The Russian-American Company [Reprint 2014 ed.] 9780674337343, 9780674336216

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A

Volume

of

the

Russian

Translation

Project

Series of the A m e r i c a n Council of L e a r n e d Societies

Russian Translation Project Series of the American Council of Learned Societies

1. Tolstoy as I Knew Him, by Tatyana A. Kuzminskaya. Macmillan. 440 pages. $5.00. 2. The Law of the Soviet State, by Andrei Y . Vyshinsky. Macmillan. 749 pages. $15.00. 3. Economic Geography of the USSR, edited by S. S. Balzak, V. F. Vasyutin, and Y a . G. Feigin. Macmillan. 620 pages. $10.00. 4. History of the National Economy of Russia to the 1917 Revolution, by P. I. Lyashchenko. Macmillan. 880 pages. $13.00. 5. History of Early Russian Literature, Macmillan. 546 pages. $10.00. 6. Natural Regions of the USSR, pages. $10.00.

by Nikolai K . Gudzy.

by L. S. Berg. Macmillan.

7. Russian Folklore, by Y . M. Sokolov. $10.00.

Macmillan.

436

760 pages.

8. History of the Russian Theatre, by Β. V. Varneke. Macmillan. 459 pages. $6.50. 9. The Russian American Company, b y S . Okun. Harvard University Press. 296 pages. $4.50. 10. Soviet Legal Philosophy with an introduction by John N. Hazard (a volume in the 20th Century Legal Philosophy Series of the Association of American Law Schools). Harvard University Press. In press. 1 1 . Lomonosov: Russia1 s Universal Genius, by Boris Menshutkin. Princeton University Press. In press.

THE

Russian-American Company S. B. O K U N

Edited, with introduction, b y B. D. G r e k o v M e m b e r , U S S R A c a d e m y of Sciences Translated f r o m the Russian b y Carl G i n s b u r g D e p a r t m e n t of State

Preface b y Robert J. K e r n e r Director, Institute of Slavic Studies University of California, B e r k e l e y

H a r v a r d University Press C a m b r i d g e , Massachusetts 1951

COPYRIGHT, I 9 5 1 BY T H E AMERICAN COUNCIL OF LEARNED

D I S T R I B U T E D IN GREAT BRITAIN GEOFFREY CUMBERLEGE OXFORD U N I V E R S I T Y PRESS LONDON

M A N U F A C T U R E D IN T H E

SOCIETIES

BY

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

PREFACE

T H E R E A R E F E W r e g i o n s in the w o r l d w h o s e p a s t h i s t o r y and w h o s e f a t a r e r o l e a r e a s i m p o r t a n t a s t h o s e of A l a s k a and e a s t e r n S i b e r i a . T h o u s a n d s of y e a r s ago it s e r v e d a s a b r i d g e f r o m A s i a t o t h e A m e r i c a s when t h e a n c e s t o r s of the A m e r i c a n I n d i a n s m i g r a t e d t o t h i s c o n t i n e n t . In t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y it b e c a m e a p a r t of the s t o r y of t h e r i s e and e x p a n s i o n of M o s c o w , w h i c h b e g a n a s an i n s i g n i f i c a n t b l o c k h o u s e on an i n s i g n i f i c a n t r i v e r r u l e d by an i n s i g n i f i c a n t p r i n c e l i n g and w h i c h e m e r g e d in the c o u r s e of t i m e a s t h e pivot of an e m p i r e e x t e n d i n g into t h r e e c o n t i n e n t s . Eighty y e a r s ago a q u e e r t w i s t of w o r l d p o l i t i c s m a d e A l a s k a a p a r t of t h e United S t a t e s . T o d a y - - i n t h e a g e of a i r p o w e r - - t h i s a r e a i s one of the s t r a t e g i c c r o s s r o a d s of t h e w o r l d . It i s in t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t we m a y b e s t o b s e r v e the d i s c o v e r i e s of t h e R u s s i a n s on t h e s h o r e s of t h e N o r t h P a c i f i c , t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and a c t i v i t i e s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , and t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e in R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n r e l a t i o n s of t h e p o s s e s s i o n of A l a s k a by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I m p o r t a n t a s A l a s k a and e a s t e r n S i b e r i a w e r e in the p a s t r e l a t i o n s of R u s s i a and t h e United S t a t e s , a g u e s s m a y be h a z a r d e d t h a t t h e y w i l l be m o r e i m p o r t a n t in t h e f u t u r e . W i l l t h e y s e r v e a s a b r i d g e of f r i e n d s h i p b e t w e e n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h e S o v i e t Union in t h e f u t u r e , a s t h e y s e r v e d in the p a s t - - t o m e n t i o n only two i n s t a n c e s - - i n t h e d e c a d e when R u s s i a s o l d A l a s k a , and a g a i n , in t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r , when t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s s e n t a i r p l a n e s and o t h e r u r g e n t l y n e e d e d m i l i t a r y s u p p l i e s by way of A l a s k a and e a s t e r n S i b e r i a t o R u s s i a p r o p e r ? T o u n d e r s t a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t , d e v e l o p m e n t and a c t i v i t i e s of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y - - i n o t h e r w o r d s t o know o n e - h a l f of the h i s t o r y of A l a s k a - - o n e m u s t go b a c k t o t h e r i s e of M O S C O W , t o t h e o r i g i n and d e v e l o p m e n t of s e r f d o m and t h e f e u d a l r e g i m e , and t o t h e r e m a r k a b l e e a s t w a r d a d v a n c e of h a r d y h u n t e r s and t r a p p e r s , of b u r e a u c r a t s and p r i e s t s , to the s h o r e s of t h e N o r t h P a c i f i c . A l l t h e s e l e f t t h e i r i m p r e s s on e a s t e r n S i b e r i a and t h e n o r t h w e s t e r n s h o r e s of A m e r i c a . S . B . Okun's " R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company" is the m o s t Γ ε ν

vi

PREFACE

c e n t of t h e s o l i d r e s e a r c h c o n t r i b u t i o n s on t h e s u b j e c t . T h e g r e a t e s t v a l u e of h i s w o r k l i e s in t h e u s e f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e of m a n y s c a t t e r e d d o c u m e n t s in t h e a r c h i v e s of v a r i o u s d e p a r t m e n t s of t h e R u s s i a n g o v e r n m e n t , w h i c h by a c c i d e n t f o u n d t h e i r w a y i n t o t h e m a n d w h i c h , b e c a u s e of t h e l o s s of t h e s a m e m a t e r i a l s by t h e d e p a r t m e n t s w h e r e t h e y w e r e o r i g i n a l l y d e posited, have h e r e t o f o r e r e m a i n e d undiscovered. As a result t h e a u t h o r i s a b l e t o r e c o n s t r u c t c e r t a i n p h a s e s of t h e C o m pany's history. O k u n v e r y p r o p e r l y s t r e s s e s on a b r o a d s c a l e R u s s i a ' s u s e of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y a s a s c r e e n f o r a m b i t i o n s in w o r l d p o l i t i c s t o e s t a b l i s h a v a s t R u s s i a n e m p i r e in t h e w h o l e of t h e P a c i f i c n o r t h of t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s . W i t h M a r x i s t zeal he criticizes also the Company's financial polic i e s , i t s e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e n a t i v e s , a n d i t s f a i l u r e s i n t h e s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l d o m a i n . Okun h a s r e n d e r e d a s i g n i f i c a n t a n d o u t s t a n d i n g s e r v i c e t o s c h o l a r s f r o m t h e s e p o i n t s of v i e w . One v e r y v a l u a b l e and e x t e n s i v e s o u r c e , the Sitka A r c h i v e s , w h i c h w e r e t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a t t h e t i m e of t h e p u r c h a s e of A l a s k a a n d a r e now t o b e f o u n d in t h e N a t i o n a l A r c h i v e s , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , a n d in p h o t o g r a p h i c c o p y i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a a t B e r k e l e y , w e r e n o t a v a i l a b l e t o Okun. To a v e r y limited extent these significant m a t e r i a l s w e r e used in the two o t h e r o u t s t a n d i n g and m o r e e x t e n s i v e w o r k s of r e s e a r c h on t h e h i s t o r y of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . T h e one by t h e R u s s i a n , P . T i k h m e n e v , " H i s t o r i c a l S u r v e y of t h e F o r m a t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m pany and its H i s t o r y to the P r e s e n t T i m e , " p u b l i s h e d in two v o l u m e s in 1861 a n d 1 8 6 3 , i n d i c a t e s a s l i g h t u s e of t h e m f r o m t h e R u s s i a n s i d e . T h e o t h e r by t h e n o t e d A m e r i c a n h i s t o r i a n H u b e r t H o w e B a n c r o f t , " H i s t o r y of A l a s k a " (San F r a n c i s c o , 1886), h a s at l e a s t a d o z e n r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e S i t k a A r c h i v e s , w h i c h he s t a t e s his agents c o n s u l t e d . Evidently h e r e is the g r e a t o p p o r t u n i t y of t h e f u t u r e f o r s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s i n t h e field. W h e t h e r b e c a u s e of t h e i n a c c e s s i b i l i t y of t h e n u m e r o u s a n d f u n d a m e n t a l w o r k s of n o n - R u s s i a n s c h o l a r s ( c h i e f l y A m e r i c a n , B r i t i s h , Canadian and Spanish) beginning with Bancroft, or whether for some other reason, Okun's work shows little or no a c q u a i n t a n c e with t h e m . T h e y w e r e f o r t h e m o s t p a r t s u r v e y e d by t h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r down t o 1 9 3 0 . 1 It i s b e c a u s e of t h i s t h a t A c a d e m i c i a n A . I . A n d r e y e v , in h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e v a l u a b l e s e t of d o c u m e n t s e d i t e d by h i m

PREFACE

vii

u n d e r t h e t i t l e of " R u s s i a n D i s c o v e r i e s in t h e P a c i f i c O c e a n a n d in N o r t h A m e r i c a i n t h e E i g h t e e n t h a n d N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r i e s , "2 i n d i c a t e s t h a t " t h e d e c i s i v e p r o b l e m of h i s t o r i c a l s c i e n c e in t h i s f i e l d a p p e a r s t o b e i n t h e d i s c o v e r y a n d s u r v e y of a l l e x i s t i n g m a t e r i a l s r e l a t i n g t o t h e h i s t o r y of A l a s k a , C a l i f o r n i a , a n d t h e n o r t h w e s t e r n s h o r e s of A m e r i c a . This w o r k m a y b e c a r r i e d out b e s t by t h e j o i n t e f f o r t s , p r i m a r i l y , of A m e r i c a n a n d S o v i e t h i s t o r i a n s h a v i n g a c c e s s t o t h e l a r g e s t c o l l e c t i o n of m a t e r i a l s f o r t h e e i g h t e e n t h a n d n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . " A s o n e , who h a s f o r s o m e t i m e in v a r i o u s p e r i o d s e x a m i n e d the e x t e n s i v e Sitka A r c h i v e s in our p o s s e s s i o n , I fully a g r e e that only e x t e n s i v e l a b o r , a s well a s m u c h c o l l a b o r a t i o n and joint e f f o r t , will r e s u l t in the f u l l e s t d e v e l o p m e n t of r e s e a r c h i n t h i s f i e l d . A m e r i c a n s c h o l a r s h i p i s m u c h i n t e r e s t e d in the s i g n i f i c a n t v o l u m e b y O k u n . It i s f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h a t a n e x c e l l e n t t r a n s l a t i o n h a s b e e n p r e p a r e d b y D r . C a r l G i n s b u r g of t h e D e p a r t m e n t of S t a t e u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s of t h e A m e r i c a n C o u n c i l of L e a r n e d S o c i e t i e s t h r o u g h i t s R u s s i a n T r a n s l a t i o n P r o j e c t of which D r . W. Chapín Huntington is e d i t o r . Robert J. Kerner, Director, I n s t i t u t e of S l a v i c S t u d i e s , U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , B e r k e l e y .

CONTENTS I n t r o d u c t i o n , B . D . G r e k o v , M e m b e r , USSR A c a d e m y

1

Author's Preface

3

C h a p t e r I . T h e F i r s t R u s s i a n " P r o m y s h l e n n i k y " on the North A m e r i c a n Continent

7

II. The O r g a n i z a t i o n of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company

22

III. The E a r l y A c t i v i t é s of the R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n Company

50

IV. The R u s s i a n C o l o n i e s in North A m e r i c a and the C o n v e n t i o n s of 1 8 2 4 - 1 8 2 5

73

V . The C o m m e r c i a l C o m p a n y B e c o m e s a Government Institution

94

VI. The Colony of R o s s in C a l i f o r n i a

118

VII. The C o l o n i e s on the H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s and the P l a n s f o r S e t t l e m e n t on the I s l a n d of Hawaii

153

VIII. L a b o r C o n d i t i o n s in the R u s s i a n C o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a

1 71

IX. The N a t i v e P o p u l a t i o n in the R u s s i a n C o l o n i e s i n North A m e r i c a X . T h e F i n a l P e r i o d of the R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n Company XI. The S a l e of the R u s s i a n P o s s e s s i o n s in A m e r i c a

193 217 234

Conclusion

273

Notes

277 viii

INTRODUCTION

T H E S T O R Y of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y c o n s t i t u t e s one of t h e m o s t r e m a r k a b l e e p i s o d e s in t h e p r o c e s s of R u s s i a ' s p e n e t r a t i o n t o t h e s h o r e s of t h e P a c i f i c . Y e t , t h i s i n t e r e s t i n g a n d s i g n i f i c a n t c h a p t e r in t h e h i s t o r y of o u r country h a s r e m a i n e d v i r t u a l l y u n e x p l o r e d . While the c o m p l e x of c o n t r a d i c t i o n s in t h e P a c i f i c d u r i n g t h e e r a of i m p e r i a l i s m h a s r e p e a t e d l y b e e n a s u b j e c t of s t u d y on t h e p a r t of o u r h i s t o r i a n s , t h e p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t of t h e P a c i f i c situation during the preceding period has r e m a i n e d well o u t s i d e t h e i r r a n g e of v i s i o n . T h e only m o n u m e n t a l w o r k d e a l i n g w i t h t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , n a m e l y , t h a t of P . T i k h m e n e v , ^ t h r o w s l i g h t only upon t h e c o m m e r i c a l a s p e c t of t h e h i s t o r y of t h a t c o m p a n y ; it o v e r l o o k s t h e w h o l e c o m p l e x of p o l i t i c a l p r o b l e m s r e l a t i n g t o t h e T s a r i s t e x p a n s i o n a l o n g t h e s h o r e s of t h e P a c i f i c . W i t h o u t , h o w e v e r , t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e p o l i c y of t h e T s a r i s t r e g i m e , t h e r e i s m u c h t h a t c a n n o t b e r e s o l v e d in t h e g e n e r a l f i e l d of T s a r i s t f o r e i g n p o l i c y . J u s t a s G r e a t Britain waged war for two hundred y e a r s for the p o s s e s s i o n of I n d i a , h i d i n g b e h i n d t h e n a m e of t h e E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y , s o did T s a r i s t R u s s i a f i g h t i n t e n s i v e l y f o r n e a r l y a h u n d r e d y e a r s f o r t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of t h e s h o r e s of t h e P a c i f i c , b e h i n d t h e n a m e of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . T h e p o l i c y of T s a r i s t R u s s i a w a s n o t , h o w e v e r , one of d i r e c t i m i t a t i o n of B r i t i s h p o l i c y ; a s i m i l a r p a t t e r n of e x p a n s i o n w a s w i d e l y in u s e in t h e p e r i o d w h e n t h e s t r u g g l e f o r t h e p a r t i t i o n of t h e w o r l d h a d n o t y e t e n t e r e d t h e c l i m a t i c s t a g e . In a n e r a of i m p e r i a l i s m , t h o u g h , w h e n t h e b a t t l e f o r t h e d i v i s i o n of t h e w o r l d h a s b e e n j o i n e d o p e n l y , t h e r e i s n o l o n g e r a n y n e e d f o r s u c h a s u b t e r f u g e . A n d it i s no m e r e a c c i d e n t t h a t t h e t h r e e s i m i l a r mcSnopolistic c o m b i n a t i o n s - - t h e E n g l i s h E a s t India and Hudson Bay C o m p a n i e s and the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y - - w e r e liquidated a t a b o u t t h e s a m e t i m e , in t h e 1 8 6 0 ' s , a t a t i m e w h e n t h e y had lost their u s e f u l n e s s . T h e s t o r y of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y i s , a t t h e

2

THE RUSSIAN-AMERICAN

COMPANY

s a m e t i m e , an e p i c of t h e g r e a t g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s c o v e r i e s m a d e by B e r i n g , C h i r i k o v , S h e l i k h o v , K r u s e n s t e r n , and by m a n y o t h e r R u s s i a n n a v i g a t o r s who opened up new w a y s , d i s c o v e r e d and s t u d i e d new l a n d s and w a t e r s w h i c h no one had s e e n h e r e t o f o r e . T h e h i s t o r y of the C o m p a n y i s f u r t h e r m o r e i m p o r t a n t a s a p a g e in t h e l i f e of t h e p e o p l e s t h a t w e r e an o b j e c t of c o l o n i a l e x p l o i t a t i o n by T s a r i s t R u s s i a and w h i c h , t h r o u g h t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , c a m e t o be i n c l u d e d a m o n g the p e o p l e s depending upon R u s s i a n c a p i t a l , --with all the consequences resulting t h e r e f r o m . T h u s t h e study of t h e h i s t o r y of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y i s an u n d e r t a k i n g of c o n s i d e r a b l e s c o p e and i m portance . The author has utilized for his purpose much new a r c h i v a l m a t e r i a l t h a t i s not y e t known t o s c h o l a r s , and h a s t h e r e b y l e n t t o h i s book t h e q u a l i t y of n o v e l t y and persuasiveness . B.

Grekov

AUTHOR'S

PREFACE

T H I S S T U D Y i s b a s e d upon a r c h i v a l m a t e r i a l p r e s e r v e d in t h e M o s c o w and L e n i n g r a d S t a t e A r c h i v e s . O a r w o r k on t h e h i s t o r y of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y w a s r e n d e r e d d i f f i c u l t , h o w e v e r , by t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e t h a t t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of t h e a r c h i v e s of t h e M a i n O f f i c e of t h e C o m p a n y i s t o be r e g a r d e d as l o s t . A f t e r t h e C o m p a n y had b e e n l i q u i d a t e d , t h e a r c h i v e s w e r e , under t h e l a w , t o h a v e b e e n t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e M i n i s t r y of F i n a n c e . B u t f o r s o m e r e a s o n t h i s t r a n s f e r w a s 1 never effectuated. An i n c o n s i d e r a b l e p a r t of t h e d o c u m e n t s f r o m t h e a r c h i v e s of t h e M a i n O f f i c e , in t h e f o r m of s i n g l e p a p e r s , d e t a c h e d f r o m t h e c a s e s in q u e s t i o n , c a m e i n t o t h e h a n d s of t h e n a v a l h i s t o r i a n F . F . V e s e l a g o . L a t e r o n , t h e s e d o c u m e n t s , t o g e t h e r with V e s e l a g o ' s own a r c h i v e s p a s s e d i n t o the a r c h i v e s of the S t a t e G e o g r a p h i c a l S o c i e t y , w h e r e t h e y a r e p r e s e r v e d at t h e p r e s e n t t i m e . T h e s o - c a l l e d A r c h i v e s of t h e C e n t r a l A d m i n i s t r a t i v e B o a r d of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y in R u s s i a , p r e s e r v e d in t h e a r c h i v e s of t h e C o u n c i l of P e o p l e ' s E c o n o m y in L e n i n g r a d , c o n t a i n s only t e n i t e m s w h i c h c a m e i n t o t h e a r c h i v e s a f t e r the r e v o l u t i o n . A s f o r t h e o t h e r p a r t of the c o l l e c t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , t h e s o u r c e s t o be found in N o v o a r k h a n g e l s k " c o n c e r n i n g the colonial a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , " the t e r m s of the 1 8 6 7 C o n v e n t i o n on t h e s a l e of t h e R u s s i a n s e t t l e m e n t s , p r o v i d e d t h a t i t should be s u r r e n d e r e d t o t h e United S t a t e s of A m e r i c a . Unhappy, t o o , i s the s i t u a t i o n with r e g a r d to t h e p e r s o n a l a r c h i v e s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l p r o m o t e r s of t h e C o m p a n y . S u c h s o u r c e s m i g h t h a v e c o m p e n s a t e d , i f only in p a r t , f o r t h e a b s e n c e of t h e a r c h i v e s of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y i t s e l f . T h e s e a r c h i v e s , it h a s b e e n p r o v e d , a r e w i d e l y s c a t t e r e d and, to a c o n s i d e r a b l e extent, i r r e t r i e v a b l y l o s t . P a r t of t h e r e c o r d s , t h e l e a s t v a l u a b l e in o u r o p i n i o n , t h o s e b e l o n g i n g t o S h e l i k h o v , the f o u n d e r of t h e C o m p a n y , and t o B u l d a k o v , i t s f i r s t d i r e c t o r , w e r e t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m Vologda (where they had been d i s c o v e r e d ) t o t h e State A r c h i v e s 3

4

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of F e u d a l i s m and S e r f d o m in M o s c o w . A n o t h e r s m a l l p a r t of t h e s a m e c o l l e c t i o n - - a n d t h e m o s t v a l u a b l e - - w a s a c c i d e n t a l l y o b t a i n e d by t h e A c a d e m y of S c i e n c e s of t h e U . S . S . R . and d e p o s i t e d in t h e A r c h i v e s of t h e H i s t o r i c a l I n s t i t u t e . It w a s , t h e r e f o r e , found n e c e s s a r y in a s s e m b l i n g the s o u r c e m a t e r i a l f o r t h i s w o r k t o f o c u s o u r a t t e n t i o n on t h e c o l l e c t i o n s belonging to those government d e p a r t m e n t s - s u c h a s t h e D e p a r t m e n t of M a n u f a c t u r e and D o m e s t i c C o m m e r c e - - o r b e l o n g i n g t o t h o s e with w h i c h t h e C o m p a n y m a i n t a i n e d a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , such as the S e n a t e , the State C o u n c i l , t h e M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , t h e Navy D e p a r t m e n t , and t h e l i k e . Now and t h e n we s u c c e e d e d in u n c o v e r ing s o m e v a l u a b l e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l a m o n g t h e c o l l e c t i o n s of c e r t a i n g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t m e n t s with w h i c h t h e C o m p a n y , by t h e n a t u r e of i t s f u n c t i o n s , had n o c o n n e c t i o n w h a t s o e v e r . T h u s a m o n g t h e c o l l e c t i o n s of t h e M i n i s t r y of P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n we c a m e a c r o s s m a t e r i a l i l l u s t r a t i v e of t h e e c o n o m i c s i t u a t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y in t h e ' 4 0 ' s . T h e p a p e r s had a p p a r e n t l y found t h e i r w a y t o t h a t M i n i s t r y b y a c c i d e n t ; t h e p r o b l e m of t h e C o m p a n y had b e e n on t h e a g e n d a of t h e M i n i s t e r i a l C o m m i t t e e , and c o p i e s of the r e c o r d s w e r e t h e n distributed among all the m i n i s t r i e s . Of g r e a t h e l p t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r in h i s s e a r c h f o r o r i g i n a l s o u r c e m a t e r i a l on t h e h i s t o r y of A m e r i c a i s t h e " G u i d e to M a t e r i a l s f o r A m e r i c a n H i s t o r y in R u s s i a n A r c h i v e s , " c o m p i l e d by the o u t s t a n d i n g h i s t o r i a n F . G o l d e r . ^ W h i l e the Guide i s not e x h a u s t i v e , it f a c i l i t a t e s in m a n y w a y s t h e study of the h i s t o r y of R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n r e l a t i o n s and of t h e s e t t l e m e n t s on t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t . T h e l i t e r a r y s o u r c e s u t i l i z e d in t h i s w o r k f a l l i n t o two groups. The f i r s t more comprehensive group, includes t h e m e m o i r s d e a l i n g with t h e n u m e r o u s r o u n d - t h e - w o r l d e x p e d i t i o n s of t h e R u s s i a n n a v i g a t o r s . T h e n o t e s on t h e v o y a g e s of I . K r u s e n s t e r n , O . K o t z e b u e , V . G o l o v n i n , and o t h e r s , c o n t a i n m u c h v a l u a b l e m a t e r i a l a l s o on t h e h i s t o r y of t h e R u s s i a n s e t t l e m e n t s in A m e r i c a , a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d with t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a s p e c t of t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e C o m p a n y and with t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n and n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n in t h e c o l o n i e s . T h e s e c o n d g r o u p of s o u r c e s , i n v e s t i g a t o r y in c h a r a c t e r and d e v o t e d t o t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , i s e x t r e m e l y l i m i t e d . A p a r t f r o m a n u m b e r of b r i e f n o t e s s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h p e r i o d i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , we h a v e

AUTHOR'S P R E F A C E

5

o n l y one r e a l w o r k of r e s e a r c h , t h a t of P . T i k h m e n e v . · * Even though that work was a p u r e l y " d e p a r t m e n t a l " h i s t o r y and was intended to glorify without r e s e r v a t i o n the a c t i v i t i e s of t h e C o m p a n y , i t h a s c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t f o r u s , s i n c e T i k h m e n e v w a s a b l e t o u t i l i z e t h e r e c o r d s of t h e A r c h i v e s of t h e M a i n O f f i c e of t h e C o m p a n y , r e c o r d s t h a t a r e now l o s t . T o b e s u r e , h e d r e w o n l y on t h e m a t e r i a l r e l a t i n g t o t h e e c o n o m i c a s p e c t of t h e C o m p a n y ' s a c t i v i t y , a n d did n o t e x a m i n e t h e c o l l e c t i o n s b e l o n g i n g t o g o v e r n m e n t departments . T h e w o r k of K . K h l e b n i k o v , D i r e c t o r of t h e C o m p a n y , p a r t a k e s of t h e n a t u r e of a w o r k of r e s e a r c h a n d of p e r s o n a l m e m o i r s . T o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e it a p p r o a c h e s T i k h m e n e v ' s s t u d y i n i m p o r t a n c e . A p a r t of t h e b o o k w a s p u b l i s h e d , u n d e r t h e t i t l e " Z a p i s k i o A m e r i k e " ( N o t e s on A m e r i c a ) , in " M a t e r i a l y dlia i s t o r i i r u s s k i k h z a s e l e n i i po b e r e g a m V o s t o c h n o v o o k e a n a " ( M a t e r i a l s f o r t h e H i s t o r y of t h e R u s s i a n S e t t l e m e n t s a l o n g t h e S h o r e s of t h e E a s t e r n S e a ) , a s a s u p p l e m e n t to " M o r s k o i s b o r n i k " (Navy J o u r n a l ) , S t . P e t e r s b u r g , 1 8 6 1 , v o l . III. T h e g r e a t e r p a r t , h o w e v e r , i s p r e s e r v e d i n m a n u s c r i p t c o p y in t h e A r c h i v e s of t h e S t a t e G e o g r a p h i c a l S o c i e t y a n d of t h e H i s t o r i c a l I n s t i t u t e of t h e A c a d e m y of S c i e n c e s of t h e U . S . S . R . O n e of t h e m o s t v a l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n s on t h e s u b j e c t of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y i s t h e a r t i c l e by S . S . S h a s h k o v . ^ W h i l e h e d o e s n o t i n t r o d u c e a n y t h i n g n e w in t h e s e n s e of u t i l i z i n g t h e s o u r c e s , a n d w h i l e h e l i m i t s h i m s e l f p r i m a r i l y t o t h e n o t e s l e f t by t r a v e l e r s w h o , a t v a r i o u s t i m e s , h a d v i s i t e d t h e R u s s i a n s e t t l e m e n t s in A m e r i c a , S h a s h k o v w a s t h e f i r s t t o b r i n g up a g a i n a w h o l e s e r i e s of q u e s t i o n s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e C o m p a n y , i n c l u d i n g t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e m e t h o d s it e m p l o y e d in a d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e c o l o n i e s . In d e s c r i b i n g t h e c o m m e r c i a l a c t i v i t y of t h e Company, Shashkov notes that the very monopoly which b r o u g h t p r o s p e r i t y t o t h e C o m p a n y r e d u c e d i t , in t h e l o n g r u n , t o a s t a t e of d e p r e s s i o n a n d f i n a l l y t o c o m p l e t e economic collapse. V a l u a b l e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l m a i n l y on t h e h i s t o r y of t h e C o m p a n y ' s f i n a l p e r i o d m a y be f o u n d in t h e d e p a r t m e n t a l p u b l i c a t i o n s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y i t s e l f a n d in t h o s e of t h e M i n i s t r y of F i n a n c e . T h e p r i n t e d a c c o u n t s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y c o n t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n n o t only a b o u t i t s f i n a n c i a l c o n d i t i o n , but

6

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a l s o a b o u t t h e s i z e of t h e R u s s i a n a n d t h e n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n , t h e s t a t e of a g r i c u l t u r e a n d t r a d e in t h e c o l o n i e s , a n d s o forth. Of t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s of t h e M i n i s t r y of F i n a n c e t h e o n e w o r t h y of e s p e c i a l m e n t i o n i s " O t c h e t p o o b o z r e n i i u r u s s k i k h a m e r i k a n s k i k h k o l o n i i ν 1860 i 1861 g g . d e i s t v i t e l n o v o s t a t s k o v o s o v e t n i k a K o s t l i v t s o v a " ( R e p o r t of a S u r v e y of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o l o n i e s i n t h e y e a r s 1860 a n d 1861 b y A c t u a l State C o u n c i l l o r K o s t l i v t s o v ) , in " P r i l o z h e n i i a k d o k l a d u k o m i t e t a ob u s t r o i s t v e r u s s k i k h a m e r i k a n s k i k h k o l o n i i " ( S u p p l e m e n t s t o t h e R e p o r t of t h e C o m m i t t e e on t h e E s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o l o n i e s ) , S t . P e t e r s b u r g , 1863; a l s o in a s e p a r a t e e d i t i o n . K o s t l i v t s o v , w h o h a d b e e n s e n t i n 1860 on a n i n s p e c t i o n of the colonial a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , d e s c r i b e s not only all the b r a n c h e s of t h e C o m p a n y ' s a c t i v i t y , b u t a l s o t h e c o n d i t i o n of the dependent native population. The m a t e r i a l communicated by K o s t l i v t s o v i s s u p p l e m e n t e d by C a p t a i n G o l o v i n ' s r e p o r t a n d by m i s c e l l a n e o u s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e r e l a t i n g t o t h e f i n a l p e r i o d in t h e a c t i v i t y of t h e C o m p a n y , b o t h p u b l i s h e d i n t h e s a m e " S u p p l e m e n t s t o t h e R e p o r t of t h e C o m m i t t e e . " It i s n o t t h e m a i n p u r p o s e of t h i s b o o k t o e x a m i n e t h e e c o n o m i c s i d e of t h e C o m p a n y ' s a c t i v i t y ; t h a t w a s i n v e s t i g a t e d , f u l l y t h o u g h s o m e w h a t t e n d e n t i o u s l y by P . T i k h m e n e v . We s h a l l d e v o t e m o s t of o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e e x p a n s i o n of T s a r i s t R u s s i a i n t h e N o r t h e r n b a s i n of t h e P a c i f i c in t h e f i r s t half of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a p r o c e s s c a r r i e d on b e h i n d t h e s c r e e n of t h e C o m p a n y . T h e s e c o n d p u r p o s e of t h i s b o o k i s t o s t u d y t h e s p e c i f i c f o r m of e c o n o m i c d e p e n d e n c y c r e a t e d by t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y in the t e r r i t o r y it o c c u p i e d , and e n d u r e d by the R u s s i a n f u r - h u n t e r s and by t h e i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n . T h e h i s t o r y of t h e b r i l l i a n t g e o g r a p h i c d i s c o v e r i e s a s s o c i a t e d with the r o u n d - t h e - w o r l d expeditions that w e r e o r g a n i z e d by t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y and t h e e t h n o g r a p h i c p r o b l e m s of t h e t r i b e s n a t i v e t o t h e r e g i o n c o l o n i z e d by t h e C o m p a n y , i n a s m u c h a s t h e y a r e a s u b j e ' c t of s t u d y in t h e s p e c i a l l i t e r a t u r e of t h e i r f i e l d , h a v e not b e e n t r e a t e d in t h i s w o r k .

Chapter I T H E F I R S T RUSSIAN " P R O M Y S H L E N N I K Y " ON THE NORTH AMERICAN CONTINENT

" R U S S I A j u s t l i k e W e s t e r n E u r o p e , h a d h e r p e r i o d of g r e a t d i s c o v e r i e s . H e r s p h e r e of a c t i o n , " n o t e s c o r r e c t l y t h e o u t standing Russian ethnographer L . Ya. Shternberg, "was the w h o l e of N o r t h e r n A s i a f r o m t h e U r a l s t o t h e P a c i f i c . L i k e A m e r i c a b e f o r e C o l u m b u s , t h a t w h o l e v a s t r e g i o n on t h e c o n t i n e n t of A s i a h a d b e e n a b s o l u t e l y t e r r a i n c o g n i t a t o t h e E u r o p e a n w o r l d p r i o r t o t h e a d v e n t of t h e R u s s i a n s in t h e sixteenth century. T h e k n o w l e d g e of t h i s a l m o s t u n k n o w n r e g i o n h a s i t s o r i g i n in t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a t t h e v e r y t i m e t h a t R u s s i a n C o s s a c k s , in q u e s t of g a i n , m a d e t h e i r f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e on t h e n o r t h e r n s h o r e s of t h e P a c i f i c O c e a n . T h e a c t i v e a d v a n c e of t h e R u s s i a n s in t h e n o r t h e r l y d i r e c t i o n , a r o u n d t h e P a c i f i c b a s i n , b e g a n in t h e f i r s t d e c a d e s of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . A s f a r b a c k a s 1716 C o l o n e l Y e l c h i n w a s c o m m i s s i o n e d t o e x p l o r e t h e i s l a n d s t h a t a r e s t r u n g out o p p o s i t e C h u k c h i P o i n t and B o l s h a y a Z e m l y a . His e x p e d i t i o n , h o w e v e r , w a s not a c c o m p l i s h e d . In 1719 t h e g e o d e s i s t s Y e v r e i n o v a n d L u z h i n , on a m i s s i o n to explore and d e s c r i b e the Kurile Islands, p r o p o s e d to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r " A m e r i c a and A s i a j o i n . " T h e s a m e p r o b l e m w a s a l s o put b e f o r e the f i r s t B e r i n g expedition, the dispatching o r d e r for which dates back to 1 7 2 5 . In 1728 d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e of h i s f i r s t v o y a g e , h o w e v e r , B e r i n g w a s u n s u c c e s s f u l in s o l v i n g t h e p r o b l e m . By t h e o r d e r of 1732 c o n c e r n i n g t h e e q u i p p i n g of a s e c o n d e x p e d i t i o n under B e r i n g ' s c o m m a n d , he was c h a r g e d to p r o c e e d "to f i n d out a b o u t " t h e l a n d w h i c h , it w a s s u r m i s e d , w a s t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t ; t o l e a r n " w h a t k i n d of p e o p l e l i v e t h e r e , and what they call the p l a c e , and w h e t h e r those a r e r e a l l y t h e s h o r e s of A m e r i c a . " Yet even b e f o r e the s e c o n d B e r i n g expedition had s t a r t e d , t h e g e o d e s i s t M i k h a i l G v o z d e v . w h o h a d s e t out f r o m t h e m o u t h of t h e K a m c h a t k a R i v e r t o w a r d s t h e m o u t h of t h e 7

8

THE RUSSIAN-AMERICAN COMPANY

A n a d y r in J u n e , 1732, d r e w n e a r to B o l s h a y a Z e m l y a (close t o t h e C a p e of t h e P r i n c e of W a l e s ) in A u g u s t a n d r o d e a t a n c h o r t h e r e . T h a t w a s t h e f i r s t v i s i t by R u s s i a n n a v i g a t o r s to the A m e r i c a n c o a s t . F i n a l l y , though, the way f r o m K a m c h a t k a to A m e r i c a a l o n g t h e A l e u t i a n c h a i n w a s p r e p a r e d by t h e t w o d i s t i n g u i s h e d R u s s i a n t r a v e l e r s Bering and Chirikov. B e r i n g ' s e x p e d i t i o n , c o n s i s t i n g of t w o v e s s e l s , s e t out i n J u n e , 1741. But, a p p r o x i m a t e l y at latitude 4 9 ° 5 0 ' i t r a n into t h i c k fog a n d s a v a g e w i n d s . T h e " S t . P e t e r " w i t h B e r i n g in c o m m a n d a n d t h e " S t . P a u l " w i t h C h i r i k o v in c o m m a n d l o s t one a n o t h e r . B e r i n g c a m e up c l o s e t o t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t a n d c o u l d s e e , n o t f a r off in t h e d i s t a n c e , t h e s n o w - c a p p e d m o u n t a i n s w h i c h w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y t o be c a l l e d t h e " S t . E l i a s M o u n t a i n s . " He a l s o s a w K o d i a k I s l a n d , d i s c o v e r e d s o m e g r o u p s of h i t h e r t o u n k n o w n i s l a n d s , w a s t h e f i r s t R u s s i a n t o o b s e r v e t h e A l e u t s a t N a g a i I s l a n d , r e a c h e d t h e v i c i n i t y of a n u m b e r of i s l a n d s in t h e A l e u t i a n c h a i n , a n d d i e d on o n e of t h e K o m a n d o r s k y I s l a n d s , n a m e d in h i s h o n o r . Chirikov a l s o saw the St. E l i a s mountain r a n g e ; h e , a p p a r ently, came n e a r Umnak Island or Unalaska. The following y e a r , 1 7 4 2 , on h i s s e c o n d v o y a g e , h e c a m e up t o t h e i s l a n d of A t t u . And f o l l o w i n g in t h e f o o t s e p s of B e r i n g a n d C h i r i k o v , t h e r e w e n t , a t t r a c t e d by t h e r e p o r t s of a r i c h f u r - " t r a d e , " s c o r e s of b o l d , f e a r l e s s f e l l o w s who w e r e t o c o n v e r t t h e p a s s a g e f r o m K a m c h a t k a t o A m e r i c a i n t o one of t h e m o s t b u s t l i n g s e a - l a n e s of t h e t i m e . A t f i r s t t h e y c o n f i n e d t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e K o m a n d o r s k y I s l a n d s a n d t h e A l e u t i a n s . T h e f i r s t one t o m a k e up h i s m i n d t o s e t f o r t h in s e a r c h of s e a - o t t e r s w a s Y e m e l y a n B a s o v , a s e r g e a n t in t h e L o w e r K a m c h a t k a C o m m a n d . He f o r m e d a p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h A . S e r e b r e n n i k o v , a m e r c h a n t f r o m M o s c o w , b u i l t a s m a l l , d e c k e d b o a t , a n d in t h e s u m m e r of 1743 s e t s a i l f o r B e r i n g ' s I s l a n d . Basov spent the w i n t e r t h e r e and r e t u r n e d to K a m c h a t k a in 1744. T h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , B a s o v , s u b s i d i z e d by t h e m e r c h a n t N . T r a p e z n i k o v , a g a i n s e t off f o r B e r i n g ' s I s l a n d . T h e m e r c h a n t s supported t h e s e expeditions quite r e a d i l y , hoping for large profits . That s a m e y e a r 1745, Mikhail Nevodchikov, a p e a s a n t f r o m T o b o l s k , w h o h a d p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h e s e c o n d B e r i n g e x p e d i t i o n , s t a r t e d out f o r t h e A l e u t i a n I s l a n d s in a b o a t b u i l t

FIRST " PROMYSHLENNIKY"

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b y a g r o u p of m e r c h a n t s . L u c k t u r n e d a g a i n s t h i m , h i s b o a t w a s w r e c k e d on t h e r e t u r n t r i p a n d , in J u l y , 1 7 4 6 , h e c a m e b a c k t o K a m c h a t k a , h a v i n g l o s t t h i r t y - t w o m e m b e r s of h i s crew. In 1746 a g r o u p of m e r c h a n t s a g a i n b u i l t a s h i p w h i c h t h e y d i s p a t c h e d i n s e a r c h of n e w s o u r c e s of f u r s , u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d of A d r i a n of t h e T o l s t o y f a m i l y , a s e a f a r i n g m e r c h a n t of S e l e n g i n s k . So f r o m y e a r t o y e a r n u m e r o u s s e e k e r s f o r g a i n m a d e t r i p s to the A l e u t i a n s , boldly s u r m o u n t i n g all the o b s t a c l e s on t h a t d i f f i c u l t c r o s s i n g . T h e f u r - h u n t e r s * w o u l d g e n e r a l l y s t a y in t h e A l e u t i a n s f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s a t a t i m e . T h e y o b t a i n e d t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of t h e p e l t s t h r o u g h b a r t e r w i t h t h e n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n , o r by r o b b e r y . A s m a l l q u a n t i t y of t h e p e l t s w a s s e c u r e d t h r o u g h t h e i r own e f f o r t s , by h u n t i n g . G o v e r n m e n t a g e n t s w o u l d a l s o c o m e a l o n g on t h e m e r c h a n t s h i p s t o c o l l e c t f u r s . By t h e e n d of t h e ' 5 0 ' s , w h e n t h e A l e u t i a n s h a d b e e n t h o r oughly s t r i p p e d , they began to s e a r c h f o r new p l a c e s w h e r e n o one h a d b e e n b e f o r e . In 1759 t h e f u r - h u n t e r S . G l o t o v w a s t h e f i r s t a f t e r C h i r i k o v t o v i s i t U m n a k I s l a n d a n d U n a l a s k a . In 1761 t h e b o a t b e l o n g i n g t o t h e m e r c h a n t B e c h e v i n of I r k u t s k p e n e t r a t e d a s f a r a s t h e A l a s k a p e n i n s u l a , d i s c o v e r i n g in t h e I s s i n a k h s k Strait the s o - c a l l e d P r o t a s o v Bay which is v e r y suitable f o r anchoring. W h e n t h e r e p o r t s of t h e s u c c e s s e s a t t a i n e d b y t h e R u s s i a n f u r - h u n t e r s a n d of t h e i r m o v i n g f o r w a r d i n t o " n e w l a n d s " r e a c h e d S t . P e t e r s b u r g , C a t h e r i n e II i s s u e d a s e c r e t o r d e r i n 1764 t o t h e B o a r d of t h e A d m i r a l t y , w h i c h c a l l e d f o r t h e i m m e d i a t e e q u i p m e n t of a s e c r e t e x p e d i t i o n , w i t h o u t i n f o r m i n g e v e n t h e S e n a t e , f o r t h e p u r p o s e of o b t a i n i n g a d e s c r i p t i o n of " s o m e h i t h e r t o u n k n o w n i s l a n d s , in o r d e r t h a t i t m a y b e possible to derive the g r e a t e s t benefit f r o m t h e m . " T h e s e c r e t e x p e d i t i o n u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d of L t . - C a p t . P . K . K r e n i t s y n was n a m e d , with a view to concealing its t r u e n a t u r e , " C o m m i s s i o n f o r t h e D e s c r i p t i o n of t h e F o r e s t s along the K a m a and B e l a y a R i v e r s and T h e i r T r i b u t a r i e s . " T h e m e m b e r s of t h e e x p e d i t i o n w e r e t o p r o c e e d t o t h e *" P r o m y s h l e n n i k y , " f u r - h u n t e r s , t r a p p e r s . - - T r .

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THE RUSSIAN-AMERICAN

COMPANY

A l e u t i a n s on a hunting s h i p o r an a m e r c h a n t v e s s e l , and only in t h e c a p a c i t y of p a s s e n g e r s . Only a s a l a s t r e s o r t , in t h e a b s e n c e of s h i p s of t h e type d e s i g n a t e d , w e r e t h e y p e r m i t t e d t o build new s h i p s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s of t h e B o a r d of t h e A d m i r a l t y , K r e n i t s y n w a s t o s a i l t o U m n a k I s l a n d , g a t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e A l e u t i a n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y about K o d i a k , and d e t e r m i n e i t s d i s t a n c e " f r o m t h e A m e r i c a n mainland. " K r e n i t s y n ' s e x p e d i t i o n c o n s i s t i n g of f o u r s h i p s v i s i t e d t h e A l e u t i a n s in 1 7 6 8 . One v e s s e l , with L e v a s h e v in c o m m a n d , s p e n t t h e w i n t e r in U n a l a s k a ; t h e o t h e r , under K r e n i t s y n , s t a y e d on U n i m a k . T h e s e w e r e t h e f a r t h e s t two p o i n t s r e a c h e d by K r e n i t s y n ' s e x p e d i t i o n . E v e n b e f o r e t h i s , in 1 7 6 4 , L i e u t e n a n t Sind s e t out f o r O k h o t s k by o r d e r of t h e B o a r d of t h e A d m i r a l t y t o o b t a i n a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e A m e r i c a n c o a s t . Sind s a i l e d off f a r t o t h e N o r t h , t o l a t i t u d e 6 4 ° 5 0 ' , but did not s e e t h e s h o r e s of America. In t h e m e a n t i m e , t h e m e r c h a n t s , o b s e s s e d by t h e l u s t f o r p r o f i t , f a m i l i a r i z e d t h e m s e l v e s with t h e d i f f i c u l t c r o s s i n g to the A m e r i c a n continent. T h e g o v e r n m e n t , f u r t h e r m o r e , e n c o u r a g e d t h e i r s p i r i t of e n t e r p r i s e in e v e r y w a y ; t h e y w e r e r e w a r d e d with m e d a l s and t h e i r d e b t s t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t were remitted. T h i s s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n t h a t t h e T s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t paid t o t h e p r o g r e s s m a d e in t h e n o r t h e a s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n w a s a n y t h i n g but a c c i d e n t a l . T h e t r i b u t e in f u r s , in i t s n a t u r a l f o r m , had l o s t i t s f o r m e r i m p o r t a n c e by t h e s e c o n d h a l f of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h a t i s in t h e p e r i o d of g r e a t e s t a c t i v i t y in t h e f o r w a r d m o v e m e n t of R u s s i a n m e r c h a n t s t o w a r d t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n continent. F u r t h e r m o r e , the e x p e n s e s connected with o r g a n i z i n g t h e c o l l e c t i o n of t h e f u r t r i b u t e a l m o s t equaled the r e c e i p t s . S t i l l , the a b u n d a n c e of f u r s and t h e s p a r s e n e s s of the p o p u l a t i o n in t h a t r e g i o n opened up wide p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r R u s s i a t o s e c u r e a s t r o n g f o o t h o l d in t h e A s i a t i c m a r k e t — p r o v i d e d the hunting w e r e p r o p e r l y o r g a n i z e d . T h i s had a b e a r i n g , f i r s t of a l l , upon t h e C h i n e s e m a r k e t , w h e r e s e a o t t e r s k i n s - - t h e p r i n c i p a l t y p e of f u r p r o c u r a b l e on t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n c o a s t - - v e r y soon m e t a r e a d y s a l e . At the s a m e t i m e , C h i n e s e f o o d s , s u c h a s t e a , s i l k s , and s o f o r t h , p l a y e d a t r e m e n d o u s l y i m p o r t a n t p a r t in t h e R u s s i a n m a r k e t , and t h e C h i n e s e e v i n c e d a l i v e l y i n t e r e s t in t r a d i n g with R u s s i a .

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In t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y p e o p l e w e r e a l r e a d y f u l l y c o g n i z a n t of t h i s . " T h e d i s c o v e r y of n e w a n d u n k n o w n l a n d s h a s a t a l l t i m e s h a d a n e f f e c t on g e n e r a l c o m m e r c e a n d h a s p r o d u c e d i n a l l t h o s e s t a t e s t h a t w e r e b o u n d by m u t u a l a d v a n t a g e s g r e a t c h a n g e s in t h e i r r e l a t i o n s w i t h e a c h o t h e r a n d i n t h e i r t r a d e , h a n d i c r a f t , w e a l t h a n d a b u n d a n c e , " w r o t e t h e S e c r e t a r y of S t a t e P . A . S o y m o n o v t o C a t h e r i n e II in a r e p o r t " O t o r g e i z v e r i n y k h p r o m y s l a k h ν V o s t o c h n o m m o r e " ( T r a d e and Hunting in the E a s t e r n S e a ) . 2 But, in i t s a s p i r a t i o n to c o n s o l i d a t e its position in A l a s k a a n d on t h e a d j a c e n t i s l a n d s , t h e T s a r i s t r e g i m e d i d n o t i n t e n d t o c o n f i n e i t s e l f t o t h i s a l o n e ; A l a s k a w a s t o be only a b a s e for further expansion. T h i s e x p a n s i o n i s t a s p i r a t i o n of T s a r i s t R u s s i a w a s a l s o c l e a r l y r e f l e c t e d in t h e l i t e r a t u r e t h a t m a d e i t s a p p e a r a n c e i n t h e b o o k - s t a l l s of t h e d a y . " T h e d i s c o v e r y of A m e r i c a " b y T s a r i s t R u s s i a i n t h e s e c o n d h a l f of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y c o i n c i d e d w i t h t h e p r o p a g a t i o n in t h a t c o u n t r y of t h e i d e a s of t h e m e r c a n t i l i s t s w h o r e g a r d e d foreign t r a d e as the m o s t important s o u r c e for the e n r i c h m e n t of t h e s t a t e . T h e w r i t i n g s of t h e m e r c a n t i l i s t s , a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e of t h e p o p u l a r i z e r s of t h e i d e a s of m e r c a n t i l i s m , w e r e b e i n g t r a n s l a t e d into R u s s i a n and p u b l i s h e d in R u s s i a . O n e of t h e m o s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w o r k s d e a l i n g w i t h w h a t w a s t h e n a r e a l p r o b l e m i s t h e t r e a t i s e , p u b l i s h e d i n 1 7 7 6 , by the F r e n c h Mercantilist J . Justi, entitled: " Torguyushcheye dvoryanstvo, protivu polozhonnoe dvoryanstvu voyennomu, ili dva r a s s u z h d e n i y a o torn, s l u z h i t li to k b l a g o p o l u c h i y u g o s u d a r s t v a , chtoby dvoryanstvo vstupalo ν kupechestvo" (Trading Nobility, C o n t r a s t e d with Fighting Nobility, o r , T w o D i s c o u r s e s on w h e t h e r it S e r v e s t h e W e l f a r e of t h e State for the Nobility to E n t e r the M e r c h a n t C l a s s ) . The t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e w o r k w a s m a d e by D e n i s F o n v i z i n , t h e f u t u r e a u t h o r of " T h e M i n o r . " J u s t i ' s t r e a t i s e r e p r e s e n t s a v e r y v i v i d p a r a p h r a s e of t h e i d e a s of t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e e c o n o m i c t h o u g h t of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e of i t s c l a s s i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e W i l l i a m P e t t y . O n e h u n d r e d y e a r s b e f o r e t h e a p p e a r a n c e of J u s t i 1 s " D i s c o u r s e s , " P e t t y n o t e s , in d e s c r i b i n g t h e m e r c h a n t s w h o a r e e n g a g e d i n d o m e s t i c c o m m e r c e , t h a t " p r o p e r l y s p e a k i n g , t h e y do n o t give the s t a t e a n y t h i n g . . . . T h e y r e p r e s e n t nothing but the

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T H E RUSSIAN-AMERICAN COMPANY

veins and the a r t e r i e s that d i s t r i b u t e the blood and the n u t r i tive j u i c e s of the state o r g a n i s m . " ^ T o the R u s s i a n n o b l e m a n , h o w e v e r , the c o m p i l a t i o n s of the F r e n c h M e r c a n t i l i s t w e r e , f o r a number of r e a s o n s , m o r e a c c e p t a b l e than the w o r k s of his E n g l i s h p r e d e c e s s o r s . What a p p e a l e d e s p e c i a l l y to the R u s s i a n n o b l e m a n - - a n d to the F r e n c h a r i s t o c r a t - - w a s the fact that J u s t i r e g a r d e d f o r e i g n t r a d e a s one of the f o r m s of State a c t i v i t y . While t r a d i n g in the v e r y s a m e f u r s and the v e r y s a m e t a r s a s the low-born t r a d e s , the R u s s i a n nobleman still did not wish to be r e g a r d ed a s c o m p a r a b l e to h i m . D o m e s t i c c o m m e r c e , he thought, w a s the a f f a i r of petty s h o p - k e e p e r s , while f o r e i g n t r a d e w a s the p r e r o g a t i v e of s t a t e s m e n ; f o r , a s J u s t i n o t e s , "the full weight of c o m m e r c e and of the power of the government a r e one . " J u s t i has r e c o u r s e to a p i c t u r e s q u e p a r a b l e to i l l u s t r a t e his thought: '"What shall we do with the s w o r d , ' the children r e p l y to their f a t h e r who h a s handed them a sword of the nobility, 'when, with the exception of h u n g e r , we have no e n e m i e s ? ' " Having put this question in the n a m e of the children of the i m p o v e r i s h e d nobility, the author c o n c l u d e s : " T h e i r f a t h e r would, p e r h a p s , have a c t e d m o r e w i s e l y if, in expounding his genealogy to t h e m , he had s a i d : 'My d e a r c h i l d r e n , many r o a d s to h a p p i n e s s a r e open to you, the a r m y , the c o u r t s , the Church; if we should c o n s i d e r only h a p p i n e s s , then we a l s o have m e r c h a n t r y in which through little things g r e a t things a r e a t t a i n e d . M e r c h a n t r y p r o c u r e s for us g r e a t wealth, f o r which no one can r e p r o a c h u s . " ^ " M e r c h a n t r y , " in this connection, s i g n i f i e s f o r e i g n t r a d e . In that p e r i o d , when T s a r i s t R u s s i a w a s entering upon the r o a d of b r o a d colonial e x p a n s i o n , s o m e p h r a s e s in the t r e a t i s e sounded like a b a t t l e - c r y : " E u r o p e i s opening her h a r b o r s to u s , A s i a i s c a l l i n g u s , A f r i c a i s awaiting u s , and A m e r i c a i s counting on u s . " ^ The mention of A m e r i c a along with other p a r t s of the w o r l d , a s e a r l y a s the 1 7 6 0 ' s - 1 7 8 0 ' s , w a s not without p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e to the R u s s i a n n o b l e m a n . The economy of the landed c l a s s c a m e to be m o r e and m o r e deeply a f f e c t e d by the condition of the m a r k e t , and w a s thus caught in a net, of insoluble conflict with the natural b a s i s of its v e r y b e i n g . T h i s longing to engage in b u s i n e s s on the p a r t of the nobility in the l a s t d e c a d e s of the eighteenth century w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y m a n i f e s t under the f a v o r a b l e e c o n o m i c conditions then p r e -

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vailing both in the d o m e s t i c and f o r e i g n m a r k e t s , and b e c a u s e of t h e d e p r e s s i o n w h i c h w a s a l r e a d y p e r c e p t i b l e in t h e s e r f economy. T h a n k s t o t h e p r i v i l e g e s it e n j o y e d , t h e n o b i l i t y h a d a n u m b e r of a d v a n t a g e s o v e r t h e m e r c h a n t c l a s s in t h e s e c o n d h a l f of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , b o t h i n t h e d o m e s t i c a n d in t h e f o r e i g n f i e l d s . A s e r i e s of r e p o r t s p r e p a r e d by s o m e of E m p r e s s C a t h e r i n e ' s c o m m i s s i o n s s p e a k u n e q u i v o c a l l y of t h i s s i t u a t i o n . T h e y n o t e t h a t " i n s t e a d of t h e e x p e c t e d i m p r o v e m e n t , g r e a t e r burdens a r e being p r e p a r e d for the R u s s i a n m e r c h a n t c l a s s , " to the extent that the nobility will b e g i v e n t h e o p p o r t u n i t y " t o e n j o y t h e r i g h t t o e n g a g e in c o m m e r c e w h e r e f o r the m e r c h a n t c l a s s will inevitably c o m e to ruin." T h e m e r c h a n t s w e r e u n s u c c e s s f u l , of c o u r s e , in t h e i r a t t e m p t s t o h a v e l i m i t a t i o n s p u t on t h e t r a d i n g p r i v i l e g e s of the nobility. T h e r e w e r e , h o w e v e r , c e r t a i n b r a n c h e s of c o m m e r c e in w h i c h a t f i r s t t h e c o m p e t i t i o n of t h e n o b i l i t y w a s n o t f e l t . Of such n a t u r e w a s a l s o the highly d e v e l o p e d t r a d e in f u r s i m p o r t e d f r o m t h e n o r t h w e s t e r n c o a s t of A m e r i c a a n d t h e a d jacent i s l a n d s . The t r e m e n d o u s wealth, h o w e v e r , flowing i n t o t h e c o u n t r y in t h e f o r m of a c o u n t l e s s q u a n t i t y of l i t t l e s k i n s f r o m the A m e r i c a n s e t t l e m e n t s , could not but a t t r a c t t h e a t t e n t i o n of t h e e n t e r p r i s i n g s p o k e s m e n of t h e n o b i l i t y . T h e T s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e " t r a d i n g n o b i l i t y , " on t h e a l e r t f o r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of f u r t h e r c o n q u e s t s b o t h i n E u r o p e a n d in A s i a , c o n t e m p l a t e d w i t h p r o f o u n d i n t e r e s t t h i s n e w market, where Russian merchants were already pursuing a d e f i n i t e c o u r s e of a c t i o n . T h e V i c e - P r e s i d e n t of t h e B o a r d of t h e A d m i r a l t y , C o u n t I . G . C h e r n y s h e v , h a d e v e n b u i l t a boat in a g o v e r n m e n t s h i p y a r d , and w a s p r e p a r i n g t o d i s p a t c h it t o A m e r i c a in 1781 , a l l l o a d e d w i t h h i s own m e r chandise . ^ T h e s t a t e s m e n of t h e t i m e of C a t h e r i n e II u n d e r s t o o d full well, h o w e v e r , that the A m e r i c a n s e t t l e m e n t s , which w e r e actually the f i r s t Russian o v e r s e a s p o s s e s s i o n s , might i n v o l v e R u s s i a in a n o p e n s t r u g g l e o v e r t h e c o l o n i e s w i t h other great powers, particularly England. " S i n c e R u s s i a i s s i t u a t e d on t h e e d g e of E u r o p e , " w r o t e P . A . Soymonov to the E m p r e s s , " s h e could r e t a i n h e r t r a d e w i t h t h e p e o p l e s of A s i a w i t h o u t h a r m f u l c o m p e t i t i o n on t h e p a r t of o t h e r n a t i o n s . A n d , t o j u d g e by p r e s e n t c i r c u m -

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THE RUSSIAN-AMERICAN COMPANY

s t a n c e s , s h e m a y e v e n e n t e r t a i n t h e h o p e of b e i n g f r e e f r o m d a n g e r in t h a t q u a r t e r f o r a l o n g t i m e t o c o m e . B u t h e r h u n t i n g - p o s t s on t h e E a s t e r n S e a , w h i c h u n t i l n o w h a v e b e e n in h e r h a n d s a l o n e s h o u l d b e e x c e p t e d f r o m t h e a b o v e c o n d i t i o n . T h e m o s t r e c e n t d i s c o v e r i e s by C o o k l e n d g r o u n d t o such a conclusion."7 T s a r i s t R u s s i a w h i c h , in h e r i m m u t a b l e d e s i r e t o g a i n p o s s e s s i o n of t h e S t r a i t s a n d of C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , h a d c o n s t a n t ly r u n up a g a i n s t o p p o s i t i o n on t h e p a r t of E n g l a n d - - p o w e r f u l on t h e s e a s - - , a t t e m p t e d m o r e t h a n o n c e t o u t i l i z e E n g l a n d ' s d i f f i c u l t p o s i t i o n in t h e P a c i f i c t o w e a k e n h e r r i v a l . H e n c e , t o o , R u s s i a ' s a r m e d n e u t r a l i t y in 1 7 8 0 , d u r i n g A m e r i c a ' s W a r of I n d e p e n d e n c e w i t h E n g l a n d , - - a n e u t r a l i t y t h a t w a s directed toward undermining England's sea power. As a r e s u l t of t h e l o s s by E n g l a n d of a c o n s i d e r a b l e p a r t of h e r c o l o n i e s on t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t a n d h e r c o n c u r r e n t l y i n t e n s i f i e d e x p a n s i o n in a n o r t h w e s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n , t h e P a c i f i c a r e a , t o g e t h e r with the N e a r E a s t and t h e A s i a t i c m a r k e t s , b e c a m e a n e w s o u r c e of A n g l o - R u s s i a n c o n f l i c t . T h e R u s s i a n g o v e r n m e n t w a s s e r i o u s l y d i s t u r b e d by C o o k ' s v o y a g e t o t h e c o a s t of A m e r i c a , a n d it w a s n o t out of m e r e curiosity that Catherine immediately o r d e r e d L . I . Golenishchev-Kutuzov to t r a n s l a t e into R u s s i a n the g r e a t n a v i g a t o r ' s j o u r n a l w h i c h h a d j u s t c o m e off t h e p r e s s . J a m e s C o o k , w h o in 1776 s a i l e d t o t h e s h o r e s of A m e r i c a on t h e i n i t i a t i v e of t h e E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y , r e c o r d e d on t h e m a p u n d e r n e w E n g l i s h n a m e s a l l t h e p l a c e s h e v i s i t e d . By t h a t v e r y act he s t a k e d E n g l a n d ' s c l a i m to " p r i m o g e n i t u r e " in t h e m a t t e r of t h e d i s c o v e r y of t h o s e p l a c e s , a l t h o u g h , a s h e h i m s e l f n o t e s in t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of h i s t r a v e l s , h e f o u n d R u s s i a n h u n t e r s in a n u m b e r of p l a c e s . T h u s h e r e n a m e d " N u t k a " C a p e King G e o r g e , C a p e C h u t k o t s k - - C o o k s h a v e n , a n d s o o n . The R u s s i a n s for t h e i r p a r t a l s o t r i e d to prove t h e i r p r i o r i t y in t h e c o n q u e s t of A l a s k a a n d t h e i s l a n d s . In a s e c r e t o r d e r t o t h e c l e r k s of t h e m e r c h a n t S h e l i k h o v , w h o w e r e t o s e t out f o r A l a s k a in 1 7 8 7 , G o v e r n o r I . Y a k o b y of I r k u t s k e n j o i n e d t h e m t o r a i s e t h e e m b l e m s of t h e R u s s i a n E m p i r e in t h o s e l o c a l i t i e s " w h e r e in 1784 a n E n g l i s h b o a t h a d s t o p p e d a n d t h e c r e w h a d m a d e a r i c h h a u l . " He o r d e r e d t h e m a t t h e s a m e t i m e t o b u r y in t h e g r o u n d a n u m b e r of i r o n t a b l e t s " w i t h t h e i m a g e of a c o p p e r c r o s s s u p e r i m p o s e d a n d t h e f o l l o w i n g w o r d s in c o p p e r l e t t e r s : ' L a n d u n d e r R u s s i a n D o m a i n . ' " T h e s e t a b l e t s w e r e s u p p o s e d t o be b u r i e d so " t h a t

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15

not only w e r e the native i n h a b i t a n t s not to s e e t h e m , bat t h e y w e r e a l s o t o b e h i d d e n f r o m e v e r y o n e of o a r R u s s i a n w o r k e r s , s o t h a t , by k e e p i n g t h i s s e c r e t , t h e i n h a b i t a n t s m i g h t b e p r e v e n t e d f r o m g u e s s i n g t h a t t h e t a b l e t s w e r e p l a c e d t h e r e in t h e present time . " ® A l i t t l e l a t e r , in 1 8 0 0 , u n d e r T s a r P a u l , a r o y a l r e s c r i p t w a s sent to Count S . R . V o r o n t s o v , R u s s i a n a m b a s s a d o r in L o n d o n , t o g e t h e r w i t h a n o t e " C o n c e r n i n g t h e d o i n g s of t h e E n g l i s h t r a d e r s on t h e s h o r e s of N o r t h A m e r i c a , w h o a r e d o i n g h a r m t o e s t a b l i s h m e n t s of R u s s i a n s u b j e c t s in p l a c e s o r i g i n a l l y o c c u p i e d by t h e m . " T h e e x p l a n a t i o n t h a t S . R . V o r o n t s o v h a d on t h i s q u e s t i o n f r o m L o r d G r e n v i l l e w h o headed the F o r e i g n Office leads to nothing. Grenville denied c a t e g o r i c a l l y that E n g l i s h ships w e r e p r o c e e d i n g , with the k n o w l e d g e of t h e g o v e r n m e n t , t o p l a c e s o c c u p i e d by t h e R u s s i a n s . G r e n v i l l e ' s d e n i a l s , h o w e v e r , w e r e only a d i p l o m a t i c d o d g e . It i s k n o w n t h a t , a p a r t f r o m C o o k , t h e f o l l o w ing n a v i g a t o r s r e a c h e d the North A m e r i c a n s h o r e s between 1787 a n d 1789: C a p t a i n M e a r e s on t h e " N o t k a , " D i x o n on t h e " C h a r l o t t e , " P o r t l o c k on t h e " K i n g G e o r g e , " a n d b e t w e e n 1791 a n d 1794 C a p t a i n V a n c o u v e r on t h e " D i s c o v e r y " a n d L i e u t e n a n t P u g e t on t h e " C h a t h a m . " T h e a c c o u n t s of t h e s e e x p e d i t i o n s , w r i t t e n by t h e n a v i g a t o r s t h e m s e l v e s , s p e a k e l o q u e n t l y of t h e i r p u r p o s e . D i x o n , in h i s a c c o u n t of h i s own e x p e d i t i o n , p u b l i s h e d in P a r i s in 1 7 8 9 , w r o t e a s f o l l o w s , i n t e l l i n g of t h e i n s u f f i c i e n t e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e w e a l t h of t h e r e g i o n on t h e p a r t of t h e R u s s i a n s : " A f t e r t h e a c c o u n t s I h a v e a l r e a d y g i v e n of t h i s k i n d of b u s i n e s s , you can i m a g i n e how c o n s i d e r a b l e the p r o f i t s c o u l d b e if t h e b u s i n e s s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d on a f i r m f o o t i n g . T h e m e a n s t o a t t a i n t h i s e n d i s , in m y o p i n i o n , t h e s e t t i n g up of t r a d i n g - p o s t s a l o n g t h e c o a s t , a n d t h e n o r t h e r n e x t r e m i t y of t h e C h a r l o t t e I s l a n d s s e e m s t o m e to be the m o s t s u i t a b l e p l a c e f o r t h e m . " ^

C a p t a i n M e a r e s c o n s i d e r e d it a d v a n t a g e o u s t o E n g l a n d t o g a i n a f i r m f o o t h o l d on o n e of t h e K u r i l e I s l a n d s ( e r r o n e o u s l y , it i s c l e a r , M e a r e s s a y s " K o r e a n I s l a n d s " ) : "Setting this plan into motion will not p r e s e n t any g r e a t difficulty and will not r e q u i r e any s t r e n u o u s e f f o r t s . . . .

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THE RUSSIAN-AMERICAN COMPANY B e s i d e s e x p o r t i n g E n g l i s h g o o d s - - a n a d v a n t a g e we a l w a y s e n j o y - - w e could utilize the s a m e f a c i l i t i e s to give g r e a t e r s t a b i l i t y t o t h e t r a d e in b e t t e r q u a l i t y h a r d l u m b e r . We should t h e n be p o w e r f u l enough c o n s i d e r a b l y to r e d u c e t h e p r o f i t s t h a t t h e R u s s i a n s d e r i v e f r o m t h a t b r a n c h of

T h e r i v a l r y between England and R u s s i a was a l s o m a n i f e s t e d in c l a s h e s b e t w e e n t h e m in t h e C h i n e s e m a r k e t w h i c h w a s one of t h e c h i e f m a r k e t s f o r A m e r i c a n f u r s . A n d , w h i l e on t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t t h e r e w a s a s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n t h o s e t w o p o w e r s f o r t h e p o s s e s s i o n of t h e s o u r c e s of t h e f u r s and for t h e i r exclusive p u r c h a s e f r o m the native popul a t i o n , in C h i n a t h e c o n t e s t w a s on f o r t h e s a l e of t h e f u r s . T h e c l o s i n g d o w n , in t h e s e c o n d half of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , of t h e t r a d e w i t h K i a k h t a r e n d e r e d v e r y d i f f i c u l t t h e e n t r y of R u s s i a n f u r s i n t o C h i n a . C o m p e t i t i o n w i t h t h e E n g l i s h m e r c h a n t s did not s l a c k e n , h o w e v e r , s i n c e R u s s i a n f u r s , w h i c h p e n e t r a t e d i n t o t h e h o l d s of s h i p s " u n d e r a n y k i n d of s u i t a b l e f l a g , " s t i l l s o l d c o n s i d e r a b l y c h e a p e r t h a n the English. T h e m i s s i o n of L o r d M a c a r t n e y t o P e k i n g in 1792 f o r t h e p u r p o s e of c o n c l u d i n g a c o m m e r c i a l a g r e e m e n t a n d o b t a i n i n g a m o n o p o l y on t r a d i n g in f u r s e n d e d in a f a i l u r e . T h e E n g l i s h did n o t o b t a i n e x c l u s i v e r i g h t s , a n d i n 1794 R u s s i a n t r a d e with China was officially r e e s t a b l i s h e d , which a g g r a v a t e d still f u r t h e r the r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n E n g l a n d and R u s s i a in that a r e a . " T h e s u c c e s s e s of t h e R u s s i a n s w i t h t h e i r d i s c o v e r i e s in t h e N o r t h e a s t e r n S e a , " N . P . R e z a n o v , a c o r r e s p o n d e n t of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , w r o t e a l i t t l e l a t e r , (in 1 8 0 0 ) , " h a v e a l w a y s r o u s e d t h e e n v y of a l l t h e E u r o p e a n p o w e r s d o i n g b u s i n e s s in A m e r i c a . So m u c h t h e m o r e d i d i t r o u s e t h e e n v y of t h e B r i t i s h C o u r t , w h i c h now p o s s e s s e s the e s t a b l i s h m e n t s c l o s e s t to the R u s s i a n a c q u i s i t i o n s , both b e c a u s e of t h e s i m i l a r i t y of t h e i r t r a d e w i t h t h e C h i n e s e a n d t h e n a t u r e of t h e r i v a l r y b e t w e e n t h e m . " ^ In t h e s e c o n d h a l f of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y C a t h e r i n e m a d e an attempt to r e s o l v e the r i v a l r y between R u s s i a and England on t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t b y a l i t t l e s a b e r r a t t l i n g . On D e c e m b e r 2 2 , 1 7 8 6 , C a t h e r i n e , " o n a c c o u n t of t h e e n c r o a c h m e n t on t h e p a r t of E n g l i s h t r a d e r s on t r a d e a n d h u n t i n g i n

FIRST " PROMYSHLENNIKY"

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t h e E a s t e r n S e a , " o r d e r e d t h e e x e c u t i o n of t h e m e a s u r e s p r o p o s e d in t h e m e m o r a n d u m of A . P . V o r o n t s o v , P r e s i d e n t of t h e B o a r d of t h e T r a d e , a n d A . A . B e z b o r o d k o , S t e w a r d of t h e H o u s e h o l d . In t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n V o r o n t s o v a n d B e z b o r o d k o t o o k a s t h e i r p o i n t of d e p a r t u r e t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n that "to R u s s i a m u s t indisputably belong the following: 1 ) the A m e r i c a n coast f r o m 55°21 ' l a t i t u d e extending n o r t h w a r d , s k i r t e d by C a p t a i n B e r i n g , C h i r i k o v , a n d o t h e r R u s s i a n n a v i g a t o r s ; 2) a l l t h e i s l a n d s s i t u a t e d n e a r t h e m a i n l a n d a n d n e a r t h e A l a s k a P e n i n s u l a t h a t w e r e d i s c o v e r e d by B e r i n g and Cook, called Montague, St. Stephen, St. D a l m a t i u s , the S h u m a g i n I s l a n d s , a n d o t h e r s l o c a t e d b e t w e e n t h e c o u r s e of t h o s e n a v i g a t o r s a n d t h e m a i n l a n d ; 3) a l l t h e i s l a n d s e x t e n d i n g t h e n c e w e s t w a r d in a c h a i n , c a l l e d t h e F o x I s l a n d s a n d the A l e u t i a n s , and o t h e r s s t r e t c h i n g n o r t h w a r d , that a r e v i s i t e d a n n u a l l y by R u s s i a n f u r - h u n t e r s ; 4) t h e K u r i l e c h a i n of J a p a n , d i s c o v e r e d by C a p t a i n S p a n b e r g a n d W a l t o n . " ^ Vorontsov and Bezborodko, c o n s i d e r i n g , t h e r e f o r e , that t h e d i s c o v e r i e s m a d e by C o o k h a d n o " v a l i d i t y , " i n s i s t e d on t h e n e c e s s i t y of i n f o r m i n g a l l t h e m a r i t i m e p o w e r s t h a t t h e t e r r i t o r i e s above delineated belonged to R u s s i a . At the s a m e t i m e t h e y c o n s i d e r e d it n e c e s s a r y t o i n f o r m t h e s a m e p o w e r s that R u s s i a could not allow f o r e i g n v e s s e l s to touch a t a n y of t h e e n u m e r a t e d h a r b o r s . S i n c e , h o w e v e r , a d e c l a r a t i o n of t h i s k i n d w o u l d , w i t h o u t b e i n g s u s t a i n e d b y m a i n f o r c e , " b e h a r d l y s u f f i c i e n t , a n d m i g h t e v e n j e o p a r d i z e in s o m e w a y t h e d i g n i t y of t h e C o u r t , " t h e a u t h o r s of t h e m e m o r a n d u m a f f i r m e d t h a t it w a s i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o m a i n t a i n a R u s s i a n n a v a l s q u a d r o n in t h e P a c i f i c w a t e r s . According to this plan Captain Mulovsky's squadron, cons i s t i n g of f o u r n a v a l v e s s e l s , w a s d e s i g n a t e d t o be d i s p a t c h e d f r o m t h e B a l t i c . Upon a r r i v i n g in t h e E a s t e r n S e a it w a s t o b e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o f o r c e s , w i t h t w o of t h e v e s s e l s p r o c e e d ing to the A m e r i c a n c o a s t and the o t h e r two to the K u r i l e s . B u t t h e w a r w h i c h h a d b r o k e n out w i t h T u r k e y , a n d l a t e r a l s o with Sweden, c o m p e l l e d C a t h e r i n e to r e n o u n c e the s e n d i n g of a m i l i t a r y e x p e d i t i o n . A s t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of m e n - o f - w a r in t h e a r e a of t h e c o n f l i c t , t h a t w a s h a m p e r e d by p u r e l y f i n a n c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ; f o r , a s w a s p o i n t e d out c o r r e c t l y by S o y m o n o v , " t h e e q u i p m e n t of t h r e e o r f o u r f r i g a t e s in t h e s e w a t e r s i s j u s t a s c o s t l y a s t h a t of a w h o l e f l e e t in E u r o p e a n w a t e r s , a n d f u r t h e r m o r e n o l i t t l e t i m e w i l l be needed f o r such an u n d e r t a k i n g . " ι λ

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It b e c a m e n e c e s s a r y , t h e n , t o a b a n d o n t h i s m e t h o d of combatting G r e a t B r i t a i n , a method fraught with a m u l t i p l i c i t y of d i p l o m a t i c c o m p l i c a t i o n s , a n d o n e t h a t w a s w h o l l y d e p e n d e n t upon t h e p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n in E u r o p e , and w h i c h , in a d d i t i o n , e n t a i l e d t h e d i v e r s i o n of a r m e d f o r c e s f r o m t h e B a l t i c a r e a . F u r t h e r m o r e , it b e c a m e a p p a r e n t t h a t i t w a s i m p o s s i b l e to limit oneself to s h e e r f o r c e ; for the contest w o u l d , in the f i r s t p l a c e , have t o be joined with t h e e n t e r p r i s i n g f o r e i g n m e r c h a n t s and with a mighty m o n o p o l i s t i c o r g a n i z a t i o n l i k e t h e E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y in p a r t i c u l a r . T h e s i t u a t i o n c a l l e d f o r t h e u t i l i z a t i o n of a d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d , o n e c o n s i s t i n g , i n t h e w o r d s of S o y m o n o v w h o m w e h a v e f r e q u e n t ly quoted and a g a i n , " i n s e c u r i n g f o r o u r s e l v e s such a p o s i t i o n t h a t w o u l d r e n d e r us f o r e v e r i m m u n e t o a n y d a n g e r f r o m t h e c o m p e t i t i o n of o t h e r n a t i o n s . " T h e m e t h o d h e h a d in m i n d w a s t h a t of c r e a t i n g m o n o p o l i s t i c a s s o c i a t i o n s , s i m i l a r t o the E a s t India C o m p a n y , which would be able to r e s i s t b o t h t h e b u s i n e s s c o m p e t i t i o n of f o r e i g n m e r c h a n t s a n d t h e a t t e m p t s of t h e f o r e i g n g o v e r n m e n t s t o e m p l o y a r m e d force. The E a s t India c o m p a n i e s , both the Dutch and the E n g l i s h , h a d l o n g b e e n k n o w n in R u s s i a . E v e n i n t h e d a y s of P e t e r the Great attempts w e r e made to s t a r t some monopolistic c o m p a n i e s in R u s s i a , p a t t e r n e d a f t e r t h e E a s t I n d i a c o m p a n i e s . The A r c h a n g e l Whaling Company was intended to b e s u c h a c o m p a n y . A r t i c l e 4 of t h e d e c r e e of N o v e m b e r 8, 1723, r e a d s a s follows: " S o it i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e w h a l i n g t r a d e t o e s t a b l i s h c o m p a n i e s o u t of t h e C i t y of A r c h a n g e l f o r t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d , a n d t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l c o m p a n y in H i s p a n i a , i n w h i c h a f e w o f f i c i a l s w i t h r a n k s a b o v e t h a t of h u n t e r s h o u l d b e g i v e n p o s i t i o n s , a s i s d o n e in H o l l a n d , i n t h e E a s t India C o m p a n y , " ^

In 1739 t h e S w e d i s h e n g i n e e r L o r e n z L a n g , w h o h a d g o n e o v e r i n t o t h e R u s s i a n s e r v i c e , h a d c a r r i e d out a s e r i e s of d i p l o m a t i c m i s s i o n s in China, and w a s t h e n appointed G o v e r n o r - G e n e r a l of I r k u t s k , p r e s e n t e d a p l a n f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n of a m o n o p o l i s t i c s t o c k c o m p a n y f o r t r a d e w i t h C h i n a . In t h e 1 7 5 0 ' s a n u m b e r of t r a d e a s s o c i a t i o n s w e r e a l r e a d y a c t i v e l y e n g a g e d in t r a d i n g w i t h t h e O r i e n t . S u c h w e r e t h e

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R u s s i a n T r a d i n g Company in Constantinople, founded in 1 7 5 7 , the Company f o r T r a d e with P e r s i a , founded in 1 7 5 8 , t h e T r a d i n g Company of B o k h a r a and K h i v a , e s t a b l i s h e d in 1 7 6 0 . T h e d e s i r e of the g o v e r n m e n t to c r e a t e in R u s s i a s o m e o r g a n i z a t i o n s which would not only have a monopoly in t r a d e but would, at the s a m e t i m e , a f t e r the m a n n e r of the E a s t India c o m p a n i e s , p e r f o r m the functions of a d m i n i s t e r i n g and defending the c o l o n i e s put at t h e i r d i s p o s a l f o r e x c l u s i v e exploitation, was e x p r e s s e d with p a r t i c u l a r c l a r i t y in the d e c r e e of P e t e r III of M a r c h 2 8 , 1 7 6 2 : " T r a d e or c o m m e r c i a l c o m p a n i e s a r e of the g r e a t e s t benefit both to c o m m e r c e i t s e l f and those s t a t e s where they a r e e s t a b l i s h e d on a f i r m foundation and set up a f t e r c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n , a s , for e x a m p l e , in England the c o m p a n i e s f o r trading with India. T h e s e c o m p a n i e s a r e of such g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e that the nation c o m e s to t h e i r aid e v e r y y e a r with a c o n s i d e r a b l e sum of m o n e y - - i n addition to the f a c t that t h e s e c o m p a n i e s maintain f o r t r e s s e s t h e r e and a r m i e s , and wage war against the n a t i o n ' s e n e m i e s ; and in that way they enhance the p o w e r , f a m e , and e m i n e n c e of t h e i r f a t h e r l a n d . Consequently, s i n c e they r e n d e r such g r e a t s e r v i c e to t h e i r country, it is absolutely n e c e s s a r y that the i n c r e a s e d s u b s i d i e s they r e c e i v e should s p r e a d over the whole nation, s i n c e it c o m e s to t h e i r aid with c o n s i d e r a b l e s u m s of m o n e y . F i n a l l y , the g r e a t d i s t a n c e involved in the voyage, the t r e m e n d o u s d i f f i c u l t i e s and p e r i l s , and the c o n s i d e r a b l e e x p e n s e s entailed which no individual could shoulder by h i m s e l f , all t h i s h a s r e n d e r e d the c o m p a n i e s indispens a b l e in that c o u n t r y . "

At the end of his d e c r e e P e t e r w r o t e : " W e do not deny that h e r e , t o o , the n e c e s s i t y may a r i s e to follow the v e r y same e x a m p l e s . " ^ T h e h i s t o r y of the Dutch, F r e n c h , and E n g l i s h c o m p a n i e s of the colonial type and t h e i r advantages w e r e widely known in R u s s i a at that t i m e . A s p e c i a l c h a p t e r , entitled " S u r l e s c o m p a g n i e s e x c l u s i v e s , " in " E s s a i politique s u r le C o m m e r c e " by the F r e n c h m e r c a n t i l i s t M e l o n , published in R u s s i a in 1 7 6 8 , d e m o n s t r a t e d the n e c e s s i t y of organizing s i m i l a r a s s o c i a t i o n s under two s e t s of c i r c u m s t a n c e s ; f i r s t ,

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" i n t h e c a s e of a l l n e w e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , b o t h a s a r e w a r d t o t h o s e who o r i g i n a t e d t h e m and a s e n c o u r a g e m e n t to t h o s e who d e c i d e t o e n g a g e in s u c h u n d e r t a k i n g s , " a n d s e c o n d l y , " w h e n p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s , united under a s u p e r i o r a u t h o r i t y , do not f i n d s u f f i c i e n t s t r e n g t h w i t h i n t h e m s e l v e s t o c a r r y out s o m e i m p o r t a n t e n t e r p r i s e , a n d w h e n t h e c o - p a r t n e r s h i p of o t h e r s m a y do t h e m i n j u r y o r give r i s e to t r a d i n g that would be detrimental to the p e o p l e . " ^ In t h e l a t t e r c a s e m o n o p o l y w a s j u s t i f i e d b y i t s i n d i s p e n s a b i l i t y t o t h e n e e d s of t h e s t a t e a s a w h o l e . " E x c l u s i v e r i g h t s , " w r o t e Melon, " s e e m to the m e r c h a n t a s something o d i o u s , s o m e t h i n g t h a t t h r e a t e n s t o d e p r i v e h i m of h i s f r e e d o m , but w h e n , a f t e r due c o n s i d e r a t i o n and e x p e r i e n c e , f r e e d o m p r o v e s to be i n j u r i o u s t o the p e o p l e , t h e n t h a t e x c l u s i v e n e s s b e c o m e s quite n e c e s s a r y . " ^ T h e c r e a t i o n of s u c h a s s o c i a t i o n s w a s j u s t i f i e d , a s it w e r e , by c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a b o u t t h e s u b o r d i n a t i o n of p r i v a t e c o m m e r c i a l i n t e r e s t s t o t h e g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t s of t h e s t a t e , a n d by t h e n e c e s s i t y , in e x t r a o r d i n a r y c a s e s , of h a v i n g r e c o u r s e to m o n o p o l i e s , - -at the v e r y t i m e that C a t h e r i n e w a s p r o c l a i m i n g t h e e r a d i c a t i o n of p r i v i l e g e s of a n y k i n d . Finally, no l e s s convincing was the a r g u m e n t that the Dutch and the E n g l i s h had followed the s a m e c o u r s e , and t h e y " a r e s o z e a l o u s a b o u t e v e r y s o r t of l i b e r t y , e s p e c i a l l y commercial. " T h e r e w a s one o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e which f a v o r e d the c r e a t i o n of m o n o p o l i s t i c a s s o c i a t i o n s f o r t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a . D i r e c t k n o w l e d g e of t h e s i t u a t i o n of t h e f u r - h u n t i n g p o s t s on t h e i s l a n d s a n d on t h e A m e r i c a n continent brought to the f o r e m o s t f o r c i b l y the p r o b l e m of t h e d e f e n s e a n d a c q u i s i t i o n of t h a t v a s t t e r r i t o r y , a s w e l l a s of t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of i t s r e s o u r c e s . It w a s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e e x h a u s t i o n of t h e s e , w h a t s e e m e d a t f i r s t , i n c a l c u l a b l e s o u r c e s of p r o f i t w a s a m a t t e r of t h e n e a r f u t u r e . Those places that w e r e easily accessible had already been s t r i p p e d b a r e . U n d e r d a t e of 1785 V . B e r k h r e c o r d s t h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a in t h e " C h r o n o l o g i c a l H i s t o r y of t h e D i s c o v e r y of t h e A l e u t i a n I s l a n d s " : " I t i s now p o s s i b l e t o o b s e r v e h o w t h e e n t e r p r i s i n g s p i r i t of t h e m e r c h a n t s f r o m S i b e r i a h a s g r a d u a l l y g r o w n w e a k e r . In 1784 n o t one s h i p w a s p u t t o s e a . " T r u e , B e r k h a t t r i b u t e s it p a r t l y t o t h e f a c t t h a t " t h e s i z a b l e p r o f i t s m a d e by m a n y of t h o s e e n g a g e d in t h a t p u r s u i t i n d u c e d t h e m t o l e a v e it a n d t o

FIRST " P R O M Y S H L E N N I K Y "

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enjoy in peace the fortune they had a c q u i r e d . " Y e t he notes at the same t i m e that a part of the fortune-hunters " h a v i n g s u f f e r e d s e v e r a l setbacks, w e r e c o m p e l l e d to g i v e up the occupation in which fortune no l o n g e r s m i l e d upon t h e m . "1® In 1785 only one ship, belonging to the merchant P a n o v of T o t e m s k , set out f o r the i s l a n d s . T w o y e a r s l a t e r that ship brought back 1388 s e a - o t t e r s and 183 blue f o x e s , - - f i g u r e s which, a c c o r d i n g to B e r k h ' s t e s t i m o n y , " w i l l astound the r e a d e r , " since in past y e a r s some v e s s e l s would bring back m o r e than f o r t y thousand s e a - o t t e r skins. The s a m e ship set out f o r the islands again in 1787. It stayed t h e r e until 1793 and again returned with an i n s i g n i f i cant c a r g o . " H a r d l y , " t e s t i f i e s the same B e r k h , " d i d the skins brought on that boat c o v e r the cost of the round t r i p and of maintaining the ship f o r eight y e a r s . The reduction in the quantity of f u r s available in a c c e s sible places brought ruin upon the s m a l l companies and the individual m e r c h a n t s . It was now beyond the reach of s m a l l groups of f u r - h u n t e r s to take p o s s e s s i o n of new a r e a s . When in 1783 a group of hunters with the navigator Z a i k o v at t h e i r head attempted to e f f e c t a landing in Chugatsk B a y , they met with r e s i s t a n c e on the part of the n a t i v e s . " T h e f e a r l e s s natives of C h u g a t s k , " w r i t e s V . B e r k h , " w h o had, by their r a i d s , spread t e r r o r among all the surrounding t r i b e s , and e s p e c i a l l y among the inhabitants of Kodiak, w e r e not to be f r i g h t e n e d by Russian guns. T h e y p e r f o r m e d so s u c c e s s f u l l y and so b r a v e l y with t h e i r a r r o w s that in many s k i r m i s h e s they got the upperhand o v e r their e n e m i e s , and, t o make m a t t e r s w o r s e , they blocked their way to the t r a d i n g - p o s t s and to subsistence. . . . In o r d e r to defend t h e m s e l v e s against the e n e m y , one third of the entire ship's company r e m a i n e d the whole night under a r m s , f e a r i n g a sudden attack. "20 The s e i z u r e of new p l a c e s on the continent r e q u i r e d not only i m m e n s e expeditions but a l s o the establishment of strong s e t t l e m e n t s . It was i m p o s s i b l e to plunge d e e p e r into the i n t e r i o r of the country without setting up f o r t i f i e d b a s e s , without the s y s t e m a t i c dispatch of expeditions to supply those b a s e s , and without planned action.

C h a p t e r II T H E ORGANIZATION O F T H E RUSSIANAMERICAN COMPANY

IN T H E L A T E R 1 7 7 0 ' s t h e r e a p p e a r s a n e w n a m e a m o n g t h e n a m e s of t h e R u s s i a n t r a d e r s o p e r a t i n g i n t h e P a c i f i c S e a , t h a t of G r i g o r y I v a n o v i c h S h e l i k h o v , H o n o r a r y C i t i z e n of t h e t o w n of R y l s k . S h e l i k h o v , w h o , in t h e c o u r s e of t w o d e c a d e s , b e c a m e one of t h e w e a l t h i e s t m e r c h a n t s of S i b e r i a , h a d s t a r t e d his b u s i n e s s c a r e e r with a l m o s t no m e a n s at his d i s p o s a l . F . F . V e s e l a g o m a k e s t h e c o n j e c t u r e t h a t it w a s t h e capital which Natalya Shelikhov brought h e r husband that e n a b l e d h i m t o o p e n up h i s o p e r a t i o n s i n A m e r i c a . ^ S h e l i k h o v ' s c o m m e r c i a l s u c c e s s e s b e l o n g p r i m a r i l y t o t h e e n d of t h e 1 7 8 0 ' s a n d t h e f i r s t p a r t of t h e 1 7 9 0 ' s . It i s k n o w n , a t a n y r a t e , t h a t e v e n in 1 7 8 3 , w h e n S h e l i k h o v s e t out t o s u r v e y t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e t r a d i n g - p o s t s on t h e i s l a n d s , h e w a s c o m p e l l e d to r e s o r t to a l o a n . He obtained fifty t h o u s a n d r u b l e s f r o m N . N . D e m i d o v , who owned s o m e s m e l t i n g w o r k s in the U r a l s . S h e l i k h o v r e t u r n e d f r o m h i s " A m e r i c a n v o y a g e " in 1 7 8 7 . ^ T h i s " R u s s i a n C o l u m b u s , " w h o a n n o u n c e d " t h e d i s c o v e r y of t h e i s l a n d s of K y k t a k a n d A f o g n a k , n e w l y a c q u i r e d by h i m a n d w h i c h h a d n o t b e e n r e a c h e d e v e n by t h e r e n o w n e d E n g l i s h navigator Cook, " r e t u r n e d f r o m A m e r i c a f i r m l y r e s o l v e d to obtain f r o m the g o v e r n m e n t the p r e - e m p t i v e right to exploit t h e f u r - r e s o u r c e s of t h e r e g i o n . In v i e w of t h e e x a c e r b a t e d c o m p e t i t i o n t h a t h a d d e v e l o p e d i n t h e c o l o n i e s , t h e s e n d i n g of an e x p e d i t i o n on t h e s a m e b a s i s a s b e f o r e m i g h t h a v e l e d t o t h e c o m p l e t e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e t r a d i n g c o m p a n i e s . By t h e e n d of t h e 1 7 8 0 ' s t h e s m a l l t r a d e a s s o c i a t i o n s h a r d l y ventured to send t h e i r boats to the islands and to the A m e r i c a n continent. Even for the l a r g e t r a d e a s s o c i a t i o n s , w h i c h w e r e e n g a g e d in f i e r c e c o m p e t i t i o n among t h e m s e l v e s , business conditions were becoming m o r e and m o r e difficult f r o m y e a r to y e a r . At t h a t t i m e , S h e l i k h o v a l r e a d y o c c u p i e d one of t h e m o s t important places among the l a r g e associations that were 22

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a c t i v e on t h e i s l a n d s a n d on t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t . B e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e y e a r 1 7 7 7 , upon t h e r e t u r n of t h e " N i c h o l a s " which w a s p a r t i a l l y equipped at S h e l i k h o v ' s e x p e n s e , a c o n s i d e r a b l e p a r t of t h e p e l t r y b r o u g h t f r o m t h e c o l o n i e s b e l o n g e d t o h i m . He w a s a s t o c k h o l d e r in m o s t of t h e e x p e d i t i o n s t h a t m a d e t h e i r w a y t o A m e r i c a . He p a r t i c i p a t e d w i t h h i s c a p i t a l in t h e e q u i p p i n g of f o u r t e e n out of t h e t h i r t y s i x s h i p s r e t u r n i n g f r o m t h e h u n t i n g - p o s t s in t h e t w e n t y - o n e y e a r p e r i o d f r o m 1777 t o 1 7 9 7 ; one s h i p ( " J o h n of R y l s k " ) belonged to him completely. E a c h of t h e v e s s e l s t h a t belonged jointly to Shelikhov and Golikov, a K u r s k m e r c h a n t , b r o u g h t b a c k m o r e t h a n 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s w o r t h of p e l t r y . T h e c o n s i d e r a b l e q u a n t i t y of g a m e b a g g e d w a s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c o m p a n y in q u e s t i o n p o s s e s s e d a n u m b e r of s o l i d s e t t l e m e n t s on A f o g n a k I s l a n d a n d in o t h e r p l a c e s . H o w e v e r , s o m e s e r i o u s r i v a l s to Shelikhov did a p p e a r at t h a t t i m e . N i n e of t h e t h i r t y - s i x s h i p s we h a v e m e n t i o n e d w e r e e q u i p p e d b y t h e m e r c h a n t s P a n o v . In c o n t r a s t t o S h e l i k h o v ' s p r a c t i c e o n l y t w o of t h e i r s h i p s w e r e s e n t out in company with the other m e r c h a n t s , while the r e m a i n i n g ones s e t out f o r t h e h u n t i n g - p o s t s i n d e p e n d e n t l y . T h e v a l u e of t h e f u r s b r o u g h t b a c k on t h e P a n o v v e s s e l s a l s o r e a c h e d c o n s i d e r a b l e d i m e n s i o n s , - - t h e v a l u e of t h e p e l t r y b r o u g h t b a c k in t h e c o u r s e of a s i n g l e y e a r n o t i n f r e q u e n t l y c a m e t o 200,000 r u b l e s . 3 T h e r e a l s o g r e w up a n u m b e r of o t h e r l a r g e c o m p a n i e s w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e a s s e t s . One of t h e w e l l k n o w n c o m p a n i e s w a s t h a t of L e b e d e v - L a s t o c h k i n , w h i c h w a s d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y a s p i r i t of e n t e r p r i s e a n d w h i c h a l s o w e n t in f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a n e t w o r k of p e r m a n e n t s e t t l e m e n t s . T h e c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n this company and Shelikhov's was subsequently to lead to a r m e d clashes between the two. T h e r e e n s u e d a p e r i o d of f i e r c e s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n t h e l a r g e a s s o c i a t i o n s , w h i c h , in v i e w of t h e v a s t f u n d s a t t h e i r d i s p o s a l , w e r e in a p o s i t i o n t o e n t e r upon n e w f o r m s of e x p l o i t a t i o n of the r e g i o n . T h i s c o m p e t i t i v e b a t t l e , c o m p l i c a t e d a s it had b e c o m e b y t h e i n c r e a s i n g p e n e t r a t i o n of f o r e i g n f u r - h u n t e r s i n t o t h e R u s s i a n s p h e r e of o p e r a t i o n s , w a s t o s e t b e f o r e t h e r i v a l a s s o c i a t i o n s a w h o l e s e r i e s of p r e s s i n g p r o b l e m s , lacking a solution to which t h e i r f u r t h e r activity would b e c o m e u n p r o f i t a b l e . It w a s n e c e s s a r y t o a s s u r e t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n of d e f i n i t e a r e a s f o r h u n t i n g p u r p o s e s . O t h e r w i s e t h e r e w a s n o j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e e x p l o r a t i o n a n d s e i z u r e of n e w r e g i o n s - -

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both c a r r i e d out at a t r e m e n d o u s c o s t - - f o r , on t h e h e e l s of t h e l a r g e c o m p a n i e s c a m e t h e p e t t y t r a d e r s w h o , at no e x p e n s e t o t h e m s e l v e s u t i l i z e d t o t h e full t h e r e s u l t s of t h e v a r i o u s e x p e d i t i o n s . D i r e c t l y bound up with t h e q u e s t i o n of c o n s o l i d a t i n g t h e new r e g i o n s w a s t h a t of e s t a b l i s h i n g p e r m a n e n t s e t t l e m e n t s on t h e i s l a n d s and on the c o n t i n e n t i t s e l f . T h i s r e q u i r e d c o n s i d e r a b l e i n v e s t m e n t s , w h i c h only an e c o n o m i c a l l y p o w e r f u l a s s o c i a t i o n w a s c a p a b l e of m a k i n g . It w a s a l s o n e c e s s a r y t o o b t a i n a m a x i m u m r e d u c t i o n in e x p e n s e s , f i r s t of a l l in t h e r e m u n e r a t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n f u r - t r a d e r s , w h i c h a b s o r b e d one h a l f of t h e c o s t of t h e f u r s . T h e s i t u a t i o n with r e s p e c t t o t h e n a t i v e s w a s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t ; t h e t r a d i n g c o m p a n i e s w e r e not in t h e h a b i t of t r e a t i n g t h e m with e x c e s s i v e s o l i c i t u d e . T h e s y s t e m a t i c e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e l a b o r of the n a t i v e s , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , r e q u i r e d g o v e r n m e n t s a n c t i o n ; f o r a c t s of v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t t h e n a t i v e s , w h i c h f o r m e r l y went unpunished under t h e c o n d i t i o n s of c o m p e t i t i o n then e x i s t i n g among the s e v e r a l c o m p a n i e s that a c c u s e d e a c h o t h e r of c r u e l t y t o w a r d the i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n , c o u l d now l e a d t o m o s t u n p l e a s a n t r e s u l t s . T h e f e a r of s u c h c o n s e q u e n c e s tended to r e s t r a i n , to a c e r t a i n d e g r e e , the extent of the e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n and of t h e v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t t h e m on t h e p a r t of t h e c o m p a n i e s . F i n a l l y , it w a s i n d i s p e n s a b l e f o r t h e d e f i n i t i v e c o n s o l i d a t i o n on t h e i s l a n d s and on t h e c o n t i n e n t t o m a i n t a i n an a r m e d f o r c e w h i c h would b e c a p a b l e , when n e c e s s a r y , of o f f e r i n g r e s i s t a n c e not only t o the n a t i v e s b u t t o f o r e i g n h u n t e r s a s w e l l . T h e r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , which w e r e c l o s e l y related to government m e a s u r e s , was naturally contingent upon t h e g r a n t i n g of d e f i n i t e a d v a n t a g e s t o s o m e one c o m p a n y o v e r o t h e r s . An e c o n o m i c m o n o p o l y w a s , f r o m t h e m e r c h a n t s ' point of v i e w , an i n d i s p e n s a b l e p r e r e q u i s i t e t o a new s t a g e in t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e i s l a n d s and of a p o r t i o n of t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t . A s an e x a m p l e of t h e b e n e f i t s d e r i v e d f r o m s u c h a m o n o p o l y t h e y would c i t e t h e o p e r a t i o n s of t h e E a s t India C o m p a n y , w h o s e s h i p s m o r e than o n c e v i s i t e d t h e R u s s i a n s e t t l e m e n t s in A m e r i c a , and e v e n K a m c h a t k a . In t h e g i v e n c a s e , t h e i n t e r e s t s of a g r o u p of m e r c h a n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e of S h e l i k h o v , who w e r e e n d e a v o r i n g t o o b t a i n e x c l u s i v e a d v a n t a g e s f o r t h e m s e l v e s , c o i n c i d e d with t h e i n t e r e s t s of t h e g o v e r n m e n t a s a w h o l e . T h e l a t t e r , not w i s h i n g t o t a k e t h e r i s k of i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p l i c a t i o n s w h i c h m i g h t r e s u l t f r o m the o f f i c i a l a n n e x a t i o n of t h e A m e r i c a n

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c o l o n i e s t o t h e R u s s i a n E m p i r e , s a w in t h e c r e a t i o n of a m i g h t y m o n o p o l i s t i c c o m p a n y a w a y t o m a s k i t s own e x p a n s i o n a l o n g t h e s h o r e s of t h e P a c i f i c . If a c r o w n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w e r e t o b e e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e c o l o n i e s , t h e m o s t t r i f l i n g c o n f l i c t m i g h t e a s i l y be t r a n s f o r m e d into an a r m e d c l a s h with f o r e i g n p o w e r s ; the s i t u a t i o n w o u l d b e d i f f e r e n t , if a c o m m e r c i a l c o m p a n y w e r e t o a t t e m p t t o r e a l i z e t h e v e r y s a m e p u r p o s e s . In t h e l a t t e r c a s e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of d i p l o m a t i c c o m p l i c a t i o n s w o u l d be c o n s i d e r a b l y s m a l l e r - - t h e g o v e r n m e n t c o u l d a l w a y s k e e p in the background and a t t r i b u t e the s p o r a d i c c l a s h e s to the a c t i v i t y of t h e m e r c h a n t s a c t i n g a t t h e i r own p e r i l a n d on t h e i r own r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . S h e l i k h o v t o o k a c c o u n t of t h e f a v o r a b l e c i r c u m s t a n c e s a s t h e y had d e v e l o p e d a n d , f e a r i n g l e s t he be o u t m a n e u v e r e d by t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e c o m p e t i n g a s s o c i a t i o n s , i m m e d i a t e l y upon h i s a r r i v a l in I r k u t s k in 1787 p r e s e n t e d t o t h e G o v e r n o r a d e t a i l e d p l a n f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n of a s t r o n g c o m pany. S h e l i k h o v ' s p l a n c o n s i s t e d of n i n e p o i n t s . T h e f i r s t a n d t h e f i f t h p o i n t s w e r e d e v o t e d t o t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e s u b o r d i n a t i o n of t h e c o m p a n y t o s o m e g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t m e n t . It w a s S h e l i k h o v ' s t h o u g h t t h a t t h e c o m p a n y in o r d e r " t o p r e v e n t c o n f u s i o n , " s h o u l d n o t b e d e p e n d e n t upon t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of K a m c h a t k a o r O k h o t s k , b u t , b e i n g r e g a r d e d a s u n d e r " t h e h i g h e s t p a t r o n a g e , " should be wholly s u b j e c t to t h e G o v e r n o r - G e n e r a l of I r k u t s k . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e c o m p a n y s h o u l d b e g r a n t e d t h e r i g h t , in s p e c i a l c a s e s , t o c o m m u n i c a t e d i r e c t l y w i t h E m p r e s s C a t h e r i n e , by s e n d i n g r e p o r t s t o h e r v i a i t s own c o u r i e r s . T h e l a s t p r o v i s i o n w a s a p p a r e n t l y intended to p r o t e c t the company f r o m any a r b i t r a r y m e a s u r e s on t h e p a r t of t h e g o v e r n o r - g e n e r a l of I r k u t s k . P o i n t s 2, 3 , a n d 4 d e a l t w i t h q u e s t i o n s t h a t w e r e of t h e u t m o s t i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e f u t u r e c o m p a n y , t h e r e c r u i t i n g of a n a r m e d g u a r d a n d of t h e n e c e s s a r y l a b o r f o r c e . S h e l i k h o v wrote as follows: " F o r t h e f u r t h e r a s s i s t a n c e of t h e c o m p a n y ' s e n t e r p r i s e s in t h e f u t u r e it i s of t h e u t m o s t n e c e s s i t y t h a t t h e c o m p a n y b e p r o v i d e d w i t h m e a n s of m a i n t a i n i n g t h e e x i s t i n g f o r t r e s s e s , a n d f u r n i s h e d w i t h up t o a h u n d r e d m i l i t a r y m e n , a d e p t in d i s c i p l i n e , f o r t h e p u r p o s e of p r o t e c t i n g a n d d e f e n d i n g t h e p e o p l e s b r o u g h t by m e , in

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t h e n a m e of t h e C o m p a n y , under t h e r u l e of h e r I m p e r i a l Highness . T h e s e men were to include five c a n n o n e e r s , s e v e r a l c a n n o n - s m e l t e r s and a r m o r e r s f r o m T u l a , a f e w a n c h o r e r s , t h r e e o f f i c e r s , one of w h o m with a k n o w l e d g e of " m o u n t a i n s c i e n c e " ( i . e . , m i n i n g ) , a n u m b e r of s a i l o r s with a k n o w l e d g e of r i g g i n g , a few m a s t e r w o r k m e n f f a m i l i a r with s h i p b u i l d i n g , and o t h e r s . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e s e one h u n d r e d m e n would c o n s t i t u t e t h a t i n d i s p e n s a b l e n u c l e u s of t e c h n i c a l and m i l i t a r y s p e c i a l i s t s t h a t would g u a r a n t e e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of p r o d u c i n g t h e n e c e s s a r y w e a p o n s in the c o l o n i e s t h e m s e l v e s and of t r a i n i n g t h e g a r r i s o n s e s t a b l i s h e d t h e r e . The l a t t e r w e r e t o be r e c r u i t e d f r o m a m o n g t h e n a t i v e s . It w a s p r o p o s e d t o c r e a t e , on t h e p a t t e r n of t h e E a s t India C o m p a n y , a c o n t i n g e n t in t h e n a t u r e of s e p o y c o l o n i a l t r o o p s . T h i s p l a n w a s d e v e l o p e d by S h e l i k h o v in a m e m o r a n d u m a d d r e s s e d t o E m p r e s s C a t h e r i n e w h i c h he t o g e t h e r with h i s p a r t n e r G o l i k o v p r e s e n t e d in p e r s o n a s a s u p p l e m e n t in F e b r u a r y 1 7 8 8 . We r e a d t h e f o l l o w i n g : " N o w , to a s s i s t t h e t r o o p s we could p r o f i t a b l y e m p l o y up t o s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d of t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e i s l a n d s , a p l u c k y p e o p l e , of sound c o n s t i t u t i o n , w e l l f i t t e d t o e n d u r e any s o r t of d i f f i c u l t i e s , q u a l i f i e d f o r any e n t e r p r i s e , f e a r l e s s , and w h o s e o b e d i e n c e t o t h e R u s s i a n a u t h o r i t i e s and devotion t o y o u r I m p e r i a l H i g h n e s s we h a v e a l r e a d y p r o v e d by a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e on m a n y o c c a s i o n s . " T h e n a t i v e s " a r e not only r e l i a b l e in t h e e v e n t of i n t e r n a l t r o u b l e s but m a y b e t r u s t e d , without t h e s l i g h t e s t doubt, t o o f f e r s t r o n g r e s i s t a n c e in t h e e v e n t of p o s s i b l e h o s t i l e a t t e m p t s on t h e p a r t of f o r e i g n p o w e r s . " ^

T h a t w a s t h e s i t u a t i o n with r e g a r d t o t h e a r m e d g u a r d f o r the f u t u r e c o m p a n y . A s f o r t h e l a b o r f o r c e , t h a t w a s t o be r e c r u i t e d in s e v e r a l w a y s . T h e c o m p a n y w a s t o be g r a n t e d t h e r i g h t " t o h i r e R u s s i a n s of a l l c l a s s e s , e v e n t h o s e p o s s e s s i n g l a p s e d p a s s p o r t s , upon annual p a y m e n t of the g o v e r n m e n t t a x e s f o r t h e m , f o r e a c h one in t h e p l a c e w h e r e he i s found" ; and a l s o t o h i r e m e n f r o m a m o n g t h o s e " w h o h a v e b e c o m e i n s o l v e n t . " Simultaneously the company w a s , a c c o r d i n g t o S h e l i k h o v ' s p l a n , to be g i v e n f i f t y c o n v i c t s who would be e m p l o y e d p r i m a r i l y in f a r m i n g . In t h i s way t h e

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R u s s i a n l a b o r f o r c e w a s to be r e c r u i t e d f r o m p e o p l e with l a p s e d p a s s p o r t s , insolvent d e b t o r s , and convicts, that i s , f r o m c l a s s e s t h a t could be exploited without any t r o u b l e , and who would n e v e r have the opportunity to b r e a k with the c o m pany. T h e n u c l e u s , h o w e v e r , of t h e l a b o r f o r c e i n t h e h u n t i n g p o s t s w a s t o c o n s i s t of n a t i v e s . A c c o r d i n g t o S h e l i k h o v ' s i d e a s , the company was to obtain the n e c e s s a r y contingent of n a t i v e l a b o r e r s by b u y i n g " f r o m t h e A m e r i c a n s a n u m b e r of m e n t h e y h a v e t a k e n p r i s o n e r a n d w h o h a v e b e l o n g e d t o t h e m f o r a l o n g t i m e a n d of w h o m t h e A m e r i c a n s h a v e an a b u n d a n c e . " T h e s e s l a v e s , called " k a l g i , " w e r e to b e c o m e t h e a b s o l u t e p r o p e r t y of t h e C o m p a n y . A s t o t h e A l e u t s a n d t h e p e o p l e of t h e K u r i l e s , t h e C o m p a n y d e m a n d e d t h e r i g h t " t o e x e r c i s e t h e f r e e d o m of h i r i n g t h e m f o r n a v a l p o s t s , o r for other exigencies that might a r i s e in the p r e s e n t e n t e r p r i s e s of t h e c o m p a n y . T h e r e m a i n i n g p o i n t s of S h e l i k h o v ' s p l a n p r o v i d e d f o r t h e g r a n t i n g t o t h e c o m p a n y of t h e p r i v i l e g e of b u i l d i n g i t s own p o r t on t h e Uda R i v e r , s i n c e t h e p o r t of O k h o t s k w a s q u i t e u n s u i t e d f o r handling s h i p s ; and the r i g h t to e s t a b l i s h c o m m e r c i a l r e l a t i o n s with " J a p a n , China, K o r e a , India, the P h i l i p p i n e I s l a n d s and o t h e r i s l a n d s , and in A m e r i c a with t h e S p a n i a r d s a n d t h e A m e r i c a n s . " In a d d i t i o n t o a l l t h i s , on a c c o u n t of t h e l o s s e s i n c u r r e d a s a r e s u l t of t h e c o n t i n u e d s t o p p a g e of t h e K i a k h t a t r a d e , t h e C o m p a n y w a s t o r e c e i v e a 2 0 - y e a r l o a n of 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s a n d a s h i p f r o m t h e p o r t of Okhotsk. F i n a l l y , the ninth and l a s t point r e q u i r e d that "in o r d e r to e n c o u r a g e the people s e r v i n g with the C o m p a n y , who a r e e x e r c i s i n g t h e i r d u t i e s u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e o f f i c i a l s p l a c e d o v e r t h e m a n d u n d e r t h e ' s u p e r v i s i o n of t h e c o m p a n y , it w o u l d b e n e c e s s a r y t o a s s u r e e v e r y one w h o d e s e r v e s i t of r e c o g n i t i o n a n d d i s t i n c t i o n . T h e q u e s t i o n of t h e m o n o p o l y w a s f o r m u l a t e d by S h e l i k h o v with c o m p l e t e f r a n k n e s s only s o m e t i m e l a t e r , a f e w m o n t h s a f t e r he had s u b m i t t e d h i s plan t o the G o v e r n o r - G e n e r a l in the petition to E m p r e s s C a t h e r i n e . Evidently Shelikhov had h a d t i m e t o s a t i s f y h i m s e l f t h a t it w o u l d b e a l l r i g h t t o c o m e out o p e n l y w i t h a r e q u e s t f o r a m o n o p o l y a n d t h a t h i s p l a n s w o u l d n o t m e e t w i t h a n y o p p o s i t i o n in g o v e r n m e n t c i r c l e s . " F u r t h e r m o r e we b e g m o s t h u m b l y , " w r o t e S h e l i k h o v , " t o be p r o t e c t e d , o u r s e l v e s and our p r o p e r t y , f r o m d a n g e r on t h e p a r t of o t h e r p e o p l e w h o m i g h t w a n t t o m a k e u s e of

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our d i s c o v e r i e s a n d , in t h e v e r y s a m e p l a c e s t h a t we h a v e a c q u i r e d , s u p p l i e d , and c o n s t r u c t e d at o u r e x p e n s e and by our l a b o r , a t t a c k and a s s a i l our h u n t i n g - p o s t s , and b r i n g r u i n and d e s t r u c t i o n upon e v e r y t h i n g t h a t we h a v e a l r e a d y b u i l t and t h a t we plan t o build in t h e f u t u r e . " ® At the s a m e t i m e S h e l i k h o v p r u d e n t l y r e d u c e d t h e a m o u n t of t h e s u b v e n t i o n he had r e q u e s t e d f r o m 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 rubles. T h e p l a n s of S h e l i k h o v and of h i s p a r t n e r G o l i k o v w e r e s u b m i t t e d f o r e x a m i n a t i o n t o the C o m m e r c e C o m m i s s i o n w h i c h , in M a r c h 1 7 8 8 , r e c o g n i z e d t h e m a s w o r t h y of c o n s i d e r a t i o n and g a v e t h e m i t s a p p r o v a l . C a t h e r i n e , h o w e v e r , did not a g r e e with t h e C o m m i s s i o n ' s d e c i s i o n . In t h e w o r d s of a S e n a t e d e c r e e of S e p t e m b e r 1 2 , 1 7 8 8 , " i t h a s p l e a s e d H e r I m p e r i a l H i g h n e s s t o o r d e r : l ) t h a t t h e r e q u e s t of t h e s e m e r c h a n t s , in a p e t i t i o n f o r a s u b s i d y of 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s f r o m the T r e a s u r y f o r t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g of t h e i r new e s t a b l i s h m e n t s t h e r e i n m e n t i o n e d and f o r f u r t h e r a c t i v i t i e s be d e n i e d ; 2 ) t h a t H e r H i g h n e s s d o e s not r e g a r d it r i g h t t o give t h e m t h e e x c l u s i v e c o n c e s s i o n t o t h o s e v o y a g e s and t o t h a t t r a d e , s i n c e the g r a n t i n g of s u c h a c o n c e s s i o n would not b e at a l l in a g r e e m e n t with t h e p r i n c i p l e s a d o p t e d by H e r H i g h n e s s f o r a b o l i s h i n g m o n o p o l i e s of no m a t t e r what k i n d ; 3 ) t h a t it w a s i m p o s s i b l e t o p r o v i d e t h e m with an a r m e d c o n t i n g e n t of s o m e one h u n d r e d m e n and with a r t i l l e r y c r e w s , c o n s i d e r i n g the o t h e r w i s e e x i s t i n g n e e d of t r o o p s in t h a t r e g i o n , w h e r e i t i s h a r d l y p o s s i b l e t o b r i n g t h e m in t o m e e t the n e e d . " 9 Of t h e w h o l e plan only point 9 w a s a p p r o v e d , t h a t of r e w a r d i n g t h e m e m b e r s of t h e C o m p a n y . Shelikhov and G o l i k o v w e r e p r e s e n t e d with s w o r d s and m e d a l s " t o w e a r a r o u n d t h e i r n e c k s , with t h e p o r t r a i t of H e r H i g h n e s s on one s i d e and with an e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e a w a r d on t h e o t h e r . " S h e l i k h o v ' s f a i l u r e , h o w e v e r , c a n n o t be e x p l a i n e d by C a t h e r i n e ' s opposition to m o n o p o l i e s . As e a r l y as 1764 she had g r a n t e d t o t h e two c o m p a n i e s of t h e m e r c h a n t s Yugov and T r a p e z n i k o v e x c l u s i v e hunting p r i v i l e g e s , with t h e s t i p u l a t i o n t h a t one t e n t h of a l l t h e p e l t r y w h i c h t h e y o b t a i n e d b e s i d e s t h e f u r - t r i b u t e c o l l e c t e d by t h e m , be handed o v e r t o t h e T r e a s u r y . H o w e v e r , the l o s s of a n u m b e r of s h i p s b e l o n g i n g t o t h o s e c o m p a n i e s r e n d e r e d it i m p o s s i b l e f o r t h e m t o m a k e use of t h e p r i v i l e g e s t h e y had b e e n g r a n t e d . T w o y e a r s l a t e r , in a u k a s e d a t e d M a r c h 2 , 1 7 6 6 , and a d d r e s s e d t o G o v e r n o r C h i c h e r i n of S i b e r i a , C a t h e r i n e a p p r o v e d t h e g r a n t i n g of

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m o n o p o l y r i g h t s t o t h e m e r c h a n t A d r i a n of t h e T o l s t o y s in t h e following w o r d s : "I h e r e b y c o n f i r m your p r o m i s e to the m e r c h a n t Tolstoy that I will g r a n t c e r t a i n p r i v i l e g e s to the company which had p r e v i o u s l y w i t h d r a w n f r o m such a s e a v o y a g e , and r e t u r n t o h i m t h e t e n t h p a r t of t h e f u r - t r i b u t e c o l l e c t e d f r o m t h e s e i s l a n d s and o r i g i n a l l y t a k e n f r o m him."^·®

