The Urban Environmental Crisis in India : New Initiatives in Safe Water and Waste Management [1 ed.] 9781527502598, 9781443879606

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The Urban Environmental Crisis in India

The Urban Environmental Crisis in India: New Initiatives in Safe Water and Waste Management Edited by

Shyamli Singh, Radha Goyal and Ashish Jain

The Urban Environmental Crisis in India: New Initiatives in Safe Water and Waste Management Edited by Shyamli Singh, Radha Goyal and Ashish Jain This book first published 2017 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2017 by Shyamli Singh, Radha Goyal, Ashish Jain and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-7960-6 ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-7960-6

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables ............................................................................................ viii List of Figures.............................................................................................. x Abbreviations ........................................................................................... xiv Foreword .................................................................................................. xxi Preface ..................................................................................................... xxii Acknowledgment .................................................................................... xxiii Introduction ............................................................................................ xxiv Authors’ Affiliation ................................................................................ xxvi Chapter One ................................................................................................. 1 Urban Waste Management in India: A Revisit of Policies Shyamli Singh Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 12 The Informal Solid Waste Sector through the Lens of Systems Theory Sameer Prasad, Tara Mccloskey, Shantha Parthan and Jasmine Tata Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 25 Status of Plastic Waste Generation and Technologies for Disposal Suneel Kumar Nigam and A.B Akolkar Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 44 E-Waste Management Anuj Sinha Chapter Five .............................................................................................. 55 Regional Approach for Solid Waste Management in India Seema Awasthi

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Table of Contents

Chapter Six ................................................................................................ 65 Sustainable Technologies for MSW Management Satyawati Sharma, Kalpana Arora and Ritika Pathak Chapter Seven............................................................................................ 91 Waste Recycling: A Sustainable Solution to Urban Solid Waste Management Ashish Jain Chapter Eight ........................................................................................... 106 Feasibility of Municipal Solid Waste as a Source of Thermal Energy in the Indian Scenario Roshni Mary Sebastian, Dinesh Kumar and Babu Alappat Chapter Nine............................................................................................ 129 Incinerators for Ever Increasing Urban Municipal Waste in India–Need Reassessment Ritu Paliwal Chapter Ten ............................................................................................. 157 Carbon Sequestration in Municipal Solid Waste Landfills using Alkaline Waste Materials Niharika Pandey and Arvind K Nema Chapter Eleven ........................................................................................ 163 Solid Waste Management in Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR): Current Practices and Future Opportunities Seema Mishra, Devayani Savant, C. Srinivas and Saumya Singh Chapter Twelve ....................................................................................... 191 Implications of Municipal Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries on Greenhouse Gas Emissions Ruchira Ghosh and Arun Kansal Chapter Thirteen ...................................................................................... 208 Air Pollution from Solid Waste Management Practices: Evolving an Environmental and Public Health Crisis in Urban India Radha Goyal

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Chapter Fourteen ..................................................................................... 231 Characterization of Trace Gases and Bioaerosols in and around the Okhla MSW Landfill Site in Delhi, India S. Agarwal, Papiya Mandal and M.K. Chaturvedi Chapter Fifteen ........................................................................................ 246 Gas Recovery from Sanitary Landfill at Ghazipur for use as CNG/Power Pradeep Kumar Khandelwal Chapter Sixteen ....................................................................................... 263 Sustainable Groundwater Management through Water Conservation and Recharge Schemes in a Water-Stressed Region of Central Ganga Alluvial Plain, India Venkatesh Dutta, Karunesh K Shukla and Alok Rai Chapter Seventeen ................................................................................... 286 Spatial Variation of Yamuna River Water Quality in India Papiya Mandal and Rahul Upadhyay Chapter Eighteen ..................................................................................... 310 Solid Waste Management and Groundwater Pollution: Assessment of Heavy Metals Contamination due to Leachates in Active and Closed Municipal Solid Waste Dumping Sites of a North Indian City K. Archana and Venkatesh Dutta Contributors’ Profiles .............................................................................. 334





LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: Plastic Waste Generation in Major Cities ................................. 32 Table 3.2: Percentage of Classified Plastic Waste ..................................... 35 Table 4.1: The Treatment Process for Different E-Wastes ........................ 49 Table 5.1: Few Regional SWM Projects in India ...................................... 62 Table 6.1: MSW Generation in Different States in India .......................... 67 Table 6.2: Breakdown of Solid Wastes and its Sources ............................ 68 Table 6.3: Comparison of the Major MSW Management Technology Options: Landfilling, Composting, and Incineration ........................... 76 Table 6.4: Comparison of Typical Solid Waste Management Practices .... 84 Table 7.1: Composition of Solid Waste at Dump Yard of Urban Cities.... 92 Table 7.2: Solid Waste Management System in Delhi .............................. 94 Table 8.1: Composition of MSW Generated in the Study Areas ............. 110 Table 8.2: Proximate Analysis of MSW .................................................. 110 Table 8.3: Ultimate Analysis of MSW .................................................... 111 Table 8.4: Comparison of the Results from the Study Areas................... 125 Table 9.1: Details of Population and Waste Generated in Megacities in 2000 -2011 .............................................................. 131 Table 9.2: Waste Composition of India during 1971 and 2005 ............... 132 Table 9.3: Waste Composition of Mega Cities during 1971 and 2008 .... 133 Table 9.4: MSW Management Technologies and their Suitability .......... 136 Table 9.5: Operating Incineration Plants ................................................. 144 Table 9.6: Types of Plastic, their Usage and Recycling Value ................ 146 Table 9.7: Suitability of Paper for Recycling .......................................... 148 Table 11.1: Different Categories and Sources of Solid Wastes ............... 164 Table 11.2: Solid Waste Generation and Treatment Facilities in India ... 165 Table 11.3: Solid Waste Generation and Processing in Mumbai Metropolitan Region .......................................................................... 167 Table 11.4: MSW Plants constructed in Mumbai with Nisarguna Technology ........................................................................................ 171 Table 12.1: Sources and Sinks for GHG Emissions from Waste Management Activities ...................................................................... 192 Table 13.1: Type of PM, their Contaminants and Sources from Waste .. 212 Table 13.2: Concentration of Criteria Air Pollutants at two SWM Facilities in Delhi City ............................................................ 213 Table 13.3: Air Pollutants from Solid Waste Management Practices and their Environmental and Public Health Effects ........................... 218

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Table 14.1: The Salient Features of Landfill Sites of Delhi .................... 231 Table 16.1: Site Selection Criteria for Artificial Recharge Structures..... 266 Table 16.2: Land Use/Land Cover and their Area (Ha) in Bhitargaon Block of Kanpur District .................................................................... 269 Table 16.3: Wasteland and their Tentative Areas Mapped from Resourcesat-2 LISS III Satellite Data ................................................ 270 Table 16.4: Pre-Monsoon Groundwater Status of Bhitargaon Block (2014) Data ....................................................... 273 Table 17.1: National Sanitation Foundation Water Quality Index .......... 289 Table 17.2: Water Quality Legends ......................................................... 290 Table 17.3: Designated Best use Classification of Surface Water ........... 297 Table 17.4: Spatial Variation of Yamuna River Water Quality Index (2009-2012) ............................................................................. 298 Table 18.1: Various Dumping Sites, Waste Disposal Methods and Depth of Waste Dump ................................................................. 317 Table 18.2: The Pre- and Post-Monsoon Season Concentrations of Heavy Metals (Mean ± SD, N=3) in Leachate of Different MSW Dumping Sites of Lucknow City ............................................. 317 Table 18.3: Mean Variation in the Concentration of Different PhysicoChemical and Biological Parameters of Groundwater for Varying Distance from the Landfill Sites in Pre-Monsoon Season ................. 326 Table 18.4: Mean Variation in the Concentration of Different Physico- Chemical and Biological Parameters of Groundwater for Varying Distance from the Landfill Sites in Post-Monsoon Season .. 327

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: MSW Generation Rate in Urban Population ............................. 3 Figure 1.2: Circular Economy Model .......................................................... 4 Figure 2.1: Analytic (Reductionist ) Model ............................................... 16 Figure 2.2: Systems Thinking Relative to Reductionist Approaches in Understanding the Informal Solid Waste Sector .............................. 19 Figure 2.3: Iceberg Model Approach to Natural and Human Designed Systems............................................................. 19 Figure 3.1: Existing Collection and Transportation of MSW and Plastic Waste in India .................................................................... 28 Figure 3.2: Methodology Used for the Study ............................................ 31 Figure 3.3: Percentage of Classified Plastic Waste ................................... 35 Figure 6.1: Per Capita Generation Rate of MSW for Indian Cities ........... 68 Figure 6.2: Existing MSW Management System in India ......................... 70 Figure 6.3: Agricultural / Animal Waste Thermochemical Treatment Overview ............................................................................ 81 Figure 6.4: Lignocellulosic Biorefinery Feedstock ................................... 82 Figure 6.5: Selected Feedstock and Process Alternatives .......................... 84 Figure 8.1: Composition of MSW in Developed and Developing Countries.................................................................. 109 Figure 8.2: Tanner diagram ..................................................................... 112 Figure 8.3: System and its Boundary for Mass Balance .......................... 117 Figure 9.1: Quantity of Waste Generated and Waste Dumped in Landfills ......................................................................................... 135 Figure 9.2: Percentage Share of Various Waste Management Technologies in European Countries in 2004 .................................... 139 Figure 9.3: Percentage Share of Various Waste Management Technologies in European Countries in 2014 .................................. 139 Figure 9.4: Percentage of Plastic Waste for Year 2010-2011 .................. 141 Figure 11.1: Municipal Corporations and Councils under Mumbai Metropolitan Region .......................................................................... 166 Figure 11.2: Approach for Integrated Solid Waste Management ............ 174 Figure 12.1: Status of Waste Disposal Practices in some Cities of Developing Countries .................................................................... 196 Figure 12.2: Municipal Solid Waste Management activities as Source of GHG Emissions and GHG Saving ................................ 198

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Figure 13.1: Health Effects of Air Pollutants released from SWM Practices .......................................................................... 210 Figure 13.2: Occurrence of Incidence of Tested Diseases in Waste Pickers, Municipal Staff and on Control Population in Kolkata ........ 222 Figure 14.1: Location of Air Quality Sampling Stations and Metrological Condition in November, 2008 ............................... 233 Figure 14.2: Average Concentrations of NH3 around the Okhla Landfill Location in Delhi ....................................................... 236 Figure 14.3: Average Concentrations of H2S around the Okhla Landfill Location in Delhi ....................................................... 236 Figure 14.4: Average Concentrations of CH4 around the Okhla Landfill Location in Delhi ....................................................... 237 Figure 14.5: Fungal Isolates on Malt Extract Agar Plates and their Microscopic Images after Lacto Phenol Cotton Blue Staining .......... 239 Figure 14.6: Bacterial Isolates on Nutrient Agar Plates and their Microscopic Images after Gram Staining .......................................... 240 Figure 15.1: Satellite Image of Pilot Project Area ................................... 246 Figure 15.2: The Sequence of Laying of Surface Liners is Indicated ...... 248 Figure 15.3: Installation of Liner System with Plain Paver Blocks ......... 249 Figure 15.4: Installation of Liner System with Installation of Grass Paver Blocks ........................................................................ 250 Figure 15.5: Installation of Liner System with Geo Cell ......................... 251 Figure 15.6: Cross Section of LFG Well ................................................. 252 Figure 15.7: Flare System Installation ..................................................... 253 Figure 15.8: Methane Quality & Quantity W.R.T. Time......................... 254 Figure 15.9: Daily Average LFG flowrate in May-2013 ......................... 255 Figure15.10: Daily Average CH4 Vol% in May-2013 ............................. 255 Figure15.11: Daily Average Yield of CH4 (m3/hr) in May-2013 ............ 256 Figure15.12: Daily Average LFG flowrate in June-2013 ........................ 256 Figure15.13: Daily Average CH4 Vol% in June-2013............................. 257 Figure15.14: Daily Average Yield of CH4 (m3/hr) in June-2013 ............ 257 Figure15.15: Daily Average Flowrate of LFG in July-2013 ................... 258 Figure15.16: Daily Average CH4 Vol% in July-2013 ............................. 258 Figure15.17: Daily Average Yield of CH4 (m3/hr) in July-2013 ............. 259 Figure 16.1: Location Map of Bhitargaon Block, Kanpur District, Uttar Pradesh...................................................................................... 265 Figure 16.2: Schematic Representation of Methodology used for Identification of Artificial Recharge Sites in the Study Area ............ 267 Figure 16.3: Hydrograph Stations and their Location in the Study Area ............................................................................... 268

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List of Figures

Figure 16.4: Slope Profile of Bhitargaon Block, Kanpur District, Uttar Pradesh...................................................................................... 269 Figure 16.5: Wasteland and Waterlogged Areas of Bhitargaon Block .... 270 Figure 16.6: Drainage, Water bodies and Canals of Bhitargaon Block ... 271 Figure 16.7: Pre Monsoon Ground Water Level Zone of Bhitargaon Block........................................................................... 272 Figure 16.8: Post Monsoon Ground Water Level Zone of Bhitargaon Block........................................................................... 273 Figure 16.9: Proposed Work for Groundwater Recharge in Bhitargaon Block ........................................................................... 275 Figure 17.1: Sampling Location of River Yamuna (2009-2012) ............. 288 Figure 17.2: Spatial Variation of Temperature of Yamuna River Selected Locations (2009-2012) ........................................................ 291 Figure 17.3: Spatial Variation of pH of Yamuna River Selected Locations (2009-2012) ....................................................................... 291 Figure 17.4: Spatial Variation of Conductivity of Yamuna River Selected Locations (2009-2012) ........................................................ 292 Figure 17.5: Spatial Variation of DO of Yamuna River Selected Locations (2009-2012) ....................................................................... 293 Figure 17.6: Spatial Variation of BOD of Yamuna River Selected Locations (2009-2012) ....................................................................... 294 Figure 17.7: Spatial Variation of Total Coliform of Yamuna River Selected Locations (2009-2012) ........................................................ 295 Figure 17.8: Spatial Variation of Fecal Coliform of Yamuna River Selected Locations (2009-2012) ........................................................ 296 Figure 17.9: Framework for Sustainable Yamuna River Water Management....................................................................................... 303 Figure 18.1: Location of four Dumping Sites and the 5 Km Buffer Area for Groundwater Quality Monitoring ........................................ 311 Figure 18.2: Composition of Municipal Solid Waste in Lucknow .......... 312 Figure18.3: Income Wise Sample Population and their Per Capita Waste Generation (Grams/Capita/Day) in Lucknow ......................... 312 Figure 18.4: Concentration of Zinc (Zn) in Pre and Post-Monsoon Seasons in Leachate of different MSW Dumping Sites of Lucknow City ................................................................................ 319 Figure18.5: Concentration of Copper (Cu) in Pre and Post-Monsoon Seasons in Leachate of different MSW Dumping Sites of Lucknow City ....................................................... 319 Figure 18.6: Concentration of Nickel (Ni) in Pre and Post-Monsoon Seasons in Leachate of different MSW Dumping Sites of Lucknow City ....................................................... 320

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Figure 18.7: Concentration of Cadmium (Cd) in Pre and Post-Monsoon Seasons in Leachate of different MSW Dumping Sites of Lucknow City ....................................................... 320 Figure 18.8: Concentration of Lead (Pb) in Pre and Post-Monsoon Seasons in Leachate of different MSW Dumping Sites of Lucknow City ....................................................... 321 Figure 18.9: Concentration of Chromium (Cr) in Pre and Post-Monsoon Seasons in Leachate of different MSW Dumping Sites of Lucknow City ....................................................... 321 

      

ABBREVIATIONS 

ABPA AFR Al2O3 ALMP AMC AMRUT APC APHA As As2O3 AWWAWPCF BARC BBMP BIMA BMC BMW BOD BPA BREF BT BTEX BTU C&D Ca CAB CaCO3 CAF CAGR CaO CBOs CCMEWQI CCS

Allergic Broncho Pulmonary Aspergillosis Alternative Fuels and Raw Materials Aluminium Oxide Advanced Locality Management Program Allahabad Municipal Council Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation Air Pollution Control American Public Health Association Arsenic Arsenic Oxide American Water Works Association- Water Pollution Control Federation Bhabha Atomic Research Centre Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palika Biogas Induced Mixing Arrangement. Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation Biomedical Wastes Biochemical Oxygen Demand Bisphenol A Bat (Best Available Techniques) Reference Document Bio-technology Benzene Toluene Ethylene and Xylene British Thermal Unit Construction and Demolition Calcium Culturable Airborne Bacteria Calcium Carbonate Culturable Airborne Fungus Compounded Annual Growth Rate Calicum Oxide Community Based Organisations Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment Water Quality Index Carbon Capture and Storage

The Urban Environmental Crisis in India

Cd CdCl2 CEA CETP CFC CGWB CH4 CIPET Cl CNG CO Co CO2 COD Cp CPCB CPHEEO Cr CRRI CSIR CSIRNEERI Cu DCB DISHA DO DRANCO DSC DST DTDC EC EDMC EM EPA EPC EPR EU E-waste F

Cadmium Cadmium Chloride Central Electricity Authority Common Effluent Treatment Plant Chloro Fluoro Carbon Central Ground Water Board Methane Central Institute of Plastics Engineering and Technology Chlorine Compressed Natural Gas Carbon Monoxide Cobalt Carbon Dioxide Chemical Oxygen Demand Specific Heat Content Central Pollution Control Board Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation Chromium Central Road Research Institute Council of Scientific and Industrial Research Council of Scientific and Industrial Research- National Environmental Engineering Research Institute Copper Delhi Cantonment Board Direct Initiative for Social and Health Action Dissolved Oxygen Dry Anaerobic Composting Differential Scanning Calorimeter Department of Science & Technology Door-to-Door Waste Collection Electrical Conductivity East Delhi Municipal Corporation Effective Micro-Organisms Environment Protection Agency Engineering Procurement Construction Extended Producer Responsibility European Union Electronic Waste Fluorine

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FB FC Fe2O3 FICCI FID FMCG GAP GDP GHG GIBCO GIS GoI GOI-CGWB GPS GUDC GW H 2S HAP HC HCl HDPE Hg HHV HW IARI IAWG ICPE IEA IGT IIT IMSD INR IPCA IPCC IPMA IRC ISWM ISWMS ITCC IW

Abbreviations

Field Blanks Fecal Coliform Ferric Oxide Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry Flame Ionization Detector Fast Moving Consumer Goods Ganga Action Plain Gross Domestic Product Green House Gas Grand Island Biological Company Geographical Information System Government of India Government of India- Central Ground Water Board Global Positioning System Gujarat Urban Development Corporation Gigawatt Hydrogen Sulphide Hazardous Air Pollutant Hydro Carbon Hydro Chloride High-Density Polyethylene Mercury Higher Heating Value Hazardous Waste Indian Agriculture Research Institute International Ash Working Group Indian Centre for Plastics in the Environment International Energy Agency Institute of Gas Technology Indian Institutes of Technology Integrated Mission for Sustainable Development Indian Rupee Indian Pollution Control Association Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change International Project Management Association Indian Road Congress Integrated Solid Waste Management Integrated Municipal Solid Waste Management System Indian Type Culture Collection Industrial Waste

The Urban Environmental Crisis in India

JBIC JICA JITF JNNURM KMDA KPI LB LCA LCDs LDPE LFG LMC LPG MAR mbgl MCD MCGM MEA MFA Mg MgCO3 MgO MLD MMC MMR Mn MNRE MoEF MoEFCC MoUD MPCB MPN MSW MSWM MT MTPD MTPY MW MWh NA

Japan Bank of International Cooperation Japan International Cooperation Agency Jindal Infrastructure Transport and Fabrication Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority Key Performance Indicators Laboratory Blanks Life Cycle Assessment Liquid Crystal Displays Low-Density Polyethylene Landfill Gas Lucknow Municipal Corporation Liquid Petroleum Gas Managed Aquifer Recharge Meters Below Ground Level Municipal Corporations of Delhi Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai Malt Extract Agar Material Flow Analysis Magnesium Magnesium Carbonate Magnesium Oxide Million Litres Per Day Maharashtra Municipal Corporation Mumbai Metropolitan Region Manganese Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Ministry of Environment and Forests Ministry of Environment Forests and Climate Change Ministry of Urban Development Maharashtra Pollution Control Board Most Probable Number Municipal Solid Waste Municipal Solid Waste Management Metric Ton Metric Ton Per Day Million Ton Per Year Municipal Waste Mega Watt Hour Nutrient Agar

