i ( F lorence , 1 979 ) p . 2 7 . c a mera d e i p avon i c on ta ins 5 6 s h ie lds . 1 24

T he r oo m , k nown a s t he

2 5 . S ee V ictor B eyer

C hefs d 'oeuvre d u V i tra i l e uropeen - L a Ca thedra le

d e S trasbourg ( Par is , 1 970 ) p p . 2 8-30 .

T he s er ies was b egun C . 1 200

b u t r ece ived a dd i t ions a f ter t he c a thedra l was r ebu i lt i n t he m id-13th c en tury .

Ano ther s er ies o f imper ia l ' por tra its ' i s o n t he s ides o f t he

Kar lsschre in a t A achen ( f in ished b y 1 215 ) . 2 6. F or a r ecen t a ccoun t o f wha t i s t o b e s een , s ee D . C . W. V erey B u i ld ings o f E ng land :

T he

G lou cestersh ire - t he Va le a nd t he F orest o f D ean

( Har mondswor th , 1 976 ) p p . 3 69-70 .

T he g lass d a tes f ro m c . 1 330 .

2 7. S ee B rowne , C o lv in a nd T ay lor _ o p . c it . p . 1 30 . 2 8 . R ichard 9 2 . c i t . p . 3 56 . 2 9 . S ee E . S chuber t D er Nau mburger D om ( Ber l in , 1 968 ). 3 0 . T he e stab l ish men t o f t h is r equ ire men t i s c lear ly marked b y t he monumen ts a ssoc ia ted w i th t he f am ily o f S t . L ou is , s tar t ing w ith t he e f f igy o f P h i l ip d e F rance ( d ied C . 1 235 ) .

B ut a n teceden ts a re t o b e f ound i n t he

Angev in monu men ts a t F on tevrau lt—a lready p robab ly i n t he l a te 1 2th c en tury .

The h ead o f t he

e f f igy ' o f Og ier t he Dane ( da teab le c . 1 170 ) ,

n ow i n Meaux , Mus e Mun ic ipa l , s hows t ha t t h is monu men t was a lso s trong ly c haracter ised . 3 1 . T he c arved s h ie lds i n t he a is les o f West m inster A bbey s ee m t o p erfor m as im i lar t ask more s ucc inct ly . 3 2 . F or a r esu me o f i n for ma t ion , s ee E . Bacchesch i i n

L 'opera c o mp leta

d i G io t to ( M i lan , 1 966 ) p . 9 5 , b u t p ar t icu lar ly s ee C . M i tche l l

J ourna l

o f t he Warburg a nd C ourtau ld I nst i tu tes , V o l . 1 4 ( 1951 ) p . 1' The L a teran F resco o f B on iface V I I I '.

I n as ense t h is was a monu men t t o t he C aetan i

f am i ly whose a r mor ia l b ear ings were much i n e v idence ;

a nd i t must

h ave b een p a in ted d ur ing t he l i fet i me o f B on iface V I I I ( d ied 1 303 ).

T he

o r ig ina l wa l l p a in t ing was s ubstan t ia l , b e ing a pparen t ly s o meth ing o ver 4m h igh . The i n f luence o f t h is c o mpos i t ion o u ts ide I ta ly s ee ms a pparen t i n t he t ransep tf acade o f t he c hurch o f t he V irg in a t Müh lhausen . 3 3 . I n t he A rena C hape l , Padua . 3 4 . I n t he S t . L ou is a l tar o f S i mone Mart in i , Museo d e l Capod i mon te , Nap les . F ur ther e ar ly 1 4th c en tury d onor f igures e x ist i n t he l ower c hurch a t A ss is i . 3 5 . S ee J . Row lands

Bur l ing ton Magaz ine V o l . CV I I ( 1965 ) p . 2 5 .

' The

d a te o f S i mone Mar t in i 's a rr iva l i n Av ignon ' 3 6 . T he v isua l p resen ta t ion o f s er ies o f p redecessors s ee ms t o h ave b egun i n e cc les iast ica l c irc les —of ten t ak ing t he f or m o f as equence o f s epu lchra l monu men ts .

N o tab le e xa mp les were t he 1 3t h c en tury monu men ts t o 1 2 th

c en tury a bbots o f J um ieges a nd S t . D en is ( Par is ) , n ow k nown o n ly t hrough Ga ign ieres d raw ings ( see J . Adhe mar a nd G . D ordor , Ar ts V le P er . V o ls . 8 4 , 8 8 , 9 0 p ass im ).

G azet te d es B eaux

T he s urv iv ing 1 3th c en tury

monu men ts t o t he S axon b ishops i n We l ls C a thedra l b e long t o t he s a me

1 25

f ash ion .

The s ub jects o f t hese p resen ta t ions were n o t a lways e cc les i-

a st ica l .

T he p r im i f unda tores a t Nau mburg b e longed t o t he 1 1th c en tury

f am i ly o f t he c oun ts o f Me issen ( presen t b u i ld ing a nd s ta tues o f t he m id1 3th c entury ) :

a nd H enry o f B lo is i n t he midd le o f t he 1 2th c en tury

d isp layed r ound t he c ho ir o f Winchester C a thedra l c hests c on ta in ing t he b ones o f s evera l me mbers o f t he r oya l h ouse o f Wessex . P ic tor ia l s equences a re h arder t o f ind b u t a n o bv ious e xa mp le s urv ives i n t he s ta ined g lass o f t he c ho ir o f T ewkesbury Abbey ( a lready men t ioned , s ee n o te 2 6 .

I td a tes f ro m C . 1 330 ) .

Dr . Amanda S i mpson h as k ind ly

d rawn my a t ten t ion t o a n a ccoun t o f t he d ecora t ion ( 1301 ) o f t he p a lace c hape l o f t he b ishops o f P rague u nder J an o f D raz ice ' Cape l la m p u lc her im is p ictur is d ep ing i p rocurav it i n q ua ymag ines omn iu m e p iscoporu m P ragens is s ecundu m o rd inu m s un t s i tua te ' —see F on tes R eru m B ohe m icaru m I V ( 1884 , P rague ) p . 3 68

1K ron ika

F ran t iska P razskeho '.

The r e mark

b y t he c hron ic ler t ha t s o me o f t he d ecora t ion e lsewhere i n t he p a lace was d er ived d irect ly f ro m Ro me i s ar em inder o f t he e x istence a t a l l ma ter ia l d a tes o f p ictor ia l s equences o f images o f p opes a nd o ther d ign itar ies i n t he b as i l icas o f S . P ietro i n V a t icano a nd S . P ao lo f uor i l e Murä . 3 7. B y q uo t ing o n ap rev ious o ccas ion a n u nchecked s econdary s ource , Iam g u i l ty o f p ro long ing a c on fus ion .

T he ' Ga l lery o f K ings ' was c er ta in ly

i n t he p a lace o n t he I l e d u C ite a nd n o t i n t he L ouvre .

S auva l , d escr ib ing

t he g rande s a l le t here ( wh ich s urv ived u p t o af i re i n 1 618 ) s ays t ha t i t was ..la mbr isee

e t v ou tee d e b o is , a cco mpagnee d ans l e m i l ieu d e

p i l iers d e me me , t out r ehaussees d 'or e t d 'azure , e t r e mp l is d es s ta tues d e n os Ro is

( H isto ire e t R echerches d es An t iqu ites d e l a V i l le d e

P ar is , P ar is 1 724 , V o l . I , p . 3 ) .

B . Prost ( Gazet te d es B eaux A r ts

p er . 2 , Vo l . 3 6 ( 1887 ) p . 2 41 ) p ub l ished t he r ecord o f ap ay men t made t o P ierre d e T hury i n 1 422 t o make a s tatue o f C har les V I t o s tand e z g rans s a les d u p a la is r oya l aP ar is o n r enc d es a u tres r epresen ta t ions d e r o is .

T he g rande s a l le was b u i lt b y P h i l ippe l e B e l a nd t he s ta tues

were t he s ub ject o f c o m men t b y J an d e J andun i n 1 323 . 3 8 . S ee R ichard 2. 2 . c it . p . 3 31f f .

I n 1 322 a h ead was a dded t o t he s er ies ,

p our l e r o i q u i o re e st ( p . 3 39 ) . 3 9 . S ee J . N euw ir th

D er B i ldercyk lus d es L uxe mberger S ta m mbau mes a us

K ar lste in ( Prague , 1 897 ) —probab ly t he p a in t ings s een b y Ed mond d e Dyn ter i n 1 413 ( see n o te 1 ) . 4 0 . T he g enera l a ppearance o ft hese g rea t g a ler ies o f f igures i sn ow b est k nown t hrough s uch l a ter s urv iv ing e xa mp les a s t he s tud io lo o f U rb ino . I t may b e s uggested t ha t t he s a me a esthet ic c oncep t u nder l ies t he o therw ise u n fa tho mab le e ccen tr ic ity o f t he c hape l o f t he Ho ly C ross , Kar lste in ( pa in ted c . 1 360-65 ). •

4 1 . At horough s tudy o f t he a l tar i nc lud ing i t s i conography h as r ecen t ly b een made b y J . Gardner

Z e i tschr if t f ar Kunstgesch ich te V o l . 3 9 ( 1976 ) p . 1 2

' Sa in t L ou is o f T ou louse , R ober t o f An jou a nd S i mone Mar t in i '.

1 26

4 2 . F or t he c hrono logy , s ee M . R . Toynbee

S . L ou is o f T ou louse a nd t he

p rocess o f c anon isa t ion i n t he f our teen th c en tury ( Manchester , 1 929 ) e spec ia l ly p . 1 10 f . 4 3 . T he c onsecra t ion c ere mony f o l lows im med ia te ly o n t he p ro fess ion i n S i mone Mar t in i 's S t . L ou is a l tar a nd i s c arr ied o u t b y t he p ope . e ven ts b o th t ook p lace i n Ro me .

T he

T he most r ecen t monograph o n

Ambrog io L orenzet t i ( G . Row ley , P r inceton 1 958 ) i gnores t hese p rob le ms , c a l ls t he c ere mony ' The o rd ina t ion o f S . L ou is ' a nd r e marks o n t he ' knee l ing monks ' t o t he r ear ( Vo l . I , p . 7 9-80 ) .

S evera l wr iters

n o t ing K ing Rober t 's i n tense e xpress ion s uggest t ha t b ecause o f L ou is ' p ro fess ion a s aF ranc iscan t he y oung S a in t a t t h is p o in t a lso h anded o ver h is c la i ms t o t he C rown o f S ic i ly .

T h is h owever was n ot t he c ase , s ince

t he f or ma l r enunc ia t ion h ad a lready t aken p lace , p robab ly i n J anuary o f 1 296 ( see T oynbee , 2 p . c i t . p . 1 00 ) . 4 4 . T he i n for ma t ion a bou t t he i nven tory was k ind ly s upp l ied b y D r . Amanda S i mpson . 4 5 . I n b etween May a nd D ece mber 1 356 t he b a t t le o f P o i t iers t ook p lace ( Sep te mber 1 9 th ) a nd J ohn was t aken p r isoner t o E ng land .

T he a dd i t ion

o f ap iece o f t he True C ross t o t he p ro m ised t horns may r eg ister s o met h ing o f h is a dd i t iona l n eed f or imper ia l s uppor t . 4 6 . I th as r ecen t ly b een s ta ted t ha t t he c rowns a re r ena issance i n c haracter a nd a re l a ter a dd it ions ( see K . S te jska l P rague 1 978 , p . 1 14 ) .

European A r t i n t he 1 4th C en tury ,

The s ty l ist ic d iscrepancy i s n o t h owever im me-

d ia te ly a paaren t a nd t he t echn ica l e v idence i s s t i l l awa i ted ( a t l east b y n on-Czech-speakers ) . 4 7 . S ee V lasta Dvorakova a nd o thers

Go th ic Mura l Pa in t ing i n B ohe m ia a nd

Morav ia 1 300-1378 ( London , 1 964 ) p . 1 36 . 4 8 . S ee K . S te jska l l oc . c i t . 4 9 . S ee G . S ch izzero t to

Cu l tura e v i ta c iv i le a Man tua f ra ' 300 e ' 500

( F lorence , 1 977 ) p . 2 9 f .

T he b one was b rough t b ack i n 1 354 a f ter

C har les ' f irst v is it t o Man tua . 5 0 . S ee E . Werunsky

G esch ich te K a iser Kar ls I V u nd s e iner Z e i t

V o l . I I

( I nnsbruck , 1 892 ) p . 3 06 . 5 1 . G . S ch izzero t to 2 p . c it . p p . 3 6-38 —dur ing C har les ' s econd Man tuan v is it . 5 2 . I n for ma t ion a ga in s upp l ied b yDr . S i mpson . 5 3 . S ee f or i nstance J oanne v . H erzogenberg i n Ka iser Kar l I V :

S taa ts mann

u nd Mäzen , Mun ich 1 978 , p . 3 31 - a nd o thers . 5 4 . S ee L e C om te d e L aborde L es Ducs d e B ourgogne ( Par is , 1 849-52 ) Vo l . I , p . 2 72 . 5 5 . F or t he F errarese e v idence s ee W. L . Gundershe i mer t he C our t o f E rco le Id 'Este ( Geneva , 1 972 ).

Ar t a nd L ife a t

T he a u thor p r in ts a t rea t ise

D e t r iu m rh is r e l ig ion is b y G iovann i S abad ino d eg l i A r ien t i , who was a

1 27

n o tary a nd s ecre tary t o Andrea B en t ivog l io .

T he work was wr i t ten i n

1 497 a nd c on ta ins among o ther t h ings e x tens ive d escr ip t ions o f t he F errarese p a laces o f B e lr iguardo a nd B e lf iore . T he M i lanese a nd P av ian e v idence i s u nnecessar i ly c on fused b y t he e x ist ing s econdary s ources wh ich a pp ly t he s ame d ocu men ts s i mu l tane ous ly t o t he t wo d iferen t c ast les o f P av ia a nd M i lan . T he mistake c rep t i n d ur ing t he 1 9th c en tury a nd c on t inues more r ecen t ly i n C . Baron i a nd S . S a mek L udov ic i

L a P it tura L o mbarda d e l Qua t trocen to

( Mess ina-F lorence , 1 952 ) .

S ince b y a ccep t ing t he s ta te men ts o f

B aron i/Sa mek L udov ic i w ithou t c heck ing t he m Ih ave b een g u i lty o fp rol ong ing t h is c on fus ion ,

s o me a t te mp t i s c a l led f or t o s or t o ut t he p os it ion .

Ih ave n o t h owever b een a b le t o g o b ack t o t he M i lanese a rch ives a nd my c o m men t i s n ecessar i ly o n t he s ta te o f t he p r in ted t ex ts . B aron i/Sa mek L udov ic i r epub l ished ( pp . 1 09-113 ) f our d ocu men ts u nder t he y ear 1 469 , a l l o f wh ich t hey s a id r eferred t o t he c ast le a t P av ia . A l l c a me f ro m 1 9 th c en tury s econdary s ources , n one f ro m t he o r ig ina l a rch ives ;

a nd t hree c a me f ro m F eder ico S acch i

C re mones i ( Cre mona , 1 872 ) .

N o t iz ie P it tor iche

S acch i d a ted t he g roup t o 1 471 b u t a s

p r in ted b y h im n one o f t he d ocu men ts i s f or ma l ly d a ted .

H owever , wh i le

t wo f ro m t h is t r io i ndub itab ly r efer t o P av ia ( t he ir h ead ings make t h is c lear ) t he f i rst d ocu men t ( Baron i/Sa mek L udov ic i , p . 1 09 ;

S acch i , p .

2 15 ) a s i ndub itab ly r efers t o t he c ast le i n Mi lan . A n a l most i den t ica l d ocu men t a ppeared i n L . B e ltra m i 's I l Caste l lo d i Mi lano ( M i lan , 1 894 ) , p . 2 80 .

I ti s as chedu le o f d ecora t ion p repared

b y t he d uke f or a n u nna med p a lace .

B e ltram i n o ted t ha t t here were t hree

e xe mp lars i n t he Arch iv io d i S ta to ( and a lso t ha t t hey c on ta ined s l igh t d if ferences.

B e ltra m i 's p r in ted v ers ion i s c h ief ly r e markab le f or

d e mand ing more n a med p or tra its t han t he v ers ion p r in ted b y S acch i a nd B aron i/Sa mek L udov ic i ) .

Mo re impor tan t , B e l tram i a lso p ub l ished a n

e st i ma te made b y t he p a in ters c oncerned o f t he c ost o f t hese works p rop osed b y t he D uke .

F ro m t he ir c on ten ts , b o th s chedu le a nd e st i ma te

r efer t o t he s a me b u i ld ing ; a nd t he e st i ma te i s i nscr ibed o n t he b ack ( Be ltra m i , p . 2 33 ) ' 1472 s pesa c a lcu la ta a ndar ia a d f ar d ip ignere l e s a le e t c a mere d e l C aste l lo d e M i lano ' . T hus t h is s chedu le o f works a nd e st i ma te o f 1 472 f or t he c ast le a t M i lan c an n ow b e s een t o p ara l le l t he o ther t wo u nda ted d ocu men ts , a lso a s chedu le a nd e st i ma te , f or P av ia .

G ran ted t ha t d ecora t ion i s k nown f ro m

o ther s ources t o h ave b een i n p rogress i n b oth c ast les d ur ing t he y ears c . 1 470 , as im i lar d a te f or t he d ocu men ts s ee ms l ike ly .

T he p or traya l

o f t he e ven ts s urround ing t he wedd ing o f B ona o f S avoy t o G a leazzo Man s S forza ( 1468 ) a nd o f Ga leazzo Mar ia h i mse lf b e ing a t tended b y C ecco S i monet ta , h is c h ief c ounse l lor ( Ga l leazzo was a ssas ina ted i n 1 476 a nd C ecco s urv ived o n ly t i l l 1 479 ) a lso s ugges t ad a te i n t he e ar ly 1 470s . Ih ope t ha t s o mebody w i l l g ive t hese d ocu men ts a p roper e d it ion . a re u n ique a nd w i thou t

T hey

r iva l a nd d eserve more a t ten t ion .

5 6. S ee B aron ! a nd S a mek L udov ic i 2 p . c i t . p . 1 08 . ' renovare '.

1 28

T he word u sed i s

5 7. T he d a tes o f t he F errarese p a in t ings c an n ow f or t he most p ar t o n ly b e d educed f ro m i n terna l e v idence , a lthough o ne r oo m a t B e lr iguardo i s k nown t o h ave b een p a in ted i n 1 448 ( t he v i l la was b egun i n 1 435 — Gundershe i mer 2 2 . c it . p p . 1 9 a nd 5 6 ).

S abad ino men t ioned emb le ms

o f D uke B orso ( d ied 1 471 ) a t B e lr iguardo a nd C os ma T ura i s k nown t o h ave b een work ing o n ag ex io la n ova t here d ur ing t he y ears 1 469-72 . B u t images o f E rco le &Este were a lso t o b e s een a nd i n o ne i nstance h e was wear ing t he o rder o f t he g ar ter , c on ferred o n h im i n 1 481 .

T he

wa l l-pa in t ings a t B e lf iore c o m me mora ted t he wedd ing o f E leonora o f Aragon t o E rco le ( 1473 ) a nd t he s tar t o f a n a bor t ive p i lgr i mage t o C o mposte l la ( 1487 ). A t B e lf iore , t he l ogg ia o pen ing o n to t he ma in c or t i le was d ecora ted w i th as er ies o f h un t ing s cenes c e lebrat ing A lberto V &Este ( re igned 1 388-93 ). I n v iew o f wha t i s k nown a bou t t he p a in t ing o f 1 472 i n t he c ast le a t M i lan , i ti s n o t imposs ib le t ha t t hese F errarese p a in t ings a re a lso r e trospect ive a nd d a te f ro m t he l a ter p ar t o f t he 1 5th c en tury .

A lber to h owever b egan

B e lf iore i n t he 1 390s ( Gundershe i mer 2 2 . c i t . p p . 2 3 a nd 6 7 ) a nd i n o ne i nstance S abad ino n o ted i n t he p a in t ings a n i t em o f d ress wh ich b e longed t o a no ther e ra ( A lber to was wear ing ' una p urpurea b ire ta l ungo s ino a l d orso a la f og ia d e q ue l t e mpo ' ) .

I t s ee ms p oss ib le t herefore t ha t we

s hou ld imag ine t hese l ost works i n t he s ty le o f c . 1 390-1400 , p erhaps al i t t le l ike t he s l igh t ly l a ter p a in t ing b y t he S a lrmben i b ro thers i n t he o ra tory o f S . G iovann i a t Urb ino .

I n t ha t c ase t hey wou ld , o f c ourse ,

a n teda te t he t apestr ies o f J ean s ans P eur a nd t he J anuary p age o f t he Tres R iches H eures ( see p age 1 16 a bove ) a s e xa mp les o f p a in t ings o f ' occupa t ions ' e nacted b y i den t if iab le p eop le . 5 8 . F or a c onven ien t a ccoun t o f t he P a lazzo S ch ifano ia s ee R . Mo la jo l i C os me T ura e ig rand i p it tor i f errares i d e l s uo t e mpo ( M i lan , 1 974 ). A t te mp ts h ave b een made t o s ee i n t he l owes t r ow o f p a in t ings a l lus ions t o n o t v ery s pec if ic e ven ts —notab ly August a nd S ep te mber , s a id t o p or tray t he r ecep t ion o f messengers r espect ive ly f ro m B o logna a nd V en ice . 5 9 . T he s ub ject h as r ecen t ly b een e x tens ive ly r e-exa m ined b y P rofessor Rodo lfo S ignor in i .

To h i m we owe t he d iscovery o f d ocu men tary p roof

t ha t work h ad a lready b egun i n t he c a mera i n A pr i l 1 465 . ma jor a r t ic le o n t he q uest ion ( Man tova e iG onzaga .

I n h is f i rst

A t t i d e l c onvegno

o rgan izza to d a l l 'Accade m ia N az iona le d e i L ince i ed a lP A ccade m ia V irg i l iana c on l a c o l laboraz ione d e l la c i t tä d i Man tova .

Man tua , 1 974 ,

p p . 2 17-240 ) h e c onc luded t ha t o f t he t wo f rescoes , t he c our t s cene s howed t he r ecep t ion o n J anuary i st 1 462 o f t he n ews o f t he g rave i l lness o f F rancesco S forza a nd t he Encoun ter s howed t he b r ief mee t ing b etween L odov ico a nd F rancesco o n t he s a me d ay a t B ozzo lo .

S ubsequen t ly ,

P rofessor S ignor in i o f fered a more e x tended e xa m ina t ion o f t he b ackground o f t he E ncoun ter ( C iv i ltä Man tovana X I ( 1977 ) p . 1

p aessagg io d e l l '

i ncon tro n e l l 'a f fresco d e l la " Ca mera d eg l i s pos i" e l e s ue f on t i ' ) . T h is , h e s uggested , s ign if ies t he c ity o f Ro me t o wh ich F rancesco was g o ing ;

a nd v ar ious f eatures were i nc luded t o r em ind t he v iewer o f t he

r u ins o f a nd t he c oun trys ide a round T ivo l i where P ius I h ad b een a c t ive

1 29

i n f or t ify ing t he r occa i n 1 461-2 ( i .e . a t t he p er iod t ha t F rancesco was made Card ina l ) .

F ina l ly , P rofessor S ignor in i h as l inked t he g enera l

c haracter o f t he c a mera t o ap assage i n L uc ian 's P eni t ou o ikou e u s ing t h is t ex t i n p ar t icu lar t o e xp la in t he wo men i n t he o cu lus ( see Gaze t ta d i Ma n tova , i st D ece mber 1 978 , p . 3 ) .

As l igh t ly e ar l ier c on tr ibut ion t o

t he s ame s ub ject b y G er mano Ma lazzan i ( Ar te L o mbarda NS50 ( 1978 ) p .33 ' La f on te l e t terar ia d e l la ' camera d eg l i s pos i ' d i Man tegna ) s tressed ad if feren t s ource , t he P anegyr icus o f P l iny t he Younger , a nd c a me t o q u ite d if feren t c onc lus ions . P rofessor S ignor in i i n h is e ar l iest a r t ic le ( 1974 ) f aced t he p rob le ms i nheren t i n h is a na lys is s quare ly a nd f a ir ly .

O f t he r ecogn isab le f i gures

i n t he E ncoun ter , F rancesco t he c ard ina l was b orn i n 1 444 , a nd h is b ro ther t he p ro to-no tary L odov ico i n 1 460 .

O f F eder ico 's t wo v is ib le

c h i ldren , F rancesco was b orn i n 1 466 a nd S ig is mondo i n 1 469 . o f t he m was t herefore a l ive i n 1 462 .

N e ither

N or w ere t he Emperor F reder ick

Ia nd K ing C hr ist ian Io f D en mark p resen t ( see n ote 6 0 b e low ) .

T he

b ackground , i th as t o b e a dm it ted , d oes n ot s how t he c i ty o f Ro me—at l east i n a ny r ecogn isab le f or m ;

n or a re t he p roposed r eferences t o

T ivo l i im med ia te ly c onv inc ing , a l though P rofessor S ignor in i makes t he p o in t ( i n p ar t t hrough r esearch i n t he a rch ives ) t ha t t hose a t Man tua c ou ld h ave k nown a bou t T ivo l i b oth t hrough G onzaga em issar ies a t t he c our t o f P ius I a nd t hrough t he wr it ings o f S trabo .

I ti s a rguab le , t oo , t ha t t he

c a mera d oes n ot c orrespond t o t he c oncep t ion o f modest r estra int p rop osed b y L uc ian b u t i s , b y 1 5th c en tury s tandards , e xcep t iona l ly r ich ly d ecora ted .

Moreover t he s ub ject ma t ter o f t he wa l l p a in t ings i n L uc ian 's

h a l l i s d escr ibed i n t he t ex t a nd b ears n o r ese mb lance t o a ny o f t he s ub jects o r f igures d ep icted i n t he c a mera .

P rofessor S ignor in i 's

c i ta t ion o f L uc ian s ee ms h owever more c onstruct ive t han P rofessor Mu lazzan i 's c i ta t ion o f P l iny .

H ere a f ew i so la ted s en tences f ro m a

c o mpos it ion o f c ons idera lle l eng th a re a dduced t o s ugges t mean ings wh ich s ee m a t b est t enuous b u t s o met i mes a l together u n l ike ly .

I ti s , f or

i nstance , a l most i nconce ivab le t ha t Barbara o f B randenburg , t he Marchesa o f Man tua a nd d augh ter o f o ne o f t he Imper ia l e lectors s hou ld h ave b een p a in ted u pi n t he g a l lery s urrounded b y s ervan ts mere ly b ecause P l iny p ra ised T ra jan f or t he am ic iz ia wh ich e x isted w ith in t he imper ia l h ouseh o ld b etween r u ler a nd s ervan ts . The E ncoun ter h as a lso b een a l igned w ith a nother meet ing b etween L odov ico a nd F rancesco G onzaga a t B ondane l lo i n 1 472 w hen F rancesco was r eturn ing t o Man tua t o a ssu me t i tu lar c on tro l o f t he c hurch o f S . Andrea .

B u t ,

a l though t ha t d a te f i ts t he i den t if iab le f igures more h app i ly , t hey were c er ta in ly n ot a l l p resen t ;

a nd t he s ign if icance o f t he b ackground r e ma ins

ap rob le m i ft h is i s t he r ecord o f a n e ven t . 6 0 . S ee b y t he s a me a u thor

M it te i lungen d es Kunsth istor ischen I nst itu tes i n

F lorenz XV I I I ( 1974 ) , p . 2 27 'F eder ico I I eC r ist iano In e l la C a mera d eg l i S pos i d e l Ma n tegna '. 6 1 . S ee B e ltra m i 2 E . c i t . p . 2 81.

The "C our t" s cene a t Man tua b ears a n

u ncanny r ese mb lance t o t wo o f t he s ub jects d escr ibed i n t he P av ian a nd M i lanese s chedu les .

B o th h ave a lready b een men t ioned . 1 30

( 1 ) ' e l s ignore

... a s edere f acende ( Pav ia .

ed . C h icho i n p ede i n a t to d e c onsu l tare e t e xped ire S ee B aron i/Sa mek L udov ic i 2 p . c i t . p . 1 11 ) . ( 2 ) ' . ..

s . H er mes , Madonna B ianca a d mano a l la I l l ma D uchessa e t l a n u tr ice d acan to c on l a N anne ta ....

( M i lan , B e ltra m i 2 p. c i t . p . 2 81 ) .

6 2 . P rofessor S ignor in i p o in ted o u t ( 1 ) t ha t Man tegna was c rea ted c oun t p a la t ine b y F reder ick I I a t F errara i n 1 469 ; i n Man tua t w ice i n t he f i rst h a lf o f 1 474 ;

( 2 ) t ha t C hr ist ian Iwas

( 3 ) t ha t G a leazzo Mar ia was

c o mp la in ing a bou t n o t b e ing i nc luded i n N ove mber 1 475 .

T he c a mera

i nscr ip t ion g ives wha t i s p robab ly a c o mp let ion d a te o f 1 474 .

T h is

s uggests t ha t d ec is ions o n who was t o b e i nc luded w ere made a s t he s che me p rogressed a nd C hr ist ian a t l east was p u t i n a l most a t t he l ast p oss ib le mo men t .

S ignor in i s uggests t ha t h e may b e i den t if ied w ith t he

h ead p rev ious ly t hough t t o b e t ha t o f Man tegna . T h is i s r egre t tab le a nd t he p or tra it c o mpar isons a re n o t t o ta l ly c o mpe l l ing ; b u t i t must b e a dm it ted t ha t i n t h is p ar t icu lar s oc ia l g roup t he p resence o f t he K ing o f D en mark s ee ms r a ther more l ike ly t han t ha t o f t he C our t P a in ter ( notw ithstand ing t he f act t ha t Man tegna was b y t h is d a te a n imper ia l c oun t ) .

I n a ny c ase , C hr ist ian must b e v is ib le s o mewhere .

6 3 . P rofessor Mu lazzan i 's i n terpreta t ion h as b een men t ioned i n n o te 5 9 . P rofessor S ignor in i o f fers a more a pposi te c o mpar ison w ith t he r est o f L uc ian who u sed c on trasted s or ts o f f e ma le a dorn men t t o c lar ify t he q ua l it ies o f ab eau t ifu l c e i l ing a nd d ist ingu ish b etween c iv i l ised a nd b arbar ian c oncep ts o f b eau ty .

I t s ee ms t o me v ery u n l ike ly t ha t t he g ir ls

e x ist p r inc ipa l ly t o i l lustra te L uc ian 's t ex t ;

a nd o nce t he d ec is ion h ad

b een t aken t o s et p eop le r ound t he p arape t o f t he o cu lus , i tw ou ld h ave b een n ecessary i n t he i n terests o f v ar iety t o s e lec t d if feren t t ypes a nd c haracters .

T hese d if ferences —unc lud ing t he n egro f igure— may a s we l l

h ave h ad a b as is i n r ea l ity a s i n al i terary t ex t . 6 4 . Th is , o f c ourse , wou ld h o ld g ood f or p eop le l ong s ince d ead ( s ee t he d ecorat ions a t M i lan ) .

T hus P rofessor S ignor in i 's i den t if ica t ion o f t he

f ace o f V it tor ino d a F e ltre ( d ied 1 446 ) i n t he c our t s cene s ee ms e n t ire ly p laus ib le . 6 5 . S ee t h is a u thor i n J ourna l o f t he Warburg a nd C our tau ld I nst itu tes XL I ( 1978 ) p . 3 17 ' Two N otes f ro m Man tua '. 6 6 . T he who le i dea o f a n o cu lus must i n t he 1 460s h ave b een l inked i nd isso lub ly w ith t he P an theon .

1 31

1 1 . NOTES ON THE POST-CONQUEST CALENDAR , L ITANY AND MARTYROLOGY OF THE CATHEDRAL PR IORY OF WINCHESTER WITH A CONS IDERATION OF WINCHESTER D IOCESE CALENDARS OF THE PRE-SARU M PER IOD N . J . Morgan

I n f ew c ases h ave a ny th ing l ike a c o mp le te s et o f s erv ice b ooks s urv ived f ro m t he P ost-Conquest p er iod f or t he g rea t B ened ict ine monaster ies o f E ng land .

1

F or s o me h ouses s o l i t t le r e ma ins t ha t i ti s n ot e ven p oss ib le

t o e stab l ish a ny p ar t o f t he ir Ca lendars o r L itan ies e ven i n av ery b as ic f or m . 2 F or o thers we h ave p erhaps o ne e xa mp le o f aC a lendar o r L itany a t tached t o aP sa lter o r B ook o f H ours b u t y et n o M issa l , B rev iary , G radua l , A n t iphoner o r Ord ina l r e ma ins a s s uppor t ing e v idence f or t he a ccuracy o f t he t ex t .

I n a n i dea l s itua t ion c o mpar ison i s n eeded b etween t he S anc tora ls

o f t hese s erv ice b ooks a nd t he e x tan t c a lendar o r c a lendars . V ery f ew c a lendars h ave a f u l l a nd c o mp le te ly f au l t less t ex t a nd many a re r ea l ly r a t t ier c orrup t i n e very s ense o f t he word .

O f ten f u l l 'in for ma t ion i s l ack ing o n t he

g rad ing o f af east , f requen t ly t here a re i n terpo la t ions f ro m mar tyro log ies , a nd o ccas iona l ly t here i s i nser t ion o f f easts o f impor tance t o t he owner b u t n ot t o t he e stab l ish men t whose c a lendar p rov ided t he mode l f or t he t ex t .

3

F or s o me p laces , a nd s uch i s t he c ase f or t he Ca thedra l P r iory o f Winchester , n o p roper c a lendar o r c o mp lete ly r e l iab le l i tany s urv ives , b u t f ro m t ex tua l c o mpar ison a nd f ro m s ca t tered f ragmen ts o f e v idence r easonab ly a ccura te t ex ts c an b e r econs tructed .4 The i n for ma t ion f or r econstruct ing t he W inchester c a lendar s urv ives i n ap erverse ly f ragmen ted manner i n wh ich e ach s ource h as s o me ma jor d efect wh ich o n ly when a l l t he t ex ts a re c o l la ted t oge ther c an t o s o me d egree b e r epa ired .5 I n c o mpar ing t hese t ex ts a p icture emerges o f t he s or ts o f p rob le ms wh ich must h ave e x isted i n t ex tua l t rans m iss ion o f c a lendars . A bove a l l o ne b eco mes aware t ha t med ieva l s cr ibes l ike modern s cho lars o f ten h ad t o work f ro m t ex ts e i ther i l leg ib le o r i naccura te o r ac o mb ina t ion o fb o th . The e x istence o f t hree B ened ict ine e stab l ish men ts a t Winchester ( t he C a thedra l P r iory , H yde A bbey, a nd t he h ouse o f n uns , t he N unna m inster ) g rea t ly n ecessi ta tes c lear d ist inct ions t o b e made o f t he ir l i turg ica l c haract er ist ics when a scr ib ing c a lendars a nd l i tan ies .

On ly f or H yde Abbey a re

t he t ex ts a va i lab le i n a l most a s p ure a nd s tra igh tforward f or ms a s c ou ld b e d es ired .

6

N o t ex ts c an b e a scr ibed w ith a ny c on f idence t o t he N unna m inster

a lthough p erhaps t he e stab l ish men t o f t hose o f t he Ca thedra l P r iory w ith wh ich i t was c lose ly l i nked may e nab le s o me a t tr ibu t ions t o b e made . Many o f t he Winchester r eg ion manuscr ip ts o f t he t we lf th a nd t h ir teen th c en tur ies h ave r ich i l lu m ina t ion .

The ' Psa lter o f H enry o f B lo is ' ,7 t he

Imo la P sa lter a nd t he ' W i l ton •P sa l ter '

8

a re t he t hree most d ist ingu ished

1 33

e xa mp les .

T he r econstruct ion o f t he Ca thedra l P r iory c a lendar w i l l b e

s een t o b e r e levan t t o t he ir p rob le ms .

S evera l o ther b ooks a lso most ly

i l lu m ina ted h ave Winchester d iocese c a lendars o f t he p re-Saru m p er iod wh ich w i l l b e c o mpared w ith t he c a lendar o f t he P r iory .9 L ast ly t he c a lendar o f Winchester h as b een c o mpared w i th o ther B ened ict ine e xa mp les f or t he o ccurrence o f Winchester s a in ts . T he e v idence f or t he c a lendar e x ists i n t he f o l low ing manuscr ip ts o f wh ich t he f irst t hree a re p r i me s ources a nd t he r e ma inder p rov ide s uppor t ing e v idence a nd a f ew d eta i ls : 1 .

L ondon , B r i t ish L ibrary , MS ' C ot ton V ite l l .

E . XV I I I .

AP sa lter o f t he t h ird q uar ter o f t he e leven th c en tury w i th a n Ang lo-Saxon g loss p receded b y a n u ngraded c a lendar wh ich was c orrec ted a nd g raded i n t he m id t h ir teen th c en tury a ccord ing t o t he u se o f W inchester C a thedra l P r iory .1 0 T he o r ig ina l c a lendar may r epresen t t he p re-Conquest t ex t o f t he N ew M inster ( l a ter t o b eco me H yde A bbey ) b u t b y c o mpar ison w i th p ostC onquest t ex ts t here a re s evera l f easts p ar t icu lar ly c haracter ist ic o f t he C a thedra l P r iory .

1 1

T he t h ir teen th c en tury c orrect ion o f t he t ex t was a

r easonab ly c arefu l mod if ica t ion t o t he t hen c urren t c a lendar o f t he P r iory . F easts were a dded , g rad ings i nser ted a nd f easts n o l onger o bserved were u nder l ined w ith d o ts t o s ign ify d e let ion .

I ti s ar are e xa mp le o f ac ons isten t ly

e xact c orrect ion a nd i t s a ccuracy i s c onf ir med when c o mpared w i th t he o ther p ieces o f t extua l e v idence .

Un for tuna te ly d a mage i n t he C o t ton f ire h as

f rag men ted t he e dges r esu lt ing i n l oss o r i l leg ib i l ity o f t ex t .

P robab ly a t a

t ime s hor t ly b efore t he c orrect ion o f t he c a lendar a l i tany o f t he Ca thedra l P r iory was a dded , b ut t h is p ar t o f t he manuscr ip t i s p ar t icu lar ly b ad ly d a maged . 2 .

O x ford , B od le ian L ibrary , MS Raw l inson , C .489 . Af ragmen tary B rev iary o f t he Ca thedra l P r iory wr i t ten i n 1 424 b y

B ro ther W il l ia m V incen t .

1 2

S evera l s ect ions a nd s ing le p ages a re m iss ing

f ro m t h is f rag men t wh ich c on ta ins t he S anctora l f ro m A pr . 2 3rd t o D ec . 2 1st .1 3 T he t ex t g ives t he n u mber o f l essons f or Ma t ins f or most o f t he f east d ays i n t h is p er iod a nd i s a ma jor s ource f or t he r econstruct ion o f t he c a lendar . 3 .

M i lan , B ib l io teca B ra idense , MS AF .X I . 9 AP sa lter o f t he mid t we lf th c en tury p receded b y a n u ngraded c a lendar

o f E ly C a thedra l P r iory .

I n t he f our teen th c en tury t he c a lendar was c orrected

w ithou t much c are t o c on for m t o t ha t o f Winchester Ca thedra l P r iory .

T he

s cr ibe d id n ot e rase t he f easts c haracter ist ic o f E ly n or a n u mber o f m inor f easts n o t o bserved a t Winchester .

1 4

H e a dded t he s a in ts a nd g rad ings

p ar t icu lar t o Winchester b u t o f ten m isunderstood n a mes a nd i nser ted g rad ings d if fer ing f ro m t hose i n C o t ton V i te l l . 4 .

E . XV I I I a nd t he B rev iary .1 5

Madr id , B ib l io teca Nac iona l , MS V it . 2 3-8 . AP sa lter w ith a dd it iona l p rayers h av ing a c a lendar g raded b y c o lours

a nd b y h av ing f easts o f ma jor impor tance i nd ica ted b y c ap ita ls .

T he

1 6

c a lendar i s mar tyro log ica l w i th a n e n try f or e very d ay o f t he y ear a nd r epresen ts i n b are f or m t he mar tyro logy f o l lowed a t Winchester .

1 7

T he

manuscr ip t i s c lear ly a l uxury p roduct ion f ine ly wr it ten w ith h igh q ua l i ty i l lu m ina t ion .

1 8

The P sa l ms h ave t he u nusua l f eature o f c o l lects .1 9 1 34

5 .

West m inster , A bbey L ibrary , CC 2 4 ( pr . b k ) F rag men ts o f as i mp l if ied u ngraded c a lendar o f t he l a te t we lf th o r e ar ly

t h ir teen th c en tury c o mpr is ing t he mon ths J anuary , O ctober , N ove mber , D ece mber h ave b een i nser ted i n a1 495 c opy o f Marsi l io F ic ino , E p isto le .

2 0

T he o n ly i nd ica t ion o f t he g rad ing i s b y t he t hree c o lours o f b lack , r ed a nd b lue i n a scend ing o rder o f impor tance . 6 .

S otheby S a le 2 4th J une 1 980 l o t 7 1 ( acqu ired b y t he Br i t ish L ibrary ) AP sa lter o f t he e ar ly t h ir teen th c en tury h av ing a s i mp l if ied u ngraded

c a lendar f or t he mon ths J anuary , F ebruary a nd S ep te mber t o D ece mber . T he L itany i s av ery g ood t ex t o ft ha t o f t he C a thedra l P r iory w i th o n ly a f ew om iss ions . 7 .

2 1

G loucester , C a thedra l L ibrary , MS 2 3 T h is e ar ly s ix teen th c en tury c o l lect ion o f d evo t iona l t ex ts h as a s ect ion

c on ta in ing t he P roper P refaces f or t he ma jor f east C a thedra l P r iory .

2 2

d ays o f Winchester

Th is t ex t i s t he o n ly s ubstan t ia l s urv iva l o f t he P os t-

C onquest M issa l o f t he P r iory .

I t s r e levance f or t he r econstruct ion o f t he

c a lendar i s o n ly i n p rov id ing t he s uppor t ing e v idence f or t he e x istence o f u nusua lf easts o f s uf f ic ien t ly h igh r ank t o h ave P roper P refaces . 8 .

Winchester , C a thedra l A rch ives—the D ie t Ro l ls o f t he C a thedra l P r iory . These r o l ls r ecord t he d a i ly mea ls o f t he monks i n t he y ears 1 492-3

a nd 1 514-15 .

2 3

T he d ays o f impor tance a re t i t led b y t he n a me o f t he ir

f est iva l w ith t he g rade f or t he d ay .

I n o ne o r t wo c ases t he g rade d oes n o t

o ccur i n a ny o f t he o ther t ex ts u sed f or t he r econstruct ion . The t ex ts u sed f or t he L itany a re : 1 .

Ox ford , B od le ian L ibrary , MS Auc t . D .2.6 The L itany i s a ppended t o t he P sa l ter p ar t o f t h is m id t we lf th c en tury

manuscr ip t wh ich was b ound c

1 200 t ogether w i th a S t . A lbans c a lendar

a nd a n i l lustra ted c opy o f S t . Anse lm 's P rayers a nd Med ita t ions .

2 4

T he

L itany h as s evera l e rrors a nd om iss ions . 2 .

L ondon , Br it ish L ibrary , MS C ot ton V ite l l . E . XV I I I A s p rev ious ly n o ted a L itany was a dded t o t h is manuscr ip t i n t he s econd

h a lf o f t he t we lf th c en tury .

Th is p ar t o f t he manuscr ip t was p ar t icu lar ly

b ad ly d a maged i n t he C o t ton f ire a nd p ar ts o f t he t ex t a re i l leg ib le .

T h is

r eserva t ion a par t t he t ex t i s f u l l a nd a ccura te . 3 .

S o theby S a le 2 4th J une 1 980 l ot 7 1 ( acqu ired b y t he Br i t ish L ibrary ) T h is i s t he b est p reserved t ex t .

I n c on trast t o t he s i mp l if ied v ersion o f

t he P r iory c a lendar i n t h is manuscr ip t t he L itany i s af u l l t ex t w ith o n ly t hree om iss ions wh ich c an f or tuna te ly b e s upp l ied f ro m t he p ar ts o f Vt ha t a re l eg ib le . There a re s evera l s i mp l if ied d er ivan ts f ro m t h is W inchester L itany wh ich s ee ms f or s o me r eason t o h ave b een a n i nf luen t ia l t ex t .

1 35

2 5

The r econstruc t ion o f t he Ca lendar wh ich f o l lows p resen ts i ti n t he f or m o f at ex t o f t he f our teen th o r e ar ly f i f teen th c en tury g iv ing a s was c usto mary a t t ha t t ime t he f u l l d es igna t ion o f t he s ta tus o f t he s a in t .

T he s pe l l ing i s

t aken i n t he ma in f ro m t he e ar ly f our teen th c en tury H yde t ex t , Ox ford , B od le ian L ibrary , MS G ough l i t . 8 .

The l esson g rad ing h as b een c ons isten t ly

g iven a s e ither t we lve o r t hree l essons .

Even when t he g rade i s ' i n a lb is '

o r ' i n c ap is ' wh ich wou ld n ecessar i ly a s h igh f easts imp ly a t we lve l esson Ma t ins , t he x i i . l c . h as b een i nc luded i fo ne o f t he manuscr ipt s ources h as g iven t h is r ead ing .

On ly p oss ib ly i n s o me e xcep t iona l c ircu mstance wou ld

a n 'i n a lb is ' o r ' i n c ap is ' f east h ave o n ly t hree l essons .

A s o n ly p ar t o f

t he B rev iary s urv ives i ts ee med u nw ise t o a t te mp t t o r econstruct t he e igh t p lus f our s yste m i n wh ich t he e igh t r epresen ted t he p roper l essons a nd t he r e ma in ing f our were s upp l ied f ro m v ar ious s ources .

2 6

T he v erses a t t he

h ead o f e ach mon th a re t hose c haracter ist ic o f t he C a thedra l P r iory a nd o ccur a s p ar t o f t he mod if ica t ion o f t he

S acra men tary o f G iso o f We l ls '

( London ,

B r i t ish L ibrary , MS C o t ton V ite l l . A . XV I I I ) , i n t he ' Psa lter o f H enry o f B lo is ' a nd i n West m inster Abbey , CC24 . J ANUARY

2 7

V icena m q u in ta m I an i p r i ma mque c aveto .

TEXTS+

R ora t a quar ius h anc mane t a l tera s ub c apr icorno . 1 C ircu mc is io d om in i . 2

I n c ap is .

V , M i , ( DR )

O ctave s anct i S tephan i .

i i . l c .

3 * O ctave s anct i I ohann is .

i i . l c .

4 O ctave s anctoru m I nnocen t iu m .

V , M i V , M i i i . l c .

V , M i

5 * 6 E p iphan ia d om in i .

D up lex f estu m .

V , M i , ( DR )

7 8 9 T rans lac io s anct i I udoc i .

V , ( Ma , S ,W )

1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3* O ctave E p iphan ie . e t s anc t i H i lar i i e t R em ig i i . 1 4

S anct i F e l ic is i n p inc is .

I n a lb is .

x i i . l c .

V , M i V . M i

1 5

S anct i Maur i a bba t is .

1 6

S anct i Marce l l i p ape e t mar t ins .

x i i . l c .

V , M i

1 7

S anct i An ton i i a bba t is .

V , M i

1 8

S ancte P r isce v irg in is e t mar t in is .

V , M i

1 9

S anct i Wo lstan i e p iscop i e t c on fessor is .

V , M i

x i i . l c .

2 0

S anctoru m F ab ian i e t S ebast ian i mar t iru m .

2 1

S ancte Agnet is v irg in is e t mar t in is .

2 2

S anct i V incenc i i mar t in is .

x i i . l c

I n a lb is .

I n c ap is .

V V , M i V , M i V , M i , ( DR )

2 3 2 4

S anct i B ab i l le e p iscop i e t t r iu m p ueroru m mar t iru m .

+ S uppor t ing t ex ts a re p laced i n b racke ts .

V , M i

T hese a re o n ly i nc luded when

t hey s uppor t g rad ing , au n ique r eference o r c er ta in r are f eas ts i n t he p r i mary t ex ts .

3 * , 5 * , i n V

ma in c orrect ion .

G enev ieve a nd Edward a dded i n d if feren t h and f ro m

1 3* , R em ig ius n o t i n M i . 1 36

2 5

C onversio s anc t i Pau l i a posto l i .

I n a lb is . e t s anct i

V , Mi

Pre iect i mart in is . 2 6 2 7* S anctoru m e p iscoporu m I ohann is e t J u l ian i .

i i . l c .

e t s ancte Pau le v irg in is . 2 8

S ancte Agn .et is s ecundo .

V , Mi , ( S ) V , Mi

i i . l c .

2 9 3 0

S ancte Bat i ld is r eg ine .

V , ( Ma , S )

3 1 FEBRUARY

Quanta d ies f ebru i .v icenaque s ex ta t imetur Rora t a quar ius h anc s ub p isc ibus i l la t enetur .

1 * S ancte Br ig ide v irg in is e t s anct i I gnac i i mart in is .

V , Mi

2 P ur if ica t io b ea te Mar ie .

V , M i . , ( DR )

Dup lex f estu m .

3 S anct i B las i i e p iscop i e t mart in is.

i i .

l c .

V , Mi

4 5 S ancte Agathe v irg in is e t mar t in is.

I n c ap is .

6 S anctoru m V edast i e t Amand i e p iscoporu m .

V , M i , ( DR ) V , M i

7 8 9 1 0

S ancte S cho last ice v irg in is e t s ancte Austreber te v irg in is4 x i i . l c . .

V , M i

1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4

S anct i Va len t in i mart in s .

'di.

1C

V , M i

1 5 1 6

S ancte J u l iane v irg in is e t mar t in is .

V , M i

Ca thedra

I n a lb is .

V , Mi

x i i . l c .

V , Mi

1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2

s anct i P etr i .

2 3 2 4

S anct i Math ie a posto l i .

2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 MARCH

Pr i ma n eca t marci i q uarta mque a f ine t ime mus . I st ius p isces a n us i us o p t inet h u ius .

1 2 3 4 2 7* 1 *

J u l ian a nd Pau la n ot i n Mi . I gna t ius n ot i n M i . 1 37

5 6 7 S anctaru m P erpetue e t F e l ic ita t is v irg inu m e t mar t iru m .

V , ( Ma )

8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2

S anct i Gregor i i p ape e t s anct i A lpheg i e p iscop i .

I n a lb is .

V . M i , ( Ma )

1 3* 1 4 1 5 1 6

S anct i C ir iac i s oc ioru mque e ius mar t iru m .

i i . l c .

V , M i( x i i . 1 c .)

1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0

S anct i Cu thber t i e p iscop i e t c on fessor is .

2 1

S anct i B ened ict i a bba t is e t c onfessor is .

x i i . l c .

V , M i

I n a lb is .

V , M i

2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5

Annuncia t io b eate Mar ie .

I n a lb is .

V , M i , ( DR , Dup l .)

2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 APR IL

Dena m e t v icena m a pr i l is s c ito e sse n oc iva m . P oss idet h anc a r ies t aurus s ib i v end ica t i l la m .

1 2 3 4

S anct i Ambrosi i e p iscopi e t c onfessor is .

V , M i

S anctoru m T iburc i i , Va ler ian i e t Max im i mart iru m .

V , M i

5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 3*

M i h as i nser ted Eufras ia w ith t he g rade i n a lb is i n e rror f or A lphege o n t he p reced ing d ay . O n t he 1 2th Mi h as G regory i n a lbis . 1 38

1 9

S anct i A lpheg i a rch iep iscop i e t mar t in is.

2 0

F estu m Rel iqu iaru m .

x i i . l c .

V , M i

Dup lex f estu m .

DR

2 1 2 2 2 3

S anct i G eorg i i mar t in is .

x i i . l c .

I n c ap is .

V , M i ,R , ( DR )

2 4 2 5

S anct i Mar i e vange l iste .

x i i . l c .

V , M i ,R

2 6 2 7 2 8

S anct i V ita l is mar t in s .

i i . l c .

V , M i , R

2 9 3 0

S anct i E rkenwa ld i e p iscop i e t c on fessor is .

MAY

V , M i , R

T erc ia d e ma io n ocet e t v ices i ma q u in ta . S ub t auro manet h ec e t s ub g em in is l a tet i l la .

1 Aposto loru m Ph i l ipp i e t J acob i .

x i i . l c .

I n c ap is .

V . M i( in a lb . ) , R , ( DR )

2 S anct i A thanas i i e p iscop i e t c on fessor is . 3 I nvenc io s ancte Cruc is . s anctoru m A lexandr i .

xii.

lc .

V , M i( i i i .l c .) ,

I n c ap is .

e t

Even t i i e t Theodo l i mar t iru m .

V , M i ,R , ( DR )

4 5 6 S anct i I ohann is a n te p orta m l a t ina m .

) d i . l c .

I n a lb is .

V , Mi ,R

7 8 9 Trans la t io s anct i N icho la i e p iscop i . 1 0

x i i. l c .

I n a lb is .

e t t rans la t io s anct i Andree a posto l i .

V , Mi ,R

S anctoru m G ord ian i e t Ep i mach i i mart iru m .

V , M i ,R

1 1 1 2

S anctoru m Nere i .

A ch i l le i e t Pancrac i i mart iru m .

i i . l c .V , Mi ,R

1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9

S anct i Dunstan i a rch iep iscop i .

x i i . l c .

I n a lb is .

e t s ancte

P otenciane v irg in is .

V , M i , R

2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5

S anct i Urban i p ape e t s anct i A lde lm i e p iscop i .

2 6

S anct i August in i a rch iep iscop i .

I n a lb is .

B ede p resb iter i .

x i i . l c .

V , M i

e t s anct i V , M i

2 7 2 8

1 39

2 9 3 0 3 1

S ancte P etron i l le v irg in is .

JUNE

V , M i

Dena n ecat i un i i q u indena a f ine mina tur . U traque s ub g em in is o cc id it e t i ns id ia tur

1 2 S anctoru m Marce l l in i e t P etr i mar t iru m .

V , M i

3 4 S anct i P e troc i c on fessor is .

V , ( Ma )

5 S anct i Bonefac i i e p iscop i e t mar t in is .

V , M i

6 7 * 8 9 * S anctoru m Pr im i e t F e l ic ian i mar t iru m . 1 0

D ed icac io E cc lesie s ancte Mar ie .

1 1

S anct i Barnabe a posto l i . x i i . l c .

1 2

S anctoru m Bas i l id is .

Cyr ih i .

V , M i V , M i

Nabor is .

e t Nazar i i

mart iru m .

V , M i

1 3 1 4

S anct i Basi l i i e p iscop i e t c on fessor is.

1 5

S ancte Edburge v irg in is . e t Modest i mar t iru m .

V , M i , ( Ma )

1 6

S anctoru m C ir ic i e t I u l it te mart iru m .

V , ( Ma )

x i i . l c .

V , M i

e t s anctoru m V it i

1 7

S anct i Bo tu lf i a bba t is .

V , M i

1 8

S anctoru m Marc i e t Marce l l ian i mar t iru m .

V , M i

1 9

S anctoru m Gervasi i e t Pro thas i i mar t iru m .

V , M i

S anct i L eofred i a bba t is .

V , ( Ma )

2 0 2 1

2 2* S anct i A lban i mar t in is.

x i i . l c .

V , M i ,R

2 3

S ancte E the ldrede v irg in is .

i i . l c .

2 4

Na t iv itas s anct i I ohann is Bap t iste .

V , M i ,R x i i . l c .

Dup lex f estu m V , Mi ,R , ( DR )

2 5* 2 6

S anctoru m I ohann is e t Pau l i mart iru m .

i i .

l c .

V , M i , R

2 7 2 8

S anct i L eon is p ape.

V , M i ,R

2 9

Aposto loru m P etr i e t Pau l i .

3 0* C o m me mora t io s anct i P au l i . JULY

Dup lex f estu m . x i i . l c .

I n a lb is .

V , M i ,R , ( DR ) V , M i ,R

Tredec i ma i n i u l io e t v icena s ecunda n oceb it . S ubd i tur h ec c ancro s uppon itur i l la l eon i .

1 O ctave s anct i I ohann is Bap t iste . 2 S anct i Sw ithun i e p iscop i .

x ii.

P rocessi e t Mar t in ian i mar t iru m .

V , M i ,R

1C.

Dup lex f estu m .

e t s anctoru m V , M i , ( DR )

3 7 * , 9 * , 2 5* , 3 0*

Vh as a dded i n ad if feren t h and t o t he ma in c orrect ions

Trans l . Wu lfstan , Trans l . Ed mund , Kyneburga , a nd Mart ia l o n t hese f our d ays .

2 2*

Vh as Achac ius. 1 40

4 Ord inat io s anct i Mar t in i e p iscop i .

x i i. l c .

V , M i ,R

5 6 Octave a posto loru m .

x i i . l c .

7 S anct i H edde e p iscop i .

I n a lb is .

x i i . l c .

V , M i ,R

I n c ap is .

e t t ransla t io

s anct i T ho me mar t in is .

V , M i ,R ( DR , Ma , G )

8 S anct i Gr i mba ld i c on fessor is .

xii.

V ,M i , R , ( Ma )

1C.

9 Octave s anct i Sw ithun i e p iscopi . x i i . l c .

I n a lb is.

V , Mi ,R , ( Ma )

1 0

S anctoru m s ep te m f ra tru m .

1 1

Trans la t io s anct i B ened ict i a bba t is .

x i i . l c .

I n c ap is

Trans la t io s anct i Sw ithun i e p iscop i .

x i i . l c .

Dup lex

i i . l c .

V , M i ,R V , M i , R , ( DR )

1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5

f estu m .

V , M i ,R , ( DR )

S anct i K ene lm i mart in s

V , ( Ma )

1 6 1 7

1 8* Octave s anct i B ened ict i a bba t is .

' d i . l c .

e t t ransla t io

s ancte Edburge .

V . M i ,R , ( Ma )

1 9 2 0

S ancte Margarete v irg in is e t mart in is .

X i".

le.

e t Vo l mar i

a bba t is . 2 1

V , M i ,R

O ctave s anct i Sw ithun i e p iscop i . x i i . l c .

I n a lb is .

e t

s ancte P raxec l is v irg in is 2 2

V , M i , R

S ancte Mar ie Magda lene .

x i i . l c .

I n c ap is .

e t s anct i

Wandrages i l i a bba t is e t c onfessor is .

V , M i . ,R , ( DR )

2 3

S anct i Apo l l inar is mar t in is .

V , M i , R

2 4

S ancte Cr ist ine v irg in is e t mart in is .

2 5

S anct i I acob i a posto l i .

2 6

S ancte A nne matr is s ancte M a r ie v irg in is .

i i . l c .

I n a lb is .

V , M i ,R

e t s anct i Chr istofor i

mart in is.

V , M i ,R x i i . l c .

I n c ap is .

V ,R , ( DR )

2 7

S anctoru m s ep te m d or m ien t iu m .

2 8

S anct i Pan ta leon is mar t in is.

2 9

S anctoru m F e l ic is . mar t iru m .

i i . l c .

V ,R

S i mp l ic i i .

F aust in i e t B ea tr ic is

i i . l c .

V , M i ,R

3 0

S anctoru m Abdon e t S enn is mart iru m .

3 1

S anct i G er man i e p iscop i e t c onfessor is .

AUGUST

V , M i ,R

i i. l c . x i i . l c .

V , M i ,R V , M i ,R

August i p r i ma s i mu l e t t r icena c avenda e st . Hanc l eo p erstr ing it s ub s igno v irg in is i l la e st .

1 Ad v incu la s anct i P etr i .

x i i . l c .

I n c ap is .

e t s anctoru m

M a chabeoru m 2 * S anct i A the lwo ld i e p iscop i .

V , M i , R , ( DR ) Dup lex f estu m .

e t s anct i

S tephan i p ape e t mar t in is 3 I nvenc io s anct i S tephan ! .

( DR , Ma , G ) x i i. l c .

I n a lb is .

4 1 8* 2 *

V , M i , R

Vh as Trans l . Edburga c ance l led o ut . E the lwo ld n ot i n M i , a nd i n Ma h e i s o n t he 1 st . 1 41

V , M i , R

5 S anct i Oswa ld i r eg is e t mar t in s . 6 * S anctoru m S ix t i .

x i i . l c .

V , M i ,R

F e l iciss im i e t Agap it i mar t iru m .

V , M i

7 S anct i D ona t i e p iscop i e t mar t in is . 8 S anct i C ir iac i mart in is .

'di.

V , M i

le.

V,

9 Octave s anct i A the lwo ld i e p iscop i . 1 0

S anct i L auren t i i mar t it is .

1 .* S anct i Gauger ic i .

xii.

x i i . l c .

M i

l c .

I n c ap is .

V , M i ,R , ( DR )

T iburc i i e t Taur in i mart iru m .

x i i . l c .

V . M i ,R

1 2 1 3

S anct i Ypo l it i mar t in is s ocioru mque .

1 4

S anct i Euseb i i c on fessor is .

1 5

A ssu mp t io s ancte Mar ie .

i i . l c .

V , M i ,R

•

V , M i ,R

x i i . l c .

Dup lex f estu m .

V , M i ,R , ( DR )

1 6 1 7

O ctave s anct i L auren t i i mart in s .

x i i . l c .

V , M i

1 8

S anct i Agap it i mart in is .

V , M i

1 9

S anct i Magn i mar t in is .

V , M i

2 0 2 1 2 2

Octave s ancte Mar ie .

x i i . l c .

