The Search for Modern China [1st ed.] 9780393027082, 0393027082

Table of contents :
Cover......Page 1
Copyright page......Page 10
Contents......Page 13
List of Maps......Page 19
Foreign Threats in the Late Ming......Page 51
Rebel Bases in the Late Ming......Page 55
Growth of Manchu Power, 1610–1644......Page 59
Flight of the Anti-Ming Rebels, 1644–1647......Page 66
Defeat of the Ming Princes, 1644–1661......Page 68
The Three Feudatories, 1673–1681......Page 99
Maritime China in the Seventeenth Century......Page 103
The Treaty of Nerchinsk, 1689......Page 114
The Zunghar Campaigns, 1696 and 1720......Page 116
The Treaty of Kiakhta, 1728......Page 128
Yongzheng's Western Campaigns, 1726–1735......Page 131
Macroregions in Mid-Qing China......Page 140
Qianlong's Western Campaigns......Page 146
Qing Campaigns in Vietnam, 1788–1789......Page 159
Rebellions in the Late Qianlong Period......Page 161
The Opium War, 1839–1842......Page 219
The Treaty Ports, 1842......Page 223
The Altishahr Region, 1835......Page 227
The Taiping Rebellion, 1850–1864......Page 253
The Treaty Ports, 1854–1860......Page 260
The Nian Rebellion, 1851–1868......Page 267
Muslim Revolts, 1855–1873......Page 270
Border Affairs, 1870–1895......Page 302
The Boxer Uprising, 1898–1901......Page 330
China's Railways, 1880–1905......Page 347
The Fall of the Qing, 1911......Page 360
Railway and Industrial Expansion, 1912–1922......Page 424
The Northern Expedition, 1926......Page 443
The Northern Expedition, 1928......Page 460
CCP Soviets, 1927–1934......Page 474
The Mukden Incident, September 1931......Page 504
Japan's Base in the Northeast, 1932–1933......Page 507
The Long March, October 1934–June 1935......Page 518
The Long March, June 1935–October 1935......Page 521
The War with Japan: Japanese Expansion......Page 556
The War in North China, 1937......Page 558
The War in Central China, 1937–1938......Page 561
China Divided, 1938......Page 563
The War in South China, 1938–1942......Page 570
New Fourth Army Incident, 1941......Page 577
Japan's Ichigo Offensive, 1944......Page 588
Areas of Communist Control, August 1945......Page 593
The Civil War in Manchuria, 1945–1947......Page 600
The Civil War in North China, 1948......Page 618
The Civil War in South China, 1949......Page 623
Military Regions of the PRC, 1949......Page 651
The Korean War, November 1950–July 1953......Page 656
Border Clashes, 1959......Page 731
List of Tables......Page 21
Population Figures: Hebei, Shandong, and All of China......Page 142
Age of Women Giving Birth: Daoyi, 1792......Page 144
British Sales of Opium to China......Page 177
Foreign Investments in China, 1902 and 1914......Page 378
China's Annual Production of Coal, Iron, and Steel, 1912–1927......Page 422
Composition of China's Foreign Trade, 1913–1928......Page 426
China's Trade Imbalance, 1912–1928......Page 427
Expenditures, Revenues, and Deficits of the National Government, 1929–1937......Page 463
Xunwu's Traditional Land Relationships......Page 470
Foreign Investments in China by Country, 1902–1936......Page 478
Foreign Investments in Manufacturing in China by Country, 1936......Page 479
Chinese College Students, 1922......Page 480
Chinese Population in the United States, 1890–1940......Page 482
The Nanjing Government's Military and Debt Expenditures, 1928–1937......Page 511
Industrial Production of China Proper and Manchuria, 1926–1936......Page 537
Unemployment in China, 1935......Page 538
Household Expenditures, Shanghai, 1936–1937......Page 539
Industrial Disputes (Strikes), 1935......Page 540
Sample Farm Incomes and Expenses in Michang Village, Hebei Province, 1937......Page 545
Manpower, Chinese Nationalist Armies, 1937–1945......Page 571
Chinese Battle Casualties, 1937–1941......Page 572
Social Composition and Party Affiliation in Yan'an Representative Assemblies, 1941......Page 575