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NAAQS NAAQMP NDMC NEERI NERI NGO NGT NH3 NH-8 Ni NIMBY NMMC NMOC NOAA NOx NO2 NRCD NSF NSFWQI NUSP NWDMC O2 O3 ODS OECD OFMSW OUIDF OWQI PAH Pb PbCl2 PCB PCDD PCDF PCP PE PET PM PMC PP

Abbreviations

National Ambient Air Quality Standards National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Programme New Delhi Municipal Council National Environmental Engineering Research Navreet Energy Research and Information Non-Government Organization National Green Tribunal Ammonia National Highway-8 Nickel Not In My Backyard Navi Mumbai Municipal Corporation Non-Methane Organic Compounds National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Oxides of Nitrogen Nitrogen Dioxide National River Conservation Directorate National Sanitation Foundation National Sanitation Foundation Water Quality Index National Urban Sanitation Policy National Water Demand Management Centre Oxygen Ozone Ozone Depleting Substances Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Organic Fraction of Municipal Solid Waste Odisha Urban Infrastructure Development Fund Oregon Water Quality Index Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Lead Lead Chloride Polychlorinated Biphenyl Polychlorinated Dibenzo-P-Dioxins Polychlorinated Dibenzo Furans Pentachlorophenol Population Equivalent Polyethylene Terephthalate Particulate Matter Pune Municipal Corporation Polypropylene

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PPP PPT PS PTFE PVC PW PWM R&D RCC RDF RWA SA Sb SBM SDMC SGPI SiO2 SLF SO2 SO4 SOX SPM STPs SW SWM SWOT TC TCLP TDS TEQ TERI TGA Th TIFAC TIFR Th ToC TOWMCL TPD

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Public Private Partnership Plasma Pyrolysis Technology Poly Styrene Poly Tetra Fluoro Ethylene Poly Vinyl Chloride Plastic Waste Plastic Waste Management Research and Development Reinforced Concrete Cement Refuse Derived Fuel Resident Welfare Association System Administrator Strontium Swachh Bharat Mission Systems Director Management Console Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Silicon di- Oxide Sanitary Landfill Sulphur Di Oxide Sulphate Oxides of Sulphur Suspended Particulate Matter Sewage Treatment Plants Solid Waste Solid Waste Management Strength Weakness Opportunities and Threat Total Coliform Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure Total Dissolved Solid Toxicity Equivalency Quantity The Energy Research Institute Thermo-Gravimetric Analyser Thalium Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Council Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Thorium Total Organic Carbon Timarpur - Okhla Waste Management Company Limited Ton Per Day

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TSDF TSPM TSS UP UFPM UK ULBs UN UNEP UNFCC US USA USD USDOE USEIA USEPA USFA V VFA VMCH VOCs W2E WAWQI WHO WLO WPs WQI WRI WTE YAP Zn ZnCl2

Abbreviations

Treatment Storage and Disposal Facilities Total Suspended Particulate Matter Total Suspended Solid Uttar Pradesh Ultra Fine Particulate Matter United Kingdom Urban Local Bodies United Nations United Nations Environment Programme United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change United States United States of America United State Dollar United States Department of Energy United State Environmental Impact Assessment United State Environment Protection Agency United State Fire Administration Vanadium Volatile Fatty Acid Vinyl Acetate - Maleic Acid - Vinyl Chloride Volatile Organic Compounds Waste to Energy Weight Arithmetic Water Quality Index World Health Organization Waste Lubricating Oil Waste Pickers Water Quality Index Western Research Institute Waste To Energy Yamuna Action Plan Zinc Zinc Chloride

FOREWORD

It is my immense pleasure to introduce this valued and timely edition highlighting the concerns of solid waste and wastewater management, with special emphasis on the urban locale in the Indian context. Albeit, several publications are available dealing with an assortment of themes in solid waste management, the emphasis of those is largely on the issues and needs of industrialized nations. A very few books have been specifically authored to provide the nature of information that is vital for those in the developing countries. I extend my heartiest congratulations to all the esteemed authors who have contributed their expertise to present the valuable information about the current crisis of solid waste in urban India, its policy framework and initiatives taken so far for its sustainable management. The book attempts to identify the lacunae in new initiatives embarked upon in terms of technologies, policies and regulations to alleviate the water and waste problem faced in the metropolitan cities of India. The book has an added flavor of practical solutions, discussed for professionals in India as well as other developing countries. The book has been primed for decisionmakers, policy makers, researchers, academicians and professionals involved in the management of solid wastes, air pollution, river water and ground water quality. I hope this book will prove to be a valuable and important source of information to provide remedial solutions to the ever increasing problem of waste and water management in India and other developing countries. Dr. Rakesh Kumar Director, CSIR- NEERI 

PREFACE

The edited book, “The Urban Environmental Crisis in India: New Initiatives in Safe Water and Waste Management” by Cambridge Scholars Publishing is motivated by the urgency of furthering the adoption of safe water and waste management practices in India. The management of solid waste is a national crisis. The number of available landfills is decreasing, the health risks associated with waste incineration are of great concern and the growing public / NIMBY opposition to siting new waste management facilities is a growing problem especially for urban local authorities. There is need for policy intervention in an inclusive productionconsumption- recovery pattern of waste management in India. The book tries to present a full picture of the state-of-the-art research and development of actionable knowledge discovery in new initiatives in safe water, waste management and applications. The inception of the book was triggered by applications of real-world challenges and complexities. Although there has already been a lot of documentation in this huge public services breakdown zone, there is no calling a halt to more information dissemination especially for validating business related use. There seems to be a gap between academia and businesses and between academic research and ground realities in the context of popularizing waste management. This book is an attempt to address the ubiquitous challenges and complexities from a real-world perspective. It features new methodological, technical and practical progress in promoting initiatives. It presents recent developments and discoveries in solid waste management practice and its associated risks of air, water and soil pollution to stimulate more research and to rapidly pass on such discoveries to the community. This is an up-to date collection of scientific contributions written by specialists in various areas of policy, waste management and safe water for both practitioners and for the research community. The intended clients would likely be researchers, research students, policy makers, academia and decision makers. The book should also interest industry in working on sustainable development, solid waste management and related areas. It provides a coherent view of the state of the art and practice to enable developers and managers with technical and organizational approaches. Dr. Tishyarakshit Chatterjee, Director, IIPA, Former Secretary, M/o Environment & Forests, GoI

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This prestigious project of editing a book entitled “The Urban Environmental Crisis in India: New Initiatives in Safe Water and Waste Management” was successful due to assistance received and time devoted by many prestigious personalities. Words are inadequate to convey the appreciation for all the help provided by them. First, our sincere gratitude goes to the chapters’ authors who contributed their time and expertise to this book. Without their support, this book would not have become a reality; which may prove to be a great asset to the community. With token of responsibility, the editors are indebted to India Development Service (IDS) and University of Wisconsin Whitewater (UoWW), Chicago, USA for their valuable support. Special thanks to Shri T. Chatterjee, Director, Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA) and to Dr. Rakesh Kumar, Director, CSIRNational Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR- NEERI) for their incomparable guidance and support which inspired the pace of the project. We are extremely grateful to the Administration Department, Finance & Accounts Department, Photocopy Department, and the Consumer Centre of IIPA and Indian Pollution Control Association (IPCA) for uniting the necessary facilities, and investing their time and efforts as and when required in the process of editing the book. We would like to extend our deep thanks to Dr. Lolita Pradhan, Research Officer at IPCA for her dedicated support and assistance in completing this project. We would also thank Mr. Ajay Garg, Secretary, IPCA for his constant motivation and support. Editors’ humble duty of acknowledging everyone would fail if we miss to thank the Cambridge Scholars Publishing Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom without their support and assistance the book would not have seen the light of the day. Last but not the least the Editors express their sincere and heartfelt thanks to the Almighty for providing them good health and peace of mind which facilitated in producing the edition. The editors sincerely pray and wish to the Divine for many more such endeavors. Shyamli Singh, Radha Goyal and Ashish Jain

INTRODUCTION

At the dawn of the new millennium, 300 million Indians lived in the country’s nearly 3700 towns and cities, in sharp contrast to only 60 million in 1947 when the country became independent. Estimates show that by 2045 nearly 800 million Indians will be living in the country’s cities— more than the total population of the whole of present-day Europe. The mega cities are under severe stress, ranging from shambling infrastructure to depleting groundwater and unhygienic sanitary conditions. This volatile state of affairs has not been satisfactorily appreciated at both national and international level. The book titled “The Urban Environmental Crisis in India: New Initiatives in Safe Water and Waste Management” examines the programs and policies espoused so far to remediate the situation, identifies the shortcomings, and looks into the new initiatives that have been undertaken to make the cities selfsustainable units of governance and reliable service providers. The book cruises through different realms, starting from the need to revisit the existing policy framework. The sustainability prism of solid waste management is fractured and fragmented. Most of the times it has been realized that the policies related to the management of urban solid waste are understated, lack coherence and are not holistic. The policies appear to be more like ill –fitted pieces of the jigsaw puzzle. The book provides glimpses of the informal sector involved in solid waste management laying stress on the rag picker community. It compares reductionist analysis and further incorporates the system thinking development model in the informal sector. The system design approach seems to project that the natural and human designed systems are independent, but actually the two forms interact with each other enabling the franchise model within the biological physical and chemical boundaries. The status of plastic waste generation and the disposal of the same has been further elaborated upon in the book. The generation of e-waste and the management of the same is emphasized. The chapter also explores the reasons of export of e-waste from developed countries to developing countries such as India and China, as well as the continent of Africa. The need for regularization of the informal sector in managing e-waste, discussion on the flow of e-waste through different niches, substantiating the legal framework and EPR is toured through. The trend of MSW

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generation in the present context and the future trend of solid waste generation is explored, positioning emphasis on the concept of ISWM and detailing a comparative analysis of the stand-alone versus regional approach for the SWM facility. The book also tends to capture the various technological options for waste treatment viz. incineration composting, bio-methanation, gasification, pyrolysis, incineration, bioethanol production, and hydrogen energy to deal with ever mounting unsegregated waste in the megacities such as Mumbai. The special sectors of Paper & Pulp and Plastic recycling industries in India are accentuated upon in the book reflecting the ground reality of the recycling industry in India. The option for using MSW as a source of thermal energy generation is also explored in the book. Another sector of the book deals with air pollution and related aspects in developing world. The chapters dedicated to air pollution deal with GHG implications of various waste management facilities in India. To achieve low carbon waste management, the ideal choice of technologies needs to be supported by upstream and downstream management strategies. Air pollution generating from solid waste management practices leading to public health crisis in urban India is also emphasized in the book. The book further maneuvers through ambient air quality assessment around the Okhla and Gazipur landfill site. The open-solid waste dumping sites in Delhi are a major source of bio aerosols and trace gases. Residents and garbage handling workers at the landfills are at high health risks. The recovery of landfill gasses also helps in strengthening India’s efforts to hit the CO2 emissions target set at the World forums on climate change. The impact of greenhouse gases and its source of emission with special emphasis on landfill proposing a very valuable and sustainable solution to capture excess carbon to reduce landfill carbon footprint is echoed in the book. The book further widens its scope and covers the river water quality and the ground water and landfill leachate assessment evaluating physiochemical and biological parameters.





AUTHORS’ AFFILIATION

Dr. Shyamli Singh, Assistant Professor Dr. Sameer Prasad, Professor Dr. Tara Mccloskey, Professor Dr. Shantha Parthan, Professor Dr. Jasmine Tata, Professor

Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi University of Wisconsin–Whitewater (UWW), California, U.S.A.  George Washington University, Washington DC University of Canterbury, New Zealand Loyola University, Chicago

Dr. S.K Nigam, Additional Director Dr. A.B Akolkar, Member Secretary Er. Anuj Sinha, Chairman

Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi  Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi Network of Organisations for Science and Technology Communication, Delhi and Member Secretary, Institute of Peace Research and Action, Delhi. ICUC Consultants Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi Centre for Rural Development and Technology, IIT Delhi, New Delhi Centre for Rural Development and Technology, IIT Delhi, New Delhi Centre for Rural Development and Technology, IIT Delhi, New Delhi Indian Pollution Control Association, New Delhi Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi, New Delhi Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi, New Delhi Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi, New Delhi AECOM, Gurgoan, Haryana

Dr. Seema Awasthi, Director Dr. Satyawati Sharma, Professor Dr. Kalpana Arora, Project Fellow, Ms. Ritika Pathak, Research Scholar Mr. Ashish Jain, Director Ms Roshnimary Sebastian, Research Scholar Mr. Dinesh Kumar , Research Scholar Dr. Babu Alappat, Professor Dr. Ritu Paliwal, Senior Environmental Consultant

The Urban Environmental Crisis in India

Ms. Niharika Pandey, Research Scholar Dr. Arvind K. Nema, Professor Dr. Seema Mishra, Director Dr. Devayani Savant, Adjunct Professor Dr. C. Srinivas, Adjunct Professor Dr. Saumya Singh, Adjunct Professor Dr. Ruchira Ghosh, Research Scholar Dr. Arun Kansal, Professor Dr. Radha Goyal, Deputy Director Dr. Papiya Mandal, Scientist Dr. S. Agarwal, Scientist Dr. Rahul Upadhyay, Water Resources and Environment Specialist Dr. M.K. Chaturvedi, Scientist Mr. Pradeep Kumar Khandelwal, Chief Engineer Dr. Venkatesh Dutta, Assistant Professor

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Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi, New Delhi Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi, New Delhi SIES Indian Institute of Environment Management, Nerul, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra SIES Indian Institute of Environment Management, Nerul, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra SIES Indian Institute of Environment Management, Nerul, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra SIES Indian Institute of Environment Management, Nerul, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra Department of Energy and Environment, TERI University, New Delhi Coca-Cola Department of Regional Water Studies, TERI University, New Delhi Indian Pollution Control Association, New Delhi CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, New Delhi CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, New Delhi Freelance Consultant

CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, New Delhi East Delhi Municipal Corporation, New Delhi  Department of Environmental Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 

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Mr. Karunesh K. Shukla, Research Assistant Mr. Alok Rai, Research Assistant Ms. K. Archana, Research Scholar

Authors’ Affiliation

DST Centre for Policy Research, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh DST Centre for Policy Research, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh Department of Environmental Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

CHAPTER ONE URBAN WASTE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA: A REVISIT OF POLICIES SHYAMLI SINGH

Introduction The sustainable management of urban waste has become a major global concern. The sustainability index featured in the management of solid waste calls for innovative thinking, holistic practice and a revisit of policy and recommendations. The character of urban waste has been totally revamped in the past few decades giving it shades of inorganic waste. The burgeoning population leading to urbanization and changes in lifestyles have also contributed greatly to unsustainable disposal habits and individual consumption. No policy document in India deals with the whole productionconsumption-recovery pattern of waste. The sustainability prism of solid waste management is fractured and fragmented. Most of the time it has been realized that the policies related to the management of urban solid waste are understated, they lack coherence and are not holistic. The policies are more like ill–fitted pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. The lack of a sound policy and the gaps between policies lead to a call for a revisit of the existing policies. This revisit would facilitate the plugging of the loopholes and would pave the way for a new urban waste management policy which would be more equitable, sustainable and inclusive. This would in turn cater to the demands of the time and would help in facilitating a stage for the development of sustainable smart cities. Albeit the foundation for this has already been laid by the prognostic Solid Wastes Management Rules, 2016, which is drafted to replace the Municipal Solid Wastes (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000, there are a few glitches associated with it. The new Gazette of Solid Waste Rules overlooks the provision of incentives and the imposition of stricter penalties in case of non– adherence. The rules, by and large, are the re-packaging of centralized

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treatment technologies. The newly drafted Solid Waste Rules send a clear message of pushing technology to the farthest edge. Unfortunately, this embrace of the technology has totally failed to address the issues of reuse, recycling and citizen-centred responses that lead to decentralized waste management. This chapter aims to highlight the phases which are indispensable for the transition from a centralized to a decentralized waste management mechanism, to achieve a more viable, mainstream and inclusive strategy. This transition can be engineered through strategically planned revisits of existing plans and policies. The results and recommendations of the reconsideration would then act as an underpinning for optimized waste management practices. The chapter also focuses on alternative development models, which would help with the decline of waste generation. This also calls for a paradigm shift by the annexation of socially and politically motivated management plans. The entire gamut of activities ranging from the generation of waste to its collection, segregation, processing and treatment, and finally its disposal must be viewed through the lens of a cradle-to-cradle approach, yielding a new tangent to the various dimensions. The technology options for decentralized treatment should be starred as the unique selling point, and they will act to enable a better-programmed sustainability. A very important dimension that is the prerequisite for any sustainable waste management practice is a reduction in the generation of waste; this can be achieved by targeting consumer behavior and lifestyle management. The sources of waste generation and the approach to catering for the waste generated need a detailed plan of action. This chapter captures this area too and helps in suggesting ways and methods to educate the masses for responsible consumer behavior.

Waste Generation Trends in India India, a developing country, is heading towards becoming a mass urban sprawl. The extension ranges from rural communities to urban agglomerations and urban centers. According to the United Nations’ 1995 estimates, over 400 million people will be clustered in cities over the next three decades. Concerns about both quantity and quality are being linked to encircling the social facet to be in tandem with scientific and political tangents. Despite the snail’s pace of its growth and economy, India still stands as the third largest of economies in terms of Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) (World Bank, 2012). It is observed that the non-organic nature of waste is slowly but surely making its way into urban life patterns

Urban Waste Management in India

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and style. This trend is attributed to increased consumerism, thus posing challenges to the management of waste. Forecasts show an overall increased trend of municipal waste generation in urban India. Figure 1.1 clearly highlights the increase of current Solid Waste Management to reach a new pinnacle of 221 million tonnes per annum by 2030 (Kaushal et al. 2012). The daily generation of the waste is to the tune of 0.44 kg per person per day though less than the world urban average of 1.2 kg per day.

Figure 1.1: Municipal Solid Waste generation rate in urban population Source: Kumar Kaushal and Vargheseet al., 2012

Time and again, the policy discourses and responses to urban solid waste management have come up with plagiarized non-contextual solutions. As a result, they fail to deliver indigenous solutions. It is common to observe in recent practice a failure to address sustainable and inclusive waste management.. It is also recognized that a spasmodic approach to a gamut of challenges is being adopted resulting in fissured output and unproductive results, thus leading to a plethora of problems and gross mal-administration. The fractured understanding about the subject, accompanied by infrastructural, social and political dimensions as auxiliary liabilities, make locally rooted responses all the more desired, as these are more able to fit into the local dynamics.

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Effective & Efficient Waste Management: Requisite Stances Alternative Models of Waste Management It is commonly assumed that improved and increased efficiency leads to sustainability. However, throwing a glance at the bigger picture, it is realized that it just leads to a short-term deferred diminution of natural resources, which are bound to get extinct eventually under the current Linear Model of development. This model can never be sustainable as it leads to continuous consumption, which eventually leads to continuous generation of waste. As has been seen in various illustrations, recycling and other substitutes of the waste disposal system are both labor and energy intensive: this therefore calls for concocting and evolving some alternative model. An alternative system of sustainability such as the Circular Economy Model as shown in Figure 1.2 should be employed as better practice. This model discusses one such practice, which is based on a cycle of disassembly and reuse. The concept itself is based on the elimination of waste generation thus reducing the need to recycle or seek another means of disposal.

