The Sanxingdui Site. Mysterious Masks of the Ancient Shu Kingdom 7508508521, 9787508508528

Citation preview

ISBN 7-5085-0852-1 K · 729 }Etfr: 188.005G

Th·e Sanxingdui Site Mystical Mask on Ancient Shu Kingdom

Compiled by the Sanxingdui Museum Translated by Zhao Baohua

~HIN A INTERCONTINENTAL

P RES S

CONTENTS AN OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

BRONZE WARE . . . . . . . . . .. . . .

12

Bronze Human Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

Bronze Human Heads . . . . . . . . . .

. 26

Bronze Human Heads with Gold Mask

. 40

Bronze Human-face Masks . . . . . . . . .. . ... . . .. . Bronze Masks with Protruding Eyes . .

. 52

Ocular and Sun-shaped Bronze Objects

. 56

Bronze Animal-face Masks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. 60

Bronze Divine Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. 64

Bronze Divine Altars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. 72

Bronze Vessels zun and lei ·. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. 76

Bronze Birds and a Bronze Cock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. 82

Bronze Dragons, Serpents and Tigers .

. 88

Bronze Decorations and Bronze Spears

. 92

GOLD WARE ... . ...... . . .. . .

. 100

A Gold Stick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. 102

Gold Leaf Decorations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. !04

JADE WARE ... . . . . . . .. . . .... . . ... . . .. . ..... .

. rn8

Jade zhang . . . . . . . .

110

Jade Weapons and Tools

114

Jade bi and cong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

118

Jade Decorations

122

POTTERY .... .

124

SEA SHELLS , ELEPHANT TUSKS AND TIGER TEETH . . . . . . . . . .

130

-,-\

1;J

''

'

,..•:: .i

The time-honored site of Sanxingdui is located in the suburbs of Guanghan City, Sichuan Province. Forty km to the north of the provincial capital Chengdu, it has a total area of 12 square kilometers. The site is located in the northern part of the Western Sichuan Plain, whose landmass has been eroded by the elements into ridges and terraced gullies by many rivulets, streams and their tributaries flowing through it. On the riverside terraces, there are prehistoric sites and ancient graveyards distributed relatively densely, which may date back to the Shang or Zhou dynasties (from about 16th century BC to 221BC).

·~ . /

AN OVERVIEW

Sanxingdui Site is situated in a suburb of Guanghan City,

with layered soil, which had been rammed compact after the

Sichuan Province, 40km to the north of Chengdu, the provin-

burial. Because the filled soil was of the same color, the ram-

cial capital. Totaling 12 square kilometers in area, the site has

ming practice was found identical, and the soil layers are well-

been verified to contain some 30 cultural remnants dotted in the

preserved without being overlapped or encroached by one

vicinity, including ruins of an ancient city, sacrificial pits, resi-

another, it is speculated the pit and channels had been dug and

dential quarters and tombs. Scholars believe it should be dated

built at the same time.

somewhere between 4,800 and 2,800 years ago. So far, it is the

The treasure-trove discovered in Pit I includes 178 bronzes,

largest and most ancient site left by an unknown culture in south-

129 pieces of jade ware, 4 gold articles, 39 earthen pots and 70

western China. The archeological findings unearthed from it

stone implements in addition to 13 elephant tusks, 62 relatively

tell us it had been a highly developed hub of cultural prosperity

intact seawater shells and about three cubic meters of burnt bones

in prehistoric China.

and their remains. Among them, some are unprecedented and spectacular findings never seen before in Chinese archeology

The magnificent yields from two sacrificial pits

such as a life-sized bronze human head, a goldmask and a dragon-shaped bronze column. The spatial distribution of the

In the spring of 1929, a peasant named Yan Daocheng was said to have dug out a pit full of jade and stone artifacts while repairing a sewage ditch beside his house. The artifacts were noted for their unique and strong characteristics endemic to the legendary land of Shu (the ancient name of Sichuan Province). Very soon, they became known as the Jade Ware of Guanghan City to antique dealers of the day. From the1930s, many archeologists came to conduct excavations - all in vain as no significant finds yielded from the flurry of diggings. The first breakthrough occurred when during the three months from July to September in 1986, two sacrificial pits were detected, resulting in the opening of a treasure house with dazzling cultural gems brought to light. The archeological bonanza represents the highest achievement of the Sanxingdui Culture and is an unmatched archeological discovery in terms of the find's quantity, quality, academic value and diversity compared to those from other ancient sites found in Sichuan Province. According to the order of their excavation, the two were named Sacrificial Pit I and Sacrificial Pit II. Pit I has a rectangular cross-section with a bigger opening on the ground surface but a slightly smaller base at the bottom, 4.0lm long and 2.8m wide. The pit's depth ranges from 1.46 to 1.64m. Three Im-wide channels lead outside in different directions . The pit and three channels form a triangular layout filled

finds is irregular but all objects of the same category were found seemingly to have been grouped together after they had been placed into the pit. It seems there was a certain order in their arrangement: at first, jade and stone implements were put in the base of the pit, then the gold stick and other goldware, bronze human heads, human masks, bronze zuns and other large-sized bronzes and then broken bones and their dregs. Jade zhangs, jade spears and other large-sized jade ware, some ceramic cups and stands of pottery were placed atop the trove. The burial conditions and dismal state of the artifacts when they were dug out indicate that apparently they had been intentionally burnt or destroyed. It seemed a large fire had caused the artifacts to become charred, ruptured, disfigured, blistered or even completely melted. Some relics were found broken into separate parts; the majority of the bronze human heads had their necks bent outward as a result of being heated to a semi-molten state while the bronze spears or swords were mostly deformed or dismembered and some were found to be fused together; few of the jade articles or stone implements were fortunate enough to avoid being burnt into a dilapidated mess. It was a common practice to set ablaze sacrificial offerings in ancient China. In some classics of Chinese literature, it was called the sacrificial rite of "liaoji". A taxonomic examination shows that the burnt bones and their dregs were from the skeletal parts of pigs, sheep

5

and oxen. Mostly presenting a whitish hue and some tinged with

spanning about 100 years. The two pits face the same direction and other similarities shared by them indicate the two burials

a dark bluish color, this suggests that the sacrificed animals in the ritual of "liaoji" had been sacrificed using rituals such as

should have their identical purpose and implicit significance.

blood-letting. Several articles in the pit were found to be frag-

Today's people cannot but ask: who buried them? For what rea-

mentary or in incomplete sets with some parts apparently missing so that they cannot be reconstructed to their original state

son were they collected and buried in such specific pits and why before the burial were these precious artifacts burnt or broken? What crucial historical events took place that led to the

without adding something newly fabricated by archeologists themselves. This suggests that some parts of the artifacts were lost and may never have been in the pit before burial.

magnificent haul of artifacts in this great archeological

Pit II is another rectangular cavity without any attached chan-

discovery? At present, there are many viewpoints among scholars con-

nels and located 30 meters away to the southeast of Pit I. It has

cerning the nature of the pit burial. Here we would like to intro-

a base Sm long, 2-2.lm wide and its depth ranges from 1.4m to 1.68m. Generally speaking, its dimensions are slightly bigger

duce some of them. One of the viewpoints claims the pits must have something to do with a tomb. There are two opinions in this theory. Some

than those of the first pit and it yields a much richer trove both in diversity and quantity. The arrangement of the buried artifacts shows a remarkable order or a clear-cut distributive pattern. The top layer is reserved for elephant tusks, the middle layer is

which are the final resting places of the ancient Shu king or

filled by large-sized bronzes and at the bottom, there are smallsized bronzes, jade or stone objects. Just like the artifacts in the Pit I, they had been smashed into pieces or burnt before the

kings. Another opinion states that each of the two pits could be a tomb with an um or a sanctuary for preservation of ashes after cremation. This theory highlights the considerably huge amount

burial. But, neither burnt bones nor their remains were discov-

of burnt bones and the gold stick, which, scholars believe, must

ered in the pit nor ashes left from a fire are found. After a strenuous effort to categorize them , 735 bronzes, 61 gold articles,

have been owned by a powerful person. So, the pits must be the mausoleums of two Shu kings who presumably died unnatural

486 jade wares, three turquoise plate-shaped ornaments and 15

deaths.

stone implements were found , in addition to 67 elephant tusks and 4,600 seashells. The findings include bronze vessels and jade or stone relics which were common among archeological finds from ruins of the Xia (from the tum between 22nd and 21st century BC to the beginning of the 17th century BC), Shang (circ. from the beginning of the 21 st century to 11th century BC) dynasties in China proper and among some ordinary pottery characterized by the local Ba and Shu cultures in Sichuan Province. The rest of the findings in Pit II are mostly new kinds of exquisite artifacts never found before in Chinese archeology, such as a 2.62m-tall bronze statue of a human figure , a bronze divine tree nearly 4m in full length, a l.38m-wide bronze mask with protruding eyes and a bronze human head with a gilded mask. All of them more than qualify to be regarded as national treasures. The two pits have to be dated for their construction and burial as 3,300-3 ,200 years old with a chronological disparity

Fig. OO( The dimensions of Sacrificial Pit I are 4.0lm long and 2.8m wide with a depth ranging from 1.46 to 1.64m. The pit yields a total of 420 top-ranking arcifacts such as bronzes, jade wares, gold objects, pottery and scone implements in addition to 13 elephant tusks and 62 relatively intact seashells.

6

scholars believe they could be subordinate pits containing funeral objects as part of a nearby but unknown big tomb or tombs

Based on Shamanistic sorcery, the theory starts its explora001 ------~-----s-~~~~~'!'9'"--. .....

""'111'~...,...~~~~~

tion from an angle of the religious culture of Shamanism, a primi-

by one in succession in the ancient Shu Kingdom, including

tive religion popular in the prehistoric world. By asserting the artifacts in the pits were "divine objects", the Shaman priests set them ablaze and then in line with a time-honored conven-

Boguan, Yufu and Kaiming. An ancient book says: "Each of the dynasties of Cancong, Boguan and Yufu lasted for hundreds of

tional practice dismissed them in oblivion to stimulate their

years," and "the King Wangdi (Duyu) lived more than 100 years

"divinity".

in reign." Only the Kaiming clan's regime had a genealogy with

The third hypothesis developed by scholars concludes by claiming the two pits could be the buried storehouses of the

some details handed down to us. A legend says, after it replaced the King Duyu 's reign, the Kaiming regime had the longest rule

sacred treasures. One theory contrives a scenario in which the old dynasty had been toppled by a new one and the old regime's ritual utensils in its dynastic shrine were ravaged and interred

in the kingdom's history and the dynasty had 12 generations of kings until in 316BC (another historical record says 329BC) it was wiped out by the Qin troops in the war between the regime

by the new rulers. The second view is a revised version of the

and China's central dynasty Qin. Since then, the Shu Culture

first one: the content of the two pits must have been left by a

started blending itself with the Han Chinese Culture and the more than 1,300-year-long history of the Shu Kingdom came to

diseased Shu king or the sacrificial objects handed down from an old era's temple. The new regime believed they were inaus-

those founded by ethnic leaders from the clans of Cancong,

its end.

picious and the existence of the ill omens would do no good to

In the past when scholars discussed the history of the Shu

it. Thus they were destroyed. The fourth hypothesis claims the pits were built to contain

Kingdom, any historical events beyond the era of the Spring & Autumn and Warring States (770-221BC) was out of the

sacrificial offerings. This theory was suggested by excavators

question. The discovery of the Sanxingdui Site sheds light on

themselves and is by majority of experts. It states the pits and the cultural relics in them were remains of a certain large-scale

the mysteries of the long-forgotten culture hidden in the sands of remote antiquity.

and solemn ritual activity and everything in the pits was noth-

Cancong was the oldest clan to have established a regime

ing but a sacrificial offering. What we have to point out hereby is: it was not an ordinary ceremonial rite, because so many na-

in the legendary Shu Kingdom. One of Chinese annals says:

tional gems were apparently beyond a country 's own financial means to afford. Nor had they been cast or fabricated exclu-

"Its king had protruding eyes and it was he who first proclaimed a king in the kingdom's history." In response to this record ,

sively for the two sacrificial ceremonies. In addition, all artifacts in the pits represent something distinctive to different eras.

dozens of eye-shaped objects were unearthed from the site. They are similar to the eyes of idols in an ancestral temple, both having the unique feature of protruding eyeballs in common. On

Instead, the archeologists assert, they had been in use at a shrine

the faces of the three gigantic masks unearthed from the pits,

for decades or even a hundreds of years. They could be ritual implements amassed in an ancestral temple for a long time. It is speculated that the temple was destroyed and the treasures en-

the eyeballs are grotesquely exaggerated into protruding cylinders. Furthermore, the same eye-worshipping motif is found in the decorative patterns to be found on daily-use implements

tombed in the pits in a memorial rite. This is the very reason why so many ancestral treasures were collected together and buried in the two pits.

and adornments from the unearthed trove. This phenomenon may be interpreted as having something to do with the Shu people's ancestral clan Cancong. Another decorative motif appearing in a great number on

Evidence to eyewitness the legendary history of the ancient Shu Kingdom

the surface of the Sanxingdui artifacts is the dual representation of fish and birds. This is consistent with the historical records, which claim the clans of Boguan, Yufu and Duyu had depicted

Sichuan Province used to be called Shu in ancient China. In contrast with the Huaxia Clan, the ancestry of today's Han people native to China proper, the Shu people lived in the border areas

their totemic animals based on the belief in their ancestry with fish or bird. Scholars believe the term Boguan should be etymologically relevant to a bird's name and the term Yufu actu-

of southwest China. Up to now, there are almost no records of

ally refers to a kind of water fowl popularly known as the fi sh-

them in Chinese chronicles. We can merely find some fragmentary accounts written down afterwards by scholars of history in

eating cormorant. Some people argue that the fish and cormorant should respectively represent two clans featuring the two

local annals, sketchbooks or miscellaneous notes. But the text

animals as the mascot in their ancestral worship. Through their

is mostly a mixture of mythological stories or historical legends, which cannot be authenticated. According to written records in

tribal alliance, the Yufu Dynasty was established. There is also

Chinese literature, a series of dynastic regimes rose and fell one

a famous legend about the reincarnation of the fourth dynasty's King Duyu in Chinese literature, who is said to have become a

7

8

cuckoo after his death. According to archeologists, the story

eastern and western walls are 1,600-2,000m long and the south-

implies there was a tribal community in remote antiquity whose ethnical totem was the cuckoo. So far, a consensus has been reached among scholars: of the four legendary dynasties in the

ern wall 2,000m long with a remnant height mostly up to 2-3m.

locality, the Yufu Clan has the highest possibility of a connec-

might have been somewhere between 8 and 10m. The earthwork

tion with the Sanxingdui Culture. Very probably, scholars believe, it was the Yufu Clan, which established the ancient State of Shu on today's ruins of Sanxingdui.

of the city wall is composed of internal brickwork, external brick-

· Unexceptionally, the trove from the two pits .contains noth-

earliest city wall ruins ever dug out from prehistoric China, in-

ing but ritual implements or objects for religious ceremonies, noted for their awe-inspiring appeal and religious mysticism. It

dicating that the ancient state of Shu at the site had been equipped with a relatively advanced wall-building technique.

gives a vivid presentation of the primitive people's primordial

The three external city walls and two internal city walls of

state in the conceptual world and -animistic ideology, visualiz-

the ruins are found to be surrounded by 15-20m wide and 2-3m deep moats. They open into the adjacent rivers ofYazi and Mamu

ing the political structure and social morphology of the ancient Shu State. The discovery indicates the Shu regime at the Sanxingdui Site had grown into a primitive country with a strong flavor of theocracy and in possession of a complete set of religious and ritual institutions.

In the city wall 's cross-section, its base is 40m wide and the top is 20m wide. It is estimated the original height of the city wall

work and the wall's main body. On the top of the eastern city wall, some sun-dried mud bricks were discovered. This is the

running within or without the ancient city respectively. The combined structure of city walls and the moats enabled the city in its heyday to be a solid fortress through which flowed the Mamu River. In addition, some scholars speculate the moats had other functions. Apart from their military value, the moats must be

The possible site of the ancient Shu Kingdom's capital

In line with the recordings in ancient literature, after the Kaiming dynasty was toppled by the Duyu regime, it moved the dynastic capital to Chengdu and remained there until it was

part of a complicated system of water conservancy with a lot of comprehensive effects such as flood prevention, farmland irrigation, and inland navigation. The ancient city ruins at the site is about 3,000 years old and its geometric scope is on a par with that of the former Shang

destroyed by the Qin troops. Where had been the capital prior

Dynasty capital in today's Zhengzhou City, capital of central

to Chengdu? The discovery of the two pits at the Sanxingdui

China's Henan Province. According to their different functions

Site, including the finding of stunning cultural gems in a great number, showcases the highly developed culture and prosper-

in the social life of the day, the ancient city may have been divided into a residential district, craftsmen's workshops, a dis-

ity of the ancient Shu Kingdom, so far an unknown but rela-

trict for sacrificial rituals and a cemetery. The initial classifica-

tively independent regime in prehistoric China. At the same time, a great amount of architectural remains have been brought to light, including the excavation and identification of the ancient

tion of urban functions explains that the ancient city has been provided with some primitive civic capacities in the status of an early-day city in prehistoric China. On the central axis of the

city wall, proving that the Sanxingdui had been the site of the

ancient city, there are four terraces and they are called by local

Shu State's capital as well as the center of the time-honored ancient Shu Culture.

inhabitants as Sanxingdui, Yueliangwan, Zhenwuguan and Xiquankan. The sacrificial pits and the majority of the valuable

The ancient city is at the core of the site. Its spatial layout

artifacts were unearthed from diggings along the axis. In the

is a ladder-shaped trapezoid with its southern side longer then the northern one. Totaling an area up to 3.6 square kilometers, the ancient city is surrounded by city walls to the east, south

city ruins, densely distributed building remains were found in the architectural style of timber-structured adobes with clay walls or pile-dwellings. The largest building complex in the ruins is a

and west but in the north, no city wall ruins are uncovered and instead, the city itself is protected by the Yazi River. The city's

cluster of interconnected houses reaching some 200 square meters in total area. Experts have speculated it might be a pub-

Fig. 002 Sacrificial Pit II is Sm long, 2-2. lm wide and l.4-l.68m deep. From the archeological bonanza, scholars dig out a total of some l , 300 ritual articles such as bronzes, jade wares, gold objects, pottery and stone implements in addition to 67 elephant tusks and some 4,600 seashells. The arrifacts were mostl y damaged in a premeditated ravage prior to their removal into the pit.