I n a lb is .

e t s anctoru m

T i mothe i e t S i mphor ian i mar t iru m .

V , M i ,R

2 3 2 4* S anct i Bar tho lo me i a posto l i e t s anct i Audoen i c on fessor is . x i i . l c .

I n a lb is .

V , M i ,R

2 5 2 6 2 7

S anc t i Ruf i mart in is .

2 8

S anct i Aug-u st in i e p iscop i .

V , M i ,R x i i . l c .

I n a lb is .

e t s anct i

H er met is 2 9

V , M i , R

D eco l lat io s anct i I ohann is Bapt iste .

x i i . l c .

I n a lb is .

e t s ancte S ab ine v irg in is e t mar t in is . 3 0

V , M i ,R

S anctoru m F e l ic is e t Adauct i mar t iru m .

i i . l c .

V , Mi ,R

3 1 S EPTE MBER

Terc ia s ep te mbr is n ocet e t v ices i ma p r i ma . V irgo p ossidet h anc i l la m r et inet s ib i l ibra .

1 * S anct i Eg id i i a bba t is .

x i i . l c .

I n a lb is .

e t s anct i Pr isc i

V , Mi ,R

2 3 Trans la t io s anct i Gr i mba ld i c onfessor is 4 * Trans la t io s anct i B ir in i e p iscop i .

x i i. l c .

V ,R I n c ap is .

V , M i ,R

e t t rans la t io s anct i Cu thber t i e p iscop i .

( DR , Ma , S ,G )

5 S anct i B ert in i a bba t is .

V ,R

6 7 8 , Na tiv i tas s anc te Mar ie.

x i i . l c .

Dup lex f es tu m . e t

V , M i , R , ( DR )

s anc t i Adr ian i mar t in is . 9 * S anct i Gorgon i i mar t in is e t s ancte Modwenne v irg in is . 6 *

DR h as t he Transf igura t ion .

2 4*

V .h as t h is e n try a dded i n a

d if feren t h and f ro m ma in c orrect ions . 1 1* 1 *

G i les n ot i n V .

4 *

V , Mi

G auger icus , Taur inus n ot i n M i .

Trans l . Cuthber t n ot i n M i .

o n ly i n V ( R h as t h is s ect ion l ack ing ). 1 42

9 *

Modwenna

1 0* Trans la t io s anct i A the lwo ld i e p iscop i . Fr ithestan i e p iscop i .

I n c ap is .

e t s anct i

I n a lb is .

1 1* Octave s anct i B ir in i .

( DR , Ma ,S .G )

l c .

xii.

V . M i ,R ,

e t s anctoru m Proth i e t

I ac inct i mar t iru m .

V , Mi ,R

1 2 1 3 1 4

Exa l ta t io s ancte Cruc is .

x i i . l c .

I n c ap is .

e t s anctoru m

V , M i ,R , ( DR )

Corne l i i e t C ypr ian i mar t iru m . 1 5* Octave s ancte Mar ie .

x i i . l c .

e t s anct i N icho med is

mar t in is .

V , M i ,R

1 6* S ancte Ed ithe v irg in is . Eufe m ie . 1 7

x ii .

1C .

I n a lb is .

e t s anctaru m

L uc ie e t Ge m in ian i .

V , M i ,R

S anct i L a mber t i e p iscop i e t mar t in is.

V , M i , R

1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1* S anct i Ma the i a posto l i .

x i i . l c .

I n a lb is .

e t s anct i L aud i

e p iscop i e t c on fessor is . 2 2

V . M i ,R

S anct i Maur ic i i c um s oc i is s u is .

x i i . l c .

V , M i ,R

2 3 2 4

Concep t io s anct i I ohann is Bapt iste .

V , Mi

2 5 2 6 2 7

S anctoru m Cos me e t Da m ian i mar t iru m .

i i . l c .

V , M i ,R

2 8 2 9

S anct i Michae l is a rchange l i .

3 0

S anct i I eron im i p resb iter i .

OCTOBER

x i i . l c . x i i . l c .

I n c ap is . I n a lb is .

V , Mi ,R V , Mi ,R

O ctobr is t ernu m f uge v icenu mque s ecundu m . S ub l ibra manet h ic e t s corp ius o p t inet i l iu m .

1 * S anctoru m Re m ig i i.

Vedast i e t Ger man i e p iscoporu m .

x i i . l c .

V , M i ,R

2 S anct i L eodegar i i e p iscop i e t mar t in is .

x i i . l c .

V , M i ,R

3 4 5 6 S ancte F id is v irg in is .

x i i . l c .

I n c ap is .

V , M i ,R

7 S anct i Marci p ape e t s anctoru m Marce l l i e t Apu le i mar t iru m .V , M i 8 9 S anctoru m Dyon is i i . x i i . l c . 1 0

Rust ic i e t E leuther i i mar t iru m .

I n a lb is .

V , M i ,R

S anct i Pau l in i e p iscop i

V , M i ,R

1 1 1 2

S anct i Wilfr id i e p iscop i e t c on fessor is .

x i i . l c .

1 0*

Transl . E the lwo ld s ect ion l ack ing i n R ;

1 1*

Oct . Trans l . B ir inus n ot i n Mi .

1 6*

Ed ith n ot i n V .

1 *

2 1*

1 5*

L audus o n ly i n R .

Vedast n o t i n V . 1 43

V , M i ,R

F r ithestan o n ly i n V , R .

O ct . s ct . Mary o n ly i n R .

1 3* Trans la t io s anct i Edward i r eg is e t c on fessor is. 1 4

X I.

l c .

I n c ap is .

V , M i ,R

S anct i Ka l ix t i p ape e t mar t in is .

V , Mi ,R

1 5 1 6 1 7

S ancte E the ldrede v irg in is .

1 8

S ancte L uce e vange l iste.

x i i . l c .

I ust i mart ins .

I n c ap is .

xii.

le.

x i i . l c .

V , M i ,R

I n a lb is , e t s anct i V , M i ,R

1 9* S ancte F redeswyde v irg in is

V , Mi ,R

2 0* S anctaru m x i mi l ia v irg inu m mart iru m . I n c ap is .

x i i . l c .

e t s ancte Austreber te v irg in is .

V , M i , R

2 1 2 2 2 3* S anct i Ro man i e p iscop i .

x ii.

e t s ancte E the lf lede

le.

v irg in is .

V , M i ,R

2 4 2 5

S anctoru m Cr isp in i e t Cr isp in ian i mar t iru m .

i i . l c .

V , M i ,R

2 6 2 7 2 8

Aposto loru m S y mon is e t J ude .

x i i . l c .

I n a lb is.

V , M i ,R

2 9 3 0

Ord inat io s anct i Sw ithun i e p iscop i .

3 1

S anct i Qu in t in i mart ins .

I n a lb is .

V , Mi ,R , ( Ma , S ,G )

NOVE MBER

i i . l c .

V , M i ,R

Qu in ta n ove mbr is o best t erna m d e f ine c avete . S corp ius h anc p ung it l a tet i l la s ub a rch itenen te .

1 F est iv itas Omn iu m S anctoru m .

x i i . l c .

Dup lex f estu m

V , Mi ,R

2 S anct i Eus tach i i s oc ioru mque e ius mar t iru m .

V , Mi

3 Trans la t io s ancte Ed ithe v irg in is .

V

4 S anct i Br instan i e p iscop i .

V , Mi , ( DR ,

I n a lb is .

Ma , S .W ) 5 6 S anct i L eonard i c on fessor is .

V , Mi

x i i . l c .

7 8 S anctoru m q ua tuor c oronatoru m .

V , Mi

9 S anct i Theodor i mar t in is .

V , M i

1 0 1 1

S anct i Mar t in i e p iscop i , x i i . l c .

I n c ap is .

V , Mi ,R , ( DR )

1 2 1 3

S anct i Br ic i i e p iscop i .

V , Mi ,R

x i i . l c .

1 4 1 5

S anct i Machut i e p iscop i e t c onfessor is .

x i i . l c .

1 6* S anct i Ed mund i a rch iep iscop i e t c on fessor is. I n c ap is . 1 3*

V ,R , ( DR )

Wor ma ld r ead t he g rade i n Va s Dup lex :

t h is p o in t .

1 9*

V , Mi ,R

x i i . l c .

M i h as i n c ap is .

2 0*

t he MS i s v ery i l leg ib le a t

Austraberta n ot i n Mi .

2 3*

E the lf leda n ot i n Mi .

1 6*

Vh as t h is a dded i n ad if feren t h and f ro m t he ma in c orrec t ions. 1 44

1 7

S anct i An ian ie p iscop i .

V , ( Ma , S , W)

1 8

Octave s anct i Mar t in i e p iscop i .

x i i . l c .

V ,R

1 9* 2 0

S anct i Ed mund ! r eg is e t mar t in is .

2 1

Ob la t io s ancte Mar ie

I n a lb is .

2 2

S ancte C ec i l ie v irg in is e t mar t in s .

V , Mi V , ( S )

xii.

2 3* S anct i C le men t is p ape e t mar t in is .

xii.

l c .

I n c ap is .

V . M i , H . ( DR )

e t s anc te

le.

F e l ic ita t is mar t in is .

V , M i , R

2 4

S anct i Gr isogon i mar t in is .

2 5

S ancte Ka ter ine v irg in is e t mar t in is .

p i. l c .

V , Mi ,R x i i . l c .

I n c ap is.

V , Mi , R ( DR )

2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9

S anct i S a turn in i mart in is .

3 0

S anct i Andree a posto l i .

DECE MBER

V , M i ,R

x i i . l c .

I n c ap is.

V , Mi , R , ( DR )

Da t d uodena n ece m n ocet e t q u indena d ece mbr is. U traque l et iferu m v u lnus t imet a rch itenen t is .

1 S anctoru m Cr isan t i e t Dan e mar t iru m

V , M i , R

2 3 S anct i B ir in i e p iscop i .

x i i. l c .

Dup lex f estu m .

V , M i , R , ( DR , Ma , S ,W , G )

4 5 6 * S anct i N icho la i e p iscop i e t c on fessor is .

xii.

l c .

I n c ap is .

V , Mi ,R , ( DR )

7 Octave s anct i Andree a posto li e t Ord ina t io s anc t i Ambrosi i x i i. l c .

V , Mi ,R

8 Concep t io s ancte Mar ie v irg in is .

x i i . l c .

Dup lex f estu m .

V , Mi ,R , ( DR )

9 1 0

Octave s anct i B ir in i e p iscop i .

V

1 1

S anct i Da masi p ipe

V , Mi ,R

1 2 1 3

S ancte L uc ie v irg in is e t mar t in is .

x i i . l c .

e t s anct i

I udoc i c onies s ons .

V . Mi , R

S ancte Barbare v irg in is

V ,R

1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1

S anct i T ho me a posto l i .

x i i . l c .

I n a lb is .

V , Mi , R

2 2 2 3 2 4

1 9* O c t . 6 *

Mi h as i nser ted R onan w ith x i i . l c . wh ich s ee ms t o b e i n e rror f or Mar t in . x i i . l c . o n t he 1 8th .

2 3*

Mi h as Dup lex , DR h as i n c ap is. 1 45

F e l ic ity o n ly i n R .

2 5* Na t iv itas d om in i n ostr i I hesu Chr ist i .

Dup lex f estu m .

2 6

S anct i S tephan i p ro tho mar t ir is .

I n c ap is .

2 7

S anct i I ohann is a posto l i e t e vange l iste .

2 8

S anctoru m I nnocent iu m .

2 9

S anct i Tho me a rch iep iscop i e t mart in is .

V , M i , ( DR ) V , M i , ( DR )

I n c ap is .

I n c ap is .

V , M i , ( DR ) V , M i , ( DR )

I n c ap is .

V , M i , ( DR )

3 0 3 1

S anct i S i lvestr i p ape .

x i i . 1 c .

V , M i

The f easts o f t he h ighest g rades a ru a s f o l lows : Dup lex

I n c ap is

J an .

6 th

Ep iphany

F eb .

2 nd

Pur if ica t ion o f t he B .V .M .

Mar . 2 5th

Annunc ia t ion o f t he B .V . M. ( i n 1 5/16 c en tury )

Apr .

2 0th

F east o f t he Re l ics

J un .

2 4th

Nat iv ity o f J ohn t he Bap t ist

J un .

2 9th

J u l .

2 nd

J u l .

1 5th

Trans la t ion o f S w ithun

Aug .

2 nd

Aug .

1 5th

S ep t .

8 th

Na t iv ity o f t he B .V .M .

Nov .

i st

A l l S a in ts

Dec .

3 rd

B ir inus

Dec .

8 th

Concep t ion o f t he B .V .M .

Dec .

2 5th

J an .

i st

J an .

2 2nd

E the lwo ld A ssu mpt ion o f t he B .V . M.

Na t iv ity C ircu mc is ion V incen t

F eb .

5 th

Aga tha

Apr .

2 3rd

G eorge

May

i st

Ph i l ip a nd J a mes

May

3 rd

I nven t ion o f t he Cross

J u l .

7 th

H edda

J u l .

1 1th

Trans la t ion o f B ened ict

J u l .

2 2nd

Mary Magda lene Anne

J u l .

2 6th

Aug .

i st

Aug .

1 0th

S ep t .

4 th

S ep t . 1 0th

P eter i n Cha ins L aurence Trans lat ion o f B ir inus Trans la t ion o f E the lwo ld

S ept . 1 4th

Exa lta t ion o f t he Cross

S ep t . 2 9th

Michae l

O ct .

6 th

Oct .

1 3th

Trans lat ion o f Edward t he C on fessor

Fa ith J ustus

O ct .

1 8th

Oct .

2 0th

1 1 , 0 00 V irg ins

Nov .

1 1th

Mart in

Nov . 1 6th 2 5*

P eter a nd Pau l Depos it ion o f Sw ithun

Vh as i n c ap is .

Ed mund o f Ab ingdon Mi , DR h ave Dup lex . 1 46

N ov .

I n a lb is

2 2nd

C ec i l ia

N ov .

2 5th

C a ther ine

N ov .

3 0th

Andrew

D ec .

6 th

D ec .

2 6th

N icho las S tephen

D ec .

2 7th

J ohn t he E vange l ist

D ec .

2 8th

H o ly I nnocen ts

D ec .

2 9th

T ho mas o f Can terbury

J an .

1 3th

O ctave o ft he E p iphany

J an .

2 1st

Agnes

J an .

2 5th

C onversion o f P au l

F eb .

2 2nd

Ca thedra

P e tr i

Mar . 1 2th

G regory a nd A lphege

Mar . 2 1st

B ened ict

Mar . 2 5th

Annunc ia t ion o f t he B .V .M . ( before t he 1 5c )

May

6 th

J ohn a t t he L a t in Gate

May

9 th

T rans la t ion o f N icho las

May

1 9th

D unstan

May

2 6th

A ugust ine o f C an terbury

J un .

3 0th

C o m me mora t ion o f P au l

J u l .

6 th

O ctave o f P e ter a nd P au l

J u l .

9 th

O ctave o f Sw ithun

J u l .

2 1st

J u l .

2 5th

Aug .

O ctave o f t he T rans la t ion o f Sw ithun J a mes

3 rd

I nven t ion o f S tephen

A ug .

2 2nd

O ctave o f t he A ssu mpt ion o f t he B .V .M .

Aug .

2 8th

A ugust ine o f H ippo

Aug .

2 9th

D eco l la t ion o f J ohn t he B ap t ist

S ep t .

i st

S ep t . 1 0th

G i les F r ithestan

S ep t . 1 6th

Ed ith

S ep t . 2 1st

Ma t thew

S ep t . 3 0th

J ero me

O ct .

9 th

D en is

O ct .

1 8th

L uke

O ct .

2 8th

S i mon a nd J ude

O ct .

3 0th

Ord ina t ion o f S w ithun

N ov .

4 th

N ov .

2 0th

Ed mund t he Mar tyr

B r instan

D ec .

2 1st

T ho mas

A par t f ro m t he g rea t f est iva ls o bserved t hroughou t t he who le c hurch t he h onours o f h igh g rad ing a re g iven t o t he s a in ts , s hor t ly t o b e d iscussed , whose r e l ics were a t Winchester :

Sw ithun , B ir inus , E the lwo ld , H edda , J ustus ,

A lphege o f Winchester , F r i thestan a nd B r instan . O ctober 1 9th f east

i n t he M i lan c a lendar t he

o f F r idesw ide i s g raded ' i n c ap is ' . T h is , i ft he s cr ibe

was n o t i n e rror , c ou ld b e e xp la ined b y t he p resence o f s o me o f h er r e l ics a t Winchester c athedra l .

T hese were g iven b y Gaufr idus C or idon d ur ing t he

e p iscopacy o f H enry o f B lo is .

S ince t h is h igh g rad ing i s n ot s uppor ted b y t he

V ite l l ius c a lendar o rt he Raw l inson B rev iary i th as n ot b een i nser ted i n t he r econstruct ion o f t he c a lendar .

1 47

I n t he Mi lan P sa lter c a lendar ( M i ) t he f o l low ing c o mp lete e n tr ies w ere a dded i n t he f our teen th c en tury a s p ar t o f t he a dap ta t ion t o t he u se o f t he C a thedra l P r iory : F eb .

3 rd

Mar .

1 3th

B la ise i i l c . E ufrax ia I n a lb is ( i n e rror f or A lphege o n t he 1 2th )

Mar .

1 6th

C ir iacus

x i i l c .

J un .

1 5th

Edburga

x i i l c .

J u l .

6 th

O ctave o f P eter a nd P au l

J u l .

7 th

H edda

J u l .

8 th

G r i mba ld x i i l c .

I n a lb is

I n c ap is

J u l .

9 th

J u l .

1 8th

O ctave o f t he Trans la t ion o f B ened ict , T rans la t ion o f

O ctave o f Sw ithun

J u l .

2 1st

O ctave o f t he T rans la t ion o f Sw ithun

A ug .

2 2nd

O ctave o f t he A ssu mpt ion o f t he B .V . M.

A ug .

2 5th

E dburga

S ep t .

4 th

S ep t .

1 0th

S ep t . 1 5th

I n a lb is

x i i l c .

G enes ius

x i i l c .

E useb ius

xii le.

T rans la t ion o f B ir inus

I n c ap is

I n a lb is

O ct .

1 3th

T rans la t ion o f Edward t he C on fessor

O ct .

1 5th

Wu lfran

I n a lb is

O ct .

1 9th

F r idesw ide

O ct .

2 0th

1 1 ,000 V irg ins

O ct .

3 0th

N ov .

4 th

N ov .

1 9th

D ec .

7 th

D ec .

2 9th

I n c ap is I n c ap is I n a lb is

I n a lb is

x i i l c .

Ambrose

x i i l c .

( wr i t ten a s Bryns tan i n e rror )

O rd ina t ion o f Sw ithun Br instan Ronan

I n a lb is

I n c ap is

T rans la t ion o f E the lwo ld Ed ith

I n a lb is

( i n e rror f or t he O ctave o f Mar t in o n 1 8th )

x i i l c .

T ho mas o f C an terbury

I n c ap is

I n t wo c ases t he s cr ibe h as made ma jor e rrors .

A s m igh t b e e xpected

h e s ee ms t o h ave u sed a mar tyro logy a s ar eference b ook when h is i nstruct ions o r t he t ex t h e was c opy ing was u nc lear .

Th is mar tyro logy was ,ev i-

d en t ly n o t aW inchester o ne b ecause i tf a i led t o g ive t he r are e n try o f A lphege o f W inchester o n March 1 2th .

P robab ly i n d espera t ion t o f ind s o me n ame

c orrespond ing t o t he s cr ibb led o r i l leg ib le e n try o f A lphege wh ich h e c ou ld n o t r ead h e i nser ted E ufrax ia ( Euphras ia ) , as a in t c o m mon ly f ound i n mar tyr o log ies , o n March 1 3th , w ith t he p reposterous ly h igh g rad ing ' i n a lb is '. T he s econd ma jor mistake i s o n N ove mber 1 9th where t he v ery r are S t . Ronan , f ound o n ly i n c a lendars a nd mar tyro log ies o f C hr ist C hurch Can terbury , i s e n tered , e v iden t ly i n e rror f or t he O c tave o f Mar t in wh ich was l ack ing f ro m t he c a lendar .

The s pe l l ing R o manus may s ugges t d er iva t ion f ro m t he

s a in t o f t ha t n a me f ound i n mar tyro log ies o n t he 1 8 th . p robab ly a l ay p rofess iona l ,

The s cr ibe , v ery

was d oubt less i n n orma l c ircu mstances r e-

q u ired t o p er form t he s i mp le t ask o f wr i t ing o u t S aru m c a lendars , a nd was r a ther a t al oss when e xpected t o d ea l w ith a l ot o fv ery o bscure s a in ts whose p ra ises were n o t much s ung o u t o f t he c on f ines o f Winchester Ca thedra l . H e s hou ld , h owever , h ave b een a b le t o g et t he O ctave o f Mar t in c orrect a nd i t must b e a ssu med h e was n ot p ar t icu lar ly c o mpeten t .

I ti s f or tuna te h is

t ex t i s n o t t he s o le w i tness o n wh ich we h ave t o d epend f or t he P r iory 's c a lendar . 1 48

I n t he Madr id P sa l ter ( Ma ) t he e n tr ies i n c ap ita ls o ther t han t hose o f s a in ts h av ing n o l oca l s ign if icance a re : J an .

J udoc

9 th

Mar .

1 2th

A lphege

A pr .

2 2nd

I nven t ion o f D en is

J un .

1 5th

J u l .

2 nd

J u l .

7 th

H edda

J u l .

9 th

O ctave o f Sw i thun

J u l .

1 5th

T rans la t ion o f Sw ithun

J u l .

1 8 th

Edburga

Aug .

E dburga Sw ithun

i s t

E the lwo ld

S ep t .

4 th

T rans la t ion o f B ir inus

S ep t .

1 0 th

T rans la t ion o f E the l .wo ld

O ct .

3 0 th

O rd ina t ian o f Sw ithun

N ov .

4 th

B r instan

D ec .

3 rd

B ir inus

T he h igh g rad ing f or t hese d ays l eaves n o d oub t t ha t t he c a lendar was i n tended f or Winches ter C a thedra l Pr iory . The r econstruct ion o f t he L i tany wh ich n ow f o l lows i s s ubstan t ia l ly t he t ex t o f t ha t i n t he P sa l ter r ecen t ly s o ld a t S o theby 's w i th t he a dd i t iona l r ead ings f ro m V u nder l ined .

No a t te mp t

h as b een made t o r econstruct t he

p et it ions o r t o p resen t t he t ex t i n L a t in . T he L itany : A post les :

P e ter 2 8 ( I ) , P au l , Andrew , J a mes , J ohn , P h i l ip , J a mes ,

B ar tho lo mew , Ma t thew , T ho mas , S i mon , J ude , Ma t th ias , Mark , L uke , B arnabas . Mar tyrs : H o ly I nnocen ts , S tephen , C le men t , A lexander , C orne l ius , Cypr ian , S ix tus , Laurence , 2 9 V incen t , G eorge , S ebast ian , Chr is topher , D en is , Maur ice , E ustace , A lphege , T ho mas . C on fessors :

3 0

Quen t in , J ustus ,

3 1

B ened ic t ,

H edda , Sw ithun ( 1 4 , 4 1

3 2

3 3 3 4

S i lvester , Ma r t ia l , N icho las , H i lary , Mart in ,

Ambrose , J ero me , A ugust ine , G regory , A ldhe lm ,

A lban , O swa ld , Ed mund ,

3 8

F r ithestan ,

D unstan , Wu lfstan ,

4 2

3 9

3 6

August ine , B ir inus ( 1 ) ,

B r instan , A lphege , E the lwo ld ( 14 ,

C uthber t , Re m ig ius , R o manus ,

A udoenus , G er manus , G auger icus , G r i mba ld

4 4

3 5

3 7 4 0

4 3

Maurus , Eg id ius , L eonard ,

E dward . 46 V irg ins :

Mary Magda lene , Mary o f Egyp t , F e l ic ity , P erpetua , C ec i l ia ,

L ucy , Aga tha ,4 7 Agnes , F a ith ,4 8 C a ther ine ,

4 9

P etron i l la , S cho las t ica ,

J u l iana , Margaret , Anastas ia , G enev ieve , Austraber ta , E the ldreda , E dburga , B arbara .

5 0

5 1

The r econstruc ted c a lendar e nab les a n a ssess men t o f o bservances p art i cu lar ly c haracter ist ic o f t he Ca thedra l P r iory . March 1 2th , A lphege , B ishop o f Winchester ( 934-51 ). t he Ca thedra 1 52

H is r e l ics w ere a t

a nd t he h igh g rad ing ' i n a lb is ' i s u n ique t o t he P r iory . 1 49

5 3

4 5

J une 1 0th , D ed icat ion o f t he c hurch o f S t . Mary . e n try i s n o t c lear .

T he s ign if icance o f t h is

T he d ed icat ion m igh t b e t hat o f t he N unna m inster o r p os-

s ib ly o f t he o ld p re-Conquest c hurch o f G lastonbury .

5 4

J u ly 9 th , O ctave o f t he D eposi t ion o f Sw ithun , B ishop o f W inchester ( d . 8 62 ). T he f east ,

o n J u ly 2 nd o ccurs i n a l most e very Eng l ish c a lendar o f t he M idd le

Ages b u t t he O ctave i s v ery r are .5 5 J u ly 2 1st , O c tave o f t he T rans lat ion o f Sw ithun .

T he Trans la t ion o n J u ly 1 5th

i s f ound i n most c a lendars b u t t he O ctave i s u n ique t o Winchester Ca thedra l P r iory . A ugust 8 th , O c tave o f E the lwo ld , B ishop o f W inchester ( 9 63-84 ).

T he f east

o n A ug . i st o r 2 nd i s w ide ly f ound i n B ened ict ine c a lendars , b u t t he O ctave i s v ery r are .5 6 S epte mber , 9 th , Modwenna . Th is e xcep t iona l ly r are f eas t o f as a in t whose r e lics w ere a t t he A bbey o f Bur ton-on-Tren t ( S ta f fordsh ire ) i s k nown t o me o n ly i n t he c a lendar o f t he O scot t P sa l ter ( London , Br i t ish L ibrary , MS Add; 5 0000 ). The ma in f eas t o f Modwenna , f oundress o f Bur ton-on-Trent , wh ich i s a lso i n t he O sco t t P sa l ter was o n J u ly 5 th . There s ee ms t o b e n o o bv ious r eason f or a n i n teres t i n h er a t Winches ter a nd i ti s t e mp t ing t o s ugges t t ha t t here h as b een s o me c onfus ion w i th S t . Merwenna , at en th c en tury a bbess o f R o msey .5 7 The o ther R o msey s a in t , E the lf leda , i s i n t he c a lendars o f b o th t he C a thedra l P r iory a nd H yde A bbey. S epte mber 1 0th , F r ithestan , B ishop o f Winchester ( 909-31 ) .

5 8

T h is f east i s

o n ly f ound i n t he c a lendar o f t he Ca thedra l P r iory , i n t wo mar tyro log ies ( C laud ius , Roya l ) a nd i n t he l i tan ies o f L ondon , B r it ish L ibrary , MS Arunde l 6 0 a nd V .

H is c u lt c an c er ta in ly b e s a id t o b e e x tre me ly l im ited .

S ep te mber 1 1th , O ctave o f t he Trans la t ion o f B ir inus , B ishop o f D orchester ( d . 6 50 ) .

H is r e l ics were t rans la ted t o Winchester b y B ishop H edda i n t he

l ate s even th c en tury .

T he f east o f t he Trans la t ion i s w idespread 59 b u t t he

O c tave i s u n ique t o t he Ca thedra l P r iory . O ctober 1 8th , J ustus , t he b oy mar tyr o f B eauva is .

T he h igh g rad ing o f t he

f east i s b ecause t he C a thedra l P r iory o f Winchester was g iven h is h ead b y K ing A the lstan , a nd i t was r evered a s a ma jor r e l ic . 6 °O ctober 3 0th , O rd ina t ion o f Sw ithun .

I n c on trast t o t he o ther f easts o f S w ithun

t h is i s a l most u n ique t o t he Ca thedra l P r iory .6 1 N ove mber 3 rd , T rans la t ion o f Ed ith o f Wi lton ( 9 61-84 ) . were a t t he n unnery o f Wi lton . f ound .

The r e l ics o f Ed ith

The f east o n S epte mber 1 6th i s more u sua l ly

T ha t o f t he Trans la t ion i s v ery r are .

6 2

D ece mber 1 0th , O ctave o f t he D epos i t ion o f B ir inus .

The f east o n D ece mber

3 rd i s w idespread b u t t he O ctave i s u n ique t o t he Ca thedra l P r iory . There r e ma ins i n a dd i t ion o ne o dd f eas t whose i nc lus ion s ee ms a mys tery. T h is i s P au la , as a in t f ound i n mar tyro log ies , o n J anuary 2 7th . n a me h as b een a dded , a nd s he i s i n t he o r ig ina l h and i n S . a t t he c hurch o f t he H o ly Manger i n B eth lehe m. 1 50

6 3

I n Vt h is

H er r e l ics w ere

P oss ib ly t here were

r e l ics o f h er a t Winchester C a thedra l o r p oss ib ly i ti s a n e rror f or t he e x tre me ly r are l oca l f east o f t he Trans la t ion o f E the lf leda wh ich f e l l o n t ha t 4 d ay .6 The n ex t g roup o f Winchester f easts t o b e c ons idered i n t he c a lendar o f t he P r iory a re t hose wh ich a re i n c o m mon i n t he ir h igh g rad ing w ith t he c a lendar o f H yde A bbey . J anuary 9 th , Trans la t ion o f J udoc .

T he r e l ics o f S t . J udoc were b rough t i n

9 0 1/2 f ro m S a in t J osse-sur- Mer ( P icardy ) t o t he N ew Minster ( i t d id n o t t ransfer t o H yde A bbey u n t i l 1 110 ) .

T he f east o f t he T rans la t ion i s r are

o uts ide o f Winchester a nd i t s d iocese e xcep t i n mar tyro log ies a nd mar tyro log ica l c a lendars .

6 5

J une 1 5th E dburga .

The r e l ics o f S t . Edburga were a t t he N unna m inster

b u t ap or t ion were t rans la ted t o P ershore . B ened ict ine c a lendars 6 6 Worcester d iocese .

6 8

T he f east i s f ound i n many

i n t hose o f t he W inchester c l iocese 6 7

a nd i n t he

T here s ee ms t o h ave b een s o me c onfus ion o ver t wo

o r t hree s a in ts o f t he s a me n a me .6 9 J u ly 7 th , H edda , B ishop o f Winchester ( d . 7 05 ) .

The s a in t r ested a t t he

C a thedra l where h e was t rans la ted t oge ther w i th s evera l o ther W inchester s a in ts i n 1 146 .

7 0

H is f east o ccurs i n s evera l B ened ict ine c a lendars 7 1

a nd i n t hose o f t he W inchester d iocese , 72 a nd i n t hose mar tyro log ies w ith aWinchester e le men t .

7 3

J u ly 8 th , G r i mba ld o f N ew M inster ( c . 8 25-901 ). was i nv ited t o Eng land i n 8 87 b y K ing A lfred .

A monk o f S t . B er t in who

H e b eca me d ean o f t he N ew

M inster a nd d ied t here a nd a c u lt q u ick ly a rose a round h is r e l ics .

A f ter

t he J u ly 2 nd , 1 5th f easts o f Sw ithun a nd t he D ece mber 3 rd f east o f B ir inus h is c u l t i s t he most w idespread o f a l l t he V anchester s a in ts .

An a ccoun t o f

t he n u merous p laces a nd d ioceses wh ich o bserved t he J u ly 8 th f east c anno t b e a t te mp ted h ere . J u ly 1 8th , Trans la t ion o f Edburga .

Th is i s more r are ly f ound t han t he J une

1 5th f east o f t he s a in t a l though i s i n s evera l d iocesan c a lendars o f Winchester 74 a nd Worcester .

7 5

T hose mar tyro log ies d er iv ing f ro m t ha t o f W inchester

a lso c on ta in t he J u ly f east .7 6 A ugust i st o r 2 nd , E the lwo ld , B ishop o f Winchester .

B ecause t he a ctua l

f east d ay o n t he i st c oinc ided w ith t he g rea t f east o f S t . P eter i n C ha ins t he c e lebra t ion f or E the lwo ld was i n s evera l p laces t ransferred t o t he 2 nd . A most e x traord inary f act a bou t t he A ugust i st/2nd o bservance o f E the lwo ld i s t ha t i ti s a l most e xc lus ive t o B ened ict ine c a lendars .7 7 S ep te mber 3 rd , Trans la t ion o f G r i mba ld .

Trans la t ions t ook p lace i n 9 38 ,

C . 1 050 a nd 1 110 a nd i ti s p robab ly t he f irst wh ich i s c o m me mora ted .

7 8

T he f east i s u n ique t o H yde A bbey a nd t he C a thedra l P r iory . S ep te mber 4 th , Trans la t ion o f B ir inus . b y B ishop E the lwo ld i n 9 80 .

Th is c o m me mora tes t he t rans la t ion

T he f east i s i n s o me B ened ict ine c a lendars7 9

a nd i n t hose o f t he Winchester d iocese .8 0 S ep te mber 1 0th , Trans la t ion o f E the lwo ld . l a t ion o f 9 86 a nd n o t t ha t o f 1 111 .

8 1

T h is c o m me mora tes t he t rans-

T he f east i s f ound i n s evera l B ened ict ine 1 51

c a lendars 82

a nd i s more w idespread i n s ecu lar c a lendars t han t he A ugus t

l st/2nd c o m me mora t ion o f t he s a in t .

8 3

O ctober 2 3rd , E the lf leda ( or A lf leda ) Ro msey where h er r e l ics r ested .

S he was a t en th c en tury a bbess o f H er c u lt i s e x tre me ly r estr ic ted t o t he

8 4

t wo Winchester h ouses , t hree B ened ict ine n unner ies 8 5 v ic in ity o f Ro msey .8 6 N ove mber 4 th , B r instan , B ishop o f Winchester

a nd t o t he im med ia te

( 931-4 ).

A man o f e xcep t iona l

s a in t l iness whose g lory i n h eaven w ith B ir inus a nd Sw ithun was r evea led i n av is ion o f S t . E the lwo ld . 8 7 H is C u lt i s v ery r estr icted . 8 8 D ece mber 1 3th , J udoc . i n W inchester d iocese

Th is f east o ccurs i n s evera l B ened ict ine c a lendars 8 ,9 c a lendars 9° a nd f or r easons d if f icu lt t o u nderstand i n

ag roup o f n or thern August in ian c a lendars .

9 1

I ti s c o m mon ly f ound i n

mar tyro log ies . F ina l ly t here i s ag roup o f f easts wh ich a re p ar t icu lar ly c haracter ist ic o f H yde Abbey wh ich d ist ingu ish i t s c a lendar f ro m t ha t o f t he C a thedra l P r iory . J anuary 1 6th , O ctave o f t he Trans la t ion o f J udoc.

T he o bservance o f t he

O ctave i s a bso lu te ly e xc lus ive t o H yde , t he ma in c en tre o f h is c u lt . J anuary 1 9th , B ranwa la tor . f us ion .

9 2

D orset 9 3

AB re ton s a in t a bou t who m t here i s much c on-

There was t he impor tan t r e l ic o f h is a rm a t M i lton Abbey i n a nd f or s o me r eason t h is v ery o bscure man was o f i n terest a t

H yde A bbey .

O ther t han i n t he c a lendars o f H yde h e o n ly o ccurs i n t ha t o f

t he ' Psa lter o f H enry o f B lo is ' a nd i n a n I ce land ic mar tyro log ica l c a lendar ,9 4 F ebruary 2 1st , O ctave o f Va len t ine . t o H yde Abbey b y Em ma ,

The h ead o f S t . Va len t ine was g iven

w idow o f K ing C anu te i n 1 041 .

9 5

T he c e lebra t ion

o f a n O ctave i s among E ng l ish c a lendars u n ique t o H yde A bbey . March 1 8th , G er trude .

T he h igh g rad ing o f t h is f east a s Dup lex a nd t he

c o m me morat ion o n t he 1 8th r a ther t han t he u sua l

d a te o f t he 1 7th i s r are .

T he f east was v ery p robab ly i n troduced b y G r i mba ld f ro m F landers .9 6 May 8 th , V ictor .

The h igh g rad ing w ith t we lve l essons i s u nusua l .

J une 1 8 th , O ctav e o f B arnabas .

T here was a ma jor c u lt o f S t . Barnabas

a t H yde a s ar esu lt o f m irac les wh ich o ccurred i n 1 182 a t t he i n tercession o f t he s a in t .

9 7

The c e lebra t ion o f a n O ctave i s among Eng l ish c a lendars

u n ique t o H yde Abbey . J u ly 1 5th , O c tave o f G r i mba ld .

An o ctave f or Gr i mba ld was s pec if ic t o

H yde , t he c en tre o f h is c u lt . O ctober 8 th , I w i ( Iw ig ius ).

S t . I w i 's r e l ics r ested a t t he n unnery o f Wi l ton .

H is c u l t s ee ms t o h ave b een more a c t ive i n t he p re-Conquest p er iod a nd f ro m t he C onquest o n r ap id ly d ec l ines .

H e i s f ound i n af ew B ened ict ine c a l-

9 8

e ndars 9 9 a nd i n af ew mar tyro log ies . O ctober 1 6th , O ctave o f D en is .

1 00

There was a n impor tan t c u lt o f S t . D en is

a t H yde o f wh ich t h is O ctave p rov ides e v idence .

1 01

Add it iona l e v idence i s

t he o ccurrence o f t he I nven t ion o f D en is ( Apr i l 2 2nd ) i n t he s anc tora l o f t he

1 52

N ew M inster Missa l o f t he s econd h a lf o f t he e leven th c en turyl° 2 a nd i n s evera l Winchester c a lendars o f t he t we lf th a nd e ar ly t h ir teen th c en tur ies .

1 03

B y t he e ar ly f our teen th c en tury o n t he e v idence o f t he H yde c a lendars t he o bservance o f t h is d ay c o m me mora t ing t he I nven t ion o f D en is h ad b een a bandoned . N ove mber 6 th , Me lan ius .

T he o ccurrence o f t h is B ishop o f Rennes i s q u ite

e xcep t iona l i n Eng l ish c a lendars .

T here was c erta in ly a c u lt o f h im i n

1 04

C ornwa l l where h e was p a tron o f Mu l l ion a nd S t . Me l l ion .

Id o n ot k now

1 05

why h e i s i n t he H yde c a lendar . D ece mber 1 2th , Reve la t ion o f Barnabas .

T h is f east f or S t . B arnabas i s i n

c onnect ion w ith t he honour g iven t o h im f o l low ing t he mirac les a t H yde i n 1 182 .

I ti s a bso lu te ly u n ique t o t ha t p lace .

T h is a ccoun t o f t he o bservances o f t he C a thedra l P r iory a nd H yde A bbey l eaves , Ih ope , n o d oub t a s t o t he f easts p ar t icu lar a nd i n c o m mon b etween t he t wo h ouses .

One f a mous manuscr ip t , t he ' Psa lter o f H enry o f B lo is ',

h as a c a lendar wh ich s ee ms t o c o mb ine i n au n ique way t he f easts o f b oth p laces .

1 06

I ft h is r ef lects t he i n terests o f i t s owner t hen i t wou ld b e v ery

l i ke ly t ha t t h is a ctua l ly may h ave b een H enry o f B lo is , B ishop o f W inchester ( 1 129-71 ) .

F ro m 1 136 t o 1 143 t here was n o a bbo t o f H yde A bbey a nd i tc a me

u nder h is j ur isd ic t ion a s we l l a s t he C a thedra l .

I ti s i n t h is p er iod t ha t t he

P sa lter c ou ld we l l h ave b een made .1 07 A s econd p rob le m r a ised b y t he s urvey o f Winchester c a lendars i s whe ther a ny o f t he ' Winchester D iocese ' c a lendars a re o f a ny r e l ig ious h ouse a nd i n p ar t icu lar o f t he Nunna m ins ter i n Winchester .

1 08

T he Imo la P sa l ter a nd t he

P sa l ter r e la ted t o i tb oth i n i t s c a lendar a nd i l lu m ina t ion ( Ox ford , B od le ian L ibrary , MS l i turg .407 ) a re t he t wo most p rob le ma t ica l t ex ts .

1 09

T hey b o th

s ee med d est ined f or t he n unnery o f Amesbury a l though n e ither h as a c a lendar o f Amesbury .

1 10

W inchester s a in ts .

The ir c a lendars a re a l most i den t ica l a nd a re r ich i n 1 11

I ft hey were i n tended f or a B ened ict ine e stab l ish men t

s uch a s t he Nunna m inster t hen t he f east o f t he O ctave o f t he T rans la t ion o f B ened ict ( Ju ly 1 8th ) wou ld b e e xpected .

1 12

I nas much a s t hey c an b e l i nked

w ith a ny r e l ig ious o rder t he p resence o f t he T rans la t ion o f A ugust ine ( October 1 1th ) s uggests a n A ugust in ian s ource .

A lso i ft he c a lendars were o f t he

N unna m inster g rea ter emphas is i n c o lour o r i n t he p resence o f a n O ctave wou ld b e e xpected f or S t . E dburga whose r e l ics were t here .

T he c onc lus ion

t o b e made i s p erhaps t ha t t hese b ooks were p repared a t W inchester ( or s o mewhere i n t he Winchester d iocese ) f or Amesbury w ith s o me mode l o r s uperv is ion f ro m a n A ugust in ian h ouse . The f ina l manuscr ip t t o b e c ons idered wh ich h as b een f requen t ly c i ted i s t he s o-ca l led Wi lton P sa l ter .

I th as l ong b een r ecogn ised t ha t o n ly t he

L itany i s o f Wi lton a nd t ha t a l l t he r are ly f ound c haracter ist ic f eas ts o f t ha t n unnery a re l ack ing f ro m t he c a lendar .1 13 The c a lendar e v iden t ly d er ives f ro m a B ened ic t ine mode l b ecause o n t he J anuary p age t he t we lve l esson g rad ing h as b een wr i t ten i n t he o r ig ina l h and b u t i s l ack ing i n t he o ther mon ths .

T he J anuary t ex t a lso d if fers f ro m t he o ther mon ths i n t ha t i to n ly

h as t wo d ays n o t f i l led w i th a n e n try a nd t hus r evea ls a martyro log ica l c a lendar mode l was b e ing u sed .

C lear ly we a re d ea l ing w ith t he c ase o f t he

1 53

c ance l l ing o u t o f mar tyro log ica l e n tr ies i n t he r e ma in ing mon ths , a nd a g ood many h ave b een l ef t i n .

I ti s a lso c lear t ha t t he mar tyro log ica l b as is i s a

s im i lar W inchester mar tyro logy t o t ha t wh ich was u sed f or t he c a lendar o f t he Madr id P sa lter .

1 14

I ft he s cr ibe was i n tend ing t o make t he c a lendar

s u itab le f or W i lton o ne q uest ions why t he r esu lt ing t ex t i s l ack ing b o th f easts o f I w i a nd t he T rans la t ion o f Ed i th o bserved w ith g rea t h onour t here.

I t

c ou ld b e a rgued t ha t t he d ays o n wh ich t hese f easts f a l l a re v acan t i n t he c a lendar a nd p oss ib ly s o me s pec ia l wr it ing i n c o lour was i n tended .

B u t t h is

i s u n l ike ly a s t he ma in f east o f Ed ith o n S ep te mber 1 6th i s wr it ten i n t he s a me r ed i nk wh ich i s u sed f or o ther f easts o f impor tance .

N o Winchester

f easts e xcept t he Ord ina t ion o f Sw ithun ( Octot er 3 0th ) a re g raded i n c o lour s o t here i s n o p oss ib i l ity t ha t ac a lendar o f t he N unnam inster migh t b e t he mode l . T he p rob le ma t ica l n a ture o f t he c a lendar o f t he Wi lton P sa lter i s v ery p robab ly a d irect r esu lt o f t he imperfect a dap ta t ion o f a n e ar l ier mode l . T ha t t h is mode l s ee ms t o h ave b een mar tyro log ica l d id n o th ing t o s i mp l ify t he t ask o f t he s cr ibe .

Many c a lendars o f t he t we lf th a nd t h ir teen th c en tur ies

p resen t a na logous c ases , a bove a l l t hose i n l uxury i l lu m ina ted manuscr ip ts. I ti s o f ten r ash t o a ssu me t ha t t hey i n a ny s ense a re c orrect f or a p ar t icu lar r e l ig ious h ouse o r p ar t icu lar p atron , o r a t t he o ther e x tre me t o a ssu me t hey a re c o mp lete c haos . With t he i n troduc t ion o f S aru m u se t he s i tua t ion b eco mes s i mp ler ;a nd s ecu lar c a lendars o f t he f our teen th a nd f i f teen th c en tur ies r are ly p resen t ma jor p rob le ms o f i n terpreta t ion .

I n t he p re-Saru m p er iod

t he r eg ion o f W inchester was d is t ingu ished b y t he a c t iv i ty i n t he p a tronage a nd p roduct ion o f l uxury b ooks .

Alr eg ion s o r ich i n l oca l s a in ts a nd w ea l thy

r e l ig ious h ouses ( many b e ing B ened ict ine n unner ies h av ing August in ian o r s ecu lar c anons a s c hap la ins t o a dd t o t he c onfus ion ) a nd h av ing a n i n terest i n mar tyro log ica l c a lendars c an h ard ly b e e xpected t o p rov ide c lear a nd s i mp le t ex ts .

T hese n otes h ave t r ied t o r a ise a f ew o f t he i ssues a nd t o

c lar ify t he p os it ion o f Winchester i t se lf , b ut a l o t o f c on fus ion s t i l l e x ists a nd t ha t may j ust b e t he n a ture o f t he t ex ts .

1 54

APPEND IX A bbrev ia t ions f or manuscr ip ts , c a lendars a nd f requen t ly c ited B ib l iography

( a )

Manuscr ip ts u sed f or t he r econstruct ion o f t he C a lendar a nd L itany . V

( London , Br it ish L ibrary , MS C ot ton V ite l l . E . XV I I I )

R

( Ox ford , B od le ian L ibrary , MS Raw l . C .489 )

M i

( M i lan , B ib l io teca B ra idense , MS AF . M .9 )

Ma

( Madr id , B ib l io teca Nac iona l , MS V i t .

DR

( D iet R o l ls , Winchester , C a thedra l A rch ives )

2 3-8 )

( So theby S a le , 2 4th J une 1 980 , l o t 7 1 ) A uct

( Ox ford , B od le ian L ibrary , MS Auct . D .2 .6 )

G

( G loucester , C a thedra l L ibrary , MS 2 3 )

W

( Wes tm ins ter , A bbey L ibrary , CC 2 4 )

P re-1300 Mar tyro log ies

( b )

A b ingdon

( Ca mbr idge , Un iv . L ib ., MS Kk .1 .22 )

A lte mps

( Ro me , B ib l io teca A posto l ica Va t icana , MS O t tob . l a t .163 )

C laud ius

( London , B r it ish L ibrary , MS C ot ton C laud . D I I )

E xeter

( Exeter , C a thedra l L ibrary , MS 3 518 , G . H . D ob le , O rd ina le E xon ., I V , H enry Bradshaw S oc iety , LXX IX , 1 940 , p p . 1 -95 )

G or man

( W . S tokes , T he Mar tyro logy o f G or man , H enry B radshaw S oc iety , I X , 1 895 )

Roya l

( c )

( London , B r it ish L ibrary , MS Roya l 2 .A .X I I I )

P ost1100 B ened ict ine Ka lendars T hese a re r eferred t o u nder t he n a me o f t he A bbey o r P r iory r epr esen ted b y t he f o l low ing p r in ted e d it ions a nd manuscr ip ts . A bbo tsbury , A b ingdon , S t . A lbans , Can terbury C hr ist C hurch ,

C an terbury S t . August ine 's , C her tsey , C hester , C roy land , Dunster , D urha m : F . Wor ma ld , Eng l ish B ened ict ine Ka lendars a f ter A .D . 1 100 , I , H enry B radshaw S oc ie ty , LXXV I , 1 939 .

A dd i t iona l t ex ts f or c o l la t ion a re C a mbr idge ,

Em manue l C o l lege , MS 2 52 f or C her tsey , a nd E vreux , B ib l iotheque Mun ic ipa le , MS 8 1 f or C hester . E ly , E vesha m , . G louces ter , Wes tm ins ter , Ma l mesbury , Muche lney , S t . N eo ts :

F . Wor ma ld , Eng l ish B ened ict ine Ka lendars af ter A .D . 1 100 , I ,

H enry B radshaw S oc ie ty , LXXX I ,1 939 .

An a dd it iona l t ex t f or c o l la t ion i s

S t . G a l l , S t if tsb ib l io thek , MS 2 6 f or Ma l mesbury .

Iam v ery g ra tefu l t o

Mr . D erek T urner f or i n for m ing me o f t h is t ex t a nd f or l end ing me h is t ranscr ip t ion . Bark ing :

J . B . L . To lhurst , The O rd ina le a nd C usto mary o f t he B ene-

d ict ine Nuns o f Bark ing Abbey , I , H enry B radshaw S oc ie ty , LXV , 1 927 , p p . 1 -12 .

An a dd it iona l t ex t f or c o l la t ion i s L ondon , Br it i sh L ibrary , MS C o t ton

O tho . A .V . 1 55

G lastonbury : F . Wor ma ld , ' The L i turg ica l C a lendar o f G lastonbury A bbey ', F estschr if t B . B ischof f , S tu t tgar t , 1 971 , p p . 3 25-45 . N orw ich : J . B . L . T o lhurst , T he C usto mary o f N orw ich C a thedra l P r iory , H enry B radshaw S oc iety , L MO C I I , 1 948 , p p . 1 -12 . T here a re many o ther t ex ts o f t he N orw ic h C a lendar , s o me b e ing f u l ler t han t ha t i n t he C usto mary :

C a mbr idge , C orpus C hr ist i , MSS 3 47 , 4 70 , L ondon , B r i t ish

L ibrary , MS H ar ley 3 950 , L ondon , L a mbeth P a lace , MS 3 68 , N orw ich , C a thedra l L ibrary , D ean a nd C hap ter R eg ister X E ( t he S acr ist 's R eg ister ) , N orw ich , C a thedra l L ibrary , t he D o mesday B ook , O x ford , B od le ian L ibrary , MSS D ouce 3 66 , L a t .l i t .f .19 , Ox ford , Wadha m C o l lege , MS A 5 .28 .

Ih ave

n ot s een U shaw C o l lege MS 7 . P eterborough :

L . F . S and ler , T he P eterborough P sa l ter i n Brusse ls

a nd r e la ted F en land Manuscr ip ts , L ondon , 1 974 , p p . 1 54-60 . Ra msey :

L . F . S and ler , 2 ( p.. c i t ., p p . 1 62-68 .

S herborne :

J . W ickha m L egg , ' L iturg ica l n otes o n t he S herborne

M issa l ', T ransact ions o f t he S t . P au l 's E cc lesio log ica l S oc iety , I X , 1 899 , p p . 1 1-22 .

T here i s a no ther t ex t i n L ondon , Br it ish L ibrary , MS C o t ton

F aust ina A .I I . Winchester , H yde A bbey :

J . B . L . T o lhurst , T he Monast ic B rev iary

o f H yde Abbey , V , H enry B radshaw S oc iety , LXX I , 1 934 .

Add i t iona l t ex ts

a re L ondon , B r it ish L ibrary , MS Har ley 9 60 a nd N ew York , i 3i erp.o n t Morgan L ibrary , MS G laz ier 1 9 . Worcester :

An t iphona ire monast ique d e Worcester , P a leograph ie

Mus ica le , X I I , 1 922 , p p . 4 1f f .;

W. H . F rere ,

T he L eofr ic C o l lec tor ,

I , H enry Bradshaw S oc iety , LV I , 1 918 , p p . 5 87-60 . T he r e ma in ing t ex ts r eferred t o d o n ot e x ist i n p ub l ished e d it ions . D eerhurst :

Ya le , Un iv . L ib ., MS 5 78 .

( W . C ahn , J . Marrow ,

' Med ieva l a nd R ena issance Manuscr ip ts a t Ya le : v ers ity L ibrary Gazet te , 5 2 , 1 978 , p . 1 82 ) .

aS e lec t ion ', Ya le U n i-

Th is t ex t i s p robab ly t ha t o f

D eerhurst ( ac e l l o f S t . D en is ) a t t he t ime when i t was u nder t he i ncreas ing i n f luence o f T ewkesbury .

T he t ex t h owever a n teda tes 1 467 when t he p r iory

o f f ic ia l ly b eca me a c e l l o f T ewkesbury . R o msey :

' t he P sa lter i n Ro msey Abbey .

Excerp ts f ro m t he c a lendar

a re g iven b y H . G . D . L ive ing , R ecords o f Ro msey A bbey , Winchester , 1 906 , p p . 2 98-99 .

A misread ing o n O ctober 8 th i s P e lag ia f or I w ig ius ( Iw i ).

T he t ex t i s n ot v ery p ure f or i tl acks a n e n try f or S t . Merwenna whose r e l ics were a t Ro msey . S ha f tesbury : Ca mbr idge , F itzw i l l ia m Museu m , MS 2 - 1 957. T he c a lendar o f L ondon , B r it ish L ibrary , MS L ansdowne 3 83 i s n ot a p roper' S haf tesbury t ex t . T ewkesbury :

( i )

L ondon , B r it ish L ibrary , MS R oya l 8 .C .V I I .

( i )

C a mbr idge , Un iv . L ib ., MS Gg .3 .2 1 .

1 56

Winchco mbe :

( i )

L ondon , B r it ish L ibrary , MS C o t ton T iber ius E .I V

( i )

V a lenc iennes , B ib l io theque Mun ic ipa le , MS 1 16 .

T here r e ma in t wo p laces a lso r eferred t o f or wh ich n o c a lendar s urv ives b u t f or wh ich o ne h as b een r econstructed . B ury S t . Edmunds : f ro m t he S anctora l o f t he M issa l , L aon , B ib l iotheque Mun ic ipa le , MS 2 38 . A t t he t ime o f wr it ing t h is a r t ic le t he B ury O rd ina l ( London , B r i t ish L ibrary , MS H ar ley 2 977 ) was n ot a va i lab le f or s tudy . Wi l ton :

ac a lendar o f t he ma jor f easts o n ly f ro m t he n ow l ost manuscr ip t

o f t he P rocessiona l ( G . B eno i t-Caste l l i , ' Un P rocess iona l A ng la is d u X IVe s iec le ', E phe mer ides L i turg icae , 7 5 , 1 961 , p p . 2 86-8 ) . ( d )

P re-Saru m W inchester D iocese S ecu lar C a lendars . Twe lf th C en tury : T h ir teen th C en tury :

A

L ondon , S t . P au l 's C a thedra l , MS 1 4

B

L ondon , B r it ish L ibrary , MS Eger ton 1 139 .

C Imo la , B ib l ioteca C o muna le , MS 1 00 D

Ox ford , B od l . L ib ., MS L iturg . 4 07 .

E

L ondon , B r it ish L ibrary , MS Roya l I .D .X .

F

C a mbr idge , T r in ity C o l lege , MS B .11.4

G

Ox ford , N ew C o l lege , MS 3 22

T here i s ad escr ip t ion o f Ai n N . R . K er , Med ieva l Manuscr ip ts i n B r it ish L ibrar ies , I , Oxford , 1 969 , p p . 2 55-6 .

T he f igure a nd o rna men ta l d ecora t ion

i n t he manuscr ip t r ese mb les t he G lossed P au l ine E p ist les , Ox ford , B od le ian L ibrary , MS Auct . D .1.13 ( C . M . Kauf f mann , Ro manesque Manuscr ip ts 1 0661 190 , S urvey o f Manuscr ip ts I l lu m ina ted i n t he B r it ish I s les , 3 , L ondon , 1 975 , n o . 7 9 ) . The c a lendar o f Bh as b een p r in ted b y H . B uch tha l , M in ia ture P a in t ing i n t he L a t in K ingdo m o f J erusa le m , Ox ford , 1 957 , p p . 1 22-25 w ith c o m men ts b y F . Wor ma ld .

T he c a lendar o f E was a dap ted t o t he Ox ford r eg ion b y

a dd it ion o f t wo f easts o f S t . F r idesw ide ( Feb . 1 2th , O ct . 1 9th ) , a nd t he c a lendar o f Fi s a n a dap ta t ion t o t he Winchester d iocese f ro m a n A ugust in ian c a lendar o f t he L ondon d iocese .

I n v iew o f t he h igh g rad ing o f b oth f easts

o f S t . E dburga t he a dapta t ion was p oss ib ly f or t he Nunna m inster . T he i l lu m ina t ion a nd t ex tua l c on ten ts o f C , D , E , F , G , a re d iscussed i n N . J . Morgan , E ar ly G o th ic Manuscr ip ts 1 190-1285 , P ar t I :

The T rans i-

t i ona l P er iod t o Ma t thew P ar is , S urvey o f Manuscr ip ts I l lu m ina ted i n t he B r it ish I s les , 4 , L ondon , 1 981 , n os . 2 6-8 , 5 1 , 7 4 . A l though B a nd G h ave W inchester c a lendar t ex ts f i t hese f amous manuscr ip ts were made o f c ourse i n J erusa le m a nd Ox ford .

F or G s ee S . C . C ockere l l , T he Work o f W. d e

B ra i les , Roxburghe C lub , 1 930 , p p . 7 -11 . ( e )

O ther f requen t ly c i ted manuscr ip ts . PHB

( London , Br it ish L ibrary , MS C o t ton N ero C .IV )

T he ' Psa lter o f H enry o f B lo is ';

f u l ly p ub l ished b y F . Wor ma ld ,

T he Winchester P sa lter , L ondon , 1 973 . WP

( London , R oya l C o l lege o f P hys ic ians , MS 4 09 )

T he Wi lton P sa lter ;

f u l ly d escr ibed i n E . G . Mi l lar , ' Les manuscr its

p e in tures d es b ib l io theques d e L ondres ', Bu l let in d e l a S oc iete Franya ise 1 57

d e R eproduct ion d es Manuscr its a P e in tures , I V , 1 914-20 , p p . 4 8-69 . T he i l lu m ina t ion i s d iscussed f ur ther b y A . H o l laender , ' The S aru m i l lu m in a tor a nd h is S choo l ', Wi l tsh ire A rchaeo log ica l a nd Na tura l H istory Magaz ine , L , 1 943 , p p . 2 48-52 . ( f )

F requen t ly c i ted l i tera ture AW

e d . H . R . L uard , Anna les Monaster i i d e Win ton ia , Anna les d e W in ton ia , Anna les Monast ic i , I , R o l ls S er ies , 1 865 .

L ieber man

F . L ieber mann , D ie H e i l igen Eng lands , Hannover , 1 889

NLA , I , I

C . H orst man , N ova L egenda Ang l ie , I , I , Ox ford , 1 901

S tan ton

R . S tan ton , A Meno logy o f E ng land a nd Wa les , L ondon , 1 887

T o lhurs t , B rev iary

J . B . L . T o lhurst , T he Monast ic B rev iary o f

H yde Abbey ,

I -V I , H enry B radshaw S oc iety , DUX ,

LXX-I , WO W ' , LXXV I I I , LXXX , 1 930-42 . Wor ma ld , G lastonbury

F . Wor ma ld , ' The L iturg ica l Ca lendar o f

G lastonbury A bbey ', F estschr if t B . B ischof f , S tut tgar t , 1 971 , p p . 3 25-45. Wor ma ld , L itany

F . Wor ma ld , ' The Eng l ish S a in ts i n t he L itany i n

A runde l MS .60 ' ,A na lecta B o l land iana , 6 4 , 1 946 , p p . 7 2-86 . T he work o f S tan ton s t i l l r e ma ins t he b est d ocu men ted d ic t ionary o f Eng l ish s a in ts a l though t he a ccoun ts o f t he ir l ives a re wr i t ten w ith r a ther t oo much p ious t urn o f p hrase .

T he r eferences t o manuscr ip t s ources f or

t he ir c u lts i n c a lendars , mar tyro log ies a nd l egendar ies were s upp l ied b y Ed mund B ishop .

H is c o l labora t ion w ith F r . S tan ton i s d iscussed b y N .

A bercro mb ie , T he L ife a nd Work o f Edmund B ishop , L ondon , 1 959 , p p . 1 02-9 . B efore t he p ub l ica t ion o f S tan ton 's Meno logy B ishop h ad wr i t ten a sma l l e ssay wh ich r egret tab ly was n ot r epr in ted i n h is L iturg ica H istor ica : Hag io logy ' ,

' Eng l ish

D ub l in R ev iew ? XL IV , 1 885 , p p . 1 23-54 .

Wor ma ld 's s tudy o f t he L i tany o f A runde l 6 0 h as v ery u sefu l n o tes o n t he v ar ious W inchester s a in ts w ith r eferences t o p re-Conquest o bservances wh ich a re n o t my d irect c oncern b u t wh ich may b e o f i n terest . L ieber mann 's e d i t ion o f t he t ex t o f t he R est ing P laces o f t he Eng l ish S a in ts must n ow b e s upp le men ted b y a n e xce l len t r ecen t a r t ic le :

D . W .

Ro l lason , ' L ists o f s a in ts ' r est ing-p laces i n Ang lo-Saxon Eng land ', Ang loS axon Eng land ? 7 , 1 978 , p p . 6 1-93 . I n t he r esearch f or t h is a r t ic le Ih ave b een much i ndebted t o t he n otes o n Eng l ish B ened ic t ine Ka lendars a f ter 1 100 l ef t b y t he l a te P rofessor F ranc is Wor ma ld And t o t he k ind p er m iss ion o f Mrs . H onor ia Wor ma ld f or me t o make u se o f t he m . T hese a re b e ing e d ited b y me , t ogether w ith s uch a dd it iona l ma ter ia l wh ich h as c o me t o l igh t , f or t he t wo f ur ther v o lu mes o n t hese c a lendars t o b e p ub l ished b y t he H enry B radshaw S oc ie ty .

