The School and the Teacher Facing the Challenges of the Present and the Future [1 ed.] 9783737016223, 9783847116226

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Open Access Publication (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) © 2023 V&R unipress | Brill Deutschland GmbH ISBN Print: 9783847116226 – ISBN E-Lib: 9783737016223

Open Access Publication (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) © 2023 V&R unipress | Brill Deutschland GmbH ISBN Print: 9783847116226 – ISBN E-Lib: 9783737016223

Jolanta Szempruch / Mirosław Szyman´ski / Beata Cies´len´ska / Katarzyna Potyrała

The School and the Teacher Facing the Challenges of the Present and the Future

With one figure

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Open Access Publication (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) © 2023 V&R unipress | Brill Deutschland GmbH ISBN Print: 9783847116226 – ISBN E-Lib: 9783737016223

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available online: https://dnb.de. Reviewer: Prof Beata Pituła Ph.D. hab. (Silesian University of Technology) © 2023 by Brill | V&R unipress, Robert-Bosch-Breite 10, 37079 Göttingen, Germany, an imprint of the Brill-Group (Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands; Brill USA Inc., Boston MA, USA; Brill Asia Pte Ltd, Singapore; Brill Deutschland GmbH, Paderborn, Germany; Brill Österreich GmbH, Vienna, Austria) Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Hotei, Brill Schöningh, Brill Fink, Brill mentis, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Böhlau, V&R unipress and Wageningen Academic. Unless otherwise stated, this publication is licensed under the Creative Commons License Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives 4.0 (see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by-nc-nd/4.0/) and can be accessed under DOI 10.14220/9783737016223. Any use in cases other than those permitted by this license requires the prior written permission from the publisher. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Verlage | www.vandenhoeck-ruprecht-verlage.com ISBN 978-3-7370-1622-3

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Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7

Chapter One: The specific social changes of the early 21st century and the tasks of education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter Two: The teacher in the school of the 21st century . . . . . . . .

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Chapter Three: Responsibility – reflections on the profession of the contemporary and future teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter Four: The subjectivity of the teacher and the student . . . . . .

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Chapter Five: The functions and tasks of the teacher in a changing world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter Six: Identity as a task in times of rapid social change . . . . . .

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Chapter Seven: Teacher burnout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter Eight: Teacher support in times of educational changes . . . . .

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Chapter Nine: The teacher as an innovator in a changing school . . . . .

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Chapter Ten: The future of education – the school of the future . . . . .

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And finally… . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

139

Open Access Publication (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) © 2023 V&R unipress | Brill Deutschland GmbH ISBN Print: 9783847116226 – ISBN E-Lib: 9783737016223

Open Access Publication (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) © 2023 V&R unipress | Brill Deutschland GmbH ISBN Print: 9783847116226 – ISBN E-Lib: 9783737016223

Introduction

Both the school and its teachers are constantly faced with the dual challenges of the present and the future. The education process is inextricably linked to the context of socio-cultural needs, and the concept of the profession and the professional role of the teacher is subject to definitional changes. The teaching profession has become a profession that encompasses creativity and creation, which in relation to openness to social change is associated with the shaping of a new quality in the responsible teacher, identical with the tasks to be performed. The school, on the other hand, is an institution that should look towards the future, subjecting itself to constant change: it should educate and raise students for the needs of the future, not the present. Therefore, education for the future requires the reshaping of the profile of the teacher, whose approach will be commensurate with the needs of the student and their eventual autonomous participation in global social life. The current set of changes that are taking place in the world of education are stimulated by scientific and technical progress. This process requires the evolution of values that possess both a timeless and a universal dimension, and it follows that there must be institutions that adopt these values. Each and every civilizational task of any importance should be fulfilled by a representative of a school institution through their active participation in social life – this will be, therefore, a teacher able to modify the didactic and educational process in relation to changes in education, obtaining effects created by the dynamics of globalization. Education as a function of social life should respect the needs of a developing society and accept the interaction of education with the immediate environment. Though the course of change is dynamic, it is important to be aware of the value of education itself. Education enables movement between successive levels of civilization development and towards higher levels of functioning in the information society. Through the teacher, society can develop – its members can shape themselves and through education can set a higher standard for living in

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Introduction

both social and economic terms, leading to the increased egalitarianization of life in society. The changing reality requires the appropriate preparation of the teacher to act as a guide in modern educational contexts. They should also become a mentor and advisor who supports the individuality of the individual throughout the twin processes of education and upbringing, while simultaneously taking responsibility for their management of the process. This process determines the level of ethical behavior of the teacher, this being the result of managing one’s own actions in relation to one’s students and is the result of the moral maturity of the educator in a time of landmark changes. The complex issues of how the school and the teacher function are reflected in the individual chapters of this book. The first chapter analyzes the social changes that the society of the 21st century is subject to, in terms of both modernization and globalization, along with changes in the worlds of education, politics, and medicine This list can be extended further by considering unresolved dichotomies such as the division between rich and poor. Attention is paid to social norms and values in the process of dynamic change. The considerations presented, however, do not exhaust the full spectrum of the cultural and social changes that characterize modern times, but indicate the main trends and tasks of global education. The second chapter of the book considers the figure of the 21st century teacher, with reference to the historical outline of the school institution and the teaching profession. It also considers the contemporary functioning of the school and the teacher and the attempt to improve the staffing situation in the education system. A position on the changes that must be made in education in the face of the new realities and challenges are also presented. The issue of the responsibilities of the teacher are discussed in the third chapter of the book, which points to the essence of responsibility in the teaching profession and the social space, emphasizing its values in pedagogical activity and the need for responsibility in the new reality of both the student and the teacher. The fourth chapter considers the subject of teacher subjectivity, an important issue given how subjectivity has become so central both to conceptions of modern man and education. The factors of student empowerment and the subjective role of the teacher in pedagogical relationships are explored. The importance of shaping the sense of subjectivity and striving to create an atmosphere of community within the school is emphasized as an important factor in the improvement of the school. The fifth chapter shows the functions and tasks of the teacher in the changing world. Such considerations also refer to the school, which should transition from being an institution where the schematic transfer of knowledge takes place,

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Introduction

towards becoming a space devoted to the creative search and independent construction of that knowledge. The sixth chapter deals with the subject of identity, questions around which are inevitable in any time marked by rapid change. Consideration is given to the question of “Who am I?” and how one’s “I” can be constructed. The reasons for the intensification of social change, one of which is globalization, are determined, and the significance of such change are explored. The subjects of the liberation of individualism as well as tensions and identity crises are discussed, with attention being drawn to the importance of the functioning of an individual in opposing dimensions of reality. Finally, the psychological and bodily dimensions of identity are analysed. Chapter seven considers the teacher in the face of professional burnout in a conceptual context. It establishes the causes and symptoms of burnout, as well as the importance of the condition of teachers in the modern period of social challenge. The eighth chapter deals with the subject of supporting educators through educational change. It establishes the importance of having a support network and of building interpersonal relationships, and suggests the kinds of support that a teacher can count on today. Support in the face of contemporary socioprofessional challenges is analyzed. In the ninth chapter of the book, the teacher is shown to be an innovator in the changing school. The key factors for the development of students in the new paradigm of education are defined, and the complex educational tasks of the teacher-innovator are explored. Innovation as an attribute of modern society and the school is considered through a legal lens. Attention is paid to the professionalism of the teacher. In the tenth chapter of the book, an attempt is made to define the future of education – the school of the future. The new face of reality and educational challenges in the period of rapid social change that occurs in every society are analyzed. Attention is drawn to the range of competences that a 21st century school should provide its students with, i. e. creativity, communication, a critical approach, cooperation, responsibility, individualism, flexibility of action, and the ability to make use of new technologies. The final chapter offers a commentary on the present and future school and teacher. This book, which is a reflection on the school institution and the person of the teacher, has been created to highlight the essence of the pedagogical dimension of education, socio-cultural changes, and pedagogical innovations.

Open Access Publication (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) © 2023 V&R unipress | Brill Deutschland GmbH ISBN Print: 9783847116226 – ISBN E-Lib: 9783737016223

Open Access Publication (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) © 2023 V&R unipress | Brill Deutschland GmbH ISBN Print: 9783847116226 – ISBN E-Lib: 9783737016223

Chapter One: The specific social changes of the early 21st century and the tasks of education Humanity is entering a period of extreme dilemmas […], we are witnessing the emergence of “global issues” – an immense tangle of global problems that surprise us with their complexity. Report of the Club of Rome “Learning without borders”

We live in a world of growing confusion and uncertainty. The changes taking place around us are accelerating, and globalization is occurring on an unprecedented scale. The interpretation of the concept of “social change” evokes the perception of a large set of inevitable processes that condition the transition of society to its next level of development, during which new forms of social life are born, better suited to changing conditions, needs, and expectations. Certain changes imply development and progress, entailing transformations of the existing social structure and determining the directions and trends of changes (Radziewicz-Winnicki 2007, p. 518). The changes that lead to new states of society, that tend towards something more perfect and that bring it closer to an ideal state, are called progress. Progress assumes both directionality of the process and optimism about the process. From the Age of Enlightenment to the present age, the idea of progress has taken concrete shape through increasing successes in the fields of scientific, economic, and technical development. These successes are expressed through the increasing number of inventions, increasing prosperity, and the improvement of living conditions. In our times, this idea seems to have been shaken by the crisis of modern civilization, with the result being the proposition of perceiving development and progress not only through technical and economic indicators, but through consideration of the human and social context. This humanist trend includes the activist concept of progress, also known as the subjective concept, in which progress is defined as the ability of society to transform creatively, cross its own borders, and encompass self-improvement (Szempruch 2012, pp. 11–12). In the rapidly changing society of today’s world, there are diverse and multifarious ways by which changes might be introduced – but few if any offer unambiguous outcomes. The individual is forced, therefore, to make a constant stream of choices without the benefit of certainty as to their truth or rightness; the individual must plan, implement, and evaluate life projects, while also making decisions about their possible abandonment. The proof of progress is no longer continuity, and the former long-term character of progress has given way to the

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The specific social changes of the early 21st century and the tasks of education

requirements of successive, separate episodes, with life strategies and plans taking on a short-term nature.

Features of modern societies The current shape of societies is conditioned by the processes of modernization and globalization. Different authors present different diagnoses of society, highlighting for instance the role of the individual and of education in social development. At the end of the twentieth century, Krishan Kumar (1995) presented the most important features of modernity, building on themes emphasized by August Comte, Max Weber, Talcott Parsons, and contemporary sociologists. In his opinion, modernity as a category of social life is characterized by five fundamental principles: 1. The principle of individualism, according to which the individual is freed from imposed group ties, is endowed with inalienable rights as a citizen, a member of society, and a person, and decides about themself and bears responsibility for their own life; 2. The principle of differentiation, of diversity and multiplicity of options in all areas of life, especially in the spheres of work, consumption, educational offers, multiplicity of ideological programs, scientific and non-scientific concepts, life patterns, and so forth. This complements the principle of individualism and the two together ensures human freedom in life opportunities and autonomy, but with the need to make decisions and choices and to bear full responsibility for them; 3. The principle of rationality, concerning primarily the functioning of organizations and institutions and their compliance with legal rules and procedures. In the conscious area of social life, this means privileging science as a reliable form of cognition and the mental foundation of action; 4. The principle of economism, indicating the dominant types of activity that permeates social life – production and consumption. The value of a person is often measured by the amount of wealth and money they accumulate; 5. The principle of expansiveness, leading to the expansion of the modern formula of life within the process of globalization, and leading to the expansion of modernity inward, as a consequence of which changes are made to areas including customs, models of morality, mass culture, and forms of family life, along with shaping forms of entertainment and recreation as well as education. Such has been the development of the modern age that the most expressive forms and newest features have been conceptualised together as the so-called late

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Features of modern societies

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modernity, promoted by Anthony Giddens, Scott Lash, and Ulrich Beck (1994, 2002), and which has been transforming since the end of the 20th century into the postmodern era (Bauman 1989) with dynamic changes in all dimensions of human functioning, giving rise to new challenges not least within the world of education. The changing economic dimension is related to the unprecedented pace of growth – and sudden collapse – of economic systems, to urbanization, to the transition from agricultural to industrial production, to the use of new energy sources, to the growth in the importance of technology in almost every area of life, to the opening of hired labor markets, and to the key role of “business leaders” in production management. Transformations can likewise be observed in the field of social stratification, which concerns differences in access to socially valued goals, education, wealth and power, prestige, and health (Sztompka 2009, p. 337). The main determinants of social position are ownership and position on the labor market. Social stratification is deepening: the group of marginalized and excluded people is growing, and the middle class is growing too through its inclusion of those employed outside production, i. e. in trade, administration, education, science, and services. In culture, there is an intensification of the pursuit for a rational explanation of the world, democratization of education, an increase in the role of science, and mass culture. Culture is revealed both as the content and as the effect of education. It can be said that education is a vector of culture, as it awakens a need for knowledge and a sense of beauty in a person, developing creative potential and making people sensitive to values while simultaneously developing critical thinking (Wojnar, Piejka and Samoraj 2008, p. 130). The emerging global culture is detached from the broader context because its source is the global telecommunication system. In global culture, personal identity changes, because this culture is created from many existing folkloric and national identities. As a leading educational value, it allows the formulation of one’s own programs of action and self-realization. The problem of integrating the local-regional culture with the global-universal is growing increasingly important. Meyer (2000) cites social theories that, on the one hand, take for granted the core of contemporary culture, i. e. modernity, in which “actors” – individuals and organizations, and even states – are indigenous and natural entities and are no longer really embedded in culture, and, on the other hand, metatheories about “actors” and their cultural “agency” that were, admittedly, somewhat abstract at the time. Meyer’s considerations, however, have led to the conclusion that the contemporary “actor” is a kind of historical and continuous cultural construction. More recent discourse on the subject sees actors’ identities as constructed in a broader, now global, cultural context (Meyer, 2010). Meyer contrasts

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The specific social changes of the early 21st century and the tasks of education

this with earlier theories and ideologies that imagined societies as built of multigenerational families or communities, e. g. ethnic or ecological (Ibidem). Hindess (2014) discusses the concept of “actor”, arguing that although the term is often misused, there are indeed a variety of such actors, some of whom play a major role in the modern world, and that social life is irreducible to the constitutive action of “actors”. Decisions and actions in particular places will always depend on “social” conditions, but these conditions will be of various kinds, and there is no underlying “social” unity to which they all apply.The explosion of the formalized organization, according to Meyer (2019), has resulted in empowered organizations filled with empowered “actors” emerging and developing in every social sector and society. Extended cultural rules lead many actors to play the role of “others”, helping individual and organizational actors to fulfil their expanded roles. In the sphere of politics, the growing role can be observed of the state and the law in regulating the lives of citizens, with that management taking place through an impersonal bureaucratic organization reluctant to submit to social control, including that performed by the media. Another feature of modern society is the emergence of a new form of trust, necessary for a sense of security and normal existence – trust in depersonalized complexes of devices and organizational forms such as mass media, communication and telecommunications systems, financial markets, energy networks, transnational corporations, armed forces, and international organizations, to name but a few. In addition to these phenomena, the modern world is characterized by opacity, fluidity, and uncertainty of the social situations in which we operate. These are conditioned by systemic design errors, operator error of complex devices, the unpredictability of the effects of any action, and the diversification of values and interests between individuals and social groups. A disturbance of the sense of ontological security raises existential fears and behavioral disorganization. This may result in states of depressed mood, and in the long term, it may lead to exogenously-generated depression. These mechanisms are subject to individual modifications, but they apply to humans as a species in general (Mamzer, 2020). The emergence of new forms of risk can also be observed, especially in contact with man-made civilization and the technical environment, e. g. the COVID-19 coronavirus pandemic, the AIDS epidemic, nuclear catastrophe such as in the case of Chernobyl or Fukushima, the greenhouse effect, and the risks associated with air and road traffic. There is a global expansion of risk that exists simultaneously with the universalization and intensification of that risk. The perception and awareness of risk threats in the subjective dimension is increasing thanks to education that focuses on previously ignored problems and challenges. One of the main challenges of the 21st century is the ability of responsible risk

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Features of modern societies

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management in society by state governments (Szempruch and Potyrała 2022). In a globalized world, such activities should be carried out at the international level using the best available sources of scientific knowledge. Progressive globalization plays a key role in the perception of the modern world. Globality is a common experience with many consequences in social, cultural, and economic processes, all of which now cross national and continental borders. Perceived in various ways, it is today associated with numerous phenomena. Its many expressions are found, for instance, in: (1) the global interconnectedness of telecommunications technology, yielding such phenomena as the Internet; (2) the interlinking of the world through an extensive network of cultural, economic, political, financial, and strategic relationships; (3) the emergence of new forms of economic, cultural, and political organizations and social movements of a supranational nature; and (4) the formation of social categories whose life and work are detached from a specific place, e. g. diplomats, businessmen, athletes, and artists who constantly change their place of residence. As a result, the world has tended towards uniformity, and culture towards homogenization, with the result being the global village where almost everyone receives the same information, participates in the same events, and uses the same consumer products (Szempruch 2012; Szempruch and Potyrała 2022). Globalization is a natural process, but states, large enterprises, and transport corporations have actively contributed to this process. According to Giddens (1999, pp. 35–123), globalization is a complex set of processes driven by a variety of political and economic influences. It has changed everyday life, creating new, supranational forces and systems, and it has a direct reference to the emergence of a new individualism and changes to the nature of the sovereignty of states. The processes of globalization in the economic and cultural plane have also caused indigenous institutions, along with state and primary groups, to slip out of control and manifest themselves as impersonal, dispersed phenomena, often becoming a cause of the helplessness suffered by many. In the modern world, increasing globalization is often accompanied by the process of rebirth and the formation of islands of diversity and identity. Easy access to the whole world also gives a new meaning to having a home to which people can return, and to the idea of the local community. On the global market, the process of the disintegration of the mediating institutions that create social ties, such as the nation and the workplace, is taking place. At the same time, a specific awareness of managing the Earth has been born (Wojnar 2003, p. 28). Globalization as a civilizational and cultural process creates a new context for people’s lives and activities, as well as for science.

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The specific social changes of the early 21st century and the tasks of education

Traumatogenic factors of change The changes taking place in the world have now increased their traumatizing potential. The many unfavorable changes that threaten the individual were delineated in studies at the end of the last century, including in the reports of UNESCO (Delors (ed.) 1998, p. 50) and the Club of Rome (Botkin, Elmandjra, and Malitza 1982). These threats include: – the increasing complexity of the world and life, necessitating new tools to manage that complexity; global interdependence where knowledge integration is necessary; – an increase in the scale of wars and exterminations; – the arms race combined with the increased militarization of the world, the possibility of a global nuclear war, and totalitarianism; – the crisis of the nation state; – increase in crime and acts of violence; – the demographic explosion and mass population movements; – the processes of exclusion and marginalization; – the processes of de-anchoring, i. e. the disintegration of ties in existing communities, which include, among others, national identity, the family, and school; – the diminishment of cultural certainty; – the widening gap between poor and rich countries and the diversity of people within the country; – the pollution of the environment as a result of irresponsible management, and the degradation of the biosphere; – chaotic, uncontrolled urbanization; – the increase in consumerism; – the devaluation and relativization of values; – the crisis of the world economy, manifested through waves of recession, inflation, and mass unemployment, – terrorism, and the elimination of political opponents, – requirements of the information society related to the necessary level of training and competence together with world view. This list can be extended further through the consideration of unresolved dichotomies such as the division of societies into rich and poor, with an increasing group living in absolute poverty, and the division of people into those with access to knowledge and information and those without. There is an imbalance in the distribution of rights and duties, privileges and responsibilities, an ambiguity in the relationship between economic development and the quality of life, an imbalance between discipline and arbitrariness, and between spiritual and material

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Traumatogenic factors of change

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needs. Trauma-generating factors also include unequal distribution of social justice, and discrimination against religious and ethnic minorities and the elderly. It is also becoming more and more difficult to pursue a dialogue between civilizations. Positive changes also have a traumatic effect, including: – the IT and telecommunications revolution, – the widespread availability of formerly elite goods, – the increase in prosperity, – the liberalization of customs, – the democratization of politics, – gender equality, – the subjectivity and dignity of people. The scientific revolution has taken us from an era of certainty and dogmatism to a reality of uncertainty and doubt. As a consequence, we are witnessing the breaking of social bonds, increasing exclusion, the disappearance of such values as trust, loyalty, and the certainty of employment contracts, and the fragmentation of world markets, to speak of but a few (Mayor 2001, pp. 12–13). Throughout, the individual experiences trauma, expressed in the intensification of fears and an atmosphere of uncertainty. The process of loneliness progresses, bringing, which has a negative impact on the development of an individual’s identity, life prospects, and orientation in values. In the present time, in the face of new paradigms of complexity, irreversibility, globalization, and uncertainty, the freedom and creative ability of the individual return to the foreground. Critical characteristics of contemporary society are presented by the likes of George Ritzer (1997), Neil Postman (2002), and Aldous Huxley (2008), showing the degradation of the humanistic dimensions of social life in its various spheres, e. g. the methods of managing and running companies, in education, culture, trade, health care, etc. (Ritzer), as well as the threat of the collapse of culture and the cognitive abilities of people who prefer a hedonistic lifestyle over the manysided possibilities of their own development (Postman) and the danger of functioning in a world that promotes “ideal” workers, adapted to the minimum requirements of mechanical reproductive work, satisfied with their work, living in their own “tailor-made” worlds (Huxley). Sztompka (2009, pp. 567–570) also critically analyzes modernity, pointing to the alienation of man, the loss of community, the confinement of society in an “iron cage”, social anomie, the division of the world into areas of wealth and poverty, and the transformation and industrialization of war. A significant area of criticism are social norms and values, which in a modern society in the process of dynamic changes are unstable or eroding, leading to normative chaos, i. e. anomie, moral relativism, and the blurring of the categories

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The specific social changes of the early 21st century and the tasks of education

of good and bad. A special form of anomie is found in the gap between values and the norms that are supposed to serve their implementation. Contact and relationships with other people are subordinated to self-interested calculation, and others become objects of manipulation. A departure from customs and authorities based on patterns of tradition is readily observed. The individual has become precisely that, independent but lonely in their choices. Individualism is subject to dissonant assessments and analyses. This issue is analyzed by Ferdinand Toennies and David Riesman, among others. In modern society, the long-term perspective disappears; life goes on and is limited to the present. The unpredictability and rapid pace of change make it difficult to plan for the long-term and to anticipate the long-term effects of decisions, actions, and choices. There are deepening and novel types of social inequalities and inequalities that create tensions and widen the differences between developed and developing countries. A novel and unfavorable phenomenon observed in society is the process of mass warfare and terrorism. Currently, Europe is experiencing the greatest humanitarian crisis since the end of World War II. Millions of refugees and immigrants seek asylum and security, fleeing from war, persecution, torture, and hunger. Contact with different cultures has become an everyday reality, with the cultural diversity of the world increasing. The number of foreign students in Polish schools increases every year, and although their number is not easy to estimate, according to a report of the Supreme Audit Office (NIK) it increased by a factor of five in 2009–2019. The largest group are students of Ukrainian origin (in 2021, they accounted for 63.73% of foreign students). Due to the war in Ukraine, the number of refugees from this country is constantly growing and it is the largest group of refugees in Poland. In the context of such phenomena, the universal value, idea, and goal of education is to create a culture of peace, combined with attitudes of tolerance, respect for other people, and respect for dignity. A diverse world creates alternative perspectives of reality, and thus alternative identities. Diversity can lead to antagonism, as well as to the integration of a group in favour of its own members and to the exclusion of others. Therefore, intercultural education is important, pointing to the need to consciously face problems and difficulties in perceiving and understanding otherness. This leads to the formation of intercultural competences and to experiencing and treating otherness as a precondition for one’s own development. This is associated with the principle of tolerance and the conscious recognition of the experienced Otherness without giving up one’s own opinions and judgments. The challenge faced by education is shaping this attitude, because it guarantees respect for other people’s beliefs, likes and dislikes, while also helping the educated to refrain from actions prohibiting the acceptance of values other than one’s own. Therefore, a

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Educational tasks

special task of education is to support the process of the creation of the individual’s socio-cultural identity, shaping an affirmative attitude towards one’s own culture without depreciating other cultures. Hence, the perspective of interculturality and the paradigm of dialogue, negotiation, and coexistence become a requirement of modern education. The considerations presented do not exhaust the full spectrum of the cultural and social changes characterizing modern times, but they do indicate the main trends, which include (Szempruch 2012, p. 39): – the fast pace of change, progress in the field of technology, information, communication determining the rapid growth of information and its easy access; – multi-directional changes covering almost all areas of social, cultural, political, and economic life; – ambiguity, opacity, chaos prevailing in social reality, the lack of concrete criteria for assessment, strategy of action, making changes, axiological relativism, and cultural pluralism; – the globalization of culture, politics, and economics, as well as capitalist acceleration and consumerism that determine lifestyles and generate the needs of individuals; – new types of inequality and social differentiation; – life in the media reality, in a situation where the media create the world, and their absence often means cultural and social non-existence; – attributing a deeper value than before to global education based on a universal, holistic, multicultural, and empowering approach. In this context, new challenges and tasks appear, as well as new opportunities for the school and parallel education. New threats likewise emerge, especially in the life and education of the younger generations. The need for sustainable development that aims at meeting the developmental aspirations of the current generation while simultaneously enabling the implementation of the same aspirations for succeeding generations is becoming more and more acute, along with the desire to combat poverty, to strive for gender equality, to respect human rights and care for the preservation, to provide education and health for all, and to see an increase in intercultural dialogue.

Educational tasks The need to prepare society for global changes and an unknown future poses special tasks for education. Education, which should be understood as building a world that is a harmony of spiritual and material space, should protect the

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The specific social changes of the early 21st century and the tasks of education

individual from misguided anti-values and threats to the foundations of human existence. Its development is an indicator of the achievement of a higher level of social, cultural, and economic development. Education is an investment in the future, one of the essential means of achieving the desired quality of life, as well as the appropriate functioning of all important areas of public life. The tasks of education are global. It should prepare people: – to be open to everything new, to adopt a creative attitude, to gain the ability to understand and ask questions, to engage in lifelong learning, to make choices, to be ready to solve global, local and personal problems, and to develop a sense of responsibility; – to defend peace by stimulating mutual understanding between different nations, environments and religions, to develop tolerance and the ability to function as a citizen of the world and of one’s own country; – to engage in dialogue between the cultures of the world by teaching understanding and tolerance, to highlight permanent and universal values embodied in various philosophical, religious, and artistic expressions, to promote understanding for unique cultural and ethnic heritages, to develop skills and knowledge in the field of cooperation with different cultures; – to build critical awareness, through which the true nature of reality can be verified, as well as in the perspective of values such as: ecological balance, individual development, equality and social justice, autonomy, solidarity, participation, and meeting higher-level personal and socio-economic needs; – to think alternatively and in line with the humanistic vision of development and progress, understood as creating possibilities for something more rational, more valuable, and effective than the current reality allows, and to encourage realistic but optimistic thoughts for the future; – with a responsible attitude towards nature and the natural environment, shaping health-promoting habits, making efforts for equal life chances for children, young people, and adults; – to build close links between the school and the world of work – shaping the ability to cope in the labor market, to help in changing profession, and combining the three mechanisms of work distribution: the free global market, competences, and people’s needs (cf. Suchodolski 2003, pp. 81–94 , Szempruch 2012, p. 154). Changes in today’s world determine the reform of education at the level of the school and the university. These two institutions are the principle venues for educational change and for preparing the individual to face an uncertain future. These changes have a significant impact on the functioning of teachers and outline the main directions of development and the tasks for education.

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Educational tasks

The complicated task of education is to educate societies to deal with changes, humanistic development, democracy, freedom, peace, and civilization. Basing education on universal values and the European ideal of upbringing is one of the conditions for preparing people to meet the challenges of the present day. The ongoing clash of new and old values and ways of life requires very balanced educational decisions, implemented in the process of intercultural dialogue which should support individuals and social groups in creating a dialectical process of acquiring identity. Dialogue as the basic principle of social life, next to compromise and pluralism, is a kind of protection of the humanistic dimension of education. Interdisciplinary knowledge about the world and the individual acquired through school, university, and parallel education should be the basis for the creation of the outlook and models of the humanized school of the future and for lifelong education, as well as educational and life plans for young people and adults. The implementation of these tasks for education requires effective international cooperation and social responsibility as well as appropriately-prepared teachers who will take into account changes in the Polish, European, and global social, cultural, and economic reality in preparing the younger generations for life in a changing world, full of new challenges and tasks, for understanding the changes still to come, and for functioning in the present and future realities in a responsible and considered way.

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Chapter Two: The teacher in the school of the 21st century

There is no doubt that the teaching profession is a socially important profession, and at the same time it is clearly not an easy one. Its social significance made itself felt from the very moment of its creation, when simply growing up was insufficient preparation for work and participation in social life, when the ability of the parents to pass on the necessary skills and knowledge proved unsatisfactory, and it became necessary to find someone to help with the process. Among the poor, education was related to preparation for a profession, often by means of apprenticeship; for the richer it was related to participation in cultural and social life, performing roles related to exercising power and undertaking public duties.