Figure1.2: Circular economy model Source: The Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2013

The circular economy model is based on closure of the open loops by scheming the waste out. The product is designed in such a manner that it has to make provision for reprocessing and reclaiming. The product design

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approach includes incorporation of consumability and durability of the product. The product design enforces a stringent distinction between replaceable and resilient components of the product. The replaceable in a circular model generally consists of organic elements that are unswervingly returned to the natural environment, whereas the resilient substances, comprising durable substances such as plastics and metals, which do not find a direct entry into the natural biosphere, are designed for reuse. Renewable sources of energy are preferred for reclaiming, and these give further benefits in reducing the energy quotient required for the reclamation. It is also emphasized that policies must be revisited and examined through the lens of consumer behavior, which would eventually reflect consumer behavior and lifestyle changes. This would lead to the transformation of consumer perception, thus enabling the metamorphosis of consumers to users. Mechanisms must be in place to ensure the reuse of non-organic components. The value chain should be strengthened by maximizing and diversifying the use of non-organics. This would lead to the provision of substitutes for virgin materials thus aiding elimination of the refurbishing of products. A Circular economy basically has four pillars. They are spelled out as: (1) minimization of transformation in product reuse; (2) increasing magnitude of product life cycle; (3) diversifying merchandise usage; and (4) maintaining an uncontaminated stream to escalate the life span of products (Benton and Hazell, 2013). The change from the present linear model to a circular model is primarily a governance issue and requires policy level interventions. The milieu of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), which holds producers responsible for recovery and prevention of toxic material from entering market streams, should be encouraged. This would help in laying the groundwork for a circular economy which would be, on the contrary, beyond reach by other market-based approaches. Ecological Democracy Model This model lays stress on the unification of best practices laying more emphasis on re-modeling the structure of the social order, authority and economy to be more all-encompassing and punitive, achieving quality of public life and sustainability. It is principally a framework which incorporates various features of decentralized governance. The Ecological Democracy Model is based on a substitute archetype, established on safeguarding deep societal, fiscal and environmental righteousness. The model calls for the articulate involvement of citizens and communities in

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an informed decision-making process. The model has small-scale communities as the fundamental unit of power, able to correspond with other allied communities and institutions at the bio-regional and ecoregional levels. With these philosophies as the foundation, the Ecological Democracy Model stresses an exemplar to focus on a unit model but on a shared agenda that upgrades alternative accomplishments and the devolution of governance systems to stimulate superior ecological and community contentment. Refurbishing Current Waste Practices through Policy Interventions In the Indian scenario the management of solid waste, which is basically a public necessity, is provided by the respective municipalities. The sole objective of contemporary urban waste management policy is that it is “disposal centric”; i.e. the waste is sent largely to unsanitary landfills or open dumps where it is disposed of and covered over or concealed with rubble. As a result, most of these waste collection sites present a very unsightly scene besides adding to other environmental worries and troubles, viz.: odor, a breeding ground for vectors leading to various vector-borne diseases, the problem of leachate, dioxins and furans in case the waste is incinerated, etc. This calls for an urgent need to transform the disposal centric approach to “recovery centric” Although the informal sector routes some of the waste and the recyclable waste back through the supply chain, the sector still does not have any ceremonial recognition, nor is it introduced into the mainstream waste collection system. Participatory reclamation-based interventions need a policy-level intercession lawfully to identify the informal sector and equip it with the power to take the essential decisions. Decentralization is the progression of federalization of resources and of decision-making processes, and it demands the delegation of command to local bodies so that the desired intentions can be obtained (Agarwal et.al, 2005). The fiasco of local governance to deliver appropriate waste management amenities has brought about a large number of communityled waste management enterprises. Albeit such ventures provide an alternative to the habitually ill-functioning centralized waste management system, they are usually under pronounced financial and social stress and are seldom recognized or buttressed by the stakeholders involved. The government should sustain those enterprises that are community-based and address waste management in an environmentally safe and socially comprehensive mode. These informal sectors have been ostracized until now or diluted by municipal associations; it is high time to show the light

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to their initiatives and add to the advantages of a decentralized waste management system. The decentralized waste management system comprises partnerships and associations between municipalities and Non Government Organisations (NGOs), inter-association between NGOs and Community-Based Organisations (CBOs), intra-associations between different municipalities and private owners, and institutions or industrial complexes operating on their own. The success mantra for an ecologically sustainable, participatory recovery-based waste management system includes minimization of waste generation, optimizing the options for recovery and reclamation, phasing out the separation of inert material, and the segregation and treatment of biodegradable waste. Solid Waste Management Governance: Sustainability Paradigm The administration and governance related to solid waste management is quite simplistic. It normally follows a very specific, routine and straightjacketed approach, comprising a regular and periodic series of events of waste generation at source, primary door-to-door collection, transportation and disposal. However, when confronted with reality, the waste courses are not so streamlined; in fact they are very dynamic and laced with intricacies. These complexities and dynamics have their own premeditated risks associated with them, thus making the entire system even more intangible to comprehend. For instance, the health issues linked to the waste-disposal sites do not happen just at the end point of the waste sequence mechanism at the waste disposal site; they are found at dump sites and at rag pickers’ households where all the recyclables are stockpiled. It is also observed that the transportation of the waste, especially in open vehicles, furthermore acts as a major source of contamination, which helps in dispersing the environmental health-related issues. The informal waste management sector, which works in parallel with the formal sector, has a significant contribution to the collection and segregation of waste. Despite the informal sector contributing the lion’s share of chores, the major concerns of mainstreaming such as addressing recompense for the work, defense against occupational health vulnerabilities and social mayhems are largely neglected. The conventional formal waste management considerations speak about restricted threats coupled with waste. For instance, the removal of waste to additional fragments of the city (to landfills), or its incineration, are the options for waste treatment and disposal. However, deeper investigation speaks volumes about this mere movement of waste from one niche to another, merely shifting the effects within the city and between societal groups. The waste merely exchanges hands between the different realms of

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the biosphere: for instance, an incinerator moves pollutants from the ground to the atmosphere. The need is to have a deeper connection, addressing both environmental health and social integrity in a holistic approach. Response of the Municipality A growing trend is observed in cities, to shift the conventional responsibilities of the municipalities onto private players. Most of the time this responsibility transfer is done unmindfully without making an allowance for the cloud of prevailing stakeholders. It is also observed that there is a lack of upstream concentrations involving more accountability of the producer. Unwarranted dependence is placed on technologies, which are full of high environmental and economic corollaries, viz.: installation of an incinerator replaces one centralized system by another without giving due to attention to changing waste behavior. The installation of such fancy technologies merely transfers the environmental impacts from one realm of the biosphere to another. Furthermore, most of the time the livelihood prospect of the waste pickers is largely ignored. Thus most of the time such replacements have hidden costs jeopardizing alreadysubjugated communities. Nevertheless municipal projects are working well and satisfying the objectives of environmental concern and natural resource conservation. They are subjected to excessive monetary and community stress. There is neither the acknowledgement nor sustenance for such work by the different establishments from various patrons. Hence there is a necessity to convey the effort to the larger civic space and analyze the rubrics and procedures for both augmenting and providing inducement to community waste management systems. It has been observed that the PPP models have been a failure as far as the primary collection and segregation of waste are concerned. Research shows that the contracts should be directly awarded to the informal sectors by the governing municipal bodies through Resident Welfare Associations (RWAs). Amplification of the interface between RWAs and the informal sector would eventually help in building close networking, and would lead to a fixing of accountability and thus to better management. Moreover, as the RWAs are directly involved it could act to persuade them to work with the community waste management systems. Simultaneous Approaches of Centralization and Decentralization There is a plethora of options to treat urban waste, which is both large scale and small scale. Large-scale wastestreams, including construction &

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demolition waste, bio-medical waste and e-waste, need technical inputs and work best at a larger scale helping them to keep emissions under a limit; they ought to be catered for through centralized approaches. By contrast, the domestic waste flows collected at society level and locally separated can be treated simultaneously using decentralized technologies such as composting and bio-methanol. This demarcation of the waste treatment would lead to reduction in the amount of waste going to centralized treatment options such as landfills. The by-products such as composts generated as a result of the decentralized technologies could find immediate markets and local users. Composting needs suitable segregation of waste to ensure it is of the mandatory standard and non-toxic. These conformities lead to the creation of green livelihoods, strengthening the environment and the economy. Social motivations, such as inspiring people to separate at source their dry and wet waste and to procure compost and organic manures in place of inorganic fertilizers for the kitchen garden, can be beneficial. Policy level schemes should back such efforts, and help cultivate stages for people to network, involve and inaugurate response mechanisms within the waste management system. Lessons need to be drawn from these decentralized approaches, to look at the substitute delineations of sustainability encompassing the subjects of environmental health and social integrity, integrating both the formal and the informal sector.

Positive Reinforcement to Support Sustainability Positive reinforcement which supports sustainability provides incentives in the form of carbon credits, free land, funds for bridging the price difference between the cost of energy production and its buy-back price per unit of energy, and subsidies for tipping fees. These are observed to largely support centralized and more “conventional” solutions such as waste-to-energy schemes. [Interview with Senior Environmental Engineer, Delhi Pollution Control Committee, 26 December 2012]. There is a requirement to incentivize other small-scale, decentralized auxiliary project know-hows applicable to different stages of waste management. These comprise community-led enterprises for the use of waste management practices and collective encouragement. Such incentives could be boosting people to cradle-separate their dry and wet waste and purchase compost and organic manures rather than inorganic fertilizers for the kitchen garden. Government schemes should support efforts where resident municipal bodies and NGOs at the individual level, or in collaboration with some Resident Welfare Associations, have tried to

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raise cognizance among local people about various aspects of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) management and assisted in developing platforms for people to interrelate, participate and launch response mechanisms in the waste management system. Community Involvement in Policy Formulation The elected representatives should devise a mechanism wherein there is a provision to put forward the voice of the common man in the process of policy making. The 74th Amendment of the Constitution entitles the elected representative of the people to represent people’s voices in the process of policy formulation and implementation. The public consultation before planning and implementation of any waste management facility should not be a mere formality and must warrant concentrated participation. The other methods of people’s involvement are through voluntary determinations made through RWAs and their collaboration with or through voluntary organizations. If these mechanisms were to be more democratized, then they could be applied in a more productive manner. Development of Alternative Waste Management Pathway There are several counterparts where the urban milieu and social schedules have attempted to bring into conjunction apparently conflicting concerns of health, hygiene and incomes. An example is the movement for street hawkers to retail safe food by providing them with clean water and washing posts, instead of forbidding them as people who sell germinfested food. In the niche of waste management practices, waste-pickers have come together as unions or as cooperatives to propose wellsynchronized solutions. The key is to examine the problem from the bottom up. Harmonizing between such movements at a knowledgesharing event or on a functioning level can help to fortify the call for more socially fair solutions. This would also lead to approaches which create capacity and expedite all-encompassing solutions rather than considering waste management as solely an environmental or technical issue.

References Agarwal, A., Singhmar, A ., Kulshrestha, M ., Mittal, A.K., 2005. Municipal solid waste recycling and associated markets in Delhi, India. Resources Conservation and Recycling 44, 73–90. Benton, D. and J Hazell, 2013. Resource resilient UK: Areport from the

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Circular Economy Task Force report. London: GreenAlliance, p.31. Institute for Environmental Policy Solutions. [online] Available at : http:// center.sustainability.duke.edu/ Accessed: 27 Mar 2014. Interview with Chief Engineer, East Delhi Municipal Corporation, 21 December 2012; Interview with Director, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, 8 January 2013 Kaushal, R.K., G.K.Verghese and Mayuri Chabukdhara.2012. Municipal Solid Waste Management in India- Current State and Future Challenges: A Review. International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, 4(4), p.3 World Bank Indicators 2012. World Bank Development Indicators. Washington, DC. © World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank .org/handle/10986/6014 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO

CHAPTER TWO THE INFORMAL SOLID WASTE SECTOR THROUGH THE LENS OF SYSTEMS THEORY SAMEER PRASAD, TARA MCCLOSKEY, SHANTHA PARTHAN AND JASMINE TATA

Over the last five decades, aid has been funneled into projects in order to improve the lives of the most vulnerable citizens in developing countries. In spite of these efforts many citizens, even in large metropolises, lack access to proper healthcare, education, sanitation, and income generation opportunities. Many development agencies are getting donor fatigue, as projects do not yield the desired results. Cost overruns are common and, in time, many of the processes and outcomes revert back to pre-intervention days. On the other hand, many recipient local Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) feel that donor agencies are not cognizant of the regional conditions, do not engage the local stakeholders appropriately and are short-term oriented. Thus, development projects implemented by NGOs often do not have the underlying capacity to understand and implement complex multidimensional (e.g. health care, income generation, literacy) interventions. This is particularly true in certain intervention environments such as the solid waste sector or disaster relief and recovery. In the informal solid waste context, development projects often do not yield the desired results in creating synergies among social, economic, and environmental value streams (Umaña, 2002). Furthermore, there is a diversity of perspective in understanding the paths of poor and vulnerable communities (Chan and Dee Von Chng, 2012). In fact, there is value in capturing and understanding the integrated nature of human well-being and eco-system health (Smith, 2011, p. 4) in order to translate this conceptualization into action (Smith, 2011, p. 4). In this research, we attempt to provide some clarity to integrated developmental processes in the context of the informal solid waste sector

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through the lens of systems theory. Specifically, we examine the ragpicker communities operating within the informal solid waste sector in the New Delhi area and address a broad research question: how do we capture the complexity of large-scale dynamic interventions in the context of the informal solid waste sector? This research question serves as the foundation of our case studies and literature review. Large-scale development interventions are complex phenomena, with a multitude of stakeholders (e.g. citizens, government entities, local governing bodies) operating within a specific environment or context. Researchers have attempted sufficiently to capture the whole system, but have been overwhelmed by the interconnectedness of the different stakeholders and processes, their dynamic behavior, and the underlying structure. Rather, researchers have opted for analytic (reductionist) thinking or statistics-based evidence to provide guidance for NGOs and other development agents. In this research, we demonstrate the value of adding systems thinking in helping understand development interventions. Analytical or statistical thinking does provide a degree of precision in prescriptions, but usually relies on a limited set of variables and does not sufficiently capture the interrelatedness of dynamic behaviors. Given the complex nature of large-scale multidimensional interventions, NGOs and other development agents need to be cognizant of the multitude of variables, relationships between the variables, and how to make a sustainable impact over the long run. This research will help NGOs manage this process effectively by developing time-phased interventions, providing demand-driven services, having a role for sciencebased methodology, having appropriate organizational and managerial policies, ensuring quality, executing fitting behavioral changes, conducting cost/benefit analyses, identifying constraints/bottlenecks, accounting for stakeholder regional variation, and capturing the dynamic interplay linking communities, science, and services provided.

Literature Review In many urban centers of the developing world, municipalities are simply unable to collect a majority of the solid wastes being generated by households and small-scale industries. This waste accumulates in open-air piles, and presents a rich opportunity for micro-entrepreneurs or ragpickers to mine these piles for valuable recyclables. Since this activity is not officially sanctioned the term “informal” applies to this sector. Much of this informal sector activity is unorganized, with rag-pickers working in

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an uncoordinated manner cherry-picking the most valuable items to recycle. Given the lack of organization, the informal network tends to have low recycling rates, and correspondingly the network is poor overall. However, there is evidence that in well-managed networks, the recycling rate can reach eighty-five percent (Wilson et al., 2012) especially if there is the organizing role of change agents such as NGOs. Such rich networks yield superior incomes for rag-pickers (Prasad, Jain, Tata and Parthan, 2012) and become a natural draw for rural migrants and their children in seeking a lucrative activity. Thus, in understanding the organized sector within the informal solid waste sector, it is essential to understand the linkages among salient factors such as environmental health/sanitation, malnutrition and even literacy. In the developing world, there are significant differences among countries. Although in India the caloric intake per capita exceeds that of sub-Saharan Africa, the malnutrition rate is higher (Harris, 2014). This is due to the poor levels of sanitation in India (Chambers and Medeazza, 2013). As part of the picking, sorting, transportation and processing of solid waste, rag-pickers are exposed to a high degree of health and safety risks due to the poor environmental/sanitation conditions. Furthermore, ragpicker children tend to be sicker relative to other children residing in slums (Hunt, 1996). The combination of toxic waste and poor sanitary environment fosters infection and disease. In godowns where children work and live, there is often a lack of access to clean drinking water and proper sanitation. Furthermore, the combination of human and industrial waste creates a very toxic environment, with dramatic implications for the children’s health. This toxic mix could potentially have long-term implications. Rag-picker children have relatively high rates of bacterial infections and low resistance to other diseases. As such, their bodies must divert energy and nutrients to fighting infections rather than to growth, resulting in malnutrition. This potentially leads to a dangerous cycle where malnutrition itself leads to higher infection rates (Guerrant, et al., 2008) and increased mortality rates (Pelletier, et al., 1995). Furthermore, there is evidence of malnutrition leading to impaired mental development (Grantham-McGregor, 1995) and academic development of children. Malnutrition can affect brain development, significantly impairing a child’s cognitive functioning. Literature has shown that malnutrition can exacerbate learning disabilities and memory deficiency, leading to inferior performance at school. Persistently stunted children had significantly

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lower test scores than children who had recovered, suggesting reversibility and improvement to some degree (Crookston et al. al, 2013). Due to rapid brain development during childhood, malnourishment has acute effects on cognitive development later in life (Sood, 2010). Therefore, where an NGO gives attention to providing nourishment throughout childhood, this has promising implications for improving intellectual ability among impoverished communities.

Hypothesized Analytic (Reductionist) Analysis Even among rag-picker communities in India there are significant variations. Rag-pickers lucky enough to have an organized network to depend upon have an improved quality of life (Wilson et al., 2006) and higher literacy rate. Individual rag-pickers operating in an unorganized fashion are more vulnerable and have less access to social services in comparison to those operating in organized units. Given the lucrative nature of these enterprises, every individual in the family (including children) is deployed in the harvest of solid waste. As such, the ragpicking profession often prevents children from having a formal education, unless there is support from an NGO. An attentive and supportive organized network of NGOs, government entities or even extended family units may provide partial protection from malnutrition and provide avenues for education. Trying to derive a framework for NGOs requires developing a prescriptive model (see Figure 2.1). Important variables need to be identified, and relationships among them need to be specified. Based on the literature reviewed and qualitative observations, we develop a prescriptive reductionist model, where environmental conditions, density and infrastructure (access to clean water and sanitation) affect the proclivity to disease. NGOs and government entities can have a moderating effect on disease proclivity and can have a direct impact on education. In addition, disease proclivity affects malnutrition and education directly, and malnutrition affects education. Potentially, malnutrition could affect disease proclivity but that relationship is not incorporated due to the reductionist nature of the model. Unfortunately, even the simplified hypothesized analytic (reductionist) model quickly becomes untenable as feedback loops evolve, along with dynamic and time-lagged effects. Furthermore, certain variables (e.g. population density) might have a non-linear effect on disease proclivity over time. To capture these complexities we will need to rely on systems to think.

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Figure 2.1: Analytic (reductionist) model.

Systems Thinking and Development Problems in development are due to structural or systemic interactions, and a resolution of such problems could be achieved through the lens of systems thinking (Werhane, 2002). A modification in the system or portion of the system will produce a different type of outcome; as such there is value in learning about the system in order to achieve the desired results. Forms of learning in relation to the development sector could include first-, second- and/or third-order learning. First-order learning asks about the performance of a project and looks at past actions to assess if specific interventions were properly executed (Smith, 2011). Second-order learning focuses on norms and asks if specific interventions were properly designed. Third-order learning involves questioning governing values (Dyball, R., Brown and Keen, 2007) and asking how the knowledge and power that are part of the social network (Flood and Romm, 1996) can ensure developmental change. It is possible in systems thinking not only to address First- and Second-order learning, but also to allow for Third-order learning. This learning would be beneficial to agents of NGOs, government officials and international development agencies and would enable them to be catalysts of positive change. For the model to have relevance, there needs to be a degree of external validity, including capturing inter-disciplinary interactions, non-linear

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patterns, dynamic behavior (Werhane, 2002) and adaptation. Development projects inherently need to account for the interdisciplinary nature of physical, natural and social sciences interacting with each other. Systems theory is not only able to account for such interactions (Cabrera, Colosi, and Lobdell, 2008; Smith, 2011), but is also capable of building in the non-linear and dynamic behaviors among the various physical, natural and social sciences’ forces. At every level, the way we frame goals, procedures, and the network components (including interactions) make a difference in what we discover (understand) and leave out (neglect) (Werhane, 2002). Systems thinking allows for very broad boundary conditions relative to other methodologies. Finally, to properly guide the development projects, it is necessary for one or more actors within the network to adapt to environmental instability with the capacity to change itself or its environment (Maull, Geraldi and Johnston, 2012). Systems thinking allows for adaption over time. Researchers have applied system dynamics modeling to the prediction of solid waste generation in developed world settings based on a set of limited macro-level data inputs (Dyson and Chang, 2005). However, the developing world with its complex environment (Marshall and Farahbakhsh, 2013, p. 988) can benefit from adaptive systems thinking. In this research, we will look at the role of the informal solid waste sector and the role of NGOs in organizing this sector.