China's Currency, 1937–1942......Page 579
The Disposition of Japan's Army Forces, December 1941......Page 582
The Rural Population in Central China: Sample CCP Classes of Households by Percentage of Population, 1941–1945......Page 592
The Course of Fabi Depreciation, September 1945–February 1947......Page 611
Shanghai Wholesale-Price and Cost-of-Living Indexes, 1947–1948......Page 613
Defeat of the Guomindang Armies......Page 616
Shifts in Guomindang and CCP Troop Strength, 1945–1948......Page 619
Diplomatic Recognition of the PRC, 1949–1950......Page 653
Results of the Five Anti Movement in Shanghai, 1952......Page 667
The First Five-Year Plan, 1953–1957......Page 671
Distribution of Government Budget Expenditures, 1950–1957......Page 673
Distribution of Fixed Capital Invested by the State, 1952–1957......Page 674
Per Capita Annual Consumption, Shanghai, 1929–1930 and 1956......Page 676
Share of Peasant Households in Different Types of Ownership Units, 1950–1959......Page 678
China's Military Budget, 1950–1960......Page 687
CCP Enrollment, 1966–1976......Page 778
Chinese Trade and Complete Plant Purchases......Page 785
Contracts for Whole Plants, by Industry......Page 786
Fields of Study for Projected Chinese Students in the United States, 1978–1979......Page 815
Taiwan's Economic Base, 1953 and 1962......Page 829
Growth Rates: Taiwan, PRC, and Japan, 1952–1972......Page 830
Comparative Purchasing Power in Shanghai and Taipei, Mid-1970s......Page 832
Allocation of Monthly Family Budget in Shanghai and Taipei, Mid-1970s......Page 833
Age Composition of the Two Sexes in China's Population, 1982......Page 844
Percentage of Chinese Who Never Married, by Age Group, 1982......Page 846
Changes in the Area of Cultivated Land in China, 1949–1978......Page 848
China's Urban / Rural Population Balance, 1949–1983......Page 849
"Eighteen Scholars Ascend to the Ying Zhou Isle of Immortality"......Page 69
Brush and cover of lacquered wood, late Ming dynasty......Page 70
Woodblock prints of porcelain production at Jingdezhen, Jiangxi province, late Ming dynasty......Page 71
Woodblock illustration of farmers celebrating a good harvest, late Ming dynasty......Page 72
A Jürchen tribesman, depicted in a woodblock print of the late Ming dynasty......Page 73
An armed Chinese junk, observed near Canton in 1637......Page 74
Father Johann Adam Schall von Bell......Page 75
The Peking Observatory......Page 76
A portrait of the emperor Kangxi at his studies......Page 77
Candidates for scholarly degrees anxiously await their examination results, Ming dynasty......Page 78
Bada Shanren's "Birds and Rock," 1692......Page 79
"Emperor Kangxi's Tour of the South"......Page 80
"Kangxi Southern Inspection Tour" (detail), by Wang Hui and assistants, c. 1695......Page 81
Silk reeling......Page 82
Chinese beggars......Page 83
The emperor Yongzheng reading......Page 84
"Machang Chasing the Enemy," detail of a handscroll by Giuseppe Castiglio......Page 181
"Kazaks Presenting Horses in Tribute" (detail), 1757......Page 182
The Yuan Ming Yuan, the summer palace designed by Jesuits in China for Qianlong, located just outside Peking......Page 183
Qianlong's helmet......Page 184
"The Dream of the Red Chamber"......Page 185
Celebration of Qianlong's birthday, from the Wenyuan edition of the "Four Treasuries"......Page 186
"Chinoiserie"......Page 187
The ritual exchange of gifts duing Lord Macartney's embassy of 1793......Page 188
"The Decline of an Opium Smoker," c. 1860......Page 189
Lin Zexu......Page 190
The "Nemesis"......Page 191
Qiying, Qing commissioner and chief negotiator......Page 192
Qing troops retaking Nanjing from the Taiping rebels, 1864......Page 193
General Charles "Chinese" Gordon......Page 194
Interior of one of the Dagu forts, August 1860......Page 195
Ruins of the Yuan Ming Yuan......Page 196