A glimpse of the past Formal education was unnecessary in the agrarian society that has dominated civilization since the decline of the hunter-gatherer. For as long as agriculture was dominated by physical, manual labor using only modest technological equipment, young people gained the skills they needed through direct participation in work in the field. Education was only required for those entering the skilled professions; for the clergy, education could be sought in monastic schools or those attached to cathedrals; for craftsmen there were guild schools where the young could hone their skills under the tutelage of masters. Elsewhere, knowledge and skills were generally handed down from generation to generation through practice and participation – in other words, participatory education. The need for education emerged with the emergence of increasing numbers of non-agricultural occupations. There was an explosion in alternative professions in the period of the Industrial Revolution, since industrial production required the acquisition of knowledge and skills in areas that family members and other acquaintances were not familiar with and in no way related to their life experiences. Such knowledge had to be acquired in schools, and school education could increasingly be described as preparatory education. Industry thus became the

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The teacher in the school of the 21st century

driving force behind the spread of education. While family education – apart from pragmatic functions related to preparation for work – was of a holistic nature and served the upbringing of a person, school education, especially in vocational schools, was from the beginning focused on preparing the employee. That is why, after Poland regained its independence in 1918, many politicians and educational activists sought to ensure that schools located in the city and in the countryside had different curricula, recognizing the existence of different living and working conditions in the countryside. These concepts were, however, rejected in the name of democratic principles and the desire to eliminate manifestations of social segregation. Despite this, Polish education still had a selective function, significantly contributing to the consolidation of social reproduction (Falski, 1937). In a traditional school, the social position of teachers varied depending on the type of school in which they worked. In elementary schools, the teachers usually came from the common people, had a rather modest education themselves, and in financial terms they did not differ from the low status of the parents whose children they taught. Those who worked in secondary schools and universities generally had better wages and working conditions, and enjoyed higher prestige. Both kinds of teacher, with greater or lesser success, adopted the traditional way of teaching, based on the domination of the students by the teacher through the maintenance of strict discipline; the verbal transfer of knowledge, preferring mastery by heart; and frequent checking and evaluation of material. There was a great distance between teachers and students. Those who studied at school had limited rights and were not treated subjectively. It was only through the progressive pedagogical innovations of John Dewey, Maria Montessori, Janusz Korczak, and other likeminded educators, along with the entire experimental movement of American progressivism and new education in Europe, that the nature of the school and school pedagogy changed to such an extent that it is possible to talk of the school of the 20th century as being substantially different to what came before.

The school, and the teacher in a modern school Although the critics of this school still believed that the school that existed at the end of the last century was still strongly bound by tradition, its positive features could be noticed. Among them are primarily the democratization of the school as an educational institution, the significant increase in the level of teacher education, the diversification of the methods of acquiring knowledge and skills, the significant improvement in the technological base of teaching and educational work, the activation of students, and the improved connections between the work

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of the school and its environment. However, even in relation to the contemporary needs of society and the economy, as well as the growing educational aspirations of students and their parents, today’s school still has many shortcomings. In these new, complex conditions, the school is unable to cope with growing social and economic expectations. It is still an institution strongly rooted in tradition. Therefore, it does not meet the standards of an increasingly democratic society and does not respond sufficiently to the needs of the labor market. In this situation, more and more often in Poland and in the world there is talk of a schooling crisis. These are no longer just individual attacks on the institution, like those presented by Ivan Ilich, Everett W. Reimer, and other scientists and activists who called for the “detraining” of society. In a book recently published by us, Peter McLaren states: “There is no question: we have found ourselves in a knowledge-based society and we have been forced to serve the knowledge-based economy. The free flow of information has been appropriated by illiberal capitalism striving for the informational restructuring of capital. We are dealing with a growing concentration of corporate power, which, of course, is largely related to the growing role of the Internet and IT” (McLaren, 2015, p. 27).

McLaren adds: “Public education is dying, but this fact is not acknowledged. Its proud luminaries fail to see that capitalism is to blame. We can still save public schooling, but to do so, we must realize what we are dealing with. […] Public education is being dragged into the cesspit of financialization and liberal capitalism. […] Competences, i. e. requirements for students related to the needs of the labor market, must be defined in such a way that they can be measured. […] Standardized tests are widespread all over the world. The humanity of students is confined within the narrow framework of a specific analytical structure that combines instrumentalism, positivism, and one-dimensional objectivity. This heteronomous dogma boils down to one thing: increasing control over nature and over ourselves. It produces a reified consciousness in which all the traumas of our youth are hidden behind the armor of science. Reason has become irrational. Life mixes with the inanimate. Pupils are turned into inflexible objects” (ibid.). While McLaren sees the destruction of education as a result of external pressures, mainly the neoliberal labor market, another well-known contemporary critic of the school, Jesper Juul (2014), a Danish educator and therapist, analyzes the phenomenon from the opposite side, taking into account the perspective of particularly important subjects of educational activity – teachers, students, and their parents. As the motto of the book ‘School Crisis. What can we do for students, teachers and parents’, he places two sentences of his own: “Teachers, students and parents should take to the streets together and protest

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The teacher in the school of the 21st century

against the current school system. If it ever comes to that, I’ll get up and go with them” (McLaren, 2015, p. 27). It is very puzzling that the educational authorities in different countries, representing completely different political orientations, attribute to themselves almost all the merits related to the successes of the educational reforms undertaken, and eagerly shift the problems associated with obtaining the necessary quality of education to their teachers. In the times of the functioning of education in the People’s Republic of Poland (the PRL was the Communist government that lasted until the fall of the Soviet Union), a slogan was coined for such an occasion: “The teacher decides everything”, although it is known that many institutions “earn” success and failure in education: the state and economy, family and school, peer group and mass media. The claim that the teacher decides everything, however, turned out to be useful “on occasion.” When salaries went unpaid, the expression conferred dignity and prestige on the teacher, suggesting that the teacher should work for the joy of teaching and not for remuneration. When there were difficult periods in the educational system, the expression served too, suggesting that the source of the difficulties was not the government but the teachers themselves. Unfortunately, such reactions of the authorities also appear today. They additionally cause the mutual opposition of parents and teachers, and this additionally weakens the well-being and job satisfaction of teaching staff, leading to problems of teacher retention. There is then a question of moving away from old habits, in particular disciplinary corporatism, instead asking ourselves what the foundations of the school and of knowledge truly are – and this movement should promise young people an understanding of their society and their place within it, with the necessary condition that this changing society remain democratic (Giordan and Saltet, 2010).

How can the staffing situation in education be improved? What should a teacher be like in order to meet the challenges that a rapidly changing society poses to modern education? Writing about education, Yuval Noah Harari (2018), a professor at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, begins his book ‘21 Lessons for the 21st Century,’ begins with the question of how we can prepare ourselves and the young generation for life in a world characterized by unprecedented changes. He notes that a child born today will be 35 in 2050 and may still be an active citizen in 2100. He asks what skills that individual will need across so many years. Harari recognizes that the answer is extremely difficult to reach, because no one knows what the world will look like in 2050, and people have never been able to predict the future well.

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He concludes, “Today, however, it is more difficult than ever before, because as soon as technology enables us to construct bodies, brains and minds, we can no longer be sure of anything, including things that until now seemed permanent and eternal” (Harari, 2018, p. 331). Taking into account the existence of these difficulties, the author presents his position on the changes that must be made in education in the face of the existing realities and challenges. The emphasis is on the work of the teacher. Harari writes, “What then should we teach? Many pedagogy experts argue that schools should shift to teaching the ‘four Cs’ – critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity. More broadly, schools should put less emphasis on technical skills and more on life skills. The most important will be the ability to cope with change, learn new things and maintain mental balance in unfamiliar situations. In order to keep up with the pace of the world […], you will not only have to create new ideas and products, but also, and perhaps above all, create yourself again and again” (ibid., p. 335). Among the pedagogy experts that Harari obliquely references is likely Jérémy Lamri, author of a book on the competences needed in the 21st century. So important does Lamri think these four Cs that they make up the subtitle of his book. These are particularly important competences in with a time of rapidly changing social and economic life. However, it could be argued that the four Cs do not go far enough, and should further include responsibility, individualism, flexibility of action, and the more comprehensive use of new technologies in education. Is today’s school prepared for such education and upbringing? Do teachers pay special attention to developing these skills? Certainly not on a massive scale. And yet the views presented are a continuation of the thought of John Dewey, who criticized verbal methods of teaching, recommending creating opportunities for students to experience and develop their thinking. In our conditions, it is also a reference to the scientific works of Konstanty Lech, Wincenty Okon´, and Czesław Kupisiewicz, known for over half a century, who recommended in teaching and learning to combine theory with practice, to adopt problem-based education, and for students to work in teams. From such thinkers the ideas emerged of the acquisition of one’s own experience and knowledge, the development of thinking, creative solutions, cooperation, and collaboration between students. Meanwhile, the everyday practice of many schools is still dominated by prescriptive teaching, teachers often require the mastery of “ready” knowledge, expressing themselves in the same way as they might have done a generation or ten ago, and using tests of textbook knowledge to assess the students’ progress, and with it that of the teachers and the school. The creativity of students in these conditions is unnecessary, and even becomes an obstacle. The cooperation of

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The teacher in the school of the 21st century

students in the lessons is often blunted, because each student has to earn their own grade. Where cooperation does appear, it is more likely during extracurricular activities or even outside of school, though this assumes that students involve themselves this way. Where they do, we can understand the student’s ability to interact smoothly with their peers, but where breakdowns occur the source of the problem can be seen clearly. At the same time, the student’s independent work during the lessons is not an individualization of teaching, because many teachers do not want to encourage students to find their own creative solutions, but to make sure that they follow the same well-trodden path set by the authors of textbooks and by the teachers themselves, independently on occasion, but not very reflectively. Can this state be changed, and if so, how? The optimistic pedagogue would say that it can be changed, though this difficult task requires a variety of activities, and these must be applied in a comprehensive manner across the system. We need to start – as in Finland – with a radical improvement in the recruitment of young people onto teacher training courses at university. It depends on at least two projects. First of all, it is in the vital social interest to significantly improve the material situation of teachers. Teaching is a career choice, but we cannot rely on the generosity of heart of many who see it as a vocation – there must be financial inducement to attract the best candidates to the field. However, it must also be recognised that these teachers, who themselves were often weak students, are not able to develop creative passions of young people and stimulate the development of students’ abilities without the right preparation. The creativity of children and young people can be effectively developed only by those teachers who think and work in a creative way. The second important factor should be a change in the criteria for selecting candidates for teacher training courses at university level. In addition to the generally applicable procedures, an important element should be careful psychological and pedagogical research assessing the candidate’s suitability for the profession. This will help to avoid a situation where, according to research by Stefan T. Kwiatkowski (2018), a significant proportion of candidates for primary school teachers are devoid of empathy and, being introverts, have problems with establishing appropriate relationships with children. Teacher education must also be modernized. It is no longer acceptable – if it ever was – for the initial training of future teachers either to be guided by the whims of academic teachers, or to be an accidental compilation of objects and subjects, including everything that is needed to learn about contemporary pedagogy and other sciences which provide the necessary knowledge about education and upbringing. Pedagogical studies should enable the development of the personality of the teaching candidate, and this cannot be done without education through action, including participation in social work, volunteering, and apprenticeships organized in a modern, up-to-date way.

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Finally, teachers must be provided with professional development. This must not be mandated by central authorities and teams of notional experts whose own experiences of school lie in the distant past, and who have no cognition of the problems faced by the contemporary teacher. The modern teacher should be competent and creative, and therefore should be trusted with considerable autonomy. Professional development should be bottom-up, with teachers given the responsibility of deciding what they need to improve about their practice. Only a free and creative teacher who has a sense of their own importance and subjectivity can be a role model for our increasingly independent and reflective young people. There appears to be a discrepancy between what young people are capable of accomplishing through, for instance, their extra-curricular activities, and the grades they receive at school. To judge by those grades alone, one would believe the current generation to be of mediocre talent and ability, but there is much evidence that suggests otherwise. Instead, it is often the school – and schooling – that is mediocre, and that is holding back these young people. It is time for that to change. One condition is to make more teachers into role models and leaders of young people, which is something that can be achieved only through the adoption of a serious approach at the level of the state and society to the education and upbringing of children and young people. Education is often declared by successive governments to be a priority – one would think it high time that the declarations were turned into fact. It is also necessary to provide teachers with the due prestige and social position adequate to the rank of their profession. If the teacher of the 21st century school is to shape and develop creativity, communication, a critical attitude, and cooperation in students, as well as responsibility, individualism, flexibility of action, the ability to make more comprehensive use of new technologies for educational purposes, then that teacher should have these powers. The process of teaching and learning cannot be correct and effective when, as Józef Elsner, the man who taught Chopin, used to say, a raven teaches an eagle to fly. Ensuring these competences among teachers working in schools of the 21st century is necessary, and at the same time it is a huge challenge. Neither the teachers already working nor the students preparing for this profession generally had personal models of such teachers in the schools they attended – in short, they lack a model to emulate. Existing teacher education systems at university and in-service training programmes are not properly focused on developing these competences. It follows that the preparation and improvement of teachers for work in the school of the 21st century is both an important and an urgent task. This task is so important that its implementation should precede all significant changes in education and the entire education system.

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Chapter Three: Responsibility – reflections on the profession of the contemporary and future teacher

We operate in times of change and social challenges. In such times, ethical and moral values should be of great importance, and above all responsibility, which, being an interdisciplinary value, finds its application in the broadly understood notion of social life. Responsibility therefore has a subjective dimension, combining all contexts and references to current relationships between people. Considerations of the concept of responsibility have been undertaken by many educators, psychologists, sociologists, and philosophers, with each interpreting responsibility from the point of view of the science they represent. The essence of responsibility, however, remains in all considerations as the basic feature of human behavior in relation to others, consistent with the implementation of basic social values.

The essence of responsibility in the teaching profession The dynamics of social life verifies the requirements placed on the school and the teacher. The educator becomes the creator of change, which means taking responsibility for the direction of education of the younger generations. This responsibility does not extend to what has already been done, but is directed towards the future, that is, to what has been entrusted to the teacher’s care. The teacher’s activity in combination with responsibility is important only when the sense of the actions taken can be seen. Responsibility understood in this way is also a pedagogical category determining the level of ethical behavior of the educator in relation to their students. The phenomenon of teacher responsibility in various pedagogical relationships and situations of social action is a unique feature of conscious conduct, consistent with the implementation of basic human values and needs (Dykcik, 2010, p. 22). The issue of teacher responsibility in the context of the changes taking place in society strongly emphasizes moral actions and the subjective

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aspect of ethics; the concept of responsibility is therefore multifaceted and ambiguous. In the axiological approach, responsibility is a value that organizes interpersonal and social relationships, as well as the relationship between man and God. It can be analyzed as an ontological concept that describes the structure of the human being and their location in the world (Cies´len´ska, 2019, p. 12). The description of existence and the relationship of responsibility with reality were considered by Kierkegaard and Nietzsche, paying attention to the responsible person as an autonomous and sovereign individual who is “allowed to promise”. Man has become privileged with responsibility, and thus able to dispose of the future. Responsibility is therefore an extraordinary privilege as a property of the rare freedom to control oneself and one’s destiny. Man becomes responsible for his actions, regardless of whether he was held accountable or not (Filek, 2003). In the philosophical thought of the twentieth century, attention was paid to the relationship between responsibility and freedom – this being dictated by the development of democracy, which was accompanied by the development of civil liberties. Responsibility distinguished freedom from arbitrariness, and it has since been established that there is no freedom without responsibility and no responsibility without freedom. Being free is being responsible. Responsibility has become a property of human conduct, the conditions of which include freedom, awareness, and the existence of an appropriate sanction (Kowal, 2004, pp. 54–55). Ontologically, being responsible defines human existence. The individual is held accountable regardless of whether they feel responsible or act responsibly. Responsibility is something that organizes the inner life of a person and interpersonal relations with another person or a group of people. It defines the meaning of human life, giving quality to human actions (Chałas, 2003, p. 174). Jonas found the ethical mission of keeping a person alive in responsibility, discovering a new conception of responsibility based on taking actions that affect the world, controlling actions, and predicting the effects of actions. As part of understanding responsibility, the substantive aspect should be emphasized – responsibility for someone, for something; and the legal aspect – responsibility for being accountable for one’s actions (Jonas, 1996, pp. 167–171). Moral responsibility, on the other hand, is related to the principles, norms, and values in force in society, within a given value system, right and duty, as well as human destiny (Wojtyła, 1986, p. 206). Responsibility interpreted on the sociological level is understood as the small act of taking responsibility for a human being, which is the basis of social justice (Bauman, 2000, p. 112). It can therefore be said that justice is responsibility (Bauman, 2003, p. 83). Sociologists recognize responsibility as a global feature

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that influences social changes. There is a belief that the essence of responsibility is responsibility for another human being (Bauman, 2007, pp. 354–356). In psychology, responsibility becomes inseparable from action, and offers a choice between good and evil. The psychological dimension of ethical and moral responsibility shows man as not only a psychophysical mystery, but also as a being possessed of psychological features that are shaped in relation to other people, with due responsibility for norms and customs (Galarowicz, 1993, p. 45). Responsibility in pedagogy means looking for the level of indicators and manifestations of responsible behavior. It is a determinant, a pedagogical directive in the field of shaping students’ attitudes of responsibility in the process of social and moral upbringing. Referring to the category of pedagogical responsibility, the ethical level of behavior of the educator towards their charges should be taken into account. A responsible person must undertake actions that serve the development of individuals and communities (Górniewicz, 1997, pp. 13–14). Nowadays, responsibility is perceived as an ethical norm meaning a certain readiness to bear the positive and negative consequences of one’s own, individual or group decisions (Pogonowska, 2004). Responsibility is a necessity, a moral and legal obligation to be responsible for one’s actions and bear the consequences (Szymczak, 1998). It is sometimes interpreted in an attributive sense as a feature attributed to an object. In the contributory sense, it is understood as an obligation to meet certain needs. On the other hand, in the retributive sense, it comes down to bearing the consequences of past actions, but not the intentions, though the effects of actions are significant (Budajczak 1995, pp. 52–54). Taking into account the above considerations, it is difficult to argue with the importance of responsibility in the teaching profession. It is a consequence of pedagogical qualifications and competences, relating to personal knowledge and educational experience. The teacher presents a whole range of moral, ethical, psychological, and pedagogical norms and principles that determine their actions in terms of responsibility for their students. Suchodolski (1976) points to the basic principles encapsulated in the responsibilities of the pedagogue, of which are included: 1. Objective instances – the inevitability of taking into account objective facts and phenomena and the processes of upbringing in the real world. 2. Reflective, rational activity of the student. 3. Individualization of everyday behavior. 4. Organizing a team and the educational environment. 5. Educational attitude – conscious empathy for individual feelings of sympathy and kindness combined with the consistency of requirements (Suchodolski, 1976, pp. 158–160).

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The teacher unquestionably influences the lives of their students; a responsible educator acts in accordance with acceptable social values and has a positive attitude towards them, which influences the students’ way of thinking and their own system of values. Teacher responsibility is fundamental in shaping a young person into a responsible member of society, which is the basis of correct moral relations, highly exposed in the changing social and educational reality.

The teacher’s responsibility in the social space Responsibility functions in the social space in many different contexts, appearing in relation to various spheres of the surrounding reality. In analyzing the nature of liability, its types should be considered in detail across the four situations in which liability may arise: 1. Bearing responsibility – the facts passively borne by the perpetrator. 2. Taking responsibility – the state of readiness to take responsibility. 3. Accountability – the source lies outside the perpetrator of the act. 4. Responsible action – the activity of an entity aware of the value of the effects of its actions (Klimczak, 2002). In contemporary reality, the concept of responsibility has been rediscovered and more closely interpreted and analyzed. Society is also ready to take the trouble to understand this concept more fully. Responsibility can be considered in the context of the responsibility due from one person towards another, or towards the family, the local community, the profession, and so forth – in short, its universal sense should be considered (Filek, 2001 b). Due to who is accountable for responsibility, three types can be delineated: religious – responsibility before God; social – responsibility towards other people; self-responsibility – responsibility to oneself or one’s own conscience (Weischedel, 1972). Considering liability in its many dimensions, it seems reasonable to refer to the classification of Gasparski (2007), who distinguishes four types of liability. 1. Causal responsibility – for being the cause of an effect, regardless of whether the causative action was conscious and intentional or not. 2. Responsibility in the praxeological sense – intentional, conscious and voluntary behavior, in accordance with the will of the subject. One can here not only be the sole perpetrator but also a co-perpetrator, and at the same time a co-responsible person. 3. Responsibility in the moral sense – which applies to a moral subject from whom moral knowledge, impartiality, objectivity, honesty, disinterestedness, and activity are required. Moral agents are responsible only individually.

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4. Qualified liability – which applies to individual activity and covers the responsibility for acting in accordance with the requirements of a given role or organization, which is borne by organizations or enterprises (Gasparski, 2007). A different classification was made by Sos´nicki (1973), pointing to three categories of responsibility. 1. Physical responsibility – for the performance of the act. 2. Mental responsibility – when a negative action results from a character trait of the individual. 3. Moral responsibility – regarding potential situations when a person feels responsible for the very idea of a certain state of affairs, referring to their conscience (Sos´nicki, 1973). In the literature we also read about the parent’s responsibility for the child – natural; imposed by law; forced by social expectations or resulting from the adoption of a contractual agreement (Teneta-Skwiercz, 2013). Currently, we talk about responsibility most often in legal and moral contexts. Legal responsibility is responsibility before the law, with this forming at the same time one of the pillars of social life. It concerns shortcomings in the performance of the duties entrusted, taking into account: active behavior (action), passive behavior (omission); unlawfulness – inconsistency of behavior with the pattern of correct conduct in a specific situation; and unlawful omission (Michalak, 2003, pp. 102–110). The teacher, like every human being, is the subject of rights and obligations, the source of which is the law established by the legislator. The teacher is obliged to act in accordance with the law; the activities of the teacher should demonstrate to students the adoption of the right path. In terms of legal liability, a normative division of liability can be made: criminal (when a person performing professional work has committed a misdemeanor or crime), civil (personal liability, but only of a financial nature), employee (observance of order and discipline at work), and official or professional ( conduct in accordance with all ethical standards) (Cies´len´ska, 2019, pp. 86–102). Moral responsibility is responsibility to oneself, with awareness of the essence of the act undertaken and the ability to dispose of one’s actions (Ossowski, 1994, pp. 212–221). Moral responsibility, which is particular importance in the case of the teaching profession, requires awareness of duties and obligations, understanding the consequences of one’s actions, honesty towards oneself and others, civil courage, and reliable self-esteem (Szempruch, 2013, p. 265). Its scope includes subjective responsibility (for one’s own identity, development, for who one is), social responsibility (for a person in direct contact and for people con-

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stituting groups), and historical responsibility (for individual and social acts as a consequence of participating in creating history) (Nowicka- Kozioł, 1993). As the world changes so too does what is required of young people in the world, and the teacher is therefore greatly responsible for shaping the personality of their students in an appropriate and useful manner. Responsibility not only should, but even must, move towards change; it should identify a young person with the need for freedom, autonomy, and an understanding of values that seem to be very changeable in today’s world. Being a responsible teacher means being a responsible person, listening to the student’s needs, being sensitive to the other person, and directly or indirectly influencing their behavior. Finally, it is fair to say that a teacher’s identity is partly given and partly achieved through active participation in society (Coldron and Smith, 1999). Position in social space is relational (Bourdieu and Wacquant, 1992), as social space represents the series of possible relationships that one person can have. Coldron and Smith (1999) point out that some of these relationships are supplied by inherited social structures and categorizations, and some are chosen or created by the individual.

Values in pedagogical responsibility Responsibility is one of the basic features and values of human behavior towards others, but it should also be thought of as serving one’s own development, and usually results from moral maturity. A responsible person should anticipate the effects of their own actions and design them in a way that aims at the development of individuals and communities. Responsibility, therefore, is an important overarching value and an important educational goal. It is an ontic attitude in various axiological approaches. The issue of responsibility is taken up in ethics, falling as it does within the scope of basic moral values. It concerns taking responsibility for the subject of upbringing and directing it towards perceiving the surrounding social reality. Four criteria may play an important role in interpreting ethical attitudes in the teacher’s work: 1. The criterion of acts and behaviors. 2. The criterion of the effectiveness and the results of didactic and educational work. 3. Judging according to the criterion of motives and intentions of actions, attitudes, and deeds. 4. The criterion of professionalism of pedagogical activities, with the possibility of professional objectification of requirements and assessments (Homplewicz, 1996, pp. 158–159).

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Responsible upbringing based on the above criteria leads to the preparation of an individual for tasks that appear along with the development of civilization, global social change, and modernization. In the literature, attention has been paid to three levels of individual values, between which a person constantly moves. To these belong: 1. The transrational level – values are understood metaphysically, have absolute and ideal features, illustrate human aspirations, are based on the will, ethical code, aesthetic sense and moral feelings, are the result of an act of faith, something completely personal and unique; it is impossible to verify these ideas through scientific methods or logical arguments. 2. The rational level – values are perceived as a combination of reason and cognition and embedded in the social context of customs, norms, standards and expectations; they depend on the recognition by a specific community; they are aimed at specific areas of activity and organizations; and their physiological bases are humanism, paragmatism, and utilitarianism. 3. The subrational level – values are based on personal feelings and preferences (a value is assigned to what is perceived as good for someone); they are behavioral in nature; and they are embedded in the sphere of emotions, so they are internal, individual, direct, and affective (Szempruch , 2013, p. 258). Responsibility is a basic component of the teacher’s professional ethics, indicated alongside subjectivity. In the humanistic conception it can already be found resulting from the values and attitudes adopted by the teacher. In the current reality, the value and rank of responsibility is on the increase as it relates to culture and professional competences, constituting a kind of challenge to direct education towards universal values based on the perception of other people. The social reality has a constant influence on the formation of values in the process of the education and upbringing of the younger generation. Values are a key issue in the teaching profession. They are interpreted as a system of norms that influence the actions of the teacher and students. They are considered an important goal for human endeavor, and are a criterion for evaluating attitudes, as well as the actions and behaviors of one’s own and other people. Values define the essence of education, constituting the basis of identity in situations of changing conditions and social needs. They are a factor in harmonious, individual, and multilateral human development (Szempruch, 2013, pp. 254–255). The values professed by the teacher allow students to look at reality through the prism of evaluating ethical situations. Values are acquired and evaluated as “concepts of desirable and motivating virtues and motivating determinants of behavior” (Hodgkinson, 1983). They should be the goal of every teacher’s activities. Upbringing at school must mean upbringing to values, and its most important feature should be responsibility for oneself and others.

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For education, the subjective criterion of values is particularly important, because it is oriented towards shaping internalized and perceptible (psychological) values. The pedagogical discourse with the student should serve this purpose. The teacher serves a guide through the social world showing the way that students can follow. The teacher’s work depends on social aspirations and values, and their choices depend on the beliefs they represent, preparing the younger generation to make responsible choices. The educator must feel that their thinking and action should go beyond the borders of the present, because while passing on knowledge about the system of values, they must remember that they are preparing students to function in a reality that is relatively unknown, a variable of various social situations, broadly-understood transformation, and globalization. Therefore, the need to transmit values, freedom, and responsibility as timeless and universal processes that should be encoded in the awareness of young people. By moving towards open education, teachers are able to broaden their students’ horizons with the focus being on discovery and the search for positive norms and values in our changing society. “One of the main tasks that education should meet in our changing society is the proper preparation of young generations for many roles and types of responsibility, and considerations about the value system of children and youth are particularly important for defining the tasks of upbringing” (Z˙ebrowski, 2010 , p. 85). Values in a changing society must offer a guidepost that allows safe movement in a world of peace and war, changing political and social systems, tolerance and the lack of tolerance. Orientation in a world where values are the essence of humanity may be necessary to function in the society of tomorrow.