9

Function Map of Sanxingdui Ancient City

Yazi R.

Cemetery(?)

Sacrificial Area

-

~

Soothe ~~~-~~~~ rn City Wa11 ~

1

lie audience hall reserved for communal discussions. Generally speaking, the rise of cities, use of bronzes, insti-

The rise and fall of the Sanxingdui Culture

tution of large-scale religious or sacrificial rites and the emergence of writings are widely regarded as the hallmarks to verify the birth of an ancient culture or a primitive state. From the

The kaleidoscopic medley of the cultural gems found from the Sanxingdui Site is not only the greatest archeological discovery in Sichuan Province, but also very rare in the whole

opulent harvest of the excavation at the Sanxingdui Site, the trove itself has proved that almost all defining factors have been available for affirming the Sanxingdui Culture had crossed the

country. The artifacts are mostly fabricated exquisitely in unique formative design and attractive appearance, showing conceptual ingenuity, consummate craftsmanship and highly superb

threshold of a civilized society. To our great regret, although

artistry. It makes a full expression of the ancient Shu State's

the two sacrificial pits have been enlisted as one of the most

outstanding achievements in metallurgy, jade grinding, and

magnificent and well-preserved five remains of sacrificial rites left by the Shang Dynasty throughout the country, China's his-

pottery. The pinnacle of the Shu people's cultural creation was their bronze-casting technique. The discovery provides first-hand

torical literature does neither definitely mention Sanxingdui nor

and hard-sought resources for researching the Bronze Age cul-

leave any hint or clue about it. Among all the archeological findings from Sanxingdui, several etched and seemingly meaning-

ture in China. By filling up some blank space in this research field, the discovery greatly changes the traditional understand-

ful marks are recovered on a gold stick. Besides this, no writ-

ing of local society and its developmental level in the Sichuan

ings are revealed. Is it possible for us to find a highly developed

Basin. Acting as an outstanding embodiment to epitomize the prehistoric cultures in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, the Sanxingdui trove once again demonstrates the diversity of

civilization without a system of writing? Undoubtedly, this is a controversial issue awaiting further exploration.

10

the cultural origins from which Chinese civilization came into

nation of the ancient Shu Kingdom came from a flood. It is

being. The fieldwork conducted by archeologists proves as early as 4,000 or 5,000 years ago, there were people living on the

based on archeological evidence. In 1986, a stratigraphic survey revealed the existence of a 20-50cm thick fluvial sedimentation, dating back to the middle period of the Western

Sanxingdui Site. By 2,000 BC, the native communities started

Zhou Dynasty. Scholars believe this had been caused by a deluge,

to group themselves into some kind of civilized society and stepby-step, their development culminated in the indigenous estab-

which destroyed the once-prospering ancient city at Sanxingdui, causing the populace to abandon the site and go into exile.

lishment of early states, based on the Bronze Culture. At about

Another theory blames the repeated dynastic successions

800BC, the Sanxingdui culture fell into decline, and mysteri-

as the root cause responsible for the final collapse of the

ously disappeared. How did such a prosperous culture make its debut? And what had caused its rapid disappearance? Due to

Sanxingdui Culture. In the later cultural remains at the site, scholars discovered a great number of vessels with a pointed bottom.

the lack of written historical records, the rise and fall of the

With the introduction of this novel type of daily-use uten il .

Sanxingdui Culture has become a long-standing focus of public attention. The universally accepted conclusion is: the Sanxingdui Cul-

the once-fashionable objects were in decline. This was a veritable cultural invasion, meaning that a social upheaval was under way. Archeologists guess a foreign people 's encroachment led to the ancient Shu State's breakdown. This view suggests an

ture was rooted in the self-development of the native culture but blended with or taking in a lot of alien cultural factors. The Sanxingdui artifacts are noted for their clear local characteristics.

explanation for burial of the two pits. According to the scenario derived from this theory, it was quite rational for people who

For example, the key Sanxingdui bronzes are in the shape of

had lost their country to destroy their most treasured objects

human figures, human heads and animals or plants, including typical specimens such as the life-like human figure, the divine

and bury when a regime had been toppled by another in this fashion.

tree, masks with protruding eyes and human heads. This is cat-

Although a conclusion is not available so far to make clear

egorically different from the ancient bronzes yielded from China

the true reason responsible for the disappearance of the ancient

proper, which are mostly bronze implements used in sacrificial rites or religious ceremonies, such as tripods, wine vessels, and

kingdom at the Sanxingdui Site, archeologists who specialize in prehistory made stunning progress in their fieldwork on the

food containers, forming another system of the bronze culture. Conversely, some specimens from the trove contain many alien cultural factors. For example, the ceramic pots and bronze plate-

Chengdu Plain by locating the site of the ancient kingdom. In 2001, a Jinsha Site was uncovered from a western suburb of

shaped decorations share some similarities with those unearthed

Chengdu City. Because its findings are astonishingly consistent with those from Sanxingdui in the overall cultural style,

of the Shang Dynasty; jade cong and cone-shaped jade wares

indicating a deep-rooted linkage between the two, scholars believe they must have close intimacy in terms of cultural origin. The Jinsha Site is located some 40km away from Sanxingdui

apparently have some kinds of link with the Neolithic cultures,

and so far, scholars have proved it must be another capital after

at Liangzhu for instance, in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River while the goldstick and masks may be culturally traced

the people removed the ancient Shu regime southward from the original site at Sanxingdui. To associate the exploration with

from the Erlitou Site, one of early cultures in the legendary Xia Dynasty; bronze zun and lei are typical to the sacrificial objects

back to the Western Asian or Near East cultures. In addition,

what was recorded in Chinese annals, many researchers con-

there are large numbers of elephant tusks and seashells. Evidently, they must have been acquired through trading ex-

clude that Sanxingdui should be a hub and capital of the Yufu Clan's activities while Jinsha was the counterpart of the Duyu

changes with the Shu State's peripheral countries or regions.

Clan. It is very likely that the fall of the Sanxingdui regime and

The Sanxingdui Site is in the mountain-locked Sichuan Basin. Despite the geographic self-isolation, how did the other cultures find their way into the Basin? Where are the possible

rise of the Jinsha regime featured a dramatic process in the local history when the Duyu Clan arose and gradually replaced the Yufu Clan's rule in the locality.

routes of the cultural transmission? How did the foreign cultures manage to interact with the native culture they found? Concerning the reasons leading to the disappearance of the Sanxingdui Culture, there are many hypotheses. However, two main theories have emerged to become most favored by scholars. One is the theory of the deluge, which speculates the termi-

11

mong the findings from the Sanxingdui Site, some

in expressing the conception of a sorcery-dominated culture and

500 bronzes are the most enchanting attractions in

the tribal people's spiritual desires in the ancient Shu Kingdom.

the eyes of visitors. Of them, a large standing bronze

In this way, it is expected that the bronzes were able to communi-

human figure, bronze human heads, bronze divine

cate their prayers with deities and can earn blessings and avert

trees, human-face and animal-face masks of bronze are the symbolic specimens of the trove.

calamities. The Shang Dynasty was the gold era of China's bronze cul-

If viewed from their functions , we might see the trove is

ture and the discovery at Sanxingdui enables us to face a new

mainly composed of utensils for religious or ritual use with few

system of bronze culture quite different from the one grown up

bronzes of practical use in daily life. If viewed from their deter-

from China proper but qualified to keep well-matched with it. An

mining features , they may fall into three categories. The first are

eye-catching character of the Shang Dynasty 's bronze culture is

the representatives of the trove whose external appearances are

its emphasis on ritual ceremonies and to find a full expression of

the images of a ritual 's hosts, participants or icons of the idolatry

this, its bronzes are decorated preferably with abstract or bizarre

and fabricated according to the practical needs of the sacrificing

motifs rather than with life-like images of human beings. The

activity. The second kind is bronzes in the shape of mythological

unearthed Shang Dynasty bronzes are mainly weapons, daily-use

animals or plants such as the dragon, tiger, snake, roost, bird, tree

appliances, musical instruments and ritual implements. Taking

and fruit. The third kind contains about a dozen ritual utensils

the lion's share in number, ritual implements are noted for their

such as zun, lei and pan (plate). Some earlier specimens show

solemn and imposing appearances. The independent bronze stat-

certain similar artistic styles and external forms presented by their

ues or groupe_d sculptures brought to light from Sanxingdui are

counterparts excavated from central China and made in the mid-

rarely found in Bronze Culture relics in China proper. There are

Shang Dynasty period while the later specimens approximate the

no clues from other archealogical finds in the Sichuan Basin, nor

late Shang Dynasty bronzes yielded from middle and lower

even prototypes found among other non-metallic artifacts.

reaches of the Yangtze or southern Shaanxi Province. There is a

However, certain similarities in pattern and form have been ob-

slight difference in the decorative motifs between the two groups

served in the ancient cultures present in Egypt, Western Asia and

of bronzes because, scholars speculate, the Sanxingdui bronzes

the Near East. This begs the question: how did the Bronze Cul-

were made by indigenous craftsmen. The latter's excavation ba-

ture at Sanxingdui develop? Was an occidental culture somehow

sically reflects the chronological order in the stylish evolution of

involved?

the ancient Shu Kingdom's bronze wares during the middle and late stages of the Shang Dynasty. Sanxingdui bronzes are mostly characterized with deforma-

If for example, we consider the bronzes that were discovered,

we find that researchers have different opinions as to the reasons for their design.

tion and exaggeration in their depictions, over-emphasizing an

What social status would each object have represented? Why

object's limbs or facial features until the latter are out of proportion.

do some of the bronzes have gilded masks, or have a hat in the

By highlighting typical traits of the eye, mouth, flight plumage

shape of an animal, and what was their purpose? What is the rea-

and a tree 's twigs, they show a clear-cut flavor of abstraction,

son for the eyes and ears to be so large and protruding? What

presenting a mystical oddity in aesthetical taste and powerful ap-

does the divine tree's bizarre appearance imply?

peal of spiritual deterrent. It is evident their artistic glamour lies

13

Bronze Human Figures

The bronze human figures from Sanxingdui include full-length

crouching figures on the scene represent a variety of social iden-

statues, human heads and human-face masks. This section is ex-

tities in the Kingdom's heathen hierarchy, including the chief

clusively devoted to full-length statues.

sorcerer, the ceremony's officiators, prelates in charge of various

There are about 20 bronze statues or statuettes in circular or

duties, common wizards or witches and their guardsmen. The

semi-circular shape, all excavated from the two sacrificial pits of

l .8m-tall bronze statue of a human figure is seen to represent the

Sanxingdui. The majority is in circular shape. In terms of an

king as well as the chief of the sorcerers. The rest should be high-

artwork's geometric dimensions, the bronze human figures fall

ranking members of the ruling strata and ordinary clergymen.

into four categories: the large, medium, medium-small and smallsized. The largest one is 260mm high and the smallest only 2mm

Theocratic rule coming from the expediency of marrying political power with religion or the divinity-guarded government was

high. They are either in a standing pose or are kneeling figures .

seen elsewhere in the prehistoric world, just as we see here in the

All standing figures are in essence identical in stance while the

ancient Shu Kingdom. These artistic images provide us a vivid

kneeling ones are either in a head-on pose or in a kneeling pose

and visual interpretation of the witchcraft-dominated culture in

with the body leaning to one side.

remote antiquity.

The full-length bronze sculptures yielded from Sanxingdui

If viewed from the possible functions or usage of the bronzes,

have two different forms in their presentation: one form is an

we may imagine that the large-sized or medium statues must have

independent image presented as the visualized theme of an art-

been placed in ancestral shrines of the Kingdom to be worshipped

work and another form is to have one or many images decora-

by the rank and file. In the eyes of the primitive populace they

tively attached to an individual bronze work. In the first form , we

had miraculous effects to ward off evil and protect good people,

have a grand statue of a standing human figure and a human fig-

while in a sacrificial rite, they might act as a conduit to pass prayers

ure with an animal-headed hat, in gorgeous attire with a serious

to their gods.

countenance to show them in the course of a sacrificial rite or

Other small statuettes or bronze ornaments are of graphic sig-

religious service, highlighting their extra-ordinary celebrity in social status. The crouching figures feature considerable stature,

nificance in illustrating ancient Shu regime's religious activities. Sanxingdui 's uncanny and awe-inspiring bronze articles full

distinctive clothes and different poses. From these we can formu-

of valor and grandeur such as the full-length sculptures, human

late ideas as to the ceremonies in ancient Shu Kingdom. In the

heads and human-face masks constitute an unmatched and im-

econd form , images are grouped and placed in the backdrop of a

posing discovery in comparison with China's other archeological

acrificial environment. They are seen sitting on their haunches

finds of the same historical era. In China, the only similar archeo-

in a triangular layout beneath a divine tree each showing a pious

logical finds which illustrate a primitive religion and predate the

tance, praying by holding two open palms together above the

Sanxingdui trove are those unearthed from the Hongshan Culture

stomach, or kneeling on the peak of a divine mountain, holding

in Liaoning Province, including the colored sculpture of a goddess.

the bronze pot high above the crown of the head as if to present

The latter implies matrilineal worship and matriarchal authority

the sacrificial offering to supernatural spirits. In a differing

as an evolutionary stage in primitive society. In a sharp contrast

arrangement, the bronzes are layered in two lines. They are gath-

with the Hongshan antiques, it is evident the bronze articles of

ered standing o"r clustered on their knees beside a divine altar,

Sanxingdui display a clear and strong suggestion of a theocratic

showing a respectful manner to the grand pagan ceremony in

rule which was prospering at the threshold of a civilized society.

which they are involved. It is postulated that the standing and

14

Fig. 003 A kneeling bronze human figure on a cone-shaped pedestal The pedestal is I 0cm in diameter and 5.3cm in height w hile the whole artwork is I 5.6cm high. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

The artwork is composed of a mountain-shaped pedestal and a human figure with a zun, or wine container carried by his head. The former is decorated with a fretwork with pointed hooks cast on the pedestal's waist and pierced floral patterns on its base. The human figure has a naked torso with a pair of protruding breasts and a skirt hung down around his belt-girdled waist. A knot-like loop is attached to the abdomen to draw the belt tight. There is something inserted in the loop. Atop the figure's head is a wine container with a lid and his two hands are seen to hold upon the container's belly. The stance of the figure is to show a magician or a sorcerer on his knees in dedication of a wine container to the heaven. Because of the figure's protruding breasts, some scholars argue the figure should be a female and her status was a witch or goddess. The artwork is small in size. Yet it should be treasured as a rare and precious artifact based on the following reasons: first, it is a complete statue from tip to toe; 2). The zun was a common ritual vessel at sacrificial ceremonies in ancient China. Bur its actual role in a ritual is in dispure. The artwork gives us explicit clues ro show ics usage at a ritual. From the figure's mouldmaking contrivance, we may see the ancient Shu State's artisans were profi cient in melding design as the figure features a nearly flawless structure and perfect proportions. This is an artifact of high aesthetic value and may be enjoyed by all arr-lovers.

003

15

Fig . 004 A bronze human figure with an animal-headed hat The obj ect is 40.2cm in remnant height. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

Only the torso can be seen, as it was intentionally destroyed and sec ablaze. The figure has a physique both graceful and robust with a grave and stern look on his face. His two arms are seen embracing before the breast while his two hands are holding something. His garment has buttons down the front and is adorned by beautiful and complicated patterns. From this some experts speculate this should be a ceremonial robe exclusively reserved for an important occasion. The pose of its hands shares some similarities with chose of the grand bronze statue of the l .8m-call standing figure. Yee a refined change may be detected in the sizable sloe between the right hand's thumb and the other fo ur fingers while the licde finger presents a slight outward rile. This gesture reminds researchers of the same hand signal shown by a Taoist priest nowadays when chancing a pithy mnemonic formula in the performance of a Taoist rice. Judging from the gesture, we may conclude chat there muse be something such as a cylinder-shaped jade cong to be grasped by the two hands. Evidendy, the whole artwork strives to express a demeano'r of valor and mystery and it is speculated this should be the image designed for an officiator to hose a pagan ceremony. The most grotesque pare of the whole arcifacc is the figure's animal-headed hat. The animal has a broad and flat mouth flanked by a sun-li ke pattern for decoration on each side. An animal eye is engraved on each side of the hat and the hat itself is crowned by a curved decoration in the shape of an elephant tusk while its rear has two animal ears slanting outward. The animal head has such a strange exotic appearance chat we cannot but image it muse be the composite image of "a divine creature" neither fish nor fowl, by piecing together different characteristics from some animals in real life. Judged only by the formative characteristics of the animal's nose and ears, evidendy what is reflected on the bronze object is the graphic and abstract imitation of pares of an elephant. This reminds us of the magnificent scene when a great amount of elephant tusks were brought to light in Sanxingdui's two sacrificial pies and a stage setting, in which an elephant tusk is presented as a sacrificial offering, engraved on the surface of a jade ware zhang. From different scenes depicted on the Sanxingdui arcifaccs, we may see the popular elephantworshipping practice exercised by the ancient Shu people. In ancient China, people emphasized their hats because the hat always symbolized a social member's status. In comparison with the grand fulllength statue of a human figure, this figure with an animal-headed hat seems to be smaller. Perhaps, this means the latte r had represented a social personage less powerful than chat represented by the former in the officialdom of the day.