But t h i s c o m p a n y w a s a l s o u n a b l e t o r e a l i z e t h e p r i v i l e g e s g r a n t e d t o i t , b e c a u s e it w a s e c o n o m i c a l l y w e a k . T h e r e f o r e , the a s s e r t i o n that the r e f u s a l to grant m o nopoly p r i v i l e g e s t o S h e l i k h o v ' s c o m p a n y w a s m o t i v a t e d by t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h a t s u c h a g r a n t " w o u l d not b e in a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e p r i n c i p l e s a d o p t e d by H e r I m p e r i a l H i g h n e s s " h a r d l y c o n f o r m e d t o t h e t r u t h . It i s e v i d e n t t h a t C a t h e r i n e r e f u s e d t h e r e q u e s t of S h e l i k h o v ' s c o m p a n y on a c c o u n t of t h e g e n e r a l p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n of R u s s i a a t t h a t t i m e . T h e w a r w i t h T u r k e y b e g a n in 1 7 8 7 , a n d t h e w a r w i t h S w e d e n b r o k e out in 1 7 8 8 . It w a s n e c e s s a r y a g a i n t o c e n t e r a l l a t t e n t i o n on t h e E u r o p e a n c o n t i n e n t . D u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d , t o o , t h e a l l i a n c e between England and T s a r i s t R u s s i a a s s u m e s a m o r e definite f o r m , an a l l i a n c e which w a s f i n a l l y c o n s o l i d a t e d i n 1791 b y t h e i r j o i n t a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e m i d d l e c l a s s revolution in F r a n c e . The d e s i r e to p r e s e r v e f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s w i t h E n g l a n d w a s , f u r t h e r m o r e , i n t e n s i f i e d by t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e t h a t t h e o u t c o m e of t h e t w o w a r s i n w h i c h R u s s i a w a s e n g a g e d d e p e n d e d , t o a l a r g e e x t e n t , upon t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e E n g l i s h g o v e r n m e n t w i t h r e l a t i o n t o T u r k e y and Sweden. T h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t c o n s i d e r e d it s i m p l y i m p o s s i b l e to g r a n t at that t i m e any f r a n c h i s e s to any t r a d i n g c o m p a n y w h a t s o e v e r t h a t w a s a c t i v e in A m e r i c a . It would have m e a n t giving official s a n c t i o n to a c t i v i t i e s which w o u l d e n c r o a c h upon t h e i n t e r e s t s of E n g l a n d . T h a t w a s a p p a r e n t l y the decisive r e a s o n that p r o m p t e d C a t h e r i n e to postpone for a time the plan for creating a monopolistic company. Shelikhov and Golikov, the two a s p i r a n t s to a monopoly, w e r e c o m p e l l e d in s p i t e of r o y a l f a v o r s , t o f o r t i f y t h e m s e l v e s w i t h a g r e a t d e a l of p a t i e n c e , a n d in t h e m e a n t i m e , t o p r e s e r v e t h e i r p r e d o m i n a n c e i n t h e t r a d i n g - p o s t s on t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t a n d t o n u r s e t h e i r c o n t a c t s in C o u r t ; f o r ,

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o t h e r w i s e , t h e i r p r i v i l e g e s m i g h t f a l l into t h e h a n d s of o t h e r s , t h e m o m e n t it should b e c o m e p o s s i b l e t o g r a n t t h e m . Utilizing the p a t r o n a g e of Z u b o v , C a t h e r i n e ' s . f a v o r i t e , S h e l i k h o v t r i e d t o a t t r a c t t h e E m p r e s s ' a t t e n t i o n by h i s a c t i v i t y . S m i t t e n with unusual z e a l f o r the G r e e k O r t h o d o x C h u r c h , he s w a m p s h e r with r e q u e s t s f o r p e r m i s s i o n t o e r e c t c h u r c h e s in t h e c o l o n i e s , s i n c e t h e a p p e a r a n c e of t h e R u s s i a n s in t h o s e p a r t s " k i n d l e s i n . . . t h o s e p e o p l e s who h a v e no l a w of any kind t h e e a g e r n e s s to b e c o m e C h r i s t i a n s . " Simultaneously, Shelikhov's p a r t n e r G o l i k o v b e s i e g e s t h e h o u s e s of t h e Synod a u t h o r i t i e s in S t . P e t e r s b u r g , e n t r e a t i n g t h e m t o s e n d a c l e r i c a l m i s s i o n t o A m e r i c a at t h e c o m p a n y ' s e x p e n s e , s i n c e c l o s e t o 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 natives a r e waiting t h e r e " f o r God's e n l i g h t e n m e n t . " The p e r s e v e r a n c e of t h e m e r c h a n t s f r o m R y l s k and K u r s k h a d i t s r e s u l t s ; C a t h e r i n e o r d e r e d t h e Synod t o a s s i s t S h e l i k h o v and G o l i k o v " i n e s t a b l i s h i n g and p r o p a g a t i n g t h e O r t h o d o x f a i t h a m o n g the p e o p l e s of N o r t h A m e r i c a . " U T h e r e a l a t t i t u d e , h o w e v e r , of t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e d b u s i n e s s m e n t o w a r d s " t h e m i n i s t e r s of r e l i g i o n " f i n d s e x p r e s s i o n in one of G . I . S h e l i k h o v ' s l e t t e r s t o A . A . B a r a n o v , G e n e r a l M a n a g e r of the C o m p a n y ' s c o l o n y in A m e r i c a . T h a t l e t t e r , s u p e r c o n f i d e n t i a l in c h a r a c t e r , w a s s e n t out at t h e s a m e t i m e a s w a s a n o t h e r l e t t e r d e a l i n g with the s a m e q u e s t i o n s but in an o f f i c i a l c a p a c i t y . " W e c o n s i d e r i t n e c e s s a r y , " w r o t e S h e l i k h o v on A u g u s t 9 , 1 7 9 4 , " t o w r i t e t o you h e r e b y , s t r i c t l y f o r y o u r own c o n s u m p t i o n , t h e f o l l o w i n g t h i n g s c o n c e r n i n g t h e b u s i n e s s of t h e C o m p a n y , b e c a u s e our l e t t e r t o you about t h e new s e t t l e m e n t i s t o b e p r e s e n t e d t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t w h i c h i s not s u p p o s e d t o know our i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s . " T e l l i n g of t h e c o m i n g a r r i v a l of t h e c l e r i c a l m i s s i o n in t h e c o l o n y , S h e l i k h o v o r d e r s t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a m o n a s t e r y in t h e v i l l a g e f o r t h e u s e of t h e m i s s i o n , and a d d s , not without m a l i c e , t h a t it should be " s o built t o g e t h e r with t h e c h u r c h t h a t t h e m o n k s should be unable t o s e e what the l a y b r o t h e r s a r e d o i n g , and the l a y b r o t h e r s s h o u l d be unable t o s e e what the monks a r e doing. At the s a m e t i m e G r i g o r y S h e l i k h o v did not n e g l e c t t h e e x p a n s i o n of h i s c o m m e r c i a l o p e r a t i o n s on t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t . H i s p l a n s w e r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d by b r e a d t h of s c o p e , r e v e a l i n g h i m a s a m a n of g r e a t a b i l i t y , endowed with the s p i r i t of e n t e r p r i s e , and f a r in a d v a n c e of h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . In h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of F e b r u a r y 1 1 , 1 7 9 0 , t o G o v e r n o r G e n e r a l P i l of I r k u t s k , S h e l i k h o v , " f o r t h e p u r p o s e of l e a r n i n g

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about the s h o r e s of t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t t h a t e x t e n d t o w a r d t h e N o r t h P o l e , " p r o p o s e s a plan f o r an e x p e d i t i o n to t h e A r c t i c , " i n o r d e r t o d i s p a t c h s h i p s d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e m o u t h of L e n a , I n d i g i r k a o r K o l y m a t o the o p p o s i t e A m e r i c a n s h o r e s , f o r m e a s u r i n g t h e width at t h a t point and f o r studying the r o u t e s in t h a t p a r t of t h e A r c t i c S e a and t h e B e r i n g S t r a i t . " S i m u l t a n e o u s l y with t h i s e x p e d i t i o n , a n o t h e r e x p e d i t i o n w a s t o e x p l o r e t h e w h o l e e x p a n s e b e t w e e n O k h o t s k and n o r t h of t h e B e r i n g S t r a i t , p r o c e e d i n g a l o n g t h e A l e u t i a n c h a i n . In t h e s a m e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n S h e l i k h o v r e t u r n s anew t o t h e q u e s t i o n of g r a n t i n g h i s c o m p a n y c e r t a i n p r i v i l e g e s , although he now r e n o u n c e s h i s c l a i m t o a g o v e r n m e n t l o a n in t h e s e w o r d s : " A s to o u r r e q u e s t at t h a t t i m e f o r a l o a n in t h e f o r m of a 1^ s u m of m o n e y , t h a t we now w a i v e . " N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the c o n c e s s i o n s w h i c h t h e c o m p a n y w a s r e a d y t o m a k e , t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e p r i v i l e g e s w a s not y e t r i p e f o r a p o s i t i v e s o l u t i o n ; f o r S h e l i k h o v ' s f a i l u r e in h i s n e g o t i a t i o n s w a s , a s we h a v e n o t e d , by no m e a n s c a u s e d by f i n a n c i a l considerations·. S t i l l , while r e f u s i n g to grant to t h e S h e l i k h o v c o m p a n y t h e p r i v i l e g e s it r e q u e s t e d , t h e g o v e r n m e n t w a s a t the s a m e t i m e c a r e f u l l y c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t c o m pany a s a p o s s i b l e n u c l e u s f o r a m o n o p o l y o r g a n i z a t i o n w h i c h would in t i m e be c h a r g e d with t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n and d e f e n s e of the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a . " I b e l i e v e , " w r o t e G o v e r n o r - G e n e r a l P i l of I r k u t s k t o C a t h e r i n e in 1 7 9 0 , " t h a t if the s h i p s t h a t t h e S h e l i k h o v c o m pany h a s on hand w e r e t o be c o m b i n e d with t h e o t h e r R u s s i a n t r a d i n g v e s s e l s t h a t a r e p l y i n g t h e w a t e r s of t h o s e r e g i o n s , and i f a l l of t h e m w e r e g e n e r a l l y t o a g r e e on r e g a r d i n g a s t h e i r m a i n o b j e c t not t h e m e r e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e i r own b e n e f i t , but would w i l l i n g l y p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e c u r b i n g of f o r e i g n h u n t e r s and t r a d e r s , only t h e n , it s e e m s t o m e , it m a y be e x p e c t e d , though not d i r e c t l y , t h a t , t h r o u g h t h e i r e f f o r t s , t h e a u d a c i t y of t h e E u r o p e a n s in p i l f e r i n g t h e t r e a s u r e s b e longing to R u s s i a will d i m i n i s h . " ^ B u t , i f it w a s p o s s i b l e , t o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e , t o count on t h e c o m p a n y f l e e t in t h e e v e n t of a c l a s h with f o r e i g n t r a j p e r s , t h a t f l e e t w a s , of c o u r s e , i n c a p a b l e of p l a y i n g any p a r t w h a t s o e v e r in the e v e n t of a r m e d r e s i s t a n c e on t h e p a r t of s o m e f o r e i g n p o w e r . T h e g r a n t i n g of a f r a n c h i s e had t o be p o s t poned until s u c h t i m e a s a s e c u r e m i l i t a r y b a s e had b e e n c r e a t e d in t h e P a c i f i c . T h i s thought i s v e r y c l e a r l y e x p r e s s ed in one of t h e r e p o r t s t o C a t h e r i n e by t h e s a m e G o v e r n o r -

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G e n e r a l P i l of I r k u t s k . W h i l e giving h i s full a p p r o v a l to t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e S h e l i k h o v - G o l i k o v C o m p a n y , P i l b e l i e v e d t h a t " t h e p r o f i t a b l e a d v a n c e of the C o m p a n y along t h e A m e r i c a n c o a s t " would be p o s s i b l e only when " t h e p o r t on the Uda had b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d and o u r m i l i t a r y f o r c e s had b e e n i n creased. In the e x p e c t a t i o n of a f a v o r a b l e s i t u a t i o n S h e l i k h o v a i m e d t o put the c o l o n i e s in " p r o p e r " s h a p e , s i n c e t h e y would, in t h e n e a r f u t u r e , be s u p p o s e d to a t t a i n t h e s a m e c o n d i t i o n a s t h e E n g l i s h c o l o n i e s in t h e E a s t I n d i e s . He w o r k e d out a s e r i e s of m e a s u r e s , a l l a p p r o v e d by t h e G o v e r n o r - G e n e r a l of I r k u t s k , t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of w h i c h w a s to b e g i n in 1 7 9 5 . S h e l i k h o v o r d e r e d B a r a n o v , a d m i n i s t r a t o r of the C o m p a n y ' s a f f a i r s on t h e i s l a n d s and in A m e r i c a , to find a p l a c e s u i t a b l e f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a c o l o n i a l c e n t e r . " I f i n d , " w r o t e S h e l i k h o v to h i m , " t h a t it i s i n c o m p a r a b l y b e t t e r t o e s t a b l i s h a p e r m a n e n t R u s s i a n s e t t l e m e n t on the m a i n l a n d than on an i s l a n d w h e r e f o r e i g n e r s c a n a l w a y s c o m e , f r o m w h o m , in c a s e of n e c e s s i t y , it i s a l s o e a s i e r t o find r e f u g e on t h e m a i n l a n d ; and in g e n e r a l , f o r t h e p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s known t o y o u , g r e a t e r e f f o r t s should be m a d e t o o c c u p y t h e m a i n l a n d r a t h e r than the i s l a n d s . " ^ S h e l i k h o v paid e s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n to the e x t e r n a l planning of t h i s c e n t e r of R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s on t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t , emphasizing repeatedly that "the s e t t l e m e n t should, a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e , be built in good t a s t e , and with the n e c e s s a r y c o m f o r t s , s o t h a t it m i g h t , f r o m t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g , h a v e t h e c h a r a c t e r of a c i t y and not of a v i l l a g e , in o r d e r t h a t when a f o r e i g n v e s s e l a r r i v e s , and it should be i m p o s s i b l e t o get r i d of i t , it would be p o s s i b l e to b o a s t t h a t t h e R u s s i a n s l i v e in good o r d e r and t h a t the f o r e i g n e r s should not t h i n k t h a t t h e R u s s i a n s l i v e j u s t a s a b o m i n a b l y in A m e r i c a a s t h e y do in O k h o t s k w h e r e t h e a i r i s foul and a l l t h e n e c e s s i t i e s a r e lacking."17 S h e l i k h o v ' s p r o p o s e d plan f o r t h i s new c i t y w h i c h w a s t o be c a l l e d " S l a v o r o s s i y a " ( G l o r y of R u s s i a ) - - a n a m e w h i c h w a s t o be a p p l i e d to t h e whole r e g i o n - - i n c l u d e d the l a y i n g out of wide s t r e e t s with i d e n t i c a l h o u s e s , b r o a d s q u a r e s w h e r e t h e p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s would be c o n c e n t r a t e d and w h e r e , in t i m e , a s e r i e s of o b e l i s k s would be r a i s e d in " h o n o r of t h e R u s s i a n p a t r i o t s . " " A n d big s t r o n g g a t e s should be e r e c t ed f o r t h e e n t r y and e x i t , " S h e l i k h o v o r d e r e d B a r a n o v , " a n d t h e y s h o u l d a p p r o p r i a t e l y be c a l l e d ' R u s s i a n G a t e s , ' o r

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'Chugach G a t e s , ' or ' K i n a i G a t e s , ' or e l s e something like ' G l o r y of R u s s i a ' o r ' G l o r y of A m e r i c a . ' And t h e y should a l w a y s be b o l t e d , and p e o p l e should be a l l o w e d in and out only upon y o u r o r d e r s . . . . T h e r e d o u b t s t o o , should be n a m e d in h o n o r of our g r e a t h e r e d i t a r y r e i g n i n g s o v e r e i g n s . These f o r t s should e a c h h a v e a s m a n y a s t w e n t y c a n n o n , s o t h a t t h e y c o u l d o p e r a t e in a l l d i r e c t i o n s , and one cannon s h o u l d b e m o u n t e d i n s i d e t h e s e t t l e m e n t , by the m a i n g u a r d , in c a s e of n e c e s s i t y . " In t h e m o r n i n g at t h e f l a g - r a i s i n g c e r e m o n y , b o y s " i n s t r u c t e d in m u s i c " should b e a t the d r u m , and in the e v e n i n g t h e r e s h o u l d be " m u s i c s o m e t i m e s in t h e f o r t r e s s o r on the r e d o u b t s . " " N o w in o r d e r t o l e n d g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e t o the s e t t l e m e n t in c a s e of a v i s i t f r o m f o r e i g n o r n a t i v e v i s i t o r s , you would do w e l l to put n i c e j a c k e t s , l i k e t h o s e w o r n by m i l i t a r y m e n , on t h e t r a p p e r s you b r o u g h t o v e r t o the s e t t l e m e n t t o b e c o m e s k i l l e d w o r k e r s , and give t h e m a r m s when n e c e s s a r y , only t h e y should w e a r t h e i r b a y o n e t s at t h e i r s i d e . " ^ ® About 1 7 9 4 B a r a n o v had 149 m e n under h i s c o m m a n d on K o d i a k . D u r i n g 1 7 9 4 , a n o t h e r 123 m e n w e r e s e n t t o h i m by b o a t f r o m O k h o t s k , i n c l u d i n g s o m e a r t i s a n s and p e a s a n t s f r o m a m o n g t h e c o n v i c t s , who w e r e b e i n g s e n t to K o d i a k by o r d e r of C a t h e r i n e . Adding t o t h e m t h e A l e u t s and I n d i a n s , B a r a n o v had at h i s d i s p o s a l c e r t a i n f o r c e s t h a t he could a l r e a d y u s e in a t t e m p t i n g t o r e a l i z e t h e plan o u t l i n e d f o r e s t a b lishing " S l a v o r o s s i y a . " T h e plan w a s t o e x t e n d two t y p e s of i n d u c e m e n t s t o the n a t i v e s t o s e t t l e in " S l a v o r o s s i y a . " On t h e one h a n d , t h e r e w e r e the n a t i v e s who w o r k e d f o r t h e C o m p a n y and who w e r e , a p p a r e n t l y , t o be c o l o n i z e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y ; on t h e o t h e r hand t h e r e w e r e the " k a l g i " , o r s l a v e s , a p a r t of w h o m had b e e n h a n d e a o v e r t o t h e R u s s i a n s e t t l e r s in d i r e c t v a s s a l a g e . " Y o u s h o u l d be f i g u r i n g out w a y s , " S h e l i k h o v p o i n t s out t o B a r a n o v , " t o i n d u c e an i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r of A m e r i c a n s , both m e n and w o m e n , t o s e t t l e in t h e new c o l o n y , s o t h a t it m a y be p o s s i b l e with a g r e a t m a n y p e o p l e t o t i l l and sow e v e r y t h i n g m o r e s p e e d i l y and m o r e e a s i l y . In t h i s w a y , t o o , the A m e r i c a n w i l l m o r e s p e e d i l y and m o r e e a s i l y b e c o m e a c c u s t o m e d t o o u r way of l i f e . In p a r t i c u l a r it i s p o s s i b l e t o u t i l i z e f o r t h i s p u r p o s e t h e r a n s o m e d p r i s o n e r s and t h o s e who a r e y e t t o be r a n s o m e d and w h o , by r i g h t of r a n s o m , m a y be r e l i e d upon t o a g r e a t e r d e g r e e t h a n the o t h e r s t o o b e y t h e s e t t l e r s t o whom t h e y would be handed o v e r to h e l p with the w o r k and

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who would be under s t r i c t n o t i c e t o t r y , by kind t r e a t m e n t , t o win t h e i r a t t a c h m e n t . " 1 9 By distributing the s l a v e s among the R u s s i a n s e t t l e r s , S h e l i k h o v wanted t o c r e a t e a c l a s s of p e r m a n e n t l y " w e l l - t o do" c o l o n i s t s who would be c o m p l e t e l y bound up e c o n o m i c a l l y with t h e A m e r i c a n s e t t l e m e n t s . E v e r y t h i n g had thus b e e n p r o v i d e d f o r , s o t h a t when t h e t i m e c a m e to t r a n s f o r m the t r a d e a s s o c i a t i o n s belonging to the S h e l i k h o v - G o l i k o v Company into a m o n o p o l i s t i c o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e new c o m p a n y would at o n c e be a b l e t o d e v e l o p i t s a c t i v i t y . In 1 7 9 4 S h e l i k h o v o r g a n i z e d t h e new " N o r t h e r n C o m p a n y , " not a s a t e m p o r a r y a s s o c i a t i o n but a s a p e r m a n e n t l y a c t i v e c o m p a n y . A r t i c l e 2 of t h e o v e r - a l l c o n t r a c t of the N o r t h e r n C o m p a n y r e a d s a s f o l l o w s : " T h i s c o m p a n y i s not t o be r e g a r d e d a s c o n s i s t i n g of j u s t one v e s s e l w h i c h we w i l l s e n d out f r o m t h i s t i m e f o r w a r d , and be l i k e the o t h e r c o m p a n i e s t h a t h a v e a d e f i n i t e t e r m f o r d i s p a t c h i n g s h i p s with f r e i g h t ; it i s , on t h e c o n t r a r y , t o be r e g a r d e d a s a p e r m a n e n t c o m p a n y , one t h a t d o e s not c h a n g e in a c c o r d a n c e with t h e n u m b e r of v e s s e l s it h a s , f o r t h e i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e in t h e i r n u m b e r f o r t h e p u r p o s e s of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and e x p l o r a t i o n w i l l depend upon u s , in p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e s u c c e s s we s h a l l h a v e achieved." P a r a l l e l with t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a s e t t l e m e n t in A m e r i c a S h e l i k h o v w a s p r e o c c u p i e d in t h o s e y e a r s with n u m e r o u s p l a n s f o r opening up new m a r k e t s f o r R u s s i a n t r a d e . He w a s busy negotiating f o r p e r m i s s i o n to send " m e r c h a n t ships to C a n t o n , M a c a o , B a t a v i a , t h e P h i l i p p i n e s and the M a r i a n a s with p r o d u c t s and m a n u f a c t u r e d a r t i c l e s o b t a i n a b l e in A m e r i c a and p a r t l y in R u s s i a , and t o b r i n g b a c k t o A m e r i c a f r o m t h o s e p l a c e s a l l t h a t t h e R u s s i a n s s e t t l i n g t h e r e and t h e native inhabitants n e e d . " ^ His plan t o e x p l o r e t h e m o u t h of t h e A m u r , a p r o j e c t w h i c h w a s t o b e u n d e r t a k e n by t h e T s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t only in the 1 8 4 0 ' s and 1 8 5 0 ' s i s a l s o of e x t r a o r d i n a r y i n t e r e s t . S h e l i k h o v p r o p o s e d t h a t the e x p e d i t i o n " s h o u l d p r o c e e d a l o n g t h e c r e s t of t h e b r o k e n m o u n t a i n r a n g e w h i c h h a s i t s i n c e p t i o n in t h e I r k u t s k G o v e r n m e n t , n e a r L a k e B a i k a l , t h e n s w e e p s on e a s t w a r d and t e r m i n a t e s at t h e s h o r e of t h e s e a i n t o w h i c h flow t h e f a m o u s A m u r R i v e r and t h a t o t h e r r i v e r t h e U d a . . . .

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C o m i n g down t o t h e s e a , t h e e x p e d i t i o n s h o u l d s e a r c h f o r a site w h e r e company v e s s e l s might find a safe landing place." G r i g o r y Shelikhov did not live to s e e the d a y , h o w e v e r , w h e n t h e c o m p a n y c r e a t e d by h i m r e c e i v e d f r a n c h i s e s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e e n j o y e d by t h e E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y . In 1 7 9 5 , " i n t h e m i d s t of h i s e x p l o i t s , h e d e p a r t e d f r o m t h i s w o r l d , leaving to his b e r e a v e d widow and c h i l d r e n the m a n a g e m e n t of a l l a f f a i r s r e l a t i n g t o A m e r i c a . " ^ It w a s d a r i n g t h a t p e r i o d t h a t t h e s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n t h e c o m p e t i n g c o m p a n i e s r e a c h e d i t s c l i m a x . In t h e c o l o n i e s t h i s s t r u g g l e h a d a l m o s t a s s u m e d t h e f o r m of o p e n w a r f a r e b e t w e e n t h e t r a p p e r s of t h e r i v a l a s s o c i a t i o n s . T h e s i t u a t i o n of t h e S h e l i k h o v C o m p a n y b e c a m e m o r e a n d m o r e d i f f i c u l t . H e r e i s w h a t B a r a n o v , G e n e r a l M a n a g e r of t h e Shelikhov Company, w r i t e s to his e m p l o y e r s f r o m the port of P a v l o v s k i n M a y 1795: " T h e ' L e b e d e v s k y s ' [ i . e . t h e f u r - h u n t e r s of L e b e d e v Lastochkin Company. - - A u : ] have occupied all. . .the suitable p l a c e s . We s h o u l d h a v e f l o w n i n t o a r a g e , b u t w e a r e p o w e r l e s s , - - w e a r e c u t off f r o m a l l t h e f e e d i n g p l a c e s . E v e n b e f o r e t h i s , B a r a n o v h a d r e p o r t e d a t t a c k s m a d e by t h e " L e b e d e v s k y s " b o t h on t h e n a t i v e s w o r k i n g on c o m p a n y p r o j e c t s a n d on r e g u l a r S h e l i k h o v w o r k e r s : "Now I a m going to t e l l you about the ' L e b e d e v s k y s , ' a n d how t h e y . . . j o i n i n g t o g e t h e r i n t h e t w o v e s s e l s , t h e ' J o h n ' a n d t h e ' G e o r g e , ' m a d e it a h a b i t t o d o h a r m t o o u r c o m p a n y a n d h a v e i n d e e d b e g u n t o f o r c e u s out of h e r e . F i r s t t h e y s e i z e d t h e B a y of K a c h i k m a t a l o n g t h e Gulf of K e n a i a n d e s t a b l i s h e d a l a r g e a r t e l t h e r e , a n d w o u l d not l e t us e n g a g e in f o x - h u n t i n g , e v e n w h e r e we p r o v e d t o t h e m t h a t we h a d b e e n t h e o r i g i n a l o c c u p a n t s of t h e w i n t e r c a b i n we h a d b u i l t . . . . A n d f i n a l l y , b y w a y of c o n f i r m a t i o n , I a l s o r e c e i v e d bad news f r o m Malakhov^-' a m d f r o m the Gulf of K e n a i , t h a t t h e y h a d a c t u a l l y s t o p p e d a t o u r a r t e l - s i x t y of t h e m , i n c l u d i n g R u s s i a n s a n d a f e w d i s s e n t e r s - a n d a l r e a d y b e g u n t o a c t in a h o s t i l e m a n n e r . W h i l e s o m e of t h e m p u t o u r R u s s i a n w o r k e r K o t e l n i k o v u n d e r g u a r d , a f e w of t h e d i s s e n t e r s s e i z e d o u r c a n o e s a n d r e m o v e d the g u n - c a r r i a g e s , and so f o r t h f r o m those that h a d t h e m , b e a t i n g a n d m u t i l a t i n g t h e w o r k e r s , t y i n g up t h o s e u n a b l e t o s a v e t h e m s e l v e s in f l i g h t , t h r o w i n g t h e m into the c a n o e s , and c a r r y i n g t h e m o f f . " ^

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T h e f a r t h e r c o m m e r c i a l i n d e p e n d e n c e of a l l t h e o t h e r m e r c h a n t s w a s c o n t i n g e n t upon t h e s t r u g g l e with t h e S h e l i khov C o m p a n y w h i c h c l a i m e d t h e e x c l u s i v e r i g h t t o t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of the A m e r i c a n f u r - t r a d e . T h e death of S h e l i k h o v and G o l i k o v ' s r e t i r e m e n t f r o m t h e d i r e c t o r s h i p of the C o m pany m a d e t h e t a s k of t h e o t h e r m e r c h a n t s c o n s i d e r a b l y easier. " M a n y I r k u t s k m e r c h a n t s , " we r e a d in a m e m o r a n d u m p r e s e n t e d by S h e l i k h o v ' s h e i r s t o t h e B o a r d of C o m m e r c e , " h a v e for many y e a r s been nursing a grudge against t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e l a t e S h e l i k h o v , a c c u s i n g h i m of h a v i n g b e e n t h e one to t a k e away t h e i r t r a d e on t h e P a c i f i c ( E a s t e r n ) S e a and e n r i c h i n g h i m s e l f in the v e r y a r e a w h e r e it w a s p r o p e r only f o r t h e m t o e n r i c h t h e m s e l v e s . T h e y b e g a n t o plot in v a r i o u s w a y s a g a i n s t S h e l i k h o v ' s widow, now b r i n g i n g p a p e r l a w s u i t s a g a i n s t h e r , now s l a n d e r i n g h e r b e f o r e t h e a u t h o r i t i e s - - a n d , m o s t i m p o r t a n t of a l l , w o r k i n g d i s h o n o r ably to undermine h e r c r e d i t . " 2 7 T h e c o m p a n y of S h e l i k h o v ' s h e i r s w a s t h r e a t e n e d with d e c l i n e , and only by s e c u r i n g f o r i t s e l f t h e r i g h t of m o n o p o l y t o t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a would i t h a v e had t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o f r e e i t s e l f of i t s r i v a l s and t o m a i n t a i n i t s p r e d o m i n a n t p o s i t i o n in hunting and t r a d i n g in the P a c i f i c . T h e f e r o c i o u s competitive struggle among the R u s s i a n hunting c o m p a n i e s w h i c h w a s m o r e and m o r e a s s u m i n g t h e f o r m of open c o m b a t , p r e s e n t e d new o p p o r t u n i t i e s to t h e m e r c h a n t s f r o m o t h e r l a n d s . T a k i n g a d v a n t a g e of the w e a k n e s s of t h e R u s s i a n f u r - h u n t e r s , t h e f o r e i g n m e r c h a n t s , e s p e c i a l l y the E n g l i s h , s t a r t e d t o m a k e m o r e f r e q u e n t m a r a u d ing e x p e d i t i o n s f o r f u r s on t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t . T h e s i t u a t i o n in t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a and on t h e i s l a n d s h a d , by t h e end of t h e 1 7 9 0 ' s , b e c o m e a q u e s t i o n of t h e i r very existence . A s K a r l M a r x w r o t e in h i s e s s a y on " T h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of I n d i a " : " W h e n the c o m p a n y of E n g l i s h a d v e n t u r e r - m e r c h a n t s , who c o n q u e r e d India f o r t h e p u r p o s e of whipping s o m e m o n e y out of i t , b e g a n t o e x p a n d the n e t w o r k of i t s t r a d i n g - p o s t s and c o n v e r t t h e m i n t o a r e a l g o v e r n m e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n , i t s c o m p e t i t i o n with the Dutch and F r e n c h p r i v a t e m e r c h a n t s b e g a n to a s s u m e t h e c h a r a c t e r of n a t i o n a l r i v a l r y , and t h e E n g l i s h g o v e r n m e n t c o u l d n o t , of c o u r s e , h e l p t a k i n g a hand in t h e a f f a i r s of the E a s t India C o m p a n y . . . . " 2 8 S o t h a t when the r i v a l r y b e t w e e n the R u s s i a n a d v e n t u r e r m e r -

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chants and the E n g l i s h , like the competition between the E n g l i s h and the Dutch and the English and the F r e n c h , also a s s u m e d t h e c h a r a c t e r of n a t i o n a l r i v a l r y , t h e R u s s i a n g o v e r n m e n t i n t e r v e n e d d e c i s i v e l y in t h e a f f a i r s of t h e h u n t i n g c o m panies . T h i s i n t e r v e n t i o n b e c a m e p o s s i b l e , h o w e v e r , only in t h e l a s t y e a r s of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w h e n a s a r e s u l t of E n g l a n d ' s a c t i v e opposition to new R u s s i a n a t t e m p t s to i n f i l t r a t e into T u r k e y , r e l a t i o n s between the two c o u n t r i e s b e c a m e s t r a i n e d . It w a s t h i s r u p t u r e w i t h E n g l a n d t h a t p r e s e n t e d R u s s i a with the opportunity to r e a l i z e the plans which w e r e i m p o s s i b l e of a c h i e v e m e n t in t h e p r e c e d i n g p e r i o d of f r i e n d ship with the E n g l i s h g o v e r n m e n t , a f r i e n d s h i p which had b e e n f o r t i f i e d by t h e n e c e s s i t y of f o r m i n g a u n i t e d f r o n t a g a i n s t t h e m i d d l e c l a s s r e v o l u t i o n in F r a n c e . Emperor P a u l f o l l o w e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e p a t h a l r e a d y m a r k e d out in t h e r e i g n of C a t h e r i n e . He a i m e d t o c r e a t e a n o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t w o u l d f i r m l y c a r r y out t h e p o l i c y of f o r c i n g t h e E n g l i s h t r a d i n g c o m p a n i e s out of A l a s k a , t h e A l e u t i a n s , a n d C h i n a , and would, at the s a m e t i m e , p r o c e e d with f u r t h e r e x p a n s i o n . On J u n e 9, 1 7 9 7 , P a u l , a t t h e i n s t a n c e of G o v e r n o r N a g e l of I r k u t s k , p r o m u l g a t e d a d e c i s i o n in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e n e w l y c r e a t e d c o m p a n y , h e a d e d by t h e m e r c h a n t M y l n i k o v , in w h i c h h e o r d e r e d " t h a t a p p r o v a l b e g i v e n in t h i s m a t t e r w i t h o u t h a r m i n g t h e a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d c o m p a n y of t h e f i r s t a c q u i s i t o r S h e l i k h o v , a n d t h a t t h e p r o p e r m e a s u r e s be t a k e n t o g a t h e r . . . i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h o s e p a r t i c i p a t i n g in t h a t c o m p a n y . "29 A c c o r d i n g t o c o l l e c t e d i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e c a p i t a l of t h e M y l n i k o v C o m p a n y , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e g r e a t n u m b e r of c o p a r t n e r s , s l i g h t l y e x c e e d e d 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s . It b e c o m e s c l e a r f r o m t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e on t h e b a n on t h e c o m p a n y ' s o p e r a t i o n s t h a t t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e b a n d i d n o t by a n y m e a n s l i e in t h e n e c e s s i t y of d e f e n d i n g t h e i n t e r e s t s of " t h e f i r s t a c q u i s i t o r " Shelikhov, but in that a p p r e h e n s i o n that a c o m p a n y w i t h s u c h m e a g e r r e s o u r c e s m i g h t n o t be a b l e t o p r e vent "the A m e r i c a n a c q u i s i t i o n s f r o m falling a p r e y to t h o s e p o w e r s that have long looked with envious e y e s at the infant c o m p a n i e s in t h i s f i e l d . T h e o p i n i o n of t h e B o a r d of C o m m e r c e t h a t it w a s n e c e s s a r y t o l i m i t t h e n u m b e r of c o m p a n i e s d o i n g b u s i n e s s on t h e i s l a n d s a n d on t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t a n d t o g i v e p r e f e r e n t i a l t r e a t m e n t to S h e l i k h o v ' s c o m p a n y h a d , a p p a r e n t l y , b e c o m e

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k n o w n in I r k u t s k p r i o r t o t h e o f f i c i a l d e c i s i o n . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n c a u s e d t h e g r o u p of I r k u t s k m e r c h a n t s w h o j o i n e d Mylnikov's company to change their t a c t i c s slightly and to t r y , by u n i t i n g w i t h t h e c o m p a n y of S h e l i k h o v ' s a n d G o l i k o v ' s h e i r s , t o o b t a i n t h e r i g h t t o o p e r a t e in t h e A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s . On J u n e 2 0 , 1 7 9 7 , t h e s o - c a l l e d u n i o n b e t w e e n t h e S h e l i k h o v - G o l i k o v C o m p a n y a n d t h e o n e h e a d e d by M y l n i k o v w a s c o n s u m m a t e d - - t h e latter company having actually been o r g a n i z e d b e f o r e it h a d r e c e i v e d p e r m i s s i o n t o d o s o f r o m t h e B o a r d of C o m m e r c e . T h e n e w c o m p a n y r e c e i v e d t h e n a m e of " S o y e d i n e n n a y a A m e r i k a n s k a y a K o m p a n i y a " ( U n i t e d A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y ) . B u t in j o i n i n g w i t h S h e l i k h o v ' s h e i r s t o h e l p e s t a b l i s h t h e U n i t e d A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , t h e o r g a n i z e r s of the "Irkutskaya K o m m e r c h e s k a y a Mylnikova s t o v a r i s h c h a m i k o m p a n i y a " ( C o m m e r c i a l C o m p a n y of M y l n i k o v a n d A s s o c i a t e s of I r k u t s k ) h a d n o i n t e n t i o n t o u n d e r t a k e a n y j o i n t a c t i o n , but o n l y t o e v a d e t h e b a r r i e r s w h i c h h a d b e e n r a i s e d a g a i n s t a l l n e w l y c r e a t e d c o m p a n i e s a s a r e s u l t of P a u l ' s d e c i s i o n . In t h i s i n t r i c a t e c o m m e r c i a l c o m b i n a t i o n M y l n i k o v o p e r a t e d w i t h t h e a i d of G o l i k o v w h o , a l t h o u g h h e w a s r e g a r d e d a s a p a r t n e r of S h e l i k h o v ' s , h a d in f a c t w i t h d r a w n f r o m a l l d i r e c t m a n a g e m e n t of t h e a f f a i r s of t h e C o m p a n y . T h r e a t e n ing to l e a v e the C o m p a n y c o m p l e t e l y and to w i t h d r a w his i n v e s t m e n t , Golikov, whom Mylnikov had paid a c e r t a i n s u m f o r t h i s , o b t a i n e d t h e c o n s e n t of S h e l i k h o v ' s w i d o w t o t h e union with M y l n i k o v . T h e l a t t e r , h o w e v e r , w a s u n s u c c e s s f u l in h i s d e s i r e t o k e e p t h e union f i c t i t i o u s , f o r t h e B o a r d of C o m m e r c e d i d n o t s t o p h a l f - w a y , b u t , h a v i n g a d o p t e d t h e f i r m p o l i c y of e s t a b l i s h i n g a s i n g l e p o w e r f u l m o n o p o l i s t i c c o m p a n y in t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a , it i n s i s t e d on a n a c t u a l u n i o n , a n d not o n l y of t h e t w o c o m p a n i e s in q u e s t i o n but of a l l e x i s t i n g c o m p a n i e s . It w a s n o l o n g e r a q u e s t i o n of g r a n t i n g e x c l u s i v e r i g h t s t o a n y one c o m p a n y , e v e n a s s t r o n g a one a s t h e S h e l i k h o v C o m p a n y , but of c r e a t i n g a t r u l y p o w e r f u l m o n o p o l i s t i c a s s o c i a t i o n w h i c h w o u l d b e in a position to compete s u c c e s s f u l l y with the f o r e i g n m e r c h a n t s a n d t o c o u n t e r a c t B r i t i s h e x p a n s i o n . E v e n l e a v i n g out of c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e m a g n i t u d e of t h e r e s o u r c e s w h i c h a c o m p a n y of t h a t t y p e w o u l d h a v e t o h a v e a t i t s d i s p o s a l , it w o u l d s t i l l h a v e t o be w h o l l y s u b j e c t e d t o g o v e r n m e n t c o n t r o l , l e s t the c o m m e r c i a l i n t e r e s t s f o r c e into the b a c k g r o u n d the p o l i t i c a l a i m of t h e c o m p a n y - - t h e g a i n i n g p o s s e s s i o n of t h e P a c i f i c coastal region.

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T h e g o v e r n m e n t c o n s e q u e n t l y t o o k t h e f o l l o w i n g s t e p : it f o r c e d t h e a m a l g a m a t i o n of a l l t h e c o m p a n i e s o p e r a t i n g in t h e colonies and then brought their activity under g o v e r n m e n t c o n t r o l . T h e s e q u e s t i o n s w e r e c l e a r l y f o r m u l a t e d in t h e m e m o r a n d u m entitled "O vrednosti mnogikh ν Amerike k o m p a n i i i p o l ' z e ot s o y e d i n e n i y a i k h v o y e d i n o " (On t h e H a r m f u l n e s s of M a n y C o m p a n i e s in A m e r i c a a n d t h e A d v a n t a g e s of C o m b i n i n g T h e m Into O n e ) , w h i c h t h e B o a r d of C o m m e r c e p r e s e n t e d t o P a u l on A u g u s t 5 , 1 7 9 7 . In it t h e B o a r d p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e following m e a s u r e s be put into e f f e c t : " 1 . P u t t i n g a l l t h e c o m p a n i e s u n d e r one o f f i c e o r p e r s o n upon w h o m w o u l d be c o n f e r r e d t h e t i t l e of P r o t e c t o r of t h e A m e r i c a n C o m p a n i e s , a n d w h o w o u l d i n t e r c e d e w i t h Your Royal H i g h n e s s f o r t h e m with a view to filling the n e e d s of t h e C o m p a n y , a s , f o r e x a m p l e , s u p p l y i n g t h e m with s e a m e n , s h i p m a t e s , m a n u f a c t u r e d goods, and other n e c e s s i t i e s ; w h o w o u l d p e r s o n a l l y r e c e i v e t h e r e p o r t of t h e C o m p a n y a n d w o u l d in t u r n r e p o r t t o Y o u r M a j e s t y a b o u t t h e p r o g r e s s of t h e C o m p a n y a n d w o u l d s e e w h e t h e r t h e C o m p a n y ' s o p e r a t i o n s a r e in a c c o r d w i t h o u r p o l i t i c a l a i m s . This is n e c e s s a r y because the reports p r e p a r e d by t h e g o v e r n m e n t s e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e C o m p a n y in t h e several states might s o m e t i m e s include certain m a t t e r s w h i c h s h o u l d not b e c o m e k n o w n in p l a c e s of l i t i g a t i o n . " 2 . U n i t i n g a l l t h e t r a d e r s in o n e b o d y w h i c h , on t h e m o d e l of t h e E a s t a n d t h e W e s t I n d i a C o m p a n i e s w o u l d be g o v e r n e d by d i r e c t o r s c h o s e n f r o m a m o n g t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s . T o t h e m w o u l d be a s s i g n e d one r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e C r o w n , w h o w o u l d n o t m e d d l e in b u s i n e s s m a t t e r s in a n y w a y , but w h o s e d u t y it w o u l d be t o o b s e r v e t o w h a t e x t e n t t h e r e g u l a t i o n s p r e s c r i b e d f o r t h e C o m p a n y by t h e g o v e r n m e n t w e r e being c a r r i e d out; o t h e r w i s e , he would r e p o r t to the office or to the official whom your I m p e r i a l Highn e s s would deign to e n t r u s t with the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .

It w a s e s p e c i a l l y e m p h a s i z e d in t h e m e m o r a n d u m of t h e B o a r d of C o m m e r c e t h a t t h e j o i n t c o m p a n y , " b y i n t e n s i f y i n g t h e b u i l d i n g of s h i p s , w i l l w i t h i n a s h o r t t i m e , r a i s e a w h o l e f l e e t in t h e E a s t t h a t w i l l r e n d e r o u r A m e r i c a n p o s s e s s i o n s completely s e c u r e . " A c c o r d i n g t o t h e d e c i s i o n m a d e b y P a u l , w h o w a s in a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e p r o p o s a l s u b m i t t e d by t h e B o a r d of C o m m e r c e ,

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t h e c o m p a n y w a s t o b e u n d e r t h e " d i r e c t o r s h i p " of t h e B o a r d of C o m m e r c e i t s e l f a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of n e w c o m p a n i e s " w i l l n o t b e a l l o w e d h e n c e f o r t h e x c e p t w i t h t h e c o n s e n t of the original f o u n d e r s t h e m s e l v e s ." It r e m a i n e d o n l y t o b r i n g t h e m a t t e r t o a c o n c l u s i o n , t h a t i s t o e f f e c t u a t e t h e u n i o n of a l l t h e c o m p a n i e s . T h e only t r a d i n g c o m p a n y t h a t w a s i n t e r e s t e d in t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e p l a n a s f o r m u l a t e d b y t h e B o a r d of C o m m e r c e w a s t h a t b e l o n g i n g t o S h e l i k h o v ' s h e i r s . In t h e u n i f i c a t i o n t o be a c c o m p l i s h e d , Shelikhov's h e i r s , who at that t i m e w e r e a l r e a d y i n p o s s e s s i o n of a v a s t c a p i t a l , w e r e i n d i s p u t a b l y d e s t i n e d t o o c c u p y a p r e e m i n e n t p o s i t i o n . T h i s f a c t , in c o n junction with the m a n i f e s t protection extended to Shelikhov's h e i r s in c o u r t c i r c l e s , m a d e it p o s s i b l e f o r t h e m t o s w a l l o w up t h e i r r i v a l s a n d t o b e c o m e c o m p l e t e m a s t e r s of t h e n e w a s s o c i a t i o n . F o r this r e a s o n the other Irkutsk m e r c h a n t s w e r e v i o l e n t l y o p p o s e d t o t h e p l a n of t h e B o a r d of C o m m e r c e . On J u l y 1 2 , 1 7 9 8 , T r e i d e n , t h e C i v i l G o v e r n o r of I r k u t s k , i n f o r m e d t h e B o a r d of C o m m e r c e t h a t t h e f u t u r e s t o c k h o l d e r s , though "they led his p r e d e c e s s o r to hope that they would give t h e p r o p e r r e s p o n s e t o t h e p r o p o s a l of t h e B o a r d of C o m m e r c e o n t h e u n i f i c a t i o n of t h e s e p a r a t e c o m p a n i e s i n t o o n e , " n o t o n e of t h e m h a d u n t i l t h e n p r e s e n t e d h i s r e p l y , e x c e p t t h e m e r c h a n t Lebedev-Lastochkin, who refused categorically to join t h e c o m p a n y , and the m e r c h a n t K i s e l e v who h a n d e d in a p e t i t i o n f o r p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t " p o s s i b l e p r e s s u r e on h i s b u s i n e s s on t h e p a r t of t h e c o m p a n y . " M o r e o v e r , " t h e o r i g i n a l p a r t n e r s , G o l i k o v , M y l n i k o v a n d t h e a g e n t of S h e l i k h o v ' s widow," as the G o v e r n o r r e p o r t e d , "began to enter complaints against each other for vaious supposed f a i l u r e s to p e r f o r m . " T h e B o a r d , s e e i n g in s u c h a n a t t i t u d e on t h e p a r t of " v o l u n t a r i l y u n i t i n g " s t o c k h o l d e r s " o n l y a w a s t e of t i m e , " d e c i d e d "to renew its demand. . .to the aforementioned governor, e x p l a i n i n g t o h i m t h a t , s i n c e it c a n n o t w a s t e a n y m o r e t i m e i n v a i n e x p e c t a t i o n of a p u b l i c , u n a n i m o u s d e c i s i o n b y t h e p a r t n e r s t h e m s e l v e s , it c o n s i d e r s it n e c e s s a r y t o s e t a b o u t t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e d i r e c t i v e a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e m . " ^ ^ T h e o p p o n e n t s of t h e S h e l i k h o v C o m p a n y d i d n o t , h o w e v e r , l i m i t t h e i r e f f o r t s to f i g h t i n g the n e w c o m p a n y in I r k u t s k ; t h e y h a d p r e v i o u s l y c a r r i e d on a c a m p a i g n i n c o u r t c i r c l e s a g a i n s t t h e g r a n t i n g of a f r a n c h i s e t o t h e f u t u r e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . In t h e i r a t t a c k on t h e g r a n t i n g of m o n o p o l y r i g h t s t o t h e u n i t e d c o m p a n y , t h e r i v a l s of S h e l i k h o v ' s h e i r s b r o u g h t

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f o r t h a plan f o r the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s by t h e Crown t h a t would o b v i a t e t h e c r e a t i o n of a m o n o p o l i s t i c c o m p a n y . T h e whole a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the c o l o n i e s would be e n t r u s t e d to a s t a t e - a p p o i n t e d c o m m i s s a r . T h e plan f o r a crown administration read, among other things: " I t i s n e c e s s a r y , in t h e m e a n t i m e , both in o r d e r t o p r o t e c t t h e n a t i v e s a g a i n s t a b u s e s on the p a r t of the f u r h u n t e r s and in o r d e r t o b r i n g about a c h a n g e in the c u s t o m s of t h e i n h a b i t a n t s and t r a i n t h e m t o o b e d i e n c e and a c c e p t a n c e of t h e l a w s , t o i n s t i t u t e in A m e r i c a the f o r m of a c r o w n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f o r t h a t r e g i o n . T h e g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c e s in S t . P e t e r s b u r g s w a r m e d with l o b b y i s t s of the I r k u t s k m e r c h a n t s who e m p l o y e d p e r s u a s i o n and even g r a f t in an a t t e m p t t o a v e r t the t h r e a t e n i n g l o s s of t h e i r c o m m e r c i a l i n d e p e n d e n c e . T h e g r a n t i n g of p r i v i l e g e s to t h e United C o m p a n y w a s fought not only by t h e m e r c h a n t s who w e r e not i n c l u d e d in i t , but e v e n by s o m e of the s t o c k h o l d e r s of t h e C o m p a n y , i n c l u d i n g G o l i k o v who a c t e d in c o n c e r t with M y l n i k o v . T h e a g e n t f o r S h e l i k h o v ' s h e i r s , in a p r i v a t e l e t t e r to a c o r r e s p o n d e n t in I r k u t s k , w r o t e a s f o l l o w s about t h e c o m p l e t e f a i l u r e of h i s r i v a l s ' e f f o r t s : " G o l i k o v ' s a g e n t s poked about e v e r y w h e r e , but didn't hit t h e r i g h t t r a c k . N e i t h e r w e r e K i s e l e v ' s s c r i b b l i n g s of any avail. " ^ T h e m e r c h a n t K i s e l e v a t t e m p t e d t o b r i n g an a c c u s a t i o n a g a i n s t the S h e l i k h o v C o m p a n y of e m p l o y i n g h a r s h m e t h o d s in i t s e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e A l e u t s . B u t t h i s a t t e m p t to a r o u s e o p p o s i t i o n t o S h e l i k h o v ' s h e i r s in o f f i c i a l c i r c l e s w a s a l s o u n s u c c e s s f u l . T w o of t h e t h r e e A l e u t i a n " t o y o n s " ( e l d e r s ) , who had m a n a g e d t o e s c a p e with t h e a i d of K i s e l e v ' s a g e n t s , r e a c h e d S t . P e t e r s b u r g and e v e n o b t a i n e d an a u d i e n c e with P a u l in 1 7 9 8 . T h e p e t i t i o n s of t h e A l e u t s , w h i c h d e s c r i b e d t h e s h o c k i n g f a c t s of t h e h u n t e r s ' s h a m e l e s s c a r r y i n g s - o n on t h e i s l a n d s and t h e i r d e a l i n g s with the n a t i v e s , did n o t , h o w e v e r , p r o d u c e any r e s u l t s . T h e A l e u t s w e r e r e w a r d e d with g a l a d r e s s and s e n t b a c k e m p t y - h a n d e d . T h e p r i e s t M a k a r y , who a c c o m p a n i e d t h e m , c a m e within an i n c h of p a y ing t h e p e n a l t y f o r h i s w i l l f u l a b s e n t a t i o n f r o m t h e i s l a n d s . T h e i n t e r e s t s of S h e l i k h o v ' s h e i r s w e r e upheld in S t . P e t e r s b u r g by S h e l i k h o v ' s b r o t h e r - i n - l a w R e z a n o v , H e a d - P r o c u r a t o r

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of the F i r s t Department of the Senate. The " s c r i b b l i n g s " of the merchant K i s e l e v and others could not, of c o u r s e , make any headway against the papers which R e z a n o v c o m p o s e d o v e r the widow Shelikhov's signature and p r e s e n t e d to v a r i ous d e p a r t m e n t s . Being c l o s e to g o v e r n m e n t c i r c l e s R e z a nov knew what arguments would be the m o s t e f f e c t i v e at the moment. In one of the representations submitted to Soymonov in 1798 even the p r o b l e m s of combatting a revolution w e r e a d vanced to p r o v e the n e c e s s i t y f o r granting certain p r i v i l e g e s to the Company. Beginning with the statement that " t h e h i s t o r y of the past centuries shows c l e a r l y what g r e a t s a c r i f i c e s Spain and P o r t u g a l have had to pay in their r a p i d , strenuous, and m o r e m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s , and how h a r m f u l have been the violent actions against the A m e r i c a n s , " R e z a n o v states that only " c o m m e r c e " is capable " o f softening the m a n n e r s " of the A m e r i c a n n a t i v e s . " C o m m e r c e is n e c e s s a r y , " he continues, " b e c a u s e once it has softened the manners of the savages by bringing them into continuous contact with the R u s s i a n s , it can p a i n l e s s l y l a y the foundation f o r all kinds of c o m f o r t s d e r i v e d f r o m a g r i c u l t u r e and the h a n d i c r a f t s , and gradually accustom those peoples t o the Russian way of l o o k ing at things, a way which a s c r i b e s the p e o p l e ' s w e l l - b e i n g to the m o n a r c h i s t i c s y s t e m and, t h e r e f o r e , holds out the p r o m i s e of turning the n a t i v e s , too, in t i m e into l o y a l and decent s u b j e c t s . O t h e r w i s e , " we r e a d f u r t h e r , " t h e trading nations that a r e envious of us and often take a peep into those r e g i o n s , m a y , e s p e c i a l l y in v i e w of the present unrest in E u r o p e , l e a d those natives a s t r a y , gullible as they a r e , and infuse them with the s p i r i t of r e p u b l i c a n i s m . Most to be f e a r e d in this connection a r e our English neighbors who have settled in Nutka and on Hudson Bay and who a r e s e c r e t l y envious of our A m e r i c a n p o s s e s s i o n s . " ^ A p p a r e n t l y even an argument of this nature sounded convincing to P a u l . In the same m e m o r a n d u m a r e also e x p r e s s e d the C o m pany's objections to the introduction of a crown a d m i n i s t r a tion in the A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s : " A m i l i t a r y or a c i v i l administration m i g h t , at this t i m e , intimidate those s e m i - s a v a g e s , lead them to adopt an opinion of us that is c o n t r a r y to the one they now hold, and d e s t r o y t r a d e , - -the only source of any future benefits to the state. The p r o p e r t i m e f o r the establishment of a

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g o v e r n m e n t in t h o s e r e g i o n s w i l l c o m e w h e n t h e o l d m e n , s t e e p e d in p r e j u d i c e s , h a v e r e a c h e d t h e c o m m o n l i m i t of h u m a n life and the young p e o p l e , having gone t h r o u g h a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a n d h a v i n g p e r c e i v e d t h e a d v a n t a g e s of e d u c a t i o n , w i l l b e c o m e t r u s t w o r t h y m e m b e r s of t h e fatherland."37 S h e l i k h o v ' s h e i r s , h o w e v e r , c o u n t e d on s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n t h e p e r s u a s i v e n e s s of t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . J u d g i n g by the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , which has been p r e s e r v e d , between R e z a n o v ' s wife and h e r s i s t e r , M a d a m e Buldakov, the m a i n s u p p o r t e r of R e z a n o v w a s o n e of t h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l c o u r t i e r s of t h e p e r i o d of E m p e r o r P a u l , t h e G o v e r n o r - G e n e r a l of St. P e t e r s b u r g Count P . A . P a h l e n . I n f o r m i n g h e r s i s t e r that Rezanov wants to r e s i g n , Anna Rezanov w r i t e s that "they won't let h i m r e s i g n , e s p e c i a l l y Count P a h l e n who wouldn't p a r t with h i m under any conditions and who loves h i m t r u l y a s one l o v e s o n e ' s s w e e t h e a r t , to s u c h an extent h a s he b e c o m e m o r e a n d m o r e a t t a c h e d t o h i m e v e r y d a y . He s a y s t h a t a s l o n g a s h e i s m i l i t a r y g o v e r n o r , R e z a n o v w i l l not be allowed to r e s i g n . " 3 ® T h e p a r t y of t h e o p p o s i t i o n w o r k e d , a p p a r e n t l y , t h r o u g h P . V . L o p u k h i n , P r o c u r a t o r - G e n e r a l of t h e S e n a t e a n d f a t h e r of t h e E m p e r o r ' s f a v o r i t e . T o M a d a m e R e z a n o v ' s l e t t e r of June 22, 1799, t h a t i s two w e e k s b e f o r e the f r a n c h i s e w a s a p p r o v e d , and d i s p a t c h e d not t h r o u g h the m a i l s but with an o f f i c e r of h i s a c q u a i n t a n c e , R e z a n o v a d d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g postscript: " A n d w e , I t h i n k , w i l l s o o n h a v e a g r e a t d e a l of n e w s t o w r i t e you a b o u t . The c r i m s o n i s f a d i n g . F o r G o d ' s s a k e destroy our l e t t e r s . " 3 ^ In a l e t t e r of J u l y 13, of t h e s a m e y e a r , in w h i c h R e z a n o v ' s w i f e t e l l s h i m of t h e s u c c e s s f u l r e s u l t of t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s a n d s a y s t h a t " a l t h o u g h we w a i t e d a l o n g t i m e , it w a s w e l l w o r t h waiting f o r , " she a l s o m e n t i o n s c r i m s o n : " c r i m s o n is not f a s h i o n a b l e h e r e , but i s s o m e t i m e s w o r n . " ^ ® N o w , in t h e e y e s of t h e c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , c r i m s o n o r r e d w a s a s s o c i a t e d with the Lopukhin f a m i l y . A c c o r d i n g to Kotzebue even the Mikhailovsk palace was painted c r i m s o n in v i e w of P a u l ' s " k n i g h t l y " k i n d n e s s t o w a r d L o p u k h i n ' s w i f e who once a p p e a r e d at a ball w e a r i n g c r i m s o n g l o v e s . Many r e s i d e n t s of t h e c a p i t a l in o r d e r t o f l a t t e r t h e o b j e c t of t h e

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COMPANY

E m p e r o r ' s a f f e c t i o n , a l s o p a i n t e d t h e i r h o u s e s in r e d t i n t s . So t h a t t h e e x p r e s s i o n " t h e c r i m s o n i s f a d i n g " m a y be d e c i p h e r e d a s i n d i c a t i n g t h e f a i l u r e of t h e p e r s o n s a c t i n g t h r o u g h L o p u k h i n , and the w o r d s " c r i m s o n is not f a s h i o n a b l e " a s r e p o r t i n g t h a t L o p u k h i n h a d f a l l e n o u t of g r a c e w i t h t h e E m p e r o r , a c i r c u m s t a n c e a p p a r e n t l y u t i l i z e d by R e z a n o v w i t h C o u n t P a h l e n ' s a s s i s t a n c e . T h e q u e s t i o n of g r a n t i n g a f r a n c h i s e t o the C o m p a n y w a s f a v o r a b l y d e c i d e d on the day f o l l o w i n g t h e r e s i g n a t i o n of M a d a m e L o p u k h i n 1 s f a t h e r , w h o w a s d i s m i s s e d f r o m h i s p o s t a s P r o c u r a t o r - G e n e r a l of t h e S e n a t e on J u l y 7 , 1799. The newly f o r m e d c o m p a n y , a p p r o v e d July 8, 1799, w a s d e s i g n a t e d a s " b e i n g u n d e r t h e s u p r e m e p a t r o n a g e of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . " At the s a m e t i m e its f r a n c h i s e a n d s t a t u t e s w e r e c o n f i r m e d f o r a p e r i o d of t w e n t y y e a r s . T h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y was g r a n t e d a monopoly to all t h e h u n t i n g a n d m i n i n g " o n t h e n o r t h - e a s t c o a s t of A m e r i c a f r o m . . . l a t i t u d e 5 5 ° to B e r i n g S t r a i t and b e y o n d it, a l s o on the A l e u t i a n I s l a n d s , the K u r i l e s , and o t h e r s s i t u a t e d in the N o r t h - E a s t e r n S e a . " (§ 1). T h e C o m p a n y w a s a l s o g r a n t e d t h e r i g h t t o m a k e " n e w d i s c o v e r i e s , a n d not only a b o v e l a t i t u d e 5 5 ° N . but b e y o n d it, f a r t h e r s o u t h , and to o c c u p y t h e l a n d s it d i s c o v e r s a s R u s s i a n p o s s e s s i o n s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r u l e s p r e v i o u s l y p r e s c r i b e d . " ( § 2). The C o m p a n y w a s a l s o p e r m i t t e d t o c a r r y on t r a d e w i l l a l l " t h e n e a r b y p o w e r s " ( § 5 ) , cut t h e s t a t e f o r e s t s (§ 7), o b t a i n f r o m t h e g o v e r n m e n t g u n p o w d e r a n d l e a d (§ 8), a n d s o f o r t h . A s p e c i a l p a r a g r a p h stipulated that the Company was granted the exclusive right t o a l l t h e h u n t i n g , t r a d e , a n d n a v i g a t i o n in t h a t r e g i o n a n d that "not only t h o s e who might t h e m s e l v e s d e s i r e to u n d e r take a sea-voyage thither were forbidden to take advantage of t h e s e p r i v i l e g e s , b u t a l s o a l l f o r m e r f u r - h u n t e r s w h o a r e e n g a g e d in t h i s t r a d e a n d p o s s e s s in t h o s e r e g i o n s t h e i r own v e s s e l s and t r a d i n g - p o s t s , and o t h e r s , who, being p a r t n e r s in t h e U n i t e d C o m p a n y , w o u l d not e n t e r t h i s o n e . " (§ 10). T h e p r o p o s i t i o n s w o r k e d out by S h e l i k h o v ' s h e i r s w e r e a s s u m e d a s t h e b a s i s of t h e p r i v i l e g e s a n d s t a t u t e s . The a r t i c l e s u b j e c t e d to the g r e a t e s t change was the one dealing w i t h t h e n u m b e r of s h a r e s n e c e s s a r y t o v o t e i n t h e g e n e r a l s t o c k h o l d e r s ' m e e t i n g . A c c o r d i n g t o § 8 of t h e C h a r t e r óf the United A m e r i c a n Company each s h a r e c o r r e s p o n d e d to one v o t e . " A s m a n y s h a r e s a s a p e r s o n h a s j u s t s o m a n y v o i c e s s h o u l d h e h a v e i n t h e m e e t i n g s a n d c o u n c i l s of t h e

THE COMPANY'S ORGANIZATION

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C o m p a n y . " T h i s p r o v i s i o n w a s a i m e d g.t S h e l i k h o v ' s h e i r s a n d w a s i n t e n d e d t o w e a k e n t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on t h e a f f a i r s of t h e C o m p a n y . A l t h o u g h a l m o s t one t h i r d of t h e s h a r e s b e l o n g e d t o S h e l i k h o v ' s h e i r s (out of 7 2 4 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s c o m p r i s i n g t h e C o m p a n y ' s c a p i t a l 2 3 9 , 0 0 0 h a d b e e n i n v e s t e d by t h e m ) , s t i l l t h e n u m e r o u s g r o u p of m e r c h a n t s who w e r e h o s t i l e t o Shelikhov w e r e a l w a y s a b l e , u n d e r s u c h an a r r a n g e m e n t , to p a s s w i t h an a b s o l u t e m a j o r i t y a l l t h e d e c i s i o n s t h e y c o n s i d ered suitable . S h e l i k h o v ' s h e i r s , in t h e i r own p l a n f o r t h e f r a n c h i s e s t o be g r a n t e d and the s t a t u t e s t o be f o r m u l a t e d , a plan w h i c h , a s we h a v e s e e n , w a s b a s e d on t h e p r i n c i p l e of a u n i t e d c o m p a n y , b r o u g h t out a n o t h e r v e r s i o n of t h e a r t i c l e d e a l i n g w i t h voting. T h e i r p r o p o s a l amounted to this: " E v e r y s t o c k h o l d e r owning f e w e r than t w e n t y - f i v e s h a r e s w o u l d not h a v e a v o i c e in t h e C o m p a n y h i m s e l f , but w o u l d c o m e u n d e r t h e v o i c e of a n y of t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s o w n i n g t w e n t y - f i v e s h a r e s w h o m h e w o u l d t r u s t t h e m o s t . At t h e s a m e t i m e , e v e r y twenty-five s h a r e s would have a full v o t e , e v e n t h o u g h o w n e d by o n e i n d i v i d u a l , n o m a t t e r t o w h o m of t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s t h a t r i g h t m i g h t b e l o n g .

In t h e s t a t u t e s a s t h e y w e r e f i n a l l y a p p r o v e d , h o w e v e r , t h e q u e s t i o n of v o t i n g w a s s o l v e d s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t l y . § 18 of t h e s t a t u t e s a p p r o v e d by E m p e r o r P a u l r e a d a s f o l l o w s : " N o one h a s t h e r i g h t t o p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e e l e c t i o n of d i r e c t o r s o r t o v o t e a t g e n e r a l m e e t i n g s w h o d o e s not own t e n s h a r e s ; t h e v o t e s a t m e e t i n g s a r e t o be c o u n t e d n o t by t h e n u m b e r of s h a r e s o w n e d b u t by t h e n u m b e r of s t o c k h o l d e r s p r e s e n t at the m e e t i n g . "43 T h e d e c i s i o n of t h e g o v e r n m e n t w a s of g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e , s i n c e t h e r i g h t t o v o t e a n d t h e o r d e r of v o t i n g a t s t o c k h o l d e r s ' m e e t i n g s o p e n e d t h e w a y t o t h e d i r e c t o r s h i p of t h e C o m p a n y n o t o n l y t o m e r c h a n t s b u t t o m e m b e r s of t h e n o b i l i t y a s w e l l . In t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s S h e l i k h o v ' s h e i r s h y p o c r i t i c a l l y r e q u e s t e d m o r e t h a n o n c e t h a t " t h e B o a r d of C o m m e r c e s h o u l d be g r a c i o u s e n o u g h t o m a k e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s t o p e r m i t t h e w e l l - b o r n nobility to e n t e r the c o m p a n y , a f t e r the e x a m p l e of t h e E n g l i s h a n d D a n i s h k i n g d o m s . " 4 4 H o w e v e r , " t h e w e l l b o r n n o b i l i t y " w o u l d , upon e n t e r i n g t h e c o m p a n y , i n e v i t a b l y

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h a v e c o m e u n d e r t h e c o m p l e t e d o m i n a t i o n of t h e m e r c h a n t s a n d w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n a b l e t o p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e c o m p a n y . A t t h e e x i s t i n g h i g h p r i c e of s h a r e s i t w a s r a t h e r difficult for "the well-born nobility" to acquire twentyfive s h a r e s . But even a f t e r o v e r c o m i n g t h i s o b s t a c l e , a s t o c k h o l d e r s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e n o b i l i t y w o u l d not be in a p o s i t i o n t o e x e r t a n y i n f l u e n c e on t h e a f f a i r s of t h e c o m p a n y , s i n c e by t h e t e r m s of t h e S h e l i k h o v p l a n , t h e v o t e s w e r e c o u n t e d not a c c o r d i n g t o t h e n u m b e r of t h o s e p r e s e n t but a c c o r d i n g t o t h e n u m b e r of s h a r e s r e p r e s e n t e d , w i t h S h e l i k h o v ' s h e i r s h o l d i n g t h e p r i n c i p a l b l o c k of s h a r e s . T h e g o v e r n m e n t , by i t s v e r y l o w e r i n g of t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s on t h e n u m b e r of s h a r e s t h a t e n t i t l e d a s t o c k h o l d e r t o v o t e a n d by m a k i n g t h e v o t i n g c o n t i n g e n t upon t h e n u m b e r of s t o c k h o l d e r s p r e s e n t a t a m e e t i n g , s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e i n f l u e n c e of the new s t o c k h o l d e r s , "the w e l l - b o r n nobility." In o r d e r t o o b s e r v e " t h e a c t u a l e x e c u t i o n by t h e C o m p a n y of t h e r e g u l a t i o n s p r e s c r i b e d f o r i t by t h e g o v e r n m e n t " t h e r e w a s e s t a b l i s h e d t o w a r d s t h e e n d of 1799 t h e o f f i c e of C o r r e s p o n d e n t of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , a p o s i t i o n w h i c h w a s e q u i v a l e n t t o t h a t of " P r o t e c t o r " p r o p o s e d by t h e B o a r d of C o m m e r c e . N . P . R e z a n o v w a s a p p o i n t e d c o r r e s p o n d e n t . T h e f i e r c e c o m p e t i t o r s of t h e C o m p a n y w h o , b y a s i m p l e s t r o k e of t h e p e n , h a d b e e n t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o p a r t n e r s , r e c e i v e d t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s s o l u t i o n w i t h a g o o d d e a l of a n i m o s i t y . The s t o c k h o l d e r s , a s we l e a r n f r o m M . M . Buldakov, the b r o t h e r - i n - l a w of G r i g o r y S h e l i k h o v a n d o n e of t h e d i r e c t o r s of t h e C o m p a n y , g r u m b l e d b e c a u s e , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e n e w s t a t u t e s , p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e C o m p a n y w a s o p e n t o a l l R u s s i a n s u b j e c t s , a n d , s e c o n d l y , b e c a u s e t h e C o m p a n y w a s not g i v e n any g o v e r n m e n t s u b s i d i e s . As the s a m e Buldakov r e p o r t s , " o n t h e o p e n i n g d a y of t h e m a i n o f f i c e of t h e C o m p a n y t h e s a m e untoward i n c i d e n t s w e r e r e p e a t e d , and they w e r e b r o u g h t t o a n e n d only by t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n of t h e m i l i t a r y g o v e r n o r w h o h a d b e e n a m o s t h i g h l y e s t e e m e d s p e c t a t o r of t h e e v e n t s of t h a t p e r i o d in t h e C o m p a n y ' s h i s t o r y . Order was r e s t o r e d w i t h t h e a i d of t h e g o v e r n o r , a n d t h e e l e c t e d d i r e c t o r s w e r e a b l e t o e n t e r upon t h e i r d u t i e s . S h e l i k h o v ' s h e i r s , f e a r i n g t h a t t h e y m i g h t b e f o r c e d o u t of t h e m a n a g e m e n t of t h e a f f a i r s of t h e C o m p a n y , t o o k t h e p r e caution to obtain a royal d e c r e e appointing Buldakov " P r i m e D i r e c t o r . " In a d d i t i o n t o B u l d a k o v t h e y s u c c e e d e d i n e l e c t i n g a s d i r e c t o r Ivan Shelikhov, G r i g o r y Shelikhov's b r o t h e r .

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H o w e v e r , M y l n i k o v ' s p a r t y a l s o e l e c t e d t w o of i t s m e n , M y l nikov h i m s e l f and the m e r c h a n t S t a r t s e v who w o r k e d h a n d - i n hand with h i m . In v a i n d i d R e z a n o v a t t e m p t in h i s l e t t e r s f r o m S t . P e t e r s b u r g to t e a c h the I r k u t s k m e r c h a n t s , who had now b e c o m e d i r e c t o r s , t h e r u l e s of g o o d b r e e d i n g . E n d l e s s i n t r i g u e s a n d m u t u a l plotting developed even m o r e vigorously a f t e r the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company had been c r e a t e d . "The d i r e c t o r s a r e n o w h i g h l y e s t e e m e d p e r s o n s in t h e g o v e r n m e n t s e r v i c e , " R e z a n o v o b s e r v e d in o n e of h i s l e t t e r s t o B u l d a k o v , " m a y G o d only s h o w t h e m t h e r i g h t w a y . S u g g e s t t o t h e m t o t r y and put an end to t h e i r l i t i g a t i o n s and p e t t i f o g g e r y and t o p r e o c c u p y t h e m s e l v e s w i t h t h e i n t e r e s t s of t h e g o v e r n m e n t , if t h e y w a n t t h e s e a t s u n d e r t h e m t o be s t e a d y . R e z a n o v , a s an e x p e r i e n c e d a d m i n i s t r a t o r , w a n t e d to t a k e u p o n h i m s e l f t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e n e w l y h a t c h e d " s t a t e s m e n " by i n t e r v e n i n g in a l l t h e a f f a i r s of t h e C o m p a n y , w h e t h e r it b e t h e e x t e r n a l f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e c o m p a n y r e p o r t s o r t h e e x p r e s s i o n of l o y a l t y t o t h e t s a r . B u t t h e m e r c h a n t s w o u l d not l i s t e n to his a d v i c e . E v e n his s u g g e s t i o n that the C o m p a n y m a r k " t h e h a p p y d a y of J u l y 8 b y s o m e t o k e n of l o y a l t h a n k f u l n e s s , " p a r t i c u l a r l y by b u i l d i n g s t o n e b a r r a c k s f o r the I r k u t s k r e g i m e n t , - - a n a c t i o n t h a t "would be m o s t p l e a s i n g to his M a j e s t y , " - - o r , at l e a s t , an old s o l d i e r s ' h o m e , a r o u s e d t h e b i t t e r o p p o s i t i o n of M y l n i k o v a n d o t h e r s . E x c e p t f o r t h e e x p e n d i t u r e s , the m e r c h a n t s d e c l a r e d , they have not yet s e e n a n y r e s u l t s f r o m t h e n e w c o m p a n y , a n d t h e y did not i n t e n d t o incur any m o r e l o s s e s . A i m i n g t o s e i z e t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y , M y l n i k o v ' s p a r t y s w a m p e d the c o u r t s with c h a r g e s against Shelikhov's h e i r s , a n d t h e n f o r c e d B u l d a k o v out c o m p l e t e l y . M y l n i k o v a n d h i s p a r t i s a n s " t o o k t h e o f f i c e i n t o t h e i r own h a n d s , d i d not show D i r e c t o r Buldakov anything c o n c e r n i n g i t s o p e r a t i o n , and p u s h e d h i m away so t h a t he felt c o m p e l l e d to r e p o r t a b o u t i t t o t h e m i l i t a r y g o v e r n o r a n d h a v i n g no m e a n s t o c o m b a t t h e i r i n s o l e n c e , d e c i d e d t o g o t o S t . P e t e r s b u r g in o r d e r to p r e s e n t his just complaint to His M a j e s t y . W h e n it b e c a m e a p p a r e n t , h o w e v e r , t h a t S h e l i k h o v ' s h e i r s , b e c a u s e of t h e i r c o n n e c t i o n s i n c o u r t c i r c l e s , w e r e n o t t o b e b r o k e n by s u c h m e t h o d s , s o m e of t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s a n d e v e n s o m e of t h e d i r e c t o r s , n o t w i s h i n g t o i n v e s t t h e i r c a p i t a l in a g o v e r n m e n t - c o n t r o l l e d e n t e r p r i s e , simply decided to divest t h e m s e l v e s of t h e C o m p a n y ' s s h a r e s .

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In 1 8 0 0 t h e p a r value of one s h a r e - - a t one t h o u s a n d r u b l e s - - r o s e t o m o r e t h a n 3 , 5 0 0 r u b l e s . T h i s t r e m e n d o u s j u m p in t h e v a l u e of the s h a r e s i s a t t r i b u t e d by P . T i k h m e n e v e x c l u s i v e l y t o t h e g r e a t q u a n t i t y of m e r c h a n d i s e i m p o r t e d f r o m t h e c o l o n i e s during t h a t p e r i o d , and t o the s u c c e s s e s s c o r e d by R u s s i a n t r a d e in K a m c h a t k a , Y a k u t s k , and o t h e r p l a c e s . T i k h m e n e v would not be e x p e c t e d t o give a d i f f e r e n t e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e s i t u a t i o n , s i n c e he w r o t e h i s " H i s t o r i c a l S u r v e y " by o r d e r of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y f o r the p u r p o s e of j u s t i f y i n g a l l of i t s o p e r a t i o n s and w a s , t h e r e f o r e , unable to t e l l a b o u t t h e b a c k s t a g e i n t r i g u e s c a r r i e d on by s o m e of the d i r e c t o r s . T h e r e a l s e c r e t , t h o u g h , of s u c h a c o n s i d e r a b l e r i s e in the v a l u e of the s h a r e s w a s of quite a d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r . A s C o r r e s p o n d e n t R e z a n o v r e p o r t e d in 1 8 0 0 , the v a l u e of the s h a r e s w a s r a i s e d by t h e D i r e c t o r s a r t i f i c i a l l y : " T h e y r a i s e d the v a l u e of the s h a r e s in o r d e r t o p r o f i t f r o m t h e m . One of the d i r e c t o r s , M y l n i k o v , d u r i n g the whole t i m e p r e s s c r i b e d by H i s M a j e s t y f o r the s a l e of t h e s h a r e s , l i v e d in M o s c o w at t h e C o m p a n y ' s e x p e n s e , under t h e p r e t e n s e of b e ing p r e o c c u p i e d with i t s a f f a i r s . I n s t e a d of t h a t , he w a s a c t u a l l y doing h a r m t o t h e C o m p a n y , f o r he s o l d h i s own s i x t y s h a r e s at a l i t t l e o v e r 2 , 5 0 0 r u b l e s e a c h . Consequentl y he not only s t o p p e d t h e i n c r e a s e in c a p i t a l but c o n t r i b u t e d t o s h a k i n g t h e c o n f i d e n c e of the p u b l i c in the c r e d i t of the Company. "49 In a p e r s o n a l l e t t e r t o O b o l y a n i n o v , P r o c u r a t o r - G e n e r a l of t h e S e n a t e , R e z a n o v a g a i n r e p o r t s t h a t " t h e y [the d i r e c t o r s . - - A u . ] h a v e r a i s e d t h e v a l u e of t h e s h a r e s , s e t t i n g it at o v e r 3 , 6 0 0 r u b l e s , and i n s t e a d of a t t r a c t i n g new s t o c k h o l d e r s t o t h e C o m p a n y , h a v e b e e n s e l l i n g t h e i r own s h a r e s at a d i s c o u n t , at a l i t t l e o v e r 2 , 5 0 0 r u b l e s a s h a r e . R e z a n o v w a s c o m p e l l e d t o a s k " t h a t s t r o n g m e a s u r e s be t a k e n t o p r e v e n t t h e m f r o m s e l l i n g t h e r e s t of t h e s h a r e s . " T h e f i e r c e b a t t l e t h a t had f l a m e d up a m o n g t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s f o r c e d S h e l i k h o v ' s h e i r s , in t h e i n t e r e s t of s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n , t o w o r k f o r t h e t r a n s f e r of t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y f r o m I r k u t s k t o S t . P e t e r s b u r g ; in t h e l a t t e r c i t y , t h e y thought it would be e a s i e r f o r t h e m , in v i e w of t h e p r o t e c t i o n t h e y e n j o y e d on t h e p a r t of s o m e of t h e h i g h e r o f f i c i a l s , t o c o p e with the o b s t r e p e r o u s I r k u t s k m e r c h a n t s . T h e g o v e r n m e n t w a s a l s o i n t e r e s t e d in t h i s t r a n s f e r , s i n c e the p o l i t i c a l a i m s s e t b e f o r e t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y

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r e q u i r e d i t s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f r o m an o r g a n i z a t i o n r e g i o n a l in c h a r a c t e r i n t o one of A l l - R u s s i a n s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h e t r a n s f e r of t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o S t . P e t e r s b u r g b r o u g h t it c l o s e r t o the s e v e r a l d e p a r t m e n t s of the g o v e r n m e n t a n d , by t h i s v e r y t o k e n , t e n d e d t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e o p e r a t i o n s of the C o m p a n y and t o r e n d e r i t s s u p e r v i s i o n m o r e p r a c t i c a b l e . In h i s r e q u e s t t o h a v e the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m I r k u t s k t o S t . P e t e r s b u r g o r to M o s c o w , R e z a n o v i n s i n u a t e d u n e q u i v o c a l l y t h a t , a s a r e s u l t of t h e t r a n s f e r , s o m e of the s t o c k h o l d e r s " w o u l d be m o r e u s e f u l t o t h e C o m p a n y b e c a u s e of t h e i r k n o w l e d g e and e x p e r i e n c e than by i n v e s t i n g m o r e money. " ^ On O c t o b e r 1 9 , 1 8 0 0 , t h e q u e s t i o n of t r a n s f e r r i n g t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y t o t h e c a p i t a l and of l e a v i n g only an o f f i c e f o r c e in I r k u t s k w a s a p p r o v e d . H e n c e f o r t h the s t r i f e a m o n g t h e v a r i o u s g r o u p s of I r k u t s k m e r c h a n t s within the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c a m e t o an e n d , and M y l n i k o v and h i s s u p p o r t e r s w e r e f o r c e d to r e s i g n f r o m the b o a r d of d i r e c t o r s .

C h a p t e r III THE E A R L Y ACTIVITIES O F THE RUSSIANAMERICAN COMPANY T H E T S A R I S T G O V E R N M E N T set before the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y c e r t a i n t a s k s of g r e a t p o l i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e . It w a s t o be t h e a i m of t h e C o m p a n y t o r e a l i z e t h e g r a n d i o s e p l a n of e x p a n s i o n a s a r e s u l t of w h i c h t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t of t h e P a c i f i c would b e c o m e " a n i n l a n d s e a " of t h e R u s s i a n empire. T h i s plan p r e s u p p o s e d t h e f u r t h e r e n t r e n c h m e n t of R u s s i a a l o n g the w e s t c o a s t of N o r t h A m e r i c a , i n c l u d i n g C a l i f o r n i a , t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s , t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t of S a k h a l i n and t h e m o u t h of the A m u r . T h e s e c o l o n i e s , t o g e t h e r with K a m c h a t k a , A l a s k a , and t h e A l e u t i a n s , w h i c h a l r e a d y b e l o n g e d t o R u s s i a , w e r e to m a k e that country the a l l - p o w e r f u l m a s t e r of the whole n o r t h e r n P a c i f i c . C a l i f o r n i a , a p a r t f r o m i t s s t r a t e g i c i m p o r t a n c e , w a s a l s o t o s e r v e a s an a g r i c u l t u r a l b a s e f o r t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a . T h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s , which c o n s t i t u t e t h e p r i n c i p a l n a v a l b a s e f o r a l l v e s s e l s p l y i n g b e t w e e n A m e r i c a n and A s i a t i c p o r t s , would, in c a s e t h e y c a m e into t h e hands of T s a r i s t R u s s i a , b r i n g under i t s c o n t r o l a l l t h e s e a b o r n t r a d e with C h i n a . Furtherm o r e , it w a s p r o p o s e d t o e s t a b l i s h c o t t o n p l a n t a t i o n s on t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s and t o e x p o r t a l l k i n d s of s p i c e s f r o m t h e r e . It w a s , in s h o r t , a p l a n f o r d i r e c t c o l o n i a l c o n q u e s t . It w a s t i e d up with a s i m u l t a n e o u s , b r o a d e c o n o m i c o f f e n s i v e a g a i n s t C h i n a , by way of t h e s e a t h r o u g h C a n t o n , and with e x p l o r a t o r y s t e p s in t h e d i r e c t i o n of the E n g l i s h , S p a n i s h , and Dutch c o l o n i e s in A s i a . T h e p e n e t r a t i o n into C a n t o n , e v e n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e e x t e n s i v e b a r t e r o p e r a t i o n s of K i a k h t a , w a s of v e r y g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e to T s a r i s t R u s s i a . T h e R u s s i a n p e l t r y that was being s h i p p e d t h r o u g h K i a k h t a w a s a b l e t o s a t i s f y only a s m a l l p a r t of the C h i n e s e m a r k e t . E n g l i s h m e n and A m e r i c a n s s u p p l i e d C h i n a with t h e i d e n t i c a l p e l t r y by r e s e l l i n g t h e f u r s t h e y h a d bought up at v e r y low c o s t in the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s t h e m s e l v e s . It w a s i m p o s s i b l e e v e n t o t h i n k of m a k i n g wide i n r o a d s i n t o t h e C h i n e s e m a r k e t without f o r c i n g out t h e E n g l i s h and A m e r i 50

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can e x p o r t e r s f r o m C a n t o n . M e a n w h i l e the R u s s i a n s h i p s did n o t e v e n e n j o y t h e r i g h t of e n t r y i n t o o p e n C h i n e s e p o r t s , a n d t h e C o m p a n y w a s c o m p e l l e d t o r e s o r t t o t h e a s s i s t a n c e of foreign intermediaries. At t h e b e g i n n i n g of 1803 t h e M i n i s t e r of C o m m e r c e , C o u n t N . P . Rumyantsev, r e p o r t e d to Alexander I that "no m a t t e r how m u c h s t r o n g e r t h e C o m p a n y ' s e s t a b l i s h m e n t s m a y b e c o m e a n d n o m a t t e r h o w h a r d it m a y t r y t o m a i n t a i n t h e p r i c e s of p e l t r y in K i a k h t a , t h e E n g l i s h a n d t h e B o s t o n m e n , who d e l i v e r t h e i r stuff f r o m Notka Sound and the C h a r l o t t e I s l a n d s d i r e c t l y to Canton, will a l w a y s have the a d v a n t a g e in the b u s i n e s s ; and t h i s will continue until such t i m e a s the R u s s i a n s t h e m s e l v e s have broken their way through to Canton. " * It w a s p r e c i s e l y t h e t r a d e w i t h C h i n a , t h a t , in R u m y a n t s e v ' s o p i n i o n , c o u l d a s s u r e t h e r a p i d d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a , w h i c h m i g h t , i n t i m e , be a b l e t o e x t e n d t h e i r i n f l u e n c e t o t h e v e r y g a t e s of t h e E a s t a n d West I n d i e s . F o r he w r o t e the following: "The R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n colonies, seeing the opportunity f o r m a r k e t i n g in v a r i o u s p l a c e s f u r s , f a t s , f i s h , a n d o t h e r n a t u r a l p r o d u c t s , w o u l d a t t r a c t p e o p l e of a l l k i n d s , t r i e d in t h e s c i e n c e s a n d a r t s , a n d w o u l d s e t a b o u t e s t a b l i s h i n g m i l l s a n d f a c t o r i e s f o r t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of m e t a l o b j e c t s , l e a t h e r g o o d s , a n d s o f o r t h . In t h i s w a y t h e r e w o u l d g r a d u a l l y d e v e l o p in t h e c o l o n i e s a s s o c i a t i o n s of a r t i s t s a n d a r t i s a n s , a n d c i t i e s w o u l d f i n a l l y a r i s e out of t h e v i l l a g e s , t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e t r a d e w i t h t h e t w o I n d i e s w o u l d , in t i m e , b e e s t a b l i s h e d on a f i r m f o u n d a t i o n . " ^ F r o m t h e d r a f t s of d i p l o m a t i c n o t e s ^ we l e a r n of t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s d e s i r e to i n f i l t r a t e into Batavia and the Philippines while penetrating into China. T h i s w h o l e p l a n of b r o a d e x p a n s i o n b y t h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t , a s it h a d a s s u m e d f o r m by t h e e n d of t h e e i g h t e e n t h a n d in t h e f i r s t y e a r s of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a n d w h i c h p l a y e d a d e c i s i v e p a r t in t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , b e g a n t o be r e a l i z e d , h o w e v e r , j u s t w h e n t h e political situation r e n d e r e d its execution m o s t difficult. F o r t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e p l a n r e q u i r e d R u s s i a t o m a k e a n o p e n b r e a k w i t h E n g l a n d - - i t s c h i e f r i v a l in t h e n o r t h e r n P a c i f i c . B u t , in s p i t e of t h i s a n t a g o n i s m , t s a r i s t R u s s i a p r e f e r r e d

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not to push the antipathy to the point w h e r e a decisive clash w o u l d h a v e b e c o m e u n a v o i d a b l e . T h e p o l i c y of t s a r i s t R u s s i a with r e g a r d to E n g l a n d in the P a c i f i c w a s p a t t e r n e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y a f t e r h e r p o l i c y in t h e N e a r E a s t . M a r x and E n g e l s , in a n a l y z i n g the N e a r E a s t e r n q u e s t i o n a n d i t s i m p o r t a n c e f o r t s a r i s t R u s s i a , p o i n t e d out m o r e t h a n once that the question was always s u b o r d i n a t e d to the p r o b l e m of c o m b a t t i n g a b o u r g e o i s r e v o l u t i o n in E u r o p e . T h e m o m e n t t h e d a n g e r of a r e v o l u t i o n r e a r e d i t s h e a d on t h e c o n t i n e n t of E u r o p e , t s a r i s t R u s s i a c o m p l e t e l y s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t h e p r o b l e m of c r u s h i n g t h e r e v o l u t i o n a l l o t h e r a s p i r a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e s h e h a d in t h e N e a r E a s t . A n d i t w a s p r e c i s e l y t h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e - - t h e p r o b l e m of c o m b a t t i n g a r e v o l u t i o n — t h a t , in p e r i o d s of r e v o l u t i o n a r y t e n s i o n , d r e w E n g l a n d a n d R u s s i a t o g e t h e r on t h e E u r o p e a n c o n t i n e n t , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e p e r s i s t i n g c o n f l i c t of i n t e r e s t s i n t h e O r i e n t . T h e P a c i f i c p r o b l e m , a s w e l l a s t h a t of t h e N e a r E a s t , w a s o n l y of s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e . I t s s u b o r d i n a t i o n w a s t w o f o l d ; on t h e one h a n d it w a s s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t h e p r o b l e m of c o m b a t t i n g t h e r e v o l u t i o n , a n d on t h e o t h e r t o t h e p r o b l e m of t h e c o n f l i c t in t h e N e a r E a s t . The m o m e n t the t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t c a m e f a c e to f a c e with t h e p r o b l e m of c o m b a t t i n g t h e r e v o l u t i o n - - a n d E n g l a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , b e c a m e i t s f a i t h f u l a l l y on t h e c o n t i n e n t of E u r o p e - R u s s i a would m a k e c o n c e s s i o n s with r e s p e c t to the P a c i f i c p r o b l e m , s t r i v i n g not to e x a c e r b a t e in any way h e r r e l a t i o n s with England. A l s o , when the t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t had r e a s o n t o c o u n t on a c e r t a i n d e g r e e of s u f f e r a n c e on t h e p a r t of E n g l a n d in t h e N e a r E a s t e r n q u e s t i o n , it a g a i n m a d e c o n c e s s i o n s in the P a c i f i c p r o b l e m . The t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t a d h e r e d to this policy during the w h o l e f i r s t h a l f of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , up t o t h e C r i m e a n W a r . U n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e p l a n s f o r e x p a n s i o n in t h e P a c i f i c t h r o u g h t h e m e d i u m of t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y w h i c h could s e r v e a s an e x c e l l e n t d i s g u i s e f o r R u s s i a ' s t r u e d e s i g n s , p r e s e n t e d a n u m b e r of a d v a n t a g e s . And just a s the English g o v e r n m e n t "waged w a r f o r t w o h u n d r e d y e a r s h i d i n g b e h i n d t h e n a m e of t h e C o m p a n y [ i . e . , The E a s t India C o m p a n y - - A u . so did the t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t w a g e w a r f o r m o r e t h a n half a c e n t u r y f o r m a s t e r y of t h e P a c i f i c , h i d i n g b e h i n d t h e n a m e of t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . But t h i s u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y in realizing the plan that had been conceived contained certain

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n e g a t i v e e l e m e n t s a l s o . In m a s k i n g i t s o p e r a t i o n s u n d e r t h e n a m e of a t r a d i n g a n d c o m m e r c i a l c o m p a n y , t h e g o v e r n m e n t was naturally compelled to r e f r a i n f r o m b r o a d - g u a g e d a g g r e s s i o n . It h a d t o l i m i t i t s a c t i v i t i e s , f o r t h e t i m e b e i n g , t o s i n g l e s o r t i e s , u n d e r t a k e n , a s it w e r e , in t h e n a m e of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . It w a s , t h e r e f o r e , n e c e s s a r y t o e x e c u t e t h e p l a n f o r e x p a n s i o n f o r m u l a t e d by t h e g o v e r n m e n t w i t h o u t t h e a i d of a n y s i z a b l e a r m e d f o r c e . O n l y i n i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s w o u l d a s m a l l g r o u p of c o m p a n y e m p l o y e e s s u c c e e d in e n l i s t i n g t h e c o o p e r a t i o n of m e n - o f - w a r t h a t w o u l d c a l l a t t h e c o l o n i e s in t h e c o u r s e of t h e i r r o u n d - t h e - w o r l d voyage s. When the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company was being o r g a n i z e d , t h e r e w e r e a l r e a d y in e x i s t e n c e a n u m b e r of s e t t l e m e n t s of R u s s i a n f u r - h u n t e r s in t h e A l e u t i a n s , on K o d i a k , a l o n g t h e l i t t o r a l of K e n a i B a y a n d C h u g a t s k B a y , a n d i n t h e Gulf of Y a k u t s k . T h e r e a l a c t i v i t y of t h e C o m p a n y in t h e c o l o n i e s b e g a n w h e n it g a i n e d a f o o t h o l d on t h e i s l a n d of S i t k a , s u b s e q u e n t l y t o be n a m e d in h o n o r of B a r a n o v , t h e g o v e r n o r of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s . T h e i s l a n d of S i t k a w a s t h e s t r a t e g i c p o i n t t h e p o s s e s s i o n of w h i c h , in v i e w of t h e e x i s t e n c e of older Russian settlements, tended to strengthen R u s s i a ' s p o s i t i o n in t h e n o r t h P a c i f i c f r o m t h e K u r i l e s d o w n t o t h e w e s t c o a s t of A m e r i c a . T h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n of R u s s i a ' s h o l d on t h e i s l a n d of S i t k a w o u l d , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , s i g n i f y t h e c r e a t i o n of a s o l i d b a s e f o r e x p a n s i o n in t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e east Pacific coast. A s t o p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o t h e i n t e r i o r of t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t , t s a r i s t R u s s i a did not give any thought t o that p r o b l e m at the t i m e ; she l i m i t e d h e r e f f o r t s , for the t i m e being, t o t h e c o n q u e s t of a n u m b e r of p o i n t s on t h e c o a s t . In a s e c r e t o r d e r of A p r i l 18, 1802 t o B a r a n o v , g o v e r n o r of t h e c o l o n i e s , it w a s s t a t e d t h a t " a l l w o r k in t h e n o r t h e r n a r e a m u s t c e a s e a n d t h a t n o n e w e f f o r t s s h o u l d be m a d e t h e r e u n t i l we h a v e s t r e n g t h e n e d o u r p o s s e s s i o n s a d j a c e n t t o t h e English. B u t t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t on S i t k a t e n d e d , q u i t e u n e x p e c t e d l y , t o d e l a y f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s t h e f u r t h e r a d v a n c e of t s a r i s t R u s s i a a l o n g t h e s h o r e s of t h e P a c i f i c ; f o r it w a s h e r e t h a t the R u s s i a n s w e r e to e n c o u n t e r s e r i o u s opposition not only on t h e p a r t of t h e E n g l i s h but on t h e p a r t of t h e n a t i v e s a s w e l l . In 1799 a w o o d e n f o r t r e s s , c a l l e d M i k h a i l o v s k , w a s c o n s t r u c t e d on t h a t i s l a n d , a n d a b o u t t w o h u n d r e d R u s s i a n

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t r a p p e r s a n d A l e u t s w e r e s e t t l e d t h e r e . In 1802 t h e I n d i a n t r i b e of T l i n k e t s w h o m t h e R u s s i a n s c a l l e d K o l i u z h a m s o r K o l o s h a m s [ K o l u s h a n s . - T r . ] s u d d e n l y s w o o p e d down upon the s e t t l e m e n t , set f i r e to the f o r t r e s s and to a Company ship t h a t w a s a n c h o r e d in t h e p o r t . T o j u d g e f r o m t h e s t o r i e s of s o m e of t h e R u s s i a n h u n t e r s w h o s u r v i v e d a n d w e r e s u b s e quently r a n s o m e d f r o m the Tlinkets, English t r a d e r s also t o o k p a r t in o r g a n i z i n g t h e a t t a c k . It w a s not by a c c i d e n t t h a t p r e c i s e l y a t t h e m o m e n t of t h e u p r i s i n g a n E n g l i s h v e s s e l u n d e r C a p t a i n B a r b e r w a s m o o r e d in S i t k a h a r b o r ; t h e s a i l o r s b e l o n g i n g t o t h a t s h i p l e d t h e a t t a c k of t h e T l i n k e t s . O n l y in 1 8 0 4 , w h e n t h e f r i g a t e " N e v a " a r r i v e d in t h e A m e r i can colonies f r o m a r o u n d - t h e - w o r l d voyage, did B a r a n o v m a k e a s e c o n d a t t e m p t t o g a i n p o s s e s s i o n of S i t k a . A l a n d i n g w a s e f f e c t e d on S i t k a on t h e e i g h t e e n t h of S e p t e m b e r a n d s i e g e w a s l a i d t o t h e f o r t r e s s w h i c h t h e n a t i v e s h a d , by t h a t t i m e , m a n a g e d t o b u i l d . In t h e w o r d s of t h e r e p o r t of t h i s e x p e d i t i o n , " a f t e r l e n g t h y but f u t i l e n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e K o l u s h a n s in an a t t e m p t to induce t h e m to s u r r e n d e r the f o r t r e s s , c o n c l u d e a p e r m a n e n t p e a c e a n d e n t e r upon r e c i p r o c a l t r a d e , a second landing was m a d e . After this had been a c h i e v e d , a n a s s a u l t w a s m a d e on t h e f o r t r e s s u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d of B a r a n o v h i m s e l f , d u r i n g w h i c h t h e a t t a c k i n g f o r c e s w e r e subjected to strong cannon and rifle f i r e that c a m e f r o m the f o r t r e s s and f r o m the Kolushans sallying forth f r o m their s t r o n g h o l d . The K o l u s h a n s w e r e supplied with a r m s and powd e r t h a t h a d b e e n p r e v i o u s l y c a p t u r e d in t h e r u i n e d f o r t r e s s o r p u r c h a s e d f r o m the Boston m e n . Only a f t e r a w e e k ' s s i e g e did t h e T l i n k e t s , " w h o h a d s u f f e r e d m a n y c a s u a l t i e s in k i l l e d and wounded, abandon the f o r t r e s s during the night, leaving all the s t o r e s b e h i n d . " A f t e r t h e M i k h a i l o v s k f o r t r e s s h a d b e e n t a k e n , it w a s d e c i d e d t o r a z e i t a n d t o r e b u i l d it on a s i t e t h a t w o u l d b e i n a c c e s s i b l e to attack, a high hill w h e r e a Tlinket s e t t l e m e n t had b e e n b e f o r e . T h i s n e w f o r t r e s s , w h i c h b e c a m e t h e c e n t e r of g o v e r n m e n t f o r t h e c o l o n i e s , r e c e i v e d t h e n a m e of N o v o a r k h a n g e l s k . Situated at latitude 57°15 ' N . and longitude 1 3 5 ° 1 8 ' W . , N o v o a r k h a n g e l s k w a s t o b e u n t i l 1812 t h e f a r t h e s t p o i n t of R u s s i a n p e n e t r a t i o n a l o n g t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t of A m e r i c a ; in 1812 t h e C o m p a n y s u c c e e d e d i n g a i n i n g a f o o t h o l d in C a l i f o r n i a . T h e s o u t h w a r d p u s h w a s c o n c e i v e d a t f i r s t a s a p r o c e s s of g r a d u a l c o l o n i z a t i o n by R u s s i a of t h e w h o l e w e s t c o a s t of

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N o r t h A m e r i c a . In a m e m o r a n d u m t o t h e R u s s i a n c o n s u l g e n e r a l in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s in 1 8 0 8 , t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company r e p o r t e d that "the Company h a d not y e t e x p a n d e d " s o u t h of S i t k a " f o r w a n t of t i m e , l a c k of o p p o r t u n i t y , a n d e s p e c i a l l y b e c a u s e of t h e s c a r c i t y of R u s s i a n people who know s o m e t h i n g about the b u s i n e s s ; f o r , t h o u g h t h e r e a r e m o r e t h a n s i x h u n d r e d of t h e m , i t i s s t i l l i n c u m b e n t upon t h e m t o s e c u r e t h e i s l a n d of S i t k a a s w e l l a s e v e r y t h i n g l y i n g b e h i n d i t a l o n g t h e i s l a n d s a n d t h e c o a s t of the m a i n l a n d . As rapidly as t i m e and opportunity will p e r m i t , t h e C o m p a n y ' s h u n t i n g a c t i v i t i e s w i l l m o v e on t o t h e C h a r l o t t e I s l a n d s , a n d t h e n f a r t h e r on t o C o l u m b i a , if t h o s e l a n d s a n d p l a c e s do n o t y e t b e l o n g t o a n y of t h e E u r o p e a n p o w e r s . " ^ In C o l u m b i a , h o w e v e r , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a d a r r i v e d a h e a d of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . A s a r e s u l t , t h e p l a n f o r t h e g r a d u a l e x p a n s i o n of t h e c o l o n i e s h a d t o be c h a n g e d , but t h e a t t e m p t t o s e i z e C a l i f o r n i a w a s c a r r i e d on a t a m u c h faster tempo. By t h e e a r l y 1 8 2 0 ' s , j u s t w h e n t h e t e r m of t h e f i r s t f r a n c h i s e of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y w a s d r a w i n g t o a c l o s e , t h e r e w e r e f i f t e e n s e t t l e m e n t s on t h e i s l a n d s a n d on t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t . I n c l u d e d in t h i s n u m b e r a r e o n l y t h e p e r m a n e n t s e t t l e m e n t s . As to the t e m p o r a r y ones that w e r e s e t up o n l y f o r t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e h u n t i n g o r f i s h i n g s e a s o n , t h e y w e r e s c a t t e r e d in m a n y o t h e r p o i n t s a l o n g t h e P a c i f i c coast. T h e R u s s i a n s e t t l e m e n t s , in o r d e r of t h e i r l o c a t i o n e a s t of K a m c h a t k a , w e r e the following: T h e f i r s t s e t t l e m e n t w a s s i t u a t e d on t h e f i r s t of t h e K o m a n d o r s k y I s l a n d s w h e r e a s m a l l a r t e l of h u n t e r s w a s l e f t t o c a t c h f o x e s , s e a - o t t e r s a n d f u r - s e a l s . T h i s w a s o n e of t h e o l d e s t s e t t l e m e n t s e s t a b l i s h e d during the Shelikhov p e r i o d ; t h e s e c o n d s e t t l e m e n t w a s s i t u a t e d on A t k a I s l a n d , one of t h e A n d r e a n o f g r o u p of i s l a n d s , w h e r e h u n t i n g h a d a l s o b e e n c a r r i e d on f o r q u i t e a t i m e . T h i s s e t t l e m e n t w a s b u i l t on K o r o v i n B a y . H e r e , u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n of a s p e c i a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r , t h e r e lived about fifty R u s s i a n h u n t e r s . The j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h e A t k a d i v i s i o n c o m p r i s e d a l s o 331 A l e u t s , s i x t y on A t k a p r o p e r a n d 271 on e i g h t t i n y i s l a n d s , s u b j e c t t o t h e Atka administration; t h e t h i r d s e t t l e m e n t w a s i n C a p t a i n ' s H a r b o r on U n a l a s k a , one of t h e F o x I s l a n d s . H e r e w a s t h e s e t t l e m e n t of " D o b r o y e S o g l a s i y e " ( " C o n c o r d " ) w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n of a b o u t t h i r t y R u s s i a n

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h u n t e r s . T h e U n a l a s k a s e t t l e m e n t w a s t h e c e n t e r of a l l t h e h u n t i n g s e t t l e m e n t s on t h e A n d r e a n o f I s l a n d s . A c c o r d i n g t o d a t a f o r 1 8 0 5 , t h e r e w e r e 360 A l e u t s on U n a l a s k a . On t h e o t h e r i s l a n d s w h i c h c a m e w i t h i n t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h e U n a l a s k a d i v i s i o n , i n c l u d i n g t h e C a p e of A l a s k a , t h e r e w e r e 673 A l e u t s . C o n s e q u e n t l y r t h e A l e u t s in t h e w h o l e U n a l a s k a d i v i s i o n totaled 1,033; t h e f o u r t h a n d t h e f i f t h s e t t l e m e n t s , s i t u a t e d on t h e P r i b i l o f I s l a n d s , a l s o c a m e u n d e r t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n of U n a l a s k a . T h e s e s e t t l e m e n t s w e r e b u i l t on S t . P a u l I s l a n d a n d on S t . G e o r g e I s l a n d . H e r e t h e r e w e r e a s m a l l n u m b e r of R u s s i a n h u n t e r s w h o w e r e e n g a g e d in h u n t i n g f u r - s e a l s ( b e t w e e n t h i r t y a n d f i f t y t h o u s a n d s k i n s a n n u a l l y ) a n d in s e a r c h i n g f o r w a l r u s t e e t h w h i c h w e r e e x p o r t e d by t h e C o m p a n y t o T u r k e y a n d P e r s i a . A s m u c h a s 200 p o o d s ( 7 , 2 0 0 l b s . a v d p . ) of w a l r u s teeth w e r e e x p o r t e d f r o m the Pribilof Islands annually. T h e s e f i v e s e t t l e m e n t s c l o s e d i n , a s it w e r e , t h e B e r i n g S e a , c o n v e r t i n g it i n t o a n i n l a n d s e a of t h e R u s s i a n E m p i r e . A d d i t i o n a l s e t t l e m e n t s s p r a n g up a l o n g t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t a n d o n t h e i s l a n d s of t h e P a c i f i c . T h e s i x t h s e t t l e m e n t w a s on K o d i a k a n d w a s s i t u a t e d , at f i r s t , a t t h e h a r b o r of t h e T h r e e S a i n t s . F o r t w e n t y y e a r s , f r o m 1784 t o 1 8 0 4 , K o d i a k w a s t h e c e n t e r of t h e R u s s i a n s e t t l e m e n t s in the P a c i f i c . Upon t h e s e i z u r e of S i t k a a n d t h e t r a n s f e r of t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e c o l o n i e s t o N o v o a r k h a n g e l s k , t h e s e t t l e m e n t a t t h e h a r b o r of t h e T h r e e S a i n t s w a s m o v e d t o t h e h a r b o r a t P a v l o v s k , in t h e e a s t e r n p a r t of t h e i s l a n d , w h e r e a w o o d e n f o r t r e s s w a s c o n s t r u c t e d , with e a r t h e n f o r t i f i c a t i o n s which mounted a n u m b e r of c a n n o n . T h e r e w e r e a s h i p b u i l d i n g y a r d , t w o - s t o r y b a r r a c k s f o r the h u n t e r s , s t o r e h o u s e s , and so f o r t h . A c c o r d i n g t o r e p o r t s f o r t h e y e a r 1 8 1 7 , t h e r e w e r e 119 R u s s i a n h u n t e r s on K o d i a k . Of n a t i v e E s k i m o s t h e r e w e r e , a c c o r d i n g t o 1804 r e p o r t s , 3 , 4 2 9 p e r s o n s of b o t h s e x e s on K o d i a k a n d i n t h e t h i r t y - e i g h t s e t t l e m e n t s on t h e n e a r e s t i s l a n d s . A n u m b e r of s e t t l e m e n t s on K e n a i B a y [ i . e . , C o o k I n l e t . C . G . ] a n d C h u g a t s k Gulf c a m e u n d e r t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h e K o d i a k t r a d i n g - s t a t i o n . T h e s e s e t t l e m e n t s w e r e l o c a t e d on the A m e r i c a n continent p r o p e r and r e p r e s e n t e d s m a l l f o r t r e s s e s , though still e a r t h e n f o r t i f i c a t i o n s . Such w e r e the f o r t r e s s e s of P a v l o v s k , G e o r g i y e v s k , A l e k s a n d r o v s k , a n d V o s k r e s e n s k , a l l on t h e s h o r e s of K e n a i B a y . We d o n o t h a v e at our disposal any i n f o r m a t i o n about the R u s s i a n population

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of t h e s e f o r t r e s s e s . A s t o t h e n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n , i t c o n s i s t e d in 1817 of 1 , 4 7 4 s o u l s . T h e r e w e r e t h r e e s e t t l e m e n t s o n C h u g a t s k G u l f : " C o n s t a n t i n e a n d Y e l e n a , " N i k o l a y e v s k on t h e B e r i n g S e a a t Y a k u t a t B a y , a n d S i m e y o n o v s k on t h e C a p e of St. E l i a s . T h e r e w e r e a l s o f o r t r e s s e s , with a s u r r o u n d i n g p o p u l a t i o n of 1 , 1 3 0 n a t i v e s in 1 8 1 7 . T h e a b o v e - e n u m e r a t e d s e t t l e m e n t s on t h e i s l a n d s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e f o r t r e s s of K e n a i a n d C h u g a t s k , c o m p r i s e d t h i r t e e n in a l l . T h e f o u r t e e n t h s e t t l e m e n t w a s on B a r a n o v I s l a n d ( S i t k a ) . T h e p o r t of N o v o a r k h a n g e l s k c o m p r i s e d t h e f o l l o w i n g , a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e s e c o n d d e c a d e of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y : a wooden f o r t r e s s , a shipbuilding y a r d , s t o r e h o u s e s , b a r r a c k s , a n d d w e l l i n g s . Of t h e 222 R u s s i a n s l i v i n g t h e r e , s e v e n t y w e r e e n g a g e d in g u a r d d u t y . T h e n a t i v e i n h a b i t a n t s n u m b e r e d a b o u t a thousand. T h e f i f t e e n t h s e t t l e m e n t w a s l o c a t e d i n C a l i f o r n i a ; it w a s t h e c o l o n y of " R o s s , " f o u n d e d i n 1 8 1 2 . Administratively all t h e s e s e t t l e m e n t s c a m e under the j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h e g o v e r n o r of t h e c o l o n i e s , w h o h a d h i s s e a t in N o v o a r k h a n g e l s k . On f o u r of t h e p o i n t s , t h e i s l a n d s of S i t k a , Kodiak, and U n a l a s k a . a n d in C a l i f o r n i a , b r a n c h o f f i c e s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d t o l o o k a f t e r t h e l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . By t h e s e c o n d d e c a d e of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t w o of t h e s e t t l e m e n t s h a d a l r e a d y b e e n l i q u i d a t e d . T h e s e t t l e m e n t a t Y a k u t a t B a y on t h e B e r i n g S e a c a l l e d " S l a v o r o s s i y a " w a s d e s t r o y e d ; it w a s t h e r e t h a t , in S h e l i k h o v ' s opinion, the e x p e r i m e n t a l cultivation of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s w a s t o b e i n s t i t u t e d . T h e s e t t l e m e n t w a s b u r n e d by t h e n a t i v e s and n e v e r r e b u i l t . A f t e r an u p r i s i n g of t h e R u s s i a n h u n t e r s , t h e s e t t l e m e n t on U r u p I s l a n d w a s a l s o liquidated. The h u n t e r s , who revolted against the beastly t r e a t m e n t m e t e d out t o t h e m by t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r , a b a n d o n e d t h e s e t t l e m e n t on U r u p a n d t h e C o m p a n y n e v e r r e e s t a b l i s h e d it. T h e m a i n o b j e c t of a l l t h e s e t t l e m e n t s of t h e C o m p a n y w a s h u n t i n g f o r f u r - b e a r i n g a n i m a l s . T h e m o s t v a l u a b l e t y p e of f u r s w e r e t h e s k i n s of s e a - o t t e r s . T h e a v e r a g e s e l l i n g p r i c e of a s i n g l e o t t e r s k i n f l u c t u a t e d b e t w e e n 100 a n d 300 r u b l e s , a n d t h e p r i c e of i n d i v i d u a l s p e c i m e n s of t h e m o s t c o s t l y v a r i e t y s o m e t i m e s r e a c h e d 1 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s . T h e o t t e r s s o l d by t h e C o m p a n y w e r e the b e s t in the i n t e r n a t i o n a l f u r m a r k e t , s i n c e t h e m o s t v a l u a b l e s p e c i e s of t h a t a n i m a l w e r e f o u n d a l o n g t h e c o a s t of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a . A s m a l l p a r t of

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the s e a - o t t e r s caught by the Company was exported to China by way of Kiakhta and was d e l i v e r e d d i r e c t l y to Canton. The g r e a t e r part of the o t t e r - s k i n s was sold in R u s s i a . Quantitatively the m o s t extensive trade was c a r r i e d on in f u r - s e a l s . T h e s e w e r e found in abundance around the islands in the B e r i n g Strait and on the A l e u t i a n s . T h e y w e r e a l s o found in Hudson Bay and in other places that w e r e i n a c c e s s i b l e to Russian hunters. The best types of f u r - s e a l s , h o w e v e r , w e r e found in the r e g i o n of the Russian c o l o n i e s . A c e r t a i n part of the s e a l s was sold in Russia " f o r use by the l o w e r c l a s s e s of p e o p l e , " another part was b a r t e r e d f o r m a n u f a c tured products with f o r e i g n merchants who would v i s i t the c o l o n i e s , and the r e s t was also exported to China by w a y of Kiakhta and, w h e n e v e r p o s s i b l e , by way of Canton. Then t h e r e w e r e other pursuits, of secondary i m p o r t a n c e to the Company. B l a c k - b r o w n f o x e s , reddish g r e y ones, blue f o x e s as w e l l as other v a r i e t i e s , w e r e hunted on a l m o s t all of the Aleutian Islands, on Kodiak, Sitka, and on the A m e r i c a n mainland. The blue f o x e s w e r e of a l o w e r quality than those found in Kamchatka, but they still sold rather b r i s k l y on the domestic Russian m a r k e t and in the f o r e i g n m a r k e t s of China and T u r k e y . T h e r e was a l m o s t no hunting of sables and gluttons ( w o l v e r e n e s ) . T h e s e animals w e r e found in the i n t e r i o r of the continent, and since, a c c o r d i n g to a r e p o r t of the Company, "the hunters do not go f a r inland in pursuit of g a m e , f o r f e a r of the l o c a l population, the hunting of these animals i s of little importance." 9 A s m a l l quantity of w a l r u s b o n e , whalebone, and c a s t o r e u m was exported f r o m the c o l o n i e s . The Company, in calculating the quantity of animals p r o c e s s e d during the f i r s t two decades of its o p e r a t i o n s , s t a r t e d not with the y e a r 1799, when its p r i v i l e g e s w e r e a f f i r m e d , but with 1797, when the United Company was f o r m e d . Between 1797 and 1818 the Company p r o c u r e d the f o l l o w i n g quantity of animals in the two c a t e g o r i e s in which it was c h i e f l y i n t e r e s t e d , namely o t t e r s and f u r - s e a l s : 80,271 o t t e r s and 1,493,626 f u r - s e a l s . During the same p e r i o d the Company r e c e i v e d in all c a t e g o r i e s of p e l t r y , walrusbone, and so f o r t h at v a r i o u s p r i c e s , the amount of 16,376,695.95 r u b l e s , or an a v e r a g e of 818,835 rubles annually. The Company sold to f o r e i g n merchants in the c o l o n i e s , avoiding the payment of Russian customs duties, goods to the value of 3 , 6 4 7 , 0 0 2 r u b l e s , which was m o r e than 20 per cent of all the f u r s it had p r o c u r e d . The g r e a t e r part of the f u r s

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was sent to R u s s i a , whence they w e r e exported to China through K i a k h t a , or sold in the d o m e s t i c m a r k e t . The f o r eign m e r c h a n t s exported to the Hawaiian Islands and to C a n ton the f u r s which they had r e c e i v e d in the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in exchange f o r v i c t u a l s . T h e y s o m e t i m e s even brought to K a m c h a t k a the f u r s they had bought in the c o l o n i e s , which was v e r y d e t r i m e n t a l to the Company's b u s i n e s s ; for it was in K a m c h a t k a that the S i b e r i a n m e r c h a n t s would usually buy the f u r s for distribution among the d o m e s t i c m a r k e t s . In the i n t e r i o r of the country f u r s w e r e sold at the M a k a r y e v ^ and I r k u t s k f a i r s and d i r e c t l y in Moscow and S t . P e t e r s b u r g . In the l a r g e r c o m m e r c i a l towns and at f o c a l points of t r a n sit the Company m a i n t a i n e d o f f i c e s or c o m m i s s i o n a g e n c i e s . It opened o f f i c e s in M o s c o w , I r k u t s k , Y a k u t s k , Okhotsk, and K i a k h t a , and a g e n c i e s in K a z a n , T i u m e n , T o m s k , K a m c h a t k a , and G i z h i g a . In the c o l o n i e s the Company c a r r i e d on a t r a d e in c o n s u m e r s ' g o o d s . The m e r c h a n d i s e was sold to the R u s s i a n h u n t e r s and, by m e a n s of all kinds of m a c h i n a t i o n s , was e x changed for p e l t r y with the s o - c a l l e d "independent" n a t i v e s . T h i s exchange constituted a c o n s i d e r a b l e portion of the i n c o m e f r o m the Company's o p e r a t i o n s . Some y e a r s the quantity of f u r s obtained by exchange with the native t r i b e s r e a c h e d one t h i r d of all the p e l t r y obtained in the c o l o n i e s . ^ T h e r e was such an abundance of f u r - b e a r i n g a n i m a l s in the r e g i o n s belonging to the Company t h a t , with the p r o p e r m a n a g e m e n t , the Company might have figured on c o l o s s a l p r o f i t s , despite the m o s t unfavorable p r o s p e c t s of the Chinese f u r m a r k e t at the beginning of the nineteenth c e n t u r y . T h e r a p a cious exploitation of the i n e x h a u s t i b l e natural r e s o u r c e s which f e l l into the C o m p a n y ' s hands v e r y soon undermined its activity, however. T h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company made its c a l c u l a t i o n s with a view to exporting f u r s p r i m a r i l y to those a r e a s , e s p e c i a l l y China, where t h e r e was a r e a d y s a l e f o r f u r s of the m e d i u m and l o w e r g r a d e s . At the s a m e t i m e , the Company, by the quality of the raw m a t e r i a l s , had all the opportunities to capture the E u r o p e a n m a r k e t a s w e l l . In o r d e r to a c c o m p l i s h t h i s , h o w e v e r , it was n e c e s s a r y to abandon the p r i m i tive methods of p r o c e s s i n g the f u r s , methods which t u r n e d the m o s t valuable raw m a t e r i a l s into f u r s of v e r y low quality. When, towards the end of i t s e x i s t e n c e , the Company did m a k e an attempt to e x p o r t s o m e p e l t r y to London, it was c o m p e l l e d