Taking a Systems Thinking Perspective: The Case of the Indian Pollution Control Association In this research, we employ the case of the Indian Pollution Control Association (IPCA), a non-government organization based in New Delhi, India. IPCA helps organize the informal solid waste sector of residential communities and some industrial clients by working with groups of deputized rag-pickers and providing the necessary infrastructure and capacity related to training, transportation, material processes, developing supplier/buyer contracts, and recycling. Training includes the handling of materials, sorting, and customer relations. Furthermore, IPCA provides education and health care for some of the deputized rag-pickers. To organize the informal sector and generate good income, IPCA draws from the experiences and capacities of a range of individuals, including those from the business, legal and engineering sectors, and from the energy and environmental sectors. IPCA provides these rag-picker entrepreneurs with allocated territories in residential areas, corporate offices, educational

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institutes, and industries for the collection of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW). In addition, it provides space for segregation of the waste and connects them directly to recyclers or aggregators to enable them to obtain higher prices for their segregated waste. Finally, IPCA provides ragpickers with identity cards and uniforms to protect them from social and public harassment. At present, there are approximately 700 rag-pickers deputized by IPCA who earn an average of Rs. 17,667 (USD $ 260) per month from the organized solid waste system. Conversely, a rag-picker in the unorganized network on average only earns an income of USD $ 50 per month. The rag-pickers deputized by IPCA are themselves supported by a network of rag-picker families. The rag-picker families primarily belong to three migrant communities: Assamese, Bengali and Bihari. The entire network is dynamically adapting and financially self-sustainable. Understanding the complex phenomena of the informal solid waste sector requires the ability to have a broad approach which captures the interactions of all salient variables over time. In the current literature, a reductionist approach is often used to provide the necessary precision in analysis between a limited set of variables (see Figure 2.2); this approach comes with some very strict (boundary) assumptions. For example, it is possible to run a regression analysis between the size of the rag-picker teams (case A) or predict the type of materials sorted as a function of the standard of living and density of community waste (case C). Furthermore, reductionist studies are generally static in nature and rely on past experiences. It is possible to create models such as a lagged regression in order to predict the availability of sanitation and rag-picker health indicators some months after the road (Case B). However, the complexity of the informal solid waste sector requires a modeling approach which captures relationships among a large number of variables over time. Systems thinking provides us with this capacity.

The Informal Solid Waste Sector through the Lens of Systems Theory

19

Figure 2.2: Systems thinking relative to reductionist approaches in understanding the informal solid waste sector.

One way to understand systems thinking is by using the Iceberg Model approach (Monat and Gannon, 2015) to natural and human designed systems (Figure 2.3).

Figure 2.3: Iceberg model approach to natural and human designed systems

Any system will have observed events (in this case, children attending government schools, obtaining contracts from industrial or corporate

20

Chapter Two

parks, health clinics, etc.). These events are based upon some emergent patterns such as formalizing of the contracting processes, improved sorting methods, and bringing new rag-picker groups into the organized sector. These patterns are themselves a function of self-organized systemic structures that occur naturally or are designed. We take the case of the Indian Pollution Control Association—where the systemic structures are being designed and created, for example, by reaching out to the unorganized sector, providing training and contacts, and creating a franchise model. Underlying these designed systemic structures created by IPCA is a mental model. The rag-picker groups themselves create selforganized systemic structures in terms of creating a collective. In terms of terms of the natural systems, there are inherent physical, chemical and biological forces that affect the decomposition of waste. In systems research, it appears that the natural and human-designed systems are independent. In reality, these two forms of system interact with each other, with the physical, chemical and biological forces affecting the IPCA franchise model and IPCA managing the composting and fish farming. To properly understand and appreciate the organized informal sector, it is essential that we see the system as a whole rather than in parts. Only then are we able to model the underlying structure as a cause of the behavior, capture the interconnections, and model dynamic behavior. Finally, it is important to provide multiple measures (outcomes of the structure). In the case of our informal solid waste sector, outcomes could include environmental, educational and health-care returns.

Modeling Value Streams in the Organized Informal Solid Waste Sector To develop systems thinking there are a number of tools available to capture the whole system, including the interdependencies and dynamic patterns. Some tools suggested in the literature (Monat and Gannon, 2015) include system archetypes, behavior over time graphs, causal loop diagrams (with feedback and lagged delays), system dynamics/modeling, root cause analysis and interpretive structural modeling. Some types of software (e.g. iMODELER, http://www.consideo.com) are able to build in features from multiple tools, including behavior over time graphs, causal loop diagrams, system and system dynamics. In this research, we attempt to model three different value streams within the organized informal solid waste sector using iMODELER, including environmental, educational and health care processes.

The Informal Solid Waste Sector through the Lens of Systems Theory

21

The systems thinking approach allows us to identify relationships between a whole host of factors, including supplier relationships, training program, transport mode, type of locality served, quality of sorting, training of material handling, economies of scale, batch size, health camps, economic returns, network efficiency, economies of scope, health care, improved quality of life, social returns and, finally, education. The types of a value stream are mediated by a number of variables. These relationships can be not only directional in nature (+, -) but can also be assigned functions that change over time. Furthermore, it is possible to look to the analysis from multiple viewpoints such as identifying the role of the Indian Pollution Control Association on improved life.

Discussion and Future Research The systems thinking approach allows users to develop a good understanding of the underlying systemic structures. This approach will allow IPCA to perhaps codify its processes to propagate a highly successful model to other large metropolitan cities in India and other parts of the developing world. However, to create a franchise model from a mapping of the system requires a few intermediate steps, including: 1) identifying boundary conditions within the system, 2) identification of the salient variables, and 3) obtaining/developing dynamic functions between the variables. Any large complex system itself resides within a vast eco-system. Systems thinking explicitly questions boundary assumptions (Smith, 2011). System boundaries are likely to be limited to one-tier/level interactions (Maull, Geraldi, Johnston, 2012). In the case of our organized rag-pickers, additional tiers/levels can be thought of including the role of government institutions, local regulations, local infrastructure, and even the villages from where the rag-pickers come. In Figure 2.3, we identify salient variables for IPCA’s network. However, a question arises: on what basis are these variables identified as salient and how many levels/sublevels should be included? Perhaps there could be a robust methodological approach (qualitative or quantitative) that would allow the ranking of variables within an interdependent complex dynamic system. In addition, beyond assigning directional influences (+ or -) between the various variables it is possible to provide probability functions that vary over time, by estimating/assuming functions (Moon and Kim, 2005). Determining the parameters of probability functions over time based upon empirical evidence in the informal waste sector network would provide greater external validity and the ability to effectively make a change.

22

Chapter Two

In future research, we suggest the use of a multi-method approach, including the use of qualitative and quantitative tools (Hohnthal, 2006; Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2003). For example, it would be possible to identify relevant boundary conditions, variables and possible relationships among variables through a qualitative study. This qualitative study would then be followed by a quantitative study to obtain precise parameter estimates and test relationships through a survey. The data for the quantitative (survey) study should be collected at two different time points, at least, in order to map out parameter changes over time and appropriately model dynamic behavior. Ultimately, modeling the network by identifying salient variables and populating the relationship functions with empirically drawn parameters allows us to develop a more accurate understanding of how such a network is developed and managed over time. Once a proper model has been developed ensuring internal and external validity, it would be possible for entities such as IPCA to propagate their highly successful model to other parts of urban India and possibly other major metropolitan centers throughout the developing world.

References Cabrera, D., Colosi, L., and C. Lobdell. “Systems Thinking.” Evaluation and program planning 31 (2008): 299-310. Chan, J. C., and Dee Von Chng, L. “Understanding Pathways of Poor and Vulnerable Communities.” Foresight 14(2012): 511-529. Chambers, R., and G. V. Medeazza. “Sanitation and Stunting in India.” Economic & Political Weekly 48 (2013): 15. Crookston, B. T., W. Schott, S. Cueto, K. A. Dearden, P. Engle, A. Georgiadis, E. A. Lundeen, M. E. Penny, A. D. Stein, and J. R. Behrman. “Postinfancy Growth, Schooling, and Cognitive Achievement: Young Lives.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 98 (2013): 1555-1563. Dyball, R., Brown, V. A., and M. Keen. “Towards Sustainability: Five Strands of Social Learning.” In Social learning: Towards a sustainable world, edited by Wals, editor, 181–194. Wageningen: Wageningen Academic Publishers, 2007. Dyson, B., and N. B. Chang. “Forecasting Municipal Solid Waste Generation in a Fast-Growing Urban Region with System Dynamics Modeling.” Waste Management 25 (2005): 669-679. Flood, R. L., and N. R. Romm. “Plurality Revisited: Diversity Management and Triple Loop Learning.” Systems Practice 9 (1996): 587-603.

The Informal Solid Waste Sector through the Lens of Systems Theory

23

Grantham-McGregor, S. “A Review of Studies of the Effect of Severe Malnutrition on Mental Development.” The Journal of Nutrition 125 (1995): 2233S-2238S. Guerrant, R. L., Oriá, R. B., Moore, S. R., Oriá, M. O., and A. A. Lima. “Malnutrition as an Enteric Infectious Disease with Long
Term Effects on Child Development.” Nutrition Reviews 66 (2008): 487-505. Harris, G. “Poor sanitation in India may afflict well-fed children with malnutrition.” New York Times, July 13, 2014. Accessed, July 15, 2014 http://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/15/world/asia/poor-sanitation-inindia-may-afflict-well-fed-children-with- malnutrition.html?_r=2 Hohnthal, J. “Integrating Qualitative and Quantitative Methods in Research on International Entrepreneurship.” Journal of International Entrepreneurship 4 (2006): 175-190. Hunt, C. “Child Waste Pickers in India: The Occupation and Its Health Risks.” Environment and Urbanization 8 (1996): 111-118. Marshall, R. E., and K. Farahbakhsh. “Systems Approaches to Integrated Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries.” Waste Management 33 (2013): 988-1003. Maull, R., Geraldi, J., and R. Johnston. “Service supply chains: A customer perspective.” Journal of Supply Chain Management, 48 (2012): 72-86. Moon, S. A., and D. J. Kim. “Systems Thinking Ability for Supply Chain Management.” Supply Chain Management an International Journal, 10 (2005): 394-401. Monat, J. P., and T. F. Gannon. “What is Systems Thinking? A Review of Selected Literature plus Recommendations. American Journal of Systems Science 4 (2015): 11-26 Pelletier, D. L., Frongillo Jr, E. A., Schroeder, D. G., and J. P. Habicht. “The Effects of Malnutrition on Child Mortality in Developing Countries.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 73(1995): 443. Prasad, S., Jain, A., Tata, J., and S. Parthan. “From Rags to Riches: Tapping the Social Capital within the Solid Waste Informal Sector.” South Asia Journal of Business and Management Cases 1 (2012): 7183. Scheinberg A. “Informal Sector Integration and High Performance Recycling: Evidence from 20 Cities.” Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing (WIEGO) Working Papers, Cambridge, MA, (2012). Accessed May 31, 2016. http://wiego.org/sites/wiego.org/files/publications/files/Scheinberg_WI EGO_WP23.pdf

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Office of the Registrar and Census Commissioner. “Number of literates and literacy rate by sex: Census of India.” Accessed June 30, 2015. http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/India_at_glance/literates1 .aspx. Smith, T. “Using Critical Systems Thinking to Foster an Integrated Approach to Sustainability: A Proposal for Development Practitioners.” Environment, Development and Sustainability 13(2011): 1-17. Sood, N. “Malnourishment among Children in India: Linkages with Cognitive Development and School Participation.” Consortium for Research on Educational Access, Transitions and Equity (2010). Tashakkori, A., and C. Teddlie. 2003, Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social and Behavioural Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Umaña. “Generating capacity for sustainable development: Lessons and challenges.” UNDP Choices Magazine. UNESCO. (2002). Werhane, P. H. “Moral Imagination and Systems Thinking.” Journal of Business Ethics 38 (2002): 33-42. Wilson D.C., Velis C., and C. Cheeseman. “Role of Informal Sector Recycling in Waste Management in Developing Countries.” Habitat International 30 (2006): 797-808. Wilson, D. C., Rodic, L., Scheinberg, A., Velis, C. A., and G. Alabaster. “Comparative Analysis of Solid Waste Management in 20 Cities.” Waste Management & Research 30 (2012): 237-254.

CHAPTER THREE STATUS OF PLASTIC WASTE GENERATION AND TECHNOLOGIES FOR DISPOSAL SUNEEL KUMAR NIGAM AND A. B. AKOLKAR

Plastic materials have registered rapid growth in India since 1970, with a growth rate of 2 to 2.5 times the growth of GDP. There is a manifold increase in demand for plastic raw material, which reached 12 to 13 million tons per year, mainly due to rapid urbanization, changes in lifestyle, and consumerism. Although plastic packaging has lots of advantages over many of the conventional materials in the related sector, it has to be collected back effectively for recycling after consumption. India was generating 25,940 tons per day of plastic waste (Census 2011). Since they are petroleum based, (synthetic & conventional) plastics are nonbiodegradable and remain in the dump yards or landfills for thousands of years. They thus cause several environmental issues such as: leaching of toxic chemicals, contamination of soil and contamination of underground water. In the year 2011 the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) carried out a study to estimate the realistic scale of plastic waste generation in India. The study was carried out in 60 major cities of India for assessment, quantification and characterization of plastic waste generation. It was found that about 4059 tons per day of plastic waste was generated in these cities/towns. The present paper describes the generation of plastic waste, city-wise, its characteristics, and explores possible solutions for the proper disposal of plastic waste—solutions which can be adopted by the municipal authorities, local bodies and other agencies involved in plastic waste management.

Introduction Municipal solid waste (MSW) contains organic as well as inorganic matter. The total quantity of waste generated depends upon the rapid

26

Chapter Three

growth of population, the composition of the waste and the technology adopted to reduce the waste. The proportion of organic matter in MSW in developing countries is much higher than in developed countries. The mixed mass of waste that has been discarded originates from household, commercial, industrial or agricultural activities. Waste generation in urban India is increasing in terms of both quantity and percentage of plastic. Currently, India is also assumed to be one of the largest consumer markets for plastic in the world. Hence efforts should be made to reduce, reuse, and recycle waste in the best possible way. Plastic waste can be reused in road construction and co-processed in cement kilns, in addition to the mechanical recycling practiced widely in India. In order to incorporate a feasible recovery and reuse option, it is necessary to find out the composition of plastic waste and its viability. Accurate data and information on the quantity and characteristics of plastic waste may help in the preparation of a long-term plan for Plastic Waste Management (PWM) in the cities of India. This chapter focuses on the quantity and percentage of plastic waste generation in India along with the current practice of open dumping ground. CPCB sponsored a study at the Central Institute of Plastics Engineering and Technology (CIPET), Ahmedabad, to assess and quantify the generation of plastic waste and to suggest its reutilization in an eco-friendly manner. Under this study the classification of plastic waste as per IS 14534:1998 (like PET, HDPE, PVC, LDPE, PP and Others1) has been done, and each category of plastic waste characterized and quantified.

Environmental Issues on Disposal of Plastic Waste There are several ways in which plastic waste impacts the environment: because it becomes litter, there exists no organized system for its collection, recycling and reprocessing, and because of its nonbiodegradability. These are highlighted below: • Plastic waste releases fugitive emissions during the polymerization process. • Harmful gases such as Carbon Monoxide, Formaldehyde, etc. are released during the manufacturing of various products. • Indiscriminate disposal of plastic waste makes land infertile. • Burning of plastic waste, including polyvinyl chloride (PVC), releases toxic gases such as Carbon Monoxide, Chlorine,

1

See Abbreviations, p vi, for full names of these materials

Status of Plastic Waste Generation and Technologies for Disposal

• • • • • •

27

Hydrochloric Acid, Dioxin, Furans, Amines, Nitrides, Styrene, Benzene, 1, 3–butadiene, CCl4 and Acetaldehyde. Leaching of toxic metals such as Lead and Cadmium pigments into underground water due to indiscriminate dumping of plastic waste on land. Inefficient collection of multilayer, metalized pouches and other thermoset plastic poses disposal problems. Sub-standard plastic carrier bags, thin packaging films, etc. pose a problem in collection and recycling and reuse. Indiscriminate and littered plastic waste looks unappealing and chokes the drains. Soiled and mixed plastic waste is difficult to recycle and reuse. Unsound management of plastic waste and the running of recycling industries in non-conforming areas release fugitive emissions.

Current Status of PWM in Cities/Towns Collection and Transportation It has been observed that there is no organized system for the collection, segregation and disposal of plastic waste. Value-added plastic waste is picked up voluntarily by the informal sectors. Further, in the present practice used for the collection of MSW and plastic waste shown in Figure 3.1, the municipality collects waste from community bins on a daily basis from various zones within the city. In this system, residents deposit their waste into the nearest community bins. Residents and other waste generators store their daily waste in small containers (often plastic buckets) and then dispose off it into community bins. Municipal vehicles transfer the waste from community bins to a disposal site. Each vehicle at a dumping yard/disposal site is weighed on a weigh bridge before unloading the waste collected from the community bins. The weighing exercise was carried out in major cities, and the quantity of daily waste was computed and plastic waste generation, in kilogrammes per capita per day, was calculated based on the urban population. Door-to-Door Collection System A door-to-door collection system is adopted in only a few cities. In these cities, domestic waste, including plastic waste, is collected from the source of its generation, including houses, offices, local shops and markets. In this system, municipal crews use handcarts or tricycles for

28

Chapter Three

waste collection from individual houses at a specific time in the morning. The waste in the handcarts is either transferred to community bins or directly transferred to vehicles going to the disposal site. A few cities like Kanpur, Ahmedabad, Hyderabad, Chennai, Surat, Nashik, Panjim, Vijayawada, Vishakapattnam, Nagpur and Pondicherry have implemented a door-to-door collection system. This collection method will be promoted as an improvement to the existing system in various cities and towns. Plastics Storage and Transfer Very few cities have adopted segregated storing of plastics to be transferred for recycling. Cities like Hyderabad, Thiruvananthapuram, Surat, Vadodara, Rajkot and Panjim have established systems of transfer stations. Transfer refers to the movement of waste or materials from collection points to disposal sites. The municipality uses different vehicles for the transportation of waste from collection points to disposal sites. The selection of vehicles depends on the distances they have to cover. Larger vehicles carry the waste from the collection points to the disposal sites, whereas smaller vehicles carry waste only from community bins to transfer stations. Smaller vehicles unload waste into a larger vehicle at a transfer station for the disposal site. In metropolitan cities, transfer stations work as the centralized facility to support intermediate transfer of waste from the surrounding areas up to the dumping grounds.

Figure 3.1: Existing system for collection and transportation of MSW and plastic waste in India

Status of Plastic Waste Generation and Technologies for Disposal

29

Treatment and Disposal There is no organized processing of plastic waste being done in most of the cities. Generally, all the collected municipal solid waste is dumped at the disposal site, and presently there is no sanitary landfill site in most of the cities. The disposal of plastic waste is carried out following the method of crude dumping, where the waste is neither spread nor covered. In some areas, the plastic waste is carelessly burnt in open dump yards. There is dumping of mixed waste like non-bio-degradable, inert and other waste with recyclable material at the disposal site, but such sites are unsuitable either for recycling or for biological processing. Waste processing facilities are available with proper capacity and technology except for a few cities like Vadodara, Rajkot, Nagpur, Ahmedabad, Surat, Vijaywada, etc.

Methodology The procedure prescribed under ASTM D5231-922 has been adopted for the assessment and quantification of plastic waste. In this methodology, about 1000 Kgs of fresh Municipal Solid Waste has been collected from various vehicles like dumpers, trucks and lorries. The 1000 Kgs of the sample is initially reduced to 125 Kgs by a quartering technique, i.e. initially the 1000 Kgs are well mixed and divided into four sections, each of approximately of 250 Kgs; from these divided four sections, two opposite sections are discarded, and the other two sections are taken for the next quartering step. With a continuation of this process, the sample is reduced to 125 Kgs, consisting of all types of solid waste. From the collected sample of 125 Kgs MSW, the various types of plastic waste like PET, PE (LDPE/HDPE), PVC, PP, PS and “Others” have been collected and segregated. The collected and segregated plastics are weighed and quantified. The chemical and physical characteristics of the garbage are analyzed for confirmation of the plastic waste materials. The samples are collected from fresh MSW at dumping grounds and analyzed by using a Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC) made by Perkin Elmer. The samples are tested as per ASTM D: 3417, and a temperature rise of 20° C per minute is maintained with a supply of nitrogen. The methodology adopted for the study is shown in Figure 3.2.