Responsibility in the new educational reality Social, economic, and educational changes in societies have led to changes to the perception of entities involved in education and upbringing. The overriding value is still responsibility, the deep meaning of which is given by acting in accordance with the norms and principles accepted by society, deepened by the acceptance and compassion of another human being. Responsibility has a broad content structure analyzed as an element of voluntary consent and freedom of choice. This feature is relevant to the educational reality, which is composed of teachers, students, and parents. These entities learn from each other, succeed and fail, but above all, they gather social experience based on responsibility for other people, becoming entities co-responsible for the process in which they participate directly or indirectly. Awareness of responsibility is a basic condition for personal development as it is based on the observance of the specific norms and rules in force in a developing society. The most important challenge that the school, and

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thus the teacher, must face is to prepare the younger generation to live in an unknown reality. The teacher’s active taking of responsibility moves them and their students towards the future of education. The school cannot shape and educate students to fit the needs and standards of today, because today’s students will not become today’s citizens but rather tomorrow’s, and such is the pace of change that tomorrow’s world could well be unlike anything the school of today could predict. “Education, being a function of social and economic life, must respect the needs of a developing society […]. Schools, and with them other educational institutions, receive tasks related to the needs of the present, as well as what will prove necessary in the distant future” (Szyman´ski, 2021, p. 35). Therefore, the school as an organization should be able to change itself, it should be innovative, creative, and organically evolving (Schulz, 1980, p. 100), and thus responsible for preparing students for the future. Times of axionormative chaos such as those of the present make it difficult to strictly define the concept of teacher responsibility. On the one hand, this branch of responsibility can be interpreted as taking the consequences of one’s own actions on oneself, which the teacher is obliged to do by the governing body of the school; on the other hand, it refers to the teacher’s responsibility to prevent such negative consequences (Tchorzewski, 2020, pp. 170–171). So who should a modern, responsible educator be? Such an educator should liberate themself from limitations and strive towards subjective autonomy, moving towards innovation and the creation of the kinds of changes that would benefit the future society. Being a responsible teacher involves making certain moral commitments (Sillamy, 1995, p. 185). The precondition for creating the foundations for a high-quality school is this aforementioned autonomy, which gives an opportunity to design an educational institution capable of change and development, of the search for new challenges and the management of the volatility of those challenges. Autonomy means selfdetermination; its subject may be an individual or a group that makes decisions regarding their own and others’ behavior based on their own beliefs (Okon´, 1998, p. 29). In the teaching profession, a greater level of autonomy increases individual responsibility in harmonizing activities aimed at preparing students for change. The subjective model of upbringing, guided by the principle of creating a personal conceptual model of reality through intellectual activity, forms the basis for independence and evaluation as well as critical thinking coexisting with autonomy, freedom, subjectivity, and responsibility. Responsibility raises in the teacher an awareness of the need to deal with both present and future time, and that the latter brings with it unpredictable obligations towards himself and others. That is why it is so important to try to understand is the true nature of responsibility in the teacher’s professional work. It

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should be treated as a form of pedagogical imperative. The responsibility of educators, understood in terms of the pedagogical imperative, concerns the obligation to support young people in their individual and social development (Tchorzewski, 2020, p. 174). The essence of preparation for educational change can also be found in communication rationality, which is often referred to as the ethics and logic of dialogue. It should be remembered that educational activity is in fact a communicative activity, and this builds on the practical and moral competences of the teacher, which are a set of interpretive, moral, and communicative competences. The last of this group is the ability to enter into dialogue with others and with oneself, allowing for a broader interpretation of the needs and dependencies of education in relation to an ever-changing reality. A responsible teacher does not know when they may become an authority for a student, an important person capable of changing their image of reality. The world is ever-changing, but one wonders the extent to which education is able to keep up with those changes, and to make sure that young people leave the school with the skills and knowledge they need to function in the world of tomorrow. As far ago as 1954 Hannah Arendt wrote in “The Crisis in Education” that teachers faced new challenges, and she asked the question of whether we love the world enough to take responsibility for such changes. This responsibility assumed by the teacher for the world equates to taking responsibility for every child who enters our reality of constant changes and crises. The assumption that the teacher’s responsibility is the basic feature of the profession is clearly emphasized here: “This responsibility is not arbitrarily imposed upon educators; it is implicit in the fact that the young are introduced by adults into a continuously changing world. Anyone who refuses to assume joint responsibility for the world should not have children and must not be allowed to take part in educating them” (Arendt, 1994, p. 225). Every responsible teacher must help the student to find themselves in the chaos of the present, taking into account the individual possibilities and needs of students in interpreting and reading what they participate in and will in the future participate in. The challenges of the new reality should be relayed into challenges for education, in which the responsibility of the teacher is of great importance. Without the remoralization of the social space and the vindication of the teacher’s moral responsibility, none of the challenges set will have a chance to be fully met (Bauman, 1996). It is important to remember that actively taking responsibility directs the teacher into the future. What we might perhaps call megapedagogism, that is, the belief that the solution to the problems and crises that plague the world depends on education, the school, and teaching (Kwiecin´ski, 1998), should be a signpost in the pedagogical work of the modern teacher-educator. Responsibility taken by the teacher for the future should be based on cooperation principled by

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the synergy of environmental resources, taking into account the environment of the student and the teacher. Research by Lauermann and Karabenick (2013) confirms the multidimensional model of teacher responsibility, in which the authors distinguished responsibility for student motivation, student achievement, student relationships, and teaching. Their research has shown that teacher accountability differs conceptually and empirically from self-efficacy, and that the relationship between responsibility and self-efficacy varies according to the type of educational outcome. Lauermann and Karabenick (2013) distinguish between responsibility oriented towards approaching something (e. g. to achieve a result) and avoiding something (e. g. to prevent consequences) and may refer to past, present or future events. Mean differences between accountability and effectiveness factors in the Lauermann and Karabenick (2013) study. The factors of responsibility and effectiveness were measured on an 11-point scale from 0 (completely irresponsible/confident) to 100 (completely responsible/confident), in increments of 10 points. In subsequent research, Lauermann (2014) demonstrates that responsibility has significant motivational implications. The implications of the relationship between personal responsibility, motivation, and self-regulation have previously been noted by Higgins (1997), and Halvorsen, Lee, and Andrade (2009) have found relationships between teachers’ responsibility and positive teaching attitudes and professional commitment. That said, teachers’ sense of responsibility is often linked to student achievement (e. g. Lee and Smith, 1997, Silverman, 2010). For the past several years, the issue of teachers’ responsibility in connection with remote teaching has been raised. Among other things, the research covers the issue of changing the scope and content of the teacher’s responsibility in connection with the implementation of ICT in the educational process. Questions are raised about whether teachers in distance education have more responsibility than in face-to-face education (Semradova and Hubackova, 2016). The development of professional digital competences (including issues of privacy, cyberbullying, and evaluating digital content) is becoming an increasingly important aspect of teacher education due to the increasing use of ICT in education, especially since the COVID-19 pandemic (Tomczyk and Walker, 2021). The issue of teacher responsibility is often addressed in legal regulations, declarative documents, and codes of ethics.

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Chapter Four: The subjectivity of the teacher and the student

The issue of subjectivity occupies an increasingly important place in contemporary reflections of humanity. As a multilateral topic, it appears in philosophy, sociology, psychology, and pedagogy. One aspect of human subjectivity is satisfaction resulting from specific personal relationships, especially those of an educational and didactic nature. Their importance can be seen through consideration of what happens when they are lacking, such as with the emergence of the so-called life emptiness that limits development.

Subjectivity as an attribute of modern man In the social sciences, the category of subjectivity has clearly positive connotations. On sociological grounds, the subjectivity of an individual or group is analyzed in relation to its role as the author of social actions. Other meanings derive from this basic sense, such as the subjectivity of individuals, classes, and social movements understood as the ability for an entity to influence the shape of the social structure. In philosophy, subjectivity is treated as an immanent feature of humanity. On the one hand, the individual is free in their decisions and actions, while on the other hand, the individual’s responsible functioning in the material and social reality is indicated. Depending on the ontological perspective adopted, philosophers see manifestations of subjectivity in such human characteristics as the ability to make ethical evaluations, and thus to distinguish good from evil; cognitive autonomy; self-determination; freedom of choice; self-awareness and self-reflection; and internal integrity defined in terms of subjective identity. In psychology, subjectivity is understood in terms of the independence and sense of human agency, individuality and uniqueness, and the internal ability to control one’s own mental processes (Me˛czkowska 2005, pp. 452–453; Szempruch 2013, pp. 218–219). It can also be defined as the ability to experience change and

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to influence that change through one’s own more or less autonomous actions (Pietrasin´ski 1987, p. 249). In the pedagogical perspective, subjectivity is treated as the overriding goal, condition, and factor of personality development. It is also a form of pedagogical interaction. The subject is conceptually related to the status of the person, who is credited with being able to manage their own life independently, along with possessing the ability to learn, to understand, and to determine the nature of the reality around them, as well as having the potential for self-improvement and development (Szempruch 2012). In the humanities, subjectivity is recognized as the principle distinguishing feature of a person’s existence, as a way of being in the world, and as an attitude towards the world, based on the criteria of self-realization and development. Compliance with and respect for subjectivity means adopting a positive assessment of oneself depending on one’s own goals, intentions, and autonomy of any action to be taken. It is traditionally assumed that subjectivity is built from the following attributes: activity in the process of cognition; awareness of one’s own actions; moral autonomy; and responsibility. However, this traditional assumption has received criticism by those that believe it to undermine Enlightenment concepts, and later by some assumptions of Postmodernism which emphasized the fragmentation of human cognition or the impact of different power centers on the person. Consequently, the idea of subjectivity has tended to drift from a static conception that can easily be preserved. The subjective nature of man is related to the ability to recognize one’s objective situation and understand the meaning of its individual elements, which allows for the transformation of the situation into a task to be performed. Man as a subject is able to interpret the incoming stimuli and select them according to the task given, exercise cognitive control over the environment and the self, and in this must be aware of a personal value system. Fundamental to subjectivity is the dynamism of the person, taking account of the actions and internal processes that are caused by these actions. As a type of consciousness, subjectivity is reflected in actions bearing the hallmarks of a conscious, responsible transformation of reality. Within the concept of subjectivity, three correlates can be distinguished: (1) conscious agency; (2) critical, rational choice and the direction of actions towards the realization of one’s own preferences; (3) responsibility, courage and dignity in bearing the consequences of the choices and decisions made.

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Through subjectivity, a person can be conscious of undergoing changes and can influence them through their own, more or less autonomous, actions. Therefore, we can talk about two forms of subjectivity: cognitive and causative (Szempruch 2009, pp. 81–82). Subjectivity is expressed not only in agency, but also in the conviction that one is the subject of a relationship with the objective world and, based on one’s own values, one is the creator of events and/or the author of meanings. It is the greater, the more the effects of activity are in line with the expectations of the agency or authorship of the individual and represent their personal values. This sense of subjectivity is an expression of the modern personality (Sztompka 2009, pp. 565–566, 574). The analysis of the concept of subjectivity leads to the conclusion that subjectivity is associated with features that relate to the relationship between a person, their actions, and the results of those actions. The subject is a conscious being that wants and can act, has an impact on the content, form, and course of events in which it participates, acts in accordance with its own will and with an attitude to change itself and the social, natural, and technical world, is interpreted in opposition to the object, and as a being it can take the form of a person (individual being) or a community (collective entity).

Subjectivity as an attribute of modern education The idea of subjectivity in education has a millennia-old tradition, starting from the ancient democracies of Greece and Rome to modern concepts of the subjective coexistence of the student and the teacher. Research on subjectivity conducted in the social sciences seeks to construct an image of a free, active, and responsible person to take responsibility for the consequences of their actions. This is particularly important, especially in the face of current social and educational challenges, which require people to take responsible and creative actions on their own, and make many decisions related to the transition from subjective standards of functioning to subjective standards. This takes place not only in human functioning in the social space, which is particularly strongly exposed to radical pedagogy (Witkowski 2010, pp. 301–328), but also in educational processes carried out in the school space. Subjectivity in education is defined in different perspectives: teleological, as the goal of education, axiological as an educational value, epistemological as the effect of educational activities, and ontological as a constitutive feature of modern education. The social and educational changes taking place at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries led to emphasis being placed on the rights of participants in education, as manifested in the ability to decide and co-decide on its course.

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The educational tradition, which is mainly focused on equipping students with knowledge and shaping skills, makes it difficult for subjective acts to be undertaken. Therefore, there is a need to reorient the education process from the socializing to the self-reflective. The creation of one’s own subjectivity is a fundamental goal of modern education based on offers and free choices. In any discussion of subjectivity in education, the focus tends to fall on the subjectivity of the teacher, the student, and the students’ parents. The implementation of the principle of the student’s subjectivity requires the provision of program-level and organization-level conditions for conscious, active, positively-motivated participation and partnership in the process of school education. It is therefore about creating conditions for the individual’s activity, which, according to the essence of subjectivity, will come from their own choice, and will be an expression of agency and control over the environment. The process of building human subjectivity is related to the creation of a subjective educational process that guarantees participants the experience of their own individuality, sense of identity, and responsible use of freedom, as well as overcoming barriers and their own limitations. The process of subjective education, based on solid axiological foundations (Ostrowska 2009, p. 30), should lead to the achievement of self-awareness and self-acceptance – by fostering self-knowledge and understanding, one’s own separateness and potential, as well as one’s own limitations; shaping responsibility for taking or not taking action – by creating opportunities to be yourself, taking into account your own preferences in making decisions and actions; creatively going beyond the level of achievements to date – and by inspiring self-improvement and multifaceted personal development.

Conditions of subjectivity In the traditional pedagogical approach it is the teacher to who carries an awareness of the goals of education and is thus responsible for organizing the educational process. Subjectivity within this process is understood as a field of activity with varying degrees of freedom, expressed through setting goals, making decisions, performing actions and checking the value of one’s own achievements, possibly comparing them with the achievements of other people performing similar activities. The teacher’s subjectivity requires the individual management of their own professional development and self-creation, and is conditional on the freedom to make decisions and choices as well as on self-determination, related here to responsibility for the results of the teacher’s own conduct, such as in the implementation of didactic and educational activities, introducing their

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own pedagogical innovations into practice, and in self-improvement both on a personal level and professionally in terms of work skills. The subjectivity of the teacher is subject to external conditions (as it depends on the political power structure of the country, the education administration, the system of education, and the material situation of education) and internal conditions (the teacher’s qualifications, their personality, the development of their creative abilities, and their identification with the profession) (Okon´ 1991, p. 183–195). The increase in the teacher’s subjectivity is related to opposing the external or internal conditions that weaken or nullify the effects of their pedagogical activity, as well as with the transformation of these conditions in order to increase such effects. Working according to the subjective standard means transferring most responsibility from the school institution to the teacher. It is also associated with a change in the style of operation and a change in the source of professional satisfaction, and requires the teacher’s intellectual activity. Subjectivity is closely related to agency and reflexivity (cf. Archer 2013). It exposes the teacher as a person: it is a property that enables the creation of the teacher’s own identity, the choice of values, and the interpretation of both the world and the teacher themself. Being a subject requires being rooted in social relationships, and becoming more familiar with the tradition, language, and moral code of a given community. It requires reflexivity in order to turn the subjectivity of the individual into activity and agency. The person understood as the subject of action is capable of continuous reflective monitoring of both themself and society. In this, the person’s humanity is expressed, thanks to which they have the ability to take meaningful actions. Subjectivity is connected with the development of the autonomous morality of a teacher who is open to creativity and independence. The meaning of independence is related to the ideas that the acquisition of knowledge and reaching the truth are the basic values of cognition. It can manifest itself, among others, in independence in discovering sources of didactic information, in the processing of theoretical didactic knowledge and its critical analysis, as well as in the research independence of the teacher. The possibility of subjective functioning is an indispensable value for any teacher aspiring to implement the idea of humanity with its attributes of truth, goodness, and beauty. In educational relationships, it is also important that teachers treat their students as subjects, and this notion is related to respecting their personal dignity, strengthening their self-esteem, and granting them the right to be separate, unique, and respected. Subjectivity as an attitude towards oneself and the outside world is largely situational. It can be inhibited by cultural influences, certain socialization efforts, and failure to cope with tasks. Subjectivity in an educational situation results in

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an increased sense of obligation, which means that if a person undertakes certain actions of their own choosing, this fact obliges them to continue and maintain this behavior in the future with an increased sense of responsibility for their own activity. Conscious choice and a growing sense of freedom in making decisions increase the regulatory autonomy of an individual, which proves the strengthening of internal control signals (such as one’s own norms, values, and attitudes). Subjective orientation in education is realized in the course of two-subject situations – the teacher and the student. Implementing the idea of subjective education, the teacher agrees to limit his subjectivity in accordance with the subjectivity of the pupil. The student is then provided with a program and organizational conditions for active, conscious, and positively motivated participation and partnership in the school’s education process. A two-subject situation is characterized by the joint, interdependent activity of entities that remain in constant interaction, by bidirectional influence, by structuring of the situation to enable the coordination of the behavior of both the acting entities, and by purposefulness. The main requirement for the teacher is to ensure that the student can develop and function as an independent entity. In this way, there is an opportunity to shape the various competences of students in favor of responsible, subjective functioning in a changing world in which a person has to deal with many moral dilemmas. The conceptual category of subjectivity includes the following ideas: initiation of activity by the subject themself, co-definition and creation of one’s own system of values, control of one’s own actions based on the conviction that the result of this activity depends on effort and ability, and attributing to oneself and others the subjective characteristics of beings acting and experiencing the world. Thus, subjectivity presupposes self-understanding and self-reflection. Teachers and students face the extremely important task of understanding themselves as agents of change. Therefore, a revision of this mutual relationship is needed, during which they should observe such principles as: reciprocity of taking and giving, alternation of positions, changeability of roles in interactions, and finding common meanings (Szempruch 2001, p. 160). Subjectivity in education is the basis for the development of mutual trust between partners and an attitude towards cooperation which focuses on the problems of the school and the family, takes into account the changes taking place in the local environment as well as the challenges and problems that arise there, provides satisfaction, and creates a structure of interactions that enables the creation of bottom-up initiatives. The purpose of such relationships is to lead to the achievement of the student’s full development potential. The subjectivity of the student depends on the teacher. Their mutual interactions should take the form of two equal entities, so that both parties retain their value – their individuality and their autonomy. A two-way interaction usually

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follows a common line of action, and the individual participants should know their tasks well. In building subjective experiences that enable two-subject action, a special role is played by interactions in which the following principles are observed: (1) reciprocity of taking and giving; (2) alternation of first and second positions in an adjacent pair (one behavior necessarily corresponds to another behavior, e. g.: greeting – greeting, question – answer); (3) the variability of roles performed in interactive systems; and (4) the investigation of common meanings. The problem of student empowerment is not only about their relationship with the teacher, but is a complex process that involves many factors. Among these, the individual characteristics of the student, their experience, how they represent themselves, and their own causative power as well as their cognitive abilities are important. This is related to the person of the teacher, especially their characteristics, competences, aspirations, and experience, and the organizational and material conditions of the school. The subjectivity of students is also connected with their class at school, which is perceived as a social reference system in which the values and patterns of conduct it prefers are important, and there is furthermore the family of the student to consider with its characteristics and educational and cultural possibilities. The level of culture is not without significance – as a space for potential immersion in real educational impacts and building life skills to participate in culture, as well as the phenomena and processes occurring in the immediate environment and on a national and global scale. Among the indicated factors of student empowerment, both the school and the teacher who organize subjective relationships play an important role. The dominance of the subjective standard at school, wherein the student is central to the work of the teacher, is conducive to the education of independent, autonomous and subjective people, while the dominance of the subject standard, wherein the content of the course is allowed to lead the way, leads to the education of submissive, dependent, and subordinated people. Social expectations related to the dominance of the subjective standard in school result from contemporary assumptions regarding the preparation of a person for the future and the creation of their own lives. However, the fulfilment of these expectations causes more and more problems due to the school’s deep location in the sphere of influence of culture adhering to individualistic philosophy and the culture of entrepreneurship. According to Me˛czkowska (2007, p. 353), the notion of a “causative subject”, understood as an entity capable of creative intervention in reality, is often replaced by the notion of a “resourceful entity”, i. e. an entity that “copes” with the instrumentally formulated requirements of the school, in the future – an entity capable of adapting to the requirements of reality.

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If it is assumed that the culture of subjects will become a permanent feature of the functioning of modern individuals, then teacher education should be adapted so that teachers accept the subjective way of being in the world and are thus willing and able to prepare the younger generations for it. Functioning according to the subjective standard transfers most of the responsibility from the institution to the person of the teacher, with this also being associated with a change in the style of action, and thus with a specific cognitive and pragmatic effort, for which the teacher has generally not been prepared so far. The teacher must also change how they derive professional satisfaction, transitioning away from the gratification received for meeting external requirements and instead moving towards the satisfaction that results from the effective implementation of their own tasks. Therefore, subjective functioning is much more difficult than objective functioning, as it requires education that prepares a person for intellectual activity as a result of which that person creates their own concept of reality. The subjective functioning of a person assumes the need to have a private philosophy of life. Many processes of change at school and in the personal and professional life of the teacher require the acquisition of the new knowledge and skills that are needed for adaption to different conditions and requirements. Acquiring knowledge is particularly important in the professional development of a teacher, because it enables the achievement of goals, making decisions, and making choices, i. e. it allows the realization of subjectivity. Shaping a sense of subjectivity and striving to create an atmosphere of community and bonds at school is an important step in the process of the improvement of the school. This is not an easy task as most teachers are only concerned with their classes and lessons and attend to their own responsibilities and affairs. However, in a changing school, in order to overcome these patterns, opportunities for discussion and conversation that create a community atmosphere should be provided. Joint meetings that offer the opportunity to share one’s own ideas and opinions contribute to the process of professional development, and such discussion is a tool for reflection. In practice, reading subjectivity as a feature of the properties of relationships between people is an investment in the improvement and reconstruction of the school and human development. Subjectivity in education, understood as a principle, a philosophical message directing the formulation of goals and pedagogical practices contained in content, methods, and organizational forms, and translated into the language of actions, should also be perceived as one of the most important means of achieving social and cultural changes in the country.

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Chapter Five: The functions and tasks of the teacher in a changing world

Building a new social order in a changing world opens up new opportunities, but also introduces new tasks and duties for teachers in the creation of the modern school. Society’s expectations towards the teacher are modified and new tasks, duties, and rights are assigned in relation to interpersonal relationships, changing spheres of human activity, and the place of education in the national education system. The functions and tasks of the teacher are evolving under the influence of socio-cultural and civilizational changes, social development strategies, and the expectations of all the subjects of educational policy.

The specificity of the function of the teacher A function is identified with a job, a duty that someone is supposed to perform, or with the holding of a position. In other contexts the word function might also be understood in connection with an action, a way of working, a role, a task, or, in mathematics, as an expression of the relationship between different variables. All of these meanings can be considered when we turn to considerations of the function of the modern teacher. In the context of the teacher’s professional areas, the functions concern the scope of their duties and tasks as indicated by legal and organizational procedures (nomination, appointment, and conferment), wherein specific functions are assigned to teachers within the meaning of the position, e. g. as educators, etc. The second meaning of the function is focused on action and concerns a set of specific tasks (or duties) delegated to a given person, or what should be done while occupying a given position. The third understanding of functions concerns the relationship of two or more quantities and their mutual dependence, e. g. a combination of different factors which, depending on the historical context, lend the teacher’s functions a specific dimension. Tasks follow from functions. The scope of the teacher’s tasks and their content are formulated by educational authorities in the form of ministerial regulations

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as well as by educators presenting their own proposals. A task can be treated as a situation in which there is a need to overcome difficulties, causing a specific action, which results in achievements in the material sphere or in the field of values. Tasks addressed to teachers are sets of activities, the performance of which leads to the achievement of the objectives of the system of education. Therefore, specific groups of tasks are assigned to the teacher’s functions. The classic division of the teacher’s professional functions includes the following functions: didactic, educational, caring, environmental, research, and guidance in the life of young people. Each of these functions includes specific tasks, specifying activities whose performance leads to the achievement of goals as part of performing a social role. The didactic aspect of the teacher’s work is visible when they come to teach their different subjects. The method of performing didactic functions is oriented towards the methodology of learning and teaching, inscribing itself into a broader discourse of the philosophy of adaptive and emancipatory education. The main role of the teacher is to participate in the process of building the student’s knowledge and competences, to participate in the processes of secondary socialization, and to monitor the course of development. More and more children and young people fail to cope with modern challenges and consequently experience school failure. The school is accused of emphasizing the didactic functions and education for success; the school devotes more time and energy to punishing, grading, and marginalizing the student than to analyzing the causes of failure and taking ameliorative action. School dropout continues to be relevant and is treated as an educational incapacity within some school systems. Manuel Castels writes about the black holes of modern capitalism into which functionally illiterate people, those from ghettos, and the long-term unemployed fall (Beck 2002, pp. 227–231). In addition to performing a didactic function, the teacher also educates students by contributing to the hierarchization of values, and teaches how to create social roles in the family, the school, the peer group, the local community, and so forth. In any consideration of a theory to determine the main tasks of the school, relationships with others are fundamental in ensuring understanding of oneself and others, and in acquiring the ability to make choices and take responsibility for them. In connection with the new challenges of our changing reality, the educational function of the school and the teacher needs to be strengthened since it falls to the teacher to communicate the directions of changes in the world and to explain and contextualize emerging phenomena. The functions and tasks of the modern teacher are evolving from the transmission of knowledge and molding the student towards teaching intellectual independence, searching for and creating knowledge, and inspiring development. It is also becoming more important to provide students with balance between the worlds of thoughts and

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feelings in education, an attitude of dialogue, empathy, negotiation, and subjective treatment. Teachers provide a model of behavior in line with social norms and are a source of cognitive requirements for students. They are also play a generative and supportive role in building self-knowledge and self-esteem. The protective function of the school also needs to be strengthened due to the need for diverse and multilateral activity protecting against new threats, violence, aggression, and intolerance. Despite the diversity of teacher roles, several basic groups (or types) of changing functions and tasks for teachers can be identified (Szempruch 2013): – teaching and organizing the learning process of students; shaping the skills of lifelong learning and working on oneself, openness to everything new, the ability to understand and ask questions, and the ability to think alternatively; – monitoring the development of students, and discovering and developing their predispositions and talents; assessing and evaluating school-related achievements; – educating students, developing value systems, shaping attitudes and character and supporting students in their personal development and socialization; undertaking educational activities of an interventive nature in situations of conflict, security threat, violation of the rights of others, or non-compliance with established rules; education for peace; – taking care of children and young people, ensuring their safety during activities organized by the school; – shaping the ability of learners to understand reality and make a reliable description, explanation, and creation of ideas and values with a universal dimension; – pedagogical, social, and professional counselling; supporting students in shaping their educational plans, preparing students to make professional and life decisions, and focusing on active participation in the system of parliamentary democracy and the market economy; – assistance in the organization of students’ social life at school and the proper use of free time, shaping the cognitively valuable needs and interests of students, indicating different methods and areas for the proper use of free time; – shaping openness to new technologies, developing criticism towards the content of messages and the ability to assess their value, and rational selection and processing; building students’ critical awareness; – shaping the social capital of students, their civic and moral attitudes in accordance with the idea of democracy, peace, and friendship between people of different nations, races, and worldviews; – education for multiculturalism, the development of students’ acceptance and respect for cultural diversity and the promotion of understanding for unique

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cultural and ethnic heritage, shaping values, skills, and knowledge in the field of cooperation with different cultures; cooperation with the family and the local community as well as parallel education institutions, and building relationships between the school and the world of work; engaging in educational and cultural activities for the development of the local community; shaping the ability to live in harmony with the natural environment, shaping health-promoting habits, and making efforts to equalize life chances for children, young people, and adults; organizing one’s own work and planning one’s own professional development; initiating innovative and reformatory activities and creative activities; examining the course and effectiveness of educational processes, organizing research conducted by the teacher, including action research, and internal evaluation; working alongside psychological and pedagogical teams within the school.