Iwou ld a lso l ike

t o t hank t he B r i t ish A cade my f or a g ran t f ro m t he Sma l l G ran ts R esearch F und t o e nab le me t o t rave l i n E urope a nd Amer ica i n 1 979 i n c onnect ion w ith t h is p ro ject .

1 58

T here i s n o i nd ica t ion i n h is n otes t ha t P rofessor Wor ma ld h ad p lanned ar econstruct ion o f t he Winchester Ca thedra l P r iory Ca lendar b u t Ih ope t ha t s uch a n a t te mp t wou ld h ave met w ith t he a pprova l o f o ne who h as c ont r ibu ted s o much t o o ur k now ledge o f manuscr ip ts o f t ha t c en tre .

T he

s uggest ion t ha t ar econstruct ion s hou ld b e d one was t en ta t ive ly p u t t o me b y E . C . H . s evera l y ears a go a nd Iam s ure h e w i l l u nderstand why i th as t aken me s o l ong t o b e a b le t o a ct u pon i t .

NOTES ( see A ppend ix f or A bbrev ia t ions ) 1 . T he s urv iva l i s o f c ourse e ven more f ragmen tary f or t he p er iod b efore t he C onquest .

I n t he p ar t icu lar c ase o f Winchester more s urv ives o f

t ha t p er iod t han f or most p laces , b u t t hese manuscr ip ts a re o f l i t t le h e lp i n s tudy ing t he p ost-Conquest l i turgy t here .

A t Winchester , a s e lsewhere ,

v ery ma jor c hanges were made i n i n troduc ing n ew o bservances i n t he l a ter e leven th a nd t we lf th c en tur ies .

An i n terest ing a ccoun t o f t he c hanges

i n t he c a lendar o f Worcester b etween t he l a te e leven th a nd e ar ly t h ir teen th c en tur ies i s g iven i n An t iphona ire monast ique d e Worcester , P a leograph ie mus ica le , X I I , 1 922 , p p . 4 1-6 a nd W. H . F rere , The L eofr ic C o l lector , I , H enry B radshaw S oc ie ty , LV I , 1 918 , p p . 5 87-600 .

Works o n t he c u l ts

o f s a in ts o f ten f a i l t o d ist ingu ish b etween t he s itua t ion b efore a nd a f ter t he C onquest :

t h is i s a ma jor f au lt i n D . H . F ar mer , T he Ox ford D ic-

t ionary o f S a in ts , Ox ford , 1 978 .

Any c o mpar ison b etween f or e xa mp le

t he p re-Conquest c a lendars o f C roy land , G lastonbury a nd S herborne ( F . Wor ma ld Eng l ish K a lendars b efore A .D . 1 100 7 H enry B radshaw S oc iety , LXX I I , 1 934 ) w ith t he ir p ost-Conquest t ex ts ( see A ppend ix ( c ) f or r eferences ) w i l l we l l i l lustra te t he c hanges . d uced a nd o ld o nes were o f ten a bandoned .

N ew f easts were i n tro-

O bv ious ly i n t he c ase o f t he

t ex ts o f p rayers e tc . i n t he v ar ious s erv ice b ooks t here a re s t i l l many s urv iva ls f ro m t he p re-Conquest p er iod .

F or e xa mp les o f s uch s urv iva ls

s ee E . C . H oh ler , ' So me S erv ice B ooks o f t he L a ter S axon C hurch ' , i n e d . D . Parsons , T en th C en tury S tud ies , L ondon , 1 975 , p . 7 1. 2 . Exa mp les among t he most impor tan t e stab l ish men ts a re C o lchester , C oven try , P ershore , S t . B enet Hu l me , T av istock .

I n t he c ase o f t he

l ast-na med we a re n ot e n t ire ly i gnoran t f or Wi l l ia m o f Worcester made o ne o f h is c haracter ist ica l ly i d iosyncra t ic b r ief s e lect ions f ro m a c a lendar h e s aw when h e v is i ted Tav istock : Worcestre .

e d . J . H . Harvey , W i l l ia m

I t inerar ies , Ox ford , 1 969 , p . 1 12-13 .

3 . F u l l i n for ma t ion o n g rad ing wou ld b e :

( i ) t he g rade f or t he f east a s a

who le ( e .g . D up lex , I n Cap is , I n A lb is , S i mp lex e tc .) a ccord ing t o t he c onven t ion u sed a t t he p ar t icu lar e stab l ish men t ( see Wor ma ld 's e d it ions o f p ost-1100 c a lendars r eferred t o i n A ppend ix ( c ) f or t he d if feren t s yste ms u sed ) ;

( i ) t he n u mber o f l essons f or Ma t ins ( twe lve , e igh t p lus

f our , o r t hree f or a B ened ict ine h ouse ) o r a n i nd ica t ion t ha t o n ly a me mor ia l was t o b e made ;

( ii ) t he i nc lus ion o f a l l o ctaves wh ich i n

s o me c a lendars a re o n ly p ar t ly i nd ica ted whereas t he B rev iary a lways men t ions a l l . 1 59

4 . Two o ther ma jor A bbeys p resen t a n a na logous t hough l ess c o mp l ica ted c ase .

T he c a lendar o f Ba t t le c an b e r econstructed f ro m a Brev iary

( Ca mbr idge , T r in ity Co l lege , MS 0 .7.31 ) a nd t ha t o f Bury S t . Ed munds f ro m a M issa l ( Laon , B ib l . Mun ., MS 2 38 ) a nd a n O rd ina l ( London , B r it ish L ibrary , MS Har ley 2 977 ) .

B a t t le , b e ing a p os t-Conques t

f ounda t ion c o lon ised f ro m Mar mou t ier , h ad a c a lendar l ack ing most o f t he f easts o f t he o ld Ang lo-Saxon s a in ts t ha t were o bserved i n o ther B ened ic t ine h ouses . 5 . T he L itany p resen ted t he s a me . prob le m u n t i l t he r ecen t a ppearance o f ap rev ious ly u nknown t ex t i n aS o theby s a le . 6 . T hree f u l ly g raded e xa mp les o f t he c a lendar e x ist :

Ox ford , B od le ian

L ibrary , MS G ough l i t . 8( ear ly 1 4th c en tury ) , N ew York , P ierpon t Morgan L ibrary , MS G laz ier 1 9 ( ear ly 1 4th c en tury ) a nd L ondon , B r it ish L ibrary , MS H ar ley 9 60 ( l a te 1 4th c en tury ) .

T he f irst o f t hese

h as b een p ub l ished ( J . B . L . T o lhurst , T he Monast ic B rev iary o f H yde A bbey , V , H enry B radshaw S oc iety , LXX E , 1 934 ) b u t i s al ess g ood t ex t t han t he Br it ish L ibrary manuscr ip t .

L i tan ies e x ist i n a l l t hree manu-

s cr ip ts ( To lhurst , 2 2 . c i t ., V , f or t he Ox ford t ex t ) a nd i n as l igh t ly l ess a ccura te f or m i n R o me , B ib l ioteca A posto l ica V a t icana , MS O t tob . L a t .514 . 7 . F . Wor ma ld , T he W inchester P sa lter , L ondon , 1 973 f or f u l l d escr ip t ion , f acs im i le a nd d iscuss ion o f t ex ts a nd i conography .

Abbrev ia ted a s I PHB.

8 . Imo la , B ib l . C o muna le , MS 1 00 , L ondon , Roya l C o l lege o f P hys ic ians , MS 4 09 :

t hese a re d escr ibed a nd t he ir t ex tua l , s ty l ist ic a nd i conograph ic

p rob le ms d iscussed i n my f or thco m ing v o lu mes E ar ly G o th ic Manuscr ip ts 1 190-1285 , I , I , S urvey o f Manuscr ip ts I l lu m ina ted i n t he B r i t ish I s les 4 .

The Wi lton P sa lter i s a bbrev ia ted i n t h is a r t ic le a s WP , a nd t he Imo la

P sa lter a s C . 9 . T hese a re l i sted i n A ppend ix ( d ) .

C er ta in manuscr ip ts w i th c a lendars

o f t he a d jacen t C h ichester d iocese ( Par is , B ib l . N a t ., MS L a t .15170 , V en ice , B ib l ioteca Marc iana , MS . L a t .I .77 ) a lso s how s evera l Winchester f ea tures .

F or b ib l iography s ee n .83 .

I n c o m mon w ith o ther d ioceses o f

t he S ou thern P rov ince Winchester s ee ms o n t he e v idence o f c a lendar t ex ts t o h ave a dop ted S aru m u se b y t he e ar ly f our teen th c en tury .

N one o f t he

s urv iv ing t h ir teen th c en tury S ta tutes o f t he B ishops o f Winchester r equ ire S aru m u se t o b e o bserved :

s ee F . M . P ow icke , C . R . C heney , C ounc i ls

a nd S ynods w i th o ther d ocu men ts r e la t ing t o t he E ng l ish C hurch , I , 1 205-1313 , Ox ford 1 964 .

I n r espect o f s a in ts d ays t he S ta tu tes i n 1 224

i ns ist o n t he o bserva t ion o f t he f easts o f S a in ts S w ithun a nd B ir inus ' e t f esta a l ioru m s anctoru m , q uoru m c orpora i n e cc les ia n ostra v e l a l i is e cc les i is n ostre d ioces is r equ iescun t , i n Ka lendar i is s cr iban tur , e t q uando c on t ingun t d enun t ien tur e t i n e cc les i is c e lebrentur ' C heney , 2 2 . c i t ., p . 1 27 ) .

( Pow icke a nd

T he t ex t i s ar evea l ing d ocu men t o f t he

v ar iab le s t itua t ion o f o bservance o f l oca l f easts i n t he p er iod b efore t he i n troduc t ion o f S aru m U se .

D if feren t c o mb inat ions o f s uch l oca l f easts

must h ave b een t he s i tua t ion i n o ther d ioceses . N .

F or Worcester s ee

Morgan , ' Psa l ter I l lustra t ion f or t he D iocese o f Worcester i n t he

T h ir teen th C en tury ' ,

Med ieva l Ar t a nd A rch i tecture a t Worcester C a thedra l ,

1 60

Br i t ish Archaeo log ica l A ssoc ia t ion C on ference Transact ions , L ondon , 1 978 , p p . 1 00-101 .

I n t he Winchester d iocese S aru m t ex ts h ave a s

s upp le men ts t he D ece mber 3 rd f east o f B ir inus a nd o ccas iona l ly a lso t he J u ly 8 th f east o f Gr i mba ld .

An e xa mp le wou ld b e t he H ours o f

E l izabeth t he Queen ( London , B r it ish L ibrary MS Add 5 0001 ) .

B o th

ma in f easts o f S t . Sw ithun ( Ju ly 2 nd , 1 5th ) were i n t he c a lendar o f S aru m . 1 0 .

T he c a lendar o f t h is manuscr ip t i s d iscussed i n f u l l b y K . W i ldhagen , ' Das K a lendar iu m d er Handschr i f t V ite l l ius E . XV I I I ', F estgabe f ar F e l ix L ieber mann , H a l le , 1 921 , p p . 6 8-118 .

O ther impor tan t d iscuss ions

i n F . G asque t , E . B ishop , T he B oswor th P sa lter , L ondon , 1 908 , p ass im ; F . Wor ma ld , Eng l ish B ened ic t ine Ka lendars b efore A .D . 1 100 , H enry B radshaw S oc ie ty , LXX I I , 1 933 , p p . v i , 1 55-67 ;

J . B . L . T o lhurst ,

' An e xa m ina t ion o f t wo Ang lo-Saxon Manucr ip ts o f t he Winchester S choo l : t he M issa l o f Rober t o f J um ieges a nd t he B ened ict iona l o f S t . E the lwo ld ', Archaeo log ia , L

= I I , 1 933 , p p . 3 0-34 ;

N . R . K er , A C a ta logue o f

Manuscr ip ts c on ta in ing, Ang lo-Saxon , Ox ford , 1 957 , p p . 2 98-301 ; J . L . Ros ier , T he V ite l l ius P sa lter , I thaca , 1 962 ;

D . H . T urner ,

T he M issa l o f t he N ew M inster , H enry B radshaw S oc iety , XCI I I , 1 962 , p p . x i , x i i i . 1 1 . B ishop a nd T o lhurst a scr ibed i tt o t he Ca thedra l b u t Wor ma ld t hough t i t t o b e o f t he N ew M inster .

T urner n oted t ha t t he s cr ip t was v ery c lose

t o t ha t o f t he N ew M inster Missa l .

T he t wo f easts c haracter ist iq o f

t he C a thedra l a nd n o t o f t he N ew M inster b oth b e ing i n t he o r ig ina l h and a re t he Ord ina t ion o f Sw ithun ( Oct . 3 0th ) a nd t he O ctave o f B ir inus ( Dec . 1 0th ) .

Id o n ot w ish t o e n ter i n to t he c on troversies o f t he p re-Conquest

p er iod b u t wou ld p ersona l ly p u t f orward t he h ypothes is t hat t he c a lendar r epresen ts t he p re-Conquest t ex t o f t he C a thedra l ( t he d a te o f t he manus cr ip t may i n f act b e s hor t ly a f ter t he C onquest ). 1 2 . O n f .2 5v : Margarete .

' Ad l aude m e t h onore m g lor iose v irg in is a c mar t in is e go f ra ter Wi le l mus V incen t monachus monaster i i s anct i

Sw ithun i Wyn ton ie .

h os d uos l i bros .

s c i l icet q uodda m p or t iphor iu m

c um s uo d iurna l i s ib i s im i l i f i er i f ec i e t man ibus me is p ropr i is c onscr ips i a nno d om in i m i l les i mo c ccc° x x° q uar to '. 1 3 . T he om iss ions a re imperfect ly d escr ibed i n t he manuscr ip t c a ta logue o f S . J . P . v an D i jk , L a t in L i turg ica l Manuscr ip ts where i ti s s ta ted t ha t 2 3rd J une - 3 0th J u ly i s l ack ing .

T he ma in s ect ions m iss ing a re

Ma y 2 0th - J une 2 1st a nd N ov . 2 nd - 1 0th .

Al onger s tudy t han h as

b een p ossib le wou ld b e r equ ired t o d eter m ine a l l t he miss ing s ing le p ages .

An e d i t ion o f t h is h igh ly impor tan t t ex t wou ld b e we lco me .

1 4 . T he c haracter ist ic E ly f easts a re Werburga ( Feb . 3 rd ) , Eu frax ia ( Feb . 1 1th ) ,Er men ilda ( Feb . 1 3th ) , B la ise ( Feb . 1 5th ) , E rkengota ( Feb . 2 1st ) , W ithburga ( Mar . 1 7th ) , S exburga ( Ju l . 6 th ) , E the lburga ( Ju l . 7 th ) , Trans l . Withburga ( Ju l . 8 th ) a nd E the lburga ( Oct . 1 1th ) .

O ther e n tr ies

n ot r e levan t t o Winchester a re Emeren t iana ( Jan . 2 3rd ) , G u th lac ( Apr . 1 1 th ) , Trans l . E d mund-( Apr . 2 9 th ) , N ico mede ( June 1 s t ) , M i ldred ( Ju l . 1 3th ) , S a mpson ( Ju l . 2 8 th ) , N eot ( Ju l . 3 1s t ) , Ro manus ( Aug . 9 th ) , Pau l inus ( Aug . 3 1s t ) , Bavo ( Oc t . 1 s t ). 1 61

1 5 . I n s o me c ases o f c ourse g rades may h ave c hanged b etween t he m id t h ir teen th c en tury when V ite l l ius was c orrected a nd t he f our teen th c ent ury when M i lan was c orrected . ar a ther i l leg ib le t ex t mode l .

T he s cr ibe o ft he l a t ter may h ave h ad When h e c ou ld n o t r ead t he n a me h e s ee ms

t o h ave u sed a Can terbury Mar tyro logy t o

c heck

r a ther t han a W inchester

o ne w ith t he u nderstandab le c onsequence o f e rror . men ted o n l a ter .

Th is w i l l b e c o m-

F ranc is Wor ma ld r ecogn ised t he a dap ta t ion o ft he

c a lendar was f or Winchester C a thedra l P r iory ( Eng l ish B ened ict ine Ka lendars a f ter A .D . 1 100 , I , H enry B radshaw S oc ie ty , L >00 ( 1 , 1 946 , p p . 2 -3 ) .

O ccas iona l ly Ih ave d if feren t r ead ings f ro m t hose l i sted b y

W o r ma ld b u t u n for tuna te ly i th as n o t y et b een p oss ib le t o r e turn t o M i lan t o c heck t he m .

T he manuscr ip t i s b r ief ly d escr ibed b y F . C ar ta ,

C od ic i , C ora l i eL ibr i aS ta mpa M in ia t i d e l la B ib l ioteca Naz iona le d i Mi lano , Ro me , 1 891 , p p . 1 0-11 1 6 . T he t ex t c on ten ts i s d escr ibed b y J . J an in i , J . S errano , Manuscr i tos L i turg icos d e l a B ib l io teca N ac iona l , Madr id , 1 969 , n o . 2 06 ,

p p . 2 57-8 .

T he i l lu m ina t ion i s d iscussed b r ie f ly b y C . M . Kauf fmann , Ro manesque Manuscr ip ts 1 066-1190 , S urvey o f Manuscr ip ts I l lu m ina ted i n t he B r i t ish I s les , 3 , L ondon , 1 975 , n o . 7 7 , f igs . 2 16-19 . 1 7 . T he a f f in ity w ith t he mar tyro log ica l c a lendar o f t he c on te mporary P sa lter o f Queen Me l isende h as b een n o ted b y Wor ma ld i n H . Buch tha l , M in ia ture P a in t ing i n t he L a t in K ingdo m o f J erusa le m , O x ford , 1 957 , p . 1 23 .

I n

t h is c o m men tary h e p o in ts o u t t ha t t he Madr id manuscr ip t was ' unquest i onab ly wr i t ten f or t he C a thedra l P r iory o f S t . Sw i thun Winches ter '. N o Mar tyro logy o f Winchester s urv ives b u t a s w i l l b e s een i n t he n n . 5 3 , 6 1 , 6 5 , 7 6 , 7 7 , 8 0 , 8 3 , 8 6 , 8 8 , 9 4 , 1 00 , 1 14 t he mar tyro log ies o f G or man , Exeter , C laud ius , Roya l a nd A lte mps c on ta in n ear ly a l l t he r are W inchester f easts a nd must h ave d er ived f ro m i t s t ex t .

These

f easts a re n ot f ound i n t he C an terbury mar tyro log ies wh ich were a lso i nf luen t ia l w ith t he e xcep t ion o f G r i mba ld ( Ju l . 8 th ) a nd J udoc ( Dec . 1 3th ). I n t he f our teen th a nd f i f teen th c en tur ies a nd i n e ar ly p r in ted v ers ions mar tyro log ies t end t o v orac ious ly a bsorb wha tever t he ir a u thors c ou ld f ind s o o n ly p re-1300 e xa mp les h ave b een e xam ined .

Ih ave n o t y e t b een

a b le t o f u l ly t ranscr ibe t he Mar tyro logy o f A lte mps ( Ro me , B ib l . V a t ., MS O t tob . L a t .163 ) a nd h ave r e l ied o n t he s upp le men ts t o U suard f ro m i t wh ich were p r in ted b y d u S o l l ier ( J . B . S o l ler ius , Ma r tyro log iu m U suard i Monach i , An twerp , 1 714 ) .

S o l l ier , 2 2 . c i t ., p p . LX E I I , 6 38 d rew a t ten t ion

t o t he e n try f or O ct . 3 0th i n A l te mps :

' I pso d ie o rd ina t io s anct iss im i

a n t ist it is a tque p a tron i n ostr i S w ith in i '.

T he A lte mps Mar tyro logy i s

a lready a c orrup t c o mp i la t ion o f s evera l mar tyro log ies b u t t o t he b est o f my k now ledge i ti s t he o n ly p re-1300 s ource t o h ave t h is q ua l if ica t ion f or t he O rd ina t ion o f Sw ithun p rov ing t he e x istence o f t he Winchester Mar tyro logy .

T he t ex t c losest t o t he o r ig ina l i s p robab ly t he Roya l

Mar tyro logy o f c . 1 220-47 a lthough i n t ha t manuscr ip t t he c haracter ist ic O ct . 3 0th e n try h as b een e n t ire ly om it ted .

The A l te mps mar tyroLogy

was e v iden t ly c o mp l ied a t N orw ich o r i n i t s d i ocese b ecause o n S ep te mber 2 4th i th as t he e n try o f t he D ed ica t ion o f N orw ich C a thedra l .

B et ter

v ers ions o f t he t ex t b u t w ith s evera l f i f teen th c en tury a ccret ions a re

•1 62

L ondon , B r it ish L ibrary , MS C o t ton J u l ius B .V I I a nd Ox ford , B od le ian L ibrary , MS L a t . l i t . . e .43 .

T he d es igna t ion o f S w ithun a s p a tron a s

i n t he A lte mps martyro logy i s f ound i n t he O ctober 3 0th e n try i n t he B od le ian manuscr ip t .

The A lte mps mar tyro logy f or mer ly b e longed t o

t he D uke o f A l te mps f ro m whose c o l lec t ion i tp assed t o t he Va t ican L ibrary ( H . E hrensberger , L ibr i L i turg ic i B ib l io thecae A posto l icae Va t icanae , F re iburg , 1 897 , p p . 1 85-6 ) .

T he B od le ian mar tyro logy

was b equea thed i n 1 972 t o t he B od le ian L ibrary b y t he e xecu tors o f F ranc is Wor ma ld who h ad a cqu ired i ti n 1 961. 1 8 . One f u l l p age m in ia ture o f t he V irg in a nd C h i ld w ith a k nee l ing d onor h as b een r e moved b u t t he o f fset c an b e s een o n f .1 54v . T he m in iatures s urv iv ing ( f f .7 9v , 1 44v ) a nd t he z od iac meda l l ions i n t he c a lendar h ave g o ld , b lue a nd g reen g rounds w ith f i gures i n b r igh t b lues , r eds , p urp les a nd g reens .

T h is p a le t te t hough n o t t he s ty le i s v ery r em in iscen t o f t he

Bury B ible , a nd t he d a te o f t he manuscr ip t i s p robab ly c . 1 140-50 . 1 9 . D iscussed b r ief ly b y F . Wor ma ld , J ourna l T heo log ica l S tud ies , N .S .2 , 1 951 ,

P .

1 15 i n h is r ev iew o f L . B rou , P sa l ter C o l lects , H enry B radshaw

S oc iety , LXXX I I I , 1 949 . 2 0 . A t ten t ion was d rawn t o t h is f rag men t b y F . Wor ma ld , T he W inchester P sa lter , L ondon , 1 973 , p . 1 07.

H e p o in ts o u t t ha t t he v erses a t t he

h ead o f e ach mon th a re t he s ame u nusua l s et a s i n PHB. 2 1 . The f u l l d escr ip t ion i n t he s a le c a ta logue r ecogn ises t he Winchester p rovenance b u t n o t t he a t tr ibu t ion t o t he C a thedra l P r iory i t se lf . 2 2 . N . R . K er , Med ieva l Manuscr ip ts i n B r it ish L ibrar ies , I , Ox ford , 1 977 , p p . 9 56-8 .

K er o f c ourse r ecogn ised t he s ign if icance o f t he t ex t a s a

d ocu men t o f Winchester C a thedra l P r iory .

H e q uest ioned t he m isp lac ing

o f t he P reface f or t he Ord ina t ion o f Sw ithun ( Oct . 3 0th ) b efore t ha t f or S i mon a nd J ude ( Oct . 2 8th ). a nd b y as ubsequen t u ser .

T h is e rror was i n f act r ea l ised b y t he s cr ibe T he s cr ibe h as i nser ted i n t he marg in a n A

b y t he P reface f or S i mon a nd J ude a nd a B b y t ha t f or t he O rd ina t ion o f S w ithun .

Ano iher h and h as p u t 1a nd 2 i n •the s a me r espect ive p os it ions .

2 3 . G . W. K i tch in , C o mpotus Ro l ls o f t he Obed ien t iar i es o f S t . Sw ithun 's P r iory W inchester f ro m t he Winchester Ca thedra l A rch ives , L ondon , 1 892 , p p . 2 06-62 . 2 4 . C . M . Kauf f mann ,

c i t ., n os . 7 1 , 7 5 a nd p p . 1 04 , 1 07 , 1 09 d iscusses

t he manuscr ip t a nd p rov ides a b ib l iography . 2 5 . e .g . Ox ford , B od le ian L ibrary , MS A uct . D .4 .6 , L ondon , B r it ish L ibrary , MS Add .2 1927 , S t . P au l 's , C a thedra l L ibrary , MS 1 . 2 6 . T o lhurst 's p r in ted e d i t ion o f t he Hyde Brev iary s hows h ow t h is s ys te m o pera ted a t H yde ; a nd i n Vo lu me V I , p . 1 87 h e e xp la ins t he s ys te m where t he f our were s upp l ied f ro m t he G ospe l a nd t he Ho m i ly .

I n c ases when

t wo s a in ts were o n t he s a me d ay o r d ur ing O ctaves t he r e ma in ing f our l essons were o f ten d evo ted t o t he s econdary s a in t o r t o t he f east o f t he O ctave .

1 63

2 7.

I den t ica l v erses o ccur i n t he Madr id manuscr ip t .

2 8 . I n c ap i ta ls i n V wh ich h as n o d oub le i nvoca t ions . 2 9 . I n c ap ita ls i n V . 3 0 . L ack ing i n A uct . 3 1 . I n c ap i ta ls i n V . 3 2 . I n c ap ita ls i n V . 3 3 . T ho mas i s o n ly i n Va nd i s i n c ap ita ls .

A t t h is p o in t A uct r eads ' A lphege ,

E the lwo ld , D unstan , A lphege ' h av ing c onfused A lphege t he Mar tyr w ith A lphege t he C on fessor a nd c on t inues t he m istake b y i nvok ing t he C onf essors E the lwo ld a nd Dunstan . 3 4 . I n c ap ita ls i n V . 3 5 . I n c ap ita ls i n V . 3 6 . I n c ap ita ls i n V . 3 7 . I n c ap i ta ls i n V . 3 8 . T he d oub le i nvoca t ion o n ly i n Auct .

I n c ap ita ls i n V .

3 9 . On ly i n V where i ti s a n a dd it ion . 4 0 . T he d oub le i nvocat ion o n ly i n S .

I n c ap ita ls i n V .

4 1 . L ack ing i n Auct . 4 2 . On ly i n V where i ti s a n a dd it ion . 4 3 . On ly i n Sb u t vi s i l leg ib le a t t h is p o in t . 4 4 . L ack ing i n Auct . 4 5 . L ack ing i n Auct . 4 6 . On ly i n V where i ti s a n a dd i t ion . 4 7 . I n c ap it a ls i n V . 4 8 . Erased i n A uc t a nd F r idesw ide s ubst itu ted . 4 9 . I n c ap ita ls i n V . 5 0 . Anastas ia t o E the ldreda a re i l leg ib le i n V . 5 1. L ack ing i n A uct . 5 2 . AW , p . 5 4 men t ions a t rans la t ion i n 1 146 ; S tan ton , p p . 1 15-16 ;

L ieber mann , p . 1 5 ;

Wor ma ld , G lastonbury , p . 3 41 ;

t he l i fe i s i n

t he Ro msey L egendary ( London , B r it ish L ibrary , MS L ansdowne , 4 36 , f .1 13-14 ) .

T he 1 146 d a te f or t h is a nd t he t rans la t ion o f o ther Winchester

s a in ts i s g iven a s 1 150 i n t he Anna ls o f Worcester ( ed . H . R . L uard , A rma les Monast ic i , I V , Ro l ls S er ies , 1 869 , p . 3 79 ).

1 64

5 3 . T he f east o ccurs e lsewhere w ith l ow g rad ing o n ly i n t he c a lendars o f H yde a nd G lastonbury a nd i n t hose o f PHB a nd WP .

A lthough t he L i tany

o f WP i s o f Wi lton t he C a lendar i s u n l ike ly t o b e b ecause i tl acks s o me f easts o f s a in ts whose r e l ics b e longed t o t he Abbey :

Trans l . E d i th

( Nov . 3 rd ) , I w i ( Oct . 8 th ) a nd T rans l . I w i ( so me d a te b etween F eb . 2 5th a nd Mar . 1 1th ) .

The e v idence f or a b as ic c a lendar o f Wi lton i s i n t he

S anctora l o f an ow l ost P rocess iona l : s iona l Ang la is d u X IVe p p . 2 86-8 .

G . B eno it-Caste l l i , ' Un P roces-

,E phe mer ides L iturg icae , 7 5 , 1 961 ,

T he o ccurrence o f A lphege i n t he c a lendar o f t he W i lton

P sa lter c ou ld b e e xp la ined b y i t s mar tyro log ica t e le men t e v iden t ly d er ived f ro m a W inchester mar tyro logy . . ( See p . 1 53 f or f ur ther d isc uss ion ) .

T he f east o ccurs i n t he f o l low ing : mar tyrolog ies : A lte mps ,

E xeter , G or man , Roya l . 5 4 . I n t he G lastonbury c a lendar o f t he f i f teen th c en tury t h is e n try i s o n J une 1 1th .

Wor ma ld , G lastonbury , p . 3 42 s ta tes t ha t t h is c o m me mora tes

t he d ed ica t ion o n 1 186 o f t he L ady C hape l .

S ince t he J une 1 0th e n try

i n Vi s i n t he o r ig ina l e leven th c en tury h and i t must r efer t o s o me o ther d ed ica t ion .

T he s a me e n try i s f ound i n a nother e leven th c en tury

Winchester c a lendar , L ondon , B r it ish L ibrary , MS Arunde l 6 0 .

I

wou ld l ike t o t hank Mr . T . A . H es lop f or h is c o m men ts o n t h is p rob le m . 5 5 . On ly f ound e lsewhere a t S herborne .

T he r easons f or t he g rea t emphas is

o n t he c u lt o f Sw i thun a bove t hose o f t he o ther s a in t ly B ishops o f Winchester a re d iscussed b y D . J . S heer in , ' The D ed ica t ion o f t he O ld M inster , Winchester i n 9 80 ', Revue B ened ic t ine , 8 8 , 1 978 , p p . 2 67-71 . 5 6 . On ly c e lebra ted e lsewhere a t A b ingdon a nd E ly .

H e was r efounder a nd

a bbo t o f A b ingdon a nd s o me o f h is r e l ics were t here .

T he r eason f or

h is impor tance a t E ly was a lso b ecause h e r efounded i t i n c . 9 70 . F or t he c l ta nd l i fe o f 2 . the lwo ld : 3 75-7 ;

NLA , I , p p . 4 32-48 ;

3 41v-342;

L ieber mann , p . 1 5 ;

S tan ton , p p .

T o lhurst , B rev iary , I V , 1 .309-309v ,

Wor ma ld , G lastonbury , p . 3 43 ; J . V . F isher , ' The e ar ly

b iographers o f S t . E the lwo ld ', Eng l ish H istor ica l Rev iew , LXV I I , 1 952 , p p . 3 81-91 .

H is l i fe i s a lso f ound i n s o me v ernacu lar Eng l ish L egendar ies

( see C . H orstmann , T he Ear ly S ou th Eng l ish L egendary , E ar ly Eng l ish T ex t S oc iety , 8 7 , 1 887 , p p .

XiX ,

30d .,

XXii,

, O Ciii,

XXiV).

S ee n . 7 7 f or

t he i nstances o f t he August l st/2nd f east . 5 7 . F or Modwenna s ee C . H oh ler , ' S t . O sy th a nd A y lesbury ', R ecords o f B ucks

XV I I I , 1 966 , p p . 6 5-6.

T he p rob le m o f ' appropr ia t ion ' o f

f easts o f s a in ts o f s im i lar o r i den t ica l n a me i s t here d iscussed .

T he

ma in d ay f or S t . Merwenna s ee ms t o h ave b een F ebruary 1 0th where s he i s p laced i n t he e leven th c en tury c a lendar o f t he B oswor th P sa l ter ( London , B r it ish L ibrary , MS Add . 3 7517 ) , i n t he f i f teen th c en tury mar tyro logy ( Oxford , B od l . L a t . L it . e .43 ) a nd i n t he S yon Mar tyro logy ( F . P roctor , E . S . D ew ick , T he Mar t i loge , H enry B radshaw S oc ie ty , I I , 1 893 , p . 2 5 ) . p . 1 5 ;

T he s parse e v idence o f h er c u lt i s g iven b y L ieber mann ,

E . B ishop , ' Eng l ish Hag io logy ', Dub l in Rev iew , XL 1V , 1 885 , p . 1 41 ;

Wor ma ld , L itany , p . 8 4 n1 64 .

H er l i fe i s i n t he Ro msey L egendary

( London , Br it ish L ibrary , MS L ansdowne 4 36 ).

T he c u lt o f S t . Modwenna

o f B ur ton was a l most a s l im ited , b u t t he J u ly 5 th f east o ccurs i n t he c a lendars 1 65

o f C hester , Read ing ( New Y ork , P ierpon t Mo rgan L ibrary , ' MS 1 03; L ondon , Br i t ish L ibrary , MS C ot ton V espas ian A . V ) a nd S ha f tesbury ( m isp laced o n J u ly 9 th ) , among t he B ened ic t ines , a nd C a mpsey ( Ca mbr idge Un ivers ity L ibrary , MS Add . 7 220 ) , N os te l l ( Ox ford , Mer ton C o l lege , MS B .1 .7(249 ) ) , a nd Mun ich , S taa tsb ib l . M Sg a l l . 1 6 ( The I sabe l la P sa l ter ) among t he August in ians .

T he J u ly 5 th f east was a dded i n t he

1 5th c en tury t o o ne Winchester c a lendar f ro m H yde A bbey ( New Y ork , P ierpon t Mo rgan L ibrary , MS G laz ier 1 9 ) r evea l ing s o me i n terest i n h er a t W inchester .

I ti s p ar t icu lar ly r evea l ing t ha t s o me o f t he

Winchester d er ived mar tyro log ies h ave o n ly t he S ep te mber 9 th f east a nd n o t t he n or ma l o ne o n J u ly 5 th ( e .g . A l te mps , R oya l ) .

T here i s

c lear ly a p rob le m h ere wh ich a t p resen t Iam u nab le t o r eso lve . An a lterna t ive a nd p erhaps t he mos t p laus ib le e xp lana t ion o f ac u lt o f Modwenna a t Winchester i s t ha t i t was i n troduced i n t he t we lf th c en tury a t at ime when G eof frey , f or mer ly p r ior o f Winchester , was A bbo t o f B ur ton ( 1 114-50 ).

I n s o me way G eof frey may h ave c aused t he s pread o f

t he c u lt t o Winchester .

H is p aT t icu lar i n terest i n Mo dwenna i s i nd ica ted

b y h is c o mpos i t ion o f aL a t in l i fe o f t he s a in t .

A . T . B aker , A . B e l l ,

S t . Modwenna , Ang lo N or man T ex t S oc ie ty , V I I , 1 947 , p p .

XXiii-XXVi.

5 8 . e d . H . R . L uard , Anna ls o f Worcester , A nna les Monast ic i , I V , R o l ls S er ies , 1 869 , p . 3 79 d escr ibes a t rans la t ion o f h is r e l ics i n 1 150 . S ee a lso L ieber mann , p . 1 5 ;

S tan ton , p p . 4 44 , 4 45 ;

Wor ma ld , L i tany ,

p . 7 9 n . 1 10 . 5 9 . S ee n n . 7 9 , 8 0 .

F or h is c u lt a nd l i fe s ee L ieber mann , p p . 1 5 , 1 6 ;

S tan ton , p p . 5 81 , 5 83 ;

NLA , I , p p . 1 18-122 ;

J . E . F ie ld , S t . B er mn

t he A pos t le o f Wessex , L ondon , 1 902 ;

Wor ma ld , L itany , p . 7 8 n . 8 8 ;

T o lhurst , B rev iary , I V , f .3 96v-397.

H is l i fe i s a lso f ound i n v ernacu lar

E ng l ish L egendar ies ( s,

C . H orst mann , T he Ear ly S ou th Eng l ish L egendary ,

E ar ly Eng l ish T ex t S oc iety , 8 7 , 1 887 , p p . x v i i , 6 0 . AW , p . 1 0 ;

XXii,

L ieber mann , p p . 1 5 , 1 6 .

6 1 . F ound o n ly e lsewhere a t S herborne a nd i n PHB a nd W P .

I to ccurs i n t he '

mar tyro log ies o f A lte mps ( and i t s t wo f if teen th c en tury f o l lowers ) a nd E xeter a nd i n Why tford 's 1 526 p r in ted S yon mar tyro logy ( Henry B radshaw S oc ie ty , I I , 1 893 ) . 6 2 . L ieber mann , p p . 1 7 , 1 8 ;

S tan ton , p p . 4 49-51 ;

Wor ma ld , L itany , p . 8 1 n . 1 32 ;

NLA , I , p p . 3 11-15 ;

T o lhurst , B rev iary , I V , f .345v-346

( f or t he S ep te mber 1 6th f east o n ly ) .

T he Nove mber 3 rd f east o ccurs

e lsewhere o n ly a t S haf tesbury a nd Wi lton i t se lf .

The e v idence f or t he

f east a t Wi lton i s i n t he P rocess iona l ( G . B eno it-Caste l l i , 9 2 . c i t .) . 6 3 . F . G . H o lweck , AB iograph ica l D ict ionary o f t he S a in ts , L ondon , 1 924 , p . 7 84 . 6 4 . T he f east i s o f v ery g rea t r ar ity o ccurr ing ,to my k now ledge o n ly i n t he p oss ib ly c . 1 070 Winchester c a lendar , L ondon , Br it ish L ibrary , MS Arunde l 6 -0 a nd i n t he f i f teen th c en tury Ro msey c a lendar i n Ro msey A bbey. S ee f ur ther i n n n 8 4-6 f or a d iscuss ion o f e v idence o f t he c u l t o f S t . F the lf leda . The o ccurrence i n t he c a lendar o f Arunde l 6 0 1 66

o f t he O ctave o f t he D epos it ion o f B ir inus a nd t he e v idence o f s a in ts i n t he L itany i nc l ines me t o a scr ibe i tt o t he Ca thedra l P r iory b u t f u l l d iscuss ion o f t h is i s b eyond t he s cope o f t h is a r t ic le . 6 5 . L ieber mann , p p . 1 5 , 1 6 ;

Wor ma ld , L i tany , p . 7 9 n1 12 ;

t here i s s o me

c on troversy o ver t he d a te o f t he a rr iva l o f t he r e l ics ( P . G r ierson , ' Gr i mba ld o f S t . B erl in 's ' , En _g l ish H istor ica l Rev iew , LV , 1 940 , p p . 5 56-7 ) .

T he T rans la t ion o ccurs i n Winchester d iocese c a lendars A ,

Ea nd i n PHB a nd W P . Exe ter , Roya l .

I n mar tyro log ies :

Ab ingdon , A lte mps , C laud ius ,

I n mar tyrolog ica l c a lendars ;

L ondon , B r it ish L ibrary ,

MS C o t ton A pp . LV I , C a mbr idge , C orpus C hr ist i , MS 4 05 , C openhagen , Kg l . B ib l ., G l . K g l . S am l . 1 812 .4 0 ( I ce land ic ) .

I ti s f ound i n s o me

e d i t ions o f t he p r in ted S aru m H ours a nd S aru m B rev iary . 6 6 . A bbo tsbury , B ark ing , C her tsey , C hester , D eerhurst , E vesha m , G lastonbury , G loucester , Ma l mesbury , S haf tesbury , T ewkesbury , West m inster , Winchco mbe , Worcester a nd York . 6 7. A , C , D , E , F , G . 6 8 . S ee N . Morgan , _ o p . c i t ., p p . 1 00-101 . 6 9 . C . H oh ler , ' S t . O syth a nd A y lesbury ', R ecords o f B ucks , XV I I I , 1 966 , p . 6 3-4 , 7 1 n1 3 ;

D . B ethe l l , ' The L ives o f S t . O sy th o f E ssex a nd S t .

O sy th o f A y lesbury ', Ana lecta B o l land iana , 8 8 , 1 970 , p p . 8 1-2 ; Braswe l l , ' S t . E dburga o f Winchester :

L .

as tudy o f h er c u lt A .D . 9 50-1500 ,

w i th a n e d it ion o ft he M idd le Eng l ish a nd L a t in L ives ', Med iaeva l S tud ies , 3 3 , 1 971 , p p . 2 92 f .

T hese a r t ic les g ive f u l l r eferences t o a l l p rob le ms

o f h er c u lt a nd l egend , a nd o f o ther s a in ts o f t he s a me n a me . 7 0 . AW , p . 5 4 ;

L ieber mann , p p . 1 5 , 1 6 ;

T o lhurst , B rev iary , I V , f .2 85-86v .

Wor ma ld , L i tany , p . 7 9 n . 1 09 ; S ee i m . 5 2 , 5 8 f or men t ion o f

t he c on troversy o ver t he d a te o f t he t rans la t ion . 7 1 . A bbo tsbury , C her tsey , Croy land a nd Duns ter . 7 2 . B , C , D , G . 7 3 . A b ingdon , C laud ius , Exeter , G or man , Roya l . 7 4 . A , B , C , D , F .

I n Et he s cr ibe h as mistaken ly i nser ted Edward t he

Mar tyr o n t ha t d ay i n e rror f or Edburga . 7 5 . I n Ca mbr idge , C lare C o l lege , MS Kk .I I I .6 a nd i n C a mbr idge U n iv . L ib ., MS . 1* . 2 .6 .

I n N . Morgan , 2 2 . c i t ., p . 1 01 a s ar esu l t o f mispr in t i t

was r ecorded i n L ondon , S t P au l 's , MS , 1 , where i td oes n o t o ccur . S ee H oh ler , o p . c i t ., p . 7 1 n1 3 f or a rgu men ts f or J u ly 1 8th a s t he f east d ay o f S t . Edburga o f B icester .

S ee a lso C . H oh ler , ' Ref lect ions o n

s o me manuscr ipts c on ta in ing 1 3th-cen tury p o lyphony ', J ourna l o f t he P la insong a nd Med ieva l Mus ic S oc iety , 1 , 1 978 , p p . 2 5-8 . 7 6 . A b ingdon , Exeter , G or man , Roya l . 7 7 . Abbo tsbury , A b ingdon , Bark ing , B ury , C her tsey , C roy land , D eep ing , D eerhurst , D urha m , E ly , Evesha m , G las tonbury , Ma l mesbury , P eterb orough , S herborne , Tav is tock , Winchco mbe a nd Worces ter . 1 67

T he o n ly

o ther e xa mp les k nown t o me a re i n PHB , t he Imo la P sa l ter a nd t he E xeter P sa l ter ( London , B r i t ish L ibrary , MS H ar ley 8 63 ) . i s i n t he Winchester d er ived mar tyro log ies : a nd Roya l .

T he f east

C laud ius , E xeter , G or man

T he H ours ( Downs ide Abbey , MS 2 6543 ) h as a s uf frage f or

E the lwo ld ( A . Wa tk in , ' A u n ique l i turg ica l manuscr ip t f ro m Winchester ', D owns ide Rev iew , 6 9 , 1 950/51 , P . 4 69 ). 7 8 . P . G r ierson , ' Gr i mba ld o f S t . B er t in 's , E ng l ish H is tor ica l R ev iew , LV , 1 940 , p . 5 58 . 7 9 . A bbo tsbury , C her tsey , C hester , E ly a nd S herborne .

T he D owns ide

H ours , e v iden t ly f or t he u se o f Winchester C a thedra l P r iory ( A . Wa tk in , 2 2 . c i t .) , h as a s uf frage f or B ir inus . 8 0 . A . B . C . D . F . G .

I ti s a lso i n PHB .

c a lendars o f York u se .

T he f east a lso o ccurs i n p r in ted

I ti s i n t he Winchester d er ived mar tyro log ies :

C laud ius , E xeter , G or man , Roya l . 8 1 . AW , p . 4 4 r efers t o t he p lac ing o f h is r e l ics i n an ew f ere tory i n 1 111 . 8 2 . A bbo tsbury , B ark ing , C her tsey , E ly , P e terborough , Ro msey , S herborne a nd W inchco mbe . 8 3 . I n t he Winchester d iocese i n Ca nd D , a nd i n t he C h iches ter d iocese i n P ar is , B ib l . Na t . MS L a t . 1 5170 ( L . D e l is le , N o t ice d e d ouze l i vres r oyaux d u X I I Ie e t d u X IVe s iec le , P ar is , 1 902 , p p . 1 04-5 ) a nd V en ice , B ib l . Marc iana , MS L a t .1 .77

' ( R . Meo l i T ou lm in , ' Or ig in i ed a ta d i

u n c od ice i ng lese d e l la Marc iana ', S agg i e Me mor ie d i S tor ia d e l l 'Ar te , 8 , 1 972 , p p . 4 5 f .) .

T he f east i s i n t he W inchester d er ived mar tyro log ies :

C laud ius , Exeter , G or man , R oya l . 8 4 . L ieber mann , p . 1 5 ;

S tan ton , 5 11-12 ;

L itany , p . 8 4 n1 65 ;

NLA , I , p p . 3 79-81 ;

Wor ma ld ,

T o lhurst , Brev iary , I V , i f . 3 62v-363v .

8 5 . B ark ing , S haf tesbury , a nd Ro msey i t se lf .

A t Ro msey t here were t hree

f easts f or h er , t he T rans la t ion ( Jan . 2 7th ) , t he R eve la t ion ( Mar . 1 0th ) a nd t ha t o n O ct . 2 3rd . 8 6 . I n Ox ford , N ew C o l lege , MS 3 22 o f t he W inchester d iocese , i n P ar is , B ib l . Na t . L a t . 1 5170 o f t he C h ichester r eg ion a nd i n Ca mbr idge , G onv i l le a nd C a ius C o l lege , MS 2 05 f ro m S horwe l l o n t he I s le o f Wigh t ( N . D ehho l m-Young , ' Rober t Carpen ter a nd t he P rov is ions o f West m inster ', Eng l ish H istor ica l R ev iew , 1 935 , p p . 2 3-5 f or a d iscuss ion o f t h is manus cr ip t ) .

S he o ccurs i n t he mar tyro log ies :

A l te mps , G or man , R oya l .

T he c a lendar o f aL ondon d iocese manuscr ip t ( Ca mbr idge , T r in ity C o l lege , MS B .10 .9 ) a lso c on ta ins t he f east a nd p erhaps t h is i s d ue t o t he i n f luence o f Bark ing where h er c u lt was o f s uf f ic ien t impor tance t o mer i t at we lve l esson c e lebra t ion . 8 7 . L ieber mann , p . 1 5 ;

S tan ton , p p . 5 25-6 .

H is l i fe i s i n t he Ro msey

L egendary ( London , B r it ish L ibrary , MS L ansdowne , 4 36 f . 1 11v-13 ) a nd i n T o lhurst , B rev iary , I V , f .3 71-372 . 8 8 . I n t he B ened ict ine c a lendar o f D unster , a nd i n t ha t o f Exeter ( London , B r it ish L ibrary , MS H ar ley 8 63 ) .

I n t he Winchester d iocese i n c a lendars

A , PHB , W P , a nd i n t he Mar tyro log ies , A l te mps , Exeter , G or man , Roya l . 1 68

8 9 . A bbo tsbury , A b ingdon , Can terbury

C hr ist C hurch , Chester , S t N eo t 's

( ce l l o f B ee ) , Ro msey , T ewkesbury , West m inster , Winchco mbe a nd Wo rcester . 9 0 . C , D , F , PHB . 9 1 . G u isborough ( London , B r it ish L ibrary , MS Add . 3 5285 ) ;

K irkha m

( Ca mbr idge , S idney S ussex C o l lege , MSS 3 6 , 6 2 a nd Ox ford , B od le ian L ibrary , MS Raw l inson D .938 ) ; B .A .7 (249 ) ) ;

N oste l l ( Oxford , Mer ton C o l lege , MS

a nd Ox ford , B od le ian L ibrary, MS L a t .l i t .c .3 6 p erhap s

f ro m R ep ton o r D ar ley . 9 2 . An e xce l len t s tudy b y G . H . D ob le , T he S a in ts o f C ornwa l l , p t . I V , Ox ford , 1 965 , p p . 1 16-27 w ith p p . 1 21-2 o n t he Winchester c onnect ions . 9 3 . L ieber mann , p p . 1 9 , 2 0 ;

D . W . Ro l lason , ' L ists o f s a in ts ' r est ing-

p laces i n Ang lo-Saxon Eng land ', A ng lo-Saxon Eng land , 7 , 1 978 , p . 8 1 . 9 4 . C openhagen , Kg l . B ib l ., G l . Kg 1 . S am l . 1 812 .4° .

Iam v ery g ra tefu l

t o C hr istopher H oh ler f or d raw ing my a t ten t ion t o t h is t ex t .

T he manu-

s cr ip t i s d iscussed b y L . L arsson , A ldsta d e len a f C od .1 812 .4° Gm l . Kg l . S am l ing p ä k g l . B ib l io teket i n K obenhavn , C openhagen , 1 883 , a nd H . H er mannsson , I ce land ic Manuscr ip ts ,

C orne l l , 1 929 , p . 1 9 .

D oub t less t he o ccurrence i s d ue t o t he i n f luence o f aW inchester b ased mar tyro logy a l though Ih ave n o e v idence wh ich migh t r evea l a n a c tua l c u l t o f Branwa la tor i n I ce land . A l te mps , G orman a nd R oya l ;

The s a in t o ccurs i n t he mar tyro log ies , a nd i n E xe ter t w ice ( Feb. 9 , J une 6 ) .

9 5 . C . P lu m mer , Two o f t he S axon C hron ic les , Ox ford , 1 899 , I , n4 ;

I ,

P .

1 62

P .

2 22 .

9 6 . J . B . L . T o lhurst , ' An e xa m ina t ion o f t wo Ang lo-Saxon manuscr ip ts o f t he Winchester S choo l :

t he M issa l o f Rober t o f J um ieges a nd t he

B ened ict iona l o f S t . E the lwo ld ', A rchaeo log ia , 1 000a I I , 1 933 , p . 3 1. 9 7 . AW , p . 6 2 .

A s we l l a s t he f a mous f a ir o f S t . G i les a nd o ne o f S t .

S w ithun t here was a lso a n impor tan t f a ir o f S t . Barnabas a t W inchester ( E . Sm irke , ' W inchester i n t he t h ir teen th c en tury ', Archaeo log ica l J ourna l , V I I , 1 850 , p . 3 80 1 . 9 8 . L ieber mann , p p . 1 7 , 1 8 ;

S tan ton , p p . 4 79 , 4 81 ;

NLA , I , p p . 9 1-2 ;

P . G ros jean , ' La l egende d e S te Ed ith e np rose e t v ers p ar l e mo ine G osce l in ' Ana lecta B o l land iana , 5 6 , 1 938 , p p . 2 73-4 ;

Wor ma ld , L itany

p . 8 0 n1 22 . 9 9 . Ro msey , S ha f tesbury ,

S herborne a nd W i l ton .

1 00 . I n E xe ter , Roya l a nd i n t he martyro log ica l c a lendar , L ondon , B r it ish L ibrary , MS C o t ton A pp . LW ( J . P . Hudson , ' A mar tyro log ized t we lf thc en tury c a lendar ', Br it ish Museu m Quar ter ly , 2 00 CV I I , 1 973 , 1 01 . A lso i n t he B ened ict ine c a lendar o f Muche lney a nd i n PHB .

P .

1 09 ) .

T he c u l t o f

D en is i n Eng land h as r ecen t ly b een e xa m ined b y D . C . Hoare , T he Cu lt o f S t . D enys i n Eng land i n t he M idd le Ages , M .P h i l ., No t t ingha m Un iv ers i ty , 1 978 .

1 69

1 02 . D . H . T urner , T he M issa l o f t he N ew M inster , W inchester , H enry B radshaw S oc iety , XCI I I , 1 962 , p p . i x-x , 8 7 . 1 03 . C , D , Ma . 1 04 . O n ly k nown t o me i n t hose o f PHB a nd t he mar tyro log ica l t ex t o f L ondon , B r it ish L ibrary , MS C o t ton A pp . LV I . 1 05 . D iscussed a t l eng th b y G . H . D ob le , The S a in ts o f C ornwa l l , p t . I , Ox ford , 1 962 , p p . 1 09-19 . 1 06 . O f t he Ca thedra l P r iory ;

T rans la t ion o f Sw ithun ( Ju l . 1 5th ) i n t wo

c o lours , O rd ina t ion o f S w ithun ( Oct . 3 0th ) ;

a nd o f H yde ;

B ranwa la tor

( Jan . 1 9 th ) , O ctave o f D en is ( Oct . 1 6th ) , Me lan ius ( Nov . 6 th ) .

T he

W inchester f easts i n c ap ita ls a re t he t rans la t ion o f J udoc ( Jan . 9 th ) , E dburga ( June 1 5th ) a nd G r i mba ld ( Ju ly 8 th ).

A s Va len t ine ( Feb . 1 4th )

i s a lso i n c ap ita ls t he g enera l emphas is p o in ts t owards H yde .

T he

p resence o f t he O ctave o f B ened ict ( Ju l . 1 8th ) r evea l aB ened ict ine c a lendar a s mode l . 1 07 . T he o ccurrence o f t he C lun iac f easts o f H ugh ( Apr . 2 9 th ) a nd Ma io lus ( Ma y 1 1th ) h ave b een t aken a s s uppor t ing e v idence f or H enry 's ownersh ip a s h e was o nce a monk a t C luny :

s ee F . Wor ma ld , T he

W inchester P sa lter , L ondon , 1 973 , p . 1 07-8 .

D . Know les , T he

Monast ic O rder i n E ng land , 9 40-1216 , C a mbr idge , 1 966 , p p . 2 74-5 . d iscusses t he p rob le m o f e p iscopa l c on tro l o ver monaster ies .

T he

monks o f H yde , p ar t icu lar ly a f ter t he ir monastery was b urn t i n t he t roub les a t Winchester i n t he a u tu mn o f 1 141 , were s trong ly o pposed t o B ishop H enry who m t hey r igh t ly b la med f or t he ir m isfor tune ( Know les , o p . c i t ., p . 2 70 ) .

I n v iew o f t he p rayer t o S t . Sw ithun h av ing t he p hrase

am iserab le a nd weak s inner h ave s inned i n y our c our ts b y l iv ing i l l i n y our h ouse ' t he P sa lter may h ave b een made f or t he B ishop s hor t ly a f ter t he e ven ts o f 1 141 .

W o r ma ld , 2 2 . c i t ., p . 1 25 , d rew a t ten t ion t o

t h is p rayer . 1 08 . T he f easts f ound i n d iocesan c a lendars a re :

T ransla t ion o f J udoc ( January

9 th ) , Edburga ( June 1 5th ) , H edda ( Ju ly 7 th ) , G r i mba ld ( Ju ly 8 th ) , T rans la t ion o f Edburga ( Ju ly 1 8th ) , E the lwo ld ( August i st o r 2 nd ) , T rans la t ion o f B ir inus ( Sep te mber 4 th ) , T rans la t ion o f E the lwo ld ( Sept e mber 1 0th ) , B r instan ( Nove mber 4 th ) , B ir inus ( Dece mber 3 rd ) , J udoc ( Dece mber 1 3th o r 1 4th ) . 1 09 . T he o p in ion o f F ranc is Wor ma ld t o wh ich g rea t we igh t s hou ld b e g iven was t ha t t hese t wo c a lendars were p ossib ly o f t he Nunna m inster . 1 10 . T he c a lendar o f Amesbury e x ists i n af i f teen th c en tury t ex t , C ambr idge , Un ivers ity L ibrary , MS E e .6 .16 .

The Imo la P sa lter h as a p roper

Amesbury-Fon tevrau l t l i tany a nd t he c a lendar o f t he B od le ian P sa lter h as h ad t he f east o f S t Me lor ( October 1 st ) whose r e l ics were a t Amesbury p u t i n to t he c a lendar b y t he o r ig ina l h and i n b lue .

T he o ther f a mous

P sa lter o f Amesbury ( Oxford , A l l S ou ls C o l lege , MS 6 ) h as a S aru m c a lendar c onta in ing i n t he o r ig ina l h and h igh ly g raded i n c o lour b oth f easts o f S t . Me lor ( May 6 th , O ctober 1 st ) .

1 70

1 11 . Edburga ( June 1 5th ) , H edda ( Ju ly 7 th ) , Gr i mba ld ( Ju ly 8 th ) , Edburga ( Ju ly 1 8 th ) ,Ethe lwo ld ( August 1 st ) ( on ly i n Imo la ) , T rans la t ion o f B ir inus ( Sep te mber 4 th ) , T rans lat ion o f E the lwo ld ( S ep te mber 1 0th ) , B ir inus ( Dece mber 3 rd ) , J udoc ( Dece mber 1 3th ) ,

A lso o n A pr i l 2 2nd t he

I nven t ion o f D en is wh ich , a s h as b een p o in ted o u t , was o f s ign if icance a t H yde A bbey . 1 12 . T h is i s n ot a bso lu te ly c onc lus ive a l though a l l Eng l ish B ened ict ine c a lendars e xcep t t hose o f G lastonbury , Ma l mesbury a nd S herborne c e lebra te t he O ctave . 1 13 . S ee n 5 3 . 1 14 . T he W inchester f easts a re t he T rans la t ion o f J udoc ( January 9 th ) , A lphege ( March 1 2th ) , Edburga ( June 1 5th ) , H edda ( Ju ly 7 th ) , G r i mba ld ( Ju ly 8 th ) , Trans la t ion o f E dburga ( Ju ly 1 8th ) , O rd ina t ion o f S w ithun ( October 3 0th )

h igh ly g raded i n r ed , B r instan ( Nove mber 4 th ) , B ir inus

( Dece mber 3 rd ) .

I n a dd it ion t o t hese t here a re s evera l v ery u nusua l

n on-Usuard e n tr ies i n c o m mon w ith t he c a lendar o f t he Madr id P sa lter : Cu th man ( February 8 th ) , O swa ld ( February 2 8th ) , Meran ( March 5 th ) , B o tu lph ( June 1 7th ) , M i ldred ( Ju ly 1 3th ) , C u thburga ( August 3 1st ) , E the lburga ( October 1 1th ).

Among t hese C u th man a nd C u thburga a re

l oca l i n r e la t ion t o t he Winchester d iocese .

C u th man 's r e l ics were a t

S teyn ing ( Sussex ) b u t were t rans lated t o F eca mp i n t he 1 1th c en tury . T he c u lt s t i l l a ppears t o h ave s urv ived a t S teyn ing ( G . R . S tephens , W. D . S tephens , ' Cu th man : p p . 4 48-53 ) .

an eg lected s a in t ', S pecu lu m , 1 3 , 1 938 ,

A lthough h e o ccurs e xcep t iona l ly i n mar tyro log ies

( A l te mps , Roya l ) a nd i n v ery f ew mar tyro log ica l c a lendars h is f east i s n ever f ound i n an or ma l c a lendar . i n D orset .

C u thburga 's r e l ics were a t Wi mborne

B efore t he i n troduct ion o f S aru m u se h er c u l t was v ery

r estr icted b u t d ur ing t he s econd h a lf o f t he t h ir teen th c en tury s he was i ncorporated i n to t he S aru m c a lendar a nd t hus i n t he f our teen th a nd f i f teen th c en tury i s u n iversa l ly f ound i n t ex ts o f t he P rov ince o f Can terbury .

B efore 1 300 s he o ccurs i n t he B ened ict ine c a lendars o f

A bbotsbury a nd T ewkesbury .

A bbotsbury i s o f c ourse r e la t ive ly c lose

t o Wi mborne , a nd T ewkesbury h ad a c e l l a t C ranborne o n ly a f ew m i les away .

T he t h ir teen th c en tury c a lendar , Ca mbr idge , Tr in ity C o l lege ,

MS 0 .2 .45 , wh ich i n v iew o f i t s v ery h igh g rad ing o f S t . Edwo ld ( Aug . 1 2th ) d er ived f ro m t ha t o f C erne ,

a lso h as S t . C u thburga .

S he a lso

o ccurs h igh ly g raded i n c ap ita ls i n a mid t we lf th c en tury c a lendar l oca l isab le t o t he D orset r eg ion ( Ox ford , B od le ian L ibrary , MS Auc t . D .2 .4 ) .

T he i nc lus ion o f h er f east i n a Worcester d iocese c a lendar o f

t he mid t h ir teen th c en tury , N ew York , P ierpon t Morgan L ibrary , MS G laz ier 1 8 , must b e e xp la ined b y s o me d er iva t ion o f t he t ex t f ro m T ewkesbury .

A par t f ro m t hese o ccurrences t he o n ly p re-Saru m e xa m-

p les k nown t o me a re i n c a lendars w ith a s trong mar tyro log ica l e le men t : Ma , WP a nd L ondon , B r it ish L ibrary , MS C o t ton A pp . LW .

1 71

1 2 .

A LOST TO MB FRO M SA WLEY V eron ica S eku les

T he p ar ish c hurch o f A l l S a in ts a t S aw ley i n D erbysh ire , a bou t f i ve m i les t o t he s ou th o f N o t t ingha m was , i n t he m idd le a ges , o ne o f t he r icher p reb enda l c hurches o f L ichf ie ld Ca thedra 1 .