2

Standard Test Method for Determination of the Composition of Unprocessed Municipal Solid Waste

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Chapter Three

Field Survey As is evident from Table 3.1, the composition of plastic waste was assessed in almost all the cities from the MSW generated from different sources like door-to-door, community bins at street corners and from markets, collected by municipal trucks or by firms under contract, and dumped on open dump sites. One dump site is selected for each city, and the quantification was carried out on each. The result obtained on each city is depicted in Table 3.1. The study on assessment and quantification of plastic waste generation in 60 major cities of India has revealed that 94% of thermoplastics and 6% of thermoset plastics are generated all over India. Out of the 94% of thermoplastic waste, the plastics obtained are segregated according to the identification codes with some practical tests in the field, and the results obtained are represented in Table 3.2 and Figure 3.3. The data obtained from 60 cities are compiled, and the percentage of different types of plastic waste has been obtained. The data revealed that Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) corresponding to the identification code “1” is about 8.66% (5.69 Kg/MT), High-density Polyethylene/Low density Polyethylene (HDPE/LDPE) corresponding to the identification codes “2” and “4” is about 66.91% (43.94 Kg/MT, 94 Kg/MT), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) corresponding to the identification code “3” is about 4.14% (2.72 Kg/MT), Polypropylene (PP) corresponding to the identification code “5” is about 9.90% (6.50 Kg/MT, 50 Kg/MT), Polystyrene (PS) corresponding to the identification code “6” is about 4.77% (3.13 Kg/MT) and other unclassified plastics/non-recycling plastics/rubbers, etc. having the identification code “7” obtained about 6.43% (4.22 Kg/MT). The model has small-scale communities as the fundamental unit of power, able to correspond with other allied communities and institutions at the bio-regional and eco-regional levels of smelters heavy and operating engineers.The data indicates that the majority of the plastic waste (PW) belongs to HDPE/LPDE materials (66%). This is mostly composed of mixed plastic wastes such as poly bags, multi-layer pouches used for packaging food items, gutkhas, etc.

Status of Plastic Waste Generation and Technologies for Disposal

Figure 3.2: Methodology used for the study

31

S. No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

City Kavaratti Dwaraka Daman Panjim Gangtok Jamshedpur Silvassa Port Blair Kohima Shimla Meerut Gandhinagar Shilong Itanagar Agartala Aizwal Imphal Ranchi Kochin Dhanbad Guwahati Asansol Dehradun Patna

MSW Tons/day 2 18 25 25 26 28 35 45 45 50 52 97 97 102 102 107 120 140 150 150 204 210 220 220

Table 3.1: Plastic waste generation in major cities

32

Average PW (%) 12.09 8.079 4.637 4.471 8.951 3.355 6.11 10.07 5.013 4.45 6.422 4.806 5.436 5.352 5.713 7.948 5.132 5.92 6.288 5.016 5.036 6.009 6.665 5.725

Chapter Three

Minimum PW (%) 11.15 6.312 4.054 3.91 7.843 2.634 3.194 10.07 4.378 2.648 5.137 2.814 5.256 5.228 5.22 7.681 4.5 4.875 5.885 3.598 4.008 4.21 4.598 3.598

Maximum PW (%) 13.95 11.808 5.069 4.9424 17.358 5.078 7.945 10.07 5.906 6.496 8.181 6.52 5.641 5.415 6.64 8.272 5.85 6.759 6.69 5.575 5.998 8.219 9.1 7.657

25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51.

Raipur Rajkot Thiruvananthpuram Pondicherry Chandigarh Jammu Jaipur Vishakapattnam Nashik Bhopal Allahabad Jabalpur Bhubaneswar Madurai Varanasi Agra Srinagar Amritsar Vadodara Vijayawada Nagpur Coimbatore Faridabad Indore Ludhiana Surat Lucknow 450 520 550 550 600 600 650 700 700 720 850 1200 1200

450

224 230 250 250 264 300 310 334 350 350 350 400 400

10.61 6.928 6.022 10.46 3.098 7.226 5.026 9.033 5.822 6.594 5.389 5.175 7.979 5.059 5.759 7.863 5.117 4.44 4.569 7.287 7.07 9.473 11.29 8.805 5.962 12.47 5.903

4.636 5.718 5.915 9.982 1.36 4.688 1.768 8.383 4.754 5.779 1.672 3.342 6.73 4.84 2.368 5.86 4.65 3.152 3.322 6.438 5.808 8.3181 9.954 7.736 4.24 9.41 3.106

Status of Plastic Waste Generation and Technologies for Disposal 15.95 8.082 6.128 10.95 4.16 9.208 7.978 9.942 7.159 8.157 10.246 6.174 11.182 5.278 9.444 9.515 6.986 6.672 6.757 8.746 7.746 10.564 12.19 12.015 8.548 15.663 8.318

33

52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60.

34

Pune Kanpur Ahmedabad Kolkata Bangalore Hyderabad Chennai Mumbai Delhi

1300 1600 2300 3670 3700 4200 4500 6500 6800

7.796 6.666 10.5 11.6 8.483 4.746 9.542 6.281 10.14

Chapter Three 6.925 5.178 9.6032 7.84 7.254 3.49 7.947 2.242 8.723

9.109 9.408 11.411 17.76 9.712 6.555 10.68 8.532 11.874

Status of Plastic Waste Generation and Technologies for Disposal

35

Table 3.2: Percentage of classified plastic waste S.No

Codes

Description

1

PET

Total percentage obtained 8.66

2

HDPE/LDPE

66.91

3

PVC

4.14

4

PP

9.9

5

PS

4.77

6

OTHERS

6.43

Percentage of Classified Plastics 5% 6%

9%



10%

Ȁ

4%

 66%

  

Figure 3.3: Percentage of classified plastic waste

36

Chapter Three

The Salient Features of the Plastics Waste Management Rules 2016 are as follows: • Petro-based plastic carrier bags shall not be manufactured, stocked, sold or used if less than 50μ in thickness. Besides, plastic material in any form, including Vinyl Acetate-Maleic Acid-Vinyl Chloride (VMCH), is not to be used for the packaging of guthka, pan masala and tobacco, by any manufacturer, stockist or seller. • The manufacturers or sellers of compostable carrier bags (excluding conventional petro-based plastic) shall conform to BIS Standard IS/ISO 17088 and seek a certificate from CPCB, for marketing or selling carrier bags or sheets. The thickness criterion is not applicable to compostable carrier bags. • Shopkeepers and street vendors should use plastic carrier bags, multi-layered plastic, plastic sheet, etc. after paying waste management fees (minimum Rs. 4800 @ Rs. 4000 per month or as prescribed by the local body). Only registered shopkeepers or street vendors are eligible to provide plastic carrier bags (not 300 towns) with each cluster comprising one central town surrounded by smaller ULBs within a 70km radius. SWM projects in two clusters of Katni & Sagar have already been implemented. Around 32 ULBs across the Municipal state have been combined to Solid Waste Management form 10 clusters for implementation of MSW Project, Management Project, with a Odisha regional approach. Each cluster is proposed to have a regional waste treatment and disposal facility.

Source: Field Survey Data 2014-15

63

Gujarat Urban Development Corporation (GUDC)

2008

Punjab State Govt.

2010

Madhya Pradesh Urban Development Department

2013

Odisha Urban Infrastructure Development Fund (OUIDF)

2015

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References Annepu, Ranjith Kharvel. “Sustainable Solid Waste Management in India.” Master's thesis, Earth Engineering Centre, Columbia University, New York, 2012. Arnold van de Klundert, Justine Anschutz. “Integrated Sustainable Waste Management: the selection of appropriate technologies and the design of sustainable systems is not (only) a technical issue.” Paper prepared for the CEDARE/IETC Inter-Regional Workshop on Technologies for Sustainable Waste Management, Alexandria, Egypt, 13-15 July, 1999. David Hanrahan, Sanjay Srivastava, A. Sita Ramakrishna. "Improving Management Of Municipal Solid Waste In India: Overview And Challenges." New Delhi: Environment and Social Development Unit, South Asia Region, The World Bank (India Country Office), 2006. Ministry of Environment and Forest. “Report of the Sub-Group on “Environment” for 12th Five Year Plan .” New Delhi: MoEF, 2011. Mariü, Boško Josimoviü and Igor. “Methodology for The Regional Landfill Site Selection.” Chap. 22 in Sustainable DevelopmentAuthoritative and Leading Edge Content for Environment Managment, by Dr. Sime Curkovic (Ed.), InTech, DOI: 10.5772/45926. Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/sustainable-developmentauthoritative-and-leading-edge-content-for-environmentalmanagement/methodology-for-the-regional-landfill-site-selection. Planning Commission Government of India. Mid-Term Appraisal Eleventh Five Year Plan 2007–2012. New Delhi : Oxford University Press, 2010. Planning Commission, Governement of India. “Report of Task force on Waste to Energy". New Delhi: Planning Commision. Wenke Hansen, Maria Christopher, Maic Verbuecheln. “EU Waste Policy and Challenges for Regional and Local Authorities.” Background Paper for the Seminar on Household Waste Management “Capacity Building on European Community’s Environmental Policy”, Ecologic, Institute for International and European Environmental Policy., Dublin, Ireland, 2002.

CHAPTER SIX SUSTAINABLE TECHNOLOGIES FOR MSW MANAGEMENT SATYAWATI SHARMA, KALPANA ARORA AND RITIKA PATHAK

The Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) generated per capita (kg/day) includes waste from households, non-hazardous solid waste from industrial, commercial and institutional establishments, market waste, yard waste, agricultural wastes, street sweepings, etc. Safe and cost-effective management of MSW is a significant environmental challenge for modern society. Inadequately managed waste disposal has the potential to affect health and environment. Ideally, MSW management should incorporate the principles of waste minimization, recycling, and resource recovery as well as an integrated processing & disposal facility, leading to effective service delivery in a sustainable manner. Technological advancements, environmental regulations, and emphasis on resource conservation and recovery can help in reducing the environmental impacts of MSW management, including emissions of Green House Gases (GHGs) up to a great extent. The research reported herein focuses on the current status of MSW management in Indian cities and of various technologies as sustainable ways of treating MSW, diverting as much as possible from landfill. Presently, only a small portion of the collected MSW is treated through composting, and the rest is disposed of in uncontrolled open landfills at the outskirts of cities. Existing composting plants are unable to operate to their intended treatment capacity due to several operational problems. Therefore, along with residue from the composting process, the majority of MSW is disposed of in landfills. In the absence of leachate and landfill gas collection systems, these landfills are a major source of groundwater contamination and air pollution (including generation of greenhouse gases). The chapter also summarizes the various Waste to Energy (W2E) technologies such as biomethanation, gasification, .

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pyrolysis, incineration, bioethanol production and hydrogen energy along with some policies and initiatives of the Government to improve the existing MSW management system.

Introduction The population of India is expected to increase from 1029 million to 1400 million during the period 2001–2026, at the rate of 1.2% annually (Census of India, 2011). About 742 million people live in rural areas, and 285 million live in urban areas. Due to rapid industrial growth, the urban population is increasing rapidly. As a result, the Class I cities and Class II towns existing in 2011 have increased in number to 475 and 2774 respectively (Census of India, 2011). The quantity of MSW has also increased tremendously with improved lifestyle and social status of the populations in urban areas (Sharholy et al., 2007). The annual waste generation has been observed to increase in proportion to the rise in population and urbanization, and issues related to disposal have become challenging as more land is needed for the ultimate disposal of these solid wastes (Idris et al., 2004). In India, urban solid waste management has remained one of the most neglected areas of the urban system. The urban population in India generated about 114,576 tonnes/day of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in the year 1996, which is predicted to increase 4-fold to about 440,460 tonnes/day by the year 2026 (Hoornweg and Laura, 1999). Data on waste generation in the major cities in India and city-wise per-capita waste generation is given in Table 6.1 and Figure 6.1 respectively, and a breakdown of solid waste types and sources is provided in Table 6.2. Considering the waste-disposal method, it has been observed that Indian cities dispose of their waste in open dumps located in the outskirts of the city, neglecting issues related to the environment and human health. Further, financial and infrastructural constraints, including non-availability of land for safe disposal of generated waste, and lack of awareness and apathy at all levels also inhibit taking steps toward efficient and safe management of urban solid waste (GoI, 1995). The National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) has carried out studies in more than 50 cities and towns in India; its characterization of MSW indicates that the waste consists of 30–45% organic matter, 6–10% recyclables, and the rest is inert matter (CPCB, 2012).

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Table 6.1: MSW generation in different states in India S. NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Name of the state Andara Pradesh Assam Bihar

No. of cities 32

Municipal population

4 17

10.845.907

Municipal solid waste (t/day) 3943

Per capita generated (kg/day) 0.364

873.310 5.278.361

196 1479

0.223 0.280

Gujarat 21 8.443.962 3805 Haryana 12 2.254.353 623 Himachal 1 82.054 35 Pradesh 7 Karnataka 21 8.283.498 3118 8 Kerala 146 3.107.358 1220 9 Madhya 23 7.225.833 2286 Pradesh 10 Maharashtra 27 22.727.186 8589 11 Manipur 1 198.535 40 12 Meghalaya 1 223.366 35 13 Mizoram 1 155.240 46 14 Orissa 7 1.766.021 546 15 Punjab 10 3.209.903 1001 16 Rajasthan 14 4.979.301 1768 17 Tamil Nadu 25 10.745.773 5021 18 Tripura 1 157.358 33 19 Uttar 41 14.480.479 5515 Pradesh 20 West 23 13.943.445 4475 Bengal 21 Chandigarh 1 504.094 500 22 Delhi 1 8.419.084 4000 23 Pondicherry 1 203.065 60 Total 299 128.113.865 48.134 Source: Status of MSW generation, collection, treatment & disposal cities

0.451 0.236 0.427 0.376 0.393 0.316 0.378 0.201 0.157 0.296 0.366 0.312 0.355 0.467 0.210 0.381 0.321 0.397 0.475 0.295 0.376 in Class I

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Figure 6.1: Per capita generation rate of MSW for Indian cities (CPCB, 2004)

Table 6.2: Breakdown of solid waste and its sources Source  Residential

Industrial

Commercial

Institutional

Typical waste generators Single and multifamily dwellings

Light and heavy manufacturing, fabrication, construction sites, power and chemical plants Stores, hotels, restaurants, markets, office buildings, etc. Schools, hospitals, prisons, government centers

Types of solid wastes Food wastes, paper, cardboard, plastics, textiles, leather, yard wastes, wood, glass, metals, ashes, special wastes (e.g. bulky items, consumer electronics, white goods, batteries, oil, tires), and household hazardous wastes Housekeeping wastes, packaging, food wastes, construction and demolition materials, hazardous wastes, ashes, special wastes Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food wastes, glass, metals, special wastes, hazardous wastes Same as commercial

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Construction and demolition

New construction sites, Wood, steel, concrete, dirt, etc. road repair, renovation sites, demolition of buildings Municipal Street cleaning, Street sweepings, landscape and tree Services landscaping, parks, trimmings, general wastes from parks, beaches, other recreational beaches, and other recreational areas, areas, water and sludge wastewater treatment plants Process Heavy and light Industrial process wastes, scrap manufacturing, refineries, materials, off specification products, chemical plants, power slag, tailings plants, mineral extraction and processing All of the above should be included as “municipal solid waste.” Agriculture Crops, orchards, Spoiled food wastes, agricultural vineyards, dairies, wastes, hazardous wastes (e.g. feedlots, farms pesticides) Source: Arora et al., 2012

MSWM in India: At a Glance In India, the community bin collection system is the main practice used for waste collection. In this system, residents deposit their waste into the nearest community bins located at street corners at specific intervals (NEERI Report, 2005). Waste segregation at the source is minimal. Segregation of MSW into dry and wet wastes is carried out only in limited areas of a few cities, and in these areas separate containers are used for collection of dry and wet wastes. An outline of the MSW management system in India is given in Figure 6.2.

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Figure 6.2: Existing MSW management system in India

Storage of MSW Waste generated in households is generally accumulated in small containers (often plastic buckets) and then disposed of into community bins. Containers for household storage of solid wastes are of many shapes and sizes, and are fabricated from a variety of materials. Residents usually store waste in 15–20 L plastic buckets. Different types of community bins, such as RCC bins, masonry bins, metallic containers, and plastic containers, are used. Recent legislation emphasizes the house-to-house collection system, and it is expected that this collection method will be promoted as an improvement to the existing system in various cities and towns. Collection and Transportation of MSW The community bin collection system is adopted in most of the cities. In a few cities, the waste generated from various sources such as residential, street sweepings, gardens, parks, offices, and shopping complexes is collected separately. Waste from slaughterhouses and hospitals is mixed with the MSW at the storage bins. A number of open collection spots exist in many cities, which cause poor sanitary conditions

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and pose health hazards to the workers and nearby population (Gupta, 2001). Segregation of Waste Segregation of recyclables (i.e., paper, cardboard, and plastics) by rag pickers is practised in major urban cities. In a few cities, NGOs are involved in the collection of waste through the services of rag pickers. Proper segregation of waste would lead to better options and opportunities for its scientific disposal (Singhal and Pande, 2000). Processing of Waste In metropolitan cities like Bangalore, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, and Kolkata (13 cities total), compost plants are established. However, the plants in operation are underutilized for various reasons; the major one is the poor quality of compost resulting in reduced demand from the end users. There are many waste-to-energy (particularly incineration) plants that have been established at various locations in India, and vermicomposting of MSW has been initiated in five cities, i.e. Hyderabad (7 TPD), Nagpur (30 TPD), Pune (50 TPD), Indore (1.25 TPD), and Pondicherry (5 TPD). One biomethanation plant for the treatment of MSW (300 TPD capacity) has been commissioned at Lucknow to generate electrical energy. Presently, all the above-mentioned plants are underutilized (CPCB, 2012, MNRE, 2015). Disposal of Waste MSW is normally disposed of in an open dump in many Indian cities and towns, which is not a proper method of disposal because open dumps pose serious environmental hazards, which cause ecological imbalances with respect to land, water, and air pollution (Kansal, 2002). More than 90% of MSW in India is directly disposed of on the land in an unscientific manner (Kumar et al., 2009). Almost all the cities have adopted open dumping for waste disposal except at Pune, where a partial sanitary landfill is under development, and at Nashik, where waste disposal is carried out in different cells, and these cities have adopted a method of sanitary land filling. Leachate collection and treatment, and also biogas recovery, at landfills are not practiced in most of the cities.

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Biomedical Waste Management Incinerators have been installed in all major hospitals of the big cities, yet biomedical waste from hospitals and healthcare units is disposed of at MSW disposal sites because of the lack of suitable training and poor management facilities in the hospitals. According to the Biomedical Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998, centralized facilities are in the developmental stage and large metropolitan cities have initiated collection of hospital/clinical wastes from different residential areas; these would be burnt at a centralized facility. In the majority of the tier I cities, separate vehicles for biomedical waste collections, operated by private agencies, are provided with proper manifests. The cost of the collection service is recovered from hospitals/dispensaries/clinics based on either the number of beds or on a monthly basis.

Effects of Poor Waste Management Environmental Impacts of MSW The method of dumping the waste in low-lying areas on the outskirts of towns is very haphazard and unscientific. This has serious environmental impacts like water pollution, methane emissions, and soil degradation (Jha et al., 2007). It has been observed that soil can be contaminated with soluble salts and metals from solid wastes, which may cause dispersion of soil particles, thus adversely affecting soil structure. Alternatively, the compostable part of municipal solid waste if separated can be used as a good source of manure. As conventional disposal sites do not have an impermeable lining, contamination of surface water and groundwater is by far the most serious environmental impact. Surface runoff and leachate from dump sites can easily contaminate natural sources of water. The composition of leachate depends on many factors such as the composition of waste, elapsed time, temperature, moisture, available oxygen, and management practices. Although rag pickers collect the major part of the recyclable wastes and sell it to middlemen, only about 70% of MSW is collected. A part of the waste generally goes into sewers but most of it is burnt in the open, thereby polluting the air. The other source of air pollution is due to decomposition of the biodegradable component in landfill, generating methane and carbon dioxide.