The teacher-educator in the context of the tasks of a modern school The tasks and functions of the school are most often considered from the point of view of pedagogical theory and practice. The school is sometimes criticized on the basis of reports on the state of education and the daily confrontation of the assumptions and expectations of the actors involved in education and the social environment with the real state and condition of the school in the context of the implementation of its basic tasks. The school is an institution where interactions between the present and an imagined future are particularly visible. By its very nature, the school is focused on anticipating emerging civilizational trends and new opportunities and is the main link in the educational changes that will prove equal to the challenges of the future. In the realities of dynamic social changes, the social role of the school is redefined; it ceases to be a space for the schematic transfer of knowledge, instead becoming a space in which the creative search for and independent construction of meanings can take place, alongside representing the social environment for young people to develop cultural understandings of the world. The tasks of the school articulated in program documents are subject to change. The International Commission on Education, commissioned by UNESCO and chaired by Jacques Delors, identified four main aspects of education in the 21st century: learning to know, doing, living together, and being. In the context of deliberations on the details of the implementation of the challenges described in the UNESCO report, possible forms of their implementation are often indicated, with an emphasis on the key competences of the teacher and

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the new functions of the school (e. g. Jabłon´ski, 2013). The mission of the school as a community of students, teachers, and parents is also discussed, and to a lesser extent the specific institutional reality of the Polish school in implementing educational reform and subject to the influence of official directives (Starnawski, 2006, p. 75). The school (as well as the whole of society) is immersed in the reality of the media. Recently, the tasks of the school have been assessed from the perspective of successes and failures of distance learning in response to conditions forced upon the school by the Covid-19 pandemic and the subsequent lockdowns that moved much of the educational world online. The degree of adaptation of the school management and teaching methods to the new conditions can be evaluated by conducting research at various levels (e. g. Nowak, 2021). The model of educational leadership is changing – from transactional, which is based on increasing the level of internal motivation, to transformational, focused on activity and the effectiveness of results, through commitment and reference to morality or values. Therefore, there is talk of new tasks of the head of the school in the context of educational reforms (Wasilewska-Kamin´ska and Marek, 2019). Leadership can be considered as a process of influencing other people, or as the characteristics of a leader (Jancarz-Łanczkowska and Potyrała, 2020). In the first case, attention is focused on the correctness and effectiveness of action, from the stage of formulating goals and choosing an action strategy, to the evaluation of the results of that action. The second aspect concerns the personal characteristics of the leader and their social competences, especially the interpersonal, which are conducive to effective influence on others (Szyman´ski, 2018, p. 259). The discussion of leadership leads back to the discussion of the modern school, since education is itself the process by which the leaders of tomorrow are formed through the involvement of the mind, emotions, previous experiences, sensitivity to operating conditions and to other people, while referring to the values accepted by a given community. The pedagogical and educational success of the school depends on the leadership efficiency of the head of the school. The functions of education and the school can be considered from a holistic and systemic perspective and can be reduced to an analysis of these functions in the context of basic theoretical concepts and research orientations: structural functionalism, conflict orientation, interpretive orientation, and the environmental approach. The social functions of education and the school can be considered across three dimensions: 1. socialization – treating education as a tool for shaping attitudes and values, 2. allocational – perceiving education as a tool for introducing individuals to social positions (schools, as allocational tools, place individuals in the social structure through the school selection mechanism, and the shape of the

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school structure, possible paths, selection thresholds and processes of educational choices are all analyzed), 3. institutional – presenting education and schools as bureaucratic social institutions that create the social order (Mikiewicz, 2016, p. 312–314). Structural functionalism, based on the assumption that the subject of social life is the system, shows education to be a system that regulates the socialization and allocation of individuals within the social structure, and is therefore based mainly on the social structure as a certain system and on explaining the functions of the elements of this system, or, in other words, society and culture. The basic features of the structural-functional approach boil down to the statement that schools are a tool to stimulate socialization: they shape a moral community and prepare individuals to function in society. Conflict theories place great emphasis on the study of change, conducting such study in parallel with the study of structures (Mucha, 1978). According to this orientation, the driving force in the present context is the struggle between different groups for power and position. The school occupies an important place in this struggle, because it remains in the service of the dominant class and enables social reproduction, creating the appearance of objectivity, equal opportunities, and neutrality (Feinberg, Soltis, 2000, p. 44). In analyses of this type, the functioning of the school is described in terms of oppression and domination. The school’s impact is based on the task of preparing employees for the labor market, so that education is subordinated to the needs of the market (Mikiewicz, 2017, p. 13). The perspective of interpretive orientation is interesting, as it is where education is considered a meeting place for individuals who determine the meanings and senses of the school reality in the process of interaction, and in which schools are social worlds, with each school being treated as a unique system of social relationships built on the basis of the knowledge, values, attitudes, and beliefs of the people who meet there. Thus, the school appears to be a social organization that creates specific conditions for defining the world and making decisions. The environmental approach assumes that the functioning of schools depends on the factors of the social environment, here perceived as a hierarchical local system, as well as on broader structural and cultural conditions – from the culture of the family to the culture of the general community. One feature of environmental theories is that they pay attention to the broad context of how people’s actions are conditioned. These theories emphasize the need to understand the local community, and the understanding thus attained forms the basis for a broader understanding of how global society works. Social change places new demands on the school regarding: – the scope of students’ knowledge,

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the type of skills students aquire, the level of competence they attain, preparation for social life and work, and relationships with other people.

It is often emphasized that in a changing society, the school becomes an important place in terms of: – social contact between students and their parents, – the shaping of attitudes, and – as a place for searching for, selecting, constructing, and systematizing knowledge. The advisory, environmental, and cultural functions of the school are important. The prevailing popular opinion is that the modern school does not meet social expectations. By emphasizing the inculcation of specific principles, rules, and ways of acting, the school does not care enough about the atmosphere it engenders or about the formation of appropriate interpersonal relationships. The school also does not cope with signs of aggression and violence as well as excessive competition (Szyman´ski 2021). Meanwhile, the school, through the implementation of educational tasks, is obliged to nurture and educate its charges, while preventing the emergence of counterproductive, problematic, and socially unacceptable behaviors (Kusztal 2016). Among the other important goals of education there is also the shaping of attitudes to consider, along with the development and refinement of knowledge and skills. The school supports the family in these areas and complements its influence (Słomski, 2011). The upbringing of the younger generation is the task of both the family and the school, the latter of which in its activities must take into account the will of parents but also of the state, whose duties include creating appropriate conditions for education (Journal of Laws of 2018, item 467). Upbringing can be understood as: 1. the process of human self-improvement, aimed at actualizing the fullness of a person’s humanity by discovering the truth about themselves and the world, 2. Meeting people, 3. Action programmatically oriented towards the implementation of specific ideals of upbringing, 4. intentional, comprehensive, and long-term human impact on the person in order to cause permanent changes to their behavior and internal mental processes, and 5. any deliberate influence of educators on their charges, with the aim of shaping desirable attitudes and values (education in the institutional layer) and ed-

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ucation as the broadly-understood context of these interactions (education in the non-institutionalized layer). Within the purpose of education, the place of human dignity is considered superior over all others, thus lending education a strong axiological basis. Since nothing must be allowed to take precedence over the value of a human being, the implication is respect both for one’s own dignity and the dignity of others (Chałas, 2021, p. 43). Human dignity is normative – it is a constant point of reference to reality. Treating a human being with dignity means that they are a subject in every life situation, they have freedom of choice, they cannot be used, and their rights must be respected, with this ensuring autonomy, freedom, and equality, in education as well as in the spheres of economic and social rights (Szczupał , 2017, p. 10). However, as Starnawski (2006, p. 81) writes, in practice, education is minimized or almost completely eliminated in favor of utilitarian purposes – the task of the school is increasingly reduced to preparing students for further education (by way of examinations) or for obtaining professional qualifications – and the school becomes accountable for the achievement of these goals. Upbringing becomes, at best, a supplementary activity, one that is often troublesome and simulated (an example here are so-called parenting lessons), which prevents the school from achieving a good place in rankings that evaluate its effectiveness. In the context of the educational tasks of the school, the evolution can be seen of priorities due to the development of ICT, sudden global crises caused by pandemic and war, and the need to strengthen the digital safety of children and young people. For example, in 1999 (according to core curriculum), it was emphasized that “teachers in their educational work, supporting the duties of parents in this respect, must aim at ensuring that students, in particular: find an environment for comprehensive personal development at school (intellectual, mental, social, health aesthetic, moral, spiritual), prepare themselves to recognize moral values, make choices and prioritize values, and have the opportunity to improve themselves. These provisions refer to the view that the school’s tasks cannot be limited only to conveying subject-specific knowledge and showing threats in a world dominated by new technologies, but should also concern the formation of active attitudes of young people, characterized by personal culture, respect for the rights of other people in the network, and related to the correct use of language” (Tadeusiewicz 2003). In 2009 (according to core curriculum), the school’s tasks included preparing students for life in the information society, communicating the importance of scientific information and the proper use of knowledge resources, and media education was emphasized. The prevailing view was that teachers should create the right conditions for students to acquire the ability to search for, organize, and

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use information from various sources, using ICTs across the curriculum rather than solely in IT-specific classes. The implementation of the above objectives were to be supported by a well-equipped school library with up-to-date collections, both in the form of a book collection and in the form of multimedia resources. Teachers of all subjects were to refer to the resources of the school library and cooperate with librarians in order to prepare their students comprehensively for self-education and the conscious search for, selection, and use of information. Since mass media play an increasingly important role both in social and individual life, it was thought that every teacher should devote a lot of attention to media education, i. e. educating students so that they could receive and use media in an appropriate manner. It can therefore be concluded that the role of the teacher in the multilateral development of the student has been emphasized for many years, and educational priorities, although not always articulated, clearly indicate the educational and not the teaching mission of the school (Potyrała, 2017, p. 120). This all becomes especially important in a situation of crisis of values and authorities, so gradually, despite the flood of e-books, digital textbooks, and remote lessons, equipping students with reading competences necessary for the critical reception of literary works and other cultural texts, or taking action aimed at awakening a love of reading in students and activities conducive to increasing the reading activity of students, shaping the attitude of a mature and responsible reader, one prepared for an open dialogue with a literary work. Although the tasks of the school are largely focused on creating conditions for students to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to solve problems using methods and techniques derived from computer science, including logical and algorithmic thinking, programming, using computer applications, searching for and using information from different sources, the preparation of students nonetheless to make informed and responsible choices when using resources available on the Internet, critically analyzing information, moving safely in the digital space, including establishing and maintaining relationships with other network users based on mutual respect, becomes crucial. The school begins to expand its tasks to encompass actions aimed at individualized support for the development of each student according to their needs and capabilities, and adapting teaching to the psychophysical abilities and learning pace of students with disabilities, including students with mild intellectual disabilities. Schools all over the world, experiencing the sudden situation of the pandemic, focused largely on shaping students’ pro-health attitudes, including introducing them to hygienic behaviors that are safe for their own and other people’s health, and also consolidating knowledge in the field of proper nutrition, the benefits of physical activity, and the use of prophylaxis.

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The need to select the forms of the individualization of teaching resulting from the recognition of the potential of each student can be noticed. If the teacher makes it possible for the student to achieve success to the best of their abilities, then that student has a chance for general and educational development. According to most documents (e. g. Journal of Laws of 2018, item 467), a modern school cares about educating young people in the spirit of acceptance and respect for other people, shapes an attitude of respect for the natural environment, motivates to act for environmental protection, develops interest in ecology, creates conditions for students to acquire knowledge and skills needed to solve problems using methods and techniques derived from computer science. An important aspect is the ability to make informed and responsible choices when using the resources available on the Internet, critically analyzing information, moving safely in the digital space, including establishing and maintaining relationships with other network users based on mutual respect, taking actions aimed at individualized supporting the development of each student, according to their needs and capabilities, and providing students with disabilities with optimal working conditions.

Trends in the changes to the functions and tasks of the modern teacher Changes in the functions and tasks of teachers point to three main trends: (1) individualization and personalization; (2) moving from an attitude of scientific certainty to seeking and creating knowledge; (3) replacing the attitude of dominance with the attitude of empathy, negotiation, dialogue, and openness to social and educational changes and to people’s needs. The activities of the teacher in stimulating and inspiring the student’s development, shaping their cognitive and existential responsibility, aiming at introducing order in information and introducing the student to the world of knowledge, are brought to the forefront. The new quality of the teacher’s tasks should now be understood not only in the pedagogical plane, related to the teacher-student relationship and the teaching-learning process, but also in the sociological plane, related to the preparation of individuals for responsible living and building a knowledge society, and in the psychological plane, related to the teacher’s attitude towards themselves (Mercer and Gregersen, 2020) and the development of competences. All the functions and the resulting tasks can be performed by an engaged teacher, actively participating in social life, taking up challenges related to stimulating students’ competence to creatively and reflectively participate in

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changes while respecting their subjectivity and the specificity of the environment. The efficient implementation of functions and tasks requires shifting the focus of the teacher’s work from lessons and didactic activities, which dominate in traditional pedagogy, towards a clear increase in the importance of educational, protective, and therapeutic functions. The school should cease to be an institution where knowledge is transferred in a schematic way, but instead should become a place of creative exploration and self-construction, as well as an environment of social life of young people proceeding according to cultural patterns set by the school and external influences, a place of critical analysis of reality, teaching life, alternative thinking, critical distance to reality, and specifying the goals and plans of one’s own development. The ability to see and understand students’ problems and to help solve them greatly affects the effectiveness of the teacher’s work. An indispensable precondition for the achievement of educational success is the ability to subordinate classes to the needs of their participants (c.f.: Paltridge and Starfield, 2013; Is¸ıkTas¸i Kenny, 2020; Anthony, 2018, p. 46). In the changing world of education, the teacher should support the individual responsibility of the student, emancipating them from their limitations, stimulating innovation and autonomy. An important task and goal of the teacher’s work is to prepare students for the appropriate use of the freedom they will soon enjoy, and dealing with manipulation from external agents. Therefore, the teacher must be open both to phenomena that disrupt the perception of a wellorganized world, and to unexpected dynamism and spontaneity. There do seem to be questions about the role of the teacher as a guide and social and professional advisor. These stem from the observable weakness of educational activities, the growth in threats to learning outcomes, and the increasingly pervasive sense of human powerlessness in the face of events that cannot readily be controlled or in fact prepared for, such as the recent pandemic. Such questions are important, especially in a situation where a student is the subject of education as well as being the subject of various influences not only within the school, but of the entire dynamically-changing social reality, in which different, often contradictory models of human attitudes, life goals, and orientations, different models of careers and meanings of life, all function simultaneously and interactively. This often puts the teacher in the position of being an advisor to students; their task requires them to provide advice, help, and support in the face of the complex problems encountered during the implementation of different tasks. Young people currently function in a dynamically changing media space. The list of digital media that young people must navigate includes forms familiar to the older generation, such as television programs, and forms that are highly novel and present unique challenges both to the consumer of such material and to

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those tasked with educating those consumers – and here we speak of the sorts of applications and social media platforms that are disseminated via the smartphone. While many of these platforms can be used to enhance and stimulate creativity and allow for social relationships with peers and adults, there is also a dark side, and it is now the teacher’s task to monitor their students’ use of and engagement with these platforms to ensure that they do not come to overwhelm the sensibilities of these young people.

The teacher in the face of changing functions and tasks The functioning of a teacher in the changing school requires action for the community of learners, reflection on the repertoire of the teacher’s own experiences and competences (Szempruch 2022a), continuous development, and reference to new opportunities and an as-yet unclear future. This is a qualitatively new challenge for teacher education. Becoming and then being a teacher is a process with a beginning but no concrete end. This means that teacher education must focus on analyzing the views of teachers, reconstructing existing representations of the world, changing the knowledge of teachers in a qualitative way via encouraging the teacher to take ownership of their achievement of goals, and providing opportunities for teachers to become reflective practitioners while they are still engaged in their initial studies. This will make continuous professional development more feasible, as it will continue an already-established habit (Szempruch 2022c). In the discourse on teacher professionalism, much space is devoted to the conditions of the emancipation of teachers from the limitations they have experienced, to new fields of personal and collective freedom. A teacher prepared to perform new functions and tasks creates opportunities for the development of a student at school who is capable of being effective and innovative both in private and public life, as an autonomous, free, creative, open, and independent person. Meeting these expectations requires the constant improvement and refinement of the teacher’s competence, sensitivity, and imagination, as well as their ability to reflect on themselves as a teacher and to reflect about the world. Self-reflection requires courage and distance, but if done correctly it opens access to the sources of myths contained in the teacher’s thinking, allows deeply-rooted stereotypes to be revealed, and allows for a deeper understanding of the causes of internal tensions and frustrations. Through selfreflection, the teacher can build a unique individuality and make conscious and responsible choices, which are often accompanied by dilemmas, a sense of loneliness, and the need to overcome many fears and educational resistance. In these activities, it is important to be aware of the basic problems that occur in the

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modern world, so that perspective can be achieved regarding local problems. Doing so will help the teacher to show their students the various possibilities for individual development, encouraging them to search for their own identity and for a program of self-realization. Knowledge of the functions and tasks of a teacher who is involved in the process of socialization and inculturation of children and young people is undergoing dynamic change. Scientific research conducted with the participation of teachers allows for a reliable description and explanation of observed reality and the creation of universal ideas and values, as well as the implementation of experimental, advisory, and creative activities. This facilitates the implementation of the teacher’s tasks in terms of showing students the directions of changes in the world and education and explaining the phenomena occurring in their context. It is when this happens that the school has a chance to become a place of creative exploration and the self-construction of knowledge, as well as an environment for the social life of young people proceeding according to cultural patterns set by the school and external influences. Already in the last century, the recommendations of the report entitled Learning to be indicated the new tasks of the teacher, consisting in working with the student, which means “learning how to live; learning how to learn” – to be able to absorb new knowledge throughout life, “learning to think freely and critically” (Faure 1975, p. 159). This means the need to prepare students for lifelong learning, providing them with the development of individual personality spheres needed to live in the dynamically–developing contemporary world and teaching them to look towards the European and global future by providing young people with knowledge about Europe and the world. The tasks indicated should be carried out by the teacher in cooperation with the family education system, institutions supporting the development of children and young people, institutions of direct promotion of culture and art (e. g. the cinema, the theatre, the philharmonic, museums), institutions and mass communication media, and so forth. Contemporary educational and social reality requires the teacher to extend their tasks regarding the educational and caring functions and to interpret the cognitive function in a different way. They face new, difficult tasks, such as showing each student their own way of learning, in accordance with cognitive needs, solving many problems resulting from social, cultural, and economic changes, changing educational needs, and the need to refer to parallel and continuing education. The teacher in the new paradigm of education cannot focus solely on transferring knowledge. The teacher instead is to become more of a diagnostician, a specialist in helping students in their critical perception of reality, and discovering, analyzing, and interpreting concepts and meanings. This prepares stu-

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dents to ask reflective questions, control their own conduct, and reflect on their actions and thinking, and it teaches them to plan for the future. The special role of the teacher is to create a new reality – creative, innovative, and at the same time referencing the future and prospects for development. The teacher is faced with the task of taking care of the cognitive development of their students, their creative thinking, social imagination, and emotional sensitivity, and the related development of tolerance for differences. In the context of the complexity and opacity of the world, the teacher should develop in students the competence to cope with stress, difficult situations, and unexpected events and failures. The teacher is expected to implement the MasterStudent relationship, which is the basis for thinking about education and the ability to use tutoring as one of the forms of personalized education (Kolasa 2022, pp. 215–226). Changes in the teacher’s functions and tasks are aimed at emphasizing teaching in real life, multilateral activity and independence, and supporting young people in shaping their educational and life plans. The implementation of these tasks becomes a difficult but necessary challenge and an opportunity for pedagogical progress. For the teacher there must be a shift from the concern with transferring knowledge from the expert (the teacher) to the recipient (the student), towards teaching students how to independently produce and apply knowledge, as well as teaching the ability to navigate the world of information with its multiplicities and contradictions, its conflicts of values and interests. The teacher becomes more of an interpreter of the world, one who respects the autonomy and individuality of learners; a diagnostician, a consultant, a specialist in the creation and selection of teaching aids; a person who facilitates learning by creating an educational environment in which there is both freedom and a certain discipline invariably accompanying every human action. The teaching profession has changed dramatically in recent years. Entrusting teachers with additional duties is currently driven by new requirements and expectations placed on the school itself, with these mostly resulting from social commitments – the integration of students with special educational needs, educating an increasingly diverse population of students, increasing migration, the massive influx of refugees fleeing war, to speak of but a few. The new task of the teacher is to work in changing social conditions in response to new issues and to perform social functions that are either unfamiliar or unknown. There is a need to meet new expectations and requirements. The modern teacher faces the challenges and tasks of building common symbolic spaces in the specific conditions of multiculturalism and opposition to xenophobia, nationalism, discrimination, fanaticism, and segregation.

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It is important for teachers of each and every educational level to educate their students about and into culture, as well as to sensitize the students to cultural differences. Cultural diversity is growing in ubiquity and Poland especially is no longer the monocultural domain that it may once have been. Combining transcultural components has become a specific task in the process of the formation of identity. One of the greatest tasks of modern education is to develop in students an understanding of foreign cultures and to help students to develop and maintain contact with the unknown and different. While understanding may once have sufficed, today it is important to go further. The basis is always interactions, closely related to the sphere of experiences, beliefs, feelings, and values that create a complex network of rules organizing the world of practices. Education is a meeting place for individuals who determine the meanings and senses of school reality in the process of interaction, and schools are social worlds where school meanings and cultures are created (Szempruch 2013). Changes taking place in the school lead to changes in the expectations of teachers regarding teamwork and cooperation with other teachers in the performance of certain tasks, e. g. interschool cooperation and cooperation with the school’s social environment. Necessary changes also concern increasing the autonomy of teachers in teaching matters, enabling them to participate more effectively in the creation of curricula, the need for them to take on new daily duties, e. g. supervising the work of newly hired teachers and placing greater demands on them in such areas as teamwork, time spent at school, and participation in the preparation of a school development plan, etc. However, expanding the possibilities of choosing solutions in the area of didactics should not be confused with obtaining greater individual freedoms. On the contrary, these new team responsibilities actually limit the ability of individual teachers to make decisions in the classroom. Where schools detail elements of the curriculum such as learning content, lesson allocation, and assessment, teachers are required to cooperate in a way that limits their individual independence in working inside the classroom. The significant changes discussed so far that have visibly extended the scope of the work of the teacher, are the result of various factors, including the autonomy of schools, the search for ways to improve the quality of education and entrusting schools with new social responsibilities, and the need to direct schools to educate individuals who will need to adapt to the rapid changes of the social world – creatively and responsibly functioning in a changing world and possessing lifelong learning competences. These changes lead to new expectations placed on the school as an institution, which is expected to develop flexible and creative individuals, and for the teacher there is the need to constantly explore and create reality, its critical assessment, and designing changes. The evolution of the

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teacher’s functions and tasks has become a difficult but necessary challenge and an opportunity for pedagogical progress.

The qualifications and competences of the modern teacher In moving towards a holistic school that fulfils specific tasks, the education of teachers should take into account the new scope of knowledge (in the form of qualifications) and the competences that are required. Cooperation within the school community and with external partners, especially parents, should be part of the professional development of teachers (Niemi, 2015). As Kwas´nica (2015, p. 30) writes, “It is good to belong to a community of meaning and to feel one’s own roots in it – good, because thanks to this we do not feel like strangers and, when making individual decisions, we can count on them being understood and accepted by the group we belong to. This is what young people really need, which is why we include this goal in the principles of the holistic school.” Holistic school pedagogy also emphasizes the importance of the whole school community for best pedagogical practice in schools (Tirri, 2011). In all recent core curricula and legal acts, priority has been given to the holistic development of the student: moral, social, and emotional. However, it remains unclear how these tasks should be carried out within the multidimensional role of the teacher and the changing school environment, especially during the recent pandemic. While curriculum documentation in many countries recognizes the centrality of holistic development in the teacher’s work, some research indicates that holistic student development takes place outside the classroom and is largely dependent on the ‘goodwill’ of the teacher (O’Flaherty & McCormack, 2019). In many European countries, education aims to support the development of the whole person, not just their cognitive domain. This type of education recognizes the importance of social and affective spheres in the development of students, including their emotional and spiritual problems. Schools are seen to be under pressure to create safe, structured, and effective learning environments where students can acquire the social skills that will enable them to succeed in and out of school. Over the past two decades, student and teacher populations have become increasingly diverse. Schools today face the challenge of creating pedagogical environments that are sensitive to many individual concerns to support students’ social and academic success. Students benefit when they are supported by a caring teacher and friendly school environment (Noddings, 1992, Tirri and Husu, 2006). School conditions cover the physical environment and the school environment, as well as the physical elements related to the safety of the working environment. Holistic school pedagogy includes education for values and shaping the worldview of students (Tirri, 2011).

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The discussion of holistic education should focus on the issues mentioned above and their implications for teacher education. It seems that the higher education paradigm does not encourage a change in thinking about teacher education and does not stimulate consistency in the different fields of pedagogy and educational practice. Meanwhile, teacher education should stimulate a change in teachers’ perspectives and attitudes and how they understand the workings of the learning and teaching process as it moves towards the goal of education, which is to nurture human potential in the most comprehensive sense (Schreiner, 2009). Standards of teacher education and the quality of teaching are now at the center of the educational debate in many countries. There is a renewed discussion about how schools work, what foundations for professional teaching are needed, and what qualifications teachers should have. Questions about the competences of the teacher-educator still remain unanswered. Korthagen (2004) argues that the answers may vary depending on the context, and that it may even be impossible or pedagogically undesirable to formulate a definitive description of a “good teacher”, and that any attempt to describe the essential qualities of a good teacher should take into account different levels that are fundamentally different from the person making the description. Teacher education is based on combining knowledge from different disciplines, especially pedagogy and psychology. In this context, it should be noted that new developments in psychology and psychotherapy have not had much impact on mainstream teacher education thinking. There are now many attempts around the world to describe these characteristics with lists of competences, an approach that seems to be strongly supported by decision makers. For many years there have been doubts about the validity, reliability, and practicality of such lists, and some researchers have questioned whether it is really possible to describe the characteristics of good teachers in terms of competence (e. g. Barnett, 1994). Around the middle of the 20th century, the “performance-based” or “competence-based” model began to gain ground in teacher education. The idea was that specific, observable behavioral criteria could be used as a basis for training new teachers. Research was conducted to identify the pedagogical behaviors that correlated mostly strongly with learning outcomes, and this translated into the set of specific competences that teachers should acquire. However, this idea led to serious problems. In order to ensure sufficient accuracy and reliability in teacher assessment, long, detailed lists of skills were created, which gradually resulted in a kind of fragmentation of the tasks faced by teachers. In practice, these long lists turned out to be unwieldy. Moreover, it became increasingly evident that this view of teaching did not sufficiently take into account that a good teacher cannot simply be described in terms of some isolated competence that can be learned over many training sessions, and that the assumption that expert methods can be directly transferred

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to novice teachers is wrong (Korthagen, 2004, p. 79). Even more so in the work of a pedagogue-educator, teacher’s behavior can be understood only when the context of that behavior is taken into account in the interpretation, so this model cannot be too rigid. Kwiecin´ski’s words (2000, p. 269) have a universal character: “What is needed is a wise, critical, sensitive and competent educator, but not only as a reliable guide, but more as a translator […]. There is no contradiction between the two roles […]. The youngest and weaker need a guide more, the older and robust – an interpreter.” Due to the constant stream of new challenges faced by the teaching staff of schools and universities, there have been myriad attempts in the Polish literature on the subject to catalog teaching competences, e. g. the catalog of key teacher competences (Walczak, 2018) or the (2003) areas of competence of the modern teacher (after Jancarz-Łanczkowska and Potyrała, 2021): substantive competences; psychological and pedagogical competences; diagnostic competences related to getting to know students and their environment; competence in the field of planning and design; teaching and methodological competences; communication competences; competences related to the control of students’ achievements and the qualitative measurement of school work; competence in designing and evaluating school curricula and textbooks; and autodidactic competences related to professional development. It should also be noted that the competences listed are not mutually exclusive – some skills included in one group occur to some extent others (Strykowski, Strykowska, and Pielachowski, 2003, p. 32). Though there is validity in these competences, despite our changing social reality, they do require continuous and mutual improvement. Professional development for teachers is a lifelong process that begins with initial teacher education and ends in retirement. Generally, this process is divided into stages. The first stage concerns the preparation of teachers during their studies, where those who want to become teachers acquire basic knowledge and skills. The second stage represents the first independent steps taken into the teaching profession, the first years of confrontation with the reality of the school. This phase is generally called the induction phase. The third phase is the continuing professional development phase for those teachers who have overcome the initial challenges of the profession (European Commission, 2010, p. 3). Adopting a holistic perspective means recognizing that no one direction or view can influence the whole picture of the educational landscape on its own. Multiple and integrated perspectives are essential in approaching knowledge. Therefore, the “levels of change model” seems to be valid, as it explains that from each perspective, the answer to the question about the essential features of a good teacher is different, but it is also possible to look at different perspectives in parallel (Fig. 1).

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mission iden!ty beliefs competence behavior

Fig. 1. Change levels model (according to Korthagen, 2004)

The external levels can influence the internal levels: the environment can influence the behavior of the teacher, and through sufficient repetition of behavior, the ability to use that behavior in other circumstances develops as well. However, the contrary effect can also occur – that is, from the inside outwards. For example, someone’s behavior can influence the environment (a teacher who praises a child can influence that child), and competence determines the behavior that the teacher is able to demonstrate. Holistic education is largely based on a critique of modern education and the promotion of a comprehensive understanding of knowledge, teaching, and learning, and affirms spirituality, values, and attitudes. Looking for a way for professional teachers to be able to fulfil the school’s tasks, this approach is gaining popularity by promoting dialogue, a spiral of action and reflection based on experience and awareness, along with a focus on change. Research by Rerke et al. (2020) found that teachers’ willingness to introduce changes and innovations in their professional activities and their level of creativity depend on their motivation to achieve success, value orientation, and willingness to take reasonable risks. Attention was drawn to the internal and external problems that teachers encounter in applying creative innovations in their work. External factors include problems of a material and technical nature, problems caused by the specificity of pedagogical activity (including the dependence of innovation on its perception by children, rejection of innovation by parents, and lack of support from school authorities). Internal factors include problems with preparation for creative teaching (such as a lack of sufficient knowledge in the fields of pedagogy and psychology), and a lack of theoretical and practical readiness for innovation.