A line drawing to depict the bronze human figure with an animal-headed hat

16

004

~

Fig . 005 A gr nd bronze sta tu e of human figure The human figure is I 80cm tall w hile the entire statue is 260.8cm tall. It was excavated from Sacrificial Pit II.

Among the numerous bronze sculptures from the Sanxingdui Site, the grand bronze statue should be regarded as a leading masterpiece from che excavation. In an overview of che whole ancient world, it may be regarded as the largest bronze statue in terms of stature. The statue was made in sectional casting with a hollow body. The whole artwork is composed of the bronze figure and its pedestal. The figure's countenance was portrayed vividly. With chick eyebrows, straight eyes, a high nose and broad mouth, che look projects a solemn and resolute quietude, conveying an air both dignified and indomitable. The figure wears a high, flowery hat on its head, che surface covered with decorative patterns in che animal mask design or rectangular spiral motif, indicating his high-ranking status. His torso is enveloped in a three-layered robe with narrow sleeves, and leaving an arm half-naked. The gorgeous and complicated adornment on the robe is mainly composed of the dragon design in addition co a variety of accessory patterns in the shape of che bird, insect and the ocular moci£ His torso is also decorated with a belt scudded with a rectangular pattern . The two hands seem co be in a gesture so as co tightly grasp something, which is missing, and the two arms are placed on the breast in a slighcly embracing seance. He has two bracelets on his feet, standing barefooted on the rectangular stand in the shape of a fabulous animal. The whole artwork was done apparently in a realistic style in its portrayal and basically the figure was sculpted in line with the stature, proportion and seance in action of a real human being. Bue some considerable exaggerations were introduced co the depiction of the eyes, ears and hands in order co spoclighc its supernatural power. The creative intention seems

to

express a majestic

and imposin g person ca pable of communicating with heaven. His pose suggests chat he is exercising magic at a mys tic ceremony while the bronze rectangular stand may be understood as a sanctuary or the venue of a divine mountain or sacrificial altar. What identity does this monumental statue represent? Ac present, there are a variety of different views in the circles of scholars and researchers. One opinion claims it should be the image of a Shu king in the dual capacity of a political leader as a sovereign and the chief of all sorcerers in the regime. Another view claims it represents a theocratic leader in the legendary Shu Kingdom . The th ird view believes the image's interpretation was inspired by the shape of che ancient Chinese character ''F", meaning a dual capacity of eh · officiator who hoses a sacrificial rice and the supernatural entity who receives it. Bue there is an opposite view asserting implications categorically different from the above one. According

to

our interpretation , the statue

should be an authoritative figure in the Shu Kin gdom equipped with a threefold status : he was the deity, chief sorcerer and king of the theocratic regime, che highest ruler with che country's unsurpassable theocratic power and preeminent political power concentrated in his hands. On his sho ulder, a magic band decorated with rectangular motifs is endowed with the power to characterize his divine authority. On his vestment, very probably chat of a spiritual leader , there are decorative clusters of dragon patterns , implying the mutual response between the realistic and spiritual worlds. le seems chat the sacrificial utensil he held is missing. We can now only guess what it may have been .Some researchers claim ic was be a jade cong, a scepcer or an elephant tusk.Other scholars believe it could be a bamboo cube from which lots were drawn as are done in divination , a popular practice in che echn ical communities of the Yi people, where not long ago che bimo (pagan priest) was seen co hold such an oracular ceremony. The lase explanation is

to

conclude chat the

figure was d a ncing empty-handed, as was the conventional procedure in their sacrificial rices.

..,. 006

Fig. 006 A kneel ing bronze human fi gure 13 .3cm in full length and 5.5 cm in w idth Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

This sculpture shares some similarities with the above-mentioned with respect co seance, clothing, adornment and gesture but with varied kneeling poses. Its left leg is bent in company with the sole of the foot turned upwards, while its right leg rests on the knee, the tip still in contact with the ground, and the right thigh resting on the left ankle. The social status of the figure might be a magician or supplicant at a ceremonial rice co offer sacrifices co a deiry or ancestor. The kneeling pose could be a standard posture adopted in official ceremonies as decreed by the ancient Shu regime. The figure's eyebrows, eye sockets, eyeballs and two temples are painted black. No one knows exactly whether this implied anyrhing significant in the witchcraft of the day. Caught between two-coed feet, there is a circular hole on the artifact and it is speculated

to

have been used

to

hang the

bronze object on something as an attachment on display in an ancestral temple.

Fig. 007 A kneeling bronze human figure Height is 12.4cm with 5,8cm in width. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

The artwork made by the semi-circular engraving technique. His headgear has che appearance of a helmet. Some researchers believe it could be "~" as being recorded in ancient Chinese literature. It seems his face is a mask, and his jacket has two long sleeves and buttons down the front. A belt is tied around his waist and the belly clasped by both hands. The figure seems to express a respectful and cautious mood loomed by a melancholy and depressed air. It is speculated the figure's identiry might be a high or medium-ranking figure of the upper strata in the ancient Shu Kingdom. The head-on kneeling stance shown by the sculpture could be a specific ritual pose of the local people when they were holding a grand ceremony

to

submit sacrificial

offerings co their ancescers or pagan deities.

007

21

009 ...

Fig. 009 A kneeling bronze human figure 14.6cm high and 8.2cm wide Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

The figure has a broad face with square cheeks. Its hair-style is rather unique, featuring a distinct ethnical style by having the fringe combed back to the rear but then reversed to form an upward and swept-forward curl. Its ear lobes are perforated but the earrings might be missing. Its glaring eyes look directly into the outside world. The open mouth and bared teeth convey a grave atmosphere. The jacket with two long sleeves has crossed collar bands. A girdle is tied twice around the waist over rustic trousers, with one tip ended at a knot beneath the stomach and another tied on the back. In a kneeling stance, he rests his hands on his knees, his wrists are decorated with bracelets and the feet are in stockings. The trousers were in a style usually worn by the poor in ancient China. Thus scholars assume he is a slave. But the kneeling pose was a common sight in the Shang or Zhou dynasties when any one attended a sacrificial ceremony whether he had been a noble man or a commoner, other researchers argue. Moreover, bronze was a precious material of the day and it seems impossible that they would have created an image of a low ranking member of society. Apart from its kneeling stance, the figure features bracelets and stockings. So he must be beyond the rank and file in social status. Viewed from its airs and disposition in comparison with other similar stone figures, some scholars believe, it could be a pagan priest making his prayer.

008 Fig . 008 A bronze statuette of a zhang-holding figure 4.7cm high and 1.8cm broad Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

The full length of the statuette is less than 5cm and its portrayal is very simple and vivid, giving rise to an air of petite but exquisite ingenuity. A naked torso, a skirt below its waist, the figure's dress is rather plain and unadorned. Judging from his bare feet, we may say it seems to be a common participant in a sacrificial ritual. Its kneeling stance features two horiwntally outstretching arms holding a jade zhang. In ancient China, the jade zhang was said to show respect for the south and in most cases, it was used to consecrate mountains. The statuette provides material evidence for the use of the jade zhang in actual ancient sacrificial practices. Its little finger points straight ahead, in a specific gesture which was made in sacrificial rituals of the day.

22

010

Fig . 010 A bronze human figure with bird claw-shaped feet 30cm in remnant height. the bird is 51.4cm high. I 0.8cm wide The full height of the w hole artwork is 81 .4cm. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

The object consists of a human figure and two birds or pheonixes under its feet. The artwork was made by an imbedded casting technique and the claws and the avian head are cast together. To our regret, the figure's torso and the avian tail under the right foot are lost. The red color of cinnabar painted on the figure's skirt and the bird's decorations is still distinguishable. Evidently, the red tinge was painted not only due to aesthetic reasons, bur also in search of a certain supernatural power. The ski ntight and short skirt on the human figure has a split in the middle and is decorated by geometric designs and cloud patterns. The skirt's lower hem is decorated with a vertical stripe design . The figure's two legs are robust and covered with eye-shaped and deformed dragon patterns while their etched grooves are filled with black pigment. This might be a kind of tattoo, a common form of decorative body art popular among primitive peoples. The claw-shaped feet are seen tightly seizing the two avian heads beneath in an resolute stance. Showing skills of abstraction, the outlines of two birds are reduced to two S-patterns with their necks, bodies and plumage blurred and their surface adorned with two rows of cloud patterns. The decorations were made exquisitely and finely carved. The whole image of the bird is expressive and full of vigor and viraliry, presenting a momentum seemingly to carry the human figure to the sky. According to written records in ancient Chinese literature, the wizards had three kinds of steeds (i. e., rhe dragon, tiger and deer). By riding them, they could act as the go-between to communicate with deities by roving between the earthly world and heaven. In the cave paintings left by prehistoric China, there are many images of sorcerers and magicians with bird-shaped caps or dressed like birds in a bid to entertain the divine beings. In a similar way, Shamanism features some mystical rituals in which the sorcerers dance or walk in imitation of rhe avian pose or step. Taoist priests also have their own mystic ceremonies concerning animals. According to our observation, this bronze object very likely should represent the dress of an ancient Shu wizard when he was pracricing a conjuring ritual. Among the images surrounding a divine altar in another bronze ar~ork brought to light in the same sacrificial pit, we may discover char a peculiar bird-footed figure with conjuring implements in its hands is seen standing in the middle layer of the worshippers. All of these may serve as materials for reference when we search out the implications hidden in the artifacc.

A line drawing of a human figure with claw-shaped feet

24

~

Bronze Human Heads

A total of 57 bronze human heads were unearthed from the

scholars dismiss this view by arguing that bronze was a precious

two sacrificial pits at Sanxingdui, including 13 from Pit I and 44 from Pit II. In line with the different artistic styles, the artifacts

material of the time and it seems impossible for the Shu regime to

fall into six types while each type has two or three sub-types. The bronze human heads excavated from Pit I may be classified into three types. Type A is of rather strong realism in its por-

use it to make an image of a slave. The inverse triangular shape at the base of the sculptures explains that the sculptures had been inserted in the openings with a V-shaped collar on a stand. On the both sides of the neck, researchers discover holes pierced

trayal and each artifact of this type has a snap fastener on the top,

through and based on this they claim the human heads should

by which crowning or crest-like decorations might be attached to it. In term s of the different degrees of the artwork 's realistic portrayal, this form has two sub-types.

have been parts of complete statues or they should have been fixed on wooden stumps.

Type B features a male 's hairstyle - the hair on the crown is cut off. The crown and the cranial cavity were cast apart and the face eemingly had been covered by a mask. In line with the fa-

nabar on the surface or grooves of the sculptures. This means originally they had been colored artworks in a bid to show reverence to the personages represented by the sculptures or the tinges

cial appearance and coiffure, this type may be divided into three

had some significance in the sorcery of the time, implying some

sub-types. Each head in Type C features a double-homed helmet and mask.

religious functions . The bronze human heads have different hair-styles and head-

Three types of bronze human heads were recovered from Pit

gear. Does this mean the heads represent different social capaci-

II. Type A is characterized with a round crown and a hoop wound tightly on the head. Type B has a hairstyle in which the hair is cut

ties or in ancient Shu Kingdom , there were different ethnic communities with distinct living habits? According to some scholars'

short, including two sub-types which feature a crown with plaited

speculation, the facial features of the sculptures could be used as

hair and a capped crown respectively. The majority of this type

clues to explore the ethnic origins of peoples they represent. People

has their crowns and cranial cavities cast separately and each of them always has a stout neck with roughly similar facial features:

with flat and broad noses belonged to the Pu or Yue tribal group from southern China while those with high and straight noses

In addition, there are decorations of black pigment or red cin-

a square lower jaw, thick eyebrows, protuding eyes and a onion-

must be Di or Qiang ethnic groups migrating from northwestern

shaped nose. Type C covers two sub-types of human head sculp-

China. But some scholars make an objection to this view, alleging that these heads were idols in a pagan ceremony and they

tures each with a round crown featuring a hairpin and a conehaped hair bun respectively. They were cast in a single piece.

would not necessarily have to indicate the figure 's ethnical

In comparison to the engraving styles shown by these artifacts,

affiliation. In short, therefore, this is an open question waiting for

the early ones (from Pit I) are more realistic. The portrayal of their countenance and mood is always faithful to reality, so in

further exploration. Many researchers put forward their views on the function of

thi way, an artwork can convey something unique in the descrip-

the bronze human heads. They hold that they are artworks for

tion of the living being's disposition and individuality. Yet from the later ones (from Pit II), we may see the portrayal is more of an imaginary nature, so it becomes a group of conceptual idols in

some religious purposes in typical presentation instead of stressing concrete characteristics of individuals. So the different types shown from these artifacts actually are

religious art. In spite of this, these artifacts are noted for their superb delineation, succinct skill, bold exaggeration and resourceful imagination.

the 'figurative manifestation of their religious roles played by people in all walks of life. Representing the regime 's chief, the grand bronze statue leads a group of departmental officials repre-

The lowest part of the human heads is the neck, which is

sented by the bronze human heads and their subordinates in the

mostly cast into the shape of a inverse triangle. What does this mean? Some researchers say it represents the substitutes of the

shape of a variety of medium or small-sized statuettes to form a theocratic hierarchy devoted itself to a grand sacrificial ritual. They feature a kaleidoscopic medley of dresses, facial patterns

slaves killed as sacrifices at the pagan rituals. But the majority of

26

and personal decorations in varied stances such as standing

and an ideological morphol ogy as well. The bronze articles exca-

straight, kneeling, prostrating, kneeling,holding an offering, carrying a container, and putting a mask of gold leaf on. They constitute a panoramic picture to mirror the social life of the day in

vated from Sanxingdui give us an all-round and vivid embodiment of a social ideology. They feature a sorcery-dominated civilization in which a well-knit social structure coupled with a highly-

the ancient Shu Kingdom by visualizing every kind of its social

concentrated power married politics with religion. They bear wit-

members including the king who acted as the chief wizard concurrently, a ritual's officiator, high-ranking priests, warriors

ness to demonstrate that the ancient Shu regime had entered into a civilized society. The unique formative system and the ingenious casting techniques presented by Sanxingdui 's bronze ar-

as well as the rank and file. Ancient Shu Kingdom was a primitive regime noted for its

ticles fill some blank spaces in China's studies of ancient bronze

regional characters and strong tinge of theocracy. To integrate the supernatural power with political authority, the divine king-

history and cultural history, greatly changing the conventional impressions of the socio-cultural development level of the an-

ship used a union between church and state as a political system

cient Sichuan Basin.

Oil

Fig . 011 A bronze human head I 0.8cm in total w idth and I 7.6cm in total length

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II, made by a refined casting technique with a thin internal mold. Its surface is lustrous and smooth. Scholars find six cushion plates were used in the casting process.

27

Fig . 013 A bronze human head Total width is 20.6cm and remnant height is 29cm.

the heads brought to light from the Sanxingdui Site,

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit I

this one should be noted for having the strongest

This bronze object has a snap-fastening rim acting as an interface

to

link something else

to

feeling of realism. Generally speaking, scholars believe it represents a witch of the ancient Shu

be attached on the crown, and it is very likely

regime. The part below the neck has been lost due

that it had been originally inserted with a crested headgear or put on with an official hat. At the

to

burning. When it was unearthed at the site, some

back of the head, the demarcation line between

clay residue was still found clinging to the internal

the hair and naked skin is visible. Its protruding

wall of the object. Evidently, this is vestigial remains

eyes are in the shape of an apricot in addition

of the inner maid left from the casting process.

an onion-like nose with a high and straight

Similar phenomena were revealed in the excavation.

bridge. Its chin is plump, round and broad

They remind us of the shreds in the shape of

beneath a tightly shut mouth. The facial

crucibles studded at the excavation site and this

to

expression seems

to

013

with a mood of tranquility and tenderness. Among

carry a slight smile. The

object's delineation was made with ease and

indicates there must have been a large-scale bronzecasting workshop located at the site.

grace and the countenance is cherubic, lumpy

Fig. 012 A remnant bronze human head 20.4cm wide and 25cm high Excavated from Sacrificial Pit I

This head is like the statue of the "witch", both being brought

to

light from Pit I. But the

actual depiction differs as this one is not so realistic. There is a rim fastened onto the crown, and there are two holes headgear or official hat

to

to

have some kind of

be attached

to

it. At

the back of the skull, the demarcation line between the hair and naked skin is visible. The frontal contour of the face is a tapered square dotted with thick eyebrows, protruding eyes, a broad jawbone and tightly shut mouth , conveying a grave, solemn and dauntless air. Almost all the ear lobes of bronze human figures

012

discovered from Sanxingdui had been perforated. There were perhaps earrings.

28

~

30

Fig . 014 A bronze human head

and naked skin is noticeable on the forehead.

Total w idth is 22.8cm and the height is 27cm.

The countenance fea tures chick eyebrows,

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit I

protruding eyes, a high bridged nodular nose

This is a specimen of the human heads in Type

and the broad mouth closely shut. Its oblong

B found in Pit I. Its crown and cranial cavity had

ears are decorated with cloud and thunder

been cast separately. The first step was to make the

patterns. The figure wears a facial expression of

crown and then as soon as the cranial cavity was

icy dignity, seemingly indulging itself in a deep

cast, the crown was placed in the former's sand mold.

meditation. Its neck is bent upwards at the base,

The resulting union between the two was therefore

possibly caused by the "liaoji" when the artwork

very good.The demarcation line between the hair

was set ablaze before its burial.

015 Fig. 015 A bronze human head Total w idth is 22cm and 45 .6cm in height. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit I

This is a specimen ofType A bronze human head unearthed from Pit I. With a round skull, the object dons a double-horned helmet and a square mask. Beneath the helmet , there is headgear which hides its neck leaving bare the back side of the head. A subsiding pinhole suggests something like a hairpin or another kinds of hair adornments might have been attached to it. It has a look of valor, dignity and vitality, featuring a sq uare face, slanting eyebrows, triangular and protruding eyes, an erect bridge on the nose, a pair of tightly closed lips and with both corners of the mouth turned down.