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Human Health Impacts of MSW Poor waste management is associated with increased health problems ranging from epidemics of vector-borne or food-borne diseases to the adverse effects due to contamination of groundwater. The effects of such health hazards are difficult to quantify because of limited epidemiological studies. The health hazards can be categorized as follows: • Direct contact with waste in the case of rag pickers who separate recyclable material from the waste; • Direct contact with waste in the case of workers involved in waste disposal; • Indirect effects because of contamination of soil, air and water as a result of poor management of landfill sites. The municipal workers handle waste mostly without protective devices like gloves or waterproof boots. The workers can be infected at all stages, right from collecting the waste at source to handling it at landfill sites. The pathogens can enter either through skin and mucous membranes or along with inhaled air. The incidence of respiratory diseases, skin diseases, etc. is much greater among those who handle wastes than among the general population. Flies are the most visible indicator of unsanitary conditions. If wastes are not covered, the eggs of flies not buried deep inside the wastes easily survive. It is estimated that in exposed garbage, the population of flies can reach as much as 2.33 million in a week for every cubic meter of garbage. If the garbage contains night-soil, pathogens like Enteropathogen, Shigella, Salmonella, and Entamoeba adhere to the feet of these flies (Anderson et al., 2006). The flies then alight on food kept in the open and thus transmit the pathogens to those who eat the contaminated food. Pathogenic microorganisms which are encountered in MSW are likely to come from dirty discarded clothes, faeces of domestic animals, sanitary tissue papers or putrefying foods.

Technologies for Sustainable MSW Management The two leading innovative mechanisms of waste disposal being adopted in India include composting (aerobic composting and vermicomposting) and waste-to-energy (WTE) (incineration, pelletisation, biomethanation, gasification, pyrolysis, bioethanol, etc.). WTE projects for disposal of MSW are a relatively new concept in India. Although these have been tried and tested in developed countries with positive results, they are yet to get off the ground in India largely because their financial

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viability and sustainability is still being tested (Kumar et al., 2009). Different methods for the disposal and treatment of MSW are to be discussed in subsequent sections.

Land Filling More than 90% of MSW in cities and towns are directly disposed of on land in an unscientific manner. Such dumping activity in many coastal towns has led to heavy metals rapidly leaching into the coastal waters. In larger towns or cities like Delhi, the availability of land for waste disposal is very limited (Kumar et al., 2009). In the majority of urban centers, MSW is disposed of by depositing it in low-lying areas outside the city without following the principles of sanitary land filling. Compaction and levelling of waste and final covering by earth are rarely observed practices at most disposal sites, and these low-lying disposal sites are devoid of a leachate collection system or landfill gas monitoring and collection equipment (Bhide and Shekdar, 1998; Gupta et al., 1998). As no segregation of MSW at the source takes place, all the waste, including infectious waste from hospitals, generally finds its way to the disposal site. Quite often, industrial waste is also deposited at landfill sites meant for domestic waste (CPCB, 2012). Sanitary land filling is an acceptable and recommended method for ultimate disposal of MSW. It is a necessary component of MSWM, since all other options produce some residue that must be disposed of through land filling. Further, landfills, if properly designed, not only provide the landfill gas which can be used for electricity generation but also provide the long-term sequestration (>1,000 years) of photosynthetic carbon and other carbon sources (plastics, carbonates, etc.), providing another route for greenhouse-gas abatement. However, looking at the current situation, it appears that land filling without waste treatment is likely to continue to be the most widely adopted practice in India.

Aerobic Composting The process of microbial conversion of the organics present in MSW in the presence of air under hot and moist conditions is called composting, and the final product obtained after bacterial activity is called compost (humus), which has a very high agricultural value. It is used as fertilizer, and it is non-odorous and free of pathogens. As a result of the composting process, the waste volume can be reduced to 50–85%. The composting methods may use either manual or mechanical means and are accordingly

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termed as a manual or mechanical process. Manual composting is carried out in smaller urban centers, and mechanical composting plants have been set up in big Indian cities such as Bangalore, Baroda, Mumbai, Calcutta, Delhi, Jaipur and Kanpur, t rangingfrom 150 to 300 t/day. The first largescale aerobic composting plant in the country was set up in Mumbai in 1992 by Excel Industries Ltd to handle 500 t/day of MSW. However, only 300 t/day capacity is being utilized currently due to certain problems, but the plant is working successfully. Currently, about 9% of MSW is treated by composting (Arora et al., 2012). The recent advances in the use of microbial inoculum (Effective Micro-organisms) for fast decomposition of waste have led to the formation of quality compost in less time (Kaviraj et al., 2011). These effective micro-organisms (EM) consist of common and food-grade aerobic and anaerobic micro-organisms: photosynthetic bacteria, lactobacillus, streptomyces, actinomycetes, yeast, fungi, etc. Since 1999, EM-based quick waste management practice is happening in Myanmar. However, its commercial application in India is still not common.

Vermicomposting Vermicomposting involves stabilization of organic waste through the joint action of earthworms and aerobic micro-organisms. Initially, microbial decomposition of biodegradable organic matter occurs through extra-cellular enzymatic activity (primary decomposition). Earthworms feed on partially decomposed matter, consuming five times their body weight of organic matter per day. The ingested food is further decomposed in the gut of the worms, resulting in particle size reduction. The worm cast is a fine, odorless and granular product. This product can serve as a bio fertilizer in agriculture. Vermicomposting has been used in Hyderabad, Bangalore, Mumbai and Faridabad but the quantities of waste conversion are much less as managing the proper growing conditions for earthworms, like pH, temperature and particle size, is a little tedious.

Incineration Incineration is the process of complete combustion, under controlled conditions, of solid wastes. It leads to energy recovery and destruction of toxic wastes, for example, waste from hospitals. The temperature in the incinerators varies between 9800C and 20000C. One of the most attractive features of the incineration process is that it can be used to reduce the original volume of combustible solid waste by 80–90%. In some newer

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incinerators designed to operate at temperatures high enough to produce a molten material, it may be possible to reduce the volume to about 5% or even less (Jha et al., 2007). However, there are certain factors making this technology difficult or unadvisable for developing countries. Notable among these are high operation and maintenance cost (NEERI, 1996; Sharma et al., 2005; CPCB, 2012). Moreover, due to the high proportions of organic material (40–60%), moisture content (40–60%), inert content (30–50%) and low calorific value content (800–1100 kcal/kg) in MSW, the release of dioxins, particulate matter, heavy metals and other harmful volatiles in flue gas is a challenge (Talyan et al., 2008). A comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of landfilling, composting, and incineration is given in Table 6.3. Table 6.3: Comparison of the major MSW management technology options—landfilling, composting, and incineration Technology Landfilling

Advantages A universal solution that provides ultimate waste disposal. Relatively low-cost and easy to implement with other technology options for handling the residual waste. It can produce landfill gas as a byproduct for household and industrial uses. Costs incurred incrementally as landfill expands. .

Disadvantages • Cost increases significantly with liner, leachate collection and removal system, and stricter regulations; • It requires a large area of land; • It does not achieve the objectives of reducing the volume of MSW and converting MSW into reusable resources; • It may result in secondary pollution problems, including groundwater pollution, air pollution and soil contamination; • It may serve as a breeding ground for pests and diseases; • Long post-closure care obligations and unknowns exist, and set long-term restrictions on site land use; • Site location may be limited by the local geology and natural stability of the underground soil; • Due to public acceptance and space limitation, landfills are

Sustainable Technologies for MSW Management

Composting

Converts decomposable organic materials into an organic fertilizer. Reduces the amount of waste to be landfilled and integrates well with land filling and materials recovery/recycling.

• •

• •

•

• Incineration • Incineration Provides substantial reduction (by 90%) in the total volume of waste requiring disposal in landfill. Requires minimal preprocessing of waste. The bottom ash from incineration is biologically clean and stable, and can be used in road building and the construction industry. • A very stable process, and virtually all wastes can be burned and the burning

•

•

77

often far away from the places where waste is generated, necessitating long-distance transport of the waste. Takes up more space than some other waste management technologies; Can be costly to implement and maintain, and has no environmental or economic advantages compared to incineration; Requires waste size reduction and some degree of waste separation/processing; There are issues with public perception, such as odor and bioaerosol emissions during the composting process, and the control of disease-producing organisms, weeds and insects; Quality of the fertilizer produced is low and volume is disproportionately large, resulting in poor market demand; Compost product may cause soil pollution by heavy metals and pathogens. High capital and operational and maintenance costs, compared to other, nonincineration options. Significant operator expertise is required. Air pollution control equipment is required to treat the flue gas, and the fly ash needs to be disposed in hazardous waste landfills. More raw materials have to be used to replace those that have been incinerated, and it does not save energy in the long run as resources are not recycled. May sometimes discourage

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process can be adequately controlled. Heat from combustion can be used as energy source for generation of steam and/or electricity. Incineration facilities can be located near residential areas, thereby reducing costs of transporting MSW to locations of waste disposal. Air emissions can be well controlled. More optimal land use and more efficient integration of resources than landfilling. Source: Cheng and Hu 2010

recycling and waste reduction. Public perception is sometimes negative, primarily with dioxins emission.

Anaerobic Digestion (Biomethanation) or Biogas Technology (BT) In 1776, for the first time, the Italian Physicist, Volta, demonstrated methane in marsh gas, generated from organic matter in the bottom sediments of ponds and streams. Under anaerobic conditions, the organic materials are converted through microbiological reactions into gases (biogas) and organic fertilizer (manure). Biogas and manure are the end products obtained from BT, whereas a conventional composting process produces only manure as the product after decomposition of solid organic waste. Thus, comparatively, BT could be considered as a better option for its compactness, cleaner operation and better product range (i.e. both gas as energy source and processed solid waste as manure). Methane is the main constituent of biogas. About 90% of the energy of the substrate is retained in methane. It is used mainly for cooking, lighting and in internal combustion engines to power water pumps and electric generators. The residual product from digestion can often replace manure or artificial fertilizer. The greatest economic benefits are minimizing environmental pollution and meeting the demand for energy for various purposes. In India, the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) (Government of India) declared a National Master Plan in 1994. This plan incorporates BT as one of the major waste-to-energy options to be developed and adopted in the country (MNRE, 2015; Kothari et al., 2010). The government is looking forward to bio-methanation technology as a

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secondary source of energy by utilizing industrial, agricultural and municipal wastes. Indian Railways has successfully installed approximately 4000 bio-toilets for the conversion of organic waste into biogas, and proposes to install bio-methanation plants at New Delhi and Jaipur stations, managing waste at twenty and five tons per day respectively.

Gasification and Pyrolysis One of the criteria that are of primary interest in evaluating a method for agricultural waste treatment is the raw material moisture content and the stoichiometric relationship C/N. For moisture contents lower than 50% weight per weight and ratios C/N > 30, thermochemical treatment of biomass is applicable in the form of direct combustion, pyrolysis, or gasification; otherwise it is better to take the waste to biochemical treatment (aerobic/anaerobic digestion, composting, etc.). Biomass combustion (Vamvouka and Zografos, 2004) is the most ancient method for energy production that mankind has ever used. Even nowadays, combustion contributes almost 85% of energy production methods. Combustion is characterized by a chemical reaction between a fuel and usually oxygen in excess levels and produces a significant amount of energy in the form of heat. However, it is known that it also contributes unfavorably to environmental pollution through ash generation, gaseous emissions, etc. Co-combustion of woody wastes with some amounts of fossil fuels promotes renewable source utilization, while it reduces the consumption of fossil fuels, ensures annual feeding of biomass–fossil fuels blend and may lead to money and energy saving. On the other hand, pyrolysis (thermal cracking) (Encinar et al., 1998; Ozbay et al., 2001) takes place under high temperature (up to 500°C), with slow heating rates and under environments with no air, in order to prevent biomass combustion. By imposing high temperatures, under an oxygenlimited atmosphere, biomass bonds degrade and as a result a gaseous mixture composed mainly of CO, CH4 and H2 is produced. Furthermore, because the temperature is not high enough to break long bonds in carbon chains, tars (bio-oils) are produced in significant quantities. Finally, and after biomass de-volatilization, char (black solid residue) is produced. Many basic and applied scientific studies on the conversion of lignocellulosic biomass (such as wood and agricultural residues) into oil, gas, and char have been conducted. Many types of organic waste materials have been applied as feed stocks in the pyrolysis process, such as waste vegetable oil, waste plastic, municipal waste, waste tires, and WLO

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(Waste Lubricating Oil). Recent scientific research activities are focused on flash pyrolysis as used in bio-oil production, with the advantages of less gas and char production (Singhabandhu and Tezuka, 2010; Vamvouka and Zografos, 2004). Biomass gasification (Demirbas, 2005) can be considered as a form of pyrolysis, which takes place in higher temperatures and produces a mixture of gases with H2 content ranging over 6–6.5%. Its scope is to optimize and maximize gas production. Firstly, drying and pyrolysis take place, while in the second stage synthesis gas is produced. The reason is that CO and H2O from combustion are converted to CO2 and H2. When imposing high temperatures, biomass bonds break down and reform a mixture of permanent gases consisting mainly of H2, CO, CO2 and CH4. The percentages of those gases in the mixture depend on several factors like the type of gasification agent (air, oxygen, steam or mixtures of them), and the physicochemical nature of the biomass (moisture, particle size, heating value, etc.). Comparing with air, when steam is introduced to reform CH4 to H2 and CO, a higher percentage of hydrogen is achieved, and the produced gas has a higher heating value. Additionally, gasification in combination with fuel cells, internal combustion engines or gas-turbine systems could be extremely attractive for electricity generation and is expected to be an important part of biomass energy production in an environmentally friendly way. Generally, as it concerns the by-products from different thermochemical treatments, gasification against combustion gives better limits in CO2 emissions, and it is widely known that CO2 is considered ‘‘neutral’’ with respect to air pollution problems. It does not increase the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere, as the carbon dioxide released from gasification is already the inherent amount that the biomass has gained from the atmosphere with photosynthesis. Gasification under a certain practice (Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle) gives higher efficiencies (45–50%) than are usually achieved via combustion (25–35%). On the other hand, the dioxin contents that result from animal manure combustion can be avoided under good combustion conditions and strict control. And, finally, pyrolysis can lead to biofuel utilization, with the advantages that a liquid fuel can offer (easy storage for a short time and easy transport), or char material being used as active carbon (Figure. 6.3).

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Figure 6.3: Agricultural/animal waste thermochemical treatment overview Source: Skoulou and Zabaniotou 2007

Bioethanol Production Alternative fuels made from renewable resources, such as fuel ethanol, provide numerous benefits in terms of environmental protection, economic development, and national energy security (Yang and Lu, 2007). Much research has been poured into finding an alternative fuel through biological ways because of the positive environmental benefits of biofuels. Potential feedstocks for biofuel production include cellulosic biomass as well as waste materials occurring in abundance outside the human food chain: these can be obtained throughout the year and are relatively inexpensive. Cellulosic materials are renewable natural biological resources, and generation of bio based products and bio-energy from such substances is important for the development of humans (Yang and Lu, 2007). Various industries across the world generate huge volumes of cellulosic waste, which have an immense potential to be utilized for the production of several bio-products. There are mainly two processes involved in the conversion: hydrolysis of cellulose in the lignocellulosic biomass to produce reducing sugars, and fermentation of the sugars to

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ethanol. Cellulose can be effectively hydrolyzed and depolymerized into fermentable sugars by the enzyme cellulase. Cellulosic residues such as wheat straw, corn stover, rice straw, corn cobs and other agricultural wastes are the most available renewable resources, storing derived energy in their chemical bonds (Arthe et al., 2008). Lignocellulosic bio refinery feedstocks are summarized in Figure 6.4. 10% mandatory blending of ethanol with gasoline has become effective since 2008, and the Government of India has adopted an aspirational target of 20% blending of biofuels, both for bio-diesel and bio-ethanol, until 2017. 

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Figure 6.4: Lignocellulosic bio refinery feedstock Source: ECOREFINE Biorefinery 2007

RDF Plants The main purpose of the refuse derived fuel (RDF) method is to produce an improved solid fuel or pellets from MSW. In India, many RDF plants are in operation at Hyderabad, Guntur and Vijaywada in Andhra Pradesh State. The Hyderabad RDF plant was commissioned in 1999 near the Golconda dumping ground with a 1000 t/day capacity (but receiving only 700 t/day at present). RDF production is about 210 t/day as fluff and pellets, and it is going to be used for producing power (about 6.6 MW). Pellets can be designed both for industrial and domestic uses (Kumar et

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al., 2009). RDF is another promising technology which is going to be used for producing power. In addition, the RDF plant reduces the pressure on landfills. Combustion of the RDF from MSW is technically sound and is capable of generating power. RDF may be fired along with conventional fuels like coal without any ill effects for generating heat. Operation of the thermal treatment systems involves not only higher cost, but also a relatively higher degree of expertise.

Hydrogen Energy In order to produce a sustainable energy supply with a minimal or zero use of hydrocarbons, hydrogen is a promising alternative to fossil fuels. It is a clean and environmentally friendly fuel that produces water instead of greenhouse gases when combusted. It seems to be a logical response to numerous environmental problems like acid rain and the greenhouse effect. There are many feedstocks and techniques available to harness hydrogen from fossil fuel, water and biomass as shown in Figure 6.5. Among these, electrolysis of water, steam reforming of hydrocarbons, and auto thermal processes are well-known methods for hydrogen gas production, but they are not cost-effective due to high energy requirements. However, carbohydrate-rich, nitrogen-deficient solid wastes such as cellulose (Arora et al., 2012) containing agricultural and foodindustry wastes, and some food-industry waste waters such as from the cheese and whey industry, can be used for hydrogen production, by using suitable bio process technologies or other Waste to Energy Resources (WTERs).

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Figure 6.5: Selected feedstock and process alternatives

Current Waste Management Practices and their Shortcomings As indicated in Table 6.3, current practices employed in the management of solid waste vary considerably between low-, middle- and high-income countries. The extent of application and the effectiveness of these practices are reviewed in Table 6.4 as follows: Table 6.4: Comparison of typical solid waste management practices Activity Source reduction

Low income No organized programmes, but reuse and low percapita waste generation rates are common.

Middle income Some discussion of source reduction, but rarely incorporated into any organized program.

High income Organized education programmes are beginning to emphasize source reduction and reuse of materials.

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Collection

Sporadic and inefficient. Service is limited to high visibility areas, the wealthy, and businesses willing to pay

Improved service and increased collection from residential areas. Larger vehicle fleet and more mechanization.

Collection rate greater than 90 per cent. Compactor trucks and highly machined vehicles are common.

Recycling

Most recycling is through the informal sector and waste picking. Mainly localized markets and imports of materials for recycling.

Informal sector still involved; some high technology sorting and processing facilities. Materials are often imported for recycling.

Recyclable material collection services and high technology sorting and processing facilities. Increasing attention towards long-term markets.

Composting

Rarely undertaken formally even though the waste stream has a high percentage of organic material.

Large composting plants are generally unsuccessful; some small-scale composting projects are more sustainable.

Incineration

Not common or successful because of high capital and operation costs, high moisture content in the waste, and high percentage of inert. Low-technology sites, usually open dumping of wastes.

Some incinerators are used, but experiencing financial and operational difficulties; not as common as highincome countries. Some controlled and sanitary landfills with some environmental controls. Open dumping is still common.

Becoming more popular at both backyard and largescale facilities. Waste stream has a smaller proportion of compostable than low and middle-income countries. Prevalent in areas with high land costs. Most incinerators have some form of environmental controls and some type of energy recovery system. Sanitary landfills with a combination of liners, leak detection, leachate collection system, and gas collection and treatment systems.

Landfilling

86 Costs

Chapter Six Collection costs represent 80 to 90 per cent of the municipal solid waste management budget. Waste fees are regulated by some local governments, but the fee collection system is very inefficient.

Collection costs represent 50 to 80 per cent of the municipal solid waste management budget. Waste fees are regulated by some local and national governments, more innovation in fee collection.

Collection costs can represent less than 10 per cent of the budget. Large budget allocations to intermediate waste treatment facilities. Upfront community participation reduces costs and increases options available to waste planners (e.g. recycling and composting).