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to send not p r o c e s s e d f u r s but raw skins salted in b a r r e l s ; the E u r o p e a n c u s t o m e r would not buy the f u r s p r o c e s s e d by the Company. B u t , a s long as the l o w e r grade f u r s sold in the e a s t e r n m a r k e t s , at a p r o f i t , the Company gave no thought to p e r f e c t i n g the methods of t h e i r p r o c e s s i n g . T h e p e l t r y , b e f o r e it was put on s a l e , was s u b j e c t e d to a single o p e r a t i o n , drying in the open a i r . T h e skins w e r e d r i e d in the sun by s t r e t c h i n g t h e m on p o l e s . T h i s was the method of t r e a t i n g skins which the p i o n e e r - h u n t e r s in the Aleutians had used s i n c e t i m e i m m e m o r i a l . " T h i s i s the way it was always done, and this i s the way it i s being done n o w , " wrote the Governing B o a r d of the Company in 1815 in d i s c u s s i n g the methods of t r e a t i n g the s k i n s . It was not always p o s s i b l e , h o w e v e r , to dry during the s h o r t s u m m e r s e a s o n the whole t r e m e n d o u s quantity of s e a l - s k i n s that would a c cumulate in the c o l o n i e s during the s a m e p e r i o d . An attempt was made to " r a t i o n a l i z e " the p r o c e s s s o m e w h a t , on the v e r y spot w h e r e it was in o p e r a t i o n . T h i s was done by drying the s e a l - s k i n s in highly heated b a t h s . T h e r e s u l t of t h i s new method was that the skins " e i t h e r f i r e f a n g e d so that the p e l l i c l e c a m e off the hide t o g e t h e r with the h a i r , or w e r e burned so that they b r o k e l i k e the b a r k of a t r e e when they w e r e b e n t . " In 1802 a s many as 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 skins w e r e ruined in t h i s way. T h e a c c u m u l a t i o n of a l a r g e quantity of spoiled s e a l skins in the Company s t o r e h o u s e s coincided with a s h a r p drop in the demand f o r f u r s in the Chinese m a r k e t . T h e m a n a g e m e n t wrote as follows to A . A . B a r a n o v in 1 8 0 3 : " T h e Company i s the m o r e c o n s c i o u s of the i n j u r y i n f l i c t e d upon it with r e s p e c t to the f u r - s e a l s when t h e r e a r e on the i s l a n d about one m i l l i o n r e a d y skins of that a n i m a l , and when both h e r e and in Kiakhta such an i n s i g n i f i c a n t quantity i s sold of those p r e v i o u s l y exported that it i s a s h a m e to s a y ; and they s e l l at no m o r e than two r u b l e s i n s t e a d of at f r o m s i x to seven r u b l e s which they brought in s o m e four y e a r s a g o . " ^ T h e n , as K . Khlebnikov, the l a t e r D i r e c t o r of the Company, t e l l s in the h i t h e r t o unpublished portion of his j o u r n a l , " t h e Governing B o a r d , going into the s t a t e of a f f a i r s , noted the g r e a t m i s t a k e made in the conduct of the b u s i n e s s , n a m e l y that the f u r - s e a l s l o s t t h e i r value a s a r e s u l t of the e x c e s -

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s i v e supply of them in the Kiakhta m a r k e t and l o s t their q u a l ity a s a r e s u l t of the h a s t y p r o c e s s i n g . " F a r t h e r on he w r i t e s : "Any attempt to maintain the p r i c e by reducing the quantity and to r e v i v e the confidence of the C h i n e s e by i m p r o v i n g the quality of the g o o d s , c a l l e d f o r a g r e a t s a c r i f i c e . This s a c r i f i c e the well-intentioned, honorable d i r e c t o r s did not h e s i t a t e to b r i n g . They o r d e r e d s e v e r a l thousand s k i n s that had been burned to be d e l i v e r e d to the f l a m e s . And only by this m e a n s w e r e they able to attain their end. "13 About 7 0 0 , 0 0 0 skins w e r e burned in U n a l a s k a a l o n e . L a t e r on the Company t r i e d in e v e r y way to conceal the f a c t that one of the r e a s o n s which had p r o m p t e d it to decide upon the m a s s d e s t r u c t i o n of the s e a l - s k i n s w a s the d e s i r e to r a i s e the p r i c e s in K i a k h t a . But the f a c t that the Company r e s o r t e d to the d e s t r u c t i o n of s e a l - s k i n s in the following y e a r s a l s o , when the drying in baths had been discontinued, and did it openly in v a r i o u s towns in S i b e r i a and on the Chinese b o r d e r , fully d i s p r o v e s the C o m p a n y ' s contentions. A c c o r d i n g to r e p o r t s of the Company i t s e l f many s e a l - s k i n s w e r e burned in 1810 and 1813. The Company wrote a s follows in 1815: "In those y e a r s t h e r e w e r e burned, in the p r e s e n c e of the a u t h o r i t i e s e x a c t l y 7 9 , 6 0 0 s e a l - s k i n s in b a l e s and in 277 m a t - b a g s in I r k u t s k , and 3 2 , 1 9 9 skins in Okhotsk, but not at a l l in o r d e r to r e d u c e the quantity with the view of raising prices . " ^ The m a n a g e m e n t , a s b e f o r e , p l e a d e d that the s k i n s it had burned w e r e d a m a g e d skins which it w a s a b s o l u t e l y i m p o s s i b l e to s e l l , and t h a t , in o r d e r not to o v e r c r o w d the w a r e h o u s e s f o r nothing, the Company w a s c o m p e l l e d to get r i d of t h e m . The C o m p a n y ' s a s s e r t i o n s that no one s u p p o s e d l y wanted to buy the d a m a g e d skins a r e completely d i s p r o v e d by the r e p o r t s of the l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . Captain Minitsky, C o m m a n d e r of the port of Okhotsk, r e p o r t e d to the G o v e r n o r G e n e r a l of S i b e r i a in 1815 that the C o m p a n y , " i n o r d e r not to show in i t s books the l o s s e s i n c u r r e d on skins of good quality, h a s o r d e r e d the burning of l a r g e quantities of its f u r - s k i n s . T h i s took p l a c e m o s t l y in 1811 and 1812 in Okhotsk and I r k u t s k , where publicly, and under p o l i c e s u p e r v i s i o n , s e v e r a l

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hundred thousand s e a l - s k i n s w e r e burned by the Company, f o r which, as I r e m e m b e r , a good many m e r c h a n t s o f f e r e d to pay cash right t h e r e and then according to what they thought the skins w e r e w o r t h , but such o f f e r s w e r e not g i v e n any c o n s i d e r a t i o n , and the skins w e r e then burned by the many thousands."15 The g r e a t dependence on the single Chinese m a r k e t , c o m bined with the w a s t e f u l m e a s u r e s taken in an attempt to r a i s e p r i c e s , brought the Company to the v e r g e of bankruptcy in the v e r y f i r s t y e a r s of its e x i s t e n c e . The capital with which the Company began its operations was v e r y soon exhausted. In the w o r d s of P r o k o f y e v , D i r e c t o r of the Company, in his r e port of 1824 to the g e n e r a l s t o c k h o l d e r s ' m e e t i n g , " t h e r e a s o n f o r this is demonstrated by the fact that when, subsequently, the conditions of the Company assumed the aspect of g e n e r a l p r o s p e r i t y , all the capital which, at that t i m e , s e r v e d as the basis f o r the balance was f i g u r e d , only f o r the sake of i n f o r mation, at one ruble, f o r z e r o s must sooner or l a t e r be r e c o g n i z e d as z e r o s . The basic capital of the United A m e r i c a n Company b e f o r e it was granted the f r a n c h i s e and r e n a m e d the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company was supposed to be an even 724,000 r u b l e s , divided into 724 s h a r e s . T h e s e shares w e r e not to be o f f e r e d f o r sale to the g e n e r a l public, but w e r e to be distributed only among the p a r t n e r s . A c c o r d i n g to the p r o v i s i o n s of the c h a r t e r approved f o r the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company, another thousand s h a r e s , valued at 1,000 rubles each, w e r e added t o the 724, to be o f f e r e d f o r sale to the g e n e r a l public, with e v e r y Russian subject having the right to purchase t h e m . The shares w e r e to be sold with the addition of that portion of the p r o f i t s that had accumulated since the o f f i c i a l union of Shelikhov's Company with M y l n i k o v ' s . T h i s p r o v i s i o n , in v i e w of the inaccurate f i g u r i n g of the income (the income f r o m a number of v e s s e l s which had not yet returned f r o m t h e i r t r i p s was calculated " o n the basis of i n f o r m a t i o n on hand"), p r o v i d e d the management with an opportunity a r t i f i c i a l l y to inflate the value of the shares while c a r r y i n g out, at the same t i m e , a s e r i e s of speculative t r a n s actions. The d i r e c t o r s who, a c c o r d i n g to R e z a n o v ' s r e p o r t , " m a d e bold. . .to draw up a f a l s e i n v e n t o r y and present it to His M a j e s t y , " I ? f o r c e d up the value of each share in 1799 t o 3,638.6125 r u b l e s . During the f i r s t six months f o l l o w i n g the announcement in

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t h e p r e s s of t h e s a l e of s h a r e s o n l y o n e s h a r e w a s s o l d , n o t counting those belonging to Mylnikov personally that w e r e r e s o l d b e l o w t h e o f f i c i a l p r i c e . R e z a n o v , b e l i e v i n g t h a t it w o u l d b e i m p o s s i b l e t o d i s p o s e of t h e s h a r e s on a c c o u n t of t h e i r h i g h n o m i n a l value, p r o p o s e d that beginning with D e c e m b e r 1 , 1799, s h a r e s b e i s s u e d in d e n o m i n a t i o n s of 500 r u b l e s i n s t e a d of 1 , 0 0 0 . In t h i s p r o p o s a l h e w a s f o l l o w i n g t h e p r a c t i c e of t h e E a s t I n d i a a n d W e s t I n d i a c o m p a n i e s , t h e s h a r e s of w h i c h h a d a n o m i n a l v a l u e b e l o w 500 r u b l e s ( £ 5 0 f o r t h e E a s t I n d i a C o m pany, and 2 , 0 0 0 L i v r e s for the West India C o m p a n y - - i n either c a s e b e l o w 500 r u b l e s ) . N o t h o p i n g t h a t t h e s h a r e s w o u l d b e r a p i d l y s o l d out e v e n in s m a l l d e n o m i n a t i o n s , R e z a n o v p r o p o s e d in addition that anyone buying no f e w e r than fifty s h a r e s s h o u l d be a w a r d e d a s p e c i a l o r d e r , w i t h t h e I m p e r i a l m o n o g r a m , t o w e a r on a r i b b o n . "If s u c h a n o r d e r s h o u l d be e s t a b l i s h e d , " he d e c l a r e d , " t h e p r e s c r i b e d q u o t a of s h a r e s w o u l d be f i l l e d in a s h o r t t i m e . "18 B u t t h e s e a r t i f i c i a l m e a s u r e s w e r e of n o a v a i l e i t h e r . D u r ing the two y e a r s - - t h e t e r m in which the t h o u s a n d s h a r e s a n n o u n c e d f o r s a l e w e r e t o be d i s t r i b u t e d - - o n l y f o u r t e e n w e r e sold. T h e m e r c h a n t s who h a d been so e a g e r to t a k e p a r t in the e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s , n o w a v o i d e d i n v e s t i n g t h e i r m o n e y i n s h a r e s of t h e t r a d i n g c o m p a n y w h i c h w a s u n d e r t h e d i r e c t a n d u n r e m i t t i n g c o n t r o l of t h e g o v e r n m e n t . T h e nobility, too, watched the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company without p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t . T h e i n c o m e of t h a t c o m p a n y w a s still e x t r e m e l y p r o b l e m a t i c a l . And in g e n e r a l , the j o i n t s t o c k f o r m of t r a d e a s s o c i a t i o n s w a s a n o v e l t y in R u s s i a , a n d s h a r e s w e r e l o o k e d upon with s u s p i c i o n . D e s p i t e t h e c o m p l e t e f a i l u r e of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s h a r e s , t h e g o v e r n m e n t a p p r o v e d on A u g u s t 17, 1 8 0 1 , t h e i s s u a n c e of 7 , 3 5 0 s h a r e s , e a c h w i t h a p a r v a l u e of 7 , 5 0 0 r u b l e s in p a p e r m o n e y . In t h i s w a y , w h i l e d u r i n g t h e f i r s t t w o d e c a d e s t h e i s s u a n c e of s h a r e s t o t h e a m o u n t of o n e million r u b l e s (1,000 s h a r e s at 1,000 r u b l e s each) was a u t h o r i z e d , during the second two decades s h a r e s w e r e i s s u e d a m o u n t i n g t o 3 , 6 7 5 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s ( 7 , 3 5 0 s h a r e s a t 500 r u b l e s e a c h ) . N e w s t e p s w e r e n o w t a k e n t o h a s t e n t h e s a l e of s h a r e s . T h e p u r c h a s e of s h a r e s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y w a s p i c t u r e d a s c a r r y i n g out a g o v e r n m e n t o b l i g a t i o n of c o m m o n i n t e r e s t . A l e x a n d e r I p e r s o n a l l y bought twenty s h a r e s a n d t h e g r a n d d u k e s f o l l o w e d s u i t e . T h e p u r c h a s e of s h a r e s

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b y m e m b e r s of t h e C o u r t w a s t o e m p h a s i z e t o t h e n o b i l i t y a n d t h e w e a l t h y m e r c h a n t c l a s s t h e n e c e s s i t y of f o l l o w i n g t h e t s a r ' s e x a m p l e . " A n d in g e n e r a l i t w a s i n s t r u m e n t a l , " w r o t e t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d of t h e C o m p a n y r e l a t i v e t o A l e x a n d e r ' s b u y i n g of s o m e of i t s s h a r e s , " i n b r i n g i n g a b o u t t h e i n v e s t m e n t of m o r e t h a n 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s in s h a r e s d u r i n g t h a t o n e p e r i o d by p e o p l e of a l l c o n d i t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g n o t a f e w of t h e f i r s t n o t a b l e s of t h e r e a l m a n d s o m e of t h e m a g n a t e s f r o m a m o n g the m e r c h a n t c l a s s . In s p i t e of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s h a r e s s o l d w i t h d i f f i c u l t y a n d it w a s h a r d l y t o b e s u p p o s e d t h a t a l l t h e s h a r e s a u t h o r i z e d f o r i s s u a n c e w o u l d b e s o l d , t h e n u m b e r of p a i d up s h a r e s f i g u r i n g in t h e b a l a n c e - s h e e t w a s c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r t h a n 7 , 3 5 0 . In 1 8 0 6 , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e b a l a n c e - s h e e t , t h e C o m p a n y had 8 , 3 1 8 s h a r e s outstanding. F r o m that t i m e on, h o w e v e r , we o b s e r v e a d i m i n u t i o n in t h e n u m b e r of s h a r e s . T h o s e s h a r e s t h a t a g a i n c a m e i n t o t h e p o s s e s s i o n of t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d a s a r e s u l t of a n e x p i r e d d e p o s i t o r w e r e a c t u a l l y b o u g h t by t h e C o m p a n y , w e r e n o t p u t up f o r s a l e a g a i n . T h e y w e r e e i t h e r w r i t t e n off o r , a s t h e b a l a n c e - s h e e t s put i t , w e r e i n c l u d e d " i n t h e g e n e r a l a l l o t m e n t . " In t w e n t y y e a r s , f r o m 1806 t o 1 8 2 6 , 834 s h a r e s w i t h a n o m i n a l v a l u e of 4 1 7 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s , w e r e put into the g e n e r a l a l l o t m e n t and w e r e thus e x c l u d e d f r o m p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e p r o f i t s . In t h i s w a y , by 1826 t h e n u m b e r of s h a r e s h a d d r o p p e d t o 7 , 4 8 4 . If we a r e t o j u d g e by t h e d a t a c i t e d in t h e r e p o r t of t h e Company over the t w e n t y - y e a r p e r i o d , then all the 7,713 s h a r e s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e C o m p a n y in 1818 w e r e w h o l l y in t h e h a n d s of t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s a n d of 630 " p e r s o n s i n v a r i o u s p l a c e s . " At t h e s a m e t i m e we h a v e , h o w e v e r , a s i l e n t i n d i c a t i o n t h a t a c e r t a i n n u m b e r of s h a r e s r e m a i n e d in t h e C o m p a n y ' s p o r t f o l i o . In t h e n e w c h a r t e r of t h e C o m p a n y , a p p r o v e d on S e p t e m b e r 1 3 , 1821 , it i s n o t e d i n § 2 t h a t of t h e s h a r e s a u t h o r i z e d t o be i s s u e d t h e r e r e m a i n e d a s m a l l n u m b e r t h a t w a s not s o l d , p u r p o r t e d l y "only b e c a u s e the C o m p a n y , a s a r e s u l t of t h e f a v o r a b l e s i t u a t i o n of i t s a f f a i r s , d o e s n o t n e e d a n y a d d i t i o n a l c a p i t a l , h a v i n g e n o u g h of i t . " C o n s i d e r i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n g i v e n in t h a t s a m e r e p o r t , it m a y b e p r e s u m e d t h a t t h e s h a r e s r e s t i n g in t h e C o m p a n y ' s p o r t f o l i o w e r e n o t o n l y i n c l u d e d i n t h e t o t a l n u m b e r of s h a r e s (7, 713) on w h i c h t h e p r o f i t s w e r e c a l c u l a t e d , b u t t h a t t h e i r n u m b e r g r e a t l y e x c e e d e d t h e n u m b e r of s h a r e s in t h e h a n d s of i n d i v i d u a l h o l d e r s .

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T h e s h a r e c a p i t a l of the C o m p a n y , a m o u n t i n g t o 4 , 4 2 9 , 4 2 6 . 3 5 r u b l e s in 1 8 1 8 , w a s m a d e up of s e v e r a l c o m p o n e n t s . F i r s t , it i n c l u d e d 7 2 3 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s t h a t had b e e n i n v e s t e d by t h e f o u n d e r s of t h e C o m p a n y not in c a s h but in t h e f o r m of t h e p r o p e r t y t h a t t h e s e f i r s t s t o c k h o l d e r s had in the c o l o n i e s when t h e C o m p a n y was being o r g a n i z e d . H e r e , too, a r e included 5 1 5 , 8 3 8 . 7 8 r u b l e s i n v e s t e d by new s t o c k h o l d e r s d u r i n g t h e f i r s t t w e n t y y e a r s of the C o m p a n y ' s e x i s t e n c e . T h e s e new s t o c k h o l d e r s w e r e given t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n u m b e r of s h a r e s . S u p p o s i n g t h a t t h e y w e r e g i v e n t h e i r s h a r e s at a n o m i n a l v a l u e of 5 0 0 r u b l e s e a c h ( a c t u a l l y t h e y paid on t h e m " t h e i n c r e m e n t of t h e p r o f i t , " and h e n c e m o r e than 5 0 0 r u b l e s ) , e v e n t h e n the n u m b e r of s h a r e s i s s u e d t o t h e new s t o c k h o l d e r s would not h a v e e x c e e d e d one t h o u s a n d odd. Adding t h i s n u m b e r of s h a r e s t o t h e n u m b e r g i v e n t o the f o u n d e r s of the C o m p a n y on a c c o u n t of t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d 7 2 3 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s , we a r e bound t o c o m e t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t a c t u a l l y t h e n u m b e r of s h a r e s paid up in c a s h o r , a t l e a s t , in p r o p e r t y did not e x c e e d 2 , 5 0 0 . T h e r e m a i n i n g 5 , 0 0 0 s h a r e s of t h o s e a u t h o r i z e d f o r i s s u a n c e w e r e in t h e C o m p a n y ' s p o r t f o l i o and had not b e e n p a i d up by t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s . T h e p r o f i t s , h o w e v e r , w e r e f i g u r e d on t h e s e s h a r e s , too. F u r t h e r m o r e , these nonexistent shares were substantially i n s t r u m e n t a l in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e v a l u e of the r e a l , p a i d - u p s h a r e s t h a t w e r e in t h e h a n d s of t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s . T h e r e w a s not q u o t a t i o n of t h e p r i c e s of s h a r e s on t h e s t o c k e x c h a n g e at t h a t t i m e , and t h e i r v a l u e w a s s e t e a c h y e a r by dividing the whole of t h e s h a r e c a p i t a l , t o g e t h e r with t h e und i v i d e d p r o f i t s , by t h e t o t a l n u m b e r of s h a r e s b e l o n g i n g t o the C o m p a n y . B y 1 8 1 8 t h e r e had a c c u m u l a t e d in undivided p r o f i t s t h e s u m of 3 , 1 9 0 , 6 8 7 . 5 0 r u b l e s , w h i c h i n c l u d e d the s t a t u t o r y 10 p e r c e n t d e d u c t i o n f r o m t h e p r o f i t s t o be added to t h e s h a r e c a p i t a l . T h i s a l l o w e d the v a l u e of a s h a r e to b e s e t at 5 7 4 . 2 8 r u b l e s in 1 8 1 8 . B y a r t i f i c i a l l y m a i n t a i n i n g the v a l u e of i t s s h a r e s a b o v e t h e n o m i n a l p r i c e and by i n c l u d i n g at t h e s a m e t i m e in i t s c a l c u l a t i o n s the f i c t i t i o u s s h a r e s t h a t w e r e c o u n t e d only on p a p e r , thfe G o v e r n i n g B o a r d of t h e C o m p a n y d e p r i v e d the r e a l s t o c k h o l d e r s of t h e l i o n ' s s h a r e of t h e p r o f i t s . N a t u r a l l y , under s u c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s it w a s in t h e i n t e r e s t of t h e m a n a g e m e n t t o h a v e a l a r g e r n u m b e r of f i c t i t i o u s s h a r e s and a s m a l l e r n u m b e r of r e a l o n e s . T h e f i r s t w a s a t t a i n e d by i n c r e a s i n g the n u m b e r of f i c t i t i o u s s h a r e s o v e r and a b o v e the t o t a l p e r m i t t e d f o r i s s u a n c e ; t h e s e c o n d , by w r i t i n g off r e a l s h a r e s a s e x p e n s e s . T h e i n c r e a s e w a s on t h e a c c o u n t

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of the f i c t i t i o u s s h a r e s ; the r e d a c t i o n , on the account of the real ones. T r u e , the offering f o r s a l e of m o r e than 5 , 0 0 0 s h a r e s might have brought c o n s i d e r a b l e c a p i t a l into the c o f f e r s of the Company, c a p i t a l which, in spite of i t s d e c l a r a t o r y a n n o u n c e m e n t , it badly n e e d e d . Such additional c a p i t a l , h o w e v e r , would have added to the C o m p a n y ' s obligations to i t s s t o c k h o l d e r s . It was much m o r e p r o f i t a b l e to c l o a k the need f o r c a p i t a l by g o v e r n m e n t s u b s i d i e s and loans r a t h e r than to offer f o r s a l e the s h a r e s r e s t i n g in i t s p o r t f o l i o . As e a r l y a s 1803 the Company r e c e i v e d i t s f i r s t loan of 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s to enable it to send out the f i r s t r o u n d - t h e - w o r l d expedition. B y adopting the p o l i c y of b o r r o w i n g , the Company had c o n t r a c t e d debts by 1807 to the amount of 2 , 3 9 4 , 3 6 2 . 3 7 5 r u b l e s , 2 0 e x c e e d i n g by one m i l l i o n r u b l e s the whole s h a r e capital of the Company. About that t i m e the Company, in the words of one of i t s d i r e c t o r s , had " a l r e a d y c o n t r a c t e d such heavy debts t h a t , c o n s i d e r i n g its widely s c a t t e r e d and e s s e n t i a l l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t c a p i t a l , might have been r e g a r d e d a s n o n - p a y a b l e ; f o r , except f o r the hope of a p o s s i b l e change in the situation and f o r s u c c e s s f u l hunting, the debts had no s e c u r i t y behind t h e m w h a t s o e v e r . " 2 2 T h e f i n a n c i a l condition of the Company was such that " h a d the c r e d i t of the Company been shaken in the s l i g h t e s t , i t s c o m p l e t e c o l l a p s e would have been i n e v i t a b l e . " Until 1807 the m a n a g e m e n t , n e v e r t h e l e s s , r e g u l a r l y i n d i c a t e d a p r o f i t in the b a l a n c e - s h e e t , but i n s i s t e d upon adding the profit to the joint s t o c k . H o w e v e r , f o r the t w o - y e a r p e r i o d of 1 8 0 8 - 1 8 0 9 even the o f f i c i a l b a l a n c e - s h e e t a l r e a d y showed a l o s s , and the nominal value of 500 r u b l e s a s h a r e was r e c o r d e d as 4 7 2 . 3 8 r u b l e s , and in the following t w o - y e a r p e r i o d , 1 8 1 0 1 8 1 1 , as 4 7 5 . 4 7 5 r u b l e s . T h i s b a l a n c e - s h e e t , by the way, was brought to the attention of the s t o c k h o l d e r s only in conjunction with that f o r 1 8 1 2 - 1 8 1 3 , when the value of a s h a r e was r a i s e d to 550 r u b l e s , showing a 10 p e r cent profit p e r s h a r e . In the c o u r s e of twenty y e a r s , a c c o r d i n g to the C o m p a n y ' s r e p o r t s , the capital of 1 , 2 3 8 , 7 3 8 r u b l e s netted the amount of 6 , 2 5 0 , 4 8 7 r u b l e s in p r o f i t s , of which 3 , 0 5 9 , 799 r u b l e s w e r e purportedly d i s t r i b u t e d among the s t o c k h o l d e r s on the 7, 713 s h a r e s which they h e l d . H o w e v e r , if one w e r e to a c c e p t our supposition that t h e r e w e r e no m o r e than 2 , 5 0 0 s h a r e s in the hands of the s t o c k h o l d e r s , then the amount of p r o f i t m u s t be r e g a r d e d as c o n s i d e r a b l y s m a l l e r . T h e b a l a n c e - s h e e t s drawn up by the m a n a g e m e n t w e r e s h e e r

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f a l s i f i c a t i o n s . The method of c a l c u l a t i n g the b a s i c c a p i t a l i s v e r y i n s t r u c t i v e in this r e s p e c t . T o the o r i g i n a l valuation of a boat or s t r u c t u r e w e r e added, f r o m y e a r to y e a r , the amounts spent on r e p a i r s , while the a m o r t i z a t i o n was not deducted at a l l . In line with t h i s method, an old, h a l f - r o t t e d ship would, a f t e r a few y e a r s , be evaluated by the C o m p a n y ' s c a l c u l a t i o n s , at t w i c e , and s o m e t i m e s at s e v e r a l t i m e s the value of a new boat of the s a m e t y p e . T o the b a s i c c a p i t a l , thus i n f l a t e d , was added the i n c o m e f o r two y e a r s , s i n c e the Company drew up i t s a c c o u n t s on a biennial b a s i s . T h e r i s e in the earning c a p a c i t y of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company at different t i m e s in the c o u r s e of i t s e x i s t e n c e was contingent not so much upon an i n c r e a s e in its b u s i n e s s , or even upon a f a v o r a b l e m a r k e t situation, a s upon a reduction in the t r e m e n d o u s company e x p e n d i t u r e s . T h e l i o n ' s s h a r e of t h e s e expenditures went to maintain the administration, i t s e l f . During the twelve y e a r s f r o m 1808 to 1820 the C o m pany spent 2 , 3 1 7 , 3 1 8 r u b l e s on supplying the c o l o n i e s and on maintaining t h e m , while the c o s t of the upkeep of the m a i n office in S t . P e t e r s b u r g during the s a m e p e r i o d amounted to 4,696,364 rubles.23 Beginning with the y e a r 1812 the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n instituted the policy of supplying the c o l o n i e s p r i m a r i l y with m e r c h a n dise of f o r e i g n o r i g i n , p r o c u r e d f r o m the f o r e i g n m e r c h a n t s who v i s i t e d the c o l o n i a l p o r t s . T h i s b a r t e r t r a d e with the f o r e i g n e r s in the c o l o n i e s brought about a c o n s i d e r a b l e reduction in the c o s t of maintaining the c o l o n i e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , it f r e e d the Company of the n e c e s s i t y of fitting out frequent r o u n d - t h e world e x p e d i t i o n s . E v e r y such expedition a b s o r b e d huge s u m s of m o n e y , amounting, in s o m e c a s e s , to m o r e than a million rubles. T h e f i r s t expedition under the c o m m a n d of L i s y a n s k y and K r u s e n s t e r n was sent out in 1 8 0 3 , the second in 1 8 0 6 . A f t e r t h a t , t h e r e w e r e no expeditions until 1 8 1 3 . T h i s f a c t , t o g e t h e r with the p r o f i t a b l e t r a d e c a r r i e d on d i r e c t l y with the f o r e i g n m e r c h a n t s in the c o l o n i e s , gave the Company an opportunity to s t r e n g t h e n i t s f i n a n c i a l position r a t h e r r a p i d l y . The s t o c k h o l d e r s ' dividends began to i n c r e a s e in v a l u e . During 1 8 1 4 1815 the Company paid the s t o c k h o l d e r s at the r a t e of 1 0 0 . 2 8 r u b l e s p e r 5 0 0 - r u b l e s h a r e , during 1 8 1 6 - 1 8 1 7 it paid 150 r u b l e s , and during 1 8 1 8 - 1 8 1 9 the m a x i m u m amount f o r that p e r i o d - 155 r u b l e s , totaling a l t o g e t h e r 31 p e r cent f o r the t w o - y e a r period.

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T h e following t w o - y e a r p e r i o d , h o w e v e r , brought a drop in the s i z e of the dividend to 82 r u b l e s , and during 1 8 2 2 - 1 8 2 3 no dividends w e r e paid at a l l . Though the l o s s i n c u r r e d by the Company was given a s 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s at the m o s t , one of the d i r e c t o r s made the a d m i s s i o n that " t h e l o s s a c t u a l l y e x c e e d e d that f i g u r e . " T h e policy adopted in the e a r l y 1 8 2 0 ' s of developing b a r t e r t r a d e with the f o r e i g n e r s who w e r e e n gaged in smuggling a c t i v i t i e s with the n a t i v e s , was t e r m i nated by the r e g u l a t i o n s of 1822 which f o r b a d e f o r e i g n ships to approach that portion of the c o a s t w h e r e the R u s s i a n s e t t l e m e n t s in A m e r i c a w e r e l o c a t e d . T h e Company once m o r e was c o m p e l l e d to r e s o r t to the fitting out of r o u n d - t h e world e x p e d i t i o n s . T h r e e such expeditions w e r e sent out between 1819 and 1 8 2 1 , at an o v e r a l l c o s t of 2 , 4 0 0 , 000 r u b l e s . T h e s e e x p e d i t i o n s , r u i n o u s , a s we shall s e e l a t e r , to the s t o c k h o l d e r s , w e r e v e r y p r o f i t a b l e to s o m e of the d i r e c t o r s . As for the c o l o n i e s , t h e s e expeditions w e r e of l i t t l e benefit to t h e m , t o o . T h e 1820 expedition on the " K u t u z o v " f o r e x a m p l e , which c o s t the Company 7 0 0 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s brought b a c k c a r g o valued only at 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s . What was m o s t d e t r i m e n t a l to the Company was the n a r r o w scope of i t s dom e s t i c m a r k e t , the e f f e c t s of which it began to f e e l , when the b a r t e r t r a d e with the f o r e i g n e r s was t e r m i n a t e d . P r o k o f y e v , d i r e c t o r of the Company, in his r e p o r t f o r 1824 e m p h a s i z e d that "under the p r e v i o u s s y s t e m , e s p e c i a l l y in the l a s t y e a r s , only such s e a l - s k i n s w e r e b a r t e r e d with the f o r e i g n e r s a s would not under any c i r c u m s t a n c e s s e l l in R u s s i a in the quantity in which they a r e annually p r o c e s s e d ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , under the new s y s t e m , a c o n s i d e r a b l e quantity of t h e s e skins m u s t be e x p o r t e d f r o m R u s s i a , if only not to have t h e m lying about to no purpose in s t o r e h o u s e s f o r y e a r s at a t i m e , often losing t h e i r good quality. T h e next expedition, o r i g i n a l l y scheduled f o r 1 8 2 2 , was c a n c e l l e d , and the Company s t a r t e d negotiating f o r the p e r m i s s i o n to engage in b a r t e r t r a d e with the f o r e i g n e r s . In other w o r d s , the Company was now working f o r the r e p e a l of the v e r y s a m e r e g u l a t i o n s that had been p r o m u l g a t e d at i t s own i n i t i a t i v e . T h e f a i l u r e to pay dividends f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s and the r e s u l t i n g drop in the value of the s h a r e s to below p a r , t o g e t h e r with the s y s t e m a t i c delay in p r e s e n t i n g the c u s t o m a r y r e p o r t s , w e r e all i n s t r u m e n t a l in convincing the s t o c k h o l d e r s within a s h o r t t i m e that the Company was one of those e n t e r p r i s e s in

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w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e w i t t y e x p r e s s i o n of a n e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y e c o n o m i s t , " i t i s v e r y f i n e t o b e a d i r e c t o r , but v e r y d a n g e r o u s t o be a s t o c k h o l d e r . " 2 5 T h e s a n g u i n e e x p e c t a t i o n s of t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s w h o , a s C a p t a i n V . M . Golovnin s a r c a s t i c a l l y o b s e r v e d , h a d but a s h o r t t i m e b e f o r e been p r e p a r i n g , a s it w e r e , i r o n c o f f e r s i n w h i c h t o k e e p t h e i r g o l d , w e r e u t t e r l y s h a t t e r e d by t h e c h e e r l e s s r e s u l t s of t h e c o m m e r c i a l o p e r a t i o n s of t h e C o m pany. D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d f r o m 1822 t o 1 8 2 6 , w h e n t h e C o m p a n y s u s p e n d e d t h e p a y m e n t of d i v i d e n d s , n o one w o u l d buy t h e s h a r e s t h a t h a d b e e n p l e d g e d a n d b e c o m e s u b j e c t t o s a l e . It w a s with the g r e a t e s t difficulty that the fifty s h a r e s pledged by one of t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s w e r e d i s p o s e d of a t 350 r u b l e s e a c h , o r a t 150 r u b l e s b e l o w p a r . T h e g e n e r a l m e e t i n g of t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s , w h i c h h a d a l w a y s t a k e n p l a c e i n a n a t m o s p h e r e of t h e g r e a t e s t s o l e m n i t y , n o w assumed a very tempestuous character. "The general meeting t o o k p l a c e on M a r c h 1 8 , " w r o t e t h e D e c e m b r i s t K . F . R y l e y e v , M a n a g e r of t h e C o m p a n y , t o h i s f r i e n d , a l s o a D e c e m b r i s t , V . l . S t e i n g e l i n M a r c h of 1 8 2 5 , " a n d , a s u s u a l , w a s q u i t e n o i s y and did not m a k e m u c h s e n s e . The L o b a n o v b r o t h e r s ranted m o r e vociferously than the o t h e r s , while Politkovsky w a s p l o t t i n g on t h e s l y . It w a s a q u e s t i o n of t h e b a l a n c e - s h e e t which had not yet been signed b e c a u s e K r a m e r would not c o m e t o l o o k i t o v e r . " 26 B u t it w a s n o t w i t h o u t r e a s o n t h a t D i r e c t o r V . K r a m e r w a s a f r a i d t o a p p e a r a t a m e e t i n g of t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s . T h e a b u s e s of t h e d i r e c t o r s in t h e c o n d u c t of t h e C o m p a n y h a d r e a c h e d s u c h p r o p o r t i o n s that it w a s d a n g e r o u s b u s i n e s s t o p r e s e n t the b a l a n c e - s h e e t f o r 1822 a n d 1823 t o t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s f o r t h e i r examination. T h e d i r e c t o r s , w i t h t h e s u p p o r t of g o v e r n m e n t c i r c l e s , t o o k c e r t a i n s t e p s t o h u s h up t h e g r o w i n g s c a n d a l in o n e w a y o r a n o t h e r . F i r s t t h e y t r i e d t o w a r d off t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a n y r u m o r s getting into p r i n t that would be h a r m f u l t o the C o m p a n y . On F e b r u a r y 14, 1 8 2 5 , one m o n t h b e f o r e t h e c o n v o c a t i o n of t h e g e n e r a l a s s e m b l y , R y l e y e v p r e s e n t e d a petition to the P e t e r s burg C e n s o r s h i p C o m m i t t e e against allowing any information a b o u t t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a t o b e p r i n t e d w i t h o u t t h e s a n c t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . T h e f o r m a l e x c u s e f o r s u c h a r e q u e s t w a s the p u b l i c a t i o n in " S e v e r n a y a P c h e l a " (the N o r t h e r n B e e ) of a r a t h e r i n o f f e n s i v e s h o r t

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d e s c r i p t i o n of N o v o a r k h a n g e l s k . M o r e o v e r , t h e a r t i c l e w a s not o r i g i n a l but h a d a p p e a r e d in the p r e s s t w i c e , in a G e r m a n n e w s p a p e r p u b l i s h e d i n R i g a a n d i n t h e " J o u r n a l de S a i n t Pétersbourg . " In h i s m e m o r a n d u m R y l e y e v a s k e d t h e C e n s o r s h i p C o m m i t t e e " n o t t o a p p r o v e f o r p u b l i c a t i o n in a n y of t h e l o c a l p a p e r s a n y a r t i c l e s a b o u t t h a t C o m p a n y o r i t s c o l o n i e s t h a t do n o t b e a r t h e C o m p a n y s e a l a n d t h e s i g n a t u r e of s o m e m e m b e r of t h e c h a n c e r y , f o r , o t h e r w i s e , t h e s e c r e t s of t h e C o m p a n y m a y be r e v e a l e d , o r e r r o e n e o u s and f a l s e i n f o r m a t i o n m a y b e g i v e n c u r r e n c y ; t h e p u b l i c a t i o n of t h e f o r m e r a n d t h e g r o u n d l e s s n e s s of t h e l a t t e r m a y b r i n g h a r m t o t h e a f f a i r s of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . " The Company's efforts were successful. F o r the purpose of e x a m i n i n g t h e a f f a i r s of t h e C o m p a n y a c o m m i s s i o n w a s c r e a t e d w h i c h w a s c o m p o s e d of A . Y a . D r u z h i n i n , D i r e c t o r of t h e C h a n c e r y of t h e M i n i s t r y of F i n a n c e , a n d C a p t a i n V . M . Golovnin. At a s p e c i a l m e e t i n g which l i s t e n e d to the r e p o r t of t h e c o m m i s s i o n , e v e r y m e a n s a t h a n d w a s e m p l o y e d t o p a r r y the blow f r o m the d i r e c t o r s and to p r e s e r v e the " p r e s t i g e " of t h e C o m p a n y . T h e a b u s e s of t h e d i r e c t o r s , h o w e v e r , w e r e so i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e that the p r e s i d i n g o f f i c e r , Count N . S . M o r d v i n o v , w a s only able to d e c l a r e t h a t "What i s l o s t i s l o s t " a n d " I t i s a t h o m e , n o t i n p u b l i c , one w a s h e s d i r t y l i n e n . " S o m e of t h e i n f u r i a t e d s t o c k h o l d e r s n o t o n l y d e m a n d e d t h e r e m o v a l of a l l t h e d i r e c t o r s w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n , b u t w a n t e d to make t h e m financially responsible for their c r i m e s . One of t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s , L i e u t e n a n t L o b a n o v , w h o h a d r e c e i v e d 299 s h a r e s f r o m G o l i k o v ' s h e i r s in s e t t l e m e n t of a n o l d l a w s u i t , c a m e out w i t h a s h a r p a t t a c k a g a i n s t M o r d v i n o v f o r h i s d e f e n s e of t h e d i r e c t o r s . T u r n i n g t o M o r d v i n o v , he said: "It is a l l r i g h t f o r you, Your E x c e l l e n c y , to say that ' w h a t i s l o s t i s l o s t , ' b e c a u s e you have only f i f t y s h a r e s i n v o l v e d , w h i c h t o y o u d o n ' t m e a n a n y t h i n g , but I h a v e 300 of them"28 Yet, the d i r e c t o r s w e r e s a v e d . T h e y w e r e not m a d e to b e a r a n y f i n a n c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , a n d t h e o n l y one t o r e s i g n w a s K r a m e r , who w a s r e p r e s e n t e d a s b e a r i n g the e n t i r e g u i l t of a l l t h e m i s h a p s t h a t h a d b e f a l l e n t h e C o m p a n y . T h i s , h o w e v e r , w a s n o t t h e e n d of t h e a f f a i r . T h e r u i n e d L o b a n o v , w h o s e w h o l e p r o p e r t y c o n s i s t e d of s t o c k i n t h e C o m p a n y , a n d w h o w a s now c o m p e l l e d t o r e s i g n f r o m h i s p o s i t i o n on a c c o u n t of h i s d e b t s , w a s d e t e r m i n e d t o b r i n g h i s

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g r i e v a n c e s b e f o r e t h e t s a r . He a d d r e s s e d t o the t s a r one t e a r f u l p e t i t i o n a f t e r a n o t h e r , w i t h d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e d a r k d o i n g s of t h e d i r e c t o r s . A s i s e v i d e n t f r o m t h e m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d by L o b a n o v , a c o n s i d e r a b l e p a r t of t h e e x p e n s e s of t h e C o m p a n y w e n t t o maintain the d i r e c t o r s and to provide bonuses for t h e m . They e a c h r e c e i v e d a s a l a r y of 1 5 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s a n n u a l l y e x c e p t B u l d a k o v w h o , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e D e c e m b r i s t S t e i n g e l h a d by t h a t t i m e " w o r n h i m s e l f out p h y s i c a l l y a n d m e n t a l l y , e s p e cially mentally, sala n c l w h o w a s p a i d , in a d d i t i o n t o h i s a r y , a n a n n u a l p e n s i o n of 1 0 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s . T h e D i r e c t o r Prokofyev, f u r t h e r m o r e , received 12,000 rubles subsistence. Then t h e r e w e r e b o n u s e s . At the v e r y t i m e when the f i n a n c i a l c o n d i t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y w a s t r u l y c a t a s t r o p h i c , e a c h o n e of t h e d i r e c t o r s r e c e i v e d a b o n u s of 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s . A n o t h e r s o u r c e of i n c o m e f o r t h e D i r e c t o r s w a s t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of r o u n d - t h e - w o r l d e x p e d i t i o n s . T h e s e e x p e d i t i o n s w e r e being o r g a n i z e d all the t i m e , though they brought nothing but l o s s e s t o t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s . W h e n it w a s d e c i d e d in 1821 to send out the usual r o u n d - t h e - w o r l d e x p e d i t i o n , the p u r c h a s e of t h e s h i p w a s e n t r u s t e d t o t h e f i r m of t h e K r a m e r b r o t h e r s , a t t h e h e a d of w h i c h w a s t h e d i r e c t o r of t h e C o m p a n y V . K r a m e r . Upon p r o c u r i n g the " Y e l e n a " for the C o m p a n y in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , K r a m e r w a s , f i r s t of a l l , p a i d a c o m m i s s i o n a m o u n t i n g t o 6 p e r c e n t of t h e c o s t of t h e v e s s e l . Not only t h a t b u t , w h e n it h a d a l r e a d y b e c o m e known t h a t t h e " Y e l e n a " w a s on i t s w a y a n d w o u l d a r r i v e i n K r o n s t a d t i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e , K r a m e r p u r c h a s e d another boat for the Company, the " Y e l i z a v e t a , " a v e s s e l t h a t w a s known to be c o m p l e t e l y u n s e a w o r t h y . T h e " Y e l i z a v e t a " h a d b e l o n g e d to an i n s o l v e n t d e b t o r of K r a m e r ' s . T h e d i r e c t o r a c q u i r e d t h e h a l f - r o t t e d s h i p , f o r t h e C o m p a n y a t a c o s t of 3 0 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s . T h e n h e p u t t h e a m o u n t of t h e d e b t i n h i s p o c k e t , a n d t h e C o m p a n y w a s f o r c e d to s p è n d 7 0 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s a d d i t i o n a l in r e p a i r s on t h a t " a c q u i s i t i o n . " But s i n c e it w a s i n c o n v e n i e n t to k e e p the ship in K r o n s t a d t i d l e , it w a s f i t t e d out f o r a r o u n d - t h e - w o r l d voyage, t o g e t h e r with the " R i u r i k " which had r e c e n t l y r e t u r n e d f r o m such a t r i p . As for the "Yelena" which K r a m e r had a c q u i r e d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , i t w a s l e f t a t i t s m o o r i n g s in the K r o n s t a d t r o a d s t e a d since one expedition had just been sent out. T h e " Y e l i z a v e t a , " m a d e h e r w a y t o t h e C a p e of G o o d H o p e with g r e a t difficulty. H e r e the c a r g o w a s sold at a l o s s , along

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with t h e ship i t s e l f . A p a r t of t h e c r e w w a s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e " R i u r i k " and t h e r e s t w a s r e t u r n e d t o S t . P e t e r s b u r g a s passengers. It a l s o a p p e a r s f r o m t h e data s u b m i t t e d by L o b a n o v t h a t , w h i l e the m a n a g e m e n t w a s b o r r o w i n g m o n e y at i n t e r e s t f r o m t h e b a n k , t h e funds of t h e C o m p a n y w e r e at t h e p e r s o n a l d i s p o s a l of the d i r e c t o r s . T h e g o v e r n m e n t , h o w e v e r , had no i n t e n t i o n of t a k i n g a c t i o n on L o b a n o v ' s c o m p l a i n t s ; i t , t o o , no l e s s t h a n the G o v e r n i n g B o a r d of the C o m p a n y , w a s i n t e r e s t e d in p r e s e r v i n g t h e r e p u t a t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y a s an e c o n o m i c a l l y profitable undertaking, which paid c o n s i d e r a b l e dividends to i t s s t o c k h o l d e r s . T h e p r e s t i g e of t h e C o m p a n y , w h i c h w a s t h e s p e a r h e a d of t s a r i s t e x p a n s i o n in t h e P a c i f i c , w a s not t o b e u n d e r m i n e d at any c o s t . Y e a r s p a s s e d , L o b a n o v kept up h i s p e t i t i o n s , but t h e a f f a i r h a r d l y m a d e any h e a d w a y . In the m e a n t i m e t h e C o m p a n y r e s u m e d the p a y m e n t of d i v i d e n d s , and t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s o n c e a g a i n p a s s e d r e s o l u t i o n s of g r a t i t u d e at e v e r y g e n e r a l m e e t ing t o the v e r y s a m e d i r e c t o r s w h o m t h e y had b e e n t r y i n g , not s o long s i n c e , to b r i n g t o t r i a l , and o n c e a g a i n , a s b e f o r e , t h e y paid t h e d i r e c t o r s l a r g e b o n u s e s f o r t h e i r " z e a l " in upholding " t h e g l o r y of the f a t h e r l a n d , " - - p a y i n g t h e m out of t h e i n c o m e b e l o n g i n g t o t h e h o l d e r s of t h e C o m p a n y ' s s e c u r i t i e s . F o r the y e a r s 1 8 2 4 - 1 8 2 5 the C o m p a n y ' s books showed a p r o f i t of a m i l l i o n and a h a l f r u b l e s , and in 182 7 t h e C o m p a n y p a i d t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s at t h e r a t e of 147 r u b l e s p e r s h a r e . T r u e , t h i s p r o f i t w a s not f i g u r e d without s o m e s u b t l e p r a c t i c e s . T h e d i v i d e n d s w e r e p a i d out of t h e i n c o m e y e t t o b e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e s a l e of m e r c h a n d i s e in 1 8 2 6 . T h i s p r a c t i c e of paying d i v i d e n d s out of the i n c o m e f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r w a s c o n t i n u e d f o r a long t i m e , until 1 8 4 2 . It w a s due t o t h i s s y s t e m t h a t it w a s p o s s i b l e t o show a p r o f i t e v e n f o r t h o s e y e a r s when the b u s i n e s s of t h e C o m p a n y w a s d e f i n i t e l y in t h e r e d .

C h a p t e r IV T H E RUSSIAN C O L O N I E S IN N O R T H A M E R I C A A N D THE CONVENTION O F 1824-1825

T H E C H A R T E R of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y w a s c o n f i r m e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t f o r a t e r m of t w e n t y y e a r s . T h a t t e r m c a m e t o a n e n d on J u l y 8 , 1 8 1 9 . A r e - e x a m i n a t i o n a n d a c o n f i r m a t i o n of t h e n e w c h a r t e r w e r e t o d e c i d e , f i r s t of a l l , the p r o b l e m that was m o s t i m p o r t a n t f o r the f u r t h e r activity of t h e C o m p a n y , t h a t of t h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a . T h e c h a r t e r g r a n t e d by E m p e r o r P a u l h a d a s s u m e d t h e b o u n d a r y of t h e R u s s i a n p o s s e s s i o n s t o b e a t l a t i t u d e 5 5 ° N . In s p i t e of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c o a s t a l s t r i p of t h a t t e r r i t o r y w a s not y e t in f u l l p o s s e s s i o n of t h e R u s s i a n s , t h e o l d b o u n d a r i e s a l r e a d y s e e m e d i n a d e q u a t e . Not w i t h o u t r e a s o n h a d t h e g o v e r n o r of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n y b e e n e n j o i n e d i n 1802 t o p u b l i s h , at the p r o p e r t i m e , R u s s i a ' s c l a i m s to t e r r i t o r y a s f a r a s N u t k a S o u n d , t h a t i s , t o t h e 5 1 s t p a r a l l e l of n o r t h l a t i t u d e . T h e n e w t e r r i t o r y w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e C o m p a n y , it w a s n e c e s s a r y t o m a k e t h e l a w f u l p o s s e s s i o n of R u s s i a , w a s t o c o m p r i s e t h e w h o l e of t h e c o a s t a l r e g i o n a s f a r a s t h e 4 5 t h p a r a l l e l of n o r t h l a t i t u d e . T h i s w o u l d h a v e i n c l u d e d C o l u m b i a a n d w o u l d h a v e e x t e n d e d t h e l i m i t s of t h e R u s s i a n p o s s e s s i o n s down to O r e g o n . H o w e v e r , a s a r e s u l t of t h e g r o w i n g c l a i m s t o t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t a l r e g i o n s on t h e p a r t of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , c l a i m s w h i c h b e c a m e s t r o n g e r a f t e r t h e W a r of 1 8 1 2 , a n d a s a r e s u l t , t o o , of t h e r i v a l r y of E n g l a n d i t s e l f , t h e C o m p a n y ' s p l a n s h a d a l ready become obsolete. The 51st parallel north latitude, t h a t i s t h e n o r t h e r n p r o m o n t o r y of V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d , w a s r e c o g n i z e d a s t h e n e w b o u n d a r y . T h u s t h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h e R u s s i a n p o s s e s s i o n s a d v a n c e d s o u t h w a r d only 4 ° , in c o m p a r i s o n with what they had been under the f i r s t c h a r t e r . T h e p r o b l e m of f u r t h e r p r o g r e s s a l s o b e c a m e m o r e a c u t e . The old c h a r t e r had g r a n t e d the C o m p a n y the r i g h t to expand its p o s s e s s i o n s beyond the established boundaries whenever t h e n e w t e r r i t o r i e s " w e r e n o t o c c u p i e d by a n y of t h e o t h e r 73

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p o w e r s a n d h a d not b e c o m e t h e i r d e p e n d e n c y . " At the s a m e t i m e t h e r e w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y no point in counting on v a c a n t l a n d s , and h a d the C o m p a n y r e a l l y b e e n g u i d e d by t h e s e r u l e s , it would h a v e b e e n d e p r i v e d of the o p p o r t u n i t y t o o c c u p y any of the t e r r i t o r y s e t t l e d by n a t i v e s . T h e new c h a r t e r r e n d e r e d this p r o b l e m m o r e a c u t e . The Company w a s p e r m i t t e d to s e i z e new t e r r i t o r i e s b e y o n d the d e s i g n a t e d b o u n d a r i e s , if t h o s e l a n d s " w e r e not o c c u p i e d by o t h e r E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s , o r by c i t i z e n s of the United S t a t e s of A m e r i c a , a n d h a d not b e come their dependency."^ In the new c h a r t e r a s c o n f i r m e d by the g o v e r n m e n t a r t i c l e 17 i s worthy of n o t i c e . T h i s g r a n t e d the C o m p a n y the r i g h t t o i m p o r t and e x p o r t , f r e e of duty, g o o d s of R u s s i a n and f o r e i g n o r i g i n f r o m the m o t h e r c o u n t r y into the c o l o n i e s . T o the e x t e n t , h o w e v e r , that t h e r e w a s no f u r t h e r c o n t r o l o v e r the t r a n s f e r of the g o o d s , the r i g h t to e x p o r t f r o m one R u s s i a n p o r t ( K r o n s t a d t ) to a n o t h e r R u s s i a n p o r t ( N o v o a r k h a n g e l s k ) h a d e s s e n t i a l l y b e c o m e the r i g h t of f r e e t r a d e . A r t i c l e 9 of the new c h a r t e r w a s a l s o of g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e . T h e e m p l o y e e s of the C o m p a n y h a d a l l the r i g h t s of p e r s o n s in the g o v e r n m e n t s e r v i c e . T h i s e n a b l e d the C o m p a n y to a t t r a c t to i t s s e r v i c e not only c i v i l s e r v a n t s but a l s o m e m b e r s of the a r m e d f o r c e s , p r i m a r i l y n a v a l o f f i c e r s . T h e new c h a r t e r w a s c o n f i r m e d on S e p t e m b e r 14, 1821 . On the e v e of i t s p r o m u l g a t i o n , the p r o b l e m of c o m b a t t i n g f o r e i g n s m u g g l i n g w a s a l s o s o l v e d . T h i s p r o b l e m h a s a long h i s t o r y behind it. F r o m the v e r y b e g i n n i n g of the C o m p a n y ' s e x i s t e n c e , f o r e i g n s m u g g l i n g in the c o l o n i e s c o n s t i t u t e d one of the m o s t burning questions . F o r e i g n m e r chants , e s p e c i a l l y A m e r i c a n s , by s e c u r i n g t h r o u g h b a r t e r with the T l i n k e t s and o t h e r Indian t r i b e s , a l l the s k i n s that t h e s e n a t i v e s h a d p r o c u r e d , p r a c t i c a l l y l i m i t e d the s p h e r e of a c t i v i t y of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y to the h u n t i n g - s t a t i o n s m a n n e d by n a t : v e s who w e r e d e p e n d e n t upon the C o m p a n y . K . K h l e b n i k o v , s u b s e q u e n t l y one of the d i r e c t o r s of the C o m p a n y , in h i s m e m o i r s d e a l i n g with R u s s i a n A m e r i c a ( w h e r e he l i v e d f o r a l o n g t i m e ) r e p o r t s that while the A m e r i c a n s p a i d the T l i n k e t s f o r one s k i n " f i v e o r s i x b l a n k e t s , in a d d i t i o n to m o l a s s e s , h a r d t a c k and g r o a t s , we w e r e unable to p a y a l l t h a t , b e c a u s e the c o s t would h a v e b e e n t w i c e the f i x e d p r i c e , and s o m e t i m e s a l s o b e c a u s e we d i d not h a v e a s u f f i c i e n t quantity of m e r c h a n d i s e . " ^ A c c o r d i n g t o the C o m p a n y ' s c a l c u l a t i o n s , a n a v e r a g e of f i f t e e n v e s s e l s

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w e r e plying t h e i r t r a d e a l o n g t h e s h o r e s of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s , e x p o r t i n g b e t w e e n 1 0 , 0 0 0 and 1 5 , 0 0 0 o t t e r s a n n u a l l y . T h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , not b e i n g a b l e t h r o u g h i t s own e f f o r t s t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e s m u g g l i n g a c t i v i t i e s of the f o r e i g n e r s , p l i e d t h e g o v e r n m e n t and t h e t s a r h i m s e l f with r e q u e s t s t o d e f e n d it a g a i n s t t h e A m e r i c a n m e r c h a n t s . The m a n a g e m e n t of t h e C o m p a n y a d d u c e d a n u m b e r of p o l i t i c a l a r g u m e n t s , a s s e r t i n g t h a t " t h e c i t i z e n s of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s of N o r t h A m e r i c a , a s a r e p u b l i c a n n a t i o n , " w e r e e n g a g e d in b a r t e r i n g the a n i m a l - s k i n s with t h e n a t i v e s f o r f i r e - a r m s and c o l d s t e e l , " t e a c h i n g t h e m how t o use t h e m , t o the d e t r i m e n t of our h u n t e r s . " T h e m a i n a r g u m e n t w a s t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t the A m e r i c a n m e r c h a n t s s e t " s u c h low p r i c e s " on t h e i r m e r c h a n d i s e " t h a t t h e s a m e a r t i c l e s s o l d by t h e A m e r i c a n c o m p a n y a r e m u c h m o r e e x p e n s i v e t o the R u s s i a n c o m p a n y , by r e a s o n of t h e w e a r i s o m e and e x p e n s i v e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t h r o u g h S i b e r i a to Okhotsk. " 3 T h e R u s s i a n m e n - o f - w a r , which a p p e a r e d n e a r t h e A m e r i c a n s h o r e s o n c e in two o r t h r e e y e a r s , in t h e c o u r s e of t h e i r r o u n d - t h e - w o r l d v o y a g e s , p r e s e n t e d no o b s t a c l e t o the f o r e i g n m e r c h a n t s . T h e a t t e m p t s , begun a s e a r l y a s 1 8 1 0 , t o s e t t l e the q u e s t i o n of s m u g g l i n g in the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s t h r o u g h d i p l o m a t i c n e g o t i a t i o n s a l s o c a m e t o n a u g h t . And Count P a h l e n , E n v o y E x t r a o r d i n a r y to t h e United S t a t e s , and D a s h k o v , C o n s u l - G e n e r a l in P h i l a d e l p h i a , d e c l a r e d u n a n i m o u s l y that the A m e r i c a n g o v e r n m e n t had n e i t h e r t h e d e s i r e - - i n a s m u c h a s s o m e m e m b e r s of the g o v e r n m e n t m a d e i n v e s t m e n t s t h e m s e l v e s in t h e e x p e d i t i o n s s e n t off t o the R u s s i a n s h o r e s - - n o r the a b i l i t y - - i n a s m u c h a s t h e r e w e r e no A m e r i c a n m e n - o f - w a r off the A m e r i c a n s h o r e s - - t o b l o c k t h i s t y p e of t r a d e . T h e C o m p a n y p o s e d the p r o b l e m of t a k i n g d e c i s i v e a c t i o n a g a i n s t f o r e i g n c o m p e t i t i o n with p a r t i c u l a r s h a r p n e s s a f t e r t h e A m e r i c a n s h a d p e n e t r a t e d i n t o C o l u m b i a . In i t s m e m o r a n d u m t o A l e x a n d e r I of D e c e m b e r 1 8 , 1 8 1 1 , t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d l a i d s t r e s s on t h e f a c t t h a t " i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o w a r d off t h i s d a n g e r e x c e p t by i s s u i n g a d e t e r m i n e d w a r n i n g t o t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n n a v i g a t o r s who, by r e a s o n of t h e s p i r i t of l i b e r t y e m b o d i e d in t h e i r c o n s t i t u t i o n and the f r e e d o m to s a i l and do b u s i n e s s w h e r e v e r and h o w e v e r one p l e a s e s , w i l l not h e e d any s u g g e s t i o n s . T h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d r e p o r t e d on t h e i n t e n s i f i e d c o m p e t i t i o n of the A m e r i c a n s a s a r e s u l t of t h e p e n e t r a t i o n of the United S t a t e s i n t o C o l u m b i a , t h a t b o r d e r s on t h e R u s s i a n

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c o l o n i e s , a n d on t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a n A m e r i c a n t r a d i n g c o m p a n y t h e r e . T h e n it r e q u e s t e d the t s a r to t a k e d e c i s i v e action against the f o r e i g n e r s : "Your I m p e r i a l M a j e s t y who has m o s t g r a c i o u s l y taken the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company and the c o u n t r y ' s c o m m e r c e in g e n e r a l under his p r o t e c t i o n will not allow, in a way known to h i s r o y a l f a t h e r l y h e a r t , any f u r t h e r i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h R u s s i a n b u s i n e s s on t h e p a r t of p r i v a t e N o r t h A m e r i c a n h u c k s t e r s and will not p e r m i t t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d c o m p a n y , which, having settled at Columbia, is continuing w i t h t h e a i d of i t s o t h e r u n m a n a g e a b l e f e l l o w c o u n t r y m e n to b a r t e r a r m s with the Indians, to c r u s h e v e r y opportunity for developing m o r e t r a d e and to violate to all intents and p u r p o s e s t h e t r a n q u i l l i t y of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s . " ®

T h e C o m p a n y p o s e d b e f o r e t h e g o v e r n m e n t t h e p r o b l e m of m a i n t a i n i n g a p e r m a n e n t p a t r o l of w a r s h i p s i n A m e r i c a n w a t e r s . B u t in a p e r i o d m a r k e d b y a g a t h e r i n g a r m e d c l a s h w i t h N a p o l e o n , i t w a s , of c o u r s e , out of t h e q u e s t i o n t o s t a r t anything that might a g g r a v a t e the r e l a t i o n s with the United S t a t e s . " I b e l i e v e , " w r o t e t h e M i n i s t e r of t h e I n t e r i o r , O . P . Kozodavlev, to State Chancellor N . P . R u m y a n t s e v , "that any m e t h o d s e m p l o y i n g f o r c e a n d a r m s i n w a r d i n g off t h e a t t e m p t s of t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n s , e v e n t h o u g h t h e i r s u c c e s s be a s s u r e d , c a n have no p l a c e h e r e f o r the v e r y good r e a s o n t h a t t o b r e a k d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s f o r t h e s a k e of a p r i v a t e c o m p a n y w o u l d n o t be a l t o g e t h e r a s o u n d a c t i o n . " ^ K o z o d a v l e v k n e w , of c o u r s e , v e r y w e l l w h a t t h e " p r i v a t e " R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y r e p r e s e n t e d . But h e w a s i n d i s p u t a b l y r i g h t in d e c l a r i n g t h a t t o p r o c e e d t o b r e a k d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s with the United S t a t e s at t h a t j u n c t u r e "would not be a l t o g e t h e r a sound a c t i o n " ; f o r , should the United States openly ally itself with F r a n c e , the danger t h r e a t e n i n g the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s w o u l d b e s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n t h a t of t h e A m e r i c a n merchants. In t h e p o s t - T i l s i t p e r i o d , w h e n R u s s i a w a s c o m p e l l e d t o conclude an alliance with F r a n c e , the t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t t r i e d t o u t i l i z e t h e a n t i - B r i t i s h t e n d e n c i e s of A m e r i c a n p o l i c y . T h u s w e r e a d i n t h e o u t l i n e of t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s g i v e n b y A l e x a n d e r I to Count P a h l e n , who w a s sent a s envoy to the United States in 1809: " I s e e t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a s a p a r t i c u l a r k i n d of r i v a l

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to England. I b e l i e v e that the s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t s of the United S t a t e s will f o r c e t h e m to watch m o r e c a r e f u l l y than the g o v e r n m e n t s on the E u r o p e a n continent have done f o r an opportunity, if not of r e s t r a i n i n g the p e r nicious d e s p o s t i s m shown by G r e a t B r i t a i n on the s e a s then at l e a s t of mitigating i t . S t i l l , a few y e a r s l a t e r , when R u s s i a b r o k e with Napoleon and a l l i e d h e r s e l f with England, the t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t was c o m p e l l e d to maintain f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s with the United S t a t e s a s it had done b e f o r e , but f o r r e a s o n s c o n t r a r y to t h o s e that had o p e r a t e d during the p e r i o d of F r a n c o - R u s s i a n f r i e n d s h i p . T h e United S t a t e s attempted to support F r a n c e whenever p o s s i b l e . S o m e idea of the sympathy with Napoleon which was w i d e s p r e a d in the United S t a t e s m a y be obtained f r o m the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e between B a s h k o v , the R u s s i a n Consul in P h i l a delphia, and N e s s e l r o d e . In a l e t t e r f r o m P h i l a d e l p h i a , dated M a r c h 15, 1 8 1 5 , Dashkov, touching upon the venality of the A m e r i c a n p r e s s during the p e r i o d of the war with Napoleon, w r o t e , among other t h i n g s : " T h e R u s s i a n m i n i s t e r has l e a s t need of a l l of e m p l o y ing that p o l i t i c a l weapon [ i . e . , bribing the n e w s p a p e r s . - A u . ] and would a l m o s t m a n a g e without i t , if the A m e r i c a n g o v e r n m e n t , in i t s blind devotion to Napoleon, did not f a v o r the views of the F r e n c h m i n i s t e r even with r e g a r d to the e s t r a n g e d r e l a t i o n s e x i s t i n g between R u s s i a and America. " 8 T h i s f r i e n d l y attitude of the United S t a t e s towards F r a n c e was brought about, in the f i r s t p l a c e , by the a n t a g o n i s m b e tween the United S t a t e s and England which l e d to the War of 1812 between the two c o u n t r i e s . In those conditions, it was not to R u s s i a ' s i n t e r e s t to provoke A m e r i c a . It was suggested to the Company that it c o m p o s e a l l the d i f f e r e n c e s that had a r i s e n between it and the A m e r i c a n m e r chants by p e a c e f u l m e a n s . Following D a s h k o v ' s p r o p o s a l , which was supported by the M i n i s t e r of the I n t e r i o r , the m a n agement of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company signed on May 2 0 , 1 8 1 2 , a f o u r - y e a r a g r e e m e n t with the f u r - t r a d i n g company that was f o r m e d in Columbia under the New Y o r k m e r c h a n t , A s t o r . T h e Columbia company was g r a n t e d the right to bring c e r t a i n f u r - s k i n s into R u s s i a f r e e of duty, although the i m p o r -

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t a t i o n of s u c h s k i n s w a s p r o h i b i t e d u n d e r t h e r e g u l a t i o n s t h e n in f o r c e . A s t o r ' s c o m p a n y p l e d g e d i t s e l f n o t t o e n g a g e in t r a d e i n t h e t e r r i t o r y belonging to the R u s s i a n - A m e ri can C o m p a n y , e x c l u sively to supply the R u s s i a n colonies with all the p r o v i s i o n s t h e y n e e d e d , a n d t o t r a n s p o r t t h e R u s s i a n f u r s t o C a n t o n in i t s own s h i p s . In t h e e v e n t t h a t a n y of t h e A m e r i c a n m e r c h a n t s e n g a g e d in h u n t i n g o r t r a d i n g i n t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s , A s t o r w a s o b l i g e d t o a c t " j o i n t l y a n d in a g r e e m e n t " w i t h t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n Company "to decline such an undertaking." The R u s s i a n c o m p a n y f i g u r e d on A s t o r ' s f a m i l y c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h i m p o r t a n t p o l i t i c i a n s in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . H o w e v e r , t h e a g r e e m e n t c o n c l u d e d with A s t o r did not b r i n g about any change in the existing situation. A s t o r i m p o r t e d into the colonies p r i m a r i l y s u c h g o o d s a s t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y did n o t n e e d . He c h a r g e d h i g h f r e i g h t r a t e s on h i s b o a t s , a n d t h e r e p o r t s about the influence he allegedly e x e r t e d over the A m e r i c a n m e r c h a n t s , an influence that was expected to m a k e t h e m r e l i n q u i s h t h e i r u n w a r r a n t e d t r a d e in the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s , p r o v e d t o be f a l s e . In 1817 t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d of t h e C o m p a n y s u b m i t t e d t o t h e t s a r f o r h i s c o n s i d e r a t i o n a d r a f t of t h e r e g u l a t i o n s t o b e i m p o s e d upon f o r e i g n v e s s e l s t o u c h i n g a t t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a . T h e d r a f t c o m p a r e d , a s to s t a t u t e s , the colonial p o r t s w i t h t h o s e on t h e B a l t i c . B u t i t m a d e n o p r o g r e s s , a n d s m u g g l i n g w e n t on i n t h e c o l o n i e s j u s t a s b e f o r e . T h e f o r e i g n m e r c h a n t s f e l t q u i t e a t h o m e i n t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s , e v e n in t h o s e that w e r e s i t u a t e d in c l o s e p r o x i m i t y to the center"of the colonial administration. T h e f a m o u s R u s s i a n n a v i g a t o r , V . G o l o v n i n , upon r e t u r n i n g f r o m a t r i p in 1 8 1 9 , i n a l e t t e r a d d r e s s e d t o t h e d i r e c t o r s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y i m p a r t e d a n u m b e r of f a c t s which testified to the t r e m e n d o u s proportions that foreign t r a d e h a d a s s u m e d in R u s s i a n A m e r i c a . He p o i n t e d t o t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r d e c i s i v e s t e p s by t h e g o v e r n m e n t i n t h e d e f e n s e of t h e R u s s i a n t e r r i t o r y in A m e r i c a a g a i n s t F o r e i g n p e n e t r a t i o n . A n d , in i t s d a y , h i s l e t t e r r e c e i v e d w i d e p u b l i c i t y in g o v e r n m e n t c i r c l e s . T h e l e t t e r b e gan with the a r g u m e n t that the t e r r i t o r y which, a c c o r d i n g to t h e c h a r t e r g r a n t e d , w a s i n e x c l u s i v e p o s s e s s i o n of t h e C o m p a n y , a c t u a l l y b e l o n g e d t o R u s s i a b o t h by r i g h t of f i r s t d i s c o v e r y a n d of f i r s t s e t t l e m e n t , w i t h o u t w h i c h l e t t e r , in G o l o v n i n ' s opinion, the f o r m e r had no v a l i d i t y w h a t s o e v e r .

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C i t i n g t h e r e s u l t s of t h e v o y a g e s of B e r i n g , C h i r i k o v , a n d of other R u s s i a n n a v i g a t o r s , Golovnin a r g u e d that the subsequent " r e - d i s c o v e r y " by f o r e i g n t r a v e l e r s of a n u m b e r of p l a c e s on the A m e r i c a n continent w h e r e they found R u s s i a n s e t t l e r s , a m o u n t s t o n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n t h e a s s i g n i n g of n e w n a m e s t o t h o s e p l a c e s in h o n o r of s o m e d i g n i t a r i e s - - s o m e t h i n g w h i c h neither Bering nor Chirikov had ever done. Golovnin wrote as follows: " W e r e a m o d e r n n a v i g a t o r t o s u c c e e d in m a k i n g d i s c o v e r i e s s u c h a s t h o s e m a d e by B e r i n g a n d C h i r i k o v , h e w o u l d n o t o n l y a s s i g n n a m e s of p r i n c e s a n d c o u n t s t o a l l t h e A m e r i c a n p r o m o n t o r i e s , i s l a n d s , a n d b a y s , but w o u l d e v e n h a v e s e a t e d a l l t h e m i n i s t e r s a n d a l l t h e n o b i l i t y on b a r e s t o n e s a n d p r o c l a i m e d his c o m p l i m e n t s to the whole w o r l d . A s f o r t h e c o l o n y of R o s s , w h i l e t h e r i g h t of f i r s t d i s c o v e r y did n o t in t h i s c a s e b e l o n g t o R u s s i a , t h e r i g h t of f i r s t s e t t l e m e n t j u s t i f i e d R u s s i a in t a k i n g p o s s e s s i o n of t h a t r e g i o n , s i n c e i t i s t h e f i r s t s e t t l e m e n t a n d not " t h e f i r s t d i s c o v e r y , " a s G o l o v n i n p o i n t s o u t , t h a t b e s t o w s t h e r i g h t t o p o s s e s s i o n . " T h a t not m e r e d i s c o v e r y , " w r i t e s Golovnin, "but actual occupation gives the r i g h t t o p o s s e s s i o n , of t h a t we h a v e i n s t a n c e s e v e n in t h e o l d e n d a y s . F o r e x a m p l e , u n d e r Q u e e n E l i z a b e t h of E n g l a n d t h e S p a n i s h c o u r t d e m a n d e d of h e r m i n i s t e r s t h a t t h e y o r d e r t h e E n g l i s h m e n w h o h a d o c c u p i e d a c e r t a i n p l a c e in A m e r i c a t o l e a v e t h a t p l a c e b e c a u s e it b e l o n g e d t o S p a i n by r i g h t of d i s c o v e r y . E l i z a b e t h , h o w e v e r , had the following reply given to the d e m a n d , n a m e l y that m e r e d i s c o v e r y without actual o c cupation does not give the right to p o s s e s s i o n , and that the S p a n i a r d s had d i s c o v e r e d that p l a c e when t h e r e w e r e no c a n non t h e r e , a n d t h a t n o w t h e y w i l l h a v e t o d i s c o v e r it a n e w . " ' " G o l o v n i n p o i n t s out f u r t h e r t h a t " H i s M a j e s t y , h a v i n g g r a n t e d to the Company c e r t a i n r i g h t s and p r i v i l e g e s to the e x c l u s i o n of a l l h i s o t h e r s u b j e c t s , did n o t , of c o u r s e , i n t e n d t o a l l o w f o r e i g n e r s t o p r o f i t , in t h e a r e a s b e l o n g i n g t o H i m , by t h e a d v a n t a g e g r a n t e d o n l y t o t h e C o m p a n y a n d a p p u r t e n a n t to i t . " 1 1 In the m e a n t i m e t h e t e r r i t o r y f r o m l a t i t u d e 4 2 ° t o 5 4 ° 4 0 ' N . w a s , a c c o r d i n g to t h e a g r e e m e n t of 1 8 1 8 , o c c u p i e d j o i n t l y b y England and the United S t a t e s . T h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e c o n t r i b u t e d t o e n h a n c e t h e i n t e r e s t of A m e r i c a n b u s i n e s s c i r c l e s in t h e R u s s i a n p o s s e s s i o n s that abounded in f u r - b e a r i n g a n i m a l s . F r o m that t i m e on, r e p o r t s P o l e t i k a , the R u s s i a n envoy in A m e r i c a , t o t h e M i n i s t e r of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , N e s s e l r o d e ,

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T H E R U S S I A N - A M E R I C A N COMPANY

"the c u r i o s i t y of the A m e r i c a n s about the northwest c o a s t of A m e r i c a and about our s e t t l e m e n t s in that wild r e g i o n attained a d e g r e e of intensity that truly a m a z e d m e . " ' ^ In the s a m e r e p o r t , dated J a n u a r y 21, 1821, P o l e t i k a r e l a t e s : "It often happened that p r i v a t e individuals would i m p e r t i n e n t l y - - a n d even in my own house - - d e m a n d i n f o r m a t i o n of me concerning the a c t i v i t i e s of the R u s s i a n s along the s h o r e s of n o r t h w e s t e r n A m e r i c a . . . . I have r e f r a i n e d until now f r o m submitting a r e p o r t to Your E x c e l l e n c y on t h e s e i n s t a n c e s of political m a d n e s s , b e c a u s e I noticed no d i s position on the p a r t of the A m e r i c a n government to p r e occupy i t s e l f s e r i o u s l y with the s e t t l e m e n t s on the s h o r e s of the P a c i f i c . But all this m a y r a d i c a l l y c h a n g e , e s p e c i a l l y now when C o n g r e s s i s p r e o c c u p i e d with t h o s e settlements."13 The question of the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s w a s r a i s e d in Cong r e s s in connection with the occupation by the United S t a t e s of the C o l u m b i a R i b e r b a s i n , which brought the b o u n d a r i e s of the A m e r i c a n p o s s e s s i o n s c l o s e r to the R u s s i a n s e t t l e m e n t s on the northwest c o a s t . On J a n u a r y 9, (21, New Style) 1821, C o n g r e s s h e a r d a r e p o r t by a s p e c i a l c o m m i t t e e which had been c h a r g e d with i n v e s t i g a t i n g the r e s u l t s of the expedition sent by the United S t a t e s to e f f e c t the occupation of the t e r r i t o r y along the Columbia R i v e r . With r e g a r d to the p u r s u i t s of fur-hunting and whaling in which A m e r i c a n c i t i z e n s w e r e i n t e r e s t e d , the c o m m i t t e e noted that the United S t a t e s m i s s e d the opportunity to gain full p o s s e s s i o n of that r e g i o n , while " a l l n a t i o n s , whether or not they have any rights to that r e g i o n , a r e taking c a r e to occupy s o m e p l a c e therein and do not want to be r e i m b u r s e d for their e x p e n d i t u r e s , if they can only s h a r e in the i n c o m e t h e r e f r o m . " By way of i l l u s t r a t i o n the c o m m i t t e e cited the c a s e of R u s s i a : " R u s s i a , which, by her p o s s e s s i o n s in the A s i a t i c a r e a , o c c u p i e s a position s i m i l a r to that occupied by our p o s s e s s i o n s h e r e , h a s long r e a l i z e d the i m p o r t a n c e of c o m m e r c e t h e r e and the p r o f i t s t h e r e o f . . . . The E u r o p e a n p o w e r s did not even take notice of R u s s i a until she s t a r t e d to engage in novel u n d e r t a k i n g s , s p a r i n g neither t o i l ,

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t r o u b l e , n o r e x p e n s e i n t r y i n g t o m a k e t h e f o u r p a r t s of the globe h e r v a s s a l s . " ^ The c o n g r e s s i o n a l c o m m i t t e e examined the R u s s i a n colon i e s i n A m e r i c a w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k of t s a r i s t R u s s i a ' s general plan for expansion. The committee pictured R u s s i a as a mighty power whose aim was world domination: "P'ort r e s s e s , s t o r e h o u s e s , c i t i e s , t r a d e - - a l l h a v e s p r u n g up in t h a t r e g i o n a s t h o u g h by m a g i c . W i t h a n a r m e d f o r c e of o n e m i l l i o n m e n at h e r d i s p o s a l she i s not only d e f e n d i n g h e r o b l i g a t i o n w i t h t h e g r a n d e u r in w h i c h E u r o p e r e g a r d s h e r , and is t h r e a t e n i n g the T u r k , the P e r s i a n , Japan and China, b u t e v e n t h e p o s s e s s i o n s of t h e K i n g of S p a i n in N o r t h A m e r i c a a r e not s a f e f r o m h e r t e r r i b l e m i g h t . " In t h e o p i n i o n of t h e c o m m i t t e e , R u s s i a ' s a c t i v i t y w a s i n c r e a s i n g f r o m d a y t o d a y : " H e r a l e r t n e s s in o p e n i n g up s u i t a b l e r o u t e s f o r p r o f i t a b l e t r a d e i s g r o w i n g m o r e i n t e n s e by t h e h o u r . In t h e m i d s t of a l l h e r d i f f i c u l t u n d e r t a k i n g s s h e d i d n o t m i s s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y of o c c u p y i n g t w o i m p o r t a n t p o s t s on t h e A m e r i c a n c o a s t of t h e P a c i f i c , one a t a p l a c e c a l l e d A r k h a n g e l s k , at about latitude 57°N. , and the other in Bodega B a y a t l a t i t u d e 3 8 ° 3 4 ' N . " A f t e r a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n f o r t i f i c a t i o n s and the m e t h o d s used to supply the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s by l a n d a s f a r a s P e t r o p a v l o v s k a n d f r o m t h e r e by s e a t o N o v o a r k h a n g e l s k , t h e c o n g r e s s i o n a l c o m m i t t e e w r o t e in c o n c l u s i o n t h a t " a n a t i o n w h i c h u n d e r t a k e s s u c h v o y a g e s , o f t e n o v e r f r o z e n s e a s , in t e m p e s t s a n d s n o w s t o r m s which m a k e it i m p o s s i b l e to see an object a few f e e t a w a y , i n o r d e r t o h o l d on t o s o m e b r a n c h of t r a d e , m u s t w e l l a n d thoroughly understand all its i m p o r t a n c e , so that the o b j e c t i v e s i t h a s i n v i e w a r e n o t , in s o m e w a y , t a k e n a w a y f r o m i t . By o v e r c o m i n g s u c h e x t r a o r d i n a r y d i f f i c u l t i e s , R u s s i a h a s f o u n d a w a y t o o c c u p y o n e of t h e S a n d w i c h I s l a n d s , w h i c h n o t only e n a b l e s h e r t o m a i n t a i n h e r p o s i t i o n s , but t o h a v e c o m m a n d of t h e w h o l e n o r t h e r n p a r t of t h e P a c i f i c . " ^ The c o n g r e s s i o n a l c o m m i t t e e , a s we have s e e n , p o s e d the q u e s t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s i n A m e r i c a v e r y s h a r p l y . T h i s a t t i t u d e w a s t h e r e s u l t n o t o n l y of t h e g e n e r a l l y i n t e n s i f i e d i n t e r e s t of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t a l r e g i o n , b u t a l s o of t h e o p p o s i t i o n t h a t A m e r i c a n t r a d e h a d e n c o u n t e r e d i n t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s on t h e p a r t of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company.

82

THE RUSSIAN-AMERICAN COMPANY

In A u g u s t , 1 8 2 0 , t h e m a n a g e m e n t f o r b a d e t h e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o c a r r y on a n y b a r t e r t r a d e w i t h f o r e i g n e r s . One y e a r l a t e r t h i s prohibition r e c e i v e d g o v e r n m e n t s a n c t i o n . On S e p t e m b e r 4 , 1 8 2 1 , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t h e a p p r o v a l of t h e n e w c h a r t e r of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , an u k a s e w a s i s s u e d absolutely forbidding all f o r e i g n v e s s e l s , without e x c e p t i o n , to put in at the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s . T h e r i g h t to t r a d e and to engage in fishing and whaling a l o n g t h e w h o l e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t of A m e r i c a , f r o m t h e B e r i n g S t r a i t to latitude 5 0 ° N . , and in the w a t e r s a r o u n d the A l e u t i a n s a n d t h e K u r i l e s , w a s b y t h e t e r m s of t h a t u k a s e g r a n t e d t o Russian subjects exclusively. The ukase forbade "all foreign v e s s e l s not only to put in at the s h o r e s and i s l a n d s s u b j e c t to R u s s i a a s s p e c i f i e d in t h e p r e c e d i n g a r t i c l e , but t o a p p r o a c h t h e m w i t h i n l e s s t h a n 100 I t a l i a n m i l e s . V e s s e l s caught t r a d i n g with the n a t i v e s or e n t e r i n g the p r o h i b i t e d zone, would b e s u b j e c t t o c o n f i s c a t i o n by m e n - o f - w a r , w h i c h it w a s p r o p o s e d t o s e n d c r u i s i n g a l o n g t h e A m e r i c a n c o a s t . In O c t o b e r of t h e s a m e y e a r t h e f r i g a t e " A p o l l o " s a i l e d f r o m K r o n s t a d t . E x a c t l y one y e a r l a t e r , i n O c t o b e r , 1 8 2 2 , it s t a r t e d c r u i s i n g a l o n g t h e s h o r e s of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s i n A m e r i c a . T h e s e d e c i s i v e m e a s u r e s , h o w e v e r , r e s u l t e d only in the s u s p e n s i o n of t h e p u r c h a s i n g of g o o d s f r o m f o r e i g n m e r c h a n t s f o r t h e c o l o n i e s ; t h e s m u g g l i n g t r a d e of t h e f o r e i g n e r s w i t h the native population continued at full b l a s t . The p r o h i b i t i o n i m p o s e d upon f o r e i g n s h i p s f r o m a p p r o a c h i n g t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a , e v o k e d a s h a r p p r o t e s t not only f r o m t h e United S t a t e s but a l s o f r o m G r e a t B r i t a i n . On J u n e 3 , 1 8 2 2 , K . V . N e s s e l r o d e w r o t e a s f o l l o w s t o C o u n t D . A . G u r y e v , M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e , c o n c e r n i n g t h e p r o t e s t of t h e A m e r i c a n a n d E n g l i s h g o v e r n m e n t s a g a i n s t t h e e x t e n s i o n of t h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s i n A m e r i c a , a s p r o c l a i m e d i n t h e n e w c h a r t e r of t h e C o m p a n y , a n d a l s o a g a i n s t t h e u k a s e of S e p t e m b e r 4 : " T h e A m e r i c a n g o v e r n m e n t h a s p r o t e s t e d against what it c a l l s t h e e x p a n s i o n of o u r p o s s e s s i o n s a n d a g a i n s t t h e d e g r e e of p o w e r g r a n t e d b y u s t o o u r n a v a l t r i b u n a l . " T h e E n g l i s h g o v e r n m e n t , w r o t e N e s s e l r o d e in the s a m e l e t t e r , " h a s l i k e w i s e m a d e a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t o us w h i c h i s b a s e d on t h e s a m e grounds."*^ T h i s w a s at a t i m e when the t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t w a s not in a p o s i t i o n t o d i s r e g a r d t h e s e p r o t e s t s , e s p e c i a l l y t h a t of E n g l a n d . The t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t had just p r e s e n t e d a note

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t o t h e m e m b e r p o w e r s of t h e H o l y A l l i a n c e u r g i n g t h a t R u s s i a b e e n t r u s t e d w i t h " t h e r e s t o r a t i o n of o r d e r in t h e B a l k a n P e n i n s u l a " in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e G r e e k R e v o l u t i o n w h i c h h a d b r o k e n out in 1821 u n d e r Y p s i l a n t i ' s l e a d e r s h i p . E n g l a n d a n d A u s t r i a , m o r e t h a n a n y of t h e o t h e r p o w e r s , t r i e d t o p r e v e n t t h i s " r e s t o r a t i o n of o r d e r i n t h e B a l k a n P e n i n s u l a " w h i c h A l e x a n d e r c o n c e i v e d a s a p r e t e x t f o r t h e p a r t i t i o n of T u r k e y . T h e G r e e k p r o b l e m , w h i c h w a s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e p r o b l e m of t h e S t r a i t s , w a s t h e c r u x of R u s s i a ' s f o r e i g n p o l i c y . P r e p a r i n g h i m s e l f f o r a c a m p a i g n i n " a i d " of t h e G r e e k s , A l e x a n d e r h a d to d i s g u i s e his i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t d e s i g n s in e v e r y way p o s s i b l e . It w a s m a n i f e s t l y d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s t o t h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t to c o m e into conflict, at that t i m e , with England and the U n i t e d S t a t e s o v e r t h e R u s s i a n p o s s e s s i o n s i n A m e r i c a . It w a s not w o r t h w h i l e t o a l l o w t h e r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e p o w e r s t o d e t e r i o r a t e over an acquisition such as the A m e r i c a n colonies, while those p o w e r s w e r e a l s o opposed to R u s s i a n intervention i n t h e G r e e k a f f a i r . In t h e l e t t e r of J u n e 3 , 1 8 2 2 , w h i c h we have quoted, Nesselrode informed Guryev that Alexander had o r d e r e d a l l v e s s e l s c r u i s i n g off t h e s h o r e s of R u s s i a n A m e r i c a "to conduct t h e i r o b s e r v a t i o n s a s close to d r y land a s p o s s i b l e a n d not t o e x t e n d t h e m b e y o n d t h e l a t i t u d e i n w h i c h t h e A m e r i can c o m p a n y a c t u a l l y e n j o y e d its p r e r o g a t i v e s in hunting and f i s h i n g , b o t h a t t h e t i m e of i t s e s t a b l i s h m e n t a n d w h e n i t s c h a r t e r w a s r e n e w e d in 1 7 9 9 . "1® T h u s , t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of S e p t e m b e r 4 r e l a t i n g t o t h e e x t e n s i o n of t h e R u s s i a n b o r d e r c l e a r up t o l a t i t u d e 5 0 ° N . w a s p r a c t i c a l l y a n n u l l e d , t h o u g h w i t h o u t t h e b e n e f i t of a f o r m a l a n n o u n c e m e n t . A s f o r t h e b a n on f o r e i g n e r s t o l a n d on t h e s h o r e s of R u s s i a n A m e r i c a , t h a t q u e s t i o n , t o o , a c c o r d i n g t o A l e x a n d e r ' s o r d e r c i t e d a b o v e , w a s r e a l l y not c o n s i d e r e d d e f i n i t i v e l y s o l v e d . It w a s s u g g e s t e d in W a s h i n g t o n t o B a r o n Tyuil, the new a m b a s s a d o r to the United States who had r e p l a c e d P o l e t i k a , t h a t " a n a g r e e m e n t b e c o n c l u d e d on t h e m e a s u r e s t o be a c c e p t e d b y c o m m o n c o n s e n t t o a v e r t a l l f u r t h e r c o n t r o v e r s y w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e e x t e n t of t h e r e s p e c t i v e p o s s e s s i o n s on t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t of A m e r i c a , t o e l i m i nate all such complaints as have h e r e t o f o r e come f r o m the A m e r i c a n c o m p a n y a g a i n s t t h e u n d e r t a k i n g s of c e r t a i n c i t i z e n s of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a n d f i n a l l y , t o a v o i d t h e d u t y of p u t t i n g i n t o e f f e c t t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of S e p t e m b e r 4 , a s t e p we s h o u l d be obliged t o t a k e under any o t h e r a r r a n g e m e n t . " ' ^ T h e q u e s t i o n of t h e r i g h t t o do b u s i n e s s in t h e R u s s i a n

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c o l o n i e s w a s of p r i m e i n t e r e s t t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , s i n c e i t w a s c h i e f l y A m e r i c a n m e r c h a n t s w h o w e r e e n g a g e d in s u p p l y ing the c o l o n i e s and in s m u g g l i n g goods to the n a t i v e s . The q u e s t i o n of t h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h e R u s s i a n p o s s e s s i o n s , h o w e v e r , w a s of e q u a l c o n c e r n t o E n g l a n d a n d t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . A c o m m o n s t a n d by t h e s e t w o p o w e r s , w h i c h h a d o n l y r e c e n t l y b e e n a t w a r w i t h e a c h o t h e r , a g a i n s t t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of September 4 was assured complete success. The French historian B a r r a l - M o n f e r r a t notes that " L o r d C a s t l e r e a g h , ^^ w i t h o u t t h e s l i g h t e s t h e s i t a t i o n , b e g a n t o b a c k up t h e r i g h t s of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w i t h a s m u c h e n e r g y a s he w o u l d h a v e u p h e l d t h o s e of h i s own c o u n t r y . " "R u s s i a , " w r i t e s B a r r a i - M o n t f e r r a t f a r t h e r on, "which still a f f e c t e d t r e a t i n g A m e r i c a n s a s one would a s e c o n d - r a t e p e o p l e , t o w a r d s w h o m one c o u l d p e r m i t o n e s e l f t o b e s o m e w h a t u n c e r e m o n i ous, radically changed h e r attitude when she felt that England b a c k e d t h e m u p . She t o o k t h e i n i t i a t i v e in p r o p o s i n g t h a t t h e r e g u l a t i o n of t h e b o u n d a r i e s , a q u e s t i o n w h i c h s h e h a d b u t l a t e l y m a i n t a i n e d t o be a b l e t o s e t t l e u n i l a t e r a l l y of h e r own p r e r o g a t i v e , b e e n t r u s t e d t o a c o n f e r e n c e t o be c a l l e d in S t . P e t e r s b u r g . She g a v e h e r d e l e g a t e s t h e m o s t c o n c i l i a t o r y i n s t r u c t i o n s and h a s t e n e d to e x t r i c a t e h e r s e l f in t h i s way f r o m a n e e d l e s s conflict over A l a s k a . The St. P e t e r s burg c o n f e r e n c e gave complete s a t i s f a c t i o n to the Washington g o v e r n m e n t both j u r i d i c a l l y and p r a c t i c a l l y , and the m a t e r i a l i n t e r e s t s of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w e r e f u l l y s a f e g u a r d e d . The conflict over Alaska was indeed " u n n e c e s s a r y " for R u s s i a , s i n c e a t t h a t t i m e p r o b l e m s of g r e a t i m p o r t t o h e r w e r e b e i n g s e t t l e d on t h e B a l k a n P e n i n s u l a . On N o v e m b e r 20 ( D e c e m b e r 2, N e w S t y l e ) , 1 8 2 3 , P r e s i d e n t M o n r o e s e n t a m e s s a g e t o C o n g r e s s in w h i c h i t w a s s t a t e d f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e t h a t " t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t s , by the f r e e and independent condition which they have a s s u m e d and m a i n t a i n e d , a r e h e n c e f o r t h not to be c o n s i d e r e d a s s u b j e c t s f o r f u t u r e c o l o n i z a t i o n of a n y E u r o p e a n p o w e r s . " T h e d i r e c t c a u s e of t h i s d e c l a r a t i o n w a s t h e c o n t i n u i n g e x p a n s i o n of t h e R u s s i a n s on t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t a n d , in p a r t , t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of S e p t e m b e r 4 , 1 8 3 1 . In t h i s m e s s a g e , w h i c h l a i d t h e f o u n d a t i o n of w h a t c a m e t o be k n o w n a s t h e " M o n r o e D o c t r i n e , " it w a s c l e a r l y n o t e d t h a t t h e p r e s i d e n t t h o u g h t it p r o p e r to e n u n c i a t e the above p r i n c i p l e s p r e c i s e l y at the t i m e t h a t , a t t h e s u g g e s t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n g o v e r n m e n t , t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s in S t . P e t e r s b u r g w a s g i v e n t h e

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authority to d e t e r m i n e , through p e a c e f u l negotiations, the m u t u a l r i g h t s of t h e t w o c o u n t r i e s on t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t of the A m e r i c a n continent. It w a s a t t h e S t . P e t e r s b u r g c o n f e r e n c e , w h i c h c o n s i d e r e d t h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a , t h a t t h e M o n r o e D o c t r i n e w o n i t s f i r s t v i c t o r y . But t h i s v i c t o r y w a s w o n m a i n l y a s a r e s u l t of t h e c o m m o n s t a n d w i t h E n g l a n d w h i c h , in t u r n , w a s t h e r e s u l t of t h e o p p o s i t i o n m a n i f e s t e d b y t h a t c o u n t r y t o t h e i n t e r e s t s of t s a r i s t R u s s i a in t h e N e a r East. T h e convention r e g u l a t i n g the r e l a t i o n s between R u s s i a and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s on t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t w a s c o n c l u d e d on A p r i l 5 (17), 1824. A s i m i l a r convention w a s concluded with E n g l a n d on F e b r u a r y 16 ( 2 8 ) , 1 8 2 5 . W h e n a l l t h e " A m e r i c a n " p r o b l e m s h a d b e e n s e t t l e d in F e b r u a r y , 1 8 2 5 , n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h E n g l a n d a n d A u s t r i a b e g a n in S t . P e t e r s b u r g on t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e G r e e k R e v o l u t i o n . It b e c a m e a p p a r e n t a t o n c e t h a t all the n e g o t i a t i o n s that had t a k e n p l a c e p r e v i o u s l y w e r e only in t h e n a t u r e of d e l i b e r a t e p r o c r a s t i n a t i o n , a n d t h a t n e i t h e r E n g l a n d nor A u s t r i a would allow A l e x a n d e r to use the G r e e k R e v o l u t i o n a s a p r e t e x t f o r m e d d l i n g in T u r k i s h a f f a i r s . T h e t e n o r of t h e s e c o n v e n t i o n s , c o n c l u d e d , a s t h e y w e r e , a t a t i m e t h a t w a s m o s t p r o p i t i o u s f o r e x e r t i n g p r e s s u r e on t h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t , w a s in d i r e c t c o n t r a d i c t i o n t o t h e u k a s e of S e p t e m b e r 4 , 1821 . T h e t w o c o n v e n t i o n s w e r e p e r f e c t l y i d e n t i c a l in t h e i r m a i n p r o v i s i o n s . A r t i c l e 3 of b o t h c o n v e n t i o n s f i x e d a s t h e b o u n d a r y of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s l a t i t u d e 5 4 ° 4 0 ' N . , t h a t i s 3 ° 4 0 ' s h o r t of t h e b o u n d a r y i n d i c a t e d b o t h in t h e u k a s e of S e p t e m b e r 4 a n d in t h e n e w c h a r t e r of t h e C o m p a n y . A s t o t h e c o l o n y of R o s s , t h a t q u e s t i o n w a s s i m p l y i g n o r e d in t h e a g r e e m e n t . A r t i c l e 4 of t h e c o n v e n t i o n w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d A r t i c l e 7 of t h e c o n v e n t i o n w i t h G r e a t B r i t a i n g r a n t e d t o t h e c i t i z e n s of t h e t w o c o u n t r i e s t h e r i g h t of u n i m p e d e d e n t r y t o a l l t h e i n l a n d w a t e r s of t h e R u s s i a n p o s s e s s i o n s in A m e r i c a , b o t h f o r t h e p u r p o s e of f i s h i n g a n d f o r t r a d i n g w i t h t h e n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n . A s i m i l a r r i g h t of e n t r y t o t h e i n l a n d w a t e r s of t h e A m e r i c a n a n d E n g l i s h s e t t l e m e n t s in A m e r i c a w a s g r a n t e d t o R u s s i a n n a t i o n a l s . Only t h o s e p l a c e s w e r e e x c l u d e d f r o m the t e r m s of t h e c o n v e n t i o n t h a t w e r e c o n s i d e r e d not o n l y t h e t e r r i t o r y of a p o w e r t h a t w a s a s i g n a t o r y t o t h e a g r e e m e n t b u t w e r e a c t u a l l y s e t t l e d by i t s n a t i o n a l s , R u s s i a n s in t h e f i r s t c a s e a n d A m e r i c a n s o r E n g l i s h m e n in t h e s e c o n d c a s e .

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H o w e v e r , it w a s c l e a r t o b o t h s i d e s , e v e n w h i l e t h e a g r e e m e n t was being signed, that, since the R u s s i a n m e r c h a n t s w e r e in no position to c o m p e t e with t h e i r E n g l i s h and A m e r i can r i v a l s , this f o r m a l l y r e c i p r o c a l obligation would actually a s s u m e t h e c h a r a c t e r of a s p e c i a l p r i v i l e g e e x t e n d e d t o A m e r i c a n and English m e r c h a n t s . The convention signed with England ten m o n t h s a f t e r that w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s m a d e m o r e a c u t e t h e p r o b l e m of t h e b o u n d a r i e s , n o t o n l y f r o m t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e A m e r i c a n w e s t c o a s t but f r o m t h e E a s t a s w e l l . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e c o n v e n t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d , w i t h r e l a t i o n t o E n g l a n d , t h e c o n d i t i o n of the m o s t f a v o r e d n a t i o n , m e a n i n g that in the event any nation w a s g r a n t e d t h e r i g h t of f r e e t r a d e i n t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s f o r m o r e t h a n t e n y e a r s , that r i g h t would a l s o be g r a n t e d to England. T h e t w o c o n v e n t i o n s p l a c e d t h e c o m m e r c i a l a c t i v i t y of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y in a n e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t p o s i t i o n . The attempt through government m e a s u r e s to eradicate s m u g g l i n g on t h e c o a s t l i n e b e l o n g i n g t o t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s e n d e d i n f a i l u r e . W h a t w a s m o r e , t h a t t y p e of t r a d e w a s n o w l e g i t i m a t i z e d , not o n l y i n t h e c o a s t a l z o n e b u t in t h e i n l a n d w a t e r s a s well, not to mention the fact that the conventions had set up s e r i o u s o b s t a c l e s in t h e w a y of a n y t e r r i t o r i a l e x p a n s i o n on t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t . It d i d n o t p r o v e s o e a s y t o f o r s w e a r c o m p l e t e l y a l l t r a d e r e l a t i o n s with f o r e i g n e r s , a s the m a n a g e m e n t had wanted to d o a t f i r s t w h e n it s e c u r e d t h e b a n on f o r e i g n v e s s e l s . E v e n b e f o r e t h e s i g n i n g of t h e c o n v e n t i o n w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h e Company was f o r c e d to appeal to the g o v e r n m e n t for p e r m i s sion to r e n e w i t s t r a d e with the f o r e i g n e r s in the colonial c e n t e r of N o v o a r k h a n g e l s k , s o it m i g h t b e a b l e t o s u p p l y t h e colonies with food and other n e c e s s i t i e s . Count N . S . M o r d vinov in a p r i v a t e l e t t e r to Κ . V. N e s s e l r o d e , d a t e d J a n u a r y 8, 1 8 2 4 , p o i n t e d out t h a t " t h e i n t e r r u p t i o n of t r a d e w i t h t h e f o r e i g n e r s h a s p l a c e d t h e C o m p a n y in a v e r y d i f f i c u l t p o s i t i o n . T h e d e l a y in n e g o t i a t i n g a p e r m a n e n t a g r e e m e n t w i t h E n g l a n d a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s on q u e s t i o n s of b o u n d a r i e s a n d c o m m e r c i a l r e l a t i o n s , m a y , in the m e a n t i m e , c o n t r i b u t e to the e x h a u s t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y ' s f u n d s , r e d u c e t h e f u r - h u n t e r s t o r u i n , a n d a r o u s e t h e i n d i g n a t i o n of t h e n a t i v e s w h o h a v e b e e n r e c e i v i n g all t h e i r n e c e s s i t i e s f r o m the C o m p a n y . " ^ The c o u n c i l of t h e C o m p a n y , f o r i t s p a r t , in i t s m e m o r a n d u m t o t h e M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e u r g e d h i m m o s t s t r e n u o u s l y t o s o l v e this problem.

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T h e r e w a s one o t h e r f a c t o r w h i c h p r o m p t e d t h e C o m p a n y t o i n s i s t on a p a r t i a l a b r o g a t i o n of t h e v e r y s a m e r e g u l a t i o n s f o r t h e p r o m u l g a t i o n of w h i c h it had v i g o r o u s l y f o u g h t . T h e ban on f o r e i g n e r s a g a i n s t t r a d i n g in t h e t e r r i t o r y b e l o n g i n g t o t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s a r o u s e d the a n g e r of the n a t i v e s , e s p e c i a l l y of t h e T l i n k e t t r i b e s ; f o r the c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w a s unable t o supply t h e m with t h e m e r c h a n d i s e w h i c h t h e y w e r e a c c u s t o m e d t o buy f r o m t h e f o r e i g n m e r c h a n t s . A r e v o l t of t h e T l i n k e t w a s a l w a y s a r e a l t h r e a t t o the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a . N o w , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e p o r t of t h e g o v e r n o r of the c o l o n i e s , M u r a v y o v , t h a t t h r e a t w a s to b e c o m e e v e n m o r e i m m i n e n t a s a r e s u l t of the s c a r c i t y of g o o d s . R u m o r s , h i g h l y e x a g g e r a t e d t o be s u r e , t h a t t h e T l i n k e t w e r e a r m i n g and t h a t the A m e r i c a n s w e r e e x e r c i s i n g undue i n f l u e n c e o v e r t h e m a l s o p l a y e d a p a r t in c o n f u s i n g t h e situation. " I t is well k n o w n , " r e p o r t e d the frightened M u r a v y o v , " t h a t c a n n o n m a y be found in m a n y of t h e s e c t i o n s i n h a b i t e d by t h e K o l o s h . M e m b e r s of t h e c r e w of t h e r o y a l f r i g a t e ' A p o l l o , ' w h i c h i s c r u i s i n g a l o n g t h e c o a s t of t h e c o l o n i e s , h a v e r e p o r t e d t h a t d u r i n g t h e i r s t a y in t h e K a i g a n i , t h e y had s e e n a s m a l l f o r t r e s s with c a n n o n , under t h e A m e r i c a n f l a g , and t h a t e v e r y day t h e y f i r e a c a n n o n at s u n s e t and r a i s e t h e f l a g . E x c e e d i n g l y l a r g e s t o r e s of r i f l e s and g u n p o w d e r m a y be s e e n in t h a t f o r t r e s s . M u r a v y o v r e q u e s t e d the i m m e d i a t e d e l i v e r y of the m e r c h a n d i s e n e e d e d by the n a t i v e s and t h e d i s p a t c h of m e n " a s r e i n f o r c e m e n t s , " d e c l a r i n g t h a t o t h e r w i s e " h e d o e s not know what t o d o . " " C o n s i d e r i n g t h a t t h e y s e e in us a l o n e , " w r o t e t h e m a n a g e m e n t of the C o m p a n y in r e g a r d t o t h e T l i n k e t s , on t h e b a s i s of r e p o r t s r e c e i v e d f r o m t h e c o l o n i e s , " t h e only o b s t a c l e both t o t h e s e l l i n g of t h e i r f u r s and t o the e a s y a c q u i s i t i o n of t h o s e t h i n g s t h a t h a v e b e c o m e i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o t h e m , we c a n n o t e x p e c t a f r i e n d l y a t t i t u d e on t h e i r p a r t n o r any m e r c y f r o m t h e m when t h e y h a v e b e c o m e s t r o n g . Consequently, t h e d a n g e r t o us f r o m t h e m w i l l i n c r e a s e a s we s e t up m o r e o b s t a c l e s in t h e i r way d e a l i n g with f o r e i g n s e a m e n . " ^ 4 On M a r c h 2 7 , 1 8 Z 4 , t e n days b e f o r e the s i g n i n g of t h e c o n v e n t i o n with the United S t a t e s , A l e x a n d e r I a l l o w e d t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y t o r e s u m e t r a d i n g with f o r e i g n e r s at N o v o a r k h a n g e l s k . In r a t i f y i n g t h i s p e r m i s s i o n , h o w e v e r , the c o n v e n t i o n went c o n s i d e r a b l y f a r t h e r . B y g i v i n g t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o t h e A m e r i c a n s , and l a t e r a l s o t o t h e E n g l i s h , t o c a r r y on t h e i r t r a d e , with t h e c o n s e n t of the

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C o m p a n y , w h e r e v e r t h e r e w e r e R u s s i a n s e t t l e m e n t s , the convention g a v e to the f o r e i g n m e r c h a n t s the r i g h t of u n i m p e d e d t r a d e in the C o m p a n y ' s t e r r i t o r y that w a s not s e t t l e d by R u s s i a n s . T h i s m e a n t that the C o m p a n y had d e p r i v e d i t s e l f of any p e r s p e c t i v e s of e x p a n d i n g i t s o p e r a t i o n s even within the l i m i t s of the t e r r i t o r y f o r m a l l y b e l o n g i n g to i t . T o i t s own s u r p r i s e , the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y e n c o u n t e r e d p o w e r f u l a n d e n t e r p r i s i n g r i v a l s on i t s own t e r r i t o r y . T h e m a n a g e m e n t of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , k n e w , of c o u r s e , e v e n b e f o r e the convention w a s s i g n e d which way the n e g o t i a t i o n s w e r e g o i n g . T h e i n t e r e s t s both of the s t o c k h o l d e r s and of the d i r e c t o r s w e r e at c o m p l e t e v a r i a n c e with the a p p e a s e m e n t p o l i c y p u r s u e d by the t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t on the A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t . In h i s r e m i n i s c e n c e s of R y l e y e v , w h o , at that t i m e , w a s the m a n a g e r of the C o m p a n y , Y e . P . O b o l e n s k y s a y s that " h e w a s s e r i o u s l y d i s t r u b e d by the s u r r e n d e r , f o r c e d by v i r t u e of the a g r e e m e n t with the N o r t h A m e r i c a n Union, to the N o r t h A m e r i c a n s of the colony of R o s s which we had e s t a b l i s h e d in C a l i f o r n i a . T h i s colony m i g h t h a v e b e c o m e a s t r o n g b a s e f o r us f r o m which we would h a v e b e e n a b l e to p a r t i c i p a t e in the r i c h g o l d d i s c o v e r i e s which w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y to b e come so f a m o u s . R y l e y e v w a s i n d e e d v e r y m u c h d i s t u r b e d by the t e r m s of the a g r e e m e n t , but not on a c c o u n t of the s u r r e n d e r of C a l i f o r n i a - - t h e a g r e e m e n t did not p r o v i d e f o r that at a l l - - b u t b e c a u s e he had an a p p r e h e n s i o n that the r a t i f i c a t i o n of the convention would d e a l a h e a v y blow to the whole a c t i v i t y of the C o m p a n y . Not only the m a n a g e m e n t of the C o m p a n y but a l s o s o m e of the m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l i n d i v i d u a l s t o c k h o l d e r s t r i e d to b r i n g p r e s s u r e upon the g o v e r n m e n t in one way o r a n o t h e r , in an a t t e m p t t o k e e p it f r o m m a k i n g c o n c e s s i o n s to the United States . " H o w e v e r u s e l e s s the e x t e n s i v e p o s s e s s i o n of d e s e r t l a n d m a y s e e m at p r e s e n t , " w r o t e Count N . S . M o r d v i n o v to K . V . N e s s e l r o d e in F e b r u a r y , 1 8 2 4 , " w e cannot f o r g e t the c e s s i o n by R u s s i a of the b o r d e r r e g i o n b e t w e e n the Y a b l o n o i M o u n t a i n s and the A m u r to the C h i n e s e . At the t i m e we c e d e d that r e g i o n , we w e r e content with the v a s t e x p a n s e of S i b e r i a and we d e s p i s e d the w i l d n e s s of the l a n d s we w e r e a b o u t to y i e l d . N o w , h o w e v e r , we r e g r e t that A m u r , the only S i b e r i a n r i v e r f l o w ing into a s e a that i s open to our n a v i g a t i o n , no l o n g e r f l o w s

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within our b o u n d a r i e s , and t h a t we c a n n o t r e c o v e r t h e s e g r e a t losses. T h e m a n a g e m e n t of t h e c o m p a n y p l a c e d g r e a t hope in N . S . M o r d v i n o v ' s a u t h o r i t y . B u t e v e n t s a s t h e y d e v e l o p e d w e r e not p r o p i t i o u s t o t h e C o m p a n y . N e s s e l r o d e , in i n f o r m i n g M o r d v i nov a f t e r t h e c o n v e n t i o n with t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s had b e e n s i g n e d , t h a t h i s l e t t e r had b e e n p r e s e n t e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e e m p e r o r w h o , " a c c e p t i n g it g r a c i o u s l y , d e i g n e d t o c o n s i d e r it w o r t h y . . . o f H i s M a j e s t y ' s a t t e n t i o n , " g i v e s t h e f o l l o w i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the convention j u s t signed: " I n A r t i c l e IV we a l l o w the United S t a t e s t o t r a d e and t o f i s h , but only f o r a p e r i o d not e x c e e d i n g t e n y e a r s , in a l l p l a c e s under our j u r i s d i c t i o n . Our c a b i n e t w a s c o m p e l l e d to a g r e e t o t h i s p r o v i s i o n f a v o r a b l e t o t h e m - - f o r two r e a s o n s , both e q u a l l y w o r t h y of c o n s i d e r a t i o n : f i r s t , b e c a u s e the g o v e r n m e n t of the N o r t h A m e r i c a n R e p u b l i c h a s , not without f o u n d a t i o n , d e m a n d e d c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r the c o n s i d e r a b l e a d v a n t a g e s a c c r u i n g t o us f r o m t h e o t h e r p r o v i s i o n s of t h e a g r e e m e n t , e s p e c i a l l y f r o m t h o s e in A r t i c l e V [the ban on t h e s a l e of s p i r i t s and a r m s t h r o u g h out the t e r r i t o r y of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s . - - A u . ] ; s e c o n d l y , b e c a u s e the A m e r i c a n s had b e e n c a r r y i n g on t h e i r t r a d e and f i s h i n g f o r a long t i m e and t h e C o m p a n y had until now not found t h e m e a n s t o stop t h e m , and it i s , of c o u r s e , a g r e a t d e a l m o r e i n j u r i o u s to t h e C o m p a n y t o a l l o w t h e m t o c o n t i n u e t o e n j o y t h e i r p u r s u i t s by what had c o m e t o be r e g a r d e d a s a n a t u r a l and i n a l i e n a b l e r i g h t t h a n by o u r p e r m i s s i o n , given by us in s o l e m n a g r e e m e n t ; f o r , by signing this a g r e e m e n t the A m e r i c a n s have j u s t as s o l e m n l y a d m i t t e d t h a t , at t h e e x p i r a t i o n of a few s t i p u l a t e d y e a r s , we s h a l l h a v e t h e l e g a l p o w e r t o f o r b i d t h e m a b s o l u t e l y t o t r a d e o r f i s h in t h a t whole a r e a .