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Taking into account the various tasks faced by the educator, Jancarz-Łanczkowska and Potyrała (2020, p. 81) outline the competence profile of the classroom educator, which is presented in Table 1. Table 1. Competence profile of a classroom teacher (according to Jancarz-Łanczkowska and Potyrała (2020, p. 81) Competence Professional knowledge

Skills/ Professional practices

Attitudes/ Professional identity

Description The teacher: – has knowledge of developmental psychology, the course of the group process, group management, solving conflicts, coping with stress, the use of motivational techniques; – knows the basis of the relevant law, in particular the rules for ensuring student safety; – knows the mechanisms of development processes and methods of assessment and evaluation The teacher: – manages and coordinates the group process; – monitors and observes the group process; – uses knowledge from pedagogical research in practice teaching; – works with other teachers, parents, and other external entities, e. g. psychological and pedagogical counseling centers; – is able to provide constructive feedback; – knows how to work under stress; – can make decisions quickly; – is able to argue his own opinion; – uses techniques of creative problem solving; – has negotiation skills; – has reflective, metacognitive, interpersonal skills in individual and diverse learning communities The teacher: – demonstrates awareness of values and norms of behavior; – is open to change, shows a willingness to constantly learn and to engage in professional development, including research and observation; – shows commitment to promoting learning for all students; – promotes an attitude of sensitivity and openness among students towards one another; – shows a critical approach to their own learning process and understands the need for continuous development; – promotes the attitudes of cooperation and teamwork among students, and work in networks of cooperation; – has a sense of self-efficacy

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The components of educational professionalism are not acquired holistically during initial teacher-training studies, but must be developed throughout life. They focus on aspects of professional identity (self-awareness, self-esteem, and self-efficacy) and key competences (the ability to act and cooperate effectively, social and emotional intelligence, and communication skills) (Jancarz-Łanczkowska and Potyrała, 2020, p. 119).

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Chapter Six: Identity as a task in times of rapid social change

The question “Who am I?” is, of all existential questions, perhaps the most commonly asked. No two people are perfectly alike, and living among other people who differ so greatly, have their own goals and aspirations, preferences for different activities, and ways of being in society, is far from easy. The difficulty is immeasurably increased when an individual experiences personality shocks or passes through major life events. The question “Who am I?” also becomes more and more insistent in times of rapid social change. Radical changes in society undermine the stability of the existence of every human being. These changes force the individual into a state of constant reaction and adaptation, redefining their place and way of functioning in society. This finds its expression in the individual’s narrative, which, though generally consistent, will require its own adaptation to changing life situations. “The instability of conditions and circumstances on a macro scale undoubtedly intensifies the transparency of identification processes – verifying existing answers, looking for new ones” (Hopfinger 2013, p5). Wojciech Burszta writes that it is necessary to take social changes into account in identity research, because it is dangerous to “not notice the changes taking place today or to underestimate their consequences for the conditions of the possibility of narrative identity” (Burszta 2004, p. 30). Despite the changes that affect human identity, the analysis of identity makes sense because “it is a testimony to the uniqueness of each human life” (Jakubowski 2016, p. 25). In a rapidly changing society, the individual feels increasing tension and anxiety, and will be assailed by fears around the maintenance of the standard of life that they have become accustomed to. As Anthony Giddens writes, “These feelings are often accompanied by the individual’s fear of being annihilated, consumed, crushed or flooded by external events” (Giddens 2010, p. 76).

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Social change as a call for continuous construction of one’s own “I” In a constantly changing social reality, people must constantly respond to change. Zygmunt Bauman writes, “In a kaleidoscopically changing world, one has to ‘position oneself ’, self-define oneself again and again. Self-determination is a lifelong task, undertaken without hope of completion and well-deserved rest. Therefore, it would be more correct to talk about the obligation of self-determination [author’s emphasis]. Such an obligation, even in the best of circumstances, plunges a person and tugs at the nerves” (Bauman 2007, p. 65). Bauman’s sentiments may come across as overly fatalistic, especially given the fact that facing new challenges can be as much a cause for optimism as for pessimism. With changes come the opportunity to correct previous mistakes, to make new judgments and choices, to secure additional chances for gaining social recognition. Mirosława Nowak-Dziemianowicz (2016), referring to the theory of the German philosopher Honneth, expresses her belief that it is the relationships of recognition that constitute intersubjective conditions in which an individual may need recognition, often feels a deficit of recognition, and fights for recognition. In doing so, the individual constructs their identity. The questions “Who am I?” and “Who am I becoming?” are closely linked to the idea of identity. The French philosopher Paul Ricoeur perceived this in two ways: as l’ipséité – the difference of one’s own person in relation to others, or la mêmeté – the difference in perceiving oneself at different times (Ricoeur 1992). These kinds of questions and their answers have become scientifically more interesting in the development of modern society. In sociology, they interested George Mead and Charles Cooley, as reflected in their analyses of the problems of the self. In psychology, the issue of identity in a broader dimension was dealt with only by Erik H. Erikson (1956, 1968). In previous eras, as Zygmunt Bokszan´ski (2005, p. 7) and Zygmunt Bauman (2001, p. 8) have noticed, the issue of identity, as well as the problems of social change, seemed of little importance, or were even thought of as trivial. In pre-modern society, as Bokszan´ski writes, social reality and its study “did not require the adoption of a thesis about an active, creative individual or collective subject.” (2005, p7) This was associated with relatively slow changes in social reality, in which people routinely fulfilled their roles, and repeated generally accepted patterns of behavior appropriate to their social position and place in the social structure. In recent decades, we have begun to deal more with a change whose abruptness, scope, and many-sided nature have not been matched in the entire history of mankind. These changes have taken on a revolutionary character, causing radical changes in institutions and environments, in social, economic, cultural, and political processes, in interactions between people, in conditions, quality,

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and style of human life, and in the means and directions in which the social identity of individuals and communities is constructed. Piotr Sztompka, writing about the social changes observed today, states that they concern all “kinds of tissues” that permeate and unite every society. They are ideas, rules, actions, and interests. Within these four dimensions, the following features can readily be observed in the context of the rapid changes affecting society today: – the constant formulation, consolidation, or modification of ideas, together with the emergence and disappearance of ideologies, value systems, doctrines, and theories, – ongoing institutionalization that involves the perception or rejection of norms, values, and rules, along with changes in moral and legal codes, – the emergence, differentiation, and modification of channels of interaction, organizational connections, and group ties, the formation and dissolution of groups, circles, and interpersonal networks, and the flattening of social hierarchies (Sztompka 2005, p. 26).

The importance of globalization One of the main reasons for the intensification of social change in our time is globalization. Globalization is the process of dynamic growth of ties and the interdependence of countries and communities around the world. It has several main dimensions: economic, political, and cultural. The economic dimension means the intensification of financial operations worldwide, global production and consumption, the abolition of customs barriers and the expansion of free trade zones, the creation of transnational production and service corporations, and the expansion of the division of labor beyond the borders of countries and continents. This is accompanied by the transfer of ideas and values as well as other elements of late modern culture in the global space. The processes of social mobility and the creation of new and unstable forms of living are intensifying. There is an uncontrolled mixing of patterns of local and regional culture and global tendencies. Within this framework, the flow of original, living cultural content takes place, and at the same time the unification of ways of life, fashion, the modeling of one’s own body, patterns of behavior, and life aspirations takes place. In the political dimension, apart from the impact of such institutions as the United Nations or the European Union which guide and to some extent regulate the functioning of states and national communities, the importance of foundations, associations, and various other non-governmental organizations is growing. Social movements have emerged with great strength and wide-ranging influence.

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As Agnieszka Cybal-Michalska notes, there are numerous connections between global problems and the fate of individuals. These are bilateral relationships that go from “person” to “planet” and from “planet” to “person”. The actions of individuals contribute to what are referred to as global problems and, conversely, the reality of the modern world determines the conditions of the existence of individuals. Of particular importance here are: demographic problems, the state of the economy, excessive exploitation of natural resources, environmental devastation, the growing risk of armed conflicts and nuclear war, the increasing risk of civilization diseases, the problem of growing poverty, marginalization and famine, terrorism and organized crime, the emergence of new superpowers, the collapse of market mechanisms, and the growing social and economic disparities between a small group of particularly privileged people and a large part of the world’s population living in poverty. According to the author, this increases the need to adopt new lifestyle patterns that would take into account “global awareness” and the consideration of one’s own person, one’s own nation, culture and contemporary civilization in the context of an integrated global system (Cybal-Michalska 2006, pp. 67–68). The intensification of the processes of globalization is associated with radical changes in communication processes related to the acceleration and increase in the range of new information and communication technologies. The creation and development of a global network society (Castells 2010, Van Dijk 2006, Van Dijk 2010) means both new conditions and previously unknown possibilities of information transfer, social contacts, collaboration, and cooperation. According to Krystyna Doktorowicz, new media have a great impact on social life and “often become the cause of new social divisions, resistance, deconstruction of traditional social ties, the emergence of new communities or the increase of intergenerational differences. In the 21st century, mass media (mainly television) and the Internet have become one of the most important elements of the project of social and individual reality with all its benefits and threats” (Doktorowicz 2015, p. 14). Participation in the virtual world affects the identity of the individual. Internet users whose greatest social interactions occur online – such as in online games, or through growing a personal brand on social media platforms may experience identity changes to an even greater extent than others. Wacław Branicki believes that this may even lead to “dilution” or identity disturbance, which may occur when a person is too invested in the virtual space. The reason is the almost unlimited, in terms of quantity and time, possibilities of changing the forms constructed in virtuality (Branicki 2009, p. 219).

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Liberation of individualism One phenomenon typical of modern times, the volatility of society on a global, regional, and local scale, is accompanied by a similar process that concerns the individual. In a traditional society, the individual’s development and functioning were strictly modeled according to patterns characterized by states or social classes, national and ethnic affiliation, relationship with a religious group, regional and local culture, and place of residence. As Anthony Giddens (2010) has shown, modernity has created numerous breaches in these conditions. Already at its threshold, in the Enlightenment, Denis Diderot, opposing all dogmas and enslavement by tradition, called for independent thinking, and Jean Jacques Rousseau appealed for people to base their actions on their own judgments. As modernity developed, identification with a class or other group structure waned in strength, with individualism thus waxing brighter and stronger, which, as Bokszan´ski suggests, made individualism an “integral component of modernity” (Bokszan´ski, 2007, p. 35). This individualism was associated with the promotion of the idea of freedom, greater respect for the subjectivity of every human being, increasing civil rights, and the increasing autonomy of individuals. Such a shift required a relatively radical departure from identity standards, with the German sociologist Hartmut Rosa even suggesting that modernist transformations of society forced changes in identity (Rosa 2013, p. 5).

Increasing tensions and identity crises In the modern period, the influence was paramount of that ideology that proclaimed the power of reason, the achievements of science, faith in the possibility of the continuous, rational transformation of social and natural reality, and the belief in the need and possibility of increasing man’s control over the world. This lent adherents of Enlightenment thinking a sense of optimism and strength. However, there were feelings and moods that were completely the opposite. This was caused by the increasing ambiguity of social and moral reasoning in support of the making of personal choices. The resulting increase in individual responsibility for one’s own non-standard actions could be felt. This was inevitably associated with a growing sense of uncertainty, risk associated with the occurrence of new situations, the need for constant choices, a sense of lack of social support, and even loneliness. Jerzy Baradziej notes that these experiences are particularly strong when a person is no longer reassuringly certain about a particular social affiliation (Baradziej 2008, p. 232). He refers to Maslow, who wrote about the “destructive impact of too frequent relocations, disorientation,

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general over-mobility forced by industrialization [one of the main attributes of modernity – note M.J.Sz], about the harmfulness of having no roots or despising one’s roots, his background, his group, being detached from his home and family, friends and neighbors, being an immigrant or a newcomer rather than a settled person” (Maslow 1990, p. 83). This situation largely applies to, for example, the very large group of young Poles who left our country during the political transformation, looking for a better place to live in the world. The intensification of postmodern trends has significantly intensified and increased the cope of these changes. In this world, which Bauman calls “liquid modernity”, nothing can last long while maintaining the same shape. “Everything or almost everything in our world changes: the fashions we follow and the objects we pay attention to … the things we dream about and dislike, the things that give us hope and those that fill us with anxiety. The conditions in which we live, work and try to plan our future are also changing, in which we connect with some people and disconnect (or become disconnected) from others. […] In short, our world, the world of liquid modernity, constantly surprises us: what today seems certain and in the right place, tomorrow may turn out to be a pitiful mistake, something fluid and absurd. We suspect that this may happen, so we feel that just like the world that is our home, we, its inhabitants, and from time to time its designers, actors, users and victims, must be constantly prepared for changes, we must be, according to the recently fashionable term ‘flexible’” (Bauman 2011, pp. 5–6). This necessity for flexible adaptation to the changing face of the natural, technical, social, and political world results in the inevitability of the continuous development, transformation, and modification of identity. “The identity of modern people is becoming more and more fragile, delicate and fluid, just as the times in which we live are fluid. It ceases to be stable, “given” once and for all. In this context, it seems that we are dealing with a continuous construction of identity, its construction and reconstruction. While in the modernist era it was a monolith, in the postmodern era it becomes fragmented, differentiated, and unstable” (Hejwosz-Gromkowska 2014, p. 11).

Opposing directions of the influence of reality These issues have been addressed many times by Anthony Giddens in his works. In his opinion, life in the world of late modernity brings to the idea of identity many tensions and problems. He perceives them as dilemmas resulting from the individual’s position in the sphere of opposing directions of influence of the surrounding reality. Giddens recognizes that they are expressed through different dimensions: unification vs. fragmentation, powerlessness vs. control, authority vs. uncertainty, and personal experience vs. marketized experience.

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The dramatic existential situation of a person wishing – as the author says – to “implement his identity project” consists in the fact that “the reflective aspirations of an individual to implement an identity project take place in a technically professional, but morally sterile social environment” (Giddens 2010, p. 275). Giddens believes that, in a collision with the dilemmas of reality, even the most careful life plans may be threatened by a lack of the sense of one’s own life. The opposing dimensions of the reality in which the individual functions are therefore of great importance. One of the planes that hinder the formation of identity in our times is the tension inherent in the overlapping of influences that aim at the unification of lifestyle against its fragmentation. Under the influence of globalization, the influence of the media, the Internet, patterns of pop culture, advertising and fashion, an individual can take advantage of the situation when “the world is open” in a variety of ways. Certain enclaves of reality can be focused on and attached with special importance. The individual’s choices may be conducive to identity integration but can also lead to its dispersion. Unification requires the protection and restructuring of the identity narrative within a posttraditional order in which there are infinite possibilities. Dispersion may be associated with the functioning of an individual in many environments and different situations that require different behaviors. By repeating behaviors adapted to the different conventions of different environments and situations, an individual may in extreme cases – according to Giddens – have as many identities as there are different contexts of interaction. There is almost always a tension between the various manifestations of one’s own face, behavior, and aspirations. This condition can become a source of tension – or even of embarrassment – for both the individual and the community around them. Another dilemma can be caused by the dichotomy of powerlessness and control. The helplessness of the individual against the diverse, complicated, constantly changing social reality is increasingly observable. The individual loses control over many important components determining living conditions, which increasingly depend on the dynamically changing systems of political and market forces, as well as popular cultural tendencies. There is a danger of alienation and dispossession. Giddens writes that the individual has a chance to maintain a sense of control even in these complex and changing conditions. This involves, for example, building trust in various elements of the social space. Desperate attempts to gain control over the conditions and course of life can unfortunately also lead to pathology. Contrary to traditional societies, in which a significant role was played by various types of authorities, today’s people complain about the deficit of authorities. This is despite, or even because of, the fact that there are now many more bodies that claim to be an authority. For various reasons, however, it is not easy to accept the authority of such bodies, which in turn arouses a longing for a

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more central or powerful, singular authority. Barbara Skarga writes, “Today, when all authorities have failed, when at the same time the harsh criticism of those institutions that tried to maintain it has become even sharper, there are voices expressing a kind of longing for them” (Skarga 2007, p. 96). The dichotomy of authority and uncertainty certainly makes it harder to build a consistent identity. Both in the past and today, people experienced states of uncertainty. In traditional societies, religion, authority, local community, and family provided – let us use Giddens’s words – “binding doctrines” and patterns of behavior that established a normative order. Today, there are no more authorities that embrace such a reality. Instead these authorities play the role of offering “specialist advice” just like expert opinions, though it should be noted that few expert opinions are offered free of caveats and other forms of hedging – a doctor can tell you that you are not sick, but they cannot tell you that you are perfectly healthy. Giddens notes that for many people, the presence of multiple authorities, which often work in mutual contradiction, is difficult to accept. Freedom of choice becomes an unbearable burden for the individual, and so they seek refuge in a particular ideology or system of power. The construction of identity also takes place in the collision of personal experience and market experience. The market economy includes both the sphere of work and of consumption. In both fields, it works against tradition, opens up choices, and promotes individualism. The individual’s freedom of choice, governed by the market, also assumes the role of the superior structure within which the individual can find self-expression. This is how “seduction” takes place, in which advertising plays a special role. When encountering “consumption packages” deliberately targeting specific groups of recipients, Giddens believes that “to a greater or lesser extent, the project of identity begins to translate into the project of having desired goods and striving to achieve an artificially constructed lifestyle” (Giddens 2010, p. 270). According to the author, not only lifestyle but also self-fulfilment can be included in “packaged and distributed standardized market packages”, although, in general, these accord with the choices and achievement of individuals.

Constructing identity – mental and bodily dimensions The realization has come to some that one can either be a beneficiary or an outside, leading to the investment in those people’s career even when sacrifices and costs have to be borne. Perhaps such people care even more about the development of their own children. They consciously try to construct their own identity, and to some extent they also program the identity of their children. The fact that such an action in relation to the younger generation does not always take

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the form of the mining process described by Florian Znaniecki (Znaniecki 1973), more gently referred to by Lawrence Kohlberg as cultural transmission (Kohlberg, Mayer 1993), results from the spread in contemporary society of a personalistic or even paedocentric way of upbringing. This is self-programming and to an extent the programming of those with whose care we are charged, with the result that this is transformed into the construction and reconstruction of identity. This phenomenon also occurs when subsequent or different segments in the construction of one’s own consciousness occurs unconsciously, not reflectively. The processes of socialization are constant and occur at every point of contact between social individuals and social groups. Much depends on the quality of real relationships and communication activities, as demonstrated by E.H. Erikson and developed by Jürgen Habermas. As Lech Witkowski claims, to ensure appropriate socialization interactions, it is necessary to meet a minimum of communication authority. “If the sender is not recognized or even rejected, the effect is not only the rejection of his persuasion and its content, but it triggers the mechanism of identifying with the content rejected by this rejected sender” (Witkowski 2009, p. 278). Alternative patterns appear and anti-values come to the fore. More often, however, the challenges of the emerging information society and market economy force young people and adults to consciously consider a more deliberate act of self-construction. The vast majority of students undertake the effort of going to school for many years, and often also participate in additional activities that they or their parents consider necessary to obtain personal or professional competences needed for the future. Such construction concerns not only matters as important as the paths of further education, professional self-definition, choice of life partner, and the maintenance of friendships and acquaintances. People shape their minds themselves, although in a different way than before, because regardless of what school teaches them, they want, for instance, to master the English language well (and not Latin or even French), and to be proficient in using a computer (and not necessarily at horse riding, fencing, crocheting, or knitting). They attach great importance to shaping their bodies. The body is perceived as an important, integral element that serves to reflect identity. “The term ‘body language,’” writes Seweryn Rudnicki, “can be regarded as a description of a catalog of various ways in which the body means [author’s emphasis – M.J.Sz.] who we are, including our features, states, predispositions […] The body externalizes, reveals, makes available, exposes, shows, expresses, betrays, manifests, makes public, presents, falsifies, hides, creates, defines, determines, or determines our identity in many ways. Thus, we are dealing with a certain function of the body, which is the signification of ‘I’, or more precisely,

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with the fact that this function is quite commonly assigned to the body and the body-‘I’ and body-identity relations are treated as a signifying relation” (Rudnicki 2013, p. 111). For some, and especially the young, this appears not as a reflection of identity, but as the whole of identity. It is a sign, a carrier of events and meanings that are socially defined and interpreted. According to Zbyszko Melosik, “It ceases to be treated as natural and neutral. It becomes a text in which various configurations of socially constructed meanings of masculinity and femininity are inscribed. Hence the body can be ‘read’. Reading the social meanings of the body, the shapes and contours inscribed in it, colors and various symbols takes place in the course of everyday life – constantly. In contemporary culture, various discourses of the body are presented and represented, which fight with each other for the status of ‘universal body’” (Melosik 1996, pp. 63–64). In this situation, both young and old attach importance to the appearance of their bodies, seeking to lend it more attractive qualities, in accordance with the current canons of beauty and fashion, and the standards applicable to specific social groups and ages. This approach can be deemed positive when it involves the acceptance of good dietary guidance and engagement in sports and other physical forms of recreation, but it can likewise have a negative side, as seen in the use of slimming supplements of debatable quality, extensive fasting, and unnecessary cosmetic surgery. An industry has grown up around this side of identity, with fashions and sets of behavior dictated by business interests connected with the manufacture of food, clothing, cosmetics, popular culture (which can certainly seem to be manufactured), and other interested parties. An appropriately-shaped identity,, regardless of its changeability and segmentality in these times of “liquid modernity,” should harmoniously combine the physical and mental aspects of identity creation, since the two dimensions are mutually dependent. A weak, sick person with a poor or reduced sense of physical value is usually more prone to frustrations, fears, and anxieties than others, and at the same time optimism and motivation become less accessible resources. Paul Ricoeur, on the other hand, treated advanced intellectual and emotional development, well-formed will and character traits as the essence of identity. Among the characteristics of character, understood as a set of permanent inclinations and the ability to keep one’s word, he found the mainstay to be a rational attitude towards the events and situations that happen in life. This is important even when a person feels the degradation of their physical abilities and the effects of body dysfunction (Ricouer 1992, p. 34). This also allows for a reflective attitude to the inevitably changing contemporary social and personal reality, taking the inevitable “risk of one’s own life” (Krzychała 2007) in necessary but reasonable amounts.

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Social change is one of the most characteristic features of our time. It concerns all people and social groups. It contributes to the transformation of the living conditions of every human being, which sometimes has beneficial, sometimes destructive, often unpredictable consequences. This increases the need for the self-definition of the individual in the conditions of “flickering meanings” and “liquid modernity”. However, it suffers from a shortage of frames of reference, because traditional attitudes and approaches lose their importance, new ones are in a state of constant movement, and it is hard for the individual to know if what they are doing will work since so much of the territory here seems unexplored. It is not without significance that the same people are simultaneously subject to opposing directions of the impact of reality. Giddens divides them into four main dimensions: unification against fragmentation, powerlessness against control, authority against uncertainty, and personal experience against marketized experience. The individual possesses and enjoys more freedom than ever before, although the framework created by society, the economy, and culture still exists. The individual bears more than ever the personal responsibility for the self-construction of identity. The successful course of this process determines to what extent the individual can realize their own ambitions, aspirations, and opportunities, and to what extent they will be able to overcome the dangers and traps, the difficulties and threats that appear in life. Skilful help for people shaping their identity is becoming a significant challenge for modern pedagogy, which – so far – deals with this issue too little. This needs to be changed as soon as possible.

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Chapter Seven: Teacher burnout

The issue of occupational burnout is more and more frequently discussed in both the literature and in research, and is often linked to the wider problem of occupational stress. The syndrome of professional burnout has now become a topic that relates directly to the teaching profession due to the fact that the world has either struggled or is continuing to struggle with the Covid-19 pandemic and globalization, which directly affect the functioning of the school and the teacher. At work, teachers struggle constantly under the huge responsibility for their students, the implementation of education and upbringing programs, exam preparation, and ongoing vigilance concerning dealing with and overcoming new challenges and difficulties. All these factors cause many teachers to face fatigue, exhaustion, and thus professional burnout, or even professional deformation, which is interpreted in the literature as personality deformation as an undesirable consequence of the profession, which covers all unfavorable changes in personality, abnormalities fatigue, burnout, disorientation, alienation, loss of the sense of reality and its correct assessment, as well as distortions in the perception of personal experiences, judgments, and behaviors that occur in the course of professional work and are conditioned by that work (Fengler, 2000, p. 31–32).

Professional burnout – conceptual contexts Occupational burnout was first defined in 1974 by Freudenberger. While working in a center for drug addicts, Freudenberger noticed changes in the behavior of volunteers who began to lose motivation and commitment to work as well as to suffer from headaches, mood swings, susceptibility to aggression, and discouragement. Freudenberger defined this state as the exhaustion of an individual caused by the imposition of excessive tasks by the physical or social work environment (Bilska, 2004, p. 3). Subsequent research into the phenomenon of occupational burnout was directly related to civilizational changes and the re-

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quirements that were placed on many professions of public trust, which, apart from teachers, also included doctors, nurses and social workers. Against a background of such varied and wide-ranging stressors, Christina Maslach developed what would become among researchers the most popular definition of burnout, defining it as a psychological syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and the reduced sense of personal accomplishment that can occur in people who work with other people in a certain way (Maslach, 2004, p. 15). In this definition, the components of the syndrome have been extended. These include emotional exhaustion, which is combined with emotional overstrain. A person becomes discouraged from work, and professional matters cease to arouse their interest, leading to reduced activity, pessimism, irritability, and even psychosomatic changes (Bilska, 2004, pp. 3–7). The second factor is depersonalization, which manifests itself in an indifferent reaction to other people (Maslach, 2004, pp. 13–31), resulting in distancing oneself, formalizing relationships, and in the worst case, blaming others for one’s own failures. The last factor is a reduced sense of professional achievement, which is directly related to a decrease in the sense of professional competence and success (Maslach, 2004, pp. 13–31). With due consideration of the above, it is easy to imagine that these behaviors are not acceptable in any profession, especially in teaching, where the mission is to create a sense of agency in children and young people, discovering autonomy and encouraging them to take up difficult challenges, even in the face of failure. When analyzing the literature, attention should be paid to the year 1998, when Christina Maslach corrected the burnout model, adding to it a reference to working conditions and their organization. The author emphasizes here the importance of excess duties and interpersonal conflicts, both of which may directly contribute to the intensification of professional burnout. It is not without significance that an individual should perform a job that interests and satisfies them. This translates into commitment and effectiveness within the profession. Motivation, which is necessary first to seek and then to perform work, was added to Pines’ analysis of occupational burnout, which emphasizes that the main cause of occupational burnout lies in the need for meaning in life (Pines, 2004, pp. 32–57). The search for the meaning of work, according to the author, ends in a profession, and it is this that leads directly to professional burnout. Therefore, professional burnout can be defined as a state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion caused by long-term involvement in situations that burden the individual in emotional terms (Pines, 2004, p. 35). This can be seen in novice teachers who have high expectations of working life, who set themselves high or unattainable standards, and who then experience the school environment first hand, leading in many cases to discouragement, loss of self-confidence, and

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subsequent burnout. Another consideration of burnout is that it results from dedication to some cause or way of life which did not bring the expected reward (Pies, 2000, p. 35). And then there are Schaufeli and Enzmann, who define burnout as a chronic negative mental state caused by professional work, which is characterized by a feeling of exhaustion and then discouragement leading to changes in the effectiveness of actions, lowering motivation, and negative attitudes and behaviors that make it difficult to adapt to work (Schaufeli and Enzmann, 1998, p. 36). The summary of the above analyses leads to the definition offered by Edelwich and Brodsky, who consider burnout as a gradual loss of idealism, energy, and goals that occur in people focused on helping, as a result of unfavorable working conditions (Tucholska, 2003, p. 49). In Poland, professional burnout syndrome is mainly considered by Helena Se˛k, who labels stress or avoidance as important causes of this phenomenon. The definition of burnout speaks of a set of symptoms appearing in people performing professions in which close interpersonal contact, full of commitment and professional personality traits, are the basic instruments of the professional activities that determine the level of professional performance, successes, and failures (Se˛k, 2004, pp. 83–118). Burnout syndrome is also referred to as a hidden process that consists of three elements: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and a lack of a sense of achievement. The intensification of occupational burnout can be related to the following phases: 1. Emotional exhaustion and depersonalization do not occur. 2. The level of depersonalization increases. 3. Lack of a sense of personal achievement. 4. Increased levels of depersonalization and lack of a sense of achievement. 5. Increasing emotional exhaustion. 6. Severe emotional exhaustion and depersonalization. 7. Strong sense of underachievement and emotional exhaustion. 8. High level of all dimensions and full professional burnout (Tucholska, 2003, 46–49). The variety of definitions and theoretical analyses concerning occupational burnout leads to interpretations of the phenomenon concentrating on a specific profession. In the case of pedagogical work, it is necessary for teachers to be aware of the multiplicity of definitions and causes of occupational burnout, which should translate into consciously taking appropriate preventive measures to eliminate burnout in the profession. This becomes a duty and, in a way, a guarantee of personal life success in the teacher’s experience.