Source: World Bank 1999

Many countries face critical problems with regard to waste management. A range of common shortcomings has been identified, including insufficient government priority and political support for action; lack of finance; inadequate long-term planning; indiscriminate disposal of waste; poor handling and disposal of hazardous and biomedical wastes; insufficient recycling and reuse; ineffective legislation and institutions; lack of skilled personnel; poor monitoring and enforcement. The prevailing view in many developing countries, including India, particularly in respect of industrial waste, is that it is impossible to constrain the growth of the economy by forcing industry and municipalities into introducing sophisticated and expensive waste treatment and disposal technologies. The short-sighted nature of such a policy, with implications for the long-term problems and costs of waste treatment, has yet to be realized or understood in many countries in the region. Private sector incentives and initiatives in waste management in India are still rare, and the responsible authorities are seldom willing to see the provision of waste management services given into private hands. There is a general lack of funding which may be used to establish a waste management system operated by private contractors. In addition, there is also a very low level of public awareness and participation regarding waste management. This is because people are not sufficiently informed about the health and economic benefits of proper waste collection, treatment and disposal. Recently, the awareness generated through the Swatch Bharat Mission or Clean India Campaign is a big success but then, the sweeping up of waste from one place to another is not the solution.

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Much of the existing infrastructure and facilities for the collection, treatment and disposal of waste has not kept pace with the economic development of recent years. It is not the lack of knowledge but the lack of finance and administration that is the main reason for the growing inefficiency of waste management practices in the region. Particularly in smaller cities and rural areas (where the patterns of consumption have also changed), the existing standards of waste collection, treatment and disposal remain very low. Adoption of inappropriate technologies creates many problems in the region. There are countless examples of plant failure. Many problems exist especially for municipal solid waste collection, processing and disposal in the cities. Waste collection services are often sporadic as they rely upon insufficient numbers of vehicles, which are often old, under-maintained and unreliable. Collection is irregular: again open dumping at the roadside, along and in water channels, rivers and along railways is quite normal. Disposal is often to uncontrolled open dumping sites, and in many countries industrial hazardous waste and biomedical waste are brought to the same dumpsites. Waste management practices are most effective where they form part of a robust and integrated approach to the collection and disposal of all generated wastes. At present, however, waste management is given relatively low priority in many regions despite increasing loads that stretch the already limited resources of the waste collection and disposal agencies.

Conclusion With an ever increasing population and a rapid pace of urbanization, the effects of poor waste management practices on human health and the environment have never been more pronounced. The chapter concludes that present policy and infrastructure are inadequate in dealing with the enormous quantity of MSW generated by the urban localities. With an almost three-fold increase in MSW generation by 2021, the situation may reach critical proportions. The Government have realized the seriousness of the situation and framed guidelines in the form of Smart Cities and AMRUT3 for disposal and treatment of MSW, and the same response has been mentioned in India’s Intended Nationally Determined Contribution document to UNFCCC4 during the Paris Summit 2015. NGOs, with assistance from Residential Welfare Associations, can play an important role in establishing an infrastructure for the segregation of waste at source. 3 4

AMRUT = Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation UNFCCC = United Nations Framework on Climate Change Convention

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More initiatives like this need to be taken towards educating people about correct practices of solid waste disposal. Regarding the technologies to be used for sustainable waste management, proper R&D is required and collective effort from technological institutes is important in order to develop low-cost sustainable technologies. Initiatives taken by policy makers never yield results unless matched by proper implementation at every level. Clearly any substantial change in the present scenario is impossible without a four-dimensional partnership of the government, technology institutes, the private sector and the citizens.

References Anderson G.L., S. Kenney, L.R.Beuchat and P.L. Williams. “Shedding of foodborne pathogens by Caenorhabditis elegans in compost-amended and unamended soil,” Food Microbiology, 23(2006): 146-153. Arora K., A. Kumar and S. Sharma. “Energy from Waste: Present Scenario, Challenges and Future Prospects towards Sustainable Development”. In Global Sustainable Development and Renewable Energy Systems. IGI Global, (2012): 271-296. Arthe R., R. Rajesh. E.M. Rajesh, R. Rajendran and S. Jeyachandran. “Production of bio-ethanol from cellulosic cotton waste through microbial extracellular enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation,” Electronic Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 7(2008): 2984-2992. Assessment of Status of Municipal Solid Waste Management in Metro Cities, State Capitals, Class I Cities and Class II Towns, NEERI Report, (2005). Bhide A.D., and A.V. Shekdar. “Solid waste management in Indian urban centers,” International Solid Waste Association Times (ISWA) (1998): 26–28. Census of India, 2011. Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India (GoI). . Demirbas, A., “Potential applications of renewable-energy sources, biomass combustion problems in boiler power systems and combustion related environmental issues,” Progr Energy Combust Sci 31(2005): 171-192. Encinar J.M., F.J. Beltran, A.Ramiro and J.F. Gonzalez. “Pyrolysis/Gasification of agricultural residues by carbon dioxide in the presence of different additives: influence of variables,” Fuel Process Technology 55(1998): 219-233.

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Gupta S., M. Krishna, R.K. Prasad, S. Gupta and A. Kansal. “Solid waste management in India: options and opportunities.” Resource, Conservation and Recycling, 24(1998): 137–154. Gupta S.K., “Rethinking Waste Management in India.” Humanscape (2001). Hoornweg D. and T. Laura. “What a waste: solid management in Asia.” Working Paper Series No. 1. Urban Development Sector Unit, East Asia and Pacific Region, (The World Bank, Washington, DC. 1999). Idris A., B. Inane and M.N. Hassan. “Overview of waste disposal and landfills/dumps in Asian countries,” Material Cycles and Waste Management 16 (2004): 104–110. Jha A.K., C. Sharma, N. Singh, R. Ramesh, R. Purvaja and P.K.Gupta. “Greenhouse-gas gas emissions from municipal solid waste management in Indian mega-cities: A case study of Chennai landfill sites,” Chemosphere (2007). Kansal A., “Solid waste management strategies for India,” Indian Journal of Environmental Protection, 22(2002): 444–448. Kaviraj, Sharma S., S.Satya and K. Arora. “Vermicomposting of MSW Employing Eisenia fetida, Penicillium sp. and Azotobacter”. Dynamic Soil Dynamic Plant, Vermitechnology III (2012): 89-95. Kothari R., V.V. Tyagi and A. Pathak. “Waste-to-energy: A way from renewable energy sources to sustainable development.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 14(2010): 3164–3170. Kumar S., J.K. Bhattacharyya, A.N Vaidya, T. Chakrabarti, A.N. Devotta and A.B. Akolkar. “Assessment of the status of municipal solid waste management in metro cities, state capitals, class I cities, and class II towns in India: An insight.” Waste Management 29 (2009): 883–895. Central Pollution Control Board. “Management of Municipal Solid Wastes in Cities in India,” Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi, (2012). Ozbay N., A.E. Putun, B.B. Uzun and E. Putun. “Biocrude from biomass: pyrolysis of cottonseed cake”. Renew Energy 24 (2001): 615–625. Sharholy M., K. Ahmad, R.Vaishya and R. Gupta. “Municipal solid waste characteristics and management in Allahabad, India.” Waste Management 27 (2007): 490–496. Sharma S., Kaviraj, S. Satya and P. Vasudevan. “Potentiality of Earthworms for Waste Management and in Other Uses – A Review.” The Journal of American Science, 1(2005): 4-16. Singhabhandhu A. and T. Tezuka. “Prospective framework for collection and exploitation of waste cooking oil as feedstock for energy conversion.” Energy 35 (2010): 1839–1847.

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Singhal S. and S Pande. “Solid waste management in India: status and future directions,” TERI Information Monitor on Environmental Science 6 (2000): 1–4. Status of Projects received during 2014-15 under Energy from Urban, Industrial and Agri. Waste/Residues - the Programme. Ministry of New and Renewable-Energy website, http://mnes.nic.in/. Strategy paper on solid waste management in India. NEERI, Nagpur, India, NEERI (National Environmental Engineering Research Institute), 1996. Talyan V., R.P Dahiya and T.R. Sreekrishnan. “State of municipal solid waste management in Delhi, the capital of India.” Waste Management 28 (2008): 1276–1287 Government of India. “Urban solid waste management in India,” Report of the High Power Committee. Planning Commission, Government of India, (GoI, 1995). Vamvouka D. and D. Zografos. “Predicting the behavior of ash from agricultural wastes using combustion,” Fuel 83(2004): 295–304. Yang B. and Lu Yanpin. “Perspective: The promise of cellulosic ethanol production in China.” J Chem Technol Biotechnol 82 (2007): 6–1. .

CHAPTER SEVEN WASTE RECYCLING: A SUSTAINABLE SOLUTION TO URBAN SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ASHISH JAIN

Introduction With the supersession of the previous Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000, to Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016, Municipal Solid Waste is now defined as Solid Waste. The Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016, effective from 8th April 2016, are applicable to every Urban Local Body, and to every outgrowth in urban agglomerations, census town, notified area, notified industrial township, area under the control of Indian Railways, Airport, Airbase, Port and Harbor, Defence Establishment, Special Economic Zone, State and Central Government Organization, Place of Pilgrims, Religious and Historical Importance. They also apply to every domestic, institutional, commercial and any other non-residential solid waste generator situated in the area except for industrial waste, hazardous waste, hazardous chemicals, biomedical waste, e-waste, lead-acid batteries, and radio-active waste (Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016). Solid Waste includes solid or semi-solid domestic waste, sanitary waste, commercial waste, institutional waste, catering and market waste and other non-residential waste, street sweeping, silt removed or collected from surface drains, horticultural waste, agricultural dairy waste, and treated bio-medical waste. Further, the solid waste can be broadly classified into three groups, Compostable, Recyclable and Inert. The compostable or organic fraction consists of food waste, vegetable market wastes, agricultural and horticultural waste, whereas recyclables consist of paper, plastic, metal, fabric, rubber and glass, and inert solid waste

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consists of street sweeping, dust, and silt removed from the surface drains (Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016). Waste composition is an important factor, dictating the waste management strategy to be employed in a particular location. Ironically, the localities with the highest rates of waste generation (dominated by High-Income Group people) are considered as clean/posh localities whereas the localities with lowest rates of waste generation (dominated by Low-Income Group people) are the dirtiest. Reasons for this could be the recyclable composition of solid waste. As per the Indian Pollution Control Association’s (IPCA) survey, the amount of recyclables like paper, plastic, metal and glass in solid waste dictates how often they need to be collected, and the percentage of such waste goes up to 60% in localities dominated by High-Income Groups. Therefore, these localities get volunteer services from the informal sector to pick up their solid waste from their doorsteps for 365 days a year and at zero costs to the waste generator. In contrast, the localities with Low-Income Group people are deprived of waste collection services from both formal and informal sectors, because less than 10% of their waste is recyclable. India is generating 62 million tonnes of Solid Waste annually, out of which 5.6 million tonnes are plastic waste; 0.17 million tonnes are biomedical waste; 7.90 million tonnes are hazardous waste, and 15 lakh tonnes are e-waste generation (Javadekar, 2016). A major fraction of urban Solid Waste in India is Organic Matter (50%); Recyclables are 35% of the MSW, and the remaining 15% is inert waste (IPCA, 2014). It has to be understood that this composition of waste is at the source of waste generation, whereas the composition of waste at a dump yard in the cities of India is 51% organics, 17.5% recyclables, and 31% of inert matter (Table 7.1). Table 7.1: Composition of solid waste at a dump yard of urban cities Region/City

MSW (TPD) 51,402 380 6,835 2,343 380 130,000

Metro Cities Eastern Region Northern Region Southern Region Western Region Overall Urban India Other cities 2,723 Source: Annepu, 2012

Organics (%) 50.89 50.41 52.38 53.41 50.41 51.3

Recyclables (%) 16.28 21.44 16.78 17.02 21.44 17.48

Inert (%)

51.91

19.23

28.86

32.82 28.15 30.85 29.57 28.15 31.21

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The significant percentage of recyclables at the source of waste generation suggests a flourishing growth of recycling industries, but this is not true. The entire material supply chain is dominated by the informal sector with very little control from the administration and policy makers. The biggest hurdle in creating a sustainable supply chain of recyclable material is lack of segregation of waste at source, which results in poor quality and quantity of waste reaching the recyclers. Tetra Pak, a multilayer aseptic packaging material used for the packaging of beverages, milk and its products and liquors, consists of three different materials; paper, polyethylene and aluminum in a ratio of 75:20:5 respectively. All the constituents of a carton are recyclable and can be brought back to some useful form after consumption, provided segregation is done at source followed by the availability of a processing facility. Recycling of aseptic packages has indeed been one of Tetra Pak's big challenges. As of 2011, 20% of Tetra Pak cartons were recycled globally, with countries like Belgium, Germany, Spain and Norway showing local recycling rates of over 50%; the rate is 28% in India (Environment and Recycling, 2011; TERI 2016). Tetra Pak stated that it aimed to double its recycling rate within the next ten years, something that will require an engagement within the whole recycling chain. To increase the level of recycling and meet the targets, Tetra Pak has engaged in driving recycling activities such as facilitating the development of collection schemes, launching new recycling technologies and raising awareness about recycling and sustainability.

Home to Door to door Scrap Dealer Itinerant Buyer

Community Rag picker Bin to Scrap Dealer

Community Cattle owners Bins to Dairy Farm

2

3

4

S. Part of cycle Agency type No. 1 Home to Domestic Community Bin

IF

IF

Cows, dogs, birds, pigs

Rag picker, Municipality Sweepers

Restricted entry

Continues

Formal/ Existing Scenario Informal situation Short term *IF Domestic helpers, Municipality Sweeper, Community mobilization, RWAs, Door-todoor collection IF Itinerant Buyers, Continues Local shop

Scenario Medium term

Describing the Waste Part of the Material Cycle

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Table 7.2: Solid waste management system in Delhi

94

Economic function Household pays fee

Corporate Household retail counter Sells and earns money Community Scrap dealer Bin as dry buys waste waste material from collection rag-pickers centre Communities save fodder

Scenario Long term Source segregated waste

* Informal **Formal

7

Dump Yard to Scrap Dealer Recycling of land/ alternative

6

Municipality/ contracted agency

Rag pickers

Community Municipality Bins to Dump Yard

5

F

IF

**F

EDMC/SDMC /NWDMC/ DCB/ NDMC

Rag pickers

EDMC/SDMC /NWDMC/ DCB/ NDMC / private company

95

Segregated Municipality and own non- incurred huge recycled expenses on transportation of waste to dump yard and private company earn money Entry Rag-picker sell restricted waste to scrap dealer Privatization of Waste to energy, Sustainable Capital Composting, institutionalizing technologies intensive, mega incineration, / legislating plants run by supporting recycling private agency, recycling decentralized solutions

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The chart above depicts the material cycle of waste in New Delhi. This chart does two things: one, it shows the material cycle presently in existence in a typical Indian city (New Delhi); and two, the framework contains the possibility of intervention and transformation by locating possible scenarios for action. It thus becomes necessary to ask what should be the attributes of the appropriate scenario. It is proposed here that this appropriate scenario be viewed in the academic perspective. Hence such a scenario could be “closing the loop” – that is, completing the materials’ cycle and recovering all the materials in the waste stream. Such a system would be sustainable and ecologically correct. The action planning steps from this point would characterize the actors involved in such a system and their motivations. To bring the whole society under a no-waste regime, in addition to involving the regulatory steps, would need a whole new way of looking at the waste stream and the technologies that need developing.

The System The fate of recycling of waste material depends on three components of a waste supply chain: primary segregation of material, secondary segregation of material and the recycling/reprocessing of materials.

Primary Segregation The existing practices of segregation of Solid Waste are carried out at four levels: at the source of waste generation, during the collection of waste at the collection vehicle, at the community bins, and at the dump yard. The ideal condition is the segregation of waste at the source itself, but no Indian cities practice this. Waste generators at the household or commercial level do some level of segregation with limited waste categories, e.g. households or workers at commercial places keep saleable items such as newspapers, magazines, old books, cardboard, plastic containers, and glass bottles and sell them. Waste collectors or rag-pickers also recover waste material during door-to-door collection of waste and at the communal bins. Items recovered from this level are PET bottles, Tetra Pak cartons, glass, beer/wine bottles, white paper, cardboard, aluminum foil, milk pouches, metal, wire, tins, papers, raddi (scrap paper), polybags, rubber and leather. The most common items preferred by the waste collectors/rag-pickers are larger and cleaner pieces of paper, cardboards, plastic products, bottles, and metal etc. Waste collectors/rag-pickers also

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look for items which directly or indirectly add more profit to their income. For example, they retain wood for fuel, building materials for house construction, spoiled food like bread or roti for cattle feed and hair. Substantial scavenging of wastes also takes place at the dump yard upon the arrival of the garbage truck. In a city like Delhi, with community bins being prevalent, there are few pickings possible at the landfill. All the choice pickings have been taken out during the collection and at the bins themselves. A large number of scavengers residing in or around dumping sites search for recyclable wastes and other valuables and, as per the IPCA’s field survey, the quantity of waste collected by such a scavenger varies from 15 to 50 kg per day. The activities of the waste collectors/rag-pickers/scavengers often result in great health risk to them. Wastes are contaminated with degraded food waste, dust and sometimes medical discards, so the scavengers collecting these wastes are constantly exposed to the danger of accidents, injuries, cuts, burns, allergies, poisonous substances and wounds through sharp materials as they scrounge with bare hands and sometimes even bare feet. There is an urgent need to develop best practice so as to decrease the risks involved in doing this kind of work and end the drudgery of the waste collectors.

Secondary Segregation This activity takes place at the aggregator/waste contractor level. The aggregator/waste contractor has his own or rented piece of land, where he/she does the secondary segregation of waste collected by the waste collector/rag-picker/scavenger. The secondary segregation is a very important task in the entire supply chain of waste management and it involves the further segregation of waste material depending on its physical and chemical properties. The secondary segregation dictates the efficient recycling or reprocessing of waste material in the right manner. For example, the waste collector/rag-picker/scavenger supplies waste plastic material to the aggregator, and it is the aggregator who segregates plastic waste into PET, LDPE, HDPE, PVC, Poly Propylene, Polystyrene, etc. as per the demand from the available recyclers/reprocessors. The secondary segregation of material depends on various factors, which include the waste contractor’s/aggregator’s trade knowledge, the availability of a reprocessing/recycling unit at an approachable location, the appropriate logistic cost for the storage and transportation of waste material up to the recycling/reprocessing unit, the balance between demand and supply of waste material, and a suitable price.

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Recycling/Reprocessing of Material In the 3Rs mantra of Solid Waste Management, recycling comes last, whereas reducing and reusing should be the most effective way towards an efficient waste management system, which may prevent generation of waste. Once the wastes are generated and collected and cannot be reused in any way, the best alternative to handle them would be recycling where the materials generally undergo a chemical transformation. Recycling/ reprocessing also involves using the waste as raw material to make new products. Recycling thus help to reduce demand for virgin raw materials, and it reduces the impact of extraction of virgin raw material on the environment, on health and on the economy. The earnings of all waste collectors/rag-pickers/scavengers/aggregators also depend on the recycling of waste material.

Materials The major waste streams consist of organic wastes, paper products, plastics, textiles, glass and metals. Together, the categories of recyclable wastes may form anywhere up to 82 percent of the total amount of solid wastes (IPCA Survey, 2015). Further, the components of the waste stream can be classified into the following broad categories: • Glass and porcelains: bottles (both whole and broken), window and door glasses, porcelain crockery, and vases • Papers and paper products: newspapers, magazines, books, writing papers, paperboards, tissue paper, poly laminated paper, laminated paper cups, cardboard boxes, tetrapak cartons • Plastic products: PET bottles, containers for oils and FMCG (Fast Moving Consumer Goods) products, plastic bags, plastic sheets, pipes, plastic furniture and fixtures, plastic buckets, toys, toilet seats and cement bags • Metals: iron, steel, aluminium, copper, brass, and tin (whole and damaged) • Textiles: curtains, clothes and rags • Rubber and leather items: tires and footwear • Woods: broken furniture and garden waste • Other organic wastes: kitchen wastes, vegetable wastes, and garden trimming wastes • Construction debris: brick and concrete rubble, iron and timbers.