F u r t h e r N e s s e l r o d e e x p r e s s e s t h e thought t h a t " b y t h i s a g r e e m e n t o u r c o l o n i e s s t a n d t o g a i n e v e n m o r e ; in a c e r t a i n s e n s e it m a r k s t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e i r p o l i t i c a l e x i s t e n c e and of t h e i r f r e e d o m f r o m d a n g e r , s i n c e now, f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , t h e i r r e l a t i o n s with f o r e i g n g o v e r n m e n t s a r e b e i n g d e t e r m i n e d . T h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h i s i s o b v i o u s , and t h e h o n o r a b l e m e m b e r s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y w i l l , no doubt, f e e l t h e full m e a s u r e of t h i s g r e a t new f a v o r b e s t o w e d upon t h e m by their most august p r o t e c t o r . "

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T h e conventions j u s t concluded w e r e , in f a c t , the f i r s t m u t u a l i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g r e e m e n t s i n w h i c h R u s s i a n p o s s e s s i o n not o n l y of t h e A l e u t i a n s b u t a l s o of a c l e a r l y d e f i n e d t e r r i t o r y on the A m e r i c a n continent itself w a s duly r e c o r d e d . H o w e v e r , " t h e h o n o r a b l e m e m b e r s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y " still e v a l u a t e d t h e s e a g r e e m e n t s not at all a s " a g r e a t new f a v o r b e s t o w e d upon t h e m by t h e i r m o s t a u g u s t p r o t e c t o r , " but a s a g r e a t n e w c a l a m i t y w h i c h p l a c e d i n j e o p a r d y t h e v e r y e x i s t e n c e of t h e C o m p a n y . In s p i t e of t h e f a c t t h a t A r t i c l e IV of t h e a g r e e m e n t , t o j u d g e b y t h e R u s s i a n t r a n s l a t i o n , a l l o w e d t h e A m e r i c a n s in R u s s i a n t e r r i t o r y only " t o engage in f i s h i n g and t r a d e with the n a t i v e s t h e r e o f , " it w a s c l e a r t h a t i t a l s o i n c l u d e d t h e r i g h t t o e n g a g e in t h e h u n t i n g of s e a - a n i m a l s . M o r d v i n o v w a s q u i c k t o c a l l N e s s e l r o d e ' s attention to the fact that the w o r d " p ê c h e " t r a n s l a t e d in t h e R u s s i a n t e x t of t h e c o n v e n t i o n by t h e w o r d " r y b o l o b s t v o " (fishing) lent itself to a v e r y b r o a d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g t h e h u n t i n g of s e a - a n i m a l s . N e s s e l r o d e e x plained to Mordvinov that he had p r o v i d e d for the b r o a d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e t e r m " p ê c h e . " " I h a s t e n t o r e p l y t o y o u , w i t h t h e a p p r o v a l of H i s M a j e s t y , " h e w r o t e , " t h a t , by t h e R u s s i a n w o r d ' r y b o l o v s t v o , ' which I used in m y l e t t e r , and t h e F r e n c h w o r d ' p ê c h e , ' w h i c h i s u s e d in o u r c o n v e n t i o n w i t h t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n R e p u b l i c , w e , f o r l a c k of o t h e r m o r e p r e c i s e w o r d s in the two l a n g u a g e s , u n d e r s t o o d , a s i s c u s t o m a r y , t h e c a t c h i n g of a l l a q u a t i c a n i m a l s a n d , in g e n e r a l , a l l t h e c r e a t u r e s of t h e s e a . " ^ D u r i n g t h e s h o r t p e r i o d w h i c h s e p a r a t e d t h e s i g n i n g of t h e c o n v e n t i o n f r o m i t s r a t i f i c a t i o n - - A p r i l 5 t o M a y 10, 1 8 2 4 - the Company w a s still making a t t e m p t s to a v e r t the a p p r o a c h ing c a t a s t r o p h e . T h e r e h a s b e e n p r e s e r v e d in t h e a r c h i v e s of t h e M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s a c o p y of a s e c o n d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n m a d e by t h e C o m p a n y t o Y e . F . K a n k r i n , M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e , c o p i e d i n K . F . R y l e y e v ' s own h a n d a n d a p p a r e n t l y w r i t t e n by h i m , w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n c o n v e n t i o n of A p r i l 5, 1 8 2 4 . In t h i s m e m o r a n d u m t o t h e M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e t h e m a n a g e m e n t p i c t u r e s t h e f u t u r e of t h e C o m p a n y , i n t h e e v e n t the a g r e e m e n t i s r a t i f i e d , in v e r y d a r k c o l o r s . " A s soon a s the f o r e i g n e r s , " w r i t e s the m a n a g e m e n t , "have r e c e i v e d the l e g a l r i g h t t o e n t e r i n t o c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h t h e C o m p a n y in i t s own h u n t i n g - p o s t s - - w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e t h e o n l y s o u r c e of i t s w e a l t h - - t h e n not only would t h o s e who u s e d to f r e q u e n t o u r

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s h o r e s and sail o a r w a t e r s flock t h e r e but so a l s o would t h o s e who had n e v e r given a thought to s u c h an e n t e r p r i s e . The l a t t e r w o u l d n o t , of c o u r s e , m i s s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o c o m b i n e w i t h t h e f o r m e r i n i n t e n s i f y i n g t h e h u n t i n g of a n i m a l s a n d t h e d i r e c t t r a d e w i t h t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e c o a s t w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s of o u r c o l o n i e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e f o r e i g n e r s , s p u r r e d on by c o m m e r c i a l g a i n s , will, as m a y a f f i r m a t i v e l y be s u p p o s e d , i n s p i r e the s a v a g e s , who a r e a t t a c h e d to R u s s i a , with a d i s t a s t e f o r t h e i r f o r m e r s t a t e of d e p e n d e n c e on t h e C o m p a n y a n d w i l l not n e e d to t r a d e with the C o m p a n y in i t s m a i n colony; f o r , w h a t e v e r they a r e able to obtain f r o m the Company in exchange for n e c e s s i t i e s t h e y w i l l s u p p l y t h r o u g h t h e i r own t r a d i n g - p o s t s , a n d by d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e i n h a b i t a n t s . T h u s o u r c o l o n i e s w i l l r e m a i n w i t h o u t i m m e d i a t e m e a n s of s u b s i s t e n c e , just a s they w e r e during the t i m e when t r a d e w a s p r o h i b i t e d , and it w i l l , t h e r e f o r e , be n e c e s s a r y to k e e p t h e m s u p p l i e d f r o m Russia, through round-the-world expeditions. The t r e m e n d o u s expense that t h e s e expeditions entail and the u n d e r m i n i n g , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , i n t h e C o m p a n y ' s own t r a d i n g - p o s t s of t h e o n l y s o u r c e a n d m e a n s of i t s e x i s t e n c e , h o l d out no o t h e r p r o m i s e f o r t h e f u t u r e , of c o u r s e , t h a n i n e v i table disaster. C o m p u t i n g t h e l o s s e s that the C o m p a n y would i n c u r in the t e n y e a r s d u r i n g which f o r e i g n e r s would be a l l o w e d to t r a d e f r e e l y i n t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s , t h e a u t h o r of t h e m e m o r a n dum writes: " T h e Company h a s e v e r y r e a s o n to f e a r that not alone w i t h i n t e n y e a r s but w i t h i n a m u c h s h o r t e r p e r i o d t h e f o r e i g n e r s , with the i n c a l c u l a b l e r e s o u r c e s at t h e i r d i s p o s a l a n d i n v i e w of t h e a d v a n t a g e s t h e y w i l l h a v e o b t a i n e d , w i l l b r i n g t h e C o m p a n y t o a s t a t e of c o m p l e t e d e s t r u c t i o n . " ^ ® The D e c e m b r i s t D . I . Zavalishin, who, like Ryleyev, took a d i r e c t p a r t i n t h e a f f a i r s of t h e C o m p a n y , a l s o c a m e out w i t h s h a r p c r i t i c i s m of t h e a g r e e m e n t t h a t h a d j u s t b e e n c o n c l u d e d . H i s m e m o r a n d u m , " C o n c e r n i n g t h e B a n on A m e r i c a n C i t i z e n s t o V i s i t t h e N o r t h - W e s t C o a s t of N o r t h A m e r i c a , " w a s a l s o d e v o t e d t o a c r i t i c i s m of t h e C o n v e n t i o n of A p r i l 5 , 1 8 2 4 . He r e g a r d e d t h e p e r m i s s i o n g r a n t e d t o t h e A m e r i c a n s to visit the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s , Sitka in p a r t i c u l a r , as m a r k i n g t h e e n d of R u s s i a n r u l e i n t h o s e a r e a s . H e w r o t e a s f o l l o w s :

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T H E R U S S I A N - A M E R I CAN C O M P A N Y " O n l y one thing c o u l d a s s u r e t h e s e c u r i t y of S i t k a , t h e c o m p l e t e r e m o v a l of c i t i z e n s of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f r o m i t s s h o r e s . O t h e r w i s e , I b e l i e v e , i t would b e m o r e a d v a n t a g e o u s t o t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y t o abandon that f o r t r e s s a l t o g e t h e r . " 3 1

Z a v a l i s h i n c a m e out with e v e n s h a r p e r c r i t i c i s m of t h e A n g l o - R u s s i a n c o n v e n t i o n of F e b r u a r y 1 6 , 1 8 2 5 . T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e b o u n d a r y a l o n g t h e 1 4 1 s t m e r i d i a n w e s t of G r e e n w i c h he c o n s i d e r e d a u s e l e s s c o n c e s s i o n . T h e r i g h t of f o r e i g n e r s f r e e l y t o n a v i g a t e i n t h e i n l a n d w a t e r s h e r e g a r d e d a s e q u i v a l e n t t o R u s s i a n ' s r e n u n c i a t i o n of c o n t r o l over h e r c o l o n i e s . " A r t i c l e V I , " he w r o t e , " r e n d e r s the d o m i n a t i o n of t h e c o n t i n e n t p e r f e c t l y u s e l e s s ; by a l l o w i n g f o r e i g n e r s t o n a v i g a t e t h e r i v e r s f r e e l y and i n p e r p e t u i t y , i t m a k e s t h e m t h e r e a l m a s t e r s of t h e l a n d , l e a v i n g t o us only t h e e m p t y f o r m of d o m i n a t i o n . " 3 2 B u t i n a s m u c h a s t h e C o n v e n t i o n had a l r e a d y b e e n c o n c l u d e d , Z a v a l i s h i n p r o p o s e d a n u m b e r of m e a s u r e s w h i c h m i g h t n e u t r a l i z e , t o s o m e d e g r e e , t h e s e r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h e Convention for the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company. Since A r t i c l e I I of t h e C o n v e n t i o n f o r b a d e f o r e i g n e r s t o put i n a s h o r e f o r t h e p u r p o s e of b a r t e r only i n t h o s e p l a c e s i n t h e R u s s i a n colonies where t h e r e were Company s e t t l e m e n t s , Z a v a l i s h i n , " a l w a y s t h i n k i n g of how to b l o c k the t r a d e by f o r e i g n e r s , " p r o p o s e d t h a t C o m p a n y t r a d i n g - s t a t i o n s be e s t a b l i s h e d in all p l a c e s suitable f o r c o m m e r c e . T o n e u t r a l i z e A r t i c l e V I I , w h i c h g a v e t h e E n g l i s h the r i g h t f o r t e n y e a r s f r e e l y to n a v i g a t e i n R u s s i a n i n l a n d w a t e r s , Z a v a l i s h i n i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e C o m p a n y t a k e a d v a n t a g e of t h e dual n a t u r e of t h a t Article: " T h e C o m p a n y s h o u l d by a l l m e a n s s e n d t h e r e [ i . e . , i n to English t e r r i t o r i a l w a t e r s . - - A u . ] all the m e r c h a n d i s e i t c a n g i v e a w a y at l o w e r p r i c e s t h a n t h e E n g l i s h , and s o t r y to u n d e r m i n e t h e i r t r a d e and c o m p e l t h e m t o r e t u r n h o m e l e a v i n g t h e p l a c e s i n q u e s t i o n t o us. " 3 3 B u t d e s p i t e a l l t h e e f f o r t s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m pany t h e two c o n v e n t i o n s w e r e s i g n e d and s o m e t i m e l a t e r ratified. F o r t h e s a k e of i t s i n t e r e s t s on t h e E u r o p e a n c o n t i n e n t t h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t m a d e i m p o r t a n t c o n c e s s i o n s on t h e

R U S S I A N C O L O N I E S IN N O R T H A M E R I C A

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A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t . Κ . V . N e s s e l r o d e i n one of h i s l e t t e r s t o Count N . S . Mordvinov e m p h a s i z e d with g r e a t c l a r i t y the n e c e s s i t y f o r s u b o r d i n a t i n g R u s s i a n i n t e r e s t s on t h e A m e r i c a n c o n tinent to the m o r e i m p o r t a n t p r o b l e m s facing the g o v e r n m e n t : " W h i l e t r y i n g t o p r e s e r v e t h e g a i n s we h a v e m a d e by d i n t of h a r d l a b o r , a n d e v e n a i m i n g t o m a k e n e w o n e s by a l l l e g i t i m a t e m e a n s , w e m u s t not f o r g e t t h a t t h e r e m a y be o t h e r m o s t i m p o r t a n t g o v e r n m e n t n e e d s and a d v a n t a g e s which involve v e r y i m p o r t a n t government obligations. I c o n s i d e r it u n n e c e s s a r y to explain to you, S i r , a m a n who i s w e l l v e r s e d i n a l l b r a n c h e s of t h e s c i e n c e of g o v e r n m e n t , t h a t t h e d e g r e e of u s e f u l n e s s of t h e d e s i r e d a c q u i s i t i o n s s h o u l d not s e r v e a s a g u i d e i n p o l i t i c a l n e g o t i ations .

Chapter V THE COMMERCIAL COMPANY BECOMES A GOVERNMENT INSTITUTION C O N T E M P O R A R I E S w e r e often under the i m p r e s s i o n that the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company acted independently and w a s not s u b j e c t to any g o v e r n m e n t c o n t r o l , being, a s it w e r e , a " state within a s t a t e . " T h e p h y s i c i a n L a n g s d o r f , w h o w a s a m e m b e r of I . F . K r u s e n t e r n ' s expedition, wrote as follows: " I w a s o f t e n s u r p r i s e d by t h e f a c t t h a t i t w a s p o s s i b l e for a f r e e t r a d i n g company to develop under a m o n a r c h i cal g o v e r n m e n t , without being subject to any a d m i n i s t r a tive c o n t r o l , and to be able t o e x e r c i s e i t s r u l e , a u t o c r a t i c a l l y with u n l i m i t e d p o w e r and with i m p u n i t y , over vast new t e r r i t o r i e s . " ^ S u c h a n o t i o n c o u l d h a v e a r i s e n o n l y i n t h e m i n d of o n e w h o h a d o n l y a v e r y s u p e r f i c i a l k n o w l e d g e of t h e t r u e s t a t e of a f f a i r s . A l l t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e m a n a g e m e n t , f r o m t h e f i r s t d a y of t h e f o u n d i n g of t h i s f o r m a l l y p r i v a t e c o m p a n y , w e r e c o n t r o l l e d a n d d i r e c t e d by t h e g o v e r n m e n t . By t h e p r o v i s i o n s of t h e c h a r t e r a p p r o v e d i n 1799 t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company was c o m p a r a b l e with r e g a r d to i t s s u b o r d i n a t i o n t o t h e p o w e r of t h e s t a t e , t o a n i n d e p e n d e n t g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t m e n t , i n c o n f o r m i t y w i t h § 12 of t h e c h a r t e r of 1 7 9 9 , t h e m a n a g e m e n t " w a s u n d e r o b l i g a t i o n t o r e p o r t directly to His M a j e s t y about everything relating to t h e a f f a i r s of t h e C o m p a n y , a b o u t i t s d i s p o s i t i o n s a n d t h e progress resulting t h e r e f r o m . " F o r t h e p u r p o s e of g u i d i n g t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e m a n a g e m e n t a n d of e x e r c i s i n g t h e n e c e s s a r y c o n t r o l o v e r i t , t h e o f f i c e of " c o r r e s p o n d e n t " o r " p r o t e c t o r " of t h e C o m p a n y w a s c r e a t e d . But N . P . R e z a n o v , w h o w a s a p p o i n t e d c o r r e s p o n d e n t of t h e C o m p a n y i n 1 7 9 9 , w a s n o t o n l y a h i g h g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l - - C h i e f P r o s e c u t o r of t h e F i r s t D e p a r t m e n t of t h e S e n a t e - - b u t a c l o s e r e l a t i v e of M . B u l d a k o v , D i r e c t o r o r C o m p a n y , a n d t h e o w n e r of a c o n s i d e r a b l e b l o c k of s h a r e s . 94

C O M M E R C I A L C O . AS G O V E R N M E N T I N S T I T U T I O N

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By v i r t u e of h i s p o s i t i o n , t h e n , R e z a n o v w a s n o t s o m u c h " t h e e y e of H i s M a j e s t y , " l o o k i n g a f t e r t h e C o m p a n y , a s i t s agent acting f o r it in the m o s t d i v e r s e m a t t e r s . At the s a m e t i m e t h e g r o w t h of t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e C o m p a n y a n d t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r c o o r d i n a t i n g i t s a c t i v i t y w i t h t h a t of v a r i o u s g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t m e n t s - - t h e M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , t h e N a v y D e p a r t m e n t , a n d o t h e r s - - p o s e d t h e q u e s t i o n of t r a n s f e r r i n g t h e C o m p a n y f r o m t h e o n e - m a n c o n t r o l by t h e " c o r r e s p o n d e n t " t o c o n t r o l by a b o a r d . I n 1804 a p r o v i s i o n a l c o m m i t t e e w a s e s t a b l i s h e d , c o n s i s t i n g of t h r e e s t o c k h o l d e r s , t o w h i c h w e r e g r a n t e d a l l t h e p r e r o g a t i v e s of t h e g e n e r a l m e e t i n g i n c o n f i d e n t i a l m a t t e r s r e q u i r i n g d e c i s i o n s of a p o l i t i c a l c h a r a c t e r . Of t h e t h r e e s e a t s on t h e c o m m i t t e e , one w a s t o be f i l l e d n o t by s e l e c t i o n b u t by a p p o i n t m e n t , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h a p r o p o s a l by t h e M i n i s t r y of t h e I n t e r i o r . In t h e w o r d s of t h e M i n i s t e r of t h e I n t e r i o r , " If t h e C o m p a n y s h o u l d c h o o s e by b a l l o t t w o of t h e honorable m e m b e r s and His I m p e r i a l Highness should d e s ignate the t h i r d m e m b e r as His agent in all m a t t e r s p e r t a i n ing to His M a j e s t y , then the g o v e r n m e n t would have the i n fluence it h a s the right to r e s e r v e f o r i t s e l f , and in this way both t h e C o m p a n y and the g o v e r n m e n t would be m u t u a l l y satisfied. T h e c r e a t i o n of t h e p r o v i s i o n a l c o m m i t t e e , w h i c h w a s t h e f i r s t s t e p i n t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y f r o m a c o m m e r c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n i n t o a d i r e c t a g e n c y of t h e C r o w n , m e t w i t h n o o p p o s i t i o n , t h o u g h , on t h e p a r t of t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d w h i c h w a s c o m p o s e d of m e r c h a n t s . O n l y p r o b l e m s of a p o l i t i c a l n a t u r e w e r e t o c o m e w i t h i n t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h e p r o v i s i o n a l c o m m i t t e e . T h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d , b e i n g a s i t w a s i n t h e h a n d s of t h e m e r c h a n t s , p r e s e r v e d i t s f u l l p o w e r s i n c o m m e r c i a l m a t t e r s . At t h e s a m e t i m e t h e d e c i s i o n s of t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d g a i n e d i n i m p o r t a n c e upon t h e c r e a t i o n of t h e p r o v i s i o n a l c o m m i t t e e , f o r t h e y a c t u a l l y h a d t h e s a n c t i o n of o f f i c i a l s of t h e g o v e r n m e n t , e v e n b e f o r e t h e g o v e r n m e n t i t s e l f p u t i t s o f f i c i a l s t a m p of a p p r o v a l on t h e m . T h e f o l l o w i n g w e r e s e l e c t e d a s m e m b e r s of t h e c o m m i t t e e : M i n i s t e r of t h e N a v y A d m i r a l N . S . M o r d v i n o v , A s s i s t a n t M i n i s t e r of t h e I n t e r i o r C o u n t P . A . S t r o g a n o v , a n d P r i v y C o u n c i l o r I . A . W e i d e m e y e r w h o w a s o n e of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f f i c i a l s of t h e M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s . A f e w y e a r s l a t e r the p r o v i s i o n a l c o m m i t t e e , now c a l l e d " S p e c i a l Council

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of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , " b e c a m e a p e r m a n e n t i n s t r u m e n t of g o v e r n m e n t c o n t r o l a n d of g o v e r n m e n t d i r e c tion of the p o l i t i c a l s i d e of the C o m p a n y ' s a c t i v i t i e s . O f f i c i a l l y the i n i t i a t i v e in c r e a t i n g the p e r m a n e n t c o u n c i l c a m e f r o m the G o v e r n i n g B o a r d . In i t s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n to the T s a r in 1812 the G o v e r n i n g B o a r d n o t e d that a s a r e s u l t of the a d v a n c e m a d e by the C o m p a n y in C a l i f o r n i a , the A m e r i c a n p e n e t r a t i o n into C o l u m b i a which b o r d e r s on the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s , the t r a d e with C h i n a , and of o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s " o n e o f t e n e n c o u n t e r s m a t t e r s which i n v o l v e s e c r e c y f o r c o m m e r c i a l or p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s , c o n s i d e r a t i o n s which o f t e n n e c e s s i t a t e a c t i o n on a l e v e l h i g h e r than that of the d i r e c t o r s who a r e in c h a r g e of the p r o d u c t i o n of the C o m p a n y . T a k i n g t h i s a s i t s point of d e p a r t u r e , the G o v e r n i n g B o a r d p o s e d the q u e s t i o n of c r e a t i n g not a p r o v i s i o n a l c o u n cil but a p e r m a n e n t o n e , that would be q u a l i f i e d to m a k e d e c i s i o n s in p o l i t i c a l m a t t e r s . T h i s c o u n c i l , l i k e the e a r l i e r o n e , w a s to c o n s i s t of t h r e e s t o c k h o l d e r s and h a v e the s a m e p r e r o g a t i v e s with r e s p e c t to m a k i n g d e c i s i o n s f o r the g e n e r a l m e e t i n g . " A l l i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s , or t h o s e that r e q u i r e s e c r e c y f o r p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s , a s w e l l a s t h o s e that a r e i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m the d e v e l o p m e n t of t r a d e , n a v i g a t i o n , and other u n d e r t a k i n g s of the C o m p a n y , and the s o l u t i o n of which m a y s o m e t i m e s p r o v e p e r p l e x i n g to the d i r e c t o r s or b e o u t s i d e t h e i r p o w e r , will be c o m m i t t e d to the s p e c i a l attention a n d s o l i c i t u d e of the C o u n c i l t o g e t h e r with the Governing B o a r d . " 4 The r e a d i n e s s of the c o m m e r c i a l G o v e r n i n g B o a r d to s u b m i t to the S t a t e C o u n c i l , which w a s now to b e c o m e p e r m a n e n t , i s e x p l a i n e d by the v e r y s a m e r e a s o n s w h i c h , s e v e r a l y e a r s b e f o r e , h a d c o m p e l l e d it to a g r e e s o w i l l i n g l y to the f o r m a t i o n of the p r o v i s i o n a l c o m m i t t e e . B y p l a c i n g the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the p o l i t i c a l l i n e of the C o m p a n y upon the m e m b e r s of the C o u n c i l , the G o v e r n i n g B o a r d , a s b e f o r e , w a s not f o r m a l l y d e p r i v e d of i t s i m p o r t a n c e . It s t i l l h o p e d t o be a b l e t o e x e r c i s e i t s i n f l u e n c e in the s o l u t i o n of p o l i t i c a l p r o b l e m s ; f o r , in v i e w of the j o i n t s e s s i o n s of the C o u n c i l and the D i r e c t o r s , the d e c i s i o n s w e r e v a l i d only when they w e r e adopted unanimously. The Governing B o a r d p r o p o s e d to r e t a i n in f u l l the d i r e c t i o n of the c o m m e r c i a l a c t i v i t y of the C o m p a n y . In the w o r d s of the s t a t u t e r e f e r r i n g to the C o u n c i l , " t h e d i r e c t o r s a r e to m a i n t a i n t h e i r f o r m e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y in t h o s e b r a n c h e s of the C o m p a n y ' s a c t i v i t y which h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n d e f i n e d by the C o m p a n y . "

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On O c t o b e r 16; 1 8 1 3 , t h e d e c i s i o n t o f o r m a p e r m a n e n t c o u n c i l of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y w a s c o n f i r m e d by t h e C o m m i t t e e of M i n i s t e r s . A l t h o u g h , b y t h e p r o v i s i o n s of t h e s t a t u t e r e l a t i n g t o t h e C o u n c i l , o n e of t h e t h r e e p o s t s on t h e C o u n c i l w a s t o be n e w l y f i l l e d e v e r y y e a r , s o m e of t h e m e m b e r s r e m a i n e d in o f f i c e f o r d e c a d e s . T h i s c o n t r i b u t e d even m o r e to p r e s e n t i n g the Council a s a body c o n s i s t i n g a l m o s t e n t i r e l y of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s f r o m t h e v a r i o u s d e p a r t m e n t s , a p p o i n t e d by t h e g o v e r n m e n t . T h u s , f o r e x a m p l e , Y a . D r u z h i n i n , t h e D i r e c t o r of t h e C h a n c e r y of t h e M i n i s t r y of F i n a n c e a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y H e a d of t h e D e p a r t m e n t of M a n u f a c t u r e a n d D o m e s t i c C o m m e r c e , that i s , the d e p a r t m e n t to which the Company was directly subordinated, was a m e m b e r of t h e C o u n c i l f o r t h i r t y - f o u r y e a r s w i t h o u t i n t e r r u p t i o n , f r o m t h e f i r s t e l e c t i o n s i n 1814 t o t h e d a y of h i s d e a t h in 1848. T h e C o u n c i l , a s it w a s f i r s t c o n s t i t u t e d , i n c l u d e d , in a d dition to Ya. Druzhinin, Senator I . A . W e i d e m e y e r , a m e m b e r of t h e C o m m i t t e e on F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , w h o h a d a l s o b e e n on t h e p r o v i s i o n a l c o m m i t t e e , a n d S e n a t o r P . S . M o l c h a n o v . L a t e r on S e n a t o r V . G . P o l i t k o v s k y a n d C o u n t N . S . M o r d v i n o v , w h o w a s a m e m b e r of t h e S t a t e C o u n c i l , w e r e a d d e d . A m o n g t h e m e m b e r s of t h e C o u n c i l w e f i n d t h e h i g h e s t o f f i c i a l s of t h e M i n i s t r y of t h e N a v y , A d m i r a l G . A . S a r y c h e v , V . M . G o l o v n i n , a n d F . P . W r a n g e l l , a l l of w h o m h a d e i t h e r p a r t i c i p a t e d i n , o r h a d h e a d e d a n u m b e r of e x p e d i t i o n s . The "Commerical" Governing Board was mistaken, however, w h e n it e x p e c t e d t o b e a b l e t o p r e s e r v e i t s c o m p l e t e i n d e p e n d e n c e i n c o m m e r c i a l m a t t e r s . It w a s not l o n g b e f o r e t h e g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t m e n t s b e g a n t o i n t e r v e n e in t h e c o n d u c t of t h e c o m m e r c i a l a c t i v i t i e s of t h e C o m p a n y . A s a m a t t e r of f o r m the Company was subject to g o v e r n m e n t control with r e s p e c t t o i t s c o m m e r c i a l o p e r a t i o n s f r o m t h e v e r y d a y of i t s f o u n d i n g . But the f i n a n c i a l r e p o r t s p r e s e n t e d to the T s a r and t h e n s u b m i t t e d to t h e M i n i s t r y of C o m m e r c e , w e r e n o t e x a m i n e d by a n y o n e , s o t h a t t h e c o m m e r c i a l a c t i v i t y of t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d r e m a i n e d p r a c t i c a l l y without s u p e r v i s i o n . The foundation for genuine financial supervision was laid the m o m e n t the Company was t r a n s f e r r e d to the j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h e M i n i s t r y of t h e I n t e r i o r . T h e q u e s t i o n of p u t t i n g t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y u n d e r t h e D e p a r t m e n t of M a n u f a c t u r e a n d D o m e s t i c C o m m e r c e w h i c h , in t u r n , w a s u n d e r t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h e M i n i s t r y of t h e I n t e r i o r , h a d b e e n

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r a i s e d in S e p t e m b e r , 1 8 1 1 , by t h e M i n i s t e r of t h e I n t e r i o r , O . P . K o z o d a v l e v . S t a r t i n g with t h e i d e a t h a t g o v e r n m e n t c o n t r o l of t h e C o m p a n y s h o u l d be t h e m o r e d i r e c t s i n c e " a n y a b u s e of t h e C o m p a n y m a y l e a d t o v e r y h a r m f u l and p e r n i c i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s t o s o c i e t y and t o t h e E m p i r e i t s e l f , Kozodavlev u r g e d t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t be k e p t f u l l y i n f o r m e d both a s t o t h e c o m m e r c i a l a c t i v i t i e s of t h e C o m p a n y and t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h a l l t h e m e a s u r e s p l a n n e d by t h e C o m p a n y a r e c o ordinated . A f t e r e x a m i n i n g the C o m p a n y ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s to the T s a r f o r the p a s t y e a r s , K o z o d a v l e v a r r i v e d at t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e s e c o n t a i n e d nothing e x c e p t v a r i o u s s o l i c i t a t i o n s and i n c o m p l e t e f i n a n c i a l a c c o u n t s , t h e c o r r e c t n e s s of w h i c h " h o w e v e r , c o u l d be v o u c h e d f o r only by t h e M a n a g i n g D i r e c t o r s . " In h i s m e m o r a n d u m t o t h e T s a r , K o z o d a v l e v dwelt on t h e n e c e s s i t y " o f d e s i g n a t i n g t h e M i n i s t r y of t h e I n t e r i o r a s i n t e r m e d i a r y b e t w e e n t h e p e r s o n of t h e E m p e r o r and t h e C o m p a n y , t o w h i c h t h e C o m p a n y would be o b l i g e d to s u b m i t c o m p l e t e a c c o u n t s f o r p r e s e n t a t i o n t o Y o u r M a j e s t y , and under w h o s e d i r e c t s u p e r v i s i o n it would be p l a c e d . On D e c e m b e r 1 5 , 1 8 1 1 , K o z o d a v l e v ' s p r o p o s a l s w e r e a c c e p t e d and t h e C o m p a n y c a m e under t h e s u p e r v i s i o n of t h e M i n i s t r y of t h e I n t e r i o r . T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t w a s n o t , h o w e v e r , of long d u r a t i o n . In 1 8 1 9 , a s a r e s u l t of t h e t r a n s f e r of t h e D e p a r t m e n t of M a n u f a c t u r e and D o m e s t i c C o m m e r c e t o t h e M i n i s t r y of F i n a n c e , t h e C o m p a n y c a m e under t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n of the l a t t e r M i n i s t r y . I f , at f i r s t , t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d f e l t no p a r t i c u l a r c o n s t r a i n t on i t s a c t i v i t i e s , i t w a s f r o m t h i s m o m e n t on t o c o m e under s t r i c t , s y s t e m a t i c c o n trol. At the s a m e t i m e the e x t e n s i o n of g o v e r n m e n t c o n t r o l o v e r the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e c o l o n i e s w a s p r o c e e d i n g a p a c e . T h i s e x t e n s i o n of c o n t r o l w a s m a n i f e s t e d , f i r s t of a l l , in t h e a p p o i n t m e n t t o c o l o n i a l p o s i t i o n s of o f f i c e r s of t h e Navy D e p a r t m e n t . T h e f i l l i n g of i n d i v i d u a l p o s t s in t h e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n by m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l b e g a n , quite n a t u r a l l y , with the C o m p a n y f l e e t ; t h e p r o b l e m of c r e a t i n g a C o m p a n y f l e e t w a s e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t to t h e g o v e r n m e n t and t o t h e C o m p a n y i t self. T h e g r a n d i o s e p l a n s of t s a r i s t e x p a n s i o n r e q u i r e d s h i p s of c o n s i d e r a b l e t o n n a g e t o be m a n n e d by q u a l i f i e d s e a m e n . F r o m its p r e d e c e s s o r s the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company i n h e r i t e d f o u r g a l l e y s , b u i l t at d i f f e r e n t t i m e s in O k h o t s k , and one

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f r i g a t e , c o n s t r u c t e d in o n e of t h e R u s s i a n s h i p y a r d s of t h e A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s . T h i s f l e e t w a s n o t , of c o u r s e , t h e a n s w e r to the new p r o b l e m s which the R u s s i a n t s a r i s r e g i m e posed to the Company. The latter was compelled to r a i s e v i r t u a l l y a n e w f l e e t . D u r i n g t h e f i r s t t w o d e c a d e s of i t s e x istence the Company owned altogether, including the five a f o r e m e n t i o n e d s h i p s , t h i r t y - t w o s h i p s of v a r i o u s s i z e s a n d t y p e s . During the s a m e period the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y s p e n t 3 , 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s on t h e f l e e t , b u t , e v e n if o n e t a k e s i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e r a p i d a m o r t i z a t i o n of w o o d e n v e s s e l s , i t m u s t be a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e a m o u n t s p e n t w a s of l i t t l e e f f e c t . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e 1 8 2 0 ' s t h e C o m p a n y h a d a t i t s d i s p o s a l o n l y t h i r t e e n s h i p s , r a n g i n g in t o n n a g e f r o m 50 t o 300 t o n s . Of t h e n i n e t e e n s h i p s w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e o v e r a l l r e g i s t e r s of t h e f l e e t , w e r e d e c o m m i s s i o n e d d u r i n g t h e s a m e t w o d e c a d e s , o n l y t w o w e r e d e s t r o y e d " b e c a u s e of o l d a g e " a n d one w a s s o l d . T h e r e m a i n i n g s i x t e e n s h i p s , i n t h e w o r d s of t h e m a n a g e m e n t i t s e l f , " w e r e s h i p w r e c k e d " d u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d , " a s a r e s u l t of a c c i d e n t s , a n d e s p e c i a l l y b e c a u s e of c a r e l e s s n e s s a n d l a c k of s k i l l on t h e p a r t of t h e O k h o t s k pilots."7 H e r e w e c o m e up a g a i n s t a f a c t o r w h i c h p l a y e d a v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t in t h e a c t i v i t y of t h e C o m p a n y - - t h e l a c k of q u a l i f i e d c r e w s , w h i c h w a s t h e r e s u l t of t h e p r e d o m i n a n c e of t h e i n s t i t u t i o n of s e r f d o m i n t h e m o t h e r c o u n t r y . In t h e f i e l d of n a v i g a t i o n t h e e f f e c t of s e r f d o m w a s e v i d e n c e d by t h e l a c k of q u a l i f i e d s e a m e n , except in the N a v y . E v e n a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e C o m p a n y ' s a c t i v i t y t h e g o v e r n m e n t a t t e m p t e d t o c o m e t o i t s a s s i s t a n c e by m i l i t a r i z i n g t h e C o m p a n y f l e e t . In 1802 a n I m p e r i a l r e s c r i p t e n j o i n e d t h e r e l e a s e f r o m t h e N a v y f o r s e r v i c e w i t h t h e C o m p a n y of a n u n l i m i t e d n u m b e r of s a i l o r s , n a v a l o f f i c e r s , a n d p i l o t s , w i t h h a l f t h e s a l a r y b e i n g p a i d by t h e g o v e r n m e n t , a n d w i t h t h e m e n p r e s e r v i n g all the r i g h t s and p r i v i l e g e s a p p e r t a i n i n g to t h o s e on a c t i v e d u t y . H e n c e f o r t h all r o u n d - t h e - w o r l d e x p e d i t i o n s w e r e m a n n e d by n a v y m e n , f r o m a m o n g w h o m w e r e t o c o m e not a f e w celebrated navigators. As for the boats that w e r e plying t h e i r t r a d e along the c o a s t , t h e s e c o n t i n u e d t o c a r r y t h e i r c o m p l e m e n t of i l l i t e r a t e p i l o t s w h o h a d s i g n e d up in O k h o t s k . T h e n a v a l o f f i c e r s c o n s i d e r e d it b e l o w t h e i r d i g n i t y t o s e r v e on c o a s t w i s e v e s s e l s

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a n d t o s u b m i t t o o r d e r s of t h e g o v e r n o r of t h e c o l o n i e s w h o w a s h i m s e l f of t h e m e r c h a n t c l a s s . A m o s t s t r i k i n g i n s t a n c e , t h o u g h not t h e o n l y o n e , w a s t h a t t a k i n g p l a c e in 1 8 4 5 : A L i e u t e n a n t L a z a r e v , n o t w a n t i n g t o s u b m i t t o t h e o r d e r s of G o v e r n o r B a r a n o v , i n s t e a d of p r o c e e d i n g t o s e i z e t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s , w e i g h e d a n c h o r a n d w i l f u l l y w e n t on t o K r o n s t a d t . In t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e G o v e r n o r B a r a n o v , t r i e d , t h o u g h u n s u f f c e s s - f u l l y , to shell the departing Company v e s s e l f r o m t h e g u n s of t h e f o r t r e s s , b u t in o t h e r c a s e s h e w a s f o r c e d t o r e c o n c i l e h i m s e l f t o t h e i n s u b o r d i n a t i o n of t h e s e n e w e m p l o y e e s of t h e C o m p a n y . In f a c t , in t h e v e r y f i r s t y e a r s a f t e r t h e n a v a l o f f i c e r s h a d e n t e r e d t h e s e r v i c e of t h e C o m p a n y , Rezanov wrote to the m a n a g e m e n t f r o m Novoarkhangelsk about t h e a b n o r m a l i t y of t h e a r r a n g e m e n t s u n d e r w h i c h f o r m e r o f f i c e r s r e f u s e d t o s u b m i t t o t h e o r d e r s of t h e C o m p a n y authorities : " T o m y d i s t r e s s , I m u s t add to m y conclusions r e g a r d i n g t h e n a v a l s i d e of t h e u n d e r t a k i n g t h a t it i s i n c o m p a r a b l y m o r e useful f o r the Company to r e c r u i t m e n f r o m among f o r e i g n s e a m e n , o r f r o m t h o s e w h o r e t i r e d , if o n l y t h e y h a v e n o t b e e n in t h e s e r v i c e of t h e C r o w n , - - o t h e r w i s e , t h e r e is t r o u b l e . His M a j e s t y ' s kindness is b o u n d l e s s , b u t , w h e t h e r b e c a u s e of t h e t r a i n i n g o u r o f f i c e r s h a v e r e c e i v e d , o r t h e r e m o t e n e s s of t h e r e g i o n in w h i c h t h e y a r e s e r v i n g a n d in w h i c h e v e r y t h i n g s e e m s t o b e p e r m i s sible , the C o m p a n y , at any r a t e , s t a n d s to s u f f e r g r e a t l o s s e s and the F a t h e r l a n d — t o l o s e its A m e r i c a n d o m a i n s . U n s u i t a b l e a n d s p u r i o u s r u l e s c a n b e e r a d i c a t e d by e x h o r t a t i o n s only with g r e a t difficulty. . . . The c o n t e m p t f o r the trading profession, which has struck deep roots among the n o b i l i t y , h a s m a d e t h e m a l l m a s t e r s h e r e , a n d a s you k n o w , too many cooks spoil the b r o t h . Although t h e r e is a gove r n o r h o l d i n g a h i g h r a n k w h i c h h e h a s w o n a s a r e s u l t of t r u l y m e r i t o r i o u s s e r v i c e , the fact that he w a s f o r m e r l y a m e r c h a n t m e a n s , unhappily for the F a t h e r l a n d , in the e y e s of m o s t of o u r f r a t e r n i t y , t h e s a m e a s t o h a v e b e e n a g o o d - f o r - n o t h i n g . And s o - - t o take o r d e r s f r o m a m a n like that s e e m s to t h e m s h e e r m e n d a c i t y ; c o n s i d e r the b e n e f i t s r e d o u n d i n g to the F a t h e r l a n d they c a n n o t , f o r to do that t h e y t h e m s e l v e s m u s t f i r s t r e a l i z e the i m p o r t a n c e of t h o s e b e n e f i t s . In t h e s a m e l e t t e r N . P . R e z a n o v t e l l s in d e t a i l of t h e a c t s

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of v i o l e n c e a n d d r u n k e n n e s s a n d of t h e r o w s p r o v o k e d by t h e o f f i c e r s in t h e A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s . T h e r e w a s n o t a m i n u t e ' s r e s t : " n o w t h e r e i s a d i s t u r b a n c e of t h e K o l o s h , now t h e n o b l e s , h a v i n g i m b i b e d t o o f r e e l y , d e i g n t o r a i s e t h e c r y of Help. M u r d e r . " The officers appropriated everything that w a s b e i n g r e c e i v e d f o r t h e o t h e r e m p l o y e e s of t h e C o m p a n y , m a i n l y using the l a s h to obtain s a t i s f a c t i o n f r o m the e m ployees belonging to the m e r c h a n t c l a s s . " F r o m the t i m e that the officers made their a p p e a r a n c e , " writes Rezanov, "the poor and d e f e n s e l e s s m e r c h a n t c l a s s has been unable to buy anything f o r i t s m o n e y and h a s stopped o r d e r i n g t h i n g s f r o m R u s s i a , but i s t r y i n g , at t h r i c e the c o s t , to i m p o r t t h i n g s t h r o u g h s k i p p e r s f r o m B o s t o n . What a f l a t t e r i n g s i t u ation. "9 R e z a n o v , in s p i t e of h i s p o s i t i o n a s " c o r r e s p o n d e n t , " w h o w a s f u l l y d e v o t e d t o t h e i n t e r e s t s of t h e m e r c h a n t e l e m e n t in the C o m p a n y , thought that the only way to avoid t r o u b l e b e t w e e n t h e o f f i c e r s on t h e s t a f f of t h e C o m p a n y f l e e t a n d t h e " c o m m e r c i a l " a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w a s t h r o u g h t h e s e l e c t i o n of s u i t a b l e p e r s o n n e l w h o w o u l d be q u a l i f i e d t o t a k e t h e p l a c e of t h e a r i s t o c r a t s in t h e c o l o n i e s . H e n c e a r o s e t h e a t t e m p t t o r e c r u i t c r e w s of q u a l i f i e d s e a m e n f r o m a m o n g t h e n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n . However, the government was pursuing a different policy i n t h i s m a t t e r . In i t s a i m t o d o m i n a t e c o m p l e t e l y t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , t h e g o v e r n m e n t c o n c e n t r a t e d t h e w h o l e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n t h e h a n d s of t h e m i l i t a r y c o m m a n d . In 1818 A . A . B a r a n o v , C o l l e g i a t e C o u n cillor f r o m "The Kargopol m e r c h a n t s , " was r e m o v e d , and L i e u t e n a n t - C a p t a i n L . A . H a g e m e i s t e r w a s appointed in his place. Henceforth naval officers were invariably appointed a s g o v e r n o r s of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s i n A m e r i c a . T h i s w a s p r o v i d e d f o r in a n a p p r o p r i a t e a r t i c l e in t h e c h a r t e r of t h e Russian-American Company. Only t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d with i t s p r e r o g a t i v e s s h a r p l y c u r t a i l e d r e m a i n e d i n t h e h a n d s of t h e m e r c h a n t s , s i n c e e v e n t h e c o n d u c t of t h e g e n e r a l m e e t i n g of t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s p a s s e d a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y i n t o t h e h a n d s of t h e o f f i c e h o l d e r s . T h e m i n u t e s of t w o of t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s ' m e e t i n g s f o r 1819 a n d 1821 , s i g n e d by p e r s o n s " h a v i n g t h e r i g h t t o v o t e , " h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d . We a r e n o t i n c l i n e d t o s u p p o s e t h a t t h e n u m b e r of p e o p l e o w n i n g m o r e t h a n t e n s h a r e s a n d h e n c e h a v i n g the right to vote was actually e x h a u s t e d with the eighteen s t o c k h o l d e r s , w h o s e s i g n a t u r e s a p p e a r on t h e m i n u t e s f o r

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1819 and the seventeen s t o c k h o l d e r s , who signed the minutes f o r 1821. C o n s i d e r i n g , h o w e v e r , that the g e n e r a l m e e t i n g was within its r i g h t s , we must a r r i v e at the conclusion that the number cited in each case constituted a m a j o r i t y of the q u a l i f i e d s t o c k h o l d e r s , and that the bulk of the shares was in the hands of a v e r y l i m i t e d number of p e o p l e . It is noteworthy that in the two s « t s of minutes the number of signatures d i f f e r s but s l i g h t l y . Of the eighteen people l i s t e d in the minutes f o r 1819, ten belong to the upper stratum of o f f i c e h o l d e r s . A m o n g them t h e r e a r e the Senators Count M a r c o I v e l i c h and W e i d e m e y e r , the D i r e c t o r of the State L o a n Bank P r i v y C o u n c i l l o r A . K h v o s t o v , the D i r e c t o r of the M i n i s t r y of Finance Druzhinin, P r i n c e D o n d u k o v - K o r s a k o v , Count P e t e r I v e l i c h , and others of the same c l a s s . Of the stockholders l i s t e d only eight a r e m e m b e r s of the merchant c l a s s . The decline in the i m p o r t a n c e of the merchant c l a s s in the a f f a i r s of the Company, the actual r e m o v a l of the m e r c h a n t s , f i r s t f r o m the d i r e c t i o n of the g e n e r a l p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s of the Company and then f r o m that of the colonial a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , and f i n a l l y the introduction of c o m p l e t e g o v e r n m e n t control o v e r the c o m m e r c i a l a c t i v i t i e s of the C o m p a n y - - a l l this c o i n c i d e d , in point of t i m e , with the actual suspension of f u r t h e r colonial expansion by the t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t on the A m e r i c a n continent. The f e a r of provoking England into b e c o m i n g m o r e active on the European continent c o m p e l l e d Russia to make concessions on the A m e r i c a n continent. T h i s f e a r was a l s o r e f l e c t e d in the A n g l o - R u s s i a n a g r e e ment concluded on F e b r u a r y 16, 1825. F o r the same r e a s o n , and a l s o because of its d e s i r e to uphold l e g i t i m i s m in Spain, the t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t did not f e e l f r e e a c t i v e l y to e n c r o a c h upon C a l i f o r n i a , which then belonged to Spain and to which, f u r t h e r m o r e , England a l s o laid c l a i m . F i n a l l y , F r a n c e ' s penetration into Haiti r a i s e d new o b s t a c l e s to any a c t i v e p o l i c y by the t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t . T h u s , b a r r i n g the road to Russian expansion in the P a c i f i c and to any e x t e n s i v e d e v e l o p ment of a c t i v i t y by the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company was the d e s i r e of A l e x a n d e r I to p r e s e r v e the Holy A l l i a n c e , which f o r c e d him to focus his whole attention on a f f a i r s in E u r o p e . T h i s meant the c o l l a p s e of all those g r a n d i o s e plans which the g o v e r n m e n t i t s e l f had at one t i m e put f o r w a r d and supp o r t e d and to which the c o m m e r c i a l c i r c l e s a s s o c i a t e d with the Company clung so t e n a c i o u s l y . In these c i r c l e s the p o l i c y

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of the t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t w a s , n a t u r a l l y , to a r o u s e a good deal of opposition, which was m o s t c l e a r l y f o r m u l a t e d by the M a n a g e r of the Company R y l e y e v . Informing the D e c e m b r i s t S t e i n g e l of the s e l e c t i o n of the f a m o u s n a v i g a t o r V . M . Golovnin as a m e m b e r of the Council of the Company, R y l e y e v notes that he i s v e r y much s a t i s f i e d with the c h o i c e . " I know that he i s s t u b b o r n , that he l o v e s to display h i s i n t e l l i g e n c e ; but then he i s f i r m in h i s attitude t o w a r d s the g o v e r n m e n t , and in the situation in which the Company finds i t s e l f today, that i s a n e c e s s a r y a s s e t . It i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note that the o b s t a c l e s which h a m p e r e d the r e a l i z a t i o n of the C o m p a n y ' s plans a c t e d in s o m e i n s t a n c e s to induce c e r t a i n individual m e m b e r s of the Council of the Company to m a k e c o m m o n c a u s e with the d i r e c t o r s , t h e s e m e m b e r s being both r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the upper s t r a t u m of o f f i c i a l d o m and s t o c k h o l d e r s as w e l l . T h i s was the stand t a k e n by Mordvinov and other m e m b e r s of the Council who w e r e making e f f o r t s to obtain p e r m i s s i o n f o r the Company to expand a c t i v e l y into C a l i f o r n i a , H a i t i , and so f o r t h . A s for the m e r c h a n t s who w e r e m e m b e r s of the Governing B o a r d , they had f u r t h e r r e a s o n s f o r being somewhat d i s s a t i s f i e d with the policy of the g o v e r n m e n t . During the s e c o n d half of the r e i g n of A l e x a n d e r I , R u s s i a ' s f o r e i g n t r a d e was e x p e r i e n c i n g a s e r i o u s s l u m p . In p a r t t h i s slump was a c o n s e q u e n c e of the R u s s o - P r u s s i a n convention of 1 8 1 8 . By the p r o v i s i o n s of t h i s convention not only w e r e f o r e i g n goods allowed to p e n e t r a t e into the R u s s i a n home m a r k e t , but they w e r e a l s o granted f r e e t r a n s i t to A s i a t i c m a r k e t s . T h e a b r o g a t i o n of t h i s convention in 1823 and the new t a r i f f of 1822 which i m p o s e d high c u s t o m s duties on a number of f o r e i g n i t e m s did not, h o w e v e r , in view of the g e n e r a l s l u m p , c o m p e n s a t e in full the l o s s e s i n c u r r e d by R u s s i a n colonial t r a d e . T h e d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n of the c o m m e r c i a l groups a s a r e s u l t of the d i s t r e s s i n g t r a d e situation i s a t t e s t e d by the m o s t d i v e r s e s o u r c e s . We even r e a d r e p o r t s about it f r o m s e c r e t a g e n t s . In a dispatch to the M i n i s t r y of the I n t e r i o r in 1821 it i s r e p o r t e d that " l o u d grumbling i s h e a r d f r o m the s t o c k exchange and the s t a l l s . E v e r y b o d y engaged in c o m m e r c e , with the exception of a few p r o f i t e e r s who have the p r o p e r p r o t e c t i o n , i s indignant about the c u s t o m s r e g u l a t i o n s and even m o r e so about the way they a r e being c a r r i e d out. . . . Never have t h e r e been such d i f f i c u l t i e s in t r a d e .

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T h e D e c e m b r i s t s s p o k e r e p e a t e d l y of t h i s s i t u a t i o n in t h e i r d e p o s i t i o n s and l e t t e r s . In a l e t t e r t o N i c h o l a s I , A . B e s t u z h e v wrote as follows: " T h e m e r c h a n t c l a s s , h a r d - p r e s s e d by t h e g u i l d s and h a m p e r e d b y t h e d e l a y in t h e d e l i v e r y of t h e g o o d s , h a s suffered tremendous l o s s e s . Many a vast fortune was d e s t r o y e d in 1 8 1 2 ; o t h e r s w e r e d i s s i p a t e d . T h e i r d e a l i n g s with t h e T r e a s u r y b r o u g h t r u i n on a g r e a t n u m b e r of m e r c h a n t s and c o n t r a c t o r s , and a l o n g with t h e m on t h e i r c l i e n t s and c r e d i t o r s , by d e l a y s in p a y m e n t , f a l s e a c c o u n t i n g , and u n j u s t e x a c t i o n s when t h e g o o d s w e r e f i n a l l y d e l i v e r e d . E x tortion penetrated everywhere. . . . Fraudulent bankruptcies m u l t i p l i e d and c o n f i d e n c e d e c l i n e d . T h e w e a k n e s s of t h e t a r i f f r e d u c e d m a n y m a n u f a c t u r e r s t o a s t a t e of p o v e r t y and f r i g h t e n e d o t h e r s , and d e s t r o y e d t h e f a i t h w h i c h o u r own m e r c h a n t s a s w e l l a s f o r e i g n t r a d e r s h a d in t h e g o v e r n m e n t . A s a r e s u l t of t h i s , t h e r e c a m e a f u r t h e r d r o p in o u r r a t e of e x c h a n g e ( i . e . o u r f o r e i g n c r e d i t ) in c o n s e q u e n c e of e x c e s s i v e g o v e r n m e n t i n d e b t e d n e s s , and t h e r e a r o s e a u n i v e r s a l l a m e n t t h a t t h e r e w a s no c a s h . The p r o h i b i t o r y s y s t e m , w h i l e e n r i c h i n g t h e s m u g g l e r s , did not r a i s e t h e p r i c e s of o u r w a r e s a n d , f o l l o w i n g t h e l a t e s t f a s h i o n , e v e r y b o d y paid t h r e e t i m e s t h e a c t u a l v a l u e f o r the s o - c a l l e d c o n f i s c a t e d m e r c h a n d i s e . " ^ At t h e b e g i n n i n g of 1 8 2 7 , in one of t h e o p i n i o n s e x p r e s s e d i n t h e C o m m i t t e e of M i n i s t e r s , Count N . S . M o r d v i n o v , b a s i n g h i s c o n c l u s i o n s on t h e t o t a l s f o r 1 8 2 5 , w r o t e a s f o l l o w s : " A l m o s t a l l of o u r f o r e i g n t r a d e i s b e i n g c a r r i e d on not with R u s s i a n c a p i t a l but with f o r e i g n . . . . On t h e P e t e r s b u r g s t o c k - e x c h a n g e , t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t one in R u s s i a , n a t i v e R u s s i a n m e r c h a n t s , who a r e e n g a g e d in f o r e i g n t r a d e , w i l l t a k e g o o d s s o l d on c r e d i t only t o t h e e x t e n t of l / 4 0 and in t h e c a s e of i m p o r t e d m e r c h a n d i s e only t o t h e e x t e n t of l / 6 0 . " ^ T h e s a m e s e c t i o n of t h e m e r c h a n t c l a s s s u f f e r e d , n a t u r a l l y , a s a r e s u l t of t h e g e n e r a l c o n f u s i o n w h i c h r e i g n e d a l s o in d o m e s t i c c o m m e r c e . In t h e opinion q u o t e d a b o v e , N . S . M o r d vinov noted: " W e a r e a l r e a d y e x p e r i e n c i n g t h e f u l l w e i g h t of o u r d e -

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plorable situation, for throughout Russia domestic comm e r c e has gone into a decline, and the reduction in the i n c o m e of a l l c l a s s e s h a s b e c o m e p a i n f u l l y a p p a r e n t . " ^ A s we h a v e s e e n , t h e m e r c h a n t c l a s s w a s y i e l d i n g i t s p o sitions very reluctantly under p r e s s u r e f r o m the g o v e r n m e n t . In c e r t a i n i n s t a n c e s t h e m e r c h a n t s e v e n a t t e m p t e d t o g i v e b a t t l e , t h r e a t e n i n g t o r e s i g n f r o m t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d of t h e C o m p a n y . T h i s a c t u a l l y h a p p e n e d in 1 8 1 7 , i n t h e w a k e of c o m p l a i n t s on t h e p a r t of t h e l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n S i b e r i a a g a i n s t a s e r i e s of w i l f u l a c t s of t h e C o m p a n y . T h e D i r e c t o r s of t h e C o m p a n y B u l d a k o v , K r a m e r , a n d S e v e r i n s a i d i n a l e t t e r t o t h e M i n i s t e r of t h e I n t e r i o r K o z o d a v l e v : " W e , t i r e d of h a v i n g t o s u b j e c t o u r s e l v e s t o t h e c o n t i n uous t a s k - - o n e that in i n c o m p a t i b l e with our p o s i t i o n - - o f excusing, and disputing the authenticity of, the s h a m e f u l s c e n e s p r e s e n t e d f o r t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e g o v e r n m e n t , s c e n e s which constitute a w e a r i s o m e and i m p r o p e r burden f o r us b e c a u s e of o u r i g n o r a n c e of t h e a r t of l a w a n d i t s p r o c e d u r e s a s o b s e r v e d a n d p r o p o s e d by p r i v a t e a u t h o r i t i e s , s h a l l f i n a l l y be c o m p e l l e d t o r e l i n q u i s h t h e d u t i e s with which the m e r c h a n t c l a s s h a s c h a r g e d u s . T h i s will be t h e b e g i n n i n g of i t s d o w n f a l l . O t h e r s , e l e c t e d i n o u r p l a c e , o n c e t h e y h a v e l e a r n e d t h e c a u s e of o u r w i t h d r a w a l w i l l n o t be w i l l i n g t o h a v e t h e i r p e a c e of m i n d d i s t u r b e d b y t h e n e c e s s i t y of c o m b a t t i n g s e c r e t e n e m i e s s u c h a s e n v y a n d h a t e . " ^ B u t -such d e m o n s t r a t i o n s f r i g h t e n e d n o o n e . Occasionally the D i r e c t o r s would undertake other m e a s u r e s w i t h a v i e w of s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e i r p o s i t i o n in t h e C o m p a n y , c o u n t i n g on b r i b i n g A r a k c h e y e v . A b o u t t h e s e a t t e m p t s , w h i c h t o o k p l a c e i n M o s c o w a n d w e r e m a d e b y t h e m a n a g e r of t h e M o s c o w office P r o k o f y e v , we have v e r y s c a n t y i n f o r m a t i o n . "In a c c o r d a n c e with your r e q u e s t , " w r o t e P r o k o f y e v f r o m M o s c o w t o t h e D i r e c t o r of t h e C o m p a n y B u l d a k o v on F e b r u a r y 21 , 1 8 1 8 , " I h a d t h e p l e a s u r e t h i s p a s t M o n d a y , t h a t i s t h e 1 8 t h , of e n t e r t a i n i n g a t m y h o u s e f i v e of H i s M a j e s t y ' s f u l l g e n e r a l s and nine a d j u t a n t - g e n e r a l s , w h o m I invited at the i n s t a n c e of C o u n t A l e k s e y A n d r e y e v i c h A r a k c h e y e v . " ^ The c o n v e r s a t i o n between the host and A r a k c h e y e v r e v o l v e d a r o u n d t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y , t h e r e a s o n s f o r i t s f a i l u r e t o p a y d i v i d e n d s t o t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s in p r e v i o u s y e a r s a n d ,

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finally, "the plans that w e r e being contemplated for the fut u r e . " A c c o r d i n g to c e r t a i n s o u r c e s , P r o k o f y e v e n t e r e d i n t o s o m e v e r y s e c r e t n e g o t i a t i o n s with A r a k c h e y e v d u r i n g d i n n e r , s i n c e P r o k o f y e v would not e v e n v e n t u r e t o i n f o r m B u l d a k o v about t h e m by m a i l . In t h e n e x t l e t t e r t o B u l d a k o v , w h o , a p p a r e n t l y , had a s k e d f o r t h e d e t a i l s of t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n with A r a k c h e y e v , P r o k o f y e v w r o t e : " W i t h r e g a r d t o t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n I had with Count A r a k c h e y e v c o n c e r n i n g the C o m p a n y , I c a n n o t give you any d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n at t h e present time . " ^ F r o m the a b o v e l e t t e r of P r o k o f y e v we l e a r n t h a t , at t h e d i n n e r f o r t h e g e n e r a l s " w h o had b e e n d e s i g n a t e d b y A r a k cheyev h i m s e l f , " t h e r e were p r e s e n t the m i l i t a r y G o v e r n o r G e n e r a l of S t . P e t e r s b u r g , Count M i l o r a d o v i c h , A d j u t a n t G e n e r a l C h e r n y s h e v , G e n e r a l U v a r o v , and o t h e r s . A l m o s t i n e v e r y l e t t e r of t h a t p e r i o d we find m e n t i o n of p e r s o n s c l o s e t o t h e C o u r t who v i s i t e d t h e h o s p i t a b l e h o s t . T h e r e a s o n f o r s u c h c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s o m e of t h e d i g n i t a r i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y A r a k c h e y e v , and P r o k o f y e v , i s r e v e a l e d in a r e p o r t by t h e l a t t e r t o B u l d a k o v s a y i n g t h a t h e n c e f o r t h he w i l l " a l w a y s h a v e 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s on h a n d . " The above p h r a s e follows i m m e d i a t e l y the information c o n c e r n i n g A r a k c h e y e v , who had a c c e p t e d to dine a g a i n at P r o k o f y e v ' s , upon h i s r e t u r n t o M o s c o w , w h e r e f o r e P r o k o f y e v " w i l l not f a i l t o c o m e t o h i m m o r e o f t e n . T h i s "fund" was evidently c r e a t e d for A r a k c h e y e v ' s benefit. B u t it h a d a l r e a d y b e c o m e quite e v i d e n t in t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e 1 8 2 0 ' s , d u r i n g t h e t i m e t h a t P r o k o f y e v m o v e d t o S t . P e t e r s b u r g and b e c a m e one of t h e D i r e c t o r s of t h e C o m p a n y , t h a t i t w a s not a q u e s t i o n of e n l i s t i n g t h e p r o t e c t i o n of i n d i vidual c o u r t i e r s , and t h a t i t w a s t h e g e n e r a l p o l i c y of t h e g o v e r n m e n t t h a t went c o n t r a r y t o t h e i m m e d i a t e i n t e r e s t s of t h e c o m m e r c i a l G o v e r n i n g B o a r d of t h e C o m p a n y . And i t w a s at t h a t v e r y m o m e n t , when a r e b e l l i o u s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e g o v e r n m e n t w a s q u i t e n a t u r a l on t h e p a r t of t h e C o m p a n y D i r e c t o r s , t h a t t h e y c l a s h e d with s o m e p r o m i n e n t m e m b e r s of t h e N o r t h e r n S o c i e t y of D e c e m b r i s t s . We know s o m e t h i n g about I . V . P r o k o f y e v ' s c o n n e c t i o n s with t h e D e c e m b r i s t s . " W i t h I . V . P r o k o f y e v , " w r i t e s O . M . S o m o v to R y l e y e v , " w e a r e v e r y f r i e n d l y . A l e x a n d e r [ B e s t u z h e v . - - A u . ] and I dine at h i s h o m e r a t h e r f r e q u e n t l y , and t h e r e we m e e t B u l g a r i n , G r e c h , B a t e n k o v and o t h e r s , g e n e r a l l y v e r y m a n y of o u r a c q u a i n t a n c e s . " ^

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At t h e s e d i n n e r s new a c q u a i n t a n c e s w e r e s t r u c k up and new m e m b e r s w e r e drawn into the S o c i e t y . " I had o c c a s i o n often and a l m o s t on definite d a y s , " r e p o r t s G . S . B a t e n k o v , " t o v i s i t the building in which the A m e r i c a n Company was h o u s e d , b e c a u s e I knew the D i r e c t o r s , e s p e c i a l l y P r o k o f y e v . . . . It dated b a c k to my life in S i b e r i a and to the part that my uncle played in the occupation of the i s l a n d s . H e r e , h o w e v e r , I made my f i r s t c o n t a c t s with the s e c r e t s o c i e t y . . . . " 2 0 N . I . G r e c h , who attended t h e s e d i n n e r s , t e l l s of the n o i s y , gay, and p l e a s a n t c o n v e r s a t i o n s that a c c o m p a n i e d t h e s e g e t - t o g e t h e r s , and how " t h e g e n e r o u s host would walk around the t a b l e , pour the wine a c q u i r e d f r o m the s a l e of the skins of s e a - o t t e r s and f u r - s e a l s , not having the s l i g h t e s t notion as to whom he was r e g a l i n g . " 2 1 T h e r e i s r e a s o n to b e l i e v e that a n o t h e r of the D i r e c t o r s of Company, Nikolay Ivanovich K u s o v , was a l s o c o n n e c t e d with s o m e of the D e c e m b r i s t s . E l e c t e d as one of the D i r e c t o r s of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company in the middle of 1 8 2 4 , N . I . Kusov was m a y o r of S t . P e t e r s b u r g and c o - o w n e r of the old P e t e r s b u r g c o m m e r c i a l house of " S a n k t - P e t e r b u r g s k i e p e r v o s t a t e i n y e kuptsy Ivana K u s i v a synovia" (Ivan K u s o v ' s S o n s , F i r s t - c l a s s m e r c h a n t s of S t . P e t e r s b u r g ) , which c o n ducted a l a r g e - s c a l e g r o c e r y b u s i n e s s . In addition, the Kusovs owned a s u g a r - r e f i n e r y , a p o t a s h - p l a n t , a d i s t i l l e r y , and a t a n n e r y . N . I . Kusov, v e r y p r o g r e s s i v e f o r his day, had, it s e e m s , long e s t a b l i s h e d c o n t a c t s with groups of the opposition. He was a M a s o n , w a s t r e a s u r e r of the " I z b r a n n y i M i k h a i l " ( M i c h a e l the E l e c t ) L o d g e , and took an a c t i v e p a r t in the c r e ation of the L a n c a s t e r s c h o o l s . A c c o r d i n g to Z a v a l i s h i n , Kusov frequented the famous d i n n e r s at P r o k o f y e v ' s which w e r e attended by the D e c e m b r i s t s , and took p a r t in the d i s c u s s i o n of the events that w e r e in the p r o c e s s of p r e p a r a t i o n . Some of the D e c e m b r i s t s , a s , f o r i n s t a n c e , R y l e y e v , a s s o c i a t e d t h e m s e l v e s with the C o m pany when they w e r e a l r e a d y m e m b e r s of the s e c r e t s o c i e t y ; o t h e r s like B a t e n k o v made f r i e n d s with the D e c e m b r i s t s f o r the f i r s t t i m e at P r o k o f y e v ' s . It should be noted that s o m e of the D e c e m b r i s t s who had no f o r m a l connection with the Company, showed a deep i n t e r e s t in the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a in g e n e r a l . One of t h e m was the D e c e m b r i s t N . A . B e s t u z h e v , who was not f o r m a l l y connected with the Company. T h i s we l e a r n f r o m

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the D e c e m b r i s t V . P . R o m a n o v , who v i s i t e d A m e r i c a . B e s tuzhev c o r r e c t e d his notes about the Russian c o l o n i e s , urged him to have them published s e p a r a t e l y , and p r o m i s e d to a s sume the editing of t h e m . Thanks to B e s t u z h e v , R o m a n o v ' s a r t i c l e s about the Russian colonies w e r e placed in a number of p e r i o d i c a l s . It was also at his i n i t i a t i v e that the drafting d i v i s i o n of the N a v y Department d r e w a map of the Russian c o l o n i e s in C a l i f o r n i a . T h e Russian colonies in A m e r i c a s e r v e d , apparently, on m o r e than one occasion as a topic of conversation at the gatherings of the N o r t h e r n S o c i e t y . In his account to the C o m m i s s i o n of Inquiry of his acquaintance with K t l c h e l b e c k e r , T r u b e t s k o y , who was in no way connected with the Company e i t h e r , w r o t e that he had met him at R y l e y e v ' s . Ktlchelbecker told them " h o w they shoot s e a - o t t e r s and f u r - s e a l s , and all about our colony in A m e r i c a , c a l l e d R o s s . A number of f a c t o r s tended to influence the D e c e m b r i s t s to seek a rapprochement with the l e a d e r s of the R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . T h e r e w a s , f i r s t of a l l , the d e s i r e on t h e i r part to broaden their contacts because a portion of the merchant class was inclined to be in opposition to the g o v e r n m e n t . " W h e n M . M u r a v y o v l e f t h e r e , " R y l e y e v says in his t e s t i m o n y , " I told him p r e c i s e l y that I would t r y to take in as m e m b e r s some of the l o c a l m e r c h a n t s . I wanted to do it with the approval of the N o r t h e r n Duma so as to have m e m b e r s in that c l a s s , too. In addition to K . F . R y l e y e v , the m o s t pronounced tendency f o r a rapprochement with the merchant c i r c l e s m a y be o b s e r v e d in the c a s e of another D e c e m b r i s t , who was v e r y c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d with the Company, n a m e l y , G . S . Batenkov. " M o r e often than anywhere e l s e , " he i n f o r m e d the C o m m i s sion of Inquiry, " I used to go to the m e r c h a n t s ' houses, and inasmuch as that class is g e n e r a l l y d i s s a t i s f i e d with the r e s t r i c t i v e regulations on c o m m e r c e , associating with them acted as an incitement to the d e s i r e f o r a c h a n g e . " ^ 5 A f e w of the D e c e m b r i s t s occupied definite positions with the Company, others w e r e making r e a d y to enter the C o m pany's s e r v i c e . Of the m e m b e r s of the Society the m o s t important post with the Company was held by K . F . R y l e y e v . He had been in the s e r v i c e of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company since the beginning of 1824 as o f f i c e m a n a g e r . He b e c a m e one of the s t o c k h o l d e r s , r e c e i v i n g ten shares f r o m the Company, each with a nominal value of 500 rubles in banknotes.

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R y l e y e v w a s a p p o i n t e d t o h i s p o s i t i o n w i t h t h e a i d of M o r d v i n o v . " I c a m e t o k n o w M r . M o d v i n o v a t h i s own d e s i r e , " R y l e y e v w r o t e s u b s e q u e n t l y in h i s d e p o s i t i o n , " a n d w e n t t o s e e h i m w i t h F . N . G l i n k a . T h e o c c a s i o n of t h e v i s i t w a s a n ode I h a d w r i t t e n in w h i c h I m e n t i o n e d h i m . S o m e t i m e a f t e r , he o f f e r e d m e a place with the A m e r i c a n Company as office m a n a g e r , w h i c h I r e c e i v e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of l a s t y e a r . " 2 7 It i s a r a t h e r w i d e l y a c c e p t e d o p i n i o n i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e of the subject that Ryleyev, at f i r s t conscientious about his new o f f i c i a l d u t i e s , l a t e r n e g l e c t e d h i s w o r k at the C o m p a n y c o m p l e t e l y and l o s t all i n t e r e s t in the C o m p a n y ' s f a t e . The t e s t i m o n y of G r e c h a n d Z a v a l i s h i n , w h o n e v e r m i s s e d a n o p p o r tunity to calumniate their f o r m e r f r i e n d s , s e r v e s as a b a s i s for such conclusions. " F r o m w h a t t h e D i r e c t o r of t h e C o m p a n y , I v a n V a s i l y e v i c h P r o k o f y e v told m e , " w r i t e s G r e c h " h e [ R y l e y e v . - - A u .] w o r k e d z e a l o u s l y and with g r e a t b e n e f i t to the C o m p a n y at the b e g i n n i n g of h i s t e r m of s e r v i c e , but l a t e r o n , b e f u d d l e d by l i b e r a l v i s i o n s , h e l o s t i n t e r e s t in h i s p o s i t i o n a n d w e n t a b o u t h i s duties very l i s t l e s s l y . "^8 B o u r g e o i s w r i t e r s , s e e i n g in R y l e y e v p r i m a r i l y t h e p o e t and ignoring h i m c o m p l e t e l y a s a political f i g u r e , have usually r e g a r d e d his w o r k with the C o m p a n y a s due wholly to his s t r a i t e n e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s , and have pointed to the utter lack of i n t e r e s t h e o s t e n s i b l y m a n i f e s t e d in t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e Company. " T h e r e w a s v e r y l i t t l e of t h e s p i r i t u a l in t h i s n e w p o s i t i o n , " w r i t e s N. K o t l y a r e v s k y c o n c e r n i n g R y l e y e v ' s work with the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company. "The Company managed the t r a d e of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a , a n d R y l e y e v w a s c h a r g e d w i t h t h e t e d i o u s s e c r e t a r i a l d u t i e s . He p e r f o r m e d his s e c r e t a r i a l f u n c t i o n s v e r y a c c u r a t e l y and with a good d e a l of z e a l , s o t h a t h e w a s p r e s e n t e d w i t h a v e r y v a l u a b l e r a c c o o n c o a t ; b u t , of c o u r s e , t h e w h o l e b u s i n e s s h a d l i t t l e a t t r a c t i o n f o r h i m , and he p r o b a b l y a c c e p t e d the position b e c a u s e , a f t e r t h e d e a t h of h i s m o t h e r , h i s f i n a n c i a l s i t u a t i o n b e c a m e even m o r e p r e c a r i o u s , and the s e r v i c e with the C o m pany was sufficiently profitable ." ^ B u t e v e n t h e s c a n t y d a t a w e h a v e a t o u r d i s p o s a l on t h i s q u e s t i o n b e a r t e s t i m o n y t o a d e e p i n t e r e s t on R y l e y e v ' s p a r t in t h e p r o g r e s s of t h e C o m p a n y a n d t o h i s e n t h u s i a s m f o r t h e w o r k t o w h i c h h e d e v o t e d a g r e a t d e a l of h i s t i m e . In one of h i s l e t t e r s t o V . l . S t e i n g e l , R y l e y e v s p e a k s

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f r a n k l y of h i s r e l a t i o n t o the Company. " T h e y say that h e , " w r i t e s R y l e y e v with r e f e r e n c e to the newly e l e c t e d m e m b e r of the Council of the Company, V . M . Golovnin, " d o e s not l i k e m e f o r s o m e r e a s o n ; but that d o e s n ' t c o n c e r n m e too m u c h . . . . I ' l l be a l l r i g h t without the Company, too, if only the Company should f l o u r i s h . " 3 0 The above l e t t e r belongs to M a r c h 1 8 2 5 , that i s p r e c i s e l y to the l a s t p e r i o d of R y l e y e v ' s a c t i v i t y . It i s p o s s i b l e to a d duce many e x a m p l e s i l l u s t r a t i n g the deep i n t e r e s t that R y l e y e v showed in the a f f a i r s of the Company even at that t i m e ; in h i s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e t h e s e a f f a i r s figure on a par with his l i t e r a r y interests. " M u c h work has a c c u m u l a t e d in the Company, F u r t h e r m o r e , we have begun the printing of the ' P o l y a r n a y a Zvezda' ( P o l a r S t a r ) , " w r i t e s K . F . R y l e y e v to h i s wife on F e b r u a r y 1 0 , 1 8 2 5 , " a n d all this has kept m e busy and h a s helped to dispel the b o r e d o m and to fill the s p i r i t u a l v a c u u m . " ^ A few days l a t e r , K . F . R y l e y e v again i n f o r m s his wife that he is " t e r r i b l y occupied with the a f f a i r s of the C o m p a n y , " 3 2 and that at the v e r y t i m e when in the words of N . I . G r e c h , " h e went about h i s duties v e r y l i s t l e s s l y . " P e o p l e c l o s e s t to K . F . R y l e y e v , who w e r e d i r e c t l y a s s o c i a t e d with h i m , a l s o t e s t i f y to the s u c c e s s of h i s work with the Company. " H i s public activity in h i s c a p a c i t y a s m a n a g e r of the A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , " w r i t e s the D e c e m b r i s t Y e . P . O b o l e n s k y , "would d e s e r v e s p e c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n , in view of the good he h a s done to the Company both by his activity and, undoubtedly even m o r e , by his s u b s t a n t i a l s e r v i c e s b e c a u s e , even b e f o r e two y e a r s had e l a p s e d f r o m the t i m e he a s s u m e d his duties, the m a n a g e m e n t of the Company e x p r e s s e d i t s gratitude to him by p r e s e n t i n g him with an e x p e n s i v e r a c c o o n c o a t , valued at that t i m e at 700 r u b l e s . " 3 3 We a l s o r e a d of the p a r t played by K . F . R y l e y e v in the d i r e c t i o n of the a f f a i r s of the Company in one of the l e t t e r s of O . M . S o m o v , a D e c e m b r i s t who was in the s e r v i c e of the Company. On N o v e m b e r 2 5 , 1 8 2 4 , O . M . Somov wrote to R y l e y e v that it was i m p o r t a n t to the Company in m o r e ways than one that he c o m e at that i m e ; in the f i r s t p l a c e , " b e c a u s e the t i m e i s approaching when d i s p a t c h e s and f u r - h u n t e r s have to be sent to A m e r i c a . . . . Both our d i r e c t o r s , and K u s o v , t o o , when he c o m e s h e r e , always a s k about you and a r e awaiting your r e t u r n with i m p a t i e n c e . " 34 Indeed, the d i r e c t o r s of the Company valued R y l e y e v highly.

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Following P r o k o f y e v ' s advice, Ryleyev's wife, after his a r r e s t , r e t u r n e d t o t h e C o m p a n y t h e b e a v e r c o l l a r f r o m t h e gift f u r c o a t and t h e s h a r e s s h e h a d in h e r p o s s e s s i o n . T h e C o m p a n y paid Buldakov the 3 , 5 0 0 r u b l e s which R y l e y e v owed h i m . R y l e y e v ' s debt t o t h e C o m p a n y t o t h e a m o u n t of 3 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s was r e m i t t e d . " I a m m u c h obliged to t h e m , " w r o t e R y l e y e v ' s w i f e t o h i m on M a y 8 , 1 8 2 6 w h i l e he w a s in p r i s o n ; " t h e y h a v e n ' t b o t h e r e d m e a l l t h i s t i m e about t h e a p a r t m e n t , I a m s t i l l l i v i n g in i t , t h e s a m e a s when you w e r e h e r e with m e , my dear. "35 T h r o u g h M o r d v i n o v , D . I . Z a v a l i s h i n a l s o c a m e in c o n t a c t with t h e C o m p a n y . Upon h i s r e t u r n t o S t . P e t e r s b u r g f r o m C a l i f o r n i a in 1 8 2 4 , he a p p r o a c h e d M o r d v i n o v with a w h o l e s e r i e s of p l a n s f o r b r i n g i n g about i m p r o v e m e n t s in t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y . A r m e d with M o r d v i n o v ' s l e t t e r s of r e c o m m e n d a t i o n , Z a v a l i s h i n went t o t h e M a n a g e r of t h e C o m pany, R y l e y e v , "who a c c o r d i n g to Z a v a l i s h i n , was r e g a r d e d a s v e r y w e l l v e r s e d in t h e a f f a i r s of t h e C o m p a n y . " 3 6 Zavalishin's plans were very enthusiastically r e c e i v e d in C o m p a n y c i r c l e s , and he w a s i m m e d i a t e l y o f f e r e d a p e r m a n e n t p o s i t i o n with t h e C o m p a n y a s m a n a g e r of t h e c o l o n y of R o s s in C a l i f o r n i a . T h e T s a r ' s p e r m i s s i o n w a s r e q u i r e d , h o w e v e r , and t h i s , in s p i t e of l e n g t h y n e g o t i a t i o n s , t h e C o m p a n y w a s unable t o o b t a i n . Like D . I . Zavalishin, another D e c e m b r i s t , Lieutenant V . P . R o m a n o v , a l s o b e c a m e a s s o c i a t e d with t h e C o m p a n y . R e t u r n i n g a t t h e end of 1 8 2 2 f r o m a t r i p t o A m e r i c a w h e r e h e had s a i l e d on a C o m p a n y s h i p , V . P . R o m a n o v p r e s e n t e d two p l a n s in 1 8 2 3 t o t h e C h i e f of t h e Navy S t a f f . T h e f i r s t w a s a plan f o r t h e e x p l o r a t i o n of t h e t e r r i t o r y f r o m t h e M e d n a y a R i v e r t o Hudson B a y and n o r t h t o t h e A r c t i c ; t h e s e c o n d , f o r t h e e x p l o r a t i o n of t h e C a p e of t h e A r c t i c t o t h e e a s t , with a v i e w of h a v i n g t h e R u s s i a n e x p e d i t i o n l i n k up with t h e p r o p o s e d E n g l i s h e x p e d i t i o n under F r a n k l i n . This plan was r e f e r r e d to the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , s i n c e i t r e l a t e d t o t e r r i t o r y in i t s p o s s e s s i o n . " I f t h e C a p e of G o o d Hope and New H o l l a n d a t t r a c t e d the a t t e n t i o n of E n g l a n d , " n o t e d V . P . R o m a n o v in h i s p l a n , " t h e n t h e n o r t h w e s t e r n p a r t of A m e r i c a d e s e r v e s s i m i l a r a t t e n t i o n f r o m our g o v e r n m e n t . F r o m t h e n on V . P . R o m a n o v s t a r t e d t o f r e q u e n t t h e d i r e c t o r s of t h e C o m p a n y , e s p e c i a l l y I . V . P r o k o f y e v . In 1 8 2 4 R o m a n o v ' s p l a n a r o u s e d t h e i n t e r e s t of K . F . R y l e y e v , who

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d e c l a r e d that i t s a c h i e v e m e n t would b r i n g not only g l o r y to the C o m p a n y , b e c a u s e the R u s s i a n s would be the f i r s t to e x p l o r e that r e g i o n w h e r e no E u r o p e a n h a s s e t f o o t , but it would a l s o p r o v e p r o f i t a b l e by e s t a b l i s h i n g c o n t a c t with the H u d s o n B a y C o m p a n y , and p e r h a p s will a l s o h e l p to open up a new b r a n c h of the b u s i n e s s . " ^ At the s a m e t i m e , K . F . R y l e y e v " o f f e r e d to t r y to i n d u c e the D i r e c t o r s t o a g r e e " that V . P . R o m a n o v s h o u l d be a p p o i n t e d l e a d e r of the e x p e d i tion . S t e i n g e l and B a t e n k o v a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d c l o s e c o n t a c t s with the C o m p a n y a s a r e s u l t of t h e i r s o j o u r n in S i b e r i a . A f o r m e r n a v a l o f f i c e r , B a r o n S t e i n g e l had at one t i m e m a i n t a i n e d c l o s e c o n t a c t s with the c o r r e s p o n d e n t of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , R e z a n o v , and l a t e r with the D i r e c t o r of the C o m p a n y , P r o k o f y e v , w h o m he knew f r o m M o s c o w . T h e r e he h a d s e r v e d a s a d j u t a n t to the G o v e r n o r G e n e r a l , and e v e n i n t e n d e d at one t i m e t o e n t e r the s e r v i c e of the C o m p a n y . ^ B a t e n k o v w a s a l s o p r e p a r i n g to s e r v e with the C o m p a n y , and the q u e s t i o n of h i s s e r v i c e w a s a l m o s t s e t t l e d in the a f f i r m a t i v e . He w a s to a s s u m e the g o v e r n o r s h i p of a l l the c o l o n i e s , s i n c e the G o v e r n o r of the c o l o n i e s , M u r a v y o v , h a d long s e n t in h i s r e s i g n a t i o n . " T h e a r r a n g e m e n t s h a d a l m o s t b e e n m a d e , " B a t e n k o v r e l a t e s , " I p l e d g e d m y s e l f to s e r v e f o r f i v e y e a r s , at 4 0 , 0 0 0 a y e a r , intending to s p e n d one half of the s a l a r y and to d e p o s i t the o t h e r half in a f o r e i g n b a n k , s o that I c o u l d l a t e r s e t t l e p e r m a n e n t l y s o m e w h e r e in S o u t h e r n Europe."40 In the p r o c e s s of r e a l i z i n g all t h e s e p l a n s , a n u m b e r of r e s p o n s i b l e p o s i t i o n s in the C o m p a n y ' s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n m i g h t well h a v e f a l l e n to m e m b e r s of the s e c r e t s o c i e t y . R y l e y e v would h a v e r e m a i n e d a s o f f i c e m a n a g e r a c t u a l l y in c h a r g e of a l l c u r r e n t b u s i n e s s ; B a t e n k o v would h a v e b e e n g o v e r n o r of the c o l o n i e s , a n d Z a v a l i s h i n , m a n a g e r of the c o l o n y of R o s s . T h u s , 72 M o i k a S t r e e t , n e a r the B l u e B r i d g e , o c c u p i e d by the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , b e c a m e , with the b e g i n n i n g of 1 8 2 4 , a s o r t of c o n s p i r a t o r s ' c l u b . In t h i s l a r g e b u i l d i n g with the t w o - h e a d e d e a g l e on i t s f r o n t , which the C o m p a n y h a d p u r c h a s e d f r o m A . V o r o n t s o v ' s h e i r s , w a s l o c a t e d the s t a f f of the D e c e m b r i s t i n s u r r e c t i o n . H e r e s o m e of the l e a d e r s of the N o r t h e r n S o c i e t y l i v e d , h e r e the l a r g e m e e t i n g s of the D e c e m b r i s t s took p l a c e , h e r e r a n g out openly the c a l l to m u r d e r the T s a r , and h e r e the d e c i s i o n s

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on t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n w e r e m a d e . Not a c c i d e n t a l l y , t h e n , w a s t h e f r e q u e n t i n g of t h e b u i l d i n g of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company identified with actual p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e c o n s p i r a c y . " On t h e f i f t e e n t h [of D e c e m b e r , 1 825 . - - A u . ], " t h e D e c e m b r i s t Batenkov r e l a t e s , "Speransky called m e over and, noticing that 1 w a s r a t h e r c o n f u s e d , a s k e d m e w h e t h e r I had not h a d a p a r t [in t h e p l o t ] , s i n c e I h a d k n o w n B e s t u z h e v f o r s u c h a s h o r t t i m e a n d h a d f r e q u e n t e d t h e q u a r t e r s of t h e A m e r i c a n Company. The notion that the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company was a hotb e d of s e d i t i o n i s m o s t c l e a r l y r e f l e c t e d in t h e l e t t e r s of t h e f a m o u s f a b u l i s t and j o u r n a l i s t A . Ye. I z m a i l o v , who noted down p a i n s t a k i n g l y a l l t h e r u m o r s f l o a t i n g a b o u t S t . P e t e r s b u r g . I n f o r m i n g h i s s o n of t h e r e l e a s e f r o m p r i s o n of t h e h e a d c l e r k of t h e C o m p a n y , O r e s t S o m o v , w h o w a s i m p l i c a t e d in the D e c e m b r i s t i n s u r r e c t i o n , I z m a i l o v c i t e s the following characteristic anecdote: " H i s M a j e s t y a s k e d S o m o v , ' W h e r e a r e you e m p l o y e d ? ' Somov replied, 'In the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . ' His Majesty exclaimed, 'You've collected some fine company t h e r e . "43 F r o m t h e t i m e t h a t t h e d i r e c t o r s of t h e C o m p a n y b e g a n t o a s s o c i a t e w i t h s o m e of t h e m e m b e r s of t h e N o r t h e r n S o c i e t y , t h e r e f r a c t o r y s p i r i t of t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d b e c a m e m o r e i n t e n s e . It m a y b e s u r m i s e d , on t h e b a s i s of c e r t a i n i n d i r e c t e v i d e n c e , t h a t t h e r e w a s s u s p i c i o n e v e n in g o v e r n m e n t c i r c l e s , that someone was pulling the s t r i n g s behind the d i r e c t o r s ' back. D.I. Zavalishin relates that Ryleyev was reprimanded by I m p e r i a l o r d e r f o r a m e m o r a n d u m s u p p o s e d l y w r i t t e n by Z a v a l i s h i n on t h e o c c a s i o n of t h e A n g l o - R u s s i a n a n d R u s s o A m e r i c a n conventions. According to Zavalishin, Alexander I " w a s i n f u r i a t e d a t t h e i d e a of t h e m e r c h a n t s ' t r y i n g t o t e a c h the d i p l o m a t s , and o r d e r e d t h a t the m a n a g e r be r e p r i m a n d e d , saying that the m e r c h a n t s did not u n d e r s t a n d anything and c o u l d n o t , of c o u r s e , h a v e w r i t t e n t h e m e m o r a n d u m . " ^ We do not h a v e a t o u r d i s p o s a l t h e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l t h a t w o u l d c o n f i r m t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d by Z a v a l i s h i n . H o w e v e r , in t h e p r i v a t e a r c h i v e s of t h e M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e , Y e . F . Kankrin, t h e r e has been p r e s e r v e d a very curious document dealing with a s i m i l a r incident, a r e p r i m a n d to the D i r e c t o r s of t h e C o m p a n y f o r a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a p p a r e n t l y c o m p o s e d by R y l e y e v .

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COMPANY

On F e b r u a r y 1 7 , 1 8 2 5 , t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d of t h e C o m p a n y s e n t t o t h e M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e , Y e . F . K a n k r i n , a m e m o r a n dum o v e r t h e s i g n a t u r e of t h e two D i r e c t o r s I . V . P r o k o f y e v and A . I . S e v e r i n , and of t h e o f f i c e m a n a g e r K . F . R y l e y e v . T h e m e m o r a n d u m d e a l t with t h e C o m p a n y o r d e r t o b u i l d f o r t r e s s e s along the Mednaya R i v e r f r o m the s e a s h o r e deep i n land. T h i s undertaking was intended to d e l i m i t , to a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , the t e r r i t o r i a l c o n c e s s i o n s which the g o v e r n m e n t p r o p o s e d t o m a k e at t h e e x p e n s e of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a upon s i g n i n g t h e A n g l o - R u s s i a n C o n v e n t i o n , t h e n e g o t i ations for which w e r e a l r e a d y drawing to a c l o s e . T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a r m e d o u t p o s t s in t h e d i s p u t e d t e r r i t o r y along the Mednaya as f a r as the R o c k y Mountains t h e m s e l v e s [in t h e d o c u m e n t at hand t h e y a r e c a l l e d " K a m e n n y a y a " ( i . e . , S t o n y ) . - - A u . ] w a s i n v o k e d t o u n d e r l i n e t h e f a c t t h a t the t e r r i t o r y b e l o n g e d t o R u s s i a . S u c h a c t i v i t y would, of c o u r s e , have been a d i r e c t p r o v o c a t i o n to England, which demanded a r e d u c t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n - h e l d a r e a s on t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t and t h e i r p r e c i s e d e l i m i t a t i o n . " I t i s well k n o w n , " wrote the B o a r d , " t h a t the E n g l i s h have a l r e a d y e x p a n d e d t h e i r d o m a i n s t o t h e v e r y r a n g e of t h e S t o n y ( i . e . , R o c k y ) M o u n t a i n s and w i l l p r o b a b l y want t o c a r r y t h e m f o r w a r d o v e r t o t h i s s i d e of t h e m o u n t a i n s . . . . A l t h o u g h t h e C o m p a n y i s d e s i r o u s , on i t s p a r t , t o e x p a n d i t s own c o l o n i e s a s f a r a s t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d r a n g e of the R o c k i e s , w h i c h i s i n d i s p e n s a b l e f o r i t s s t a b l e e x i s t e n c e , and t o w a r d s w h i c h a b e g i n n i n g h a s a l r e a d y b e e n m a d e , a n d w h i c h i t w i l l no doubt a c h i e v e , u n l e s s it m e e t s with d a n g e r o u s c o m p e t i t i o n ; but s i n c e the C o m p a n y d o e s not h a v e s u c h a m p l e r e s o u r c e s and i s not in a p o s i t i o n t o o p p o s e the E n g l i s h g o v e r n m e n t w h i c h i s c o o p e r a t i n g in t h i s m a t t e r , t h e r e f o r e , in o r d e r t o p r e v e n t t h e E n g l i s h g o v e r n m e n t f r o m c o m i n g i n t o p o s s e s s i o n of t h e t e r r i t o r y l y i n g on t h i s s i d e of t h e m o u n t a i n s , t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d of t h e C o m p a n y i s t a k i n g t h e l i b e r t y of noting t h a t t h e S t o n y ( R o c k y ) m o u n t a i n s c a n and s h o u l d b e t h e b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n the two p o w e r s in t h a t r e g i o n . M u t u a l b e n e f i t s , j u s t i c e , and n a t u r e i t s e l f d e m a n d i t . In f o r w a r d i n g t h i s m e m o r a n d u m t o N e s s e l r o d e on F e b r u a r y 2 7 , Kankrin r e m a r k e d that " h e finds this r e p r e s e n t a t i o n w o r t h y of c o n s i d e r a t i o n . " On M a r c h 4 , h o w e v e r , K a n k r i n w a s c o m p e l l e d t o m a k e a n o t e on h i s c o p y of t h e m e m o r a n d u m t h a t h e h a d b e e n t o o h a s t y in finding " t h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

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w o r t h y of c o n s i d e r a t i o n . " W o r d h a s b e e n r e c e i v e d f r o m H i s M a j e s t y H i m s e l f , " w r o t e K a n k r i n , " t h a t t h e C o m p a n y be o r d e r e d t o d i s c o n t i n u e i m m e d i a t e l y t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e l i t t l e f o r t r e s s e s , a n d w h e n t h e o r d e r h a s b e e n e x e c u t e d , it s h o u l d i n f o r m His M a j e s t y by c o u r i e r t o t h a t e f f e c t . F u r t h e r m o r e , it s h o u l d b e p o i n t e d out t o t h e C o m p a n y t h a t i t s v e r y d e m a n d d o e s n o t s u i t e i t h e r t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s of t h a t r e g i o n o r t h e r i g h t s g r a n t e d t o t h e C o m p a n y . In a d d i t i o n , h a v i n g c a l l e d the d i r e c t o r s t o g e t h e r , Kankrin should r e p r i m a n d t h e m m o s t s e v e r e l y f o r t h e i m p r o p r i e t y b o t h of t h e p r o p o s a l i t s e l f a n d of t h e e x p r e s s i o n s u s e d , s o t h a t t h e y s h o u l d h e n c e f o r t h s u b m i t u n q u e s t i o n i n g l y t o t h e o r d e r s a n d v i e w s of t h e g o v e r n m e n t , w i t h o u t o v e r s t e p p i n g t h e b o u n d s of t h e m e r c h a n t class."46 K a n k r i n u n d e r s c o r e d a n u m b e r of p h r a s e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e one t h a t " t h e R o c k y M o u n t a i n s c a n a n d s h o u l d b e t h e b o u n d a r y between the two p o w e r s , " which w e r e among the " i m p r o p e r " e x p r e s s i o n s n o t e d by A l e x a n d e r , a n d w r o t e o v e r t h e m t h a t " a r e p r i m a n d w a s m a d e in F e b r u a r y . " B u t i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e e v e n t s of t h e 14th of D e c e m b e r , the m e r c h a n t s ' " r e b e l l i o u s n e s s " cooled down. The d i r e c t o r s of t h e C o m p a n y h a s t e n e d t o d e s t r o y e v e r y t h i n g t h a t m i g h t i n s o m e way have d i s c l o s e d t h e i r connection with the D e c e m brists . A c c o r d i n g to Z a v a l i s h i n , " P r o k o f y e v , who w a s C o m p a n y D i r e c t o r i n 1 8 2 5 , in a s t a t e of f e a r a f t e r D e c e m b e r 14, b u r n e d all the p a p e r s w h e r e m y n a m e w a s even m e n t i o n e d , and not only t h o s e which e m a n a t e d f r o m m e p e r s o n a l l y . "47 F o r a w h i l e t h e " m e r c h a n t c l a s s " c o n t i n u e d t o h o l d on t o the C o m p a n y but, a f t e r the new c h a r t e r had been c o n f i r m e d i n 1 8 4 4 , t h e f u r t h e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n of t h e m e r c h a n t s in t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y b e c a m e a b s o l u t e l y i m p o s s i b l e H e n c e f o r w a r d the c o m m e r c i a l activities as well as the q u e s t i o n s of " h i g h e r p o l i c y " w e r e t o b e t h e c o n c e r n of m a j o r g e n e r a l s a n d v i c e - a d m i r a l s . T h e p r o v i s i o n s of t h e n e w c h a r t e r abolished the Company Council which c o m p r i s e d p r i m a r i l y the h i g h e r o f f i c i a l s who m a i n t a i n e d g o v e r n m e n t c o n t r o l o v e r the political a c t i v i t i e s without meddling with c u r r e n t c o m m e r c i a l a f f a i r s . T h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y w a s w h o l l y c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e h a n d s of t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d . T h e B o a r d ' s c o m p o s i t i o n u n d e r w e n t a c h a n g e at t h e s a m e t i m e ; t h e m e m b e r s of t h e C o u n c i l b e c a m e D i r e c t o r s , a n d t h e " m e r c h a n t c l a s s " w a s p r a c t i c a l l y f o r c e d out of t h e t o p o f f i c e s of t h e C o m p a n y .

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THE RUSSIAN-AMERICAN COMPANY

In a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e d r a f t f o r a n e w c h a r t e r , p r e s e n t e d in 1841 f o r e x a m i n a t i o n by t h e C o u n c i l of S t a t e , t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d w a s t o c o n s i s t n o t of f o u r b u t of f i v e m e m b e r s . S p e c i a l e m p h a s i s w a s p l a c e d on t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t " t h e r e s h o u l d b e a d m i t t e d a s m e m b e r s n o t o n l y p e o p l e w h o a r e e x p e r t s in c o m m e r c e , a s s t i p u l a t e d in t h e old c h a r t e r , but s u c h n o b l e m e n a s a r e w e l l k n o w n f o r t h e i r k n o w l e d g e of c o m m e r c e a n d c o l o n i a l a f f a i r s , a n d g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s w i t h t h e c o n s e n t of t h e i r s u p e r i o r s , et a l . "48 In t h e d e f i n i t i v e t e x t of t h e c h a r t e r " e t a l . " w a s , s o t o s p e a k , d e c o d e d . T h e r e it w a s i n d i c a t e d t h a t in a d d i t i o n t o " s u c h n o b l e m e n a s a r e w e l l k n o w n f o r t h e i r k n o w l e d g e of c o m m e r c e and colonial a f f a i r s , and g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s , " " e m i n e n t c i t i z e n s " a n d m e r c h a n t s of t h e u p p e r t w o c a t e g o r i e s could be e l e c t e d t o the G o v e r n i n g B o a r d . But t h i s w a s e s s e n t i a l l y a s u b t e r f u g e , s i n c e now t h e r e w a s n o t h i n g f o r t h e m e r c h a n t s t o do in t h e C o m p a n y . T h e C o m p a n y h a d b e c o m e an o r g a n i z a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d n o t " f o r t r a d i n g on t h e m a i n l a n d of n o r t h w e s t A m e r i c a a n d on t h e i s l a n d s , " a s i t s c h a r t e r r e a d , but f o r a d m i n i s t e r i n g R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s i n A m e r i c a , f o r m u l a t e d in t h e d r a f t f o r t h e n e w c h a r t e r w o r k e d out in 1861 . O n l y o n e m e m b e r of t h e old G o v e r n i n g B o a r d , t h e m e r c h a n t K u s o v , r e m a i n e d on t h e n e w B o a r d . T h e r e m a i n i n g f o u r p l a c e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e p o s i t i o n of E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r in c h a r g e of c u r r e n t w o r k , w e r e f i l l e d by r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e h i g h e r o f f i c i a l d o m , m o s t of t h e m m e m b e r s of t h e o l d C o u n c i l . V i c e - A d m i r a l B a r o n F . P . W r a n g e l l w a s e l e c t e d C h a i r m a n of t h e B o a r d , a n d the following w e r e elected as m e m b e r s : M a j o r - G e n e r a l F . G . P o l i t k o v s k y , l a t e r t o b e C h a i r m a n of t h e B o a r d a l m o s t t o t h e v e r y l i q u i d a t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y , L i e u t e n a n t - G e n e r a l V . F . Kltlpfel, R e a r - A d m i r a l A . K . Etolin, R e t . , and the m e r c h a n t N . I . K u s o v . B u t t h o u g h K u s o v h e l d on t o h i s p o s t f o r a r a t h e r l o n g p e r i o d , he p l a y e d n o p a r t i n t h e m a n a g e m e n t of t h e C o m p a n y . B e g i n n i n g w i t h 1 8 5 7 , not one of t h e m e n a t t h e h e a d of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y belonged to the " m e r c h a n t class. " In t h i s w a y t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y w e n t t h r o u g h t h e s a m e p r o c e s s of d e v e l o p m e n t a s t h e E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y . " T h e E a s t India Company e l i m i n a t e d the plain people f r o m t r a d i n g with India. . . . "49 The v e r y s a m e thing h a p p e n e d in the c a s e of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y w i t h r e s p e c t t o t r a d i n g with A m e r i c a . V e r y soon, h o w e v e r , the E n g l i s h g o v e r n m e n t

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e l i m i n a t e d t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s of t h e E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y f r o m doing b u s i n e s s with India, and t u r n e d the Company into a s i m p l e a g e n c y of t h e C r o w n , u s i n g f o r t h i s p u r p o s e t h e s o c a l l e d B o a r d of C o n t r o l . A s M a r x p o i n t s o u t , " t h e P i t t A c t of 1 7 8 4 , w h i c h a r r a n g e d a c o m p r o m i s e with the C o m p a n y and p l a c e d it under the j u r i s d i c t i o n of a B o a r d of C o n t r o l t h a t w a s a t t h e s a m e t i m e t r a n s f o r m e d into an a p p e n d a g e to t h e M i n i s t r y , c o n f i r m e d and gave a p e r m a n e n t s t a t u s t o t h i s s y s t e m of d u a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n - - a s y s t e m of a c c i d e n t a l o r i g i n - - a n d s a n c t i o n e d i t f o r m a l l y a n d a c t u a l l y . T h e a c t of 1833 s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e B o a r d of C o n t r o l , t u r n e d t h e o w n e r s of t h e E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y i n t o p l a i n c r e d i t o r s w h o s e d e b t w a s s e c u r e d by t h e i n c o m e of t h e C o m p a n y , e n j o i n e d t h e C o m p a n y t o s e l l out i t s p r o p e r t y , p u t a n e n d t o its c o m m e r c i a l e x i s t e n c e , and t r a n s f o r m e d it, as a p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , i n t o a s i m p l e a g e n c y of t h e C r o w n - - i n s h o r t , the Act dealt with the E a s t India C o m p a n y exactly as the C o m p a n y itself had been wont to deal with the Indian p r i n c e s : d e p r i v i n g t h e m of t h e i r p o w e r s , it c o n t i n u e d f o r a t i m e t o g o v e r n in t h e i r n a m e . " 5 0 We h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t t r e a t e d t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y in e x a c t l y t h e s a m e m a n n e r : t h e f u n c t i o n s of t h e E n g l i s h B o a r d of C o n t r o l w e r e , i n t h i s c a s e , c a r r i e d out f i r s t by t h e T e m p o r a r y C o m m i t t e e t h e n by t h e Company Council. B u t t h e c o m p l e t e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e t r a d i n g c o m p a n y i n t o a w e a p o n of g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y d e m a n d e d t h e c o m p l e t e e l i m i n a t i o n f r o m t h e m a n a g e m e n t of t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the c o m m e r c i a l c l a s s e s . The c o m m e r c i a l d i r e c t o r a t e w a s , t h e r e f o r e , compelled f i r s t to renounce its special functions in t h e m a n a g e m e n t of t h e C o m p a n y a n d t h e n t o r e l i n q u i s h i t s duties altogether. " T h u s , beginning with 1833, the E a s t India C o m p a n y , " a s M a r x p o i n t s o u t , " e x i s t e d i n n a m e o n l y a n d , a s i t w e r e , on s u f f e r a n c e . "51 B e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e 1 8 4 0 ' s t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r ican Company s u f f e r e d the very s a m e fate.

C h a p t e r VI T H E C O L O N Y O F ROSS IN C A L I F O R N I A

E V E N AS E A R L Y a s t h e 1 7 9 0 ' s C a l i f o r n i a w a s r e g a r d e d , in the b r o a d p l a n s f o r e x p a n s i o n a s outlined by t h e R y l s k m e r chant G r i g o r y Shelikhov, a s the n a t u r a l b o u n d a r y "of t h e t e r r i t o r y of R u s s i a n p o s s e s s i o n " i n t h e w e s t e r n p a r t of t h e A m e r i c a n continent. And even then, the R u s s i a n m e r c h a n t s , b y o r d e r of t h e g o v e r n m e n t , h a s t e n e d , in a n a t t e m p t t o p r o v i d e f o r a n y c o n t i n g e n c y , t o m a n u f a c t u r e a n e x c u s e of s o m e k i n d f o r g a i n i n g p o s s e s s i o n of C a l i f o r n i a in t h e f u t u r e . T h u s S h e l i k h o v w r o t e in F e b r u a r y , 1 7 9 0 : " A l l a l o n g t h e A m e r i c a n m a i n l a n d f r o m t h e i s l a n d of Kitak [ i . e . , Kodia. - A u . ] to California and f a r beyond the C a p e of S t . E l i a s , in m a n y p l a c e s , t h r o u g h t h e e f f o r t s a n d a t t h e e x p e n s e of t h e C o m p a n y a n d a c c o r d i n g t o m y i n s t r u c tions, t h e r e have been distributed and left i m p e r i a l m a r k e r s , n a m e l y c o a t s - o f - a r m s and p l a t e s with the i n s c r i p t i o n ' L a n d belonging to R u s s i a . '

The t s a r i s t government never lost hope, either, that a p r o p i t i o u s m o m e n t w o u l d a r r i v e , in t h e c o u r s e of t i m e , f o r a s s e r t i n g i t s c l a i m s t o t h e w h o l e w e s t c o a s t of A m e r i c a a n d that the m a r k e r s which had been s e c r e t l y buried would yet s e r v e t h e i r p u r p o s e . T h e a c t i v i t y of S h e l i k h o v ' s c o m p a n y " a l l o w s o n e . . . t o h o p e " w r o t e G o v e r n o r - G e n e r a l P i l of I r k u t s k t o C a t h e r i n e in 1 7 9 0 , " t h a t a c o n t i n u a t i o n of i t s o p e r a t i o n s will in t i m e r e a c h C a l i f o r n i a , " and the p r e s e n c e in the g r o u n d of t h e b u r i e d m a r k e r s " m a y a c t u a l l y s e r v e in t h e f u t u r e , w h e n it w i l l n o t b e d i f f i c u l t f o r Y o u r M a j e s t y t o i n c r e a s e Your f o r c e s in that a r e a , a s i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e e v i d e n c e of t h e o w n e r s h i p of t h o s e p l a c e s t h a t s h o u l d b e s u b j e c t t o Your t h r o n e . " ^ T h e c o a s t a l w a t e r s of C a l i f o r n i a a b o u n d e d i n s e a - o t t e r s ; t h i s f a c t s e r v e s to e x p l a i n , in p a r t , the i n t e r e s t m a n i f e s t e d in t h a t r e g i o n by t h e R u s s i a n m e r c h a n t s . B u t , though the q u a n t i t y of s e a - o t t e r s w a s d e c r e a s i n g f r o m y e a r t o y e a r , t h e 118

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R u s s i a n s ' y e a r n i n g f o r C a l i f o r n i a w a s s t e a d i l y on t h e i n c r e a s e . T h i s w a s q u i t e n a t u r a l , s i n c e t h e p r o b l e m of o r g a n i z i n g t h e s y s t e m a t i c e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e A m e r i c a n c o a s t w a s c o n t i n g e n t upon t h e c r e a t i o n of a l o c a l s u p p l y - b a s e f o r t h e b e n e f i t of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s . T h e n o r t h e a s t e r n R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s of K a m c h a t k a and Chukutka w e r e supplied p r i m a r i l y with g r a i n b r o u g h t in f r o m t h e m o t h e r c o u n t r y , p a r t l y by l a n d . A n y f u r t h e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of t h e g r a i n f r o m K a m c h a t k a t o t h e A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s w a s i m p o s s i b l e , n o t o n l y b e c a u s e of t h e e x t r e m e l y high additional c o s t but a l s o b e c a u s e the i m p o r t e d g r a i n did not e v e n s u f f i c e f o r t h e n o r t h e a s t r e g i o n s of A s i a , w h i c h a l s o n e e d e d a l o c a l s o u r c e of f o o d s u p p l y . Furtherm o r e t h e d e l i v e r y of g r a i n a n d o t h e r n e c e s s a r y p r o v i s i o n s b y s e a f r o m S t . P e t e r s b u r g w a s not v e r y r e l i a b l e . T h e slightest diplomatic complication exposed the Russian colon i e s t o t h e t h r e a t of h u n g e r , s i n c e i n t h a t e v e n t , r o u n d - t h e w o r l d e x p e d i t i o n s w o u l d b e c o m e i m p o s s i b l e . It w a s n e c e s s a r y t o k e e p t h i s f a c t o r c o n s t a n t l y in m i n d , in v i e w of t h e s t r a i n e d s t a t e of f o r e i g n r e l a t i o n s a t t h e e n d of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d d u r i n g t h e f i r s t half of t h e n i n e t e e n t h . A l l a t t e m p t s t o i n t r o d u c e f a r m i n g i n t o t h e r e g i o n of A l a s k a a n d t h e i s l a n d s m e t w i t h f a i l u r e , n o t o n l y b e c a u s e of t h e l a c k of a n a t i v e l a b o r f o r c e q u a l i f i e d t o w o r k i n t h e f i e l d s , but c h i e f l y b e c a u s e of t h e u n f a v o r a b l e c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s . Of t h e w h o l e of t h e w e s t c o a s t of N o r t h A m e r i c a o n l y C a l i f o r n i a was v e r y well f a v o r e d with r e s p e c t to c l i m a t e . A beneficial c l i m a t e , r i c h v e g e t a t i o n , a l a r g e q u a n t i t y of c a t t l e p r o v i d e d a l l t h e e l e m e n t s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e c r e a t i o n of a " g r a n a r y " f o r t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a . T o b e s u r e , in a d d i t i o n t o C a l i f o r n i a , p r o v i s i o n s c o u l d a l s o b e b r o u g h t in f r o m C h i n a a n d J a p a n . B u t t h e f r e q u e n t i n t e r r u p t i o n s in t r a d e r e l a t i o n s and the long distance s e p a r a t i n g China f r o m the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s , t e n d e d t o f o c u s e v e r y o n e ' s a t t e n t i o n on C a l i f o r n i a . T o w a r d s t h e e n d of 1805 t h e C o r r e s p o n d e n t of t h e C o m p a n y , R e z a n o v , who was a l s o appointed, at the s a m e t i m e , E n v o y E x t r a o r d i n a r y t o J a p a n , v i s i t e d t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a . He f o u n d t h e m in v e r y d i f f i c u l t s t r a i t s . "There i s no b r e a d , " he r e p o r t e d to St. P e t e r s b u r g , " s i n c e , a s I h e a r , t h e r e i s n o one on K c d i a k t o p r e p a r e t h e f o d d e r , a n d p e o p l e a r e d y i n g of h u n g e r on S i t k a b e c a u s e t h e K o l o s h , w h o a r e a r m e d with splendid r i f l e s and f a l c o n e t s , a r e waging p e r p e t u a l w a r f a r e , and you have to c a t c h y o u r f i s h t h e r e under gunfire. " 3

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R e z a n o v ' s a t t e m p t t o o b t a i n p r o v i s i o n s in J a p a n e n d e d in f a i l u r e , a n d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of 1 8 0 6 h e w e n t t o C a l i f o r n i a t o c h e c k up o n t h e c h a n c e s of p u r c h a s i n g s u p p l i e s f r o m t h e S p a n i a r d s w h o w e r e t h e n i n p o s s e s s i o n of t h a t t e r r i t o r y . " I ' l l t e l l y o u f r a n k l y , " s a i d R e z a n o v t o t h e g o v e r n o r of C a l i f o r n i a , " t h a t w e n e e d g r a i n . We c a n g e t it f r o m C a n t o n , but s i n c e C a l i f o r n i a i s n e a r e r to us and h a s a s u r p l u s w h i c h it is u n able to d i s p o s e of, I have c o m e to talk to you as to the r u l e r of t h e s e p a r t s , w i t h t h e a s s u r a n c e t h a t w e c a n a g r e e o n c e r tain p r e l i m i n a r y m e a s u r e s which we can s u b m i t to the d e c i s i o n a n d c o n f i r m a t i o n of o u r C o u r t s . ' " ^ T r a d e with the Spanish colonies was r e n d e r e d very diffic u l t , h o w e v e r , by the f a c t that t h e y w e r e c a t e g o r i c a l l y f o r b i d d e n to e n t e r into c o m m e r c i a l r e l a t i o n s with any one e x cept their mother country. This prohibition a r o u s e d bitter d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n in the c o l o n i e s , i n a s m u c h a s the m o t h e r c o u n t r y did not supply t h e m with anything. Still, as long a s the S p a n i s h r u l e had not b e e n s h a k e n , the c o l o n i e s w e r e a f r a i d openly to violate the b a n . Not h a v i n g b e e n a b l e to obtain in h i s n e g o t i a t i o n s with the l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n y a s s u r a n c e of n o r m a l t r a d e r e l a t i o n s , R e z a n o v , a f t e r his visit to San F r a n c i s c o , b e g a n to develop t h e b o l d i d e a of w r e s t i n g C a l i f o r n i a f r o m t h e S p a n i a r d s . He p o i n t e d out in a l e t t e r , d a t e d J u n e 17, 1806, to t h e M i n i s t e r of C o m m e r c e t h a t " i f t h e g o v e r n m e n t h a d g i v e n e a r l i e r t h o u g h t t o t h i s p a r t of t h e w o r l d . . . i f i t h a d c o n t i n u e d t o f o l l o w t h e p e r s p i c a c i o u s v i e w s of P e t e r t h e G r e a t w h o , i n s p i t e of t h e l i m i t e d m e a n s at h i s d i s p o s a l , h a d p l a n n e d t h e B e r i n g expedition with s o m e t h i n g definite in m i n d , then one could positively maintain that New California would never have b e come a Spanish possession, since the Spaniards turned their a t t e n t i o n t o C a l i f o r n i a only in 1760 and it i s only t h r o u g h t h e s p i r i t of e n t e r p r i s e of t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s t h a t t h e y h a v e f o r e v e r s e c u r e d f o r t h e m s e l v e s t h i s t r a c t of t h e f i n e s t l a n d . Today t h e r e is only one unoccupied s t r e t c h , so useful to us and q u i t e n e c e s s a r y , a n d if w e s h o u l d a l l o w i t t o s l i p o u t of o u r g r a s p , what will p o s t e r i t y s a y ? " ^ B u t w h i l e R e z a n o v , i n h i s l e t t e r t o t h e M i n i s t e r of C o m m e r c e m e r e l y said that the Spaniards "have f o r e v e r s e c u r e d f o r t h e m s e l v e s t h i s t r a c t of t h e f i n e s t l a n d , " i n a l e t t e r t o t h e D i r e c t o r s of t h e C o m p a n y h e u n f o l d e d a p r a c t i c a l p l a n f o r g a i n i n g p o s s e s s i o n of t h i s " s c r a p " of l a n d . T o e f f e c t u a t e t h e c o m p l e t e c o n q u e s t of C a l i f o r n i a h e c o n s i d e r e d i t n e c e s s a r y

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t o wait f o r a propitious m o m e n t , but he also b e l i e v e d that it was n e c e s s a r y right then to occupy the whole r e g i o n extending f r o m the Russian colonies as f a r as C a l i f o r n i a , which had not yet f o r m a l l y c o m e into the p o s s e s s i o n of any of the p o w e r s . Pointing to the n e c e s s i t y of establishing a Russian colony north of C a l i f o r n i a , in C o l u m b i a , R e z a n o v e m p h a s i z e d that p r e c i s e l y f r o m t h e r e " w e shall be able little by l i t t l e to expand f a r t h e r south to the port of San F r a n c i s c o which m a r k s the boundary of C a l i f o r n i a . . . . If only the means a r e p r o v i d e d f o r the e a r l y beginnings of this plan, I can boldly say that we shall attract people to Columbia f r o m v a r i o u s p l a c e s , and shall have so consolidated our position at the end of ten y e a r s as e v e r to have in mind the coast of C a l i f o r n i a and, at the slightest c o n c u r r e n c e of f a v o r a b l e p o l i t i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s in E u r o p e , include it among the Russian p o s s e s s i o n s . . . . T h e Spanish a r e quite weak in that a r e a , and if in 1798, when war was d e c l a r e d on the Spanish court, our company had had the power corresponding to its a c t i v i t i e s , it would have been an e a s y m a t t e r to utilize the part of C a l i f o r n i a f r o m the 34th p a r a l l e l of north latitude as f a r as the m i s s i o n of Santa B a r bara and keep that p i e c e of land f o r e v e r , since, because of a condition of nature i t s e l f , it would have been i m p o s s i b l e f o r the Spanish to r e c e i v e any assistance f r o m M e x i c o by l a n d . " ^ The p r e p a r a t i o n s of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company to establish i t s e l f in C a l i f o r n i a began as e a r l y as 1808. The w e l l - t e s t e d method was put into operation: copper m a r k e r s w e r e buried in the ground, bearing the i n s c r i p t i o n " L a n d of Russian P o s s e s s i o n . " A c c o r d i n g to r e p o r t s submitted by the Company to the M i n i s t e r of Finance and l a t e r t r a n s m i t t e d to the M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , those l i t t l e plates w e r e buried " c o n s i d e r a b l y to the south of the designated line of the 51st p a r a l l e l of north latitude, n a m e l y at the 41st and 38th.^ In 1808 the peasant Sysoy Slobodchikov p l a c e d i r o n m a r k e r no. 1 in T r i n i d a d B a y , at latitude 4 1 ° Ν . . . . In 1809 C o m m e r c i a l Councillor Kuskov placed narker no. 14 in L i t t l e Bodega B a y . . . . In 1810 he also placed m a r k e r no. 18 on a little island near Dundas Island opposite the Charlotte I s l a n d s . In 1811 an unnumbered m a r k e r was placed on the p r o m o n t o r y of L i t t l e Bodega in the northern a r m of San F r a n c i s c o B a y , w h e r e the f o r t r e s s and the Spanish m i s s i o n were located."® In the f a l l of 1808 two of the C o m p a n y ' s v e s s e l s under the command of A s s i s t a n t - M a n a g e r of the C o l o n y , K u s k o v , set

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out f o r C a l i f o r n i a . While he w a s o s t e n s i b l y e n g a g e d in hunting f o r s e a - o t t e r s , K u s k o v w a s s e c r e t l y t r y i n g to find a p p r o p r i a t e s i t e s f o r a s e t t l e m e n t . H o w e v e r , the a t t e m p t to e f f e c t a l a n d i n g in L i t t l e B o d e g a B a y , which K u s k o v h a d m a r k e d f o r a landing, m i s c a r r i e d that y e a r . One of the v e s s e l s of the e x p e d i t i o n w a s w r e c k e d and n e a r l y the whole c r e w p e r i s h e d . A s t o the s e c o n d v e s s e l , the c r e w , a c c o r d i n g to T i k h m e n e v , who h a d at h i s d i s p o s a l c e r t a i n of the C o m p a n y ' s a r c h i v a l m a t e r i a l which w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y l o s t , w a s s o u n r e l i a b l e that K u s k o v c o u l d not p e r s u a d e h i m s e l f to l e a v e it in C a l i f o r n i a . " T h e l a c k of b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s a n d , a b o v e a l l , the a t t e m p t m a d e by m a n y of the R u s s i a n s and A l e u t s , who w e r e with h i m , to e x c a p e c o m p e l l e d h i m to p o s t p o n e the e x e c u t i o n of h i s d e s i g n to a m o r e p r o p i t i o u s t i m e , " r e p o r t s T i k h m e n e v . ^ K u s k o v ' s l a t e r a t t e m p t , in 1 8 1 0 , to win a b a s e in C a l i f o r nia ended j u s t a s u n s u c c e s s f u l l y . N e a r the C h a r l o t t e I s l a n d s the n a t i v e s f e l l upon K u s k o v ' s hunting p a r t y and f o r c e d the e x p e d i t i o n t o r e t u r n to N o v o a r k h a n g e l s k . Only in 1811 w a s K u s k o v s u c c e s s f u l in l o c a t i n g a s i t e f o r the f i r s t R u s s i a n s e t t l e m e n t in C a l i f o r n i a . It w a s d e c i d e d to e s t a b l i s h it on a s m a l l bay n a m e d after R u m y a n t s e v , fifteen Italian m i l e s f r o m B o d e g a B a y , at l a t i t u d e 3 8 ° N . and l o n g i t u d e 1 2 3 ° E . T h e f o l l o w i n g M a r c h , in 1 8 1 1 , e v e r y t h i n g n e c e s s a r y f o r the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the s e t t l e m e n t w a s put a s h o r e at the d e s i g nated spot. S u b s e q u e n t l y the m a n a g e m e n t of the C o m p a n y e x p r e s s e d i t s opinion o n c e and a g a i n that the s i t e f o r the R u s s i a n c o l o ny in C a l i f o r n i a h a d not b e e n w e l l c h o s e n . Its p r o x i m i t y t o S a n F r a n c i s c o , the s e a t of the S p a n i s h a u t h o r i t i e s , the c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t a n c e s e p a r a t i n g it f r o m R u m y a n t s e v B a y which h a d a s p l e n d i d h a r b o r while t h e r e w a s none in the o c c u p i e d s e c t i o n , and a n u m b e r of o t h e r d i s a d v a n t a g e s p r o v o k e d c o n t i n u a l r e p r o a c h e s on the p a r t of the C o m p a n y . T i k h m e n e v , h o w e v e r , j u s t l y o b s e r v e s that a l l t h e s e d i s a d v a n t a g e s b e c a m e m a n i f e s t only when the R u s s i a n s w e r e c o m p e l l e d t o l i m i t t h e i r s e t t l e m e n t t o the s e c t i o n they h a d o c c u p i e d in the v e r y b e g i n n i n g . I n d e e d , if one t a k e s into c o n s i d e r a t i o n the a s s u m p t i o n s of B a r a n o v and K u s k o v , who b e l i e v e d that the g i v e n s e t t l e m e n t w a s only the f i r s t s t e p in the c o n q u e s t of a l l of C a l i f o r n i a , one m u s t a d m i t that the c h o i c e of the s i t e p r e s e n t e d a n u m b e r of a d v a n t a g e s both a s a s p r i n g b o a r d f o r f u r t h e r o f f e n s i v e a c t i o n and f o r d e f e n s e . T h e s i t e t a k e n f o r the s e t t l e m e n t w a s a f l a t e l e v a t i o n , m o r e