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Causes and symptoms of professional burnout Any consideration of occupational burnout should recognize the long-term aspects of the process – burnout rarely happens overnight. Important factors in the development of burnout are usually individual and environmental variables, which can be considered in relation to the interactive model of stress proposed by Lazarus and Folkman, which assumes that stressful situations are generated by the mismatch of the individual to the environment in which they are located (Synal and Szempruch, 2017). In the specific instance of teachers, a return to first principles is justified: part of the job of the teacher is to meet the psycho-physical needs of students, and when the teacher enters the profession they may well be fascinated by the demands that they are placed under in this regard; they arrive full of ideas and of grand plans for meeting the needs of their students, but over time they fall into a routine, which can readily lead to stagnation, before eventual apathy and fatigue set in. This, then, is burnout for the teacher. It is therefore important to consider what factors directly contribute to teacher burnout. Research on this phenomenon was conducted by Tucholska, pointing to: 1. Weak personality characterized by a low sense of security, lack of coherent attitudes, low internal control, lack of self-confidence, low entrepreneurship, lack of courage to act, tendency to accumulate negative emotions as well as anger and aggression. 2. Deficit of interpersonal competences, which is characterized by a lack of readiness to take responsibility, reluctance to take over the role of leader, poor readiness to help others, and emotional support. 3. Ambitious striving for success and a tendency to compete, which has recently dominated the group of teachers at every level of professional promotion (Tucholska, 2003, pp. 183–205). Research that investigated whether occupational burnout factors are related to specific teacher personality traits was conducted by Klis´ and Kossewska. They found that teachers’ dissatisfaction was related to extroversion, external locus of control, level of self-esteem, cognitive empathy, and tendency to contact people requiring support and care. In addition, emotional exhaustion is combined with neuroticism, a sense of loneliness, and a tendency to compassion (Klis´ and Kossewska, 1999, pp. 42–68). In reporting on the research that has been conducted into teacher burnout, it is worth mentioning the phenomenon of professional burnout among teachers of schools for students with additional education requirements, as researched by Sekułowicz. Special educators are a group of people who perform particularly difficult work with children and young people, most often exposed to stress related to the lack of visible effects of their work, which is paid for with great

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determination and commitment. The author of the study made a group classification of the surveyed teachers: 1. happy educators, 2. mature educators – slowly reaching maturity, 3. erring educators – making mistakes and fixing them, 4. transformed educators – on the way to professionalism, 5. embittered educators – experiencing alternately contentment and fatigue, 6. developing educators – seeing the need for change and reflection, 7. pragmatic educators – seeing the profession in terms of its usefulness and uselessness, 8. frustrated educators, 9. overloaded educators, 10. forced educators. Of the different kinds of educator, it is the forced educator who is most at risk to burnout, followed by developing educators, pragmatists, the frustrated, and the overloaded (Sekułowicz, 2005, pp. 77–136). Performing the work of a teacher, especially in a school for students with additional educational requirements, is associated with great responsibility and self-discipline. The lack of clear guidelines for work and advanced support can lead to professional deformation, lack of efficiency and agency, and thus to the progressive burnout and isolation of educators. As Pines says, “[I]n order to burn out, you must first burn” (Pines, 1993, p. 41), it should be remembered that occupational burnout affects teachers who are idealists who are characterized by passion, fervour, and great motivation in their work, the sum of which can lead to stress, a source of burnout (Szempruch, 2013, p. 212). Stress can be motivating and mobilizing (it stimulates the body and allows you to overcome obstacles more effectively; it is a driving force to take on challenges and solve difficult tasks faster), but more often it is demotivating and destructive (it can cause apathy, sleep problems, tearfulness, impatience, sudden palpitations, headaches, exaggerated emotional reactions, anger, and depression) (Hart, 2005, p. 25). A high level of stress is a risk factor in professional burnout (Se˛k, 1996, pp. 134–135); Nalaskowski, indicates that the teaching profession itself generates the risk of burnout (Nalaskowski, 1997, p. 123). Stress defines the non-specific reaction of the organism to any demands placed on it, it can be treated as a consequence of a positive or negative event, which generates specific stages in the reaction of the organism (Salye, 1978, p. 25). 1. The first stage – the “alarm reaction”, arises as a result of the impact of a harmful stimulus and is aimed at a two-stage mobilization of the body’s defenses:

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– the shock phase – a direct reaction of the body to a harmful factor, characterized by the powerful stimulation of the body to defend itself; – the phase of counteracting the shock, which includes defensive reactions, i. e. changes in the physiological functions of the body, for example, an increase in body temperature and blood pressure. 2. The second stage – the “immunity stage”, at which time the body mobilizes its energy resources and defense mechanisms; there is a relative adaptation of the organism to the stimulus. 3. The last stage – “exhaustion”, is characterized by a decrease in the body’s defense capabilities; there is a dysregulation of the physiological functions of the body. Teachers must respond to the world around them, and when the world changes the teacher too must change. With change comes an intensification of stress factors, especially in teachers who are perfectionists in their work and who want to control everything. This leads to abnormalities in the mental and somatic spheres, which causes haste, frustration, discouragement, and finally burnout. Therefore, for the teacher, stress is a direct cause of burnout and is defined as the induction of negative emotions (such as anger or depression) in teachers, usually accompanied by pathogenic biochemical and physiological changes (increase in heart rate, secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormones or increase in blood pressure). Teachers is conditioned by the perception of the requirements imposed on them as threatening their self-esteem and well-being, as well as being conditioned by coping mechanisms in order to reduce the perceived threats (Tucholska, 1996, pp. 410–416). The symptoms of professional burnout in teachers, based on the analysis of literature and research, are reported by Brock and Grady: 1. Physical symptoms: chronic fatigue, lack of rest, lack of strength, insomnia or increased need for sleep, headaches, gastric problems, increased blood pressure, decreased immune resistance, injuries, and the taking of addictive substances. 2. Intellectual symptoms: difficulties in making decisions, a sense of being overloaded with stimuli and problems in maintaining concentration on a specific task, less creativity at work, schematic behavior, memory problems, failure to meet deadlines and promises, and inconsistency in enforcing requirements for students. 3. Emotional symptoms: anxiety and nervousness, being overwhelmed by the professional situation, irritability, emotional indifference, depressed mood, loss of self-esteem, and a feeling of alienation.

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4. Social symptoms: limited contact with students, reduced tolerance, malice, criticism of students, parents, administration, and other teachers, withdrawal from social life, and neglect of interests. 5. Spiritual symptoms: questions about the value of pedagogical activities, loss of trust towards others, revision of previously-held religious sentiments (Brock and Grady, 2000). Several groups of occupational burnout are listed by Stanisława Tucholska, setting the following levels (Table 2). Warning signals preceding the occurrence of full-blown burnout were explored by Grzesiak-Witek and Witek. They made a classification regarding the spheres in which burnout manifests: 1. Physical condition – deterioration of appetite, sleep disturbance, fatigue, depression, lack of physical activity, health problems, and abuse of cigarettes, alcohol or drugs. 2. Emotional and behavioral states – mood swings, a sense of fatigue, recurrent fears combined with a sense of loneliness and isolation, a sense of lack of purpose, increased number of impulsive and aggressive behaviors, and difficulty in relaxing. 3. Family and social symptoms – spending free time alone, isolation, a sense of lack of support and help from loved ones, dissatisfaction with spending time together, less interest in family, frequent irritations, and anger. 4. Place and nature of work – fear, reluctance to go to work, feeling of incompetence, lack of basic knowledge, loss of enthusiasm and energy, awareness of “wasted time” at work, schematic action, sense of failure to carry out planned activities, lack of invention, and impatience (Grzesiak- Witek and Witek, 2008, pp. 483–485). The analysis of the course and symptoms of occupational burnout leads to the conclusion that it is a process that progresses over time, that grows to have a destructive impact on the teacher. Kozak (2009) distinguishes three degrees of burnout according to the damage it can cause: 1. Treated as a warning stage, manifested by indisposition in the form of recurrent physical fatigue, headaches, and insomnia. This is a threat that can be treated by a short rest, escape in a hobby, and relief at work. 2. Having a longer course, because there are also outbursts of irritation, contemptuous attitude towards others, and a reduction in the quality of work. In order to overcome this form of burnout, a longer rest in the form of a holiday is needed or perhaps a change of interests, along with support in coping with failures, unpleasant states, fatigue, and mood changes.

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In the Context of the Individual

Level

Affective Symptoms Depression, Crying, Exhaustion, Mood swings, Anxiety, Loss of control, Restlessness, An increase in concern

Table 2. Professional burnout in teachers Cognitive Symptoms Powerlessness, Helplessness, feeling of being cornered, feeling of failure, Low self-esteem, self-concentration, Feeling guilty, Thoughts of suicide, memory disorders, Disturbances in concentration, rigidity of thinking, Difficulty making decisions

Somatic Symptoms malaise, headache, muscle pain, sleep disorders, weight changes, Fatigue, Menstrual disorders, Gastrointestinal disorders, ulcers, cardiac disorders, Hypertension, Susceptibility to illness

Behavioral Symptoms Impulsiveness, Appetite changes, Inability to rest, Easily prone to accidents, Postponing important matters, self pity, Increased consumption of stimulants and drugs

Motivational Symptoms Loss of idealism, Loss of zeal, sense of occupation, Feeling disappointed

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In the Interpersonal Context

Level

Table 2 (Continued)

Affective Symptoms Touchiness, Irritation, emotional coldness, Empathy decreases, aggression increases

Cognitive Symptoms Cynicism towards charges, Using stereotypes, labeling, Severity, Hostility, Suspiciousness, Projection mechanism

Somatic Symptoms -

Behavioral Symptoms Aggression towards students, social isolation, Withdrawal, Conflicts at work, home and marriage, Distancing yourself from students, Jealousy, pigeonholing, Causticity, Reluctance to help, Automatic behavior, breaking ties with coworkers

Motivational Symptoms Discouragement, Loss of interest, Indifference to the affairs of the students, Objective treatment of students, Increased self-interest

Causes and symptoms of professional burnout

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Cognitive Symptoms Cynicism, Loss of trust in colleagues and superior authorities

Somatic Symptoms -

Own elaboration based on: Tucholska (2009), Professional burnout in teachers, pp. 56–60.

Affective Symptoms In the Organizational Loss of job satContext isfaction

Level

Table 2 (Continued) Behavioral Symptoms Decrease in the quality of work and effectiveness of activities, Changing jobs, Absenteeism, Reluctance to accept novelty or change, Increased accident frequency, The intensification of legalism, Reduction of working time and time of contact with students

Motivational Symptoms Decrease in motivation to work, Reluctance to work, decline of initiative, Decreased job satisfaction

94 Teacher burnout

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3. Occurs when stress and emotional exhaustion are already chronic, affecting the teacher’s physical and mental health and behavior and disrupting social relationships. The teacher’s family life and friendships are marked by a sense of loneliness. At this stage, professional help from a psychologist and a therapist is necessary, and in extreme cases, a change of job and individual or group therapy. The multiplicity of causes and symptoms indicating teacher burnout determines the need for continuous observation and self-analysis of one’s own feelings and behavior. It is important that every educator who feels discouraged and dissatisfied with their work undertakes the effort of analyzing their condition and asking for support from their closest professional and family environment. These activities will allow for the prevention of burnout and the adoption of activities that assist treatment or even eradication of the processes that interfere with professional work, allowing for the restoration of emotions appropriate to the performance of the profession.

Contemporary teacher and professional burnout In our era of new educational changes and new expectations for teachers, the specificity of the professional work of educators is being transformed. Their role in the process of education and upbringing has increased in visibility along with the requirements they have to meet. In the face of the challenges of modern society, it is necessary to take care of the condition of teachers and promote the well-prepared and planned prevention of disorders in their activities across three levels of intervention: 1. Amelioration of the impact of actions taken by the government, politicians in the department of education, pedagogical supervisors, and the principal, and other teaching staff (Kocór, 2008, p. 271). 2. Modification of the individual’s reaction to the emergence of stressful situations by looking for ways to make work more interesting, an objective approach to difficult situations, talking to loved ones, reorganizing work, setting priorities, the effective organization of working time, and support in the form of a stable relationship (Grzegorzewska, 2006, p. 120–125). 3. Reducing the impact of the negative effects of burnout involves various forms of active professional help, i. e. individual and group therapy, counselling, autogenic training, and educational programs (Oniszczenko, 1998, p. 77).

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Social support also appears to be important in this respect, as it is a pillar of protection and assistance in difficult moments of doubt in the sense of the work performed (this topic is discussed in more detail in chapter eight of this book). In recent years, many methods of working to avoid or ameliorate the effects of burnout have been developed which, when introduced individually or in groups, should yield positive effects. One method is social support consisting in sending signals to the teacher that they are valued, important, and needed. This is based on satisfying the basic needs of the teacher. In subsequent steps, work must be done on overload protection and proper handling. The help of the pedagogical team in offering support in this regard will be invaluable. Those who find themselves overwhelmed by difficult situations in life might turn to a social worker or psychotherapist for help, but such resources are rarely used in the prevention and therapy of teachers suffering from burnout. However, due to its nature and scope, these resources should be considered. Supervision is a form of psychological and social counseling for people working mainly in helping professions. It strives to relieve and clarify professional identity and strengthen competence at work. It may concern intrapsychic, interactional, institutional, and group problems (Fengler, 2000, pp. 169–175). It is also interpreted as consulting, a method of training and improving professional competences in which the essence of activity is working with people. Another method is coping, which is understood as individual forms of human reactions to stress (Fengler, 2000, pp. 146–157). This method is based on searching for information about the difficult situation, then abandoning the need to care and turning in a different direction. It is important here to distance oneself from one’s charges, to be prepared to take countermeasures in the form of new challenges based on one’s own working experience. The above methods, combined with the awareness of the existence of occupational burnout, encourage working on oneself in the scope designed for this purpose. It is important to refer to support as a way out of a difficult, sometimes traumatic situation towards positive changes in pedagogical activity. It is important in this case for the teacher to consent to the interaction, which is combined with emotional support based on positive feelings and emotions; support in solving problems, practical support, social integration based on a system of values, and certainty in interpersonal relations need also to be considered and addressed (Szempruch, 2013, p. 216). Paradoxically, by paying attention to difficulties at work and being alert to the emergence of even a single symptom of burnout, the teacher is able to re-evaluate their work and move towards positive changes. Every disease process, of which occupational burnout is one, should be diagnosed and treated. However, in order for this to happen, it is necessary to consider what can be improved so that the disease retreats or is eliminated. One

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way to treat burnout is to minimise the likelihood of its occurrence in the initial stages, and by this we mean the importance of future teachers choosing their professional path wisely, and encouraging training institutions to select candidates more carefully. Schools too must take this approach onboard and make sure that only those candidates likely to handle those situations that lead to burnout are recruited. It also seems important to educate not only in terms of qualifications, but mainly, and perhaps above all, in terms of the competences that allow the future teacher to create conditions for the effective development of students in a wide range of pedagogical activity. Students who have chosen the path of pedagogical education should be aware of the need for continuous education and improvement, which will minimize or eliminate in some cases the stress related to changes in education and society in the era of globalization. Young teachers will be ready to use information and media methods and distance learning techniques in their work. These young teachers should be made aware of the importance of asking for support from the head of the institution, and especially from the school psychologist as this person is a specialist in the field of help and support – especially of young and inexperienced people. Although occupational burnout is a problem for an increasing number of teachers, knowledge about the condition, leading to prevention and/or effective therapy will allow teachers to return to the profession in terms of full pedagogical responsibility. However, dealing with occupational burnout among teachers might require a paradigm shift on the part of the teachers themselves, many of whom errantly believe that they can overcome the symptoms of burnout alone, without support, and without changing their approach to teaching. While it is true that teaching is the fulfilment of a mission of critical importance to the future of our society, teachers must understand that they cannot accomplish anything if it comes at the expense of their strength, abilities, and health.

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Chapter Eight: Teacher support in times of educational changes

Civilizational changes that are ubiquitous in social life also affect education. The need to keep up with what is new and current but also completely different is becoming increasingly obvious. It is therefore necessary to meet the expectations of a kind of “novelty”, which generates difficulties and puts educators in front of many challenges of the present. It happens that knowledge and skills are not a recipe for solving difficulties, which is why it is important to explore the available intervention activities, which in the present case consists of the support prepared by individuals and the institutions appointed for this purpose.

Social support as a necessary interpersonal relationship The issue of social support as an aid to activity is addressed by psychologists; the scope of assistance and the institutions providing it are analyzed by sociologists; educators pay attention to the conditions of support and their final effect. Support is therefore a socially common phenomenon and is the most frequently defined concept among social pedagogues in the context of analyses of problems and components of the environment, including the school environment. The greatest recent change to the reality of education came in the form of the Covid-19 pandemic, and during this period the importance of supporting teachers was clearly of massive importance. Changes in educational policy and in the functioning of the school as an institution require discussion and specific, practical, systemic solutions. Social support networks become important in this regard, as they give educators a sense of connectedness and through the stability this offers, they are able to interpret the events taking place in the changing educational reality. Studies undertaken in the subject area ended with the establishment of a number of concepts. The most commonly analyzed include: emotional, instrumental, integrating, and information support – necessary in today’s information society. Therefore, the support of teachers becomes an ef-

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fective form of help in relation to the difficulties they experience, bearing in mind the relationships that exist in the school environment. The concept of social support appeared in the psychological research of the 1970s in the United States, Canada, the Netherlands, and England and played an explanatory role in research on the impact of life stress experiences on physical and mental health (Jaworowska- Obłój and Skuza, 1986, 733). The term social support is defined as resources provided to a person through interactions with other people (Sheridan and Radmacher, 1998, p. 217) and they are most often used in difficult situations. Se˛k (1993) defines support as a type of interaction characterized by the following: 1. Its purpose is to bring one or both participants closer to solving the problem, overcoming difficulties, reorganizing the disturbed relationship with the environment, and maintaining emotional support. 2. In its course there is an exchange of emotions, information, instruments of action, and material goods. 3. Its effectiveness depends on the appropriate matching of the expected and the received support. 4. Exchange in the course of interaction can be one-sided or mutual, and the direction of the supporting-supported relationship can be constant or variable. 5. Interaction and exchange is undertaken in a problematic, difficult situation (Prins et al. 2004, p. 175). Social support is perceived as an interpersonal relationship engaged in by the subject to optimize the burden related to professional activity (Kwiatkowski, 1997, p. 69). It can be provided by specific persons and institutions. In the current changing reality, support is needed by individuals in different personal and professional situations, and has been categorized across the structural (quantitative) and functional (qualitative) levels. The first indicates the placing of the individual in an environment that potentially accepts and supports them, constituting the basis for giving and supporting in social relations. An individual experiencing difficult situations is able to cope with due to the fact that the environment is the pillar and foundation of invaluable help in many areas. The functional plane, mentioned earlier by Se˛k, relates this support to social interaction, which is relational in nature and concerns exchanging information, emotions, and actions. Potentially difficult, stressful situations are eliminated, while emotions related to the sense of security and of belonging to a specific social group are developed. Therefore, it is necessary to consider what the elements are of social support in relation to the process that takes place in a society that expects help.

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1. Who initiates support and does it have consequences for the further course of interaction? This is regardless of whether the ability to ask for help is learned earlier or acquired at a later age (conditions for starting support). 2. What factors are responsible for accepting or rejecting support? A person may be unable to accept help because they deny their weakness and do not acknowledge their need for support. The characteristics of consciousness are responsible for this, and the culture considers independent success to be the main value (the person experiencing support). 3. What factors determine the support of others? What is it that makes some people rush to help and others are more reluctant? In the first case, we can deal with both sincere and hidden intentions, related to a sense of guilt or the expectation of reciprocity; in the second case, the inability to recognize the severity of the other person’s situation and the lack of social skills (the supporting person) may be involved. 4. Under what conditions does support end? To what extent does it depend on improving the condition of the person in need? Who initiates termination and for what reasons (end of support)? (Pommersbach, 1998, p. 518). Support in education serves many purposes, but primary among these are the need to solve problems and to assist in the professional development of the teacher, with the latter needing to be adapted to the individual needs of support (Szempruch, 2013, 181). The multidimensionality of the teacher’s work creates various difficult situations, which sometimes become a challenge even for the most experienced educators. This gives rise to the belief that the ability to provide oneself with social support is a factor of the effectiveness of the teaching profession and a factor of effectiveness shaping health and eliminating potential stressors (Ostrowska, 1999, 110). A comprehensive sense of support provides the teacher with a greater chance to achieve pedagogical success and protection against a sense of isolation and loneliness in difficult situations. Support is therefore a motivator for activities that activate work in a larger team on the basis of cooperation and relational rewards.

What kind of support can a modern teacher count on? Social support is an umbrella term for the resources that, through relationships with others, are provided to any individual who needs this support. The essence of support refers to the content of social exchange undertaken during interpersonal activity. Depending on assistance obtained, different types of support can be distinguished. The analyses assume a division into the structural and functional support mentioned in the previous chapter (Se˛k and Cies´lak, 2011,

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p. 14). Structural support is related to the existence and accessibility of social networks that provide assistance to people in a difficult situation. In education, the support network consists of cooperative teachers or supervisors. Functional support is a type of social interaction in which tools and goods are transferred or exchanged. The most frequently mentioned in the literature include emotional, informational (cognitive), instrumental, and material support. 1. Emotional support consists of conveying emotions in the course of interaction, exchanging information that is supportive, reassuring, and showing care. Such behaviors are aimed at creating a sense of belonging, care, and increasing self-esteem (Se˛k, 2005, p. 96). This is related to satisfying mental needs: keeping one’s spirits up, raising one’s self-esteem, and creating a sense of security. 2. Informational (cognitive) support consists of the help and learning that an individual can make use of in a difficult situation. It consists of providing information about the difficulties experienced and effective preventive actions. They are characterized by learning to understand the situation in which the individual has found themselves, its causes, and the attribution of a perpetrator or cause. 3. Instrumental support usually consists of providing advice and information, which is a kind of instruction on how to proceed in difficult situations. The aim of instrumental support is to gain the conviction that the individual will have the tools to help in problem situations. 4. In-kind support, which is often referred to as material support, consists of the direct transfer of material and financial goods to the individual, with the aim being to improve the well-being of the individual. A different classification of types of support was made by Stanisław Kawula: 1. Emotional – supported by messages such as: “we like you”, “you are ours”, “you have strong character traits”. 2. Value-based – based on messages: “thanks to you”, “you are someone significant to us”. 3. Instrumental – involving the provision of services and advice. 4. Informational – its scope includes providing the information needed to solve problems, medical and legal advice, and others. 5. Spiritual (mental and developmental) – occurs when all other types of support have failed (Kawula, 1997, p. 16). Support, regardless of the development category, should help teachers. For this to happen, however, it is necessary to diagnose the situation that generates the need for support. In didactic and educational work, this can be based on self-knowledge, i. e. independent recognition of the need for support by the teacher. This

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may be a formal recognition by those who observe and supervise the work of the teacher. Sometimes it occurs as a result of comments from colleagues or students and then has the nature of informal recognition. Regardless of the diagnosis, the principle behind the need for help is important in order to eliminate difficult situations and improve the quality of the teacher’s work, and thus the school situation of students. Any analysis of support should consider the different categories it contains: 1. Formal and informal support – provided by institutions and associations and within the social network. 2. Professional and non-professional support – the first provided by competent, substantive people; the second is provided spontaneously by people without competence. 3. Self-help support – based on the principle of reciprocity and voluntariness. 4. Volunteer support – based on sensitive, open and empathetic people, provided free of charge and voluntarily (Bejma, 2016, p. 119). The social support of the teacher is intentional and is based on another person, a colleague from work, a superior, or a support group that can be created by colleagues in the field of substantive, methodological, and psychological assistance. The presence of other people, who may well be experiencing similar difficulties and problems, as well as the teacher who requires support, means that nobody is left feeling truly isolated. Support offers a route out of a difficult, stressful, sometimes traumatic situation and allows for a sense of security in the profession, which in turn is the foundation of the effectiveness of educational work. Support must be sensitive to the nature of the person who requires it, while also demonstrating its own importance and leading to the understanding of the meaning and value of educational work.

The social support network as a route to self-development On a daily basis, an individual receives social support to a different extent from many people around him. This support often goes unnoticed and is rarely analyzed as it accompanies the performance of everyday activities. The need for support increases in difficult situations, and these are often caused or created by situations of rapid change and transformation. Support is thus the assistance provided by persons or institutions to the entity that requires it. For it to be effective, there must be an interaction between the needs of the person requiring help – the recipient – and the person helping – the help giver. Then, the main goal of the support reaction arises, which is to solve the problem. Stanisław Kawula classified the relationships that occur in four basic systems of human life:

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1. Man-man-relations of the type “I” and “You” – family, peer, neighborly, professional, acquaintances, friends, and social. 2. Man-group-own family, social and political association, neighborhood and local environment, churches, sects and religious groups, associations and organizations of cultural, sports, recreational and hobby life, subcultural groups of children, youth and adults, etc. 3. Human-institutional – focused on bringing social support to individuals or groups of people. These include, among others: institutions of legal, medical, and social assistance and advice, institutions of security, social and educational services, etc. 4. Man-broader systems – including relations in the dimension of the surrounding environment, commune, city or district, etc. (Kawula, 1999, pp. 55– 56). It is important to show support, while “the basic and necessary condition for the interaction of support are objectively existing social networks with which the individual is related or which are available to him” (Se˛k and Cierpiałkowska, 2020, p. 495). Support networks allow an individual to feel that they are in a specific circle of people who want to provide help and to form a kind of community. In the teacher’s work, the support network should be the institution where the teacher is employed and all the institutions that cooperate with that school and support the professional development of educators. When analyzing the structure of the support network, the following should be taken into account: 1. The number of people included in the network, who they are for the entity, what their mutual connections are, and similarities in terms of sociodemographic characteristics and personality (size, coherence, homogeneity). 2. Availability. 3. Frequency and duration of contact. 4. Stability of relationship. 5. Mutual balance of processes (symmetry, reciprocity). 6. Multidimensionality, one-dimensionality. 7. Intensity – strength, closeness, value attached to the supporting relationship. 8. Saturation with emotions, objective, and task character of the relationship. 9. The discrepancy between the support perceived by the subject and the support that actually exists. 10. Constructive or demobilizing value of support. 11. Level of prosociality (including altruism) (Se˛k, 2004, p. 15).

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Support networks should complement each other, be focused on listening, openness in relationships, managing crisis situations, and proposing alternative solutions. Support cannot deprive the individual of their ability to act or otherwise incapacitate their activity. Apparent acceptance can lead to a complete withdrawal from problem solving. Hence, it seems important to believe that support is only a route to independence and self-development. It is important to create “kindness spirals” in one’s environment which allow the individual to benefit from support on the way to self-development and selfdetermination. Support in accordance with the spiral is intended to improve the functioning of a person, which can directly contribute to the fastest possible solution of the problem. It should also activate the individual’s internal resources to cope with similar situations in the future and promote an active search for specific help (Kawula, 1997, p. 16). Factors that help support include activities that seem obvious, but due to the fact that help should be effective, they should nonetheless be remembered: 1. Listening mindset. 2. Speaking attitude. 3. Openness in revealing your own thoughts. 4. Openness in taking the other person’s point of view. 5. Clarity in expressing thoughts. 6. Consistency of verbal and non-verbal content. 7. The ability to organize oneself and others for the conditions of action. 8. Skills related to mediation, negotiation. 9. Efficiency in combining one’s own experiences into one coherent whole and drawing appropriate examples from it (Kawula, 1997). The social support network present in social groups gives the opportunity to help individuals who adapt to new challenges and meet the expectations set by society. The idea of support, though interpreted differently by researchers, has nevertheless a common point, which is taking care of the basic needs of the individual in relationships with others. This type of approach embeds an individual in a specific social group, allows for belonging, and a sense of responsibility for oneself and others.