31

017 ~

016 Fig. 016 and Fig. 017 Bronze human heads Total w idth is I 0.8cm with a total height up to 13.6cm. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

This is an example ofType A human heads excavated from Pit II. It has a round crown and a masked face. Its crown and cranial caviry were cast separately. The facial features present a very thin and haggard look with willow-shaped eyebrows, squint eyes, an onion-like nose and plump ears. Its headgear is of a unique sryle and comprises a pigtail and braids bound by a skullcap or plaited hair tied into a bun. Such a turban-like headgear may be seen today among native peasants in rural areas of the Sichuan Basin. This head is noted for its simple and graceful portrait with bold and clear-cut lines while the countenance itself shows a plain, unadorned and honest air, epitomizing the aboriginal people's old, enduring and simple ways.

32

020~

Fig. 018, Fig . 019 and Fig. 020 Bronze human heads Total w idth is 18cm and its total height is 37.8cm. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

These heads fall into Type Bin the trove of bronze human heads buried in Pie II . They feature a flat crown, a long face and plaited hairsryle. The neck ends at a point, in che shape of an inverse triangle. Its straight nose is flanked by two round nodes. A black tinge is seen

to

cover some parts of its eyebrows, ocular sockets, the plaited queue and hair adornments. The groove between its lips was painted by cinnabar and its hair forms a swept-back pigtail whose upper part is seen tighcly bundled up. Judging from che distinctions on its facial features, we may be sure ic must represent a personage with a considerable social status.

34

021 Fig. 021 A bronze human head

che hair and naked skin is relatively high. Ics

Fig. 022 A bronze human head

T o al wid th is I 7. 2cm and the total height is

face has an emaciated look and two frowning

Total width is 15.6cm and the remnant height is

eyebrows. The expression seems co imply

23.3cm.

something dignified, respectful and deterrent.

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit

34.8cm. Excavated fro m Sacrificial Pit

II

II

This is che only Type B specimen with a

The significance of che type of headgear is not

This is an example ofType C, featuring a

flat and be-haned head found in Pit II. Its crown

known for sure, however it seems certain chat it

cone-shaped hair knot and made by the block-

and head were cast separately. The headgear is a

should represent a figure with a higher social

casting technique. Because both the neck and

flat hat decorated with a pattern of rectangular

status than those without such a hat.

rear pare of the head are missing, it is impossible

spiral design and the demarcation line between

36

to restore the whole artwork to its original scace.

022 It has a round crown and the face seems ro have

(The Royal Annals of Shu Kings), the standard

still be seen in some remote areas of the Sichuan

had a mask. Its facial features are basically

image of a male resident in the Shu Kingdom

Basin. So we can be fairly sure char this bronze

identical with chose of Type C with a hairpin.

featured this cone-shaped hair knot and a left-

is a typical depiction of a native engaged in dailylife.

The demarcation line berween the hair and

turning collar band on the jacker. A similar

naked skin on its forehead and the skull's rear

description appears in the Huayang Guozhi (The

part is high. Its crown is covered by dense hair,

National Chronicle of the Scare of Huayang).

which is turned backward seemingly by a comb.

From statues from the Sanxingdui Sire, we may

The hairstyle features a cone-shaped knot.

find char such a clothing style among the

According ro the ancient text Shuwang Benji

common people in the ancient Shu regime can

37

Fig. 023, Fig. 024 and Fig. 025 Bronze human heads

skull, a butterfly-shaped hairpin is tied by a

Total w idth is 23.8cm and the total height is

broad ribbon on the back of the head and its

51.6cm.

two ends are embellished by permanent

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

adornments . The red t in ge of cinnabar is

over its masked face. On the rear part of the

This is a bronze human head with attached

024

detected in the ear cavities, nostrils and the

hairpin, ofType C found in the trove of Pie II.

groove between lips while its onion-like nose.

It was made by the block-casting technique. The

wide mouth, eyebrows and eye sockets all are

head's overall formative design is sup erbly

colored by black paint. From this fact, it is

contrived, reaching a nearly perfect state both

speculated chat the object was colored when ic

in portraying skill and aesthetic appeal. With a

was finished. In addition, some people guess

round crown, it seems the face had a mask. The

such a figure with a hairpin attached behind its

facial features are almost identical

those on

head should be a personage with a higher social

the face of its counterpart with a hairpin and of

status than those people represented by the

the same Type C in the trove. There is a helmet

objects with a flat crown.

to

39

Bronze Human Heads with Gold Mask All of the bronze human heads of this category were excavated from Sacrificial Pit II, totaling four in number. Each head

gold and gold objects. As the accessory to an idol in an ancestral shrine, the gold mask was constantly present at a sacrificial ritual.

features a crown either round or flat and is composed of bronze

This practice not only served to beautify the solemn air in the

head and a gold mask. The formative design of the bronze human heads either with or without the gold mask is nearly identical.

service but also benefits the specific function and cultural value defined for the sacrificing activity of the day. It is speculated that

Both their dimensions and proportion were done in a life-like

the presence of the gold would be conducive to something mysti-

manner. The gold mask was made from gold leaf, and made to cover the whole face up to the forehead and down to the jawbone, covering the two ear lobes at the side. The gold mask and the

cal and efficacious added to the divinity. At the same time, the presence of the gold became the symbol of solemnity, power and

_bronze head were cemented together by a binding agent made

Acting as a cultural mark, the appearance of the gold mask,

from a mixture of lime and raw lacquer paint. The image of a masked head gives on-lookers an impressive sight of glittering

some experts believe, must have something to do the Western Asian Civilization. It is speculated that cultural exchanges ex-

brilliance, perhaps representing great general leading a majestic army. The appearance of the gold mask means a paramount rever-

isted and grew active between the Shang Dynasty 's southwest

high status of the ritual ceremonies.

China and ancient peoples in the South Asian subcontinent, Central Asia and even the Near East.

ence was felt by the ancient Shu people to the precious metal of

Fig. 027 A bronze human head with gold mask

from pounded gold leaf, the mask is matched well with the facial features of the bronze human face in

Total w idth is I 9.6cm and its total height is 42 .5cm.

terms of its size and shape. Blank at the sites of eyes

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

and eyebrows, the maskwas made rather exquisitely,

The artifact is of Type A found in Pit II, featuring a flat crown, swept-back hair and a

beaming with a sacred and authoritative air. A general opinion claims it

to

represent an official of

pigtail hangi ng behind the head. The upper end

high position, capable of dealing with the people's

of the pigtail is tied by a broad ribbon, giving a

lives and properties and endowed with the super

strong and distinctive ethnic allusion . Made

human capacity of getting access

to

the deities.

Fig. 026 A gold mask The remnant width is 21.5cm; its height is I 1.3cm and I 0.62g in weight. Exca\'ated from Sacrificial Pit I

T he mask was made from pounded gold leaf, protruding at the location of the figure's nose which has a pointed ridge in the middle. The object itself wa s m a d e with fine craftsmanship. Its geometric dimensions and shape are matched well with the faces of some bronze human heads unearthed from the pit. So it is possible to imagine that originally it had been attached

to

one of them. Similarly, there

were fragments of two broken gold masks in Pit II, roughly the same size as this one.

40

027

41

~028

Fig. 028 A bronze human head with gold

possibility is the natural erosion or wear and tear

mask

as the gold leaf is extremely thin. The head has

Total w idth is 18.8cm and its tota l height is 4 1cm .

a high forehead with a hairstyle similar to the

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

above-depicted one. It wears an awe-inspiring

This is a bronze human head with gold mask,

and mystic air. The social status it represented

featuring a flat crown. The mask's upper rim and

should be on a par with that represented by the

the right butt of the eyebrow are missing, probably

above.

due to the burning prior to its burial. Another

029 Fig . 029 A bronze human head with gold mask Total w idth is 22.4cm and total height is 48 . 1cm Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

This head is in Type Bin terms of its artistic style, featuring a round crown over the head. If judging from the face's etched delineation, we may find the face should be a bronze mask and had been cast to cover the crown except for the latter's central part. The gold mask was attached to

the bronze mask and extremely thin, leading

to

only rhe right forehead and the left half of

the face remaining intact. At the rear of the skull, there is a hairpin whose two ends are missing.

43

031

Fig. 030 & Fig. 031 Bronze human heads with gold mask It is 22cm in total width and 48.1 cm in total height. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

This is a specimen ofType B from Pit II. Featuring a round crown, it has a gold mask which overlaps the top of the crown and closely bundles with the human head. The mask has its right forehead and almost the whole cheek missing and the hairpin behind the skull has been lost, leaving two rectangular openings. Beneath the head, the front was cast into an arc in shape and its tip becomes a triangle upside down.

~

Bronze Human-face Masks

More than a score or so bronze masks for human face were

in this case, through these openings, it was possible to link them

unearthed from the Sanxingdui Site and mostly from Sacrificial

together and via the square openings, they could form a vertical

Pit II. In the history of China's archeological discoveries, this is

line when hanging at the top of a wooden column just like the

the first time so many bronze masks were found at one time. In

totem poles constructed by Native Americans in North America.

addition, there are masks discovered in the Sanxingdui bronzes

The difficulties to be explained for this view are the masks have a

including, for example, the faces of kneeling figures (such as those

rough surface inside and their sizes are too varied to be lined so

attached to a divine tree) and some bronze human heads, all of

as to form a totem pole. Some experts have suggested a third

which wear masks.

explanation by introducing these masks as divine implements

These masks feature square openings located at their upper

upheld by sorcerers to accompany some form of ritual dance. As

or lower rims and center of the forehead. It is estimated the openings were cut by a chisel after the masks had been cast at a foundry

some of the masks are so heavy and big, some researchers believe that they must have been lifted by a group of people at a

workshop. Another view claims the openings were made after

sacrificial ritual. But the majority consensus claims that the masks

the masks had been used in ritual services for a period of time.

were accessories installed on some large-sized ritual structures or

On the surface of some masks, the openings are found to be semi-

gigantic idols made of timber or clay. The square openings were

finished as they were not cut through. It would be convenient if

used to fix the masks on them.

they were made in the casting procedure in advance but the cut-

According to various folkloric beliefs developed by different

ting of a square opening on a bronze surface is both time-con-

ethnic communities all over the world, the mask is an abode for

suming and toilsome.

supernatural spirits or divinities. The ancient Chinese believed it

What was the real purpose for making this group of bronze

"could provide a shelter for the soul of the deceased." As soon as

masks -in various sizes? And how to make use of them in an actual occasion? No doubt, no one can bear such a heavy mask if

a wizard wears a mask, the ancestor, spirit or divinity may be summoned to him; he can communicate with the ancestral soul,

putting it on a living human 's head. The square openings on the

make a prayer to it or on behalf of it, he can pass some oracular

masks maybe provide something of a clue as to the solution. Some

information to the mortal world. In view of this meaning, the masks

people believe they were idols hanging in a shrine for the people

should have been used to summon the spirits in a praying ritual ,

to pro crate themselves in front of in worship. But the locations

becoming a temporary dwelling for them. So the masks would

of the openings are mostly in the mask's rear and the sides of an

have been permanently on display at a pagan shrine for welcom-

opening how no sign wear. From these, some researchers specu-

ing the spirit's arrival at any moment. After a divinity had resided

late the bronze masks had never been hung as an object of worship.

in a mask, the latter became a sacred object in the minds of the

Other scholars argue that they maybe used in complete sets and

aboriginal people.

46

032 Fig. 032 A bronze human-face mask

originally the visual effect on the whole should

It is 15cm in height and 20. 7cm in w idth.

be more valiant, imposing and life-like. The application of black eyebrows and red

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

Its face is wide on the top but narrow at the base, featuring a pinhole on both sides of the

lips

to

the Sanxingdui bronzes means not only

an artistic pursuit in search of a visual impaa,

forehead and at the rear rim of its chin. The tips of

but also an implicit and symbolic implication

its eyebrows were painted by black pigment and

derived from a sorcery-dominated culture.

47

Fig. 033 and Fig . 034 Bronze humanface masks They are 40.3cm in height and 60.5cm in w idth. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

The mask was made by the block casting technique and is preserved intact. During the casting, several cushion plates were sec in different places. The mask features a square and massive face and two flat, broad cheeks, highlighting a mood of chilling quietude. Two fine lines of almost equal length are etched on its lips . In response co its th ick eyebrows, protruding eyes and the onion-like nose, the mask bears a spi ri tual halo of coo lness and gloom. When the mask was first excavated, the groove on the mouth was found co still contain a hint of red cinnabar, indicating chat the mask originally had had a pair of red lips.

033

48

49

035

Fig. 035 A bronze human face It is 7cm in height and 9.2cm in w idth. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit I

This artifact is a human face in the shape of a mask. Being V-shaped at its upper rim, the object features a broad countenance, round jawbone, thick and slender eyebrows, big eyes, a pointed nose, and a broad but closely shut mouth. The ear lobes are round and lumpy with drilled pinholes. Very likely, the pinholes had earrings. In consideration of the object's volume and capacity, some people think ropes or other means to might have been used to suspend or bind the whole artifact to something else as an accessory attached to it. If compared with the numerous bronze masks of a matured technique in sculpture excavated from Pit II, this one should be an earlier or antiquated form among them in view of the evolutionary course of their artistic sryle.

50

036

Fig . 036 A bronze human-face mask It is 25.5cm in height and 40.2cm in width. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

Evidently, the casting technique used for the m aking of this mask was crude and unsophisticated and there are a lot of casting defects left on its surface. On its forehead, there is a chiseled square opening remaining semifinished because it is not cut through. The left eyeball is cushioned by rwo plates being placed when it was cast. The four openings on the mask were cast at first and then reprocessed by a chisel. Its ears were cast in a tripartite process and in the rear of them, there are clear traces recast in a bid to make up the unsatisfactory parts.

Four line drawings of the bronze mask

51

Bronze Masks with Protruding Eyes

Among the bronze masks brought to light from the Sanxingdui

while Type B has a square opening at the center of the forehead;

Site. the most grotesque and awe-inspiring are the bronze masks

2). The design of the ears is different in size and alignment.

with protruding eyes. Totaling three in number, they were all ex-

The odd appearance of the masks with protruding eyes is beyond our imagination. But in the eyes of the ancient Shu people,

cavated from Pit II and fall into two types: Type A of two specimens each with a relative small size and the Type B of the one

they would have had an unmatched position of solemnity and

with a huge size. They are similar in external appearance and the differences between the two types are shown in the following

eminency. What was their prototype or origin? Why must they be expressed in such a way?

aspects: 1). Type A features decorations attached to the forehead

Fig. 037 & Fig. 038 Bronze human-face masks with hat and protruding eyes

Because Sanxingdui served as an early capital of

They are 3 I .5cm in height 77.4cm in width and 82.

a consensus char the term should mean what is

5cm in total height.

exhibited now on the excavated specimen's face.

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

It is believed the sculptures represented a real

The bronze mask's eyeballs are two bulging

image of the Shu people's ancestral deity.

circular cylinders in shape, each thrusting outward

According to ancient Chinese mythology,

about 10cm. The two gigantic ears stretch out on

there was a deity of extraordinary appearance.

both sides. Its forehead has a decorative pole in the

Called Zhulong in ancient literature, the

shape of a mythological Chinese animal, the Kuilong,

supernatural being had -a human face and a

or a dragon-like monopod. When the mask was

serpent's torso while its duty was to control the

excavated, its eyes and eyebrows were painted black

world's dawning and waning. Its figure featured

and lips were coated with cinnabar. The whole

protruding eyes and this, according to some

artwork exhibits a mystic and strange air. In artistic

famous interpreters of Chinese classics, means

portraiture, it has become a rather outstanding

protruding eyeballs. In association with the one-

specimen among the human sculptures excavated

foot dragon or Kuilong on the decorative pole

from the Sanxingdui Site.

on its forehead, the mask's formative design may

In light of the ancient records in the annals of the legendary Shu regime, it is known to us that

037

the Shu Kingdom, most archeologists came to

originate from both the mythological images of Cancong ap.d Zhulong.

Cancong was the earliest ruler of the regime and

In the external appearance of the mask, the

therefore, the Shu people regarded Cancong as their

most impressive feature is the exaggerated

ancestral deity. According to the written record in

images of its two eyes and two ears. It has been

the Shu Kingdom's Chronicle in "Huayang Guozht',

speculated these symbolize the so-called

it reads: 'The Shu Marquis Cancong had protruding

"telescopic eyes" and "ears capable of hearing

eyes." In the past, scholars were suspicious of the

voices a long way off" in Chinese folklore.

term "protruding eyes" because they did not know

Another opinion claims this is indicative of the

what it really meant. In order to explain it, a lot of

evolution of totems, which were worshipped

speculative theories were invented. With the

when a primitive culture transforms from a

excavation of this mask, some researchers thought

nature based culr into one of human adoration.

it would be wrong to imagine the protruding eyes

Early cultures tended

to

blend animism with

to be replaced by one single eye located at the center

ancestral worship and therefore it is not strange

of the forehead; others believed very probably the

that the mask has both animalistic and human

term meant the eyes had been tattooed and the third

features on the same mask.

opinion claimed it meant a pair of outthrusring eyes.

038 ....