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t h a n a s q u a r e m i l e in a r e a . On t h e s i d e of t h e s e a i t w a s p r o t e c t e d by a p r e c i p i c e n o l e s s t h a n s e v e n t y f e e t h i g h ; on t h e s i d e of t h e l a n d it w a s n o t v e r y o p e n t o a t t a c k , e i t h e r . T h e f o r t r e s s built on t h a t s p o t , b e t w e e n t w e l v e to f i f t e e n f e e t high, with t u r r e t s mounting twenty guns, was a r e l i a b l e d e f e n s e . " T h e p r e s e n s e of t h e s e g u n s " n o t e s t h e A m e r i c a n h i s t o r i a n B a n c r o f t , " w i t h t h e n a t u r a l s t r e n g t h of t h e s i t e a n d t h e s t r i c t s y s t e m of s e n t i n e l s a n d d r i l l n e v e r r e l a x e d , g a v e t o ' R o s s 1 ' " t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a m i l i t a r y f o r t r e s s r a t h e r t h a n a f u r - h u n t i n g and t r a d i n g p o s t . The f o r t r e s s was i m p r e g n a b l e to the abor i g i n e s and even to any f o r c e the Spanish Californians could have brought against i t . " T h e h a r b o r w a s o u i l t i n B o d e g a B a y . H a l f - w a y down t o t h e p o r t w e r e t h e q u a r t e r s of s o m e of t h e C o m p a n y ' s e m p l o y e e s . In a d d i t i o n , t h e R u s s i a n s o c c u p i e d a s m a l l i s l a n d in the F a r a l l o n e s g r o u p f i f t e e n m i l e s f r o m Cape D r a k e , w h e r e some seal-rookeries were located. Both the d e c i s i o n to d i s c a r d R e z a n o v ' s plan, which w a s a l o n g - r a n g e p l a n a n d p r e s u p p o s e d a n o f f e n s i v e on t h e C a l i f o r nian c o a s t only a f t e r C o l u m b i a had been m a d e a R u s s i a n p o s s e s s i o n , a n d t h e c h a n g e t o d i r e c t a c t i o n a f t e r a f o o t h o l d in C a l i f o r n i a h a d b e e n c o n s o l i d a t e d , w e r e c o n d i t i o n e d by c h a n g e s in t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n . T h e r e v o l u t i o n in Spain w a s the signal f o r the Spanish c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a to i n t e n s i f y t h e i r fight f o r i n d e p e n d e n c e and l i b e r a t i o n f r o m t h e u n r e s t r a i n e d e x p l o i t a t i o n by t h e i r m o t h e r c o u n t r y . A t t h a t v e r y p e r i o d , t h e e n d of t h e f i r s t d e c a d e of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a s a r e s u l t of E n g l a n d ' s s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t t h e c o n t i n e n t a l b l o c k a d e , t h e r e w a s a s l a c k e n i n g in t h e i n t e r e s t t h a t t h e B r i t i s h g o v e r n m e n t w a s t a k i n g in e v e n t s o c c u r r i n g on t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t . T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s of A m e r i c a t o o k a d v a n t a g e of t h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e t o i n t e n s i f y i t s e x p a n s i o n i s t a c t i v i t i e s in t h e P a c i f i c a r e a . W h i l e t h e f i r s t t w o f a c t o r s , t h e c i v i l w a r in t h e S p a n i s h c o l o n i e s a n d t h e s l a c k e n i n g of E n g l a n d ' s i n t e r e s t , t e n d e d t o c r e a t e a situation f a v o r a b l e to t e r r i t o r i a l conquests, the i n t e n s i f i e d a c t i v i t y of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n t h e r e g i o n s a d j o i n i n g the Spanish colonies, hastened p e r f o r c e R u s s i a ' s attempts t o s e c u r e t h e p o s s e s s i o n of C a l i f o r n i a . T h e o p p o s i t i o n of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s p l a y e d a d e c i s i v e r o l e i n t h e r e n u n c i a t i o n b y t s a r i s t R u s s i a of t h e c o n q u e s t of C o l u m b i a a n d in d i v e r t i n g R u s s i a n e x p a n s i o n i s t e f f o r t s t o w a r d s C a l i f o r n i a . W h e n in 1810 t h e C o m p a n y m a d e a n a t t e m p t t o

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c o n s o l i d a t e i t s h o l d i n g s i n C o l u m b i a , " t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s of N o r t h A m e r i c a s e n t , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , i t s o w n e x p e d i t i o n s b o t h by l a n d a n d by s e a t o t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d C o l u m b i a R i v e r , w i t h t h e f i r m i n t e n t i o n of s e t t l i n g a l o n g t h e r i v e r a n d f a r t h e r o n , on t h e c o a s t of New A l b i o n . " T h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e , a c c o r d i n g to the C o m p a n y , " w a s t h e r e a s o n w h y t h e g o v e r n o r of o u r c o l o n i e s , C o l l e g i a t e C o u n c i l l o r and Knight B a r a n o v d e c i d e d a l s o to s e n d an expedition to m a k e a s u r v e y of t h e c o a s t b e l o w C o l u m b i a , b e t w e e n t h e Gulf of T r i n i d a d a n d San F r a n c i s c o B a y , a n d t h u s s t e a l a m a r c h on t h e N o r t h Americans."12 W h i l e p r e p a r i n g t o s e i z e t h e S p a n i s h c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a , t h e m a n a g e m e n t of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y p r e s e n t e d a p e t i t i o n i n 1809 t o t h e M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s f o r g o v e r n m e n t a s s i s t a n e « i n e s t a b l i s h i n g s o m e c o l o n i e s in C a l i f o r n i a . T h e M i n i s t e r of F o r eign A f f a i r s r e p o r t e d , in t u r n , to A l e x a n d e r I that " t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d s o l i c i t s Y o u r M a j e s t y ' s p r o t e c t i o n in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e p r o j e c t e d c o l o n y of N e w A l b i o n , in t h e e v e n t t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n s t a t e s s h o u l d a t t e m p t s o m e t h i n g out of e n v y . " In v i e w of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e C o m p a n y did n o t h a v e s u f f i c i e n t m e a n s t o h o l d t h e t e r r i t o r y o n c e i t h a d g a i n e d p o s s e s s i o n of i t , t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d r e g a r d e d it n e c e s s a r y " t o r e q u e s t t h o s e m e a n s f r o m t h e T r e a s u r y . " A l e x a n d e h o w e v e r , " r e f u s i n g in t h i s i n s t a n c e , t o c r e a t e a c o l o n y on A l b i o n a t t h e e x p e n s e of t h e T r e a s u r y , " g r a n t e d t o t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d t h e r i g h t " t o e s t a b l i s h it f r e e l y in i t s own n a m e , w i t h t h e e n c o u r a g e m e n t , a t a n y r a t e , of H i s M a j e s t y ' s I m p e r i a l p r o t e c t i o n . " ^ A l e x a n d e r ' s r e f u s a l to lend d i r e c t g o v e r n m e n t a s s i s t a n c e to the C o m p a n y a n d h i s s i m u l t a n e o u s p r o m i s e of " I m p e r i a l " p r o t e c t i o n in t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s on t h e t e r r i t o r y of C a l i f o r n i a a r e e x p l a i n e d by t h e p o l i c y w h i c h t s a r i s t R u s s i a w a s p u r suing at t h a t t i m e with r e l a t i o n to S p a i n . T h a t policy w a s v e r y c l e a r l y f o r m u l a t e d in t h e d r a f t of t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s h a n d e d , in t h e n a m e of t h e T s a r , t o C o u n t P a h l e n w h o w a s s e n t t h a t y e a r , 1 8 0 9 , a s e n v o y t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . B o u n d t o F r a n c e by t h e P e a c e of T i l s i t , A l e x a n d e r was compelled to support the candidacy to the S p a n i s h t h r o n e of J o s e p h , t h e b r o t h e r of N a p o l e o n , a s a c o u n t e r b a l a n c e t o t h e c a n d i d a c y of F e r d i n a n d VII, w h o h a d E n g l a n d ' s s u p p o r t . A l e x a n d e r d i d n o t b e l i e v e , h o w e v e r , t h a t h i s r e c o g n i t i o n of N a p o l e o n ' s b r o t h e r a s k i n g of S p a i n n e c e s s a r i l y e n t a i l e d h i s s u p p o r t of t h e r e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e f o r m e r c o l o n i a l m i g h t of S p a i n . On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e d e s i r e t o o v e r t h r o w t h e p o w e r of S p a i n a n d t h e h o p e of n e w c o l o n i a l a c q u i s i t i o n s a s a r e s u l t of t h e p a r t i t i o n of S p a i n ' s c o l o n i a l h e r i t a g e , a r e m a n i f e s t e d i n e v e r y l i n e of t h e T s a r ' s i n s t r u c t i o n s to Count P a h l e n . " R e m e m b e r , " s a y s the text

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of the instructions, "that in o r d e r to r e s t o r e the peace of Europe I have r e c o g n i z e d as king Joseph, who is indeed the only king that may be found in Spain, but do not on that a c count see some special p r e d i l e c t i o n in my p o l i t i c a l relations with Spain. I am a l w a y s guided only by the i n t e r e s t s of my country, and I have not yet a r r i v e d at a decision as to whether o r not it w i l l be good f o r m y country if South A m e r i c a should share the fate of the throne of M a d r i d . "14 In another part of the instructions t h e r e is indeed talk of w r e s t i n g f r o m Spain not only her South A m e r i c a n colonies but a l l of her colonies in A m e r i c a . " I expect that if the w a r in Spain should continue, the vast and wealthy t e r r i t o r i e s she has under her control in A m e r i c a . . . w i l l f o r m one or m o r e independent s t a t e s . It is d i f f i c u l t p r e c i s e l y to take into a c count all the changes which such an event would produce in the political and c o m m e r c i a l relations of E u r o p e , but it is to be hoped that it w i l l l e a d to c o n s i d e r a b l e changes. You w i l l r e n d e r m e a s e r v i c e by finding out all about the intentions of the inhabitants of these v a r i o u s s t a t e s . " ^ Thus, the n e c e s s i t y , made o b l i g a t o r y by the p r o v i s i o n s of the alliance with F r a n c e , f o r r e c o g n i z i n g Joseph as king of Spain, and at the same t i m e , the hope f o r the c o l l a p s e of Spain's colonial e m p i r e p r o m p t e d A l e x a n d e r to pursue a dual p o l i c y with r e s p e c t to the s e i z u r e of C a l i f o r n i a . On the one hand, it was suggested that the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company should initiate operations on its own r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , and on the other hand " I m p e r i a l " p r o t e c t i o n had d e f i n i t e l y been p r o m i s e d to the Company. T h i s was a continuation of the p o l i c y of c a m o u f l a g e d expansionism which the g o v e r n m e n t had been pursuing consistently f r o m the v e r y beginning of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company. In the event the Spanish E m p i r e should come out s t r o n g e r , the t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t would be in a position to avoid f o r e i g n complications by a s cribing the occupation of C a l i f o r n i a to the Company's p r i v a t e i n i t i a t i v e ; in the event, h o w e v e r , that the colonies should be separated f r o m Spain, the t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t would obtain a base f o r f u r t h e r expansion on the A m e r i c a n continent. Some t i m e elapsed and the " f r i e n d s h i p " with F r a n c e was r e p l a c e d by " f r i e n d s h i p " with England. A t once A l e x a n d e r r e c o g n i z e d as l e g i t i m a t e king of Spain Ferdinand V I I , whom he had but r e c e n t l y i g n o r e d , and p r o m i s e d him e v e r y support. If t s a r i s t p o l i c y was d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s undermining the c o lonial might of Spain even when Joseph, the R u s s i a n - r e c o g -

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n i z e d p r e t e n d e r t o t h e S p a n i s h t h r o n e , w a s b a c k e d by t h e a r m e d m i g h t of N a p o l e o n , s o n o w , a f t e r r e c o g n i t i o n h a d been extended to the essentially impotent F e r d i n a n d , the R u s s i a n g o v e r n m e n t c o n s i d e r e d it p o s s i b l e a c t u a l l y t o s e t a b o u t t h e w r e s t i n g of t h e S p a n i s h c o l o n i e s . On J u l y 8 ( 2 0 ) , 1 8 1 2 , a t V e l i k y L u k y t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of R u s s i a a n d S p a i n s o l e m n l y s i g n e d a n a g r e e m e n t a c c o r d i n g to which "not only f r i e n d s h i p , but a l s o genuine a g r e e m e n t and an alliance" w e r e to be e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n A l e x a n d e r and F e r d i n a n d . B u t , no l a t e r t h a n A u g u s t 30 (Old S t y l e ) of t h e s a m e y e a r t h e r e t o o k p l a c e , on S p a n i s h t e r r i t o r y i n C a l i f o r n i a , a n d j u s t a s s o l e m n l y , t h e f o u n d i n g of a R u s s i a n c o l o n y , n a m e d "Ross." Inasmuch as the central Spanish government, preoccupied a s it w a s with e v e n t s in the h o m e l a n d , had not had an o p p o r t u n i t y a c t i v e l y t o r e a c t t o t h e e v e n t s t a k i n g p l a c e in t h e c o l o n i e s , t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y did not c o n s i d e r i t n e c e s s a r y t o p o s e t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e l e g a l f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e c o n q u e s t . In t h e d i p l o m a t i c e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n R u s s i a a n d S p a i n t h e r e w a s n o m e n t i o n a s y e t of a n y " C a l i f o r n i a n q u e s t i o n . " O f f i c i a l l y R u s s i a h a d not s e i z e d a n y t h i n g , a n d S p a i n h a d n o t l o s t a n y of h e r o v e r s e a s p o s s e s s i o n s . A s f o r t h e p r o t e s t s of t h e l o c a l S p a n i s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , t h e C o m p a n y t r i e d t o s a t i s f y t h e m a s b e s t it c o u l d . In O c t o b e r , 1 8 1 2 , t h e r e b e g a n a l e n g t h y e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n t h e g o v e r n o r of t h e c o l o n y of R o s s a n d t h e l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n on t h e one s i d e a n d t h e M e x i c a n v i c e r o y , t h e h i g h e s t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e S p a n i s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , on t h e other side. The viceroy demanded the i m m e d i a t e liquidation of t h e R u s s i a n s e t t l e m e n t . T h e g o v e r n o r of t h e c o l o n y a i m i n g a t d r a w i n g out t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s , p l e a d e d i g n o r a n c e of t h e Spanish l a n g u a g e which p u r p o r t e d l y m a d e it difficult f o r h i m t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e s u b s t a n c e of t h e v i c e r o y ' s d e m a n d s . In a f e w of t h e c a s e s t h a t a r o s e , t h e g o v e r n o r of R o s s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e v i c e r o y a d d r e s s h i m s e l f , f o r t h e p u r p o s e of n e g o t i a t i n g , t o S t . P e t e r s b u r g . He j u s t i f i e d h i s s t a n d by m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t h e w a s n o t c o g n i z a n t of t h e a i m s of t h e h i g h e r a u t h o r i t i e s by whose o r d e r s the s e t t l e m e n t had been e s t a b l i s h e d , and that h i s own r e s p o n s i b i l i t y " c o n s i s t e d in m a i n t a i n i n g [ R o s s ] a n d i n d e f e n d i n g h i m s e l f in t h e e v e n t of a t t a c k . The r e l a t i o n s with the local a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w e r e even m o r e a g g r a v a t e d when the "Suvorov" brought to California the s o c a l l e d p r o c l a m a t i o n of t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d of t h e R u s s i a n -

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A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . T h i s w a s t h e s e c o n d a p p e a l of t h e C o m p a n y a n d , l i k e t h e f i r s t o n e , w a s a d d r e s s e d not t o t h e l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n bat directly to'the noble and m o s t honorable S p a n i a r d s living in C a l i f o r n i a . " ^ T h e C o m p a n y c a l l e d u p o n t h e l o c a l S p a n i s h p o p u l a t i o n of C a l i f o r n i a to t r a d e with the R u s s i a n s , notwithstanding the d r a s t i c b a n on s u c h t r a d e by t h e c e n t r a l S p a n i s h g o v e r n m e n t . The Governing Board frankly hinted that, considering the h e l p l e s s n e s s of t h e S p a n i s h a u t h o r i t i e s , t h e r e w a s n o t h i n g t o f e a r f r o m a n y c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s on t h e i r p a r t . " W e h a d t h e h o n o r t o w r i t e t o you on M a r c h 15, 1 8 1 0 , " r e a d t h i s p r o c l a m a t i o n in r e f e r e n c e t o t h e f i r s t o n e , " a n d in t h e h o p e t h a t i n v i e w of c o n d i t i o n s t h e n p r e v a i l i n g i n E u r o p e a n d i n S p a i n i t s e l f , you w i l l n o l o n g e r e n c o u n t e r a n y d i f f i c u l t i e s i n m a i n taining t r a d e r e l a t i o n s with the R u s s i a n s , the m o r e so a s such relations are mutually b e n e f i c i a l . " ^ The relations with the local Spanish a d m i n i s t r a t i o n b e c a m e m o r e a n d m o r e u n f r i e n d l y . In 1815 t h e C o m p a n y ' s c o m m i s s i o n e r s w e r e d e t a i n e d in San F r a n c i s c o . A l e u t s , who w e r e e n g a g e d i n t h e h u n t i n g of f u r - b e a r i n g a n i m a l s in t h e p r o x i m i t y of S p a n i s h t e r r i t o r y , w e r e t a k e n c a p t i v e . T h e t r a d e r e l a t i o n s which w e r e just getting into working o r d e r w e r e definitively broken off. The Company continued, though, to send equipm e n t t o t h e c o l o n i e s . T h e y e a r 1814 s a w t h e c o m p l e t i o n of a tannery, a m i l i , workshops, store-rooms, a cattle-shed, dwellings, and so f o r t h . F i n a l l y , in 1 8 1 7 , t h e S p a n i s h g o v e r n m e n t e n t e r e d i t s f i r s t p r o t e s t . In a n o t e of A p r i l 27 ( M a y 5), 1 8 1 7 , t h e S p a n i s h F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r , de C e a B e r m ú d e z , d e m a n d e d in t h e n a m e of t h e K i n g t h a t t h e R u s s i a n s e t t l e m e n t i n C a l i f o r n i a b e liquidated. I n a s m u c h a s t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e s e i z u r e of C a l i f o r n i a by R u s s i a h a d not b e e n r a i s e d b y t h e S p a n i s h g o v e r n m e n t u n t i l t h e n , but c a m e up o n l y a s a r e s u l t of t h e r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of o t h e r p o w e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h E n g l a n d , t h e C o m p a n y p l e a d e d t h a t t h e t e r r i t o r y it h a d o c c u p i e d w a s n o t c o l o n i z e d . A l l u d i n g t o t h e c o m m o n p r a c t i c e of t h e E n g l i s h t h e m s e l v e s , the Board wrote that "the Company was availing i t s e l f of t h e s a m e n a t i o n a l l a w w h i c h a l l E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s h a v e b e e n u t i l i z i n g in c o l o n i z i n g t h e i r own p e o p l e i n t h e two I n d i e s . " 2 0 When t i m e c a m e to send a r e p l y to the Spanish g o v e r n m e n t , the C o m p a n y at f i r s t t r i e d to r e p r e s e n t the c a s e in s u c h a way

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as to i m p l y that everything stated in the Spanish note was not in a c c o r d with the f a c t s , and that t h e r e w e r e in r e a l i t y no Russian f o r t i f i c a t i o n s in C a l i f o r n i a . The Company assured the Spanish government that "the settlement which the Spaniards call ' a f o r t r e s s ' " was f e n c e d in with a wooden paling only " f o r protection against unexpected attacks by the Indians, without which it would have been i m p o s s i b l e to sleep in p e a c e . . . . S i m i l a r l y the cannon mounted t h e r e w e r e set up to keep the r e s p e c t of the natives . " 21 Sensing, h o w e v e r , how unconvincing such p r e t e x t s w e r e , the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company t r i e d to maintain that the t e r r i t o r y occupied by R o s s had not belonged to anyone except the Indians. The l a t t e r ceded it to the Russians of their own f r e e w i l l , f e a r i n g that it might be s e i z e d by other Indian t r i b e s who w e r e hostile to the l o c a l population, or by the hateful Spaniards. A s f o r the j u r i d i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n of the " c e s s i o n " of the R o s s t e r r i t o r y by the Indians, the Company, f o r e s e e i n g that it would inevitably need l e g a l sanction, took the n e c e s s a r y steps· to s e cure it even b e f o r e it had r e c e i v e d the p r o t e s t of the Spanish g o v e r n m e n t . In 1817, H a g e m e i s t e r drew up a paper which was signed by the Indian c h i e f s Chu-gu-an, A m a t - t i n , H e m - l e - l e , and o t h e r s , stating that " t h e y a r e v e r y much p l e a s e d with tht occupation of the place by the Russians, that they can now l i v e in s e c u r i t y f r o m the other Indians who used to attack t h e m , that this state of security came only with the establishment of the s e t t l e m e n t . " In the same paper it w a s , as though a c c i d e n t a l l y , a s s e r t e d again that the t e r r i t o r y in question had belonged to the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d Indians and was voluntarily ceded by them to the R u s s i a n s . " L i e u t e n a n t - C a p t a i n H a g e m e i s t e r , " the document r e a d , " p r e s e n t e d them [ i . e . , the Indian chief s . - A u . ] with an e x p r e s s i o n of gratitude in the name of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company f o r the c e s s i o n of land to the Company f o r a f o r t r e s s , buildings, and institutions on sites belonging to C h u - g u - a n . " The " a g r e e m e n t " concluded with the Indians was the only document which established the Company's rights to the R o s s t e r r i t o r y , but there was no special reason to depend much on this " a g r e e m e n t . " The rights of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m pany to the e x c l u s i v e p o s s e s s i o n of the R o s s t e r r i t o r y w e r e , as the Russian envoy to the United States, P o l e t i k a , c o r r e c t l y indicated in a l e t t e r to the M i n i s t e r of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , " f a r f r o m being evident. . . . It is enough to look at the map to see that the colony in question was wedged into the Spanish p o s s e s ions in C a l i f o r n i a and the neighboring t e r r i t o r y . One rather

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old S p a n i s h c o l o n y i s s i t u a t e d t h i r t y m i l e s south of R o s s . T h e c i t y of M o n t e r e y , the p r i n c i p a l town in New C a l i f o r n i a , i s only a d i s t a n c e of I o l a t i t u d e f r o m R o s s . " ^ ^ In P o l e t i k a ' s o p i n i o n , t h e C o m p a n y , in b a s i n g i t s r i g h t s t o t h e t e r r i t o r y on t h e a b s e n c e of S p a n i s h s e t t l e m e n t s in t h e g i v e n r e g i o n i t s e l f , l o s t s i g h t of t h e f a c t t h a t " i t i s p r o v i d i n g t h e E n g l i s h and t h e A m e r i c a n s with a r m s a g a i n s t i t s e l f ; f o r t h e y m i g h t , on t h e i r p a r t , c a l l i t s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e f a c t t h a t a l o n g the f u l l e x t e n t of t h e n o r t h e a s t c o a s t of A m e r i c a , b e ginning with the 57th p a r a l l e l , t o w h i c h t h e C o m p a n y i s l a y i n g e x c l u s i v e c l a i m , i t h a s only one s i n g l e c o l o n y , N o v o a r k h a n g e l s k . 2 4 A n d , a c c o r d i n g to P o l e t i k a , t h e A m e r i c a n s had a l r e a d y had r e c o u r s e t o t h i s a r g u m e n t in t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s about t h e a f f a i r s of t h e C o m p a n y . F o r j u s t at t h a t t i m e t h e United S t a t e s b e g a n t o a c t i v i z e i t s c o l o n i a l p o l i c y and a l s o c a m e out with c l a i m s t o the S p a n i s h p o s s e s s i o n s . F l o r i d a had a c t u a l l y b e c o m e a p a r t of t h e United S t a t e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e p a c t s i g n e d in F e b r u a r y 1 8 1 9 , b e t w e e n Spain and t h e United S t a t e s r e c o g n i z e d t h e 4 2 n d p a r a l l e l of n o r t h l a t i t u d e a s t h e b o u n d a r y of t h e S p a n i s h p o s s e s s i o n s . T h u s the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in C a l i f o r n i a c a m e t o be t h r e a t e n e d f r o m the n o r t h by the United S t a t e s . In t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , t h e l e g a l f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e C a l i f o r n i a colony b e c a m e a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m for the t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t . It w a s a q u e s t i o n , in s u b s t a n c e , of p l a c i n g a foundation under a l l f u r t h e r e x p a n s i o n on t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t . A f t e r i t had r e c e i v e d , in 1 8 1 7 , S p a i n ' s note of p r o t e s t a g a i n s t t h e s e i z u r e of h e r c o l o n i e s , t h e R u s s i a n M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s d e c i d e d t o e x a m i n e t h e c o n d i t i o n s on w h i c h it would be p o s s i b l e to r e a c h an a g r e e m e n t with t h e S p a n i s h g o v e r n m e n t . T h e e x a m i n a t i o n w a s m a d e c a u t i o u s l y and without undue h a s t e . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g of 1 8 2 0 a plan w a s e v e n a d v a n c e d f o r t h e l i q u i d a t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n y in C a l i f o r n i a . W h i l e it r a i s e d no o b j e c t i o n s t o t h e p l a n , t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company demanded suitable compensation. The Spanish gove r n m e n t w a s s u p p o s e d t o g r a n t t h e C o m p a n y t h e r i g h t of f r e e t r a d e with C a l i f o r n i a . " U n d e r t h i s a r r a n g e m e n t , " w r o t e t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d to t h e M i n i s t e r of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s N e s s e l r o d e , " t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y would be g l a d t o l i q u i d a t e t h a t c o l o n y , w h i c h h a s g i v e n r i s e to envy o r f e a r on t h e p a r t of t h e S p a n i a r d s , and would n e v e r a g a i n c o n t e m p l a t e s e a r c h i n g f o r a n o t h e r p l a c e on t h e A l b i o n s h o r e s , i f it c o u l d m a k e good t h e l o s s of t h a t c o l o n y by p e r m a n e n t t r a d e with

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N e w C a l i f o r n i a , i n t o w h i c h t h e e n t r y of f o r e i g n e r s i s f o r b i d d e n by c o l o n i a l l a w a n d , e s p e c i a l l y , i n o r d e r not t o r e v e a l t h e a m a z i n g c a r e l e s s n e s s a n d w e a k n e s s of t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . " ^ ^ T h i s w a s a c l e v e r l y c a l c u l a t e d m o v e on t h e p a r t of t h e C o m p a n y . By a n n o u n c i n g i t s a s s e n t t o t h e l i q u i d a t i o n of R o s s , the m a n a g e m e n t intended to p l a c e the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r r e t a i n i n g t h e c o l o n y s q u a r e l y upon t h e g o v e r n m e n t , s o a s t o b e a b l e , i n c a s e of n e c e s s i t y , t o d e m a n d i t s a c t i v e a s s i s t a n c e and s u p p o r t . T h e Company w a s v e r y well a w a r e that the plan p r o p o u n d e d b y t h e M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s w a s n o t h i n g but a d i p l o m a t i c s u b t e r f u g e . T h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t did n o t e v e n t h i n k of d i v e s t i n g i t s e l f of i t s c o l o n i e s in C a l i f o r n i a , f o r t h e R u s s i a n E m p e r o r A l e x a n d e r w a s still a l l - p o w e r f u l in the Holy Alliance and his a s s i s t a n c e and cooperation w e r e e a g e r l y s o u g h t a f t e r by t h e C o u r t a t M a d r i d . I n d e e d , it w a s w i t h t h e a i d of t h e s h i p s p u r c h a s e d f r o m R u s s i a t h a t F e r d i n a n d w a s p l a n n i n g " a g a i n t o b e s t o w t h o s e b e n e f i t s upon E u r o p e of w h i c h it h a s l o n g b e e n d e p r i v e d b e c a u s e of t h e d i s t u r b a n c e s i n t h e N e w W o r l d , " t h a t i s , t o s u p p r e s s t h e r e v o l u t i o n in t h e A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s . T o be s u r e , t h e " p o w e r f u l " s q u a d r o n p u r c h a s e d f r o m R u s s i a , c o n s i s t i n g of f i v e s h i p s of t h e l i n e a r m e d w i t h 74 c a n n o n e a c h a n d t h r e e f r i g a t e s a r m e d w i t h 4 4 c a n n o n e a c h , a n d i n t e n d e d t o r e v i v e t h e g l o r y of S p a i n of t h e t i m e of t h e i n v i n c i b l e A r m a d a , p r o v e d to be only j u n k . Still, R u s s i a w a s t h e o n l y p o w e r h o l d i n g out a n y h o p e t o S p a i n i n h e r s t r u g g l e with the rebelling A m e r i c a n colonies that w e r e , f u r t h e r m o r e , b e i n g s u p p o r t e d by E n g l a n d . Not without r e a s o n did t h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t p r o l o n g the n e g o t i a t i o n s a b o u t C a l i f o r n i a . At l a s t t h e l o n g - a w a i t e d m o m e n t h a d a r r i v e d w h e n t h e r e c o u l d no l o n g e r b e a n y q u e s t i o n of n o t c o m p l y i n g w i t h t h e d e m a n d s of t h e g o v e r n m e n t . Tatishchev, t h e R u s s i a n A m b a s s a d o r in M a d r i d , h a v i n g l e a r n e d of t h e C o m p a n y ' s d e s i r e t o r e l i n q u i s h i t s c o l o n y i n C a l i f o r n i a in e x c h a n g e f o r t h e r i g h t of f r e e t r a d e w i t h t h e S p a n i s h c o l o n i e s , h a s t e n e d to a s s u r e N e s s e l r o d e t h a t one thing did not n e c e s s a r i l y p r e c l u d e t h e o t h e r . On F e b r u a r y 4 (16), 1 8 2 0 , h e w r o t e t o t h e Minister as follows: "It will be m o r e e x p e d i e n t to begin by c o n s i d e r i n g the q u e s t i o n of e s t a b l i s h i n g t r a d e r e l a t i o n s , i n o r d e r t o r e n d e r s e c u r e , b y t h a t v e r y m e a n s , t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of t e r r i t o r y w h i c h i s h e r e t a k i n g p l a c e . T h e r i g h t of p o s s e s s i o n w i l l in t h i s way be given l e g a l s a n c t i o n . "26

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W h i l e h e b e g a n h i s n e g o t i a t i o n s by a s k i n g t h a t t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n Company be allowed to t r a d e with the C a l i f o r n i a c o l o n i e s , T a t i s h c h e v p r o p o s e d l a t e r to obtain s a n c t i o n f o r r e t a i n i n g R o s s , if o n l y in t h e f o r m of a t r a d i n g - p o s t o r a s t o r a g e place. S p a n i s h a s s e n t t o t h e c e s s i o n of c o l o n i e s i n C a l i f o r n i a t o R u s s i a w a s , i n d e e d , a t t h a t t i m e , o n l y of f o r m a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , s i n c e the A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s no l o n g e r r e c o g n i z e d the r u l e of t h e i r m o t h e r c o u n t r y . H o w e v e r , a r m e d e v e n w i t h s u c h a s a n c t i o n , it w o u l d s u b s e q u e n t l y b e p o s s i b l e f o r R u s s i a t o a r g u e h e r r i g h t t o t h a t t e r r i t o r y . At a n y r a t e , t h e a s s e n t of t h e K i n g of S p a i n , w h o w a s a b o u t t o l o s e h i s p o s s e s s i o n s , w a s s t i l l q u o t e d at a h i g h e r f i g u r e in i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e g a l u s a g e t h a n t h e c e s s i o n of t h e s a m e t e r r i t o r y b y t w o I n d i a n c h i e f s w h o h a d n e v e r owned i t . P o l e t i k a , the R u s s i a n A m b a s s a d o r to the United S t a t e s , pointed out v e r y s e n s i b l y to N e s s e l r o d e that s a m e y e a r that " S p a i n , which is holding M e x i c o only by m o r a l bonds t h a t a r e a p t t o s n a p , if t h e y h a v e n o t a l r e a d y i r r e v o c a b l y d o n e s o , w i l l n o t w a i t t o b e e n t r e a t e d b e f o r e y i e l d i n g t o us t h e s i t e o c c u p i e d b y t h e c o l o n y of R o s s . H a v i n g t h u s s e c u r e d t h e a s s e n t of t h e g o v e r n m e n t , it w i l l b e p o s s i b l e f o r u s t o a t t e m p t t o s e c u r e t h e s a m e f r o m t h e a c t u a l g o v e r n m e n t e x i s t i n g in M e x i c o , a s s o o n a s t h e I m p e r i a l g o v e r n m e n t h a s a r r i v e d a t a f i n a l d e c i s i o n in this m a t t e r . "27 It w a s i m p o s s i b l e , h o w e v e r , t o b r i n g t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h the Spanish g o v e r n m e n t to a s u c c e s s f u l c o n c l u s i o n ; in the s a m e y e a r of 1820 a r e v o l u t i o n f l a r e d up a g a i n i n S p a i n . A f t e r t h e R e s t o r a t i o n , t h e h o p e s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y r e v i v e d o n c e a g a i n . A p a r t of t h e m e m b e r s of t h e CounciJ. w e r e n o l o n g e r s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e m e r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n f o r R u s s i a of t h e t e r r i t o r y u n d e r a c t u a l o c c u p a t i o n in C a l i f o r n i a . T h e y i n s i s t e d on t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r o b t a i n i n g t h e s a n c t i o n of t h e Spanish g o v e r n m e n t to expand the R u s s i a n t e r r i t o r y so a s to i n c l u d e a l s o t h e p o r t of S a n F r a n c i s c o . A n o t h e r , m o r e c a u t i o u s p a r t of t h e C o u n c i l , w h i l e n o t d e n y i n g t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r p o s s e s s i n g San F r a n c i s c o , c o n s i d e r e d i t p e r i l o u s , t h o u g h , a n d p r e m a t u r e t o a t t e m p t t o o b t a i n a n y k i n d of s a n c t i o n s f r o m S p a i n . S u c h a p o l i c y , i n t h e o p i n i o n of t h e s e m e m b e r s of t h e C o u n c i l , c o u l d o n l y a r o u s e t h e a n i m o s i t y of t h e M e x i c a n g o v e r n m e n t w h i c h w a s t h e a c t u a l m a s t e r in C a l i f o r n i a . T h e f i r s t g r o u p w a s l e d by t h e f a m o u s n a v i g a t o r I . F . K r u s e n s t e r n , t h e s e c o n d , by t h e n o l e s s f a m o u s n a v i g a t o r

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V . M . G o l o v n i n . In a m e m o r a n d u m p r e s e n t e d t o t h e M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , K r u s e n s t e r n m a i n t a i n e d t h a t S p a i n " i n t h e c o n d i t i o n in w h i c h s h e f i n d s h e r s e l f " w o u l d c e d e t o R u s s i a b o t h t h e t e r r i t o r y of R o s s a n d t h e p o r t of San F r a n c i s c o . " K e e p i n g t h e p o r t of R o s s i n t h e p o s s e s s i o n of t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y does not involve any c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f i c u l t i e s , and is p o s s i b l e beyond a doubt; but the p l a c e the p o s s e s s i o n of w h i c h w o u l d b e i n c o m p a r a b l y m o r e b e n e f i c i a l t o R u s s i a i s t h e p o r t of San F r a n c i s c o i t s e l f , w h i c h t o d a y u n q u e s t i o n a b l y s t i l l b e l o n g s t o S p a i n . T h e r e , r i g h t now a n d b e fore conditions have changed, the Spanish government has the full right to cede that port to R u s s i a . " ^ ® As a reason for such a cession K r u s e n s t e r n r e g a r d e d the c i r c u m s t a n c e that the Spanish government was under obligation t o p a y a c o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t of m o n e y f o r t h e n a v a l s q u a d r o n i t h a d p u r c h a s e d f r o m R u s s i a . K r u s e n s t e r n d i d not d e n y t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a p r o t e s t on t h e p a r t of t h e g o v e r n m e n t of M e x i c o . B u t , i n h i s o p i n i o n , it w a s p r o p e r l y t o b e e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e m o m e n t t h e q u e s t i o n a r o s e of t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of M e x i c o ' s i n d e p e n d e n c e by t h e E u r o p e a n p o w e r s , t h a t c o u n t r y w o u l d a g r e e t o s a n c t i o n t h e c e s s i o n of t e r r i t o r y in C a l i f o r n i a . G o l o v n i n , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , b e l i e v e d t h a t " i t m a y b e s a i d w i t h c e r t a i n t y t h a t t h e c e s s i o n m a d e by t h e K i n g of S p a i n w i l l n o t b e r e c o g n i z e d by t h e r e p u b l i c a n s , a n d e v e n t h o u g h we. s h o u l d g a i n p o s s e s s i o n of t h e l a n d , i t w o u l d s t i l l b e p e r i l o u s t o i n v e s t a n y c a p i t a l in t h e i m p r o v e m e n t of R o s s , f o r t h e r e p u b l i c a n s , h a v i n g l e a r n e d of t h e c e s s i o n , w i l l no d o u b t d e s i r e t o a s s e r t t h e i r r i g h t s f o r r e a s o n s of t h e i r o w n . T h e y w i l l t h e n b r e a k off a l l r e l a t i o n s w i t h u s , w i l l i n s i s t on t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of o u r e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , a n d w i l l p e r h a p s e v e n employ f o r c e . " Golovnin s u g g e s t e d that contacts be e s t a b l i s h e d in a d v a n c e w i t h l o c a l C a l i f o r n i a a u t h o r i t i e s a n d " t h a t t h e i r a t t i t u d e b o t h t o w a r d s o u r c o l o n y of R o s s a n d t h e f u t u r e c e s s i o n of S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y b e t h o r o u g h l y s c r u t i n i z e d . " ^ Alexander I himself understood, however, that Ferdinand's c e s s i o n of c o l o n i e s in C a l i f o r n i a t o R u s s i a w o u l d h a v e p r a c t i c a l l y t h e s a m e e f f e c t a s h i s c e s s i o n of a n y o t h e r t e r r i t o r y n o t b e l o n g i n g t o h i m . In O c t o b e r , 1 8 2 4 , t h e M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e , K a n k r i n , a t t h e i n s t a n c e of t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company, m a d e a p r o p o s a l to the M i n i s t e r of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , N e s s e l r o d e , t h a t t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e S p a n i s h g o v e r n m e n t on t h e s u b j e c t of R o s s be r e s u m e d . N e s s e l r o d e r e p l i e d that a f t e r the "old o r d e r " had been r e e s t a b -

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l i s h e d in S p a i n , h e r e p o r t e d a b o u t t h e m a t t e r t o t h e T s a r , a n d t h a t " H i s M a j e s t y s a w f i t t o r e g a r d a s n o t h i n g but u s e l e s s t h e r e s u m p t i o n of t h e d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h t h e S p a n i s h g o v e r n m e n t , i n a s m u c h a s it is not within i t s p o w e r in the p r e s e n t c o n f u s e d s i t u a t i o n in i t s A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s , t o e x t e n d i t s authority over those c o l o n i e s . " As for the revolutionary g o v e r n m e n t of M e x i c o , w r o t e N e s s e l r o d e , " w e s h a l l n o t e n t e r i n t o a n y r e l a t i o n s w i t h i t a n d we c a n n o t , c o n s e q u e n t l y , a p p r o a c h it on m a t t e r s r e l a t i n g to o u r r i g h t s o v e r the colony of R o s s a n d t h e l a n d i t o c c u p i e s . " 3 0 In t h e m e a n t i m e t h e s i t u a t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n y i n C a l i f o r n i a b e c a m e m o r e a n d m o r e d i f f i c u l t . T h e c l a i m s of t h e United States to Spain's "colonial h e r i t a g e " g r e w s t r o n g e r f r o m year to y e a r . A m e r i c a n t r a d e r - p i o n e e r s w e r e rushing t o C a l i f o r n i a in e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r s . T h e a c t i v i t i e s of the A m e r i c a n t r a d e r s tended to b r e a k even the s l e n d e r c o m m e r c i a l ties between the local Spanish people and the R u s s i a n c o l o n y w h i c h h a d b e e n s u p p l y i n g t h e m w i t h m a n y of t h e t h i n g s they n e e d e d . M o r e o v e r , the A m e r i c a n t r a d e r s , who, not i n f r e q u e n t l y , w e r e t h e a g e n t s of t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t , s t i r r e d up t h e l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n a g a i n s t t h e R u s s i a n s i n e v e r y w a y p o s s i b l e . T h e y m a d e s k i l l f u l u s e of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t , on t h e o t h e r c o n t i n e n t , w a s s u p p o r t i n g S p a n i s h a b s o l u t i s m w h i c h w a s s o h a t e f u l t o t h e p e o p l e of C a l i f o r n i a . Y e t , i n s p i t e of t h e e v e r - i n t e n s i f i e d c l a i m s of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s to the Spanish c o l o n i e s , M o n r o e ' s m e s s a g e to C o n g r e s s which was subsequently to e x e r t such t r e m e n d o u s influence on t h e w h o l e p r o c e s s of E u r o p e a n c o l o n i z a t i o n on t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t , a n d w h i c h e v e n i n 1824 c o m p e l l e d R u s s i a t o m a k e a n u m b e r of c o n c e s s i o n s i n c o n c l u d i n g t h e R u s s o - A m e r i c a n c o n v e n t i o n , w a s a s y e t of n o e f f e c t i n t h e c o l o n i e s . S i n c e the conditions set f o r t h in M o n r o e ' s m e s s a g e to C o n g r e s s w e r e n o t s u p p o r t e d i n t h e c o l o n i e s by b a y o n e t s , t h e y w e r e r e g a r d e d a s nothing but a d o c t r i n e ; the r e a l d a n g e r to the R u s s i a n s in C a l i f o r n i a l a y w i t h t h e o p p o s i t i o n on t h e p a r t of the Mexican g o v e r n m e n t . As e a r l y a s 1822, when Iturbide w a s p r o c l a i m e d E m p e r o r of M e x i c o , t h e r e a p p e a r e d i n h i s n a m e i n t h e c o l o n y of R o s s Don A g u s t í n F e r n á n d e z d e V i n c e n t a n d d e m a n d e d of t h e g o v e r n o r of t h e c o l o n y d o c u m e n t s p r o v i n g t h e r i g h t of t h e R u s s i a n s t o t h e t e r r i t o r y o c c u p i e d b y t h e m in C a l i f o r n i a . N o t o b t a i n i n g t h e r e q u i r e d p r o o f , f o r of c o u r s e t h e r e w a s n o n e , t h e M e x i c a n e n v o y d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e t e r r i t o r y in q u e s t i o n b e l o n g e d t o M e x i c o

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and t h a t t h e R u s s i a n s s h o u l d e v a c u a t e i t . A t a c o n f e r e n c e with K h l e b n i k o v , t h e a g e n t of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y in M o n t e r e y , F e r n a n d e z de V i n c e n t d e c l a r e d a g a i n t h a t " t h e g o v e r n m e n t of t h e E m p i r e of M e x i c o d e m a n d s m o s t i n s i s t e n t l y t h a t t h e c o l o n y of R o s s be r e m o v e d within s i x m o n t h s , o t h e r wise M e x i c o will take forceful m e a s u r e s . "31 T h e c o n t i n u o u s t h r e a t s of t h e M e x i c a n g o v e r n m e n t , t o g e t h e r with t h e s t e a d y and p e r s i s t e n t A m e r i c a n p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o C a l i f o r n i a , p o s e d e v e n m o r e s h a r p l y t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e c l a r i f i c a t i o n of t h e j u r i d i c a l s t a t u s of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n y . In 1 8 2 4 , t h e r e f o r e , t h e l o c a l c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t i e s , h a v i n g l o s t a l l hope of s e e i n g t h e q u e s t i o n s e t t l e d t h r o u g h P e t e r s b u r g , d e t e r m i n e d to take s o m e d e c i s i v e steps t h e m s e l v e s , which they b e l i e v e d would l e a d t o t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n of R u s s i a n r u l e in C a l i f o r n i a . T h e i n i t i a t o r of t h e new plan f o r c o n s o l i d a t i o n and f u r t h e r e x p a n s i o n of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in C a l i f o r n i a w a s t h e D e c e m b r i s t D . I . Z a v a l i s h i n , who a r r i v e d in t h e c o l o n y of R o s s at that t i m e . Although the l i t e r a r y h e r i t a g e l e f t by Z a v a l i s h i n i s q u a n t i t a t i v e l y m u c h m o r e e x t e n s i v e than t h a t l e f t by t h e o t h e r D e c e m b r i s t s , i n v e s t i g a t o r s have l a r g e l y ignored everything coming f r o m h i s p e n . T h e r e s u l t of h i s w e l l - d e s e r v e d f a m e a s a p e t t y i n t r i g u e r and l i a r , w h o s e w r i t i n g s a r e full of i n c e s s a n t b o a s t i n g , h a s b e e n t h a t up t o the p r e s e n t t i m e no one h a s m a d e a study of t h e v a l u a b l e m a t e r i a l c o m p r i s e d i n h i s m a n u s c r i p t s . T h e p a p e r s p r e s e r v e d in t h e a r c h i v e s of t h e C o m m i s s i o n of I n q u i r y , w h i c h r e v e a l t h e r o l e he p l a y e d in t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , a r e of the greatest interest. At t h e b e g i n n i n g of 1 8 2 4 Z a v a l i s h i n a r r i v e d in t h e c o l o n y of R o s s on t h e f r i g a t e " K r e i s e r " w h i c h w a s m a k i n g a r o u n d t h e - w o r l d t r i p . H e r e he w a s a b l e t o s e e f o r h i m s e l f the t r e m e n d o u s p o s s i b i l i t i e s t h a t w e r e i n h e r e n t in t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of the r e g i o n , a s w e l l a s t h e i n s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d until t h e n by the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . T h e c o l o n y of R o s s r e p r e s e n t e d at t h a t t i m e a s m a l l wooden f o r t r e s s , t h a t m o u n t e d s e v e n t e e n s m a l l - c a l i b e r g u n s . In a d d i t i o n to t h e A l e u t s , who w e r e e n g a g e d in the hunting of f u r - a n i m a l s , t h e r e w e r e s o m e fifty R u s s i a n s in t h e s e t t l e m e n t . T h i s s u p p o s e d g r a n a r y of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s , f o r i t had b e e n i n t e n d e d t o supply with g r a i n not only t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a but K a m c h a t k a a s w e l l , s o w e d a t o t a l of only 2 0 0 poods of w h e a t and 4 0 poods of b a r l e y . It w a s i m -

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p o s s i b l e f o r the colony to conduct any trade of c o n s i d e r a b l e dimensions with the l o c a l population, because of the drastic ban on such t r a d e by the C a l i f o r n i a a u t h o r i t i e s . Hunting also f a r e d badly. By the 1820's the animals yielding the highp r i c e d f u r s had all but been e x t e r m i n a t e d in the r e g i o n of the c o l o n y . T o be s u r e , s e a - o t t e r s could still be had in San F r a n c i s c o B a y , but the Russians w e r e unable to hunt t h e r e because of the opposition of the Spaniards. The colony brought nothing but l o s s e s to the Company. In addition, R o s s was in constant danger of being wiped out either by the Spaniards or by the native'population. It b e c a m e apparent that to retain the c o l o ny of R o s s under such conditions was v e r y d i f f i c u l t , and it was only the hope that the Revolution in Spain and the agitation enveloping M e x i c o would turn R o s s into an outpost f o r f u r t h e r Russian expansion in C a l i f o r n i a , that kept the Company f r o m liquidating i t . I m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r the Spanish colonies had p r o c l a i m e d t h e i r independence in 1818, the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company made an attempt to extend its p o s s e s s i o n s in C a l i f o r n i a . T h i s attempt, h o w e v e r , met with such violent opposition on the part of the l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s , that any further p r o g r e s s became absolutely unthinkable. In o r d e r to preclude the p o s s i b i l i t y of f u r t h e r t e r r i t o r i a l s e i z u r e s by the R u s s i a n s , the l o c a l aut h o r i t i e s decided to surround R o s s with a chain of Spanish s e t t l e m e n t s . In 1819 was founded the rancho of San P a b l o , in 1822 w e r e established the ranchos of Solano, Sonoma and o t h e r s . T h e Spaniards, h o w e v e r , had neither the means nor the men to e n c i r c l e the Russian settlements c o m p l e t e l y . T h i s , in the 1820's, w a s , in g e n e r a l t e r m s the unenviable situation of the colony of R o s s , whose strength r e s t e d only on the w e a k ness of the Spanish a u t h o r i t i e s . Z a v a l i s h i n w r i t e s that soon a f t e r his a r r i v a l to that colony he became cognizant of: " 1 ) the unsuitability of the p l a c e , 2) the weakness of the colony, and 3) our indecision which encouraged the c l a i m s of the Spaniards and stimulated such actions on the part of the C a l i f o r n i a authorities as they would o t h e r w i s e not even dare c o n s i d e r . " Summing up, he a r r i v e s at the conclusion that "the p o s s i b i l i t y of developing the c o l o ny of ' R o s s ' depended mainly upon taking p o s s e s s i o n of a m o r e suitable place than the one s e i z e d o r i g i n a l l y . "32 Z a v a l i s h i n r e a l i z e d f u l l w e l l the e x t r e m e l y important s t r a t e g i c situation of C a l i f o r n i a . L a t e r on, while giving an account of his a c t i v i t i e s in C a l i f o r n i a , he e x p r e s s e d this thought in a l e t t e r to N i c h o l a s I, dated January 24, 1826:

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" C a l i f o r n i a , if c e d e d t o R u s s i a a n d c o l o n i z e d by R u s s i a n s , would f o r e v e r r e m a i n under R u s s i a n r u l e . T h e a c q u i s i t i o n of i t s h a r b o r s and t h e low c o s t of m a i n t e n a n c e would a l l o w us t o k e e p t h e r e an o b s e r v a t i o n f l e e t w h i c h would give t o R u s s i a m a s t e r y o v e r t h e P a c i f i c and c o n t r o l o v e r t h e t r a d e with C h i n a , c o n s o l i d a t e o u r p o s s e s s i o n of t h e o t h e r c o l o n i e s , and s e r v e t o r e s t r a i n t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and England. " 3 3 What Z a v a l i s h i n h a d in m i n d w a s t h e f u r t h e r e x p a n s i o n of t h e t e r r i t o r y of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n y in C a l i f o r n i a . In t h e n o r t h e r n d i r e c t i o n t h e c o l o n y w a s t o be e x t e n d e d a s f a r a s t h e b o u n d a r y of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , in t h e e a s t e r n t o t h e S a c r a m e n t o R i v e r o r t h e S i e r r a N e v a d a , and in t h e s o u t h e r n to S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y . T h e s e boundaries had been p r o j e c t e d even b e f o r e Z a v a l i s h i n ; t h e y w e r e the v e r y s a m e f r o n t i e r s t o w h i c h t h e C o m pany w a s a s p i r i n g a l l a l o n g . T h e n o v e l t y of t h e Z a v a l i s h i n p l a n c o n s i s t e d in t h a t t h e a c t i o n it p r o p o s e d w a s t o b e c a r r i e d out by o t h e r m e t h o d s . B e f o r e we e x a m i n e t h i s p l a n , l e t us dwell a w h i l e on t h e p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n t h a t had d e v e l o p e d in C a l i f o r n i a . T h e M e x i c a n E m p i r e , c r e a t e d in 1 8 2 2 , w a s t o r n by c i v i l w a r . General I t u r b i d e (Don A g u s t í n I) w a s o v e r t h r o w n . C a l i f o r n i a w a s no l o n g e r s u b j e c t t o M e x i c o , but h a d not p r o c l a i m e d i t s i n d e p e n d e n c e o f f i c i a l l y . T w o p a r t i e s w e r e f i g h t i n g it out in C a l i f o r n i a , t h e M e x i c a n and t h e S p a n i s h , c a l l e d a l s o t h e R o y a l i s t p a r t y . T h e d o m i n a t i n g p o s i t i o n in t h e M e x i c a n p a r t y w a s h e l d by t h e t o p - r a n k i n g m i l i t a r y and c i v i l o f f i c i a l s , in t h e S p a n i s h p a r t y by t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s . T h e b a c k b o n e of t h e M e x i c a n p a r t y w a s t h e u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n , of t h e S p a n i s h p a r t y t h e m i s s i o n s . T h e M e x i c a n p a r t y was somewhat s t r o n g e r than the Spanish, s i n c e , a f t e r a l l , it drew its support f r o m the a r m e d f o r c e s , s m a l l a s t h e y w e r e , t h a t w e r e to be found in C a l i f o r n i a , w h i l e the m i s s i o n a r i e s derived t h e i r sole strength f r o m the baptized I n d i a n s on w h o m one c o u l d not s e r i o u s l y d e p e n d . We m i g h t add, that the t e r m " a r m e d f o r c e s " a s applied to the M e x i c a n p a r t y i s to be understood v e r y r e l a t i v e l y , s i n c e the s o l d i e r s h a d not b e e n p a i d f o r a l o n g t i m e and h a d n e i t h e r r i f l e s n o r g u n p o w d e r . T h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e m i l i t a r y s u p p l i e s in C a l i f o r n i a m a y be i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e i n c i d e n t t h a t t o o k p l a c e during t h e a r r i v a l i n C a l i f o r n i a of t h e R u s s i a n f r i g a t e " K r e i s e r . " On e n t e r i n g San F r a n c i s c o H a r b o r t h e " K r e i s e r " f i r e d a s e v e n -

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gun s a l u t e . The c u s t o m a r y reply f a i l e d to m a t e r i a l i z e . An o f f i c e r was sent a s h o r e to find out the r e a s o n f o r such a show of d i s r e s p e c t to the R u s s i a n f l a g . He was i n f o r m e d by the c o m m a n d e r of the port that he would gladly have o r d e r e d a r e t u r n s a l u t e , if the " K r e i s e r " had sent h i m seven c h a r g e s , s i n c e he had none h i m s e l f . It was during that p e r i o d , in 1 8 2 4 , that Zavalishin c a m e to C a l i f o r n i a with the a m b i t i o u s design of annexing it to the R u s s i a n e m p i r e . " T h e t r u e situation in which I found the p r o v i n c e , " he subsequently r e p o r t e d to the C o m m i s s i o n of Inquiry, "would , of c o u r s e , have been f a v o r a b l e , if the annexation was to be a c c o m p l i s h e d by the f o r c e of a r m s . But s i n c e the policy of the p o w e r s , e s p e c i a l l y that of England, would not have allowed us to go to that e x t e n t , the only method to which no one could have r a i s e d an o b j e c t i o n and, at the s a m e t i m e , the m o s t t r u s t w o r t h y , would have been the volunt a r y s u b m i s s i o n of C a l i f o r n i a to R u s s i a n r u l e . All my e f f o r t s w e r e indeed bent in that d i r e c t i o n . " 3 4 " C a l i f o r n i a would have had to d e c l a r e h e r s e l f independent of M e x i c o , " continues Z a v a l i s h i n , " u n d e r the p r e t e x t that no government had a s yet been e s t a b l i s h e d t h e r e a n d - - i n o r d e r to m o l l i f y the M e x i c a n p a r t y - - t h a t t h i s independence would l a s t only until such t i m e a s a g o v e r n m e n t had been e s t a b l i s h e d . Then would c o m e the f r e e d o m f o r f o r e i g n e r s to s e t t l e in C a l i f o r n i a , whereby it was intended to bring in the R u s s i a n s , s i n c e it i s much e a s i e r f o r t h e m to c o m e t h e r e , and so f o r t h . " 3 5 Z a v a l i s h i n ' s attempts to e s t a b l i s h c o n t a c t s with the M e x i can party did not l e a d a n y w h e r e . He then began to o r i e n t hims e l f on the Spanish p a r t y . He made the acquaintance of the m i s s i o n a r i e s , e s t a b l i s h i n g c o n t a c t s , f i r s t of a l l , with J o s é A l t i m i r a , head of the M i s s i o n of S t . F r a n c i s , an intelligent man and, what was even m o r e i m p o r t a n t , an a m b i t i o u s m a n . Z a v a l i s h i n used all m e a n s at his d i s p o s a l to win the monks o v e r to the R u s s i a n s i d e - - " s o m e through f a n a t i c i s m , o t h e r s through cupidity, o t h e r s s t i l l through hate for the republican g o v e r n m e n t , and the r e s t by i n s p i r i n g t h e m with m i s g i v i n g s with r e g a r d to E n g l a n d . " 3 6 It was at t h i s point that Z a v a l i s h i n ' s s e c r e t d e s i r e to c r e ate the " O r d e r of R e s t o r a t i o n " - - a d e s i r e that had o c c u r r e d to h i m b e f o r e - - w a s to be r e a l i z e d . It would be the function of the O r d e r to p r o m o t e the annexation of C a l i f o r n i a to the Russian Empire.

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A d j u t a n t - G e n e r a l L e v a s h e v i n h i s s u m m a r y of t h e Z a v a l i s h i n c a s e n o t e s that " C a l i f o r n i a , being in the s i t u a t i o n in w h i c h it f i n d s i t s e l f , [he i s r e f e r r i n g t o t h e s t a t e of a n a r c h y r e i g n i n g t h e r e . - A u . ] c o u l d e a s i l y h a v e b e c o m e t h e s c e n e of operations for a man endowed with intelligence and the s p i r i t of e n t e r p r i s e . Z a v a l i s h i n h a d b o t h . In t h e v e r y O r d e r of R e s t o r a t i o n he saw the way to a c c o m p l i s h i n g t h i s e n d . "37 In Z a v a l i s h i n 1 s n o t e - b o o k t h e r e h a s b e e n p r e s e r v e d a n e n t r y w h i c h h e e n t i t l e d " S k e t c h on t h e c o l o n i z i n g , o r g a n i z i n g , a n d c o n s o l i d a t i n g of t h e l a n d a p p u r t e n a n t t o t h e M i l i t a r y O r d e r of R e s t o r a t i o n " t h a t g i v e s a c l e a r e x p o s i t i o n of t h e p u r p o s e s of t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . He c o n s i d e r e d it n e c e s s a r y " t o f o r t i f y t h e n o r t h b a n k of t h e s o u n d in t h e p o r t of San F r a n c i s c o , k e e p i n g i n m i n d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a l a n d i n g t h e r e . E n c l o s e t h e w o o d s by a w a l l with c o n c e a l e d b a t t e r i e s . F i n d r o c k s in the sound and build l i g h t h o u s e s on b o t h s h o r e s , c o n s t r u c t a h a r b o r f o r r o w i n g v e s s e l s ; e s t a b l i s h t e l e g r a p h a n d m a i l s e r v i c e , d a m up t h e c a n a l s with w a t e r , and build m i l l s and t e s t the soil f r o m the b o t t o m of t h e s e a f o r p o s s i b l e u s e ; e r e c t w a l l s a r o u n d t h e low p l a c e s , dig c a n a l s , a n d b u i l d l o c k s f o r t h e l o a d i n g of s h i p s . R a i s e a f o r t r e s s in B o d e g a a n d s e t up a s h i p y a r d t h e r e . I n s p e c t t h e p o r t of T r i n i d a d a n d i n t r e n c h o u r s e l v e s there."38 In h i s n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e S p a n i s h p a r t y , Z a v a l i s h i n r e p r e s e n t e d the O r d e r , whose object was "the throne and a c r u s a d e of e x t e r m i n a t i o n a g a i n s t t h e M a s o n s " (the m o n k s applied the t e r m " M a s o n s " to all r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s ) as a l r e a d y organized,under the Russian E m p e r o r himself, whose stand a t t h e C o n g r e s s of V e r o n a w a s w e l l k n o w n t o t h e m o n k s . Z a v a l i s h i n e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e s e s u p p o r t e r s of t h e r e s t o r a t i o n of t h e S p a n i s h m o n a r c h y w o u l d b e d u l y i m p r e s s e d by h i s p o r t r a y a l of t h e O r d e r . In h i s v e r y f i r s t c o n v e r s a t i o n , t h e n , w i t h A l t i m i r a , Z a v a l i s h i n s t r o v e t o g i v e a p i c t u r e of t h e a c t i v i t y of t h e m y t h i c a l o r d e r that would be in p e r f e c t c o n s o n a n c e with the i n c l i n a t i o n s a n d p u r p o s e s of t h e S p a n i s h m i s s i o n a r i e s i n C a l i f o r n i a . " C o m bining political r e a s o n s with r e l i g i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , " he s a y s in h i s d e p o s i t i o n , " I b e g a n t o t e l l h i m of t h e O r d e r I f o u n d e d , of t h e s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n i t s a i m s a n d t h e p u r p o s e s f o r w h i c h t h e y h a d b e e n c o m i n g t o C a l i f o r n i a , of t h e f u t u r e p o w e r of t h e O r d e r w h e n it h a d o b t a i n e d t h e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e s o v e r e i g n s , a n d , f i n a l l y , of t h e a s s i s t a n c e w h i c h t h e O r d e r

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i t s e l f would r e n d e r t h e m in t h e i r a f f a i r s . He l i s t e n e d a t t e n t i v e l y to e v e r y t h i n g and at a l m o s t e v e r y w o r d I s a i d he e x c l a i m e d ' O x a l a f u e s e a s î ^ w o u l d it w e r e s o . ) ' " ^ 9 E x p e r i e n c e d p o l i t i c i a n that he w a s , A l t i m i r a r e a l i z e d f r o m Z a v a l i s h i n ' s v e r y f i r s t w o r d s j u s t what b e n e f i t he m i g h t d e r i v e f r o m t r y i n g to win a d h e r e n t s t o R u s s i a ' s c a u s e on t h e b a s i s of m e r e r u m o r s of a s u p p o r t i n g s e c r e t i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . Knowing f u l l w e l l that the " O r d e r of the R e s t o r a t i o n " e x i s t e d only in Z a v a l i s h i n ' s i m a g i n a t i o n , A l t m i r a h a s t e n e d to " r e c o g n i z e " i t . " A l t i m i r a knew e v e r y t h i n g c o n c e r n i n g the O r d e r , " w r i t e s Z a v a l i s h i n , " t h a t i s , he knew that it w a s s t i l l in the p r o c e s s of b e i n g e s t a b l i s h e d . " 4 0 A f t e r h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n with A l t i m i r a , Z a v a l i s h i n f e l t that he w a s on s o l i d g r o u n d . F r o m then on he b e g a n to c a l l h i m s e l f G r a n d M a s t e r of the " O r d e r of the R e s t o r a t i o n . " Z a v a l i s h i n e n d e a v o r e d t o w i n o v e r to h i s s i d e the p r e s i d e n t of C a l i f o r n i a , who w a s , n a t u r a l l y , e x p e c t e d to p l a y a d e c i s i v e p a r t in the a d o p t i o n of the c o n s t i t u t i o n p r o c l a i m i n g the s e p a r a t i o n of C a l i f o r n i a f r o m M e x i c o . A l l h i s a t t e m p t s , h o w e v e r , t o i n f l u e n c e P r e s i d e n t Don A r g u e l l o , a f o r m e r a d h e r e n t of the M e x i c a n p a r t y , c a m e to n a u g h t . T h e n he d e c i d e d t o u t i l i z e the n e x t s e s s i o n of the c o n s u l t a t i v e j u n t a to r e p l a c e the p r e s i d e n t . Don N o r i e g a , a n a d h e r e n t of the S p a n i s h p a r t y , w a s n o m i n a t e d f o r the o f f i c e . Z a v a l i s h i n s u c c e e d e d , with the a i d of A l t i m i r a , to win o v e r to h i s s i d e t h r e e of the f o u r m e m b e r s of the j u n t a . T h e s e l e c t i o n of N o r i e g a a n d the p r o c l a m a t i o n of the i n d e p e n d e n c e of C a l i f o r n i a s e e m e d to be a m a t t e r of the very near future. Z a v a l i s h i n ' s s u d d e n r e c a l l to R u s s i a , h o w e v e r , by o r d e r of A l e x a n d e r I d e p r i v e d h i m of the o p p o r t u n i t y to continue h i s w o r k f o r the f u l f i l l m e n t of the a b o v e p l a n . But e v e n a f t e r h i s d e p a r t u r e , Z a v a l i s h i n , in l e t t e r s a d d r e s s e d t o the j u n t a a n d t o A l t i m i r a h i m s e l f , e n d e a v o r e d , by a r g u m e n t s a b o u t the m i g h t of the O r d e r , t o i n d u c e the S p a n i s h p a r t y to t a k e d e c i s i v e a c t i o n . In the l e t t e r of " G r a n d M a s t e r " Z a v a l i s h i n to " G r a n d R e s t o r e r " A l t i m i r a , the v a g u e p h r a s e s a b o u t the O r d e r a r e a c c o m p a n i e d by s o m e v e r y p r a c t i c a l p r o p o s a l s : " T h e d e s i g n a t e d v e s s e l w i l l b r i n g g u n p o w d e r f o r y o u r own u s e a n d f o r s a l e , c a n n o n , r i f l e s and o t h e r a m m u n i t i o n . " 4 1 V e r y s o o n , h o w e v e r , it b e c a m e a p p a r e n t that the S p a n i s h p a r t y , if it s h o u l d a d h e r e to i t s p r o - R u s s i a n o r i e n t a t i o n , would h a v e to f i g h t not only the M e x i c a n p a r t y but a l s o E n g l a n d and the United S t a t e s . N e i t h e r E n g l a n d nor the United S t a t e s c o u l d ,

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of c o u r s e , allow R u s s i a to i n t r e n c h h e r s e l f in a r e g i o n which would s e c u r e f o r i t s p o s s e s s o r the hegemony over the whole of the n o r t h e r n P a c i f i c . The subtly c o n c e i v e d plan of Z a v a l i s h i n was a total f a i l u r e . M o r e than twenty y e a r s had p a s s e d s i n c e the c e r e m o n i o u s founding of the R o s s colony, and the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m pany had not even s u c c e e d e d in obtaining f o r m a l recognition of i t s r i g h t s to the t e r r i t o r y occupied by the R u s s i a n s e t t l e m e n t . T h e colony was v i s i t e d by f o r e i g n v e s s e l s ; it c a r r i e d on t r a d e o p e r a t i o n s , with the Company footing the c o n s i d e r able bill for maintaining i t , but de j u r e the colony had no e x i s t e n c e . Nor did R o s s b e c o m e a b a s e for f u r t h e r advances into the i n t e r i o r . T h e future of the R u s s i a n colony in C a l i f o r nia did not p r e s a g e any f a v o r a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t s . On the c o n t r a r y , y e a r by y e a r a s the power of the United S t a t e s grew s t r o n g e r and a s the influence of R u s s i a on the A m e r i c a n c o n tinent grew w e a k e r , the situation of R o s s b e c a m e m o r e and m o r e difficult. T h e r e s u l t s w e r e deplorable in e v e r y r e s p e c t . R o s s had not b e c o m e the " g r a n a r y " of the A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s , s i n c e n e i t h e r the s i z e of the t e r r i t o r y belonging to R u s s i a n o r i t s g e o g r a p h i c situation was such a s to admit of a broadly d e v e l oped a g r i c u l t u r e . In the b e s t of y e a r s , a c c o r d i n g to the t e s t i m o n y of the m a n a g e r of the colony, Khlebnikov, " a s t r e t c h of land totaling 88 d e s s i a t i n e s or 2 1 1 , 6 0 0 s q u a r e s a g e n e s " ^ ^ was sown in the colony of R o s s . T h e p r o x i m i t y of the colony to the s e a had a negative i n f l u e n c e on the s o w i n g - s e e d . The g r a m i n e o u s p l a n t s , a c c o r d ing to the r e p o r t s of the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the colony, w e r e c o v e r e d with blight, a s a r e s u l t of the e x c e s s i v e d a m p n e s s of the c l i m a t e , and t h i s a l s o had a bad e f f e c t on the c r o p . L e t us utilize the detailed r e p o r t of the g o v e r n o r of the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a , B a r o n W r a n g e l l , who v i s i t e d the colony of R o s s in the middle of 1 8 3 3 , to obtain a p i c t u r e of the e c o n o m i c conditions of the colony twenty y e a r s a f t e r i t s founding, during the p e r i o d when the Company made a l a s t e f f o r t to pull the colony out of the i m p a s s e in which it found itself. T h e f o r t r e s s i t s e l f s t i l l c o n s i s t e d of a quadrangle, s u r rounded on all s i d e s by a wooden paling. E a c h c o r n e r of the f o r t r e s s had a wooden t u r r e t which mounted a cannon. T h i s f o r t r e s s , a c c o r d i n g to the governor of the c o l o n i e s , s t i l l " a p p e a r s quite s t r o n g , and p e r h a p s even invincible in the

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e y e s of t h e I n d i a n s a n d t h e l o c a l S p a n i a r d s . " 4 5 T h e g o v e r nor a d d s , though, that " a l m o s t all the buildings and the paling itself with t h e s e n t r y - b o x e s a r e so old a n d d e c r e p i t " that they s h o u l d be e i t h e r r e p a i r e d o r r e p l a c e d by n e w o n e s . T h e a d u l t p o p u l a t i o n of R o s s n u m b e r e d 1 9 9 , i n c l u d i n g 128 m a l e s . T h e r e w e r e 41 R u s s i a n s , 4 2 A l e u t s , t h e r e s t c o n s i s t i n g of C r e o l e s a n d I n d i a n s . By t h e 1 8 3 0 ' s a g r i c u l t u r e h a d shown c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o g r e s s o v e r the m i d d l e 1 8 2 0 ' s . Still t h e r e w a s j u s t e n o u g h p r o d u c e t o f e e d o n l y t h e p o p u l a t i o n of R o s s . B e t w e e n 1826 a n d 1833 i n c l u s i v e , t h a t i s d u r i n g a n e i g h t - y e a r p e r i o d , a t o t a l of a b o u t 6 , 0 0 0 p o o d s of w h e a t a n d b a r l e y w a s s e n t f r o m Sitka t o R o s s , a v e r a g i n g no m o r e t h a n 750 p o o d s a n n u a l l y . B e s i d e s t h e d e a r t h of f e r t i l e s o i l , a n o t h e r factor contributed to aggravating the situation--the unusually e x t e n s i v e m e t h o d s of c u l t i v a t i o n . T h e l a n d w a s n o t f e r t i l i z e d , a n d s i n c e t h e r e w a s not e n o u g h l a n d s u i t a b l e f o r s o w i n g , n o n e of i t w a s a l l o w e d t o l i e f a l l o w . A s a r e s u l t , t h e m o s t f e r t i l e s e c t i o n s w e r e v e r y r a p i d l y e x h a u s t e d . F o r l a c k of m a n p o w e r , t h r e s h i n g w a s done with h o r s e s that w e r e let out into a s o called " c i r c u s " with the floor c o v e r e d with s h e a v e s . F o r t y h o r s e s w i t h e i g h t d r i v e r s t h r e s h e d out a b o u t 900 s h e a v e s in t w e n t y - f o u r h o u r s , but t h e l o s s of g r a i n b y t h i s m e t h o d w a s very considerable. A n o t h e r b r a n c h of f a r m i n g , c a t t l e - b r e e d i n g , w h i c h , a c cording to the original plan was to supply all the R u s s i a n colo n i e s in A m e r i c a with s a l t m e a t and d a i r y p r o d u c t s , f a i l e d to a c h i e v e t h e e x p e c t e d r e s u l t s . U n d e r a r a t i o n a l s y s t e m of e c o n o m y , n o l e s s t h a n f i f t e e n h u n d r e d h e a d of h o r n e d cattle w e r e r e q u i r e d to supply Sitka with the n e c e s s a r y a m o u n t of s a l t m e a t (400 p o u n d s a n n u a l l y ) . In R o s s , h o w e v e r , t h e r e w e r e o n l y 700 h e a d . It w a s i m p o s s i b l e t o i n c r e a s e t h i s n u m b e r b e c a u s e of t h e a b s e n c e of p a s t u r e l a n d . B e t w e e n July and N o v e m b e r , when the g r a s s b u r n e d up, the R u s s i a n c o l o n i s t s found it n e c e s s a r y to let out t h e i r c a t t l e beyond the c o n f i n e s of t h e c o l o n i e s . T h e h u n t i n g of f u r - b e a r i n g a n i m a l s h a d , b y t h i s t i m e , a l m o s t c o m e t o a c o m p l e t e s t a n d s t i l l i n C a l i f o r n i a . In t h e a r e a s o c c u p i e d by t h e R u s s i a n s t h e a n i m a l s h a d b e e n e x t e r m i n a t e d , and in the S p a n i s h a r e a s , hunting w a s f o r b i d d e n by t h e l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s . In 1826 t h e A l e u t s h a d p r o c e s s e d 287 s e a - o t t e r s and 455 f u r - s e a l s in C a l i f o r n i a , while s e v e n y e a r s l a t e r , in 1 8 3 2 , t h e y p r o c e s s e d o n l y o n e s i n g l e s e a - o t t e r a n d 188 f u r - s e a l s .

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At f i r s t t h e c o l o n i e s d e r i v e d a c e r t a i n i n c o m e f r o m t h e o r d e r s of t h e C a l i f o r n i a S p a n i a r d s f o r w h e e l s , b a r g e s , and d i s h e s . T h e s e o r d e r s w e r e good f o r an a n n u a l i n c o m e of s o m e 6 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s . B u t , along t o w a r d s t h e 1 8 3 0 ' s t h e r e w a s h a r d l y any i n c o m e f r o m t h a t s o u r c e . T h e g o v e r n o r of t h e colonies wrote as follows: " S u c h t r a n s a c t i o n s a r e now r a r e and u n i m p o r t a n t , b e c a u s e t h e f o r e i g n e r s , who h a v e c a p t u r e d t h e C a l i f o r n i a t r a d e , h a v e b r o u g h t in a l l kinds of t h i n g s t h a t t h e p e o p l e n e e d and h a v e b e e n supplying t h e m at s u c h low p r i c e s t h a t we s i m p l y c a n n o t c o m p e t e with t h e m . D u r i n g t h e whole e x i s t e n c e of the c o l o n y in C a l i f o r n i a no way w a s e v e r found of s o l v i n g t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r o b l e m of manpower. The required workers were recruited either f r o m a m o n g t h e l a b o r e r s who w e r e b r o u g h t under c o n t r a c t f r o m the m a i n l a n d , o r f r o m a m o n g the l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n of I n d i a n s . T h e R u s s i a n l a b o r e r s , bound by c o n t r a c t to a s t a t e of s e r v i t u d e and h a v i n g l o s t a l l hope of e v e r r e t u r n i n g to t h e i r n a t i v e c o u n t r y , u t i l i z e d the p r o x i m i t y of f o r e i g n t e r r i t o r y t o d e s e r t s y s t e m a t i c a l l y f r o m R o s s . A s e a r l y a s 1817, L i e u t e n a n t - C a p t a i n H a g e m e i s t e r , in t h e c o u r s e of the r o u n d t h e - w o r l d v o y a g e of t h e f r i g a t e s " K u t u z o v " and " S u v o r o v , " c a r r i e d on a l e n g t h y e x c h a n g e with t h e S p a n i s h a u t h o r i t i e s about t h e handing o v e r t o h i m of a n u m b e r of d e s e r t e r s f r o m R o s s , among whom were also some C r e o l e s . The Spanish a u t h o r i t i e s a g r e e d to e x t r a d i t e only t h o s e f u g i t i v e s who w e r e found in San F r a n c i s c o . T h e g o v e r n o r g a v e a v a r i e t y of e x c u s e s f o r h i s r e f u s a l t o hand o v e r a l l t h e o t h e r d e s e r t e r s . He a d d u c e d , f o r e x a m p l e , h i s i n a b i l i t y t o d e l i v e r t h e m t o San F r a n c i s c o in the n e a r e s t f u t u r e , and e v e n t h e n e c e s s i t y of u t i l i z i n g t h e s e d e s e r t e r s in c o n s o l i d a t i n g the f r i e n d s h i p with t h e R u s s i a n s , s i n c e , with t h e i r k n o w l e d g e both of S p a n i s h and R u s s i a n , t h e y could s e r v e a s i n t e r p r e t e r s . In t h i s c o n n e c t i o n H a g e m e i s t e r w r o t e to t h e g o v e r n o r : " I t s e e m s to m e p e r f e c t l y i m p o s s i b l e t h a t you s h o u l d not r e t u r n a l l of t h e m without e x c e p t i o n , t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n both the f r i e n d s h i p b e t w e e n o u r two s o v e r e i g n s and the f a c t t h a t R u s s i a i s p e r h a p s the only e m p i r e t h a t , unlike o t h e r n a t i o n s , i s l e n d i n g no a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e American insurgents . "47

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T h e S p a n i s h a u t h o r i t i e s b l o c k e d t h e r e t u r n of t h e f u g i t i v e s t o R o s s m a i n l y b e c a u s e t h e S p a n i s h c o l o n i e s w e r e in g r e a t n e e d of m a n p o w e r t h e m s e l v e s . Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s t h e r e w a s no s e n s e in c o n c e n t r a t i n g a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r of R u s s i a n l a b o r e r s in R o s s . T h e o t h e r s o u r c e of m a n p o w e r , t h a t of t h e I n d i a n s , w a s a l s o u n r e l i a b l e . S i n c e t h e C o m p a n y p a i d t h e I n d i a n s v e r y low w a g e s f o r t h e i r l a b o r , t h e y w e r e q u i c k t o stop h i r i n g t h e m s e l v e s out f o r w o r k in R o s s . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , e v e n with t h e s m a l l c r o p s , no f e w e r t h a n 1 5 0 p e o p l e w e r e n e e d e d t o g a t h e r in t h e h a r v e s t . T h u s , a c c o r d i n g t o i n f o r m a t i o n of t h e y e a r 1 8 3 3 , d u r i n g t h e s u m m e r s e a s o n 2 1 0 p e o p l e in a l l w e r e e m p l o y e d at d i f f e r e n t t a s k s . Of t h e s e 4 9 w e r e R u s s i a n o r C r e o l e (the A l e u t s w e r e e n g a g e d in t h e hunting of f u r - b e a r i n g a n i m a l s ) and 161 w e r e I n d i a n . T h e R u s s i a n s nd C r e o l e s w e r e m a i n l y e m p l o y e d a s s e n t r i e s and m e c h a n i c s , w h i l e t h e I n d i a n s w e r e d i r e c t l y e m p l o y e d a s w o r k e r s on t h e l a n d . In what m a n n e r , t h e n , did t h e C o m p a n y m a n a g e t o g a t h e r s u c h a n u m b e r of I n d i a n s ? B a r o n W r a n g e l l , G o v e r n o r of t h e C o l o n i e s , r e p o r t s on t h i s a s f o l l o w s : " W h e n the c r o p i s b e i n g h a r v e s t e d and t h e I n d i a n s g a t h e r in the c o l o n i e s f r o m t h e n e a r e s t t u n d r a s , e i t h e r b e c a u s e t h e y a r e p r o p e r l y p a i d o r b e c a u s e t h e y n e e d t h e w o r k , and when t h e r e a r e few v o l u n t e e r s , t h e n a s m a n y I n d i a n s a s c a n b e a s s e m b l e d - - s o m e t i m e s as many as 150—are driven together by f o r c e and a r e put to h a r d w o r k in t h e f i e l d s f o r a p e r i o d of about a m o n t h and a h a l f . " T h e I n d i a n s w e r e h a n d e d out " o n l y f l o u r f o r thin g r u e l . " A s a r e s u l t of t h i s s c a n t y food and t h e h a r d l a b o r , n o t e s t h e G o v e r n o r of t h e c o l o n y , " t h e I n d i a n s r e a c h in t h e end a s t a t e of c o m p l e t e e x h a u s t i o n . " 4 8 T h e l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w a s p e r f e c t l y a w a r e of t h e r e s u l t s t o w h i c h s u c h m e t h o d s of e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e I n d i a n s m i g h t l e a d . T h e G o v e r n o r of t h e c o l o n y p o i n t e d out t o t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d " t h a t not only h u m a n i t y but good s e n s e i t s e l f d e m a n d s t h a t the I n d i a n s be t r e a t e d m o r e k i n d l y . A s a r e s u l t of t h e bad food and t h e p o o r p a y , t h e I n d i a n s h a v e s t o p p e d c o m i n g to t h e c o l o n y t o w o r k of t h e i r own a c c o r d , w h e r e f o r e t h e o f f i c e found i t s e l f c o m p e l l e d t o s e a r c h t h e m out in t h e t u n d r a s , f a l l upon t h e m u n e x p e c t e d l y , t i e t h e i r h a n d s and d r i v e t h e m l i k e c a t t l e i n t o t h e c o l o n y t o w o r k . S u c h a group of 75 m e n , w o m e n , and c h i l d r e n , w a s b r o u g h t in t o one of t h e c o l o n i e s in m y p r e s e n c e about 65 v e r s t s ^ 9 f r o m h e r e . T h e r e they w e r e told to l e a v e t h e i r t h i n g s , with-

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oat anyone w a t c h i n g t h e m , f o r about two m o n t h s . We n e e d not dwell on what t h e l o n g - r a n g e c o n s e q u e n c e s of s u c h c o n duct t o w a r d t h e I n d i a n s a r e bound t o b e ; we a r e c e r t a i n l y not m a k i n g any f r i e n d s a m o n g t h e m . " ^ ® T h e r e w e r e solid grounds for the apprehension e x p r e s s e d by G o v e r n o r W r a n g e l l . T h e r e w e r e r e p e a t e d Indian u p r i s i n g s in t h e v i c i n i t y of R o s s , in w h i c h f u g i t i v e R u s s i a n f u r - h u n t e r s a l s o p a r t i c i p a t e d . T h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n p r e f e r r e d not to p u b l i c i z e s u c h i n c i d e n t s , o r a c t i v i t i e s of any kind t h a t w e r e d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e C o m p a n y a s a r e s u l t of i t s u n r e s t r a i n e d e x p l o i t a t i o n ; i t did not e v e n r e p o r t t h e m t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t . H o w e v e r , s o m e i n f o r m a t i o n m a y be g l e a n e d f r o m t h e p a p e r s of t h e C o m p a n y . F o r i n s t a n c e , in t h e a b s t r a c t m a d e of t h e c o l o n i a l d i s p a t c h e s f o r 1 8 2 5 by M a n a g e r R y l e y e v we find t h e following r e p o r t : " D u r i n g t h e p a s t y e a r t h e I n d i a n s r o s e in t h e v i c i n i t y of R o s s , in s e v e r a l of t h e S p a n i s h m i s s i o n s . T h e M i s s i o n of S t . I n e z w a s l a i d l e v e l with t h e g r o u n d . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e g o v e r n o r of C a l i f o r n i a , t h e r e b e l l i n g I n d i a n s w e r e l e d by the f u r - h u n t e r P r o k h o r Y e g o r o v who had f l e d f r o m R o s s . B u t the r e b e l l i o n w a s b r o u g h t t o an end t h r o u g h the e f f o r t s of the g o v e r n m e n t and t h e c l e r g y . On t h i s o c c a s i o n t h e a u t h o r i t i e s of o u r c o l o n i e s had an o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e n d e r an i m p o r t a n t s e r v i c e t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t of C a l i f o r n i a by supplying it with a c o n s i d e r a b l e q u a n t i t y of p o w d e r and r i f l e s . T h i s s e n s i b l e s t e p t a k e n by M . M u r a v y o v ^ l c o n t r i b u t e d to s t r e n g t h e n o u r bonds of f r i e n d s h i p with C a l i f o r n i a , and t h e h o s t i l e a c t i o n s of P r o k h o r Y e g o r o v ( f i n a l l y k i l l e d by t h e I n d i a n s t h e m s e l v e s ) c o m p e l l e d the l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s t o s t o p p r o t e c t i n g our f u g i t i v e s , but to hand t h e m o v e r t o u s - - w h i c h t h e y h a v e a l r e a d y begun t o d o . On the w h o l e , the c o l o n y of R o s s d u r i n g t h e 1 8 3 0 ' s m e a n t an annual l o s s t o the C o m p a n y of s o m e 1 0 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s . In t h e y e a r 1 8 3 2 , t h e m o s t f r u i t f u l of t h e p a s t few y e a r s , the l o s s was 7 , 5 9 9 r u b l e s . " I t m a y positively be s t a t e d , " wrote G o v e r n o r B a r o n W r a n g e l l , " t h a t the Company will always i n c u r l o s s e s , e v e n in t h e m o s t bountiful of y e a r s , in t r y i n g to m a i n t a i n t h e R u s s i a n s e c t o r , if t h e c o l o n y s t a y s on t h e s i t e it now o c c u p i e s , a s i t e t h a t d o e s not a d m i t of any c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p r o v e m e n t s in t h e f i e l d of a g r i c u l t u r e . " ^ W r a n g e l l s h a r p l y p o s e d t h e q u e s t i o n of o c c u p y i n g t h e p l a i n s

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of the Slavyanka R i v e r , between Rumyantsev Bay and the c o l ony of R o s s , so as to liquidate the existing settlement and t r a n s f e r it in toto to a new s i t e . T h e main obstacle to such a change of location w a s , as it had been e a r l i e r when s i m i l a r plans came up, the f e a r that " s u c h an undertaking would a rouse the envy of the f o r e i g n e r s l i v i n g in C a l i f o r n i a who would shrewdly set the g o v e r n m e n t of M e x i c o against us; it might a l s o expose us to our own g o v e r n m e n t ' s d i s p l e a s u r e with the w i l f u l occupation on our part of p l a c e s that a r e so distant f r o m the established boundaries of the Russian p o s s e s s i o n s in A m e r i c a . If the c o r e of Z a v a l i s h i n ' s plans was to attain the independence of C a l i f o r n i a by separating it f r o m M e x i c o - - w h i c h would, naturally, place weak C a l i f o r n i a in a position of total dependence on R u s s i a - - t h e n W r a n g e l l ' s plan was based on an a g r e e m e n t between Russia and M e x i c o , which would i n v o l v e keeping C a l i f o r n i a dependent on M e x i c o . T h e M e x i c a n government w a s , at that t i m e , i n t e r e s t e d in obtaining de j u r e r e c o g n i t i o n by R u s s i a . Such r e c o g n i t i o n would, in the f i r s t p l a c e , have strengthened the g o v e r n m e n t ' s internal position and, in the second p l a c e , would have g i v e n s o m e assurance against the p o s s i b i l i t y of intervention by England and the United States. It was on this p o s s i b i l i t y that W r a n g e l l was counting when he included in his plan the recognition of the M e x i c a n g o v e r n m e n t , in return f o r t e r r i t o r i a l c o n c e s s i o n s to Russia in C a l i f o r n i a . " T h e y w i l l understand f u l l w e l l , " he w r o t e to the m a n a g e ment of the Company, "that the p r o x i m i t y of a handful of Russian peasants, t o r n a w a y , so to speak, f r o m their own country, can n e v e r be a danger to the i n t e g r i t y of the M e x i can p o s s e s s i o n s , but, on the other hand, a Russian s e t t l e ment t h e r e might block, o r , at l e a s t , r e n d e r d i f f i c u l t the encroachments of the English and the United States, which would be f a r m o r e dangerous to M e x i c o . In o r d e r not to goad the other p o w e r s into presenting c l a i m s of their own, the subject could be broached not as a question of t r a n s f e r r i n g the new t e r r i t o r y to R u s s i a ' s p o s s e s s i o n s but m e r e l y as one of l e a s i n g it to the Company f o r a definite p e r i o d . Such a f o r m of ownership would, in f a c t , be even m o r e a c c e p t a b l e . A f i f t y - y e a r l e a s e on Bodega Bay and the plain along the Slavyanka would establish the Company on a f i r m foundation. T h e M e x i c a n g o v e r n m e n t i t s e l f , e a g e r to obtain R u s s i a ' s r e c o g n i t i o n , was also g r e a t l y i n t e r e s t e d in

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a r r i v i n g at an u n d e r s t a n d i n g with t h a t c o u n t r y . On A p r i l 1 1 , 1 8 3 3 , B r i g a d i e r - G e n e r a l F i g e r o a , who had n e w l y b e e n a p p o i n t e d by t h e M e x i c a n g o v e r n m e n t H e a d of M i l i t a r y and C i v i l i a n A f f a i r s in C a l i f o r n i a , d i s p a t c h e d a l e t t e r t o G o v e r n o r W r a n g e l l . In i t h e a p p r i s e d t h e R u s s i a n o f f i c i a l of t h e d e s i r e of t h e M e x i c a n g o v e r n m e n t t o e n t e r t h r o u g h h i m " i n t o f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s with t h e I m p e r i a l c a b i n e t in S t . P e t e r s b u r g and t o i n f o r m i t t h a t in a s s e r t i n g i t s i n d e p e n d e n c e t h e M e x i c a n n a t i o n i s a c t i n g in a c c o r d a n c e with t h e t e n e t s of r e a s o n a b l e p o l i c y , and fully i n t e n d s t o m a i n t a i n with a l l o t h e r n a t i o n s t h e union and c o n c o r d t h a t a r e an a b s o l u t e r e q u i r e m e n t of good r e l a t i o n s and of m u t u a l a d v a n t a g e a m o n g n e i g h b o r i n g p o w e r s . " ^ W r a n g e l l u n d e r s t o o d t h a t i f t h e m o m e n t s h o u l d be a l l o w e d t o s l i p by and o t h e r p o w e r s g i v e n a c h a n c e t o s t e a l a m a r c h on R u s s i a by g r a n t i n g r e c o g n i t i o n t o t h e M e x i c a n g o v e r n m e n t , t h e l a s t hope f o r t h e f i r m e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e R u s s i a n s in C a l i f o r n i a would v a n i s h . " W e m u s t r u s h t h e s t a r t of t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s with t h e g o v e r n m e n t of M e x i c o on t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d s u b j e c t , " W r a n g e l l u r g e d the m a n a g e m e n t of t h e C o m p a n y . " P r o c r a s t i n a t i o n m a y j e o p a r d i z e o u r s u c c e s s , a l l o w t h e E n g l i s h o r c i t i z e n s of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s n o t only t o h a m p e r o u r e f f o r t s but e v e n t o o c cupy t h o s e p l a c e s t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h u s d e p r i v e t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y of one of t h e f i n e s t a c q u i s i t i o n s in t h i s region."57 T h e Company f a i l e d , h o w e v e r , in i t s attempt to induce the t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t to grant i m m e d i a t e r e c o g n i t i o n to M e x i c o , and W r a n g e l l w a s not g i v e n any o f f i c i a l p o w e r s t o n e g o t i a t e about i t . T h e D i r e c t o r of t h e M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s i n f o r m e d t h e m a n a g e m e n t of t h e C o m p a n y t h r o u g h t h e M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e t h a t " h a v i n g e x a m i n e d t h e q u e s t i o n of r e c o g n i z i n g t h e new o r d e r of t h i n g s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e f o r m e r S p a n i s h p o s s e s s i o n s , in c o n n e c t i o n with a n u m b e r of c u r r e n t p r o b l e m s of g r e a t p o l i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e , H i s M a j e s t y h a s not y e t w i s h e d t o r e c o g n i z e a s p o s s i b l e a d e c i s i o n to e x t e n d s u c h r e c o g n i t i o n at this t i m e . " 5 8 W r a n g e l l w a s p e r m i t t e d t o v i s i t M e x i c o only in t h e c a p a c i t y of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , " c h a r g e d , in a d d i t i o n , with t h e duty of a s c e r t a i n i n g on t h e spot t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e of t h e r e p u b l i c by the R u s s i a n g o v e r n m e n t might influence the M e x i c a n g o v e r n m e n t t o a g r e e t o t h e f o r m a l c e s s i o n of t h e t e r r i t o r i e s a c t u a l l y o c c u p i e d by t h e R u s s i a n s in C a l i f o r n i a . " In t h e u n o f f i c i a l i n -

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s t r u c t i o n s to W r a n g e l l , the M i n i s t e r of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s wrote that " t h e question of r e c o g n i z i n g the new o r d e r of things i n t r o duced into the f o r m e r Spanish c o l o n i e s is r a t h e r d e l i c a t e and v e r y c l o s e l y bound up with too many v e r y i m p o r t a n t p o l i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s for our cabinet to be able at this t i m e to p r o c e e d t o a definitive solution. T h e attention of the " i n t e r n a t i o n a l policeman," N i c h o l a s I , was wholly f o c u s e d at that t i m e on events taking p l a c e in F r a n c e and in P o l a n d . At the s a m e t i m e , t s a r i s t policy on the E a s t e r n question contained a r e a l t h r e a t of a c o l l i s i o n with England. T o c o m e out at that moment with the r e c o g nition of M e x i c o was not without danger to the t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t . Such a step was prone to e x a c e r b a t e even f u r t h e r the r e l a t i o n s with England, which had a l r e a d y been distrubed by R u s s i a n p e n e t r a t i o n into A s i a and by the r i s i n g t h r e a t to E n g l a n d ' s Indian p o s s e s s i o n s . T h e m o s t e s s e n t i a l c o n s i d e r ation in the position of the R u s s i a n g o v e r n m e n t , h o w e v e r , was the f a c t that the r e c o g n i t i o n of M e x i c o went counter to the p o l i c y , pursued by N i c h o l a s , of unconditional support of l e g i t i m i s m in Spain. In c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n to A l e x a n d e r , N i c h o l a s did not l o s e the hope that Spain would in the v e r y n e a r future be able to cope with the situation in h e r c o l o n i e s , and that R u s s i a would then obtain all she needed in C a l i f o r n i a . T h i s thought p e r m e a t e s the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d i n s t r u c t i o n s sent W r a n g e l l by the M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s . Thus we r e a d : " I t i s p o s s i b l e , h o w e v e r , that in the n e a r future the opportunity will p r e s e n t i t s e l f to R u s s i a f o r a final d e c i s i o n with r e g a r d to M e x i c o , without swerving f r o m the p r i n c i p l e by which she h a s been guided until now in all things r e l a t i n g to the Spanish c o l o n i e s in g e n e r a l . " ^ 0 Not having r e c e i v e d any o f f i c i a l diplomatic p o w e r s , W r a n g e l l found h i m s e l f in a v e r y difficult position in M e x i c o . T i m e had been allowed to s l i p . England had a l r e a d y r e c o g n i z e d M e x i c o , and the M e x i c a n government was not s a t i s f i e d with R u s s i a ' s p r o p o s a l to conclude a t r a d e a g r e e m e n t without f o r m a l r e c o g n i t i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , in the words of W r a n g e l l , " t h e m i n i s t e r s of England and F r a n c e w e r e using t h e i r influence a g a i n s t letting the m i n i s t e r s or the v i c e - p r e s i d e n t of M e x i c o e n t e r into any negotiations with m e . " " In the long run W r a n g e l l did s u c c e e d in having the M e x i c a n envoy in London authorized to e n t e r into negotiations with the R u s s i a n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e for the conclusion of a t r a d e a g r e e m e n t without r e c o g n i z i n g M e x i c o de j u r e .

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The Company e n d e a v o r e d to utilize at l e a s t this opportunity to m a i n t a i n contact with Mexico and, at the p r o p e r t i m e , to t a k e a d v a n t a g e of t h e c o m p l i c a t i o n s w h i c h w e r e b o u n d t o a r i s e in the r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n the M e x i c a n g o v e r n m e n t and the U n i t e d S t a t e s . " T h e a t t i t u d e of M e x i c o t o w a r d s t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s of N o r t h A m e r i c a c o n t r i b u t e s a g r e a t d e a l t o a r a p p r o c h e m e n t w i t h R u s s i a , " w r o t e W r a n g e l l upon h i s r e t u r n f r o m M e x i c o , " e s p e c i a l l y w h e n t h e p r o v i n c e of T e x a s h a s b e c o m e a p a r t of t h e n o r t h e r n c o n f e d e r a c y . " B u t l e r , t h e A m e r i c a n A m b a s s a d o r to M e x i c o , s a i d f r a n k l y in a c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h W r a n g e l l a b o u t t h e i n t e r e s t s of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s in San F r a n c i s c o Bay: " W e a r e n o t n e g l e c t i n g t h a t p a r t of C a l i f o r n i a . W e h a v e people t h e r e who r e p o r t to us and supply us with e v e r y k i n d of i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d t h e t i m e i s n o t f a r off when n o r t h e r n California will join our n o r t h e r n confederacy."62 B u t in v a i n d i d t h e C o m p a n y s t r i v e , i n e v e r y p o s s i b l e w a y , to prove to the t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t that the t h r e a t f r o m the United States w a s forcing Mexico to m a k e c o n c e s s i o n s to R u s s i a a n d , t h i s b e i n g t h e c a s e , e v e n t h e c o n c l u s i o n of o n l y a t r a d e a g r e e m e n t would s e r v e a c e r t a i n p u r p o s e . Nicholas I " d i d not c o n s i d e r it a p p r o p r i a t e to expedite the m a t t e r in any w a y , " and flatly r e f u s e d to e n t e r into any a g r e e m e n t with the M e x i c a n g o v e r n m e n t . Soon t h e r e w a s n o l o n g e r a n y n e c e s s i t y f o r n e g o t i a t i n g w i t h M e x i c o on m a t t e r s p e r t a i n i n g t o C a l i f o r n i a ; i n O c t o b e r 1836 C a l i f o r n i a p r o c l a i m e d h e r i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d expelled all Mexican officials . While in the e a r l y 1 8 2 0 ' s , when the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y w a s e n d e a v o r i n g t o b r i n g a b o u t t h e s e p a r a t i o n of C a l i f o r n i a f r o m M e x i c o , t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n of C a l i f o r n i a ' s i n d e p e n dence would have m e a n t h e r becoming c o m p l e t e l y dependent on R u s s i a , t h e s i t u a t i o n w a s v e r y d i f f e r e n t n o w . A n e w p o w e r had grown to m a t u r i t y , the United S t a t e s , that w a s biding the opportunity f i r s t to subjugate California and then to i n c o r p o r a t e i t i n i t s own t e r r i t o r y . " T h e A m e r i c a n s a r e u s i n g a l l m e a n s at t h e i r d i s p o s a l to i n f l a m e the C a l i f o r n i a n s against the M e x i c a n s a n d , i t s e e m s t o m e , " r e p o r t e d t h e G o v e r n o r of t h e c o l ony of R o s s , " t h e y h o p e t h a t C a l i f o r n i a , h a v i n g s e c e d e d f r o m M e x i c o , w i l l , if n o t a c t u a l l y b e c o m e s u b j e c t t o t h e U n i t e d States, then at l e a s t come under h e r protection. "63 The

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Company s t r o v e in e v e r y way p o s s i b l e , during that p e r i o d , to make sure that C a l i f o r n i a would r e m a i n under M e x i c a n r u l e , f o r that was the only thing that might have r e n d e r e d d i f f i c u l t the penetration of the United States into C a l i f o r n i a . T h e results of the o v e r t u r n w e r e soon to b e c o m e apparent. Some thirty v e r s t s (twenty m i l e s ) f r o m the colony of R o s s the A m e r i c a n C o o p e r established a rancho. Another rancho was planned on Cape D r a k e . It was evident that R o s s would v e r y soon be e n c i r c l e d by A m e r i c a n settlements on a l l s i d e s . T h e Company, without even soliciting g o v e r n m e n t a p p r o v a l , made a d e c i s i v e attempt to s e c u r e the p o s s e s s i o n of the contiguous a r e a s . The g o v e r n o r of R o s s was enjoined " t o plow up at l e a s t the p l a c e s near the bay i t s e l f . . .in o r d e r , by furnishing a l l p o s s i b l e means f o r the s u c c e s s f u l pursuit of a g r i c u l t u r e , to secure p o s s e s s i o n of Bodega Bay i t s e l f ; under the present c i r c u m s t a n c e s , " w r o t e the G o v e r n o r of the c o l o n i e s , " w e should avoid all e x c e s s i v e m o d e s t y in our d e a l i n g s . But this attempt to p r o f i t by the c i v i l war in C a l i f o r n i a produced no tangible r e s u l t s , e i t h e r . The ring of A m e r i c a n settlements around R o s s was tightened even m o r e . T h e colony of R o s s a l w a y s brought nothing but l o s s e s to the Company. It was being retained only in the hope of p r o pitious c i r c u m s t a n c e s in the f u t u r e . Now this last hope was a l s o g o n e . In the s u m m a r y m e m o r a n d u m c o m p o s e d by the Governing B o a r d of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company at that t i m e due note i s taken of the f a c t that the influence of the United States, having b e c o m e s t r o n g e r in C a l i f o r n i a f r o m y e a r to y e a r , has l e d to the establishment of populous s e t t l e ments of A m e r i c a n c i t i z e n s in M o n t e r e y , San F r a n c i s c o , and in the adjacent a r e a s . " A s the trading a c t i v i t y of these n e w c o m e r s , who a r e e x p e r t s in speculation, has found new ways of making p r o f i t s , " w e r e a d in the concluding part of the m e m o r a n d u m , " t h e s m a l l , b a r r e n colony of R o s s was to l o s e its p r o f i t s and even the hope f o r a future a m e l i o r a t i o n of the conditions which have so r a d i c a l l y changed. F o r a t i m e a f t e r the news of the events in C a l i f o r n i a had r e a c h e d St. P e t e r s b u r g , and when the part p l a y e d by the United States had not yet b e c o m e quite c l e a r , the D i r e c t o r s of the Company and s o m e g o v e r n m e n t c i r c l e s even had a g l e a m of hope that it would be p o s s i b l e to take advantage of the c i v i l w a r to round out the t e r r i t o r y óf the Russian c o l o n y . H o w e v e r , when the management of the Company r e c e i v e d the detailed r e p o r t s on the situation in C a l i f o r n i a , it petitioned

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the M i n i s t r y of F i n a n c e on M a r c h 3 1 , 1 8 3 9 , f o r p e r m i s s i o n to liquidate the colony of R o s s . T h e m a n a g e m e n t , o b s e r v i n g that the Company had n e v e r given up the hope of expanding i t s t e r r i t o r y in C a l i f o r n i a f o r the purpose of e s t a b l i s h i n g f a r m i n g and c a t t l e - b r e e d i n g on a l a r g e s c a l e , d e c l a r e d that "under p r e s e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s that hope has c o m e to n a u g h t , " and t h a t , t h e r e f o r e , " i t s e e s no r e a s o n f o r , ana no valid purpose i n , the f u r t h e r occupation of the colony of R o s s . " 6 6 P o l i t i c a l l y , clinging to the colony o f f e r e d nothing but u n p l e a s a n t n e s s , s i n c e its p o s s e s s i o n had r e m a i n e d unsanctioned by i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w . F i n a l l y , the Company opined, that s t r a t e g i c a l l y , t o o , the l o s s of R o s s was i m m a t e r i a l to the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a , s i n c e " t h e E n g l i s h have t h e i r own h a r b o r s in c l o s e p r o x i m i t y to our b o r d e r s anyway; the M e x i c a n s or C a l i f o r n i a n s a r e in p o s s e s sion of splendid San F r a n c i s c o B a y not f a r f r o m R o s s , the c i t i z e n s of the United S t a t e s a r e colonizing the s h o r e s of the B a y in d r o v e s and do not need the i n a c c e s s i b l e r o c k of R o s s . " ^ T o t h e s e v e r y weighty a r g u m e n t s the m a n a g e m e n t of the Company added s o m e purely c o m m e r c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . Even in f o r m e r d a y s , the m a n a g e m e n t pointed out, the m a i n t e n a n c e of the colony of R o s s amounted to 4 5 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s annually; by 1 839 it had r e a c h e d 7 2 , 000 r u b l e s . T h e r e was a t i m e when the hunting of f u r - b e a r i n g a n i m a l s in C a l i f o r n i a brought in an annual i n c o m e of 2 9 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s , now in 1 8 3 7 , such hunting did not bring in anything. T h e r e was only the i n c o m e f r o m f a r m i n g , which amounted to between 8 , 0 0 0 and 9 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s , and f r o m s m a l l c r a f t s , such as b r i c k m a k i n g , tanning, and so f o r t h which, in the l a s t y e a r s , had hardly produced any i n c o m e at all. When the r e p o r t s of the proposed liquidation of the colony r e a c h e d B o d i s k o , the R u s s i a n A m b a s s a d o r in Washington, he l o s t no t i m e in i n f o r m i n g the M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s as to the p o s s i b l e e f f e c t of such a step on the diplomatic w o r l d . " I m a k e so bold a s to o b s e r v e , " wrote B o d i s k o on August 10 ( 2 2 ) , 1 8 3 9 , " t h a t our r e t i r e m e n t f r o m Bodega and R o s s would m a k e an unfavorable i m p r e s s i o n in the m i n d s . " ^ ® And i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r R o s s had been liquidated, the Company began to l o s e its holdings on the North A m e r i c a n c o a s t bit by bit in the guise of l e a s e s . T h e c o l o n i e s in C a l i f o r n i a w e r e now l o s t to the t s a r i s t gove r n m e n t . T r u e , s e v e r a l y e a r s l a t e r , at the beginning of 1 8 4 8 , when C a l i f o r n i a was a l r e a d y occupied by A m e r i c a n t r o o p s but

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h a d not y e t b e e n o f f i c i a l l y a d m i t t e d t o t h e U n i o n , t h e s a m e B o d i s k o i n t i m a t e d t o S e c r e t a r y of S t a t e B u c h a n a n t h a t R u s s i a m i g h t s t i l l r e t u r n t o C a l i f o r n i a , if it w e r e s o d e s i r e d . T h i s s t a t e m e n t , m a d e i n a s e m i - j o c u l a r v e i n , w a s t h e r e s u l t of t h e f a i l u r e of t h e C o m p a n y t o c o l l e c t a s i n g l e p e n n y f r o m M r . S u t t e r , a c i t i z e n of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , w h o h a d p u r c h a s e d t h e p r o p e r t y of R o s s . P r i o r t o t h e a p p e a r a n c e of A m e r i c a n t r o o p s in C a l i f o r n i a t h e C o m p a n y h a d o b t a i n e d t h e p r o m i s e of t h e M e x i c a n a u t h o r i t i e s t o b e c o m e s u r e t y f o r S u t t e r ' s p a y m e n t of t h e d e b t . T h i s p l e d g e w a s e v e n d u l y r e c o r d e d in a s p e c i a l a g r e e m e n t . A f t e r t h e o c c u p a t i o n of C a l i f o r n i a , it b e c a m e n e c e s s a r y t o e n l i s t t h e c o o p e r a t i o n of t h e A m e r i c a n a u t h o r i t i e s , o r t o a t t e m p t t o r e s e l l t h e p r o p e r t y of t h e c o l o n y to t h e m . " I n t h e c o u r s e of m y c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h M r . B u c h a n a n , " w r o t e B o d i s k o t o t h e M i n i s t e r of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , N e s s e l r o d e , on F e b r u a r y 12, 1848 " I m a d e c a s u a l m e n t i o n of t h e e x t r e m i t y to which the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y m i g h t be d r i v e n in o r d e r t o s a v e i t s i n v e s t m e n t , n a m e l y , t o r e t u r n t o R o s s and r e s u m e its f a r m i n g and c o m m e r c i a l o p e r a t i o n s . . . . I a d d e d l a u g h i n g l y , ' A t one t i m e y o u w e r e a l i t t l e e n v i o u s of t h a t little colony, so h e r e is y o u r c h a n c e to pay $ 3 0 , 0 0 0 f o r t h e p r i v i l e g e of d e p r i v i n g t h e C o m p a n y of a n y e x c u s e f o r s t a g i n g a c o m e b a c k . ' " B u c h a n a n , by t h e w a y , h a d a s l i t t l e f a i t h i n s u c h a p o s s i b i l i t y a s d i d B o d i s k o h i m s e l f . "Of c o u r s e , M r . B u c h a n a n " w r i t e s B o d i s k o , " a n s w e r e d m e in t h e s a m e v e i n , ' l e t us b e g i n , t h o u g h , w i t h a n e x p l a n a t i o n a n d t h e n w e ' l l b e a b l e t o a g r e e on t h e c o n d i t i o n s on w h i c h we c a n n e g o t i a t e . ' " 69 T h e d i s c o v e r y of g o l d in C a l i f o r n i a b r o u g h t r e g r e t t o t h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t t h a t it h a d r e l i n q u i s h e d i t s c o l o n i e s in t h a t r e g i o n . N i c h o l a s I e v e n s a w f i t in 1849 t o i n f o r m t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y t h a t it would be to i t s b e n e f i t to p r e o c c u p y i t s e l f w i t h t h e e x t r a c t i o n of g o l d in C a l i f o r n i a , f o l l o w i n g t h e e x a m p l e of o t h e r p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s . " ^ ® T h e C o m p a n y , h o w e v e r , a l l e g e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e no r e l i a b l e p e o p l e a v a i l a b l e , a n d e v e n m a d e no a t t e m p t t o c a r r y out t h e i m p e r i a l o r d e r . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e p o r t of t h e m a n a g e m e n t , " u n d e r t h e e x i s t i n g p r a c t i c e of a l l o w i n g t h e g o l d t o b e c o m e t h e p r o p e r t y of e v e r y o n e w h o e x t r a c t s i t , it i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o k e e p t h e e m p l o y e e s of t h e C o m p a n y f r o m r u n n i n g a w a y . " In r e a l i t y , h o w e v e r , f r o m t h e t i m e of t h e d i s c o v e r y of g o l d i n C a l i f o r n i a t h e C o m p a n y i n c u r r e d n o t h i n g but l o s s e s . It w a s

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a b l e t o p a r t i c i p a t e o n l y t o a l i m i t e d d e g r e e in t h e t r a d e t h a t w a s d e v e l o p i n g on a b r o a d s c a l e in C a l i f o r n i a , t h a n k s t o t h e i n f l u x of m a s s e s of i m m i g r a n t s . A t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e r i s e in t h e p r i c e of g r a i n in C a l i f o r n i a d e p r i v e d t h e C o m p a n y of t h e o p p o r t u n i t y of p u r c h a s i n g p r o d u c t s t h e r e f o r the o t h e r c o l o n i e s . A s t h e g o v e r n o r - g e n e r a l of E a s t e r n S i b e r i a o b s e r v e d in h i s r e p o r t , " t h e C o m p a n y i s in a d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n . . . b e c a u s e , on a c c o u n t of t h e e x c e s s i v e l y high p r i c e s in C a l i f o r n i a , the c o l o n i e s h a v e b e e n d e p r i v e d of t h e m e a n s of p r o c u r i n g t h e i r food at r e a s o n a b l e p r i c e s , and t h e y h a v e to p r o c u r e it in t h e r e g i o n of the B a l t i c S e a . " ^ ^

C h a p t e r VII T H E C O L O N I E S ON T H E HAWAIIAN I S L A N D S A N D T H E P L A N S F O R S E T T L E M E N T ON T H E I S L A N D O F H A I T I

T H E A T T E M P T m a d e a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o g a i n a f o o t h o l d on t h e H a w a i i a n o r S a n d w i c h I s l a n d s w a s n o t t h e p e r s o n a l a c c o m p l i s h m e n t of a s w i n d l e r , a s i t l a t e r c a m e to be t r e a t e d in o f f i c i a l s o u r c e s , but an i n t e g r a l p a r t of a c a r e f u l l y t h o u g h t - o u t p l a n f o r e x p a n s i o n i n t h e P a c i f i c , a plan p e r f e c t e d and a p p r o v e d by t h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t itself. If t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t in C a l i f o r n i a w a s i n t e n d e d t o a s s u r e R u s s i a n d o m i n a t i o n in t h e w e s t e r n p a r t of t h e n o r t h P a c i f i c , t h e c o l o n i e s on t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s w e r e e x p e c t e d t o s e c u r e R u s s i a ' s p r e d o m i n a n t p o s i t i o n in t h e e a s t e r n p a r t of t h e o c e a n . D o m i n a t i o n of t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s w o u l d h a v e g i v e n R u s s i a e f f e c t i v e c o n t r o l of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s e a - l a n e s of P a c i f i c c o m m e r c e . T h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s w e r e an i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t w h e r e s h i p s w e r e b o u n d t o c a l l on t h e i r w a y f r o m A m e r i c a n to A s i a and, p a r t i c u l a r l y , to China, which h a d b e c o m e a p r i n c i p a l f u r - m a r k e t . Not w i t h o u t r e a s o n , t h e n , did t h e R u s s i a n m e r c h a n t s s a y t h a t " t h e highway to Canton leads through the Hawaiian I s l a n d s . " T h i s f a v o r a b l e s i t u a t i o n of t h e i s l a n d s s p u r r e d o n t h e C o m p a n y , f i r s t of a l l , t o m a k e a n e f f o r t t o g a i n p o s s e s s i o n of t h e m . " I n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n t h e b a l a n c e of p o w e r in A s i a , R u s s i a needs the Sandwich I s l a n d s . Having taken p o s s e s s i o n of t h e m , s h e w i l l b e i n a p o s i t i o n t o o f f e r h e r f r i e n d s h i p t o China, Japan, the A m e r i c a n colonies that have been f r e e d f r o m under the Spanish yoke, and h e r protection to the Philippine Islands and o t h e r s , " wrote D r . S c h e f f e r , C o m m i s s i o n e r of t h e C o m p a n y , t o A l e x a n d e r I . T h e C o m p a n y w a s a l s o t e m p t e d by t h e v a s t n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s of t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s . E v e n t h o u g h t h e C o m p a n y h a d o n l y a v a g u e n o t i o n of t h e w e a l t h of t h e i s l a n d s , i t k n e w e n o u g h t o be f a s c i n a t e d by t h e p r o s p e c t of a p a r t i a l f r e e i n g of R u s s i a n i n d u s t r y f r o m t h e n e c e s s i t y of i m p o r t i n g r a w m a t e r i a l s , a n d of t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a b a s e f o r s u p p l y i n g 153

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t h e R u s s i a n m a r k e t w i t h t h e p r o d u c t s of t h e c o l o n i e s . It w a s p r o p o s e d t o e s t a b l i s h s u c h hugh c o t t o n p l a n t a t i o n s on t h e i s l a n d s , t h a t " a c o n s i d e r a b l e p o r t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n p e o p l e w i l l b e d r e s s e d in c o t t o n g o o d s . " It w a s p l a n n e d t o c u l t i v a t e t h e m u l b e r r y t r e e , a n d , with t h e a s s i s t a n c e of i n v i t e d C h i n e s e s p e c i a l i s t s , t o go i n f o r t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of s i l k . T h e C o m p a n y ' s p l a n a l s o p r o v i d e d f o r t h e b r e e d i n g of m e r i n o s h e e p and t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of c o a r s e w o o l e n c l o t h and b l a n k e t s , t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of s u g a r c a n , s p i c e s of a l l k i n d s , and f i n a l l y , t h e e x p o r t i n g of s a n d a l - w o o d , p e l t r y , and o t h e r p r o d u c t s . T h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y h a d done s o m e r e c o n n a i s a n c e on t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s in 1 8 0 6 , when t h e C o m p a n y v e s s e l " N e v a " under L i s y a n s k y ' s c o m m a n d c a l l e d at t h e i s l a n d of A t u w a i i ( T u a u - K a u a i ) . T o m a r i , t h e n a t i v e r u l e r of K a u a i , who w a s p r e p a r i n g j u s t t h e n t o m a k e w a r on T o m i - o m i , t h e r u l e r of t h e i s l a n d of Owaihi ( H a w a i i ) , m a d e an a t t e m p t t o e n l i s t the a i d of t h e R u s s i a n s . He a s k e d p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t t h e y supply h i m with gunpowder and a r m s . T h e o f f i c e r s of t h e C o m p a n y , h o w e v e r , would not r i s k i n t e r v e n i n g in a c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n H a w a i i ' s p e t t y k i n g s . In 1 8 0 9 t h e s a m e " N e v a , " u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d of L i e u t e n a n t - C a p t a i n H a g e m e i s t e r , a g a i n put in at t h e i s l a n d of K a u a i . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e o f f i c e r s , K i n g T o m a r i again turned to t h e m f o r a s s i s t a n c e , asking t h e m to l e a v e s o m e R u s s i a n c o l o n i s t s on t h e i s l a n d a s a m e a s u r e f o r defense against T o m i - o m i . A l l t h i s w a s only in t h e n a t u r e of p r e l i m i n a r y r e c o n n a i s s a n c e . T h e a t t e n t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y w a s f o c u s e d at t h a t t i m e on g a i n i n g p o s s e s s i o n of t h e c o a s t a l s t r i p of C a l i f o r n i a . T h e C o m p a n y v e s s e l s w e r e b u s y t r a n s p o r t i n g e q u i p m e n t f o r t h e c o l o n y of R o s s , and the v o y a g e of t h e " B e r i n g " t o t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s in 1 8 1 4 e n d e d in a f i a s c o . T h e ship w a s w r e c k e d not f a r f r o m t h e s h o r e s of K a u a i , and t h e whole c a r g o f e l l i n t o t h e h a n d s of K i n g T o m a r i . It w a s this c a r g o , by the way, which was subsequently to be used a s a convenient e x c u s e for sending R u s s i a n expeditions to that i s l a n d o s t e n s i b l y to r e t r i e v e the m e r c h a n d i s e . Thus, only i n 1 8 1 5 did t h e C o m p a n y h a v e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y s e r i o u s l y t o s e t about t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of i t s p l a n f o r p e n e t r a t i n g i n t o the Hawaiian I s l a n d s . H o w e v e r , t h e p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n , w h i c h had b e e n f a v o r a b l e t o R u s s i a at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e s e c o n d d e c a d e of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , now t o o k a s h a r p t u r n f o r t h e w o r s e . The d i r e c t s e i z u r e of t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s h a d b e c o m e out of t h e