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Teacher support in the face of contemporary social and professional challenges Living in the 21st century, we have grown used to the rapid pace of changes in many areas of human functioning. Evaluative changes require the individual to be ready to take on new, often unknown challenges. In the face of change, one’s perspective is also modified, and a person stands between what is, what was, and in the future what will be important and significant. It would seem that there is some truth to the express that the only constant is change. Globalization, the pandemic – and the next one, computerization, and finally changes in values are processes that force every person to reflect on self-determination and strengthening their position in a specific social group. As a result of the “rapid social change” (Szyman´ski, 2021, pp. 42–52), questions arise about the teacher who cannot allow life to pass them by with indifference because their mission is to prepare the young generation to function in precisely that changing reality, to teach them to be responsible, aware of their own choices, and using what the future brings. Knowledge, efficiency, communicativeness, and the teacher’s potential are values that should be used, especially on the road to educational change. This brings many benefits but also challenges, especially for educators who, carrying on their shoulders the sense of great responsibility for their students, often require support that will confirm them in the rightness of the actions they take, relieve them mentally, and give a new sense and significance to the mission should be fulfilled by the teacher today. A radical change in what is happening around the school and in the school itself necessitates a fresh look at the meaning of the teacher’s work (Szempruch, 2018, p. 176). The modern teacher has to face challenges for which they were not prepared in the course of academic education, which may significantly burden his psychopedagogical approach to the profession. Awareness of emerging problems should mobilize the teacher to act and look for a social support network that fits the needs of reliable performance of work. This support confers a lot of strength and a sense of security in difficult situations, especially if we can experience it in a familiar environment. The teacher’s environment is understood as the environment of co-workers (friends, colleagues, pedagogue, psychologist, headmaster) and institutions cooperating with the school (psychological and pedagogical counseling centres, teacher training centres). The teacher’s closest co-workers, such as their fellow teachers, create an atmosphere for conversations, discussions, help and support – in short, a good working atmosphere. The exchange of experience in such a group is a powerful means of support that directs the teacher’s development and provides motivation to deal with stressful and seemingly hopeless situations. No less important is the

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activity of school specialists, such as the school psychologist, who can provide advice, tips, and a plan of action to support the teacher, giving a sense of the discussions and mediation that show different perspectives of assessing difficult situations. Regardless of the intensity of the relationship with specialists, it becomes important to review the personal style of work. Another important source of support for teachers is the head of the institution, who, on the one hand, demands, assesses, and controls, and on the other hand helps, supports, and advises. Support from the supervisor is a factor that modifies the workload situation, especially when the manager prefers a democratic management style (Szempruch et al, 2023). Mutual support groups can and should be created wherever possible. Teachers can readily participate in virtual support meetings, where they seek help aimed at improving the mental well-being of the individual. Many such groups have been meeting online since the pandemic, uniting around emotional, substantive, methodological, and social problems. By giving and receiving support, they seek to change the difficult reality in which they find themselves. It is worth emphasizing the positive aspects of this currently popular aid activity, which include: non-spatiality, which means that geographical limitations can be side-stepped; asynchrony, allowing communication that does not have to take place in real time; corporeality, because in the virtual world the text is the most important feature, while facial expressions, tone of voice, clothes, beauty or its absence cease to matter; astigmatism, in which the virtual space blurs the boundaries of gender, skin color, origin, status, etc., and anonymity, giving the belief that interactions in the virtual world can be completely anonymous (Szpunar, 2006, pp. 163–167). Institutions that cooperate with the school and the teacher are sources of external support, which, by activating their activities, translate into the effectiveness of the pedagogical work of educational institutions. An important place in this type of activity is played by psychological and pedagogical counseling centres, which perform advisory, educational, and care functions, providing teachers with advice and consultations, as well as conducting workshops. Their role is invaluable since the work undertaken in the field of support is timeless and systematic, depending only on the needs of the aid recipients. Support for teachers is also provided by teacher training centres which, through methodological advisers, organize assistance activities to support educators in the form of consultations, advice, and the diagnosis of needs. Due to the number of challenges faced by teachers, as a group they struggle with a reality that is full of questions and doubts; hence the presence of people with whom one can work through difficulties seems priceless. In order to meet expectations, teachers continue to look for new forms of support, which include supervision. They are one of the most common and effective methods of learning in psychotherapy, consisting in regular meetings between the trainer and the

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supervisor, during which the trainee reports on his work with the client, and the supervisor comments on this work (Lis-Turlejska, 1994). Supervision is the exchange of experience, a search for a way to solve a problem, the pursuit of professionalism through the analysis and reflection of difficult situations. Supervision, although a new phenomenon, has become a source of motivation by which to rediscover the meaning of the work of the teacher. The possibility of taking advantage of social support, and even the awareness of its existence, especially in the workplace, is invaluable for an individual, especially for mental health. In the conditions of educational and social changes, when a person is accompanied by a sense of uncertainty and insecurity, the value of the role of social support seems to be inestimable. The prospect of receiving support facilitates the creation of positive relations with society. The awareness of having permanent and real support helps in coping with the difficult pedagogical work that creates the image of a modern teacher-innovator of pedagogical activities in a modern school.

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Chapter Nine: The teacher as an innovator in a changing school School is worth so much how much is a teacher worth. F. A. Diesterweg

The school is currently operating under an avalanche of changes that are increasingly incomprehensible and furthermore non-transparent, leading to the intensification of differences between the current world and the one in which today’s students will function as adults. These differences are likely to be greater than at any other time in history. By 2030, employees are expected to spend much more time than they do today on on-the-job learning, problem solving, critical thinking, math, and verbal and interpersonal communication (FYA 2017; CEO 2021). One of the priorities of the world’s education systems is the development of the competences of the future, among which innovative activity has its rightful place. These are the competences that underlie the practical solving of emerging problems. They occupy a key place in most studies on the expected profile of school graduates (cf. OECD 2019). In many highly developed countries, there is a growing interest in methods of developing and measuring the competences of the future and how to teach them in schools (Scoular et al. 2020; Fullan et al. 2021; Lucas 2021). Along with social, cultural, political, and economic changes, new ways of conceptualizing educational reality are observed. The most important civilizational changes that determine the directions of school development include transitions (a) from the industrial society to the information society; (b) from the national economy to the global economy; (c) from short-term thinking to longterm thinking; (d) from institutionalized help to self-help; (e) from representative to participatory democracy; (f) from hierarchy to network; and (g) from workflow to greater choice. So far, education has derived numerous directions of development from these changes, among which the most important are: 1) the school provides students with integral development of all spheres of their personality; 2) the priority of upbringing over education;

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3) intensification of educational influences in terms of ethical orientation and the hierarchization of values, personalization of life in the family and society, and the shaping of work ethics; 4) increasing the autonomy of schools at all levels of education; 5) dialogue between the generations and the different participants in educational processes; 6) reflecting local and global needs in curricula; 7) broader inclusion in education programs of sets of exercises for creative perception, and defining and solving problems that prepare an individual for lifelong learning; 8) providing parents and the local community with a significant role in the educational activities of the school; 9) development of a network of service institutions for schools and educational institutions. The above-mentioned trends in education, resulting from the unpredictability and changeability of processes taking place in the modern world, are a challenge for the functioning of the professional teacher and for the educational work of the student. The change in the roles of the teacher, the student, and the entire teaching and learning process is related to the new paradigm of education, which assumes that: – learning is an active, socializing process in which participants should interact with each other more closely than before; – learning is an active mental process in which critical and creative thinking skills become the most valuable; – the student should not only be an active but also a self-initiating participant in the learning process; – students should verbalize their learning experiences, which can help them develop their thinking and language; – students can also learn from each other and feel the need to learn; – students like to work in a group and they also learn by working together; – under favorable conditions resulting mainly from experience, students can become responsible for the development of their own learning abilities (cf.: Adams and Hamm 1990). In the new paradigm of education, the key factors for the intellectual development of students are cooperation and interaction, and the diversity of intellectual abilities and skills of a group of students interacting with each other. This leads to a change in thinking about the school, and in particular to a change from a school model based on preparation for competition and that is control-oriented to a

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school model based on communication and cooperation. This is a fundamental change but certainly a necessary one. The quality of the school has a decisive impact on the quality of human capital, and thus co-decides on the pace and directions of the country’s economic development (Goczek, Witkowska and Witkowski 2021). Awareness of these conditions requires the preparation of the individual to respond to emerging challenges and to take into account the larger-scale trends present in the world (OECD 2019) along with the directions of education development in the process of education. These include: – individualization of the educational program and personalization of educational services (e. g. through different paths and optional activities); – developing transversal (general) competences; – the effective use of digital technologies and tools (including artificial intelligence and big data), and hybrid education; – taking into account the psychophysical well-being of students and developing social-emotional learning; – using active teaching methods; – moving away from summative assessment (grades) towards formative, outcome-based assessment of students’ work (formative assessment and performance-based assessment); – propagation of problem-based, project-based, and interdisciplinary learning (going beyond the traditional divisions between subjects), building learning processes based on real problems and challenges; – democratization of learning environments – creating a school culture that reduces the impact of competitiveness, subordination and coercion, focusing instead on mutual respect, cooperation, participation, and choice; – fostering aspirations for lifelong learning, including combining formal and informal education (CEO 2021, pp. 8–9).

The innovativeness of the teacher In order to efficiently implement complex educational tasks, the teacher should be adequately prepared for innovative activities – and this should already have occurred by the time they take up a position within the school. The university should ensure the shaping of innovative competences that are the individual abilities to process a properly formulated idea of qualitative change, aimed at improving the results of pedagogical activity in a specific field. The teacher’s readiness for innovative activity is connected with individual personality traits, the level of their creativity, and external motivation for such activity. Innovativeness includes a system of comprehensive activities consisting of the

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implementation and dissemination of innovations in the conditions of specific schools. They may be theoretically already known, but not yet implemented (Szempruch 2013). Innovativeness means improving patterns of didactic and educational work through rationalizing ideas concerning changes in the content, methods, means, and organizational forms of education and upbringing (Okon´ 1992, pp. 140–141). The content of this concept is often identified with creativity. Therefore, activity and creativity, in which the teacher is an important programming and organizational factor, are the indispensable content of modern education. The most desirable innovative activities of teachers in school practice should concern their personal (moral, interpretative, communication) and didactic (projection, implementation, evaluation) competences. As part of their minimum innovative personality competences, the teacher: – understands their role as an assistant to students in perceiving values and as a stimulator of their multilateral activity; – notices and understands the relationship between their own professional position (in the structure of competences, attractiveness, etc.), the preferred style of class management, and the social life of student communities; – knows how to place the student in an elevated position in the system of professional values and shows sensitivity to their good and harm; – wants and is able to analyze the observed behavior of students, and understands the conditions and motives of these behaviors; – correctly interprets the successes and failures of students against the background of their subjective capabilities and social conditions; – independently defines pedagogical situations that result in mutual interactions between the subjects of education, and gives these situations an educational value; – understands the specificity of educational dialogue, uses verbal and nonverbal language in communicating with the student according to the conditions and requirements of the communicative situation. Innovative didactic competences are possessed by the teacher who: – is able to develop a concept of working with a student and a class on the basis of a pedagogical and psychological diagnosis; – is able to translate the core curricula into original versions of curricula; – is able to differentiate educational projects depending on the subjective abilities of students and the material and cultural conditions of education; – knows how to choose the didactic concept of their own work, reconciling personal preferences, the class team, and the expectations of parents and the local environment;

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– is able to select teaching methods that are appropriate to the objectives and conditions (especially those that activate students) and select or produce teaching materials; – performs an in-depth reflection on their own pedagogical activity and skilfully plans their professional development; – uses various forms of monitoring and assessing students’ school achievements, and interprets these achievements against the background of their individual abilities; – recognizes the causes of school failures and proposes various methods to ameliorate or eradicate such failures; – creates the most favorable learning conditions for all students, including inclusive education; – creates a modern pedagogical workshop that meets current standards; – gives students the opportunity to shorten the path to success through a fuller use of mass media in various subjects and at all stages of the educational process (Szempruch 2000, pp. 146–147). In the changing educational reality, the adoption and use of the innovative, creative attitude of the teacher is necessary, with this being considered a prerequisite for success in comprehensive action. The creative potential of the teacher concerns their approach to the teaching process: searching for and applying modern methods, and selecting teaching content and means of action. It also includes the active stimulation of the student’s development through properly developed motivation, thanks to which the student creatively approaches the tasks and problems undertaken. The teacher’s creative approach to work is characterized by a lack of template teaching, searching for and improving the style of work, methods of monitoring and assessing students’ knowledge and skills, making innovative use of teaching resources, and stimulating students to innovation, thinking, and independence. Innovating requires a different range of creative activities. If the innovation is complete, it takes into account all the elements of the education system: the objectives, content, principles, methods, and organization. If the innovation is partial, the change is made to only some of the elements listed. Therefore, in order for the teacher to be able to creatively participate in changes in education, they should possess the skill of didactic design. It is also up to the teacher to remove the intra-structural conditioning of excessive objectification of the student and the teacher in the school system. The interpretation of changes at school and the creation of action concepts can be made by a teacher who is comprehensively intellectually educated, characterized by a passion for creating and perfecting reality, seeking in-depth reflection on the world, the student, and his own role in the broader context of modernity, inspiring students to ask ques-

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tions, constantly looking for better solutions, willing to engage with unconventional activities, and reacting quickly and rationally to everything that is progressive and creative. Student independence is the fundamental goal of education where education is understood as preparation for development and participation in a democratic society. The teacher’s task will therefore be to support the development of the student’s independence in all spheres, i. e. in thinking, experiencing the world and expressing these experiences, overcoming emotionally difficult situations, and making decisions regarding specific phenomena. Therefore, a modern school needs a teacher who can create conditions to meet the physical, mental, and spiritual needs of the student. Failure to meet these needs consistently, or making the effort once and only once, may cause the student to withdraw from the path of development and enter the path of defense. An important element of innovative work is also the liquidation of the hidden curricula of the school. Possession of the required innovative competences will help the teacher to inspire changes in the didactic and educational process, facilitate creative development and activity, suggest action, and to be full of invention when introducing new, interesting solutions to educational practice. Taking into account the degree of novelty of a given innovative activity, the following can be indicated: – development activities that are a continuation of the current trends; – faithful application of solutions proposed by others; – modernization activities of what already exists in pedagogical practice; – alternative activities that are the teacher’s own original ideas.

Innovation as an attribute of modern society and the school Innovation is the subject of interest of many sciences and has become an attribute of modern society. It is present in the spheres of economy, politics, media, and literature, and it penetrates everyday vocabulary. It is a category defined in many ways. In pedagogical sciences, the concept of innovation was popularized in the 1960s. Thus, the term pedagogical innovation was coined, which refers to a specialized form of activity and product that make up changes of a developmental type, resulting in the enrichment of the culture of education with new values. Such changes bring progress. These are new components of the pedagogical experience. Innovation is related to creativity, taking risks, and experimenting (Brewer and Tierney, 2011; Bowers and Khorakian, 2014, p. 26; Keizer and Halman, 2007, p. 30). According to Brown (2010, p. 1211), risk is a central component of innovation. Ne˛cka (1999, p. 130) highlights the need to take risks and the high

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probability of failure when she describes the emotional costs of creativity. Creative people are exposed to public exposure and assessment, and even to ridicule, sometimes leading to isolation and subsequent loneliness. The development of pro-innovation competences serves to prepare young people for responsible risk-taking (Fazlagic´ et al., 2018, p. 12). This requires the introduction of changes to the school that would support the systematic development of pro-innovation competences and promote such features of the school as: – prioritizing innovation in school development; – promoting teacher autonomy and development opportunities; – considering the director as a leader of change and cooperation; – learning by doing and experiencing, using active teaching and assessment methods; – ensuring a sense of security at school, with relationships based on respect, community, and subjectivity; – teaching cooperation within the school and with other environments; – developing the educational space, taking care of students’ well-being (KuleszaTałtan 2020), and creating arrangements conducive to development (Pacewicz 2020). An important task of the school and the teacher is to shape the students’ proinnovation competences, such as: cooperation, self-management, problem solving, independent thinking, and leadership (Fazlagic´ et al. 2018). In the course of innovative activities, teachers should adapt the program to the needs and developmental capabilities of the students, ensuring that they can choose from a variety of behaviors as they move towards comprehensive activity, and they should skilfully direct this activity. The concept of innovation is related to the creation of new ideas to solve problems. It is an important element of the teacher’s professional competences (Szempruch 2022b), and in particular one of the components of competences in the field of initiative and entrepreneurship, which in turn are distinguished by the European Union as key competences that are needed by every person to live in modern Europe, to take up a job, and for self-fulfilment. The notion of innovation and innovativeness is relatively closely related to the notion of creativity. Analyses of issues of innovation must include that well-known international report diagnosing the difficulties of the end of the industrial era and proposing educational scenarios that open up new opportunities for individual development and community, which is the report of the Club of Rome “Learning without borders. How to close the ‘human gap’?” (Botkin, Elmandjra and Malitza, 1982, p. 50), which introduces a new system of pedagogical categories to the discourse

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on education: innovative and anticipatory learning. This involves mastering and implementing the new methodologies, skills, attitudes, and values necessary for life in a world of change. Innovative learning can be described by the following categories: comprehension, creative learning, the social construction of meanings, contextual learning, participative learning, learning in social interactions, and being guided by values the ability to perceive conflicts. The main characteristics of innovative learning are anticipation, participation, and responsibility. A special feature of anticipation is the ability to project into the future, perceive different conditions, create new variants of solutions, and anticipate side effects. Anticipation is connected with the choice of values. These are important elements that should be taken into account by the teacher-innovator in the organization of the innovative learning of students and the introduction of innovations to the pedagogical activity of the school.

Types and features of innovation By introducing innovations into educational practice, the teacher becomes an important programming factor, inspiring changes in the didactic and educational process, and facilitating students’ creative development and activity. According to the area of application, innovations can be related to the traditional functions of the school and the following can be distinguished: – didactic innovations that improve the process of education and concern each of its elements: objectives, content, rules and methods of work, means, and organizational forms; – educational innovations aimed at solving educational problems, creating a situation for the active development of all spheres of the student’s personality, building an atmosphere conducive to learning. According to the content of the innovation, the following innovations can be distinguished: – curriculum – relating to changes in the content or structure of educational programs; – methodological – concerning the improvement of teaching and upbringing methods, teaching technology, and with direct relation to the teacher’s practice; – organizational – concerning the organization of school life, cooperation with the environment, and the organization of educational management; – systemic – concerning the systemic model of the school system; – systemic – concerning the entire educational system (Okon´ 1992).

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There is a difference between true innovation and mere novelty. For an activity to count as an innovation, it should be: – intentional – aimed at specific effects; – planned – has a schedule of actions and activities; – organized – takes into account the necessary resources, people and means; – controlled – it can be evaluated through reference to a specific method of evaluation (Najder-Stefaniak 2010, p. 12). Educational innovations are characterized by: – precisely defined educational goals and tasks; – being based on an original and valuable didactic theoretical concept; – novelty and originality of solutions; – having a specific structure of operation; – achieving specific, higher didactic and educational effects compared to the previous results; – the possibility of evaluating the achievements of students and teachers; – the possibility of disseminating results. Pedagogical innovations are often distinguished by their relative novelty. What is innovative for one institution may be common practice in another. Innovations vary in scope and gravity, and this is true when it comes to the scope of their importance, which might be only local or possibly national. Innovations have been and still remain the subject of interest of the European Union. It is worth recalling that the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union declared 2009 the European Year of Creativity and Innovation. The main goal of the actions taken then was to raise awareness of how key creativity and innovation are not only to the economic, cultural, and scientific development of regions and countries, but also to the individual development of every human being. The concept of pedagogical innovation is an open concept whose family of meanings includes experiments, reforms, and changes. Innovations require careful preparation and have the capability to produce great effects in all areas of life. They are introduced when the ways of perceiving reality and value systems change, and when other needs appear and changes occur in the environment in which the school and the teacher operate. Their goal is to improve the work of the school, increase the effectiveness of the teacher’s work, and inspire the creative activity of students and teachers. Since the main beneficiaries of all innovative ideas of the teachers are their students, and it is in the students’ personalities that traces of innovative activity remain, it is particularly important to consider student well-being, and to initiate

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constructive changes in their thinking, emotions, and actions. Therefore, before deciding to introduce innovations, the teacher should consider several issues: – what is the content of the innovation – what do I want to change, what do I want to introduce? – what is the purpose of the innovation – why do I want to change something, do I want to introduce something new or change an existing practice? – what will be the results of innovation – what will be the expected effects of the change, and the benefits for the student? – how will the innovation be evaluated? The purpose of innovation should be clearly defined. It should be remembered that all innovation is change, but not all change is innovation. Innovations are qualitative changes and contribute to development and progress. The preparation of innovation is related to making an effort and crossing psychological and organizational barriers, as well as to entering into new relationships that guarantee support at various stages of the implementation of innovation. The analysis of pedagogical situations and phenomena, the need to formulate new problems, and the selection of appropriate tools for their verification, should stimulate independent, creative thinking, trigger criticism, and thus optimize the didactic and educational work of the teacher and the school.

The legal basis of innovative activity in Poland The legal basis for the development of the idea of innovation in Polish education was introduced through Ordinance No. 62 of 1989 on the principles of conducting innovative pedagogical activity in schools and other educational and educational institutions, as well as the currently prepared amendment to the Education System Act (adopted on September 7, 1991), which created the basis for the autonomy of school education. These ordinances came at a time of great change both for the country as a whole, as it departed from the Communist system, and for the system of education. Teachers were given the right to introduce pedagogical innovations in the form of classes and schools. Innovative activity has become an integral element of the school’s activity. This is confirmed by the provisions of the Education Law: Art. 1 point 18, art. 55 sec. 1 point 4, art. 68 sec. 1 point 9, art. 86 sec. 1: 1. The education system ensures in particular: shaping students’ entrepreneurial and creative attitudes that foster active participation in economic life, including through the use of innovative curricular, organizational, or methodological solutions in the education process (Article 1 item 18);

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2. Pedagogical supervision consists of: inspiring teachers to improve the current process or to implement new solutions in the education process, using innovative programs, organizational or methodological activities aimed at developing students’ competences (Article 55(1)(4)); 3. The headmaster of the school or institution, in particular, creates conditions for volunteers, associations, and other organizations to operate in the school or institution, in particular scouting organizations, whose statutory goal is educational activity or expanding and enriching the forms of teaching, educational, care, and innovative activities school or institution (Article 68(1)(9)); 4. With the exception of political parties and organizations, associations and other organizations may operate within the school and institution, in particular scouting organizations whose statutory goal is educational activity or expanding and enriching the forms of teaching, educational, care and innovative activities of the school or institution (Article 86(1)). It follows from the provisions cited that innovations should be included in the regular practice of the school and in the practice of each teacher. They should guarantee the implementation of the school’s tasks and the core curriculum, as well as the conditions for conducting exams and tests (specified in separate regulations). They may not violate the student’s rights to free education, upbringing, and care within the scope set out in the Education System Act, and do not change the rules of recruitment for the school, providing the appropriate staffing and organizational conditions necessary to implement the planned activities and allow for voluntary teacher participation in these activities. The current regulations do not indicate how to introduce innovations. This means that the school decides on its own which innovations it will implement and document and is not obliged to report them to the education superintendent. Though there is no legal requirement to do so, it is worth introducing an internal procedure for carrying out innovations in the school. However, the rules of experimental activity at school are different – the legal basis for experimental activity at schools and institutions is given in Article 45 of the Act of 14 December 2016 Education Law (Journal of Laws of 2021, item 1082, as amended). A school or institution may carry out a pedagogical experiment, which consists of modifying existing or implementing new activities in the education process, using innovative programs, organizational, methodological or educational solutions, under which the conditions, organization of educational activities, or the scope of teaching content are modified. The purpose of a pedagogical experiment carried out in a school or institution is to develop the competences and knowledge of students and teachers. The pedagogical experiment is carried out under the supervision of a scientific unit. Conducting a pedagogical experiment requires the consent of the minister re-

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sponsible for education and upbringing, and in the case of an art school, the minister responsible for culture and protection of national heritage. A pedagogical experiment carried out in a school or institution may not lead to a change in the type of school or type of institution, nor may it violate the student’s rights to free education, upbringing and care, as well as in terms of obtaining the knowledge and skills necessary to complete a given type of schooling and the conditions and manner of conducting exams. A pedagogical experiment can cover the entire school or facility, a class, a group, or selected educational activities. The requirement for innovation is to guarantee the implementation of the school’s tasks and improve the quality of its work. The effect of innovation is the creativity of students and teachers and their personal satisfaction, as well as the development of a culture of teaching and upbringing. Innovative activities adapt the school to the changing world and foster development. The absorption of innovation is related to complexity of that innovation, the degree of compliance with the recognized values and experience of people involved, and the relative benefit it is supposed to bring. Changes taking place in the internal conditions of school functioning and in the entire system of education should lead to the perception of the school as a place for the critical analysis of reality, teaching life, alternative thinking, and specifying goals and plans for one’s own development (Szempruch 2012, p. 9).

The role of the school principal Success in the development of the school, teachers, and students largely depends on how the principal supports the development of innovation and whether it is treated as an integral element of school policy. In connection with the creation of pro-innovative attitudes, the school principal should: – encourage innovation through their own example (by sharing with the teaching staff some of their own dilemmas along with their achievements, thus establishing a greater sense of rapport and togetherness), – properly manage the change process, – indicate the benefits of introducing changes, – remove barriers to innovation, – create favorable working conditions, – involve all employees in the process of introducing changes, – seek and welcome innovation when it comes from employees of the school, – support teacher autonomy, – identify and support school leaders, – adapt tasks to the abilities of the teachers,

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– accept failures, – recognize and reward success. The school principal faces new challenges, and should always be open to all novelties and support innovative, unconventional, original, and pedagogically creative teaching activities. The principal’s role is to react to changes and take into account the needs and expectations of teachers, students, and parents. The level of innovation among teachers is also influenced by the educational leadership of the headteacher. The more power is dispersed and the principal delegates powers, the more favorable are the conditions for creativity and innovation in the school (Szempruch et al, 2023). The modern school is required to be an innovative learning organization, open to novelties, perceiving problems from different perspectives, sensitive to the signals and challenges of the educational market, and ready to introduce various changes. Therefore, it should develop its own innovation, ensuring professional management and creating attractive conditions for employees who are motivated to change reality. It is also necessary for the school to cooperate with the local community and make use of digital technologies as a tool to support educational processes.

Teacher professionalism as a factor in the development of innovation The innovative activities of teachers are related to the development of their professionalism. The preparation of a professional is related to the fulfilment of certain requirements. A profession should be thought of not only as the occupation of specific kind of employment, but as an occupation that requires specialized knowledge acquired over a longer period of time as a result of specialized studies Carr (1996, p. 34) indicates five main criteria of professionalism in relation to forms of professional activity: 1. significant importance of the profession in the social and public sphere; 2. high professional competence of a theoretical and practical nature; 3. a specific ethical dimension that regulates the practice within the profession; 4. the existence of organizational forms and regulations necessary from the point of view of selecting, recruiting, and disciplining those practicing this profession; 5. a high degree of autonomy and independence in making judgments provided to professionals in order to achieve a high efficiency of operations. These criteria of professionalism highlight that professional preparation is equivalent to having an awareness of being involved in ethical problems and the

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need for a high level of preparation, not only technical-practical, but also theoretical, which will allow for a high degree of specialization. Having specialized knowledge and the ability to use it and the techniques of its application or transfer, leads to the ability of holding substantive discussion and debates of responsible and properly educated professionals who are characterized by a high degree of autonomy. An important element of professionalism is also the need for feedback between the actions and activities of individual professionals. The relationship between theory and practice is also important as the basic material of teaching professionalism (Szempruch 2013). Professionalism is usually described, analysed, interpreted, and designed in terms of three variables: professional knowledge, professional action, and ethical and moral qualifications. The omission of any of these dimensions results in the falsification of the image of the teacher’s professional role and the implementation of the basic pillars of education, as defined in the report of Delors (1998) “Learning: the treasure within”. They are also the goals of European education, such as ‘learning to know’, ‘learning to do’, ‘learning to live together’, and ‘learning to be’. In each of these areas there is room for innovation. Freire (1993, p. 22) states that the professionalism of the teacher is expressed in critical progressivism, in the awareness of the potential of education and its participants, and awareness of the difficulties that the teacher encounters in his work. Professionalism also means closing the gap between what the teacher says and does. Through competent action, the teacher stimulates students’ criticism, creativity, curiosity, and the ability to take risks. Thus, professionalism in relation to the teacher is sometimes considered in several spheres: – in the sphere of knowledge and competence, – in the sphere of needs, emotions, and values, – in the sphere of awareness of contact with another human being. The teacher is also distinguished by autonomy, which manifests itself in expressing their own judgments in making decisions in the classroom, and the ability to autonomously develop professionally through self-study, examining the work of other teachers, and challenging and testing ideas through classroom research procedures. The professionalism of the teacher is conditioned by many factors, which include cognitive arguments regarding the transfer of knowledge, the possibility of understanding that knowledge, shaping skills, and consolidating and developing interests, as well as existential factors related to shaping students’ positive attitude towards themselves, other people, and the world, and preventing anxiety and low self-esteem. Professionalism requires independent research of one’s own practice and the creation of personal knowledge on this basis, which comple-

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ments academic knowledge, and therefore involves mastering many important professional competences (Szempruch 2010, pp. 11–12). The professionalism of the teacher is also determined by, among other aspects, effective communication, personal satisfaction with teaching, relationships with colleagues, satisfaction with the successes of individual students, and adopting the students’ perspective, as well as learning through reflection on teaching practice. These are basic features of the teachers’ lives (Day 2004, p. 84). In the professional functioning of the teacher, the self-assessment of didactic and educational work, understood as collecting information about the conditions, course, and results of this work in order to improve it or make a decision about its further use, grows in importance. Self-assessment builds confidence in one’s own work, and the insights gained in the self-assessment process can be used by the teacher in planning further educational activities. The self-assessment of work focused on self-correction is the essential basis for professional development, because then the teacher becomes aware of the areas of educational activity that require improvement (Szempruch 2001, p. 124) in relation to: – acquiring previously planned knowledge, skills, and attitudes; – finding a practical application for each of these; – the impact on students’ development of knowledge and achievement; – the influence on other teachers in the school. Professional development goals become important in teacher development from the perspective of maintaining and developing self-efficacy, motivation, commitment, enthusiasm, and professional culture. Among these, the following might be found: – appreciation of the work environment; – enabling the work to be done well in order to receive positive feedback, which is needed to achieve satisfaction and gain motivation; – encouraging positive emotions and satisfaction from their participation in changes; – to create a willingness to make a constructive contribution to the development of the school. It is necessary to strive for the development of a school that is at the same time student-friendly, wise, and civilizationally developed, based its activity on the achievements of education science, in which teachers display an innovative and reflective approach to the didactic and educational process. Constantly improving themselves and their students, they shape the competences of the future. Among these competences, Jérémy Lamri (2021) highlights the so-called 4Cs – creativity, cooperation, communication, and critical thinking. In such a school,

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teachers, striving to achieve professional mastery, constantly ask themselves and their students questions, thus arousing curiosity about the world, jointly looking for answers in various sources, critically analyzing the answers obtained, and transforming the acquired information into knowledge and wisdom. The changes taking place in the modern world are accelerating, and globalization is happening on an unprecedented scale. Education is expected to prepare the individual to understand the world and their place in it. The task of the modern school is to prepare students for cognitive and existential independence and to inspire development. This requires taking into account the changes taking place in the world in the educational process and creating appropriate conditions for learning and developing innovative competences (Darling-Hammond et al., 2019). The teacher should be properly prepared for innovative activities. An important element of teachers’ education are social and moral skills, through which they are able to oppose the dehumanization of social relations. The teacher’s moral attitude consists of stimulating pro-social attitudes and behaviors, respect for subordinates and the less fortunate, teaching altruism and empathy, and disseminating values that strengthen trust in man as a sensitive and thinking person. This important role is realized not only through the ability to express behavior, but also to skilfully read the content of messages coming from other people. The idea of communication is therefore conditioned by the ability of sensitive understanding, which in turn depends on empathetic dispositions, with these still being underestimated from the perspective of the teacher’s broadlyunderstood moral education. Therefore, in the new understanding of education, the current interpretation of categories such as expression, communication, empathy, understanding, and culture of feelings should be included, because the crisis of interpersonal relations requires strengthening of the humanistic aspects of education and of the valuable ways of being human. There is a growing demand for teachers’ creativity and initiative, the ability to think and act on a school-wide scale. The general professional attitude, selfdefinition, and professional activity should be embedded in the teacher’s organizational and pedagogical culture, combined with the ability to enter into dialogue.