52

Fig . 039 A bronze mask with protruding eyes It is 138cm in w idth and 66cm in height. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit JI

T his is a large-dimensional bronze mask featuring a square chin, with its crescent eyebrows aligned to form a V-shaped pattern, the ends slightly curling up. Its eyes are slanted and prolonged sufficiently to accommodate two cylindrical eyeballs which protrude 16cm in a manner of extreme exaggeration. The two ears are fully out-stretched and their upper tips are in the shape of two pointed fans. Its nose is like an eagle's beak flanked by two helical wings each adorned by the pattern of a counter-clockwise whirlpool. Its mouth is a furrow both deep and broad, forming two uplifting curves at the ends. It seems that the tip of the tongue is slightly sticking out, almost as if it is smiling enigmatically. At the center of its forehead, there is a square opening, which probably had decorations or adornments attached. We therefore imagine that in the original state, the mask would have been more fantastic to behold. The surreal design almost seems

to

imbue the

sculptures with an air of tranquility and mystery, while at the same time it impresses a powerful deterrent on its spectators. If we look closer, we see its graceful delineation, apricot-shaped eyes, the protruding nose and broad mouth all convey a feeling of warmth and tenderness. This facial expression reveals a mixture of complicated and peculiar feelings, forcing people

to

adore it, pay homage to it and seek blessings from it, to ward away evil and protect the righteous. At present, a universally recognized viewpoint is to confirm this image to be the representation of the Shu people's ancestor Cancong. Differing viewpoints on the origin postulate that it could be a mask designed for an animal . Some researchers draw parallels between its screeched ears and the wings of a cuckoo. In Chinese annals, there is a widely known legend in which the soul of the fourth·Shu king Duyu was reincarnated into a cuckoo after his death. So the bronze sculpture is in c.his way linked with the legendary figure Duyu. Some people even speculate it could be an icon of the solar dei ty. However, according to our interpretation, the mas k is neither a pure imitation of a human countenance, nor a mask to depicting an animal's face. Instead, it is an imagined depiction of a semi god by unifying humanity with a divine being. Its huge dimension, exaggerated eyes and ears were employed to strengthen its divinity. It is an idol to represent ~he ancient Shu people's ancestor.

039

54

55

Ocular and Sun-shaped Bronze Objects

A total o( 71 ocular bronze objects were unearthed from Sacrificial Pit II. In line with their external shapes, they are divided into three types, featuring a rhombus, obtuse triangle and vertical triangle respectively. There are respectively 29, 23 and 19 examples of each shape. The objects or patterns concerning the eye as a motif had special implications in ancient Shu culture. According to the records in ancient literature, the ancestor of the Shu pe6ple Cancong had an image featuring protruding eyes. The mythological animal Zhulong had a human face and a serpent's torso . Zhulong had power over dark and light. When the eyes opened, daylight would come, after the eyes shut, darkness would descend. In the ancient script, the character of "Shu"

040

highlights the image of a big eye in it. All of these may serve as evidence that the image of the eye was extremely important in religious ceremonies for the ancient Shu, as they believed the image itself was endowed with inherent supernatural power. From the Sanxingdui trove, archeologists so far have found a great number of eye-related artifacts, including the ocular objects, protruding eyes on the masks, bulging eyes on the heads of animals and bronze upper eyelids. If viewed from the angle of a sorcery-dominated culture, we understand that such a cultural psychology must have something to do with the Shamanistic belief that a dancing sorcerer could see into the netherworld with his supernatural eyes. In real life, eyes bring light to all of us , and this fact is commensurate with the sun's function to bring light into our world. As was seen in ancient literature and archeological findings, the image of the eye was used to replace the sun. In other words, the worship of eyes means the worship of the sun. It is no surprise therefore, that in the concepts of the ancient Shu people, eyes were inseparable from and regarded as the symbol of the sun. It may also indicate the wishes of

Fig . 040 Bronze upper eyelids Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

Just like other fo rms of eye-shaped bronze

the Shu to understand the wider world beyond their borders. How would the ocular objects have been displayed, and what was their purpose in the shrine? It is felt that in combination, the rhombus shaped objects could not have been

objeas, the bronze upper eyelids were designed

used to decorate large idols or installed in ocular sockets due to the size. An initial specu-

indicate ocular divinity. In total, there are 33

lation concludes that very probably, they were embedded or hung on the shrine's wall or

specimens in this category unearthed from Pit

column as a series of visual presentations to show the "divine eyes", so that the shrine's

II. In a va riety of external shapes, they are

atmosphere might be more dignified and respectful.

to

divided into four types. If belonging to the same type, the bronze eyelids should be in pairs when put in use, the scholars deduce. There are two Type A specimens all in the shape of a quadrangle and the larger one is 12cm wide and 7 cm high . When assembled, it roughl y

In 2001, a sizeable number of similar bronze eye related artifacts were unearthed from the Jinsha Site in the western suburbs of Chengdu, capital of Sichuan Province. The site, according to researchers conclusions, should be the capital of the ancient Shu Kingdom after the decline of the Sanxingdui Culture, dating back from the waning of the Shang Dynasty until the early and middle Zhou Dynasty (ea. l,200-900BC). The new

approximates a cylinder and is largely identical

discoveries at Jinsha further demonstrates that eye-worship among the ancient Shu people

the appearance of the protruding eyeballs on

had been a long-standing tradition handed down generation after generation. This is a

to

the two huge masks. Based on this, it is estimated the upper eyelids might have been used as a decoration to be set in the ocular sockets of the huge idols. The cylinder-shaped eyelids are Type

B.

56

unique phenomenon in Chinese archeology.

041 Fig. 041 Eye-shaped bronze objects

bronze dissected at the center along its long axis.

Bronze A: 57.2cm long and 23.6cm w ide

Its shape is an obtuse triangle with each of its

Bronze B: 54.8cm long and 12. 7-12 .Bcm w ide

peripheral sides on a slant. Ac the center, the

Bronze C: 27.8-29cm Jong and I 2.4-13 .2cm wide

bulging eyeball is semi-spherical in shape. le

All were excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

becomes a complete eyeball when put together.

The shape of Bronze A is a complete rhombus.

Bronze C are four items in a group which

Its four sides are straight lines and each of the

can be formed into one rhombus-shaped object.

surfaces is on a slant. At the center, the eye ball

Each item is one fourth of the whole object

bulges, but the outer edges curve downwards, giving

having been dissected twice along the latter's

rise to the visual effect of "protruding eye." At both

horizontal and vertical axes respectively. Each

ends of the eye, there are two ridges. Four round

roughly approximates a triangle. The four form

pinholes are located at the four corners of the object,

horizontal and vertical V-shaped grooves as a

apparently used for fixing the object.

resulc of being put together. Further research is

Bronze B contains two individual items. When

needed to establish whether there really we re

attached, che two become a complete object. Each

any symbolic or functional implications among

item is a half of the complete rhombus-shaped

the three different types.

57

Fig. 042 A sun-shaped bronze wh eel The diameter is about 84cm. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

AI; soon as they were brought ro light, the bronze wheels were found broken asunder into six pieces as a result of

fire. Afi:er their repair, the remnants were restored into rwo wheels, each having a diameter of about 85cm and their formative designs are completely identical. The overall design is circular with a bulging center and its five spokes are evenly distributed in a radiant arrangement berween its hub and circular frame. The pinhole at the center and five pinholes on the joints where the external rim and the five spokes meet are speculated by experts to be used to fix or anach itself to something unknown. Similar findings are unavailable so far in Chinese archeology. But the rwo wheels' design in the shape of solar luster resembles the similar decorative pattern on the roof of a bronze shrine model unearthed from the same sacrificial pit. Its bulging center shares some similarities with the bronze artifacts such as the ocular objects and upper eyelids also yielded from the Sanxingdui Site. The overall design of the bronze wheels may be likened to some motifs on the crag paintings in the vicinity where the hanging coffins were discovered in Sichuan Province's Gongxian County or the similar decorations on the bronze drums excavated from south China. So, the excavators named them as the "sun-shaped bronze wheels". Some researchers believe they have nothing to do with "the sun". Instead, they are wheels as its center being the hub, the radiant bars are spokes and the external that the wheel should be an accessory majority of the scholars believe this was

frame is the rim. The third view point insists decorated on a knight's shield. The a divine implement put on display in a

Shu regime's shrine and fixed to a

certain idol at a sacrificial ritual. In

the capacity of a solar symbol, it was

set stately to be worshiped by the

believers at a religious service.

Among the important bronze

artifacts excavated from the

Sanxingdui Site, such as the grand

bronze statue, the divine tree and

many decorative patterns on them,

there are a great number of sun-like

patterns. This indicates solar

worship had a paramount position Shu kingdom. From this, it is now exclusively devoted to the sun had emerged

in the religious culture of the ancient known to us that special ceremonies in the time and among all sacred rituals,

they should be of the unmatched significance. The solar cult as a folklori c practice exercised by the ancient Shu people had been handed down generation after generation in the regime until the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (770-256BC). According to the records in Huayang Guozhi, the last king of the regime was called "Kaiming" and etymologically, some linguists guess the term implies "a rising sun" in its meaning. The same term was mentioned in Tianwen (A Questionnaire Posed to the Heaven), a famous poetic work legendarily giving credit to Qu Yuan (ca.340-278BC), a great poet of ancient China. The poem reads: "Why the eyes are closed, then the world is veiled by the dark while the eyes are open and the world is to be dawning? When the constellation of Virgo does not appear, where is the rising sun?" There are some artifacts unearthed from the Jinsha Site in suburban Chengdu, such as the adornment of golden foil cut into the shape of four birds flying around the sun and bronze human statues etc. All of these may serve as the visual evidence that sun worship was popular among the populace of the ancient Shu Kingdom. Acting as the materialized form of a religious concept, they provide, in company with the similar findings discovered from the Sanxingdui Site, the first-hand material for our research of the religious practice in ancient Shu culture.

58

042

59

Bronze Animal-face Masks

In this category, there are a total of nine bronze masks unearthed from Sacrificial Pit II. Almost all are thin bronze plates

In essence, this is a form of conceptual artistry to present the images of divine animals. In remote antiquity, the aboriginal resi-

and the masks have a few specimens whose eyes, foreheads and

dents believed a divine animal with a ferocious appearance could

mouths are found to be painted with black tinge. In line with their external appearances, they are divided into three types and each type has three specimens. Of Type A, the artifacts are in different

fend off evil spirits or cast out devils. So they worshipped them in a bid to plead with ghosts or deities to ward off disasters or misfortune. It is worth us to mention the fact that, the big eyes

sizes but their shapes are generally in the same pattern. The for-

constitute a typical characteristic of these animal-face masks, be-

mative design of the animal's face is a deformed one of Kuilong or a single-footed dragon in Chinese mythology with the face 's

coming the visual center of the whole artwork. In response to various eye-shaped artifacts excavated from the Sanxingdui Site,

two flanks stretched out into external sides. Basically, Type B

we may know that this is an important mark to highlight a ritual

shares something identical with Type A in the shaping patterns. The difference between the two lies in the added attachment of two opposite-faced Kuilongs engraved on the stand to support

implement's divinity. In all three types of bronze masks, each has four pinholes distributed in a regular way. Evidently, this was not arranged

Type B 's main profile: the animal's face.

casually. The distributive layout has two patterns. One features

In a sharp contrast with the previous two types, Type C has a simplified application of the formative elements to the design of the animal 's face. But it is loomed with a special air of peculiarity

two pinholes each located at the juncture of the curling horns of the two flanking dragons while two circular pinholes are situated

because of its two eyes whose ends are found prolonged to the dragon tail 's tip. It is speculated that the formal variances of the

mouth. Another pattern features a pinhole located on each side of the

animal-face masks might be coming up from what they origi-

dragon tail on the upper part of the dragon or its chin. It is esti-

nally represented: different rungs in the hierarchy of the theo-

mated these pinholes were used to fix the whole mask on a pole

cratic culture, say the disparities in the divine powers. The formative design of these masks is not entirely to imitate

If we imagine the animal-face profile on display during a large

the real images of some living animals in the mortal world. Instead,

sacred ritual, the atmosphere created must have been both grue-

some parts have been deformed and exaggerated in varied degrees.

some and awe-inspiring for those present.

A line drawing

60

to

above the teeth or chin respectively at the two ends of the dragon

or other permanent support with threads or other flexible media.

depict an animal-face mask

043 Fig. 043 A bronze animal-face mask

up, in a ferocious stance. The eyes, eyebrows

It is 23.4cm wide and 20.4cm high.

and teeth were painted black. The visual effecr

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

of the mask is grotesque, weird and terrific. The

This example of Type B mask has a pair of

single-footed dragon under the jawbone

Kuifongdragons facing in opposite directions, acting

emphasizes its bulging eyes. This serves

as an additional support to the mask. The design of

further strengthen the religious significance of

the dragons features big eyes and a single foot with

ocular objects.

to

its head turning down while its rail drastically tilting

61

Fig. 044 A bronze animal-face mask It is 35cm w ide, 2 1.2cm high and 0. 2cm th ick. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

When compared to other masks of Type

A line drawing depicting the bronze animal-face mask

A, the dimensions of this one are relatively small. The main profile is the face of a single-footed dragon. The dragon's tail is lifted upward. It has two slender eyebrows, a straight nose, two ears each with a design of the single-footed dragon, and a pai r of bulging and staring eyes. Its square jawbone and bro ad mouth remind us of a huma n face dis torted into a grimace when tortured . It has a treacherous and repulsive appearance.

044

62

045 Fig. 045 A bronze animal-face mask

line and linked with the central pan ofirs broad

It is 28.2cm w ide. 12.5cm high and 0.2cm thick.

mouth. The teeth were not case buc delineated

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

by black paint. The mask's face consists of two

The mask's main pattern belongs co Type C.

kuilong dragons face-to-face. The eyes are

The design seems co be simpler in comparison with

dissimilar co chose of Type A and B.The eye's

the specimens in Type A and Type B. The animal

external end reaches the tip of the dragon tail.

has no ears and its nose is simplified into a straight

63

Bronze Divine Trees

From Pit II, a total of eight bronze trees were unearthed. They

The spatial layout of the three shows the different positions

were divided into two types according to their size. Possibly be-

of the rising , mid-day and setting sun, embodying the primitive

cause of deliberate damage, the remnant parts are incomplete and

people's unsophisticated conception about the sun's visual move-

fragmentary. After careful restoration, Divine Tree No.1 is the

ment around the ground.

biggest, most complicated and most sophisticated specimen in

Most scholars believe that the divine trees found at

the trove. One medium and one smaller size divine tree is intact,

Sangxingdui must have close links with these three mythological

and there are in addition some constituent parts in the form of

trees. In addition, the scholars believe the bronze trees unearthed

twigs, a pedestal, flowers or fruits and birds perching on the tree.

from Sanxingdui are the physical carriers of the cosmic configu-

We are able to use these to aid reconstruction of the divine tree.

ration developed by the ancient Shu people. The bronze divine

There are several distinct designs, which suggest differing uses

trees might be serving as the supernatural implements accessible

and implications. All large and medium size examples were cast

to the heaven and were a permanent fixture in pagan rituals in the

in eparate sections in an ancient foundry , while the small-sized

Shu people's ancestral shrine. The worship of divine trees was a time-honored and long-

pecirnens are in such a decayed state that the casting technique cannot be identified definitely.

standing belief and folk custom popular among ethnic groups in

In Chinese mythology, there are many epithets conferred to

the hinterland of southwest China. In the Sichuan basin, a unique

divine trees and the most common being arefusang,jianmu and

funeral object often found is a bronze made divine tree with a

ruomu. The divine tree fusang is said to be located in the east and

ceramic stand. They tend to depict a Han Dynasty legend about

was known as the legendary abode of 10 suns, "nine residing on

the Western Goddess in the Kunlun Mountains, as it seemed people

the tree's lower branches and one perching on the topmost twig"

yearned to "taking flight to the land of immortals." More

and by turns on daily duty for their heavenly circuit.

interestingly, in most cases its boughs are found attached with

The mythical tree jianmu is said to have been located at the center of "a wilderness called duguang" and bearing various ce-

copper coins , therefore it is known as a money tree among the populace.

lestial flowers and heavenly fruits , becoming "a ladder for the deities to ascend to the heavens."

It seems that both kinds of trees may share some characteris-

The ruomu is a divine tree in the west, supporting the 10 suns

tics in form and meaning, perhaps a link between it and the gods or allowing supernatural powers to access the heavens. It has been

with its huge crown. The light radiates in the pattern of a lotus

suggested that the earlier Sanxingdui trees had a causative effect

flower on the ground.

on the emergence of the later Han trees.

Fig. 046 Large-sized bronze divine tree No.2

emphatically means that the divine tree should

Th e diam ete r of its stand is 54.8cm; th e tree·s

On each of the three fronts of the stand, there

remnant trunk is 142cm high and the overall height

is a kneeling human figure. Both arms are lifted

of the w hole artwork is 193.6cm.

to

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

64

be regarded as a ladder to the celestial paradise.

the breast in a gesture of grasping something

in his hands. The figure's stance is the position

The artwork's stand is in imitation of a

a sorcerer assumed when presiding over a

mountain peak, symbolizing the divine tree

sacrificial service in worship of a divine

standing on on a holy peak. The flower petals

mountain and divine tree.

on its twigs are in the shape of yubi, or a jade

The object the hands are grasping is missing

disk with a hole at the center, known in ancient

so we cannot identify it definitely. It was most

China as capable of gening access to the heavens.

likely

The decorative attachment of the jade disks

black magic such as a jade zhang or cong.

to

be a ritual implement for performing

046

65

Fig. 047 A bronze human-headed bird Its overall height is 12cm. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

The sculpture would have originally been placed at the end of a twig attached to a smallsized divine tree. It has a flat crown on the head and it has a mask. Its countenance is square with big ears and a high nose. Its two ears are bulging outward, sharing some similarities with the protruding eyeballs on the bronze masks unearthed from the same trove. The avian torso is not long. In comparison with identical birds perching on the same divine tree, we know that it has two outstretched broken wings. The tail feathers have been arranged so that the upper and lower parts intercrossed with one another. We can also find such an object in the top layer of a bronze divine altar excavated from the same pit. According to the conventional practice developed by ancient people, anything located at the center or top was held in respect. It is no accident that we see the bronze bird perching at the top of a divine tree or at the center of a divine altar because evidently, this had a sacred symbolic meaning. According to ancient annals, there is a close linkage between successive generations of ancient Shu kings with avian totemism. It seems reasonable for us to speculate that the image of a human-headed bird had something to do with the Shu people's ancestry, such as an association with the legendary ruler ofZhuanxu, who was known as the Great Avian King in ancient Shu mythology. In view of its supernatural power, the bird very probably represented the "divinity at the center of the celestial vault" concurrently acting as Apollo, or the solar deity in Greek myth. It goes without saying that this is a preliminary hypothesis contrived by us and in need of further deliberation. But, one thing is certain: this sculpture should be the dominant one amid the deities worshipped by the ancient Shu people.