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question. Napoleon was crushed, the war between England and the United States had c o m e to an e n d . T h i s allowed both the English and the A m e r i c a n s to t u r n t h e i r attention to the n o r t h e r n b a s i n of t h e P a c i f i c . T h e t h r e e p o w e r s , E n g l a n d , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a n d R u s s i a w e r e k e e p i n g a s h a r p e y e on one a n o t h e r f o r a n y m o v e t o s e i z e t h e i s l a n d s . C l o a k i n g t h e i r p r e d a t o r y d e s i g n s , t h e y w e r e now a t t e m p t i n g to s o l i d i f y t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e of t h e i s l a n d s . T h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e n a t i v e r u l e r s , s i n c e e a c h of t h e t h r e e p o w e r s e n d e a v o r e d , by bribing these kinglets, to s e c u r e for i t s e l f , t h e domination over the islands. W i t h t h e a i d of B r i t i s h a g e n t s t h e n a t i v e r u l e r T o m i - o m i of t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t of t h e i s l a n d of H a w a i i , d i s p o s e d of t h e o t h e r p e t t y r u l e r s a n d b e c a m e a c t u a l r u l e r of a l m o s t a l l of t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of K a u a i a n d O n i h a u ( N i h a u ) w h i c h c a m e u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l of T o m a r i , t h e s o n of D o j i o , t h e m u r d e r e d r u l e r of O a h u , K a u a i , a n d of o t h e r s m a l l islands. T o m i - o m i , w h o l a t e r a s s u m e d t h e n a m e of K a m e h a m e h a I, s u p p l i e d h i s t r o o p s w i t h f i r e - a r m s w i t h t h e a i d of t h e E n g l i s h and m a n a g e d to p r o c u r e s o m e a r t i l l e r y and even a few ships of E u r o p e a n d e s i g n . S u r r o u n d e d by f o r e i g n e r s a s h e w a s ( e v e n t h e g o v e r n o r of t h e i s l a n d of H a w a i i w a s a r u n a w a y E n g l i s h s a i l o r , n a m e d J o h n Y o u n g ) , h e c o u l d do n o t h i n g b u t f a v o r t h a t p o w e r w h i c h , a t t h e g i v e n m o m e n t , d i s p o s e d of l a r g e r f o r c e s on t h e i s l a n d s a n d a l s o p a i d h i g h e r p r i c e s f o r t h e g o o d s i t purchased. In 1 7 9 4 , w h e n C a p t a i n V a n c o u v e r s a i l e d up t o t h e i s l a n d of Hawaii, T o m i - o m i announced his d e s i r e to b e c o m e an English s u b j e c t - - w h i c h did not p r e v e n t h i m , a f t e r H a n c o u v e r had l e f t , to g r a n t exclusive p r i v i l e g e s to A m e r i c a n t r a d e r s , including a n e x p o r t m o n o p o l y on a l l m e r c h a n d i s e . T h e c a b i n e t of St. J a m e s , which had long kept silent, was finally compelled in 1812, when the r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n E n g l a n d and the United S t a t e s h a d b e c o m e e x a c e r b a t e d a n d w h e n a m e r e s u s p i c i o n of E n g l a n d ' s d e s i g n s on t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s m i g h t h a v e g i v e n the United States excuse for seizing t h e m , to r e j e c t T o m i o m i ' s petition for British citizenship. H i s r i v a l T o m a r i o r i e n t e d h i m s e l f on t h e A m e r i c a n s . W i t h t h e i r h e l p h e f i t t e d out a n a r m y , a c q u i r e d a f e w g u n s , a n d even f a n c i e d r a i s i n g a fleet to give battle to T o m i - o m i . S u c h w a s t h e s i t u a t i o n on t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s i n 1 8 1 5 , when the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company began to take definite

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steps to consolidate its foothold t h e r e . B a r a n o v , the g o v e r n o r of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a , i n t e n d e d a t f i r s t t o e n t r u s t t h i s o p e r a t i o n to L i e u t e n a n t L a z a r e v who w a s then on S i t k a . B u t a m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g b e t w e e n t h e t w o r e s u l t e d i n L a z a r e v ' s s a i l i n g a w a y t o K r o n s t a d t on t h e " S u v o r o v . " T h e n B a r a n o v e n t r u s t e d t h e j o b of t a k i n g p o s s e s s i o n of t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s t o t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r of t h e C o m p a n y , D r . S c h e f f e r , t h e o n l y o n e of t h e c r e w of t h e " S u v o r o v " t o r e m a i n in the c o l o n i e s . S c h e f f e r , a D o c t o r of M e d i c i n e , w a s a t y p i c a l a d v e n t u r e r of t h e k i n d t h a t w a s v e r y c o m m o n in t h o s e d a y s in t h e c o l o n i a l p o s s e s s i o n s of a l l t h e p o w e r s . A r r i v i n g in R u s s i a in 1 8 0 8 , h e w a s appointed the following y e a r police p h y s i c i a n in M o s c o w , i n w h i c h p o s i t i o n h e s e r v e d u n t i l 1 8 1 2 . In 1813 h e e n t e r e d t h e s e r v i c e of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y a n d w a s s e n t on t h e " S u v o r o v " a s s h i p d o c t o r a n d c o m m i s s i o n e r on a r o u n d t h e - w o r l d e x p e d i t i o n . H a v i n g f a l l e n out w i t h m o s t of t h e o f f i c e r s i n t h e c o u r s e of t h e v o y a g e , S c h e f f e r , upon a r r i v i n g in Sitka, w a s r e l e a s e d f r o m the " S u v a r o v " " a s an i n t o l e r a b l e p e r s o n on b o a r d s h i p . " T o B a r a n o v h e a p p e a r e d a s a p e r f e c t l y s u i t a b l e c a n d i d a t e f o r t h e p o s i t i o n of l e a d e r of a n e x pedition to the Hawaiian Islands, since, as a physician, he e n j o y e d a n u m b e r of a d v a n t a g e s t h a t w o u l d h e l p h i m i n e f fecting a r a p p r o c h e m e n t with the native little king. F o r g r e a t e r s e c r e c y i t w a s d e c i d e d t o s e n d h i m on t h e A m e r i c a n b o a t " I s a b e l l a " w h i c h , in O c t o b e r , 1 8 1 5 , l a n d e d h i m on t h e i s l a n d of O a h u (Ahu) t h a t b e l o n g e d t o T o m i - o m i . F o l lowing h i m , two w e l l - a r m e d R u s s i a n v e s s e l s , the "Kodiak" and the " O t k r y t i y e " ( D i s c o v e r y ) a r r i v e d at the H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s i n M a r c h of 1 8 1 6 , w i t h t h e o s t e n s i b l e p u r p o s e of b a r t e r i n g with the n a t i v e s . S c h e f f e r , w h o s e official m i s s i o n it w a s to r e c o v e r the p r o p e r t y of t h e w r e c k e d R u s s i a n b o a t " B e r i n g , " d e c i d e d a t f i r s t t o a c t t h r o u g h T o m i - o m i w h o r u l e d m o s t of t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s . H o w e v e r , a s we r e a d i n h i s t r a v e l j o u r n a l , " . . . b e f o r e S c h e f f e r w a s a b l e t o c o m e a s h o r e , s o m e of t h e c a p t a i n s , o r s k i p p e r s , w h o h a d b e e n in o u r c o l o n i e s b e f o r e c o m i n g h e r e with t h e i r v e s s e l s - - t h e oldest being E b e t s Gunt, A d a m s and old J o h n Young (who h a d l o n g b e e n l i v i n g on t h a t i s l a n d a s g o v e r n o r a n d e x e r c i s e d a t r e m e n d o u s i n f l u e n c e on t h e k i n g ) - - m a n a g e d t o c o n v i n c e T o m i - o m i a n d m a n y of t h e b e s t i s l a n d e r s t h a t S c h e f f e r ' s c o m i n g a n d t h e e x p e c t e d a r r i v a l in t h e n e a r f u t u r e of s o m e C o m p a n y v e s s e l s f r o m A r k h a n g e l s k ,

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w e r e u n m i s t a k a b l e i n d i c a t i o n s of t h e h o s t i l e i n t e n t i o n s of t h e R u s s i a n s . W h e r e f o r e the l e t t e r with the medal sent to T o m i o m i in a d v a n c e w a s r e t u r n e d unopened". N e v e r t h e l e s s , S c h e f f e r d i d s u c c e e d i n g o i n g a s h o r e . He m a n a g e d t o b e c o m e p h y s i c i a n t o K i n g T o m i - o m i a n d in " g r a t i t u d e , " a s it w e r e , f o r t h e m e d i c a l a s s i s t a n c e h e h a d r e n d e r e d , h e w a s g i v e n s o m e p l a n t a t i o n s on t h e i s l a n d of O a h u , w h e r e the A m e r i c a n Winship b r o t h e r s had already established t h e i r s . In t h e s i x m o n t h s b e t w e e n S c h e f f e r ' s a r r i v a l a n d t h a t of t h e C o m p a n y v e s s e l s h e b u i l t a f e w h o u s e s on t h e p l a n t a t i o n s a s s i g n e d to h i m and s t a r t e d to r a i s e tobacco and v a r i o u s o t h e r p l a n t s . He s t r o v e t o e x p a n d t h e t e r r i t o r y h e h a d r e c e i v e d a s a " g i f t " b y b u y i n g up l a n d f r o m t h e n a t i v e s . It w a s not long b e f o r e h i s a c t i v i t i e s a r o u s e d the A m e r i c a n t r a d e r s a g a i n s t h i m , f o r , a s i d e f r o m e v e r y t h i n g e l s e , it s e e m s that he w a s c l a i m i n g the e x c l u s i v e r i g h t s to the e x p o r t t r a d e in s a n d a l w o o d . F o r t h i s r e a s o n the A m e r i c a n s t r i e d in e v e r y way to make mischief between T o m i - o m i and Scheffer and, a c c o r d i n g to w i t n e s s e s , " t h e y so upset King T o m i - o m i that they almost had him consent to have Scheffer killed." He w a s s a v e d b y t h e t i m e l y a r r i v a l of t h e C o m p a n y ' s s h i p s . He then d e c i d e d to change his c o u r s e c o m p l e t e l y and to o r i e n t h i m s e l f on K i n g T o m a r i of t h e i s l a n d s of O n i h a u a n d K a u a i , who w a s T o m i - o m i ' s e n e m y . To escape p e r s e c u t i o n Scheffer r a n away f r o m the island of O a h u , l e a v i n g a f e w of t h e e m p l o y e e s of t h e C o m p a n y t o k e e p g u a r d o v e r t h e R u s s i a n t r a d i n g - p o s t . On t h e C o m p a n y s h i p " O t k r y t i y e " h e r o u g h e d i t t o t h e i s l a n d of N i i h a u a n d t h e n c e to Kauai which w a s under T o m a r i ' s c o n t r o l . A s S c h e f f e r o b s e r v e s in his j o u r n a l , King T o m a r i r e c e i v e d h i m " i n f r i e n d l y f a s h i o n , t o be s u r e , but e v i n c e d a c e r t a i n c o n f u s i o n w h i c h , it w a s r e v e a l e d l a t e r , a r o s e f r o m the s a m e s o r t of h o s t i l e i n s i n u a t i o n s on t h e p a r t of t h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n s k i p p e r s as they had been making to T o m i - o m i . " It w a s not l o n g , h o w e v e r , b e f o r e T o m a r i c a m e t o f e e l t h a t t h e a s s i s t a n c e of t h e R u s s i a n s w o u l d b e of s u b s t a n t i a l v a l u e t o h i m in h i s c o n f l i c t w i t h T o m i - o m i . F o r t h a t r e a s o n h e suddenly conceived uncommon r e s p e c t for R u s s i a and asked S c h e f f e r t o o b t a i n f o r h i m t h e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n emperor. On M a y 2 1 , 1 8 1 6 , T o m a r i o f f i c i a l l y " a c c e p t e d R u s s i a n c i t i z e n s h i p . " A c c o r d i n g t o o n e of t h e o f f i c i a l s w h o a c c o m panied S c h e f f e r , the c e r e m o n y was p e r f o r m e d with g r e a t

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s o l e m n i t y . " T h e king h i m s e l f brought the R u s s i a n flag f r o m t h e s h i p t o t h e s h o r e a n d t h e r e r a i s e d it t o t h e t o p of t h e f l a g s t a f f . . . " H a v i n g r e c e i v e d t h e a p p r o v a l "of t h e g o d s a n d t h e p r i e s t s , " f o r h i s a c t i o n s , T o m a r i , i n t o k e n of g r a t i t u d e , "built a new M o r a i or s a n c t u a r y to his s t a t u e s , and m a d e t h e m o f f e r i n g s of v a r i o u s f r u i t s , c a t t l e , a n d , if we a r e not m i s t a k e n , of t w o h u m a n s a s w e l l . " · ^ T o m a r k t h e o c c a s i o n " t h e k i n g h a n d e d o v e r t o t h e C o m p a n y a s a g i f t in p e r p e t u i t y a w h o l e a r e a containing s o m e 400 Indian f a m i l i e s , f o r p l a n t a t i o n s , f a c t o r i e s , and so f o r t h . " In t h e n a m e of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y S c h e f f e r c o n c l u d e d f o u r a g r e e m e n t s w i t h T o m a r i . By t h e p r o v i s i o n s of t h e f i r s t a g r e e m e n t T o m a r i g r a n t e d t o t h e C o m p a n y t h e e x c l u s i v e r i g h t s t o t h e e x p o r t of s a n d a l w o o d f r o m t h e i s l a n d of K a u a i , a l l o w e d it t o s e t up t r a d i n g - p o s t s e v e r y w h e r e a n d e s t a b l i s h p l a n t a t i o n s " w i t h t h e a i d of t h e i s l a n d e r s . " T h e s e c o n d a g r e e m e n t d e a l t w i t h t h e c e s s i o n " i n p e r p e t u i t y , in f a v o r of t h e C o m p a n y , of o n e half of t h e i s l a n d of O a h u t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i n h a b i t a n t s and all t h a t m a y be found in t h e soil t h e r e o f . " B u t s i n c e t h a t i s l a n d s w a s s t i l l i n p o s s e s s i o n of T o m i - o r n i , t h e C o m p a n y w a s " t o c o m e t o t h e a i d of t h e k i n g , u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e s a m e D r . S c h e f f e r a s c o m m a n d e r of h i s t r o o p s , w i t h a f o r c e of 500 m e n t o be u t i l i z e d i n w i n n i n g b a c k t h e i s l a n d s of O a h u , L a n a i , M a u i , M o l o k a i a n d t h e o t h e r i s l a n d s that had been w r e s t e d f r o m h i m . T h e s e islands, too, the k i n g y i e l d s t o t h e h i g h p r o t e c t i o n of H i s M a j e s t y t h e E m p e r o r . " By t e r m s of t h e t h i r d a g r e e m e n t t h e C o m p a n y w a s o b l i g e d t o b u y , a t i t s o w n e x p e n s e , one a r m e d v e s s e l f r o m t h e B o s t o n •skipper W h i t t e m o r e f o r a n e x p e d i t i o n a g a i n s t K i n g T o m i - o m i , with T p m a r i r e i m b u r s i n g the Company with sandalwood. S c h e f f e r a c t u a l l y bought the ship and sent the bill to the Gove r n o r of t h e C o l o n i e s , B a r a n o v . A n d , f i n a l l y , b y t h e p r o v i s i o n s of t h e f o u r t h a g r e e m e n t , T o m a r i " g a v e " t o B a r a n o v t h r e e h a r b o r s on t h e s a m e i s l a n d of O a h u , " w i t h o u t l e v y i n g a n y t a x e s on t h e m f o r h i m s e l f . ' " * The-decisive steps that Scheffer took r e c e i v e d the open a p p r o v a l of t h e m a n a g e m e n t of t h e C o m p a n y . On A u g u s t 2 0 , 1817, the C o m p a n y sent to S c h e f f e r the following i n s t r u c t i o n : "On defending King T o m a r i a g a i n s t the other i s l a n d r u l e r s , o n l y w h e n t h e y do not h o l d p o w e r a s a r e s u l t of t h e i n f l u e n c e of s o m e E u r o p e a n n a t i o n , o r h a v e t h a t p o w e r g i v e n t o t h e m n o t by t h a t n a t i o n i t s e l f . . . . On r e s p e c t i n g t h a t k i n g t o t h e e x t e n t r e q u i r e d by h i s s a v a g e m o d e of l i f e . " A r e p o r t w a s p r e s e n t e d

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t o A l e x a n d e r on A u g u s t 25, 1817, d e a l i n g with S c h e f f e r ' s a d ventures and T o m a r i ' s negotiations for Russian citizenship. T h e r e p o r t m e t w i t h n o o b j e c t i o n s on t h e E m p e r o r ' s p a r t . In t h e m e a n t i m e S c h e f f e r c o n t i n u e d h i s a c t i v i t i e s a i m e d a t t a k i n g p o s s e s s i o n of t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s . B y o r d e r of T o m a r i " t h e e l d e r s of t h e p r o v i n c e i n w h i c h t h e p o r t of H a n a l e i i s s i t u a t e d , h a n d e d i t o v e r w i t h due s o l e m n i t y t o S c h e f f e r , t o g e t h e r w i t h p o p u l a t i o n c o m p r i s i n g t h i r t y f a m i l i e s . He i n s p e c t e d t h e p o r t , looked over the W a i m e a R i v e r , the lake and the whole l a y - o u t , t h e n b u i l t f o r t r e s s e s on t h e t h r e e h e i g h t s , c a l l i n g one F o r t A l e x a n d e r , the o t h e r F o r t E l i z a b e t h , and the t h i r d F o r t B a r c l a y . The Hanalei valley he n a m e d , at the k i n g ' s d e s i r e , a f t e r h i m s e l f : S c h e f f e r V a l l e y . In l i k e m a n n e r h e r e n a m e d the other little p l a c e s , r i v e r s ; lakes and people w i t h R u s s i a n n a m e s . T h e k i n g g a v e of h i s o w n m e n t o b u i l d those fortresses. In a s h o r t a r t i c l e in " T h e H a w a i i a n S p e c t a t o r , " b a s e d on e y e - w i t n e s s a c c o u n t s (the a u t h o r of t h e a r t i c l e l a n d e d on t h e i s l a n d in 1 8 2 0 ) , d e a l i n g w i t h t h e a t t e m p t s of t h e R u s s i a n s t o e s t a b l i s h t h e m s e l v e s on K a u a i , t h e r e i s i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t t h e f o r t s b u i l t b y S c h e f f e r (he i s c a l l e d Schoof in t h e a r t i c l e ) w e r e " s o f a r f i n i s h e d t h a t a n u m b e r of g u n s w e r e m o u n t e d on one s i d e , t h e m a g a z i n e b u i l t a n d a f l a g s t a f f e r e c t e d , on w h i c h t h e R u s s i a n c o l o r s w e r e s e e n f l y i n g on public o c c a s i o n s . "6 S i m i l a r i n f o r m a t i o n w a s g i v e n by o n e of t h e m e n in t h e C o m p a n y ' s s e r v i c e who r e t u r n e d f r o m the Hawaiian I s l a n d s o n t h e " O t k r y t i y e . " He h a d s e e n t h e t r a d i n g - p o s t a n d t h e s t o r e h o u s e s which the natives built f o r S c h e f f e r . The l a t t e r sent w o r d to B a r a n o v that he "would soon take over a whole p r o v i n c e , w h i c h t h e k i n g h a d g i v e n t o t h e C o m p a n y on t h e i s l a n d of O a h u . W h e n c e , a s t h e C o m p a n y r e p o r t s , i t m u s t b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t h e , S c h e f f e r , would s e t out f o r t h a t i s l a n d w i t h T o m a r i ' s t r o o p s on a s h i p p u r c h a s e d e s p e c i a l l y f o r h i m , o r on s o m e o t h e r C o m p a n y v e s s e l . At the s a m e t i m e the C o m p a n y m a d e a g g r e s s i v e a t t e m p t s t o w i n p o s s e s s i o n of T o m i - o m i ' s t e r r i t o r y f r o m t h e o t h e r s i d e . As e a r l y as N o v e m b e r , 1816, when T o m i - o m i expelled S c h e f f e r , C a p t a i n K o t z e b u e b r o u g h t o v e r on t h e b r i g " R i u r i k " a n e w a s s i s t a n t t o S c h e f f e r , a n e m p l o y e e of t h e C o m p a n y , n a m e d E l i o t , of P o r t u g u e s e e x t r a c t i o n . J o h n E l i o t de C a s t r o r e s e m b l e d S c h e f f e r in m o r e w a y s t h a n o n e . H e , t o o , p o s s e s s e d a c e r t a i n k n o w l e d g e of m e d i c i n e - - h e e v e n s e r v e d a t o n e t i m e a s p h y s i c i a n i n t h e h o s p i t a l s of R i o de J a n e i r o .

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F o l l o w i n g in S c h e f f e r ' s f o o t s t e p s , de C a s t r o soon b e c a m e chief a d v i s e r to T o m i - o m i , who w a s l e f t without the necessarym e d i c a l a s s i s t a n c e upon S c h e f f e r ' s d e p a r t u r e . A c c o r d i n g t o Kotzebue, T o m i - o m i also gave to his new confidant, Eliot, " a l a r g e t r a c t of l a n d . " 8 T h u s t h e R u s s i a n s w e r e a l r e a d y i n p o s s e s s i o n of t w o a r e a s i n T o m i - o m i * s t e r r i t o r y . A s f o r t h e f u r t h e r e x p a n s i o n of t h e R u s s i a n p o s s e s s i o n s on t h a t r e g i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y on t h e i s l a n d of O a h u , w h i c h h a d b e e n " g i v e n " t o R u s s i a b y T o m a r i w h o , l e t us n o t e , h a d n o r i g h t s w h a t s o e v e r t o i t , S c h e f f e r i m a g i n e d t h a t h e c o u l d c a r r y out h i s e x p a n s i o n i s t p l a n s b y m a i n f o r c e . He i n t e n d e d t o do a w a y w i t h T o m i - o m i ' s t r o o p s w i t h t h e h e l p of t h e s c h o o n e r " L a d y " w h i c h h e h a d b o u g h t . T h e C o u n c i l of t h e C o m p a n y r e p o r t e d a l l t h i s t o t h e h e a d of t h e M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s on J a n u a r y 1 9 , 1 8 1 8 . H o w e v e r , the international situation had undergone a change during the brief i n t e r v a l . The stand that R u s s i a took in the Holy A l l i a n c e o n t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e S p a n i s h C o l o n i e s i n A m e r i c a compelled the g o v e r n m e n t to r e f r a i n f r o m giving its a p p r o v a l t o t h e s e i z u r e of t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s . T h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n ment, afraid that England might seize the Spanish colonies that w e r e ablaze with revolution, c a m e f o r w a r d verbally as a d e f e n d e r of S p a i n a n d h e r c o l o n i e s , b a s i n g i t s p o s i t i o n on t h e " p r i n c i p l e s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w " - - w h i c h d i d n o t p r e v e n t i t f r o m l a y i n g c l a i m t o a p o r t i o n of t h e S p a n i s h c o l o n i e s i n C a l i f o r n i a . S t i l l , a n y o p e n s e i z u r e of q u a s i - i n d e p e n d e n t i s lands in the P a c i f i c , the p r i o r i t y to which had belonged to the S p a n i a r d s b y r i g h t of d i s c o v e r y a n d i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o t h e E n g l i s h , w a s n o w o u t of t h e q u e s t i o n . N e s s e l r o d e , t h e h e a d of t h e M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , i n f o r m e d t h e M i n i s t e r of t h e I n t e r i o r , K o z o d a v l e v , on F e b r u a r y 24, 1818, that " H i s M a j e s t y the E m p e r o r h a s p l e a s ed t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of t h o s e i s l a n d s a n d t h e i r v o l u n t a r y e n t r y under His p r o t e c t i o n would not only b r i n g no s u b s t a n t i a l b e n e f i t t o R u s s i a but w o u l d , on t h e c o n t r a r y , p r e sent s o m e v e r y g r e a t d i f f i c u l t i e s in m a n y r e s p e c t s . A n d , t h e r e f o r e , it h a s p l e a s e d His M a j e s t y t h a t while King T o m a r i is shown all p o s s i b l e f r i e n d l i n e s s and a d e s i r e to m a i n t a i n a m i c a b l e r e l a t i o n s with h i m , the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d act should not be a c c e p t e d f r o m h i m . " ^ It w a s s u g g e s t e d t o t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y t h a t it a d h e r e in i t s r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s t o t h e r u l e s g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d by o t h e r g o v e r n m e n t s . At t h e s a m e

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t i m e , Nesselrode pointed out that " t h e r e p o r t s r e c e i v e d . . . f r o m Dr. Scheffer indicate that his r a s h conduct has a l r e a d y led to some unfortunate r e s u l t s . " ^ In view of the position taken by the M i n i s t r y of Foreign A f f a i r s , the Council of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company hit on a v e r y c l e v e r way out. Baranov, according to the Counc i l , was ostensibly ordered to take a l l the n e c e s s a r y steps to r e c a l l Scheffer and send him to St. P e t e r s b u r g . "But since he i s a f o r e i g n e r , " we r e a d in the Council's r e p o r t , "and might, after his separation f r o m the Company, wish to go back to the Sandwich Islands on his own and take p o s s e s sion of the land given to him by the other King T o m i - o m i , in which we cannot be hindered without c l e a r violation of his rights to f r e e d o m of action, e s p e c i a l l y when he has found out that King T o m a r i has not been taken under R u s s i a ' s protection - - s o , should he r e a l l y undertake to go back to those i s l a n d s for the time being on a foreign v e s s e l and possibly even with some plausible e x c u s e , it will be incumbent upon M r . Baranov to make him a friend of the Company to which, o t h e r w i s e , he might be in a position to do g r e a t h a r m . " ^ In other w o r d s , the Company was planning to make use of S c h e f f e r ' s foreign citizenship to be able to r e p r e s e n t a l l his a c t i v i t i e s on the Hawaiian Islands a s his personal actions, for which R u s s i a was not to be held responsible but f r o m which she w a s , at the s a m e t i m e , to benefit. However, the government i t s e l f , while not in a position at the moment to give i t s approval to the s e i z u r e of the Hawaiian Islands, did not purpose to lose sight of t h e m . The problem w a s one of waiting for a m o r e propitious moment. As e a r l y a s August 5, 1818, according to a memorandum of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company, Alexander I " p l e a s e d to recognize a s n e c e s s a r y , in order to encourage those r e l a t i o n s , to bestow upon the local r u l e r by the name of T o m a r i a gold medal on a St. Anna ribbon to be worn around the neck with the inscription 'To the r u l e r of the Sandwich Island? T o m a r i a s a token of his friendship for the R u s s i a n s . ' And in a d dition, to present to the King a s a gift a c u t l a s s in the proper setting and a c r i m s o n cloak with gold t a s s e l s and t r i m m i n g s . " On August 8, 1818, the management was informed that Alexander had ordered the original act of T o m a r i ' s acceptance of R u s s i a n citizenship not to be sent back, "in the belief that it might humiliate its owner. But only five days l a t e r , the management of the R u s s i a n -

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A m e r i c a n Company r e p o r t e d to the M i n i s t e r of the I n t e r i o r that it had r e c e i v e d a l e t t e r f r o m S c h e f f e r f r o m M a c a o , dated S e p t e m b e r 2 0 , 1 8 1 7 , saying that " f o r p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s the R u s s i a n s have been c o m p e l l e d to abandon the i s l a n d of Atuwaii," and that he was on the way to S t . P e t e r s b u r g . A c c o r d i n g to i n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t e d by L i e u t e n a n t K o t z e b u e , " S c h e f f e r and his contingent w e r e driven off the i s l a n d of Atuwaii by the owner h i m s e l f , T o m a r i , who would not even l e t h i m have the looted Company p r o p e r t y that was left f r o m B e r i n g ' s w r e c k e d v e s s e l . A d v i s i n g the government of the situation, the C o m pany a s k e d that the p r e p a r a t i o n of the gold m e d a l and the other gifts f o r T o m a r i be suspended. T h e c o l l a p s e of S c h e f f e r ' s plans was brought about by the d e t e r m i n e d opposition which the Company e n c o u n t e r e d on the p a r t of A m e r i c a n m e r c h a n t s who had v e r y substantial c o m m e r c i a l i n t e r e s t s on the Hawaiian I s l a n d s . T h e s e i s l a n d s w e r e not only an i n d i s p e n s a b l e naval b a s e on the c o m m e r c i a l route to China, but a l s o the only e x p o r t c e n t e r f o r s a n d a l wood, which the A m e r i c a n m e r c h a n t s sold in Canton at a considerable profit. In the beginning,the s t r u g g l e with the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company was being waged by e c o n o m i c m e a n s . In addition to the e x i s t i n g t r a d i n g - p o s t of the Winship B r o t h e r s on the i s l a n d of Oahu, which was under the rule of T o m i - o m i , the A m e r i c a n s set up a t r a d i n g - p o s t a l s o in T o m a r i ' s t e r r i t o r y . In t h e i r constant endeavor to induce T o m a r i to e s t a b l i s h c o m m e r c i a l r e l a t i o n s with t h e m , the A m e r i c a n s r e p u r c h a s e d f r o m h i m at a high p r i c e the s a m e m e r c h a n d i s e which he had a l r e a d y sold to the R u s s i a n s . "On the i s l a n d of Atuwaii [ K a u a i z ] , " r e p o r t e d the Company e m p l o y e e s to the Governing B o a r d , " t h e y [ v i z . the A m e r i c a n s . - A u . ] e s t a b l i s h e d a t r a d i n g - s t a t i o n in 1 8 1 6 , in the name of the l o c a l King T o m a r i and h i s c h i e f s to c o u n t e r a c t the R u s s i a n s and the R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n Company. F o r t h i s purpose they bought f r o m the king land, p l a n t a t i o n s , and all the sandalwood that could be found on that i s l a n d , and whatever the king a s k e d of t h e m they p a i d . In addition, they bought up p r o v i s i o n s to l a s t t h e m a whole y e a r , such as dry t a r e , l i s a i t , c o c o n u t s , and so f o r t h , which the king was r e a l l y under c o n t r a c t to d e l i v e r to the R u s s i a n s , in r e t u r n f o r 1 2 , 0 0 0 d o l l a r s ' worth of such m e r c h a n d i s e a s he might n e e d . " ^ S t i l l , the C o m p a n y ' s a g g r e s s i v e p o l i c y , which found e x p r e s s i o n in the p u r c h a s e of a m a n - o f - w a r and in the p r e p a -

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rations for offensive action against T o m i - o m i ' s t e r r i t o r y , f o r c e d t h e A m e r i c a n s t o d e c i d e on a m o r e d r a s t i c c o a r s e of action. When the a r m e d s c h o o n e r " L a d y " that S c h e f f e r had bought f r o m i t s A m e r i c a n s k i p p e r a r r i v e d a t t h e i s l a n d of O a h u i n Tomi-omi's territory, where there was a Russian tradingpost with a few C o m p a n y m e n , the t r a d i n g - p o s t w a s found to be c o m p l e t e l y d e s t r o y e d . The havoc w a s wrought under the d i r e c t i o n of t h e " m i n i s t e r " h i m s e l f of T o m i - o m i , J o h n Y o u n g , who h a d b e e n b r i b e d by the A m e r i c a n m e r c h a n t s . " T h u s o u r t r a d i n g - p o s t on A h u [ O a h u ] c a m e t o a n e n d , a n d t h e l a n d s given or s o l d by T o m i - o m i ' s f a m i l y r e v e r t e d t o t h e i r o r i g i n a l o w n e r s , " l a m e n t s S c h e f f e r in his j o u r n a l . ^ T h e e m p l o y e e s of t h e C o m p a n y w e r e f o r c i b l y p u t on b o a r d t h e s c h o o n e r a n d s e n t t o K a u a i . B u t on t h a t i s l a n d , t o o , t h e R u s s i a n s e n j o y e d o n l y a b r i e f s t a y . In M a y of 1 8 1 7 , f i v e b o a t l o a d s of n a t i v e s , w i t h a l e t t e r , c a m e o v e r f r o m O a h u , a n d s o o n a f t e r , i n S c h e f f e r ' s w o r d s , " a r e v o l u t i o n b r o k e out against the R u s s i a n s . " T h e A m e r i c a n s w h o w e r e in t h e s e r v i c e of t h e C o m p a n y , i n c l u d i n g C a p t a i n V o z d v i t ( W a d s w o r t h ) of t h e C o m p a n y v e s s e l " l i m e n " t h a t w a s in d o c k a t K a u a i , a b a n d o n e d t h e i r s h i p s . T o g e t h e r with the n a t i v e s they seized Scheffer and his c o m p a n i o n s , f o r c e d t h e m into a boat, and took t h e m to the C o m p a n y v e s sel " K o d i a k " which w a s a n c h o r e d in the h a r b o r . U n d e r the t h r e a t of h a v i n g t h e s h i p s h o t up f r o m u n d e r h i m w i t h c a n n o n , Scheffer w a s given twenty-four h o u r s to leave the i s l a n d . B u t t h e " K o d i a k " h a d a h o l e in i t s s i d e a n d w a s , m o r e o v e r , w i t h o u t p r o v i s i o n s a n d w a t e r . W i t h d i f f i c u l t y it m a d e i t s w a y t o t h e i s l a n d of O a h u a n d t h e r e , w i t h i n t h r e e m i l e s of t h e h a r b o r of H a n n o r u a ( H o n o l u l u ) , i t c a m e t o a s t o p a n d g a v e t h e distress signal. The C o m p a n y ' s employees s u r r e n d e r e d all t h e i r guns, r i f l e s , a n d e v e n s w o r d s a n d s p e a r s u n d e r t h e t h r e a t of n o t b e i n g a l l o w e d into p o r t . But e v e n a f t e r all t h e a r m s had b e e n s u r r e n d e r e d , the "Kodiak" was still kept for another week o u t s i d e t h e p o r t l i m i t s . T h e c a p t a i n of t h e A m e r i c a n v e s s e l " V o i l e s " w a s t h e n i n c o m m a n d of t h e p o r t . S c h e f f e r m a n a g e d t o t r a n s f e r t o one of t h e f o r e i g n s h i p s t h a t c a l l e d a t H o n o l u l u b y a c c i d e n t . He m a d e h i s w a y t o Canton, and f r o m t h e r e to St. P e t e r s b u r g , w h e r e he hoped "to win new s u p p o r t f o r his r i g h t s to t h o s e i s l a n d s . " ^ In t h e m e m o r a n d u m on t h e S a n d w i c h I s l a n d s w h i c h " C o l l e g i -

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i a t e A s s e s s o r " S c h e f f e r s u b m i t t e d t o A l e x a n d e r I upon h i s a r r i v a l i n R u s s i a , w e f i n d a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e i s l a n d s " w i t h r e s p e c t to their physical advantages. . .their c o m m e r c i a l advantages" and, finally, "with r e s p e c t to t h e i r political a d v a n t a g e s . " S c h e f f e r ' s a r g u m e n t s w e r e subjected to scathing c r i t i c i s m in t h e D e p a r t m e n t of C o m m e r c e a n d M a n u f a c t u r e . His m e m o r a n d u m was being examined at a t i m e when the t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t r e a l l y h a d n o h o p e w h a t e v e r of g a i n i n g a f o o t h o l d on t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s . S c h e f f e r b r o u g h t f o r t h a p l a n f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of v a s t cotton p l a n t a t i o n s on t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s . S t a r t i n g with the c a l c u l a t i o n t h a t h e h a d p i c k e d 3 - l / 2 p o o d s of " p u r e p a p e r " f r o m 10 s a g e n e s of l a n d , h e f i g u r e d t h a t i t w a s p o s s i b l e t o r a i s e in the Hawaiian I s l a n d s , and then sell in China and J a p a n , 4 m i l l i o n p i a s t e r s ' w o r t h of c o t t o n a n n u a l l y . In t h i s connection the examiner f r o m the Department observed ironic a l l y : " E v e n if i t i s r e a l l y t r u e t h a t c o t t o n g r o w s s o a b u n d a n t l y t h e r e , the q u e s t i o n s t i l l r e m a i n s a s t o who would p r o c e s s it profitably and a s to w h e r e it could be sold without t r a d i n g directly with China and J a p a n . " S c h e f f e r ' s a s s e r t i o n s t h a t " t h e c l i m a t e of t h e S a n d w i c h I s l a n d s f a v o r s t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of c l o t h m a k i n g , " t h a t " t h e c o t t o n t o b e g r o w n t h e r e w i l l s u p p l y h a l f of R u s s i a w i t h g o o d s , and the b e n e f i t t h e r e f r o m will be quite c o n s i d e r a b l e , " that it is possible to b r e e d m e r i n o sheep, grow m u l b e r r y - t r e e s , and cultivate s i l k - w o r m s and subsequently to establish silk f a c t o r i e s and s u g a r - r e f i n e r i e s — a l l t h e s e m e t with the s a m e s k e p t i c a l r e a c t i o n . "It will be difficult for the g o v e r n m e n t to e s t a b l i s h f a c t o r i e s on i s l a n d s s i t u a t e d in t h e o t h e r h e m i s p h e r e , " w a s t h e o b j e c t i o n r a i s e d t o S c h e f f e r ' s p l a n s by an o f f i c i a l in t h e D e p a r t m e n t of M a n u f a c t u r e a n d D o m e s t i c C o m m e r c e . H o w e v e r , it w a s not S c h e f f e r ' s e c o n o m i c plans that m e t with t h e m o s t s e r i o u s o b j e c t i o n s , but his political s c h e m e s f o r s e i z i n g t h e S a n d w i c h I s l a n d s . T a k i n g a s i t s p o i n t of d e p a r t u r e S c h e f f e r ' s own r e p o r t that t h e b a r t e r t r a d e with the n a t i v e s w a s w h o l l y i n t h e h a n d s of t h e A m e r i c a n s , w h o s u p plied the i s l a n d e r s with e v e r y t h i n g , including f i r e - a r m s , c a n n o n , a n d c a n n o n - b a l l s , t h e D e p a r t m e n t of M a n u f a c t u r e po i n t ed out quite l o g i c a l l y t h a t the A m e r i c a n s , " b e i n g t h e i r n e i g h b o r s a n d b e i n g s t r o n g on t h e s e a , w i l l b e m o s t r e l u c t a n t to allow any o t h e r p o w e r that does not have a f l e e t in t h o s e w a t e r s to e s t a b l i s h such r e l a t i o n s " with the i s l a n d e r s . The D e p a r t m e n t f o u n d c o n f i r m a t i o n of t h i s o p i n i o n i n t h e r e f u s a l

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of t h e E n g l i s h g o v e r n m e n t i n 1812 t o b e s t o w B r i t i s h c i t i z e n s h i p upon K i n g T o m i - o m i of t h e i s l a n d of O a h u . S c h e f f e r ' s r e p o r t on t h é n e g o t i a t i o n s b e t w e e n T o m i - o m i a n d t h e E n g l i s h brought forth this laconic r e m a r k : "Certainly there were a s u f f i c e n t n u m b e r of p o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s f o r t h e E n g l i s h c a b i n e t n o t t o a d m i t u n d e r i t s j u r i s d i c t i o n t h e r u l e r of t h e O a h u I s lands . " H a v i n g b e e n c o m p l e t e l y s i d e t r a c k e d , S c h e f f e r , D o c t o r of M e d i c i n e , w e n t t o B r a z i l i n q u e s t of n e w a d v e n t u r e s . He g a i n e d t h e c o n f i d e n c e of t h e E m p e r o r of B r a z i l , a t t a i n e d a h i g h p o s i t i o n , a n d e v e n r e c e i v e d t h e t i t l e of C o u n t of F r a n k e n d a h l . He w a s c o m m i s s i o n e d b y t h e E m p e r o r t o go t o E u r o p e t o r e c r u i t s o l d i e r s f o r the B r a z i l i a n g u a r d . In s p i t e of t h e f a i l u r e of S c h e f f e r ' s H a w a i i a n e x p e d i t i o n , the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company w a s unwilling to abandon its plans for expansion. A p a r t f r o m Scheffer and his m e m o r a n d a , w h i c h h e s u b m i t t e d t o A l e x a n d e r in p e r s o n , t h e D i r e c t o r s a n d t h e m e m b e r s of t h e C o m p a n y b e s i e g e d t h e g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t m e n t s a n d , b y m e a n s of " O p i n i o n s of t h e M a n a g e m e n t " w h i c h t h e y d i s t r i b u t e d a m o n g a n u m b e r of i n f l u e n t i a l o f f i c i a l s , t r i e d to prove that the Hawaiian Islands should belong to the R u s s i a n s . Neither the Spaniards, nor the English, nor the A m e r i c a n s , a s s e r t e d the m a n a g e m e n t , had any right to the i s l a n d s . The S p a n i a r d s , although they w e r e the f i r s t to d i s c o v e r the Hawaiian I s l a n d s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , c o u l d n o t a n d w o u l d n o t b l o c k t h e i r s e i z u r e , f o r e v e n p r e v i o u s l y t h e y did not c l a i m t h e o w n e r s h i p of t h e s e i s l a n d s . A s f o r t h e E n g l i s h , a l t h o u g h C o o k a n d V a n c o u v e r did p u t in at t h e s e i s l a n d s a t a n e a r l y date, and though the islands w e r e n a m e d the "Sandwich I s l a n d s " a f t e r L o r d S a n d w i c h , t h e y s t i l l c o u l d l a y no c l a i m t o t h e m , since the English g o v e r n m e n t itself had r e f u s e d to r e ceive T o m i - o m i into B r i t i s h c i t i z e n s h i p . And, finally, the A m e r i c a n s , for whom the islands constitute a convenient t r a n s f e r - p o i n t on t h e r o u t e t o C h i n a , h a d no r i g h t t o t h e m in t h e o p i n i o n of t h e C o m p a n y , i n a s m u c h a s t h e y h a d not o f f i c i a l l y announced t h e i r c l a i m s . Hence the Company drew the conc l u s i o n that R u s s i a alone had the right to the Hawaiian I s l a n d s . While a g r e e i n g that S c h e f f e r ' s p r o p o s a l to send a new e x p e d i t i o n t o t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s f o r t h e p u r p o s e of s e i z i n g t h e m b y f o r c e of a r m s w a s n o t f e a s i b l e , t h e m a n a g e m e n t b r o u g h t f o r t h a n o t h e r p l a n . It c a l l e d f o r t h e s e n d i n g of t w o s h i p s , one a w a r s h i p a s a n e s c o r t v e s s e l a n d t h e o t h e r l o a d e d w i t h R u s s i a n f u r - h u n t e r s w h o w o u l d s e t t l e in t h e H a w a i i a n

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I s l a n d s . T h e c o o p e r a t i o n of t h e s a m e K i n g T o m a r i w a s c o u n t e d upon. T h e m a n a g e m e n t m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e r e g u l a r y e a r l y d i s p a t c h of one w a r s h i p would be e n t i r e l y s u f f i c e n t to p r e v e n t a n y one f r o m l a y i n g c l a i m t o t h e R u s s i a n p o s s e s s i o n s in t h e H a w a i i a n Islands. B u t t h e p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n would not a l l o w t h e g o v e r n m e n t t o a c c e p t t h i s plan f o r e n t r e n c h m e n t on t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s . W h i l e it r a i s e d no o b j e c t i o n t o any a t t e m p t on t h e p a r t of t h e C o m p a n y t o c o n s o l i d a t e i t s p o s i t i o n on t h e i s l a n d s , t h e g o v e r n m e n t a b s o l u t e l y r e f u s e d t o c o m e t o t h e a i d of t h e C o m p a n y with a r m e d f o r c e . T h e M i n i s t e r of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , N e s s e l r o d e , in a l e t t e r to t h e M i n i s t e r of the I n t e r i o r , K o z o d a v l e v , a p p r i s e d h i m of t h e f o l l o w i n g opinion of A l e x a n d e r I in t h i s m a t t e r : " A s f o r the C o m p a n y ' s intention to attempt the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s with t h o s e i s l a n d s , H i s M a j e s t y , w h i l e a p p r o v i n g s u c h an i n t e n t i o n a n d w i s h i n g t h e C o m p a n y t h e b e s t of s u c c e s s , i s c o n v i n c e d t h a t under a p r u d e n t a r r a n g e m e n t and a c a r e f u l s e l e c t i o n by t h e m a n a g e m e n t of a g e n t s who a r e d i s c r e e t and c a u t i o u s in t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s , t h e C o m p a n y w i l l s e c u r e by t h e s e m e a n s , and with g r e a t e r d e p e n d a b i l i t y , t h e v e r y s a m e b e n e f i t s and a d v a n t a g e s t h a t a r e a n t i c i p a t e d f r o m t h e p r e c a r i o u s s e i z u r e s of t h o s e i s lands . " 1 8 T h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y f a i l e d , h o w e v e r , t o obtain any d e g r e e of s u c c e s s by f o l l o w i n g t h i s p l a n . A l t h o u g h it c o n t i n u e d to s e n d i t s b o a t s t o t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s (in 1 8 1 9 it d i s patched t h e r e the newly p u r c h a s e d b r i g " B r u t u s , " the captain of w h i c h w a s s u p p o s e d t o m e e t with T o m a r i ) , i t f a i l e d t o o b t a i n any s u b s t a n t i a l r e s u l t s . T h e m a n a g e m e n t could only r e g r e t S c h e f f e r ' s e x c e s s i v e e n t h u s i a s m w h i c h had l e d t o t h e l o s s of t h e H a w a i i a n c o l o n i e s . " I f t h a t a g e n t of B a r a n o v ' s , " w r i t e s the D i r e c t o r of t h e C o m p a n y K h l e b n i k o v , " h a d not gone about i t with s u c h f e r v o r , but had b e e n m o r e c i r c u m s p e c t and c a u t i o u s , t h e n by applying m o d e r a t i o n and a k n o w l e d g e of c o n d i t i o n s , he would, at t h e s t a r t , h a v e r e m a i n e d in p o s s e s s i o n of s o m e s m a l l p l a n t a t i o n s on Oahu and A t u w a i i [ K a u a i ] , and l a t e r m i g h t h a v e b e e n a b l e , c o n s i s t e n t with t h e f o r c e s at h i s d i s p o s a l and with p r e v a i l i n g c o n d i t i o n s , t o s t r e n g t h e n h i s h o l d i n g s , i f not a c t u a l l y t o e x p a n d t h e m . T h e s e i z u r e of t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s w a s t o b e , a s we h a v e n o t e d , m e r e l y t h e f i r s t s t e p in t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n of R u s s i a ' s

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p o s i t i o n i n t h e n o r t h e r n P a c i f i c . T h e f a i l u r e of t h i s a t t e m p t , h o w e v e r , did n o t p u t a s t o p t o t h e e f f o r t s of t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y to r e a l i z e s i m i l a r p l a n s in the n o r t h w e s t Atlantic. T h e a t t e m p t m a d e in t h e e a r l y 1 8 2 0 ' s t o w i n p o s s e s s i o n of t h e i s l a n d of H a i t i - - o n e of t h e g r o u p of t h e l a r g e A n t i l l e s - - i s i n t i m a t e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e n a m e of t h e D e c e m b r i s t s who w e r e close to the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . T h e i s l a n d of H a i t i , a s a n o b j e c t of f u t u r e R u s s i a n e x p a n s i o n , s e r v e d a s a t o p i c of c o n v e r s a t i o n a m o n g t h e D e c e m b r i s t s . E v e n in t h e l e t t e r s t h a t h e a d d r e s s e d f r o m p r i s o n t o N i c h o l a s I, t h e D e c e m b r i s t S t e i n g e l d i d n o t f a i l t o m e n t i o n H a i t i . He s a i d : "I had the good f o r t u n e to s u b m i t to the l a t e E m p e r o r a plan for reviving the fleet and stimulating honest people to engage in n a v i g a t i o n - - s o m e t h i n g t o w h i c h H a i t i a n d A m e r i c a a r e beckoning u s . " ^ " T h e s e i z u r e of H a i t i w a s t o h a v e b e e n a c c o m p l i s h e d by t h e D e c e m b r i s t Z a v a l i s h i n , w i t h t h e a i d of t h e F r e n c h G e n e r a l J a c q u e s B o y e r w h o h a d s e r v e d in San D o m i n g o f o r a l o n g t i m e . A p a r t i c i p a n t i n t h e m a r c h on M o s c o w , t a k e n p r i s o n e r on t h e B e r e z i n a , B o y e r m a d e h i s p e r m a n e n t h o m e in R u s s i a . It i s k n o w n t h a t in 1822 G e n e r a l B o y e r , w i t h t h e p e r m i s s i o n of A l e x a n d e r I , t r a v e l l e d t o S a n D o m i n g o , o s t e n s i b l y in t h e i n t e r e s t s of t h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t . B u t , t o j u d g e b y t h e t e s t i m o n y t h a t Z a v a l i s h i n g a v e b e f o r e t h e C o m m i s s i o n of I n q u i r y on O c t o b e r 4 , 1 8 2 6 , ^ 1 B o y e r ' s t r i p t o H a i t i w a s of a n e n t i r e l y different c h a r a c t e r . According to Zavalishin, Boyer subm i t t e d to A l e x a n d e r I a plan f o r initiating c o m m e r c i a l i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h H a i t i . T h i s p l a n w a s a p p r o v e d , b u t it w a s p o i n t e d out t h a t i t w a s n e c e s s a r y f i r s t of a l l t o o b t a i n F r e n c h r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e of H a i t i . O n l y t h e n w o u l d it b e p o s s i b l e , without a g g r a v a t i n g the r e l a t i o n s with F r a n c e , to a t t e m p t t o s e c u r e a n e c o n o m i c f o o t h o l d on H a i t i . Boyer's t r i p t o H a i t i in 1 8 2 2 , a t t h e v e r y m o m e n t t h a t F r a n c e r e c o g n i z e d t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e of t h e i s l a n d , w a s n o t a t a l l in " t h e i n t e r e s t of t h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t , " b u t in t h e i n t e r e s t of t h e Russian government. F r e n c h r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e of H a i t i c o i n c i d e d w i t h a w o r s e n i n g of t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n a s a r e s u l t of t h e G r e e k r e b e l l i o n a n d of e v e n t s in S p a i n . It w a s n a t u r a l , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t R u s s i a ' s i n t e r e s t in f u r t h e r e x p a n s i o n on t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t s h o u l d f l a g . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , B o y e r ' s p l a n s s e e m e d quite a t t r a c t i v e to the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m -

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pany, with which he soon e s t a b l i s h e d c l o s e c o n t a c t s . F o r t h e C o m p a n y B o y e r w a s d o u b l y v a l u a b l e . s i n c e ,in a d d i t i o n t o p o s s e s s i n g a n e x c e l l e n t k n o w l e d g e of t h e s i t u a t i o n a n d of t h e n a t u r e of t h e t r a d e w i t h H a i t i , h e k n e w how t o m a i n t a i n f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s with the local a u t h o r i t i e s . A c c o r d i n g to s o m e r e p o r t s , G e n e r a l B o y e r w a s r e l a t e d t o t h e P r e s i d e n t of t h e H a i t i n e g r o r e p u b l i c , the mulatto B o y e r . ^ It w a s d e c i d e d t o s e n d a s h i p w i t h m e r c h a n d i s e t o H a i t i u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d of Z a v a l i s h i n , w h o h a d r e t u r n e d f r o m C a l i f o r n i a . In h i s own w o r d s t h i s w a s t h e p l a n : "I shall l e a d the s h i p , G e n e r a l B o y e r will c o m e with m e , a n d I s h a l l s e t f o r t h t h e m a i n r e a s o n s why t h e r e p u b l i c should e s t a b l i s h f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s with R u s s i a . T h i s is the w a y it s h o u l d b e d o n e , s o t h a t we m a y not a p p e a r u n d u l y h a s t y by s e n d i n g a s p e c i a l a g e n t . A n d w h i l e t h e r e a s o n s that I have put f o r w a r d a r e being s t u d i e d , and the c a r g o s o l d , I s h a l l p r e o c c u p y m y s e l f w i t h s c i e n t i f i c s t u d i e s on t h e S e a of t h e A n t i l l e s , a n d v i s i t v a r i o u s p o r t s b o t h on t h e i s l a n d s a n d on t h e m a i n l a n d , g a t h e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , on t h e s u b j e c t of d i r e c t t r a d e b e t w e e n R u s s i a and the p l a c e s I shall have v i s i t e d . "^3

T h e e x p e d i t i o n t o H a i t i w a s t o b e l a u n c h e d in S e p t e m b e r , 1826 b u t t h e e v e n t s of D e c e m b e r 14, 1 8 2 5 , i n t e r f e r e d . It d e v o l v e d upon M o r d v i n o v t o o b t a i n t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s p e r m i s s i o n f o r t h e e x p e d i t i o n t o H a i t i , w h e n s o m e of t h e a u t h o r s of t h e p l a n w e r e a l r e a d y in p r i s o n o r i n e x i l e . T h e q u e s t i o n of a l l o w i n g t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y t o t r a d e w i t h H a i t i did n o t c o m e up f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n b e f o r e t h e M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e u n t i l O c t o b e r , 1 8 2 6 . T h e c o n d i t i o n s on w h i c h t h e C o m p a n y p r o p o s e d t o i n i t i a t e t h a t t r a d e w e r e t h e s a m e a s t h o s e noted b e f o r e . An a b s o l u t e p r e r e q u i s i t e w a s the p r o v i s i o n t h a t " t h e g o v e r n m e n t will give [the C o m p a n y ] p r e f e r e n c e o v e r o t h e r s by r a i s i n g t h e c u s t o m s d u t i e s . In s p i t e of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e C o m m i t t e e of M i n i s t e r s f o u n d it p o s s i b l e to p e r m i t the Company to m a k e two t r i p s to the island of H a i t i w i t h o u t p a y i n g a n y d u t i e s , t h e q u e s t i o n , in v i e w of t h e p r o t e s t of t h e M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e , w a s s u b m i t t e d f o r e x a m i nation to the State Council. B o t h in t h e m e m o r a n d u m of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y a n d in t h e s e p a r a t e o p i n i o n e x p r e s s e d i n J a n u a r y , 1827 b y A d m i r a l N . S . M o r d v i n o v a t a s e s s i o n of t h e C o m m i t t e e of

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M i n i s t e r s , a g r e a t d e a l i s s a i d about t h e a i m s w h i c h t h e C o m pany had s e t f o r i t s e l f when it c a m e out with t h e p l a n f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g c o m m e r c i a l r e l a t i o n s with H a i t i . T h e C o m p a n y put e s p e c i a l e m p h a s i s on t h e f a c t t h a t " t h e i s l a n d of H a i t i might s e r v e as a most convenient place for storing m e r c h a n d i s e s h i p p e d b e t w e e n the c o u n t r i e s of N o r t h and South A m e r i c a , and f o r s e n d i n g it on f r o m t h e r e t o t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s and to t h e e a s t c o a s t of S i b e r i a . T h e i m p o r t a n c e of s t o r a g e - p l a c e s in the d e v e l o p m e n t of c o l o n i a l t r a d e w a s a l s o e m p h a s i z e d in M o r d v i n o v ' s s e p a r a t e o p i n i o n . He s a i d : " T h e foundation of E n g l a n d ' s f o r e i g n t r a d e h a s b e e n t h e c h a i n of s t o r a g e - p l a c e s t h a t s h e s e t up f o r t h e m o s t c o n v e n i e n t d i s p o s a l of h e r m a n u f a c t u r e d p r o d u c t s . And i n d e e d , t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of s t o r a g e - s t a t i o n s w a s u s u a l l y t h e f i r s t s t e p t o w a r d s the e c o n o m i c and o c c a s i o n a l l y t h e p o l i t i c a l c o n q u e s t of f o r e i g n t e r r i t o r y . It w a s of p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e with r e s p e c t t o H a i t i . J u s t a s t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s s e r v e d a s an i n d i s p e n s a b l e t r a n s i t - p o i n t b e t w e e n A m e r i c a and A s i a , so Haiti w a s i n t e n d e d t o b e c o m e a t r a n s i t - p o i n t b e t w e e n the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in N o r t h A m e r i c a and t h e i s l a n d s of South A m e r i c a a n d , at t h e s a m e t i m e , t o b i n d m o r e c l o s e l y t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s to t h e E u r o p e a n m a i n l a n d . S p e a k i n g of t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g t r a d e r e l a t i o n s with H a i t i , M o r d v i n o v m a i n t a i n e d t h a t " t h e a t t e m p t s h o u l d b e m a d e e v e n i f it i n v o l v e s l o s s e s , f o r what s h o u l d be kept in mind a r e the benefits that will a c c r u e to R u s s i a n c o m m e r c e and to t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t , w e l l in a d v a n c e , of r e s e r v e s of a l l t h e t h i n g s n e e d e d by o u r n o r t h - w e s t c o l o n i e s and of t h e g o o d s to be b a r t e r e d with t h e s a v a g e t r i b e s of t h a t r e g i o n , a s s o o n a s n a v i g a t i o n i s o p e n e d up t h r o u g h t h e i s t h m u s of P a n a m a , the s h o r t e s t route to the P a c i f i c . F a r t h e r on M o r d v i n o v note s : " A n a d d i t i o n a l a d v a n t a g e i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p r e s e n t t r i p , c o n j e c t u r a l a s t o t i m e and d i s t a n c e , " m a y b e d i v i d e d " i n t o t h e two s h o r t e r t r i p s , one f r o m t h e B a l t i c S e a t o t h e i s l a n d of H a i t i and t h e o t h e r f r o m H a i t i t o t h e c o l o n i e s , with s p e c i a l s h i p s t o be u s e d in t h e s e two c r o s s i n g s ; w h e r e f o r e t h e r e w i l l be l e s s n e e d of t a k i n g on p r o v i s i o n s f o r t h e s h i p s ' c r e w s , and c o m m e r c i a l c a r g o c o u l d b e t a k e n on i n s t e a d . T h e C o m p a n y w i l l d e r i v e m a n y o t h e r b e n e f i t s and a d v a n t a g e s f r o m s h o r t e r t r i p s . T h e p l a n s f o r g a i n i n g a f o o t h o l d on H a i t i w e r e not only c a l c u l a t e d on p o s s i b l e d i r e c t c o m m e r c i a l b e n e f i t s t o the C o m p a n y , but a l s o on the a d v a n t a g e s t o b e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e i m p o r t a n c e

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w h i c h t h i s i s l a n d h a d a t t a i n e d a s a r e s u l t of t h e c h a n g e i n R u s s i a ' s s i t u a t i o n a f t e r t h e c o n c l u s i o n of t h e c o n v e n t i o n of 1 8 2 4 - 1 8 2 5 . T h e c o l o n y of R o s s h a d s t i l l n o t b e c o m e t h e g r a n a r y of t h e A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s , a n d , a s w e h a v e p o i n t e d out m o r e t h a n o n c e , t h e r e w a s no b a s i s f o r h o p i n g , in v i e w of t h e o b s t a c l e s i n t e r p o s e d b y E n g l a n d a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h a t t h e C o m p a n y w o u l d be a b l e to e x p a n d a n y f u r t h e r on t h e North A m e r i c a n continent. The Company was fully a w a r e that " u n d e r the c o n d i t i o n s in w h i c h the E u r o p e a n t r a d i n g n a t i o n s now find t h e m s e l v e s , that nation which f a i l s to expand its c o m m e r c e , e x t e n d t h e b o u n d a r i e s of i t s b u s i n e s s a c t i v i t i e s , o r d i s c o v e r new m a r k e t s , will inevitably lose its old b u s i n e s s a s w e l l , f o r i t m a y b e p u s h e d o u t of i t s p o s i t i o n s e v e r y w h e r e b y t h e v a s t r e s o u r c e s of t h e o t h e r n a t i o n s a n d b y t h e a b u n d a n c e a n d t h e l o w p r i c e s of t h e i r m e r c h a n d i s e . " 29 i n t h e o p i n i o n of t h e C o m p a n y , s e c u r i n g a f o o t h o l d o n H a i t i w a s a l s o i n t e n d e d t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e p e n e t r a t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n s i n t o t h e South A m e r i c a n c o u n t r i e s . All these a r g u m e n t s , h o w e v e r , w e r e i n e f f e c t u a l . The r u m o r s t h a t t h e C o m p a n y i n t e n d e d t o i m p o r t f r o m H a i t i f r e e of duty c o f f e e , indigo, and, e s p e c i a l l y , s u g a r , c a u s e d g r e a t consternation among the St. P e t e r s b u r g m e r c h a n t s and i n d u c e d t h e m t o c o m e b e f o r e t h e M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e , K a n k r i n , with a s p e c i a l p e t i t i o n . By a m a j o r i t y vote t h e State C o u n c i l r e j e c t ed the C o m p a n y ' s r e q u e s t for the right d u t y - f r e e t r a d e with Haiti. As for establishing c o m m e r c i a l relations with Haiti on g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d p r i n c i p l e s that involve the p a y m e n t of a l l r e q u i s i t e d u t i e s , t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , b r o u g h t u p , a s i t w a s , o n t h e e n j o y m e n t of g o v e r n m e n t - g r a n t e d p r i v i l e g e s , w o u l d n o t d a r e t a k e t h a t s t e p . So t h i s p l a n w a s not r e a l i z e d .

Chapter Vili L A B O R C O N D I T I O N S IN T H E RUSSIAN C O L O N I E S IN A M E R I C A

THE RUSSIAN-AMERICAN COMPANY was constantly troubled b y t h e s h o r t a g e of l a b o r . It w a s , m o r e o v e r , v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r the C o m p a n y t o c r e a t e in the colonies a p e r m a n e n t and settled R u s s i a n population, without which the f i r m p o s s e s s i o n of t h e r e g i o n w o u l d b e i m p o s s i b l e . In t r y i n g t o s o l v e t h i s question, however, the Company encountered insurmountable o b s t a c l e s . T h e s y s t e m of s e r f d o m w h i c h t h e n p r e v a i l e d i n R u s s i a r e d u c e d t o a m i n i m u m t h e n u m b e r of f r e e w o r k e r s in t h e c o u n t r y a n d w a s a d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r in t h e p o l i c y of t h e g o v e r n m e n t . T h e l a t t e r a c t u a l l y h a m p e r e d t h e s e t t l e m e n t of R u s s i a n s in A m e r i c a , i n s p i t e of w h a t s e e m e d t o b e i t s n a t u r a l i n t e r e s t in c o l o n i z i n g t h e r e g i o n . T h e q u e s t i o n of a t t r a c t i n g a p e r m a n e n t R u s s i a n p o p u l a t i o n t o t h e c o l o n i e s w a s r a i s e d a l m o s t a t t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g of t h e l i f e of t h e C o m p a n y . " S i n c e t h e r e a l s t r e n g t h of t h o s e r e g i o n s s h o u l d r e s t u p o n t h e n u m b e r of s e t t l e m e n t s a n d t h e d e n s i t y of the p o p u l a t i o n , " w r o t e R e z a n o v in h i s plan f o r r e o r g a n i z i n g t h e c o l o n i e s which he s u b m i t t e d to t h e m a n a g e m e n t , " i t i s n e c e s s a r y to invite m o r e Russians over t h e r e , who, setting a n e x a m p l e of a s e t t l e d l i f e , w o u l d t e n d g r a d u a l l y t o t e m p e r t h e s a v a g e r y of t h e A m e r i c a n s a n d t u r n t h e m i n t o a d e s i r a b l e s o c i a l g r o u p . " R e z a n o v c o n s i d e r e d it n e c e s s a r y t o c o n c e n t r a t e in the colonies a s m a n y f r e e R u s s i a n s a s p o s s i b l e , and to give the s a m e rights to the C r e o l e s , whose n u m b e r s had been i n c r e a s i n g f r o m y e a r to y e a r , since t h e r e w e r e s c a r c e l y any R u s s i a n w o m e n in t h e c o l o n i e s . It w a s t o be a p o p u l a t i o n e n j o y i n g c o m p l e t e i n d e p e n d e n c e of t h e C o m p a n y , s o m e t h i n g in t h e n a t u r e of t h e A m e r i c a n f a r m e r s . A c c o r d i n g t o R e z a n o v ' s i d e a , " t h e y w e r e all t o be a s s i g n e d land for cultivation and to r e c e i v e a s s i s t a n c e f r o m the C o m pany in e r e c t i n g t h e i r b u i l d i n g s . In 1808 t h e S t a t e C o u n c i l e x a m i n e d t h e r e q u e s t of t h e C o m p a n y , w h i c h h a d b e e n a p p r o v e d by t h e M i n i s t e r of C o m m e r c e , f o r p e r m i s s i o n t o s e t t l e in t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s " f r e e m e n , 171

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such a s m e r c h a n t s , townspeople, s o - c a l l e d s t a t e and econom i c p e a s a n t s , those paying tribute in f u r s , r e t i r e d s o l d i e r s , and so f o r t h , and s e r f s with the consent of the l a n d o w n e r s . " The Company p l e d g e d i t s e l f to a s s u m e all the t a x e s due f r o m those settling in the c o l o n i e s . However, this plan a r o u s e d s h a r p opposition in the State C o u n c i l . F e a r s w e r e entertained by the big s e r f - o w n e r s that the opportunity to l e a v e for the A m e r i c a n colonies might a p p e a r v e r y alluring to too l a r g e a number of R u s s i a n s u b j e c t s . The plan w a s r e g a r d e d a s an e n c r o a c h m e n t on the i n t e r e s t s of the nobility and w a s unanimously r e j e c t e d . The M i n i s t e r of C o m m e r c e alone p e r s e v e r e d in his s e p a r a t e opinion. The State Council gave a s the f o r m a l r e a s o n f o r its r e j e c t i o n the f a c t that among the men going to the colonies t h e r e might be s o m e who had d i s t r i c t and city t a x o b l i g a t i o n s , or w e r e s u b j e c t to m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e - - t h a t i s , s t a t e - o w n e d p e a s a n t s , townspeople, and so f o r t h . The State Council c o n s i d e r e d it n e c e s s a r y to p r e s e r v e the old o r d e r , a c c o r d i n g to which the people sent to the c o l o n i e s would conclude only t e m p o r a r y c o n t r a c t s with the C o m pany and w e r e not to be e x e m p t e d f r o m the payment of g e n e r a l t a x e s and o b l i g a t i o n s . The Governing B o a r d of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company w a s i n f o r m e d that "with r e g a r d to the R u s s i a n s who have their own little h o u s e s and their f a m i l i e s with them on Kodiak and who have r e q u e s t e d to be allowed to r e m a i n in the c o l o n i e s for good, no such authorization h a s been g r a n t e d to them p u r suant to a r e p o r t to His M a j e s t y , and they a r e o r d e r e d to r e m a i n t h e r e on the s a m e b a s i s a s b e f o r e , a c c o r d i n g to the p r o v i s i o n s of their c o n t r a c t s , that i s , to stay f o r seven y e a r s , with their p a s s p o r t s , to pay their t a x e s at their d o m i c i l e , and to l e a v e A m e r i c a and r e t u r n home only by o r d e r of the a u t h o r ities. " 2 The C o m p a n y , h o w e v e r , i n v a r i a b l y violated t h e s e t i m e l i m i t a t i o n s on the stay of the w o r k e r s on the h u n t i n g - s t a t i o n s . It adduced all p o s s i b l e p r e t e x t s f o r failing to send back home the w o r k e r s who w e r e under contract and f o r keeping t h e m in the colonies f o r d e c a d e s on l o n g - e x p i r e d p a s s p o r t s . The l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , often antagonistic to the Company b e c a u s e of i t s " i m p e r t i n e n t r e p o r t s to the g o v e r n m e n t , " constantly a l luded to this in i t s accounts to St. P e t e r s b u r g . The Company defended its c o u r s e of action on the ground that " i t does not p o s s e s s the m e a n s , when the p a s s p o r t s of the w o r k e r s have e x p i r e d , to send them out of the c o l o n i e s

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i m m e d i a t e l y , b e c a u s e t h e y live in v a r i o u s p l a c e s which a r e widely s e p a r a t e d f r o m each other and w h e r e seagoing v e s s e l s d o n o t p u t i n e v e r y y e a r , a n d w h e n t h e y do p u t i n , t h e y do n o t h a v e a n y n e w p e o p l e t o r e p l a c e t h o s e w h o h a v e b e e n in the colonies f o r a long t i m e , and it is i m p o s s i b l e to l e a v e a n y p o s t u n o c c u p i e d . F o r t h i s r e a s o n s o m e of t h e w o r k e r s d e c i d e , of t h e i r o w n f r e e w i l l , t o s t a y a n o t h e r t e r m , in o r d e r t o p a y up t h e i r d e b t s a n d t o m a k e s o m e m o n e y . " 3 In 1 8 2 1 , w h e n i t s n e w c h a r t e r w a s c o n f i r m e d , t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y s u c c e e d e d in o b t a i n i n g t h e a b r o g a t i o n of t h o s e p r o v i s i o n s t h a t c a l l e d f o r t h e r e t u r n of t h e w o r k e r t o h i s h o m e upon t h e e x p i r a t i o n of t h e s e v e n - y e a r t e r m of h i s p a s s p o r t . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e n e w r e g u l a t i o n s , t h e t e r m of t h e p a s s p o r t c o u l d b e p r o l o n g e d a n o t h e r s e v e n y e a r s on p e t i t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y , w i t h o u t t h e w o r k e r ' s h a v i n g t o a p p e a r in p e r s o n . W h e n t h e n e w c h a r t e r of t h e C o m p a n y w a s a p p r o v e d i n 1844 f o r t h e t h i r d t w e n t y - y e a r p e r i o d , t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d o b t a i n e d a j u r i d i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n of i t s r i g h t t o k e e p t h e w o r k e r in the colonies until he h a s r e p a i d h i s d e b t s , which m e a n t p r a c t i c a l l y t o t h e e n d of h i s d a y s . A r t i c l e 12 of t h e n e w c h a r t e r reads as follows: "If t h o s e s e r v i n g in t h e c o l o n i e s d e s i r e t o r e m a i n in A m e r i c a a f t e r t h e t e r m a g r e e d upon h a s e x p i r e d , o r if t h e y a r e i n d e b t t o t h e C o m p a n y , on t h e i r a c c o u n t s , t h e C o m p a n y c a n n o t b e f o r c e d to s e n d t h e m b a c k to R u s s i a but m a y r e q u e s t that new p a s s p o r t s be i s s u e d to t h e m p r i o r to t h e i r d e p a r t u r e . " The o n l y r e q u i r e m e n t f o r d e t a i n i n g t h e w o r k e r in t h e c o l o n i e s w a s a s t a t e m e n t f r o m t h e C o m p a n y of h i s i n d e b t e d n e s s . B u t w h i l e t h e n e w c h a r t e r s e t t l e d t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e w o r k e r s ' e x t e n d e d S t a y in t h e c o l o n i e s , t h e p r o b l e m of a t t r a c t i n g s e t t l e r s on a b r o a d s c a l e r e m a i n e d u n s o l v e d . T h e n a t u r a l s o l u t i o n , u n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s of s e r f d o m , w o u l d h a v e b e e n to g r a n t to the C o m p a n y the right to a c q u i r e s e r f s . And the C o m p a n y did, in f a c t , s o l i c i t t h a t r i g h t at the v e r y beginning of i t s e x i s t e n c e . H o w e v e r , t h e g o v e r n m e n t f o u n d i t i m p o s s i b l e t o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e C o m p a n y in t h i s m a t t e r . T h e a c q u i s i t i o n of s e r f s w a s t h e p e r o g a t i v e of t h e n o b i l i t y , a n d a r e g i m e f o u n d e d on a u t o c r a c y c o u l d not p o s s i b l y g r a n t t h a t r i g h t t o t h e C o m p a n y , c o m p o s e d a s it w a s of m e r c h a n t s . E v e n b e f o r e , in 1835, t h e C o m p a n y had m a d e a n a t t e m p t t o f o r m a f r e e e s t a t e of s o - c a l l e d " c o l o n i a l c i t i z e n s " f r o m among the R u s s i a n f u r - h u n t e r s . T h e s e "colonial citizens"

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w e r e not to be r e c r u i t e d f r o m the young R u s s i a n f u r - h u n t e r s who c a m e to the colony, but f r o m the v e r y old w o r k e r s who, b e c a u s e of advanced age or p h y s i c a l d i s a b i l i t y , w e r e unable to r e t u r n to R u s s i a . It was they whom it was planned to l e a v e in the c o l o n i e s for good to f o r m an e s t a t e of " c o l o n i a l c i t i z e n s . " By i m p e r i a l d e c r e e the Company was a u t h o r i z e d " t o c o l o nize on the Kenai c o a s t of A m e r i c a , or w h e r e v e r the C o m pany should d e e m it p r o p e r in the i n t e r i o r of the R u s s i a n p o s s e s s i o n s , all h i r e d R u s s i a n townspeople and p e a s a n t s who a r e to be found in the A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s in the C o m p a n y ' s h i r e , who have taken C r e o l e or Aleutian w i v e s , and who, b e c a u s e of ill h e a l t h , old a g e , a v e r y long stay in t h o s e p a r t s , or b e c a u s e they have b e c o m e a c c u s t o m e d to the c l i m a t e and the way of l i f e t h e r e , or b e c a u s e , during t h e i r long a b s e n c e f r o m R u s s i a , they have been b e r e f t of t h e i r n e a r e s t r e l a t i v e s in that country, will m a n i f e s t t h e i r d e s i r e to the Company to s e t t l e t h e r e in perpetuity and submit petitions in writing to that e f f e c t . " 4 In e s t a b l i s h i n g such c o l o n i e s for the disabled the R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n Company intended to p r o f i t by the right g r a n t e d to it of a c c e p t i n g into i t s s e r v i c e the c h i l d r e n of the c o l o n i s t s . In other w o r d s , the Company was planning to o r g a n i z e i t s own c a d r e s of manpower and to f o r m new b a s e s f o r the a c quisition of new a r e a s . A c t u a l l y , h o w e v e r , t h i s did not b r i n g any r e s u l t s , s i n c e the total number of f u r - h u n t e r s c o l o n i z e d , who w e r e given the pompous appellation of " c o l o n i a l c i t i z e n s , " did not e x c e e d , by the t i m e the Company was being liquidated, the r i d i c u l o u s l y low figure of 94, of whom 54 w e r e m a l e s and 4 0 females. ^ Captain Golovin, who i n s p e c t e d the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a in 1 8 6 0 - 1 8 6 1 , laid s p e c i a l s t r e s s in h i s r e p o r t on the f a c t that " t h e colonial c i t i z e n s , in the conditions in which they find t h e m s e l v e s at the p r e s e n t t i m e , constitute a c l a s s of people that i s a b s o l u t e l y u s e l e s s and a burden to the C o m pany a s long as i t s e x i s t s , and will be so to the g o v e r n m e n t , if the g o v e r n m e n t should decide to take o v e r the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of that r e g i o n . If any hope had been e n t e r t a i n e d , when the e s t a t e of ' c o l o n i a l c i t i z e n ' was e s t a b l i s h e d of colonizing the r e g i o n l i t t l e by l i t t l e , then that hope h a s c o m e to naught. I n deed, how could anyone have e x p e c t e d superannuated, d e c r e p i t invalids to contribute to an i n c r e a s e in the population? It would have been a d i f f e r e n t m a t t e r if the young people had been allowed to m a r r y , and had been a s s i g n e d land by the

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C o m p a n y in p e r p e t u i t y ; and i f s e v e r a l f a m i l i e s of t h e m h a d b e e n s e t t l e d t o g e t h e r , so a s to be able to guard t h e i r p r o p e r t y a g a i n s t a t t a c k f r o m t h e i n d e p e n d e n t n a t i v e s ; i f , in o t h e r w o r d s , t h e y had b e e n c o n v e r t e d i n t o s o m e t h i n g in t h e n a t u r e of t h e American squatters. T h u s t h e p r o b l e m of c r e a t i n g a s e d e n t a r y p o p u l a t i o n in t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a r e m a i n e d u n s o l v e d . Y e t f r o m w h o m , t h e n , and in what way did t h e C o m p a n y form its basic workers' c a d r e s ? T h r o u g h o u t t h e v a s t e x p a n s e f r o m I r k u t s k to O k h o t s k t h e r e w e r e found, at t h e end of t h e e i g h t e e n t h and at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , though n o t , t o b e s u r e in l a r g e n u m b e r s , many s o - c a l l e d " i d l e p e o p l e . " Runaway p e a s a n t s , s m a l l m e r c h a n t s and a r t i s a n s who had l o s t e v e r y t h i n g - - t h e y w e r e a l l t r y i n g t o r e a c h t h e d i s t a n t b o r d e r l a n d s , d r a w n both by t h e c h a n c e t o find c o v e r f r o m t h e w a t c h f u l e y e of t h e a u t h o r i t i e s and by t h e r u m o r s of e a s y g a i n s . It w a s f r o m among t h e s e people that the w o r k e r s for the R u s s i a n colonies in N o r t h A m e r i c a w e r e r e c r u i t e d , both d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d when t h e r e w e r e s t i l l in e x i s t e n c e a g r e a t m a n y b a n k r u p t a s s o c i a t i o n s t h a t w e r e a n t a g o n i s t i c to e a c h o t h e r , and a l s o l a t e r on, when t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y a l o n e h e l d c o m p l e t e s w a y in t h e c o l o n i e s . E v e r y ship leaving Okhotsk f o r Novoarkhangelsk—a c o l o n i a l c e n t e r s i t u a t e d on t h e I s l a n d of S i t k a - - w o u l d c a r r y a w a y u n d e r c o n t r a c t s o m e t e n s of w o r k e r s of v a r i o u s o c c u p a t i o n s . On t h e way o v e r t h e y w o r k e d a s s a i l o r s , upon a r r i v a l in t h e c o l o n i e s t h e y would i n v a r i a b l y b e c o m e e i t h e r w o r k e r s at h u n t i n g - s t a t i o n s o r a r t i s a n s , and d u r i n g t h e f r e q u e n t a t t a c k s b y Indian t r i b e s t h e y would b e c o m e s o l d i e r s . A few d a y s b e f o r e t h e s h i p s s a i l e d f o r A m e r i c a , a l l t h e d r i n k i n g e s t a b l i s h m e n t s in O k h o t s k would b e c r o w d e d with p r o m y s h l e n n o s t y , whom the Company entertained lavishly, without s p a r i n g e x p e n s e . H e r e in t h e s a l o o n s t h e r e c r u i t i n g a g e n t s would s l i p t h e c o n t r a c t s i n t o t h e h a n d s of t h e p r o m y s h l e n n o s t y f o r t h e i r s i g n a t u r e , c o n t r a c t s w h i c h would bind t h e m f o r m a n y y e a r s t o c o m e and in w h i c h , in t h e g u i s e of a d v a n c e p a y , w a s i n c l u d e d t h e c o s t t o the l a s t p e n n y of t h e e n t e r t a i n m e n t at t h e t i m e of e n l i s t m e n t . When t h e p r o m y s h l e n n o s t y w e r e b r o u g h t t o t h e ship t h e y would be in an i m p o s s i b l e s t a t e , and when t h e y r e c o v e r e d , t h e s h i p would b e f a r out at s e a , on t h e way t o A m e r i c a . I f , f o r s o m e r e a s o n , t h e b o a t w a s not s e n t out t o s e a at o n c e ,

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t h e c l o t h e s of t h e c o n t r a c t w o r k e r s w e r e t a k e n a w a y a n d t h e y , w r a p p e d up i n s a c k s , w o u l d s u b m i s s i v e l y a w a i t t h e i r d e p a r t u r e , f o r it w a s n o t a n e a s y m a t t e r t o s e e k " r e d r e s s " f r o m the Company. Whatever the m e r c h a n t s ' associations p e r p e t r a t e d s o m e w h a t w a r i l y in t h e i r d a y , t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , b e i n g a s i t w a s u n d e r H i s M a j e s t y ' s p r o t e c t i o n , w a s a b l e t o do r a t h e r o p e n l y . T h e c o m m a n d a n t of K a m c h a t k a , K o s h e l e v , o u t r a g e d , a p p a r e n t l y , by what he r e g a r d e d a s t h e i n a d e q u a c y of t h e a m o u n t p a i d h i m b y t h e C o m p a n y f o r f a i l u r e t o s e e o r h e a r w h a t it w a s h i s d u t y t o s e e a n d h e a r , d r a w s a v e r y l i f e l i k e p i c t u r e i n h i s r e p o r t t o t h e T s a r f o r t h e y e a r 1803 of t h e a r b i t r a r y r u l e of t h e C o m p a n y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n : " T h e p e o p l e w h o m a n a g e t h e a f f a i r s a n d t h e t r a d e of the C o m p a n y in the I r k u t s k r e g i o n w e r e s c a r c e l y known a m o n g t h e m e r c h a n t s b e f o r e . N o t o n l y w e r e t h e y no b e t t e r t h a n t h e o t h e r s in a n y w a y , b u t t h e y w e r e in f a c t r e g a r d e d a s t h e w o r s t of t h e m a l l . B u t t h e m o m e n t t h e y e n t e r e d t h e Company s e r v i c e , they forgot their condition and began to e n t e r t a i n e x a g g e r a t e d o p i n i o n s of t h e m s e l v e s . W h i l e g o i n g around proclaiming e v e r y w h e r e His M a j e s t y ' s protection, t h e y do not a l l o w t h e w e a k e r o n e s t o o p e n t h e i r m o u t h s . P l a c i n g t h e i r h o p e on t h e d i r e c t i n t e r c e s s i o n of a l a r g e n u m b e r of p e r s o n s of q u a l i t y , t h e y h a v e d e c l a r e d t h e m s e l v e s m e m b e r s of t h e C o m p a n y , o r m o r e c o r r e c t l y , a r e trying to convince people that they a r e m e m b e r s , and boast about it. They have intimidated the Irkutsk a u t h o r i t i e s into looking at t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s with c l o s e d e y e s . W h e r e t h e i r m e t h o d of i n t i m i d a t i o n i s i n e f f e c t i v e , t h e y e m p l o y b r i b e r y with dazzling e f f e c t . During t h e p e r i o d when the C o m p a n y w a s e n g a g e d in r e c r u i t i n g new w o r k e r s f o r the c o l o n i e s , t h e Okhotsk a u t h o r i t i e s p r e f e r r e d t o do n o t h i n g . T h e s a m e K o s h e l e v w r i t e s a s f o l l o w s : " T h e w o r k e r s , d u r i n g the h i r i n g out to t h e C o m p a n y and t h e d i v i s i o n of t h e s t u f f b r o u g h t i n f r o m t h e i s l a n d s w e r e given to d r i n k in a way t h a t w a s an insult to the h u m a n r a c e , and t h e p o l i c e did not find itself in a p o s i t i o n to put an end to the daily drinking and r o w d y i s m . " ® T h i s , t h e n , w a s the m a n n e r in which w o r k e r s w e r e being

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r e c r u i t e d a n d s e n t t o t h e c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a . A n d manyy e a r s l a t e r , t h e s e w o r k e r s , a l m o s t wholly disabled, w e a r i n g t h e s a m e r a g s t h e y h a d on t h e i r b a c k w h e n t h e y w e n t t o A m e r i c a , would be r e t u r n i n g to t h e i r h o m e l a n d utterly d i s i l l u s i o n e d . E v e r y one of t h e m h a d , t h r o u g h h a r d , b a c k - b r e a k i n g l a b o r , e a r n e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e s u m of m o n e y i n t h e c o u r s e of h i s s t a y i n t h e c o l o n i e s . B u t t h e r e s u l t of t h e d e d u c t i o n s f o r t h e m e r c h a n d i s e p u r c h a s e d at high p r i c e s in the C o m p a n y s t o r e , " H i s M a j e s t y ' s t a x e s , " t h e d e b t s p a i d off f o r t h e m by t h e C o m p a n y , a n d , f i n a l l y , of o p e n d e c e i t a n d c h e a t i n g , w a s t h a t t h e m a n y y e a r s ' l a b o r i n v e s t e d by t h e w o r k e r s a t h u n t i n g - s t a t i o n s w e r e not a l w a y s e n o u g h e v e n t o p a y off t h e d e b t s s h o w n on their accounts. In t h e e a r l y s t a g e s of i t s a c t i v i t y t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y c o n t i n u e d i n f u l l t h e s y s t e m of s e t t l i n g t h e w o r k e r s ' accounts that had p r e v a i l e d during the p e r i o d when a g r e a t n u m b e r of a s s o c i a t i o n s of v a r i o u s k i n d s w e r e a c t i v e in t h e c o l o n i e s . T h e g r e a t e r p a r t of t h e w o r k e r s r e c e i v e d t h e i r p a y not i n m o n e y but i n f u r s . A l l t h e p e l t r y w a s d i v i d e d i n t o a d e f i n i t e n u m b e r of p a r t s , d e p e n d i n g upon t h e n u m b e r of w o r k e r s , then each p a r t was divided equally between the w o r k e r s and the Company. The w o r k e r r e c e i v e d a s o - c a l l e d " h a l f - s h a r e . " It w a s , i n e f f e c t , a s y s t e m b a s e d on a p i e c e w a g e , w i t h t h e p a y n o t i n m o n e y , b u t i n k i n d . T h e r i g h t of t h e w o r k e r s , h o w e v e r , t o o n e h a l f of t h e f u r s p r o c u r e d i n the colonies w a ; actually only a f o r m a l r i g h t ; t h e r e w e r e m a n y w a y s in which the C o m p a n y w a s able to a p p r o p r i a t e all the f u r s s e c u r e d by the w o r k m e n . T h e s e m e t h o d s w e r e s o e f f e c t i v e t h a t o n l y a s m a l l m i n o r i t y of t h e w o r k m e n s u c c e e d e d in r e t u r n i n g f r o m t h e c o l o n i e s w i t h a p o r t i o n of t h e " h a l f - s h a r e " c r e d i t e d t o t h e i r a c c o u n t . In t h e f i r s t p l a c e , t h e C o m p a n y t r i e d t o s e l e c t f o r w o r k in t h e c o l o n i e s p e r s o n s who w e r e b u r d e n e d with d e b t s . When such a w o r k e r e n t e r e d t h e s e r v i c e , t h e C o m p a n y p a i d off a l l h i s d e b t s , i n c l u d i n g t h e m o n e y s p e n t on t h e " f a r e w e l l " d r i n k i n g . T h u s , e v e n b e f o r e he e v e r a r r i v e d at the colony, he w a s a l r e a d y under c o n s i d e r a b l e financial obligation to the C o m p a n y . T h e w o r k e r at t h e h u n t i n g - s t a t i o n s w a s u n d e r o b l i g a t i o n t o l i q u i d a t e t h i s d e b t t o t h e C o m p a n y in k i n d , t h a t i s by l e a v i n g w i t h it a p o r t i o n of t h e " h a l f - s h a r e " c r e d i t e d t o h i m - - a t a v e r y low e v a l u a t i o n , by t h e w a y , w h i c h d i d n o t a t a l l c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e m a r k e t - v a l u e of t h e f u r s . In t h i s w a y a c e r t a i n p o r t i o n of t h e " h a l f - s h a r e " c a m e i n t o t h e h a n d s of t h e C o m -

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pany. Another method of appropriating the " h a l f - s h a r e " was by using the c r e d i t which the Company gave the w o r k e r s in its shops. A c c o r d i n g to the p r o v i s i o n s of the a g r e e m e n t with the r e cruited w o r k e r s , they w e r e supposed "beginning with the m a n a g e r s of the Company during the t i m e of t h e i r l a b o r at the hunting-posts to r e c e i v e their maintenance and s u b s i s tence wholly f r o m the products of their own l a b o r . " Thus a l l the w o r k e r s had to l i v e in the colonies at t h e i r own e x p e n s e . But since they could have only f i s h as "the products of their own l a b o r " in the c o l o n i e s , they w e r e naturally c o m p e l l e d to turn to the Company shops and s t o r e s not only f o r clothing but also f o r f o o d s t u f f s . T h i s was the m o r e n e c e s s a r y since they w e r e prohibited f r o m making purchases f r o m f o r e i g n m e r c h a n t s . A clause had prudently been i n s e r t e d in the cont r a c t which e m p o w e r e d the Compaiiy to c o l l e c t " t w i c e the. Okhotsk p r i c e s " on a l l m e r c h a n d i s e sent into the colonies o v e r and above the quantity needed f o r the o r g a n i z a t i o n of the post. A c t u a l l y , h o w e v e r , as we shall show l a t e r , the p r i c e s in the Company s t o r e s w e r e not t w i c e but many t i m e s in e x c e s s of those p r e v a i l i n g in Okhotsk. The w o r k e r s w e r e being robbed, then, in two w a y s , s i n c e , along with the r a i s e d p r i c e s on the m e r c h a n d i s e , the deductions f o r them in t e r m s of f u r s w e r e calculated according to a rate established by the C o m p a n y - - a n d that was c o n s i d e r a b l y below the m a r k e t price . A certain portion of the v e r y much reduced " h a l f - s h a r e " a c c r u e d to the Company in the f o r m of f i n e s . The contract r e a d as f o l l o w s : " I f anyone i s disobedient, or a r r o g a n t , or r e f r a c t o r y , o r , having gotten drunk, c o m m i t s i m p e r t i n e n c e s and c r i m e s not f o r the f i r s t t i m e , the m a n a g e r s of the Company have the right to i m p o s e a fine upon such p e r s o n s , a f t e r a detailed r e p o r t , a c c o r d i n g to the l a w , on the guilt of the c u l p r i t . A c c o r d i n g to the contract, one of the m o s t s e r i o u s c r i m e s in the colonies was the purchase of s p i r i t s f r o m f o r e i g n m e r chants and the home distillation of l i q u o r . A r t i c l e II of the contract reads as f o l l o w s : " E v e r y o n e in the s e r v i c e of the Company i s f o r b i d d e n , under any p r e t e x t w h a t s o e v e r , to d i s t i l l liquor f r o m h e r b s , r o o t s , b e r r i e s , Company g r a i n , and so f o r t h ; or to buy or b a r t e r liquor f r o m visiting f o r e i g n e r s and trade in it on Company p r e m i s e s , to make loans or g i v e money to each

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other f o r drinking p u r p o s e s , then drink the liquor or use it in any way at all. T h o s e committing such c r i m e s lost a l l t h e i r earnings and w e r e i m m e d i a t e l y e x i l e d to Okhotsk. The - w o r k e r s on the hunting-posts w e r e expected to buy their liquor only in Company s t o r e s . A t f i r s t the liquor trade in the colonies was the monopoly of the s m a l l companies, then it c a m e under the R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . The liquor would " p i c k up" the l a s t bits of the " h a l f - s h a r e " which, through s o m e lucky c i r c u m s t a n c e , the w o r k e r had managed to put a w a y . The Company was v e r y solicitous of this source of i n c o m e . In one of his l e t t e r s to Shelikhov's w i d o w , Baranov told with p e r f e c t candor about the important r o l e that l i q u o r played during the t i m e that the i n c o m e f r o m the hunting-stations was being divided up among the w o r k e r s : " H e r e t h e r e is no need of g o l d , s i l v e r , or p r e c i o u s stones. A m o n g the p r o v i s i o n s t h e r e is only one which i s m o r e e x p e n s i v e and m o r e important, as you y o u r s e l f know who have l i v e d h e r e at the p r o p e r t i m e . Next to a r t i c l e s of clothing and f o o t w e a r liquor is d e a r e r to the w o r k e r s than anything e l s e in the w o r l d . And if it is a question of getting people into debt, just send o v e r some [ l i q u o r ] and have it sold in m o d e r a t i o n when n e c e s s a r y , e s p e c i a l l y at t i m e s when the income is being divided up, and you w i l l see how much of the income w i l l be passed out and how many people w i l l get into d e b t . " ^ F i n a l l y , in the case of those p r o m y s h l e n n o s t y who, a f t e r all their f i n e s and indebtedness to the Company f o r goods bought at t h r e e t i m e s their p r i c e had been deducted, still had something l e f t of their " h a l f - s h a r e , " the administration of the Company did not hesitate to e m p l o y s t r o n g a r m methods. One of these c a s e s is r e c o r d e d in the t e s t i m o n y of V e r i g i n , who had taken part in the uprising of the w o r k e r s on Sitka in 1809--and this was not the only c a s e . The Company owed him 574 r u b l e s , but shortly b e f o r e his departure f r o m the c o l o n i e s , he was c a l l e d into the o f f i c e w h e r e he was asked to sign a paper that the Company owed him only 300 r u b l e s . A t the same t i m e he was i n f o r m e d that if he r e f u s e d to sign, he would be r e p o r t e d to the G o v e r n o r of the C o l o n i e s , B a r a nov, who " w i l l not f a i l to supply him with a ticket h o m e , that is to say, w i l l punish him with a c a t - o ' - n i n e t a i l s or g a s k e t s ,

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f e a r i n g which he put his s i g n a t u r e below the i t e m in the b o o k . " If, a f t e r they had stayed in the c o l o n i e s f o r many y e a r s , s o m e few lucky ones did s u c c e e d in returning home with the right to c o l l e c t c e r t a i n s u m s f r o m the Company, t h e i r c h a n c e s for c o l l e c t i n g those amounts w e r e p r a c t i c a l l y n o n e x i s t e n t . T h e s e t t l e m e n t of the accounts with the w o r k e r s who had r e turned f r o m the c o l o n i e s dragged on f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s , and was r a r e l y decided in favor of the w o r k e r . A c c o r d i n g to the p r o v i s i o n s of the c o n t r a c t , the definitive s e t t l e m e n t was to be worked out in Okhotsk, i m m e d i a t e l y upon the w o r k e r ' s a r r i v a l f r o m the c o l o n i e s . But when he c a m e into the Okhotsk o f f i c e , the new a r r i v a l would usually be a s k e d to wait a l i t t l e , s i n c e the data for the s e t t l e m e n t had o s t e n s i b l y not a r r i v e d f r o m the c o l o n i e s . While retaining the final a c c o u n t , the Okhotsk office would f o r c e the w o r k e r s to p e r f o r m c e r t a i n t a s k s for the Company, and by supplying t h e m with c e r t a i n n e c e s s i t i e s , would again involve t h e m in debts to the Company. One of the r e p o r t s to S t . P e t e r s b u r g of the Okhotsk a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in 1815 has t h i s to say about the above m a c h i nations : " T h e Company office i s detaining the w o r k e r s of the hunting-posts in Okhotsk absolutely a g a i n s t t h e i r w i s h e s , under the p r e t e x t that it has to work out t h e i r s t a t e m e n t s of a c c o u n t s . It is doing it in o r d e r to f o r c e t h e m , by dragging out the final accounts with the w o r k e r s who, in the m e a n t i m e , a r e engaged in v a r i o u s t a s k s for the C o m pany, to take on c r e d i t , a g a i n s t t h e i r w i l l , m o r e of the C o m p a n y ' s m e r c h a n d i s e and p r o v i s i o n s , and then, when t h e i r indebtedness has been c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s e d , c o m pel t h e m to go on a s e a v o y a g e . A s proof of t h i s we m a y adduce the f a c t that s o m e w o r k e r s who r e t u r n e d f r o m the i s l a n d s in 1807 have s i n c e been waiting f o r t h e i r accounts f r o m the office , but to date [i . e . , 1 815 . - A u . ] have not r e c e i v e d t h e m , and have been c o m p e l l e d all that t i m e to take on c r e d i t p r o v i s i o n s and other things f r o m the o f f i c e , and have h e n c e been obliged to p r o c e e d , f o r the t i m e b e i n g , to A m e r i c a in o r d e r to work out t h e i r i n d e b t e d n e s s . " ^ T h i s c y n i c a l method of c h e a t i n g and then enslaving the w o r k e r s b e c a m e so i n t r e n c h e d in the p r a c t i c e of the R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n Company that it even gave r i s e to a s p e c i a l a s s o c i a t i o n in S i b e r i a which bought up the C o m p a n y ' s o b l i g a t i o n s .

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Voinov, S e c r e t a r y to the G o v e r n o r , and Golenitsky, a T i u m e n m e r c h a n t , w o u l d buy up t h e C o m p a n y ' s o b l i g a t i o n s a t h a l f - p r i c e f r o m the w o r k e r s a s they r e t u r n e d f r o m A m e r i c a , and would then collect payment f o r t h e m at t h e i r f a c e value, for t h e i r o w n b e n e f i t , of c o u r s e . B u t e v e n t h e s e e n t e r p r i s i n g b u s i n e s s m e n f a i l e d in t h e i r a t t e m p t t o w r e s t s o m e m o n e y f r o m t h e Company, although they lodged countless complaints against it i n a l l p o s s i b l e i n s t a n c e s . Somewhat m o r e fortunate was Tolstopyatov, a merchant of t h e F i r s t O r d e r f r o m Y e n i s e i , w h o b o u g h t up t h e r i g h t t o t h e " h a l f - s h a r e " f r o m t h e r e l a t i v e s of t h e w o r k e r s w h o h a d died in the c o l o n i e s . A f t e r his l a w s u i t h a d d r a g g e d t h r o u g h v a r i o u s c o u r t s , w h e r e h e h a d t o s h o w t h a t m o s t of t h e " b o r rowings" w e r e added to the w o r k e r s ' a c c o u n t s a f t e r t h e i r d e a t h a n d t h a t t h e y , " b e i n g d e a d , c o u l d not b o r r o w a n y m o r e , " t h e c a s e w a s s e t t l e d " b y a g r e e m e n t , t o t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n of both p a r t i e s . " A s a r e s u l t , T o l s t o p y a t o v , a c c o r d i n g to his o w n t e s t i m o n y , r e c e i v e d l e s s t h a n w a s d u e h i m by m o r e t h a n 5 2 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s a n d a b o u t 1 1 , 0 0 0 f e w e r s e a l s k i n s . Not o n l y w e r e t h e i n d i v i d u a l w o r k e r s no m a t c h f o r t h e C o m p a n y , but even the e n t e r p r i s i n g Siberian m e r c h a n t s and the expert l e g a l p e t t i f o g g e r s c a m e o u t s e c o n d b e s t in t h e i r l e g a l e n c o u n t e r with that o r g a n i z a t i o n . It w a s a v e r y d i f f e r e n t s t o r y , h o w e v e r , w h e n t h e d e b t o r h a p p e n e d t o b e o n e of t h e w o r k e r s . W h e n a w o r k e r o w e d t h e C o m p a n y a c e r t a i n a m o u n t , t h e n , i n t h e w o r d s of t h e l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , " t h e o f f i c e m a k e s up h i s a c c o u n t s (in s p i t e of t h e f a c t t h a t i t h a s r e c e i v e d n o s u c h a c c o u n t s f r o m A m e r i c a ) without the s l i g h t e s t delay and, p r e s e n t i n g t h e m to the a u t h o r i t i e s f o r c o l l e c t i o n , d e m a n d s e i t h e r t h a t it b e p a i d o r t h a t t h e d e b t o r b e s e n t on a n o c e a n v o y a g e , i n s p i t e of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e w o r k e r , n o t c o n s i d e r i n g h i m s e l f in d e b t , d o e s n o t w i s h t o r e m a i n in t h e s e r v i c e of t h e C o m p a n y f o r a n y amount. " It i s c l e a r , t h e n , t h a t o n c e a w o r k e r on t h e h u n t i n g - p o s t s fell into the C o m p a n y ' s p a w s , he w a s unable to f r e e h i m s e l f t o t h e e n d of h i s d a y s . Not unintentionally did t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , even a f t e r the colonies p a s s e d into its h a n d s , p r e s e r v e f o r a t i m e the " h a l f - s h a r e " a s the chief m e t h o d f o r paying the w o r k e r s . While thus s t i m u l a t i n g t h e m in t h e i r w o r k , the Company also made the colonies m o r e -attractive to t h e m . B u t it s h o u l d b e p o i n t e d out t h a t t h e p a y m e n t of t h e " h a l f -

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s h a r e " a l s o h a d a n u m b e r of v e r y r r a l d i s a d v a n t a g e s f o r t h e C o m p a n y . N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the s y s t e m of " p u m p i n g out" of t h e w o r k e r s t h e f u r s t h a t w e r e r i g h t f u l l y t h e i r s , a p a r t of t h e p e l t r y , though a v e r y i n s i g n i f i c a n t o n e , did r e m a i n in t h e i r p o s s e s s i o n , and finding i t s way t o t h e S i b e r i a n m a r k e t , s o l d at a l o w e r p r i c e t h a n t h e C o m p a n y f u r s . T h e d e s i r e of t h e w o r k e r s t o s e l l t h e f u r s t h e y had l e f t a f t e r t h e d i v i s i o n , i m p e l l e d t h e m to r e t u r n to the m o t h e r country a s f a s t as p o s s i b l e , s i n c e t h e f u r s s o o n l o s t t h e i r v a l u e b e c a u s e of the p r i m i t i v e p r o c e s s i n g t h e y had u n d e r g o n e . At t h e s a m e t i m e t h e " h a l f - s h a r e " s y s t e m g a v e t h e w o r k e r s s o m e r i g h t t o m e d d l e with t h e C o m p a n y ' s a f f a i r s and e v e n t o d e m a n d an a c c o u n t i n g . T h a t t h i s f a c t o r w a s of s o m e i m p o r t a n c e m a y be g a t h e r e d f r o m the " s o l e m n " oration that B a r a nov d e l i v e r e d t o t h e w o r k e r s on K o d i a k . He b e g a n by e x p r e s s ing h i s g r a t i t u d e f o r t h e f i n e o r d e r in w h i c h he found the c o l o n y , but f i n i s h e d quite u n e x p e c t e d l y with t h e s e w o r d s : " N o t a m o n t h p a s s e s without s o m e show of a n i m o s i t y and a f f r o n t e r y to y o u r f e l l o w - w o r k e r s and to t h e a u t h o r i t i e s ; s o m e d i s p a r a g e m e n t of t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a p p e a r s at e v e r y s t e p . T h i s i s in s p i t e of the f a c t t h a t m o r e t h a n one of you did nothing in h i s h o m e v i l l a g e e x c e p t f e e d t h e s w i n e o r f r e q u e n t t h e s a l o o n , y e t h e r e he h a s b e c o m e a p e n e t r a t i n g i n t e l l e c t , a j u d g e of e v e r y t h i n g , a h i g h - m i n d e d minister."15 T h e C o m p a n y t o o k t h e f i r s t s t e p t o w a r d s t h e a b o l i t i o n of t h e " h a l f - s h a r e " in 1 8 0 3 . T h e p a y m e n t of the " h a l f - s h a r e " w a s h e n c e f o r t h m a d e not in f u r s but in m o n e y , by c a l c u l a t i n g t h e value of t h e p r o c e s s e d s k i n s a c c o r d i n g t o a s e t r a t e . This i n n o v a t i o n t e n d e d to a g g r a v a t e e v e n f u r t h e r t h e s i t u a t i o n of the w o r k e r s , s i n c e the Company a s s e s s e d the p e l t r y many t i m e s b e l o w t h e m a r k e t v a l u e . T h e C o m p a n y w a s now t o k e e p t h e f u l l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e m a r k e t v a l u e of t h e f u r s and t h e a s s e s s e d v a l u e , w h i c h , s m a l l though it w a s , u s e d t o a c c r u e t o t h e w o r k e r - - i f he m a n a g e d t o t a k e a few s k i n s out of t h e c o l o n y . " T h e m a n a g e m e n t of t h e C o m p a n y , " w r o t e P e s t e l , G o v e r n o r - G e n e r a l of S i b e r i a , t o the M i n i s t e r of t h e I n t e r i o r , " w h e n i t d r e w up t h e m a s t e r - c o n t r a c t f o r a l l t h e w o r k e r s in i t s h u n t i n g - s t a t i o n s - - a c o n t r a c t w h i c h w a s not e n d o r s e d by t h e h o m e g o v e r n m e n t — s t i p u l a t e d , s t r i c t l y on i t s own r e s p o n s i -

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b i l i t y , t h a t n o t o n e w o r k e r , w h e n on a h u n t i n g e x p e d i t i o n , would be a l l o w e d to s e l l one a n i m a l f a l l i n g to h i s s h a r e to s t r a n g e r s o u t s i d e of t h e C o m p a n y , but s h o u l d d e l i v e r i t t o t h e C o m p a n y a t t h e p r i c e s e t by i t , w h i c h i s t o s a y , a t t h e l o w e s t and m o s t d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s p r i c e to the h u n t e r . But on t h e o t h e r h a n d , w h e n e v e r t h e p o o r p e o p l e t a k e s o m e t h i n g they need for t h e m s e l v e s , they a r e compelled to pay the a m o u n t t h a t t h e h e a d of t h e C o m p a n y w i l l a r b i t r a r i l y s e t . W h e r e f o r e these h u n t e r s always find t h e m s e l v e s between two e x t r e m e s , a n d , running into debt f r o m t i m e to t i m e , t h e y a c c u m u l a t e so m a n y o b l i g a t i o n s t h a t t h e y cannot pay t h e m back in a l i f e t i m e T h i s a b o l i t i o n of t h e p a y m e n t of t h e " h a l f - s h a r e " i n k i n d w a s o n l y t h e f i r s t s t e p t o w a r d s t h e c o m p l e t e l i q u i d a t i o n of t h a t k i n d of p a y m e n t . A s e a r l y a s 1805 R e z a n o v , d u r i n g h i s s t a y i n t h e c o l o n i e s , b r o u g h t up t h e q u e s t i o n of p u t t i n g t h e w o r k e r s on a f i r m w a g e b a s i s . In h i s l e t t e r of i n s t r u c t i o n s t o t h e G o v e r n o r of t h e c o l o n y , B a r a n o v , R e z a n o v n o t e d t h a t t h e " h a l f - s h a r e " s y s t e m w a s t h e m a i n o b s t a c l e i n t h e w a y of a t t r a c t i n g R u s s i a n w o r k e r s t o t h e c o l o n i e s . He w r o t e t h a t " f e w e r than 400 people or s h a r e s constitute at the p r e s e n t t i m e o u r w h o l e s t r e n g t h i n A m e r i c a . Upon t h i s s m a l l n u m b e r h a s d e v o l v e d t h e d u t y of k e e p i n g w h o l e t r i b e s in s u b m i s s i o n , help with c o n s t r u c t i o n , and, at the s a m e t i m e , t h o u g h in t h e f o r m of a v e r y w e a k c o r d o n , g u a r d a s w e l l a s p o s s i b l e t h e w h o l e s t r e t c h of t h e A m e r i c a n c o a s t . A s a r e w a r d f o r t h e i r l a b o r , t h e y r e c e i v e , out of t h e a n i m a l s p r o c u r e d , half a s h a r e o r p o r t i o n , a n d t h e a r t i s a n s r e c e i v e a w h o l e s h a r e . T h e n u m b e r of p e o p l e i s e x t r e m e l y i n a d e q u a t e , i n v i e w of t h e v a s t n e s s of t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t a n d i n t e r f e r e s w i t h o u r s u c c e s s ; a n d it w i l l b e i n e x p e d i e n t b o t h f o r t h e C o m p a n y and f o r t h e m s e l v e s t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r n u m b e r on t h a t b a s i s ; i n a s m u c h a s the p r o f i t s f r o m hunting will b e c o m e so s c a n t y as to m a k e it b u r d e n s o m e f o r both c l a s s e s . In v i e w of a l l t h i s , w o r k e r s on t h e h u n t i n g - s t a t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s r e m a i n in a s t a t e of u n c e r t a i n t y u n t i l t h e v e r y e n d of the f o u r - y e a r period, when the division t a k e s place, because t h e y do n o t k n o w t h e i r l o t a n d a r e a p p r e h e n s i v e t h a t , i n s t e a d of t h e e x p e c t e d p r o f i t s , t h e y m a y e a s i l y h a v e b e e n t o i l i n g f o r n o t h i n g ; f o r t h e C o m p a n y , in e x p a n d i n g i t s o p e r a t i o n s , m u s t l o o k f o r p r o f i t in t r a d e i n w h i c h o n l y t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s t a k e p a r t a n d n o t t h e h u n t i n g - s t a t i o n w o r k e r s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , it b e c o m e s s e l f - e v i d e n t t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n of t h e s e w o r k e r s c a n -

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n o t l o n g b e a l l o w e d t o c o n t i n u e on t h e p r e s e n t b a s i s . I b e l i e v e , " R e z a n o v c o n c l u d e s h i s t h o u g h t , " t h a t t h e n u m b e r of ' h a l f - s h a r e s ' should g r a d u a l l y be r e d u c e d , and t h a t in t i m e all the p r o f i t s f r o m t h e p o r t i o n s s h o u l d go t o t h e C o m p a n y , w h i l e t h e p e o p l e s h o u l d e v e r y w h e r e b e e m p l o y e d on a s a l a r y b a s i s . " I ? T h e C o m p a n y , h o w e v e r , w o u l d n o t s t a n d t h e h a z a r d of a d o p t i n g s u c h a m e a s u r e a t o n c e , f o r f e a r of l o s i n g e v e n t h o s e i n c o n s i d e r a b l e c a d r e s of w o r k e r s t h a t w e r e t o b e f o u n d i n t h e c o l o n i e s . T h e p a y m e n t of t h e " h a l f - s h a r e " in m o n e y c o n t i n u e d , t h e r e f o r e , down to 1815. A n u m b e r of c h a n g e s w e r e i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e c o l o n i e s i n 1 8 1 7 , upon t h e a r r i v a l i n N o v o a r k h a n g e l s k of t h e f o u r t h r o u n d - t h e - w o r l d e x p e d i t i o n u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d of L i e u t e n a n t - C a p t a i n H a g e m e i s t e r . He r e p l a c e d a s g o v e r n o r of t h e c o l o n y t h e s e n i l e B a r a n o v , w h o s e m e t h o d s of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n tended m o r e and m o r e to d i s c r e d i t the Governing B o a r d . The a c t i v i t i e s of t h i s K a r g o p o l m e r c h a n t h a d g a i n e d v e r y w i d e n o t o r i e t y t h r o u g h t h e c o n t i n u a l v i s i t s of f o r e i g n m e r c h a n t s t o t h e c o l o n i e s a n d t h e f r e q u e n t c a l l s of R u s s i a n m e n - o f - w a r . A t t h a t v e r y p e r i o d , w h e n t h e C o m p a n y d i d n o t g r o w w e a r y of p r i d i n g i t s e l f on e v e r y o c c a s i o n on t h e " p r o s p e r i t y " t h a t t h e n a t i v e s e n j o y e d in the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s , the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n d e c i d e d t o r e m o v e t h e o n e m a n w h o , f o r m o r e t h a n a s c o r e of y e a r s , instilled, with i r o n and blood, into the c o n s c i o u s n e s s of t h e n a t i v e s a n d t h e h u n t i n g - s t a t i o n w o r k e r s t h e i n c o n t r o v e r tible truth that they w e r e born, that they lived and that they died f o r the p r o f i t s a c c r u i n g to the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . N o t r e c e d i n g one s t e p f r o m B a r a n o v ' s b a s i c p r i n c i p l e - - n o t t o d i s d a i n a n y t h i n g t h a t m i g h t b r i n g p r o f i t - - t h e C o m p a n y now d e m a n d e d t h a t all t h i s be clothed in a m o r e " E u r o p e a n " f o r m . T h e r e b e g a n t h e e x p u l s i o n of t h e r e m n a n t s of t h e m e r c h a n t c l a s s , a n d , a l o n g w i t h t h a t , t h e c o m p l e t e l i q u i d a t i o n of t h e " h a l f - s h a r e . " By o r d e r of H a g e m e i s t e r of F e b r u a r y , 1 8 1 8 , t h e p a y of t h e w o r k e r s in t h e c o l o n i e s , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e l a s t g e n e r a l a c c o u n t in 1 8 1 5 , w a s t o b e f i g u r e d in t e r m s of m o n e y . E v e r y w o r k e r w a s t o r e c e i v e 300 r u b l e s i n p a p e r - m o n e y a n n u a l l y . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r of t h e C o m p a n y , K h l e b n i k o v , t h e a v e r a g e e a r n i n g s of a w o r k e r u n d e r t h e old s y s t e m of p a y r e a c h e d 1 , 5 6 1 r u b l e s f o r a f o u r - y e a r p e r i o d . Now t h e s a m e w o r k e r w o u l d r e c e i v e 1 , 2 0 0 r u b l e s f o r t h e s a m e p e r i o d . It i s e v i d e n t , t h e n , t h a t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e s y s t e m of p a y m e n t i n m o n e y b r o u g h t a b o u t a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e w o r k e r ' s w a g e s of m o r e t h a n 20 p e r c e n t .