1

I ti s al arge c hurch d a t ing e ssen t ia l ly

f ro m t he l a t ter p ar t o f t he t h ir teen th c en tury .

Ab road r ound h eaded c hance l

a rch i s t he o n ly v is ib le r e mnan t o f as truc ture e ar l ier t han t he e x is t ing b u i ld ing . T he n ave i s f our b ays l ong a nd a is led w ith a 1 5th c en tury c lerestory .

T he

a rcades w ith d oub le c ha mfered a rches r est o n o ctagona l c o lu mns w ith p la in p ara l le l b anded c ap ita ls .

I n t he n or th a is le t he w indows a re u ndecorated

t r ip le l ancets , wh i le t hose o f t he s ou th , p resu mab ly l a ter , h ave c usped l ance ts s ur moun ted b y p a irs o f c usped s ouf f lets . f ro m t he e ar ly f our teen th c en tury .

T he c hance l p robab ly d a tes

2

Aga inst t he n or th wa l l o f t he n or th a is le o f t he n ave l i e t wo e f f ig ies . T he o ne t o t he west was i n t h is p os it ion when G od frey Meyne l l , al oca l s qu ire a nd a n t iquary v is ited t he c hurch i n 1 810 3 " As y ou e n ter t he c hurch a t t he n or th d oor , u pon t he l ef t h and u nder t he f i rst w indow i s t he mu t i la ted f i gure o f ap r iest , h is h ands e leva ted a nd a l i on o r s o me o ther a n i ma l a t h is f eet . T here a re n o a r ms n or a ny o ther i nscr ip t ion ."

T he o ther e f f igy , a lso a

p r iest , v ested f or mass w ith h is h ands e leva ted i n p rayer , i s s i tua ted o ppos ite t he f our th b ay o f t he a rcade ( P l . 1 2 .1A ) . Meyne l l makes n o men t ion o f t h is b u t c on t inues : "Near ly o ppos i te , b etween t wo p i l lars d iv id ing t he n or th a is le f ro m t he c hance l i s t he f o l low ing t o mb .

There i s n o i nscr ip t ion n or a ny

a r m s wha tever u pon t h is t o mb , b u t i ti s a pparen t ly a p r iest w ith h is h ands e leva ted a nd a v ine l eaf wrea th a t h is f ee t .. T he h ands a re g one ."

Th is

a s c an b e s een f ro m Meyne l l 's d raw ing o n t he s a me p age ( P l . 1 2 .1B ) , i s a most i n terest ing c anopy t o mb a nd i ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he e f f igy f ro m i ti s t ha t n ow s i tua ted a t t he e as t e nd o f t he n or th a isle . T he a rrange men t a s Meyne l l k new i th ad n o t c hanged f or a t l east a c en tury .

F ranc is Bassano , aD erby-

s h ire a r ms p a in ter who a lso wro te a v o lu me o f c hurch n o tes , v is ited t he c hurch i n 1 710 :4

" In y e n or th i l e o f y e s a id c hurch t here a re t wo f igures o ne

l yeth u nder y e w indow a r t i n a labaster r epresen t i ng a d ign if ied c lergy man y e o ther b etween p i l lars r a i led i n w ith i ronwork a nd a n a rch r a ised o ver h is h ead b u t i n f reestone n ot much d efaced a nd r epresen t ing a monk b u t o f wha t o rder Ik now n ot b o th w ithou t i nscr ip t ion ."

L ike Meyne l l , Bassano made n o men-

t i on o f t he s econd e f f igy a t t he e ast e nd o f t he n or th a is le wh ich s treng thens t he a ssu mp t ion t ha t t h is was o nce t he o ne u nder t he c anopy , moved when t he s uperstructure was r e moved i n 1 838. B o th B assano 's a nd Meyne l l 's d escr ip t ions o f t he c anop ied t o mb were k nown t o C har les C ox , wr it ing o n D erbysh ire c hurches i n 1 879 .

H e a dds

t ha t t he e nds o f t he c anopy were p la in w ith n o c rocket ted work p resen t , a s

1 73

i fh e s aw , o r k new s o meone who s aw t he t o mb when i t was s t i l l i n tac t . S evera l l arge f ine-gra ined l imestone f ragmen ts f ro m t h is t o mb s urv ive , s ca t tered i n t he n ave a nd s ou th p orch o f t he c hurch ,

5a n a me ly

5

a l l f our o f

t he c ens ing a co lyte-ange ls f ro m t he s pandre ls a nd t hree p or t ions o f mou ld ings f ro m t he a rcade work b enea th t he g ab le ( p ls . 1 2 .3-8 ) . Enough

s urv ives o f

t hese mou ld ings t o i nd ica te t ha t Meyne l l 's d raw ing o f t he u pper p ar ts o f t he t o mb i s o n ly c orrect i n i t s most g enera l o u t l ine .

T he l arger f ragmen t ( P l .

1 2 .2A ) i s o ne o f t he t r iangu lar p or t ions f ro m b enea th t he o cu lus , t he o ne s hown o n t he l ef t i n Meyne l l 's d raw ing .

On s ide i . a re t wo r o l l mou ld ings ,

o ne a t t he e dge , w ith a h o l low i n b etween .

A lso o n t h is s ide o n t he r everse

o f t he s tone , i s ap ro trud ing l i p e qu iva len t t o t he r o l l a t t he s urface .

T h is

s ide was t herefore made t o c lasp a nother p iece o f s tone , e v iden t ly t he t refo i l w ith in t he o cu lus .

T he r o l l mou ld ings a nd h o l low a re c onsequen t ly t he

mou ld ings o f t he o cu lus i t se lf . d ep th .

S ide i . h as a f in ished s ur face a cross i t s

T h is s ide must t herefore h ave made u p p ar t o f t he t refo i l a rch .

S ide i i . must b y a na logy h ave b een t ha t n earest t o t he g ab le .

I ti s c urved

o utwards a nd b eyond t he r o l l a t t he e x trados i s as l igh t h o l low b eyond wh ich t he s tone i s c ut c lean .

T h is was c lear ly p ar t o f a n a rch c on ta in ing t he who le

f igure b enea th t he g ab le , af ea ture n ot s hown i n Meyne l l 's d raw ing .

T he

s econd mou ld ing f rag men t ( P l . 1 2 .2B ) h as a f in ished s urface o n s ides i v . a nd v .

S ide v i . c on t inues t he mou ld ings o f s ide i i . o f f rag men t Aa nd f o l lows

t he s a me c urve .

I t must t herefore b e ac usp f ro m o ne o f t he t refo i l a rches

a nd p roves t ha t , a s o ne m igh t e xpec t , t he o u ter c usps r each ing t o t he g ab le were v o ided t o ma tch t he i nner c usps r each ing t o t he c en tra l t r iang le t ha t Meyne l l d raws .

T he p ro trus ion b eyond t he e x trados o f s ide v i . mus t h ave l a in a ga inst

a n a d jacen t v er t ica l p iece o f s tone .

T he t h ird f ragmen t i s i den t ica l t o t h is

o ne , o n ly i n r everse . A par t f ro m om it t ing t hese t wo d eta i ls :

t he c on ta in ing a rch a nd t he v o id ing

o f t he o u ter c usps , t he p r inc ipa l i naccuracy o f Meyne l l 's d raw ing i s t ha t h e makes n o a t te mp t t o f o l low t he mou ld ings ,b u t h as s i mp ly i nd ica ted t he s hapes i n b etween a s i ft hey were i nc ised i n af la t s urface .

T he r econstruct ion

d raw ing6 ( P l . 1 2 .3A ) s hows h ow t he s urv iv ing f ragmen ts wou ld h ave f i t ted i n to t he who le a nd i nd ica tes h ow t he t r iangu lar s hapes t ha t Meyne l l h as d rawn were i n f act f or med b y t he mou ld ings . We k now t ha t t he t o mb a t S aw ley s tood , a s ak ind o f min ia ture c hape l , s creen ing t he n or th a is le f ro m t he n ave o f t he c hurch a nd t ha t i t was i n tended t o b e s een f ro m b o th s ides .

T he e f f igy i t se lf was p ar t ly s creened b y t he i ron

g r i l le7 a nd a lso b y t he c o lu mns a t t he c en tre s uppor t ing t he c anopy .

Th is

a pproach t o t o mb d es ign , t hough n ot u nknown i n t he f our teen th c en tury , c haracter ist ic o f t he s econd h a lf o f t he t h ir teen th c en tury .

8

i s

T he t o mbs o f

G i les d e B r idpor t ( d . 1 262 ) a t S a l isbury , P eter d e A quab lanca ( d . 1 268 ) a t H ereford a nd Wa lter d e G ray ( d . 1 255 ) a t York , a re a l l f reestand ing c han try t o mbs 9

w

i th t he e f f ig ies p ar t ly o bscured b eh ind c o lu mns s uppor t ing t he c anopy .

T he p os i t ions o f t he H ereford a nd S a l isbury t o mbs a re a na logous t o t hat a t S aw ley i n t ha t t hey a re p laced i n as im ilar r e la t ion t o a n a isle s o t ha t t hey a re v iewab le f ro m b oth s ides .

O f t he t hree t o mbs , t he d es ign o f S aw ley i s

most r em in iscen t o f t ha t o f G i les d e Br idpor t .

I ti s i n e f fect t he e qu iva len t

o f as ing le b ay o f B r idpor t o pened o u t u nder a s ing le g ab le , t hough i ti s a l tog ether s i mp ler a nd l ess r ich ly d ecora ted . 1 74

A s ac onsequence o f t he b roaden ing o f t he a rcade a nd r educt ion o f t he s uppor ts a t t he c en tre f ro m t hree t o o ne , t he h eads o f t he t wo t re fo i l a rches a re r ounded i nstead o f marked ly p o in ted a s w ith t he o ther t o mbs .

The d es ign

i s u nusua l amongs t t h ir teen th c en tury t o mbs i n h av ing a nge ls p laced i n t he s pandre ls a bove t he a rcade r a ther t han b es ide t he h ead o f t he e f f igy ( P ls . 1 2 .3B-5 ) .

T h is a rrange men t , m inus t he g ab le , r eca l ls t he t r ifor iu m o f t he

A nge l C ho ir a t L inco ln C a thedra l ( s . 1 260-70 ) .

There i s ag enera l s ty l ist ic

a f f in ity b e tween s o me o f t he L inco ln a nge ls a nd t hose a t S aw ley , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he l oose a nd h eavy b road-fo ld d rapery , j ust a s t here i s ag enera l s im il ar i ty b etween t he mou ld ings o f t he t wo a rcades , b oth mak ing a bundan t u se o f t h ick r o l ls a nd d eep h o l lows .

However t he a f f in ity s uggest n o th ing more

t han a p robab le s im i lar i ty o f d a te .

T he L inco ln a ng les a re c oarser , t he ir

p ropor t ions more mass ive a nd t he ir f ac ia l f ea tures a nd h ands l ess s ensit ive ly mode l led t han a ny th ing a t S aw ley . N o p ho tograph c an a dequa te ly s how t he v ery h igh q ua l ity o f t he f i gure s cu lp ture o f t he S aw ley t o mb .

T he b od ies , s l igh t ly t urn ing t owards t he

s pecta tor , a re b eau t ifu l ly p ropor t ioned a nd t he h ands , f ac ia l f ea tures a nd h a ir a dep t ly a nd s ens i t ive ly mode l led . d rapery .

T here a re t wo b as ic s ty les t o t he

T he d rapery f o lds o f t he h a lf l eng th a nge l ( P l . 1 2 .5B ) r est ing i t s

f oo t o n af rond o f s t if f l eaf f o l iage a re n arrow a nd c r isp a nd f in ish i n a n a ngu lar f ash ion a t a nk le l eve l , whereas t he d rapery o f t he o ther f igures f a l ls more g en t ly i n b roader a nd l ooser f o lds ( P l . s1 2 .3B-5A ).

T he c arv ing

a t S aw ley h as a p rec is ion a nd r ef ine men t t ha t o ne e xpec ts t o f ind o n a much sma l ler s ca le .

I n t he L ady c hape l o f S t . Werburgh 's a t C hester a re t hree

r oo f b osses d ep ict ing t he V irg in a nd C h i ld , t he T r in ity a nd t he Mar tyrdo m o f B ecket t .

T he c arv ing o f t hese b osses i s n o t q u i te a s s k i lfu l a s t ha t o f t he

S aw ley a nge ls b u t t he g en t le c on tor t ion o f t he f igures , t he d e l icacy o f e xpress ion a nd t he r ange o f d rapery s ty le i s wor thy o f c o mpar ison .

The c ens ing

a nge ls i n t he V irg in b oss ( P l . 1 2 .bA ) h ave a ' broad f o ld ' s ty le o f d rapery v ery s im i lar t o t he S aw ley a nge l i n P l . 1 2 .3B whereas t he t h in d rawn d rapery o f t he a nge ls c ens ing t he Tr in ity ( P l . 1 2 .6B ) i s c loser t o t he o ther , n arrow f o ld s ty le a t S aw ley ( P l . 1 2 .5B ).

The L ady c hape l was b u i lt d ur ing t he a bbacy

o f S i mon d e A lbo Monaster io , p robab ly b etween c . 1 270 a nd 1 280 .

Thus ,

1 0

s ty l it ic e v idence s ee ms t o b e p o in t ing t owards a s im i lar d a te f or t he S aw ley t o mb :

i n o r a round t he 1 270s .

Records o f who was b ur ied a t S aw ley i n t h is p er iod d o n o t e x ist , b u t i t i s c lear t ha t we a re d ea l ing h ere w i th a monu men t t o a wea lthy p r iest . p rebendary o f S aw ley f ro m 1 259 was Ra lph d e C haddesdon :

T he

t reasurer o f

L ichf ie ld , A rchdeacon o f C oven try a nd C hance l lor o f t he d iocese .

1 1

H e was

al oca l man f ro m C haddesdon n ear D erby a nd o n ly a bou t e igh t m i les f ro m S aw ley .

A t L ich f ie ld , h e was p ro m inen t a s a med ia tor i n c hurch a f fa irs,

b u t h e d oes n o t a ppear t o h ave s trayed much b ehond t he d iocese .

1 2

H is l ast

d ocu men ted a ppearance i s i n 1 275-6 1 3 w hen we a re t o ld t ha t t he l a te t reasurer h ad p rov ided £ . 100 f or t he d eve lop men t o f t he c hurch a t L ich f ie ld a nd f or a p er manen t me mor ia l f or h is s ou l t here .

I t was d ec ided b y t he D ean a nd

C hap ter t ha t t he S acr ist s hou ld c e lebra te d a i ly t he f u l l o f f ice o f t he d ead a t t he a l tar o f S t . J ohn t he Bap t ist .

N o men t ion i s made o f h is h av ing a t o mb

a t L ichf ie ld , wh ich may i nd ica te t ha t h e was b ur ied e lsewhere .

1 75

When Ra lph d e C haddesdon b eca me t reasurer o f L ichf ie ld , t he p rebend o f S aw ley was n ew ly a ss igned t o t ha t o f f ice . v icar 1 4

A t t ha t t ime t here was n o

a nd i ts ee ms l ike ly t ha t t he r ebu i ld ing o f t he n or th a is le , e v iden t ly

t he e ar l iest o f t he t h ir teen th c en tury a dd i t ions t o t he c hurch , was i nst iga ted b y h im a nd i n tended t o b e t he s i te f or h is t o mb .

We k now t ha t d ur ing h is

t er m o f o f f ice h e f ounded a c han try t o t he B lessed V irg in Mary a t S aw ley a nd C ox s ta tes t ha t t h is was i n t he n or th a is Le o f t he n ave . 1 5 T h is i s where t he a l tar o f t he V irg in i s n ow s i tua ted 1 6

a nd im med ia te ly t o i t s r igh t i s a

sma l l t h ir teen th c en tury p isc ina , a n i nd ica t ion t ha t t here h as b een a n a l tar o n i t s s i te s ince a bout Ra lph d e C häddesdon 's t ime .

A s t he t o mb we a re

c ons ider ing s tood i n t h is b ay o r t ha t im med ia te ly t o t he west , i ti s v ir tua l ly c er ta in t hat i t was i ndeed Ra lph 's c han try monu men t .1 7 T he d es ign o f t he t o mb a t S aw ley i s n o t p art icu lar ly s tar t l ing f or t he 1 270s , b u t i ti s u n ique i n t ha t i ti s t he o n ly g rand t h ir teen th c en tury c anopy t o mb s o f ar k nown t o h ave b een c omm iss ioned f or a p ar ish c hurch .

With

s o l i t t le t h irteen th c en tury s cu lp ture s urv iv ing f ro m t he a rea , i t s p rec ise s ty l ist ic o r ig ins a re h ard t o p inpo in t .

The f igure s cu lp ture i s r e markab le

h owever , a s i n c o m mon w ith o ther f igure s cu lpture o f t he 1 270s , s uch a s t ha t a lready men t ioned a t C hester a nd L inco ln , i ti s e v idence o f ac hange i n f ash ion . No l onger d o we h ave t he t igh t ly p osed f i gures a nd c hanne l led d rapery o f t he f irst h a lf o f t he c en tury ,

I nstead , we h ave a t endency t owards t he F rench

manner wh ich was t o b eco me s o p opu lar a t t he e nd o f t he c en tury :

at aste

f or f aces c a lm ly a nd s erene ly sm i l ing a bove e legan t ly c urv ing b od ies d raped i n l oose b road f o lds .

T he s cu lp tor h as mastered t h is n ew s ty le w i th t he

g rea test o f e ase a nd h is f igures a re wor thy o f r ecogn i t ion a s amongst t he f inest i n Eng land o f t he p er iod .

NOTES 1 . C har les C ox 3 79-81.

N o tes o n t he C hurches o f D erbysh ire 1 879 V o l . 4 , p .

A ccord ing t o t he 1 291 t axa t ion r o l l , t he v a lua t ion o f t he r ectory

was £ 66 .13s .4d ., o n ly e xceeded i n t he c oun ty b y C hester f ie ld a nd B akewe l l . 2 . T he East w indow h as b een c o mpared w ith t hose o f t he c ho ir a is les a t L ichf ie ld .

N . P esner

T he B u i ld ing o f Eng land , D erbysh ire , p . 3 13 .

3 . G eof frey M e yne l l 's h istor ica l a nd g enea log ica l n o tes o n D erbysh ire p ar ishes , manuscr ip t 2v o ls .

I l lustra ted w ith monochro me d raw ings

b y t he a u thor , 1 810 v o l . 1 .1 .145 . s ion o f t he f am i ly .

T he manuscr ip t i s s t i l l i n t he p osses -

Iam g ra tefu l t o t he m f or p er m iss ion t o r ead i ta nd

t ake p ho tographs . 4 . F ranc is B assano 's D erbysh ire c hurch n o tes c . 1 710 , p . 1 35-6 C o l lege o f A r ms MS RR/19E/A . 5 . T he f ragmen ts i n t he c hurch were a lso n o t iced b y D r . C hr istopher W i lson i n 1 978 who a dded a n ote t o t he e n try i n P evsner ,

c it . p . 3 13

5 a .Recen t ly t he f ragmen ts were o f fered o n l ong t erm l oan t o t he V ictor ia a nd A lber t Museu m .

T hey h ave b een t aken t here f or c onserva t ion b efore

b e ing p u t o n d isp lay . 1 76

6 . J udg ing b y t he s urv iv ing f ragmen ts , t he o vera l l p ropor t ions o f Meyne l l 's d raw ing s ee m t o b e c orrec t a nd h ave b een a dhered t o i n t he r econstruct ion . 7 . Iam g ra tefu l t o D r . J ane G eddes f or p o in t ing o u t t ha t t he i ronwork i s a s tandard 1 2th c en tury d es ign a nd n ot a t a l l r e markab le i n t he l a te 1 3th c entury . 8 . e .g . T o mb o f P r ior A lexander d e S u t ton , 1 320 , S t . Fr idesw ide 's Oxford . 9 . L oveday G ee

E ng l ish Monu men ta l T o mb D esign i n t he P rov ince o f

C an terbury c . 1 280-1350

Unpub l ished M .P h i l . t hes is , Un ivers ity o f

East Ang l ia . 1 0 . C . H ia t t p . 8 -11 .

C hester , t he Ca thedra l a nd S ee 1 898 B e l ls C a thedra l s er ies

1 1. C . C ox , 2 2 . t i t ., p . 3 82 ;

V . C . H . S taf fs . V o l .

1 2 . V .C .H . S ta f fs , l oc . c i t .;

H . E . S avage , e d . T he G rea t Reg ister o f

L ichf ie ld Ca thedra l .

1 11 , p . 1 44 .

S ta f fordsh ire H istor ica l C o l lect ions 1 924 p .

XXXV a nd n u merous r eferences i n t ex t . 1 3 . H . E . S avage , o p . c i t ., n o . 2 44 . 1 4 . T he o rd ina t ion o f t he v icarage a t S aw ley i s r ecorded i n t he R eg ister o f G eof frey B lythe ( 1 503-51 ) amongst t he e n tr ies d a ted 1 518 r e la t ing t o t he a rchdeaconry o f D erby ( L ichf ie ld J o in t R ecord O f f ice B/A/1/14i f .3 8 ) . T he p rebendary a nd t reasurer o f L ich f ie ld i s s ta ted t o b e A lan l e B retun who s ucceeded Ra lph d e C haddesdon a nd t be n ew v icar was Hugh d e S co ter , who a ccord ing t o t ha t d ocu men t was made r espons ib le f or t he u pkeep o f t he n ave .

T he d a te i s g iven a t t he e nd o f t he e x tract a s 1 266

wh ich was t he d a te a ccep ted b y C ox ( who r e l ied o n at ranscr ip t b y Ernest Woo l ley n ow i n B . L . Add . MS 6 671 f 385 ) a s t he d a te o f C haddesdon 's d ea th .

H owever , g iven t he wea lth o f e v idence i n t he G rea t Reg ister t ha t

Ra lph d e Chaddesdon was s t i l l a l ive a nd h o ld ing of ice u n t i l 1 275-6 , a f ter wh ich t ime h e was s ucceeded b y A lan l e B retun , t he d a te g iven must b e as cr iba l e rror f or 1 276 .

Th is wou ld mean t ha t t he v icarage was n o t

o rda ined u n t i l a f ter C haddesdon 's d ea th a nd t ha t h e was p robab ly t heref ore r es iden t a t S aw ley of ten e nough t o t ake o n t he d u t ies a nd r esponsib i l i t ies s ubsequen t ly d e lega ted t o t he v icar . Iam g ra tefu l t o J anet Sm ith , a ssistan t a rch iv ist a t L ich f ie ld f or c ond uct ing a s earch a t g rea t s peed a nd f or s end ing me a p ho tocopy o f t he d ocu men t i n q uest ion . 1 5 . C . C ox , 2 2..c i t . p . 3 84 , q uot ing C han try Ro l l l EdwV I . 1 6. The r ec tor o f S aw ley , R ev . J . R . War man t e l ls me t ha t t o h is k now ledge t he n or th a is le h as a lways b een r egarded a s aL ady C hape l a nd t here i s n o e v idence o f a ny o ther d ed ica t ion t han t o t he V irg in Mary . 1 7 . Tha t t he t o mb o f a n impor tan t c ler ic s hou ld b e p laced e lsewhere t han i n t he c hance l i s b y n o means w ithou t p receden t i n t he 1 3th C en tury . L oveday G ee 2 Q . c it . p . 1 1-13 f or a d iscuss ion o f t h is p o in t .

1 77

S ee

1 3 .

THE RO MANESQUE S CULPTURE OF TUA M Roger S ta l ley

I n troduct ion A s l ong a go a s 1 853 , t he med ieva l c arv ings a t Tua m were d escr ibed w ith e n thus ias m b y G eorge P e tr ie , t ha t d oyen o f I r ish a rchaeo logy .

' No e xa mp le

o f t he o rna men ted s tone c ross ', h e d ec lared , ' cou ld r iva l t ha t a t T ua m ' i n t he g randeur o f i t s p ropor t ions a nd t he b eau ty o f i t s o rna men ta l s cu lp tures '. ( P l . 1 3.1 ) .

1

P etr ie w as u nder t he impress ion t ha t t he s tone f ragmen ts , t o

wh ich h e r eferred , b e longed t o as ing le e nor mous c ross , av iew wh ich wou ld f i nd f ew a dheren ts t oday .

A t p resen t t here i s d oub t o ver j ust h ow many 1 2th

c en tury c rosses embe l l ished t he monast ic e nc losure a nd whether t he r e ma in ing p ieces b e longed t o t wo o r t hree monu men ts .

I n a dd it ion t o t he c rosses ,

f ur ther s cu lp ture was u sed t o d ecora te t wo o f t he c hurches w ith in t he monast ery .

T he c a thedra l c hurch was p ar t icu lar ly o rna te a nd i t s b road c hance l

a rch , w i th s ix o rders o f c hevron , was r egarded b y P etr ie a s ' t he most magn if icen t s pec i men o f i t s k ind r e ma in ing i n I re land ' .2

T he i n terest i n t he

c arv ings o f Tua m s hown b y P e tr ie h as n ot b een s usta ined b y s ubsequen t s cho lars .

N o d eta i led i nvest iga t ion o f t he s cu lp tures h as b een p ub l ished a nd

t he i nfor ma t ion t hey f urn ish a bou t I r ish a r t i n t he 1 2th c en tury h as g one l arge ly u nno t iced .

3

Th is n eg lect i s c ur ious , f or Tua m was a t t h is p er iod o ne o f t he c h ief r oya l a nd monast ic c en tres o f C onnach t a nd i n 1 152 i tb eca me t he s ea t o f a n a rchbishopr ic .

T he monastery c ou ld t herefore a t trac t t he b est s tone c arvers

i n t he p rov ince , af ac t c on f ir med b y t he h igh q ua l i ty o f t he s cu lp ture wh ich s urv ives .

Un for tuna te ly much o f t he c arv ing i s worn o r d a maged , b u t t ha t

o n t he t hree e ast w indows o f t he c a thedra l i s p er fect ly p reserved ( p l . 1 3 .2 ). S ince most I r ish Ro manesque s cu lp ture h as b een s ub jec t t o many c en tur ies o f wea ther ing , t hese w indows a re a l most u n ique , e nab l ing u s t o e xa m ine f i ne d eta i ls l ost e lsewhere .

W ith t he a id o f i nscr ip t ions a nd d ocu men ts ,

t hree o f t he s cu lptura l p rogra m mes i n t he monastery c an b e g iven a pprox i ma te d a tes a nd t h is p rov ides v a luab le c hrono log ica l e v idence f or t he s tudy o f H iberno-Ro manesque .

T h is i s e spec ia l ly i nstruct ive f or a n u nderstand ing o f

t he s o-ca l led I r ish U rnes s ty le wh ich i s p ro m inen t a t Tua m . T he p opu lar i ty a nd i ndeed t he q ua l i ty , o f t h is s ty le i n I r ish s tone c arv ing h as n o t b een f u l ly a cknow ledged b y V ik ing s cho lars , a nd f or t h is r eason a lone t he s cu lp ture o f T ua m d eserves t o b e f u l ly e xp lored . T ua m i n t he 1 2th c en tury The t own o f T ua m l i es e igh teen m i les n or th o f Ga lway i n aw indswep t p la in e ast o f L ough C orr ib a nd t he C onne mara moun ta ins .

The monastery

was f ounded b y S t . J ar la th i n t he f irst h a lf o f t he s ix th c en tury4 a nd i ta t ta ined p ar t icu lar impor tance i n t he Ro manesque e ra a s o ne o f t he p r inc ipa l r esidences 1 79

o f t he O 'Conor k ings o f C onnach t . T h is c o inc ided w i th a p er iod o f p o l it ica l a nd m i l itary s uccess f or t he k ingdo m a nd f or most o f h is r e ign Tur lough 0 'C onor ( 1 106-1156 ) l a id c la im t o t he p os it ion o f a rd r fo r h igh k ing .

T h is

i n t heory g ave h im g enera l p ower o ver t he who le o f I re land , t hough i n p ract i ce h is a u thor ity was v igorous ly c on tested b y r iva ls , most n otab ly Mu irche tach MacLoch la inn , k ing o f C ene l E öga in t o t he n or th .

T ur lough O 'Conor r u led

w ith t re mendous e nergy a nd h e p roduced s o me amb i t ious m i l itary s che mes . With in h is k ingdo m h e c onstructed a s er ies o f f or t if ica t ions a nd h e ma int a ined f l ee ts wh ich s a i led b o th o n t he S hannon a nd a long t he A t lan t ic c oast .

5

H is p o l it ica l a nd m i l itary a sp ira t ions were s uppor ted b y b enef icen t a cts o f p a tronage . I t was T ur lough who was r espons ib le f or t he mak ing o f t he c ross o f C ong b etween 1 119 a nd 1 136 , ar e l iquary d es igned t o e nshr ine a p or t ion o f t he t rue c ross wh ich h e h i mse lf h ad o b ta ined .

I n 1 115 h e p re-

6

s en ted t he monastery o f C lon macno is w i th t hree p rec ious g if ts —a s i lver g ob le t , as i lver c up a dorned w ith a g o ld c ross , a nd a d r ink ing h orn embe l l ished w ith g o ld .

7

F our teen y ears l a ter t hey were among t he t reasures s to len f ro m

t he h igh a l tar o f t he monastery i n as pec tacu lar r obbery .

8

A t Tua m , T ur lough

was r espons ib le f or ma jor works o f e xpans ion a nd r econstruct ion .

T ogether

w ith t he a bbo t , h e h e lped t o r e mode l t he monast ic e nc losure i n 1 127 9 a nd t h ir teen y ears l a ter h e f ounded a n A ugust in ian p r iory t here .

H e was a lso

1 0

i nvo lved i n t he e rect ion o f t wo h igh c rosses a nd h is p a tronage u ndoub ted ly h eped t o f oster f ine c raf ts mansh ip w ith in t he monaster ies o fh is k ingdo m . T ur lough was s ucceeded b y h is s on Rory ( 1 156-1198 ) , who e ventua l ly b eca me a rd r f . i n 1 166 .

No t l ong a f ter , h is g enera l a u thor ity i n I re land

1 1

was u nder m ined b y t he Ang lo-Nor man i nvas ion o f 1 169-70 .

C onnach t i t se lf

was a t f i rst l i t t le a f fected , d esp ite a N or man r a id o n T ua m i n 1 177.

1 2

I t

was n o t u n t i l t he s econd q uar ter o f t he 1 3th c en tury t ha t t he p rov ince b eca me s ub ject t o h eavy Eng l ish s et t le men t , af act o ver looked b y s o me p rev ious wr iters .

1 3

Rory ma in ta ined a u thor ity i n h is own k ingdo m , a t l east u n t i l

1 183 , a f ter wh ich h is p os it ion was weakened b y i n ter-fa m i ly f eud ing .

Ma jor

r e l ig ious p a tronage i s n o t a ssoc ia ted w i th h is n a me , t hough T ua m c on t inued t o b e ap r inc ipa l r esidence a nd h e i s s a id t o h ave c onstructed a s tone f or tress t here . On a ccoun t o f i t s r oya l c onnect ions , t he monas tery a t Tua m was a c t ive ly i nvo lved i n t he 1 2th c en tury e cc les iast ica l r e-organ isa t ion o f I re land .

A s

F ranco ise H enry h as o bserved , T ur lough 's p a tronage o f t he monas tery was p robab ly p ar t o f ac a lcu la ted c a mpa ign t o a cqu ire t he metropo l itan s ee .1 4 I n 1 152 A edan O 'O iss in , c o marb o r a bbo t , b eca me t he f irst a rchb ishop .1 5 As a p ivot o f r oya l a nd e p iscopa l a u thor i ty , T ua m was , t herefore , o ne o f t he f ore most monaster ies o f I re land , whose s ign if icance a s af oca l p o in t was n o t im med ia te ly e x t ingu ished b y t he a rr iva l o f t he Ang lo-Nor mans .

Th is f act

s hou ld n o t b e o ver looked when t he s cu lp tures i n t he c a thedra l a re c ons idered . T he s urv iv ing monu men ts :

( 1 ) t he c a thedra l .

T he monastery a t T ua m o nce c on ta ined s evera l c hurches , t wo a re n ow t raceab le .

1 6

o f wh ich

The sma l l s quare c hance l o f t he 1 2th c en tury

c a thedra l r e ma ins i n tact , s andw iched b etween a n e ar ly 1 4th c en tury c ho ir a nd t he n ew V ictor ian c a thedra l d es igned b y T . N . D eane 1 862 .

1 80

1 7

The ' b lock '

c ap ita ls o f t he e labora te c hance l a rch a re c overed w ith me t icu lous s urface d ecora t ion , i nc lud ing p a t terns o f i n ter lace , f o l iage a nd h u man f aces . Un fortuna te ly t he c ap ita ls w ere d a maged i n af ire o f 1 787 a nd f or a l ong p er iod b efore 1 862 t he a rch s erved a s ad oorway i n to t he c a thedra l , l eav ing t he s cu lp ture e xposed t o t he e le men ts .

1 8

T he t hree e ast w indows h ave b een

b e t ter p ro tected , a nd t here , o n t he c en tra l j ambs , a re v er t ica l f r iezes o f i nc ised s cu lp ture , f resh a nd p rec ise i n a ppearance ( P l . 1 3 .2 ).

The f o l low ing

t ab le p rov ides a s u m mary o f t he t he mes a nd t he ir a rrange men t ( t he n u mbers r efer t o i nd iv idua l a sh lar b locks , , r ead ing f ro m t he b ot to m u p ) . N or th j a mb NW f ace

W f ace

SW f ace

1 , 2 , 3r unn ing v ine s cro l l

1 -3 a n i ma l i n ter lace

1 -3

r unn ing v ine

4

a n i ma l

4

t e mp ta t ion s cene

4

a n i ma l

5 -11

r unn ing f o l iage

4

f l ora l mo t if

5 -11 r unn ing f o l iage

6 -8 a n i ma l i n ter lace 9

l i on w ith h u man f ace

1 0

t ree

1 1

g rotesque mask w ith f o l iage i n f i l l

S ou th j a mb NW f ace

W f ace

SW f ace

1 -5

a n i ma l i n ter lace

1 -6 a n i ma l i n ter lace

1 -5

a n i ma l i n ter lace

6 -10

r unn ing f o l iage

7 -10fo l iage i n c ha in p a t tern 6 -10 r unn ing f o l iage

A lthough f o l iage a nd a n i ma l d es igns a re d om inan t , t here i s c ons iderab le v ar iety i n t he ir f or ms .

T he s tones wh ich embody t he c arv ing h ave b een

s ub ject t o s o me r econstruct ion , b u t t h is h as n ot s er ious ly a f fected t he s cu lt ure .

B efore 1 862 t he s p lay o f t he c en tra l w indow was p ar t ia l ly r e moved

a nd i t s s i l l c u t away s o t ha t ad oorway c ou ld b e i nser ted . *D eane r epa ired t he d a mage a nd t he c on trast b etween h is c e men t r epa irs a nd t he 1 2th c en tury s tone w ith i t s d iagona l t oo l ing i s c lear ly v is ib le ( P l . 1 3 .2 ).

T he i rregu lar

s equence o f c ircu lar a nd l ozenge mo t ifs o n t he a rch h eads i nd ica tes f ur ther r econstruct ion i n t h is a rea . T he s cu lp ture c an b e d a ted w ithout d if f icu l ty .

Under t he y ear 1 184 t he

a nna ls o f L och C e r epor t i n at erse a nd d ra ma t ic s ta te men t t ha t ' t he g rea t c hurch o f Tua i m-da-ghua lann f e l l i n o ne d ay , b o th r oof a nd s tone ' .19

T h is

must r efer t o t he c a thedra l c hurch a nd o ne c an c onc lude t ha t t he p resen t c hance l r epresen ts a r ebu i ld ing o f a round 1 184-90 . i gnored i n t he p ast .

T h is e v idence h as b een

S ir J a mes Ware a t tr ibu ted t he b u i ld ing t o C . 1 152 ,

2 0

w ithou t p rov id ing a ny s ubstan t ia l r eason , a nd h is o p in ion h as b een f o l lowed b y most s ubsequen t wr iters , o n t he f au lty a ssu mp t ion t ha t s uch f ine H ibernoR o manesque c arv ing must p re-da te t he Ang lo-Nor man i nvas ion .

H owever ,

H aro ld L eask p ercept ive ly n o t iced t hat t he p rof i le o ft he a bac i was a r e la t ive ly l a te f or m a nd , u naware o f t he e n try i n t he a nna ls , h e s uggested a d a te o f c . 1 170 .

2 1

T he s l igh t ly l a ter d a te imp l ied b y t he a nna ls c an b e c on f ir med

b y s ty l ist ic c o mpar ison .

One o f t he a dvanced c hevron p a t terns u sed o n t he 1 81

c hance l a rch c an , f or e xa mp le , b e p ara l le led a t C lon macno is ( Nun 's c hurch 1 167 ) ,

Mona I ncha ( . 1 180 ) , K i l la loe ( 2 . 1 200 )2 3

2 2

a nd C ong ( 9 _ . 1 220 ) ,

2 4

wh ich imp l ies a r e la t ive ly l a te d a te f or i t s d istr ibut ion i n I re land . ( 2 )

F ragmen ts r ebu i lt i n to t he c hurch o f H o ly T r in ity N ot f ar t o t he n or th-east o f t he c a thedra l a re t he r u ins o f wha t i s p ro-

b ab ly t he P re monstra tens ian a bbey o f H o ly T r in ity .

A bove t he t hree ' t rans-

i t iona l ' e ast w indows a re r e-used s tones f ro m a c hevron a rch , w ith h u man h eads c arved i n r onde b osse .

T he a rch t o wh ich t hese f ragmen ts b e longed

must p re-da te t he e x ist ing f abr ic a nd i ti s l ike ly t ha t t hey f or med p ar t o f a R o manesque c hurch wh ich p receded t he P re monstra tens ian b u i ld ing .

T he

h eads f ind t he ir c losest p ara l le ls a t C lon fer t a nd D yser t O ' Dea a nd t hey p robab ly b e long t o t he p er iod 1 170-80 . T he s cu lp ture i s q u ite d ist inc t f ro m t ha t f ound e lsewhere a t T ua m a nd t he p oss ib i l ity t ha t t hey b e longed t o t he l ong d estroyed west d oor o f t he c a thedra l s ee ms u n l ike ly . ( 3 )

T he b ase a nd s haf t o f t he market c ross T he marke t c ross i s t he most c onsp icuous a nd f a mous o f t he monu men ts

a t T ua m ( P l . 1 3 .1 ) .

I t was e rected i n i t s p resen t f or m a bou t 1 870 f ro m

f ragmen ts h ither to s ca t tered a bou t t he t own .

2 5

The h ead n ow s ur moun t ing

t he c ross d oes n ot b e long t o t he s ha f t a nd b ase , d esp ite e n terpr is ing a t te mp ts b y s o me h istor ians t o p rove o therw ise .

2 6

T he mou ld ings a nd s ty le o f o rna-

men t d o n o t c o inc ide a nd , i ft he r equ ired m iss ing p or t ions were a dded , t he c ross wou ld r each t he p rod ig ious h e igh t o f 2 6-30 f eet .

I t s p er i lous l oca t ion

i n t he marke t p lace , where i ts erves a s ac onven ien t t ra f f ic i s land ,

2 7

i s

c lose t o i t s o r ig ina l p os it ion n ear t he e astern p er i me ter o f t he monastery . I n 1 837 t he b ase was r epor ted t o b e i n t he mea t market ( i .e . t he modern market p lace )2 8 w here , af ew d ecades b efore , i th ad b een u t i l ised f or t e ther ing b u l ls d ur ing b a it ing s ess ions .

2 9

Apar t f ro m t wo p a irs o f e cc les iast ics , s tand ing o u t i n b o ld r e l ief f ro m t he b ase , t he s urface o f t he c ross i s f i l led w ith 2 5 p ane ls o f i n ter lace .

I t

i s p robab le t ha t ac ruc if ied f igure o f C hr ist was f i xed b y at enon i n to t he mor t ice o n t he s ou th f ace , a nd s ockets e ach s ide o f t he b ase s uggest t ha t t wo a dd it iona l s uppor ts , p erhaps f urn ished w ith c arv ings o f Mary a nd J ohn , s tood a longs ide .

T he i nscr ip t ion a t t he f oo t o f t he b ase h as b een r ead a s

f o l lows :3 0 OR DO THO IRDELBUCH U CHONCHUBU IR DONT ... UR ... ( I )ARLATH (E ) ... SI NDE ( RN )AD I N S AER ( OR ) DO U O SS IN DOND ABBA ID .... LA(SA )N DERN (AD ) P ray f or T ur lough O 'Conor , f or t he ( co marb? ) o f J ar la th b y who m t he c ross was made ... P ray f or O 'O iss in , f or t he a bbo t , b y who m t he c ross was made . T hrough t he r eferences t o T ur lough O 'Conor ( 1 106-1156 ) a nd A ed O 'O iss in ( 1 128-1161 ) , t he c ross h as b een d a ted t o 1 128-56 .

3 1

A s Aed O 'O iss in i s

n o t d escr ibed a s a rchb ishop , t he c arv ing was p robab ly c o mp lete b y 1 152.

1 82

( 4 )

The h ead s ur moun t ing t he marke t c ross A lthough n ow c o mb ined w i th t he marke t c ross , t here i s n o d oub t t ha t t he

r inged h ead b e longed t o as epara te monu men t ( P l . 1 3.3 ) .

Wh i le i tc er ta in ly

c o mes f ro m t he monastery a t Tua m—it was d ep icted t here l y ing o n t he g round i n 1 830 32 —there i s n o i n for ma t ion a bou t i t s p os it ion , n or f or t he f or m o f i t s l ost s ha f t a nd b ase .

T he s ou th f ace c arr ies a l arge s cu lp ture o f C hr ist

c ruc if ied , t he c orrespond ing n or th f ace s hows a n e cc lesiast ic , o ne h and r a ised i n b less ing , t he o ther h o ld ing a c roz ier ( P l . 1 3 .4 ) .

S uch f igures a re

s tandard o n 1 2th c en tury I r ish c rosses , t hough t he ir mean ing i s e lus ive . T he most c onv inc ing t heory i s t ha t t hey p or tray l oca l b ishops a nd t hus r epr esen t a n a sser t ion o f e p iscopa l a u thor ity a t at ime o f e cc les iast ica l r eo rgan isa t ion .

3 3

A s t he f igure a t T ua m i s s urrounded b y s ix m in i e cc lesiast ics ,

h e c ou ld b e t he a rchb ishop a cco mpan ied b y h is s uf fragens .

R egre t tab ly f or

t h is i n terpreta t ion , i ti s k nown t here were s even s uf fragen b ishops i n t he a rch-d iocese o f T ua m .

3 4

A n a l terna t ive t heory i s t ha t f ound ing s a in ts were

p or trayed , i n t he c ase o f T ua m , S t . J ar la th .

T he c ross h ead o r ig ina l ly

c arr ied a s epara te c ap , t he t enon f or wh ich r e ma ins .

S lo ts i n t he a rms

s how t ha t f ur ther s cu lp tures o nce e nr iched t he n or th s ide . T he c ross h ead c an b e d a ted o n ly t hrough s ty l ist ic a na lys is .

I n t he p ast

i th as b een r egarded a s c on te mporary w ith t he s haf t b e low , b u t a s i tc a me f ro m a s epara te monu men t , t he a ssu mpt ion i s g round less . ( 5 )

T he c ross s haf t i n t he c a thedra l Af ur ther c ross f ragmen t was l i f ted f ro m t he c hance l o f t he c athedra l

i n t he 1 9th c en tury 3 5

( P l . 1 3 .5 ).

I ti s n ow s et o n ac oncrete p l in th i n t he

s ou th-west a ng le o f t he n ave , i n s uch a p os it ion t ha t i ti s we l l n igh imposs ib le t o e xa m ine i t s r ear f ace . The t wo b roader s ur faces a re d ecora ted w i th p a t terns o f p ure i n ter lace , a n i ma l i n ter lace a nd f ret d es igns . T he s ha f t measures 2 3 .5 cm x 4 3 .5 cm a nd i ti s 1 .49 m h igh .

These d i mens ions p rove

t ha t i tc anno t h ave b e longed t o t he market c ross , a s h as s o met i mes b een s uggested , f or t h is h as a w id th o f 3 1 .5 cm . o f o rna men t c ons isten t .

N or a re t he mou ld ings a nd s ty le

The u pper e dge c arr ies a b road mou ld ing , a nd t h is ,

t ogether w ith t he l ack o f c on t inuous d ecora t ion d own t he s ides , p roves t ha t t he s tone d id n o t b e long w ith t he r inged h ead e i ther .

I tt hus r epresen ts p ar t

o f at h ird h igh c ross . T he n arrow f aces a re c arved w ith a n i nscr ip t ion , wh ich r eads a s f o l lows : 3° OR DO CHO MARBA I ARLATHE

DO AED U OSS IN LAS I N DERNAD I N CHROSSA

OR DON R IG DO THURDELBUCH U CHONCHOBA IR OR DONT HAER DO G ILLU CR ( I ST ) UTHUATHA IL P ray f or t he c o marb o f J ar la th , f or A ed O 'O iss in , b y who m t h is c ross was made P ray f or t he k ing , f or T ur lough 0 'C onor P ray f or t he c raf ts man , f or G i l luChr ist O 'Too le A s w ith t he market c ross , t h is d a tes t he s cu lp ture t o t he y ears 1 128-56. T he r ecord ing o f t he s cu lp tor 's n a me h as e xc ited c ons iderab le i n terest a nd o ne em inen t a u thor ity c onc luded t ha t G i l luChr is t O 'Too le p robab ly c arved a l l t he c rosses i n t he monastery , a s we l l a s t he s cu lpture i n t he c a thedra l .3 7 1 83

I fs o , h e wou ld h ave b een a v ersa t i le a nd l ong-l ived c ra f ts man , f or t here a re many s ty l ist ic a nd c hrono log ica l v ar ia t ions i n t he s cu lpture a t T ua m . S evera l d if feren t a r t ists were a ct ive t here a nd G i l luChr ist O 'Too le , a s w i l l b e s hown , t urns o u t t o b e t he most c onserva t ive a nd l east c o mpeten t o f t he m . F ranco ise H enry h as n oted t ha t h is s urna me imp l ies a Wick low o r ig in .

3 8

T h is l ed h er t o s pecu la te whe ther h e c a me f ro m G lenda lough , where t here i s ac ross w ith s ty l ist ic a na log ies t o t wo o f t hose a t Tua m .

I ron ica l ly , t he

l inks a re w ith t he s ha f t a nd c ross h ead i n t he marke t p lace , n o t w i th G i l luChr ist O 'Too le 's f ragmen t i n t he c a thedra l .

T he r e la t ionsh ip w ith G lenda lough c an-

n o t , t herefore , b e e xp la ined p ure ly b y t he s upposed t rave ls o f t h is o ne a r t ist . T he monas tery a t T ua m was t hus e ndowed w ith a t l east t hree c arved c rosses , t wo o f wh ich r esu l ted f ro m t he p a tronage o f Aed O 'O iss in a nd T ur lough O 'Conor b etween 1 128 a nd 1 156.

As ubstan t ia l i n terva l s epara tes

t hese t wo monu men ts f ro m t he s cu lp ture i n t he c a thedra l , e xecuted o ver t h ir ty y ears l a ter a bou t 1 184-90 . A n i ma l O rna men t U rnes i n f luenced a n i ma l p a t terns a re t he most c o m mon o f t he m t i fs u sed a t Tua m a nd t he e n t ire s urface o f t he marke t c ross i s c overed w ith t he m .

A l though many o f t he d es igns o n t h is c ross a re s im i lar , e spec ia l ly

t hose o n t he b ase , n one a re e xact ly t he s a me , a nd i ta ppears t ha t t he a r t ist t ook c are t o a vo id t he r epet it ion o f i den t ica l s che mes .

The most f requen t

p a t tern i nvo lves t wo o r f our l arge a n i ma ls , s urrounded b y ac o i l ing web o f t h in r ibbons . ( P l . 1 3 .6 , 1 2 )

I n s o me c ases t he r ibbons a re mere e x tens ions

o f t he a n i ma ls ' t a i ls , i n o thers t hey a re s epara te s nakes .

T he c o mpos it ions

d epend o n s trong d iagona l a ccen ts , u sua l ly t he r esu l t o f t wo i n ter lock ing b easts .

There i s a marked d egree o f s y m metry i n t he c o mpos it ions , w i th

c lear a xes d eter m in ing t he ma in l ines o f t he d es ign .

T he v isua l e f fects v ary

f ro m a t ight s ense o f c o mpression t o o thers i n wh ich t he i n ter lace i s o pen a nd f ree i n i t s move men t .

I n e very c ase t here i s ar egu lar c urv ing r hy th m ,

d er ived f ro m t he c ircu lar l ines emp loyed f or t he i n ter lac ing r ibbons . ma l ly t hese a re e x tended t o f or m f igures o f e igh t . t er ist ics a re n o t iceab le .

N or-

S o me i nd iv idua l c harac-

An i ma l h eads a re o f ten p rov ided w ith a c ur l ing

l ower j aw , a s we l l a s w ith h ead l appets o r p ig-ta i ls .

F eet a re d es igned

w i th a l ong c law a t t he f ron t a nd o ne o r t wo p aws b eh ind .

T here i s n o t race

o f s p ira l j o in ts o r c ross h a tch ing o n t he b ody , t hough b o th c ou ld h ave b een a dded i n p a in t . Where s nakes a ppear , t he ir h eads a re d ep ic ted f ro m a bove , w i th b o th e yes v is ib le ( P l . 1 3 .14 ). I n t he me , c o mpos i t ion , v isua l e f fec ts a nd i nd iv idua l mot ifs , t he p ane ls d isp lay a s tr ik ing s im i lar i ty o f a pproach .

The

c h ief d if ferences c oncern t he w id th o f t he ma in b eas ts a nd t he d ens i ty o f t he i n ter lace . I n t he p ast t he p ane ls o n t he c ross h ave b een c o mpared t o t he c ross o f C ong ( 1 119-36 ) , made n o t f ar away i n Rosco m mon .3 9 I ts hou ld n o t b e f org o t ten t ha t b oth w ere p roducts o f T ur lough 's O 'Conor 's p a tronage .

T he mes

a nd c o mpos i t iona l methods a re a l most i den t ica l , a nd e ven s pec if ic mot ifs r ecur , l ike t he a n i ma l w ith a l eg b en t a t r igh t a ng les . ( P l . 1 3 .12 , 1 3 ) Bu t t here a re d if ferences . T he d es igns o n t he c ross o f C ong t end t o b e more o pen , t he i n ter lace i s l ess c o mpact , a nd t he i n ter lac ing r ibbons o r s nakes a re t h inner .

T he h eads o f t he a n i ma ls a nd s nakes b e long t o ad if feren t

r eper to ire ( P l . 1 3 .15 ) a nd t he h a tched b od ies a nd s p ira l j o in ts e v iden t ly f ound 1Rd

n o e cho o n t he marke t c ross .

Wh i le b o th works b e long t o t he s a me s ty l ist ic

m i l ieu , t he s tone c arvers h ad t he ir own i n terpreta t ions . A n i ma l o rna men t w ith U rnes o r ig ins i s p ro m inen t o n most I r ish meta lwork o f t he 1 2th c en tury . T he s hr ine o f S t . Pa tr ick 's B e l l ( 1094-1105 ) h as s o me e ar ly e xa mp les a nd o ne p ane l c lose ly f oreshadows a d es ign o n t he T ua m h igh c ross . 40

H ere t wo r ibbon l ike a n i ma ls a re t igh t ly woven t ogether

i n af igure o f e igh t c o mpos it ion ( P l . 1 3 .12b ) .

F ur ther c o mpar isons c an b e

made w ith t he s hr ine o f S t . L ach t in 's a rm ( 1 118-21 ) a nd t he H o lycross p laque ,

4 1

b u t when e xa m ined i n d eta i l , t he d esigns i nvar iab ly r evea l s ign if i-

c an t d if ferences ( P l . 1 3 .13 ) .

B y f ar t he c losest p ara l le ls f or t he marke t

c ross a re f ound , n o t o n me ta lwork , b u t o n t he s tone c ross a t G lenda lough . H ere t here i s ap ane l o n wh ich a l most a l l t he c haracter ist ics o f T ua m a re r epea ted .

D esp ite t he l ack o fp ro to types among s urv iv ing me ta lwork , h owever

t here c an b e l i t t le d oub t t ha t t he g o lds m i ths were amongs t t he f i rs t t o e xp lo i t t he s ty le i n I re land . B efore c ons ider ing a n i ma l o rna men t u sed e lsewhere a t T ua m , i ti s n ecessary t o d ef ine t he e xact d eb t t o S cand inav ia .

I n r ecen t ly p ub l ished

wr i t ings , t wo d ivergen t p o in ts o f v iew h ave emerged .

F ranco ise H enry

t ended t o m in im ise t he i n f luence o f V ik ing a r t , a rgu ing t ha t 1 2th c en tury I r ish a n i ma l o rna men t owed much t o i nd igenous t rad it ion .

S he a lso s ug-

g ested t ha t t he s ty le o f t he c arv ings a t Urnes s howed t races o f I r ish i n f luence , wh ich s he t hough t m igh t b e e xp la ined i ft hey were t he work o f ac raf ts man f ro m o ne o f t he S cand inav ian c i t ies o f I re land . 42

I n c on trast , D av id W i lson

h as s tressed t he d ec is ive i nf luence o f V ik ing a r t , a nd h e g ives l i t t le we igh t t o t he impact o f n a t ive t rad it ion .

S o me o f t he r ibbon s haped a n i ma ls o n t he

c ross o f C ong a re , h e f ee ls , ' exact ly c o mparab le ' t o N orweg ian p ro to types , a nd t he H o lycross p laque h as a s er ies o f i n ter laced a n i ma ls o f ' t rue U rnes c haracter ' E lsewhere h e a ppears t o q ua l ify t h is v iew s o mewha t , b y r eferr ing t o d es igns o f ' I r ish U rnes c haracter '

( my u nder l in ing ) a nd U rnes

o rna men t i n t he I r ish i d io m .4 3 S yste ma t ic a na lys is i nd ica tes t ha t mos t I r ish v ers ions o f U rnes r evea l marked d if ferences f ro m S cand inav ia .

Th is emerges f ro m c o mpar isons

b e tween S wed ish r unestones , l ike t ha t a t Ros lagsku l la i n U pp land , a nd p ane ls o n t he Tua m market c ross ( P l . 1 3 .13 ). 1 .

I r ish c o mposi t ions u sua l ly h ave a n i ns isten t s y m metry a nd c lear a x ia l a rrange men ts .

I n S cand inav ia , a s F ug lesang h as p o in ted o u t , ' t he

Urnes l oops e xh ib it s l igh t s h if ts o f d irect ion wh ich emphas ise t ha t t he d es ign i s b u i lt n ot o n a x ia l ity , b u t o n as ub t le b a lance i n t he p os it ion a nd s hape o f t he l oops . ' 4 4 2 .

T he I r ish c o mpos i t ions a re t igh ter , a nd t he l oops a re l ess o pen a nd f ree .

3 .

T he ma in a n i ma ls a re more r ig id i n o u t l ine , w ithou t t he s ub t le s ways a nd s l igh t s we l ls o f t he b ody , wh ich a re a h a l l mark o f U rnes i n S cand inav ia .

4 . 5 .

I n I re land t he a n i ma ls a re l ess e longa ted . T he h eads o f t he ma in a n i ma ls a re a lso more s ubstan t ia l a nd a re n ot mere e x tens ions o f t he b ody ( P l . 1 3 .15 ).

S im i lar ly , e yes t end t o b e

more r ounded , w i thou t t he s leek menac ing f or ms s een i n S cand inav ia .

1 85

6 .

C o mpos it ions a re d es igned t o f i l l t he a va i lab le s pace i n au n ifor m p a t tern a nd t here i s n o impress ion o f as urround ing v o id i n t he b ackground , a k ey f ea ture o f s evera l o f t he Swed ish r unestones .

T he e qua l ly impor tan t p o in ts o f s im i lar ity s hou ld a lso b e emphasised . 1 .

T he i n ter lac ing c o i ls move i n w ide o pen p a t terns a nd c ircu lar l oops , o f ten d escr ib ing a f igure o f e igh t .

T he s harp a ng les f ound i n t rad it iona l

I r ish work a re a vo ided . 2 .

T he i n ter lace i s n ot i n terrup ted a nd t here i s as trong impress ion o f f luency a nd c on t inu ity .

3 .

There i s c ons isten t u se o f t he c o mba t t he me , w ith a c lear c on trast i n s ca le b e tween t he ma in b east a nd t he e nc irc l ing s nakes o r r ibbons .

4 .

S evera l s pec if ic a n i ma l c haracter ist ics r ecur , most n ot iceab ly t he c ur led l ower j aw o r l appe t a nd s nake h eads s een f ro m a bove .

I n t he

l a t ter c ase t he s nou ts a re u sua l ly r ounded i n I re land n o t p o in ted ( P l . 1 3 .14 ) .

S p ira l f or ma t ions o n t he h ips , a s f ound i n t he c ross o f C ong ,

a re a lso c o m mon t o b o th a reas , t hough t hey a re n o t f ound o n t he market c ross a t T ua m . O ne c an c onc lude t ha t t he v isua l impress ion g iven b y I r ish U rnes o rnamen t i s o f ten c lose ly c o mparab le t o S cand inav ia b u t t he c o mpos it iona l methods a re more s yste ma t ic a nd s y m me tr ica l .

D if ferences o ccur i n t he i nd iv idua l

t rea t men t o f a n i ma ls a nd i t a ppears t ha t I r ish c raf ts men r e ma ined l oya l t o many o f t he ir t rad it iona l me thods .

Wh i le t he p rofound i nf luence o f S cand i-

n av ian U rnes o rna men t i s u nden iab le , I r ish v ers ions o ft he s ty le a re f ar f ro m mechan ica l r eproduct ions .

An a l most e qua l b lend o f I r ish a nd S cand i-

n av ian i ngred ien ts s ee ms t o b e t he h a l l mark o f t he marke t c ross a t T ua m . T h is c onf luence o f i deas i s o n ly t o b e e xpected when t wo we l l f or med s ty les a re b rough t t ogether i n t he s a me e nv iron men t .

As im i lar b lend o ccurred

i n 1 0th c entury s cu lp ture i n t he n or th o f Eng land , where r ecen t s tud ies h ave s hown t ha t l ong e stab l ished Ang l ian t rad it ions , f ar f ro m v an ish ing u nder V ik ing impact , were merged w ith e le men ts o f t he impor ted J e l l inge s ty le . 45 I n t he c a thedra l a t T ua m t he a n i ma l i n ter lace i s more d iverse i n c haracter . T he d es igns o n t he c ap ita ls o f t he c hance l a rch a re d if f icu lt t o r ecover b ut , a s F ranco ise H enry o bserved , t hey s ee m c lose i n s p ir it t o t hose o n t he mark e t c ross . 46

A n e n t ire ly d if feren t r eperto ire was u sed o n t he j a mbs o f t he

e ast w indow .

F our ma jor d esigns were emp loyed , a rranged n o t i n i nd iv idua l

p ane ls a s o n t he c ross , b u t i n ac on t inous r unn ing p a t tern . One s che me c ons ists o f ac o m mon I r ish t echn ique i n wh ich a r ibbon l ike a n i ma l h as t he l ower p ar t o f i t s b ody r o l led i n to a s p ira l . ( P l . 1 3 ,7 , 1 6 ) . I t s a ncestry c an b e t raced b oth i n manuscr ip t i l lu m ina t ion a nd i n s tone s cu lp ture .

I ti s f ound , f or e xa mp le , i n t he B ook o f K e l ls a nd t he B ea l in

c ross , b oth t o b e d a ted c . 8 00 .

4 7

T he mesh o f i n ter tw in ing s nakes , d escr ib ing

f igure o f e igh t p a t terns , i s a more r ecen t e le men t , s how ing o bv ious U rnes i nsp ira t ion .

T he Urnes f ea tures , h owever , a re l im ited a nd t he v isua l e f fect

o f t he d es ign r e ma ins f unda men ta l ly t rad it iona l .

1 86

Ar e la ted c o mpos i t ion a ppears o n t he c ross s ha f t c arved b y Ga t t iChr is t O ' Too le . ( P l . 1 3.5 , 1 6 ).

H ere a ga in t here a re r ibbon s haped a n i ma ls w ith

c o i led b od ies e n tang led i n i n ter lace , t h is t ime c o mb ined i n af our p ar t mot if . B u t t here i s n o t race o f Urnes i n f luence a nd t he i n ter lac ing s cro l ls a re f u l l o f s harp t w ists a nd a ng les .

G i l luChr ist 's t echn ique i s s o mewha t r agged a nd

d isorgan ised , a nd h is i n terpre ta t ion o f t he i n ter lace p a t tern i s n one t oo i n te l l igen t . As econd d es ign o n t he w indows i nvo lves a l ine o f f our l egged b easts , i n wh ich t he h ead a nd s nou t a re l ocked i n to t he h ind l egs o f t he a n i ma l i n f ron t ( P l . 1 3 .17b ) .

T here i s n oth ing p ar t icu lar ly S cand inav ian a bou t t h is .

I tr eca l ls p a t terns u sed i n t he b orders o f i nsu lar manuscr ip ts a nd r e la ted t he mes a re f ound o n t he c rests o f s evera l I r ish c roz iers . 48

I ndeed t he

b as ic c o mpos it ion c an b e t raced b ack t o t he t ype o f Ang lo-Saxon a n i ma ls u sed o n f o l io 1 92v o f t he B ook o f D urrow ( P l . 1 3 .17a ). T he t h ird a n i ma l d es ign i s p art icu lar ly a t tract ive .