047-,...

048

Fig. 048 A bronze object with flowers and birds It is 7.8cm high and 4.3cm wide. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

The design is of bronze birds perching on bronze flowers . Above each bird's head, there is a pretty crest composed of three plumules curling upwards and attached with a pinhole at each end of them in a bid to display the colored m9tifs at each end. The uplifting tail has a vertically tripartite cluster of plumage just like a peacock spreads its tail feathers. The copper wire passing through the bird's beak is missing but it is estimated that originally ·this anifact should be a tiny decorative gadget hung on a small-sized divine tree.

68

~

Fig. 049 Bronze divine tree No.1 The trees trunk has a remnant height u p to 359cm and its overall height is 396cm. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

This is th e largest ancient bronze artifact excavated in this country. It consists of a pedestal, a divine tree and a dragon. The top of the treetrunk and rear part of the dragon torso are incomplete. It would have been completed in several sections in the fo undry, using differin g cas ting techniques invented by th e ancient craftsmen th emselves, such as pivoted cas tin g, sheathed cas tin g and inlaid casting. T he pedestal is arc-shaped in imitation of the imaginary scenery of the divine mountain with three towering peaks. Th e su rface is decorated with a variety of solar and cloud motifs. The divine tree is situated at th e summit of the divine mountain and its twigs are clustered into three layers with three branches attached to each layer. Each branch has two fruit-bearing twigs, one uplifting and anoth er on e curvin g d ow n w hil e t he divine bi rds are perching on twigs. T here are a total of27 fruits and nine birds in all. A slender dragon coils around the div ine tree down

to

th e gro und. The dragon's

appearance is both weird and fantastic. The dragon's head is elongated and might be likened to that of a horse. Its feathery wings suggestively symbolize its miraculous capacity of fl ight. T here is a variety of conflicting opinions about th e imp lica ti o n s o f th e divine tree a m o n g researchers. T he only consensus so far reached is its name: it is unarguably a "a divine tree" beyond all doubt. Some peo pl e maintain that it wou ld have been o n di sp lay in a sac rifi c ia l alt ar as a n embodiment of agrari an worship in ancient times. Another group of researchers insist that it was derived from primitive people's observation of the solar halo and the third view claims it should be the mythical cosmic tree developed by th e ancient Shu peo ple. A mo ng th e primitive religions and fo lk beliefs in the prehistoric world, there were a lot of legends about the "cosmic tree" or the "global tree". The common feature is the persistant belief of the ancients that th e place th ey inhabited was in fact the center of th e wo rld .Accord ing to their beliefs, the cosmic center or global center ofren featured a high mountain , a towering tree o r a giant pole, on which the grand events of the genesis took place, so that it became th e ve nue of supreme sanctity. Their deiti es asse mbled there and through it, they made their way to the heavens. T here are nine birds roosting on th e divine tree, the design of which should be the same. Primitive people beli eved that in the dai ly cycle of th e sun's rise and fal l, the bird served as its carrier. Because of this, the image of a bird was universally regarded as th e symbo l of th e sun in the vernacular literatu re such as myths, epics and legends developed by many nations in the ancient world. The sun brings in both light and warmth to our wo rld and it is criti cal to the farming harvest. So, in essence, avian worship is th e worship of th e su n. In th e Sanxingdui trove, nin e birds arc found perching on the twigs of a divine tree, seem ing to be consistent with the legend of the fasang and

ruomu, which states that 10 suns are held by nin e birds. In th e legend of the thi rd tree, th e jiarmw , the leaves, flowers and the yellow serpent ca n be seen in some form in those found at Sanxin gdui. Moreover, the divine tree's location is in the Sichuan Plain, at the mid-point between earth and heaven, according to legend. The divine trees of Sanxingdui could therefore, is a composite of all the trees of ancient legend. Its supernatural funct ion is to access the heavens, to link the ground with the sky. It communicates with the heavenly kingdom and through it, deities may descend

to

th e mortal world and sorcerers and

witches make th eir way to paradise. The tree-coiling dragon is the sorcerer's steed to the skies.

Bronze Divine Altars

There are three bronze divine altars excavated from Pit II, but all are in a dilapidated state due to fire. Only one specimen can provide sufficient information for us to make clear the artifact's vague structure. The altar's animal-shaped base has a circular leg at bottom and two parallel-standing mythical animals in an opposite stance to one another over the leg. Each of the two animals is character-

shape of a deck protrudes at the center and at each of its four corners, a phoenix perches with flapping wings, as if poised to take flight. The design is fantastic and odd, but its cultural implications are unknown. Only one thing is certain: it must have been a sacrificial utensil with uncommon significance on display in the Shu regime's ancestral shrine. In an attempt to explain its cultural significance, we may di-

ized by stout hooves, short legs, a broad and thin mouth, big but protruding eyes, an outwardly reeled upright horn on the snout and a pair of flapping feathery wings. Evidently, it is a composite

vide the divine altar into three parts: the cabinet is the upper part; the standing figures, their base and the mountain-shaped stand

of many living animals.

constitute the middle part and the bottom's circular leg and two

Supported by a single horn and feathery wings, the circular base has four human figures each wearing a tall hat standing on it

mythical animals are the lower part, symbolizing the three worlds in the universe.

in each of the four directions. The human figures wear Chinese-

The lower part is the netherworld held by the two mythical

style jackets with short sleeves, arms lifted to the breast, holding an object in their hands. Their gestures seem to pay respect to the

animals; the middle part is the standing figures who are holding their sacrificial ritual in addition to the divine mountains in the

four directions of the heaven and ground. It seems that they were

mortal world. The upper part consists of the divine bird with a

grasping broken sticks, and we conclude they are ritual imple-

human head, deities at four directions and four phoenixes, all be-

ments or utensils used in witchcraft. Above the four standing human figures, there are some

ing blessed beings living the heavenly kingdom. We can certainly say the bronze divine altar is a three-di-

divinity's heads with protruding eyes to support a stand on which,

mensional physical model in a visual form to reflect an important aspect of the ancient Shu people's ideology. It is an informative

four mountains are connected. Standing on the four mountains, there is a rectangular cabinet, its four walls pierced to form a latticework , in which five human figures of the same size are shown on their knees. In each direction, the figures support the cabinet's frieze at whose center, the divine profile of a humanheaded bird sits down. Atop the cabinet, a square platform in the

72

data pool, containing the religious conceptions, political tenets, architectural style and other cultural elements of the ancient Shu culture. It is invaluable in aiding us in our exploration of the prehistoric Shu people's mental world, the inner core of primitive religion and the building system of ancestral temples in the locality.

A line drawing for a bronze divine altar

Fig. 050 A bronze divine altar (in partial presentation) Its circular base is 2. I cm high and I 2.4cm in diameter. The standing human fi gure is I 0.8cm in remnant heig ht.

Because the artifact was set ablaze before it was buried in the sacrificial pit, it has not been well preserved, with serious damage to the circular base, only half of which is in a relatively intact state. A human figure in standing posture was cast on the base, which is decorated by a feather-like motif studded with bulging round dots. The artifact would have been ingenious in its design when in the original condition. At present, the figure's head is missing. Its Chinese style jacket with short sleeves is covered with elaborate patterns of geometric or cloud-like motifs at the cloth's frontal and rear surface. A girdle is encircled twice around its waist and the knot is tied on the abdomen with something inserted at the knot. Beneath its knees, there are shoes and stockings below the jacket's lower hem. Judged from the decorative patterns in the shape of clouds and eyes on its legs, the figure should have been tattooed and there must have something in its hands, possibly some kind of slender tool. Viewing fro m its attire and pose, we are certain that the figure is the statue of a warrior.

Fig . 051 A bronze divine altar (in partial presentation)

050

The mountain-shaped base is 9.2cm high. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

The mountain-shaped base is supported by the heads of the standing figures. The base's circular leg has a circular groove decorated with a periphery full of etched patterns. The upper part consists of four mountains linked with one another and covered by the decorative motif of an upside down mythical animal. Atop the four mountains is a partial rectangular cabinet. The central part of the walls are latticework 9cm by3. 5cm. Within the latter, there is a row of kneeling human figures of the same size in the identical design.

Fig. 52 A bronze divine altar (in partial presentation) The height from th e animal s hoof to its horn is 15.8cm and the length between its snout and the ta ils tip is 2 I .2cm . Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

The appearance of the mythical animal on the base is a composite of many living animals in the real world. Above the animal's horn and wi ngs, there is a stand to support the standing human figure.

74

051

052

053

Bronze Vessels zun and lei The bronze utensils used in an ancient ritual were necessary for holding various ceremonial rituals such as weddings, banquets or diplomatic meetings, epitomizing the ritual hierarchy and the authority of the ruling class. They served as extra-ordinary implements to highlight a regime's political power. The ritual objects

square shapes respectively. There are five circular and a square one. After their restoration, the circular specimens are found to be of three types judged by their morphological features. When the bronze zun and lei were excavated, they were found to contain shells and a lot of jade objects, such as bi, yuan, huan,

in bronze unearthed from the sacrificial pits at the Sanxingdui

and zuo. This indicates that their main function was to contain

Site have vessels or containers in the name of zun, lei, bu, pan or their lids and the jade offerings. In particular, zun vessel is the most distinctive finding in the trove.

sacrificial offerings or other sacrificial implements for holding a ceremonial rite.

The specimens of zun brought to light from the two pits are in

lei and hu were discovered at Shang or Zhou Dynasty sites in

either circular or square. The former are in a great number and regarded as the most representative ones. Among them, the ves-

central China, including the tripod, which enjoyed the highest

sels unearthed from Pit I have all been ravaged by fire and destroyed. But from their fragments and restoration later, there are one featuring the dragon-and-tiger pattern and the other

political power. Surprisingly, few examples of ding have been discovered in the Sichuan Basin, while many zuns have been uncovered. This could be explained as differing ideology between

adorned with goats heads. From Pit II, a total of eight circular

local cultures and that of the prevailing central dynasty, leading

zuns were found and in line with their morphology, the specimens fall into five types.

to contrary status being given to symbols of political authority. The bronzes of the Sichuan basin could have been afforded equal status to the ding of central China.

The zun excavated from Pit II had all been set ablaze, and

A great number of bronze vessels such as tripods (ding), zun,

political status at the time as it symbolized an ancient regime 's

pounded into pieces. Only six can be discerned in circular and

A line drawing depicting a kneeling bronze

Fig . 053 Dragon-and-tiger patterns on a bronze zun

The whole design shares many similarities with

Maximum diameter on the shoulder is 32cm and

Shang Dynasty bronze vessel yo u. Very likely,

the remnant height is 43.3cm.

such a design indicates the popular practice of

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit I

tiger worship. Primitive people believed they

the keynote decorative design on a famous

On the vessel's shoulder, there are three

could acquire the ferocious power of the king

writhing dragons in bas-relief. It seems almost

of animal, highlighting the union between the

as if their heads are trying co break free from

human being and nature. Many fire- damaged

the surface. Their horns are in the shape of

fragments of jade ware, seashells and tiny

protruding cylinders. Each of the dragons

decorations made from bronze leaf when found

features big spherical eyes and the torso is

when che vessel was newly excavated. This face

covered with the decorative motif of double

means ic was used as a container before ic was

diamonds.

buried in the pit.

The belly of the bronze is decorated with

In Funan county, Anhui Province , an

three groups of the same decorative pattern. The

archetypical Shang Dynasty zun vessel was

central design is composed of a tiger and a

discovered. In this way, archeologiscs were able

human figure on cop of a bronze zun . It shows

human being beneath the tiger's neck in bas-

co determine a major chronological scale co help

the conventional way a zun was used during an

relief. The kneeling figure looks coward the

dace Sacrificial Pit I by scrutinizing che

ancient sacrificial ceremony.

tiger's wide-open mouth, with uplifted arms.

morphology of their decorative patterns.

76

~

054

Fig. 054 A circular bronze vessel zun

pattern on its belly is the traditional pattern of

Fig. 055 A circular bronze vessel lei

It has a diameter of 42.6cm and an overa ll height

a mythical animal's face coiled around by two

It has a diameter of 20.3cm and its overall height is

up to 45 .5cm.

Kuilong dragons on the both sides, and etched

35.4cm.

by the inverted motif of a mythical animal's face.

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

This is a specimen of Type 5. Its external

The circular leg is patterned with a peripheral

It has a slightly high and lean appearance

lip consists of three ram heads each with a pair

motif of bulging chords in the upper part.

with a thin edge and fleshy lip. Its opening, neck

of curved horns, alternated with three perching

Underneath we find a decorative pattern

and belly all have a flat and straight profile. Near

birds. Between each pair of horns, there is

consisting of a decorated pattern of a fabulous

the bottom, its arc-shaped silhouette presents a inward contraction and its circular leg has a

another bird. The vessel's shoulder is decorated

animal with a tiger's ears and a dragon- head.

with the pattern of a dragon with an elephant

The entire artwork gives us a feeling of artistic

tusk while the background is edged with motifs

elegance and solemnity.

of the cloud and thunderbolt. The dominant

78

055 delicate tilt. The neck is covered with a tripled

external surface is thus divided into four. The

as the axis of the two decorative panerns. Below

loop of bulging chords as its decorative motif.

upper rim on the shoulder and belly is adorned

this, there is a stripe patterned with ocular or

The external projection of its shoulder is

by the motif of a dragon with an elephant tusk.

cloud motifs. The vessel's circular leg has ocular

enhanced with a simplified version of four ram

The major pattern is the traditional motif of a

motif in two lines covering the surface. In 198 ,

heads with curved horns. A group of four evenly

mythical animal's face at the center of the belly,

a similar relic was found in the vicinity of hashi

studded ridges is attached to its shoulder, belly

featuring slightly protruding ridge right in the

City, Hubei Province. Its morphological features

and circular leg in the same way. In response to

cemer. On both flanks of the main pattern, there

are almost identical with this one. So it i

the patterned surfaces on the vessel's upper and

is an inversed motif of the mythical animal's face

advisable to conduct a comparative study on the

lower parts, the entire decorative design on its

sprawling symmetrically with the ridge acting

two findings .

79

056 Fig. 056 A circular bronze vessel lei

on the belly and four counterparts on the

animal's face, symmetrically arranged with the

It has a diameter of 26. 5cm and its overall height is

circular leg. All the decorative patterns on its

protruding ridge acting as the axis.

54cm.

external surface are quartered by four ridges,

The major pattern on the circular leg is the

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

while the background motif is patterned with

traditional motif of a mythical animal's face with

The vessel is high and lean in appearance

the same linked clouds as on the shoulder, belly

a pair of tiger ears. Four ram heads with curved

in additi on to hav ing a slanting rim and a

and circular leg. The defining pattern is the

horns are depicted on the juncture between the

straight neck. Its oblique shoulder presents a

motif of the dragon with an elephant tusk on

lip on the shoulder and the vessel's external wall.

barely discernab le curvature. Near the base of

the shoulder, a decorative band on the upper

In a meaningful contrast, a similar appendage

its straight belly, the inward contraction forms

rim of the belly and that of a mythical animal's

is seen on the shoulder of its counterparts

an arc under the support of an outstanding

face with two curved horns on the lower rim.

developed by the Shang culture. Evidently, this

circular leg. In response to the fo ur perching

Flanking this design , there is an inversed

small variance shows some local but distinct

birds on its shoulder, there are four high ridges

facsimile of the traditional motif of a myrhical

flavors of the Sanxingdui trove.

80

Fig . 057 Knob of the lid of a bronze lei The diameter at the bottom is 5.5cm. that at the top is 8.5cm and its remnant height is 14.5cm. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

The knob is like a pillar in appearance and its top resembles the umbrell a-b earing mushroom. It is slightly pinched in the middle, and the base is adorned with two hoops of a decorative motif composed of bulging chords. From the tip

to

the mid-section, it is divided

into eight sections, decorated with a motif of A line drawing depicting the lid of a round bronze lei

fish scales.

057

81

Bronze Birds and a Bronze Cock

058~

The Sanxingdui Site so far has yielded hundreds of avian

a wading fowl. Yufu is the word for cormorant in current Chinese.

objects made from a range of materials. The most spectacular

The fourth-generation Shu king was Duyu, which semantically

finds are the bronze birds revealed from both pits. They fall into

refers to the cuckoo. This means the community adopted a bird as

two categories: bronze birds and bird-shaped plates for decoration.

its people's communal soubriquet.