Zhu Bang, Portrait of an Official in Front of the Forbidden City (c. 1500)......Page 229
Xie Shichen (1487–c. 1561), The Yueyang Tower......Page 230
Xu Wei (1521–1593), Flowers of the Four Seasons......Page 231
Zhang Hong, Various Entertainments (1638)......Page 232
Xiao Yuncong, Reading in Snowy Mountains (1652)......Page 233
Yuan Jiang, The Jiucheng Palace (1691)......Page 234
Wang Hui (1632–1717) and assistants, The Kangxi Emperor's Second Tour of the South (1691–1695)......Page 236
Yu Zhiding (1647–c. 1713), Thatched House at Huangshan......Page 238
Hongren, Snow on Pines at the Western Peak (1661)......Page 239
Mulan I: The Emperor Qianlong, Followed by His Troops, Enters a Town......Page 240
Mulan II: The Camp......Page 241
In My Heart There Is the Power to Reign Peaceably, detail of Emperor Qianlong (1736)......Page 242
Anonymous, Canton Factories (c. 1780)......Page 243
Ren Xiong (1820–1857), Self-Portrait......Page 244
Nanjing arsenal......Page 309
Interior courtyard of a mandarin's house, Peking, c. 1871–1872......Page 310
Li Hongzhang......Page 311
Dr. Mary Stone performing an operation in a missionary hospital, Zhenjiang......Page 312
Sun Yat-sen with radical student friends in Hong Kong, 1887......Page 313
A political appeal to anti-Chinese sentiment in California......Page 314
A member of the Boxers United in Righteousness, 1900......Page 315
Lu Xun in Japan, aged twenty (1904), after removing his queue......Page 316
Workers at the Yangxi engineering factory, Hankou......Page 317
Revolutionary troops, Hankou, 1911......Page 318
Yuan Shikai, pictured here with his bodyguards......Page 319
Sun Yat-sen with officials of his Nanjing government, early 1912......Page 320
An old lady and her attendant, Forbidden City, Peking, 1918......Page 321
Foundlings' Home babies, Peking, 1919......Page 322
Pumping water, An Chu Chang, 1917......Page 323
Rowers on the Yangzi River......Page 324
Hopeful Chinese assembling in Peking to celebrate the armistice ending World War I and press for China's territorial rights, November 1918......Page 485
"La Jeunesse," one of the influential May Fourth period journals, edited by Chen Duxiu......Page 486
Hu Shi......Page 487
Deng Xiaoping, aged sixteen, in France, 1920......Page 488
Zhou Enlai with other students in France, February 1921......Page 489
A poster depicting the fate of Chinese patriotism at the hands of warlords and foreign imperialists in the aftermath of the May Thirtieth incident of 1925......Page 490
Wu Peifu, whose stronghold—Wuhan—fell to Guomindang forces in the Northern Expedition......Page 491
Canton, December 11–13, 1927......Page 492
Chiang Kai-shek, 1935......Page 493
Peasant conscripts being led away by Nationalist forces......Page 494
Japanese troops fighting in the workers' district of Chapei in Shanghai, 1937......Page 495
The grim march across the "Great Snow" Mountains into northern Sichuan, May–June 1935......Page 496
Mao Zedong and Zhu De......Page 497
Three ink drawings by Feng Zikai, the brilliant draftsman whose work gently portrayed China's desperate social and political conditions in the 1930s......Page 498
Examples of the socialist realist woodblock movement that flourished in the mid-1930s......Page 499
"Flying in the Rain" by Gao Jianfu, 1932......Page 500
Chinese militia and peasants destroying railway lines to impede the Japanese in their "mopping-up" campaign, north China, 1941......Page 629
Communist cadres distributing food in their border region of Shaan/Gan/Ning......Page 630
Mao Zedong exhorting peasants to emulate "labor heroes," during a mass campaign in Shaan/Gan/Ning, 1941......Page 631
Shanghai citizens desperately trying to reach a bank to change their depreciating currency, December 1948......Page 632
Woman and child begging in Shanghai......Page 633
Guomindang officers prepare to evacuate Shanghai, 1949......Page 634