Ac lear ly d ef ined

b east i s g racefu l ly t w isted i n to a n Ss haped f or m a nd i n ter locked w ith s nakes ( P l . 1 3.8 , 1 8c ) .

The e asy r egu lar c urves , t he f igure o f e igh t mo t ifs ,

a nd t he p resence o f s nakes a l l t est ify t o U rnes i n f luence .

B u t t he t h ick

b od ied s nakes a re n ow v ery s ubstan t ia l c rea tures a nd we h ave c o me a l ong way f ro m t he s lender s inuous f or ms o f S cand inav ia .

I n o ne r espect t he

d es ign r eca l ls t he e ar l ier V ik ing s ty les o f J e l l inge a nd Ma m men , f or t he s nakes a re d iv ided i n to t wo , a nd s o met i mes t hree , s epara te s trands .

T he

d oub le e dged c on tour o f t he ma in b east i s a lso a c haracter ist ic o f p re-Urnes d es ign .

On ly i n t he l oosest s ense c an t h is c o mpos it ion b e d escr ibed a s

I r ish U rnes , f or t he a r t ist h as e xp lo ited V ik ing s ty les w ith g rea t f l ex ib i l i ty a nd imag ina t ion . T h is a pproach i s e ven more marked o n t he f ina l d es ign , wh ich d ef ies e asy c a tegor isa t ion ( P l . 1 3.9 , 1 8a ) .

As eries o f l arge a n i ma ls a re a rranged

i n d iagona l f or mat ion , a nd t he u pper most b east s we l ls i n to a mass ive c rea ture , w ith a b road n eck a nd v ast j aws .

L ocked a round t hese a n i ma ls a re t he

f am i l iar U rnes s nakes i n t he ir f igure o f e igh t l oops . r em in iscences o f e ar l ier V ik ing s ty les .

Aga in t here a re

T he d oub le s trand i n ter lace r ecurs

a nd t he f i l l ing o f v acan t s paces w i th b lobs ' r evea ls t he s ame h orror v acu i a s s hown b y Ma m men a r t ists . Ano ther h in t o f Ma m men i s t he S s haped r hy th m o f t he f ina l a n i ma l , wh ich , t ogether w i th i t s s hortened f ore leg , c an b e c o mpared w ith t he K irk B radden c arv ings o n t he I s le o f Man . 49 T he d ist inct ive ly I r ish e le men ts s hou ld n o t , h owever , b e i gnored .

( P l . 1 3 .18b ) . C ur led

manes a nd b eaded o u t l ines , f or e xa mp le , a re b o th c onsp icuous i n t he B ook o f K e l ls a nd t he s hape o f t he h ind l eg c an a lso b e p ara l le led i n I r ish i l lu m ina t ion . T he t ota l d es ign i s , t herefore , s tr ik ing ly e c lect ic .

An ew a nd o r ig ina l

c o mpos it ion h as b een c rea ted t hrough s e lected b orrow ings f ro m t he p ast a nd i tr epresen ts o ne o f t he t r iu mphs o f 1 2th c en tury I r ish a r t .

To a ch ieve i t ,

t he s cu lp tors o f t he c a thedra l must h ave h ad a ccess t o aw ide v ar ie ty o f a r t ifacts a nd mode ls .

N o d oub t t hese i nc luded t he v a luab le p ossess ions o f

t he monastery i t se lf a s we l l a s t he t reasures o f t he O 'Conor k ings . T he s k i l l a nd imag ina t ion w ith wh ich I r ish s tone c arvers e xp lo i ted S cand inav ian t he mes h as n o t b een a dequa te ly r ecogn ised b y V ik ing s cho lars . T here h as b een a t endency t o c oncen tra te o n d ef in it ions o f s ty le a nd t o r egard 1 87

moves away f ro m ' pure U rnes ' a s d egenera te , r a ther t han s ee ing s uch a dap ta t ions a s p os it ive a nd o r ig ina l . 50 I ti s a x io ma t ic t ha t t he s ty le o f t he more imag ina t ive a nd u nconven t iona l a r t ists w i l l d efy e asy c a tegor isa t ion . T he s ub t le d if ferences f ound i n t he a n i ma l o rna men t a t T ua m l ead t o s evera l c onc lus ions .

T he s cu lpture o f t he c a thedra l i s more imag ina t ive

a nd d iverse i n c haracter t han t ha t o n t he s haf t i n t he marke t p lace , s o t here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t ha t t hey a re c on te mporary .

Ag ap o f 3 0-40 y ears

s uggested b y t he e v idence o f i nscr ip t ions a nd d ocu men ts a ppears s ty l ist ica l ly c onv inc ing .

T he s haf t o f G i l luChr ist O 'Too le i n t he c a thedra l i s n o t iceab ly

u na f fected b y S cand inav ian e le men ts .

I ti s t hus l ike ly t o b e t he e ar l iest o f

t he Ro manesque c arv ings a t T ua m , t hough i t s mou lded e dges imp l ies t ha t i t d id n o t l ong p re-da te t he market c ross .

A s S cand inav ian f ea tures were

i n troduced t o C onnach t i n t he c ross o f C ong , b y 1 136 a t t he l a tes t , a nd p robab ly b y 1 123 , t here a re h in ts t ha t G i l luChr ist worked a t a n e ar ly s tage i n A ed O 'O iss ins ' sa bbacy , p erhaps a bou t 1 128-30 .

H e was c er ta in ly t he

most c onserva t ive o f t he s cu lp tors , —in s hor t , t he o ne who l east d eserved h is n a me t o b e r ecorded f or p oster ity . F o l iage P a t terns T he d ecora t ion o f t he c a thedra l c on ta ins a n e x tens ive amoun t o f f o l iage o rna men t a nd i ti s t he o n ly 1 2 th c en tury c arv ing a t T ua m t o d o s o ( P l . 1 3 .2 , 1 9 ) .

T h is p rov ides a no ther c lear d ist inct ion b etween t he s ty le o f t he c a thedra l

a nd t ha t o f t he h igh c rosses .

T he v ar ied s ty le o f f o l iage a lso s uggests a

r e la t ive ly l a te p er iod i n t he h istory o f I r ish Ro manesque , g iv ing f ur ther c on f ir ma t ion f or t he 1 184-90 d a te imp l ied b y t he a nna ls . S evera l t ypes o f r unn ing v ine-scro l l a re emp loyed , s o me w ith p o in ted i vy l i ke l eaves ( P l . 1 3 .19d ) .

I ti s d if f icu l t t o d eter m ine t he im med ia te

o r ig in o f t hese d es igns , f or t hey b e long t o t he c o m mon s tock o f E uropean Ro manesque mo t ifs .

Runn ing f o l iage a ppears o n an u mber o f o ther I r ish

c hurches , i nc lud ing D yser t O 'Dea , C lon fer t a nd Mona I ncha .

Ano ther w ide-

s pread mo t if i s ap a t tern o f a can thus d er ived l eaves a rranged i n ac ha in l ike s che me ( P l . 1 3 .19b ).

I n a dd it ion t o T ua m , i tr e-appears a t C lon macno is

( Nun 's C hurch 1 167 ) a nd Mona I ncha , a nd l ike t he v ine-scro l l i ti s o f c lass ica l d er iva t ion .

I n F rance i ti s f ound , f or e xa mp le , o n t he s tone c o lu mn a t

S ouv igny ( A l l ier ) a nd i n t he p a in t ings a t S t . S av in-sur-Garte mpe .

I ndeed ,

s o me o f t he f o l iage d es igns u sed i n I re land may h ave b een i n troduced t hrough p a in t ings , a s s uggested b y t he f ew r e man ing t races o n t he c hance l a rch o f C or mac 's C hape l , Cashe l . Af ur ther mot if wh ich b e longs t o aE uropean f am i ly i s t he a n i ma l s pew ing f or th f o l iage , t o b e f ound o n o ne o f t he j a mbs o f t he e ast w indows ( P l . 1 3 .19e ) . F ro m L o mbardy t o E ng land , f ro m F rance t o N orway , t h is i s ar ecurren t t he me .

5 1

A long w ith t he o ther f o l iage p a t terns , i ts hows t ha t t he s cu lp tors

o f t he c a thedra l were b y n o means i so la ted f ro m t he ma instrea ms o f E uropean R o manesque o rna men t . S ources a nd Mode ls I th as f or l ong b een a cknow ledged t ha t t he r ich ly c arved c rosses o f A henny , b e long ing t o t he 8 th o r 9 th c en tury , w ere c op ied a l most e xact ly f ro m meta lwork 52 , a nd a s a lready s uggested , t he a n i ma l i n ter lace u sed a t 1 88

T ua m may owe much t o meta l p ro to types .

I n t wo p ar t icu lar c ases i ti s

p oss ib le t o p rove t ha t meta l o b jec ts were b e ing c op ied .

Runn ing d own t he

c en tre o f o ne o f t he a n i ma l p a t terns i n t he c a thedra l a re r ound p ro ject ing l u mps , i rre levan t t o t he g enera l d es ign ( P l . 1 3 .8 , 1 8c ) .

I ta ppears t ha t

t hese a re meta l r ivets , t ransfor med u nw it t ing ly b y t he s cu lp tor i n to s tone . A more impor tan t e xa mp le i s f ound o n t he r inged h ead s ur moun t ing t he marke t c ross ( P l . 1 3 .3 ).

E i ther s ide o f C hr ist 's o u tstretched a r ms a re

l arge b osses , wh ich make l i t t le s ense i n t er ms o f s tone s cu lp ture . i ta ppears t ha t s o me f or m o f r ive t h as b een c op ied .

Aga in

B eh ind t he a r ms o f

C hr ist , t he l a tera l s ha f t o f ac ross h as b een s uggested i n t wo s ha l low p lanes , a s i f as epara te c ross h as b een a pp l ied t o t he f ace o f t he ma in s tone monumen t .

I t imp l ies t ha t t he s cu lp tor h ad i n f ron t o f h im ac ruc if ix , p oss ib ly

o f b ronze , a nd h e t ransfor med b o th c orpus a nd c ross t o t he s urface o f h is s tone c arv ing . I f ab ronze c ruc if ix was t he mode l , i ti s u n l ike ly t o h ave b een made i n I re land .

C o mpared t o t he r ow o f s tocky e cc les iast ics o n t he o ther f ace

o f t he c ross ( P l . 1 3 .4 ) wh ich a re t yp ica l I r ish p roducts , t he c ruc if ied C hr ist f or ms a p owerfu l c on trast .

T he e longa ted p ropor t ions o f t he f igure a nd t he

g eo metr ica l d ef in it ion o f t he b ody a re q u ite d if feren t f ro m e ar l ier c ruc if ix ions i n I re land .

T he p ronounced c urves o n t he c hest , t he p a t tern o f t he r ibs

b e low a nd t he s harp V f o lds o f t he l o in c loth c o mb ine t o g ive t he c arv ing a n empha t ica l ly Ro manesque a ppearance .

T here i s as t if fness a nd r ig id ity

5 3

a bou t t he c o mpos it ion a nd t he c orpus i s d ef ined i n a n a l most r ect i l inear manner , w ith s tra ight c on tour l ines .

S evera l o f t hese c haracter ist ics r e-

a ppear o n am in ia ture o f c . 1 060 f ro m t he N ew M inster Winchester .

( Br it ish

L ibrary Ms . Arunde l 6 0 , f o l . 1 2v .) 54 where t here i s t he s a me r ectangu lar f or m a nd r ig id ity o f o u t l ine ( P l . 1 3 .10 ) .

T he ' t ree t runk c ross ' d ep icted i n

t he d raw ing a lso h as r ef lect ions a t T ua m , f or t he a r ms o f t he c ross h ave u nm istakab le s igns o f h a tch ing a long t he ir e dges .

The f or m o f t he T ua m

h ead , wh ich i n v o lu me i s l ike a n i nver ted c one , r ef lects l a te Ang lo-Saxon d raw ing s ty les , where t h in c h ins a nd p o in ted b eards a re c o m monp lace .

5 5

T he W inchester min ia ture h as r ecen t ly b een u sed b y P eter B loch t o l oca l ise ag roup o f Ro manesque b ronze c ruc if ixes .

5 6

T hese a re d ist ingu ished b y a

l o in c lo th wh ich h as a c en tra l f o ld , h ang ing f orward i n vf or m , a nd t here c an b e n o d oub t t ha t t he Tua m C hr ist b e longs t o t he s a me s er ies .

Two

e xa mp les f ro m t he g roup e ven h ave t he s a me l ine o f d ots d own t he e dges o f t he v f o ld , met icu lous ly r eproduced o n t he I r ish c ross .

5 7

T he mode l f or

t he Tua m c arv ing was p robab ly manufactured s o mewhere i n t he s ou th o f E ng land , a nd may we l l h ave b een s evera l d ecades o ld when i t was u sed a s ap roto type b y t he I r ish s cu lp tor .

E ng l ish i deas a re k nown t o h ave b een a n

i mpor tan t s t i mu lus i n t he i n it ia l s tages o f I r ish Ro manesque ,

5 8

b u t h ither to

E ng l ish s ources f or t he c on te mporary h igh c rosses h ave n ot b een s uspec ted . F ore ign i n f luence c an a lso b e d etec ted o n s o me o f t he o ther 1 2th c en tury c rosses .

A t C ashe l t he f igure o f C hr ist w ith i t s l ong c o lob iu m i s c lear ly

d ependen t , u lt i ma te ly , o n t he V o lto S ancto o f L ucca ,

5 9

a nd t he C hr ist o n t he

sma l l c ross a t G lenda lough may a lso b e i nsp ired b y f ore ign mode ls .

6°

( P l .

1 3 .11 ) T h is f igure i s p ar t icu lar ly i n terest ing i n i t s r e la t ionsh ip w ith T ua m . I n b o th c ases , t he C hr ist i s c rowned , t he a r ms a re s tretched o u t i n as tra igh t

1 89

l ine a nd t he h eads h ave t he s a me l ong p o in ted f or m .

A t G lenda lough t he

b ody o f C hr ist i s b en t a nd t he h ead i s more i nc l ined , s uggest ing t ha t i t s mode l b e longed t o ad if feren t t ype .

Un for tuna te ly t he a rea o f t he l o in c lo th ,

r egarded b y P e ter B loch a s c r it ica l f or s ty l ist ic d iagnos is , i s a l most o b l it era ted , s o t ha t i ti s d if f icu l t t o s uggest a s pec if ic s ource .

I ti s wor th n o t ing

t he t rea t men t o f t he ma in a r ms o f t he c ross , wh ich a re d ecora ted i n t he f or m o f mou lded c ap i ta ls . T here a re n o p receden ts f or t h is o n t he I r ish h igh c rosses 61

a nd i ti s r em in iscen t o f t he L o thar c ross a t Aachen a nd t he c ross

o f Ma t i lda a nd D uke O t to a t E ssen .6 2 I n a dd it ion t o t he p ara l le ls i n f igure s ty le a nd a n i ma l i n ter lace ( P l . 1 3 .1 , 1 1 ) , o ther f ea tures o f t he G lenda lough c ross c an b e c o mpared t o t he c rosses a t T ua m .

Two e cc les iast ics p ro ject i n b o ld r e l ief f ro m t he b ase a nd t here i s

t he s a me v isua l c on trast b etween t he p owerfu l f orward r e l ief o f t hese f igures a nd t he i n ter lace p a t terns , c u t i n s ha l low r e l ief o n t he b ackground p lane o f t he s tone .

T h is s cu lp tura l a pproach i s i nsp ired b y me ta lwork , i n p art icu lar

s hr ines a nd c ruc if ixes w ith s epara te c ast f igures a t tached t o o rna men ted b ackgrounds . I n a dd it ion t o i nf luences f ro m meta lwork , i t wou ld b e s urpr is ing i ft he much v aun ted I r ish s k i l l a t c arpen try d id n o t h ave s o me impact o n s tone s cu lp ture a nd a t Tua m t here a re a f ew h in ts t ha t i td id . s ur faces a re e xecu ted i n as i mp le s yste m o f r e l ief .

Most o f t he c arved

T he f or ms o f b easts

a nd s cro l ls a l ike a re d ef ined b y s harp a ng les a nd t here i s l i t t le a t te mp t a t r ounded mode l l ing .

The n or ma l d ep th o f t he r e l ief i s a bou t 6 -9 cm 63

a nd ,

wh i le t h is i s a dequa te f or t he sma l l p ane ls o f t he c a thedra l , i ti s r a ther s ha l low f or t he b roader s ur faces o f t he marke t c ross , e ven a l low ing f or w ear . T he t echn ique r eca l ls t ha t u sed i n N orweg ian c hurches a nd t here a re a lso p ara l le ls w i th t he Ro manesque s cu lp ture o f E ly , where methods e vo lved i n wood c arv ing s ee m t o h ave b een u sed .6 4 C onc lus ion E x tens ive r esearch w i l l b e n eeded b efore a l l t he p rob le ms r a ised b y t he s cu lp ture o f T ua m a re s o lved .

T he p hysica l s tructure o f t he marke t c ross ,

f or e xa mp le , a nd t he n a ture o f t he a dd it iona l s cu lp tures a t tached w ith mor t ices a re f ar f ro m c lear .

The l ink w ith G lenda lough i s h ard t o e xp la in , t hough

t he p ara l le ls i n a n i ma l o rna men t a nd f igure s ty le a re u nm istakab le .

Equa l ly

u ncer ta in i s t he mean ing o f t he s u l len r ank o f e cc les iast ics o n t he c ross h ead . F ur ther p rob le ms o f i n terpreta t ion a r ise i n t he c a thedra l , where t he o ne f igura t ive p ane l i n t he d ecora t ive s che me h as n ever b een s a t isfactor i ly e xp la ined ( P l . 1 3 .9 ) .

I ts hows a h o ly man a pparen t ly b e ing t e mp ted o r

d er ided b y av ic ious d e mon , who i s p or trayed w ith f la m ing h a ir a nd a menac ing p o in ted n ose .

T he s a in t , i ft ha t i s who h e i s , t hrusts a sword i n to t he mou th

o f as erpen t a nd h is o ther h and s ee ms t o b e s hack led b y ac lamp .

P erhaps

t h is i s a n e p isode f ro m t he l i fe o f S t . J ar la th , b u t i ti s imposs ib le t o p rove i t .

H is A cta d o n ot s urv ive , a nd , a par t f ro m a f ew t a les s uch a s h is p hys ica l

p rowess i n p er for m ing n o l ess t han 3 00 g enu f lex ions e very d ay a nd n igh t , l i t t le i s k nown a bou t h im .6 2 A l though t hese q uest ions r e ma in , i ti s p oss ib le t o d raw s o me f ir m c onc lus ions .

S evera l d if feren t workshops were emp loyed a t Tua m o ver a

1 90

c ons iderab le p er iod o f t ime .

O f t he t wo i nscr ibed c rosses , e rected a f ter

t he r eorgan isa t ion o f t he monast ic e nc losure i n 1 127 , i ti s t e mp t ing t o d a te G i l luChr ist 's c ross t o a bou t 1 128-30 a nd t he market c ross a f ew y ears l a ter . Wha tever t he e xact d a tes , t here was a l ong g ap b efore t he r ebu i ld ing o f t he c a thedra l .

T he d a te o f 1 184-90 f or t h is work s uggested b y t he a nna ls i s

c on f ir med b y t he s ty le o f c hevron , f o l iage a nd a n i ma l p a t terns .

I n c on trast

t o t he marke t c ross , t he f or ms o f a n i ma l i n ter lace u sed i n t he c a thedra l a re n o t o r thodox v ers ions o f t he I r ish Urnes s ty le .

T hey a re v ar ied i n t he me

a nd i ncorpora te b oth e ar l ier V ik ing t echn iques a nd many t rad it iona l I r ish e le men ts .

Among t he l a t ter a re s evera l s p ira l d es igns , f ound o n t he b ases

a nd a bac i , ( P l . 1 3 .17d ) a nd t here i s a lso a sma l l a n i ma l t ha t c ou ld h ave c o me s tra igh t f ro m t he s hr ine o f t he S towe M issa l ( 1045-52 ) .

S cand inav ian a nd

I r ish i deas w ere t rea ted , n o t a s s ta t ic mo t ifs , b u t a s t he mes c apab le o f b e ing mou lded a nd a dap ted i n to s o me th ing n ove l . T he d egree o f o r ig ina l ity s hown b y t he Tua m s cu lp tors i n a ch iev ing t h is b lend h as n ever r ece ived r ecogn it ion b efore .

T o s o me e x ten t t he ir work

h as b een a v ict im o f modern s ty l ist ic c a tegor isa t ion , f or t he T ua m a n i ma l i nter lace a l mos t d ef ies d ef in it ion a ccord ing t o c onven t iona l t er m ino logy . T he d es igns a re n e ither t yp ica l ly I r ish n or t yp ica l ly S cand inav ian .

T he

t er m u sua l ly a pp l ied t o t h is t ype o f c o mpos it ion , I r ish U rnes , c overs a w ide r ange o f s ty les , s o me o f wh ich a re o n ly d istan t ly f ound o n t he c hurch a t U rnes .

r e la ted t o t he o rna men t

I n f act t here a re n o I r ish works wh ich a re

e xac t ly c o mparab le e i ther t o t h is o r t o t he Urnes d ecora t ion o f t he S wed ish r unestones .

Wha t emerges f ro m a n e xa m ina t ion o f t he Tua m s cu lp ture i s

t ha t t here were s evera l s hades o f Urnes i n f luence o n I r ish a r t .

I n s o me

c ases t he U rnes i ngred ien ts a re s trong , e ven t hough t he o vera l l v isua l e f fect i s f unda men ta l ly d if feren t .

T he C ross o f C ong a nd t he market c ross a t Tua m

b o th p rov ide e xa mp les o f t h is c a tegory .

T hen t here a re I r ish works where

U rnes f eatures a re c o mb ined a nd a l most s ub merged b y i deas f ro m o ther s ources .

T he c arv ing o n t he e ast w indows o f T ua m c a thedra l i s a n o u tstand ing

e xa mp le o f t h is .

Whe ther o r n o t t he t er m ' I r ish Urnes ' i s h e lpfu l o r i ndeed

a ccura te i n d escr ib ing t hese d if fer ing d egrees o f i nf luence i s o pen t o d oub t . T he s cu lp ture i n t he c a thedra l o f Tua m was p roduced l ong a f ter t he a pogee o f t he O 'Conor k ings , b ut n ever the less i tt est if ies t o t he h igh d egree o f c raf ts mansh ip f ostered i n C onnach t u nder t he ir p a tronage .

The impor tance

o f T ua m a s af oyer o f I r ish a r t a nd t he r ichness o f i t s a r t ist ic p ossess ions i s i nd ica ted b y t he d ivers ity o f s ources u sed b y t he s tone c arvers — meta lwork , manuscr ip t p a in t ing , a nd p oss ib ly wood c arv ing .

A lthough t he s cu lp tors d rew

p r inc ipa l ly o n t he mes f ro m I r ish a nd V ik ing t rad it ion , t he c onnec t ions w ith E ng l ish Ro manesque s how t ha t t he monastery was n o t a s a r t ist ica l ly r e mo te f ro m E uropean d eve lop men ts a s i t s d istan t l oca t ion m igh t s uggest .

NOTES 1 . G . P etr ie , ' On t wo I r ish i nscr ip t ions o n t he g rea t s tone c ross o f T ua m ', P roceed ings o f t he Roya l I r ish A cade my , S er . 1 , V ( 1 850-3 ) , 4 74 .

1 91

2 . G . P etr ie , The E cc lesiast ica l Arch itecture o f I re land , a n ter ior t o t he Ang lo-Nor man I nvas ion , c o mpr ising a n e ssay o n t he Or ig in a nd U ses o f t he Round T owers o f I re land ( Dub l in 1 845 ) , 3 15. 3 . The p r inc ipa l a uthor it ies o n Tua m a re F . H enry , I r ish Ar t i n t he Ro manesque P er iod ( 1020-1170 ) ( London 1 970 ) a nd H . G . L eask , I r ish Churches a nd Monast ic Bu i ld ings , I( Dunda lk 1 955 ).

F ur ther r eferences

a re c on ta ined i n F . H enry , La S cu lpture I r landa ise ( Par is 1 933 ) , A . C . Cha mpneys , I r ish E cc lesiast ica l Arch itecture ( London 1 910 ) , T he Th ird Ear l o f Dunraven , No tes o n I r ish Arch itecture , e d . M . S tokes ( London 1 875 ) , a nd L ord K i l lan in a nd M. V . Du ignan , The S he l l Gu ide t o I re land ( London 1 962 ). 4 . A . Gwynn a nd R . N . Hadcock , Med ieva l Re l ig ious Houses , I re land ( London 1 970 ) , 9 8 , J . Co lgan , A cta S anctoru m H ibern ie ( 1645 ) ( repr in t Dub l in 1 948 ) , 2 07-8. 5 . D . Ö C orrä in , I re land b efore t he Nor mans ( Dub l in 1 972 ) , 1 50-162 . 6 . H enry , I r ish Ar t , 1 06-8 . 7 . Anna ls o f t he K ingdo m o f I re land b y t he F our Masters ,

( Dub l in 1 848-51 ) .

8 . AF M . Thef t o f monast ic t reasures was a c on t inuous p rob le m i n I re land , e ven e xc lud ing t he V ik ing r a ids .

I n 1 006 t he B ook o f K e i ls i t se lf was

s to len a nd i t s p rec ious c over was n ever r etr ieved , Anna ls o f U lster , e d . W. M . H ennessy a nd B . MacCarthy ( Dub l in 1 887-1901 ). 9 . Gwynn a nd Hadcock , Re l ig ious Houses , 9 8. 1 0 . I b id ., 1 97. 1 1. Ö C orrä in , I re land b efore t he Nor mans , 1 63-8 . 1 2 . AU , AF M . 1 3 . F . H enry , I r ish Art ,

d a tes a l most a l l I r ish Ro manesque c arv ing b efore

t he a rr iva l o f t he Ang lo-Nor mans.

F or a d iscuss ion o f t he impact o f

t he i nvas ion o n a r t , s ee R . A . S ta l ley , ' The Med ieva l S cu lpture o f Chr ist Church Ca thedra l , Dub l in ', Archaeo log ia , CV I , ( 1979 ) , 1 07-9 . 1 4 . H enry , I r ish Ar t , 3 5-6 . 1 5. Gwynn a nd Hadcock , Re l ig ious Houses , 9 9 . 1 6. S he ll Gu ide , 4 47. 1 7. The c hance l i s d escr ibed b y L eask , I r ish Churches , 1 53-4 , A . C lapha m , ' So me M inor I r ish Ca thedra ls ', Archaeo log ica l J ourna l , CV I ( 1949 ) , s upp le men t , 2 0 , T . M . F a llow , The Ca thedra l Churches o f I re land ( London 1 894 ) , 9 3-7 a nd P etr ie , Ecc les iast ica l Arch itecture , 3 14-5. L eask s uggests , b y imp l icat ion , t ha t t he c hance l a rch a nd e ast w indows may b e o f t wo d if feren t d ates .

I n s uppor t o f t h is v iew ,

i ti s wor th

n ot ic ing t he c api ta ls o f t he c hance l a rch , wh ich a re d ecora ted w i th a n ima l i n ter lace d es igns , n ot s o d iss im ilar f ro m t he e ar l ier h igh c rosses . D esp ite t h is c onnect ion , h owever , t he w indows a nd t he a rch must d a te f ro m t he s a me c a mpa ign o f b u ild ing , f or t here a re n u merous d ecora t ive p ara l le ls , e spec ia l ly i n f o l iage a nd f ac ia l t ypes . 1 92

1 8 . Al i thograph o f t he a rch i n t h is p os it ion i s p asted i n to a l i st o f c on tr ib ut ions t o t he Tua m Ca thedra l Restora t ion F und , Na t iona l L ibrary o f I re land , I R 7 266 t 2 . 1 9 . The Anna ls o f L och C e , e d ., W. H . H ennessy ( London 1 871 ). 2 0 . The Who le Works o f S ir J a mes Ware c oncern ing I re land , e d . W. Harr is ( Dub l in 1 739-46 ) , 6 01. 2 1. L eask , I r ish Churches , 1 54 . 2 2 . H enry , I r ish Ar t , 4 0-1 . 2 3 . T . Gar ton , t ypescr ip t . 2 4 . H . G . L eask , I r ish C hurches a nd Monast ic Bu i ld ings , I ( Dunda lk 1 960 ) , 5 9-61 , R . A . S ta l ley , ' A Ro manesque S cu lptor i n Connaught ', Coun try L ife

CL I I I , N o . 3 965 , ( June 2 1 , 1 973 ) , 1 830 .

2 5. R . J . K e l ly , ' The C ross o f Tua m ', Dub l in P enny J ourna l , N .S . I , No . 1 0 ( June 7 , 1 902 ) , 1 54 . 2 6. S ee f or e xa mp le t he r e markab le r econstruct ion i n L . S . Gogan , ' The F a med H igh C ross o f Tua m ', The S tandard ( August 9 , 1 930 ) , 1 1-13 . 2 7. I th as a lready b een k nocked o ver o nce , b y a Cross ley t ender d r iven b y t he B lack a nd Tans . 2 8 . S . L ew is , A Topograph ica l D ict ionary o f I re land ( London 1 839 ) , I , 6 46. 2 9 . R . J . K e l ly , ' H istory o f Tua m ', Tua m H era ld ( October 1 5 , 1 887 ). 3 0 . G . P etr ie , Chr ist ian I nscr ipt ions i n t he I r ish Language , e d . M. S tokes ( Dub l in 1 878 ) , I , 7 7-8 .

Nu merous v ar ian t r ead ings h ave b een p ub l ished

o ver t he y ears , w i thou t a f fect ing t he g enera l mean ing . 3 1. F . Henry , I r ish Ar t , 1 24 d ates Aed O 'O issin 's a bbacy f ro m 1 126 , b u t t h is a ppears t o b e a mistake f or 1 128 .

Gwynn a nd Hadcock , Re l ig ious

Houses , 9 8 , a nd Ware , 6 03. 3 2 . Th ir ty S ix E tch ings o f I r ish An t iqu it ies ( Dub l in 1 830 ) , Nat iona l L ibrary o f I re land , I R 7 9410 EL 3 3 . L . d e Paor , ' The L i mestone C rosses o f C lare a nd Aran , J ourna l o f t he Ga lway Archaeo log ica l a nd H istor ica l S oc iety XXV I ( 1955-6 ) , 6 2-3 . 3 4 . Gwynn a nd Hadcock , Re l ig ious Houses , 9 9 ;

Ware , 6 04 .

3 5 . Ware , 6 04 , i n wh ich i ti s mis in terpreted a s af unera l s lab a nd Na t iona l L ibrary o f I re land , Ms . 1 2112 ( Newspaper c u t t ings r e la t ing t o Tua m ) , 2 2 .

H enry , I r ish Ar t , 1 40 , c la i ms i t was f ound i n t he g raveyard .

3 6 . P etr ie , C hr ist ian I nscr ipt ions , 7 6.

A s w ith t he i nscr ip t ion o n t he market

c ross t here a re many minor v ar ia t ions i n t he r ead ings . 3 7 . Margaret S tokes i n Dunraven , Notes o n I r ish Arch itecture , 9 1 . 3 8 . H enry , I r ish Ar t , 1 43. 3 9 . P etr ie , E cc les iast ica l Arch itecture , 3 13 .

1 93

4 0 . I ti s f ound o n o ne o f t he b roader s ides , b o t to m l ef t c orner . 4 1. Henry , I r ish Ar t , 1 03-5 , 1 14 , a nd D . M . Wi lson a nd 0 . K l ind t-Jensen , V ik ing Art ,

( London 1 966 ) , 1 58-9 .

4 2 . H enry , I r ish Art , 2 01-3 ;

On 1 92 s he wr ites :

' I n s p ite o f t he a f f in it ies

w ith t he ' Urnes s ty le ' wh ich h ave b een a scr ibed t o i t ( i .e . 1 2th c en tury a n i ma l o rna men t ) , i ti s r ea l ly b ased o n t rad it ional I r ish mo t ifs , r ibbon s haped a n i ma ls a nd s nakes c o mbined a ccord ing t o r hyth ms wh ich a re a lready f ound i n t he e ighth c en tury ...' 4 3 . Wi lson , V ik ing Ar t , 1 57 , 1 59 . 4 4 . S igne H orn F ug lesang , ' S ty l ist ic Groups i n L a te V ik ing Ar t ', Ang loS axon a nd V ik ing Age S cu lpture a nd I ts C on tex ts , e d . J . L ang , BAR 4 9 ( 1978 ) , 2 08 . 4 5 . J . T . L ang , ' Con t inu ity a nd I nnova t ion i n Ang lo-Scand inav ian S cu lpture ', BAR 4 9 , 1 45 ;

R . N . Ba i ley , ' The Chrono logy o f V ik ing Age S cu lpture

i n Nor thu mbr ia ', BAR 4 9 , 1 75-6. 4 6 . H enry , I r ish Art , 1 68 .

S ee a lso n o te 1 7.

4 7. F or t he B ea l in c ross , s ee F . H enry , I r ish Ar t i n t he Ear ly Chr ist ian P er iod ( t o 8 00 A .D .) ( London 1 965 ) ,

1 43-4.

By r eferr ing t o t he B ook o f Ke l ls a s I r ish , Imake n o j udge men t o n i t s p lace o f manufacture , mere ly o n t he f act t ha t i t was a t Ke l ls b y 1 006 , s ee n ote 8 . 4 8 . F or e xa mp le t he C lon macnois c roz ier , Treasures o f Ear ly I r ish Ar t , e d . G . F . Mitche l l ( New York 1 977 ) , No . 5 9 , 1 85-6. 4 9 . Wi lson , V ik ing Ar t , 1 23-4 . 5 0 . I b id ., 1 59 .

' I ns tone s cu lpture o n ly o ne o b ject ( t he Cashe l s arcophagus )

c o mes a nywhere n ear a ch iev ing t he s p lendour o f I r ish l i mes meta lwork ' ( my u nder l in ing ) a nd Urnes s urv ives i n Ro manesque ' on ly i n av ery d ebased f or m '.

V ik ing s cho lars s ee m e qua l ly u naware o f h ow l ong Urnes d er ived

o rna men t l asted i n I re land , r egard ing t he t h ird q uar ter o f t he 1 2th c en tury a s at er m inus :

s ee f or e xa mp le , J . Graha m-Ca mpbe l l a nd D . K idd ,

The V ik ings , ( London 1 980 ) , 1 76. 5 1. M. B l indhe im , Norweg ian Ro manesque D ecora t ive S cu lp ture , 1 090-1210 ( London 1 965 ) , 4 7-8 , G . Z arneck i , The Ear ly S cu lpture o f E ly Ca thedra l ( London 1 958 ) , 3 3 . 5 2 . F or a r ecen t s tudy o f t h is s ee P . Harb ison , ' On S o me P oss ib le S ources o f I r ish H igh Cross D ecora t ion ', F estschr if t z um 5 0 j ähr igen B estehen d es Vorgesch icht l ichen S em inars Marburg , I , 2 83-8 . 5 3 . Th is was n ot iced b y b o th Cha mpneys , I r ish E cc lesiast ica l Arch itecture , 9 6 a nd H enry , S cu lpture I r landa ise , 1 61 . 5 4 . F . Wor ma ld , Eng l ish D raw ings o f t he T en th a nd E leventh C en tur ies ( London 1 952 ) , 5 2 , 6 6 ;

E . T e mp le , Ang lo-Saxon Manuscr ipts 9 00-1066

( London 1 976 ) , 1 20 a nd P l . 3 12 .

1 94

5 5 . S ee f or e xa mp le t he d raw ings i n Br it ish L ibrary Ms . T iber ius CV I . 5 6 . P eter B loch , ' S tauf ische Bronzen :

d ie Bronzekruz if ixe ', D ie S taufer ,

V ( 1980 ) , 3 01-2 . 5 7. T he c ruc if ixes a re p reserved i n t he Museu m v an d e B i jloke , G hen t a nd i n t he Hun t c o l lect ion , Dub l in . 5 8. L ia m d e Paor ,

' Cor mac 's Chape l :

t he B eg inn ings o f I r ish Ro manesque ',

Munster S tud ies , E ssays i n C o m me mora t ion o f Mons ignor Michae l Moloney ( L i mer ick 1 967) ,

1 33-145.

5 9 . H enry , I r ish Art , 1 27-8 . 6 0 . A s w ith t he Tua m c rosses , t he ' market c ross ' a t G lenda lough h as n ever b een p ub l ished i n d eta i l .

The b est a va ilab le d escr ip t ion i s i n H . G .

L eask , G lenda lough , O f f ic ia l H istor ica l a nd D escr ip t ive Gu ide ( Dub l in n .d .) , 4 4-5 . 6 1 . Mou lded t er m inat ions a ppear o n as tone c ross b u ilt i n to t he g ab le o f t he c hurch a t K i l l inaboy , P . Harb ison , ' The Doub le-Ar med Cross o n t he C hurch Gab le a t K i l l inaboy , Co . C lare ', North Munster An t iquar ian J ourna l , XV I I I ( 1976 ) , 3 -12 . 6 2 . P . L asko , Ars S acra ( Har mondsworth 1 972 ) , 9 9-101. 6 3 . H enry 's c o m men t t ha t i ti s ' hard ly more t han a l ow c h ip-carv ing ' i s m is lead ing , I r ish Ar t , 1 68 . 6 4 . Z arneck i , E ly Ca thedra l , 3 3 . 6 5. Co lgan , A cta S anctoru m H ibern ie , 3 07-8 i s t he ma in s ource o f i n for ma t ion . S ee a lso A . Bu t ler , The L ives o f t he S a in ts , W ( London 1 937 ) , 8 1-2 .

A cknow ledge men ts Is hou ld l ike t o e xpress my t hanks t o t he f o l low ing f or t he ir h e lp a nd a dv ice :

Dr . P . Harb ison , Dr . P . B loch , Mrs. S . McNab , Mrs. M . C lyne ,

Mr . T . A . H es lop a nd Mr . B . D e mpsey .

1 95

1 4 . FOUR I LLUSTRATED JACOBUS MANUSCRIPTS A l ison S tones

T he t ex tua l t rad i t ion o f t he c o mp i lat ion v ar iously k nown a s t he C odex C a l ix t inus , t he L iber S anct i J acob i , o r , more p roper ly , J acobus ,1 i ncludes c o mp lete o r p ar t ia l c op ies p reserved i n s evera l h undred MSS ;2 i t s i l lustra t ive t rad i t ion , o n t he o ther h and , i s l im i ted t o o n ly f our e x tant MSS :

o ne t he w el l-

k nown MS p reserved a t t he C a thedra l Arch ives i n S an t iago d e C ompos te lla a nd p robab ly made i n n or thern F rance s hor t ly b efore t he midd le o f t he t wel f th c en tury ,3 t he o ther t hree d a t ing f ro m t he l a te t h ir teen th o r e ar ly f our teen th c en tury a nd made i n S pa in ,4 t wo p robab ly p roduced a t S ant iago i t se l f . A n e xa m ina t ion o ft heir i n terrela t ions c asts i n terest ing l i gh t o n p ract ices o f c opy ing i n f our teen th-century S pa in a nd a t t he s ame t ime e lucida tes more g enera l ly t he MS t rad i t ion o f J acobus , c a l l ing i n q uest ion t he o r ig ina l i ty o f t he S an t iago c opy a nd s uggest ing t ha t t he i l lustra t ive s te m ma , l i ke t ha t o f t he t ex t , d er ives f ro m s evera l o r ig ina l ly s epara te s ources a nd i ncludes a t l east o ne ,

i fn o t more , l ost

i n ter med iar ies. O f t he f our i l lus tra ted MSS , t hree r epresen t ac lost-kn i t r ecension o f wh ich t he e ar l iest s urv ivor i s S an t iago .5 T he o ther t wo a re t he Va t ican a nd A dd i t iona l c op ies made i n t he f our teen th c en tury .

6

O f t hese , Va t ican i s a

p ar t icu lar ly f a i thfu l c opy o f S an t iago made b y ap a in ter whose ma jor c oncern was t o mirror h is mode l 's s ty le a s we l l a s i t s s elect ion o f m in ia tures a nd t rea t ment o f i nd iv idua l s cenes , c onsidera t ions wh ich were l ess impor tan t t o t he d ecora tors o f Add i t iona l .

The f our th MS , n ow i n S a lamanca a nd a scr ibed

t o t he l a te t h ir teen th o r e ar ly f our teen th c en tury , s hares s o me i conograph ic f ea tures w i th t he MSS o f t he o ther r ecension , b u t d i f fers i n o thers , makes s ubst i tu t ions , a nd a dds n ew i l lustra t ive ma ter ia l . as im i lar r ange o f i l lum ina t ion :

A l l f our MSS make u se o f

n arra t ive min ia tures , p or tra i ts , a nd v ar ious

k inds o f ma jor a nd minor d ecora t ive i n i t ia ls . The n arra t ive s cenes c oncern n o t , a s o ne migh t e xpec t , t he l i fe a nd l egends o f S t . J ames , whose n a me i s t ha t o ft he C odex a s a whole , a nd whose l i turgy a nd l egends o ccupy t hree o f i t s f i ve b ooks , a nd 1 60 o f t he p resen t 2 25 f ol ios , b u t a re c onf ined r a ther t o t he f our th b ook o f t he c o mp i la t ion , P seudo-Turp in 's C hron ic le o f C har le magne 's c a mpa igns i n S pa in ; t he p or tra i ts s how S t . J a mes a nd t he a leged a u thors o f t he c o mp i lat ion , P ope C a l ix tus I a nd Turp in , Archb ishop o f R eims , wh i le t he ma jor i n i t ia ls v ar iously a nd s o mewha t i rregu lar ly mark ma jor t ex tua l d iv is ions . Id iscuss t he af in i t ies a nd p ecu l iar i t ies o f e ach t ype o f d ecora t ion i n t urn . Ag lance a t t he n arra t ive s cenes i l lustra t ing t he P seudo-Turp in r evea ls a t o nce t ha t t here a re c lose af in i t ies b etween a l l f our MSS . I n S an t iago , Va t ican , a nd A dd i t iona l ,

7

t he i l lustra t ions a re g rouped a s o ne s epara te min ia-

t ure a t t he f oo t o ft he p age c onta in ing t he e nd o f B ook I I 's t ex t , a nd t he o ther t wo a s am in ia ture i n t wo r eg isters o n t he f ol low ing p age , w i th a n i nscr ip t ion o n t hree l i nes b enea th 8 ( p la tes 1 4.6-9 , 1 1-13) . 1 97

T he f i rst e p isode s hows C har le magne 's d ream o f S t . J a mes e xhor t ing h im t o u nder take t he S panish c a mpa ign a ga inst t he S arracens , a s d escr ibed i n B ook I V , c h .1. 9 A l l s how t he s leeping C har le magne , c rowned , 1 °w i th S t . J a mes s tand ing b eh ind t he b ed p o in t ing t o t he M i lky Way , t he who le s cene s et b enea th at r iangu lar p ed i men t r est ing b enea th r oundtowered a ed icu lae . H ere S an t iago ( b efore r estora t ion i n 1 964-6 , c f . p la tes 1 4.6 , 7 ) i s c lear ly t he d irec t model o f Va t ican ( p la te 1 4.8) , a nd most p robab ly a lso o f A dd i t iona l ( p la te 1 4 . 9 ) .1 1 I n S a la manca , h owever , wh i le t he b as ic l ayou t o f t he s cene r e ma ins t he s a me , t here i s a n a dd i t iona l s cene o n t he l ef t , t o wh ich S t . J ames d irects C har le magne 's a t ten t ion , s how ing t wo f igures ( one p oss ib ly a k n igh t ) a t tack ing t wo c iv i l ians w i th s pear a nd s word . Th is may b e av isua l e labora t ion b ased o n t he words ' gen te m p aga .norum p er f ida m '1 2 a nd i s n o d oub t i n tended t o s how a n i nstance o f p agan p ersecu t ion o f C hr is t ians. T he t ex t , h owever , a ppears t o c on ta in n o i nd ica t ion t ha t S t . J ames a c tual ly r evea led s uch a s cene t o C har le magne , a nd s o i t wou ld b e h ard t o make a c ase f or e i ther r epresen ta t ion b e ing e ar l ier t han o r p referab le t o t he o ther . 13 I n g enera l , t h is v ision s cene ( m inus t he p agan p ersecu t ions a nd t he M i lky Way ) i s as tock t ype t ha t c an b e c losely p aral le lled i n i l lustra ted s a in ts l i ves o ft he e leven th c en tury a nd e ar l ier , where C hr ist o r a n a nge l a ppear ing t o as leep ing s a in t i s ac o mmonp lace , r e la ted t o s uch e vents f ro m b ib l ica l n arra t ive a s J oseph warned b y a n a nge l i n ad ream , a nd s u i tab le f or a dap ta t ion t o an umber o f o ther s im i lar c on tex ts . 14 I ti s e spec ial ly i n terest ing t ha t t he c on tex t h ere i s t ha t o f t he l i fe o f C har le magne r a ther t han t ha t o f S t . J a mes , a nd t ha t t he S an t iago v ersion p reda tes C har le magne 's c anon isa t ion o f1 165.

A lso n o tewor thy i s t he p aral lel o ccurrence

o f t h is s cene i n t he s equence o f r epresen ta t ions o f t he l i fe o f C har le magne o n h is s hr ine a t Aachen i n t he e ar ly t h ir teen th c en tury , a nd o f i t s c on t inued , i f s porad ic , r eappearance i n t he i l lustra t ive t rad i t ions o f t he G randes C hroniques d e F rance a nd t he C hron iques d e S a in t-Den is , a l l p oss ib ly d ependan t o n t he S an ta Mar ia i n C os med in s equence o f c .1123. 15 The s econd s cene o f t he P seudo-Turp in s e t o fn arra t ives s hows C har le magne a nd h is a r my r id ing o u t f ro m a c i ty ( p la tes 1 4.10-13 ) . 16

A s b efore , V a t ican

( p la te 1 4 .13 ) i s e x tre mely c lose t o S an t iago ( p la te 1 4.11, 1 2) , c opy ing n o t o n ly t he g enera l c onf igura t ions o f t he f igure g oups b u t a lso d eta i ls o f h e lmets w i th n asa l a nd c rosses a nd C har le magne 's s tandard , a l though h is c rown h as b een mod if ied a s i n t he d rea m s cene . S a la manca ( p la te 1 4 .10) i s s o mewha t d if feren t i n i t s f ocus a l though t he b asic c o mponen ts o f t he s cene r e ma in t he s a me : t wo g roups o f moun ted k n igh ts wa tch C har le magne , b ear ing a t r iangu lar p ennon , r ide o u t , p receded b y ( presumab ly ) R o land , b ear ing a s tandard ( w i thou t c ross , t o j udge f ro m t he p ho tos a va i lab le ) . Th is r ender ing wou ld s ee m t o b e more s pec if ica l ly a ppropr ia te t o t h is s tory , a l though a ga in t here a ppears t o b e n o t ex tua l s uppor t f or t he v isua l emphasis o n R oland p resen ted i n S a lamanca 's i l lustra t ion . 17 T he n earest a pprox i ma t ion t o t h is s cene i n t he r es t o f t he s urviv ing R o land t radi t ion i s t he C har tres w indow wh ich s hows f i ve f igures , o ne c rowned , o ne mi tred , o n h orseback ; t he o ther f i gures a re c ivi l ians n o t k nigh ts a nd t he a rch i tectura l c o mponen t i s l ack ing .1 8 The t h ird s cene ( p la tes 1 4.10-13 ) s hows warr iors ( bo th k n igh ts a nd c iv i l ians w i th l ances i n S a la manca , o ne k nigh t a nd c iv i l ians wear ing h e l mets l i ke t hose i n t he u pper min ia ture , a nd h o ld ing weapons i n Va t ican , a nd s ix c iv i l ians h o lding weapons i n S an t iago ) s tanding o u tside a s e t o f s tructures 1 98

l abe l led ' aqu isgranu m o pp idum ' i n S an t iago a nd Va t ican a nd u n iden t i f ied i n S a la manca . Wh i le t he f i rst t wo P seudo-Turp in s cenes a re q u i te r ead i ly c o mprehensib le , t he mean ing o f t h is o ne i s man i fest ly u nclear , wh ich s ee ms i n i t se lf t o j ust i fy t he a ssump t ion t ha t misunders tand ings t ook p lace a t s o me e ar l ier s tage i n t he c opy ing o f ar ecension .

I n S a lamanca t he k n igh ts wou ld

a ppear t o b e l i sten ing t o t he c ivi l ians t a lk ing ; i n Va t ican a nd S an t iaso t hey s ee m t o b e d iscuss ing a nd p oin t ing , a nd o ne i s p u l l ing a t h is b eard . 19 I n n o c ase c an t he r epresen ta t ion b e c onsidered p ar t icu lar ly a ppropr ia te t o as peci f ic e p isode i n t he t ex t , 2° n or i s t here a ny s cene i n t he r est o f t he i l lustra t ive t rad it ion o f Ro land o r C har le magne o f wh ich t h is migh t b e a mis interpre ta t ion . P oss ib ly t he g roup i s s upposed t o b e l a men t ing t he d ea th o f C har le magne , o r , more l i ke ly , t ha t o f R o land . Turp in 's v ision o f t he d ea th o f R o land a nd h is f o l lowers , d escr ibed i n B ook I V , c h . 2 1, f o l lows i n ah istor ia ted i n i t ia l o n t he v erso o f t he n arra t ive min ia ture i n S a lamanca ( p la te 1 4 .14 ) , s how ing Turp in a t a n a l tar , w i th a g roup o f c ler ics k nee l ing a t h is f ee t , w i tnessing d ead k n igh ts o n t he g round a nd s ou ls b orne b y a nge ls t o C hr ist a nd t he V irg in , wh i le a d ragon f l ies o f f .2 1 T he f orma t o f t h is h istor ia ted i n i t ia l , wh ich i s w i thou t p ic tor ia l e qu iva len t i n t he o ther t hree MSS , i s s uch t ha t t he b ar o f t he l et ter ' T ' i s c o mposed o fd ragon b od ies i n a n a rrange men t t ha t s trong ly s ugges ts a mode l d a t ing a t l eas t a s e ar ly a s t he t we lf th c en tury. Thus t he a bsence o f ap aral le l s cene i n S an t iago i s e spec ial ly i n terest ing a nd warran ts f ur ther i nvest iga t ion . T he ' 11'i n i t ia l i n S a la manca i s t he f i rst l e t ter o f t he word ' Turp inus ' wh ich o pens t he t ex t o f Turp in 's l et ter t o L eoprand wh ich f or ms t he p reface t o B ook I V .2 2

S an t iago a lready h as a n i n i t ia l ' sr o ccupy ing

t h is p osi t ion , wh ich i s c op ied i n Va t ican , a s p robab ly a lso o r ig ina l ly i n A dd i t iona l :

i ti s a n i n i t ia l c o mposed o f d ragons , b irds , f o l iage s crol lwork

a nd i n ter lace , s im i lar i n t ype b u t more monumenta l i n s ca le t han t he o ther f o l l iage i n t ia ls , a nd e nc losing a p or tra i t o f Archb ishop Turp in , s ea ted f ron ta l ly , r obed , mi tred , 23

a nd b less ing .

There i s c onsequen t ly n o o bv ious s pace i n to

wh ich a n i n i t ia l c on ta in ing t he v ision o f Turp in migh t o nce h ave f i t ted .

How-

e ver s uch a s po t migh th ave e x is ted o r ig ina l ly a t t he o pen ing o f B ook I V , c h . 2 1 ( p la te 1 4 .26 ) .

Th is o ccurs o n f .179 ( o h m 1 7 ) i n S an t iago ,

2 4

o ne o f s evera l

f o l ios i nser ted b y as econd s cr ibe , a nd wh ich Hämel t hough t migh t r ep lace f ol ios f ro m wh ich a l arge i l lum ina ted i n i t ia l h ad b een r e moved a t s o me t ime i n t he s econd h a l f o ft he t we lf th c en tury . 25 T he s econd s cr ibe c op ied t he t ex t u sing f ewer a bbrev ia t ions t han t he f irs t , s o t ha t , e ven w i thou t l arge i n i t ia ls , t he wr i t ing t ook u p t he s a me amoun t o f s pace a nd t he n ew l eaves f i t ted i n p lace w i thou t b reaks . T he c learest i l lustra t ion o f HämePs t heory i s t he o pen ing o f B ook I I , c h .1 , wr i t ten , i n i t s p resen t f orm b y s cr ibe I , wh ich i s a cco mpan ied b y a sma l l p en-f lour ished i n i t ia l o f t he t ype a lso u sed i n t he t ex t wr i t ten b y s cr ibe I t o mark c hap ter o r e ven p aragraph d iv isions ( p la te 1 4 .35) . The o pen ing c hap ters o f t he o ther b ooks , a l l wr i t ten b y s cr ibe I , a re marked b y al arge f o l iage a nd d ragon i n i t ia l o r b y ap or tra i t i n i t ia l , s o i ti s r easonab le t o a ssume t ha t t he o r ig ina l o pen ing o f B ook I I a lso f o l lowed o ne o f t hese t wo p a t terns . 26 H owever t he o pen ing o f B ook I V , c h .2 1 ( p la te 1 4 .36 ) i s t he o n ly c ase among t he s ec t ions wr i t ten b y s cr ibe I ( or i ndeed i n B ook I V a s a who le , a par t f ro m t he p reface a nd t he o pen ing c hap ter ) where a l arge l ea f a nd d ragon i n i t ia l h as b een u sed .

A ssu m ing , a s t he g enera l u se o f p a inted d ecora t ion

s uggests , ac oncep t o f d ecora t ive h ierarchy i n wh ich t he i mpor tance o ft he

1 99

t ex t i s r ef lected i n t he t ype o f d ecora t ion s elected f or i t s i l lus tra t ion , t h is c hap ter must h ave b een c onsidered c en tra l n o t o n ly t o t he s tory b u t a lso t o t he s che me o f d ecora t ion i n t he b ook .

Us ing Hl me l 's a rgumen t a bou t t he

r e la t ive s pace t aken u p b yt he wr i t ing o f s cr ibe I a s a ga ins t t ha t o f s cr ibe I , o ne i s t e mp ted t o s pecu la te t ha tt he o r ig ina l i l lum ina t ion o ccup ied c ons iderab ly more s pace t han t he p resen t i n i t ia l : p erhaps t he s pace c ou ld e ven h ave a cco m moda ted a l arge h istor ia ted i n i t i ta l o f t he t ype t ha t i s p reserved i n S a la manca , o r an arra t ive m in ia ture , p oss ib ly s how ing t he s ame s cene a s i n S a la manca , wh ich was s ubsequen t ly r ep laced , b y t he d ecora tor who worked w i th s cr ibe I , b yt he s i mp ler d ragon a nd f o l iage i n i t ia l t ha t i s t here n ow . Or p erhaps wha t s cr ibe sd ecora tor r ep laced was a d ragon a nd f o l iage i n i t ia l b yt he ma in i l lu m ina tor wh ich was i t se lf a s i mp l i f ica t ion o f ah istor ia ted a rchetype. 27 T ha t t here was a n a rchetype t ha t was h is tor ia ted i s s uggested b yt he o ccas iona l r eappearance o f av ision o f Turp in e p isode i n t he l a ter c hron ic le t rad i t ion , a l though n one o f t he e xamp les c i ted b y L e jeune a nd S t iennon i nc lude a l l t he c o mponen ts o f t he S a la manca s cene .2 8 The o ther s ect ion i n S an t iago f or wh ich l ost i l lustra t ion b een p os tu la ted i s i n B ook T V , c h . 2 2 where t he o n ly g a ther ing i n t he MS t ha t c ons ists o f a s ing le b i fol ium o ccurs . 29

T he t ex t o n t hese l eaves c on ta ins t he p assage

d iscuss ing t he L ibera l Ar ts wh ich , t oge ther w i th s cenes o f t he wars , C har lemagne h ad r epresen ted i n h is p a lace .

The b i fo l ium i s u nquest ionab ly a l a ter

i nser t a nd i s wr i t ten b y at h ird s cr ibe whose work a ppears n owhere e lse i n t he MS , 30 b u t t here a re d if f icu l t ies a bou t a ssum ing t ha t i tr ep laces a g a ther ing c ons is t ing o r ig ina l ly , l i ke most i n t he MS , o f e igh t , o r e ven o f s ix , l eaves , a nd t ha t t he r e ma in ing l eaves c on ta ined i l lum ina t ion . There i s n o p ara l le l i n t he t welf th c en tury o r e ar l ier f or a L ibera l Ar ts s equence o ccupy ing a s many a s t hree , o r e ven t wo , b i fo l ia ;3 1 a nd t he L ibera l Ar ts d o n o t s ee m t o h ave s urv ived i nto t he c hron ic le t rad i t ion a s h ave t hree o f t he f our P seudo-Turp in n arra t ive s cenes.

The word ing o ft he t ex t a s i ts tands n ow i s i n n o way a

d escr ip t ion o n wh ich i l lustra t ions c ou ld b e b ased w i thou t p r ior k now ledge o f wha t t he L ibera l Ar ts s hou ld l ook l ike ; i ti s n o t c lear whe ther C har le magne 's Ar tes t ook t he f or m o f p erson i f ica t ions , ma le o r f e ma le , s ymbo ls , o r a ct ion s cenes .3 2 P erhaps t h is b ifol ium s i mp ly r ep laces a l ost g a ther ing t ha t h ad n o th ing t o d o w i th L ibera l Ar ts o r p a lace d ecora t ion , a nd t he p resent f ol ios r ef lec t t h ir teen th-cen tury i n terest i n t hese s ub jects .3 3 O ne w ou ld l i ke t o b e a b le t o r each f i rm c onclusions a bou t t he r ela t ions b e tween t he n arra t ive s cenes i l lus tra t ing J acobus a nd t he r est o f t he i l lustra t ive t rad i t ion o f Ro land a nd C har le magne , b u t t he e v idence i s n o t w i thou t amb igu i ty . The c leares t c orrela t ion i s t ha t b etween t he Dream o f C har le magne o f S an t iago , S a la manca , a nd t he s hr ine o f C har le magne a t Aachen :

t hese t hree a re c loser

t o e ach o ther t han e i ther i s t o t he c o mparab le s cene a t S an ta Mar ia i n C os med in o r i n t he l a ter C hron ic le t rad i t ion , wh i le n one i s ac opy o f e i ther o f t he o thers. S o o ne o r more c o m mon mode ls must l i e b eh ind a l l t hree ; t h is s ource o r t hese s ources may u l t i ma tely b e r ela ted t o S an ta Mar ia i n C os med in , b u t a t s evera l s tages r e moved , b ecause o ft he d if ferences i n t he ir c o mponen t e le men ts. T he d epar ture s cene i s n o t s peci f ic e nough , e i ther i n J acobus o r i n S an ta Mar ia i n C os med in , t o s how more t han a c hance c onnec t ion ;

s im i lar ly t he

b eard-pul l ing mot i f i n t he t h ird s cene i s h ard ly e nough t o j us t i fy a c lose c o mmon model b etween S an t iago a nd t he Heidelberg/S trasbourg MSS , wh i le i ti s h ard 2 00

t o b e s ure wh ich v ersion , i fa ny , o ft he V ision o f Turp in i s c losest t o t he a rchetype . O ne o f t he S t . J a mes p or tra i ts may p rov ide a no ther s crap o f e v idence t o s uppor t at heory o f al ost n arra t ive s equence r e la t ing t he J acobus MSS a nd t he S an ta Mar ia i n C os med in g roup , a l though t he a rgumen t d epends o n whe ther o r n ot t he f igure o f as tand ing s a in t a t t he e nd o f t he S an ta Mar ia i n C os med in wa ll-pa in t ing s equence may b e i n terpreted a s s how ing S t . J ames , a s L e jeune a nd S t iennon b e l ieve .3 4 I n S an t iago t he p or tra i t i s t rea ted a s ah istor ia ted i n i t ia l ' 11 mark ing t he o pen ing o f B ook I , c h .1 ( f .4 , p late 1 4.3) .

T he s a in t

f aces f ron ta l ly , h o lds a b ook i n h is l e f t h and , a nd b lesses w i th h is r igh t—bo th p ose a nd g esture c lear ly b ased o n as tandard C hr ist t ype f ro m wh ich t he a bsence o f ac rossed n i mbus i s t he o n ly d is t ingu ish ing f ea ture . S t . J ames l acks a ny s pec if ic J acobean a t tr ibu te a nd i ti s t he c ontex t o f t he f igure i n t he ' 11 o f I acobus , t ha t makes h is i den t i ty c er ta in . i n C os med in a lso l acks a t tr ibu tes ;

T he s tand ing s a in t a t S an ta Mar ia

h e a ppears t o h old a b ook b u t d oes n ot

s ee m t o b e b lessing , a nd h is i dent i ty h as b een s uggested o n t he b asis o f t he C arol ine c on ten t o f t he s equence a s a who le , c oup led w i th t he a na logy o f fered b y t he S an t iago p or tra i t .

I ft h is i s a ccep ted t hen t he p or tra i t i n S an t iago c ou ld

d er ive f ro m t he s a me mode l a s t he S an ta Mar ia i n C os med in s equence a l though t he d eta i ls o f i t s p ose more p robab ly r ef lect a t ype c urren t i n t he workshop t ha t p roduced S an t iago .3 5 I n Va t ican ( p la te 1 4 .4) , a s w i th t he n arra t ive s cenes a nd t he Turp in i n i t ia l , t he s a in th as b een c op ied w i th a c onsiderab le d egree o f a ccuracy .