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T h e new pay s y s t e m g a v e r i s e t o s o m e a g i t a t i o n a m o n g t h e w o r k e r s on t h e h u n t i n g - p o s t s . A s K h l e b n i k o v o b s e r v e s , " t h e w o r k e r s , and e v e n m a n y b e l o n g i n g t o o t h e r c l a s s e s , find i t m o r e s e d u c t i v e t o l i v e on t h e hope of an unknown f u t u r e t h a n t o be s a t i s f i e d with a d e f i n i t e , p e r m a n e n t a r r a n g e m e n t . " ^ · ® H a g e m e i s t e r was c o m p e l l e d to m a k e c e r t a i n c o n c e s s i o n s , s u c h a s g i v i n g e v e r y w o r k e r one pood of f l o u r a m o n t h , in a d d i t i o n to h i s r e g u l a r w a g e s . U n d e r t h e new pay s y s t e m the h u n t i n g - s t a t i o n w o r k e r s no l o n g e r had .any o p p o r t u n i t y of l e a v i n g t h e c o l o n i e s . T h e l o n g e r a m a n w o r k e d , t h e m o r e d e b t s he a c c u m u l a t e d . A v e r y c u r i ous d o c u m e n t h a s b e e n p r e s e n t e d f r o m t h e pen of t h e g o v e r n o r of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a , w h i c h s e r v e s to i l l u s t r a t e by f i g u r e s t h e c o n d i t i o n of s l a v e r y in w h i c h t h e w o r k e r s of t h e c o l o n i e s w e r e kept t o a l l i n t e n t s and p u r p o s e s . In 1 8 3 4 t h e g o v e r n o r p a i d a v i s i t t o t h e c o l o n y of R o s s in C a l i f o r n i a . In h i s r e p o r t t o t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d he h a d s o m e t h i n g t o s a y about the c o n d i t i o n of the w o r k e r s . In C a l i f o r n i a t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y w o r k e r s w a s a l i t t l e b e t t e r t h a n in t h e o t h e r c o l o n i e s . H e r e t h e annual wage w a s 3 5 0 r u b l e s a n d , in a d d i t i o n t o the m o n t h l y pood of f l o u r , e v e r y w o r k e r r e c e i v e d a pound of m e a t a d a y . In o r d e r t o a c q u a i n t h i m s e l f with t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e h u n t i n g - s t a t i o n w o r k e r s t h e g o v e r n o r c a l c u l a t e d the c r e d i t t h a t one of the w o r k e r s r e c e i v e d in t h e c o l ony s t o r e in t h e c o u r s e of one y e a r . A c e r t a i n V a s i l y P e r m i t i n , on w h o m a w i f e and f i v e c h i l d r e n d e p e n d e d f o r s u b s i s t e n c e , d u r i n g 1 8 3 2 bought on c r e d i t in t h e c o l o n y s t o r e , on a c c o u n t of h i s a n n u a l s a l a r y of 3 5 0 r u b l e s , v a r i o u s a r t i c l e s to the a m o u n t of 7 2 8 . 2 8 r u b l e s , o r m o r e than t w i c e h i s e a r n i n g s . " T h e l i s t , e n c l o s e d a s a s a m p l e , of t h e a r t i c l e s and p r o v i s i o n s p u r c h a s e d by P e r m i t i n s h o w s , " w r o t e t h e g o v e r n o r of the c o l o n i e s t o the G o v e r n i n g B o a r d , " t h a t he had p u r c h a s e d nothing t h a t he did not n e e d . C o n s e q u e n t l y one c a n n o t but a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t it i s i m p o s s i b l e f o r t h e s e p e o p l e to m a i n t a i n t h e m s e l v e s on a s a l a r y of only 3 5 0 r u b l e s a y e a r . " 1 9 T h e m e r c h a n d i s e s o l d in t h e c o l o n y s t o r e s w a s not only e x p e n s i v e but a l s o of e x c e e d i n g l y p o o r q u a l i t y . T h i s , in t u r n , had a b e a r i n g upon t h e i n c r e a s e in t h e q u a n t i t y of g o o d s t h a t t h e w o r k e r s bought on c r e d i t . K o s t l i v t s o v , who m a d e a t o u r of i n s p e c t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in 1 8 6 0 - 1 8 6 1 , r e p o r t s t h a t " t h e p o o r q u a l i t y of t h e r e a d y - m a d e c l o t h e s and s h o e s f o r t h e c o m m o n p e o p l e i s b e y o n d b e l i e f ; b o o t s w i l l l a s t only a few days and a c l o t h g a r m e n t w i l l w e a r out in about two

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m o n t h s . How m u c h , t h e n , d o e s a w o r k e r h a v e t o s p e n d o n c l o t h e s , w h o r e c e i v e s b e t w e e n 300 a n d 350 r u b l e s in p a p e r m o n e y a y e a r , w h e n t h e p r i c e of a c l o t h o u t e r g a r m e n t ( s a i l o r ' s p e a - j a c k e t a n d t r o u s e r s ) r u n s t o f r o m 20 t o 30 r u b l e s , a n d b o o t s c o s t 10 r u b l e s ? He w i l l h a r d l y h a v e e n o u g h t o d r e s s , not counting s h i r t s , u n d e r w e a r , g l o v e s , c a p s , which he a l s o needs to buy."^0 T h e C o m p a n y s t o r e s a t e up a l l of t h e w o r k e r ' s e a r n i n g s . It w a s i m p o s s i b l e t o do w i t h o u t t h e s e s t o r e s , s i n c e t h e w a g e s w e r e p a i d out n o t in m o n e y but in C o m p a n y s t a m p s . T h e f o r e i g n m e r c h a n t s w o u l d n o t , of c o u r s e , a c c e p t t h e s e s t a m p s , a n d t h e n a t i v e s c o u l d not u s e t h e m i n t h e C o m p a n y s h o p s , b e c a u s e i t w o u l d a t o n c e c o m e out t h a t t h e y h a d c o m e i n t o p o s s e s s i o n of t h e s e s t a m p s t h r o u g h s o m e i l l i c i t t r a f f i c w i t h one of t h e e m p l o y e e s of t h e C o m p a n y , o r one of t h e h u n t i n g - p o s t w o r k e r s . The Company stamps that were received as a part of t h e s a l a r y c o u l d b e u s e d o n l y i n t h e C o m p a n y s t o r e s , a n d , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e p e r m a n e n t s t a t e of i n d e b t e d n e s s of t h e w o r k e r s , it i s c l e a r t h a t it w a s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t o a v o i d e x c h a n g i n g t h e s t a m p s for g o v e r n m e n t notes even when the account was finally settled with those departing f r o m the c o l o n i e s . D u r i n g t h e d e c a d e f r o m 1816, w h e n t h e i s s u a n c e of t h e s t a m p s w a s f i r s t a u t h o r i z e d , to 1826, the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y i s s u e d s t a m p s t o t h e v a l u e of 4 2 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s , i n d e n o m i n a t i o n s f r o m 10 k o p e c k s t o 10 r u b l e s , In 1826 t h e C o m p a n y w a s a u t h o r i z e d t o i s s u e m o r e s t a m p s t o t h e v a l u e of 3 0 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s , in o r d e r to e x c h a n g e t h o s e t h a t had b e c o m e too w o r n . F i n a l l y , in 1834 t h e C o m p a n y w a s a g a i n a l l o w e d t o p r i n t a s u p p l e m e n t a r y i s s u e of s t a m p s t o t h e a m o u n t of 3 0 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s . I n a s m u c h a s t h e r e w a s no g o v e r n m e n t c o n t r o l o v e r t h e i m m o b i l i z a t i o n of t h e s t a m p s t h a t h a d b e c o m e w o r t h l e s s a n d o v e r t h e i r r e p l a c e m e n t by n e w s t a m p s , t h e w a s w a s o p e n t o t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y t o p a y a l l i t s c o l o n i a l e x p e n s e s i n s t a m p s t h a t h a d no s e c u r i t y w h a t s o e v e r b e h i n d t h e m . T h e g o v e r n m e n t r e g a r d e d t h e i s s u a n c e of t h e s t a m p s a s a p r i v a t e a f f a i r of t h e C o m p a n y , g r a n t i n g t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o m p l e t e f r e e d o m of a c t i o n i n t h i s m a t t e r . W h e n t h e q u e s t i o n of a n e w i s s u e of s t a m p s w a s b r o u g h t up t o a s e s s i o n of t h e C o m m i t t e e of M i n i s t e r s in 1 8 2 6 , " t h e C o m m i t t e e , t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e u s e of s t a m p s i n o u r A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s i n p l a c e of c u r r e n t m o n e y d e p e n d s e n t i r e l y upon t h e c o n f i d e n c e t h a t t h e l o c a l i n h a b i t a n t s p l a c e in t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , h a s p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e

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be a s k e d to i n f o r m t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t i s not o p p o s e d to t h e r e p l a c e m e n t of s t a m p s u s e d t h e r e by new o n e s , but d o e s not c o n s i d e r i t n e c e s s a r y t o give i t s f o r m a l a p p r o v a l of the t r a n s a c t i o n and w i l l not s t a n d s u r e t y f o r it in any w a y . " ^ T h e s t a m p s y s t e m s e r v e d a s an a d d i t i o n a l s o u r c e of i n c o m e f o r t h e C o m p a n y and a s one m o r e d e v i c e f o r t h e u n r e s t r a i n e d e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e w o r k e r s . D e c e i v e d e v e n while t h e y w e r e , b e i n g r e c r u i t e d , s y s t e m a t i c a l l y , c h e a t e d when t h e i r a c c o u n t s w e r e b e i n g s e t t l e d , and h a v i n g l o s t a l l hope of e v e r b r e a k i n g l o o s e f r o m t h e i r s e r v i t u d e t o t h e C o m p a n y , t h e w o r k e r s on the h u n t i n g - s t a t i o n s w e r e l i v i n g in t h e c o l o n i e s under m o n s t r o u s c o n d i t i o n s t h a t d o o m e d t h e m to r u i n and e x t i n c t i o n . T h e famous t r a v e l e r Captain Krusenster-n w r i t e s that the w o r k e r s " f o r s c a r c i t y of d w e l l i n g s . . . a r e l i v i n g f o r t h e g i a a t e r p a r t in m u d - h u t s , t h a t i s t o s a y , in v e r y unhealthy q u a r t e r s b e l o w t h e g r o u n d , and a r e s u f f e r i n g f r o m t h e s a m e l a c k of w h o l e s o m e food a s one d o e s at s e a . Often t h e y do not e v e n have s a l t , that indispensable condiment for our v i a n d s . A l though t h e y a r e given b r e a d , it i s only in v e r y s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s , due to t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s in t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . T h e only i t e m of w h i c h t h e r e i s no s c a r c i t y i s v o d k a . T h i s finds c o n f i r m a t i o n in m e m o i r s of a n o t h e r m e m b e r of K r u s e n s t e r n ' s e x p e d i t i o n , t h e p h y s i c i a n L a n g s d o r f , who t o o k n o t i c e of the e x t r e m e l y high m o r t a l i t y a m o n g the w o r k e r s on t h e h u n t i n g - p o s t s . He had an o p p o r t u n i t y t o l o o k a f t e r one g r o u p of s u c h w o r k e r s who a r r i v e d in t h e c o l o n y in l a t e a u t u m n . " O f t h e one h u n d r e d and f i f t y young and h e a l t h y p e o p l e t h a t had b e e n s e l e c t e d in v a r i o u s p l a c e s and s e n t o v e r t o S i t k a , " w r i t e s L a n g s d o r f , " e i g h t h a d d i e d by F e b r u a r y and m o r e than s i x t y w e r e l a i d up in b e d , in t h e i r b a r r a c k s . T h o s e b u i l d i n g s had no o v e n s , no f i r e - p l a c e s , and the only s o u r c e of h e a t w e r e the c o n t a m i n a t e d e x h a l a t i o n s of a h o s t of p e o p l e , who h a d no c o n c e p t i o n of c l e a n l i n e s s . On c o m i n g h o m e in t h e e v e n i n g d r e n c h e d t o t h e s k i n , the w o r k e r s l i e down in t h e i r wet c l o t h e s and s h e e p s k i n c o a t s o r hang t h e m up f o r d r y i n g in t h e i r s l e e p i n g - r o o m s . T h o s e who h a v e s c u r v y a r e f o r c e d t o s t a n d g u a r d and p a t r o l t h e p r e m i s e s a s l o n g a s t h e y c a n s t a n d on t h e i r l e g s and do not c o l l a p s e u t t e r l y with the c o l d , t h e d a m p n e s s , and g e n e r a l e x h a u s t i o n . " 2 3 T h e w o r k e r s on t h e h u n t i n g - s t a t i o n s w e r e not g i v e n any o p p o r t u n i t y t o c o m p l a i n of t h e i r m i s e r a b l e s i t u a t i o n , t o s a y

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nothing of t h e f a c t t h a t i s w a s a b s o l u t e l y f u t i l e t o l o d g e a c o m p l a i n t a g a i n s t t h e a l l - p o w e r f u l C o m p a n y . T h e r e w e r e no g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s in the c o l o n i e s . A w o r k e r could l e a v e the c o l o n i e s only when the C o m p a n y i t s e l f w a n t e d t o t a k e h i m out of t h e r e ; a l l t h e s h i p s b e l o n g e d t o t h e C o m p a n y . A s f o r the t r a n s m i s s i o n of a c o m p l a i n t t h r o u g h a t h i r d p e r s o n , t h a t c a m e under the h e a d of a p e t i t i o n c o m p o s e d by c o m m o n e f f o r t , and the c o n t r a c t r e a d that " w h o e v e r initiates a petition or a r e q u e s t o r a d e n u n c i a t i o n by c o m m o n e f f o r t o r by c o n s p i r a c y , t h a t p e r s o n i s to be put under a r r e s t and handed o v e r to t h e c o u r t of l a w . " T r u e , a s a r u l e it did not c o m e to " h a n d i n g the p e r son o v e r t o the c o u r t of l a w . " W i s h i n g t o a v o i d p u b l i c i t y , t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y p r e f e r r e d t o t a k e c a r e of the c o m p l a i n a n t s on t h e s p o t . T h e r e w e r e i n s t a n c e s of u n r e s t a m o n g w o r k e r s . Their i n d i g n a t i o n e x p r e s s e d i t s e l f not only in t h e i r r e f u s a l t o t a k e o r d e r s f r o m the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and in p r e s e n t i n g it with l i s t s of d e m a n d s , but a l s o in a t t e m p t s t o d i s p o s e of t h e c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t i e s a l t o g e t h e r . In s o m e c a s e s t h e s e u p r i s i n g s w e r e p r e c e d e d by a s e c r e t a g r e e m e n t a m o n g t h e w o r k e r s and by t h e e l e c t i o n of l e a d e r s . A s e a r l y a s 1 7 9 5 , p r i o r t o t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , l a r g e - s c a l e d i s t u r b a n c e s t o o k p l a c e on t h e c o n c e s s i o n s of t h e S h e l i k h o v - G o l i k o v C o m p a n y . " T h e h u n t i n g - s t a t i o n w o r k e r s w e r e h i g h l y a g i t a t e d , and t h e w i n t e r w a s a m o s t t u r b u l e n t o n e , " w r o t e B a r a n o v f r o m the c o l o n i e s t o S h e l i k h o v about t h e w i n t e r of 1 7 9 4 - 9 5 . T h e w o r k e r s r e f u s e d to t a k e o r d e r s f r o m t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the C o m p a n y . "As f o r t h e u p r i s i n g of t h e s e t t l e r s , " r e p o r t e d B a r a n o v , " t h e y h a v e shown t h e i r t r u e c o l o r s h e r e , t o o , at t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g . T h e y h a v e c o m p l e t e l y s t o p p e d o b e y i n g y o u r Ivan G r i g o r y e v i c h , 2 4 h a v e t r i e d t o c a r r y out s o m e i n s o l e n t and h i g h - h a n d e d a c t , and to i n t e r f e r e with t h e e x c h a n g e of f u r s with t h e f o r e i g n e r s , t h r e a t e n i n g M r . P o l o m o s h n o v t h a t t h e y would b r e a k up t h e s t o r e , and s o f o r t h , loudly b l a m i n g you f o r t h e i r o s t e n s i b l y h a v i n g b e e n c h e a t e d in t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s of t h e u s u a l h a n d i n g s out of p r o v i s i o n s , and a s s e r t i n g t h a t n o n e , o r v e r y l i t t l e i s b e i n g h a n d e d out n o w , and t h a t t h e y h a v e not b e c o m e a c c u s t o m e d to t h e food p r o v i d e d w h i l e t r a v e l i n g . " 25 Soon a f t e r , in a l e t t e r t o Count r e p o r t e d that "the hunting-station c o n s p i r a c y t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t when for p r o t e c t i o n against the s a v a g e s

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t o t h e m a i n l a n d by b o a t , t h e y w i l l t a k e p o s s e s s i o n of t h e b o a t a n d s e t out f o r t h e K u r i l e s , a n d t h e y h a v e c h o s e n o n e a m o n g t h e m a s n a v i g a t o r . T h e y h a v e m a n a g e d to put away t h r e e guns and s u p p l i e s . But the C o m p a n y m a n a g e r , having d i s covered their c o n s p i r a c y , punished the three leading m i s c r e a n t s w i t h g a s k e t s , in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s s e t d o w n in t h e o r d e r s of t h e l o c a l c o m m a n d e r - i n - c h i e f , a n d t h e n sent t h e m away to d i f f e r e n t a r t e l s , to join the h u n t i n g - s t a t i o n w o r k e r s . And t h u s h e l i q u i d a t e d t h e i r u n d e r t a k i n g . " ^ D u r i n g t h e l i f e of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y t h e m o s t s e r i o u s d i s t u r b a n c e s a m o n g t h e w o r k e r s t o o k p l a c e on S i t k a in 1 8 0 9 . At t h e h e a d of t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e c o l o n y a t that t i m e was the s a m e B a r a n o v , who instituted a r e a l p r i s o n r e g i m e in t h e c o l o n i e s . F o r t h e s l i g h t e s t i n f r a c t i o n of t h e r u l e s the w o r k e r s w e r e punished with g a s k e t s , c a t s - o ' - n i n e t a i l s , o r w e r e d e p o r t e d f o r a t e r m of s e v e r a l y e a r s t o s o m e t h i n l y p o p u l a t e d i s l a n d w h e r e no p r o v i s i o n s of a n y k i n d w e r e e v e r d e l i v e r e d . B a r a n o v ' s c r u e l t y in his r e l a t i o n s with the native population and with the R u s s i a n w o r k e r s r e a c h e d t r u l y m o n s t r o u s d i m e n s i o n s . A c c o r d i n g to C a p t a i n Golovnin, who v i s i t e d the c o l o n i e s in 1818, B a r a n o v m a d e h i m s e l f f a m o u s , a s it w e r e , " b y h i s l o n g s o j o u r n a m o n g t h e s a v a g e s , a n d e v e n m o r e s o by t h e f a c t t h a t i n s t e a d of m a k i n g t h e m m o r e enlightened he b e c a m e wild h i m s e l f and sank to a level below t h a t of t h e s a v a g e . " ^ 7 T o r i d t h e m s e l v e s of B a r a n o v , t o go a w a y f r o m t h e h a t e f u l c o l o n i e s s o m e w h e r e to s o m e unknown i s l a n d and to s t a r t a new life t h e r e , t h e s e w e r e the b r i g h t p e r s p e c t i v e s which l u r e d a g r o u p of w o r k e r s i n t o p r e p a r i n g t h e u p r i s i n g . In t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d t h e p l a n of t h e u p r i s i n g m a y be d e t e c t e d t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e f a m o u s u p r i s i n g of 1771 on K a m c h a t k a u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p of B e n y e v s k y , who s e i z e d t h e p e n i n s u l a a n d , w i t h a g r o u p of w o r k e r s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e m e r c h a n t K h o l o d i l o v , s t a r t e d out on a g o v e r n m e n t v e s s e l in s e a r c h of n e w l a n d s . In 1809 a s e c r e t o r g a n i z a t i o n i n t h e m a n n e r of a C o s s a c k s ' c i r c l e s p r a n g up a m o n g t h e w o r k e r s on S i t k a . A t i t s h e a d , t e m p o r a r i l y , w a s a duly e l e c t e d " c o r n e t " , who w a s l a t e r to be r e p l a c e d by a h e t m á n . The e l e c t i o n s w e r e h e l d at a m e e t i n g of a g r o u p of w o r k e r s in t h e w o o d s , a g o o d d i s t a n c e f r o m the f o r t r e s s . When the question a r o s e as to "who would b e i n c o m m a n d of t h e m a n d d i r e c t t h e r e v o l u t i o n , " t h e y d e c i d e d t o w a i t w i t h t h e e l e c t i o n of a h e t m á n f o r the r e t u r n of t h e o t h e r c o n s p i r a t o r s w h o w e r e t h e n b u s y on t h e p o s t s , a n d e l e c t e d a

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" c o r n e t " for the t i m e b e i n g . T h e man c h o s e n was "Ivan P o p o v , one of t h e o r i g i n a l i n s t i g a t o r s , w h o , i n s t e a d of t h e s e a m l y t i t l e of h e t m á n , w a s g i v e n t h a t of c o r n e t - - a t i t l e h i g h l y h o n o r e d a m o n g the C o s s a c k t r o o p s of t h e D o n . " ^ 9 T h e r e b e l l i o n of A u g u s t B e n y e v s k y s e r v e d a s a c o n s t a n t t o p i c of c o n v e r s a t i o n a m o n g t h e w o r k e r s . A l m o s t a l l of t h o s e who w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y p r o s e c u t e d in t h i s c a s e t e s t i f i e d t h a t , in t a l k s a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s , " w h a t w a s m o s t f r e q u e n t l y d i s c u s s e d and v e h e m e n t l y a p p r o v e d w a s t h e v i l l a i n o u s and t r a i t o r o u s r e v o l u t i o n t h a t had b e e n p e r p e t r a t e d in K a m c h a t k a . T h i s would be a c c o m p a n i e d by an e x p o s i t i o n of how the c o m m a n d e r , C a p t a i n N i l o v , w a s t h e f i r s t t o b e k i l l e d , how t h e t r e a s u r y w a s r o b b e d a s w e l l a s m a n y p r i v a t e e s t a t e s , how the r e b e l s s e i z e d K h o l o d i l o v ' s s h i p and went o f f - - t h a t f e l l o w A u g u s t with h i s a c c o m p l i c e s , t h e c l e r k C h u l o s h n i k o v and t r a p p e r s belonging to the a f o r e s a i d c o m p a n y - - o n a t r i p to the i s l a n d , how t h e y s p e n t t h e w i n t e r t h e r e , and s o f o r t h , and h o w , f i n a l l y , t h e y t h e m s e l v e s i n t e n d e d to f o l l o w t h e s a m e c o u r s e a s t h e b e s t open t o t h e m . " 3 0 It w a s p l a n n e d to l a u n c h t h e r e v o l t by k i l l i n g B a r a n o v and t h e o f f i c i a l s c l o s e t o h i m . " T h e y i n t e n d e d f i r s t of a l l t o t a k e h i s - - B a r a n o v ' s - - l i f e , " t e s t i f i e d one of t h e h u n t i n g - s t a t i o n w o r k e r s by t h e n a m e of S i d o r o v , " t h e n t o do t h e s a m e to t h e o f f i c e r s , o r m e r e l y t i e t h e m up, and to k i l l , without e x c e p t i o n , t h e m o s t h o n o r e d of t h e o f f i c i a l s who w e r e e s p e c i a l l y a t t a c h e d t o h i m , t o B a r a n o v , and who had b e e n r e w a r d e d with m e d a l s in r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i r s e r v i c e s . " T h e b u r n i n g h a t e f o r t h e o f f i c i a l s who h a d b e e n r e w a r d e d with v a r i o u s t o k e n s of d i s t i n c t i o n and who o c c u p i e d m i n o r p o s i t i o n s of a u t h o r i t y in t h e c o l o n i e s w a s v e r y w e l l f o u n d e d . F o r it w a s t h e s e p e t t y o f f i c i a l s who c o n s t i t u t e d t h a t top l a y e r of the b u r e a u c r a c y in w h i c h t h e c o m p a n y found i t s m a i n s u p p o r t in i t s e x p l o i t a t i o n and o p p r e s s i o n of t h e w o r k e r s . It i s n o t e w o r t h y t h a t t h e r e b e l s i n t e n d e d t o m e t e out the s a m e p u n i s h m e n t t o t h e h i g h e r c i r c l e s of t h e n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n w h o m the C o m p a n y had a l s o b r i b e d t o do i t s b i d d i n g . It w a s p l a n n e d , with r e s p e c t t o t h e " h o n o r a b l e " n a t i v e s , the " t o y o n s , " o r t h e c h i e f t a i n s , " t o k i l l t h o s e who would s t a n d in the w a y , o r t o t i e t h e m up and put t h e m away in a convenient p l a c e . "31 T h e r e w a s a good d e a l in t h e s e p l a n s t h a t s m a c k e d of t h e naively f a n c i f u l . T h i s was e s p e c i a l l y m a n i f e s t during the d i s c u s s i o n o v e r t h e d e s t i n a t i o n of t h e v e s s e l t h a t w a s t o be s e i z e d . It w a s d e c i d e d t h a t " a s s o o n a s t h e b u s i n e s s at hand

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had b e e n f i n i s h e d , t h e s h i p would be l o a d e d and t h e y would s e t out f o r t h e P h i l i p i s i a n [ i . e . , P h i l i p p i n e . - T r . ] I s l a n d s , d i s c o v e r e d , a s t h e s t o r y g o e s , by N a p l a v k o v on t h e o t h e r s i d e of t h e e q u a t o r , and b e y o n d T u r k e y in t h e f o u r t h p a r t of t h e w o r l d t h e r e a r e p l e n t y of p l a c e s and no p e o p l e at a l l , and t h e r e i s a s t r a i t t h a t i s one h u n d r e d v e r s t s wide beyond w h i c h l i v e t h e n e g r o e s . " T h i s l o n g i n g t o go off to s o m e p l a c e w h e r e i t would be p o s s i b l e t o l i v e " a t o n e ' s own f r e e w i l l , " 3 2 w a s s h a r e d by a l l t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e p l o t . T h e t r e a c h e r y of one of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s h e l p e d B a r a n o v t o find out about t h e p l a n n e d i n s u r r e c t i o n . T h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n d r a g g e d on f o r e i g h t y e a r s . A t f i r s t i t w a s c o n d u c t e d by B a r a nov h i m s e l f , who s u b j e c t e d t h e p r i s o n e r s t o r e f i n e d and v a r i e d f o r m s of t o r t u r e . A few y e a r s l a t e r , when t h e a c c u s e d w e r e b r o u g h t t o O k h o t s k , t h e c a s e p a s s e d i n t o t h e h a n d s of j u s t i c e . T h e r e and t h e n it b e c a m e c l e a r t o t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d of t h e C o m p a n y t h a t it w a s a s e r i o u s b l u n d e r to b r i n g o v e r the w o r k e r s t o s t a n d t r i a l in t h e m o t h e r c o u n t r y . A t t h e j u d i c i a l e x a m i n a t i o n t h e r e c a m e t o l i g h t t h e m o n s t r o u s a b u s e s of t h e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w h i c h , if t h e y had b e e n m a d e p u b l i c , would h a v e t h r e a t e n e d t h e C o m p a n y with a m a j o r s c a n d a l . K h l e b n i k o v , t h e C o m m i s s i o n e r of t h e C o m p a n y in K a m c h a t k a , w r o t e t o the D i r e c t o r s when t h e p r i s o n e r s a r r i v e d t h a t if t h e y " s h o u l d be t r i e d in open c o u r t , t h e y m i g h t r e v e a l c e r t a i n f a c t s t h a t would be bound t o b r i n g h a r m and d i s g r a c e upon t h e C o m p a n y . " 3 3 K h l e b n i k o v s u g g e s t e d t h a t it would be b e s t " t o b u r y t h e whole a f f a i r in o b l i v i o n . " B u t it w a s i m p o s s i b l e t o s t o p t h e c a s e , and the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n e x e r t e d a l l i t s e n e r g y t o p r e v e n t t h e d i s c r e d i t a b l e m a t e r i a l w h i c h had b e e n c o l l e c t e d a s a r e s u l t of t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n f r o m b e i n g p u b l i c i z e d ; o r , a s C a p t a i n G o l o v n i n s a y s in h i s " R e m a r k s on R u s s i a n A m e r i c a , " t o s e e t o it t h a t t h e w o r k e r s on t h e h u n t i n g - s t a t i o n s a r e p r o s e c u t e d , w h i l e t h e C o m p a n y ' s s i n s a r e b e i n g c o v e r e d up. " 3 4 R e p o r t s of t h e d i s t u r b a n c e s on S i t k a r e a c h e d t h e C o m m i t t e e of M i n i s t e r s which p r o p o s e d t o the S e n a t e t h a t it c a r r y out i t s own d e c i s i o n , not only in t h e m a t t e r of t h e i m p r i s o n e d w o r k e r s but a l s o " t h a t it s h o u l d m a k e a d e c i s i o n with r e g a r d t o t h e c r u e l t r e a t m e n t of t h e C o m p a n y w o r k e r s at t h e hands of t h e G o v e r n o r of the A m e r i c a n i s l a n d s , B a r a n o v . " 3 5 T h e c a s e w a s h e a r d in t h e S e n a t e f r o m A p r i l to M a y 1 8 1 7 , o r e i g h t y e a r s a f t e r the plot had b e e n d i s c o v e r e d . H e r e , t o o , t h e C o m p a n y s u c c e e d e d in t u r n i n g t h e a f f a i r to i t s own a d v a n t a g e . W h i l e it s e n t e n c e d t h o s e of t h e d e f e n d a n t s who had r e -

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m a i n e d alive during the intervening y e a r s to v a r i o u s t e r m s of i m p r i s o n m e n t , the Senate "did not find" in the documents of the investigation any evidence against B a r a n o v , i n a s m u c h a s the a c c u s a t i o n s against him e m a n a t e d f r o m " c r i m i n a l s " who had a l r e a d y been convicted as p l o t t e r s and who w e r e , c o n s e q u e n t l y , the s o r t of people " i n whom the law does not allow to p l a c e any c r e d e n c e . " B y i m p e r i a l d e c r e e a naval o f f i c e r was yet to be sent to the c o l o n i e s to make an i n v e s t i g a t i o n . The a f f a i r dragged, h o w e v e r , until the r e p o r t c a m e that the v e r y old B a r a n o v had died. Then the Senate decided " t h a t it i s no l o n g e r p o s s i b l e , b e c a u s e of B a r a n o v ' s death, to c a r r y out the i n v e s t i g a t i o n of his a c t i v i t i e s as o r d e r e d by His M a j e s t y .

Chapter IX T H E N A T I V E P O P U L A T I O N IN T H E RUSSIAN COLONIES IN NORTH A M E R I C A IN ITS R E P O R T S , the Company was wont to divide the native population of the North A m e r i c a n colonies into t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s ; " actually dependent, " " s e m i - d e p e n d e n t , " and " c o m pletely i n d e p e n d e n t . " Among the " a c t u a l l y dependent" the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the Company included, f i r s t , the A l e u t s who inhabited the Aleutians and whom the Company colonized throughout the t e r r i t o r y of the n u m e r o u s i s l a n d s it o c c u p i e d , and s e c o n d l y , in all p r o b ability, the E s k i m o s who p a s s a s A l e u t s in the C o m p a n y ' s d o c u m e n t s . Among the " s e m i - i n d e p e n d e n t " w e r e c o m p r i s e d f i r s t the s o - c a l l e d Kenai people who inhabited the c o a s t near the Kenai P e n i n s u l a , and who w e r e a branch of the n u m e r o u s g r o u p s of A t a b a s k s ,and s e c o n d l y , other A t a b a s k t r i b e s living in the i n t e r i o r of A l a s k a . A s to the T l i n k e t , they w e r e r e g a r d e d a s "not c o m p l e t e l y i n d e p e n d e n t . " In r e a l i t y , the l a s t two c a t e g o r i e s might well be c o n s i d e r e d " c o m p l e t e l y i n d e p e n d e n t , " and it w a s only the A l e u t s and E s k i m o s who e x p e r i e n c e d to the f u l l e s t extent the whole weight of colonial o p p r e s s i o n . S i m p s o n , the D i r e c t o r of the Hudson B a y C o m p a n y , who v i s i t e d the R u s s i a n colonies in A m e r i c a in 1842, noted in his m e m o i r s that the number of A l e u t s w a s b a r e l y one tenth of the number of n a t i v e s who w e r e t h e r e when the R u s s i a n s c a p t u r e d the a r e a . " T h e r e i s nothing m y s t e r i o u s about i t , " wrote S i m p son, " i t happened in the wake of p r i v a t i o n and o p p r e s s i o n . Alone the natural wealth of the country s e r v e d a s an i n s t r u m e n t for its i m p o v e r i s h m e n t ; its f u r - s e a l s and o t t e r s brought about its ruin, j u s t a s sandalwood was the ruin of the people of the Sandwich I s l a n d s and s i l v e r m i n e s of the Indians of Spanish America. " ^ In the hunting of s e a - o t t e r s , the m o s t valuable v a r i e t y of f u r - b e a r i n g a n i m a l s , no one could take the p l a c e of the A l e u t s . Even many y e a r s l a t e r , a l m o s t on the eve of the liquidation of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , the Governing B o a r d o b s e r v e d 193

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t h a t " n e i t h e r t h e n e g r o of G u i n e a n o r t h e C h i n e s e c o o l i e n o r t h e E u r o p e a n w o r k e r c a n t a k e t h e p l a c e of t h e A l e u t in t h e a r t and p r a c t i c e of h u n t i n g . " 2 D e c a d e s of g r i e v o u s e x p l o i t a t i o n and t h e m o s t c r u e l c h a s t i s e m e n t of t h e r e b e l l i o u s w e r e n e c e s s a r y to r e d u c e a f r e e dom-loving people to s l a v e r y . S . S . Shashkov explains p r e c i s e l y on t h e s e g r o u n d s t h e m a s s m u r d e r s of the n a t i v e s d u r i n g t h e f i r s t p e r i o d of t h e R u s s i a n c o n q u e s t : " W h a t s p u r r e d on t h e f u r - h u n t e r s to e x t e r m i n a t e t h e ' s t r a n g e r s ' w a s not t h e m e r e d e s i r e f o r loot and c e r t a i n l y not t h e z e a l f o r t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s i n t e r e s t s but m o r e s u b t l e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . T h e A l e u t s know e x c e l l e n t l y w e l l how t o p r o c e s s s e a - o t t e r s , s o m e t h i n g the R u s s i a n s h a v e not m a s t e r e d to t h i s d a y , and knew nothing about at a l l in t h o s e d a y s . It w a s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e f u r - h u n t e r s to e n s l a v e t h e A l e u t s and m a k e l a b o r e r s out of t h e m ; but it w a s i m p o s s i b l e t o do t h i s , in view of t h e l a r g e n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n t h a t would a l w a y s r i s e up in m u t i n y and r e c e i v e t h e R u s s i a n s a r m s in h a n d . It w a s n e c e s s a r y t o e x t e r m i n a t e t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of t h e s e r e c a l c i t r a n t s , s o t h a t t h e r e s t m i g h t i n evitably become Russian s e r f s . T h i s a l s o fully applies to the E s k i m o s . A s e a r l y a s 1 7 8 4 , when S h e l i k h o v w a s on K o d i a k , he o r d e r e d a l l t h e c a p t u r e d " m a l e s t o be b e a t e n up a n d t a k e n a w a y t o t h e t u n d r a and k i l l e d with s p e a r s , " w h i c h w a s i n d e e d d o n e . ^ No w o n d e r t h a t a few y e a r s l a t e r B a r a n o v f e l t r e l a t i v e l y s a f e on K o d i a k . A n a v a l o f f i c e r who v i s i t e d t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a d e s c r i b e s t h e m e t h o d s B a r a n o v u s e d in fighting t h e A l e u t s and the E s k i m o s in t h e f o l l o w i n g m a n n e r : " W o e t o t h o s e who r e s i s t e d h i m : he d e s t r o y e d t h e m without p i t y , d e p o r t e d t h e m t o d e s e r t i s l a n d s , t o o k away a l l t h e i r m e a n s of g e t t i n g t o g e t h e r , and m i x e d up t h e i r t r i b e s , s o t h e y would be unable to plot a n y e v i l a g a i n s t the R u s s i a n s . T h e s a v a g e s dreaded h i m ; they looked upon h i m a s a t e r r o r f r o m h e a v e n and, b e i n g u n a b l e t o o p p o s e h i m , w e r e f o r c e d t o b e c o m e h i s s l a v e s and f o r get t h e i r f o r m e r f r e e d o m w h i c h t h e y had but r e c e n t l y e n j o y e d without a n y r e s t r a i n t . T h e e r s t w h i l e f r e e n a t i v e s b e c a m e the s l a v e s of t h e s m a l l

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h u n t i n g c o m p a n i e s , a n d a l i t t l e l a t e r of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . " T h e R u s s i a n s a r e coming to A m e r i c a and to our F o x Islands and Andreanof Islands to hunt s e a and land a n i m a l s , " w r o t e t h e A l e u t s i n 1799 in o n e of t h e i r l e t t e r s of g r i e v a n c e t o P a u l I a g a i n s t the R u s s i a n f u r - h u n t e r s . "We r e c e i v e t h e m in f r i e n d l y f a s h i o n , but t h e y a c t l i k e b a r b a r i a n s w i t h u s . T h e y s e i z e o u r w i v e s a n d c h i l d r e n a s h o s t a g e s , t h e y s e n d us e a r l y in the s p r i n g , a g a i n s t o u r will, five h u n d r e d v e r s t s away to hunt o t t e r s , and t h e y k e e p us t h e r e until f a l l , and at h o m e they l e a v e the l a m e , the s i c k , the blind, and t h e s e , too, they f o r c e t o p r o c e s s f i s h f o r t h e C o m p a n y a n d t o do o t h e r C o m pany w o r k without r e c e i v i n g any pay, and, since the fields h a v e n o t b e e n s o w n , t h e y a r e d y i n g of h u n g e r . T h e r e m a i n i n g w o m e n a r e s e n t out on C o m p a n y l a b o r a n d a r e b e a t e n t o d e a t h . T h e y a r e r e m o v e d by f o r c e t o d e s e r t i s l a n d s , a n d t h e c h i l d r e n a r e taken away f r o m t h o s e who walk with c r u t c h e s , and t h e r e i s n o one t o f e e d t h e m . " & E x h a u s t i v e d a t a on t h e w a y t h e h u n t i n g c o m p a n i e s r u l e d t h e A l e u t s w e r e b r o u g h t b a c k by I . I . B i l l i n g s f r o m h i s t r i p , a n d by o t h e r n a v i g a t o r s . All the i n f o r m a t i o n w a s p u b l i s h e d m o r e t h a n o n c e a n d c a m e t o t h e a t t e n t i o n of t h e h i g h e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . Now and a g a i n o r d e r s w e r e i s s u e d c a l l i n g f o r a m o r e h u m a n e t r e a t m e n t of t h e A l e u t s , b u t s i n c e n o c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s w e r e ever adopted, the situation r e m a i n e d unchanged. The illusions that the Aleuts nourished every time a government expedition v i s i t e d the c o l o n i e s , t h a t g o v e r n m e n t a i d m i g h t be f o r t h c o m i n g , w e r e of s h o r t d u r a t i o n . T h u s , i n 1 7 9 1 , B a r a n o v w r o t e t o Shelikhov: "Billings has apparently told t h e m many things. They h a v e b e e n s p o i l e d , a n d , s i n c e b r i n g i n g in t h e f o o d i n v o l v e s g r e a t d i f f i c u l t i e s , t h e y d e m a n d to be paid f o r e v e r y s t e p t h e y m a k e . I w a s c o m p e l l e d , f i r s t of a l l , t o w o r k on t h e i r p r e j u d i c e s . Not t h e s l i g h t e s t h a r m h a s b e e n done to t h e m , but t h e y h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t b a c k t o o b e d i e n c e . On o n e o c c a s i o n t h e A l e u t s e v e n m a n a g e d t o g e t a n a u d i e n c e w i t h P a u l I h i m s e l f . T h a t w a s s h o r t l y b e f o r e t h e f r a n c h i s e of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company was approved, and when the c o m p e t i t i o n a m o n g t h e r i v a l c o m p a n i e s in t h e c o l o n i e s w a s especially intense. T h e m e r c h a n t K i s e l e v , who w a s g r a d u a l l y being p u s h e d out of t h e i s l a n d s by t h e c o m p a n y of S h e l i k h o v ' s h e i r s , d e c i d e d

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t o m a k e u s e of t h e A l e u t s i n h i s c o n t e s t w i t h h i s r i v a l . H i s p l a n w a s a v e r y s i m p l e o n e . The A l e u t s , w h o m he w a s to b r i n g t o S t . P e t e r s b u r g , w e r e t o t e l l P a u l how t h e y w e r e b e i n g e x p l o i t e d by t h e m e r c h a n t s , e s p e c i a l l y b y S h e l i k h o v ' s c o m p a n y , a n d , by c o n t r a s t , p u t h i s c o m p a n y in a v e r y f a v o r a b l e l i g h t f o r t h e w a y it t r e a t e d t h e A l e u t s . T h e f a c t t h a t K i s e l e v h e l p e d t h e c o m p l a i n a n t s t o m a k e t h e i r w a y out of t h e i s l a n d s w a s t o s e r v e a s p r o o f of h i s b e i n g t h e i r p r o t e c t o r . A n d s o i n t h e s u m m e r of 1796 s i x A l e u t s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e p r i e s t M a k a r y s e c r e t l y left Unalaska and p r o c e e d e d to St. P e t e r s b u r g w i t h a l e t t e r of g r i e v a n c e , s i g n e d by a l l t h e A l e u t c h i e f t a i n s . T h e y s p e n t t h e w i n t e r in t h e K u r i l e s . H e r e o n e of t h e A l e u t s d i e d , a n d t w o f e l l i l l a n d w e r e f o r c e d t o t u r n b a c k . F i n a l l y , in M a y , 1 7 9 8 , a l m o s t t w o y e a r s a f t e r t h e y h a d l e f t t h e A l e u t i a n s , t w o of t h e A l e u t s (the t h i r d d i e d i n M o s c o w ) a r r i v e d in the c a p i t a l . T h e A l e u t s w e r e g i v e n a f r i e n d l y w e l c o m e , but t h e i r a u d i ence with the T s a r did not b r i n g any p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s . P a u l ' s u k a s e of J u n e 4 , 1 7 9 8 , o r d e r e d " t h e A l e u t s w h o h a v e c o m e . . . h e r e to be a l l o w e d to r e t u r n h o m e , a f t e r t h e y h a v e b e e n r e w a r d e d with r a i m e n t s p r o p e r to t h e i r c u s t o m . " T h e l e t t e r of g r i e v a n c e s u b m i t t e d by t h e A l e u t s b o r e no f r u i t , but t h e g o v e r n o r of I r k u t s k w a s o r d e r e d " t o go i n t o the c i r c u m s t a n c e s p r e s e n t e d to h i m and to t r y to s e t t l e e v e r y thing, so as to b r i n g about m u t u a l s a t i s f a c t i o n [ i . e . , b e t w e e n the Aleuts and the m e r c h a n t s . - A u . ] and to eliminate a b u s e s . " ® P r i e s t M a k a r y , w h o h a d c o m e w i t h t h e A l e u t s , w a s t o be p u n i s h e d f o r h i s w i l f u l a b s e n t a t i o n f r o m t h e i s l a n d s by d o i n g p e n a n c e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t e n e t s of t h e C h u r c h . O n l y a f t e r m u c h t r o u b l e w a s h e f o r g i v e n " h i s a c t i o n , out of I m p e r i a l i n d u l g e n c e t o t h e e n t r e a t y of t h e A l e u t s . " T h e A l e u t s went b a c k to t h e i r h o m e l a n d , e s c o r t e d by a S e n a t e c o u r i e r . In J a n u a r y 1799 t h e t w o A l e u t s r e a c h e d I r k u t s k w h e r e they r e m a i n e d to s p e n d the w i n t e r . And h e r e , in I r k u t s k , a s i n g u l a r t h i n g h a p p e n e d . A l m o s t on t h e e v e of t h e i r d e p a r t u r e f r o m Irkutsk, the two Aleuts died suddenly. N i k o l a y L u k a n i n d i e d on M a r c h 6, a n d N i k i f o r S v i n i n on t h e 16th. It i s b e y o n d d e b a t e t h a t , if t h e s e d e l e g a t e s h a d r e t u r n e d h o m e , it w o u l d h a v e b e e n v e r y e m b a r r a s s i n g t o t h e c o m p a n y of S h e l i k h o v ' s h e i r s . By t h a t t i m e t h e q u e s t i o n of o r g a n i z i n g a monopolistic R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company had been definitively decided, the battle among the rivaling m e r c h a n t s was o v e r ,

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a n d t h e r e t u r n of t h e d e l e g a t e s w i t h t h e n e w s t h a t i t w a s u s e l e s s to complain against the abuses might have provoked the n a t u r a l i n d i g n a t i o n of t h e n a t i v e s . In f a c t , t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e A l e u t s a l l u d e to t h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e i n t h e i r m e m o r a n d u m t o t h e M e t r o p o l i t a n of M o s c o w w h i l e t h e y w e r e s t i l l on t h e w a y t o S i b e r i a : "Do not b r i n g m a t t e r s to such a d a n g e r o u s p a s s t h a t , b e c a u s e of t h e i n t o l e r a b l e c o n d i t i o n of o u r k i n s m e n , d u e t o a b u s e s on t h e p a r t of t h e R u s s i a n s , t h e r e m a y not r e s u l t i n t e r n e c i n e s t r i f e l e a d i n g t o g r e a t b l o o d s h e d on b o t h s i d e s , b e t w e e n t h e n e w C h r i s t i a n s a n d t h e o l d . "9 It i s c l e a r , t h e n , t h a t t h e I r k u t s k m e r c h a n t s , w h o w e r e on t h e p o i n t of b e c o m i n g s t o c k h o l d e r s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y w h i c h e n j o y e d t h e p a t r o n a g e of t h e T s a r , w e r e n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e r e t u r n of t h e s e t w o A l e u t s t o t h e i s l a n d s . L e g a l l y , l e t i t be n o t e d , t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y h a d no a u t h o r i t y w h a t s o e v e r a t t h e t i m e of i t s f o r m a t i o n o v e r the native t r i b e s and p a r t i c u l a r l y o v e r the A l e u t s . As e a r l y a s 1779 a u k a s e f o r b a d e t h e f u r t h e r e x a c t i o n of t h e f u r - t r i b u t e f r o m a l l t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e A l e u t i a n s , a n d in r e t u r n , t h e g o v e r n m e n t i m p o s e d n o d u t i e s on t h e A l e u t s . A t a n y r a t e , t h e r e w a s n o t h i n g in t h e c h a r t e r a n d f r a n c h i s e of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , a s c o n f i r m e d by P a u l on J u l y 8, 1 7 9 9 , on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e A l e u t s t o t h e C o m p a n y . O n l y t h e s t a t u t e s c o n f i r m e d on S e p t e m b e r 13, 1821 c o n t a i n e d a section entitled " C o n c e r n i n g the I s l a n d e r s , " which e n d o r s e d t h e r i g h t of t h e C o m p a n y t o u s e t h e l a b o r of t h e n a t i v e s in c a s e of u t t e r n e c e s s i t y . T h i s q u e s t i o n w a s m o s t f u l l y w o r k e d out i n t h e s t a t u t e s c o n f i r m e d on O c t o b e r 10, 1 8 4 4 . Actually, h o w e v e r , t h e s e r u l e s m e r e l y gave p e r m a n e n t f o r m t o a n o r d e r of t h i n g s t h a t h a d d e v e l o p e d o v e r a l o n g p e r i o d of t i m e , s i n c e , f r o m t h e v e r y f i r s t , t h e C o m p a n y f o l l o w e d t h e c o u r s e of e x p l o i t i n g t h e n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n a s s l a v e labor . T h e A l e u t s , by t h e p r o v i s i o n s of t h e s t a t u t e , w e r e g o v e r n e d b y t h e i r own " T o y o n s " ( c h i e f s ) b u t u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n of e l d e r s , f o r e m e n , a n d s u p e r v i s o r s a l l w i t h t h e a p p r o v a l of t h e g o v e r n o r of t h e c o l o n i e s . " T h e A l e u t s a r e f o r b i d d e n t o a b s e n t t h e m s e l v e s a n y w h e r e w i t h o u t s p e c i a l p e r m i s s i o n of t h e a u t h o r i t i e s , but in t h e t i m e t h e y h a v e f r e e f r o m t h e C o m p a n y ' s w o r k t h e y a r e a l l o w e d t o e n g a g e in f i s h i n g a l o n g t h e

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s h o r e s t h e y i n h a b i t , and t h a t only f o r t h e i r own s u b s i s t e n c e a n d f o r t h a t of t h e i r f a m i l i e s . " " T h e A l e u t s b e t w e e n t h e a g e s of 18 a n d 50 a r e u n d e r o b l i g a t i o n t o s e r v e t h e C o m p a n y a s h u n t e r s , it being u n d e r s t o o d t h a t the C o m p a n y had the r i g h t t o c a l l up f o r s e r v i c e n o m o r e t h a n half of t h e w o r k e r s within the a f o r e n a m e d age g r o u p s . " "The Aleuts a r e forbidden to sell as well a s to give away f u r s except to the C o m p a n y . " " T h e Aleuts a r e under obligation to sell to the Company the a n i m a l s k i n s p r o c e s s e d by t h e m a t a p r i c e f i x e d by t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d . In p l a c e of c a s h , t h e y a r e u n d e r o b l i g a t i o n to a c c e p t f r o m the C o m p a n y e i t h e r m e r c h a n d i s e at the C o m pany's price or Company s t a m p s . " "The Aleuts a r e forbidden to e n t e r into any b a r t e r o r c o m m e r i c a l r e l a t i o n s with anyone e x c e p t t h e C o m p a n y , e v e n t h o u g h t h e o b j e c t of t h o s e r e l a t i o n s i s not t h e f u r - t r a d e a t a l l . " " T h e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a s t h e r i g h t t o u t i l i z e t h e A l e u t s t o p r e p a r e t h e p r o v i s i o n s of f i s h a n d f o w l b o t h d u r i n g t h e h u n t i n g s e a s o n a n d t h e r e s t of t h e y e a r , and does not have to pay t h e m any s p e c i a l r e m u n e r a t i o n . " And finally, "the Company h a s the right or obligation to p r e v e n t t h e g r o w t h of l u x u r y a m o n g t h e A l e u t s , s u c h a s t h e u s e of b r e a d , t e a , a n d s i m i l a r i t e m s . " In t h e s e a r t i c l e s of t h e s t a t u t e " C o n c e r n i n g t h e I s l a n d e r s " only two points call f o r f u r t h e r e l u c i d a t i o n . F i r s t , t h e r e is t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e d e g r e e of i n d e p e n d e n c e e n j o y e d by t h e n a t i v e c h i e f t a i n s , in t h e i r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s of t h e A l e u t s a n d s e c o n d l y , t h e r e i s t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e - p r o p o r t i o n of A l e u t s e m p l o y e d on t h e C o m p a n y ' s c o n c e s s i o n s a s c o m p a r e d with their total n u m b e r . F o r a long t i m e the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company had been p l a y i n g f o r t h e f a v o r s of t h e u p p e r s t r a t u m of t h e A l e u t i a n t r i b e s . The m o m e n t the m e r c h a n t s began to exploit the a n i m a l r e s o u r c e s of t h e A l e u t i a n s by e s t a b l i s h i n g n e w s e t t l e m e n t s , they attempted to utilize the e s t e e m e d e l d e r s , whom t h e R u s s i a n c a l l e d " T o y o n s , " in i n f l u e n c i n g t h e A l e u t s . A s e a r l y a s 1791 B a r a n o v w r o t e in o n e of h i s l e t t e r s t o S h e l i k h o v : " D o n o t f o r g e t t o s e n d o v e r f o r t h e t o y o n s t w e n t y of t h e b e s t s u i t s of c l o t h e s w i t h f l a s h y t r i m m i n g s " , y o u m a y r i s k t w o o r t h r e e h u n d r e d r u b l e s a t t h e e x p e n s e of t h e C o m p a n y . We m u s t a t t a c h t h e m t o u s ; f o r s i n c e it i s s o m e t i m e s p o s s i b l e t o p r o c e e d by p o l i t i c a l m e a n s a n d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y by f o r c e , we a r e c o m p e l l e d by t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n E u r o p e a n d t h e s i t u a t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y i n K e n a i t o m a k e t h e t r i b e s

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that a r e in o u r e m p l o y i n d u s t r i o u s and devoted when we d r a f t o u r p l a n s f o r the f u t u r e . Soon t h e t o y o n b e c a m e p r a c t i c a l l y a c l e r k of t h e C o m p a n y . By t h e t e r m s of t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s , a s K o s t l i v t s o v t e s t i f i e s , the toyons w e r e usually chosen f r o m "a family that was d i s t i n g u i s h e d by h i g h b i r t h , g o o d m a n a g e m e n t , a n d p r o f i c i e n c y in h u n t i n g . " T h o s e s e l e c t e d w e r e a p p r o v e d by t h e g e n e r a l m a n a g e r of t h e C o m p a n y , a n d w e r e d i r e c t l y s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t h e h e a d s of t h e d i v i s i o n s . T h e r e w a s no d e f i n i t e t i m e - l i m i t on t h e p o s i t i o n of t o y o n a n d it o f t e n c o n t i n u e d f o r l i f e . " D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d of s e r v i c e e a c h of t h e t o y o n s r e c e i v e s a n a n n u a l s a l a r y of 250 r u b l e s i n b a n k n o t e s , v a r i o u s a l l o w a n c e s in t h e f o r m of p r o v i s i o n s a n d g i f t s , a n d s o m e t i m e s h e w i l l b e r e w a r d e d by t h e g e n e r a l m a n a g e r w i t h a m e d a l b e a r i n g t h e i n s c r i p t i o n ' F o r D i l i g e n c e . ' W h e n h e l e a v e s t h e s e r v i c e on a c c o u n t of o l d a g e o r i l l n e s s , t h e C o m p a n y a l w a y s g i v e s h i m enough aid to s e c u r e h i s e x i s t e n c e . The toyon, who i s a functionary and enjoys the v a r i o u s p r i v i l e g e s which the C o m pany g r a n t s h i m , lives m u c h b e t t e r and m o r e c o m f o r t a b l y than the other A l e u t s . " ^ T h e d u t i e s of t h e t o y o n s w e r e d e s c r i b e d i n a s p e c i a l o r d e r . The " R u l e s for Toyons Elected as E l d e r s " i m p o s e d the followi n g d u t i e s upon t h e m : " T h e e l d e r a s s i g n s t h e A l e u t s t o w o r k e r s ' d e t a c h m e n t s , i n t h e s u m m e r t o t h e h u n t i n g of s e a o t t e r s and in the w i n t e r to staving and shooting; a l s o to w h a l ing and b i r d hunting. " In c h o o s i n g t h e A l e u t s f o r s e r v i c e in t h e h u n t i n g - s t a t i o n s a n d in i s s u i n g t o t h e m t h e n e c e s s a r y t o o l s r e c e i v e d f r o m t h e f o r e m a n , the elder was duty-bound "to e x e r c i z e strong s u p e r vision over the f u r - h u n t e r s and to see that they tend c a r e f u l l y to the w o r k at hand and e x e r t t h e m s e l v e s to the full f o r the b e n e f i t of t h e C o m p a n y , w h i c h i s r e a l l y t h e i r o w n b e n e f i t , a n d t h a t t h e y do n o t l o s e a n y t i m e i n i d l e n e s s a n d i n a c t i v i t y . " ^ A l l A l e u t s w e r e o b l i g e d t o w o r k b o t h on t h e h u n t i n g - p o s t s a n d on t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of p r o v i s i o n s f o r t h e C o m p a n y , a n d s o f o r t h . F o r t h i s t y p e of w o r k " o l d m e n , w o m e n , a n d j u v e n i l e s of b o t h s e x e s m a y b e u t i l i z e d , a n d t h e y a r e t o c a r r y o u t w i t h o u t s u b t e r f u g e t h e c o m m a n d s of t h e e l d e r f o r t h e c o m m o n b e n e f i t of t h e s e t t l e m e n t . " F u r t h e r m o r e , the e l d e r was a l s o c h a r g e d with p u r e l y police f u n c t i o n s : " T h e e l d e r m u s t s e e t o i t t h a t n o n e of t h e A l e u t s

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c o m m i t t e d t o h i s c h a r g e e v e r l o a f s about doing n o t h i n g , o r d a r e s a b s e n t h i m s e l f f r o m t h e v i l l a g e without o b t a i n i n g p e r m i s s i o n from the e l d e r . " S u c h w e r e t h e o b l i g a t i o n s of t h e t o y o n s , o r e l d e r s , in t h e A l e u t s e t t l e m e n t s . H e n c e , the toyon w a s nothing but a C o m pany c l e r k . A s Davydov w r i t e s , " t h e c h i e f . . . of t h e s a v a g e s i s a l m o s t i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m t h e o t h e r s e x c e p t by the t i t l e of t o y o n , o r w o r s e s t i l l , he i s b e i n g c o n v e r t e d into the m a i n s p r i n g of o p p r e s s i o n f o r the o t h e r i s l a n d e r s . " 1 3 A s t o the n u m b e r of n a t i v e s who w e r e a'ctually e n g a g e d in C o m p a n y w o r k , it in no way c o r r e s p o n d e d to t h e n o r m s i n d i c a t e d in the s t a t u t e s . W h i l e K o s t l i v t s o v w a s in the A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s , a c o m p l a i n t w a s l o d g e d with h i m , in t h e n a m e of t h e A l e u t s , a g a i n s t t h e C o m p a n y f o r d i s r e g a r d i n g the s t a t u t e . It s a i d t h a t when o t t e r p a r t i e s w e r e b e i n g f i t t e d out, " a l m o s t a l l of the a d u l t s a r e s e n t out t o the h u n t i n g - s t a t i o n s , and only t h e old m e n , w o m e n , and c h i l d r e n a r e l e f t at h o m e , w h e r e f o r e t h e i r f a m i l i e s a r e s u f f e r i n g of a s h o r t a g e in p r o v i s i o n s . " T h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e A l e u t s p o i n t e d out " t h a t t h e y spend t h e b e s t p a r i of t h e y e a r hunting s e a - o t t e r s and r e t u r n h o m e when a l l of the p e r i o d i c f i s h h a v e gone out to s e a . T h u s t h e y h a v e no o p p o r t u n i t y t o l a y in b e t i m e s s u f f i c i e n t p r o v i s i o n s f o r t h e i r f a m i l i e s f o r the w i n t e r , which p r o v i s i o n s c o n s i s t e d c h i e f l y of 1 y u k o l a , 1 t h a t i s d r i e d o r s u n - d r i e d f i s h . " 15 E v e n K o s t l i v t s o v , who t r i e d t o d e f e n d the C o m p a n y , c o u l d not deny t h a t t h e A l e u t s w e r e h e l d in a s t a t e of s l a v e r y . B u t he a t t e m p t e d t o s h i f t t h e b l a m e f r o m the C o m p a n y to p u r e l y n a t u r a l c a u s e s : " P e r s o n a l l y he i s not a s l a v e , not a s e r f b e l o n g i n g to s o m e m a s t e r , no one f o r c e s h i m t o do a n y t h i n g - b u t , i f one l o o k s m o r e c l o s e l y into h i s c o n d i t i o n , one m u s t a d m i t t h a t t h e A l e u t i s a s l a v e of c i r c u m s t a n c e s , in t h e full s e n s e of the t e r m . " At t h e s a m e t i m e K o s t l i v t s o v o b s e r v e s t h a t t h e A l e u t i s n e v e r i d l e : " L a b o r i n g h a r d and c o n s t a n t l y a l l h i s l i f e , a n d - in t h e n a t u r e of h i s p u r s u i t s - - a t the r i s k of h i s l i f e , it w a s t o be hoped t h a t t h e A l e u t s , if t h e y a r e not a l l r i c h , would at l e a s t be l i v i n g in a s t a t e of c o n t e n t m e n t , w e l l p r o v i d e d with a l l t h e n e c e s s i t i e s of l i f e . B u t , I r e g r e t to s a y , in r e a l i t y , t h e i r s i t u a t i o n i s quite o p p o s i t e . " 1 6 E s s e n t i a l l y t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e A l e u t s and t h e C o m p a n y r e c a l l e d in m a n y r e s p e c t s t h e s o - c a l l e d " m i t a " s y s t e m , w h i c h w a s in e f f e c t in t h e gold .and s i l v e r m i n e s of P e r u and M e x i c o . A t t h e c o l o n i s t s ' d e m a n d t h e Indian

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v i l l a g e s in P e r u w e r e o b l i g e d t o s e n d one s e v e n t h of t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n t o w o r k in t h e m i n e s , and t h o s e in M e x i c o , one fourth. The w o r k e r s r e c e i v e d a beggarly wage, which was p a i d out to t h e m at the end of t h e p e r i o d of f o r c e d " h i r e d l a b o r . " H e r e in t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s , t h e p r o p o r t i o n "of t h o s e i m p r e s s e d into working f o r the Company was c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r , and c o m p r i s e d , at c e r t a i n p e r i o d s , the whole a b l e bodied population. When t h e C o m p a n y w a s in i t s p r i m e , in t h e f i r s t d e c a d e s of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e s y s t e m of f o r c e d l a b o r f o r t h e n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n w a s o r g a n i z e d in t h e f o l l o w i n g m a n n e r : the m a i n p a r t y , c o n s i s t i n g of s o m e 5 0 0 c a n o e s , would be s e n t in A p r i l f r o m K o d i a k along t h e A m e r i c a n m a i n l a n d a s f a r a s B e a v e r B a y , r e t u r n i n g only at t h e end of A u g u s t . Only t h e youngest E s k i m o s w e r e s e l e c t e d for this p a r t y , s i n c e during t h e hunting s e a s o n it w a s o f t e n n e c e s s a r y t o put up a d e f e n s e against attacking Tlinkets. The second party, comprising s o m e 2 0 0 c a n o e s , would s e t out a b o u t t h e b e g i n n i n g of A p r i l and would s a i l along t h e i s l a n d s l y i n g n o r t h of K o d i a k until t h e end of A u g u s t . T h e t h i r d p a r t y , n u m b e r i n g f o r t y c a n o e s , would e n g a g e in hunting on t h e i s l a n d s n o r t h of K o d i a k and would a l s o t r a n s p o r t t h e n e c e s s a r y p r o v i s i o n s f r o m one i s l a n d t o the n e x t . T h e f o u r t h p a r t y of f i f t y c a n o e s would s e t out in a w e s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n f r o m K o d i a k . E v e r y o n e l e a v i n g on a hunting e x p e d i t i o n would m a k e h i m s e l f a new c a n o e w h i c h , in t h e c a s e of t h e n a t i v e s , r e p r e s e n t e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n v e s t m e n t ; f o r t h e c a n o e c o u l d not be u s e d a g a i n when it w a s b r o u g h t b a c k . T h e old m e n and the c h i l d r e n who r e m a i n e d in t h e c o l o n y would be s e n t out in C o m p a n y c a n o e s to hunt b i r d s . E a c h of t h e m h a d to c a t c h enough b i r d s t o m a k e s e v e n p a r k a s , ! 7 o r about 3 0 0 b i r d s . " I f anyone i s u n a b l e , on a c c o u n t of o l d a g e o r i l l n e s s , t o p r o c u r e t h e p r e s c r i b e d n u m b e r , he i s t o m a k e it up f r o m t h e s u r p l u s p r o c u r e d by s o m e o n e e l s e . T h e C o m p a n y d o e s not p a y a n y t h i n g f o r t h e o f f i c i a l n u m b e r of s e v e n p a r k a s . Bird-hunting i s q u i t e d a n g e r o u s , e s p e c i a l l y f o r old m e n . . . . Anyone p r o c u r i n g s e v e n p a r k a s i s g i v e n one in r e t u r n , f o r w h i c h he i s t o pay f i v e b l a c k f o x e s , o r e i g h t d a r k - g r e y o r r e d o n e s . T h e w o m e n w e r e s e n t out t o c l e a n t h e f i s h , s e w t h e p a r k a s , p i c k b e r r i e s , and dig m a r t a g ó n . Says Davydov: " I t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o p r o c u r e m a r t a g ó n and it h a s a v e r y s h o r t s e a s o n . S i n c e p r e g n a n t w o m e n and t h o s e h a v i n g i n f a n t s w e r e unable to dig up t h e f i x e d a m o u n t , t h e y would be o b l i g e d t o

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buy s o m e f r o m t h e o t h e r s . When the b e r r i e s a r e r i p e , the w o m e n a r e a g a i n s e n t out t o p i c k a s p e c i f i e d a m o u n t , d e p e n d i n g on t h e c r o p , r a n g i n g f r o m 4 t o 8 i s h k a t . 2 0 T h i s c o n t i n u e s u n t i l l a t e in t h e f a l l - - a n d t h e r e i s no p a y f o r i t . At f i r s t the C o m p a n y d i s t r i b u t e d the n a t i v e s t h r o u g h o u t all the little i s l a n d s . Altogether the Kodiak E s k i m o s w e r e s c a t t e r e d in s i x t y - f i v e d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s . L a t e r o n , h o w e v e r , w h e n the a n i m a l r e s o u r c e s had been depleted, all the natives w e r e c o n c e n t r a t e d , b e g i n n i n g in 1841 a n d o v e r a p e r i o d of t h r e e y e a r s , in s e v e n s e t t l e m e n t s . A s w a s o b s e r v e d by K o s t l i v t s o v a n d G o l o v n i n , w h o m a d e a n i n s p e c t i o n t o u r of t h e c o l o n i e s , " t h e A l e u t s , by o r d e r of t h e a u t h o r i t i e s of t h e c o l o n i e s , a r e now g a t h e r e d i n l a r g e s e t t l e m e n t s . In s o m e p l a c e s t h e y h a v e b e e n b r a i g h t t o g e t h e r in too l a r g e n u m b e r s , which m a k e s it difficult to p r e p a r e s u f f i c i e n t s t o c k s of f i s h a n d o t h e r v i c t u a l s f o r t h e w i n t e r . F o r t h e m o s t p a r t t h e y l i v e in s m a l l h o u s e s m a d e of s o m e k i n d of w o o d , half dug i n t o t h e g r o u n d , c o v e r e d w i t h e a r t h on t o p , a n d w i t h o u t w i n d o w s o r s t o v e s . " 2 2 In t h e r e p o r t s of t h e C o m p a n y t h e r e i s f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e to a fixed p r i c e a c c o r d i n g to which the Aleuts w e r e paid f o r the a n i m a l - s k i n s they p r o c e s s e d . This was r e g a r d e d as p r o o f of t h e " i n d e p e n d e n c e " of t h e n a t i v e s . T h e s t a t u t e r e a d t h a t t h e n a t i v e s " w i s h i n g t o s e l l a n y of t h e p e l t r y p r o c u r e d by t h e m a r e not a l l o w e d t o do s o e x c e p t to the Company exclusively, according to the set r a t e which the m a n a g e m e n t is to s u b m i t to the g o v e r n m e n t . " Such a r a t e a c t u a l l y e x i s t e d a n d w a s e v e n r a i s e d at d e f i n i t e i n t e r v a l s . In 1804 a s e a - o t t e r s k i n b r o u g h t in 10 r u b l e s , 2 3 in 1 8 2 7 - - 2 0 r u b l e s , in 1 8 3 6 — 3 0 r u b l e s , a n d in 1 8 5 2 — 5 0 r u b l e s . D a r k b r o w n f o x e s b r o u g h t in 2 r u b l e s a p i e c e in 1804 a n d 9 r u b l e s in 1 8 5 2 . A w h i t e p o l a r f o x b r o u g h t i n 8 k o p e c k s in 1 8 0 4 , 20 k o p e c k s in 1 8 3 6 , a n d s o f o r t h . 2 4 H o w e v e r , a s t h e C o m p a n y i t s e l f s t a t e d , " t h i s b u s i n e s s , n a m e l y , t h e p u r c h a s e of a n i m a l s f r o m t h e d e p e n d e n t A l e u t s , i s p r a c t i c a l l y of n o a c c o u n t t o t h e C o m p a n y by r e a s o n of t h e e x t r e m e l a z i n e s s a n d i n d i f f e r e n c e of t h e A l e u t s . If t h e C o m p a n y . . . c o n t i n u e s t o buy a n i m a l s f r o m t h e s a v a g e s , it i s d o i n g s o not f r o m i t s own i s l a n d e r s but f r o m t r i b e s t h a t a r e a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e C o m p a n y . " 2 5 It w a s a f a v o r i t e d e v i c e of t h e C o m p a n y t o a l l e g e t h a t t h e n a t i v e s w e r e l a z y , e v e r y t i m e it f e l t t h a t it n e e d e d n e w j u s t i fication for applying compulsory m e a s u r e s to t h e m . The

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t r u t h i s t h a t under t h e s y s t e m of e x p l o i t a t i o n t h a t w a s in vogue in t h e p o s s e s s i o n s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y with r e s p e c t t o t h e n a t i v e s , t h e s e n a t i v e s did not e v e n h a v e t i m e t o s t o r e a w a y any p r o v i s i o n s f o r t h e w i n t e r , l e t a l o n e do any hunting on t h e i r own. S u m m a r i z i n g h i s i m p r e s s i o n s of t h e l i f e of t h e n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n Davydov s a y s : " I f t h e c o l o n i s t s in A m e r i c a h a v e until now and b e c a u s e of t h e i r l a z i n e s s b e e n s u f f e r i n g f r o m a l a c k of f o o d , t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e i r suffering today i s v e r y d i f f e r e n t , n a m e l y , t h a t t h e w o m e n a r e l a y i n g in a supply of f i s h , b e r r i e s , m a r t a g ó n , and o t h e r t h i n g s f o r t h e C o m p a n y d u r i n g t h e whole t i m e t h a t t h e f i s h c o n t i n u e t o run into t h e r i v e r s . A s f o r the m e n , t h e y s p e n d t h e w h o l e s u m m e r hunting s e a o t t e r s and b i r d s and r e t u r n in t h e f a l l s h o r t l y b e f o r e t h e f i s h go out t o s e a . S o , w o r k i n g f o r o t h e r s d u r i n g t h e b e s t t i m e of t h e s e a s o n , t h e y h a r d l y h a v e any t i m e t o d r y f i s h and to s t o r e it away f o r t h e i r own f u t u r e c o n s u m p t i o n . " ^ B y the p r o v i s i o n s of t h e s t a t u t e , t h e A l e u t s had t h e r i g h t t o c o m p l a i n to the G o v e r n i n g B o a r d a g a i n s t a b u s e s on t h e p a r t of the l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s , o r of any o f f i c i a l of t h e C o m p a n y . T h e c o m m a n d a n t of t h e p o r t of I r k u t s k , in h i s r e p o r t t o t h e c i v i l g o v e r n o r of I r k u t s k in 1 8 1 5 , p o i n t e d out q u i t e c o r r e c t l y that if t h e A l e u t s " h a d t u r n e d " with a l l t h e i r c o m p l a i n t s " t o t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y in S t . P e t e r s b u r g and had e x p e c t e d s a t i s f a c t i o n f r o m t h a t q u a r t e r , i t m a y be s a i d m o s t a s s u r e d l y t h a t s u c h c o m p l a i n t s would n e v e r r e a c h t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d , e v e n though t h e Company were to exist s e v e r a l m o r e c e n t u r i e s . "27 " U n d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , " w r o t e t h e c o m m a n d a n t of t h e p o r t of I r k u t s k , " t h e A l e u t s w i l l f o r e v e r r e m a i n in a s t a t e of o p p r e s s i o n and w i l l a l w a y s be s u f f e r i n g at t h e h a n d s of t h e R u s s i a n f u r - h u n t e r s what t h e y h a v e f r e q u e n t l y e n d u r e d until now; f o r t h e A l e u t s , b e i n g a m o s t p e a c e f u l and d o c i l e p e o p l e , not knowing R u s s i a n h a b i t s and not h a v i n g a n y o n e a m o n g t h e i r own c o u n t r y m e n who k n o w s how to r e a d and w r i t e R u s s i a n , n o r a n y o n e on t h e i s l a n d s who would a c t in t h e i r d e f e n s e , n e v e r even m a k e an a t t e m p t , in s p i t e of a l l t h e a b u s e s t h e y h a v e e n d u r e d , t o a s k one of t h e R u s s i a n h u n t e r s w o r k i n g f o r the C o m p a n y on the i s l a n d of A t k a and on t h e o t h e r i s l a n d s of the Andreanof chain to w r i t e a petition to the Governing B o a r d and expound a l l t h e w r o n g s s u f f e r e d by t h e m ; s i n c e it m a y be

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s u p p o s e d t h a t it would be a r a r e w o r k e r i n d e e d of t h o s e found in an a r t e l of t h a t d i v i s i o n who would put down on p a p e r a n y thing u n f a v o r a b l e t o a f e l l o w - w o r k e r , w h a t e v e r the A l e u t s m a y decide to complain about. T h e s i n g l e i n s t a n c e s of i n d i v i d u a l A l e u t s c o m i n g to O k h o t s k on C o m p a n y v e s s e l s did not c h a n g e t h e s i t u a t i o n in t h e m a i n . In t h r e e y e a r s , only one c o m p l a i n t r e a c h e d t h e c o m m a n d a n t of O k h o t s k , and not b e c a u s e t h e r e w e r e no g r o u n d s f o r c o m p l a i n i n g . In 1 8 1 2 the A l e u t G i l e v a r r i v e d in O k h o t s k on t h e C o m p a n y - v e s s e l " F i n l a n d i a " t o e n t e r an o r a l c o m p l a i n t with t h e c o m m a n d a n t of O k h o t s k a g a i n s t t h e v a r i o u s " a b u s e s and o u t r a g e s " c o m m i t t e d by e m p l o y e e s of t h e C o m p a n y . These a b u s e s " c o n s i s t m a i n l y in t h a t m a n y of t h e w o r k e r s on t h e h u n t i n g - s t a t i o n s l i v i n g on t h e i s l a n d s h a v e m a d e it a p r a c t i c e t o a b d u c t t h e w i v e s and d a u g h t e r s of t h e A l e u t s , c a r r y t h e m off a s h o s t a g e s , and l i v e with t h e m on t h e i s l a n d s . Then, when t h e y a r e s e n t b a c k t o O k h o t s k , s o m e of t h e h u n t e r s t a k e t h e i r w o m e n a l o n g , w h i l e o t h e r s l e a v e t h e i r s on t h e i s lands to b e c o m e a public c h a r g e . T h e c o m m a n d a n t of O k h o t s k did only one t h i n g : he f o r c e d t h e f u r - h u n t e r s who b r o u g h t a l o n g t h e i r A l e u t w o m e n t o m a r r y t h e m . One a s s i s t a n t p i l o t by the n a m e of D u b i n i n , " w a s f o r c e d to m a r r y l e g a l l y t h e wife he had s n a t c h e d . . . a s a h o s t a g e on A t k a . T h e s a m e was done with t h e w o r k e r s who b r o u g h t A l e u t g i r l s t o O k h o t s k f r o m t h e A n d r e a n o f c h a i n . A l l of t h e m . . . w e r e m a r r i e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l a w s of t h e C h u r c h in t h e w i n t e r of 1 8 1 4 . " 3 0 A s a r e s u l t of the c o n d i t i o n of s e r v i t u d e in w h i c h the A l e u t s w e r e f o r c e d to live they w e r e rapidly b e c o m i n g e x t i n c t . It i s doubtful if the q u e s t i o n of t h e s i z e of t h e n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n at the s t a r t of the R u s s i a n c o l o n i z a t i o n c a n be a n s w e r e d with any d e g r e e of c e r t a i n t y . T h e i n f o r m a t i o n s u p p l i e d by S h e l i k h o v to t h e e f f e c t t h a t t h e r e w e r e s o m e 5 0 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e in t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s w a s " h i g h l y e x a g g e r a t e d " ; it w a s h i s p u r p o s e t o a t t a c h the g r e a t e s t i m p o r t a n c e t o the i n c o r p o r a t i o n of the A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s in t h e R u s s i a n e m p i r e . In the e a r l y p e r i o d of t h e o c c u p a t i o n of t h e c o l o n i e s t h e r e w a s no q u e s t i o n of t a k i n g c e n s u s , and l a t e r o n , the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y p r e f e r r e d not t o m a k e p u b l i c the i n f o r m a t i o n it undoubtedly had at i t s d i s p o s a l . T h u s in 1 8 2 4 , w h e n , i n - s p i t e of the r e p e a t e d r e q u e s t s by t h e M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e f o r c o m p a r a t i v e f i g u r e s on t h e b i r t h s and d e a t h s in the c o l o n i e s , s u c h i n f o r m a t i o n w a s , f o r v a r i o u s r e a s o n s , not submitted.

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B u t e v e n t h e s u m m a r y r e p o r t c o v e r i n g a p e r i o d of s e v e r a l m o n t h s in t h e c o l o n y of R o s s and a y e a r at t h e N o v o a r k h a n g e l s k and K o d i a k o f f i c e s s h o w e d t h a t t h e n u m b e r of d e a t h s w a s in e x c e s s of t h e n u m b e r of b i r t h s . K a n k r i n e v e n m a d e t h i s a n n o t a t i o n in t h e m a r g i n : " M o r e a r e d y i n g ; i t m u s t be h a r d f o r them to live . "31 A s f o r t h e r e s t , t h e g o v e r n m e n t p r e f e r r e d not t o d r a w any f u r t h e r c o n c l u s i o n s f r o m t h e i n f o r m a t i o n it had g a t h e r e d on the c o n d i t i o n of the n a t i v e s in the A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s . B u t even though we h a v e only i n e x a c t i n f o r m a t i o n a s t o t h e n u m b e r of n a t i v e s in t h e A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s , we c a n s t i l l s p e a k of t h e m a s dying out during t h e r u l e of t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . A c c o r d i n g t o K h l e b n i k o v , 2 , 1 9 5 out of 6 , 5 1 0 n a t i v e s died b e t w e e n 1 7 9 2 and 1 8 1 7 on K o d i a k a l o n e . 3 2 In 1 8 2 4 , a c c o r d i n g t o the G o v e r n i n g B o a r d , t h e t o t a l n u m b e r of A l e u t s of both s e x e s w a s 8 , 4 0 3 , 3 3 and by 1 8 5 9 , s h o r t l y b e f o r e the C o m p a n y w a s l i q u i d a t e d , t h e n u m b e r of A l e u t s had d i m i n i s h e d t o 4 , 3 6 3 . 34 While t h e y w e r e a c t u a l l y s l a v e s of t h e C o m p a n y , t h e " c o m p l e t e l y d e p e n d e n t " n a t i v e s did not c o n s t i t u t e t h e " p r o p e r t y " of t h e C o m p a n y . T h e r e w e r e in t h e c o l o n i e s , h o w e v e r , not only s l a v e s who b e l o n g e d t o t h e C o m p a n y in f a c t , but a l s o t h o s e who b e l o n g e d t o it l e g a l l y . T h e l a t t e r w e r e o r d i n a r i l y e m p l o y e d in t h e c a p a c i t y of p e r s o n a l s e r v a n t s t o m e m b e r s of t h e C o m p a n y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , and in a n u m b e r of o t h e r t a s k s . In i t s r e p o r t s t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d p o i n t e d out r e p e a t e d l y t h a t with t h e c o m i n g of t h e C o m p a n y t o t h e i s l a n d s and t o t h e A m e r i c a n m a i n l a n d , s l a v e r y , w h i c h had p r e v a i l e d a m o n g t h e native t r i b e s , w a s completely e r a d i c a t e d . To a c e r t a i n deg r e e t h i s a s s e r t i o n w a s in c o n f o r m i t y with r e a l i t y . The s l a v e s w e r e t a k e n away f r o m a l l t h e n a t i v e t r i b e s , with the e x c e p t i o n of t h e T l i n k e t , but t h e y did n o t , f o r a l l t h a t , b e c o m e f r e e m e n ; t h e y m e r e l y b e c a m e t h e p r o p e r t y of the C o m p a n y . T h e s e s a m e " K a l g i " o r , a s t h e y l a t e r c a m e t o be c a l l e d in t h e c o l o n i e s , " K a y u r y , " w e r e c o n s i d e r e d " t o be in t h e p e r m a n e n t s e r v i c e " of t h e C o m p a n y . F u r t h e r m o r e , e v e n i n d i v i d u a l f u r - h u n t e r s s u c h a s C o m p a n y c l e r k s and o t h e r s , had t h e i r own " K a y u r y . " H o w e v e r , with t h e advent of t h e R u s s i a n s , t h e w a r s a m o n g the native t r i b e s c a m e to a halt and, c o n s e q u e n t l y , the m a i n s o u r c e of s l a v e s w a s a l s o d r i e d up. At t h e s a m e t i m e , the n u m b e r of " K a l g i " o r " K a y u r y " w a s c o n s t a n t l y on the d e c r e a s e . T h e n the C o m p a n y found t h e f o l l o w i n g way o u t , a s Davydov reports :

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" W h e n t h e n u m b e r of ' K a y u r y ' h a d d i m i n i s h e d a s a r e s u l t of h a r d l a b o r a n d of v a r i o u s m i s h a p s , t h e y s t a r t e d t o i m p r e s s into s l a v e r y t h o s e a m o n g the i s l a n d e r s who had c o m m i t t e d c e r t a i n o f f e n c e s ; a n d it i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t f r o m t h e n on t h e n u m b e r of c r i m i n a l s on K o d i a k w a s a l w a y s on the i n c r e a s e . " 3 5 T h e " K a y u r y " w e r e e m p l o y e d in v a r i o u s c a p a c i t i e s . T h e y c a u g h t f i s h in t h e s h a l l o w w a t e r s a l o n g t h e s h o r e , p r o c e s s e d f o x e s w i t h s h a r p - e d g e d h a m m e r s , w o r k e d in t h e s a l t - m i n e s and b r i c k - y a r d s , felled t r e e s , w e r e e m p l o y e d a s o a r s m e n . In t h e w i n t e r t i m e , not n e e d i n g s o m a n y " K a y u r y " a n d w i s h i n g to save s o m e u n n e c e s s a r y e x p e n s e s , the C o m p a n y put t h e m up w i t h t h e n a t i v e s . A c c o r d i n g t o D a v y d o v , t h e " K a y u r y " " w e r e f o r c e d to w o r k f o r the C o m p a n y until t h e y w e r e too old, or until such t i m e as t h e i r r e l a t i v e s had an opportunity to r e d e e m t h e m . " E v e n p h y s i c a l d i s a b i l i t y did not s a v e t h e m f r o m h a r d l a b o r . "If a ' K a y u r ' g r o w s l a m e o r l o s e s a n a r m , o r i s i n c a p a c i t a t e d f o r w o r k in s o m e o t h e r w a y , h e i s a s s i g n e d t h e j o b of s c a r i n g a w a y t h e c r o w s w i t h a s u s p e n d e d s c a r e c r o w , o r s o m e t h i n g like t h a t . "36 In i t s r e p o r t s t h e C o m p a n y e v a d e d t h e p r o b l e m of i t s s l a v e s o r " K a y u r y . " T h e r e f o r e it i s i m p o s s i b l e t o a s c e r t a i n how m a n y of t h e m t h e r e w e r e . O n l y i n o n e r e p o r t , t h a t f o r 1 8 1 0 , d o e s t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d w r i t e a b o u t t h e " K a y u r y " t h a t it i s u t i l i zing t h e i r labor b e c a u s e "the f r i e n d l y i s l a n d e r s have v o l u n t a r i l y l o a n e d out t h e ' K a y u r s ' of b o t h s e x e s t o t h e R u s s i a n s t o h e l p with the t a s k s and the l a b o r s with which the R u s s i a n s a r e una b l e o r h a v e no t i m e t o o c c u p y t h e m s e l v e s . " T h e n u m b e r of " K a y u r y " a s g i v e n in t h a t r e p o r t w a s 5 0 0 . The native t r i b e s , the Kenai people, Chugaches, and others w h i c h t h e C o m p a n y c a l l e d " s e m i - d e p e n d e n t , " w e r e not d e p e n d e n t on t h e C o m p a n y in a n y w a y . T h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e m and the Company w e r e m o r e or l e s s n o r m a l . The Company r a r e l y bought f u r s f r o m t h e m or h i r e d t h e m to w o r k f o r it. Y e t in t h e r e p o r t s , i n o r d e r t o e n h a n c e t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e Company, they a r e designated as " semi-dependent. " T h e c a t e g o r y of n a t i v e s w h o w e r e " n o t c o m p l e t e l y d e p e n d e n t " upon t h e C o m p a n y c o m p r i s e d t h e T l i n k e t ( K o l o s h ) w h o l i v e d in t h e t e r r i t o r y of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a . P a r a g r a p h 280 of t h e s t a t u t e s t i p u l a t e d t h a t t h e C o m p a n y had the right to offer t h e s e people its " p r o t e c t i o n . " But, S t a t e C o u n c i l l o r K o s t l i v t s o v , w h o m a d e a t o u r of i n s p e c t i o n

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of t h e c o l o n i e s in 1 8 6 0 , r e m a r k e d , n o t w i t h o u t w i t , t h a t t h e p a r a g r a p h i n q u e s t i o n d e a l t o n l y w i t h a " p l e a s a n t i l l u s i o n " of t h e C o m p a n y a n d did not a t a l l c o n f o r m t o t h i n g s a s t h e y w e r e . T h i s is what he s a i d : " A l t h o u g h , b o t h in t h e C o m p a n y s t a t u t e t h a t i s now in e f f e c t a n d in t h e o n e t h a t i s b e i n g d r a f t e d t h e s e n a t i v e s a r e d e s i g n a t e d a s ' n o t c o m p l e t e l y d e p e n d e n t ' of t h e c o l o nial g o v e r n m e n t and a s m e r e l y living in the t e r r i t o r y b e l o n g i n g t o t h e c o l o n i e s , I, f o r m y p a r t , s h o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t t h e y be m o r e c o r r e c t l y c a l l e d ' c o m p l e t e l y i n d e p e n d e n t . ' T h e K o l o s h c a n n o t in a n y r e s p e c t b e r e g a r d e d a s d e p e n d e n t on t h e C o m p a n y , r a t h e r i t m a y be s a i d t h a t , i n t u r n , t h e C o m p a n y ' s c o l o n i e s on t h e A m e r i c a n c o a s t d e p e n d on t h e m ; f o r t h e K o l o s h h a v e o n l y , s o t o s p e a k , t o b e g i n t o m a k e a l i t t l e n o i s e t o d e p r i v e t h e p o r t of A r k h a n g e l s k a n d i t s e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n of a l l f r e s h f o o d a n d e v e n of t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o s h o w t h e i r f a c e s a f e w y a r d s o u t s i d e the fortifications."·^® R e a r - A d m i r a l M . D . T e b e n k o v , w h o w a s G o v e r n o r of t h e c o l o n i e s f r o m 1845 t o 1 8 5 0 , s a i d f r a n k l y in one of h i s r e p o r t s t h a t " o n l y t h e d i s u n i t y a m o n g t h e K o l o s h a n d t h e i r l a c k of l e a d e r s h i p have s a v e d us f r o m t h e i r a t t a c k s . While we have v e r y m a n y r e a s o n s for being indulgent with t h e m or d i r e c t i n g t h e i r insolent a c t i v i t i e s into other c h a n n e l s , I still a m not convinced that s o o n e r or l a t e r , with things going a s t h e y a r e , S i t k a w i l l be a b l e t o a v o i d a b l o o d y c a t a s t r o p h e . " 3 9 T h e c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t i e s , w i t h o u t a n a r m e d f o r c e of s u f f i c i e n t s t r e n g t h , w e r e a l w a y s a f r a i d of a g g r a v a t i n g t h e i r r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e T l i n k e t . In t h e e v e n t t h a t t h e T l i n k e t w e r e d i s c o n t e n t e d , S i t k a w a s d o o m e d t o a n e x i s t e n c e of s e m i - s t a r v a t i o n . T h e w h o l e p o p u l a t i o n w o u l d be f o r c e d on a d i e t of o l d s a l t m e a t a n d s a l t e d f i s h , f o r it w o u l d not be s a f e t o v e n t u r e b e y o n d t h e c o n f i n e s of t h e f o r t i f i c a t i o n s . A s f o r a r o u s i n g t h e i n t e r e s t of t h e T l i n k e t in t h e e c o n o m i c a d v a n t a g e s of t r a d i n g w i t h t h e C o m p a n y , t h a t , t o o , w a s not f e a s i b l e ; t h e C o m p a n y a l w a y s h a d d i f f i c u l t y in d e l i v e r i n g t h e goods. It i s p o s s i b l e t o j u d g e f r o m t h e l e t t e r s of t h e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n the extent to which the Company was dependent u p o n t h e T l i n k e t . In o n e of h i s l e t t e r s , G o v e r n o r M u r a v y o v s a i d t h a t i n 1823 " t h e h u n t i n g s e a s o n f o r s e a - a n i m a l s , w i t h

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t h e e x c e p t i o n of s e a l s , w a s a f a i l u r e , and had b e e n r e n d e r e d e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t b e c a u s e of t h e d a n g e r f r o m t h e K o l o s h who w e r e t r y i n g in e v e r y way t o i n t e r f e r e with a l l h u n t i n g . S i n c e the K o l o s h t h e m s e l v e s p r o c e s s s e a - o t t e r s , it would h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e a d v a n t a g e o u s t o t h e C o m p a n y t o buy t h e s e o t t e r s d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e K o l o s h t h a n t o hunt f o r t h e m . B u t in the c o l o n i e s t h e r e w e r e none of t h o s e a r t i c l e s f o r w h i c h the Kolosh usually b a r t e r t h e i r s e a - o t t e r s , and, t h e r e f o r e , t h e r e w a s nothing with w h i c h t o buy t h e m . ' " ^ ® F r o m the v e r / f i r s t y e a r s that the R u s s i a n s m a d e t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e in t h a t a r e a t h e o p p o s i t i o n of the T l i n k e t w a s t e n a c i o u s and s t u b b o r n . B a r a n o v , d e s c r i b i n g in a l e t t e r t o S h e l i k h o v one of h i s c l a s h e ç with t h e T l i n k e t in 1 7 9 2 , s a i d t h a t " t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f f e r e d by t h e R u s s i a n s with r i f l e s and by t h e A m e r i c a n s ^ ' with b o w s - a n d - a r r o w s and in h a n d - t o hand f i g h t i n g with p i k e s , w a s v e r y s t u b b o r n , t o be s u r e - but it w a s of no a v a i l , f o r t h e a t t a c k e r s w e r e a l l d r e s s e d in t h r e e o r f o u r c o a t s of p l a i t e d wooden a r m o u r , and o v e r t h e s e t h e y w o r e t h i c k e l k - s k i n c l o a k s , and on t h e i r h e a d s t h e y w o r e e x t r e m e l y t h i c k wooden h e l m e t s with f i g u r e s of v a r i o u s m o n s t e r s p a i n t e d on t h e m , w h e r e f o r e n e i t h e r b u l l e t s n o r b r i c k s n o r a r r o w s n o r p i k e s w e r e p o w e r f u l enough to d e f e a t t h e m , and had t h e R u s s i a n s not c h a n c e d t o h a v e a o n e - p o u n d e r with t h e m t h e y would c e r t a i n l y h a v e b e e n w o r s t e d ; f o r t h e a t t a c k e r s fought with g r e a t f e r o c i t y until d a y l i g h t , b e i n g g i v e n o r d e r s by t h e v o i c e of one m a n , s o m e t h i n g t h a t h a d not b e e n s e e n b e f o r e in t h e c a s e of t h e s e s a v a g e s , and b r a v e l y s t e p p i n g f o r w a r d t o t a k e t h e p l a c e of t h e i r d e a d . " ^ In t h e y e a r 1801 t h e T l i n k e t s l a i d w a s t e t o s o - c a l l e d F o r t M i k h a i l o v s k y on t h e i s l a n d of S i t k a , and in 1 8 0 5 t h e y did t h e s a m e t o t h e c o l o n y of S l a v o r o s s i y a on Y a k u t a t B a y . T h e s t r u g g l e with t h e T l i n k e t w a s f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s e r e m a r k a b l e s h a r p s h o o t e r s w e r e a r m e d with r i f l e s which t h e y h a d b a r t e r e d f r o m t h e f o r e i g n e r s . In h i s r e p o r t for the y e a r 1860 Captain Golovin w r o t e , that " i t is not s o long ago t h a t not one R u s s i a n d a r e d t o v e n t u r e u n a r m e d f i f t y f e e t o u t s i d e t h e N o v o a r k a n g e l s k f o r t i f i c a t i o n s . At t h e p r e s e n t t i m e s u c h a n i m o s i t y no l o n g e r e x i s t s , but t r a d e r e l a t i o n s a r e b e i n g m a i n t a i n e d only with t h e K o l o s h of S i t k a , who l i v e within s o m e s e v e n t y f e e t of N o v a r k a n g e l s k . " 4 3 P e o p l e in t h e c o l o n i e s w e r e l i v i n g in t h e shadow of a c o n s t a n t m e n a c e . T h e n a v a l o f f i c e r A . M a r k o v , who v i s i t e d N o v a r k h a n g e l s k in t h e m i d 1 8 4 0 ' s , r e l a t e s t h a t " g u n s f r o m

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all d i r e c t i o n s , both f r o m the f o r t r e s s and f r o m ships dropping anchor in a row opposite the T l i n k e t c o l o n i e s " w e r e always pointed at the T l i n k e t v i l l a g e s . But these precautions w e r e of l i t t l e a v a i l . The attacks on the T l i n k e t on the Russian s e t t l e m e n t s , and even on the c e n t e r of those s e t t l e m e n t s , continued down to the t i m e when the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company was liquidated. In 1852 the T l i n k e t d e s t r o y e d a s m a l l Russian s e t t l e m e n t , s o m e t h i r t e e n m i l e s f r o m N o v o a r k h a n g e l s k , and in 1855 they even launched an attack on that town i t s e l f . Seizing a church on the edge of the town, the T l i n k e t opened intense f i r e on the center of the town. The situation of the b e s i e g e d Russians was v e r y c r i t i c a l ; they w e r e outnumbered many t i m e s o v e r by the b e s i e g i n g T l i n k e t . Only through negotiations w e r e the Russians able to have the s i e g e of Novoarkhangelsk r a i s e d . The t r i b a l c h i e f s of the T l i n k e t w e r e c e r e m o n i o u s l y r e c e i v e d on their v i s i t s to the Russian f o r t r e s s e s . T h e y w e r e s h o w e r e d with p r e s e n t s of a l l kinds, but it was still i m p o s s i b l e t o f e e l safe f r o m a sudden T l i n k e t attack; nor was it possible to buy f r o m them all the p e l t r y they could p r o c u r e . T o be s u r e , as e a r l y as at the end of the 1830's the R u s sians succeeded, through v a r i o u s g i f t s and by p r o t r a c t e d hard drinking, t o make a convinced " R u s s o p h i l e " out of Chieftain Kuatka of Stakhine. A s a token of his devotion to R u s s i a , Kuatka, f o l l o w i n g the admonition of the l o c a l p r i e s t , r e f u s e d to bring the c u s t o m a r y human s a c r i f i c e during the c o m m e m o r a t i o n c e r e m o n y in honor of his d e c e a s e d r e l a t i v e , and showed in e v e r y way his c o m p l e t e l o y a l t y to the colonial a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . In r e s p o n s e to the Company's s o l i c i t a t i o n , N i c h o l a s I " i n F e b r u a r y , 1839 authorized the bestowal upon the Kolosh chieftain Kuatka of Stakhine of a brocaded caftan with the p r o p e r sash and c a p . " 4 5 But even b e f o r e the p r e s e n t s r e a c h e d the c o l o n i e s , Kuatka was d e c l a r e d to be "unworthy of His M a j e s t y ' s most g r a c i o u s r e w a r d . " Then another chief was found, by the name of Kukhkan, whom it was decided to r a i s e to the rank of " h e a d chief of the Kolosh l i v i n g in the Russian colonial p o s s e s s i o n s . " A t the same t i m e he was g i v e n the caftan, sash, and cap that had been intended f o r Kuatka. The Company r e g a r d e d its attempts to utilize the Indian c h i e f s as of vast i m p o r t a n c e . In the opinion of the g o v e r n o r of the c o l o n i e s , in view " o f the g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e and influence that the head chief of Sitka is e x e r c i s i n g not only o v e r the

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K o l o s h but a l s o o v e r t h e R u s s i a n s , i t would be u s e f u l t o h a v e t h a t h o n o r a r y t i t l e b e s t o w e d by a u t h o r i z a t i o n of H i s M a j e s t y , " and the G o v e r n i n g B o a r d added t h a t s u c h c h i e f s would not only be u s e f u l b u t , " c o n s i d e r i n g t h e c l o s e p r o x i m i t y of t h e E n g l i s h , would a l s o be i n d i s p e n s a b l e not only t o t h e C o m p a n y but, in g e n e r a l , t o t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g of our i n f l u e n c e o v e r t h e K o l o s h l i v i n g in the R u s s i a n p o s s e s s i o n s . " ^ In 1 8 4 2 t h e o f f i c e of h e a d c h i e f w a s a p p r o v e d by t h e T s a r , a n d , in" c o n f o r m a n c e with an e s p e c i a l l y c o m p o s e d o a t h , K u k h k a n p l e d g e d h i m s e l f " t o s e r v e f a i t h f u l l y and h o n e s t l y and t o o b e y in e v e r y t h i n g , without s p a r i n g h i s l i f e , t o t h e l a s t d r o p of h i s b l o o d . In c o n c l u d i n g o u r d e s c r i p t i o n of the C o m p a n y ' s p o l i c y t o w a r d s t h e n a t i v e population we should s a y a few w o r d s about i t s attitude t o w a r d s the b a p t i s m of t h e A l e u t s and t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e C h u r c h in t h e t e r r i t o r y of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in g e n e r a l . When the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y w a s e s t a b l i s h e d , S h e l i k h o v and l a t e r h i s h e i r s t o o k g r e a t p a i n s t o point out t h a t t h e r e w e r e u n l i m i t e d p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r the p r o p a g a t i o n of t h e " f a i t h of C h r i s t " t h r o u g h o u t t h e b r e a d t h of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a . A s a r e s u l t of t h e i r e f f o r t s and at t h e i r own e x p e n s e , a r e l i g i o u s m i s s i o n , h e a d e d by A r c h i m a n d r i t e I o a s s a f , w a s d i s p a t c h e d to the A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s in 1 7 9 3 . I m m e d i a t e l y upon h i s a r r i v a l , h o w e v e r , I o a s s a f m e t with u n c o n c e a l e d o p p o s i t i o n on t h e p a r t of t h e C o m p a n y c l e r k s . In 1 7 9 5 he w r o t e in one of h i s l e t t e r s t o S h e l i k h o v : " I a m b u s y b a p t i z i n g t h e A m e r i c a n s without h a m p e r i n g t h e C o m p a n y in any w a y , f o r t h e ' k a y u r y ' r e m a i n ' k a y u r y , ' t h e h o s t a g e s r e m a i n h o s t a g e s and e v e r y t r a p p e r c o n t i n u e s on h i s j o b , and t h e f a c t t h a t he i s b a p t i z e d i s n o t , it s e e m s to m e , an e n c u m b r a n c e . Y e t , I a m a l w a y s b e i n g t h w a r t e d in c a r r y i n g out m y dutie s . S t i l l , t h i s o p p o s i t i o n did not k e e p I o a s s a f f r o m b e i n g a b l e t o r e p o r t in 1 7 9 6 t h a t he had b a p t i z e d 6 , 7 4 0 p e r s o n s on K o d i a k and on t h e a d j a c e n t i s l a n d s . In 1 7 9 9 he w a s r e c a l l e d f r o m K o d i a k , r a i s e d t o a b i s h o p , and s e n t b a c k . B u t t h e C o m p a n y v e s s e l " P h o e n i x " with h i m on b o a r d , w a s w r e c k e d . In 1 8 0 3 t h e q u e s t i o n a r o s e of s e n d i n g a new b i s h o p t o t h e c o l o n i e s . T h e C o m p a n y , h o w e v e r , w a s v e r y r e s e r v e d in i t s a t t i t u d e ; it had a l r e a d y r e c e i v e d t h e f r a n c h i s e , and it no l o n g e r saw t h e n e e d f o r any z e a l in s p r e a d i n g the " f a i t h of C h r i s t . "

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T h e Governing B o a r d r e p l i e d to the Synod that t h e r e was no need, for the p r e s e n t t i m e , of a new bishop, and that " t h e p r e s e n c e in the c o l o n i e s of a bishop brought o v e r f o r the single purpose of ordaining some of the natives into the p r i e s t hood, was p r e m a t u r e , s i n c e no g e n e r a l gathering p l a c e had a s yet been designated where the C o m p a n y ' s s e t t l e m e n t s would be so s e c u r e as to good c l i m a t e and f e r t i l e soil to be able to engage in f a r m i n g and in other p u r s u i t s . " 4 9 But the Company not only opposed the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of an e p i s c o p a t e in the c o l o n i e s , which would have entailed c o n s i d e r a b l e expenditures on its p a r t ; it bent all i t s e f f o r t s to d i s c r e d i t the a c t i v i t i e s of the p r i e s t s who w e r e a l r e a d y t h e r e . Thus it r e p o r t e d , on one o c c a s i o n , that the c l e r g y in the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s "through an e a s i l y pardonable e r r o r , had e x a g g e r a t e d the number of newly baptized C h r i s t i a n s " and that it was no s e c r e t to anyone that " t h e v e r y s a m e Aleut f a m i l i e s w e r e e n t e r e d in the r o l l s of the newly baptized t w i c e or even t h r e e t i m e s , under different n a m e s and by different m i s s i o n a r i e s . " 5 0 On another o c c a s i o n the Governing B o a r d of the Company r e q u e s t e d the government for p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t the continual v i s i t s paid to the K u r i l e s by K a m c h a t k a county o f f i c e r s and by m e m b e r s of the c l e r g y . The f o r m e r , said the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w e r e coming around " o s t e n s i b l y to s u r v e y the c o l onies for any needs that the inhabitants might h a v e , and the l a t t e r , purportedly to p r e a c h ; and all of t h e m a r e r e a l l y h e r e to b a r t e r fur goods f o r t o b a c c o and v o d k a . " T h e Company a s k e d , t h e r e f o r e , " t h a t t h e s e i s l a n d s be f r e e d of such v i s i tors."51 A s f o r the e c c l e s i a s t i c a l a u t h o r i t i e s , they r e t a l i a t e d in kind. Having r e c e i v e d a m e m o r a n d u m f r o m s o m e m e m b e r of the c l e r g y on the d e c r e a s e in the population of the i s l a n d s , the Synod submitted it to the p r o p e r a u t h o r i t i e s . T h i s s t a r t e d off an exchange of l e t t e r s , f i l l e d with stinging r e m a r k s at e a c h o t h e r ' s e x p e n s e , that continued f o r many y e a r s . A s a r e s u l t , c e r t a i n f a c t s c a m e to light which the Company would hardly have wanted to m a k e p u b l i c . T o the v e r y end of the C o m p a n y ' s e x i s t e n c e , the G o v e r n ing B o a r d opposed any i n c r e a s e in the number of m i s s i o n a r i e s in the c o l o n i e s . When in 1850 the Synod b r o a c h e d the question of i n c r e a s i n g the number of m i s s i o n s in the c o l o n i e s so a s to be able to continue the c o n v e r s i o n of the native population on a m o r e e x t e n s i v e s c a l e , the Governing B o a r d p r o t e s t e d a g a i n .

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It c o n t e n d e d that s u c h a s t e p w a s i n o p p o r t u n e , and p r o p o s e d that the c o n v e r s i o n of the Chukchi be c o m p l e t e d f i r s t , a t a s k which the Synod h a d not b e e n a b l e to a c c o m p l i s h in m o r e than a hundred y e a r s . " A n i n c r e a s e in the n u m b e r of m i s s i o n s f o r c o n v e r t i n g the n a t i v e t r i b e s t o the t r u e f a i t h , " w r o t e the G o v e r n i n g B o a r d to the H e a d P r o c u r a t o r of the Synod in 1 8 5 0 , " c a n h a r d l y be c o n d u c i v e to the d e s i r e d l a s t i n g r e s u l t s that would c o m e f i r s t f r o m a t t e n u a t i n g , in t h o s e t e r r i t o r i e s , the h o s t i l e i n f l u e n c e of the E n g l i s h and t h e i r n a t i v e s u b j e c t s in the e a s t , and of the Chukchi in the w e s t . F o r the f i r m e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the t r u e f a i t h a m o n g the n a t i v e s in the K a m c h a t k a e p a r c h y it would be v e r y h e l p f u l to h a v e the m i s s i o n a r i e s c o n c e n t r a t e , if p o s s i b l e , t h e i r f i r s t e f f o r t s on the t e r r i t o r y of the Chukchi b o r d e r i n g on K a m c h a t k a , s i n c e only a f t e r t h e s e p e o p l e h a v e b e e n c o n v e r t e d to C h r i s t i a n i t y , w i l l it be p o s s i b l e to e x p e c t s u r e s u c c e s s in the p r o p a g a t i o n of the f a i t h a m o n g the c o a s t a l t r i b e s of N o r t h A m e r i c a . " 5 2 T h e r e w e r e s o l i d g r o u n d s f o r the p r o t r a c t e d b a t t l e which the C o m p a n y w a s w a g i n g a g a i n s t the S y n o d . In the f i r s t p l a c e , the m a i n t e n a n c e of the c l e r g y and the c h u r c h e s in the c o l o n i e s e n t a i l e d l a r g e e x p e n d i t u r e s on the p a r t of the C o m p a n y . F o r i n s t a n c e , b e t w e e n 1849 and 1859 the C o m p a n y s p e n t 3 4 5 , 8 5 6 . 3 8 r u b l e s on the c l e r g y and 7 1 , 7 2 3 . 1 8 r u b l e s on the c h u r c h e s . In one d e c a d e , t h e n , the C o m p a n y e x p e n d e d on t h i s one p u r p o s e m o r é than 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s , o r about 10 p e r cent of the t o t a l a m o u n t p a i d out in s a l a r i e s t o a l l the o f f i c i a l s and w o r k e r s in the c o l o n y d u r i n g the s a m e p e r i o d . At the s a m e t i m e , the a c t i v i t i e s of the c l e r g y a m o n g the c o n q u e r e d A l e u t s not only w e r e of no b e n e f i t w h a t s o e v e r to the C o m p a n y , but they e v e n i n t e r f e r e d with i t s f u n c t i o n s . T h e p r i e s t s m e d d l e d with the o r d e r s of the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d c o n t i n u a l l y s e n t d e n u n c i a t o r y r e p o r t s to S t . P e t e r s b u r g . On s o m e o c c a s i o n s the c l e r g y b r o u g h t a c t u a l h a r m to the g o o d r e l a t i o n s with the n a t i v e s , e v e n t o the extent of a r o u s i n g t h e i r a c t i v e i n d i g n a t i o n , w h i c h , in the f i n a l a n a l y s i s , w a s v e n t e d on the C o m p a n y . A s f o r the a c t i v i t i e s of the C h u r c h a m o n g the u n c o n q u e r e d T l i n k e t , h e r e , t o o , the c l e r g y m a n i f e s t e d i t s utter i n c a p a b i l i t y of s e c u r i n g r e s u l t s d e s i r a b l e to the C o m p a n y . It l i m i t e d i t s e f f o r t s to b a p t i z i n g the T l i n k e t and s e e i n g that they o b s e r v e d the r i t e s and c e r e m o n i e s of t h e i r new f a i t h . R e z a n o v w r o t e a s e a r l y a s 1805 in a l e t t e r t o the d i r e c t o r s of the C o m p a n y :

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" I s h o u l d l i k e t o t e l l y o u of t h e c l e r i c a l m i s s i o n t h a t it h a s b a p t i z e d a f e w t h o u s a n d s o u l s h e r e , but o n l y l i t e r a l l y ' b a p t i z e d . ' W h e n I s e e how t h e h a b i t s of t h e p e o p l e of K o d i a k h a v e i n d e e d b e e n s o m e w h a t s o f t e n e d , I do n o t a t t r i b u t e i t t o t h e e f f o r t s of t h e m i s s i o n but t o t i m e a n d t o t h e i r own c a p a b i l i t i e s . O u r m o n k s h a v e n e v e r f o l l o w e d the c o u r s e p u r s u e d by the J e s u i t s in P a r a g u a y , h a v e n e v e r s o u g h t to d e v e l o p t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e of t h e s a v a g e s , a n d h a v e b e e n i n c a p a b l e of c o m p r e h e n d i n g t h e b r o a d p u r p o s e s of t h e g o v e r n m e n t o r of t h e C o m p a n y . T h e y i m m e r s e d t h e A m e r i c a n s a n d w h e n t h e s e s a v a g e s by i m i t a t i n g t h e m o n k s , s u c c e e d e d a f t e r half a n h o u r i n m a k i n g t h e s i g n of t h e c r o s s , t h e m o n k s w o u l d b o a s t of t h e i r s u c c e s s e s a n d , m a k i n g no f u r t h e r u s e of t h e n a t i v e s ' c a p a c i t i e s , they would r e t u r n t r i u m p h a n t l y , believing that once they have gone through the m o t i o n s , they have a c c o m p l i s h e d their aims. R e z a n o v , by d e m a n d i n g t h a t t h e s e r m o n s t o t h e n a t i v e s be given in t h e i r n a t i v e t o n g u e , f o r c e d the c l e r g y in the c o l o n i e s t o s e t t o c o m p i l i n g a d i c t i o n a r y of t h e T l i n k e t l a n g u a g e . But t h i s p r o j e c t c a m e along v e r y slowly, f o r , in the w o r d s of R e z a n o v , " a n y n e w t a s k s e e m s i n s u r m o u n t a b l e " t o t h e s e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e c l e r g y . R e z a n o v r e l a t e s f u r t h e r how t h e c l e r g y a c t u a l l y h a r m e d t h e i n t e r e s t s of t h e C o m p a n y : " O n t h e A l a s k a P e n i n s u l a , on L a k e I l y a m n a , w h i c h i s called Lake Shelikhov, t r a d e had developed with the m o u n t a i n t r i b e s , w h i c h o p e n e d up g r e a t p o s s i b i l i t i e s . T h e m o n k J u v e n a l a t o n c e r u s h e d off t h e r e t o p r e a c h . He b a p t i z e d t h e m by f o r c e , m a r r i e d t h e m , t o o k a w a y t h e g i r l s f r o m s o m e and gave t h e m away to o t h e r s . F o r a long t i m e the A m e r i c a n s e n d u r e d h i s v i o l e n c e and even the b e a t i n g s he ga,ve t h e m , b u t f i n a l l y i t o c c u r r e d t o t h e m t h a t it w a s p o s s i b l e t o g e t r i d of t h a t m o n s t e r , a n d , t a k i n g c o u n s e l a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s , t h e y e n d e d by k i l l i n g h i m . T o b e s u r e , h e h i m s e l f w a s n o t t o be p i t i e d , but t h e y s a c r i f i c e d t o h i s c r u e l t y t h e w h o l e a r t e l of R u s s i a n s a n d K o d i a k i a n s , n o t l e a v i n g o n e of t h e m a l i v e . T h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e s o - c a l l e d C r e o l e s w a s l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t of t h e A l e u t s in t h e c o l o n i e s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n

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C o m p a n y . Not being able to e s t a b l i s h a s e d e n t a r y population by using t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i s t s , and not being given the r i g h t to a c q u i r e any s e r f s , the Company a t t e m p t e d to c r e a t e a s p e c i a l c l a s s of " c o l o n i a l c i t i z e n s " out of t h e C r e o l e s . From t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g of i t s e x i s t e n c e t h e C o m p a n y u p h e l d t h e s e i z u r e of n a t i v e w o m e n by t h e f u r - h u n t e r s , j u s t i f y i n g t h i s v i o l e n c e by c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of a " h i g h e r " o r d e r . T h e G o v e r n ing B o a r d s a i d : "If o n e l o o k s a t a l l t h i s f r o m t h e p o l i t i c a l p o i n t of v i e w , one m u s t a d m i t that c o n t a c t s b e t w e e n the R u s s i a n s and the A l e u t i a n w o m e n a r e i n d i s p e n s a b l e , both in o r d e r to d i s c o v e r any i n j u r i o u s d e s i g n s that the natives m a y h a r b o r and also to e s t a b l i s h f i r m r e l a t i o n s between t h e m since the c h i l d r e n b o r n f r o m s u c h unions will p e r f o r c e b r i n g about a union between the R u s s i a n s and the Aleuts who a r e r e l a t e d to t h e m , and the children t h e m s e l v e s , being all baptized, will b e c o m e a c c u s t o m e d to being R u s s i a n and not Aleutian, a n d s u c h a r e g e n e r a t i o n s p e l l s s t a b i l i t y f o r t h e R u s s i a n s . " 55 In 1818 t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d s u b m i t t e d t o t h e M i n i s t e r of t h e I n t e r i o r , K o z o d a v l e v , a p l a n , p r e v i o u s l y f o r m u l a t e d by R e z a n o v , f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a " c l a s s of c o l o n i a l c i t i z e n s " f r o m the C r e o l e s . The plan proposed "to utilize the C r e o l e s f o r t h e b e n e f i t of t h e f a t h e r l a n d a n d of t h e C o m p a n y i n s u c h a w a y a s t o c o n s t i t u t e of t h o s e w h o a r e c a p a b l e of b e a r i n g a r m s a C o m p a n y g a r r i s o n f o r t h e d e f e n s e of t h e l o c a l p o r t s a n d f o r t r e s s e s , a n d t o s e n d s o m e of t h e m t o R u s s i a t o l e a r n t h e v a r i o u s w a y s of s e r v i n g a t t h e f r o n t , b e a t i n g of t h e d r u m , and the like; and to employ the o t h e r s , who a r e q u a l i f i e d , in n a v i g a t i o n , i n o f f i c e w o r k , in t r a d e , o r i n s o m e n e c e s s a r y c r a f t , or in tilling the s o i l . T h e r e w e r e about two h u n d r e d adult C r e o l e m a l e s in the c o l o n i e s at that t i m e . Unlike the R u s s i a n t r a p p e r s , the C r e o l e s , b e i n g e m p l o y e d on C o m p a n y p r o j e c t s , w e r e a l l o w e d t o h a v e t h e i r own h o u s e h o l d . H o w e v e r , in i t s a t t e m p t t o s e t up a m a n p o w e r p o o l , t h e C o m p a n y i t s e l f r e d u c e d t h e C r e o l e s t o t h e l e v e l of s l a v e s . T h e s t a t u s of t h e C r e o l e s in t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s i n A m e r i c a w a s f i r s t f o r m u l a t e d in t h e C h a r t e r of t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y that w a s a p p r o v e d in 1844, when the Company's franchise was extended for another regular twentyy e a r p e r i o d . A special section, entitled "On the C r e o l e s , "

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g a v e t h e m f o r m a l l y t h e s a m e s t a t u s a s t h a t of t h e f r e e c l a s s in the R u s s i a n e m p i r e , the l o w e r m i d d l e c l a s s , but actually t h i s i n d e p e n d e n c e w a s r e d u c e d t o n a u g h t by a s e r i e s of r e s e r v a t i o n s in t h e c h a r t e r . T h u s , f o r i n s t a n c e , the C r e o l e s who h a d s t u d i e d at the C o m pany's expense even for a very short period, became depend e n t on t h e C o m p a n y f o r a p e r i o d of f r o m t e n t o f i f t e e n y e a r s , while t h o s e who studied in the c o l o n i e s , had to pledge t h e m s e l v e s to s e r v e no l e s s t h a n f i f t e e n y e a r s , or f i v e y e a r s l o n g e r than t h o s e studying in R u s s i a . In h i s r e p o r t on h i s i n s p e c t i o n t o u r of t h e c o l o n i e s i n 1 8 6 0 - 1 8 6 1 K o s t l i v t s o v r i g h t l y o b s e r v e s t h a t in t h e C h a r t e r n o t u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y - - n o m e n t i o n i s m a d e of w h a t t h e C r e o l e , who paid so d e a r l y f o r h i s r i g h t to s t u d y , w a s s u p p o s e d to l e a r n . And K o s t l i v t s o v a s k s , " C a n it be t h a t , in r e t u r n f o r l e a r n i n g to r e a d and w r i t e and how to wield an axe as a plain w o o d c h o p p e r , he h a s to s e r v e the C o m p a n y f o r such a long time?"57 U n d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h e d i r e c t p u r p o s e of b u i l d i n g schools f o r the C r e o l e s was to i m p r e s s t h e m into the s e r v i c e of t h e C o m p a n y . E v e n t h o u g h a l l t h e C r e o l e s u n d e r a g e attended t h o s e s c h o o l s only f o r a s h o r t t i m e , the whole C r e o l e p o p u l a t i o n g r a d u a l l y c a m e i n t o a l a s t i n g s t a t e of d e p e n d e n c y upon t h e C o m p a n y . A f t e r t h e e x p i r a t i o n of t h e t e r m of s e r v i c e a g r e e d u p o n , t h e C r e o l e s w e r e t o be r e l e a s e d f r o m t h e i r c o n d i t i o n of d e p e n d e n c y , " u n l e s s t h e y w e r e in d e b t t o t h e C o m p a n y . " It w a s t h i s r e s e r v a t i o n that c o n s t i t u t e d the chief o b s t a c l e t o t h e l i b e r a t i o n of t h e C r e o l e s a f t e r t h e i r f i f t e e n - y e a r p e r i o d of b o n d a g e ; f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n s of l i f e in t h e c o l o n i e s , a s we h a v e s e e n in t h e c a s e of t h e w o r k e r s on t h e h u n t i n g - p o s t s , l e d i n e v i t a b l y t o a s t a t e of g e n e r a l i n d e b t e d n e s s . A s of J a n u a r y 1, 1 8 6 1 , a s h o r t t i m e b e f o r e t h e a f f a i r s of t h e C o m p a n y w e r e l i q u i d a t e d , t h e r e w e r e a s m a n y a s 1 , 896 C r e o l e s in t h e c o l o n i e s , of w h o m 783 c o n s t i t u t e d t h e m a l e p o p u l a t i o n t h a t w a s a b l e t o w o r k . Not u n l i k e a l l t h e o t h e r n a t i v e s , t h e y w e r e in a s t a t e of s e r v i l e d e p e n d e n c y upon t h e Company. In s u m m a r i z i n g o u r f i n d i n g s l e t us p o i n t out o n c e m o r e t h a t t h e p o l i c y of t h e C o m p a n y w a s i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a t of t h e g o v e r n m e n t , a n d t h a t it w a s a c t u a l l y t h e g o v e r n m e n t w h i c h h a n d e d o v e r t h e o r i g i n a l i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e c o l o n i e s t o t h e C o m p a n y in a b s o l u t e b o n d a g e . A n d o n l y w h e n t h e q u e s t i o n of

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l i q u i d a t i n g t h e C o m p a n y had b e e n d e c i d e d , did t h e g o v e r n m e n t a s s u m e t h e a t t i t u d e of a d i s i n t e r e s t e d d e f e n d e r of t h e n a t i v e s and u t i l i z e f a c t s , t h a t it h a d known f o r d e c a d e s , to a c c u s e t h e C o m p a n y of the i l l e g a l e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h o s e n a t i v e s .