Exhausted troops of the People's Liberation Army, rice rations slung over their shoulders, entering Nanjing, 1949......Page 635
Tanks of the People's Liberation Army roll into Nanjing, April 1949......Page 636
Peasant accusing a landlord at a people's court during the land reforms......Page 637
Chen Yun, the CCP's leading economic planner......Page 638
Chinese troops crossing the frozen Yalu River into North Korea, late 1950......Page 639
Zhou Enlai, pictured here making a speech in Yan'an......Page 640
Like tens of thousands of other Chinese intellectuals, the cartoonist Feng Zikai was forced to give a public self-criticism in the early 1950s......Page 641
Deng Xiaoping and Liu Shaoqi, 1958......Page 642
Steel mill, Anshan, Manchuria, 1958......Page 643
Women of the Shiu Shin commune park their guns while they hoe, 1958......Page 644
Student demonstration in Peking, June 1919......Page 709
Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908), Flower and Insect Sketches......Page 710
Seals of the Literatus Feng Kanghou (1901–1984?)......Page 711
Peasant Association membership card (late 1920s)......Page 712
The Guomindang's Northern Expedition (poster, c. 1927)......Page 713
Zeng Xi, Old Pine in Clouds (1922)......Page 714
Qi Baishi, Scholar's Tools (1947)......Page 715
Pan Tianshou, Crane and Frost Plum Together at the Year's End (1961)......Page 716
Pan Tianshou, Plum Blossom by Moonlight (1966)......Page 717
Pan Tianshou, Lotus (c. 1958)......Page 718
Fu Baoshi (1904–1965), Playing Go at the Water Pavilion......Page 719
Guan Shanyue, Oil City in the South (1972)......Page 720
Shi Lu (1919–1982), Ducks and Peach Blossoms......Page 721
Lu Shoukun, Zhuangxi (1974)......Page 722
Huang Yongyu, Lotus at Night (1979)......Page 723
Tiananmen Square (May 17, 1989)......Page 724
A labor camp in the frozen wastes of Heilongjiang province during the Cultural Revolution......Page 789
Lin Biao's PLA celebrating "the great helmsman" on parade in Guizhou province......Page 790
Mao, Lin Biao, and Jiang Qing with cast members at the premier of the revolutionary opera "The Red Lantern," July 1968......Page 791
Student Red Guards and others rallying in Peking against American intervention in Vietnam......Page 792
In their drive against the "four olds"—old customs, habits, culture, and thinking—Red Guards caused vast destruction to buildings, art objects, and temples such as this one, August 1966......Page 793
"Criticizing Lin Biao and Confucius," 1973......Page 794
The Tiananmen incident, April 1976......Page 795
On October 6, 1976, Hua Guofeng and the Peking military commander Wang Dongxing had the Gang of Four arrested. They are depicted here at their trial in 1981......Page 796
Deng Xiaoping, twice purged from power and twice rehabilitated, emerged as China's paramount leader in late 1978......Page 797
Hu Yaobang, also groomed for power by Deng, became secretary-general of the party and a Standing Committee member in 1980......Page 798
"New Life in the Yuan Ming Yuan" by Huang Rui, 1979......Page 799
The trial of Wei Jingsheng, October 1979......Page 800
"Celebrate the First Anniversary of Democracy Wall," November 1979......Page 801
A "little emperor" enjoying the attention of his extended family......Page 802
Fang Lizhi, the astrophysicist and vice-president of Hefei University in Anhui......Page 803
The thirteenth congress of the CCP, meeting in October 1987, named a new Standing Committee of the Politburo. From left: Party Secretary-General Zhao Ziyang, Li Peng (soon elevated to premier), Qiao Shi, Hu Qili, and Yao Yilin, all in Western attire......Page 804
The official memorial service for Hu Yaobang at the Great Hall of the People, April 22, 1989......Page 901
Communist party Secretary-General Zhao Ziyang urging students in Tiananmen Square to end their hunger strike, then in its sixth day, May 19, 1989......Page 902