I n A dd i t iona l

( p la te 1 4.5) t he f ra me i s om it ted 36 a nd t he f igure i s d rawn i n t he i nk o f t he t ex t , w i th t he g ar men ts c o loured r ed a nd mauve i n t he s a me i nks a s t hose u sed b y t he p en-f lour isher f or t he i n i t ia l ' Q ' o n t he s ame p age , a nd f or o ther p enf l our ished i n i t ia ls i n t he b ook : t he imp lica t ion i s t ha t t he p or tra i t was t he work o ft he p en-f lour isher . 37 A s i n t he min ia ture o f C har le magne 's d ream , S t . J a mes h ere t oo h as c ock le s he l ls o n h is h a lo , ar ed h a lo .

3 8

t h is t ime l ef t wh i te a ga ins t

The p or tra i t o f S t . J a mes i n S a lamanca s hows h im c lad a s a

p i lgr im w i th h a t a nd s taf f , h o ld ing a b ook i n h is l ef th and a nd wear ing a c ock le s he l l o n h is s cr ip .3 9 N o p aral le l h as s urv ived , n or i s t here e vidence o n wh ich t o r econs truc t i n S an t iago a c oun terpart f or t he e questr ian p or tra i t o f S t . J a mes t ha t i s i ncluded a t t he e nd o f B ook V ( f .120 , p late 1 4.17 ) i n S a la manca . 40 S t . J ames i s s hown r id ing t o t he r igh t , w ie ld ing a s word a nd h o ld ing a b anner w i th a c ock le s he ll ; t he s ame mo t if i s d ep ic ted o n h is s add le , a nd i s u sed a s a p a t tern o n t he c oloured b ackground o f t he min ia ture . The t ype d er ives f ro m t he l egend o f t he a l leged i n terven t ion o f S t . J ames a t t he B a t t le o f C lav i jo i n t he n in th c en tury .4 1

Wh i le t here d o s ee m t o b e af ew t we l f th-century e xamp les

o f t he e questr ian p or tra i t i n s cu lp ture , 42 t he a ppearance o ft he s ub ject i n MSS i s a ssoc ia ted w i th t he f ound ing o f t he mi l i tary O rder o f S an t iago s o me t i me b e tween 1 160 a nd 1 170 , t o wh ich A l fonso V II I g ave t he c ast le o f U cc les i n 1 174. 43

The e ar l iest MS r epresen ta t ion o f t he t he me s ee ms t o b e Madr id ,

Arch ivo H istör ico N ac iona l MS V i t .21, wh ich i nc ludes A l fonso a nd E leanor a nd t he c ast le o f Uccles f ro m wh ich f l ies a s tandard s how ing S t . J ames o n h orseback w i th s word a nd c ross ( bu t n o s he l ls ) ; c en tury . 44

2 01

i ti s a scr ibed t o t he t h ir teen th

C losest t o t he S a la manca r epresen ta t ion i s t he p refa tory m in iature , d rawn i n r ed a nd b rown i nk w i th c o lour wash i n r ed a nd g reen , o n f .2 v o f t he C ar tu lary o f S an t iago , Tumbo B ( p la te 1 4.18) , t he l ower h a l f o f wh ich s hows S t . J a mes , i den t i f ied a s ' J acobus x p i mi les ' o n h orseback , w ith s word , t hrees he ll b anner , s add le a nd s add le-g ir th w i th s he l ls , a nd a h a lo w i th r ed s hel ls o n ab lank p arch men t g round , a s a lso i n h is s ea ted p or tra i t i n t he u pper h a lf o f t he min ia ture , where h e s i ts e n throned h o ld ing a t au s ta f f aN a s crol l s ay ing ' J acobus '.

T he e questr ian p or tra i ts a re u nden iab ly s im i lar a nd o n t he

b asis o f t h is c o mpar ison , a nd t ha t o f t he c lose s im i lar ity o f d raw ing s ty les , Dr . A . S icar t G i menez h as s uggested a c o mmon o r ig in f or S a lamanca , V a t ican , a nd Tumbo B i n t he s a me S an t iago workshop i n t he e ar ly f our teen th c en tury .4 5 O n g rounds o f s ty le a nd mo t i f t he c losest c o mpar ison t o b e made i s b etween Tumbo B a nd A dd i t iona l ; o n ly i n t hese t wo d oes S t . J a mes h ave t he c ock le s he l l h a lo , a nd t he d raw ing o f t he h eads , a nd i ndeed t he d raw ing g enera l ly , s ee m r a ther c loser i n t hese t wo t han i n t he o thers ; It h ink i tl ikely t ha t t he Drea m o f C har le magne i n A dd i t iona l a nd t he i l lustra ted p age i n Tumbo B a re b y t he s a me h and , wh i le V a t ican i s ac on te mporary p roduct a lso made i n S an t iago b u t i l lustra ted b y ad i f feren t i nd iv idua l ( c f . p la tes 1 4 .18 , 9 , 8 , 1 7 ) , whose a pproach t o h is model ( San t iago ) was s o mewha t d i f feren t t o t ha t o f t he A dd i t iona l i l lustra tors. T here a re d if f icu l t ies a bou t a ssum ing a S an t iago p rovenance f or S a lamanca a s wel l a s f or Va t ican a nd A dd i t iona l . Wh i le t he e questr ian p or tra i t d oes s ee m c lose b o th i n t ype a nd i n d raw ing t o Tumbo B , t he c o lours , a t l east o f t he V ision o f Turp in , a ppear f ro m p hotographs t o emphasize g reen a nd y e l low ac o lour b a lance wh ich i s n ot c haracter ist ic o f Tumbo B , Va t ican , o r A dd it iona l . Then t here a re t he many i conograph ic d if ferences d iscussed a bove , a nd f i na l ly t here i s t he q uest ion o f t he t ex tua l s im i lar i ty b e tween t he o ther t hree J acobus t ex ts a nd S a la manca . A l though t here a ppears t o b e n o d eta i led s tudy o f i t s t ex tua l a f f i l ia t ions , i ts ee ms u n l ikely t ha t as cr ibe who i s c apab le o f r ender ing ' Clun iacum ' i n t he c o lophon t o B ook V a s ' d i macum ' i s work ing c lose t o a s ource l ike S an t iago. 46 T he r est o f t he d ecora t ion i n A dd i t iona l a nd Va t ican p rovides a c lear i nd ica t ion o f t he ways i n wh ich t hey d epar t f ro m t he mode l. The i l lum ina t ion i n A dd i t iona l om its a l l t he f o l iage a nd d ragon i n i t ia ls wh ich a re s uch a d om inan t p ar t o ft he d ecora t ion o f S an t iago a nd a lso r ep laces t he p or tra i t o f C a l ix tus t ha t o pens t he c o mp i la t ion ( p la tes 1 4.1 a nd 2 ) i n S an t iago a nd Va t ican47 w i th ap en-f lour ished i n i t ia l '0 a nd b order i n r ed a nd b lue i nks , w ith a p a ir o f f i sh a nd a l i on a nd c as t le i n t he b o t to m b order . P en-f lour ished i n i t ia ls a re wha t a re u sed a s s ubst i tu tes f or S an t iago 's d ragon a nd f ol ia te t ype , a nd many o f t he m a re n o d if feren t i n s ca le t han t he o nes t ha t mark minor d iv isions i n t he t ex t . Thus , f or i ns tance , t he o pen ing o f B ook V i s i n n o way s ing led o u t f or l arge s ca le d ecora t ion a s i ti s i n S an t iago a nd Va t ican ( p la tes 1 4.31 , 3 2) .

I n

t he l a t ter a p en-f lour ished i n i t ia l i s a lso t he t ype u sed , b u t o ne t ha t i s l arge a nd d is t inct ive .4 8 T he b u lk o ft he d ecora t ive work i n A dd i t iona l was d one b y t he p en-f lour isher , who e xecu ted b o th t he i n i t ia ls , a nd t he p or tra i t o f S t . J ames f or wh ich h e f o l lowed i nstruc t ions . The work o ft he i l lum ina tor ( t o j udge b y t he u se o f d iferen t c o lours) was c on f ined t o t wo p ages a t t he mos t :

2 02

t he Drea m o f

C har le magne a nd t he n ow miss ing p age w i th t he n arra t ive s cenes a nd t he T urp in i n i t ia l . O ne c an s ur m ise t ha t t h is c opy was c ons iderab ly c heaper t han t he e labora te Va t ican c opy , a l though t he p resence o f t he c ast le a nd l i on o n t he o pen ing f o l io may i nd ica te t ha t i t s p a tron was o f n o l ow ly s ta tus —perhaps e ven A l fonso X I , K ing o f C ast i l le a nd L eon ( 1 310-50 )? I n Va t ican t he emphasis o n e xac t r eproduct ion o f S ant iago 's d ecora t ion i ncorpora tes n o t o n ly t he n arra t ives a nd p or tra i t i n i t ia ls b u t as ubs tan t ia l n umber o f t he l arge f o l ia te i n i t ia ls a s wel l .

O n t he who le , i n S an t iago , t hese

i n i t ia ls a re u sed t o mark ma jor t ex tua l d ivisions , b u t i n f act t hey a ppear q u i te s porad ica l ly a nd t he l og ic o f t hef t ' p osi t ion i s n o t a lways r ead i ly a pparen t . F or i nstance , i n B ook I , a l l o f wh ich i s wr it ten b y s cr ibe I , c hs. 2 -5 l ack a ma jor i n i t ia l , a s d o c hs. 1 2-15 , 1 8 , 2 0-22, 2 4-25. 49 N or d oes t here a ppear t o b e a n o bvious c orre la t ion b etween s elec t ion o f i n i t ia l t ype a nd s tructure o f g a ther ings.

O ne wonders i ft he S an t iago b ook d es igner h ad made a r ando m

s elec t ion f ro m a more f u l ly i l lum ina ted a rche type a nd whether c onsidera t ions o f c ost o r p erhaps t he r equ ire men ts o f ap ar t icu lar p a tron were g overn ing f ac tors . The f o l iate i n i t ia ls i n S an t iago a ppear t o h ave b een e xecu ted b y more t han o ne i l lum ina tor ( c f . p la tes 1 4 .21 , 2 3 , 2 5) , wh ich s uggests t ha t t h is MS was p roduced a t al arge c o m merc ia l a te lier , b u t f or who m , when , a nd where , a re s t i l l mat ters f or s pecu la t ion . Most o f t he f o l ia te a nd d ragon i n i t i ta ls were c op ied i n Va t ican w i ththe s a me a t ten t ion t o d e ta i l t ha t c harac ter izes Va t ican 's r ender ing o f t he n arra t ives a nd p or tra i t i n i t ia ls ; o ccasiona l ly a n e x tra l ea f o r ab order i s a dded , o r t he t ona l b a lance i s a l tered ( c f . p lates 1 4.21 a nd 2 2 , 2 5 a nd 2 6 , 2 3 a nd 2 4 , 2 7 a nd 2 8) . I n af ew c ases t he Va t ican d ecora tors a bandoned t heir model a nd s ubst i tu ted p en-f lour ished i n i t ia ls i nstead ; l arger v ersions o f t he ir s tandard m inor i n i t ia l t ypes ( c f . p la tes 1 4 .31 a nd 3 2, 1 a nd 2 , 3 3 a nd 3 4) wh ich make n o a t te mp t t o im m i ta te t he t wel f th-cen tury minor i n i t ia ls o f S an t iago , 5 °a nd p rov ide a s harp c on trast t o t he d e l ibera te a rcha is m o f t he r es t o f t he b ook 's i l lu m ina t ion . Th is ' archa ic ' a pproach t o c opy ing , t o wh ich a l l t hree l a te J acobus c op ies b ear w i tness t o s o me d egree , i s n o t n or ma l ly c haracter ist ic o f f our teen thc en tury c opy ing among p roducts o f ma jor a r t ist ic c en tres. 5 1

I nt he c ase o f

t hese b ooks we a re d ea l ing w i th a mi l ieu i n which much o f t he d ecora t ion o f b ooks was d one b y t he p en-f lour isher r a ther t han b y p rofess iona l p a in ters , a nd w i th a c en tre t ha t was r enowned n ei ther f or t he a bundance n or f or t he q ua li ty o f i t s a r t ist ic o u tpu t .5 2 Tha t t h is s i tua t ion , a nd t he a pproach t o c opy ing t ha t r esu l ted f ro m i t , was n ot u n ique t o f our teen th-cen tury G a l icia c an b e s hown b y a no ther p a ir o f c op ies f ro m a p rov incia l c en tre , t he S acra men tary a nd M issa l o f G erona , B .N . l a t . 1 102 a nd 1 103 53 where t he t wel f th-cen tury C ruci f ix ion i n t he f or mer was t he model f or t he l a t ter i n t he f i f teen th c en tury ( p la tes 1 4.19 a nd 2 0 ) .

I n n ei ther c ase i s t he r esu l t ' h igh a r t ' b u t i ti s n one

t he l ess i n terest ing f or wha t i th as t o t el l o f t he impor tance o f l oca l h er i tage a nd t rad i t ion i n r ela t ion t o c on te mporary p ract ice a nd i nnova t ion .

2 03

My r esearch i n S an t iago a nd L ondon was f unded b y t he Na t iona l Endow men t f or t he Hu man i t ies a nd t he G radua te S choo l a nd Mc M i l lan F lu id o f t he Un iversi ty o f Minnesota .

It hank t hese b od ies f or t heir s uppor t .

My t hanks a re a lso d ue

t o I l mo . S r . Don J ose Marr a D iaz F ernändez f or p er m iss ion t o s tudy t he S an t iago MS a nd t o Dr . S erafin Mora le jo A lvgrez f or f aci l ita t ing my work i n S an t iago .

F or p er m iss ion t o r eproduce p ho tographs Ia cknow ledge t he C a thedra l

C hap ter , S an t iago d e C o mposte l la ( p la tes 1 4.1 , 3 , 6 , 7 , 1 1, 1 2 , 1 5 , 1 8 , 2 1 , 2 3 , 2 5 , 2 7 , 2 9 , 3 1 , 3 3 , 3 5 , 3 6 ) ;

t he B ib l ioteca Apostol ica Va t icana ( p la tes

2 , 4 , 8 , 1 3 , 1 6 , 2 2, 2 4 , 2 6 , 2 8 , 3 0 , 3 2, 3 4) ; L ibrary B oard ( p la tes 5 , 9 ) ;

t he Trustees o f t he B r i t ish

t he B ib l ioteca Un iversi tar ia , S a la manca ( p lates

1 0 , 1 4 , 1 7) , a nd t he B ib l iotheque Na t iona le , P ar is ( p la tes 1 9 , 2 0 ) .

NOTES 1 .

T he o pen ing words a re ' Ex r e s igna tur I acobus i s te l iber v oca tur ' ( p la te 1 4.1) .

The o n ly c o mp lete e d i t ion o f t he t ex t , b ased o n t he e ar lies t MS ,

S an t iago d e C o mpostel la , C a thedra l Arch ives ( no s hel f n u mber ) , b y W. M . Wh i teh i l l a nd Do m G . Prado , i s e n t i t led L iber S anc t i J acob i w ith t he s ub t i t le C odex C a l ix t inus , 3v o ls., S an t iago d e C o mpos tel la , 1 944 ( h ereaf ter W) .

Most s ubsequen t wr i ters h ave f o l lowed W , n o tab ly P .

Dav id , ' Etudes s ur l e L ivre d e S a in t J acques a t tr ibue a u p ape C a l ix te I , L e Manuscr i t d e C o mpostel le e t l e manuscr i t d 'A lcobaia ,' i n B u llet in d es E tudes p or tugua ises , X , 1 946 , p p . 1 -41 ;

L es L ivres l i turg iques

e t l e l i vre d es miracles ,' i b id ., X I , 1 947 , p p . 1 -73 ; Turp in e t l e g uide d u p e ler in ,

L e P seudo-

i b id ., X I I , 1 948 , p p . 1 -154 ;

e t c onc lusion ,' i b id ., X II I , 1 949 , p p . 1 -53.

' IV , R ev ision

S ee , h owever , C . Hoh ler ,

' A N ote o n J acobus , i n J ourna l o f t he Warburg a nd C our tau ld I nst i tu tes , 2 000 7 ,1972 , p p . 3 1-80. 2 .

T he most c o mp lete l i st o f MSS i s g iven b y A . d e Mandach , Na issance e t d eve loppe men t d e l a C hanson d e G este e n Europe :

I , La G este d e

C har le magne e t d e Roland , G eneve/Par is , 1 961, Append ix G , p p .3644 14.

There a re i naccurac ies :

t he S a la manca MS i s l i sted o n p . 3 95 a s

b eing s t i l l i n t he B ib l ioteca d e l P alac io Naciona l , Madr id .

I ti s MS 2 631

i n t he B ib l ioteca Un ivers i tar ia , S a la manca . 3 .

F or t he d a t ing a rgu men ts s ee b elow , n .5. p rovenance f or d iscussion e lsewhere .

Ir eserve t he q uest ion o f

S ee Append ix A f or a b r ief d escr ip-

t ion o ft he S an t iago MS ( herea f ter S an t iago ) . 4 .

T hey a re B ib l ioteca Aposto l ica Va t icana , Arch . S .P ie tro C . 1 28, L ondon , B r i t ish L ibrary , Add.12213 , a nd S a la manca , B ib l io teca Un iversi tar ia 2 631.

S ince t he ir s ig la a re c lose e nough t o b e c onfusing Ir efer t o t he m

h ere a s Va t ican , Add i t iona l a nd S a la manca r espect ively .

S ee Appendix

f or d escr ip t ions. 5 .

Is u m mar ize t he a rgu men ts f or d a t ing o n t he b asis o f i n terna l t ex tua l e vidence a s f o l lows : B ook I :

i ft he C ard ina l Rober t r eferred t o a s t he c o mposer o f t he

c onductus ' Resonet n ostra d om ino e a tery& ( W p .246 ) i s i ndeed Rober t

2 04

Pu l len a s s uggested b y Hoh ler , o p . c i t ., p . 4 7 , t hen 1 144 i s at er m inus p os t ;

b u t t here were o ther c ard ina ls n a med Rober t i n t he t we lf th c en tury ,

t wo o f who m were a ppo inted b y C a l ix tus I , s ee P . J a f fe , R egesta Pontilicu m i t o manoru m , 2 nd e d . G . Wat tenbach ,

L ipsiae , 1 885 , I , p .

7 81 a nd t he a u thorsh ip o f t h is c onduc tus r e ma ins t o b e e stab lished . B ook I :

M iracle n o . X IL I t ook p lace i n 1 135 ;

a l though most o f t he

miracles a re d a ted b e tween 1 100 a nd 1 110 t h is o ne i s o n f .148 a nd i s wr it ten b y t he f irst s cr ibe , s o t here i s n o p oss ib i l i ty i ti s al a ter a dd i t ion . B ook I I :

c h .3 ( W p .297) r efers t o ' impera tor Hyspanus A ldefonsus b ona

me mor ia d ignus '.

O p in ions h ave d i f fered a s t o wh ich A l fonso i s mean t ,

b u t t he e vidence c i ted i n R . Menendez P ida l , E l imper io h isp a n ic° y l os c inco r e inos , Madr id , 1 950 c lear ly s hows t here i s n o r eason t o l im i t t he p oss ib i l i t ies t o A l fonso V I I ( d .1157) . a nd I , p . 4 1 n .2.

S ee a lso Dav id , o p . c i t ., I , p . 1 9

The a rgu men ts f or d a t ing p resen ted b y A . d e Mandach

i n ' La G ed ese d u g u ide d u p eler in d e S a int-Jacques , Order ic V i ta l e t l a d a te d e l a g este d e Gu i l lau me ,' i n Melanges o f fer ts a R i ta L e jeune , I G e mb loux , 1 969 , p p . 8 11-27 , c an b e d isregarded . B ook I V :

c h . 4r efers t o t he c olumn o f Hercu les a t C ad iz ( W p . 3 04 ) a s

s tand ing ;

i t was d estroyed i n 1 145.

S ee Dav id , o p . c i t ., I I , p .33.

C h .11 ( W p .309) r efers t o ' Texeph inu m r ege m a rabu m r, i .e . Tashu f in v iceroy o f S pa in f ro m 1 126-37.

S ee Dav id , o p . c i t . ,I I , p . 4 3 a nd J .

Horren t , ' Notes d e c r i t ique t ex tuel le s ur l e P seudo-Turp in d u C odex C a l ix t inus e t d u MS B .N . n ouv .fonds l a t , 1 3774 , 1 975 , p p . 3 7-62 , p ar t icu lar ly p . 5 3.

i n L e Moven Age , 8 1 ,

C h . 2 2, t he f a lse c har ter o f S a in t-

D en is , was c o mposed i n r ela t ion t o t he r ebu i ld ing o ft he a bbey u nder S uger , 1 135-40 a nd 1 140-44 ;

( Dav id , o p . c i t ., I I , p . 8 1) .

A t t he s a me

t ime i ti s wor th n o t ing t ha t t h is c hap ter ( f .185v o h m 2 3v , W.p .338 —f .188v o h m 2 6v , W.p .343 ) i s wr i t ten a l most e n t ire ly b y t he s econd ( f .185v ) a nd t h ird ( f .186-7v ) s cr ibes ;

o n ly f .188-88v i s b y t he ma in s cr ibe , s o i ti s

p ossib le t ha t a l tera t ions were made i n t he r ecopy ing t o a cco m moda te t hese e ven ts.

S ee A . Hf me l , ' Uber l ieferung u nd B edeu tung d es L iber S anc t i

J acob i u nd d es P seudo-Turp id i n S i tzungesber ich te d er Bayer ischen Akade m ie d er Wissenschaf ten , P h i losoph isch-h istor ische-K lasse , 1 950 , p p . 1 -75 , p ar t icu lar ly p .20. B ook V :

t he l a test d a te men t ioned i s t ha t o f t he d ea th o f L ou is V I ( 1 137 ) ,

W. p . 3 86 , Dav id o p . c i t ., I , p . 2 0 , I I , p . 1 26 .

I ti s wr i t ten b y s cr ibe

I . An a rgu men t t ha t t he o bserva t ions o f t he C a thedra l o f S an t iago o n wh ich t he d escr ip t ion i n B ook V a re b ased were made b efore 1 135 i s s uggested b y t he a bsense o f r eference t o t he s i lver r e tab le p resented b y Archb ishop D iego G el mfrez i n t ha t y ear ;

s ee Dav id , o p . c i t ., I , p . 2 0 , a nd S .

Mora le jo , ' Ars s acra e t s cu lp ture r o mane monu men ta le :

l e t resor e t h e

c han t ier d e C o mpostel le ,' i n L es C ah iers d e S a in t- M ichel d e C uxa , 1 1 , 1 980 , p p . 1 98-238, p ar t icu lar ly p p . 2 30-6 . S upp le men tary ma ter ia l f ol low ing B ook V :

t he e ar l iest d a ted p iece i s

t he M iracle o f 1 139 o n f .221v ( o h m 1 92v ) b u t i ti s wr i t ten b y ah and t ha t a ppears n owhere e lse i n t he MS s o c ou ld h ave b een a dded a t a ny t ime a f ter 1 139. D epend ing o n o ne 's i n terpreta t ion o f t he d a t ing a rgu men ts f or B ooks Ia nd I V , t he e ar l iest p ossib le d a te f or t he work o f t he ma in s cr ibe o f S an t iago i s e i ther 1 137 o r 1 144.

Fur ther a rgu men ts c ou ld b e p u t f orward o n t he

2 05

b asis o f t he s cr ip t a nd d ecora t ion ;

Ir eserve t hese a rgu men ts f or

d iscuss ion e lsewhere. 6 .

T hey c an b e d a ted a pprox i ma tely o n g rounds o f s ty l ist ic c onnec t ions b e tween t heir i l lu m ina t ion a nd t he min ia ture i n t he C ar tu lary o f S an t iago , Tu mbo B , c . 1 326.

7 .

S ee b elow .

O n ly o ne o ft he t hree s cenes i s p reserved i n A dd i t iona l : ap age h as b een r e moved b etween f .132v a nd 1 33. S ee Appendix A . I n S an t iago t hese s cenes o ccur o n i f . 1 62 a nd 1 62v ; i n Va t ican , a s a lso o r ig ina lly i n A dd i t iona l , t hey a re o n f acing p ages : i f . 1 33v a nd 1 34 i n Va t ican a nd f .132v a nd t he n ow missing p age i n A dd i t iona l . c o mpara t ive c har t o f i l lustra t ion .

8 .

S ee Append ix B f or a

T he i nscr ip t ion i n S an t iago was o verpa in ted i n r ed w i th g reen s cro l lwork i n t he s even teen th c en tury when B ook I V , s tar t ing o n f .163 C o 1 ) was d etached t o f or m a s epara te v o lume ; t he r est o f t h is i nscr ip t ion , o r ig ina l ly a t t he t op o f f .163 , was o verpa in ted a t t he s a me t ime .

S ee Append ix A .

The i nscr ip t ion i s i nf ac t t he t i tu lus t o t he p reface t o B ook I V , a nd i t s w ords , j us t v isib le b enea th t he p a in t i n S an t iago , i ft he p ages a re h e ld u p t o t he l i gh t , a re p reserved i n Va t ican . 9 .

W . p . 3 03 ,

c am inus s te l larum q ue m v id ist i h oc s ign if ica t q uod t u c um

mag i c ) e xerc i tu a d e xpugnanda m g en te m p aganorum p erf idam e t l i berandum i t er meum e t t el lure m e t a d v isi tandam b asi l ica m e t s arcofagu m meum a b h is h or is u sque a d G a l lec ia m i t urus e s 1 0.

R . L e jeune a nd J . S t iennon , L a L egende d e R oland d ans Par t d u moven a ge , Bruxel les , 1 966 , p . 5 6 , h ave s uggested t ha t C har le magne 's c rown i n S an t iago i s t v isigo th ic r. To my k now ledge t here i s a t p resen t n o c rown t ypo logy t ha t w ou ld s uppor t s uch a c la im ;

In o te t he a ppearance o f s im i lar

c rowns , c urved r ec tang les w i th j ewe ls , i n t he f olow ing t we l f th-cen tury t ranspyrrenean MSS : P sa l ms ;

S ta S co last ica CXX I ( 1 24 ) , f .2, C o mmen tary o n t he

D oua i 2 50 , I , f .145 , S t . August ine , Ennarra t iones i n omnes

p sa l mos ( Manuscr i ts ä P e in tures d u Vi le a u X I Ie s f ec les , B ibl io theque N a t iona le , P ar is , 1 954 , n o . 1 48) ; P ar is , B . N . l a t . 1 16 , B ib le , f .13v . T he f or m o f t he c rown i n S an t iago h as b een mod if ied t o af ourteen th-cen tury t ype i n t he o ther t hree MSS . 1 1.

Va t ican a nd A dd i t iona l a re n o t a bso lu te ly i den t ica l c op ies.

Ad is t inc t ive

f eature i n A dd i t iona l i s t he u se o f t he s he ll mo t i f o n S t . J a mes ' h a lo a nd g ar men t , a nd t h is r eappears i n h is p or tra i t o n f .3 v i n Add i t iona l a s we l l a s i n Tu mbo B a nd i n h is p or tra i ts i n S a la manca .

S ee b e low .

O ther m inor

d if ferences b e tween t he Add i t iona l a nd Va t ican t rea t men t o f t he d ream s cene l i e i n t he d eta i ls o ft he d rapery o n t he b ed , t he h and o f S t . J ames g rasp ing t he s cro l l ,the way i n wh ich t he a rch i tec tura l mo t i fs a re a l igned ; a l l t end t o s how t ha t Vat ican i s a more a ccura te c opy t han A dd i t iona l . There a re a lso d i f ferences i n t he words o f t he i nscr ip t ions : Va t ican h as a qu isgranu m o pp idu m k arolus magnus r ex i o n t he p ed i ment , o f wh ich ' aqu isgranu m r i s om it ted i n A dd i t iona l ( by o vers igh t ? ) . T he i nscr ip t ion o n t he s cro l l i n S an t iago h as n o t s urv ived ; t he s econd h a lf o f t he w ords o f S t . J a mes a re f ro m t he t ex t ( s ee a bove , n .9) ' ca m inus s te l laru m q ue m v id is t i h oc s igni f ica t i a nd t he f i rst h a l f a lso d er ives f ro m t he t ex t : 2 06

' Ego

s um i nqu i t I acobus a posto lus C hr ist i a lu mpnus ' ( W . p . 3 03) f ro m wh ich V a tican h as ' Ego s um J acobus a posto lus C hr ist i ' a nd Add i t iona l h as ' Ego s um J acobus C hr ist i a lu mpnus '.

Each wou ld s ee m t o d er ive s epara tely

f ro m S an t iago r a ther t han f ro m e ach o ther . 1 2. 1 3.

S ee a bove , n o .9. N o t h av ing s een S a la manca n or s ucceeded i n o b ta in ing a c o mp lete microf i lm o f i t , Iam u nab le t o c on f ir m t he a bsense o f at ex tua l s ource i n i t f or t h is mo t i f :

i ti s , h owever , l ack ing i n t he t ex ts o f S an t iago , Va t ican

a nd Add i t iona l . 1 4 .

S ee , f or i nstance , t he Drea m o f J oseph i n S t . Omer 1 54 , f .1, l eaf a dded t o aG ospel B ook ( MSS h Pe in tures , n o .117 ) ;

Mun ich c lm 1 5713 f .ly ,

P er icope B ook ( G . Swarzensk i , D ie R egensburger Buch ma lere i d es X , u nd X I J ahrhunder ts , r epr in ted S tu t tgar t , 1 969 , n o . 5 6 Ta f . t r iangu lar p ed i men t , b ed , a ngel o n n earside o f b ed , J oseph w i th h ead o n l ef t ) ;

Dav id a nd t he S hu la m i te a nd t he L ord a ppear ing t o S olo mon i n

Arras 4 35 , I , f . 1 28v , B ib le o f S a in t-Vaast ( J . P orcher , F rench M in ia tures f ro m I lu m ina ted Manuscr ip ts , L ondon , 1 960 , p l . 1 4 ) ;

C hr ist a ppear ing

t o S t . Ambrose t o a nnounce h is d ea th a nd a n a nge l a ppear ing t o B ishop Honora tus o f V ercel li a sk ing h im t o a dm in ister t he s acra men t t o t he d y ing Ambrose , o n t he a ltar o f S an t ' Ambrog io , Mi lan ( M- M . Gau th ier , Emaux d u moyen

g e o cciden ta l , F r ibourg , 1 972, c a t .2/10 , p p . 3 17-8 ;

G . d e F rancov i tch , ' Ar te c arol ing ia e o t ton ia i n L o mbard ia ,' i n Rö m isches J ahrbuch f ür Kunstgesch ich te , V I , 1 942-4 , p p . 1 80 f , f igs. 1 73 , 1 83) ; a n a ngel a ppear ing t o S t . Mi l län a nnounc ing h is d ea th , o n t he i vory c aske t o f S an M i l län d e l a C ogo l la ( A . G o ldsch m id t , D ie E l fenbeinsku lp turen a us d er r o man ischen Z e i t , X [-X I I I J ahrhunder t , V I , B er l in , 1 926 , n o . 8 4 , p l . XXVI In .) ;

C hr ist a ppear ing t o S t . Mar t in , T ours 1 018 , L ife o f S a in t

Mar t in , f , 9 v ( w i th t wo a nge ls a t tend ing C hr ist ; 2 28;

MSS h p ein tures , n o .

0 . P fch t , C . R . Dodwel l , F . Wor ma ld , The S t . A lbans P sa l ter ,

L ondon , 1 960 , p l . 1 30 ) ;

S t . Omer i n b ed i s a sked b y as ervan t i fh e c an

p lay b y t he s ea , i n S t . Omer 6 98 , f . 1 0 , L ife o f S a in t Omer ( MSS ' a p e in tures , n o . 1 18) .

My t hanks f or t hese e xa mp les t o Rose mary S voboda .

In ote a lso s o me i n terest ing p ara l le ls w i th f igures i n b ed r ece iv ing v isions i n t he C ar tu lary o f Mon t S t . Michel , Avranches 2 10 , wh ich i s a l most c erta in ly l a ter t han S an t iago ( MSS ' ap ein tures , n o. 1 95) .

The q uest ion

o f p oss ib le s ty l ist ic l i nks b etween S an t iago a nd N or mandy Ir eserve f or d iscussion e lsewhere. 1 5.

F or t he Aachen s hr ine s ee L e jeune a nd S t iennon , o p . c i t . p p . 1 69-77. F or t h is s cene s ee E . S tephany , D er Kar lsschre in , Möncheng ladbach , 1 965 ,

P .

2 9.

I ts hows S t . J a mes a ppear ing t o C har le magne i n b ed i n h is

r oo m ( m irror image o ft he S an t iago v ersion ) a nd a s as equen t ia l n arra t ive , C har le magne l ook ing a t t he Mi lky Way t hrough h is w indow .

F or t he l a ter

C hron ic le t rad i t ion i ti s d if f icu lt , i n t he a bsence o f c o mp lete l i sts o f t he i l lustra t ions i n e ach MS , t o f or m a c lear p ic ture o f t he d egree o f o ver lap w i th P seudo-Turp in i l lustra t ion .

S ee L e jeune a nd S t iennon , o p . c i t .

p . 2 77 f .for t he Drea m o f C har le magne i n S te . G enev ieve 7 82 ; S taa tsb ib lio thek , P h ill ipps 1 917 ; 3 , 9 076 .

B .N .fr .6465 ;

Ars. 5 223 ;

B er l in , B . R. 1 ,

S t i l l more p rob le ma t ica l i s t he q uest ion o f ap oss ib le c onnect ion

2 07

w i th t he n arra t ive s equence a t S an ta Mar ia i n C os med in i n Ro me , c onsec ra ted b y P ope C a l ix tus I i n 1 123.

The c o m mon C a l ix t ine c onnect ions

b etween t hese p a in t ings a nd S an t iago , e ven i ft he C a l ix t ine a u thorsh ip o f t he l a tter i s s pur ious , a re a t tract ive .

T he Ro man s equence d oes i nc lude

as cene t ha t h as b een i n terpreted a s S t . J a mes a ppear ing t o C har le magne ( Le jeune a nd S t iennon , o p . c i t ., p .45-7 , p 1 .25 a nd G -B . G iovena le , L a B asi l ica d i S an ta Mar ia i n C os med in , Ro me , 1 927 , s cene 3 ) , b u t w i th C har le magne k neel ing r a ther t han r ecu mban t , a nd L e jeune a nd S t iennon s ee a n a ngel r a ther t han S t . J a mes.

The s equence was d iscovered i n t he

c ourse o f s ix teen th-cen tury r estora t ions a nd i s p oor ly p reserved a nd h ard t o i n terpre t . 1 6 .

T he c i ty i s u n iden t i f ied i n t he MSS :

t he words o f t he i nscr ip t ion i n

S ant iago r ead ' Karo lus magnus e xerc i tus r. 1 7 .

S ee a bove , n .13 , a ssu m ing t ha t t he e ven t s hown h ere f ol lows i m med ia te ly a f ter t he d rea m s cene a nd d epends o n t he p assage ( W p .303) ' H is i t aque a udi t is Karo lus a posto l ica p ro m issione f retus , c oaduna t is s ib i e xerc i tus mu l t is , a d e xpugnandas g en tes p er f idas Y sp a n ia m i ngressus e st . '

Wha t

i s r epresen ted wou ld t hen b e p resu mab ly t he d epar ture f ro m A achen r a ther t han t he e n try t o S pa in , b u t s ee a lso b e low , n .18. 1 8.

L e jeune a nd S t iennon , o p . c i t ., p . 1 93 , p l . V I I ;

Y . De lapor te a nd

E . Houvet , L es v i traux d e l a C a thbdra le d e C har tres , I , C har tres , 1 926 , p p .313-9 .

S ee a lso t he s urv iva l o f t h is i n t he l a te t h ir teenth c en tury

P seudo-Turp in , F lorence L aur . A sh 5 2 , f .122v , L e jeune a nd S t iennon , o p . c i t ., p l . 2 68 s how ing C har le magne a nd f ive men r id ing t o t he r igh t . Aga in t here i s ap oss ib le p ara l lel w i th o ne o f t he s cenes a t S an ta Mar ia i n C os med in :

s cene f our i s i n terpreted ( 1 4 ., p . 4 7 , 1 94 ) a s as cene o f

d epar ture , a l though G iovena le ( op . c i t .) l i sts i ta s C har le magne b efore t he wal ls o f P a mp luna .

Th is r a ises t he p ossib i l i ty t ha t t he s cene i n t he

J acobus MSS may b e t he warr iors l eaving P a mp luna a f ter t he ir v ic tory t here ( Book I V , c h . 1 1) . 1 9.

O ne h esi ta tes t o o ver in terpret t he s ign if icance o f a mo t i f s uch a s t h is wh ich a ppears i n Eng l ish a nd n or th-eastern F rench MSS l ike D oua i 3 09 , f .7 4v , Ep ist les o f S t . G regory ( MSS a p e intures , n o , 1 51) a nd Doua i 2 53 , f .84 , S t . August ine , Ennarra t iones ( i b id . n o . 1 55) b o th f ro m A nch in , a nd C a mbr idge , S t . J ohn 's C o l lege A .8, f .91, J osephus , J ew ish A n t iqu i t ies ( C . M . Kau f f mann , AS urvey o f MSS I l lu m ina ted i n t he B r i t ish I s les , I I , Ro manesque Manuscr ip ts , 1 066-1190 , L ondon , 1 975 , c a t . 4 4 , p l . 1 17) i n t he c on tex t o f i nhab i ted i n i t ia ls ;

more r e levan t p erhaps t o i t s a ppearance

i n S an t iago i s t he u se o f t he mo t if f or C har le magne p u l l ing h is b eard a s a n a id t o c og i ta t ion i n t he He idelberg Ro lands l ied , Un iv . B ib l. P a l . G er m . 1 12, f .8v a nd 1 19 , r eproduced i n L e jeune a nd S t iennon , o p . c i t ., p l . 8 7 a nd 1 24 , a nd i n t he f acsi m i le Das Ro landsl ied d es P fa f fen K onrad , e d . W . Werner a nd H . Z irnbauer , 2v o ls., W iesbaden , 1 970 .

I n t he n ine teen th-

c en tury c opy o f t he d estroyed S trasbourg MS o f t he s a me t ex t t he mo t i f o ccurs w i th Ganelon a s t he s ub jec t ( Le jeune a nd S t iennon , o p . c i t ., p l . 9 3) .

L e jeune a nd S t iennon , o p . c it ., p . 1 35 , were p repared t o p os tu la te

a n Eng l ish o r ig in f or t he He ide lberg/S trasbourg s equences o n t he b asis o f t he u se o f t he f orked b eard ;

D . J . A . Ross , ' The I conography o f

2 08

Ro land ', i n Med iu m A evu m , XXXVI I , 1 968 ,

P .

5 5 , a dvances t he t heory ,

b ased o n t he c ons iderab ly more s o l id b asis o f h is tor ica l c onnec t ions , a nd o n t he c o inc idence o f an u mber o f s cenes , t ha t t here was a l ost Eng l ish o r n or th F rench R o land s equence o n wh ich t he p a int ings a t S an ta Mar ia i n C os med in , t he B r ind isi mosa ic , a nd t he Heidelberg/S trasbourg MSS d epended .

G iven t he p ossib le c o inc idence o f t wo s cenes b e tween S an t iago

a nd S an ta Mar ia i n C os med in ( see a bove , n o tes 1 5 a nd 1 8) , i ti s wor th b ear ing i n mind t he f urther p oss ib i l i ty o f e x tend ing t he d ependan ts o f s uch al ost s equence t o i nc lude t he J acobus MSS a s wel l .

Ir eturn t o t h is

q uest ion b e low . 2 0 .

L e jeune a nd S t iennon , o p . c i t ., p . 5 4 c a l l t h is s cene t he r e turn t o A ixl a-Chape lle a nd c la im t ha t t he f igures a re t he v eterans o f t he S pan ish wars , n ow g rown o ld , who a re a dm ir ing t he n ew p rogra m o f d ecora t ion t ha t C har le magne h ad p a in ted o n t he wa l ls o f h is p a lace ( Book I V , c h .22, W. p . 3 39f f .) , s how ing t he wars a nd t he L ibera l Ar ts.

T he b ackground

o f r ed a nd b lue j ux taposed i n ad iagona l i s p resu mab ly wha t L e jeune a nd S t iennon i n terpre t a s t he ' co in b ien a pparen t d u p ave men t c aro l ing ien e n marbre '.

It h ink t h is i s n o more t han a s tandard b ackground mo t if o f t he

k ind t ha t a ppears , f or i nstance , a s t he b ackground a ga ins t wh ich t he f o l ia te i n i t ia ls a re s et i n t he P sa l ter-Ri tua l o f F leury , O r leans 1 23.

T h is

i s ac onven t ion t ha t d oes n o t a ppear t o h ave p aral le ls i n Eng l ish MS i l lu m ina t ion , b u t h ow n arrow ly i tc an b e l oca l ized i n F rance i s a t p resen t a ma t ter o f c on jec ture .

Is ee n o g rounds f or c onnec t ing i ti n a ny way w i th

t he d ecora t ion o f C har le magne 's p a lace .

Ir e turn b elow t o t he q uest ion

o f o r ig ina l i l lustra t ion f or t he L ibera l Ar ts t ex t . 2 1.

W . p . 3 34-5.

T h is h istor ia ted i n i t ia l o n ly l oose ly f ol lows t he t ex t , wh ich

d escr ibes t he s ou l o f Marsi le b eing t aken o f f t o h el l b y d evi ls , wh i le t hose o f Ro land a nd t he o ther C hr ist ians a re b orne u p t o h eaven b y S t . M ichae l ; c f ., h owever , t he d escr ip t ion o f Ro land 's d ea th t wo p aragraphs e ar l ier : ' an i ma .. a b a ngel is i n p erhenn i r equ ie t ransfer tur '. 2 2.

S a la manca l acks t he t i tu lus t o t he Ep ist le o f L eoprand t ha t was o r ig ina l ly i n S an t iago a nd i s p reserved i n Va t ican ;

t he p ho tographs a ppear t o s how

t ha t s o meth ing i s c u t o u t b etween f . 9 0v a nd 9 1 i n S a la manca .

I n t he

a bsence o f e v idence t o t he c on trary Ia ssu me t ha t t he c u t e dge t ha t c an b e s een i s a t tached t o f .90 a nd t ha t t he l a t ter i s as ing le f o l io i nser t , w i th t he t hree n arra t ives o n t he r ec to a nd t he i n i t ia l o n t he v erso .

S ee a bove ,

n .8, a nd Append ix A f or t he t i tu lus i n S an t iago a nd Va t ican . 2 3.

Dav id , o p . c i t ., I , p . 1 0 s ays t h is f or m o f mi tre i s r are af ter c . 1 150 , t hough h e d oes n o t d ocu men t t he t ransi t ion f ro m t h is k ind , w ith i t s r ounded p rotuberances worn a t t he s ides o f t he h ead , t hrough t he t ransi t iona l t ype w i th more p oin ted s ide p ro tuberances , t o t he p o inted f ron ta l t ype .

F or

m i tres l ike Turp in 's i n S an t iago s ee , f or i nstance , i n n or th-eastern F rance , P ar is , E co le d es B eaux-Ar ts , Dona t ion Masson , l ea f f ro m L iessies ( VAr t g raph ique d u moyen a ge , P ar is , 1 953 , n o . 6 ) a nd Doua i 2 50 , I , f .2 , S t . August ine f ro m March iennes ( Porcher , o p . c i t ., f ron t isp iece) , a nd i n Eng land Ox ford , B od . B od . 8 6 , S t . Ambrose , Hexa meron , f .1 ( 0 . P fch t a nd J . J . G . A lexander , I l lu m ina ted Manuscr ip ts i n t he B odleian L ibrary , 3 , B r i t ish a nd I r ish S choo ls , Ox ford , 1 973 , n o .113) ,

2 09

Ox ford , C orpus C hr ist i C o l lege 1 57 , p . 3 83 F lorence a nd J ohn o f Worcester 's C hron ic les ( Kau f f mann , o p . c i t ., c a t . 4 4 , p 1 .142) ;

f or

mi tres p oin ted a t t he s ides s ee C a l ix tus ' i n S an t iago ( p la te 1 4.1) , which may b e b y ad i f feren t p a inter t han t he Turp in p or tra i t , o r i t may s how a n a t te mp t t o d ist ingu ish b e tween t he h eadgear o f ap ope a nd t ha t o f a n a rchb ishop ;

V a lenc iennes 5 , f .109v ( por tra i t o f S t . J a mes M inor ) ;

T ours 3 21, f .2, G regory , Mora l ia i n J ob ( i nc ludes a p ope i n p o in ted t iara a s wel l ) ;

f or f ron ta l ly p o in ted mi tres a t tr ibu ted t o t he 1 160s-80s , s ee

C a mbr idge , S t . J ohn 's C ol lege H .6 , f .i i .v , B ede , C o m men tary o n t he Apoca lypse ( Kauf fmann , o p . c it ., c a t . 8 6 , p l . 2 45) ;

B . L . Roy .

1 0 .A .

x i i i , f .2, Smaragdus , C o m men tary o n t he Ru le o f S t . B ened ic t ( i b id ., c a t . 9 2 , p l. 2 56 ) ;

B . L . C ot t . C laud . B .1 . 1 , f . 3 41, L et ters o f S t . Tho mas

' aB ecket ( i b id ., c a t . 9 3 , p l . 2 57) . 2 4 .

W.

2 5.

S ee Hf me l , o p . c it ., p p . 1 2-31.

P .

3 34-5. Th is t heory i mp l ies t ha t a no ther

e xe mp lar was a t h and f ro m wh ich t he missing s ect ions c ou ld b e c op ied . 2 6 . 2 7.

i b id .,

P .

2 0 .

Th is i n i t ia l p resen ts a no ther d i f f icu l ty :

b y c o mpar ison w i th t hose b yt he

ma in i l lu m ina tors t ha t a cco mpany t he wr i t ing b y s cr ibe Ii ti s u nf in ished , w i th t he d ragon b ars o u t l ined i n b rown i nk b u t l e f t b lank o n t he i ns ide.

I t

i s h ard t o p aral lel i n t wel f th-cen tury i n i t ia l t ypes a nd may p oss ib ly b e a n a t te mp t made a t al a ter d a te , e i ther c on te mporary w i th t he wr i t ing b y s cr ibe I o r l a ter , t o f i l l i n as pace l ef t b lank ( f or a h istor ia ted s cene?) u sing t he mo t i fs c urren t i n t he e ar l ier workshop . 2 8.

L e jeune a nd S t iennon , o p . c i t ., p p . 2 94f f . men t ion t h is e p isode i n R oy . 1 4 .G .vi ( p l . 2 88, s how ing Turp in e xp la in ing h is v ision t o C har le magne , n o t t he v ision i t sel f ) , B .N .fr .2813 ( p l . 2 94 , Turp in 's v ision o f t he d ea th o f Marsi le ) , B .N .n .a .fr .6295 ( p 1 .368, Ro land 's s ou l b orne t o h eaven b y a nge ls ;

ad ev i l b ear ing o f f o ther s ou ls i n ac ar t ) .

I ti s a lso p oss ib le t ha t

t he S a la manca v ersion r epresen ts a l a te ama lga ma t ion r a ther t han a n e ar ly p ro to type .

I ti s a lso i n terest ing t o n o te t he a pparen t l ack o f c orre la-

t ion b etween t he l a te r eappearance o f t he Drea m o f C har le magne a nd t ha t o f t he V ision o f Turp in o r e le men ts o f i t . 2 9.

Hoh ler , o p . c i t ., p . 3 5.

S ee a bove , n .15.

I ti s f .186-7 ( o h m 2 4-5) , W.p .339 l i ne 3 t o

3 41 l i ne 4 0 . 3 0.

I if me l , o p . c i t ., p p . 1 2 , 2 0-1, c a l ls h im s cr ip tor I I a nd i l lustra tes f .187v ( o h m 2 5v ) ;

o n

f or t h is s cr ibe 's work .

P .

2 6 h e s uggests a n e ar ly t h ir teen th-cen tury d a te An o r ig ina l v ersion may o r may n ot h ave b een

i n t he c odex i n 1 173 when Arna l t d e Mun t made h is c opy ( R ipo l l :

B arcelona ,

A rch ivo d e l a C oröna d e Arag i in 9 9) s ince R i s as hor tened v ersion o f S an t iago a nd a s ec t ion o n L ibera l Ar ts c ou ld h ave b een o ne o f t hose h e c hose t o om i t . 3 1.

F or a d iscussion o f e x tan t e xa mp les s ee most r ecen t ly M . E vans , ' A l legor ica l Wo men a nd P rac t ica l Men : r econsidered ,

t he i conography o f t he Ar tes

i n Med ieva l Wo men ( S tudies i n C hurch H is tory , S ubsid ia ,

I ) , Ox ford , 1 978, p p . 3 05-29 , a nd R . G reen , M . Evans , M . C ursch mann , 2 10

The Hor tus De l ic iaru m o f Herrad o f Hohenbourg , S tud ies o f t he Warburg I nst i tu te , v o l . 3 6 .

L ondon/Le iden , 1 979 , v o l .I , n o . 3 3 , ' Ph i losophy ,

The L ibera l Ar ts , a nd t he P oets ,' p p .104-7 , b y M . W. Evans . 3 2.

Th is i s a lso t rue o f a spec ts o f t he n arra t ive s cenes d iscussed a bove a nd i ti s l i ke ly t ha t as e t o f L ibera l Ar ts s cenes wou ld h ave h ad i t s own s e t o f e xp lana tory c ap t ions.

3 3 .

The s i tua t ion i s f ur ther c o mp lica ted b y t he f act t ha t t he e n t ire s ec t ion f ro m f .176-187v ( o h m 1 4-25v , W p p . 3 22 l i ne 2 4 t o 3 41 l ine 4 0 , B ook I V midd le o f c h . 1 7 t o midd le o f c h .22) i s wr i t ten b y s cr ibes I , I I , a nd I V , s o much o f t he ir o r ig ina l c on ten t i s a ma t ter o f s pecu la t ion .

S ee

Hf me l , o p .c i t . a nd a bove , n o tes 5 , 2 9 a nd 3 0. 3 4 .

Op .c i t ., p p . 4 5 , 4 9 , p l. 2 9.

3 5.

L e jeune a nd S t iennon , i b id ., p . 4 9 c o mpare t he S an t iago S t . J a mes w i th t he s ta tue o f S t . J a mes o n t he Puer ta d e l a P la ter ias ( where h e i s a cc o mpan ied b y t wo t rees) .

There a re n u merous e xa mp les o f C hr ist f igures

i n n or thern French MSS wh ich , a s Is ha l l a rgue e lsewhere , p rov ide much more a ppropr ia te p aral lels f or S an t iago . 3 6 .

A marg ina l n o te i n t he l ef t-hand marg in n ex t t o t he f igure , wr it ten i n l i gh t b rown i nk a nd c ursive s cr ip t , s ays ' imago b (ea ) t-(u )s [ s ic ] J acob i i ( n ) l i t( ter )a . j .' wh ich s ee ms t o imp ly t ha t af ra me was o r ig inal ly i n tended .

3 7 .

Th is wou ld n ot a ppear t o a pp ly e qua l ly t o t he min ia ture o f t he Drea m o f C har le magne :

t here , a l though t he b rown i nk u sed f or o u t l ines , a nd t he

r ed , a re t he s a me c o lours a s t hose u sed i n t he p or tra i t , t he minia ture i nc ludes n o mauve , a nd t he b lue , g reen , o chre a nd t urquo ise t ha t a re t here d o n o t a ppear a s p en-f lour isher 's c olours.

The g enera l p a let te i s

v ery s im i lar t o t ha t o f Va t ican . 3 8.

S ee C . Hoh ler , ' The B adge o f S t . J a mes ,' i n The S ca l lop , S tud ies o f a S hel l a nd i t s i n f luences o n h u mank ind , e d . I . C ox , L ondon , 1 957 , p p . 4 9-70.

A l though t he s he l l was s o ld t o p i lgr i ms a t t he t ime t he P i lgr im 's

G u ide was wr i t ten ( Book V , c h . 6 ;

W.p .379 ;

J . V ie l l iard , L e G u ide

d u P bler in d e S a in t-Jacques d e C o mpostel le , 2 nd . e d . Macon , 1 950 , p p . 9 6-7 ;

Hoh ler , i b id ., p . 5 6 ) t he mo t if i s n o t i nc luded i n t he d ecora t ion

o f S an t iago , a nd where i tf irst a ppears i n t he t we lf th c entury i ti s i n t he c ontex t o f t he p i lgr im r a ther t han S t . J a mes h i msel f , a nd i n t he med iu m o f s cu lp ture r a ther t han p a in t ing , a s i n t he c lo isters o f S t . Do m ingo a t S i los ;

Ar les ;

a nd o n t he l i n te l o f Au tun C a thedra l ;

i n a l l t hese e xamp les

t he d ist inc t ive f ea ture i s t he u se o f t he s he l l o n t he s cr ip a s ap i lgr im b adge

H oh ler , i b id ., p p .56-9 ) .

T he u se o f s hel ls o n S t . J a mes ' h a lo

d ist ingu ishes t hese r epresen ta t ions f ro m t he S t . J a mes a s p i lgr im t ype wh ich c an b e t raced i n s cu lpture t o t he t wel f th c en tury a t S an ta Mar ta d e T era i n t he midtwel f th c en tury a nd a t t he C a mara S an ta , O v iedo , a round t he t h ird q uar ter o ft he c en tury , wh ich s how t he s a int w i th s ta f f a nd s cr ip w i th a s he l l o n i t ( Hoh ler , i b id ., p p . 6 0-1) . 3 9.

Th is i s t he o n ly r epresen ta t ion o f S t . J a mes w i th a h a t i n t he J acobus t rad i t ion ;

Il ack d eta i ls o f t he p rec ise s ty le.

2 11

F or t he p ossib i l i t ies s ee

Hoh ler , i b id ., p p . 6 5f f .

It hank Dr . A . S haver-Crandel l f or h er n o tes

o n t he S a la manca MS . 4 0.

N one o f t he s upp le mentary ma ter ia l i nc luded i n S an t iago a nd c op ied i n Va t ican a nd Add i t iona l was i nc luded i n S a la manca , a nd t he t ex t o f B ook Ve nds w ith t he c o lophon , i n wh ich ' C lun iacu m ' was miscop ied a s l d i macu m r Th is s uggests t ha t t he s cr ibe o f S a la manca was work ing f ro m a mode l i n wh ich t he c o lophon was n o t s paced o u t i n c ap i ta ls a s i ti s i n S an t iago ;

i n

A dd i t iona l i ti s i n l i t tera t ex tua l is a nd i n Va t ican i ti s om i t ted a l toge ther . 4 1.

T h is i s at we lf th-century f abr ica t ion o f as upposed n in th-cen tury e ven t ; i ti s n o t among t he M iracles o f S t . J a mes i n J acobus.

S ee C . S Anchez-

A lbornoz , ' La a u ten t ica b a ta l la d e C lav i jo , Ti n C uadernos d e Historia d e Espana , I X , 1 948, p p . 9 4-139.

4 2.

A t S an t iago C a thedra l , o n t he t y mpanu m o f t he c lo ister p or ta l , a nd a t S ant iago d e B etanzos i n Ga l ic ia .

S ee L . K au , I conograph ie d e l 'Ar t

c hre t ien , I I , P ar is , 1 958, p . 6 97 ; E . K irschbau m , L ex ikon d er c hr ist l ichen I konograph ie , V I I , Ro me , 1 974 , p . 3 7 ; L . M . E le izegu i , L a d evoc iön a l Aposto l S an t iago e n E spa f la y e l a r te j acobea h ispän ico , Madr id , 1 953 , f ig . 2 63 ;

A . K ingsley P or ter , R o manesque S cu lp ture o f

t he P i lgr i mage Rou tes , B oston , 1 923 , p l . 8 95. 4 3.

D icc ionario d e H istor ia d e E spa f ia , e d . G . B le iberg , 2 nd . e d .,

Madr id ,

1 969 , ' Orden mi l i tar d e S an t iago ,' p .599. 4 4.

S ee J . Do minguez B ordona , Manuscr i tos c on P in turas , Madr id , 1 933 , I , n o . 3 96 , f ig . 2 09 a nd i d ., S pan ish i l lu m ina t ion , P ar is , n .d .

4 5.

P l .

8 0.

A . S icar t G i menez , L a M in ia tura med ieva l e n G a l ic ia ( Resu men d e l a me mor ia p resen tada p ara l a o b tenciön d e l G rado d e Doc tor ) , Un iversi tad d e S an t iago , F acu l tad d e G eogra ffa e H istor ia , S ecc ion d e H istor ia d e l Ar te , S an t iago , 1 978.

Dr . S icar t k ind ly s upp l ied me w i th a p ho tograph

o f t he i l lustra t ion i n Tu mbo B .

A t t he t ime o f wr i t ing h is t hesis h e h ad

n o t s een Add i t iona l , b u t h as i nfor med me s ubsequen t ly t ha t h e t h inks i ti s a lso a S an t iago p roduc t . n o .228, f ig . 1 18.

F or Tu mbo B s ee a lso B ordona , Manuscr i tos ,

The t ex t o n t he p age f ac ing t he min ia ture was wr i tten

i n 1 326 a nd t h is h as b een a ssu med t o b e t he a pprox i ma te d a te o f t he min ia ture. 4 6 .

S ee a bove , n . 4 0 a nd Append ix A .

A t t h is s tage Ih ave n o a lterna t ive

p rovenance t o s ugges t f or S a la manca ;

i ti s h oped t ha t more w ork o n i t s

t ex tua l a f f i l ia t ions w i l l c ast s o me l i gh t o n t he s ub ject . 4 7. 4 8.

I n S a la manca t he o pen ing i n i t ia l h as b een c u t o u t . A s im i lar l ack o f emphasis marks t he o pen ing o f B ook V i n S a la manca . Hav ing s een o n ly a microf i lm o f B ook V , Iam n o t i n ap osi t ion t o c o m men t o n t he u se o f p en-f lour ished i n i t ia ls e lsewhere i n t he b ook .

4 9.

S ee a bove f or t he u se o f a ma jor i n i t ia l f or B ook I V , c h . 2 1 , whose t ex t

r ecoun ts t he d ea th o f Ro land . 5 0.

The i n i t ia l Bt ha t s tar ts B ook I , c h .1 ( p la te 1 4 .30 ) c on ta ins a s ty l ized t ree w i th b irds t ha t l ooks o dd i n af our teen th-cen tury c on tex t , b u t i t s model was c er ta in ly n o th ing i n S an t iago a nd i tr e ma ins a p uzzle . 2 12

5 1.

S uch , f or i nstance , a s t he c op ies made f or C har les V o f F rance where d el ibera te e f for t was made t o d ress c haracters o f a n t iqu i ty i n c on te mporary c ostume a nd t he l ike.

S ee L a L ibra ir ie d e C harles V , c a ta logue b y F .

A vr i l , B ib l iotheque Na t iona le , P ar is , 1 968. 5 2.

The o n ly s urvey o f min iature p a in t ing i n Ga l ic ia i s A . S icar t G im .enez , o p . c it .

5 3.

Tu mbo B a nd t he J acobus c op ies a re i so la ted i n t he ir p er iod .

M . F . A vr i l k ind ly d rew my a t ten t ion t o t hese c op ies.

S ee V . L eroqua is ,

L es S acra men ta ires e t l es M issels Manuscr i ts d es b ib lio thbque p ub l iques d e F rance , Par is , 1 924 , I , 3 30 ( B . N . l a t . 1 102) , I I , 9 8-9 ( B . N . l a t . 1 103) .

C f . a lso t he p en a nd i nk c opy o f B .N .fr .2090-2, t he V ie d e S a in t

Den is o f 1 317 , B .N .la t . 5 286 .

S ee V . W. Egber t , On t he B r idges o f

Med ieva l P ar is , Pr ince ton , 1 974 , f ig . 1 2 , a nd C . L acaze , The V ie d e S a in t D en is Manuscr ip t , N ew Y ork , 1 979.

2 13

APPENDIX A S U M MARY DESCRIPTION OF MANUSCRIPTS

S an t iago d e C o mpostel la , Arch ivo d e l a C a tedra l ( no s hel fn umber ) h ere S an t iago

1 2th c en tury , F rench

i+ 2 25 + ii f , 2 95 x 2 12 m m ., f oredge p a in ted i n r ed . o f 8l eaves :

Ga ther ings g enera l ly

1 8, 2 9 , 3 -158, 1 6 9 ,1 7-18 8 ,2 0 9 ,2 1 7 ,2 2-23 8 ,2 4 2 ,2 5-2 0 ,

2 7-298, 3 0 2 ,3 13 s epara te l eaves. 1 91) i s n ow missing .

Two f o l ios a re n u mbered 9 7 ;

f .220 ( o l im

Presen t f o l ia t ion d a tes f ro m 1 964-6 a nd i ncorporates i n

s equence f .163-191v , d etached i n 1 619 t o f or m a s epara te v o lu me ( W p p . 3 013 48) ;

s even teen th-cen tury f o l ia t ion s t i l l v isib le .

C a tchwords.

F .9 h as a

c a tchword o n t he v erso a nd s o was p robab ly o r ig ina l ly t he l ast l eaf o f t he o pen ing g a ther ing , o r ig ina l ly o f 1 0 , o f wh ich t he f irst l eaf i s n ow missing ; f .9 i s n ow g lued o n t o f .10 a nd f or ms t he o pen ing l eaf o f t he s econd g a ther ing . G a ther ing 1 6 i nc ludes t he a dded h a lflea f f .128.