In most cases, they are accessories attached to some objects or implements. For example, there are a good deal of perching avian objects for attachment to the divine trees in varied sizes, in addition to

The Sanxingdui Site is noted for its yield of bird~shaped artifacts and other decorative patterns with their conceptual themes taken from birds. The city of Guanghan in the vicinity of the Sanxingdui Site used to be called the "city of luo". In ancient

bird-shaped decorations whose actual usage is still unknown to

Chinese, the term luo meant a bird. Another indication is the Yazi

us. The design of those found at Sanxingdui is multi-colored, with

Creek, which runs through the Sanxingdui Site. Yazi means wild

an imaginative but in part realistic style. They are graceful, simple

duck and the Creek's archaic name is the River of Yan. The term

but vigorous, majestic and exquisite; a feast for the eyes.

yan also is an aquatic bird in today 's vernacular Chinese. All of

A vestige oftotemism from remote antiquity, the bird-shaped

these facts derived from geographic names may have been handed

bronzes were left from the animist cult attached to nature, deities or ancestry. Winged creatures must have an exceptional and en-

down from time of Yufu or Duyu. The "flock of diverse birds" yielded from the Sanxingdui trove

during affinity with the Shu. Successive generations of Shu kings

not only mirrors the once-popular practice of bird worship in the

were named after birds which seems to add credence to this this

ancient Shu kingdom, but also sheds light on the unknown rela-

conclusion. According to annals, it is known to us the Shu king

tions between the ancient Shu people and some age-old tribal

of the second generation was called Boguan. Although we have

groups in east China. Some scholars believe the ancient Shu re-

little knowledge about him, one thing is certain: the name had

gime had its ancestry marked by the bird. From this fact, it might

something to do with birds. The current interpretation says this should be a clan which

be speculated that the Shu people very likely originated from Shaohao, a tribal alliance that existed in eastern China during the

had been named after a bird known as boguan. The third-genera-

early of the Chinese nation 's formation .

tion Shu king was Yufu, meaning a tribal community named after

Fig. 058 A bronze bird It is I I .6cm wide and 7.2cm high. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

The part of below the bird's breast, its wings and tail has been completely lost. It features a pointed beak, two crests, one long and one short, and an up-turning tail. The plumage on its two wings and tail splits into twoforks, one upward and one downward respectively. Each of the feathery tips of its crown, wings and tail presents the shape of a pear and at the center of the pear, a pinhole runs through. The bird is both life-like and vividly portrayed, conveying a blithesome, vigorous and dynamic appeal, as if we see a bird fluttering and soaring high above us in flight.

82

059 Fig. 059 A bronze bird It is 15.4cm w ide and 37.8cm in overall height. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

The bird is placed on a round stand but its crown and tail plumage are broken and partially lose. The round stand slighcly swells at the center. Four circular pinholes are located in the groove surrounding ics waist. Below, there is a round and hollow hoop-shaped ending. le is estimated that originally ic might have been a decoration inserted in che rip of another object. The avian sculpture is noted for its uplifting head in a seance as if to forge ahead, big eyes, a pointed beak and an elongated torso. Its paired wings touch its tail until the rwo have fused into one and turn up again. There are three upright plumes on che back of che bird, a rather unique design, which adds interest to the design as a whole.

84

060

Fig. 060 A bird-shaped bronze decoration It is 9cm high and 6.5cm wide . Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

One of the bird's legs is missing and the tail is slightly damaged. It has a relatively big head crowned with a branched crest and a large but slightly crooked beak. Its neck and breast are covered with a decorative pattern of fish scales, and the wing's plumage is ended at a tip curling forward . The lower rim of the tail is embossed with a decorative motif of clouds and thunderbolts and the tail feather bends up to form a crooked saber in shape. The beak has a bronze wire passing through it, suggesting that originally, the object was used as a decoration hanging on a divine tree.

061

Fig . 061 A large bronze bird head It is 40.3cm in overall height. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

This is the largest bird related relic found at Sanxingdui. When first excavated, its crooked beak and two eye sockets were found painted with cinnabar. Beneath the neck, there are three round pinholes, which may have been used to affix the bird to another artifact. We judge that it therefore may have decorated a building, or attached to another object as a heraldic device in a procession of honor. In form, it resembles an eagle or cormorant. We cannot but ask, would it have been an emblematic mark of the Shu King or the royal clan's badge or insignia to represent the community? All of these questions need further exploration.

Fig. 062 A bronze bird It is 19.2cm wide and 34cm high. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

This bird was designed in an S-shaped pattern, however, the neck and tail are broken or missing. The bird has a long, pointed beak, two spherical eyes, two tiny feathery wings and a drooping tail. The rows of plumage on the crest bring to mind an image of flags waving in the breeze. Due to the design, the whole artwork expresses a beauty of refinement and stately grace.

062

Fig. 063 A bronze cock

accessory attached to another is still an open

for their exaggerated and stylized portrayals, we

Each side of its rectangular base is 2. 5cm in length,

question, as there are no other find ings of a

find this one to be a sharp contrast.

the cock is I I . 7cm long and 14.2cm in overall

similar nature at Sanxingdui from which to

height.

judge. The cock's tail has abundant plumage. The

image. This is an eye-catching symbolic

The cock stands on a rectangular base, the

article features a craning neck and an erect ,

expression in association with the artwork's

end of which is missing, perhaps as the base itself

giving an air of dignity. The illustrative work of

cultural implications. Very likely, the bronze

was formerly attached to another object. It is

its beak, crown, claws , eyes and feather is

cock symbolizes the "celestial rooster" or the

speculated that due to the volume of the base,

scrupulous. It skillfully depicts both the form

"divine cock'' in ancient mythology or folklore.

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

86

We notice a new decorative pattern in the shape of a burning flame on the breast of the

it may well have been inserted into the top of a

and the spirit of the image itself. The design is

The implicit meaning may be calling for the

pole made of bronze or other materials. Whether

highly realistic. This is a novel approach. If we

sun

it is a complete or independent artwork or an

compare it to other findings , which are noted

to

rise and bring light

to

the mortal world.

063

87

Bronze Dragons, Serpents and Tigers

The dragon is the most mysterious and powerful idol of su-

formed into a horse 's head, a goat's countenance, a torso coiled

preme di vinity in ancient China's mythological system. It has a

by a plaited queue, human hands, a long beard added to its lower

multi -la erect significance in the culture. In conventional

jaw and saber-shaped plumage on the wing. They are therefore

mythology, the dragon is said to be the offspring of the snake.

highly distinguishable from other dragon related relics created

The nake is regarded as a member of the dragon family. In pa-

by successive dynasties in China. Totaling 10 in number, all ser-

gan culture, both the serpent and dragon are employed as a method

pent-shaped bronzes were found in Pit II, in a dilapidated state.

to cro s to the immortal world using black magic. Thus it has a

They were made using the sectional casting technique. In spite of

high-ranking status in the divine hierarchy of the time. The bronzes

their bleak state, their workmanship is recognized to be both ex-

in the shape of the dragon or serpent dug out from Sanxingdui's

ceedingly superb and admirably exquisite.

two pits were undoubtedly sacred to the ancient Shu people.

Special attention should be given to the tiger-shaped bronzes.

Dragon-shaped artifacts from the Sanxingdui trove number

According to the narratives in the collection of ancient Chinese

about 40, if we include those cast on the surface of bronzes in

myths Shanhai Jing (A Classic on Mountains and Seas), the

various shapes such as a divine tree, sacrificial hall and vessel as

Sichuan Basin was an ideal habitat for large-sized animals. It seems

well as those detached from a larger artifact, either in single pieces

evident that tiger worship would have been normal practice among

or dragon-like decorations. Among them, the last category forms

the ancient Shu people. Archeologists frequently discover com-

an absolute majority, totaling some 30 in number. The dragon-

plete sets of the Bashu script in the Basin and some scholars be-

shaped bronzes of the Sanxingdui trove are noted for their diver-

lieve the script could be the primitive writing popularly used dur-

sified designs , exotic and vigorous styles, while the expressive

ing the historical epoch of the Warring States (475-221BC). This

approaches of deformation and exaggeration were always applied

script is always found to be blended with some tiger-shaped marks.

in these works to their extremities.

This phenomenon shows the continuance and development of the

Local characteristics are strongly evident in their external

native tiger-worship culture in the area.

appearance: the dragon 's morphological distinctions were trans-

Fig. 064 A dragon-shaped bronze decoration It is 5.2cm wide and 5.8cm high . Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

The bronze dragon features a wide open mouth, bared teeth and projecting fangs , presenting a ferocious and awesome manner. Its snout is very long, uplifting and then curling backward. The S-shaped eye sockets meet the end of the snout. The attitude of the slender horns is the same, with slightly upturned tips. The ears are posed in the same way. The horns and ears in company with the dragon's head and snout form a rather dynamic aesthetic perception full of tension in the artwork's formation. Beneath the neck, the dragon's torso is partially pierced through to become a piece of latticework. It is speculated that the original appearance of the dragon should be identical with its counterpart attached to the bronze divine hall, another artifact excavated from the same pit.

064 88

Fig . 065 A dragon-shaped bronze cyl inder The cylinder is 41 cm high and 18.8cm wide. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit I

This is one of most unique and distinctive images of the dragon created by the ancient Shu people. The arrifact itself is a cylinder, the top being slightly bigger than that of the bottom. Standing on top of the cylinder, the dragon's head is held high with. It has a long beard, its front claws cling to the top and its torso with a drooping tail clings to the wall while two rear claws tightly embrace the wall. With the reedlike tail raised backward, the mouth is wide open, exposing his teeth, as if howling. The torso is slender, the ears big, and it has curved horns and the features of a goat. Some claim the artwork represents a divine goat. On the other side, there is a decorative attachment in the simplified pattern of kuilong, or the single-footed dragon in Chinese mythology. The cylinder is hollow and tipped with an arc-like end-piece on which a drilled pinhole may be seen. It is speculated that the specimen may have been attached to another object, for example wooden pole. In view of the duality of the dragon and cylinder in its composition, we may say this is the prototype of the dragon-coiling column, one of conventional components of a palatial hall in traditional Chinese architecture.

065

89

066 Fig . 066 A bronze serpent The remnant length of its frontal section, middle section and ending section is 54.8cm, 35.6cm and 2 I .2cm respectively. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

Three sections remain of this artifact, but they cannot be fastened together. They were cast in sections, and there are bored pinholes left on the surface to link them by rivets. The serpent is large, presented in a realistic sryle. It torso is covered with fish scales and a decorative motif of diamonds. The head and back crest and feathery wings pierced into latticework indicate it can fly. From the round knobs beneath its neck and belly, some scholars believe it had been revered as an idol by hanging it in a sanctuary.

067

90

068 Fig. 067 A mythical bronze animal It is 4cm high and 7.8cm long. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

The profile features a deer's head, stout neck, upright ears and a pair of broken horns. Although it has a lean waistline, it has large hindquarters. Its feet are shaped like a horse's hooves and the tail is bulky and split into two branches. So far, we have no concrete information as to it's identity.

Fig. 068 A bronze tiger Its re mnant length is 43.4cm and it is 13.05cm w ide. Excavated from the Sanxingdui Site

The profile features a huge head and upright ears . The wide open mouth displays white teeth. The head is held high, and the eyes glare. The drooping tail curls at the tip. One side of the plate-like profile is a slightly arched surface, both smooth and plain, without any decoration on it; on the other side, there are etched grooves in imitation of a tiger's black specks on its mottled skin. Tiny grains of turquoise are inlaid exquisitely in the grooves. At the base of its two limbs, there are two semicircular knobs, through which , the entire artwork might be hung up by rope or copper wire. In spite of its unadorned simplicity, the design marks a vivid sp iritual resonance in aesthetic taste.

Fig. 069 A tiger-shaped bronze implement Its circular leg has a diameter of 7 .Bern, the tiger is I I .4cm long and I 0.8cm in remnant height. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit I

The image of the tiger has a robust and plump torso which has been bent into a hoop shape.It gazes with round eyes and its ears are both pointed and round. Apart from the head held high and upright tail, its ferocious look features a widely open mouth and bared teeth. In its hollow torso, it is though there was a column made of wood or other material inserted into the empty space. Some scholars postulate that it could be a companion piece to the kneeling human figure excavated from the same pit. The human figure would be placed into the hoop formed by the tiger's torso.

069

91

Bronze Decorations and Bronze Spears The bronze decorations excavated from the Sanxingdui Site

dug out from a mechanized brick-making factory in Gaopian Vil-

include five types: bells and various hanging decorations such as

lage at the western fringe of the diggings, and three from a sacri-

pendants in the shape of a circle, tortoise shells, scallops, and loops, all being findings from Sacrificial Pit II. Totaling 43 in number, the bronze bells fall into nine types in terms of their

ficial pit under the Zhenwucang Knoll in the heartland of the Site. Although they are small in size, they are rectangular plates with

external appearance: in imitation of either geometrical images or

decorated exquisitely with intricate patterns. Two are inlaid with

the shapes of animals and plants. In addition, there are 30 circular pendants, 32 tortoise shell-shaped pendants, 48 fan-shaped pendants and two loop-shaped pendants. The infinite diversity in the

turquoise. The bronze badges are considered to be a kind of amulet, or a

design of these similar artworks epitomizes the ancient craftsmen's

significance in the system of traditional belief. They were talismans to protect the wearer against evil. The badges are decora-

outstanding ingenuity. Judging from the original state of the relics as soon as they were excavated, we know that the decorations would have been used together with their hanging frames , also made of bronze. The possible arrangement may have been that the bells were hung

the upper side slightly longer than its lower one. The surface is

special-purpose decoration of extra-ordinary religious or ritual

tive relics of ephemeral popularity and noted for their strong cultural distinctions. In Chinese archeology, they are the most important and typical relics yielded from the Erlitou Culture in the Xia dynasty, (ea. 2070-1600BC). Some claim the Sanxingdui

at the center of the frame while accessory pendants were sus-

badges date somewhere between the late Xia Dynasty and the

pended on the sides. The composition of each frame is the same, and has an identical layout. Some researchers even believe the bronze frame, bells and pendants constituted complete sets, and

early Shang Dynasty. This conclusion not only pushes the Sanxingdui Culture to that date, but also provides incontrovertible material evidence to investigate the historical associations

were probably used to decorate a divine tree.

between the Sanxingdui and Erlitou cultures and between the Xia

Four bronze badges were discovered at the site, including one

and Shu regimes.

Fig. 070 A bronze bell & its hanging frame

It is 8. I cm in overall width and I 4cm high.

It is 8.3cm in overa ll height.

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

Fig. 071 A bronze bell

The bell is in the shape of a kneeling bird

The bell has an unadorned surface and the

with a pointed and crooked beak, big, spherical

front is in the shape of a roughly irregular

eyes and feathery wings. Within the bell's cavity,

trapezoid. le is silhouetted by cwo slightly arched

there is a suspended ball. The bird's forehead

sides and decorated by two lateral wings. An

has an arched handle on cop, used co accach a

oval hole was bored on the cop, reserved for

"8 "-shaped chain co suspend. When che bell

suspending a ball or hammer, bur which is now

rings the appearance is coupled with the

missing. A figure of "8"-shaped chain links the

resonant cone reminds us of a bird chirping in a

frame and the handle. Ifwe scrutinize the chain,

forest . The ingenious design is widely admired

we find that there were probably several chains

as being highly creative and amusing.

instead of just one. Forming a reversed pyramid in shape, chey served as co link the bell and ics

070

92

hanging frame.

071

~

072

Fig. 072 A bronze bell It is 7.35cm high. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

The bell's fro n tal facade is trapezoid in shape, its cross-section is an egg-shaped oval equipped with two broad and chin lateral wings. Atop the bell, there is a semi-circular knob to suspend the bell. The external surface on both sides of the bell is patterned with the traditional motif of a mythical animal's face on which cinnabar had been painted. While not large in size, the visual impact of the bell is extremely striking. If we compare chose with plain, undecorated surfaces, the more elaborately decorated raise more implications. Besides chinking abo ut artistic perfection, were there underlying ideological reasons for having such a richly decorated bell? Would chose who used the bell have been powerful members of society? This remains an open question.

Fig . 073 A round bronze pendant Its diameter is 7. I cm. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

The loop-like knob on the upper edge is missing. There is a bulge in the center, on which there is a decorative pattern featuring two mythical animals sharing two huge eyes. Below, there are two phoenixes attached to it as pillarlike supports. The profile of the phoenixes features a crooked beak, long tail and featherlike decorative motif patterned on its body.

073

074

Fig . 074 A fan shell-shaped bronze pendant It is 6.9cm wide and 9.2cm high. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

The pendant's two-dimensional design is roughly in the shape of an oval. On its back, there are five arched ridges in parallel. The arrangement reminds somewhat of an insect's wings, covered with decorative patterns composed of ocular and cloud images within a triangle.

If we also consider ocher examples of similar hanging bronze decorations, and one which features two pointed horns at both sides and a feathery tail at the rear, we may speculate chat the designers were inspired in the abstract by a beecle, or other insect.

Fig. 075 A bronze bell Its cavitys diameter is 6.8cm and its overall height is 12.2cm. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

The form of che bell is like a morning glory flower in full blossom. The cop is transformed into the flower's receptacle while its upper part is the ovary, upon which is a decorative band patterned by an undulating motif in the shape of rolling waves. Below, there are four petals covered by a pattern of interlocked hoops. The column-shaped hammer is transformed into the stigma at its end. The whole design is graceful and refined and the arrangement of the decorative patterns apparencly shows a creative wish of putting everyching in order. In the eyes of the ancient Shu people, the image of the bronze bell is in imitation of a living plant in nature and it not only has aesthetic value, but also is noted for its supernatural color just like other exotic flowers and heavenly fruits on a divine tree.

075

95

076

96

077 Fig. 076 A human figure-shaped bronze badge On its back, the upper width is 17cm and the lower width 17.6cm. The back is 34cm high and the badges overall height is 46.4cm. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

The badge is designed like a human torso with neither its head nor its hands. The appearance is rather unusual at first sight, and we can tell nothing from it as to the possible function.The torso seems to be robed. The legs are grooved at the front, and end with a decorative pattern of bulging chords. The fas:ade is filled with decorative patterns, the major motif being of transmuted storks: the upper group has two storks while the lower one has three storks, all being in a compact arrangement. The beak of the stork is as long as its body. The decorative style is both grotesque and punctilious. The avian decoration must have a symbolic connection with the old practice of bird worship, only popular in the ancient Shu kingdom. The badge is one of the most puzzling findings from the Sanxingdui trove. We are still unsure how to categorize it according to design or usage. From the avian patterns on the fas:ade, and position of the legs, rope may be used to hang it on something. We may conclude that it could have been a sacrificial implement for a ceremonial ritual held in a pagan shrine of the Shu regime.