Spirits still high on May 22, two days after the martial-law declaration......Page 903
The symbol of the demonstrations: the Goddess of Democracy and Freedom, May 30, 1989......Page 904
Morning, May 16, 1989......Page 905
Poster depicting Premier Li Peng as a Nazi officer with a pig's snout, Tiananmen Square, late May 1989......Page 906
The massacre, Peking, June 3–4......Page 907
An unarmed Chinese civilian halts a tank convoy heading for Tiananmen Square, June 5, 1989......Page 908
Preface......Page 23
Acknowledgments......Page 27
The Use of Pinyin......Page 29
I – Conquest And Consolidation......Page 33
The Glory Of The Ming......Page 39
Town And Farm......Page 44
Corruption And Hardship......Page 48
The Ming Collapse......Page 53
The Rise of the Qing......Page 58
Conquering the Ming......Page 64
Adapting to China......Page 86
Class and Resistance......Page 92
The War of the Three Feudatories, 1673–1681......Page 97
Taiwan and Maritime China......Page 101
Wooing the Intellectuals......Page 106
Defining the Borders......Page 112
A Mixed Legacy......Page 117
Qing Power and Taxation in the Countryside......Page 122
The Center and Channels of Power......Page 127
Moral Authority......Page 132
Social Pressures and Population Growth......Page 138
"Like the Sun at Midday"......Page 145
Eighteenth-Century Confucianism......Page 150
The Dream of the Red Chamber......Page 154
Qianlong's Later Years......Page 158
Managing the Foreigners......Page 165
Aliens and Chinese Law......Page 171
Opium......Page 176
Western Images of China......Page 180
II – Fragmentation and Reform......Page 201
The Response Of China's Scholars......Page 207
China's Political Response......Page 211
Britain's military response......Page 216
The New Treaty System......Page 222
Social Dislocation North and South......Page 245
The Taiping......Page 250
Foreign Pressures and Marx's Views......Page 259
The Nian Rebellion......Page 264
Muslim Revolts......Page 269
Confucian Reform......Page 274
Defining Foreign Policy......Page 279
The Missionary Presence......Page 284
Overseas Chinese......Page 290
Self-Strengthening and the Japanese War......Page 296
The Reform Movement of 1898......Page 304
Three Sides Of Nationalism......Page 326
Emerging Forces......Page 334
The Qing Constitution......Page 341
New Railways, New Army......Page 345
Nationalists and Socialists......Page 352
Qing Fall......Page 358
III – Envisioning State and Society......Page 365
Experiment in Democracy......Page 371
The Rule of Yuan Shikai......Page 377
Militarists in China and Chinese in France......Page 384
The Political Thinking of Sun Yat-Sen......Page 390
The Warning Voice of Social Darwinism......Page 396
The Promise of Marxism......Page 401
The Facets of May Fourth......Page 406
The Comintern and the Birth of the CCP......Page 415
The Industrial Sector......Page 421
The Initial Alliance......Page 430
Launching the Northern Expedition......Page 437
Shanghai Spring......Page 444
Wuhan Summer, Canton Winter......Page 450
The Power Base of Chiang Kai-Shek......Page 457
Mao Zedong and the Rural Soviets......Page 466
China and the United States......Page 475
China and Japan......Page 484
China and Germany......Page 508
The Long March......Page 515
The National Mood and Guomindang Ideology......Page 522
Crisis at Xi'an......Page 530
The Chinese Poor......Page 536
IV – War and Revolution......Page 547
The Loss of East China......Page 555
China Divided......Page 562
Chongqing and Yan'an, 1938–1941......Page 568
Chongqing and Yan'an in the Widening War......Page 578
War's End......Page 586
The Japanese Surrender and the Marshall Mission......Page 596
Land Reform and the Manchurian Base......Page 603
The Losing Battle with Inflation......Page 610
Countryside and Town, 1949–1950......Page 626
The Structure of the New Government......Page 647