F .162 was o r ig ina l ly t he

o pen ing l ea f i n g a ther ing 2 1 b u t was a t tached t o f .161 when t he r est o f g a ther ing 2 1 was d e tached i n t he s even teen th c entury ;

a t t h is t ime g a ther ings 2 5 a nd

2 6 were s p l i t i n to t wo g a ther ings o f 4i nstead o f o ne o f 8l eaves. Wr i t ten s pace a pprox i ma te ly 2 30/225 x 1 52/145 m m . i n v ery f a in t d rypo in t . l ines.

Ru l ings g enera l ly

S cr ip t i n b rown i nk i n o ne c o lu mn , g enera l ly o f 3 4

F f .1-213v wr it ten b y f our ma in s cr ibes ;

f .128 , 2 14-225v wr it ten b y

an u mber o f o ther s cr ibes whose work d oes n ot a ppear i n t he ma in b ody o f t he t ex t .

S cr ip t b e low t op l i ne e xcep t o n f .181-2 ( scr ibe I V ) .

n o ta t ions i n l a ter h ands. a nd mauve c ap i ta ls. c en tury ; c entury .

Rubr ics i n r ed , t i t les i n r ed , b lue , g reen , y e l low ,

T i t les o n f .162v , 1 63 , 1 92, a l tered i n t he s even teen th

f .213v c o lophon , r qu in tus t a l tered t o ' quar tus '.

l et ter ing s t il l v isib le .

Traces o f o r ig ina l

B ook a nd c hap ter n u mbers a dded i n t he s even teen th

Musica l n ota t ion o n af ourl ine s tave r u led i n r ed i nk b etween i f .

1 01v a nd 1 39v , 2 14-219v a nd 2 21v . a nd 2 22.

Nu merous marg ina l

N o ta t ion i n c a mpo a per to o n f .103 , 1 28

S taves a dded t o c a mpo a per to n ota t ion o n f . 1 12, 1 12v , 1 14v .

Added d escan t a nd a f i f th s tave l i ne o n f . 1 31-1v .

P olyphony o n f . 2 14-219v .

P a in ted i n i t ia ls i n o ne o r more c o lours b y t wo ma in h ands.

E igh teen

f o l ia te a nd d ragon i n i t ia ls b y f our h ands ( f f .24 , 3 1v , 4 4 , 4 8v , 5 3v , 5 5 , 7 2 , 7 4 , 9 5v , 1 07 , 1 18v(2) , 1 21, 1 40 , 1 41, 1 64 , 1 79v , 1 92) . i n i t ia ls ( f .1 C a l ix tus , f . 4S t . J a mes , f .163 Turp in ) .

Three p or tra i t

Two m in iatures ( f .162

Drea m o f C har le magne , f .162v C har le magne a nd h is a r my ;

men h o ld ing

weapons) . N o te o n f ron t f lyshee t s ays t ha t min ia tures were r estored b y D . C ar los A sensi Garc i mar tine a t t he B ib l ioteca Nac iona l , Madr id , i n 1 964 . B rown l ea ther b inding 1 966 , u sing a n e igh teen th-cen tury s ta mped d esign f ron t a nd b ack . T ex tua l C on ten ts : f .1

P reface , ' Ex r e s igna tur ..

f .4

B ook I , c h .1

1

2 14

1 .139v

B ook I , p reface

1 .156

B ook I I , p reface

1 .163

( o h m 1 ) B ook I V , p reface

1 .192

( o l im 1 63) B ook V , c h .1

1 .213v ( o l im 1 84v ) c o lophon t o B ook V ' ...apud C lun iacu m ' 1 .214

( o h m 1 85) musica l a dd i t ions

1 .221

( o h m 1 92) o ther a dd i t ions

S ig la : HU mel Mered i th J ones Mandach

B1 '

B1 '

Va t ican C i ty , B ib l io teca Aposto l ica Va t icana , Arch .S .P ietro C .128 h ere Va t ican

1 4th c en tury , S pan ish

1 81f f ., 3 75 x 2 60 m m .

Wr it ten s pace 2 35 x 1 65 m m .

Ga ther ings o f 1 2 l eaves ,

c a tchwords.

S cr ip t ( i n o ne c o lu mn , 3 2 l i nes ) b y o ne ma in h and a par t f ro m

f . 1 80-181.

Rubr ics i n r ed .

Sma l l p en-f lour ished i n i t ia ls i n r ed a nd mauve .

Twen ty-two l arge p en-f lour ished i n i t ia ls i n r ed a nd mauve , s o me w ith f i sh i n t he b orders.

F our f o l iage a nd d ragon i n i t ia ls ( f .21 , 2 7 , 7 9v , 1 17) .

p or tra i t i n i t ia ls ( 1 .1 C a l ix tus , 1 .3v S t . J a mes , 1 .134v Turp in ) .

Three

Two min ia tures

( 1 .133v Drea m o f C har le magne , f . 1 34 C har le magne a nd h is a r my ;

k n igh t

a nd men h o ld ing weapons) . T ex tua l c on ten ts : f .1

Preface , ' Ex r e s igna tur ..

1 .117

B ook I

1 .129

B ook I I

1 .135

B ook I V

1 .156v 1 .174

1

B ook V e nd o f B ook V ..d i l igen ter p rocurand i .

I psu m s cr iben t i s i t g lor ia

s i tque l egen t i , 1 .174

musica l a dd i t ions , w i th s paces f or s taves a nd n o ta t ion

1 .179v

o ther a dd i t ions

S ig la : Hä mel ' C 3' Mered i th J ones n one Mandach

B1 9 '

Ward Thoron , C odex Quar tus s anc t i J acob i d e e xped i mento e t c onversione Y span ie e t Gal l ic ie a b ea to Turp ino e p iscopo , a f ter MS C . 1 23 ( s ic ) o f t he Va t ican L ibrary , B oston , 1 934

L ondon , B r i t ish L ibrary , Add i t iona l 1 2213 h ere Add i t iona l i i 1 91f f . 2 22 x 1 55 m m .

1 4th c en tury , S pan ish Wr i t ten s pace 1 60 x 1 02 m m .

S cr ip t i n o ne c o lu mn ,

3 1/36 l ines i n o ne ma in h and u p t o 1 .183v , l igh t b rown i nk . Ru lings i n l eadp o in t . Ga ther ings : A -G12, H 8, 1 -K12 , 0 .1 (12-1) , m_012 , C a tchwords.

N o musica l n o ta t ion o r s taves.

P en-f lour ished i n i t ia ls i n r ed a nd

mauve o r r ed a nd b lue i nk , s o me w ith f ish i n t he b orders , l i on a nd c as t le o n 1 .1.

One h istor ia ted i n i t ia l , 1 .3v S t . J a mes. 2 15

O ne min ia ture , 1 .132v , Dream

o f C har le magne.

B ind ing b rown l ea ther a nd c lo th , 1 980 .

T ex tua l c on ten ts : f .1

Preface , ' Ex r e s igna tur

f .3v

B ook I , c h .1

f .111

B ook 1

f .126v

B ook I I

f .133

B ook I V

f .159v

B ook V

f .180v

c o lophon t o B ook V

f .180v f .183

a pud C lun iacu m '

musica l a dd i t ions , t ex t o n ly ; n o s paces o ther a dd i t ions

f .184 a dd i t ions i n S pan ish a nd L a t in S ig la : Hä mel ' C2 ' Mered i th J ones ' B 2 ' Mandach

B2 '

C a ta logue o f B ooks , Manuscr ip ts a nd Au tograph L et ters r ecen t ly a dded t o t he s tock o f T ho mas Rodd , L ondon , 1 839 , p . 2 1. C a ta logue o f t he A dd i t ions t o t he Manuscr ip ts i n t he B r i t ish Museu m i n t he Y ears MDCCCXL I1 V IDCCCXLV , L ondon , 1 850 , r epr in ted 1 964 , p . 5 3 H . L . D . Ward , C a ta logue o f Ro mances i n t he Depar t men t o f Manuscr ip ts i n t he Br i t ish Museu m , I , L ondon , 1 888 , r epr in ted 1 961, p p . 5 62-74 , 9 51-3.

S a la manca , B ib l ioteca U niversi tar ia , 2 631 h ere S a la manca

1 3th o r 1 4th c en tury , S pan ish

1 2Of f . 3 40 x 2 40 m m . 3 9 l i nes.

Wr i t ten s pace 2 50 x 1 80 m m .

Rubr ics i n r ed .

mauve a nd r ed a nd b lue. V ision o f Turp in ) . C har le magne ;

C a tchwords.

S cr ip t i n t wo c o lumns ,

P en-f lour ished i n i t ia ls i n r ed a nd

Two h istor ia ted i n i t ia ls ( f .2 v S t . J a mes , f .9 0v

F .1 i n i t ia l c u t o u t .

Two min ia tures ( f . 9 0 Drea m o f

C har le magne a nd h is a r my ;

k n igh ts a nd men w i th weapons ,

f .120 S t . J a mes o n h orseback ) . Tex tua l c on ten ts : f .1

P reface '( C)a l ix tus e p iscopus... ?

f .2

B ook I

f .77v f .86 f .91

Book I B ook I I B ook I V

f .107

B ook V

f .120

c o lophon t o B ook V ..apud d i macu m .'

S ig la : Hä me l ' C4 ' Mered i th J ones ' B 1 1 ' Mandach

B1 1 '

C o leg io d e S an Bar to lo me B ib l io teca d e l Pa lac io Nac iona l , Madr id , V I I-H-1, 2 -L-1, 3 278 F . Marcos Rodriguez , L os Manuscr i tos p re tr iden t inos h ispanos d e c ienc ias s agradas e n l a B ib lioteca Un iversi tar ia d e S a la manca , S a la manca , 1 971 , p p . 4 69-70 . W. v on Här tel , B ib l io teca p a trum l a t inoru m H ispan iensis , S i tzungsber ich te 2 16

d er p h i losoph isch-h istor ischen C lasse d er k a iserl ichen Akade m ie d er W issenscha f ten , v o l . 1 13 , Wien , 1 886 , p . 5 15.

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1 5. A RO MANESQUE MARBLE ALTAR-FRONTAL I N BEAUNE AND SO ME CrTEAUX MANUSCRIPTS N ei l S tra t ford

I n 1 843 a sma l l i nc ised marb le p laque was f ound wa l led i n to a c our tyard a bove a s tab le d oor i n t he F aubourg S a in t- Mar t in o n t he o u tsk ir ts o f B eaune . S oon af terwards i t was r ep laced i n t he a pse o f N o tre-Dame d e B eaune , where i th ad b een u n t i l 1 793 , a nd where i tc an s t il l b e s een t o t h is d ay .1 T he p laque i s r ec tangu lar w i th u ndu la t ing s ides ( p la tes 1 5.1-5) .

I ti s o f wh i te marb le ,

w i th g rey ish v eins , 8 3 cm . h igh , a t i t s w idest 4 2.5 cm a nd a t i t s d eepest 7 cm . I n s p i te o f a reas o f d a mage ( i t i s who l ly b roken o f f a t t he b ack ) t he i nc ised d es ign i s r easonab ly e asy t o r ead ; t he d raw ing ( P la te 1 5.2) d if feren t ia tes t he a reas o f d a mage w i th s t ipp l ing . 2 The V irg in Mary i s s hown s ea ted o n a c ush ion o n a n e labora te t hrone w i th s evera l t i ers o f a rcad ing ; i n h er l e f t h and i s a n o b jec t w i th a s cro l led t op ( possib ly a s crol l o r ab obb in ) , wh i le t he C hr ist C h i ld s ea ted o n h er k nee i s b less ing w i th h is r igh t h and .

A t t he

f oo t o ft he t hrone i s ap ros tra te f igure , i den t i f ied b y i nscr ip t ion a s MATHILDIS. DVCISSA , wh i le t he p ar t ia l r e ma ins o f i nscr ip t ions , I GE NVISTI a bove , ALTARE b e low , p rove t ha t t h is was n o t o r ig ina l ly a n i so la ted p laque b u t was f l anked b y o ther p laques , p robab ly a s t he c en trep iece o f a n a l tar-fron ta l d ed ic a ted t o t he V irg in Mary .3 I ti s a lso p robab le t ha t t he u ndu la t ing s ides o f t he p laque were c u t t o b e r ecessed b eside p i lasters w i th a wavy p rof i le , s im i lar t o s evera l t r i for ium p i lasters i n t he c ho ir a nd Transep t o f N o tre-Da me d e B eaune ( P la te 1 5.14 ) . The B eaune p laque i s t hus a r are s urv iva l o f ad ecora ted Ro manesque a l tar-fron ta l , i t s d onor i den t i f ied a s a Duchess Ma th i lda o f B urgundy .

The p laque was i ndeed a dm irab ly p ub l ished i n 1 878 b yt he l oca l

a n t iquary P au l F o isset . The r eader i s r eferred t o h is a r t icle a nd t o h is v isua l r econstruct ion o ft he a l tar , a s we l l a s t o t ha t p ub l ished t wo y ears l a ter b y Rohau l t d e F leury .4 A l l t he more s urpr is ing t hen t ha t a r t h istor ians h ave t aken l i t t le o r n o i n terest i n a n o b jec t wh ich p ro m ises t o b e d a tab le , t he o nly Ro manesque s cu lp ture t o s urv ive i n B urgundy wh ich c an d ef in itely b e a ssoc ia ted w i th t he p a tronage o f t he C ape t ian Dukes. F ro m t he mo men t o f i t s r ed iscovery i n 1 843 , t he p laque was r ecogn ised a s p ar t o ft he Ro manesque h igh a l tar o f t he c o l leg ia te c hurch o f N o tre-Da me , wh ich l ay w i th in t he e nce in te o ft he C ast le o f t he Dukes a t B eaune .5 T here h as a lso b een f a ir ly g enera l r ecogn i t ion t ha t t he Ma th i lda e ngraved o n t he p laque was t he w i fe o f Hugh I , who was Duke f ro m 1 101-1142. A l though when F o isset wro te h e c ou ld s t il l e nv isage t hree p ossib le Ma thi ldas a s c and ida tes , a Ma th i lda w i fe o f O do I( 1 078-1101) , o r Ma th i lda , t he w i fe o f Hugh I ( 1 1011 142) , o r f i na l ly Ma th i lda , t he w i fe o f O do I I a t t he e nd o ft he 1 2th c en tury , i ti s n ow s a fe t o e xc lude t he f irst a nd t he l ast o f t hese Ma th i ldas , t he l as t b ecause a s C oun tess o f F landers h er c areer a nd t he c ircumstances o fh er b r ief marr iage t o O do f ro m 1 193-95 must r u le h er o u t o n t he g rounds o f

2 23

c o m monsense , t he f i rst b ecause s he n ever e x isted ; J ean R ichard i n a n a dm irab le a r t ic le h as s hown t ha t s he g a ined h er p lace i n g enea log ies o ft he Dukes o f B urgundy o w ing t o a n e rror o f ac orresponden t o f A ndre d u C hesne i n t he e ar ly 1 7th c en tury .6 T he Ma th i lda o f t he a l tar i s t herefore Ma th i lda o f Mayenne , who was Hugh 1 's w i fe b y a t l east 1 120 wel l a f ter h er h usband a nd b efore 1 162 ,

8

7

a nd s ee ms t o h ave d ied

a l though h er l ast a ppearance i s a s

aw i tness i n ac har ter o f 1 156 .9 O ne o ther p o in t a bou t t he p laque. There a re an u mber o f r eferences b y h istor ians t o t he h igh a l tar o f N o tre-Da me f ro m t he e ar ly 1 7th c en tury o nwards a nd t hey l eave l i t t le r oo m f or d oub t t ha t t he p laque was c orrec t ly i den t if ied i n t he 1 9th c en tury ; o ne o f t he e ar l iest o f t hese s econdary s ources a dds t ha t t here was a t rad i t ion t ha t Ma th i lda was b ur ied i n f ron t o f t he a l tar . 1°

Bu t t he e ar l iest r eference t o Ma th i lda a nd t he

h igh a l tar i s i n t he n ecro logy o f t he C hap ter , c o mp i led a t s o me d a te b etween 1 205-1207 ( P la te 1 5.11) :1 1 I d . f ebruar i i . Eode m d ie o b i i t ma t i ld is i l lustr is

e

d uc issa B urgund ie .que c onstrux i t i n e cc lesia h ac a l tare ma iore m c um p av imento i n h onore s anc te d e i g ene tr ic is mar ie . e t d ed i t c a l ice m a ureum e t v est i mentu m s acerdo ta le c um t un ica e t d a lma t ica . e t V . s o l idos c ensua les i n d o mo h ugonis c astra t i [ . ...[ .1 2 Th is e ar ly 1 3th c en tury e n try i n t he B eaune n ecro logy may n ot b e b ased a t a l l o n e ar l ier d ocu men tary e vidence o f Ma th i lda 's c on tr ibu t ion t o t he c onstruc t ion o ft he h igh a l tar ; i ti s j us t a s l i kely t ha t i t was i nsp ired d irec t ly b yt he Ma thi lda i nscr ip t ion o n t he a l tar i t sel f .

N ever the less , i td oes r epresen t s o l id , e ven i fi nd irec t , p roof t ha t

t he marb le s lab f ormed p ar t o ft he o r ig ina l Ro manesque h igh a l tar . I s i tp ossib le t o g o f ur ther a nd n arrow d own t he d a te o f t he a l tar f rom e x terna l e v idence? I ti s t e mp t ing , f or i nstance , t o s uppose t ha t t he a bsence o f Ma th i lda 's h usband , Hugh I ( a t l east h e d oes n o t s ee m t o h ave b een r epres ented o n t he a l tar b y t he t ime t he n ecrology was c omp i led ) means t ha t i t was made d ur ing t he y ears o f h er w idowhood ( 1 142-56/62) . T h is may we l l b e s o b u t c an b y n o means b e p roved , f or t hen i tb eco mes e qua lly s urpr ising t ha t h er s on , O do I ( 1 142-62) d id n ot a ppear a longside h er o n t he h igh a l tar o f h is own C ast le c hape l .

Aga in , i s i tp oss ib le t o d educe t he d a te o f t he a l tar f ro m

t he c hrono logy o f t he b u i ld ing i t sel f?

I n t he t ota l a bsence o f d ocumen ts , t he

p resen t c hurch s ee ms t o h ave b een b egun c . 1 130 w i th t he l ay ing o u t o f t he Ambu la tory a nd r ad ia t ing c hape ls ;

i t was t hen b u i l t r ap id ly u p t o a nd i nc luding

t he f our th b ay W . f ro m t he C rossing d ur ing t he f o l low ing f i f teen t o t wenty y ears .1 3 However t he a l tar s lab i s who l ly u nre lated i n s ty le t o t he c ap i ta l s cu lpture o f t he c hurch , w hi le t he u ndu lat ing p i lasters ( P la te 1 5.14) o f t he c ho ir a nd t ransep t t r i for ia ( c .1140) c ou ld j ust a s w e ll b e aq uo ta t ion f ro m t he a l tar a s c on te mporary w i th i t . I ti s t herefore s a fer t o a dm i t t ha t t he d a te o f t he a l tar c anno t b e d educed p rec ise ly f ro m t he b u i ld ing 's h istory . O n t he o ther h and i t must b e c onsidered v ery p robab le t ha t t he a l tar was made f or t he r ebui lt R o manesque c ho ir .

I tc an h ard ly h ave b een c arved b efore c .1130 .

S o much f or t he a rchaeo logy o f t he p laque . a t l east l oca l ly f or many y ears .

S o me o f t h is h as b een k nown

B u t wha t o f t he p laque a s a work o f a r t?

F irs t , a s a n i nc ised marb le s lab , t he l i nes o f wh ich w ere o r ig ina l ly i n la id w i th a c o loured s ubstance , i tb e longs t o ac lass o f o b jects , o f ten c hurch f urn ishings , t o mbs o r a l tar-f i t t ings , wh ich h ave o n ly r arely s urvived f ro m t he 1 2th c en tury i n F rance .

O f t echn ical ly c o mparab le s urv iva ls wh ich a re

2 24

r easonab ly l oca l , o ne t h inks i m med iate ly o f s evera l f ragmen ts o f t he L azarus Mauso leum f ro m S t L azare a t Au tun , n ow i n t he Mus e Ro l in , wh ich p robab ly d a te f ro m t he p er iod i m med ia te ly b efore 1 146 .1 4 o f t wo k inds :

T he Au tun f ragmen ts a re

t here a re t hree i nc ised s labs , t he ir l i nes i n la id w i th c o lour

a ga inst a p la in marb le g round ( bu t t h is c ou ld a lso h ave b een p a in ted ) , a nd t here a re p ure ly a rch i tectura l f ragmen ts a nd i nscr ip t ions , w i th t he who le b ackground i n la id t o c rea te a l mos t t he e f fect o f c ha mp leve e na mel l ing . s lab , i tb e longs t o t he f i rst t ype .

A s t o t he B eaune

B u t t here a re o ther l oca l e xamp les o f b o th

t ypes , n o tab ly i n V ienne a nd L yon , where t he s econd t ype i s a lso r epresented b y i n la id c orn ices , p i lasters a nd i nscr ip t ions. b y L uc ien B egu le i n a n e xcel lent b ook o f 1 905 ,

Many o f t hese were p ub l ished 1 5

i n wh ich h e a lso c onsidered

v ar ious o ther i n lay t echn iques wh ich emp loyed s tone o r g lass ; h is b ook i s s t i l l t he o n ly s urvey o ft he h istory o f p olychro me i n lay i n Byzan t ine a nd med ieva l a r t .

T he c e men t i n lay a na lysed f or B egu le was u sua l ly r ed o r b lack

a nd was made u p i n t he c ase o f L yon C a thedra l o f a pprox i ma tely t wo p ar ts p laster t o o ne p ar t i ron o x ide , i n most o ther c ases o f a mix ture o f ah igh p roport ion o f r esin w i th minera ls a dded f or c olour . T he r esinous c e men t s ee ms t o h ave b een p oured o r t rowe l led i n to t he e ngraved l i nes wh i le h o t a nd t hen a l lowed t o h arden b efore b eing r ubbed d own l evel w i th t he s ur face o f t he p laque ; as im i lar p rocess h as b een d iscussed r ecen t ly b y F . A . G reenh i l l i n c onnec t ion w i th l a ter med ieva l t o mb s labs. 16 I n a ny c ase , w i th t he B eaune p laque , a l l p hysica l e v idence o f i t s i n lay h as d isappeared a s ar esu l t o f l ong e xposure t o t he e le men ts.1 7 O ne o ther p o in t a bou t t he t echn ique o f t he p laque. T he r ar i ty o f t he F rench s urviva ls i s p robab ly o n ly a p roduc t o f t he e x tensive d es truc t ion o f c hurch f urn ish ings i n g enera l b u t i ti s as tr ik ing f ac t t ha t a s f ar a s t h is s ou thern g roup i s c oncerned , t he s urviva ls a re f ound i n t owns where R o man r e ma ins were p ro m inen t ly v isib le i nt he 1 2th c en tury . Do t hey t hen r ef lect at aste f or t he A n t ique , s ince i nc ised l ow-re l ief d esigns p ar t icu lar ly o n s te lae w ere w ide ly emp loyed u nder t he Emp ire?

B u t t he t echn ique c on t inued

i n g enera l u se i n t he e ar ly M idd le Ages , f or i ns tance o n s arcophag i , s o t ha t t h is c ou ld p erfec t ly wel l b e ac ase o f " surv iva l" r a ther t han " rev iva l" .

1 8

S econd ly , t he " draw ing s ty le" i fi t may b e s o c a l led o f t he f igures o f t he V irg in , o f t he C hr ist C h i ld a nd o f t he Duchess Ma th i lda i s h igh ly d ist inct ive , h as n o p ara l le ls amongst s urv iving Ro manesque s cu lp ture i n B urgundy , b u t i s o bv iously a nd c lose ly r ela ted t o a we ll-known a nd b eau t i fu l s er ies o f c o loured d raw ings i n manuscr ip ts f ro m C i teaux . O n t he B eaune p laque t he f aces h ave b een mu t i la ted b u t t he d raper ies s urv ive i n tac t , s harp ly e tched i n to t he marb le a nd g iven v igorous s i lhouet tes ;

t he f o lds a re s ty lised i n to g roups o f " nested-

V s" w i th c harac ter ist ic l i t t le t i cks b reak ing o f f a t t he e nd o f l i nes . T h is d raw ing s ty le i s v ery c lose ly r ela ted , f or i nstance , t o t ha t o f t he " Jesse t ree" w i th t he s tanding f igure o f t he V irg in a nd c h i ld i n t he C i teaux c opy o f J ero me 's c o mmen tary o nt he B ook o f I sa iah ( D i jon , B ib l . Mun . MS 1 29 , f .4 v° ) ( P la tes 1 5.6-8) . T he s tand ing g roup , wh ich c orresponds t o a n image emp loyed b y B ernard o f C la irvaux i n h is f i rst Ho m i ly i n p ra ise o f t he V irg in Mary , 19 h as b een d rawn a s ap en t i mento o ver a more t rad i t iona l J essetree c o mposi t ion w i th r ounde ls wh ich was a lready f a in t ly s ketched i n . " P erhaps t he a r t ist was c onstra ined t o modi fy t he n or ma l " tree" a rrange men t b y t he t a l l n arrow s pace l e f t t o h im b y t he s cr ibe .

I fs o , c onstra in t p rovided t he impetus t o t he

c rea t ion o f o ne o f t he masterp ieces o f F rench Ro manesque a r t .

2 25

B u t t urn ing

t o t he B eaune p laque , t he d raper ies a re s che ma t ised i n to p anel led a reas s harp ly o u t l ined b y g r ids o f l i nes i n e xact ly t he s ame way a s i n t he C i tea t ix d raw ing . I n a nother C l teaux manuscr ip t , af ramed f ul-page o f C hr is t i n a mandor la f l anked b y g roups o f t he minor p rophe ts ( D i jon , B ib l . Mun . MS 1 32, f .2) ( P la tes 1 5.9-10) , wh ich p refaces a c ol lec t ion o f s o me o f J ero me 's c om men tar ies o n t he b ooks o f m inor p rophets , may a lso b e c o mpared i n s ty le t o t he B eaune p laque i n n u merous d eta i ls. I ndeed i ft h is o r t he J esse d raw ing h ad n o t b een "mode lled" w i th washes o f c o lour , s o t ha t t he p en d raw ing i s s of tened i n i t s o u t l ines a nd i ft here was n o t n o tor ious d if f icu l ty i n c o mpar ing works o f a r t i n o ne med iu m w i th t hose i n a no ther , i t wou ld b e p lausib le t o a t tr ibu te t he i nc ised p laque t o t he d raugh ts man o f t hese C i teaux f o l ios. A t t he l east i t may b e a dm i t ted t ha t t he p laque i s d irec t ly c onnec ted w i th t he a r t ist ic mi lieu o f t he M eaux d raw ings ;

i t s s cu lp tor must h ave h ad a c lose k now ledge

o f t he work o f t he " Meaux d raugh ts man" . I ndeed t he d raw ing t echn ique o f t he l a t ter , wh ich s tar ts b y l ay ing d own a s trong a r ma ture o f l i nes w i th t he p en ( s ee t he u nco loured d e ta i l ( P la te 1 5.7 ) o f t he r ecu mben t J esse )2 1 a nd t hen a dds c o loured washes ( s ee t he d e ta i l ( P la te 1 5.8) o f t he V irg in 's d rapery ) c rea tes a n e f fect s im i lar t o t ha t o f c o loured i n lay . I ti s n o t d i f f icu l t t o i mag ine t hese d raw ings t ransferred t o af l a t marb le s ur face . T he B eaune p laque t herefore r a ises f or t he h istor ian o f R o manesque p a in t ing s o me i n terest ing q uest ions .

T hese c an o n ly b e e xp lored h ere i n a

most p re l im inary f ash ion . F irst , t here i s t he v exed q uest ion o f t he d a t ing o f t he e ar ly i l lum ina ted manuscr ip ts f ro m C i teaux . When t hey were p ub l ished p ar t ia l ly b y C har les Oursel i n h is b ook o f1 926 ,2 2 ad a te b efore 1 134 , p robab ly e ven b efore 1 125 , was p roposed n ot o n ly f or t he S tephen Harding B ib le a nd t he b ig Mora lia i n J ob manuscr ip t ( Di jon , B ib l . Mun . MSS 1 2-15 ; 1 68-170 ) , wh ich a re d a ted i n p ar ts a t l east a s f ar a s t he ir wr i t ing i s c oncerned b y c o lophons o f r espec t ively 1 109 a nd 1 111, b u t a lso f or a s econd g roup , wh ich was c harac ter ised a s " byzan t in ising" i n s ty le ;

t h is i s t he g roup t o wh ich t he B eaune p laque i s r e la ted .

T he g roup i s b yn o means e asy t o d ef ine .

T here were f or i nstance a t l east

t hree a r t ists i nvo lved , o f who m t he J esse Master was c lear ly t he l ead ing f igure . T o h i m Iwou ld o n ly a t tr ibu te w i th c er ta in ty t he d oub le p age o f wh ich t he J esse f orms p ar t ( MS . 1 29 ,4v 0 5 ( P la te 1 5.6) ) , t wo b ig p resen ta t ion p ages i n MS . 1 32 ( 2 ( P la te 1 5.9)-2v° ( t he l a t ter f o l io w i th a reas p a in ted b y a no ther h and ) ) a nd p ossib ly t he p resen ta t ion p age t o Vo lume 4 o f t he C i teaux L egendary ( MS . 6 41 , 2 \ 70) .2 3

O ther a r t ists a dop ted t h is d is t inc t ive d raw ing s ty le i n t he s ame

t hree b ooks a nd a lso i n MS .180 , a l though t he ir d raw ings e xecu ted w i th a s of ter a nd l ess c on trol led l i ne t han t he J esse Master c ou ld c o mmand a re o f ten d if f icu l t t o j udge b ecause o ft he p a in t wh ich h as b een a pp l ied o ver t he o r ig ina l p en s trokes. 24 However f or o ur p urposes , p rec ise d ef in i t ion o f t he g roup i s l ess i mportant t han a n u mber o f g enera l r e marks wh ich c an b e a dvanced a bou t i t . I n t he f our th v o lu me o ft he L egendary , af ew o f t he i n it ia ls a s h as b een s a id a re r ela ted i n s ty le t o t he d raw ings b y t he J esse Master b u t t he ma jor i ty mani fest ly o we a much l arger d eb t t o t he a r t ists o f t he v ery e ar ly C i teaux b ooks , s uch a s t he Mora l ia a nd t he Hard ing B ib le . B u t t h is i s n o t ac o mpel l ing r eason f or a ssu m ing t ha t t he v o lu me i s i t sel f e ar ly i n d a te ;

i tc ou ld p er fec t ly

we l l h ave b een i l lu m ina ted a f ter a c onsiderab le p assage o f y ears a nd d oes n o t h ave t o b e c lose t o t he p er iod 1 109/1111. Aga in , t he i ngred ien ts o f i t s a r t ist ic

99A

p ed igree s uggest s trong ly t ha t i ti s ap roduc t o f t he r esiden t C i teaux s cr ipt or iu m , whereas t he s pec ia l n a ture o f t he p resen ta t ion f o l ios a t tr ibu ted h ere t o t he J esse Master c ou ld p lausib ly b e e xp la ined b y t he i n terven t ion o f a n o u ts ide p rofessiona l a r t ist .

T h is i s ap o in t t o wh ich we w i l l r eturn .

N ex t , Oursel 's t er m inus a n te q ue m o f 1 134 f or t he C i teaux b ooks was b ased o n an u mber o f f a lse a ssu mp t ions ; h e was h imse lf f orced t o modi fy h is p osi t ion i n l a ter y ears , e ven i fh e n ever w i thdrew h is p roposed e ar ly d a tes . 25

B u t i ti s s t il l h is 1 926 b ook wh ich h o lds t he i n terna t iona l s tage , a nd

t herefore r equ ires t o b e r efu ted . .O ursel a nd i ndeed a l l s ubsequen t wr iters h ave a ccep ted w i thou t q uest ion t ha t t he S ta tu te o f t he Order r e la t ing t o c o loured l e t ters was n o thing more n or l ess t han a g enera l p roscr ip t ion a ga ins t f igured a nd h istor ia ted i n it ia ls , t ha t i s t o s ay a ga inst images i n b ooks. T h is may wel l h ave b een o ne o f i t s a i ms b u t g iven t ha t t he S ta tu tes a re o n t he who le c lear a nd u na mb iguous , i ti s worth p o in t ing o u t t ha t when r ead l i tera l ly t he S ta tu te wou ld s ee m t o b e c oncerned w i th r ubr ica t ion a nd p a in t ing , n o t w i th s ub jec t- ma tter a t a l l : L i t terae u n ius c o lon s f i an t , e t n on d ep ic tae ; t he i n ten t ion may h ave b een t o e nsure t ha t t he monks g o t o n w i th c opy ing a nd d id n o t h o ld t h ings u p b y a dorn ing t he ir b ooks a nd c rea t ing r ich ly-co loured works o f a r t wh ich l ed t he r eader a way f ro m t he t ex t . There i s n o s pec i f ic p roh ib i t ion o f i mages s acred o r p rofane i n b ooks . C on trast t he s econd p ar t o f t he s a me S ta tu te : V i treae a lbae f ian t , e t s ine c ruc ibus e t p ictur is ; i ti s q u i te a no ther ma t ter t o c o mm iss ion c o loured a nd p a inted g lass wh ich migh t d istrac t t he monks f ro m t he b usiness o f t he l i turgy o r p r iva te p rayer . 26

Ourse l a lso b el ieved

t ha t t he S ta tu te was o ne o f ac o l lect ion p ro mu lga ted i n t he G enera l C hap ter o f 1 134 .

T here i s n o e v idence f or t h is. 27

T he c ontroversy o ver t he d a t ing

o f t he e ar ly C istercian d ocu men ts was s t i l l u nborn a t t he t ime when D om J M C an ivez p ub l ished h is o f f ic ia l e d i t ion o f t he S ta tu tes i n 1 933 , a l though h is d a t ing was t o b e r endered l argely o bso lete w i th in a f ew y ears a f ter t he e nd o f Wor ld War I , a s t he e volu t ion o f t he S ta tu te c o l lec t ion b eca me a pparen t w i th t he d iscovery o f f resh manuscr ip t ma ter ial .

T h is h as n o t h owever p revented

s ubsequen t g enera t ions o f a r t h istor ians f ro m u ncr i t ica l ly a ccep t ing t he 1 134 d a t ing o f t he S ta tu te .2 8 C o mp lex a s a re t he p rob le ms r e la t ing t o t he v ar ious r ecensions , a dd it ions a nd e labora t ions o ft he S ta tu te c ol lec t ion d ur ing t he p er iod f ro m 1 119 u n t i l t he 1 180s , t here d oes n ow s ee m t o b e af a ir measure o f a gree men t t ha t t he S ta tu te o n L e t ters was c od i f ied i n 1 151 , a s p ar t o f a c o l lect ion p resen ted t o t he G enera l C hap ter a nd s l igh t ly mod i f ied i n 1 152. 29 I ts ee ms l i ke ly t hat i t was f i rst moo ted i n t he 1 140s o r i m med ia tely b efore 1 151. " T hus e ven i ft he S ta tu te d id r ef lect i nd irec t ly a move w i th in t he O rder t o b an t he h istor ia ted i l lu m ina t ion o f manuscr ip ts , i t wou ld b e long t o a p er iod when p r inc ip les were h arden ing a t t he v ery e nd o f B ernard o f C la irvaux 's l i fe , r a ther t han r ef lect ing t he a ustere s p ir i t o f t he e ar l iest g enera t ions o f t he O rder .

T he S ta tu te was i n a ny c ase l arge ly i gnored a s we s ha l l s ee .

T here i s a nother a nd more g enera l c onc lusion wh ich was p roposed b y O urse l a nd i s s t il l o f ten a dop ted b y a r t h istor ians . He w ished t o a dvance h is t er m inus a n te q ue r nf or t he i l lu m ina ted M eaux manuscr ip ts b ecause h e b e l ieved t ha t B ernard o f C la irvaux 's f a mous Apo log ia t o Wi l l iam o f S t Th ierry was wr i t ten i n 1 125 a nd r epresen ted t he c reed o f a n i conoc last whose p ower fu l p ersona l i ty a l lowed h im t o s peak f or t he O rder a s a who le . T here a re a n u mber o f o bv ious o b ject ions t o t h is v iew . T he d a te o f B ernard 's t ract i s n o t k nown ;

2 27

a l though n o t ac o mpos i te d ocu men t , t he c ircums tances o f i t s wr i t ing a re f ar f ro m c lear , e ven i ft here i s g enera l a greemen t t ha t i tb e longs t o t he 1 1205 .

3 1

R ead ing t he t rac t a s a who le , i ti s o bv ious t ha t B ernard a dop ts a t c er ta in s tages o f h is a rgu ment t he l i terary d ev ices o f t he s a t ir ist , i n tent o n c arry ing t he d ay a t a l l c osts a nd w ithou t t oo much c oncern f or t he a bso lu te p rec ision a nd j ust ice o f h is e xa mp les . The v ery p assages wh ich h ave b een s o o f ten q uoted a s s ta temen ts o fh is a esthet ic v a lues a re among t he most o bv ious e xamp les o fh is emp loyment o f t he s a t ir ica l g enre .

I ndeed t he Apo log ia c anno t p oss ib ly b e

c onstrued a s a n a n t i-ar t s ta te men t . l i fe .

I ti s at rac t b y a monk a bou t t he monast ic

T he o n ly r eference i n t he Apo log ia t o f igura t ive works o f a r t i s i n t he

f a mous p assage o n C lo ister c ap i ta ls a nd e ven t h is i s d i f f icu l t t o i n terpre t b ecause t he f ew f ragments wh ich c an p lausib ly b e a t tr ibu ted t o t he d estroyed Ro m a nesque C lo isters a t C luny a nd V ezelay a re a l f o l iage o r p ure ly o rnamenta l s cu lptures .3 2 T he s usp ic ion a r ises t ha t t he C loisters o f Mo issac a nd T ou louse ( La Daurade ) s hou ld n ot b e a ccep ted u ncr i t ica l ly a s t yp ica l ly " C lun iac" .3 3 Nor h ave we a ny r igh t t o a ssu me t ha t B ernard c ou ld y e t s peak f or t he O rder a s a who le i n t he 1 120s ; t ha t u ncha l lenged p osi t ion h e h ad s t i l l t o a ch ieve . C er ta in ly t he V i ta P r i ma makes i tc lear t ha t h e h ad t he myst ic 's p ower t o d etach h i msel f b y p rayer c o mp lete ly f ro m h is s urround ings. Arch i tec ture d id n o t c onduc t h im t o p rayer , wh i lst l uxury o f fended a ga inst t he p ract ice o f c har i ty t o t he p oor .3 4 A s t o c arved a nd p a in ted i mages , t he C isterc ians a lready r e jec ted t he m , w i th t he e xcep t ion o f p a in ted wood c ruci f ixes , i n t he f irst g roup o f S ta tu tes o f 1 119 a nd t he r eason f or t h is r e jec t ion , t he ir p ower t o d istrac t , i s s pe l t o u t i n t he e labora ted S ta tu te o f 1 151 ( 1 152) . 35 B u t wha t o f b ooks? Wha t f or i nstance o f a l l t he e ar ly f igured i n i t ia ls , o f ten w i th b i t ing b easts a nd a l l t he e xot ic p arapherna l ia s o r em in iscen t o f t he f abu lous e xamp les i n B ernard 's Apo log ia , f ro m v ar ious C isterc ian h ouses , n ot j ust f ro m C t teaux , b u t f ro m A l tzel le , Vauc la ir ,

4 1

3 6

Hau ter ive ,

3 7

H ei l igenkreuz ,

n o t t o ment ion C la irvaux i t se lf 4 2

3 8

Mor i mondo ,

a nd P on t igny? 43

3 9

O rva l ,

4 0

T here a re

n u merous o ther e xa mp les wh ich c ou ld b e q uo ted , f or i nstance i n Eng land , a nd t hese e xa mp les a re w idespread e nough a nd d iverse e nough i n d a te t o p rove t ha t f igured i n i t ia ls were b eing e xecu ted b y t he C is terc ians t hroughou t t he 1 2th c en tury . I n Burgundy i t sel f i n t he ma jor a bbeys , t here i s e ven e v idence wh ich a l lows o ne t o d iscard o nce a nd f or a l l t he h ypo thesis o f aB ernard ine i conoc las m t hroughou t t he e n t ire O rder i n t he s econd q uar ter o f t he 1 2th c en tury .

F or i nstance , P r ince Henry o f F rance b rough t h is l i brary t o C la irvaux

when h e a rr ived a s an ov ice i n 1 145 a nd t here i s n o th ing r e mo te ly a ustere a bou t t he d ecora t ion o f t hese b ooks , wh ich s ee m t o h ave b een p u t t o g enera l u se b y t he monks. 44

B u t t he most i mpressive c o loured d raw ings o f t h is p er iod a re

t o b e f ound d ecora t ing a b eau t i fu l ly wr i t ten c opy o f S t G regory 's Mora l ia i n J ob f ro m L a F er te , t he f irst d augh ter o f C i teaux .

A t t he e nd o f t he f i na l

v olu me i s ac o lophon i n t he s a me h and a s t he r est o f t he b ook n am ing t he s cr ibe P eter o f T ou l a nd s ta t ing t ha t h e h as c o mp leted t he wr i t ing i n 1 134 o n t he v ig i l o f t he b lessed L aurence mar tyr , d ur ing t he t ime o f Bar tho lo mew , a bbot o f L a F er te ( Cha lon-sur-Sa i öne , B ib l . Mun . MS 7 -9 ) . 45 T he d a ted d ecora t ion o f t he L a F er te Mora l ia i s i mportan t b ecause o f i t s imp l ica t ions f or t he O rder a s a whole , a nd b ecause i ti s ac hrono log ica l f i xed p o int i n t he h istory o f Ro manesque p a in t ing i n B urgundy . F or i t s f igure s ty le i s r ela ted t o j ust t ha t g roup o f M eaux b ooks , w i th wh ich we a re c oncerned

2 28

h ere , a l though i ti s c er ta in ly n o t b y o ne o f t he C i teau .x a r t ists.

F or i nstance ,

t he d rapery i s o rgan ised i n n ested-Vs o n t he t h igh o f t he s ea ted f igure o f J ob ( MS 9 , f .150-P la te 1 5.13 ) . T herefore t he L a F er te Mora lia i n troduces a n a bso lu te d a te , wh ich s hou ld b e t aken i n to a ccount when d iscussing t he d raw ings o ft he C It eam ( J esse Master , e ven i fi t s f igures a re d ef ined w i th a s of ter l i ne a nd l ess a ssurance t han t hose o f t he manuscr ip ts w i th wh ich t he B eaune a l tar s lab i s s o c lose ly c o mparab le .

O f c ourse t he p rob le m o f t he c hrono logy o f

t he ateaux J esse Master c an o n ly b e c onsidered a s p ar t o f aw ider p rob le m : h ow d oes h e r e late t o t he e ar ly 1 2th c entury C luny manuscr ip ts " a nd t o t he wa l l-pa in t ings o f B erze-la-Vi l le , * wh ich c an b e v ery p lausib ly d a ted i n t he s econd d ecade o f t he 1 2th c en tury? 47 T he r e la t ionsh ip was c er ta in ly n ot d irect b u t h ere a c o mp lica t ing f ac tor i s i n troduced b y t wo o f t he r ela ted f igures i n t he f our th v o lu me o f t he L egendary , wh ich s ee m t o b e b ased o n ad raw ing o f t he t ype o f t he s ea ted S t P eter i n t he P en tecos t p a in t ing i n t he C luny L ect ionary . O ne o f t hese L egendary f igures , S t Ma t thew , i s e ven s ea ted o n at hrone w i th e xact ly t he s a me c ur iously e labora te r ows o f a rcad ing wh ich s uppor t t he B eaune V irg in . 48 O n t h is b asis , t he C i teaux J esse migh t b e i n terpre ted a s l a ter t han t he L egendary , t he c u lm ina t ion o f a" sty list ic e volu t ion" .

A nd we

h ave s een t ha t h istor ica l ly t he B eaune a l tar s lab wou ld r est c om for tab ly w i th in t he d ecade o f t he 1 140s . B u t s uch a p ic ture c ou ld v ery wel l b e d ecept ive . I f t he g rea t a r t ist i s a lways t he i nnova tor , t hen o ne i s f orced t o r everse t he p rogression a nd t o r ead i tf ro m t he g roup o f t he B eaune a l tar t o l a ter d er iva t ive a rt ists who c ou ld o n ly d i lu te a nd s of ten t h is h ard l i near l anguage o f f orms . The r elevan t p a int ings i n t he f our th v o lume o f t he M eaux L egendary f or i nstance s ee m l i kely t o b e i n f luenced b y , n ot e ar lier t han , t he work o f t he J esse Master .

And s o my own i nc l ina t ion wou ld b e t o d a te t he a ct iv i ty o f t he

J esse Master a t C i teaux c . 1 130 , w i th t he i nc ised a l tar s lab e xecu ted d ur ing t he e ar l iest p er iod o f work o n t he n ew c hurch a t B eaune i n t he 1 130s . Bu t t h is c hrono logy i s p u t f orward i n t he most p rov isiona l s p ir i t , t o awa i t t he j udge men t o ft he p a leographers who h ave y et t o e xa m ine t he L a F er tt Mora l ia a nd t he C i teaux manuscr ip ts , p ar t icu lar ly t he L egendary , w i th t he a t tent ion t hey d eserve . B e t ha t a s i t may , n ow t ha t Oursel f sg rounds f or d a t ing a l l t he M eaux , i ndeed a l l e xcep t af ew C isterc ian , i l lum ina ted b ooks b efore 1 134 c an b e r ej ec ted , i ti s p oss ib le t o g o f ur ther a nd p ropose a no ther h ypothesis f or manus cr ip t s cholars t o t est . I s i tn o th istor ica l ly more p robab le t ha t i t was a t t he v ery e nd o f B ernard 's l i fe a nd i n t he a f ter ma th o f h is d ea th i n 1 153 , d ur ing ap er iod wh ich s aw much B ernard ine wr i t ing a nd h ag iography , t hat c lar i ty o f p resenta t ion o f t he p age , s i mp le c o lour ing o f i n i t ia ls a nd a g enera l a vo idance o f t he g ro tesque i n i t ia l a nd o f t he h istor ia ted p ic ture b eca me w idespread ( t hough n ever c anon ica l ) w i thin t he Order? a nd e ven t hen , p erhaps r a ther w i th in t he f am i ly o f C la irvaux t han t hroughou t t he O rder? A s im ilar h arden ing t owards a r t ist ic p ur is m a cco mpan ied v ar ious F ranc iscan r efor ms t hroughou t t he t h ir teen th c en tury , a lways o f f icia lly h ark ing b ack t o a n i dea l o f t he s a in t h i mse l f a s i n terpreted b yh is d isc ip les , r a ther t han t o a ny r u les h e h i msel f l a id d own . F ur ther more , w ith t he d ecora ted 1 2th c entury C istercian b ooks Ib el ieve t ha t i ti s t ime t o s top t h ink ing o f t he m a s t he f ru i ts o f o ccasiona l a berra t ions f ro m a n a ccep ted n or m o f s i mp l ic ity . I n t he words o f t he g rea t h istor ian o f t he C isterc ian O rder , Do m J ean L ec lercq : " Ces i nnocents

2 29

d essins s ont l a p ar t d e l a f an ta isie d ans u ne v ie d on t Pauster i te n 'exc lua i t p as l a p oes ie , l es j eux d e P i mag ina t ion . "49 There i s o ne f i na l q uest ion r a ised b y t he d irec t s ty l ist ic r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t he B eaune p laque a nd t he C i teaux d raw ings .

Th is i s aq uest ion v ery

c lose t o t he i nterests o f C hr istopher Hoh ler , t o who m we a re a l l d ed ica t ing t he e ssays i n t h is v o lume :

a d mag istru m .

The B eaune p laque was c arved

f or a Duchess o f Burgundy , a s p art o f t he h igh a l tar o f t he C ast le C hape l o f t he Dukes. I ;

C i teaux was f ounded i n 1 098 t hrough t he g ood of ices o f Duke O do

o n h is t o mb a t C i teaux h e was d escr ibed a s t he f ounder .

h usband , Duke Hugh I , t he f ounder 's s on ,

Ma th i lda 's

was a lso b ur ied a t C i teaux , a s

was h is s on a f ter h im . 5 ° Ma th i lda was , w i th Hugh I , d eep ly i nvolved c . 1 124/32 i n t he f ounda t ion o f L e Tar t , t he f i rst C istercian n unnery .5 1 a pparen t ly o n g ood t er ms c . 1 120 w ith B ernard o f C la irvaux ,

5 2

S he was

a nd i n t he

e ar ly 1 8th c en tury s he i s r ecorded a s f igur ing i n ap a int ing among t he " founders o f M eaux" i n t he Dukes ' s epu lchra l c hape 1 . 53

Her n a me a lso a ppears i n r ed

i n t he o r ig ina l h and o f t he marg ina l n ecro log ica l e n tr ies wh ich were made a f ter 1 224 a nd b efore 1 235 i n t he Mar tyro logy o f C i teaux ( P la te 1 5.12) . 54

C i teaux

was f ounded i n af orested marshy a rea , wh ich l i es t o t he e as t o f Nu i ts-S t G eorges , a t ad istance o f l ess t han t wen ty mi les f ro m b oth B eaune a nd D i jon , t he p r inc ipa l s ea ts o f Duca l a u thor i ty i n t he 1 2th c en tury .

S o wha t c ou ld b e

more l ike ly t han t ha t a r t ists who worked f or t he Duke were i nvo lved i n t he d ecora t ion o f b ooks f or C i teaux?

B o th L er evre a nd Masa i s uggested l ong a go

t ha t t he Hard ing B ib le a nd t he Mora l ia c ou ld we l l b e p roduc ts o f ap rofessiona l l ay a r t ist a t work i n a monast ic s cr ip tor iu m .5 5 Duca l t o mbs a t C i teaux .

Ap ara l le l i s p rov ided b y t he

The t o mb o f Dukes O do I , Hugh I a nd Odo I ( d .1163)

( P la te 1 5.15) w i th i t s f lu ted a nd d ecora ted p i lasters e xact ly l i ke t hose o f t he B eaune t ri for iu m ( P la te 1 5.14 ) d e monstra ted b efore i t s d estruct ion wha t a p rofessiona l mason work ing f or t he Dukes c ou ld p roduce a s as u mp tuous c o mpro m ise when f aced w i th t he e ar ly C isterc ian p roh ib i t ion a ga inst c arved images.

Th is S ta tu te was a s we h ave s een p ro mu lga ted i n 1 119 , a nd u nl ike

t he S ta tu te o n L et ters , i ts ee ms t o h ave b een r ig id ly o bserved .

To e nd t hen

w i th a q uest ion , p erhaps t he B eaune a l tar p laque s hou ld b e r egarded a s p rov id ing e v idence f or t he i nterven t ion o f al ay p ro fessiona l a rt ist , p oss ib ly e ven a t t he Duke 's e xpense , i n t he p roduct ions o f t he M eaux s cr ip tor iu m?

Iwou ld l i ke t o t hank t he f o l low ing who h ave h elped me w i th t h is p aper : M me . F ranco ise B erce , Professor C hr istopher B rooke , P rofessor G i les C onstab le ,

M .

P ierre G ras , M iss C arey M i l ler , M . Mor tureux , M . l e c hano ine

J ean Manl ier , M . J ean R igau l t , P rofessor G eorge Z arneck i .

2 30

NOTES 1 .

F or t wo s l igh t ly c on f l ict ing a ccoun ts o f t he r ed iscovery o f t he p laque , s ee Me mo ires d e l a C o mm ission d es An t iqu i tes d e l a C ö te-d 'O r , t 1 847-52 ( 1 853 ) , p ages XLVI-XLV I I ( Co mp te-rendu d es t ravaux 1 850-51) ; J . D e l issey ,

L e V ieux B eaune .

p ages 9 4-96 .

E tude d 'h isto ire l oca le , B eaune 1 941 ,

F or t he d ona t ion o f t he p laque a nd i t s r ep lace ment i n N o tre-

Da me , s ee B eaune , Arch ives d e l a C ure d e N o tre-Da me , 2 b me r eg istre d es d e l ibera t ions d u C onse i l d e F abr ique d e No tre-Da me d e B eaune ( 1 840 ä 1 870) , p ages 1 6-17 ( seance d u d i manche , 2j u i l let 1 843) :

" [p laque ]

d on t M . Gueno t , b anqu ier ä B eaune , f a i t h o m mage ä l a f abr ique .

C e

f ragmen t , r ecue i l li p ar f eu M . Robel in q u i as auve d uv anda l is me d e 1 793 i m a ssez g rand n o mbre d 'ob je ts d 'ar t ....

. Arrete e n o u tre q ue

l e f rag men t .... s era p lace da ns l e s anctua ire ....co m me p ierre c o m me mor at ive d e Panc ien ma i tre a u te l d e c et te e g l ise , e t p ar c onsequen t , l e p lus p res p ossib le d e P endro i t o i s e t rouva i t c et a u te l ...." . 2 .

Iam v ery g ra tefu l t o M iss C arey M i l ler , S en ior I l lustra tor o f t he Depar tment o f Med ieva l a nd L a ter Ant iqu i t ies o f t he B r i t ish Museu m , f or t he d raw ing wh ich s he e xecu ted f ro m d eta i led p hotographs.

3 .

I ti s n ot v ery f ru i t fu l t o s pecu la te o n t he i conography o f t he a l tar , g iven i t s i nco mp lete s ta te —an Adora t ion o f t he Mag i? t he V irg in a nd C h i ld f lanked b y s a ints?

Var ious s cho lars h ave a rgued t ha t t he word

i Ge ku ist i f or med

p art o f a n i nscr ip t ion t aken f ro m t he a n t iphon A l ma r ede mp tor is ma ter , s ee K . Rossigno l , H isto ire d e B eaune , B eaune 1 854 , p ages 8 4-85 ;

P .

F o isset , L 'au te l d e l a d uchesse Ma th i lde ' aN o tre-Da me d e B eaune , Me mo ires d e l a S oc iete d 'H isto ire , d 'Archeo log ie e t d e L i t tera ture d e Pa rrond isse men t d e B eaune , 1 876-7 ,7 ( 1 878) , p ages 3 7-48 ; d e F leury , La Messe.

C . Rohau l t

E tudes a rcheo log iques , l er v o lu me P ar is 1 883 ,

p ages 2 22-23. 4 .

S ee F o isset , o p . c i t ., P l . I ( Leguay , L i th .;

L i th . E . J obard , hD i jon ) ;

Rohau l t d e F leury , o p . c i t ., P l . LX 2OC EV ( engrav ing s igned Rohau l t d e F leury , 2 0 ma i 1 880 —d 'apres Mr Pa bbe P ern in ) . 5 .

The c o l leg ia te e stab l ish ment w i th in t he c ast le was f ounded b y Henry I , p robab ly i n 9 73 ;

d ur ing t he f o l low ing f i f ty t o o ne h undred y ears B eaune

was t he p r inc ipa l s trongho ld o f t he Dukes.

L arge ly b ecause i ta lready

p rof ited f ro m t he r ich s urround ing c oun tryside , t ha t i s t o s ay f ro m i t s p roduce ( mea t a nd w ine ) , B eaune was a lready a p rosperous t own b y t he 1 2th c en tury a nd i n t he l a te 1 2th c en tury t he Duke e x tended t he wal ls t o c ircu mscr ibe a l arge a rea , more o r l ess a long t he l ines o f t he p resen t wa l ls , wh ich a re o f l a te 1 5th-ear ly 1 6 th c en tury d a te.

F or a n e xcel len t

b r ief r esu me , s ee J . R ichard , L e P ays d e B eaune ä P epoque r o mane , C en tre I n terna t iona l d 'Etudes Ro manes , 1 967 , p ages 5 5-65.

2 31

6 .

S ee A . d u C hesne , H isto ire g enea log ique d es d ues d e B ourgogne ...., P ar is 1 628 , p reuves p age 1 72 ;

J . R ichard , S ur l es a l l iances f am i lia les

d es d ues d e B ourgogne a ux X [ Ie e t X I I Ie s f ec les , Anna les d e B ourgogne , tXXX , 1 958, f asc . 1 , j anvier- mars , p ages 3 7-46 , p ar t ic . p ages 4 0-41. Is uspec t t ha t t he s ource f or t he " invent ion" o f t he f irst Ma th i lda was a p a in t ing , p erhaps o f 1 6th c en tury d a te , a t C i teaux—see n ote 5 3 b e low . R ichard 's d a tes f or c har ters h ave b een f o l lowed b y me t hroughou t t h is e ssay . Thus , t he d a tes o f t he Dukes a re h is a nd h ave b een p referred t o t hose o f p rev ious h istor ians. 7 .

Ih ave b een u nab le t o i den t ify t he s ource f or t he c la im ( E. P et i t , H istoire d es d ues d e B ourgogne d e l a r ace c apet ienne , tI , Par is 1 885 , p age 2 82) t ha t Hugh I h ad marr ied Ma th i lda b y 1 106 .

Ma th i lda a ppears i n ac har ter

o f 1 116-22 ( Pet i t I , n o . 1 89) a nd a no ther o f 1 120 a t t he l a test ( Pet i t I , n o . 1 91) . 8 .

J udg ing b y ac har ter d a ted 1 162 ( Arch ives Depar te men ta les d e l a C ö ted 'Or , 1 1. H 6 6* [ Car tu la ire d e C i teaux , tI I ] , f .168) , i n wh ich h er s on , O do I , h ands o ver t o M eaux among o ther t hings d o mu m , q ua m ma ter mea MARTHILDIS e x tra muros D iv ionenses h abeba t ... . ( Quo ted i n f u l l P et i t , o p . c i t ., tI , P ar is 1 888, n o . 3 88) .

9 .

2 8 J une 1 156 —a mong t he w i tnesses t o ac har ter o f t he Abbey o f S teMarguer i te— o do d ux b urgund ie. ma ltr ix ma ter e ius ... ( Arch D bp . C öte-d ' Or —T i tres d e S a in te- Marguer i te , H 6 77 —Grosbo is) .

The c har ter

i s p r inted b y P et i t , o p . c i t ., I , n o . 3 55 , b u t h e d oes n o t n ote t he f ac t t ha t t he o r ig ina l i s d a ted a nno a b i ncarna t ione d n i mil lesi mo c en tes i mo . q u inguagesi mo . f o l lowed b y ag ap f or t he y ear , wh ich h as b een f i l led i n b y a much l a ter h and w i th s ex to . 1 156 i s h owever t he c orrec t d a te , d educ ib le f ro m t he e pac t ( 26 —not 2 0 , a s t ranscr ibed b y P et i t ) , wh ich i s g iven i n t he o r ig ina l h and . 1 0.

S ee t he manuscr ip t c hron ic le o f C anon S tephen , who was s ecre tary o f t he C hap ter f ro m 1 654-1700 ( Arch . Dep . C b te-d yO r , MS .122) , wh ich i s p r in ted b y Pa bbe Vo il lery , Me ms. S oc . d 'H ist . Arch . L i t t . B eaune 1 887 ( 1 888) , 1 31-146 :

" La t rad i t ion e st q u 'el le e st e n terree a u-devan t d 'ice lu i" .

F or o ther e ar ly r eferences t o t he a ltar , s ee d u C hesne , o p . c i t ., p ages 2 5-26 , p reuves p age 1 72 ;

Pasumo t , No t ice s ur d es Ant iqu i tes d e l a

V il le d e B eaune , p ub l ished i n av o lu me D isser ta t ions e t M6 mo ires .... mis e n o rdre e t p ub l ies d 'a pres l es Manuscr i ts d e f eu M . P asu mo t , p ar C .M .Gr ivaud , P ar is 1 810-1813 [ Pasu mo t 1 733-1804 ] , p ages ( 3 3 )-(34 ) ; 1 'a bbe B redeau l t , manuscr ip t n o tes o f t he e ar ly 1 9th c entury , wr it ten a s as upp le men t t o t he a bbe G andelo t 's H isto ire d e l a v i l le d e B eaune e t d e s es Ant iqu i tes , D i jon 1 772:

d escr ibes t he i nc ised p laque , s ays t ha t b efore

1 793 i tf or med p ar t o f t he h igh a l tar o f N o tre-Da me a nd t ha t ( so mewha t c on fusing ly ) i t was p robab ly f or mer ly p ar t o f Ma th i lda 's t o mb , s ince s he i s b e l ieved t o b e b ur ied n earby

( s ee S upp le men t a PHistoire d e B eaune

d e G andelo t , p ar Pabbe B redeau l t , p r in ted Me ms. S oc . d 'Hist . Arch . L i t t . B eaune 1 888(1889) , p art icu lar ly p age 1 01.) A n ew h igh a l tar r ep laced t he o ld a ltar , f o l low ing a C hap ter d ec is ion o f 1 765/66 ( Arch . D ep . C ö te-d ' Or , G2 551, 1 70 0-171v° , 2 08-208 0 , 2 14 a nd f .).

T he t wo

f a mous e ar ly h istor ians o f Burgundy , d o m Urba in P lancher a nd C ourtepee ,

22

d o n o t men t ion t he s lab b u t t he l a t ter r epea ts t he a bb6 G ande lo t 's a f f ir ma t ion ( op . c i t ., p age 3 4 ) t ha t t he d uchess Ma th i lda p layed a ma jor Ale i n t he c onstruct ion o f t he c hurch o f N o tre-Da me , s ee C our te 'pee/ B egu i l let , Descr ip t ion h istor ique e t t opograph ique d u Duch ed e B ouvgogne , tI , D i jon 1 777 , p age 5 90 . 1 1.