Fig. 077 A bronze badge It is 14cm long and has a width from 4.9-5.6cm. Excavated from the Sanxingdui Site

The badge is rectangular in shape with four round corners. The fas:ade consists of latticework with decorative patterns. At its axis, there is a main stem flanked by five pairs of S-shaped holes. In the space among them, there are 20 triangular and four crescent pierced holes. The concensus is that the pictorial image of the openwork is that of a traditional pattern of a mythical animal's face embued with symbolic meanings.

Fig. 078 A bronze badge It is 13.8cm long and its width is from 5.2-5.6cm. Excavated from the Sanxingdui Site

The shape is like a shield, flanked with two pairs of semi-circular handles in a symmetrical arrangement, through which the badge may be suspended. The most notable decorative design is a geometric tree: at the center is the trunk, while twigs and boughs are attached to the latter at different directions. Among the twigs, there are paired hoops. Perhaps these represent fruits borne by the tree. The decorative motif in the shape of interlocked clouds might be used to represent the newly sprouting buds. In the motif, chips of

turquoise are inlaid on the surface, showing a taste for exquisite embellishment. On the both faces of the badge, traces of imprints left from fabrics and bamboo basketry are found, indicating it was a decorative item bound with a piece of cloth.

078

97

080

Fig . 079 A jade zhang-shaped bronze decoration It is I 4.2cm long. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

The zhang is in the shape of a bronze plate. By splitting into two branches, it forms an edge at its beginning and in its middle sector, protruding out to form a hook. At the end, it bends into an S-shaped curve. Five teeth stick out from both sides of the curve. It reminds us of a germ inating shoot growing through the topsoil.

Fig. 080 Bronze spears They are about I 0-20cm in length. Excavated from Sacrificial Pits I and II

A total of 61 bronze spears were unearthed from the Sanxingdui trove, each being in the shape of a cross. In line with the variances shown in their appearances, they are divided into five types. Their tips present a slender triangle with two equal sides,which are indented into teeth or jagged edges. The spears should be classified as weapons, but Sanxingdui specimens are too chin to injure anyone. They could have been used in combat, so were instead employed as ritual implements. Researchers speculate they were part of the insignia carried by the members of a procession to strengthen the festive or sacred mood of a religious or ritual service. In addition, they may have been used as supernatural implements for warding off the evil at a shamanistic ceremony as practiced among the Shu.

079

98

~

he gold ware of Sanxingdui is noted for its quantity

rial for the Sanxingdui gold ware is believed to have come from

and diversity, including a gold stick, gold masks, and

the upper reaches of the Dadu and Yalong River, two large tribu-

gold leaf decorations in the shape of a tiger, a jade ware zhang, and a fish. Their craftsmanship is both ingenious and exquisite, using diverse gold-processing tech-

taries of the Yangtze. Gold ware has a paramount position in ancient Shu culture,

niques such as pounding, molding, welding, chiseling and latticework. They benchmarks for showcasing the highest level of gold smelting and processing technology in China's early

in which they always served as sacred implements employed in sacrificial rituals or religious ceremonies to symbolize supreme political power. This was categorically different from their counterparts in north China, where gold was used as personal adornment and copper (in the form of bronze in most cases) was spo-

history. Gold ware began to appear in the Shang Dynasty (16001046BC). The Shang Dynasty's gold artifacts came from two geo-

ken of more highly among the native populace. Moreover, some gold artifacts such as the stick and masks from the Sanxingdui

graphic systems with the Qinling Range and the Huaihe River as

trove, not only symbolize worldly power and social status, but

their demarcation line, showing differing aesthetic values. To the the north of the line, the relics are predominantly decorations,

are also imbued with a strong indication of the sorcery-dominant culture. More interesting, the implied ideological significance of

neither large in quantity and diversity, nor in size. Gold ware ex-

the gold stick and gold masks as cultural carriers, reminds us of

cavated from the south of the line may be represented by the Sanxingdui trove, whose artistic style and processing technique are both advanced and unique. It is quite outstanding when com-

their possible affinity with similar cultural forms in western Asian or Near East cultures. Based on this fact, some researchers claim this is because the ancient Shu people had absorbed or borrowed

pared to other contemporary discoveries from ancient China.

values from Western Asian culture, which became modified in

At Sanxingdui, the artifacts are an alloy of gold and copper, with gold accounting for 85 % of the composition. According to

line with their own cultural traditions. This scenario enables scholars to further deduce that cultural exchange existed during the

geological surveys, gold deposits are widely distributed in the

Shang Dynasty between the Sichuan Basin and the Southern Asian

northwest part and fringes of the Sichuan Basin. The raw mate-

subcontinent, Central and Western Asia.

101

A Gold Stick

Fig. 081 A gold stick It is 14 3cm long, has a diam eter of 2 .3cm and it w eighs about 463 grams. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit I

The stick consists of a core of wood, around which was wrapped pounded gold lea£ The wood has decayed, leaving only residue, while the gold leaf remains intact. At one end, there is a decorative pattern about 46cm long, composed of three pans. The design is of rwo profiles each representing a sorcerer's head with a five- point crown and a pair of triangular earrings, and a broad smile on his face. The other rwo are identical groups of decorative patterns each composed of a pair of birds and a pair of fish, back to back. An arrow overlaps the bird's neck and the fish's head. Do the decorative patterns act as scripts, ethnical insignia, a picture or a religious emblem? At present, there are a lot of opposing viewpoints. Some scholars maintain that this symbolizes that the Yufu D ynasty originated from rwo tribal alliances marked with the fish and bird as their ancestral badges respectively. Another group of researchers insists the patterns signify the means to access the heavens and the earth, as the stick could have been used as a divine implement employed by the ancient Shu king when holding an animistic ceremony. A consensus has not yet been reached, so that its implications have to be further explored. There are several tentative theoris as to the functions of the stick, as a regal stick, a sorcerer's implement, a sacrificial apparatus, or even a magical baton capable of bringing in prosperity to the kingdom. Tht majority of the researchers, however, now are inclining to the theory that it was an important item in the king's regalia, symbolizing the political aurhority and divine power possessed by the king under the rule of theocracy. According to annals left from the formative era of the Chinese nation, the supreme state power in China's earliest three dynasties of Xia, Shang and Zhou was embodied by the so-called "Nine Bronze Tripods." It is not to be wondered that at Sanxingdui, a gold stick is found to be the symbol of state power. This fact epitomizes the cultural difference berween the ancient Shu regime and the central dynasty of China in addition to the highlighting of ancient Shu culture's strong and enduring theocratic and insular character.

In the ancient cultures of Egypt, Babylon, Greece or other western Asian regimes, it was a common occurrence to have a stick-shaped implement regarded as the symbol of the highest state power. Some scholars to speculate that the appearance of a gold stick at Sanxingdui might be have originated from the Near East or western Asia and the cultural similarity itself may be seen being a product of cultural exchange berween rwo civilizations.

102

A line drawing to depict the decorative patterns on the gold stick

081

103

082

Gold Leaf Decorations

Many small decorative items made from gold leaf have been found at Sanxingdui. Gold nuggets were pounded into foil, which is then in tum cut into shape. The shapes include tigers, jade zhang ware, fish, a four- pronged fork or a round disk. The decorations are very thin with a flat and smooth surface, indicating the techniques were very advanced. Some examples have refined decorative patterns on the surface.The fish motif has been exquisitely incised, as have delicately etched lines on a leaf, showing veins as thin as human hair. Some decorative patterns were made through mould pressing technology, such as ocular objects and the pattern on a tiger 's skin. After fashioning the decorations, the gold surface was polished in order to preserve the lustre and smoothness. It seems that even after burial for thousands of years, they shine as brightly as when they were first made. The gold leaf decorations are small in size and vary in external appearance. It seems they were not used independently. This speculation is proved true by the discovery of pinholes left on the surface of almost all the specimens. The pinholes should be used to attach a specimen to another object, so we know they were secondary decorations. In Pit II, a small gold leaf twig was discovered attached to a small divine tree. Was this how the tree was decorated? If true, then it would be a veritable "gold laurel". This reminds us of an episode in the Roman epic Aeneid written by Virgil (70-19BC).It tells the story of how Aenas, a hero of the Trojan wars, picked up a twig accorrding to the oracular instruction sent to him from a goddess. With the twig in his hand, he went to Hades to seek his dead father and to divine his own fate. The twig was called the "gold laurel". Obviously, the divine tree is like the magic laurel, capable of leading a mortal human to the heaven. So gold leaf decorations would not merely be common objects, they should be endowed with some supernatural power in a sacrificial ritual.

Fig. 082 Fish-shaped gold leaf decorations Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

A total of 19 similar decorations have been unearthed from the pit, falling into two types in terms of their size. Numbering five in total, the larger specimens are slender in shape, all being 20cm in length and nearly 2cm in width. Each of them is like a fish or a willow leaf. The surface is covered with decorative motifs of the leaf vein or pointed dots. The shape of the small-size specimens is similar to the large ones and their length is somewhere between 4cm and 7cm. They have an unadorned surface"A bored pinhole is located at the center of its upper part and through this, they could be easily hung.

104

~

083 Fig 083 A gold leaf decoration in the shape of a four-pointed fork It is 9.4cm high, 6.9cm wide and weighs 6.02 grams. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

The decoration was cut with a chisel from a rectangular sheet of gold foil into the shape of a fork with four points. The two ends are flat. The four points are like four high peaks tightly packed together. It would have been a decorative attachment.

106

Fig . 084 A tiger-shaped gold leaf

tail curls upward, so as

decoration

wants

It is 6.7cm high and weighs 7.27 grams w ith an

semi-circular pose and the decoration itself

overall length of I 1.6cm.

might have been fixed to a piece of furniture.

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit I

The gold leaf was shaped into the form of a tiger, while the tiger's body was pressed with a

to

to

seem as if the tiger

pounce. The overall design presents a

Many ancient Chinese ethnic communities held the tiger in high esteem. The bronze and gold images of the tiger brought

to

light from

form the beautiful speckles on the

the Sanxingdui Site feature a vivid and simple

animal's skin. The tiger seems to be roaring from

design and this explains the ancient Shu people

mould

to

its wide-open mouth, with its head held high.

had observed the tiger in a detailed meticulous

Its eyes were hollowed out, forelimb stretched

fashion.

out and hind limbs in a kneeling posture. The

084

107

S

ince the discovery of the Sanxingdui trove in 1929, a total of nearly 1,000 jade and stone artifacts have been

the ancient Shu kingdom had a considerably high-level jade-processing technique and its own workshop with a remarkable scope

brought to light. Noted for their multi-colored

for the industry.

diversity, ingenious design and superb technique, they are profound in cultural implica-

In the minds of ancient Chinese, the jade was the pinnacle of

tions and admired for their outstanding artistic attainment.

the universe, a condensed form of mountains, rivers, the sun and moon, as jade is as hard as stone and as crystal-clear as water.

The jade and stone artifacts of the Sanxingdui Site mostly are made from nephrite or tremolite in addition to a small quantity of

Due to their hardness, translucence, smooth and clean surface and pretty appearance, jade articles were universally loved and

serpentine or marble. A preliminary survey shows that they were

praised by people at every level of society. They were endowed

dug from the south section of the Longmen Mountain not far away

with rich cultural contents, widely used in all solemn and cer-

from downtown Chengdu , or specifically in the vicinity of Maoxian, Wenchuan, Guanxian and other adjacent counties.

emonial occasions in social life such as ancestral sacrifice, religious service, funerals, weddings, and personal adornment.

From the riverbed of the Yazi Creek at the Site's northern

Jade or stone ware became a divine object worshiped by the

fringe , four large but unprocessed jade blocks were dug out and their surface has clear man-made traces of being cut off. Perhaps

populace as it was the symbol of the inviolable ritual system. Among the jade and stone artifacts of the Sanxingdui Site, the

they were raw materials abandoned by ancient artisans. The Yazi

ritual implements are dominant in number and they are diverse in

Creek would have been a busy waterway at the time and the jade

classification, forming their own independent system. This includes forms such as zhang, bi, yuan, huan, and cong.

or stone materials dug out from its upper reaches in the mountainous areas would have been rafted to the Site for processing.

In addition, there are a large number of weapons and work-

Jade stone is naturally a very hard material and it was subject to

ing tools for parading at ceremonial rituals, showing their clear-

complicated shaping procedures, involving a series of processing techniques such as sawing, cutting, drilling, etching, grinding, engraving and polishing. During the past half a century, a great

cut regional traits andcharacteristics of the era. The excavation of a large quantity of jade or stone ritual implements means that the ancient Shu regime had been a powerful local kingdom, boasting

number of finished , semi-finished jade and stone wares and grindstones have been excavated from the Site. All of these reflect that

its own religious and ritual systems the equal of any other found in the nation.

109

Jade zhang These are the archetypal specimens found at Sanxingdui, including 40 from Pit I and •

17 from Pit II. All of them had been devastated by fire and therefore, almost all of them are seriously damaged or broken in apart. A comparative study has been conducted, concluding that the smaller specimens, or those with simpler indented decorations on the sides may be dated earlier while the larger ones, or those with more complicated decoration are from the later periods. In addition, there are a dozen similar findings from other pits at the Site. The jade zhang are divided into three types. The first type is called bianzhang, featuring an oblique side and roughly in the shape of a parallelogram. The second type is called yazhang, featuring an indented ridge on its handle, the end split into two branches and

decorated with bud-like outgrowths. Similar findings were excavated from other prehistoric sites such as the Longshan Culture in Shenmu County, Shaanxi Province and Erlitou Culture in Yanshi County, Henao Province. But the trove in the Sanxingdui Site is noted for its largest number and finest workmanship in comparison with them. The third type is the fish-shaped zhang, an endemic artifact only to be found in Sichuan Basin, featuring a fish body. Such unique jade zhang is only found from the Sanxingdui and Jinsha sites. Some scholars stress that the fish-shaped zhang should be a variant of yazhang because it has a fish's body. This may be explained by citing the legend of the ancient Shu king Yufu. In ancient China, zhang used to be a ritual implement of paramount significance. When paying homage to the four directions, the primitive people employed the zhang to show respect for the south. Sources say it was used to offer sacrifices to the mountains. From Pit II, there is a bronze artwork which is a kneeling human figure holding a jade zhang. It directly indicates the real usage of the zhang in a visual way as a ritual imple-

ment in ancient China. A scene depicted by a line drawing as part of a decorative pattern shown in another jade zhang dug from the same pit, also directly indicates the jade ware 's application to a ritual ceremony offering sacrifices to a mountain. This provides firsthand material for our study on the religious practice in the ancient Shu culture.

A line drawing to depict a kneeling bronze human figure holding a jade zhang

Fig. 085 A jade zhang It is 54 .2cm in overall length and 8.8cm w ide. Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

As it was burnt, the zhang is white as bone. Among the jade wares unearthed from the Sanxingdui

Site, this is without equal. The decorative designs on both sides are identical and each design consists of two parts in an opposite posture but arranged in a symmetrical way. Each part has five patterns. The first pattern is two mountains at the bottom, flanked by two yazhangs inserted at the external fringes of the two mountains respectively. Above these, the second pattern is of three kneeling human figures with vaulted caps on their heads and earrings, each of which is composed of two hoops. Their clothes are sleeveless jackets and short skirts and each of the figures has its hand cupped into another one at the chest level. The third pattern is a geometric motif. The fourth contains two mountains, between which a boat-like profile lies while on the external side, a hand presses halfway up a mountain with its thumb. The uppermost pattern is three standing human figures in a row each with a flat hat on its head and equipped with bell-shaped earrings. They are wearing sleeveless jackets and short skins, the two hands keep the same gesture as in the second pattern. We conclude therefore, that this shows the scene of a grand ceremony to pay homage to a mountain deity.

110

A line drawing depicting a jade zhang

085

111

Fig. 086 A jade zhang

Fig. 087 A jade zhang

It is 25 .2cm in overall height and 7.2cm wide.

It is 38.2cm in overall height and 5.3cm w ide.

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit

I

I

One side is white after being burnt. The

The zhang is like a fish in shape. On both

upper ending of the body splits into two

faces, each has a pattern of yazhang chiseled on

branches and is decorated with bud-shaped

its surface. In the open fish mouth a litcle bird

outgrowths on both sides, at which the indented

nescles. The implication of a fish and bird

ridges sprout out just like a pair of unfolding

together in the same pattern implies a singular

wmgs.

meaning, possibly connected with the legend about the ancient Shu king Yufu. The formation of the zhang is quite skillful, involving many jade-processing techniques such as hollowingout, etching, boring, grinding and polishing. In the selection of the material, the designer took advantage of the gradually changing color on the material's surface to express the belly and back of the fish so as to show his inventive mind of exceptional originaliry.

086

112

087

088 Fig. 088 A jade zhang

Fig. 089 A jade zhang

It is 30.5cm in overall height and 6.6cm wide.

It is 50.5cm in overall height and 7.5cm wide.

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit I

Excavated from Sacrificial Pit II

One side is white, after having been burnt.

The zhang was burnt and broken into

It is broken and covered by cracks and fissures.

fragmants, but has now been restored. le is in

The fragments have been put together and

the shape of a shovel and both faces are flat and

restored ro the original state. The split at the

smooth. The center is slightly thicker. All of its

frontal end is both deep and wide. The edge is

surfaces have been polished so that it seems

sharp and thin. At both sides, there are indented

smooth and slippery. On the whole, the jade

decorations in which the lowest or highest dents

ware itself seems straight and flat in appearance.

are protruding in che shape of a cockscomb.

Ac che front, rhere is a splir, which forms a rwo-

bhded e~e, £,yc,b J"/Ueh.:Oe o.hhc;)Jde WJ/"t:J

..609,,./.F o&co/.?,ecffr,, m.re