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The Recycling Industry Today Recycling is a flourishing business both in the formal and informal sectors of India. It supports up to 0.5 % of the population in million-plus cities, and saves a city 10-15% of its total waste-management costs through reduction in waste volumes handled (Patel, 2007). Recycling, in the recent past, won formal legitimacy in India with the introduction of the Municipal Solid Waste (Handling and Management) Rules, 2000, and became more prominent with the amended Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016. The rule directs the Local Authorities and Village Panchayats of Census Towns and Urban Agglomerations to arrange door-to-door collection of segregated solid waste from all residential and commercial establishments. The rule also directs the authorities concerned to set up material recovery facilities or secondary storage facilities with sufficient space for the sorting of recyclable materials, and to ensure community participation in waste segregation. This should improve the status and working conditions of people in this sector and upgrade recycling technologies. At the moment, many municipal authorities are not oriented towards strengthening the activities of the informal waste separation and recycling sector, and do little to improve the safety and effectiveness of the sector. The unhygienic and messy circumstances of this sort of work were enough to amend the MSW (Handling and Management) Rules, 2000. India today presents a golden opportunity for all types of suppliers to use simple costeffective recycling processes and equipment. The most common waste materials recycled are paper, cardboard, plastics, textiles, glass and metals. The technological skills, equipment and processes of recycling for most kinds of wastes are already known. However, the working and health conditions in these recycling industries, in general, are not satisfactory. According to the type of industry concerned, they involve heavy and dirty work; exposure to high ambient temperatures, noise and dust in the factory shop; use and release of hazardous chemicals in the process; handling of contaminated wastes; long working hours and unsafe working practices. Strengthening of the safety standards, improving the working environment and providing acceptable health care facilities are matters of immediate concern in all these industries. Two examples are cited below to explain the processes for the recycling of pulp and paper and plastic. Paper waste forms the second biggest component of domestic waste after organic waste, which is about 13 percent (city averages range from 8.3 to 14.9 percent) of the total domestic solid wastes. Recycling of paper

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reduces the need for cutting down trees and use of energy. It solves the littering problem in the city and around dumping sites.

Pulp and Paper Recycling Industry The pulp and paper industry is one of the earliest industries that were set up in India and it produces about 3% of the world's total paper production (according to the International Project Management Association, IPMA). The estimated turnover of this industry in India is approximately USD 8 billion and it provides direct employment to more than 0.5 million people. Around 1.5 million people benefit economically from this industry indirectly (IPMA, 2106). These paper mills use a variety of raw materials like wood, bamboo, waste paper, bagasses, wheat straw, rice husks, etc., and interestingly waste paper consumption is around 65%. The per-capita consumption of paper products is usually taken as a standard which can be precisely linked to the literacy and educational levels of the country. It also indicates improvement in the quality of living standards of a country. The global average per-capita consumption of paper in the year 2012 was estimated at 57 kg annually. In the case of India, however, the per-capita consumption of paper was 6.2 times lower at 9.3 kilograms per annum (Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser to the GoI, 2014). The paper industry is water, capital and energy intensive. It is listed among the seventeen most polluting industries by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). The government has encouraged the adoption of clean technologies, which are efficient and promote sustainable development. Since the industry dates back a couple of centuries, there is no uniformity in terms of the size of industrial units, plant production capacities, type of raw material used and the end product sought.

Plastics Recycling Industry According to the “Assessment and Quantification of Plastic Waste in 60 Cities Study” conducted by the CPCB through the Central Institute of Plastics Engineering and Technology (CIPET), Ahmadabad, during the year 2010-11, the total quantum of plastic waste generated in the country is estimated to be about 15,342 MT per day. The total plastic waste, which is collected and recycled in the country, is about 9205 MT per day (about 60%) and about 6137 MT per day (40%) of plastic waste remains uncollected (Newsletter, IPCA, 2015).

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With an average 8 percent (city averages range from 1 to 8.9 percent) by weight of the total amount of domestic waste, plastic is the third biggest waste stream. Most of the plastics are recyclable. However, due to the improper segregation system, a great amount of plastic goes to landfill sites and the un-recycled plastic category. The high-energy content of plastic (production energy and calorific value) is lost when plastic waste is incinerated or dumped. Incineration or burning of plastic releases highly environmentally-hazardous substances. It is very disturbing to note that plastic recycling in India is carried out by small, unauthorized units in a completely unregulated manner leading to the manufacture of highly contaminated and hazardous plastic. The plastic recycling process involves melting it, which releases gaseous substances and is deleterious to human health. The direct benefits of the recycling of plastic wastes are reduction of costs of raw material and energy savings by the industries. The other benefits of plastic recycling are employment generation and the reduction of volume of transportation and space requirement for dumping.

Alternative Approaches and Future Possibilities Re-envisioning the Future as a Materials Cycle The prevalence of non-organics can be seen as a byproduct of industrial activity. The manufacturing sector packages the industrial goods which end up as waste plastic and paper. However, it is not seen in this way except under the perspective of contemporary environmental thinking. All the current legislation in the developed world recognizes this and hence there exist penal provisions like fines under the ‘extended producer responsibility’ regime, and this trend has been recently introduced in India. Though recent policy change has addressed the gaps, due to past negligence the problem of “what to do” once the waste is generated-created-confronted still exists at ground level. The present approach is based upon a desire to continue the trajectory of technology and practices derived from the past. The cost involved in various steps of waste recycling, which involves collection, transportation and storage, is very high due to which only a small percentage of the waste generated is recycled back. By being focused upon independent action it is socially irresponsible. In India due to the inefficient and non-performing formal sector (the municipal machinery) the waste industry is lagging behind. The previous policies of SWM dealing with the issue of waste recycling have played lip

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service to the existing situation of the recycling industry. No steps have been taken to formalize the informal sector of the waste industry comprising rag pickers, segregators, and others, who are still being neglected and marginalized. Unlike the formal waste collectors (municipalities, etc.) who collect waste from a common point, rag pickers are key players in the collection of the scattered waste which is out of reach of the formal sectors. Policy measures have not yet been taken for the upliftment, strengthening and improvement of the livelihoods of this poor and underprivileged section of society, who play the most important role of waste collection and segregation. The informal sector has to be given due recognition and status for its role.

Existing Objectives The four key issues of solid waste management identified in chapter 21 of Agenda 21 of the Rio Earth Summit were: reduction of the amount of waste; maximization of separation at source; promotion of small-scale waste recycling industries; and integration of recycling and formal waste management. These targets were set more than a decade ago but we are still trailing behind to achieve them.

Objectives Redefined In the present scenario, the task that lies ahead is simulating the situation and setting up a participatory framework of action in which all the stakeholders can find their voices and articulate their specific concerns. The key issues should be listed to draw attention to finding genuine solutions of the existing problems in the waste industry. The focus must be upon the development of a correct policy and upon the design and implementation of a robust and resilient system — for the “recycling and reuse of solid waste”. • Waste has to be seen not as a disposal problem but as a material flow issue. (And as a resource conservation issue, a resource being required to reprocess materials rather than to extract and process virgin material.) • A “Closed Loop” recycling system has to be adopted to solve the problem of MSW disposal for the system to function properly: consumers, recyclers and manufacturers must work together to reclaim valuable materials from the waste stream and use them to make new products. Waste management should not be confined to housekeeping (in collection) and discarding (in incineration or

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landfilling). Resource allocation must reflect the true nature of this activity, and the social and ecological gains achieved. • Recycling and reuse of solid waste will not be sustainable unless it is seen vis-a-vis other important solid waste management issues. • The focus on Control and Administered systems has to give way to a more complex system of material flow.

Role of Communities An efficient urban solid waste management service should consist of appropriate combinations of public, private and community involvement, while focusing on management information systems that allow the waste management sector to use a range of local service providers. Polluters should take responsibility for their actions: the names of defaulting households/persons should be listed and displayed in order to publicly embarrass them for their action. Besides, the following measures should be taken: • Legislating for correct practices; • Setting up models, and providing access to good practices; • Devising punitive measures, and a “pay as you throw” system; • Relocation of waste ownership; • Developing a transparent monitoring system; • Rewarding best infrastructure practices.

Agency Issues: Regulatory Role of Municipalities, Institutions, Government Local authorities often see solid waste management as a poor cousin of other basic services, because they can barely recover operating costs. There is an urgent need to increase awareness of the importance of recycling and its contribution to a healthy living environment. Strict regulation of the disposal of organic wastes is the preferred option. As for example, in the UK, five regulatory options have been proposed: • Total ban on land filling of biodegradable waste; • Ban on landfill of paper, card and putrescent waste from municipal sources; • Restrictions on the tonnage disposed of at a particular landfill; • Permits for disposal of biodegradable waste; and • Increasing the landfill tax on disposal of biodegradable material.

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In developing countries recycling needs to be incorporated within the overall material cycle managed by the municipality. Although many countries are undertaking recycling initiatives, too little attention is paid to waste minimization. Marketing and packaging industries generate a large source of waste in the highly industrialized countries, and they are also responsible for the growing segment of waste in the cities of India. Waste minimization in these industries could have major impacts. Solid waste management should focus on clearer definitions of monitoring and evaluation, particularly the use of indicators that can promote the recycling and reuse of wastes. Suitable indicators currently being considered by European governments for incorporation in national legislation include: • Municipal recovery rates; • Household recycling rates; • Household waste composted; and • Home composting participation rates.

Technology Issues The equipment and infrastructure required to support the recycling system need to be visualized and developed. Standards for recycled materials do not exist at present. They may need to be developed. Technological advances in recycling have been made in many sectors with increasing use of recycled materials. The improved quality of recycled paper is a good example.

References Annepu, Ranjith Kharvel. “Sustainable Solid Waste Management in India.” Master's thesis, Earth Engineering Centre, Columbia University, New York, 2012. Grover, Latika. “Opportunity to improve the status of post consumer use of tetra pak cartons - A case study of tetra pak carton recycling in Delhi.” Master thesis, Department of Natural Resources, TERI University, New Delhi, 2016 http://psa.gov.in/sites/default/files/pulp_paper_final.pdf http://www.almitrapatel.com/docs/047.doc http://www.ipma.co.in/paper-industry/overview/ http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/28/us/politics/28health.html. http://www.pib.nic.in/newsite/printrelease.aspx?relid=138591

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http://www.plasticsnews.com/article/20130404/news/130409952/recyc ling-growing-in-india-vast-market. Indian Pollution Control Association. Green Hope. Annual Report (2014). IPCA Newsletter (April-June 2015). Plastic: Boon or a Curse, Vol 1 (II). IPMA. Paper Industry Overview. Accessed May 5, 2016. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change. Solid Waste Management Rule (2015), Notification. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, New Delhi, 8th April 2016. Office of the Principal Scientific Advisor to the GOI. “Report on opportunity for green chemistry initiatives: pulp and paper industry”. Accessed March 12, 2016. Patel, Almitra H, (2007). Status of Recycling and Ecomark Legislation in India. Accessed April 17, 2016. Post Consumer Tetra Pak Cartons (PCC) Management Report. TERI, New Delhi, 2016., Press Information Bureau. “Solid Waste Management Rules Revised After 16 Years; Rules Now Extend to Urban and Industrial Areas.” Accessed May 15, 2016. Sheryl Gay Stolberg and Robert Pear, “Wary Centrists Posing Challenge in Health Care Vote,” New York Times, February 27, 2010, accessed February 28, 2010, Singh, Satnam. “Recycling growing in India's vast market”, "Plastics News, April 4, 2013, accessed April 19, 2016. Tetra Pak. Environment and Recycling Report 2011. Accessed April 20, 2016. http://www.tetralaval.com

CHAPTER EIGHT FEASIBILITY OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE AS A SOURCE OF THERMAL ENERGY IN THE INDIAN SCENARIO ROSHNI MARY SEBASTIAN, DINESH KUMAR AND BABU ALAPPAT

Introduction India is a briskly developing economy, with a present population of 1.3 billion. Although there is an unanticipated decrease in population growth as reported by the Census of 2011, uncontrolled migration and unplanned development has aroused a multitude of problems in the country. The first decade of the twenty-first century is called India’s Decade of Development, for all the right reasons. India overcame challenges in rural and urban development, growth in national infrastructure and human and capital development (Bajpai and Sachs, 2011). While the Indian economy witnessed an impressive growth, as obvious from an increase in GDP growth rate from 5.3% in 1985 to 8.6% in 2011 (Bajpai & Sachs, 2011; Hoornweg, 1999, Ministry of Finance, GoI; Dube et al., 2014), there has arisen from this a number of associated issues. One of the biggest challenges faced by modern India is municipal solid waste (MSW) management. Rapid urbanization and industrialization, along with a population explosion and uninhibited urban migration, has led to a tremendous increase in the quantities of waste generated. With improving standards of living, the condition is expected to worsen in the future. In spite of the increasing rates of waste generation, the efficiency of waste collection continues to be abysmal. The authorities concerned are ill-equipped to handle the wastes generated, and therefore huge amounts of MSW get dumped unscientifically on road sides and open land dumps. Not only does this result in air, surface water and ground water pollution,

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but it also creates unsanitary living conditions for the public. This further raises environmental and public health concerns. The ideal solution is integrated solid waste management, which incorporates a waste management hierarchy, inclusive of direct (collection, transportation, treatment and disposal) and indirect impacts (material and energy utilization outside the system) (Kreith and Tchobanoglous, 2002). Such a well-organized system is pivotal for any country, and its necessity is accentuated by increasing population and per capita income. However, when metropolitan cities like Delhi generate more than 8000 tons of waste per day, source collection and segregation become impossible without proper planning and strategy. Moreover, due to a large number of political and economic limitations, the authorities responsible for the formulation of an efficient solid waste management system end up engaging private organizations and NGOs to handle the multitude of issues that emerge time and again. To ensure that the waste generated is taken care of without causing any environmental or health nuisances, the MSW (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000, were formulated by the Ministry of Environment and Forests of the Government of India. Recently amended rules, the Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016, have been introduced and are in place in India. The major pitfall in the present system, however, is the absence of a scheme for proper collection and segregation at source. Mixed wastes get dumped at local municipal containers carelessly or in the worst cases in open dumps raising huge health risks for the local community. The efficiency of collection continues to be dismal in most Indian cities: while it is less than 70% in large cities, the collection efficiency in smaller cities is much lower (Kaushal et al. 2012; Sharholy and Ahmad 2008; TERI, 2015). Conventionally followed methods for the management of wastes include composting, biomethanation, landfilling etc. The major drawback of these methods is that their processing times are long, which becomes a challenge, especially when the daily MSW generation rates are alarmingly high. While aerobic and anaerobic composting take about 2-3 months and 4-6 months respectively, vermicomposting takes 1.5 months. The fastest technique of the lot, rotary drums composting, takes approximately 2-3 weeks. For small cities like Kohima (MSW generation 60TPD) or Surat (1400 TPD), biological treatment is the favorable route (Chatterjee, 2010). This strategy may, however, not work in the case of mega cities like Delhi (8300 TPD), Mumbai (6000 TPD) or Kolkata (5000 TPD) (Das, 2014) (CPCB, 2013; CPCB, 2000). Poor collection facilities worsen the state of affairs, and the wastes get unscientifically dumped in land-dumps.

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The exigencies of the present demand a more prompt and efficient technique, which can manage larger waste quantities in significantly lower duration. Taking MSW to thermal energy facilities like incineration units offers an option for faster disposal of MSW, with the possibility of energy recovery, and could probably help meet the needs of the hour more effectively than conventionally followed techniques. The main thermal treatment techniques followed include incineration, pyrolysis and gasification. Waste incineration was first practised in Eastern European and a few Asian countries in the mid-1980s (Rand et al. 1999). The failure rate was high in most cases owing to a number of reasons: a. Improper assumptions regarding quantity and characteristics of MSW b. Requirement for cutting-edge technology and skilled labor force c. High operation and maintenance costs and issues with funding d. Emission problems e. NIMBY (Not In My Back Yard) Syndrome. Few of the Indian cities had waste-to-energy plants installed as a part of their waste management strategies in the past. The capital city of the country is one among them. Delhi’s first waste-to-energy plant was installed at Timarpur in 1989, by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Sources and the Government of Denmark, in a collective effort. The unit was designed to incinerate 300 tons of waste per day generating 3.7 MW power. However, the unit was shut down after 21 days of operation. The reason for the sudden closure of the unit was not faulty technology, but wrongly assumed thermal characteristics and physical composition of the incoming waste.

Composition and Characteristics of Indian MSW The composition and characteristics of the MSW collected and sent for treatment from any place are influenced by an array of factors, namely: collection facilities and equipment, segregation operations and recycling activities, seasonal variations, age and standard of living of the community residing in the area, variation in peoples’ behavior etc. Accordingly, the MSW generated in developed and developing economies differs considerably. While the former has a lower fraction of biodegradables, the latter has a lower fraction of recyclables. Figure 8.1, developed using the World Bank report (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012) on the world’s MSW management statistics, demonstrates this trend.

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Figure 8.1: Composition of MSW in developed and developing countries

Industrialization and urbanization improves the standard of living, and simultaneously increases the per capita waste generation rates. Per-capita waste generation rates are high in developed countries, whereas they are comparatively low in developing countries, despite the huge quantum of waste generated. This trend is due to the huge population density in developing countries. This further increase the associated costs of disposal. The high-income areas generate larger quantities of wastes, but with lower ash and biodegradable fractions. Packaging and lighter materials form the predominant fraction of the wastes generated from these areas. This can be owing to the consumption of packaged and readymade food items and restriction of food processing to commercial and industrial units. On the contrary, the low- and middle-income areas have higher moisture content in the generated wastes due to the presence of food wastes in significant quantities. In India, the composition has undergone wide changes over the years. Kaushal et al. (2012) report appreciable improvement in the paper and plastic content and drastic reduction by about 20-25% in the incombustible inert fraction of Indian MSW. Even the biodegradable fraction, which forms the major portion of the MSW generated, underwent a marginal decrease, by about 1.6% over the years (Kaushal et al., 2012). The paper and plastic composition has also been increasing over the years. Thermal properties like heat content follow suit. While Indian MSW has a meager calorific value in the range of 1000-1200 kcal/kg, MSW from developed nations like US has calorific value around 3000 kcal/kg or more, as reported by various authors.

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Table 8.1: Composition of MSW generated in the study areas Component

Organic fraction Textiles

Composition of MSW generated in Delhi (%) 42.67

Composition of MSW generated in Allahabad (%) 45.3

Composition of MSW generated in USA (%) 23

-

2.22

-

-

1.09

-

Paper

5.89

3.6

38

Plastic

6.15

2.86

9

Glass

1.40

0.73

7

Metal

0.47

2.54

8

Bioresistant*

13.35

-

-

Inert**

30.05

41.66

16

Cardboard

*Includes leather, rubber, bones and other synthetic material; **Includes stones, bricks, ashes, etc. Source: India (Sharholy and Ahmad, 2007)

The combustibility of MSW, which is instrumental in assessing the efficiency of waste to thermal energy technology, may be assessed using certain parameters. The conventionally followed Tanner's diagram and rules of thumb are normally used in this regard. Table 8.2: Proximate analysis of MSW Proximate Analysis % Moisture % Volatiles % Inert

Delhi

USA

Allahabad

37.6 23.3 38.9

16.3 56.7 26.9

27.82 41.59 30.58

For advanced analyses, the method followed by Kreith and Tchobanoglous (2002) was used. Proximate analysis was done to determine the percentages of moisture, ash and volatiles present in the

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MSW. Ultimate analysis was done to obtain the percentages of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. The results of these analyses were further used to determine the heat content of the MSW. The results of proximate and ultimate analyses of wastes from Delhi, USA and Allahabad are tabulated in Table 8.2 and Table 8.3. Table 8.3: Ultimate analysis of MSW Chemical composition % Carbon % Hydrogen % Oxygen

Delhi

USA

Allahabad

40.36 5.09 14.00

35.76 4.68 26.58

34.07 4.23 16.08

% Nitrogen

2.77

0.56

1.14

% Sulphur

0.24

0.17

0.25

The Tanner diagram is a diagrammatic representation of the proximate analysis, i.e., % moisture, % volatiles and % inert in a sample of the waste. Ideally, for a particular load of MSW to be combustible without an auxiliary fuel (for energy recovery), it is advisable to have volatiles >25%, moisture