The e ar l iest n ecro logy o f t he C hap ter s urv ives a s D i jon ,B ib l . Mun . MS 1 629 , where Ma th i lda 's e n try i s f ound o n f .12 0 .

F or t he d a te o f t he MS ,

s ee C . Ourse l , L e p lus a nc ien o b itua ire d e l ' insigne c o l leg ia le No treDa me d e B eaune , e x tra i t d u Bu l le t in h istor ique e t p h i lo log ique 1 908 ( Par is , 1 909 ) .

Ac opy o f t he n ecro logy w i th many v ar ia t ions e x ists a s B eaune ,

B ib l . Mun . MS 1 6 ( 16 ) , al a te 1 3th c en tury c opy o f t he Mar tyro logy w i th marg ina l n ecro log ica l a dd i t ions.

T he Ma thi lda e n try i s h ere o n f .44v° .

The n ecro logy was p ub l ished a f ter t he B eaune c opy b y Pa bbe B oudro t , Mar tyro loge d e l ' insigne c ol leg ia le N otre-Da me d e B eaune. f onda t ions

Ex tra i t d es

e t l i bera l i tes i nscr i tes d ans c e manuscr i t , Me ms. S oc . d 'H ist .

Arch . L i t t . B eaune , 1 876-77 , 2 19-374 ;

1 878-79 , 2 53-416 ;

1 41f f . ( pag ina ted a s c on t inua t ion 4 17-519) ; Ma th i lda e n try i s N o . ( 236 ).

1 879-80 ,

Tab les 1 882 , 3 7-120 .

T he

Among t he 1 993 e n tr ies , t h is e n try i s

e xcep t iona l i n imp ly ing t he g rea t e x ten t o f ab enefactor 's g i f ts . af ew o ther s uch e n tr ies , e g . N o . ( 1 102) 1 111.

There a re

Ka i . Aug—Ob i i t Gau ter ius ,

C ab i lonensis e p iscopus , q u i n ostre e cc lesie mu lta c on tu l i t b enef ic ia ( Wa l ter , B ishop o f C ha lon-sur-Sa ne ( E . 1 129-1157) ) ;

N o . ( 1 146 ) V I I .

I dus. Aug . —Ob i i t v enerab i l is d eod i lectus h ugo d ux b urgund ie q u i e cc lesie n ostre mu l ta e t amp h ora c on tu l i t ( Duke Hugh I I ( 1 162-92) , i den t if iab le b ecause t he e n try f or h im i n t he C i teaux n ecro logy ( Di jon , B ib l . Mun . MS 6 33 , f .95) s peci f ies t ha t h e d ied o verseas —he d ied a t Acre i n 1 192) . F or c lose r elat ives o f Ma th i lda , s ee N os. ( 2 20) —Elena , h er mother ; ( 2 21) —Cle menc ia , h er d augh ter ; Raymond a nd Rober t .

( 370) , ( 5 52) a nd ( 1 058) —her s ons , Henry ,

C ur iously e nough , Hugh I , h er h usband , i s n o t

i nc luded w i th a s epara te e n try , a l though a g i f t o fh is i s r eferred t o i n c onnect ion w i th t he o b i ts f or h is f a ther a nd u ncle ( 1 415). 1 2.

The e nd o f t he e n try h as b een e rased b u t may b e s upp l ied b y r eferr ing t o t he l a te 1 3th c en tury v ersion o f t he n ecro logy ( see p rev ious n ote) , where t he f ina l words a re :

1 3.

e t a l ia p lur i ma b enef ic ia .

Iam n o t e n ter ing h ere i nto t he p rob le m o f t he d a te o ft he o r ig ina l Nave c lerestory a nd v au l ts ( rebu i l t 1 861-63) , n or o f t he 1 3th c entury b ase o f t he East r espond o f t he f ourth b ay f ro m t he C rossing ( S . Arcade ) .

The

p roposed c hrono logy i s my own b u t i ti s n ot v ery d iferen t f ro m t ha t o f R .Oursel , L es d a tes d e l a c onstruc t ion d e Notre-Da me d e B eaune , A nna les d e B ourgogne 1 9 , 1 947 , p ages 2 17-220 , wh ich Ip refer t o t he l a ter d a t ings o f A .Rhe in , C ongres Archeo log ique 1 928 , p ages 2 67-289 ; S ch l ink , Zw ischen C luny u nd C la irvaux . d ie b urgundische Arch i tek tur d es 1 2. p age 7 9 , n ote 2 11. 1 68-9 ;

a nd o f W .

D ie Ka thedra le v on L angres u nd

J ahrhunder ts , B er l in 1 970 , p ar t ic .

S ee a lso F . S a let , B u l let in Monu menta l 1 949 , p ages

1 950 , p ages 2 20-1.

The t wo W. b ays o ft he Nave ( w i th t he e xcep-

t i on o f t wo r eused R o manesque c ap i ta ls i n t he NW a nd SW c orners o ft he W b ays o f t he a is les —these d eserve t o b e p ub l ished ) a re o ft h ir teen thc entury d a te ;

t he W p orch i s a lways d a ted ( t oo l a te , i ts ee ms t o me ) f ro m

2 33

ad ocu ment o f 1 332 , s ee E Quarre , L es P or ta i ls d e l a F açade O cc identa le d e N otre-Da me d e B eaune , e x tra i t d es Me mo ires d e l a S oc iete ' d 'Archeol og ie d e B eaune , tLV I I , 1 973-74. 1 4 .

S ee t he b as ic p ub l ica t ion b y R . Ha mann , Das L azarusgrab i n Autun , Marburger J ahrbuch f ür K unstw issenscha f t , 8 /9 , 1 936 , p ages 1 82-328, p art ic . p ages 2 14-216 f or t he t hree i n la id h istor ia ted s labs .

The t o mb

was c orrec t ly d a ted b y P . Quarre , L es s cu lptures d u t o mbeau d e S t L azare ` a . Au tun e t l eur p lace d ans Par t r o man , C ah iers d e C iv i l isa t ion Med ieva le 1 962 , p ages 1 69-174 , who i den t if ied t he B ishop S tephen o f t he i nscr ip t ion a s E t ienne d e B ig, B ishop o f Au tun u p t o 1 136 , d .1139. Is ee n o r eason t o d oub t t ha t t he Mauso leu m was b egun i n t he 1 130s a t B ishop S tephen 's e xpense a nd c o mp leted f or t he t ransla t ion o f t he r e l ics o f S t Lazarus t o t he n ew c hurch i n 1 146 . 1 5.

g. V ienne , S t A ndrele-Bas a nd C a thedra l ;

L yon C a thedra l ( see L

B egu le , L es i ncrusta t ions d ecora t ives d es C a thedra les d e L yon e t d e V ienne , Lyon/Par is , 1 905) . a re :

O ther e xa mp les n o t i ncluded b y B egu le

L yon , Mus e Gadagne I nv . 3 8.317 ( wh i te marb le s lab i n l ow r el ief

w ith i nc ised i nscr ip t ions , s how ing S t P au l i nterced ing w ith C hr ist o n b eha lf o f ac er ta in R ichard —for mer ly i n t he C lo ister o f S t-Pau l d e L yon ( see n ow W C a lm , Au tour d e l a B ib le d e Lyon .

P rob le mes d u r o man

t ard i f d ans l e c en tre d e l a F rance , Revue d e PAr t 4 7 , 1 980 , p ages 1 1-20 , p ar t ic . p ages 1 6-17 , f ig . 1 8) —no t races o f i nlay s urv ive ) ;

I nv . 4 0.497

( i nc ised marb le s lab w ith S t P e ter , ak neel ing d onor f igure a nd a t hreea isled monu men t which a ccord ing t o t he i nscr ip t ion was made b y Wil l ia m , s on o f B ened ic t—fro m t he c hurch o f S t P ierre-le-V ieux , Lyon , wh ich was c lose t o t he Arch iep iscopa l P a lace ) ;

V ienne , S ynd ica t d 'In i t ia t ive , e x-

Mus e d e PAr t C hret ien D 5 4 ( be l l-shaped marb le b ase , p robab ly f or a l ectern , e ngraved w i th r oundels w i th t he Evange l ists , a nge ls a nd f o l iage — d ' . 1 6 .

Ha mann ( see n ote 1 4 ) , Abb .192) .

S ee F . A . Greenh i l l , I nc ised E f f ig ia l S labs.

A S tudy o f Engraved S tone

Me moria ls i n L a t in C hr istendo m , c .1100 t o c . 1 700 , 2v olu mes , L ondon 1 976 , I , p age 1 3.

G reenh i l l k new o f t he Autun f rag men ts i n c o mp i ling

h is l i sts f or F rance , b u t was n ot aware o f t he o ther 1 2th c en tury e xa mp les q uoted h ere . 1 7.

1 8.

The t races o f a wh i te s ubs tance s unk i n t he l i nes a re more p robab ly t he p roducts o f ar ecen t c lean ing t han d isco loured o r ig ina l c e men t . C elebra ted e xa mp les i n t he Mus e Ro l in , Au tun , f ro m S a in t-Sy mphor ien , a t S au l ieu ( Sarcophagus o f S t A ndoche ) , e tc .

S ee E S a l in , L a C iv i l isa t ion

Merov ing ienne , d 'apres l es s epu l tures , l es t ex tes e t l e l abora to ire , 2 b me p art ie , P ar is 1 952, f igs. 7 -8, 7 8-79 , 8 2 a nd f .

N o te a lso t he u se

o f c o loured i n lay o n t he C aro l ing ian i vory p laques o f t he C ha ir o f S t P eter . 1 9.

" S i i g i tur Mar ia h um i l is n on e sset , s uper e ar n S p ir i tus S anc tus n on r equ iev isset .

S i s uper c am n on r equ iev isset , n ec impraegnasset ."

J .Lec lercq , H . Rocha is , S . B ernard i Opera . V o l . V . Ro me 1 968 , p age 3 4 ) .

( ed .

S er mones

T he t ex t was q uoted b y R . G reen , i n ar ev iew o f

W. S . S toddard , The West P or ta ls o f S t-Den is a nd C har tres , C a mbr idge ,

2 34

Mass . 1 952, i n A r t B u lle t in 1 953 , p ages 2 39-241.

To t h is t ex t c ou ld b e

a dded s evera l o thers , where B ernard v iv id ly e xp lo i ts t he image o f t he r od o f J esse , e g . i n h is S er mon f or S unday w i th in t he O c tave o f t he A ssu mp t ion ( ed . J . L ec lercq , H .Rocha is , S . B ernard i O pera .Vo l V .S er mones I , Ro me 1 968 , p age 2 67 ) . 2 0.

S ee P .G ras " Les Manuscr i ts d e M eaux" , L es d oss iers d e Parcheolog ie N o . 1 4 , j anvier-fevr ier 1 976 : p age 9 9 .

was wr i t ten : 2 1.

En lu m inure c aro l ing ienne e t r o mane ,

B enea th t he s leep ing f igure o f J esse , a n i nstruc t ion t o t he a r t ist e gred ietur v irga .

The h ead o f J esse a nd t he s te m o f t he t ree s ee m t o h ave b een s treng thened i n o u t l ine b y al a ter p en .

2 2.

C . Oursel , L a M inia ture d u ) (He s f ec le a Pabbaye d e C i teaux , d 'apres l es manuscr i ts d e l a B ib l iotheque d e D i jon , D i jon 1 926 .

2 3 .

S ee Oursel , o p . c i t . , P l . XLVI ( MS 1 32, f . 2 v° ) —ano ther a r t is t h as p a in ted o ver t he d raw ing o f t he f igure o f Dan ie l , t he i nhab i ted s cro l lwork b eh ind h im a nd p oss ib ly a lso t he b order d ecora t ion ; f .2v° ) .

P l . XXX I I ( MS 6 41,

' No te h ow t he ma juscu le l e t ter f or ms o f t he L egendary F ron t is-

p iece w i th t he ir e legan t t aper ing s trokes c an a lso b e f ound o n t he B eaune a l tar .

C o mpare f or i nstance t he T f or ms a nd t he c losed M o f t he a ltar

i nscr ip t ions w i th t hose o f t he L egendary .

The e p igraphy o f t he p laque

c onsc iously emu la tes t he t h ick a nd t h in s trokes o f ap en . 2 4 .

F or d raw ings i n ar e la ted s ty le , s ee MS . 1 29 , f .4 ; p l . XLVI I l ef t ) ;

MS 1 80 , f . 1( p l . XLV I I r igh t ) ;

MS 1 32, f .1 ( Oursel ,

MS 6 41 , f .57 , 6 6 ( p l .

X ) (X IV , t op r igh t , b o t to m c en tre ) . 2 5 .

Among Ourse l ' sl a ter wr i t ings o n t he C iteaux MSS , Ir efer h ere t o o n ly t hree :

L es p r inc ipes e t Pespr i t d es min ia tures p r im i t ives d e C i teaux ,

C i teaux i n d e N eder landen 6 , 1 955 , p ages 1 61-172 ;

M in iatures

C isterc iennes ( 1 109-1134) , M ' Acon 1 960 , i ntroduc t ion ;

L a g enese d es

manuscr i ts p r im i t i fs d e C I teaux, Me mo ires d e PAcade m ie d es S c iences , Ar ts e t B el les-Le t tres d e D i jon , t1 14 ( 1961) , p ages 4 3-52. 2 6 .

F or t he a u thor i ta t ive e d it ion o f t he e ar ly L jub l jana MS wh ich i nc ludes t h is S ta tu te , s ee C . N osch i tzka , C odex manuscr ip tus 3 1 B ib l io thecae Un ivers i tat is L abacens is , Ana lecta S acr i O rd in is C isterc iensis , Annus V I , 1 950 , p age 3 7 ( S ta tu te XLI I I ) .

Dr J ona than A lexander d iscussed t he

S ta tu te a nd a lso i n terpreted i ta s r eferr ing t o r ubr ica t ion i n al ecture d el ivered i n 1 979 a t K ing 's C o l lege , L ondon .

O n e ar ly C isterc ian g lass ,

s ee most r ecent ly C . B r isac , Gr isa i l les r o manes d es a nc iennes a bba t ia les d 'Obazine e t d e B on l ieu , 1 02e C ongres n a t iona l d es S oc ie tes S avan tes , L i moges 1 977 , a rch6o log ie , p ages 1 29-143 .

Iam most g ra tefu l t o

Mada me B r isac f or s end ing me a c opy o f h er a r t ic le . 2 7 .

S ee F . K ovacs , Ap ropos d e l a d a te d e l a r edact ion d es I nst i tu ta G enera l is C ap i tu l i a pud C isterciu m , Ana l . SOC , Annus V I I , 1 951, p ages 8 5-90.

2 8.

S ee e d . J . M . C an ivez , S ta tu ta c ap i tu loru m g enera l iu m o rd in is C isterc iensis , v o l I , L ouva in 1 933 , p age 3 1 ( S tatu te LXXX ) .

N otab le e xcep t ions

t o t he b lanket a ccep tance o f C anivez ' d a t ing a re R . Green ( see n o te 1 9) ;

2 35

C . R . Dodwe ll , P a int ing i n Europe 8 00 t o 1 200 , The P el ican H istory o f Art , Har mon c lsworth 1 971, p ages 9 0-91. 2 9 .

F or t he 1 151 ( 1 152) d a ting o f t he L jubl jana c o l lect ion , s ee J . A . L er evre , C o l lectanea Ordinis C isterciensiu m Refor ma toru m ,Annus XVI , 1 954 , p ages 2 41-266 .

F or a s u m mary o f t he c ontroversies o ver t he e ar ly C istercian

d ocuments , s ee D . Know les , The P r im it ive C istercian Docu ments , i n G rea t H istor ica l Enterpr ises a nd Prob le ms i n Monast ic H istory , L ondon/ Edinburgh 1 962, p ages 1 97-222.

S ee n ow a lso a s urvey o f t he p rob le ms

r ela ting t o t he a rt ist ic s tatutes b y P . P o l icarpo Z akar , L a L eg is lazione C istercense e l e s ue f ont i d a l le o r ig ini f i no a l 1 265, i n IC istercensi e i L azio .

A t t i d el le g iornate d i s tu c i io d el l ' I st i tuto d i S tor ia d el l ' Ar te d e lP

U n ivers d a d i Ro ma , 1 7-21 Magg io 1 977 ( Ro me , 1 978) , p ages 1 27-134 . 3 0 .

T he S tatute d oes n ot o ccur i n t he e ar l iest k nown c o l lect ion , Tren to B ib l io teca C o munale C o c i . 1 711, wh ich was d iscovered b y d om J ean L eclercq , s ee Une a ncienne r edac t ion d es c ou tu mes c isterciennes , Revue d 'Histo ire Ecclesiast ique tXLVII , 1 952 , p ages 1 72-176 .

T he T rento

c o l lect ion d ates f ro m b efore 1 140 , p ossib ly f ro m c . 1 130-34 , s ee B . G r iesser , D ie " Ecc lesiast ica O f f icia C isterciensis Ord in is" d es C od. 1 711 v on Tr ient , Ana l. SOC., Annus X I I ,

1 956 , p ar t ic . p ages 1 60-175.

F . K ovacs ( see n ote 2 7) , p age 8 9 , a rgued t ha t t he S tatute was f irst f or mul ated c . 1 150 b u t h is a rgu ments a re b y n o means c onclusive . 3 1.

F or a modern c r it ica l e d it ion o f t he Apolog ia , s ee e d . J . L eclercq , H . M . R ocha is , S . Bernard i O pera . Vo l . . I I. Trac ta tus e t o puscu la , Ro me 1 963 , p ages 6 1-108.

F or a s urvey o f t he a rgu men ts a bout t he p urpose o f t he

t ract a nd i t s d ate , s ee e d .

G . C onstab le , The L etters o f P eter t he

Venerab le , 2v ols .Ca mbr idge , Mass. 1 967 , I , p ages 2 70-274 . 3 2.

A

f ew o f t he C luny C lo ister f rag men ts h ave b een p ub lished ,

J . C onant , C luny .

g . b y K .

L es Eg l ises e t l a ma ison d u c hef d 'orare , Mt .con 1 968,

p art ic . p age 1 08, f igs . 2 24-226 .

P rofessor C onant h as n ot p ub l ished h is

C lo ister e xcava t ions o f 1 936 a nd 1 938 b u t r efers t o t he m i n p rint o n s evera l o ccasions , m. i n Med ieva l S tudies i n me mory o f A . K ingsley P orter , e d . W. R . W. Koeh ler , 2v o ls. C a mbr idge , Mass 1 939 , I , p age 3 37 , f ig . 1 5.

The Vezelay C lo ister f ragmen ts w i l l s hor t ly b e p ub lished i n t he

C a ta logue o f t he Musse L ap ida ire b y Lydw ine S au lnier , w ith h istor ica l i ntroduct ions b y myself ( B ib l iothbque d e l a S oc iet6 F ranca ise d 'Archeo log ie) . 3 3.

S ee f or i nstance r ecent ly t he c onc lusion o f M . Dur l ia t :

"A

Moissac e t

l a Daurade t ou lousa ine , c 'est l 'e spr it d e C luny , q ue n ous a vons r econ tre .."

( Les C ah iers d e S a int- M ichel d e C uxa , j u in 1 976 , No . 7 , p age 7 3) .

T he o nly l oca l 1 2th c entury C lo ister o f aC luniac h ouse t o s urv ive i n p ar t i s t hat o f S a l les-en-Beau jo la is , where t here i s n o f igure s cu lp ture . 3 4.

F or t he V i ta Pr i ma , o f wh ich t here i s n o modern e di t ion , s ee Mab il lon 's v ersion r eprinted PL 1 85 , c o l 2 25f f .

The f a mous p assage a bou t t he r oof

o f t he n ovices ' b u i lding a nd a bou t t he n u mber o f w indows i n t he e nd wa l l o f t he c hurch i s i n c o1 .238 ;

t he e p isode when t he C ount o f C ha mpagne

i nsp ired b y B ernard b roke u p a nd s old t wo f avour i te g o ld g ob lets wh ich h ad b een u sed a t t he c oronat ion o f h is u nc le , K ing Henry o f Eng land , i s i n c ol . 3 01-302.

2 36

3 5.

S ta tute o f 1 119 :

WW I .

De s cu lp tur is e t p ictur is e t c ruce l ignea

S cu lpturas n usqua m . p icturas t antu m l i cet h abere i n c rucibus q ue e t i pse n onn isi l ignee h abeantur .

S ta tu te o f 1 151 ( 1 152) :

( L jub l jana MS 3 1,

S ta tu te XX ) S cu lp ture v el p icture i n e cclesi is n ostr is s eu i n o f f icin is a l iqu ibus monaster i i n e f iant i nterd ic i mus , q u ia d um t a l ibus i ntend itur , u t i l itas b one med i ta t ion is v el d iscip l ina r el ig iose g ravitat is s epe n eg l ig i tur . C ruces t a rnen p ietas q ue s un t l ignee h abe mus. XVI , 1 954 , p age 1 04 , 2 60 ;

S ee L ef evre , C o l l . OCR ,

Noschi tzka , Ana l . SOC , Annus V I , 1 950 , p age

2 6 . 3 6 .

I n t he f ol low ing n otes , Ih ave r estricted r eferences t o a min i mu m .

F or

A l tze l le a nd o ther important G er man C isterc ian s cr iptor ia , s ee R . M . L ibor , Ars C isterciensis.

Buch ma lere ien a us mi ttel- u nd o stdeu tschen

K losterb ib l iotheken , Wurzburg 1 967. 3 7 .

F or s o me o f t he Hau ter ive MSS s ee C a ta logue , S a in t B ernard e t Part d es c isterc iens , Musge d e D i jon 1 953 , N os . 1 01-103.

The most i n terest ing

i s Fr ibourg . B ib l . Can t., MS L 2 , ac opy o f August ine o n t he P sa l ms , c . 1 150 ( ?).

F or a nother e ar ly Sw iss C is terc ian b ook w ith f igured d ecora t ion

f ro m S t Urban , s ee J . S ch mid , L es p lus b el les min iatures d e l a B ib liothbque C antona le d e L ucerne Vol I , L ucerne 1 941, P l .I . 3 8.

S ee F . Wa l l iser , C istercienser Buchkunst . Hei l igenkreuzer S kr iptor iu m i n s eine m e rsten J ahrhunder t 1 133-1230 , Hei l igenkreuz/Vienna 1 969.

3 9.

S ee J . L eclercq , L es p eintures d e l a B ib le d e Mor i mondo , S cr ip tor iu m tX , 1 956 , p ages 2 2-26 ;

M . R ighet t i Tost i C roce , " Hic L iber e st d e

Monaster io s ancte Marie d e Mor i mundo" :

No te s u u na B ibb ia p adana e

a lcun i c od ic i C istercensi i ta l iani , i n IC istercensi e I Lazio ( see n ote 2 9) , p ages 1 11-124 . 4 0 .

S ee B . We icherd ing-Goergen , L es manuscr i ts Na t iona le d e L uxe mbourg .

p eintures d e l a B ib l iotheque

Ca ta logue Descr ip t i f e t C r it ique , L uxe mbourg

1 968, p art ic . MS 4 9 ( da ted b y t he a u thor o n s ty l ist ic g rounds t o t he s econd q uarter o f t he 1 2th c en tury ) . 4 1.

F or t he Vaucla ir P sa l ter ( Laon , B ib l . Mun MS 2 9 ) , s ee E . F leury , L es manuscr i ts a min iatures d e l a B ib liotheque d e L aon , 1 re p art ie Laon 1 863, p ages 6 7-70 .

S ee a lso e g . MSS 1 0 , 5 7 , 7 0 .

S ee a lso S . Mar t inet ,

L es manuscri ts d e Vaucla ir , Archeo log ia No . 1 4 , j anvier-fevr ier 1 967 , p ages 4 5-47. 4 2.

F or C la irvaux , s ee Ca ta logue , L es r ichesses d e l a B ib l iotheque d e Troyes , B ib l . d e Troyes 1 951 ;

Ca ta logue , S a int B ernard e t Par t d es c isterciens ,

Mus & d e D i jon 1 953 , N os. 6 0-74 , w ith B ib l ;

C . S a maran/R. Mar icha l ,

C a ta logue d es Manuscr i ts e n Ecr i ture L a t ine p ortant d es i nd ica tions d e d a te , d e l ieu o u d e c op iste , tV , Par is 1 965, p ages XVI-X IX . 4 3.

S ee r ecen t ly W. C a lm , A Twel f th-Century Decre tu m F rag men t f ro m P ont i oy , The Bu l let in o f The C leveland Museu m o f Art LX I I Nu mber 2 , F eb . 1 975 , p ages 4 7-59.

4 4.

F or u sefu l s u m mar ies , w ith p lates o f s o me o f P r ince Henry 's b ooks , s ee F . B ibo let , L es manuscr i ts d e C la irvaux , L es d ossiers d e Parch6o log ie ,

2 37

N o . 1 4 , j anvier-fevr ier 1 976 : p ages 8 6-93.

En lum inure c aro l ing ienne e t r o mane ,

S ee a lso A . Wi l mart , L 'anc ienne b ib l io th k lue d e C la irvaux ,

r epr in ted C o l l . OCR X I ,

1 949 , p art ic .

p ages 3 08-313 f or Henry 's

c orrect d a tes . 4 5.

S ee t he C a ta logue , L es manuscr i ts

p e in tures e n F rance d u V I Ie a u X I Ie

B ib l iotheque Na t iona le , 2 e me e d . r ev . e t c orr . 1 954 , N o . 2 88 , w i th B ib l . 4 6 .

F or t he most u sefu l c o l lect ion o f p la tes o f C luny MSS , s ee M . S chap iro , The P ar ma I l defonsus .

A Ro manesque i l lum ina ted manuscr ip t f ro m

C luny a nd r ela ted works , C o l lege Ar t Assoc ia t ion , 1 964 . 4 7 .

Id a te t he d ecora t ion o f B erzela-V i l le t o t he a bbacy o f P on t ius d e Melguei l o n t he b asis o f t he mou ld ings a nd c ap i ta l s cu lp ture o f t he b u i ld ing , wh ich must b e v ir tua l ly c on te mporary w i th t he p a int ings.

F or p la tes , s ee F .

Mercier , L es p r im i t i fs f ran9a is . L a p ein ture c lunysienne e n B ourgogne , a Pepoque r o mane . S on h isto ire e t s a t echn ique , P ar is 1 931. 4 8.

F or t he C i teaux L egendary ( MS 6 41) , Ourse l 1 926 , p l . XXX IV , t op r igh t ( f .57 , S t Ma t thew ) , b o t to m c en tre ( f .66 , S t J ero me ) .

F or t he C luny

L ect ionary P en tecost ( Par is , B ib l . Na t . MS n ouv . a cq . l a t . 2 246 , f .7 9v ° ) , S chap iro , o p . c i t ., f ig .3 7. 4 9 . 5 0 .

L ec lercq ( see n o te 3 9 ) , p age 2 6 . F or t he Duca l t o mbs a t C i teaux , s ee p r i mar i ly t he d raw ings p ub l ished b y Do m Urba in P lancher , H isto ire g enera le e t p ar t icu l iere d e B ourgogne .... t1er ,D i jon 1 739 , p ages 2 98 a nd 3 65 ;

t he d raw ings made f or Roger d e

Ga ign ibres b y B oudan ( pub l ished J . Adhe mar , L es t o mbeaux d e l a c ol lect ion Ga ign ieres.

Dessins d 'archeolog ie d u XVI Ie s lee k ( ex tra i t

Gazet te d es B eaux-Ar ts) , t I ,ju i l let-sep te mbre 1 974 , N os . 2 5 a nd 4 6 ) ; t he d escr ip t ion b y Do m Mar tene a nd Do m Durand , s ee Voyage l i t tera ire d e d eux r e l ig ieux B ened ic t ins d e l a C ongrega t ion d e S a in t Maur , l ere p ar t ie , P ar is 1 717 , p ages 1 98-199 ;

a nd t he 1 727 Descr ip t ion h istor ique

d es a nc iens monumens d e Pabbaye d e C isteaux , p ar monsieur Moreau d e Mau tour .... a vec d es r e marques d e D . C o there t , b ib l iotheca ire d e c e t te ma ison ( D i jon , B ib l . Mun MS 6 09) , p art ic . p ages 5 -15. 5 1.

S ee G a l l ia C hr ist iana tI V , I nstru menta c ol . 1 57 ( f ounda t ion c har ter o f c . 1 124 ) ;

5 2 .

P lancher , o p . c i t ., tI , p reuves L I I I ( a d ona t ion o f 1 132 ).

S ee e d . J . L ec lercq , H . Rocha is , S . B ernard i O pera Vo l V I I .

Ep isto lae

I , Ro me 1 974 , Ep . C 2 '0 ( 1 , where B ernard a ddresses Ma th i lda a s n ob i l iss i ma mih ique i n C hr isto d i lect iss i ma Do m ina . 5 3.

The p a in t ing was

f resque" a bove t he a l tar i n t he Dukes ' c hapel , wh ich

was o n t he r ight h and s ide b enea th t he West d oor o f t he c hurch .

I ts howed

O do I , Mathi lda " h is w i fe" ( t he p a in t ing was v ery p robab ly t he s ource o f t he e rror wh ich l ed t o O do F s w i fe b e ing i den t if ied a s Ma th i lda—see n ote 6a bove ) , Hugh I a nd O do I f ac ing S t Rober t o f Mo les me a nd t hree o ther a bbo ts o f C i teaux .

I ti s p ossib le t ha t t he p a in t ing d a ted f ro m t he s econd

h a l f o f t he 1 6 th c en tury , when t he c hape l was mod i f ied b y a bbo t N ico las B ouchera t .

S ee Mare ene/Durand , o p . c i t ., p ages 2 15-216 ;

Mau tour , o p . c i t ., p ages 5 -15 , 7 5-76. 2 2g

Moreau d e

5 4 .

D i jon , B ib l . Mun . MS 6 33 , f. 22 :

Ob i i t ma th i ld is d ucissa Burgund ie.

F or t he d a te o f t he o r ig ina l marg ina l o b i ts , s ee C . S a maran/R . Mar icha l ( see n ote 4 2) , tV I , Par is 1 968, p age 2 05. 5 5.

J . A . L e fèvre , r eview o f C . Oursel 's b ook o f 1 960 ( see n ote 2 5 ) , i n S cr ip tor iu m tX , 1 956 , p ages 1 74-175 ;

F . Masa i , De l a c ond i t ion d es

e nlu m ineurs e t d e P enlu m inure ä Pepoque r o mane , B u l letino d el l ' " Arch iv io P a leogra f ico I t a l iano" , n .s . I -I L I , 1 956-57 , P ar te I , p age 1 43 , n o te ( 1 ) .

2 39

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The s ea l o f Ama lr ic , a s r eproduced b y S . P ao li ( By c our tesy o f t he Trus tees o f t he Br i t ish L ibrary )

P late 1 .3

The Me l isende P sa lter , B . L . Ms Eger ton 1 139f . 9 v . o f t he T rustees o f t he Br it ish L ibrary )

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P la te 4 .2

S ea l o f West m inster A bbey .

S ea l o f West m inster Abbey .

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P eterborough C a thedra l . c en tra l p or ta l

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P la te 4 .5

V ie d e S t . D enys .

P ar is B . N . Ms . f r . 1 098f .34

P la te 5 .1 g z5 .2 S ea l o f S t . Mary 's Abbey , York ( cour tesy S oc ie ty o f An t iquar ies )

P la te 5 .3

S ea l o f L inco ln C a thedra l

P la te 5 .4

P la te 5 .5

S ea l o f Grea t Ma lvern P r iory ( cour tesy S oc ie ty o f A nt iquar ies )

S ea l o f R ead ing Abbey

P la te 5 .6

S ea l o f K e lso Abbey

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P la te 5 .7

V irg in a nd C h i ld f ro m B r it ish L ibrary L ansdowne ms . 3 83 , f o l . 1 75 v .

( pho tograph b y c our tesy o f t he C our tau ld I ns t itute o f Ar t )

P la te 5 .8

V irg in a nd C h i ld f ro m Oxford, Bodle ian L ibrary ms . Bod ley 2 69 f o l . i i ( copyr igh t Bodle ian L ibrary )

P la te 5 . 9 Annunc ia t ion f ro m C hr is t ina o f Markya te 's P sa l ter , L ibrary o f S t . Godehard , H i ldeshe im ( copyr igh t Warburg I ns t i tute )

P la te 5 .10 S ea l o f B inha m P r iory ( cour tesy S oc ie ty o f An t iquar ies )

P la te 5 .11

S ea l o f N ewstead Pr iory

P la te 5 .13

P la te 5 .12

S ea l o f C ar t me l l P r iory

S ea l o f C heshun t P r iory ( a l l c our tesy S oc ie ty o f An t iquar ies )

S ea l o f C lerkenwe l l P r iory

S ea l o f B ut ley P r iory ( reproduced b y k ind p erm iss ion o f t he R oya l H osp i ta l o f S t . B ar tho lo mew , L ondon )

P la te 5 .1 6 M in ia ture a ccompany ing S t . Anse lm 's p rayers t o t he V irg in Mary , f ro m A d mon t S t if tsbib lio thek ms . 2 89 , f . 2 1 v . ( a f ter P . B uben, D ie i l lu m in ier ten HSS i n S te iermark 1 , L e ipz ig 1 911)

P la te 6 .1

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P late 6 .3

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P la te 6 .4 H uru m , west p or ta l ( Huru m I )

P la te 6 .5 U lv ik , d e ta i l o f l ef t j a mb

P la te 6 .6

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P late 6 .7

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c i t u t z t a b •z u r a ic r l i ( f a nue t f f im ar t a ta t u r . . c f v. ; r od a ud i t .T U tr e n tür tuf f ua d/ t e al d ie to p p id i •g u yi n c o lg b a b r c z n i n t . P eq ua c i ae o c. U r i c ) Aux L im i n e r ou i l o t u d ienur f a c t r ed u ve t ? , 1 t. tt c l aA nu t t i f t r o 2i t u c t 3 14 1m asnw e i tg ' i v e c za t on if f e r tie t t n au f q :a c in gf t naneu r . -d ie c i rei fn itA e n ' t i t l e

e m i t '

P la te 8 .35 D urham Dean a nd C hap ter L ibrary ms B I V 1 4 f 170

e

i r

ruc itt itz

Zai /t. e l.

z inr ur a t

c r 4 r r tn tu t r en c i t

, 1T im : i t A l k I * 1 4 4 1 1 1 $ e 4 ; 1 1m t i t : te P m f t . ; t a iu s ag t o rreo o l t au t t 61; ' t r .f e dI fm r a w z d t f i n c e t t i •a Wi : "P ar en te :f e d i * ne VA mu = § 4 . m t r d i b ; ; 1 / 1 t t i i t rs he . wmxt hI n i t t e t . i 'nu c io t er c e t taa t i n w la te r a rea lr c ce j ' t l a t T r i o• d a t t f id ,i t dmn oz C lr en t i t tr au tr . 1 1 on f r o i r ct . Sn i t ' "f r r e r t ilf e r i t t ru tie e tu 13* e t tr an t ri n f a t t ru , 1 4 . i ' c ifi i r i w i'4 c c t itn v ar e t t re a c i t ii A ue r •r e q :c xx cam tn i if t e r tr o f I t t L i t i t z . ” g xn i t tn ift nnu c i t ii eA t t e eC t ;1 : a n t ler d u od e c i : e tn t i i , •i ce pu t tr :f e e t t l ia :t i o r t( f u t t l :-f i e t -e tc ./ tu tu t am a ur c i r ca e to tu ter ta . w ro t t iu t r eed ' n t e ur t r ia l ta t t e a‘ adbu ci n ce tr tt e u er t l i :d e t t o i l t r u t t i .S ;c l ica t i i i iI r e ce :d i t rl ume n . 3 4t u l i t et lje r i a t r e! l i c i t * ga rb ' ' ,i i i i t i c tu r• a n t iag p ik c i: r a l Y i ' o C c a t t f i de „ lr tu4 rd ir i t t car iv :t r i t c a re .u m > i o* ru ec ome i t e r i)• C t uQ t r i ; i i t ii l ex t f r is r f eru tetur . a do t e i t r t i ; c ri te a t om t i l i c a

c la s er er c e t t ie c t i e l t r e r .C f Si ti t z te e t tr .

f e i t nn t i f Ive r e r3 4e r tnn i "f ax a n ix l i a e r te lu ti na r um 'f i lm . f e t eu t ii ;

, i b n f i r t e n r 4 b :d t i i di n ie tfe l i ca t t« cr .C i t t i ca t i l l

e : y t n i l 'ae te l emen t a l :m in ic a tue :f l u te = t l a c c pb inm I tn f i t r af i tma rd ii t o te i .1 4 S ,f r . tu r a l t t a r i ic ‘ ?t a tu far tt i ' e t t e c e fe i n t n i t tr iA t t4 4 d t oc i r o l e' A' f l i t ter ;t n ‘m a cgir t t ra r e c u t t t r a ro te ' i n t t i r tm cf e l o rd t un tx t r a: t r c e t in i tr o. e r r e t z ; l e n t /we i re l e e4ü =W IN A r tu t t r i2t i x r o• 4 e itba r l uc t i ‘tf t v r ti orb ;

t

el f tnad can3 t 4i t c t i :a r e fk .r e

e t t t c e v1 . 1 , o lana t t ;• e i "f e r r et r ied :

U n i te mu if 4M i nx ,i n tdo t :/ i td i l l; " * . t . n t l i c t c# 1 1 41 /4 1 1 1 "i ; ! r o c u l ta . i tm a t te ce r / 1 4 -L tz . j d i = me tf i f u tl e a t i c irx 2 a t e t t i fh t t P la te 8 .36

em l i t te .

D urha m Dean a nd C hapter L ibrary ms B I V 1 4 f 113v

P la te 9 .1

T he s tone mason i n s i tu a t H e i mdon b efore c onserva t ion

S TOP GAPS OF OLD G LASS MODERN R ESTORAT ION ( 20 th C ENTURY )

P la te 9 .2

D iagra m o f t he p ane l ( By c our tesy o f t he Trustees o f t he B r it ish Museu m )

P la te 9 .3

T he p ane l a f ter c onserva t ion ( reproduced b y p er m iss ion o f t he York G laz iers T rust )

P la te 1 0 .1

Tren to , C aste l lo d e l B uon C onsig lio . t he month o f J anuary

T orre d e l Aqui la ,

P late 1 0 . 2 The L i mburg b ro thers , t he mon th o f J anuary ( f ro m t he Tres R iches Heures d u Duc d e Berry , Mus e C onde , C hant i l ly )

P la te 1 0 .3

F errara , P a lazzo S chifano ia , t he mon th o f March

P la te 1 0 . 4

F errara , P a lazzo S ch ifano ia , t he mon th o f A pr i l

P la te 1 0 .5

For mer ly Ro me , L a teran Pa lace , Bon iface V II I a nnounces t he J ub i lee o f 1 300 ( 17th c en tury d raw ing , Mi lan , Ambrosiana )

P la te 1 0 . 6

P la te 1 0 . 7

K ar ls te in , c hape l o ft he V irg in , t he R e lic S cenes

P la te 1 0 .8

C a mera d eg li

P la te 1 0 . 9

Mantua , C aste l lo S . G iorgio , Andrea Man tegna , C a mera d eg l i S posi , v iew o f v au lt

P la te 1 0 . 10

C a mera d eg li

P la te 1 0 .11 . • , 1

u p

e2 1 0

C amera d eg li

P late 1 2 .1 A .

B .

E f f igy a t S aw ley

Draw ing o f t o mb a t S aw ley c . 1 810 b y Godfrey Meyne l l ( Reproduced b y k ind p er m ission o f G . Meyn e l l E sq . )

P la te 1 2 . 2 Mou lding f ragmen ts f rom S aw ley t o mb

P la te 1 2 .3 A .

R econs truc t ion d raw ing o f a rcade o f t o mb s how ing p os i t ions o f s urv iv ing mou lding f rag men ts . P l . 1 2 .2 A . &B . )

B .

Ange l f ro m s pandre l o f S aw ley t o mb

( See

P la te 1 2 . 4 A nge l f ro m s pandre l o f S aw ley t o mb

A P la te 1 2 . 5 Ange ls f ro m s pandre ls o f S aw ley t o mb

B

A . B .

P la te 1 2 .6

T he V irgin a nd C h i ld w ith c ens ing a nge ls T he ‚ Tr in i ty

R oof b osses f ro m L ady C hape l , S t . Werburgh 's , C hes ter c . 1 270-80 ( Copyr igh t :

N a t iona l Monu ments R ecord)

P la te 1 3 .1

T ua m , market c ross

P la te 1 3 .2

T ua m C a thedra l , j a mb o f e ast w indow

P la te 1 3 . 5

T ua m C a thedra l , c ross s haf t o f G i l lu C hr is t O 'Too le

P la te 1 3 . 6

T ua m , marke t c ross , west f ace

P la te 1 3 .7

T ua m C a thedra l , j a mb o f e as t w indow

P la te 1 3 .8

Tua m C a thedra l , j a mb o f e ast w indow

P la te 1 3 .9

T ua m C a thedra l , j a mb o f e ast w indow , u n iden t if ied f i gura l s cene a nd a n i ma l i n ter lace

P la te 1 3 .10

C ruc if ix ion min ia ture , c . 1 060 , Br i t ish L ibrary Ms . Arunde l 6 0 f l2v ( By c our tesy o f t he Trus tees o f t he Br i t ish L ibrary )

P la te 1 3 .11

G lenda lough c ross

a

P la te 1 3 .12

( a ) , ( b ) a nd ( c ) T ua m , marke t c ross , p ane ls f ro m t he west f ace . ( d 1 G lenda lough c ross , s ide p ane l

a

c

b

d

e

P la te 1 3 .13

( a ) a nd ( b ) ( c )

C ross o f C ong

R unestone a t Ros lasku l la

( d ) a nd ( e )

Ho lycross p laque

( a ) R unestone a t S kra msta , H aga , U pp land . ( b )

U rnes c hurch

( c )

R unestone a t R os lagsku l la

( d ) a nd ( e )

S hr ine o f S t P a tr ick 's B e l l

( f ) , ( g ) a nd ( h ) ( i ) ( j ) ( k )

P la te 1 3 .14

C ross o f C ong

K i l more c hurch ( Co . C avan ) , p or ta l f ro m Tr in i ty I s land S hr ine o f S t L acht in 's a rm C lon macno is c rozier

C o mparat ive s ke tches o f l i mes s ty le h eads :

a

•P la te 1 3 .15

C o mpara t ive s ke tches o f s nake h eads :

( a )

R unes tone a t S kra ms ta , H aga , U pp land

( b )

B ook o f K e i ls

( c )

S hr ine o f S t P a tr ick 's B e l l

( d ) a nd ( e ) Tua m C a thedra l , e ast w indows

a

P la te 1 3 .16

( a )

T ua m C a thedra l , j a mb o f e ast w indow

( b )

T ua m C a thedra l , c ross s haf t o f G i l lu C hr ist O 'Too le

b

d e

c

P la te 1 3 .17

( a )

Book o f Durrow , f .1 92v .

( b ) , ( c ) , ( d ) a nd ( e ) T ua m C a thedra l , j a mbs o f e as t w indows

a

P la te 1 3 .18

( a ) a nd ( c ) ( b )

T ua m C a thedra l , j a mbs o f e ast w indows

S haf t f ro m K irk Bradden , I s le o f Man

a

P la te 1 3 .19

F o liage o rna men t a t Tua m C a thedra l : j a mbs o f e ast w indow .

( c )

( a ) , ( b ) , ( d ) , ( e ) a nd ( f )

c hance l a rch , n or th r espond

51 t o t I sL IE p e , e vo e e n d 1 4 , su f i t i f6 E» Z Van c a l l a= p are :

I x _ tvs

Ofer tu arGa nu e d et e i na emo c in cer ta c l unu i c enf ir b a f i lwe 4 : d if ze t s ee .f ue e t t ehono: i p t iv ibop en o f t i r un tr i e . tu l t f no p u ru t ree i r eef o luman o . t i ek to ,c epo f i z t i t tn enü men ce ;d r e u t tehr e p omegr iCr a la r r in c e ar t i cam b c n e t t id to r t it -i n tr . &n o rm = l um en ' o f= c l ima te :e r c e iknnex t " wee e t t ,c$ , . denta i re l eb ow ie m iT tr t n aw i tu r tr : " h un tb e an u c ob ;o b i can . Wi lt = u ib c en e tu tun t t na tuoun tr e v o ixnnr •-a u c P la te 1 4 . 1

S an t i a20 , 1 . 1B ook I , P ro logue , C a l ix tus w r i t ing

( eß l e s i muda n ze te yz meg a t i zz p 9f ruw ,( mu l e I n nc i n t ima i l r i eb a f t l i c re u r &m ore .l i c r o i t eq :F amo t h i s t ir n m a tr t i ct n c r o f ohnu .m o mo pe t i l au c i l f ia r c h )t l y : c t i c f l ( t t n t te e t n e( a l i t« c r ar t i c am Spu r t ° r e f i t ) )c t iman tm . r d lom t v .e l o t ;t , c r e c ,ip u i ru te : ct r i r tn i s ep t c fm r . in i c i a m b e r np a r cnur an ' t i c A gonn t i 2 1g r t i t i nI w on i ur nw cI t u r r i t i 5 : 4 1 1 1 C 1 10 :C e t p i iZ 1 1 19t t l fer C t l It t er7be ta l t tr a t t le*I t lt 1 1 1 1 1 1f I l lej s he e t /

v i r cp . i IT hf u um m u l c ta te -emu u r r oC i t t if C 9 i4 1 15 a l bI nf in tna l e .( F l ip : 41 'n m . 1t i l l0 f r an o .pa l t ibu la t i e ,r t is r e : 1

u r et

P la te 1 4 . 2

e n I s e , i1lt t

m r

r t iv t i t l e

tAte l ie . r em i t ta l& 1 ‘ 1 1 . , ,re s i d:t ie s .

V a t ican , f .1 , B ook I , P ro logue , C a l ix tus w r i t ing

P la te 1 4 .3_

P la te 1 4 .4

S ant iaJp , f .4 , B ook I , C h . 1 , S t . J ames

V a t ican , f .3 v , Book I , C h . 1 , S t . J ames

n o n° k I .mo

A f t tfh . / -1 ig t i l e 1 . G r i

L 7-p l‚ cb r i l a mb s Ar oftr i1 .

. 1 ph i se l it e sT r si stu tt R s t l i ty :D i tot cn :4 t ut inG c i t ir r u n t-i t r o lf pf loui f i t h . tr in . 1 _cnn o i i t iI t s i re 1 ; 2 t,t

i t m i eu t t1 3 f tl a r ot i r t ir t r t i l im tf i tex er tm • au t ;o b r c t i l l i i0 1 2 40 1 1 10 s c i tu tpe 1 * . i t tr t i t lb r u l e ' r t 1 6 . 11 ; 1l a t te ra t i v t ) , 2 . 1f i e t t ; n 1 6f it r a t ir .l i tc oI n te r i l l n i l: 6 1 1 1 * 1 ; 1 r en ss i s i s i 4,2 1 mo 2P LO C l ar er i t e e ra te r tt , rf i i iu rn )f i r c l i t t\ i ‘nu r t ir . f I r r t-q e r q u ic .t ir ir nuc to u r c pi f t tc " ,pf c t t : )uc tx : , p fu lr ub le i ngrr u t iC i i t tu c ;e nr .S . 7 " % , i vrt rh o c , t aw v .a l d ' 6 I 1 1 IA l i la ) 1 1 1« Thai tt o i la t ire t u rrb i t inn t - • a l i t :m i tt \ 1 Vt 1i6 t r i m ss i rU i T b e i l l Ia tr A l r ir t i l t 15 1 1r 1 10A i nm i t tb cW i l i p imp ! 'i ni te tr tme ec e 0 , 1 1 13 C r g l )i n nr n inf louc 0 2 2 4 1 1a I nr t ; i t-d r l:n t ru tur r oe t i n iIn a ty l inf ioner tu t it .f in ttir cutr ec e i lo tpum r t cr y r . f i rT a i lr c n tr c ; C t in r t • na r tt c r e . 1 1i c t c r 7 : t igr it . 7 . 7 . >UD Cf lf l 1l t l l l lttf l ( ) I L Lf l( ) t ic f turiv i f i lf iour . Lmum so r n i r s i tr s5 b rb f i er i lanoa i lf r 7 1 Alm n or uag t tn m ,t c r ie t W of c tI 1 1 1 15: c ro t t icG p sfpf i i int . z trg e s itt,i l tf i l i lt ar se d-D 1 41, 1 i 5 . 1 ( 11 un it n t it t inC iZ s t im sl ict ir b t-5l a mb `

0 *c r t srbr ee s s l

C r e .I I r1 1 1e .t i n tE r r l ,r z tf i r e £ 1 ; 1t i e r o i e Jb ef r r t t Cu ' i b ant iC I 1 t f en t icurnit i 1 cn t it t ci h int c Ic r i i ( . ;c on t zf i re 'c , vo l tr v i i tu t l zu lr t i to T t l i ' an ti r trän ta t eug * -t ) a i t tc t ' c ya lm s4 C _Z t tr ti lav ei h str im s ir :CM o s s if, f i scr t s l it t i nr s ti l' e nr i b Ap dtrr a ör fog s .tri t in it s is s i lo ;t it u tv ‘ t r s ) :c ru inpr s1 61 , 1 f l iq l pm h i r t r e t r ic i t t-r em i t t .C -: " tarr it ell e I c j im v a lf tpr t ib 4 1 1 1gr l atrz t m in Ii f iC

1 , 111

P l a t e 1 4 .5

r p r o e .

t un t r hg it f i çIf l h i sU f ni u c

i

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A dd i t io na l , f .3 v , B ook I ,C h . 1 ,S t . J ames

b at i str i te t ;

i 1P

p r om !

c i tuenn 4 o r rn t i bt f l imper9 i t inv

r vi lir ma .-L ietrt el-

C u r p enf a :

P la te 1 4 .6

S an t

f l u e f l un r d i u t i t i ze A e r ie p oe t i z ed;

o , f .1 62 , Book I V , p refa tory min ia ture , S t . J a mes

a ppear ing t o C har le magne i n ad rea m ( af ter r estora t ion )

P la te 1 4 .7

S ant iago , f .1 62 , Book I V , p refa tory min ia ture , S t . J a mes a ppear ing t o C har le magne i n ad rea m ( before r es tora t ion )

T r a t tr in t itr i e 1 1 . )n ir t ' i tu i .i t i r 1-' t 1nw fo t t i ,t r i t tran t°i F t fh it n t 0(1ml :f lue id t ime r a t t l in t r rr a c moe te t tf or it tA :w o le r t tA n t ra I t e r ib t% . r e yn t i e

P la te 1 4 .8

Va t ican , 1 .1 33v , Book I V , p refa tory min ia ture , S t . J a mes a ppear ing t o C har le magne i n ad rea m

t n t

•

r t

P la te 1 4 . 9

l t e t i tr e / 1 1 1 1 ' 11a m. 1-e i nro t it er r -1 tn trru • gMit*. l e

i r tow t -n r

' I C

Addi t iona l , f .1 32v , Book I V , p refa tory min iature , S t . J a mes a ppear ing t o C har le magne i n ad rea m

P la te 1 4 .10

S a la manca , f .9 0 , B ook I V , p refa tory min ia ture , S t . J a mes a ppear ing t o C har le magne i n ad rea m , p o in t ing t o a murder s cene ;

C har le magne a nd h is a rmy r iding o u t f ro m a c i ty ;

k n igh ts a nd c iv i lians s tanding o u ts ide a c i ty

P la te 1 4 .11

S an t iago , f .1 62v , B ook I V , p refa tory min ia ture , C har le magne a nd h is a r my r iding o u t f ro m a c i ty ;

s ix

men w i th s words a nd s pears s tanding o uts ide Aachen ( a f ter r es tora t ion )

P la te 1 4 .12

S ant iago , 1 .1 62v , Book I V , p refa tory min ia ture , C har le magne a nd h is a r my r iding o ut f ro m a c i ty ;

s ix men w i th s words a nd

s pears s tanding o utside Aachen ( before r estora t ion )

P la te 1 4 .13

V at ican , f .1 34 , Book I V , p refa tory min ia ture , C har le magne a nd h is a rmy r iding o ut f rom a c i ty ;

s ix men a nd a k n igh t

w i th s words a nd s pears s tanding o uts ide Aachen

P la te 1 4 .14

S a la manca , f .9 0v , Book I V , p reface , ' T ' i n i t ia l , T urp in 's v is ion o f t he warr iors ' d eath a nd t he b earing o f t he ir s ou ls t o h eaven

> t 1 43

H ISTOR IA •

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A 42 1471 4 / 40

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t

f e bu i t t r Kim *t i mae rn i r niu lr or ir I lV •r pan ia , e l if ocn if l e y r d1 12 ,0 d c ratu t 4 q z l f rwc 1f i e at ' n -1 710;

I tt eeli515.

P la te 1 4 .15

S an t iago , f .1 63 , Book I V , p reface , " I ' ', T urp in b less ing

. o 7

P r r nf i e .a t * (« Witte t 1 1 1 1 1 1( >2 .

l tdro l i' m en ' M e lt s :* nt ' I. in i .

Mint i lt i l t ;rni t il t i

if b ru i

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c ra m 41*( 7 4 1 1 1 mA f .

ire i d •f i t inor a f l inr Ka rr

n1 014 I / 1 on Imp i n i ir te

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ne i iarn ; i t ii i i l ira l i ma mi a t rtr Ila tc f . irra cTn e z Ar irre

t m -0 2 , : .

14' du m my . ) r sq !t 4v t u i r t f arr arrnoe t roy ho ; 1 1 1 1 4 ;4p :t i t ; 0 1 *

n iL i i nun ic f t c voy m be 'a i

nn c rr to erd v .

n r tr e t i t ; an it thee .

1 . 1 11 . 1 rm u l t i-am l i st T ry i n aran o t r ait .

n i 2r c i

c r ma ir

r io t t lf i l ern ira ne . 1 % t ir

r i llrr if i .rcir i ll r iot ir ic a ne tvita9 n i z tt ic , i t t )r .d . ane me r a t it r . :

P la te 1 4 .16

r tm i f ir t i t

) 4 1 1 • . 11 1 1r t r

t r id t

ene a t .I t fr .m id

i r

V at ican , f .1 34v , B ook I V , p reface , " I", Turp in b less ing

w i t t r im e l l e t •e t e rr i n e am me t " t ea rm i t t q u int : » t t t a a4 .ap1 .h e rb t ea m t i r r i p Ur n .Wax am& r um a na l n i le tb t le i r ed Me r inr .9 c : thei r : I I n »g l e e* .T Ut una r oue u nn i i a wn« )t out t n I u .j f te a ,i n t n is i »t ri n e r it t a

P la te 1 4 .17

S a lamanca , f .120 , e nd o f B ook V , S t . J a mes o n h orseback

P la te 1 4 .18

S an t iago , Arch ivo d e l a C a tedra l , T u mbo B , f .2 v , S t . J a mes e nthroned b e tween Theodorus a nd A thanas ius ; K n igh t o f C hr ist

S t . J a mes ,

P la te 1 4 .19

P ar is , B . N . l a t . 1 102, S acra mentary o f Gerona , f .3 0 , C ruc if ix ion ( Pho tograph B ib l .

N a t . )

P la te 1 4 .20

P ar is , B . N . l a t . 1 103 , Missa l o f Gerona , f .1 39v , C ruc if ix ion ( Pho tograph B ib l . N a t . )

m e n ' e c t t

A4 1 , i *

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l un g z e t e( Me t e t i te c ie p a rr o sfr c 4 ' 5 4 : 14 ,,Imr-

pa ir to n e-f u o

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z i n int x me . i vur c t ;

nu erten

morre - c a lf " r ti N*r u pw c l i i no tei-/q tna,n en d m in P la te 1 4 .21

n t z re-: re c i uf q ;

ei nerre : S ' i r ct

S ant iago , f .2 4v , Book I , c h . 6 , ' S '

-

i ryf r em u i r t y y a t il 'e lm sf 2 u t a e n v* m ob mamm ac r i c t ean i —' e le ty g t a1 r t i c thenvn t e pu t t +An i lw ie i i t r de ' l i tt le ' t r u in t i c r4 t w tm *e r e t I nr7t a rd f ir nm

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f a rm 'f t z gi c taivi t er i o :h a ct d c r ae t ep cc e l n i lum ef t me n fee e t t l ent n 1 ;n u' m ei n t eu it i nv enom .h u t we ir a rue t ur ef u t tin c ihnä c a me f u c° d im Zi nc r ni :r f r i the ta n im ar n mu te me t e . 1I o ni mp = t u n ih he f t ur tm6 ;f i f i t %4 P 1 1 10 2te .q zm i t te ir r n i h 9e ti am c a i n o 2 t e u f q :a p tua tWN , C i p wn 1ø 2 t m Zf o r t I n th o ; 44 4t u 2 Aun tanu t u f c cr tto i aZ r t i t trf u t r i r ce f u rc o zpe z ief f :urcA i , i c r .f inr c r .au f y r iTf : d eme m t2. 2 . 3nun i

r ae aa i rr eo nnuar to t o enc f c tr d i e crl i i l lunn ' n of t ur Ah 5 :14 i4f l i t t f i n i i g r t i ' v c dmi cr t a rn (i d u t2a p' f our :i f ti n iu ju of r t i n e ( I C e f ame .Ob idn . i 1 q r4 i1 f t .u o t aur :T t r i e ge u r i e ei i rto m u t te t tnn iq u oq z ii u t nn l i tm uw i t' v i le c u.I r an iJ A I l er

P la te 1 4 .22

•i de ad om i i M e er IC IH NI.

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Vat ican , f .7 9v , Book I , c h . 1 9 , ' S '

t i t t l ee

P late 1 4 .27

P late 1 4 .28

S an t iago , f .1 40 , Book I , p reface , ' 5 '

Vat ican , f .1 17, Book I , p reface , ' 5 '

P late 1 4 .29

S ant iago , 1 .141, Book I , c h . 1 , ' B '

P late 1 4 .30

Va t ican , 1 .118, Book I , c h . 1 , 1 3 '

t e • P la te 1 4 .31

P la te 1 4 .32

S ant iago , f .67, Book I , c h . 1 5 , ' E '

Vat ican , f .56v , Book I , c h . 1 5 , ' E '

w c t L i v cnr c : r i t t ia i cr .qu an c l o h o c p e r i i7 l i t rg tr i 0 l u bcr ;C um c Onnue p la t e ' . "i np r e o r .c o n c u t ov t rut t i " ' i nz e inr c a c i on c j . ri I mA l im b r im nf in . m u gc h i d= c e w ear d f mun i tz re r f cf ct o m i .e r % f C 14 : ; u 1' L . v zI , *i Ntka o ce iv a s f e l c o r l ;: f eI to ov i e )I t * 1 3 1% 6 1

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munb o . , P la te 1 4 .33

S an t iago , f .1 92 , Book V , c h . 1 , 'V

i i lm o l1 ,. &er ne e t iD i ut n ay cur / i to .( p i ( . l i r t t i t i ce‚ i emu s e cn od ie ( n ) o. i t te n , _ . 2 \ .e r i n r s t l iö t tu 1 i t ion t i. ri lum t i ou e c i l t i ce ct o3A t i t tu i4a ir f u5 , & 1 1 1 t e n e r cur ‘si n t enie .f l ue t a i ie t o 2uf e t ii . ,

P la te 1 4 .34

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r in . r i m me t i n i 4 t 7 A a inguenn it:c e-l am i nar l Ani4 " S me l t ' P la te 1 4 .35

S ant iago , f .1 56 , Book I I , p ro logue ,

t zucmagme ‘ iu rn =T ic p ow g e t iv 1 4 / 14 non 4. . c s i tucc tc " a b ea t iv tI t \ f l ir 4 Dc y t t i ti : no t ;b ttu ti ‘ e -d ize t i c ium ; o fh iu m , . xx l u to luf m iu s tu tf i t l ip te , f a tno t l ir t I T Ittr Ze lat t il y .e nu t , d ie ; m ir d ed o m in tl 4p t ic i lf c tt a c0b t deuf

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t o n tf ey f t4 c » end n t er t r i

P la te 1 4 .36

S ant iago , f .1 79 , Book I V , c h . 2 1, ' P '

P la te 1 5 .1

Beaune , N o tre-Da me — marb le p laque f ro m Ro manesque H igh A ltar

P la te 1 5 . 2

Draw ing o f P la te I( by C arey M i l ler )

P la te 1 5 .3

Deta i l o f P la te I

P la te 1 5 . 4

De ta i l o f P la te I

P late 1 5 . 5

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P la te 1 5 . 7

De tai l o f P la te 6

P la te 1 5 . 8

De ta i l o f P late 6

P late 1 5 . 9 D i jon , B ib l . Mun . Ms 1 32 , f .2

P late 1 5 .10

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D i jon , B ib l . Mun . Ms 1 629 , f .1 2v

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P la te 1 5 .12

D i jon , B ib l . Mun . Ms 6 33, f .2 2

P la te 1 5 .13

C ha lon-sur-Sa6ne , B ib l . Mun . Ms 9 , f .1 50

P la te 1 5 .14

Beaune , N o tre-Da me , N orth Transept t r ifor iu m , S outh b ay o f E ast wa l l

P la te 1 5 .15

E ngrav ing a f ter a l ost d raw ing o f t he t omb o f Dukes Odo I , H ugh I a nd Odo I a t C i teaux ( pub lished U . P lancher , H is to ire g enera le e t p ar t icu lr ere d e Bourgogne ...., tI D i jon 1 739, f ac ing p age 2 81)