The Korean War......Page 652
Mass Party, Mass Campaigns......Page 661
The First Five-Year Plan......Page 669
Foreign Policy and the National Minorities......Page 679
Army Reform......Page 685
The Hundred Flowers......Page 691
The Great Leap Forward......Page 702
The Sino-Soviet Rift......Page 727
Political Investigation and "Socialist Education"......Page 734
The Cult of Mao and the Critics......Page 740
Launching the Cultural Revolution......Page 746
Party Retrenchment and the Death of Lin Biao......Page 753
V – Living in the World......Page 763
The United States and the Nixon Visit......Page 771
Attacking Confucius and Lin Biao......Page 777
Defining the Economy, 1974–1975......Page 783
1976: The Old Guard Dies......Page 805
The Four Modernizations......Page 813
The Fifth Modernization......Page 819
Taiwan and the Special Economic Zones......Page 827
"Truth from Facts"......Page 835
One Billion People......Page 843
Governing China in the 1980s......Page 850
The Problems of Prosperity, 1983–1984......Page 856
Rebuilding the Law......Page 864
Emerging Tensions In 1985......Page 872
Democracy's Chorus......Page 879
Broadening the Base......Page 887
Social Strains......Page 893
The Breaking Point......Page 898
2 The Manchu Conquest......Page 917
5 Chinese Society and the Reign of Qianlong......Page 918
7 The First Clash with the West......Page 919
8 The Crisis Within......Page 920
9 Restoration through Reform......Page 921
12 The New Republic......Page 922
13 "A Road is Made"......Page 923
14 The Clash......Page 924
15 Experiments in Government......Page 925
16 The Drift to War......Page 926
17 World War II......Page 927
19 The Birth of the People's Republic......Page 928
20 Planning the New Society......Page 929
21 Deepening the Revolution......Page 930
23 Redefining Revolution......Page 932
24 Levels of Power......Page 933
25 Testing the Limits......Page 934
Permissions......Page 935
The Manchu Conquest and Consolidation......Page 937
Rural China......Page 938
The Emperor's World......Page 939
Sects and Secret Societies......Page 940
The Missionary Impact......Page 941
Economic Developments......Page 942
Intellectual Shifts......Page 943
Founding the CCP......Page 944
The United Front and the Northern Expedition......Page 945
The United States and China......Page 946
Maintaining Confucian Values......Page 947
The Military History of the War in China......Page 948
The Guomindang in the Civil War......Page 949
Analyses of PRC Structure......Page 950
The Hundred Flowers......Page 951
The Cultural Revolution: Analyses and Documents......Page 952
Rural Life......Page 953
Taiwan......Page 954
Life and Health......Page 955
The Peking Demonstrations and Massacre......Page 956
B......Page 957
C......Page 958
D......Page 959
F......Page 961
G......Page 962
H......Page 963
J......Page 965
L......Page 966
M......Page 968
N......Page 969
P......Page 970
R......Page 971
S......Page 972
T......Page 973
W......Page 975
Y......Page 976
Z......Page 977
Illustrations between pages 164 and 165......Page 981
Illustrations between pages 580 and 581......Page 983
For black-and-white illustrations between pages 36 and 37......Page 985
For black-and-white illustrations between pages 228 and 229......Page 986
For black-and-white illustrations between pages 388 and 389......Page 987
For black-and-white illustrations between pages 740 and 741......Page 988
For color illustrations between pages 580 and 581......Page 989
About the Calligrapher......Page 991
A......Page 993
B......Page 995
C......Page 997
D......Page 1003
E......Page 1005
F......Page 1006
G......Page 1008
H......Page 1011
I......Page 1013
J......Page 1014
L......Page 1016
M......Page 1019
N......Page 1023
P......Page 1025
R......Page 1029
S......Page 1031
T......Page 1036
U......Page 1038
W......Page 1039
X......Page 1041
Y......Page 1042
Z......Page 1043