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Chapter Ten: The future of education – the school of the future

In his book devoted to the problems and prospects for the development of society in the 21st century, Yuval Noah Harari (2018. p. 209) writes: “Humankind is facing unprecedented revolutions, all our old stories are crumbling, and no new story has so far emerged to replace them. How can we prepare ourselves and our children for a world of such unprecedented transformations and radical uncertainties? A baby born today will be thirtysomething in 2050. If all goes well, that baby will still be around in 2100, and might even be an active citizen of the twenty-second century. What should we teach that baby that will help him or her survive and flourish in the world of 2050 or of the twenty-second century? What kind of skills will he or she need in order to get a job, understand what is happening around them, and navigate the maze of life?”

A new face of reality in a period of rapid social change It is no coincidence that Harrari chooses to title the first part of his book, which is about education, “The only constant is change” (ibid.). A similar view has been expressed by many scholars writing about the phenomenon of contemporary social change, and Zygmunt Bauman (2007) even titled one of his books devoted to this issue ‘Liquid Reality.’ The rapid social change that is taking place today is one of the most characteristic features of modernity. It is a phenomenon of our times. Social change occurs in every society. This is influenced by various factors, including those related to the forces of nature. Floods, volcanic eruptions, fires, epidemics, and other cataclysms have always disorganized the course of people’s lives, often forcing them to modify their ways of acting and carrying out social relations. Not without significance are the changes of the seasons, which not only affect the comfort of life, but also in many professions diversify the work cycle, visibly reflecting the daily functioning of people. Generational changes, changes of people in power, of priests in churches, of employees in offices, have always been something natural. However, this did not affect the course of life and the

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state of the most important matters for the individual. We are currently dealing with the existence of permanent change, covering all spheres of life, including education, work, culture, social activities, social life, and personal relationships. These changes have come so suddenly that preparation is impossible, and the result for many is uncertainty and anxiety. These states have become permanent elements of our lives. In a similar assessment of this state of affairs, Boz˙ena Majerek (2018, p. 7) writes, “Social changes have always been made, but now they are radical and unpredictable, they spread rapidly, abruptly, unpredictably, and in a risky way. The high level of complexity and dynamics and dynamism of these transformations does not leave much time for reflection, keeping up, justifying assessments, understanding, and making sense. In addition to the beneficial effects, largely related to the development of science and the dissemination of education, they can have negative effects, disrupting the course of human life and the functioning of various social groups.”

Increasing educational challenges in a changing society Rapid changes taking place simultaneously in different areas of life require equally rapid reactions, and this means the ability to assess events and phenomena. In 1959 Bogdan Suchodolski wrote ‘Upbringing for the Future,’ but the rate of change is greater even than at the end of the 1950s. Coping with this accelerated state of affairs requires scientific consideration. The research so far shows that the best solution is to focus on the competences that school graduates should have in order to cope with this new, unpredictable, reality. Discussions of the future structure of the school, the organization of school work, and the use of alternative didactic concepts should all be secondary to the discussion of student competence. The way of thinking introduced by Suchodolski was continued by the “Polska 2000 Plus” Research and Forecasting Committee, and then the “21st Century Poland” Research and Forecasting Committee, and the debates conducted by these institutions have resulted in numerous collective publications. Suchodolski (1959, p. 68) writes “Since the process of the historical development of civilization began to transform the living conditions of people more deeply and in a wider social range than ever before, since the process of these transformations gained such a speed that it became visible in the course of individual people’s lives, from then on, an increasingly important component in preparing the young generation for life had to be showing them the prospects of the future. Neither imitating traditional patterns, nor even adapting to the present, could secure the results of educational work, since the future into which

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the young generation was to enter differed both from its present and from the future.” Although there are still those, including educators, who would like to base the development and improvement of education on the models of the past, the effectiveness of such a procedure is limited. While it is true that some proven elements should not be abandoned, and there are certainly outstanding educators, school principals, and teachers who can still be role models today, in times of rapid change, new concepts, ideas, projects, and solutions are needed so that education does not lose its connection with social reality. On the contrary, it should participate in the ongoing changes, and even more, it should be one of the important creators of change. Contemporary social change is characterized not only by its rapid course, but also by the comprehensive, holistic nature of the changes taking place. It includes all the types of changes distinguished by Piotr Sztompka (2002, pp. 437–438): change in system composition, change in its structure, change in system function, change in system boundary, and change in system environment. The social composition of the student body will change in the coming years for demographic reasons as well as increasing globalization. Similar changes will occur in the composition of the teaching body (especially if their salaries finally become fair). The parents too will change. They will be older than today and better educated, likely the result of delayed marriages compared with the previous generation, increased family planning, and the dissemination of education at subsequent levels of the school system. Education is an important part of social life. It is a field that, by focusing on the upbringing, education, and care that fosters the development of learners, at the same time helps them in self-creation, identity construction, preparation for work, and valuable participation in social and personal life. All these tasks are much more difficult today than they used to be, and the predicted further acceleration of social change will make this difficulty even greater. Although – as before – the individual will strive to constantly “be themselves”, their identity becomes changeable. Barbara Szacka (2003, p. 151) puts it as follows: “Variability is a derivative of the enormous cultural diversity and significant social diversity of modern industrial societies. In traditional societies, identities were defined and little changeable, and changes were accompanied by rites of passage, so that a boy would become a man and change his identity, he had to undergo initiation. In modern society, man lives in a ‘kaleidoscope of changing roles’ and even on the same day he is someone else: in the morning a humble spouse, at noon a despotic boss, in the afternoon a frightened dentist’s patient, in the evening a free, charming, amused seducer.” Bogdan Suchodolski (1959, p. 68) writes similarly: “However, ever since the process of the historical development of civilization began to transform the living

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conditions of people, deeper and wider social scope than ever before, since the process of these transformations gained such a speed that it became visible in during the individual life of people, from then on, an increasingly important factor in preparing the young generation for life had to be showing them the prospects of the future. Neither imitating traditional models nor even adapting to the present could secure the results of educational work, since the future, which the young generation was to enter, was different from both its present and the past.” Writing about the specificity of upbringing in the rapidly changing conditions of the functioning of society, Suchodolski (ibid., p. 69) points out that upbringing so far has always been associated with the transfer of achievements and adaptation to current life. In this regard, both school and pedagogy possess a large arsenal of strategies, means, techniques, and methods of operation. The emerging new, changeable, dynamic, reality makes it necessary to take new approaches to pedagogical issues, as well as new ways of acting. Education for the future is also of great importance for other areas of life. Suchodolski (ibid., pp. 80–96) mentions such areas as: 1. the growing importance of science and technology, 2. the scientific view of the world and the scientific management of life, 3. the world of possible abundance (which forces orientation to be or have and the danger of consumerism), and 4. the world as a whole (today we would say globalism). A few years later, another well-known Polish pedagogue, Zygmunt Mysłakowski (1965, p. 7), wrote about the fact that “…every community is changeable […] only that the rate of changeability varies in different epochs; these are relatively stable times, in which changeability flows underground and imperceptible, giving the impression of some kind of timeless durability […]. These times ended with the end of the nineteenth century; old regimes collapse; colonialism is ending all over the world; nations regain independence; rapid changes can be observed in countries that used to be economically backward. We will say of such times (and this is a shorthand) that they are ‘variable’; it is turbulent volatility.” These turbulent changes cover all areas of life, including science and technology, society and culture, politics and economy, sport and recreation, and the life of each of us. Supporters of liberal ideology pay special attention to the importance of the labor market. Recognizing the market importance of highquality competences of school graduates, these competences will determine the human resources potential of the economy. These competences will also be important for the development of other areas of life. During rapid change, schools should simultaneously prepare their students for solving contemporary tasks as well as those related to the challenges of the future. Usually, however, the pressures applied by politicians and the current labor market, which focus on

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current affairs, cause schools to concentrate on what is the problem of today. Orientation to the future recedes into the background. Therefore, it is difficult to say that modern school education and upbringing provides the appropriate preparation for what awaits in the future. Zbyszko Melosik (2016, pp. 27–47) believes that the difficulty of maintaining a permanent identity in postmodern times results from the impact of two conflicting groups of factors and the need for each individual to strike a balance between them. He calls them the culture of control and the culture of distraction. The first is made up of bureaucratic institutions, legal orders, medical recommendations, and other medical restrictions. The culture of dispersion is, in turn, a derivative of the increasing freedom of the individual, which means that a person who has a sense of freedom is seduced by the various influences of popular culture and institutions promoting new patterns of consumption. As a result, it is necessary to balance the two types of culture, which is not necessarily good. Therefore, the author proposes the development of pedagogy focused on shaping the core identity of individuals and of groups of students. In his opinion, this should include maximum acceptance of subjectivity and shaping self-esteem, teaching critical thinking and distance, establishing lasting interpersonal relationships, and respect for high culture and popular culture. Such pedagogy is also the pedagogy of non-mediated and non-edited forms of identity expression and face-to-face contact, and respect for reading and collecting books and the library. Sharing the author’s views, however, I believe that the “core of identity” he distinguishes is close to, or even identical with, what George H. Mead (1975) defines as the “subjective self”. This dimension of identity is shaped not only at school as a result of special pedagogical units, but also in the course of the entire lifelong socialization that takes place in the family, peer group, and local environment, in a wider social space in which the processes of globalization are increasingly visible, as a result of the influence of all education, culture, and health care institutions as well as political parties and the mass media. On the one hand, such a wide spectrum of socialization influences allows knowledge and experience to be gained, but on the other hand, many of these environments and institutions can be treated as carriers of the culture of control and the culture of dispersion. Thus, students both in their pre-school and during-school learning may be inspired or overwhelmed by their twin influences. The school can and should correct this, but as always, when it resists strong and varied external influences, it is not always effective.

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What competences should the school of the 21st century provide its graduates with? Andreas Schleicher (2019), Head of the Education Directorate of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), in ‘World Class Education. How to shape school systems for the 21st century,’ presents the results of his observations from over twenty years of work: “Schools as we know them originated in the industrial age, when uniformity and subordination were the norms, and when it was more efficient and effective to teach in groups and prepare the teacher once for life. At the top of this system were programs that defined what students should learn. Teaching materials, teacher training and teaching conditions were adapted to them. […] This structure, inherited from the industrial model of work, makes changes too slow in a fast-moving world” (ibid., p. 27).

A similar view was expressed a few years earlier by Ken Robinson and Lou Aronica (2015, p. 62), who wrote in the book ‘Creative Schools’: “In developed countries, we take it for granted that children start school around the age of five and go through about twelve years of compulsory education. Going to school feels as natural as driving on the right (or left) side of the road. However, mass education systems are a relatively new invention. Most of them originated in the mid-nineteenth century as a result of the industrial revolution that had begun to gain momentum in Europe about a hundred years earlier.” However, the original of the thesis contained in the last sentence belongs to Peter Drucker. The authors enumerate more important reasons for the industry to promote certain forms of the dissemination of education. Staffing needs at the worker and technical level as well as office and administrative staff, to some extent among professionals such as lawyers, doctors, scientists, and managers, were of decisive importance. An expression of the pressure of industrial forces is seen in the industrial structures of educational institutions: the adequacy of the pyramid of enrolment at successive levels of education to the needs of the labor market, the dualism of the school system expressed in the early distinction between the academic track and schools focused on practice. Schools also took over the industrial principles of “production”: elimination or additional “processing” of poor learners as waste products, compliance with applicable rules and standards, linearity of production taking into account the sequence of stages related to market demand, and the division of work into equal time segments. The authors note that the industrial way of organizing education causes many tensions due to the incompatibility of the pursuit of standardization of educational “production” with the diversity of people and of educational content. In their opinion, an industrial culture of strict compliance stifles creativity, and the principle of linearity, which works well in production, does not take into account the dif-

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ferences in the ability and pace of work of individual students. The authors also argue that the principle of supply and demand does not apply to human life, because adults rarely do exactly what they thought they would do when they were in high school. “The life we create is the result of various currents and counter currents, most of which we are unable to predict” (ibid., p. 69). In a time of constant change, we encounter new things all the time and everywhere. Most require recognition, the selection of appropriate ways of acting, and creativity. Elkhonon Goldberg (2018, p. 26) writes, “Novelty is inseparable from creativity, the most valuable and at the same time the most mysterious gift of the human mind, which is the engine of progress.” Education as a field whose domain is the education and upbringing of children, young people and adults, has a significant impact on the preparation, conduct, control, and evaluation of change. The human capital of society, which is extremely important for shaping all areas of social life and the development of individual people, depends to a large extent on education. The Chinese thinker Confucius says, “If your plan is for one year plant rice. If your plan is for ten years plant trees. If your plan is for one hundred years educate children.” The school, along with other educational institutions, is one of the most significant actors of the desired change. Through ensuring priorities for the development of education, many countries have made a huge civilizational leap and have quickly become economic powerhouses, all while significantly improving the quality of life of the population. So what will tomorrow’s education look like? The answer to this question is difficult, because it has long been known that there are numerous dysfunctions in the activities of schools and teachers. Currently, the school is accused of not keeping up with social changes and the scientific and technical progress that is taking place. Taking the necessary actions for education for the future requires a radical break with the current forms of education and upbringing, largely adopted from the school model in traditional society and therefore completely incompatible with the current, and to an even greater extent, future reality. Scientists and practitioners note the enormous volatility of society, uncertainty about many elements of the future, and the need to adapt to unknown conditions. There is an imperative related to the need to creatively solve a wide variety of problems, and the need for cooperation Jérémy Lamri (2021), the author of a book devoted to this issue, highlights this perfectly. Creativity, communication, critical spirit, and cooperation are – according to the author – the competences that will prove to be the most important determinants of success in the 21st century. The school of the future is to provide its graduates with competences in areas where the modern school has weaknesses and for this reason it is already being criticized by scientists and practitioners.

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The competences of the 21st century highlighted by Lamri (ibid., pp. 21–27) are indeed among those that will be necessary to successfully live and act in the society of the coming times. In conditions of rapid social change, creativity is a very important competence. Creativity is a response to continuous, often unforeseen and surprising, previously unheard of phenomena, problems, situations, and events. Through creativity, people active in social and economic life, science, education, culture, health care, and other fields can actively and effectively react to new phenomena, situations, and circumstances, quickly recognize them, undertake methods of solving problems, unknown or previously unused, and strategies and methods of operation that are appropriate to the new reality. At the same time, creativity is not only used to adapt to new, complex, conditions. It also has potential power. It can contribute to the creation of creative ideas, further discoveries, and inventions. The necessary condition for creativity is having the appropriate education and skills, as well as the possession of a creative attitude that allows you to quickly and effectively break away from current patterns, habits, and solutions. Maciej Karwowski (2009, pp. 21–27) believes that favorable conditions for the development of creativity are created by societies dominated by openness to change. The blurring of boundaries between the socially-defined roles of women and men is of similar importance. This means breaking gender stereotypes. This can be extended to many other stereotypes, for example those relating to race, social and ethnic origin, place of residence, and material situation, to name but a few. Communication in an open and changing society is a very important field. As a basic factor of everyday interaction and lifelong socialization, it was also important in previous types of societies. However, social change itself requires intensifying the pace and scope of acquiring knowledge from various sources, directly and indirectly, using traditional methods and new digital techniques that enable learning, information processing, data collection, and use. The information resources at the disposal of humanity are already enormous, and in the future they will be even more multiplied. Navigating and even more importantly using such diverse and rich collections requires highly developed communication skills. In an increasingly complex and changing reality, it is also necessary to cooperate with people, various communities and associations, social groups and institutions, and corporations of various scope and type of activity. Such a need exists in all areas of life, including the economy, politics and social life, science, and culture. This requires obtaining the necessary competences during school education. Such competences can contribute to a better exchange and understanding of information, the effective analysis of various offers and messages, and increase the effectiveness of the actions taken. All in all, this is conducive to

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the development of forms and ways of functioning of various groups of actors of social change, as well as people passively participating in change (Potyrała, Czerwiec, and Kowal, 2018, p. 7). A critical approach must characterize citizens who do not want to live and know that they cannot live and act according to stereotypes and with a reliance on routine. This is related to the fact that more and more often sources of information are used for nefarious ends, such as to sow confusion, manipulation, disinformation, providing false content, unethically attacking the competition, lowering the prestige and authority of individuals, organizations, foundations, and associations, and hate speech. Though the flood of fake news during the Covid-19 pandemic was appreciable, it has been considerable at other times as well (Mydłowska, 2021, pp. 287–301), especially in cyberspace, where it can take the form of violence (Pyz˙alski, 2011), which is characterized by intentionality, repetition, and imbalance of power (Plichta, 2019, pp. 304–305). The critical analysis of published materials can help the reader to reject irrelevant, redundant, and false data and focus on what is important, worth remembering, and worth applying. Ken Robinson and Lou Aronika (2015, p. 20) write: “Whether you are a student, teacher, parent, principal or policy maker, if you are involved in education in any way, you can be part of the change. For this, you need three forms of understanding: criticism (emphasis by M.J. Sz.) of the current state of affairs, a vision of what education should look like, and a theory of change to know how to go from the first to the second.”

Criticism reveals the dysfunctional areas and forms of operation of traditional institutions, unknown facts and phenomena regarding the procedures and solutions used, the reasons for the poor results of persistently repeated actions, and the manifestations and causes of social resistance, which occur among students, parents, and teachers. Cooperation is another competence necessary for functioning in an increasingly complex world, where interdisciplinarity and a high degree of scientific and technological involvement in the creative and production process, and a wide range of production and exchange on an international scale, are increasingly important. It also plays a significant role in society. The social space and the relationships between people existing in that space are components of reality that have always played a significant role in social life. As Józef Tischner (2012, p. 68) writes, “[W]e always live with someone, by someone, next to someone, towards someone, for someone”. The interpersonal space is always changing as a result of changes in the composition of people functioning in that space, as well as changes in the relationship between them. Therefore, it is in a constant process of becoming (Sztompka, 1991 and 2007, Flis – ed., 2006).

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Lamri’s 21st century competences would appear to be indispensable. I would add to them responsibility, individualism, flexibility of action, and the fuller, more comprehensive use of new technologies in education. Directing the school’s work towards the development of these competences would certainly improve the school. Maria Nowicka-Kozioł (1997, pp. 42–52) presents three dimensions of accountability. The executors of responsibility are the individual – or subjective “I”, the “Other,” and society. Each of these instances, in order to properly assess responsibility, and formulate opinions and verdicts, should have the appropriate knowledge, experience, and the ability to diagnose and solve social problems. Thus, formal and informal education and upbringing play an important role in preparing individuals and social groups for life, professional work, and social activity. This is particularly important in democratic societies, because “the scope of responsibility seems to result from the degree to which human activity is considered subjective, i. e. conscious and related to an autonomous choice” (ibid., p. 23). Therefore, “the problem of responsibility is clearly associated with the problem of freedom” (ibid.). Freedom is one of the most important attributes of democracy. Individualism is a phenomenon that is becoming increasingly visible and appreciated today, and it will be even more desirable in the future. While in a traditional society social and professional activity as well as personal activity could be and were based on performing routine activities, in the conditions of rapid social change a repeat of the same approach is impossible. Writing about individualism, Janusz Reykowski (1999, p. 25) states: “[I]ndividualism, such values as individual autonomy, emotional independence, personal initiative, privacy, and a clear awareness of one’s own “self” are usually mentioned. […] The individual is responsible for himself, he determines what is good or bad for him, or in a different interpretation, he recognizes good and evil himself.” At the same time, individualism is of great importance in a changing and evolving society. Thanks to the freedom to conduct observations and experiments, and at the same time thanks to the great qualities of the human mind, innovative ideas, new solutions, concepts and projects, inventions and creative works can be created. The more talented and creative people there are in society, and therefore also in individual institutions, the more opportunities there are for social, economic, and cultural progress, and thus favorable conditions for the all-round development of all people. There is also a reverse relationship: The better the conditions for education, research, and studies, the greater the field of freedom that society gives to gifted and creative people, the more effective is their development and progress in unconventional undertakings. In a work devoted to individualization in the social process, Norbert Elias writes that the autonomy of the individual shaped in the conditions of general

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social development is a specific construction created by the individual’s place in the social and temporal space. In his opinion, the process of human development allows us to see “such features as: ‘the ability to anticipate’, ‘intelligence’, ‘civilization’ or ‘individuality’ not as something statistical, but as something that has been and is still being evaluated, as effects. […] It is probably extremely difficult today to realize that the characteristics of human beings are not simply given by nature, but are something that has developed from biological, raw material in the course of the social process. This is the process of ‘individuation’, which in the great current of human development is inseparable from other processes, such as the progressive differentiation of social functions and the increasing control over the superhuman forces of nature” (Elias, 2008, p. 166). The rapid social change and dynamic change of social functions mean that all human actions must take into account the ongoing changes. Applying the same routine practices and succumbing to stereotypes leads to ineffective, anachronistic, and sometimes even harmful actions. Flexibility of action appears to be a necessary adaptation factor, enabling adaptation to new, often radically changed conditions. It is no longer possible to travel to work, church, or the railway station by horse-drawn carriage in the cities, because not only would it not be functional in the present conditions, but due to the lack of such carriages it would be impossible. Likewise, in the countryside, no one builds huts with thatched roofs anymore, and no one collects grain with a sickle or a scythe. There are, however, ways of building houses and working during the harvest, when the harvester and other devices are much more efficient and do not require as much human labor. The use of new technologies is the imperative of our times, and it will be even more necessary in the future, when the use of the Internet and computers in various areas of life will be widespread, and the technologies themselves will be even more well-developed. Although our schools are not advanced in terms of the equipment needed for distance learning, such as during the Covid-19 epidemic, the existing opportunities were well used. Modern society is increasingly active in cyberspace. This applies not solely to young people, but to representatives of all generations. The authors of publications devoted to this issue point to the growing informational and cultural role of new media. That is why Maciej Tanas´ (2015, p. 27) claims: “Digital media have become a factor of social, civilizational and cultural transformations. They directly or indirectly change the fate of almost every human being, including – which is especially important for a pedagogue – the way of life, social relations, types of cognitive, creative and even ludic activity of children and youth. The ways and types of scientific, professional, cultural or social activity of adults are also changing in a similar way.” The media contribute to the adoption by part of the consumer society, as well as to a lifestyle detached from reality, inspired by patterns from virtual reality.

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Dorota Siemieniecki (2015, pp. 35–48) analyzes the image of man shaped by the media and what consequences it has for education. These include ideological as well as psychological consequences: “The supermarket of culture does not respond to the needs of man, his affiliation or homeland. Giving up these values in favor of pseudo-individualism and originality results in isolation, self-centeredness, egocentrism and selfishness” (ibid., p. 41). As Danuta Moran´ska (2015, p. 10) notes, an increasing part of human life takes place online. The Internet is already a place of work, study, and leisure. It facilitates the use of many services, which affects the patterns and models of people’s actions. The author points out that digital reality opens up further perspectives, and their appropriate use depends on the awareness of society. Taking into account the rapidly occurring changes, important questions are posed: “What will the world look like (…)? How will we function? What reality will children live in when they grow up? What competences should we equip the young generation with to cope with the new, unknown future?” With our concern about the well-being of people in the times to come, we must look for answers. This should focus the research interests of representatives of different sciences – social, natural, technical, health sciences and others. The future, so vague and uncertain, should not be formed spontaneously. After all, it will be a space for the next generations to function in, and it will influence the sense and quality of their lives. It will also determine opportunities for further social and economic development. It follows that an important social task is to create or at least co-create the shape of the future, and education should play a key role in this process.

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And finally…

The changing social and educational reality entails the need to redefine the role and attitude of the teacher. Teachers are characterized by their awareness of social service, their occupation in a unique vocation, and their responsibility to guarding the applicable normative systems. There is a growing need for pedagogical responsibility, especially existential responsibility, which is a factor that determines the quality, effectiveness, and meaningfulness of work (Cies´len´ska, 2019). In educational practice, the school plays a huge role in ensuring the integral development of all spheres of personality for students. The school should facilitate ethical orientation and an understanding of the hierarchy of values. As an institution, it should prepare for intercultural and international cooperation and be open to social, economic, historical, and cultural changes (Szempruch, 2012). The school and the teacher should together form a coherent picture of the educational reality as we head towards the future. This book is an attempt to draw attention to the challenges facing the school and the teacher today and in the future. The subject matter of the individual chapters is important from the perspective of pedagogical theory and practice. The image of education depends on the work of the school and the teachers it employs, whose identity, tasks, and functions determine the future of generations of young people. In the perspective of such ongoing changes, it is to education that we turn for help in preparing the young generation for life and work in the future. Rapid social change presents the school and other educational institutions with enormous challenges (Szyman´ski, 2021). A common theme across the chapters in this book is the sense of the challenges facing the teacher and the school today and in the future. These challenges have pedagogical and social dimensions, and the different chapters of this book consider different perceptions of the changes to the role of the school and the teacher in the future. Another theme concerns the expectations of the school and the teacher, and where these expectations become challenges in their own right, the educator takes on the role of an innovator and pioneer of a number of changes that must be

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And finally…

introduced into school life based on the teacher’s own knowledge and experience, making use of the authority and prestige that come with the job. To consider the various chapters of this book as one, it would be reasonable to say that the current way in which both the school and the teacher are perceived is no longer sufficient, and that the ongoing systemic and social changes force a reorientation of their role. Therefore, the school that is currently changing should teach an understanding of the world, of knowing and creating oneself, treating students as active participants in the educational process, and teachers as their advisers, guides, and guardians. Moreover, it should focus on maintaining partner contacts with other schools, using the achievements of technology and information technology in the education process, preparing for life in conditions of increasing risk. It should take into account the individual differences that exist in students and help to balance them. It should focus too on balancing egalitarian and elite functions. The school should therefore be a place of change for each of its subjects, teaching a critical perception of reality, specifying goals and development plans (Szempruch, 2012), critical thinking, cooperation, creativity, and responsibility. In the school of the future, the role of the teacher in introducing the new reality is also changing. Modern education implies the possibility of creating a positive image of a teacher, which is not without significance in the general perception of the entire educational system. The teacher undoubtedly influences the students with their whole personality, both when acting properly and when behaving reprehensibly, thus influencing the students’ thoughts, behavior, and attitudes. Therefore, the priority in the teacher’s work must be responsibility, professionalism, and subjectivity, as well as the central mission of the profession (Cies´len´ska, 2019). All these features relate to the educator’s standard of competence, which should introduce the student to global problems. The high standard of professionalism of the teacher’s work also applies to their autonomy, allowing for the elimination, adaptation, and reinterpretation of content, while at the same time being a guarantee of professional awareness of educational activity at individual levels of education. Faced with the challenges of the present and the future, the school and the teacher cannot afford to lose themselves in the pedagogical polyphony. They have to stride towards inevitable change and introduce their students to it, while looking for prospects for their comprehensive development and the need to construct an identity in a constantly changing world.

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Open Access Publication (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) © 2023 V&R unipress | Brill Deutschland GmbH ISBN Print: 9783847116226 – ISBN E-Lib: 9783737016223