Chapter Χ THE FINAL PERIOD OF THE RUSSIANAMERICAN COMPANY THE CONVENTION of 1825, which g r a n t e d the E n g l i s h the r i g h t of f r e e n a v i g a t i o n of the s t r e a m s flowing f r o m the E n g l i s h p o s s e s s i o n s a c r o s s R u s s i a n t e r r i t o r y and out to the s e a , a c t u a l l y m a d e the E n g l i s h m a s t e r s of the whole t e r r i t o r y along the l i n e s of the r i v e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n s . In i t s e f f o r t s not to l e t those r e g i o n s s l i p out of i t s h a n d s , the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company c o n s t r u c t e d a n u m b e r of f o r t i f i e d s e t t l e m e n t s on the m a i n l a n d with the view of h a m p e r i n g the development of b a r t e r o p e r a t i o n s between the E n g l i s h and the n a t i v e population by e n t e r i n g into t r a d e with t h e m on i t s own. The s o u t h e a s t f r o n t i e r of the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a w a s contiguous with the p o s s e s s i o n s of the E n g l i s h Hudson B a y C o m p a n y . T h i s company held the r i g h t s to m o n o p o l i s t i c t r a d e with the Indians in North A m e r i c a , both north and w e s t of the boundary of the United S t a t e s . In c o n t r a s t to the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company, the Hudson B a y Company did not e n g a g e in f u r - h u n t i n g , but l i m i t e d i t s o p e r a t i o n s p r i m a r i l y to b a r t e r i n g f u r s with the n a t i v e s . When the E n g l i s h had been g r a n t e d the r i g h t of navigation of the r i v e r s flowing through R u s s i a n t e r r i t o r y , the a g e n t s of the Hudson Bay Company b e c a m e m o s t a c t i v e among the Indian t r i b e s living in the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s . It w a s beyond the s t r e n g t h of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , which a l s o b a r t e r e d a p a r t of i t s f u r s with the n a t i v e s , to e n g a g e in competition with the E n g l i s h . The l a t t e r p a i d h i g h e r p r i c e s , and s e l e c t e d t h e i r w a r e s with a view to m e e t i n g the n e e d s of the Indians, w h e r e a s the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company w a s s t r i v i n g to p a s s off on t h e m a l l k i n d s of s u b s t a n d a r d m e r c h a n d i s e . The r e l a t i o n s between the two r i v a l c o m p a n i e s had been so a g g r a v a t e d that in 1834 a g e n t s of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company r a n the r i s k of openly v i o l a t i n g the R u s s o - E n g l i s h Convention by r e f u s i n g p a s s a g e p a s t the f o r t r e s s of S t . Dionysius (at the mouth of the Stakhine R i v e r ) to a ship b e longing to the Hudson B a y C o m p a n y . A s a r e s u l t of t h i s 217

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clash, the Hudson Bay Company sued the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y f o r t h e a m o u n t of £ 2 2 , 1 1 8 ( a b o u t 1 3 5 , 0 0 0 s i l v e r rubles). Suddenly, h o w e v e r , t h e s e u n f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s with the H u d s o n B a y C o m p a n y c h a n g e d t o a r d e n t f r i e n d s h i p . In 1 8 3 9 , " w i t h t h e a p p r o v a l of H i s M a j e s t y , " a n a g r e e m e n t w a s s i g n e d between the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company and the Hudson Bay C o m p a n y by w h i c h c e r t a i n p o r t i o n s of t h e R u s s i a n p o s s e s s i o n s on t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t of A m e r i c a w e r e l e a s e d t o t h e B r i t i s h c o m p a n y . T h e H u d s o n B a y C o m p a n y r e c e i v e d f o r a t e r m of t e n y e a r s , b e g i n n i n g on J u l y 1, 1 8 4 0 , t h e t e r r i t o r y r u n n i n g n o r t h w e s t w a r d f r o m latitude 54°40 ' N. to a line d r a w n b e t w e e n Cape S p e n c e r at C r o s s Sound and M t . F a i r w e a t h e r . The l e a s i n g , or r a t h e r the c e s s i o n to the Hudson Bay C o m p a n y of a s e c t i o n of t h e c o a s t l i n e , w h i c h h a d u n t i l t h e n b e e n e x p l o i t e d by t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , w a s n o t t h e r e s u l t of a c o m m e r c i a l d e a l f o r t h e b e n e f i t of t h e C o m p a n y . R a t h e r it w a s a n a t t e m p t on t h e p a r t of t h e R u s s i a n g o v e r n m e n t t o e l i m i n a t e o n e of t h e c a u s e s t h a t m i g h t i n a n y w a y l e a d t o a f u r t h e r a g g r a v a t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n R u s s i a and G r e a t B r i t a i n . Any d e t e r i o r a t i o n in the r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n the t w o , at t h a t j u n c t u r e , would have been d e c i d e l y d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s to R u s s i a . F o r it w a s p r e c i s e l y d u r i n g that t i m e , b e t w e e n A u g u s t , 1839 a n d July, 1 8 4 0 , t h a t t h e R u s s i a n A m b a s s a d o r in L o n d o n , B a r o n B r u n n o w , w a s c o n d u c t i n g n e g o t i a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e g o v e r n m e n t of t h e S t r a i t s . T h e r e w e r e t w o p o i n t s of v i e w on t h e p r o b l e m of t h e S t r a i t s , a p r o b l e m t h a t h a d b e c o m e v e r y a c u t e a s a r e s u l t of t h e d e f e a t i n f l i c t e d on T u r k e y by t h e p a s h a of E g y p t . T h e r e w a s t h e A u s t r i a n p o i n t of v i e w a s p r o c l a i m e d by M e t t e r n i c h , w h i c h e n v i s a g e d a j o i n t g u a r a n t e e of t h e t e r r i t o r i a l i n t e g r i t y of T u r k e y by a l l t h e E u r o p e a n p o w e r s , a n d t h e r e w a s t h e B r i t i s h p o i n t of v i e w a s u p h e l d by P a l m e r s t o n , w h i c h , t h o u g h it a i m e d t o p u t c e r t a i n r e s t r a i n t s on R u s s i a i n t h e N e a r E a s t , did n o t c a l l f o r a f u l l - f l e d g e d g u a r a n t e e of T u r k e y ' s i n v i o l ability. R u s s i a found England's position much m o r e suitable, and t h e r ê w a s no s e n s e in h e r doing anything at t h a t t i m e t h a t might a g g r a v a t e the r e l a t i o n s between the two p o w e r s e v e r so s l i g h t l y , j u s t f o r t h e p u r p o s e of s t r e n g t h e n i n g i t s p o s i t i o n i n the competitive struggle with the Hudson Bay Company. By l e a s i n g a p o r t i o n of i t s t e r r i t o r y t o t h e B r i t i s h c o m pany the R u s s i a n g o v e r n m e n t was a i m i n g at the s a m e t i m e t o s e t a l i m i t t o t h e c l a i m s m a d e by t h e A m e r i c a n s . T h e

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l a t t e r i n s i s t e d on t h e r e n e w a l of A r t i c l e 4 of t h e 1824 c o n v e n t i o n a s t o t h e r i g h t of f r e e n a v i g a t i o n in t h e t e r r i t o r y b e l o n g i n g t o t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a . Not w i t h o u t c a u s e did B o d i s k o , the R u s s i a n A m b a s s a d o r to the United S t a t e s , r e g a r d t h a t a g r e e m e n t w i t h a good d e a l of a p p r e h e n s i o n . He s a i d i n a d i s p a t c h t o N e s s e l r o d e , d a t e d A u g u s t 10, 1 8 3 9 , t h a t t h e p l a n " t o l e a s e t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t l i n e t o t h e H u d s o n BayC o m p a n y t o b e e x p l o i t e d by it h a s i m p e l l e d m e t o c a l l t h e a t t e n t i o n of H i s M a j e s t y ' s M i n i s t r y t o t h e u n f a v o r a b l e i m p r e s s i o n which such a d e c i s i o n is bound to p r o d u c e , and to t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s t o w h i c h it m i g h t l e a d , a s s o o n a s i t h a s b e c o m e known to the A m e r i c a n s h i p o w n e r s . " ^ N e s s e l r o d e b e l i e v e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t , in v i e w of t h e a l l i a n c e between R u s s i a and G r e a t B r i t a i n , the c l a i m s put f o r t h by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w e r e of n o m a t e r i a l i m p o r t a n c e . On J a n u a r y 4 , 1 8 3 9 , h e w r o t e t o t h e M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e a s follows : " F r o m t h e p o l i t i c a l p o i n t of v i e w , t h e d e s i r e f o r e f f e c t i n g a r a p p r o c h e m e n t with the Hudson Bay C o m p a n y by l e a s i n g t o it t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d t e r r i t o r i e s s h o u l d , i n m y o p i n i o n , m e e t w i t h t h e f u l l e s t a p p r o v a l . T h e e x e c u t i o n of s u c h a p l a n w o u l d o f f e r u s t h e i m m e d i a t e a d v a n t a g e of e l i m i n a t i n g not only c o m p e t i t i o n in the f u r - t r a d e with the n a t i v e s , but a l s o t h e v e r y c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t h a v e o f t e n b e e n t h e c a u s e of f r i c t i o n w i t h t h e E n g l i s h a n d t h e c i t i z e n s of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . C e r t a i n of t h e s e i n c i d e n t s h a v e a g a i n a n d a g a i n b e e n t h e c a u s e of d i s a g r e e a b l e e x c h a n g e s w i t h t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e g o v e r n m e n t s . T h i s deal in p a r t i c u l a r w o u l d o b v i a t e a l l f u r t h e r e x p l a n a n t i o n s on o u r p a r t w i t h t h e g o v e r n m e n t of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s on t h e s u b j e c t o f . . . t h e e f f o r t s m a d e by t h a t g o v e r n m e n t t o o b t a i n a r e n e w a l of t h e r i g h t of f r e e n a v i g a t i o n , g r a n t e d by t h e C o n v e n t i o n , of t h e l a k e s and sounds a d j o i n i n g our p o s s e s s i o n s in A m e r i c a - e f f o r t s t h a t w o u l d n o t b e t o o u r a d v a n t a g e at a l l . " ^

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e t e r m s of t h e a g r e e m e n t , t h e H u d s o n B a y Company withdrew its lawsuit a g a i n s t the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y a n d p a i d r e n t of 2 , 0 0 0 s e a - o t t e r s k i n s a n n u a l l y . F i r s t c o n c l u d e d f o r a p e r i o d of t e n y e a r s , t h e a g r e e m e n t w a s r e n e w e d s e v e r a l t i m e s , r e m a i n i n g in f o r c e d o w n t o t h e f i n a l l i q u i d a t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . The c o u r s e that the conflict with the Hudson Bay Company

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t o o k and the way in w h i c h it w a s s o l v e d by d i r e c t o r d e r s f r o m the g o v e r n m e n t , a r e s y m p t o m a t i c of t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y o c c u p i e d in t h e e a r l y 1 8 4 0 ' s . Its c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a w e r e b e g i n n i n g t o l o s e t h e i m p o r t a n c e t h e y f o r m e r l y had f o r t h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t . T h e y w e r e e s s e n t i a l l y b e i n g c o n v e r t e d i n t o a f o r m of e x c h a n g e m o n e y t o be paid out in r e t u r n f o r any b e n e f i t s and a d v a n t a g e s t h a t m i g h t be s e c u r e d in t h e N e a r E a s t . B u t , in s p i t e of t h i s , t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y had not y e t l o s t i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e in t h e e y e s of t h e g o v e r n m e n t , s i n c e at t h a t v e r y t i m e , in t h e 1 8 4 0 ' s , it w a s b e i n g a l m o s t w h o l l y t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a g o v e r n m e n t i n s t i t u t i o n , to be c o n f r o n t e d with e n t i r e l y new p r o b l e m s . A r t i c l e 1 of t h e C h a r t e r of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m pany a s a p p r o v e d in 1 8 4 4 d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e C o m p a n y w a s o r g a n i z e d " f o r the p u r p o s e of e n g a g i n g in hunting and f i s h i n g on the m a i n l a n d of n o r t h w e s t A m e r i c a and on t h e i s l a n d s , both t h e A l e u t i a n s and t h e K u r i l e s , a s w e l l a s t h r o u g h o u t t h e e x t e n t of the N o r t h e a s t e r n S e a . " B u t s u c h a d e l i m i t a t i o n w a s e v e n t h e n only in s l i g h t a g r e e m e n t with t h e f a c t s ; f o r by t h a t t i m e t h e hunting a c t i v i t i e s of the C o m p a n y had y i e l d e d f i r s t p l a c e t o the i m m e d i a t e f u n c t i o n s i n v o l v e d in t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the A m e r i c a n t e r r i t o r y under R u s s i a n c o n t r o l . These p r o b l e m s facing the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company w e r e f o r m u l a t e d with g r e a t c l a r i t y in the d r a f t f o r t h e new c h a r t e r s , w h i c h w a s s u b m i t t e d t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t f o r e x a m i n a t i o n in 1861 . H e r e nothing w a s l e f t u n s a i d . A r t i c l e 1 of t h e d r a f t d e f i n e d t h e f u n c t i o n s of the C o m p a n y and p o i n t e d out t h a t it w a s o r g a n i z e d " f o r the p u r p o s e of a d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a . " T h i s i d e a w a s not new t o c e r t a i n c i r c l e s of t h e R u s s i a n g o v e r n m e n t . A s e a r l y a s 1 8 4 1 , b e f o r e the c h a r t e r f o r t h e p r e c e d i n g t w e n t y - y e a r p e r i o d had b e e n a p p r o v e d , it w a s s a i d in t h e S t a t e C o u n c i l t h a t " t h e C o m p a n y i s not only a c o m m e r c i a l c o r p o r a t i o n , but a l s o , t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , a g o v e r n m e n t i n s t i t u t i o n , and t h a t t h e p r i v i l e g e s g r a n t e d t o it c o m p r i s e not only r i g h t s but a l s o o b l i g a t i o n s . N . N . M u r a v y o v , G o v e r n o r - G e n e r a l of S i b e r i a , who, at t h a t t i m e , w a s c h a r g e d with i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y , w r o t e in a r e p o r t t o t h e T s a r t h a t " t h e C o m p a n y i s in a d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n , t h a t t h e K i a k h t a t r a d e no l o n g e r o f f e r s it a s e c u r e m a r k e t f o r i t s p r o d u c t ' s . . . t h a t a s a r e s u l t of the high p r i c e s p r e v a i l i n g in C a l i f o r n i a , t h e c o l o n i e s h a v e

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been d e p r i v e d of the means of obtaining b r e a d f o r t h e i r s u s tenance at reasonable p r i c e s , and a r e c o m p e l l e d t o p r o c u r e it f r o m the B a l t i c , since it would cost them even m o r e to do so f r o m around the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk.'"^ The picture of the e c o n o m i c situation of the Company as g i v e n by M u r a v y o v w a s , as we have seen, a rather g l o o m y one. T o all intents and purposes the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m pany was a l r e a d y on the threshold of c o m p l e t e e c o n o m i c c o l l a p s e . If it had been an o r d i n a r y c o m m e r c i a l undertaking, the question of liquidating it would naturally have c o m e up f o r discussion. But M u r a v y o v insisted that the Company be retained and that the n e c e s s a r y m a t e r i a l assistance be e x tended to i t . He only r e f e l c t e d the attitude of the g o v e r n m e n t , which b e l i e v e d that the part played by the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company in opening up roads f o r t s a r i s t expansion in the East was not yet f i n i s h e d , and that it might s t i l l be useful to the g o v e r n m e n t to cloak that expansion behind p r i v a t e i n i t i ative . Of no little i m p o r a t n c e , t o o , was the question of a d m i n i s t e r i n g the t e r r i t o r i e s in A m e r i c a which w e r e as yet f a r f r o m being subdued. " I n my o p i n i o n , " w r o t e M u r a v y o v , " t h e e x i s t e n c e of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company is n e c e s s a r y f o r the g o v e r n m e n t - f o r a t i m e , at any r a t e ; f o r to assume the administration of our North A m e r i c a n p o s s e s s i o n s would entail v e r y c o n s i d e r able expenditures, both in the f o r m of single subventions and of annual subsidies, and in the m e a n t i m e our administration and our strength in the Sea of Okhotsk and in Kamchatka a r e still such as to r e n d e r p r e m a t u r e any f u r t h e r expansion along the A m e r i c a n c o a s t . I dare say, on the other hand, that to abandon our p o s s e s s i o n s in North A m e r i c a , in the event the Company should not be in a position to administer t h e m , would not be in line with the aims of the g o v e r n m e n t . Both these considerations lead one to the conclusion that the g o v e r n m e n t w i l l have to lend the Company its assistance in the d i f f i c u l t situation in which, as I know, it finds i t s e l f at p r e s e n t . But the m o s t important r e a s o n f o r t r y i n g to keep the C o m pany w e r e the a g g r e s s i v e m o v e s that w e r e being p r e p a r e d in the region of the A m u r . And it was not by sheer accident that M u r a v y o v , f e a r i n g that the Company m i g h t , as a r e s u l t of the difficult financial situation in which it found i t s e l f , want to reduce its f l e e t p r o p o s e d that the Company f l e e t be f u l l y manned with o f f i c e r s and seamen in active s e r v i c e , and a g r e e d to do it at government e x p e n s e .

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B y way of p r o v i n g t h e u t t e r n e c e s s i t y of r e t a i n i n g t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y M u r a v y o v c i t e d t h e c a s e of s i m i l a r c o m p a n i e s in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t " t h e r a p i d p r o g r e s s m a d e by t h e E n g l i s h E a s t India C o m p a n y , s u p p o r t e d a n d , i t m a y be s a i d , d i r e c t e d by t h e g o v e r n m e n t , m a y s e r v e a s an e x a m p l e of s o m e s o r t f o r u s , with t h i s f a v o r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e , t h a t t h e whole e x p a n s e f r o m S t . P e t e r s b u r g to t h e E a s t e r n S e a i s one c o n t i n u o u s s t r e t c h of v a s t e m p i r e b e l o n g ing t o Y o u r M a j e s t y . " And i n d e e d , t o w a r d s t h e end of t h e 1 8 4 0 ' s and d u r i n g the f i r s t h a l f of t h e 1 8 5 0 ' s t h e C o m p a n y p l a y e d an e x c l u s i v e p a r t in t h e R u s s i a n e a s t w a r d a d v a n c e and in t h e r e c o v e r y of t h o s e r e g i o n s on t h e A m u r R i v e r w h i c h t h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t h a d a t one t i m e r e l i n q u i s h e d . Having s e t f o r i t s e l f , in t h e s e c o n d h a l f of t h e 1 8 4 0 ' s , t h e t a s k of r e c o v e r i n g t h e s e r e g i o n s on t h e A m u r , t h e g o v e r n m e n t h a d , f i r s t of a l l , t o s o l v e t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e n a v i g a b i l i t y of t h e m o u t h of t h e A m u r R i v e r and of t h e e x i s t e n c e of a p a s s a g e f r o m t h e A m u r t o t h e s e a . T o c a r r y out an open e x p l o r a t i o n of t h i s r e g i o n w a s an i m p o s s i b i l i t y f o r t h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t . C h i n a h a d j u s t b e e n d e f e a t e d by G r e a t B r i t a i n in t h e s o - c a l l e d O p i u m W a r . In 1 8 4 2 C h i n a s i g n e d t h e T r e a t y of N a n k i n g , w h i c h l a i d t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r a w h o l e s y s t e m of une q u a l t r e a t i e s t h a t C h i n a w a s t o s i g n with t h e c a p i t a l i s t i c c o u n t r i e s . H o w e v e r , t h e T r e a t y of Nanking s t i l l did not s a t i s f y a l l t h e d e m a n d s m a d e by t h e E n g l i s h m i d d l e c l a s s on C h i n a . T h e t r e a t y w a s r e g a r d e d a s " m o d e r a t e " in E n g l i s h b o u r g e o i s c i r c l e s , w h e r e it w a s e m p h a s i z e d t h a t t h e t o t a l of t h e l o s s e s i n c u r r e d in t h e w a r w e r e not m a d e good by t h e a d v a n t a g e s g a i n e d . T h e " m o d e r a t i o n " of t h e E n g l i s h i n c o n c l u d i n g t h e T r e a t y of Nanking w a s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o the f a c t t h a t t h e E n g l i s h g o v e r n m e n t w a s a f r a i d t h a t e x c e s s i v e p r e s s u r e on C h i n a would a r o u s e t h e o p p o s i t i o n of t h e o t h e r p o w e r s w h i c h a l s o c l a i m e d t h e r i g h t t o c o n s o l i d a t e t h e i r p o s i t i o n in C h i n a . In t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s any open e x p l o r a t i o n of t h e A m u r r e g i o n by R u s s i a would h a v e s e r v e d a s a s p e c i a l i n c e n t i v e t o E n g l a n d t o c o n t i n u e with h e r own a c t i v i t i e s in C h i n a , and m i g h t e v e n h a v e p r e c i p i t a t e d new d e m a n d s on h e r p a r t t o t h e C h i n e s e g o v e r n m e n t . B u t any f u r t h e r a t t a c k by E n g l a n d on C h i n a did not e n t e r at a l l into t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t . On the o t h e r h a n d , the p e r i o d f o l l o w i n g t h e O p i u m W a r w a s m o s t p r o p i t i o u s f o r o b t a i n i n g f r o m C h i n a t h e r e t u r n of t h e A m u r r e g i o n by p e a c e f u l m e a n s .

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At any r a t e , it w a s n e c e s s a r y t o a c t v i g o r o u s l y , but at t h e s a m e t i m e m o s t c a u t i o u s l y . And in c i r c u m s t a n c e s l i k e t h e s e the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company was t r u l y i r r e p l a c e a b l e ; f o r a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d e c l a r a t i o n of t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d , the C o m p a n y w a s t h e m o s t f a i t h f u l , r e l i a b l e , and c o n s c i e n t i o u s a g e n t of the g o v e r n m e n t , " o n e t h a t w a s i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t in a l l s p e c i a l c a s e s w h e r e t h e g o v e r n m e n t found i t ' i n c o n v e n i e n t t o a c t in i t s own n a m e . In 1 8 4 4 t h e M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s i n f o r m e d t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d of t h e C o m p a n y t h a t , by I m p e r i a l d e c r e e , t h e C o m p a n y w a s t o t a k e o v e r t h e e x p l o r a t i o n of the A m u r r i v e r . In t h e s p r i n g of 1 8 4 6 t h e C o m p a n y v e s s e l " C o n s t a n t i n e , " under t h e c o m m a n d of G a v r i l o v , b e g a n t h e t a s k of e x p l o r i n g t h e e s t u a r y of t h e A m u r . In s p i t e of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e e x p e dition w a s g i v e n only a s h o r t t i m e t o c a r r y out i t s t a s k , and c o u l d not p r o d u c e a d e f i n i t i v e a n s w e r a s t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l i n g in t h e a r e a of t h e e s t u a r y , i t did c o n t r i b u t e in t h e h i g h e s t d e g r e e t o the k n o w l e d g e of t h e r e g i o n . In 1 8 4 9 , M u r a v y o v c o m m i s s i o n e d L i e u t e n a n t - C o m m a n d e r * G . I . N e v e l s k y t o c o n t i n u e with t h e e x p l o r a t i o n of t h e e s t u a r y of the A m u r . A t the s a m e t i m e he o r d e r e d t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y to d i s p a t c h a c o m m e r c i a l e x p e d i t i o n o v e r l a n d t o t h e m o u t h of t h e A m u r , with t h e dual o b j e c t i v e of e s t a b l i s h i n g R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s and of winning o v e r t h e n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n , o r t h e G h i l i a c k s , to the R u s s i a n s i d e by e n t e r i n g i n t o p r o f i t a b l e c o m m e r c i a l d e a l s with t h e m . T h e M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s in i t s m e m o r a n d u m t o the G o v e r n i n g B o a r d j u s t i f i e d t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r s u c h an e x p e d i t i o n by pointing out how e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t it w a s f o r R u s s i a to e s t a b l i s h r e l a t i o n s with t h e G h i l i a c k s , " l i v i n g n e a r t h e m o u t h of t h e A m u r , on i t s n o r t h b a n k , who, l i f e t h e i r f e l l o w - t r i b e s m e n , a p p a r e n t l y c o n s i d e r t h e m s e l v e s i n d e p e n d e n t of C h i n a . In t h e c o u r s e of t h e s u m m e r m o n t h s of 1 8 4 9 , t h e C o m p a n y ' s t r a d i n g e x p e d i t i o n did s o m e b a r t e r i n g with t h e G h i l i a c k s , o b t a i n e d v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n a s to t h e i r n e e d s , and d r e w up a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e r e g i o n . In 1 8 5 0 a n o t h e r t r a d e e x p e d i t i o n of the C o m p a n y w a s a c t i v e in the A m u r r e g i o n , p a r a l l e l with t h e e x p e d i t i o n of L i e u t e n a n t - C o m m a n d e r N e v e l s k y . T h e f i r s t R u s s i a n s e t t l e m e n t on t h e A m u r , c a l l e d P e t r o v s k o y e , w a s e s t a b l i s h e d in J u n e 1 8 5 0 by L i e u t e n a n t - C o m m a n d e r N e v e l s k y *In R u s s i a n " K a p i t a n - L e i t e n a n t . " — E d .

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and by the l e a d e r of t h e e x p e d i t i o n , O r l o v . T h e l a t t e r , who w a s in t h e s e r v i c e of t h e C o m p a n y , w a s l e f t a s h e a d of t h e c o l o n y , and c o n t i n u e d to e n g a g e in a c t i v e b a r t e r i n g with t h e native population. T h a t s a m e y e a r , an e s p e c i a l l y a p p o i n t e d c o m m i t t e e a d o p t e d a d e c i s i o n on the s u b j e c t of t h e c o l o n i z a t i o n of the A m u r r e g i o n , w h i c h p l a c e d p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s on t h e r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t t h e f u t u r e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s should be s e t up a s t r a d i n g s t a t i o n s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . T h e C o m p a n y f l e e t , a s w e l l j s t h e m a i n body of i t s e m p l o y e e s , w e r e t h r o w n i n t o t h e a t t e m p t to gain p o s s e s s i o n of t h e A m u r r e g i o n . In 1851 a n u m b e r of p e r s o n s in t h e C o m p a n y ' s e m p l o y w e r e a l r e a d y c o l o n i z e d at t h e t r a d i n g - p o s t of N i k o l a y e v s k . T h e s e v e r a l e x p e d i t i o n s s e n t out f r o m t h e s e p o s t s c o n t i n u e d to a d v a n c e e v e r d e e p e r into t h e i n t e r i o r . T h e y e x p l o r e d t h e v a s t t e r r i t o r y of t h e A m u r r e g i o n , o p e n e d up new r o a d s , and founded new c o l o n i e s . T h i s c o n t i n u e d until t h e y e a r 1 8 5 8 , when t h e T r e a t y of Aigun w a s c o n c l u d e d with C h i n a , a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h A m u r w a s r e t u r n e d t o R u s s i a . Any f u r t h e r a c t i v i t i e s i n t h a t r e g i o n on t h e p a r t of t h e C o m p a n y w e r e t h u s r e n d e r e d s u p e r f l u o u s . A g r e a t d e a l of e n e r g y and a l a r g e a m o u n t of m o n e y w e r e e x p e n d e d by t h e C o m p a n y in t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a h a r b o r in A y a n B a y to t a k e t h e p l a c e of the u n s u i t a b l e p o r t of O k h o t s k . T h e new p o r t , j o i n e d by m e a n s of a two h u n d r e d - v e r s t h i g h way t o the n a t u r a l b o u n d a r i e s along t h e M a - Y e n and t h e A l d a n , w a s of g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e a s a b a s e f o r f u r t h e r a d v a n c e s up the A m u r . T h e g o v e r n o r - g e n e r a l of E a s t e r n S i b e r i a , in a s p e c i a l m e m o r a n d u m t o t h e S i b e r i a n C o m m i t t e e in 1 8 5 9 , n o t e d t h a t " t h e p a r t p l a y e d by t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y at t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g of t h e A m u r u n d e r t a k i n g w a s t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t a s it l a i d t h e foundation f o r an e n t e r p r i s e t h a t w a s t o h a v e i m p o r t a n t c o n s e q u e n c e s . It i s w e l l known t h a t t h e f i r s t d e c i s i v e s t e p s we t o o k on t h e A m u r i n 1 8 5 0 , when t h e g o v e r n m e n t c o n s i d e r e d it n e c e s s a r y t o k e e p t h e m s e c r e t , w e r e a c h i e v e d under t h e a u s p i c e s of t h e C o m p a n y . T h u s w e r e founded o u r f i r s t t r a d i n g - p o s t s at t h e m o u t h of t h e A m u r . " ® It i s c l e a r , t h e n , t h a t up t o t h e m i d d l e of the 1 8 5 0 ' s t h e g o v e r n m e n t w a s v e r y m u c h i n t e r e s t e d in c o n t i n u i n g t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . D u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d all m e a s u r e s w e r e t a k e n to f r e e the Company f r o m its difficult f i n a n c i a l s i t u a t i o n by g r a n t i n g i t a m o n o p o l y not only in t h e f u r t r a d e but a l s o in t h e t e a - t r a d e a s w e l l .

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Not long b e f o r e t h e f i f t i e t h a n n i v e r s a r y of t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d , in d r a w i n g up t h e a c c o u n t of i t s a c t i v i t i e s , divided the h i s t o r y of t h e C o m p a n y into t h r e e p e r i o d s : " T h e f i r s t p e r i o d , m a r k e d by c o n f u s i o n and by the i r r e s p o n s i b l e u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e m e a n s and r e s o u r c e s of t h e C o m p a n y , l a s t e d until 1 8 2 1 . T h e s e c o n d p e r i o d , d i s t i n g u i s h e d by t h e g r a d u a l i n t r o d u c t i o n of o r d e r and a c c o u n t a b i l i t y , c o n c u r r e n t l y with the d r y i n g up of t h e s o u r c e s of w e a l t h in t h e c o l o n i e s , m a y be s a i d t o h a v e c o n t i n u e d until 1 8 3 8 . And f i n a l l y , t h e t h i r d p e r i o d , c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e t h o r o u g h o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y , b e g a n in 1 8 3 8 and h a s c o n t i n u e d until n o w . H o w e v e r , t h e g r a d u a l d e c l i n e of t h e t e a - t r a d e and t h e o b s t a c l e s e n c o u n t e r e d in t h e a t t e m p t to s e l l the f u r s at a p r o f i t in the R u s sian m a r k e t , a r e a m a n i f e s t t h r e a t to the f u r t h e r s u c c e s s of the C o m p a n y . " 9 In o t h e r w o r d s , in t h e f i r s t p e r i o d of t h e C o m p a n y ' s e x i s t e n c e t h e r e w a s p e l t r y but no o r d e r . In t h e s e c o n d p e r i o d , t h e r e w a s m o r e o r d e r but l e s s p e l t r y , a n d , f i n a l l y , in t h e t h i r d p e r i o d , t h e r e w a s p e r f e c t o r d e r but the t r e a s u r y w a s e m p t y . It m u s t be a d m i t t e d t h a t t h i s p i c t u r e of t h e e v o l u t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y w a s v e r y c l o s e t o t h e t r u t h . O u t w a r d l y t h e s i t u a t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y w a s quite f a v o r a b l e e v e n d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d and t h e t h i r d p e r i o d s . E v e r y y e a r , a s in t h e p a s t , t h e C o m p a n y would d e c l a r e a d i v i d e n d , w h i c h w a s , m o r e o v e r , c o n s i d e r a b l y in e x c e s s of t h e r a t e of d i s c o u n t . A l t o g e t h e r t h e C o m p a n y p a i d out in d i v i d e n d s b e t w e e n 1 7 9 7 and 1 8 5 9 i n c l u s i v e a s u m e q u i v a l e n t to 5 , 7 3 4 , 3 0 8 . 99 r u b l e s , s i l v e r . F i g u r i n g t h a t t h e C o m p a n y d u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d had an a v e r a g e of 7 , 4 8 4 s h a r e s , i t a p p e a r s t h a t in s i x t y - t w o y e a r s t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s r e c e i v e d 7 6 6 . 2 0 r u b l e s on an i n v e s t m e n t of 1 5 0 s i l v e r r u b l e s . 10 T h e a n n u a l dividend f o r 1 8 2 6 t o 1 8 6 1 , c o n v e r t e d into s i l v e r , f l u c t u a t e d b e t w e e n 13 and 20 r u b l e s , w h i c h a m o u n t e d t o b e t w e e n 8 and 13 p e r c e n t of t h e a n n u a l i n c o m e . ^ H o w e v e r , o u r study of t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e R u s s i a n " A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y f o r t h e f i r s t two d e c a d e s of i t s e x i s t e n c e h a s shown t h a t t h e p a y m e n t of d i v i d e n d s did not at a l l s i g n i f y t h a t t h e c o m p a n y w a s doing s u c c e s s f u l b u s i n e s s . T h e t o t a l a m o u n t t h a t t h e new m a n a g e m e n t d i s b u r s e d w a s m a n y t i m e s s m a l l e r

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t h a n i t should h a v e b e e n a c c o r d i n g t o t h e b a l a n c e - s h e e t , s i n c e a c o n s i d e r a b l e p o r t i o n of t h e s h a r e s did not a c t u a l l y e x i s t . B u t b e h i n d t h e e x t e r n a l s o u n d n e s s of t h e C o m p a n y , t h e r e lurked a v e r y difficult e c o n o m i c situation which was growing w o r s e f r o m y e a r to y e a r . T h i s b e c o m e s m o s t a p p a r e n t f r o m an e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e f i g u r e s on t h e a m o u n t of p e l t r y p r o c u r e d by t h e C o m p a n y . When we c o m p a r e t h e q u a n t i t y of p e l t r y p r o c e s s e d d u r i n g the f i r s t two d e c a d e s of t h e C o m p a n y with t h a t p r o c e s s e d d u r i n g t h e f i n a l two d e c a d e s we n e c e s s a r i l y a r r i v e at t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e f u r - r e s o u r c e s of the c o l o n i e s h a d b e e n d e p l e t e d in t h e m e a n t i m e a s a r e s u l t of t h e p r e d a t o r y m e t h o d s w h i c h t h e C o m p a n y u s e d in i t s o p e r a t i o n s . B e t w e e n 1 7 9 7 and 1821 7 2 , 8 9 4 s e a - o t t e r s w e r e p r o c u r e d , and b e t w e e n 1 8 4 2 and 1 8 6 1 , 2 5 , 6 0 2 , showing a drop of 4 7 , 2 9 2 . T h e s a m e i s t r u e with r e g a r d t o f u r - s e a l s . B e t w e e n 1 7 9 7 and 1821 t h e C o m p a n y e x p o r t e d f r o m t h e c o l o n i e s 1 , 2 3 2 , 3 7 4 s e a l - s k i n s , and b e t w e e n 1 8 4 2 and 1861 only 3 3 8 , 6 0 4 , s h o w i n g a d r o p of 8 9 3 , 7 7 0 . B u t the s i t u a t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y t o o k a t u r n f o r t h e w o r s e not only b e c a u s e t h e f u r - r e s o u r c e s had b e e n d e p l e t e d ; t h e r e w e r e a n u m b e r of o t h e r c a u s e s f o r t h e e c o n o m i c p l i g h t of t h e C o m p a n y t o w a r d s t h e end of t h e 1 8 4 0 ' s . P r i m a r y a m o n g t h e s e w e r e the l o s s of t h e c h i e f m a r k e t f o r p e l t r y , s u c h a s C h i n a had b e e n o v e r m a n y y e a r s , and t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n v o l v e d in supplying t h e c o l o n i e s with b r e a d . T h e d e c l i n e in t h e p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r of t h e C h i n e s e c o n s u m e r , c a u s e d by t h e p e n e t r a t i o n of t h e c a p i t a l i s t i c p o w e r s i n t o t h e C e l e s t i a l E m p i r e at t h e end of the f i r s t h a l f of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e d i s c o u n t of s i l v e r r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e l a r g e - s c a l e i m p o r t a t i o n of o p i u m , t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e a r t i s a n c l a s s and of t h e s m a l l m e r c h a n t s by r e a s o n of t h e i r i n a b i l i t y t o c o m p e t e with t h e f o r e i g n m e r c h a n t s , and, f i n a l l y , t h e a p p e a r a n c e of C a n a d i a n f u r s on t h e C h i n e s e m a r k e t - - a l l t h i s c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e d r a s t i c c u r t a i l m e n t in t h e s a l e of R u s s i a n p e l t r y in C h i n a , It w a s p r e c i s e l y t h e r u i n of t h e s m a l l and t h e m e d i u m c l a s s of c o n s u m e r s t h a t d e a l t an e s p e c i a l l y g r i e v o u s blow t o t h e C o m p a n y , i n a s m u c h a s t h e f u r s i t i m p o r t e d i n t o C h i n a b e l o n g e d t o the c h e a p e s t v a r i e t i e s . Of t h e a v e r a g e a n n u a l c a t c h of 1 8 , 0 0 0 f u r - s e a l s , 8 , 0 0 0 went t o C h i n a by way of K i a k h t a . S i n c e t h e o p e n i n g up of S h a n g h a i , a n o t h e r p a r t of t h e c a t c h w a s u s u a l l y d i s p a t c h e d t o t h a t p o r t , and only a s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e m a d e i t s w a y t o t h e d o m e s t i c m a r k e t in R u s s i a . T h e g r e a t e s t q u a n t i t y , t h e n , of r i v e r - o t t e r - s k i n s , about 2 , 0 0 0 , went t o C h i n a , and only t h e e x p e n s i v e f u r s , s u c h a s s e a - o t t e r s , s o l d in C h i n a in s m a l l n u m b e r s . P r i o r , t h e n , t o t h e r i s e of f o r e i g n c o m p e t i t i o n a l m o s t a l l p e l t r y , with t h e e x c e p t i o n of s e a - o t t e r s , m e t with a r e a d y d e m a n d in C h i n a .

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W h e n R u s s i a n t r a d e w i t h C h i n a h a d d e c l i n e d , it b e c a m e n e c e s s a r y t o l o o k f o r n e w m a r k e t , f i r s t of a l l i n E u r o p e . B u t t h e w i n n i n g of n e w m a r k e t s p r o v e d t o b e t o o d i f f i c u l t a t a s k for the Company. N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e h i g h q u a l i t y of t h e r a w s k i n s , t h e f u r s t h a t t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y p u t on t h e m a r k e t w e r e of m e d i u m a n d s o m e t i m e s e v e n of p o o r q u a l i t y , b e c a u s e of the shoddy p r o c e s s i n g . T h e s e l o w - g r a d e v a r i e t i e s w e r e a c c e p t a b l e o n t h e C h i n e s e m a r k e t , but n o t a t a l l on t h e E u r o p e a n a n d A m e r i c a n m a r k e t s . W h e n e v e r it s e n t s o m e of i t s f u r s o v e r t o New Y o r k a n d , e s p e c i a l l y , t o L o n d o n , w h i c h w a s t h e n t h e c e n t e r of t h e f u r - t r a d e , t h e C o m p a n y w a s c o m p e l l e d t o sell them very cheaply because they had been poorly p r o c e s sed. In 1865 o n e of t h e e m p l o y e e s of t h e C o m p a n y by t h e n a m e of R u t k o v s k y w a s s e n t t o L o n d o n t o m a k e a s t u d y of t h e s y s t e m u s e d a t t h e f i r m of O p p e n h e i m a n d C o . w h i c h w a s i n t h e b u s i n e s s of d r e s s i n g f u r - s e a l s k i n s . " H e r e I h a d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y , " R u t k o v s k y r e p o r t e d , " t o s e e s o m e of t h e s e a l - s k i n s f r o m t h e c o l o n i e s a n d f r o m t h e i s l a n d s of L o b u s a n d C a s t i l l a s . T h e l a t t e r v a r i e t y i s v e r y m u c h p r e f e r r e d on t h e L o n d o n m a r k e t , and I was indeed able to convince myself that the f u r and the f l u f f of t h o s e s k i n s a r e m u c h l o n g e r a n d t h i c k e r . T h e s a l t i n g of t h e s k i n s i s d o n e v e r y c a r e f u l l y a n d t h e r e i s n o b r i n e l e f t i n t h e b a r r e l s . A n u m b e r of t h e s k i n s , t o w i t s o m e f i v e h u n d r e d , of t h o s e r e c e n t l y r e c e i v e d f r o m t h e c o l o n i e s , h a d f l u f f y r e d s p o t s w h e r e the f u r could e a s i l y be p u l l e d out with the f i n g e r s without disturbing the fluff. M r . S h e r s t e r showed m e s i m i l a r skins that had been p r o c e s s e d which had a n u m b e r of b a r e s p o t s o n t h e m . A f e w s k i n s on t h e b o t t o m of t h e b a r r e l s w e r e stuck together and t u r n e d black b e c a u s e t h e r e was n o s a l t on t h e m . The R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company had supposedly intended t o s e t up t h e d r e s s i n g of s k i n s in i t s c o l o n i e s a c c o r d i n g t o the v e r y l a t e s t m e t h o d s , but w a s p r e v e n t e d f r o m doing s o by t h e l a c k of q u a l i f i e d s p e c i a l i s t s . A n a t t e m p t w a s m a d e t o e n t i c e s o m e e x p e r t w o r k m e n o v e r f r o m t h e f i r m of L e m p s o n i n L o n d o n , but i t did n o t s u c c e e d . T h e E n g l i s h o w n e r s wouldn o t l e t go t h e w o r k e r s t h e y n e e d e d t h e m s e l v e s a n d , f u r t h e r m o r e , English law p r e s c r i b e d s e v e r e penalties for r e v e a l i n g industrial secrets. While the s l u m p in the t r a d e with China w a s r e a c h i n g an a c u t e s t a g e , a d e c l i n e a l s o d e v e l o p e d in t h e s a l e of f u r s i n

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R u s s i a , w h e r e the Company sold the m o s t expensive v a r i e t i e s o f f u r , e s p e c i a l l y s e a - o t t e r s . A s w a s p o i n t e d out by t h e G o v erning B o a r d in 1 8 4 5 , " t h e w h o l e s a l e b u y e r s , s e e i n g that the b e s t C o m p a n y f u r s f o r w h i c h t h e y p a i d good p r i c e s could be s o l d only with g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y , and t h a t t h e d e m a n d f o r t h e m had c o n s i d e r a b l y r e l a x e d , have been trying to r e p l a c e t h e m with c h e a p e r v a r i e t i e s . T h e s e l a t t e r , g r a d u a l l y c o m i n g i n t o u s e , have c o n t r i b u t e d to reducing even f u r t h e r the public d e m a n d f o r t h e m o r e e x p e n s i v e v a r i e t i e s . " ^ N e i t h e r w a s it f e a s i b l e t o count on s e l l i n g in t h e R u s s i a n m a r k e t the c h e a p e r f u r s w h i c h c o u l d not r e a d i l y be s o l d in C h i n a . S e a l s k i n , t h e c h i e f p r o d u c t of t h e C o m p a n y , u s e d by the " t h i r d e s t a t e , " w a s not y e t w o r n by a s u f f i c i e n t l y wide c i r c l e of p e o p l e . A s we h a v e p o i n t e d o u t , t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y w a s h a v i n g g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y d u r i n g t h a t s a m e p e r i o d in k e e p i n g t h e c o l o n i e s s u p p l i e d with g r a i n . T h e d i s c o v e r y of gold in C a l i f o r n i a b r o u g h t f o r t h an u n p r e c e d e n t e d i n f l u x of i m m i g r a n t s . A s a r e s u l t of t h e sudden i n c r e a s e in p o p u l a t i o n , t h e p r i c e s on a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s s o a r e d s o high in C a l i f o r n i a , t h a t it w a s c h e a p e r f o r t h e C o m p a n y t o i m p o r t t h e s e p r o d u c t s i n to the c o l o n i e s a l m o s t f r o m as f a r away as S t . P e t e r s b u r g . A s f o r t h e d e f i c i t t h a t had d e v e l o p e d a s a r e s u l t of t h e d e c l i n e in t h e t r a d e with C h i n a and of t h e d e p l e t i o n of the m o s t v a l u a b l e v a r i e t i e s of p e l t r y , t h e C o m p a n y had t w o w a y s of m e e t i n g i t . One w a s t o u t i l i z e new v a r i e t i e s of f u r s , which until t h e n had not o c c u p i e d an i m p o r t a n t p l a c e in t h e C o m p a n y b u d g e t , t h e o t h e r , t o d e v e l o p t h e s a l e of c o n s u m e r s ' g o o d s in the b o r d e r l a n d s of R u s s i a , s u c h a s K a m c h a t k a , A m u r , and so forth. D u r i n g t h e l a s t p e r i o d of the C o m p a n y t h e r e w a s a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n c r e a s e in t h e q u a n t i t y of c e r t a i n v a r i e t i e s of p e l t r y . T h e r e w a s a l s o a r i s e in t h e c a t c h of s e a and r i v e r - o t t e r s , and s o f o r t h . A m u c h l a r g e r q u a n t i t y of w a l r u s t o o t h and c a s t o r e u m was p r o c u r e d . T h e s e were all very valuable e x p o r t a r t i c l e s which went to E n g l a n d \and t o o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . B u t in s p i t e of t h i s i n c r e a s e in s e v e r a l of t h e c a t e g o r i e s of t r a d e , t h e C o m p a n y w a s s t i l l not in a p o s i t i o n t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e of a l l t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s open t o i t t o m a k e up f o r t h e e v e r g r o w i n g d e f i c i t . T h e C o m p a n y w a s e v e n unable t o o r g a n i z e t h e p r o c e s s of t h e m e l t i n g down of w h a l e f a t , of c o a l - m i n i n g , or i c e - c u t t i n g - - i c e was being e x p o r t e d to C a l i f o r n i a . T h e a t t e m p t of t h e C o m p a n y t o m e e t i t s d e f i c i t by e x p a n d ing i t s c o m m e r c i a l o p e r a t i o n s within t h e c o u n t r y i t s e l f a l s o

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m e t w i t h f a i l u r e . T h i s t a s k c a l l e d f o r a c h a n g e in t h e m e t h o d s of w o r k , b u t t h e m o n o p o l i s t i c c h a r a c t e r of t h e C o m p a n y r e n d e r e d it i n c a p a b l e of e n t e r i n g u p o n a n y s u c h a c t i v i t y . W h e r e v e r t h e C o m p a n y e n c o u n t e r e d t h e c o m p e t i t i o n of o t h e r c o m m e r c i a l e n t e r p r i s e s on a n e q u a l f o o t i n g i t w a s u n a b l e t o withstand such competition and had to yield to the p r e s s u r e . A s w a s n o t e d i n t h e m e m o r a n d u m on t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y t h a t w a s p r e p a r e d in t h e S t a t e C o u n c i l w h e n t h e q u e s t i o n of r e n e w i n g t h e C o m p a n y ' s f r a n c h i s e w a s u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n , "the C o m p a n y ' s t r a d e with the Siberian n a t i v e s , w h i c h w a s e x p e c t e d t o d e v e l o p u p o n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e p o r t of A y a n , h a s b e e n c u r t a i l e d , a s h a s a l s o t h e t r a d e o n t h e A m u r a n d in K a m c h a t k a . T h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s d e c l i n e i n t r a d e w a s t h a t t h e C o m p a n y d i d n o t h a v e a m o n o p o l y on t r a d e e i t h e r with the T u n g u s e s o r in the A m u r r e g i o n . Without such a m o n o p o l y t h e C o m p a n y w a s u n a b l e t o s t a n d up a g a i n s t t h e c o m p e t i t i o n n o t o n l y of t h e f o r e i g n m e r c h a n t s on t h e A m u r b u t e v e n of t h e S i b e r i a n t r a d e r s i n t h e A y a n r e g i o n . " 1 4 Being a g o v e r n m e n t agency, the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y t r i e d t o s t r e n g t h e n i t s e c o n o m i c p o s i t i o n by n o n - e c o n o m i c m e a n s , in t h e h o p e t h a t t h e y w o u l d h e l p t o p l a c e it i n a n e s p e c i a l l y f a v o r e d position with r e l a t i o n to its c o m p e t i t o r s . T h e g o v e r n m e n t , u p h o l d i n g t h e C o m p a n y i n i t s own i n t e r e s t s , n o t o n l y g r a n t e d it a m o n o p o l y i n t h o s e p l a c e s w h e r e t h e f u r b e a r i n g a n i m a l s w e r e p r o c u r e d , n a m e l y , on t h e A m e r i c a n m a i n l a n d a n d on t h e a d j a c e n t i s l a n d s , but a l s o on t h e m a r k e t s where the peltry was sold. The p r e f e r e n t i a l position that the C o m p a n y e n j o y e d in t h e f u r - t r a d e w a s p l a n n e d a s a p r e v e n t i v e a g a i n s t n e w r i v a l e n t e r p r i s e s , a s w e l l a s a m e a n s of a c t u a l l y t a x i n g t h e o t h e r f u r - d e a l e r s f o r t h e b e n e f i t of t h e C o m p a n y . A s e a r l y a s 1834 t h e C h a p l i n s , l a r g e s c a l e f u r r i e r s of S t . P e t e r s b u r g , p e t i t i o n e d t h e M i n i s t r y of F i n a n c e f o r p e r m i s s i o n to t r a d e with the United States and to export f u r s f r o m t h e r e , e s p e c i a l l y s e a - o t t e r s , to the Kiakhta m a r k e t . It w a s a p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t w o u l d n o d o u b t h a v e b e e n p r o f i t a b l e to the g o v e r n m e n t , s i n c e the Chaplins a l s o intended to e x p o r t R u s s i a n m a n u f a c t u r e d a r t i c l e s to C h i n a . But t h e i r r e q u e s t w a s d e n i e d , b e c a u s e the g o v e r n m e n t saw in the plan t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of d o i n g i n j u r y t o t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . T h e l e t t e r of t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d w r i t t e n on t h i s o c c a s i o n t o t h e M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e r e v e a l s q u i t e u n e q u i v o c a l l y t h e m o t i v e s which i m p e l l e d the g o v e r n m e n t to r e j e c t the p r o f i t a b l e p r o p o s i t i o n of t h e S t . P e t e r s b u r g f u r r i e r s .

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That l e t t e r r e a d s p a r t l y as follows: "In the f i r s t place, a s a r e s u l t of t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e q u a n t i t y of s e a - o t t e r - s k i n s by t h e i m p o r t a t i o n of f o r e i g n s k i n s , t h e f u r s of R u s s i a n p r o duction will drop in p r i c e and, consequently, those t r a d i n g i n t h e m w i l l i n c u r l o s s e s , a n d in t h e s e c o n d p l a c e , s i n c e C a n a d i a n s e a - o t t e r s a r e s u p e r i o r in quality to the R u s s i a n and N o r w e g i a n v a r i e t i e s , the C h i n e s e , who a l w a y s b a r t e r f o r the better v a r i e t i e s , m a y stop buying the c h e a p e r ones a l t o g e t h e r in the e x p e c t a t i o n that they m a y be able to p r o c u r e both k i n d s in R u s s i a . Should t h i s be t h e c a s e , the t r a d e in Russian s e a - o t t e r s may become a totally losing proposition, t o t h e d e t r i m e n t of t h e m e r c h a n t s a n d t h e f u r - h u n t e r s , a n d m a y e v e n s p e l l t h e r u i n of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . " 15 The government actually made the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company m a s t e r over the entire domestic f u r - t r a d e . Dict a t i n g i t s own t e r m s a n d not a l l o w i n g a n y o n e t o t r a d e i n t h o s e v a r i e t i e s w h i c h it c o n s i d e r e d w i t h i n t h e s c o p e of i t s m o n o p o l i s t i c p r i v i l e g e s , t h e C o m p a n y , w i t h t h e a i d of c e r t a i n of t h e g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t m e n t s , c u t off a n y i n c i p i e n t c o m p e t i t i o n at the r o o t . At t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e C o m p a n y ' s a c t i v i t y , w h e n t h e f u r t r a d e c o n s t i t u t e d t h e m a i n s o u r c e of i t s i n c o m e , a b a n w a s p l a c e d on t h e i m p o r t a t i o n of s e a - o t t e r s , r i v e r - o t t e r s , a n d f u r - s e a l s i n t o R u s s i a . In t h i s w a y t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company s e c u r e d a c o m p l e t e and unlimited monopoly in t h e s e v a r i e t i e s of f u r . B u t a l o n g a b o u t t h e 1 8 5 0 ' s , w h e n t h e m a i n s o u r c e of t h e C o m p a n y ' s i n c o m e w a s n o t t h e f u r t r a d e , b u t t h e t e a t r a d e , t h e p o l i c y of t h e g o v e r n m e n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i m p o r t a t i o n of a f e w of t h e f o r m e r l y b a n n e d v a r i e t i e s of f u r u n d e r w e n t a c h a n g e . T h e i m p o r t a t i o n of t h e s e s a m e f u r s i n t o R u s s i a w a s a l l o w e d , but o n l y u p o n p a y m e n t of a c u s t o m s duty that went p a r t l y to the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . By t h e t a r i f f of 1857 t h e b a n on t h e i m p o r t a t i o n of f u r - s e a l s a n d r i v e r - o t t e r s w a s l i f t e d , b u t t h e b a n on s e a - o t t e r s r e m a i n e d i n f o r c e , s i n c e a l m o s t t h e w h o l e c a t c h of t h e l a t t e r w a s d i s p o s e d of by t h e C o m p a n y i n R u s s i a . T h e t a r i f f f i x e d t h e d u t y on r i v e r - o t t e r s a t 1 . 2 0 r u b l e s a p o u n d a n d on f u r - s e a l s a t 60 k o p e c k s , w i t h 25 p e r c e n t of t h e r e v e n u e g o i n g t o t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . In t h e g u i s e of r e m u n e r a t i n g t h e C o m p a n y f o r i t s r e n u n c i a t i o n of t h e p r i v i l e g e s t h a t h a d b e e n g r a n t e d to it, the g o v e r n m e n t gave it new, and c o n s i d e r a b l e s u b s i d i e s . H e n c e f o r w a r d t h e C o m p a n y w a s t o a d d t o i t s p r o f i t s by a l l o w i n g t h e i m p o r t a t i o n of c e r t a i n v a r i e t i e s of f u r , j u s t a s i t h a d

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r e c e n t l y b e e n p r o f i t i n g by b a n n i n g s u c h i m p o r t a t i o n . T h i s w a s t h e w a y in w h i c h t h e l i f e of t h e " p r i v a t e " e n t e r p r i s e w a s b e i n g s u s t a i n e d by a r t i f i c i a l m e a n s , o n l y b e c a u s e , a l t h o u g h it h a d l o n g b e e n on t h e b r i n k of e c o n o m i c c o l l a p s e , it w a s s t i l l n e c e s s a r y t o t h e p u r p o s e s of t s a r i s t f o r e i g n p o l i c y . No l e s s i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h i s r e s p e c t w a s t h e g r a n t i n g of s p e c i a l p r i v i l e g e s to the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y in the t r a d e w i t h C h i n e s e t e a . T h e t e a t r a d e in w h i c h t h e C o m p a n y w a s e n g a g e d by e x c h a n g i n g t e a f o r f u r s i n K i a k h t a a l s o b e gan to run into d i f f i c u l t i e s along about the 1840's. The s l u m p i n t h e t e a t r a d e w a s b r o u g h t a b o u t not only" by t h e c h a n g e d situation in China, which d e v e l o p e d when that c o u n t r y ' s p o r t s w e r e o p e n e d t o f o r e i g n c o m m e r c e a n d g o o d s of f o r e i g n o r i g i n b e g a n t o m a k e t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e on t h e C h i n e s e m a r k e t s , n o r by t h e r i s e in t h e p r i c e of t e a ; i t w a s t h e r e s u l t of t h e c h a n g e d t r a d e s i t u a t i o n in R u s s i a i t s e l f . In one of i t s m e m o r a n d a t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d p o i n t e d out t h a t b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e y e a r 1841 t h e C o m p a n y " i n i t s a t t e m p t t o d i s p o s e of i t s t e a s , b e c a m e c o n s c i o u s of t h e v e r y s a m e d i s a d v a n t a g e s to which the tea t r a d e as a whole was s u b j e c t e d , a n d f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g r e a s o n s : 1) t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e c a p i t a l of t h e K i a k h t a t r a d e r s , a s a r e s u l t of w h i c h t h e q u a n t i t y of m e r c h a n d i s e b a r t e r e d r o s e t o a l m o s t 30 p e r c e n t , a n d t h e w h o l e s a l e p r i c e d r o p p e d c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y ; 2) t h e r i s e i n t h e c o s t of t r a n s p o r t i n g t h e t e a , r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e i n c r e a s e d q u a n t i t y of m e r c h a n d i s e t h a t w a s o f f e r e d f o r e x c h a n g e , a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of g o l d - m i n i n g in S i b e r i a . " ^ In i t s s e a r c h f o r w a y s t o c o m b a t i t s r i v a l s w h o w e r e b r i n g i n g in t e a by w a y of K i a k h t a , t h e C o m p a n y m a d e s e v e r a l a t t e m p t s to i m p o r t tea into R u s s i a d i r e c t l y through Shanghai. In a d d i t i o n , t h e g o v e r n m e n t g r a n t e d t h e C o m p a n y t h e r i g h t t o s e l l i t s t e a a t p r i c e s " m o s t c l o s e l y a p p r o x i m a t i n g t h o s e of t h e K i a k h t a t e a , " w h i c h r e a l l y m a d e it p o s s i b l e f o r t h e C o m p a n y t o s e l l i t s t e a b e l o w t h e a v e r a g e p r i c e p r e v a i l i n g in Russia. T h e p e r m i s s i o n g r a n t e d t o t h e C o m p a n y t o c a r r y on i t s t e a b u s i n e s s not t h r o u g h Kiakhta but t h r o u g h Shanghai w a s of a d d e d s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e s e t r a d e e x p e d i t i o n s c o u l d be u t i l i z e d t o s u r v e y t h e s e a l a n e s i n t o C h i n a . In t h i s t h e R u s s i a n g o v e r n m e n t w o u l d s i m p l y b e f o l l o w i n g t h e e x a m p l e of t h e o t h e r p o w e r s . N e s s e l r o d e , in s u p p o r t i n g t h e C o m p a n y ' s p e t i t i o n f o r t h e p e r m i s s i o n to t r a d e in t e a t h r o u g h Shanghai, a d d u c e d the following r e a s o n s for his stand:

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"Allowing the Company to export f r o m the Chinese p o r t s a s p e c i f i e d q u a n t i t y of t e a m i g h t a l s o b e of u s e i n h e l p i n g u s t o c l a r i f y t h e p r o b l e m of s e a - t r a d e w i t h C h i n a i n g e n e r a l . It i s e v e n p o s s i b l e t h a t i n t h i s w a y , a n d w i t h out o f f i c i a l s a n c t i o n by t h e C h i n e s e g o v e r n m e n t , a n e w f o r m of t r a d e i n t e r c o u r s e m a y i m p e r c e p t i b l y be e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h t h a t g o v e r n m e n t , in t h e s a m e w a y a s o u r m e r c h a n t s h a v e , w i t h o u t o f f i c i a l s a n c t i o n on t h e p a r t of t h e C h i n e s e , b e e n t r a d i n g on t h e w e s t e r n f r o n t i e r of t h a t c o u n t r y , in C h u g u c h a k a n d J u l j a . " ^ It i s c l e a r , t h e n , t h a t in g r a n t i n g t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y the r i g h t to engage in s e a - b o r n e c S m m e r c e in t e a , t h e g o v e r n m e n t w a s p u r s u i n g a d u a l p u r p o s e . On t h e o n e h a n d , it used the C o m p a n y to cloak t s a r i s t e x p a n s i o n , and on t h e o t h e r h a n d , in t h e n a m e of t h e v e r y t a s k s t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t w a s a i m i n g t o a c h i e v e , it p l a c e d t h e C o m p a n y in a f a v o r a b l e position with r e l a t i o n to i t s r i v a l s . B e g i n n i n g in the 1 8 5 0 ' s , the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y i m p o r t e d by s e a a n a v e r a g e of a b o u t 8, 000 p o o d s of t e a a n n u a l l y , o r 30 p e r c e n t of a l l t h e C h i n e s e t e a i m p o r t e d i n t o R u s s i a . In t h e l a s t y e a r s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y t h e t e a t r a d e b e c a m e i t s c h i e f s o u r c e of i n c o m e . T h e g r o s s r e c e i p t s of t h e C o m p a n y b e t w e e n 1857 a n d 1861 a v e r a g e d 9 5 2 , 2 7 5 r u b l e s , s i l v e r , a n n u a l l y , of w h i c h 4 2 1 , 91 2 r u b l e s c a m e f r o m t e a , and 301,030 rubles f r o m the s o - c a l l e d " i n c r e m e n t s , " o r a d d i t i o n s t o t h e p r i c e of m e r c h a n d i s e i m p o r t e d i n t o t h e c o l o n i e s t o be s o l d t o t h e h u n t i n g - s t a t i o n w o r k e r s a n d to the n a t i v e s , 2 0 , 6 5 1 r u b l e s f r o m o t h e r t r a d e , and only 2 0 8 , 6 8 2 r u b l e s f r o m t h e s a l e of f u r s . On t h e i m p o r t e d t e a the Company was supposed to pay the t r e a s u r y 210,658 r u b l e s a n n u a l l y in c u s t o m s d u t i e s . B u t t h e g o v e r n m e n t d i d n o t r e q u i r e the p a y m e n t , actually giving the Company a new s u b s i d y i n d i s g u i s e . By 1867 t h e C o m p a n y ' s i n d e b t e d n e s s on i t s delinquent c u s t o m duties h a d r i s e n to m o r e than 7 0 0 , 0 0 0 rubles. B u t at t h e e n d of t h e 1 8 5 0 ' s a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e 1 8 6 0 ' s , w h e n t h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t , a s w e s h a l l s e e , h a d no f u r t h e r u s e f o r t h e C o m p a n y , t h e a t t i t u d e in g o v e r n m e n t c i r c l e s t o w a r d s the Company underwent a d r a s t i c c h a n g e . During the l a s t t h r e e o r f o u r y e a r s of t h e C o m p a n y ' s e x i s t e n c e , w h e n t h e o n l y t h i n g t h a t h e l d up i t s l i q u i d a t i o n w a s t h e s e a r c h f o r a b u y e r f o r the colonies in A m e r i c a , i t s a c t i v i t i e s w e r e '

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s u b j e c t e d t o f i e r c e c r i t i c i s m on t h e p a r t of i n d i v i d u a l m i n i s t e r s a n d of s p e c i a l c o m m i t t e e s . T h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company, about which everyone had been k e e p i n g s i l e n t , h a d now b e c o m e a t o p i c of d i s c u s s i o n in a l l the m e m o r a n d a dealing with the C o m p a n y . T h e M i n i s t e r of S t a t e P r o p e r t y i n a l e t t e r h e w r o t e t o t h e M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e t o w a r d s t h e e n d of 1862 d e s c r i b e s t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y i n t h e f o l l o w i n g w o r d s : " T h e m a i n p u r s u i t of t h e c o l o n i e s — t h e h u n t i n g of s e a o t t e r s - - h a s b e e n c o n t i n u a l l y on t h e d e c l i n e . G e n e r a l l y speaking, the f u r b u s i n e s s has begun to yield f i r s t place to Canada and G r e a t B r i t a i n . T h e s e two c o u n t r i e s have b e e n s e n d i n g f u r s t o E u r o p e in v a s t q u a n t i t i e s a n d a t i n c o m p a r a b l y l o w e r p r i c e s . W h a l i n g in t h e c o l o n i e s h a s p a s s e d i n t o t h e h a n d s of t h e A m e r i c a n s . F i s h i n g h a s b e e n d o n e on a s c a l e w h i c h b a r e l y m e e t s t h e n e e d s of t h e c o l o n i e s t h e m s e l v e s , i n s p i t e of t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y a b u n d a n c e of v a r i o u s g o o d s t o c k s of f i s h i n t h e l a k e s a n d r i v e r s of t h e c o l o n i e s . N o t h i n g h a s b e e n d o n e w i t h r e s pect to f a r m i n g and c a t t l e - b r e e d i n g . The m i n e r a l r e s o u r c e s of t h e r e g i o n h a v e h a r d l y b e e n t a p p e d . A l l t h e c o m m e r c i a l relations that the Company has maintained have been s e r i o u s l y i m p a i r e d and a r e falling into d e c a y . I t s m e r c h a n t m a r i n e h a s b e e n a l l o w e d t o be r e d u c e d t o n e g l i g i b l e p r o p o r t i o n s , a n d it i s c o m p e l l e d t o c h a r t e r f o r e i g n b o a t s t o m e e t i t s own r e q u i r e m e n t s . " ^ A c o m m i t t e e c o m p r i s i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e v a r i o u s g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t m e n t s e x a m i n e d t h e r e p o r t of t h e i n s p e c tion that h a d been m a d e in the c o l o n i e s , c o m p l e t i n g its t a s k i n M a y , 1 8 6 3 . In i t s c o n c l u s i o n t h e c o m m i t t e e r e m a r k e d t h a t t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a " a r e at a p e r f e c t s t a n d still as r e g a r d s colonization, hunting, t r a d e , and civic develo p m e n t , and that, g e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , the Company h a s f a r f r o m justified the expectations which the government had p l a c e d in i t . On t h e o n e h a n d , t h e d e c l i n e w a s t h e d i r e c t r e s u l t of t h e p o l i c y of u n m i t i g a t e d m o n o p o l y w h i c h d e s t r o y s e v e r y o p p o r t u n i t y of c o m p e t i t i o n a n d t a k e s a w a y t h e i n c e n t i v e t o v i g o r o u s a c t i o n , b u t , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t w a s t h e n a t u r a l c l i m a t i c and g e o g r a p h i c a l conditions in the r e g i o n in q u e s t i o n t h a t w e r e t h e m a i n c a u s e of t h e low s t a t e in w h i c h t h e C o m p a n y now f i n d s i t s e l f .

Chapter X I T H E S A L E O F T H E RUSSIAN POSSESSIONS IN A M E R I C A

T H E O U T C O M E of the C r i m e a n W a r which " . . . d e m o n s t r a t e d " to the whole w o r l d " t h e rottenness and impotence of e n s e r f ed R u s s i a , brought about a change in the position of the Russian e m p i r e as a colonial p o w e r in the P a c i f i c . A c t u ally the p r o b l e m of f u r t h e r expansion on the A m e r i c a n continent had been s o l v e d , so f a r as Russia was c o n c e r n e d , in the middle 1820's. Y e t , it was the w a r that posed b e f o r e the t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t in all its acuity, a p r o b l e m that had a r i s e n m o r e than once b e f o r e , the p r o b l e m of defending and, consequently, of retaining Russian colonies in A m e r i c a . A t the outbreak of the C r i m e a n W a r the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company was almost without any a r m e d f o r c e that was c a p a ble of making a stand against f o r e i g n i n v a s i o n . A s the c o l o nial administration r e p o r t e d to the Russian a m b a s s a d o r in the United States, " a l l the settlements in the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s h a v e , to be s u r e , some sort of f o r t i f i c a t i o n s , but these may be r e l i e d upon to stand up only against s a v a g e s and a r e almost u s e l e s s in the event of r e a l w a r f a r e . Even N o v o a r k h a n g e l s k , the v e r y center of the colonial g o v e r n m e n t , though it did have, according to the a d m i n i s t r a tion, " s o m e m o r e e f f e c t i v e means of d e f e n s e , s t i l l was not in a condition to withstand any s e r i o u s a t t a c k . " F o r the purposes of defense the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n divided the colonies into t h r e e g r o u p s . The f i r s t c o m p r i s e d the r e g i o n around Novoarkhangelsk i t s e l f , where " t h e l o c a l means of defense a r e insufficent and could hardly be r e e n f o r c e d l a t e r on by the C o m p a n y ' s own r e s o u r c e s . " The a l l i e s , as a r e s u l t , let it be noted, of a v i s i t paid to Novoarkhangelsk by an English f r i g a t e in August, 1853, w e r e p e r f e c t l y a w a r e of the complete i n d e f e n s i b i l i t y of that p o r t . T h e second group included the settlements on the A l e u t i a n chain and on the A m e r i c a n mainland, which, in the opinion of the Company, it was not n e c e s s a r y to defend at a l l , inasmuch as they w e r e " l i t t l e known to f o r e i g n e r s . " F i n a l l y , the third r e g i o n c o m p r i s e d the C o m p a n y ' s colonies on the A s i a t i c coast, including 234

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Sakhalin. These points w e r e r e g a r d e d as belonging within t h e g e n e r a l f r o n t i e r s of R u s s i a , a n d it w a s t h e r e f o r e i n c u m bent upon the g o v e r n m e n t t o look a f t e r t h e i r d e f e n s e . It w o u l d s e e m , t h e n , t h a t out of t h e w h o l e v a s t t e r r i t o r y belonging to the Company, the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o n s i d e r e d as m o s t v u l n e r a b l e t h e c e n t e r of t h e c o l o n i a l g o v e r n m e n t , N o v o a r k h a n g e l s k , w h e r e t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of t h e C o m p a n y ' s p r o p erty was concentrated. Being well i n f o r m e d about all the d i p l o m a t i c m a c h i n a t i o n s a n d havi-ng s e c r e t a n d o p e n a g e n t s e v e r y w h e r e , t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y k n e w a l l a b o u t t h e g e n e r a l f e e l i n g p r e v a i l i n g in L o n d o n t h a t E n g l a n d w o u l d i n e v i t a b l y i n t e r v e n e in t h e C r i m e a n W a r . K n o w i n g t h i s , it w a s p r e p a r i n g in i t s own w a y t o d e f e n d i t p o s s e s s i o n s . W h i l e it h a s t i l y p u r c h a s e d a n u m b e r of s c r e w - s t e a m e r s f o r t h e c o l o n i e s a n d s e n t s o m e t r o o p s on t h e s h i p s t h a t h a d b e e n p r o v i d e d " w i t h t h e n e u t r a l f l a g of H a m b u r g a n d t h e p r o p e r d o c u m e n t s , " the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y had no i n t e n t i o n w h a t s o e v e r of s e t t i n g up a n a c t i v e d e f e n s e of i t s possessions. On J a n u a r y 14, 1 8 5 4 , w h e n t h e f i r s t n e w s w a s r e c e i v e d in S t . P e t e r s b u r g of t h e a p p e a r a n c e of t h e a l l i e d f l e e t in t h e B l a c k S e a , t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y s u b m i t t e d t o t h e M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s t h e d r a f t f o r a p l a n of a c t i o n t h a t w a s t o a s s u r e t h e c o m p l e t e s e c u r i t y of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s . T h e p l a n h a d b e e n w o r k e d out i n E n g l a n d , t h e v e r y c o u n t r y a g a i n s t w h i c h it w a s i n t e n d e d t o d e f e n d t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s , a n d h a d t h e u n o f f i c i a l a p p r o v a l of t h e l e a d e r s of B r i t i s h f o r e i g n policy who, at the s a m e t i m e , w e r e p r e p a r i n g f o r a b r e a k with R u s s i a . A c c o r d i n g to B a n c r o f t , " a s soon a s w a r between England and R u s s i a b e c a m e a c e r t a i n t y , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n a n d H u d s o n B a y C o m p a n i e s m e t in L o n d o n t o c o n s u l t on t h e e x i g e n c i e s of t h e c a s e . " 3 S t a r t i n g with the p r e m i s e that " i t i s only E n g l a n d , without t h e c o o p e r a t i o n of t h e A m e r i c a n s , of w h o m t h e C o m p a n y m a y b e in f e a r of h o s t i l e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e c o l o n i e s , " t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , by J a n u a r y , 1 8 5 4 , h a d w i t h t h e a i d of t h e H u d s o n Bay Company, obtained a guarantee f r o m the British g o v e r n m e n t of t h e i n v i o l a b i l i t y of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s . T h i s g u a r a n t e e w a s t o b e e x p r e s s e d j u r i d i c a l l y in t h e f o r m of a n e u t r a l i t y pact between the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n and the Hudson Bay C o m panies .

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Upon g i v i n g t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y a g u a r a n t e e of a b s o l u t e i n v i o l a b i l i t y n o t o n l y on t h e p a r t of t h e B r i t i s h f l e e t but a l s o on t h e p a r t of t h e w h o l e a l l i e d f l e e t , t h e H u d s o n B a y C o m p a n y w a s t o r e c e i v e a n e x t e n s i o n of t h e l e a s e on the comparatively insignificant s t r i p c o m p r i s i n g the R u s s i a n p o s s e s s i o n s in A m e r i c a . A f a v o r a b l e a n s w e r w a s r e c e i v e d on J a n u a r y 2 5 , 1 8 5 4 , that is, eleven days after the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company h a d p e t i t i o n e d t h e R u s s i a n M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s " t h a t the G o v e r n i n g B o a r d be a u t h o r i z e d t o e n t e r into d i r e c t n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e d i r e c t o r s of t h e E n g l i s h H u d s o n B a y C o m p a n y . . . a n d t h a t t h e l a t t e r s h o u l d be a s k e d t o o b t a i n f r o m i t s g o v e r n m e n t t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e n e u t r a l i t y of t h e p o s s e s s i o n s a n d s h i p s of t h e t w o c o m p a n i e s . "4 T h e d i r e c t o r of t h e M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , L . S i n y a v i n , i n f o r m e d t h e m a n a g e m e n t of t h e C o m p a n y t h a t " i t h a s p l e a s e d His I m p e r i a l M a j e s t y to give his m o s t g r a c i o u s a s s e n t t o t h e p e t i t i o n on c o n d i t i o n t h a t w h e n a m u t u a l a g r e e m e n t h a s b e e n r e a c h e d b e t w e e n t h e t w o c o m p a n i e s it w o u l d b e s u b m i t t e d by t h e m f o r the a p p r o v a l of t h e t w o r e s p e c t i v e g o v e r n ments. "5 T h e r e w e r e m a n y p e o p l e , h o w e v e r , who did not b e l i e v e in t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of s u c h a n a g r e e m e n t . E v e n t o p e r s o n s c l o s e to the C o m p a n y but not c o m p l e t e l y i n i t i a t e d into the preceding negotiations such a result seemed paradoxical. T h e c o n s e n t of t h e E n g l i s h g o v e r n m e n t t o e n t e r i n t o n e g o t i ations was r e g a r d e d as a t r a p . T h e C o m p a n y ' s a g e n t in H a m b u r g h a s t e n e d t o i n f o r m t h e m a n a g e m e n t that " c e r t a i n a r r a n g e m e n t s a r e being concocted i n L o n d o n t h a t a r e h i g h l y d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e i n t e r e s t s of t h e C o m p a n y . " He i n s i s t e d on t h e n e c e s s i t y of s e n d i n g a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e to London "without t h e s l i g h t e s t d e l a y , " who would h a v e t h e a u t h o r i t y t o a c t on h i s own " i n a l l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , e v e n in t h e e v e n t it s h o u l d s e e m n e c e s s a r y t o s e l l t h e p o s s e s s i o n s t o o n e of t h e n e u t r a l p o w e r s . " I do not b e l i e v e , " w r o t e t h e s a m e a g e n t , " t h a t t h e E n g l i s h g o v e r n m e n t is a c t u a l l y i n t e r e s t e d in the p r o p o s a l s which you m a y decide to m a k e with relation to your t e r r i t o r y . " And t h i s o p i n i o n w a s s h a r e d by a l l . E v e n s o m e of t h e m e m b e r s of t h e C o u n c i l of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , u p o n l e a r n i n g in e x e c u t i v e s e s s i o n of t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e m a n agement and the Hudson Bay Company, e s p r e s s e d the a p p r e h e n s i o n t h a t " t h e d e a l i n g s " b e t w e e n the two c o m p a n i e s on t h e

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neutralization of their p o s s e s s i o n s " c a n only s e r v e to turn the attention of the English g o v e r n m e n t to Novoarkhangelsk and to prompt it to adopt certain m e a s u r e s which perhaps the English would not have thought of doing, if t h e r e had been no such n e g o t i a t i o n s . " ? H o w e v e r , in this p a r t i c u l a r case t h e r e w e r e no grounds f o r p e s s i m i s t i c suppositions. The neutrality pact between the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company and the Hudson Bay Company was approved by the English g o v e r n m e n t and, subsequently, also by N i c h o l a s I, as indeed the administration of the English Company in London was duly i n f o r m e d on M a r c h 31, 1854. Thus when the war broke out, the Russian colonies w e r e c o m p l e t e l y out of d a n g e r . The p r e l i m i n a r y negotiations between the two companies w e r e naturally cloaked in deep s e c r e c y , and the a d m i n i s t r a tion of the c o l o n i e s , r e m o t e as it was f r o m the capital, was not even in a position to expect such a happy ending to the long-standing conflict between Russia and England on the A m e r i c a n continent. The administration of the c o l o n i e s , having been i n f o r m e d by the Russian ambassador to the United States of the intention of the English and F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t s to dispatch a naval squadron " t o blockade the ports of the I m p e r i a l colonies in North A m e r i c a , i m m e d i a t e l y w a r - - n o w b e c o m e inevitable - - i s d e c l a r e d on R u s s i a , and even to s e i z e those c o l o n i e s , if possible, hastened to w o r k out its own plan of action to a s sure the safety of the Company's p r o p e r t y . But this plan was based not on the pact with the English Hudson Bay Company, whose r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s in the c o l o n i e s , either because they had not been i n f o r m e d of the negotiations taking place in the mother country, or e l s e because they wanted to intimidate the R u s s i a n s , w e r e even then attempting to start a g g r e s s i v e a c tion against the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . The colonial authorities based their own plan upon a pact with the A m e r i c a n merchants. K o s t r o m i t i n o v , the agent of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company, who was also v i c e - c o n s u l in C a l i f o r n i a , c a m e into p o s s e s s i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n to the e f f e c t that "the Hudson Bay Company i s a l r e a d y taking steps to s e i z e e v e r y t h i n g it p o s s i b l y can. "9 He communicated f i r s t of all with the Russian a m b a s s a d o r in the United States and quickly set about drafting the text of a f i c t i t i o u s a g r e e m e n t that p r o v i d e d f o r the t r a n s f e r of all the p r o p e r t y and of the f r a n c h i s e s of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n

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C o m p a n y t o t h e " A m e r i c a n - R u s s i a n C o m p a n y of S a n F r a n c i s c o , " with which the C o m p a n y had a l r e a d y concluded a n u m b e r of c o m m e r c i a l a g r e e m e n t s . T h e a g r e e m e n t w a s f o r a t e r m of t h r e e y e a r s , f r o m M a y 1, 1854 t o M a y 1 , 1 8 5 7 . D r a w n up a n d s i g n e d by t h e t w o p a r t i e s a s N o v o a r k h a n g e l s k , the a g r e e m e n t w a s quite outspoken a s to the b a s i c p u r p o s e f o r w h i c h it h a d b e e n d r a f t e d . T h a t p u r p o s e w a s , if not e x a c t l y t o f o r c e t h e E n g l i s h t o g i v e up e n t i r e l y t h e i d e a of a t t a c k i n g the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s , t h e n , at l e a s t , to give the C o m p a n y t h e o p p o r t u n i t y , by a c c u s i n g t h e E n g l i s h of h a v i n g e n c r o a c h e d u p o n t h e p o s s e s s i o n s of c i t i z e n s of a n e u t r a l p o w e r , t o . d e m a n d s a t i s f a c t i o n of E n g l a n d f o r a l l l o s s e s i n c u r r e d . Not w i t h o u t r e a s o n w a s A r t i c l e 9 of t h e a g r e e m e n t , w i t h j u s t s u c h a s i t u a t i o n in v i e w , m a d e t o r e a d a s f o l l o w s : " A l l c o n t i n g e n c i e s a n d c i r c u m s t a n c e s of w h a t e v e r s o r t o r c l a s s t h e y m a y b e , a s l o n g a s t h e y a r e i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e c o m m e r c i a l m a n a g e m e n t of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y o r a r e b e y o n d t h e s c o p e of i t s f u n c t i o n s , s h a l l not be r e g a r d e d a s a v i o l a t i o n of t h i s c o n t r a c t b y t h e p a r t y of t h e f i r s t p a r t [the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . - A u . ] ; a n d t h e p a r t y of t h e s e c o n d p a r t [ t h e A m e r i c a n R u s s i a n C o m p a n y . — A u . ], h a v i n g now p u r c h a s e d t h e p r o p e r t y a n d t h e f r a n c h i s e s of t h e p a r t y of t h e f i r s t p a r t , i s a c c e p t i n g t h e s a m e on i t s own a c c o u n t a n d a t i t s o w n r i s k , . . . a n d w i l l , u n d e r no p r e t e x t w h a t s o e v e r b r i n g c l a i m s , in t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d c a s e , a g a i n s t t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , t h a t is·, t h e p a r t y of t h e f i r s t p a r t . " 1 0 T h e A m e r i c a n - R u s s i a n C o m p a n y p l e d g e d i t s e l f , a s it w e r e , to pay the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y s e v e n m i l l i o n dollars for the p r o p e r t y and the f r a n c h i s e s . " T h i s d o c u m e n t , " w r o t e K o s t r o m i t i n o v with r e g a r d to the f i c t i t i o u s a g r e e m e n t , " w o u l d i n d e e d h a v e b e e n p r o d u c e d , in c a s e of n e c e s s i t y . " At t h e s a m e t i m e a n o t h e r p l a n w a s b e i n g w o r k e d out a t t h e i n i t i a t i v e of t h e R u s s i a n a m b a s s a d o r t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , S t o e c k l , w h i c h w a s c a l c u l a t e d t o u n d e r m i n e B r i t i s h t r a d e in the P a c i f i c . K o s t r o m i t i n o v i n f o r m e d t h e G o v e r n o r of t h e R u s s i a n C o l o n i e s , Voyevodin, that he had r e c e i v e d a d i s p a t c h f r o m Stoeckl " d e e m i n g it v e r y l i k e l y t h a t t h e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a d t h e a u t h o r i t y t o i s s u e w r i t t e n p e r m i t s ( l e t t e r s of m a r q u e ) ! 1 t 0 t h o s e d e s i r i n g t h e m . " In S t o e c k l ' s o p i n i o n , t h e r e i s " m a n y

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a f r e e b o o t e r a l o n g t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t w h o w i l l be w i l l i n g t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e of t h e p r o p i t i o u s o c c a s i o n of a w a r b e t w e e n R u s s i a and the W e s t e r n p o w e r s to fit out a s o - c a l l e d p r i v a t e e r u n d e r the R u s s i a n f l a g , a n d c h a s e a f t e r F r e n c h a n d English trading-vessels ." 1 3 P r i v a t e e r i n g w a s r e g a r d e d , it would s e e m , as the only p o s s i b l e m e t h o d of p r e v e n t i n g t h e E n g l i s h f r o m s e i z i n g a l l the P a c i f i c t r a d e . " R u s s i a does not have the fleet to c o n t r o l t h e P a c i f i c , " w r o t e a c e r t a i n " A m e r i c a n c i t i z e n " who e x p r e s s e d t h e d e s i r e t o a s s u m e t h e l e a d e r s h i p in o r g a n i z i n g t h e p r i v a t e e r i n g v e n t u r e , " t h e r e f o r e , all h e r s h i p s will be c a p t u r e d . T h e c o l o n i e s , t o o . . . . It i s c l e a r t h a t R u s s i a m u s t use all m e a n s at h e r d i s p o s a l to d e s t r o y the v a s t P a c i f i c t r a d e of F r a n c e a n d E n g l a n d w i t h C h i n a , A u s t r a l i a , N o r t h a n d South A m e r i c a , a n d t h e E a s t I n d i e s . San F r a n c i s c o w a s t o b e c o m e t h e c e n t e r of R u s s i a n p r i v a t e e r i n g . It w a s i n t e n d e d t o buy t h e s h i p s t h e r e a n d p r o v i d e t h e m w i t h l e t t e r s of m a r q u e . In S i t k a , o r in s o m e o t h e r R u s s i a n p o r t , t h e s e s h i p s w e r e t o be f i t t e d out a n d m a n n e d w i t h R u s s i a n o f f i c e r s a n d s a i l o r s . T h e s i z e of t h e p r i v a t e e r i n g f l e e t w h i c h R u s s i a w o u l d be a b l e to o r g a n i z e a t S a n F r a n c i s c o - - i t s e e m e d f e a s i b l e at f i r s t to use that city as the b a s e - - w a s l i m i t e d o n l y by h e r b u y i n g c a p a c i t y of s h i p s . It w a s t h o u g h t p o s s i b l e t o s e n d out b e t w e e n s i x a n d e i g h t w e l l a r m e d p r i v a t e e r s a g a i n s t the E n g l i s h and F r e n c h at the c o s t of t w o m i l l i o n d o l l a r s . S u c c e s s s e e m e d t o be a s s u r e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a l l i e s w o u l d not be a b l e t o c o n c e n t r a t e a s q u a d r o n of a n y c o n s i d e r a b l e s t r e n g t h in t h e P a c i f i c w a t e r s , s i n c e t h e y w o u l d b e c o m p e l l e d , by s h e e r n e c e s s i t y , t o s c a t t e r t h e i r n a v a l e f f e c t i v e s in t h e A t l a n t i c , t h e B a l t i c , t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n and the Black S e a . B u t at t h e v e r y f i r s t a t t e m p t s t o p a s s f r o m t h e o r e t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s t o p r a c t i c a l m e a s u r e s , it b e c a m e p l a i n l y a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e e v e n t s of t h e p a s t y e a r s h a d c o n s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r t h e r a p i d o r g a n i z a t i o n of a f l e e t of p r i v a t e e r s . On t h e one h a n d , t h e s a d e n d t h a t b e f e l l t h e a t t e m p t of f r e e b o o t e r s t o p l u n d e r c e r t a i n p r o v i n c e s in M e x i c o , a n d on t h e o t h e r hand, the a r r e s t , s h o r t l y b e f o r e the events we have d e s c r i b e d , of t h e M e x i c a n c o n s u l in San F r a n c i s c o who w a s t r y i n g , by o r d e r of t h e M e x i c a n P r e s i d e n t S a n t a - A n n a , t o organize a privateering squadron --both these happenings r e n d e r e d e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t t h e a t t e m p t s of t h e R u s s i a n v i c e consul to s t a r t a p r i v a t e e r i n g f l e e t .

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No h a p p i e r r e s u l t s , it soon b e c a m e a p p a r e n t , w e r e t o be e x p e c t e d of the f i c t i t i o u s a g r e e m e n t with the San F r a n c i s c o m e r c h a n t s . T h e s i g n e d c o n t r a c t , w h i c h w a s to a s s u r e t h e p r o t e c t i o n and t h e d e f e n s e of the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s on the p a r t of t h e United S t a t e s , p r o v e d to b e , at t h e c r u c i a l m o m e n t , only a s c r a p of p a p e r with nothing binding about i t . T h i s i s what S t o e c k l , t h e R u s s i a n a m b a s s a d o r to the United S t a t e s , r e p o r t e d , in p a r t , t o the M i n i s t e r of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s on t h e r e s u l t s of h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n s with a n u m b e r of A m e r i c a n statesmen : " I n s p i t e of t h e i r w i l l i n g n e s s t o p r o t e c t o u r c o l o n i e s and t h e i r g e n u i n e i n t e r e s t in t h e m , t h e y r e g a r d i t a s i m p o s s i b l e t o p r o v e to t h e E n g l i s h t h a t the c o n t r a c t i s not f i c t i t i o u s and t h a t , in p a r t i c u l a r , it w a s drawn up b e f o r e t h e w a r and c a n n o t , t h e r e f o r e , be of any r e a l u s e . " 1 5 S u c h a d e c l a r a t i o n by t h e l e a d e r s of A m e r i c a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y w a s c o n s t r u e d a s an u n e q u i v o c a l i n t i m a t i o n t h a t the b e s t c o u r s e f o r R u s s i a to adopt would be to s e l l i t s c o l o n i e s to the U n i t e d S t a t e s . And to be s u r e , i m m e d i a t e l y t h e r e a f t e r a c o n c r e t e p r o p o s a l w a s m a d e to t h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t . B u t it w a s not at a l l t o E n g l a n d ' s i n t e r e s t s t o have A m e r i c a e m p l o y t h e t h r e a t of the E n g l i s h f l e e t in o r d e r t o c o m e i n t o p o s s e s s i o n of new t e r r i t o r y . C o n s e q u e n t l y , j u s t when t h e A m e r i c a n s t h o u g h t , a c c o r d i n g to t h e a g e n t of t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , t h a t " t h e f a l l of o u r c o l o n i e s had b e c o m e i n e v i t a b l e 1 6 help c a m e , a s we h a v e n o t e d , not f r o m f r i e n d l y A m e r i c a but f r o m h o s t i l e B r i t a i n . M o r e than t h a t , E n g l a n d ' s a p p r e h e n s i o n of f o r c i n g R u s s i a into a p o s i t i o n w h e r e she would have to s e l l the c o l o n i e s to the United S t a t e s w a s s o g r e a t , t h a t she not only g a v e s t r i c t a d h e r e n c e t o the a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y and the Hudson B a y C o m p a n y , but a l s o d e c i d e d not t o u t i l i z e the p r i v i l e g e s s h e had r e t a i n e d e v e n a f t e r t h e c o n c l u s i o n of the n e u t r a l i t y pact. The B r i t i s h State S e c r e t a r y for F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , Addingt o n , i n f o r m e d the Hudson B a y C o m p a n y t h a t the n e u t r a l i t y " w i l l be only t e r r i t o r i a l in s c o p e and w i l l be l i m i t e d only to t h e l a n d , and t h a t the o p e r a t i o n of the n e u t r a l i t y p a c t w i l l not be e x t e n d e d to the s e a s , and t h a t , t h e r e f o r e , a l l R u s s i a n s h i p s e n c o u n t e r e d at s e a and the p r o p e r t y both of t h e C o m p a n y and the g o v e r n m e n t and of p r i v a t e p e r s o n s , t h a t a r e on t h e

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w a y to or f r o m the c o l o n i e s , will be s u b j e c t to s e i z u r e by E n g l i s h c r u i s e r s , a n d t h a t t h e c o a s t a n d t h e p o r t s of t h o s e p o s s e s s i o n s m a y be s u b j e c t e d to b l o c k a d e . " ^ H o w e v e r , d u r i n g t h e e n t i r e w a r n o t o n e of t h e p o r t s i n t h e R u s s i a n colonies was blockaded, nor was any v e s s e l seized. O n l y t h e i s l a n d of U r u p w a s v i s i t e d i n S e p t e m b e r 1 8 5 5 , b y t h e E n g l i s h f r i g a t e " P e a k e " and the F r e n c h " S i b y l l e , " but t h o s e v i s i t s w e r e n o t a v i o l a t i o n of t h e n e u t r a l i t y p a c t w h i c h c o v e r e d o n l y t h e n o r t h w e s t c o a s t of A m e r i c a a n d d i d n o t a p p l y t o the K u r i l e s . R u s s i a n d i p l o m a c y g a v e d u e c o n s i d e r a t i o n , of c o u r s e , a t the p r o p e r t i m e , to the s i t u a t i o n t h a t h a d newly a r i s e n . S t o e c k l , the R u s s i a n a m b a s s a d o r to the United S t a t e s , in a l e t t e r to P r i n c e A . D . Gorchakov, recalling the neutrality pact that had been concluded between the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n and the Hudson Bay C o m p a n i e s , o b s e r v e d that neutrality had been " e n t i r e l y to o u r b e n e f i t , s i n c e we w e r e not in a p o s i t i o n to attack the English p o s s e s s i o n s , w h e r e a s the English would have been able to seize o u r s . " Stoeckl succeeded e x c e e d ingly well in b r i n g i n g out into the open the r e a l r e a s o n s f o r w h a t s e e m e d at f i r s t g l a n c e to be an i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e B r i t i s h p o l i c y . H e w r o t e t o G o r c h a k o v t h a t " t h i s a c t of a f f a b i l i t y , w h i c h i s s o l i t t l e in h a r m o n y w i t h E n g l i s h e g o t i s m , h a d a s e c r e t r e a s o n behind it. A r u m o r w a s gaining c u r r e n c y at the t i m e t h a t we w e r e p r e p a r i n g to s e l l our c o l o n i e s to the U n i t e d S t a t e s ; a n d it w a s in o r d e r t o b l o c k s u c h a s a l e t h a t the British g o v e r n m e n t gave its approval to the a g r e e m e n t between the two C o m p a n i e s , A c c o r d i n g to the i n f o r m a t i o n given to Stoeckl by the f o r m e r S e c r e t a r y of S t a t e of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , M a r c y , t h e B r i t i s h a m b a s s a d o r in W a s h i n g t o n m a d e r e p e a t e d a t t e m p t s , d u r i n g the C r i m e a n W a r , to find out in the State D e p a r t m e n t w h e t h e r t h e s a l e of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s h a d a c t u a l l y b e e n d i s c u s s e d . It s h o u l d b e a d d e d a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t , i n s p i t e of t h e m i l i t a r y p r e p o n d e r a n c e of t h e a l l i e s o v e r R u s s i a i n t h e P a c i f i c , the a l l i e d f l e e t w a s p i n n e d down to a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t , b y t h e T a i p i n g r e b e l l i o n . W h i l e a n a t t a c k on t h e R u s s i a n colonies w a s an e a s y m a t t e r , the s u b s e q u e n t r e t e n t i o n of t h e s e i z e d t e r r i t o r y , i n v i e w of t h e d a n g e r of a c l a s h w i t h A m e r i c a , r e q u i r e d t h e p r e s e n c e of c o n s i d e r a b l e f o r c e s in t h a t a r e a . T h e T a i p i n g r e b e l l i o n , t h o u g h , d i v e r t e d a l m o s t t h e w h o l e a l l i e d f l e e t t o C h i n e s e w a t e r s a n d it w a s t h e r e t h a t d e c i s i o n s w e r e b e i n g h a m m e r e d o u t o n p r o b l e m s t h a t w e r e of

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the m o s t p r e s s i n g i m p o r t a n c e to the E u r o p e a n c o l o n i a l p o w ers . It w a s t h e C r i m e a n W a r , t h e n , w h i c h w a s i n s t r u m e n t a l i n b r i n g i n g t o t h e f o r e t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e s a l e of t h e c o l o n i e s i n t h e g u i s e of a f i c t i t i o u s a g r e e m e n t . T h i s o p e n e d up t h e p e r s p e c t i v e of t h e f o r m u l a t i o n of t h e s a m e p r o b l e m a s a g e n u i n e agreement. Although the a g r e e m e n t c o n c l u d e d by K o s t r o m i t i n o v with t h e A m e r i c a n - R u s s i a n C o m p a n y w a s of n o j u r i d i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e to the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y w h a t s o e v e r , n e v e r t h e l e s s he w a s r e p e a t e d l y r e p r o a c h e d - - a n d not without r e a s o n - - by t h e m a n a g e m e n t f o r h a v i n g a l l o w e d t h e e x p r e s s i o n " c e s s i o n of l a n d s " t o f i g u r e i n t h e p a c t a t a l l . A s e a r l y a s A u g u s t of t h a t s a m e y e a r of 1 8 5 4 , S t o e c k l r e p o r t e d t o t h e D i r e c t o r of t h e M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , S i n y a v i n : " T h i s d r a f t of t h e c o n t r a c t a n d t h e r u m o r s s p r e a d b y t h e E n g l i s h p r e s s a s t o t h e i n t e n t i o n of t h e I m p e r i a l g o v e r n m e n t to sell its p o s s e s s i o n s , gave the A m e r i c a n s the idea that we might want to yield those p o s s e s s i o n s to t h e m . "19 In t h e f i c t i t i o u s a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e A m e r i c a n m e r c h a n t s the s u m was approximately s p e c i f i e d - - s e v e n million dollars — a r o u n d w h i c h t h e s u b s e q u e n t n e g o t i a t i o n s f o r t h e s a l e of t h e colonies w e r e to be c o n d u c t e d . In r e p l y t o a n i n q u i r y m a d e i n 1845 b y S e n a t o r G i v i n of C a l i f o r n i a a n d S e c r e t a r y of S t a t e M a r c y r e g a r d i n g t h e p o s sibility that R u s s i a m i g h t sell the colonies, Stoeckl declared t h a t R u s s i a " n e v e r h a d s u c h i n t e n t i o n s . " But it w a s no l o n g e r p o s s i b l e t o u n d e r e s t i m a t e t h e p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of s u c h a p r o p o s i t i o n . It b e c a m e a p p a r e n t t h a t a n e w c l a i m a n t t o t h e Russian colonies, besides England, had made his appearance on the p o l i t i c a l s c e n e . I m m e d i a t e l y u p o n t h e e n d of t h e w a r a n d t h e c o n c l u s i o n of t h e P e a c e of P a r i s t h e p r o b l e m of t h e f u t u r e d e s t i n y of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s i n A m e r i c a c a m e up a g a i n . T h e n e c e s s i t y f o r a s o l u t i o n w a s d i c t a t e d b y t h e w e i g h t y l e s s o n s of t h e C r i m e a n w a r . " I n t h e e v e n t of w a r w i t h a n a v a l p o w e r , w e a r e not in a position to defend our c o l o n i e s , w r o t e G r a n d D u k e C o n s t a n t i n e i n a l e t t e r t o t h e M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e Knyazhevich. T h e t e r m " n a v a l p o w e r " w a s i n t e n d e d t o a p p l y , f i r s t of a l l , t o E n g l a n d . " T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s of N o r t h A m e r i c a , " w r o t e C o n s t a n t i n e at t h e s a m e t i m e to F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r G o r c h a k o v , " s h o u l d , i n t h e n a t u r a l c o u r s e of e v e n t s , b e e a g e r t o c o n q u e r

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a l l of N o r t h A m e r i c a , and w i l l , t h e r e f o r e , m e e t us t h e r e s o o n e r o r l a t e r , and t h e r e i s not t h e s l i g h t e s t doubt t h a t it w i l l s e i z e o u r c o l o n i e s without g r e a t e f f o r t , and we s h a l l n e v e r be in a p o s i t i o n to r e c o v e r t h e m . " C o n s t a n t i n e then p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e c o l o n i e s be s o l d t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h e r e by " s o l v i n g in a f r i e n d l y f a s h i o n and in a way t h a t would be p r o f i t a b l e to us a p r o b l e m w h i c h w i l l o t h e r w i s e be s o l v e d in a way d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s t o us and in addition by c o n q u e s t . T h e M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , while it a g r e e d in p r i n c i p l e on t h e n e c e s s i t y of l i q u i d a t i n g t h e c o l o n i e s in N o r t h A m e r i c a , was a f r a i d that such a step might undesirably a g g r a v a t e t h e r e l a t i o n s with E n g l a n d . It i n s i s t e d , t h e r e f o r e , upon a p o s t p o n e m e n t of t h e p r o p o s e d s a l e until t h e f r a n c h i s e of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y had e x p i r e d , t h a t i s , u n t i l J a n u a r y 1, 1 8 6 2 . T h e a m b a s s a d o r t o t h e United S t a t e s w a s c h a r g e d " t o sound out t h e opinion of t h e c a b i n e t in W a s h i n g t o n on t h a t s u b j e c t . " T h e m e m o r a n d u m we h a v e on t h e p r o p o s e d c o n d i t i o n s of t h e s a l e c a r r i e s a n o t a t i o n t h a t nothing expounded in the m e m o r a n d u m " w a s t o be c a r r i e d into e x e c u t i o n until t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e c a n c e l l a t i o n of t h e c o n t r a c t b e t w e e n o u r C o m p a n y and t h e S a n F r a n c i s c o C o m p a n y h a s b e e n s e t t l e d , s i n c e by t h e p r o v i s i o n s of t h a t c o n t r a c t t h e v a l u e of o u r p o s s e s s i o n s in N o r t h A m e r i c a m i g h t be c o n s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e d . " 2 2 T h e a b o v e n o t a t i o n w a s m a d e on A p r i l 2 9 , 1 8 5 7 . B u t in D e c e m b e r of t h a t y e a r , when S t o e c k l ' s o b s e r v a t i o n s on t h e s u b j e c t h a d b e e n r e c e i v e d , t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e s a l e of t h e c o l o n i e s a g a i n c a m e up f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . G r a n d Duke C o n s t a n t i n e in h i s s e c o n d l e t t e r t o G o r c h a k o v on t h e s a l ^ of the c o l o n i e s n o t e d t h a t a m o n o p o l i s t i c c o m p a n y , l i k e the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n , c o u l d no l o n g e r s e r v e t o c l o a k o f f i c i a l g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y , and t h a t in t h e g i v e n p e r i o d , t h e C o m pany w a s m e r e l y p u s h i n g R u s s i a i n t o a g g r a v a t i n g h e r r e l a t i o n s with A m e r i c a and t h a t e s s e n t i a l l y t h e C o m p a n y ' s p o l i c y would be d e t r i m e n t a l t o R u s s o - A m e r i c a n t r a d e a s a w h o l e . T h e s e d i s c o n s o l a t e c o n c l u s i o n s w e r e b a s e d on S t o e c k l ' s d e c l a r a t i o n that "the t i m e for monopolies has p a s s e d , and t h a t t h e y a r e no m o r e p o s s i b l e in t h e P a c i f i c t h a n anywhere e l s e . " 2 3 T h e a p p e a r a n c e of t h e new c l a i m a n t t o the R u s s i a n c o l o nies s e e m e d the m o r e threatening to the t s a r i s t government a s t h e w r e s t i n g of t h e c o l o n i e s m i g h t w e l l c o m e a s a r e s u l t not only of an o f f i c i a l e x a c e r b a t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n

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A m e r i c a and R u s s i a - - a c o u r s e w h i c h R u s s i a would c e r t a i n l y not want t o f o l l o w s o s o o n a f t e r the C r i m e a n W a r - - b u t a l s o of w h a t , in d i p l o m a t i c l a n g u a g e , i s c a l l e d " p e a c e f u l p e n e tration. " T h i s i s what a c t u a l l y h a p p e n e d in t h e c a s e of t h e M o r m o n r e b e l l i o n . T h e R u s s i a n g o v e r n m e n t w a s put on g u a r d by r e p o r t s of M o r m o n a t t e m p t s t o m i g r a t e n o r t h w a r d , i n t o t h e t e r r i t o r y of t h e Hudson B a y C o m p a n y o r t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company. " T h e P r e s i d e n t , " wrote Stoeckl, " s m i l i n g l y a l l u d e d t o s u c h a p o s s i b i l i t y . . . . I a s k e d h i m w h e t h e r the M o r m o n s were coming as conquerors or as peaceful c i t i z e n s . ' Y o u , ' h e s a i d , ' w i l l h a v e t o a n s w e r that q u e s t i o n ; a s f o r u s , we s h a l l be m i g h t y g l a d t o be r i d of t h e m . ' " 2 4 W h i l e noting t h a t t h e r u m o r s of t h e M o r m o n m i g r a t i o n t o R u s s i a n t e r r i t o r y w e r e p r e m a t u r e , S t o e c k l added t h a t in t h e e v e n t s u c h m i g r a t i o n s h o u l d b e c o m e a f a c t , R u s s i a would be f a c e d with t h e a l t e r n a t i v e of a r m e d r e s i s t a n c e o r of c e d i n g a p a r t of i t s t e r r i t o r y . It h a d b e c o m e n e c e s s a r y t o f o r c e a d e c i s i o n on t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e s a l e of t h e c o l o n i e s . On S t o e c k l ' s t e l e g r a m r e p o r t i n g on h i s a u d i e n c e with t h e P r e s i d e n t with r e g a r d t o t h e a b o v e r u m o r s , A l e x a n d e r II j o t t e d down t h e f o l l o w i n g r e m a r k : " T h i s c o n f i r m s t h e i d e a of s e t t l i n g r i g h t now t h e q u e s t i o n of o u r A m e r i c a n p o s s e s s i o n s . " 2 5 T o w a r d s t h e end of 1 8 5 7 i t f e l l t o G o r c h a k o v t o b r i n g up a g a i n the q u e s t i o n of t h e s a l e of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s , though in a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t m a n n e r . T h e R u s s i a n envoy w a s d i r e c t e d " w i t h o u t c o m p r o m i s i n g h i m s e l f o r t h e I m p e r i a l g o v e r n m e n t , c a u t i o u s l y to s u g g e s t t h e i d e a t o t h e c a b i n e t in W a s h i n g t o n t h a t it m i g h t be p o s s i b l e t o i n d u c e R u s s i a t o r e l i n q u i s h h e r c o l o n i e s on f a v o r a b l e t e r m s . "26 T h e d e f e n s e l e s s n e s s of the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s w a s t h e c o n s e q u e n c e not o n l y of R u s s i a ' s m i l i t a r y w e a k n e s s w h i c h w a s d i s c l o s e d d u r i n g t h e C r i m e a n W a r , but a l s o of t s a r i s t R u s s i a ' s r e n u n c i a t i o n of i t s e x p a n s i o n i s t a i m s in t h a t d i r e c t i o n . We h a v e n o t e d b e f o r e t h a t t h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t had b e e n c o m p e l l e d in t h e m i d d l e 1 8 2 0 ' s t o give up any hope it e v e r e n t e r t a i n e d f o r f u r t h e r a c t i v e e x p a n s i o n on t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t . B e g i n n i n g with about the m i d d l e 1 8 4 0 ' s , R u s s i a ' s i n t e r e s t in the O r i e n t w a s c o m p l e t e l y f o c u s e d on the c o n t i n e n t of A s i a . T h i s c h a n g e i s c o g n i z a b l e in t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e d e v o t e d to t h e s a l e of t h e c o l o n i e s of G r a n d Duke C o n s t a n t i n e and of a l m o s t a l l of t h e m i n i s t e r s . S t o e c k l , who t o o k an a c -

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tive part in the s a l e of the colonies, a l s o t a k e s this r e o r i e n tation into consideration. He w r i t e , for instance, to Gorchakov in 1859: "Our i n t e r e s t s lie on the A s i a t i c coast, and we should direct our e n e r g y t h i t h e r . In that a r e a we a r e in our own t e r r i t o r y and in a position to exploit the production of a vast and wealthy r e g i o n . We shall take part in the e x t r a ordinary activity that i s being developed in the P a c i f i c , our establishments will vie with s i m i l a r establishments of other nations, and, in view of the solicitude which our august monarch has given to the coastal region of A m u r , we must not m i s s the opportunity to attain in this vast ocean the high position of which R u s s i a i s d e s e r v i n g . "¿7 In the m e a n t i m e , there was a new development in the 1850's which tended to render the situation even more complicated. Unmistakable signs w e r e discovered in A l a s k a of the p r e s e n c e of gold o r e . The R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company had long before r e c e i v e d information to that effect f r o m i n dividual gold s e e k e r s . It was also attested by the finding on many occasions of gold nuggets. But in gathering the i n f o r mation about the p r e s e n c e of gold in the various r e g i o n s , the Company did not intend to utilize it for the purpose of starting a s u r v e y of the t e r r i t o r y . More than that, fearing that the r e p o r t s of the p r e s e n c e of gold might arouse the government to take away its monopoly, the Company opposed in e v e r y way it could the making of any s u r v e y s , studies, and so forth, on its t e r r i t o r y . For this r e a s o n , even the r i c h e s t deposits of coal and copper r e m a i n e d unexplored. In reply to the r e peated offers to exploit the copper along the Mednaya R i v e r , the Company d e c l a r e d that it had a l r e a d y begun the work on its own, although this did not square with the f a c t s . It became i m p o s s i b l e , however, to conceal the p r e s e n c e of gold in the colonies, once the attention of the whole world had been a t t r a c t e d to the w e s t e r n part of North A m e r i c a by the gold f i e l d s of C a l i f o r n i a , and once, too, it appeared f r o m the discovery of deposits in the boundary a r e a between the t e r r i t o r y of the Hudson Bay Company and the R u s s i a n - A m e r i can Company that some of the main deposits must be within Russian territory. In the report of the s u r v e y of the R u s s i a n colonies made by Captain Golovin, who, together with Councillor of

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S t a t e K o s t l i v t s o v , w a s s e n t on a n i n s p e c t i o n t o u r of t h e c o l o n i e s in 1860, we have a v e r y p r e c i s e notation: "Along the M e d n a y a R i v e r t h e y f o u n d l a r g e n u g g e t s of n a t i v e c o p p e r , a n d on t h e s h o r e s of K e n a i Gulf t h e p r e s e n c e of g o l d w a s c o n c l u sively proved. T h e r e p o r t s , h o w e v e r , a s t o t h e p r e s e n c e of g o l d in t h e colonies i m p e l l e d the g o v e r n m e n t to allow the Company to retain its rights to that t e r r i t o r y , though not, as the m a n a g e m e n t of t h e C o m p a n y s u p p o s e d , in o r d e r t o e n a b l e it t o s t a r t t h e m i n i n g of t h e p r e c i o u s m e t a l s . On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e g o v e r n m e n t h a d a r r i v e d a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t it m u s t t a k e d e c i s i v e s t e p s t o d i s p o s e of i t s A m e r i c a n p o s s e s s i o n s a s r a p i d l y a s p o s s i b l e . T h e r e w e r e solid g r o u n d s f o r such an apparently paradoxical decision. T h e e x a m p l e of C a l i f o r n i a , w h i c h , w i t h i n a s h o r t t i m e , w a s o v e r r u n by f o r t u n e - h u n t e r s f r o m a l l o v e r t h e w o r l d , was ever before the g o v e r n m e n t ' s e y e s . Were a s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n t o d e v e l o p in A l a s k a , R u s s i a , t h e g o v e r n m e n t b e l i e v e d , would u n d e r no c i r c u m s t a n c e s have b e e n able t o r e tain its control over that t e r r i t o r y . T h e p o s s i b i l i t y of s u c h a n o u t c o m e b e c a m e e s p e c i a l l y r e a l i n 1862 w h e n g o l d w a s d i s c o v e r e d a l o n g t h e f r o n t i e r b e t w e e n the Hudson Bay and the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n c o m p a n i e s . It s o h a p p e n e d t h a t t h e m o u t h of t h e S t a k h i n e R i v e r , t h e m o s t c o n v e n i e n t m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h t h e g o l d f i e l d s d i s c o v e r e d within the English s e c t o r , was within R u s s i a n t e r r i t o r y . This land was under l e a s e to the Hudson Bay C o m p a n y , a n d t h e t e r m s of t h e l e a s e w a s j u s t t h e n e x p i r i n g . C o n sequently, all the t r a n s i t goods and all the g o l d - p r o s p e c t o r s p a s s e d through the R u s s i a n a r e a , which, as a r e s u l t , c a m e i n t o t h e a c t u a l p o s s e s s i o n of t h e E n g l i s h . T h e E n g l i s h n e w s p a p e r s a p p e a r i n g in t h e p o r t of V i c t o r i a on t h e V a n c o u v e r R i v e r hinted v e r y b r o a d l y at the c h a n c e s f o r w r e s t i n g t h a t t e r r i t o r y f r o m R u s s i a . A t a n y r a t e , t h e y d w e l t on t h e n e c e s sity f o r extending the a g r e e m e n t between the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n a n d t h e H u d s o n B a y c o m p a n i e s c o v e r i n g t h e r i g h t of u n h a m p e r e d e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e t e r r i t o r y . " E v e n a d m i t t i n g t h a t n e g o t i a t i o n s w o u l d not s u c c e e d i n i n d u c i n g t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i can C o m p a n y to cede t h a t t e r r i t o r y to us c o m p l e t e l y , " s a i d t h e E n g l i s h p a p e r s w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e e s t u a r y of t h e S t a khine R i v e r , "we still m u s t have that shoreline in our h a n d s , in one way o r a n o t h e r . " The n e w s p a p e r s c a l l e d f o r open s e i z u r e of t h e a r e a in q u e s t i o n : " S h o u l d t h e S i t k a a d m i n i s t r a -

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t i o n , h o w e v e r , s e t i t s m i n d upon a t t e m p t i n g t o s t o p o u r p a s s ing, we shall r e s o r t to our naval p o w e r to p r o t e c t the i n v i o l a b i l i t y of t h e p a c t . A s m a l l n u m b e r of E n g l i s h t r o o p s w o u l d be s u f f i c i e n t to r e n d e r the R u s s i a n gryphon quite t r a c t a b l e . S h o u l d we m e e t w i t h s o m e d i f f i c u l t y , w e c o u l d v e r y e a s i l y p u s h b a c k t h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h e R u s s i a n p o s s e s s i o n s . S i n c e w e h a v e in o u r h a n d s t h e a r e a w h i c h i s r i c h in g o l d , w e s h o u l d a l s o b e in p o s s e s s i o n of i t s a d j a c e n t c o a s t l i n e . T h e p r o b l e m r e a c h e d an e v e n m o r e a c u t e s t a g e a s a r e s u l t of t h e d i s c o v e r y of g o l d w i t h i n t h e t e r r i t o r y u n d e r R u s s i a n c o n t r o l . A f t e r C a m e r o n , United S t a t e s A m b a s s a d o r to R u s sia, had i n f o r m e d the R u s s i a n government "that the goldf i e l d s d i s c o v e r e d in O r e g o n a n d B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a e x t e n d e d as f a r as the R u s s i a n p o s s e s s i o n s in A m e r i c a , " the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y , u p o n b e i n g q u e s t i o n e d on t h i s p o i n t , s h o w e d i t s u t t e r c o n f u s i o n by g i v i n g a b s o l u t e l y c o n t r a r y i n f o r m a t i o n in t h e t e x t of t h e s a m e d o c u m e n t . On t h e one h a n d i t h a s t e n e d t o a s s u r e t h e M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e t h a t , a c c o r d i n g to the I n d i a n s - - a s though the C o m p a n y did not h a v e o t h e r s o u r c e s of i n f o r m a t i o n a t i t s d i s p o s a l - - " t h e n e a r e s t l o c a l i t y w h e r e g o l d m a y b e f o u n d in l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s i s n o n e a r e r t h a n 200 v e r s t s f r o m t h e r i v e r ' s m o u t h , o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y a s e v e n days' journey away, a place which is a l r e a d y outside the l i m i t s of R u s s i a n t e r r i t o r y . " 3 0 On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e C o m p a n y r e p o r t e d t h a t it h a d i s s u e d a n o r d e r s a y i n g " t h a t s i n c e we cannot o f f e r open and d e t e r m i n e d r e s i s t a n c e - - s o m e t h i n g we have been enjoined to avoid at all costs—we should allow g o l d - p r o s p e c t o r s t o dig f o r g o l d i n o u r t e r r i t o r y , u p o n t h e p a y m e n t of a c e r t a i n a m o u n t t o t h e C o m p a n y . " At t h e s a m e t i m e t h e C o m p a n y f o r w a r d e d t o t h e M i n i s t r y of F i n a n c e c o p i e s of t h e r e p o r t s s u b m i t t e d b y e n g i n e e r A n d r e y e v , w h o had been c o m m i s s i o n e d to explore the discovered gold-fields, emphasizing categorically that "the gold-fields a r e rather poor and the gold a s fine a s f l o u r , and that the r i c h e s t s e c t i o n s yield only five d o l l a r s a d a y . "31 A n d r e y e v s a i d in h i s r e p o r t t h a t " c o a r s e r g o l d - d u s t i s t o be found beyond the s e c o n d l o c k - g a t e s o r r a p i d s . " T h e m i n i n g of t h o s e f i e l d s m u s t h a v e b e e n p r o f i t a b l e , f o r , a c c o r d i n g to A n d r e y e v , t h e n u m b e r of g o l d - p r o s p e c t o r s i n t h a t a r e a h a d reached four hundred. N o t b e i n g s t r o n g e n o u g h i t s e l f t o c o m b a t t h e i n f l u x of t h e g o l d - p r o s p e c t o r s , the Company h a s t e n e d to petition the gove r n m e n t to s e n d o v e r an a r m e d c r u i s e r f r o m the P a c i f i c

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S q u a d r o n t o t h e S t a k h i n e R i v e r in o r d e r t o p r o t e c t t h e R u s s i a n p o s s e s s i o n s " a g a i n s t t h e a r b i t r a r y a c t i v i t i e s of t h e f o r e i g n e r s . " It s o o n b e c a m e n e c e s s a r y , h o w e v e r , t o g i v e up t h e i d e a of sending a c r u i s e r to the Stakhine, since e v e n t s in China p e r m i t t e d of n o w e a k e n i n g of t h e P a c i f i c f l e e t . In a d d i t i o n , it was found that the Stakhine e s t u a r y was i n a c c e s s i b l e to m e n o f - w a r . T h e p r o b l e m of p r o t e c t i n g t h e c o l o n i e s d e m a n d e d an i m m e d i a t e s o l u t i o n . At t h e i n s t a n c e of B a r o n B r u n n o w , t h e a m b a s s a d o r in L o n d o n , t h e l e a s e - a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e H u d s o n B a y C o m p a n y , w h i c h h a d e x p i r e d on J a n u a r y 1, 1 8 6 2 , w a s a l l o w e d t o r u n u n t i l J u n e 1 , 1 8 6 3 . On t h a t d a t e t h e a g r e e m e n t , in v i e w of t h e d e l a y in t h e s a l e of t h e c o l o n i e s b r o u g h t a b o u t by t h e A m e r i c a n C i v i l W a r , w a s e x t e n d e d f o r a n o t h e r t w o y e a r s , u n t i l J u n e 1, 1 8 6 5 . It w a s n e c e s s a r y t o r e n e w t h e a g r e e m e n t in o r d e r t o d e f e n d t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s a g a i n s t t h e c l a i m s of t h e E n g l i s h u n t i l s u c h t i m e a s t h e s e c o l o n i e s could be l i q u i d a t e d without h i n d r a n c e . T h e l e g e n d w h i c h g r e w up l a t e r t h a t t h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t did n o t r e a l i z e , w h e n it s o l d t h e c o l o n i e s , t h e r e s o u r c e s of w h i c h it w a s d e p r i v i n g i t s e l f , f i n d s n o s u b s t a n t i a t i o n in a n y o f f i c i a l s o u r c e s . S u c h a v e r s i o n of t h e s a l e i s t h e m o r e n a i v e a s t h e p r e s e n c e of g o l d - f i e l d s in A l a s k a w a s n o t o n l y k n o w n t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t in t h e I 8 6 0 ' s but w a s a l s o d i s c u s s e d o v e r a n d o v e r a g a i n in t h e p r e s s . In an e d i t o r i a l on i.he r u m o r s c o n c e r n i n g t h e p r o s p e c t i v e s a l e of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , " G o l o s " ( T h e Voice), one of t h e m o s t a u t h o r i t a t i v e n e w s p a p e r s in S t . P e t e r s b u r g , w r o t e t h a t t h e s a l e of t h e c o l o n i e s w o u l d d e p r i v e R u s s i a of t h e m p r e c i s e l y at t h e t i m e " w h e n , a s h a s r e c e n t l y b e e n r e p o r t e d , n u m e r o u s p r o m i s i n g i n d i c a t i o n s of t h e p r e s e n c e of g o l d h a v e b e e n d i s c o v e r e d on t h e i r s o i l , t h e m i n i n g of w h i c h , a s s u m i n g the r e p o r t s a r e t r u e , w o u l d b r i n g in m o r e i n t w o or t h r e e y e a r s than the amount that the United States is p r e p a r e d to pay for t h e m . "32 T h e N e w Y o r k H e r a l d in a n a r t i c l e d e v o t e d t o t h e p u r c h a s e of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d i d n o t p r e c l u d e the possibility that " r e s o u r c e s ten t i m e s m o r e valuable than t h e a m o u n t [ p a i d t o R u s s i a . - A u . ] a r e h i d d e n a w a y in t h e e n t r a i l s of t h e e t e r n a l s n o w s w h i c h c o v e r a l l of t h e 1 7 , 0 0 0 f e e t of t o w e r i n g M t . S t . E l i a s . T h a t m o u n t a i n i s t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d t h e h e a d of t h e g o l d - b e a r i n g c h a i n r u n n i n g t h r o u g h C a l i f o r n i a , N e v a d a , M e x i c o , C e n t r a l and South A m e r i c a ; why, t h e n , m a y w e n o t s u p p o s e t h a t it h i d e s g o l d - f i e l d s r i c h e r t h a n all the o t h e r s , p r o v i d e d we can find one way to know t h e m ? "33

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T h e g o v e r n m e n t n o t o n l y k n e w of t h e p r e s e n c e of g o l d f i e l d s in A l a s k a but w a s a c t u a l l y a f r a i d of t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of s u c h a f i n d ; f o r in t h e w a k e of an a r m y of p r o s p e c t o r s a r m e d w i t h s p a d e s t h e r e m i g h t f o l l o w a n a r m y of s o l d i e r s a r m e d with g u n s . T s a r i s t R u s s i a knew v e r y well what she w a s s e l l i n g , a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s k n e w e q u a l l y w e l l w h a t it was buying. The r e a l reasons which impelled the t s a r i s t government to sell A l a s k a w e r e the following: f i r s t , R u s s i a ' s inability to d e f e n d h e r c o l o n i e s in t h e e v e n t of w a r , s e c o n d l y , h e r i n a b i l i t y t o p r e t e c t t h e m e v e n in a p e r i o d of f o r m a l p e a c e , in c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e w i d e - s p r e a d r u m o r s a b o u t t h e p r e s e n c e of gold t h e r e and the inevitable conflicts r e s u l t i n g t h e r e f r o m , a n d , f i n a l l y , t h e s h i f t of R u s s i a n i n t e r e s t s t o t h e c o n t i n e n t of A s i a . Yet t h e s e f a c t o r s a r e f a r f r o m e x h a u s t i n g a l l t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t f a v o r e d t h e s a l e of t h e c o l o n i e s . T h e r e w e r e o t h e r r e a s o n s w h i c h t e n d e d t o f o r c e t h e s a l e , s o m e of w h i c h w e r e i n h e r e n t in t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y i t s e l f . S i n c e t h e C o m p a n y w a s not in a b s o l u t e p o s s e s s i o n of a l l t h e t e r r i t o r y t h a t b e l o n g e d to i t , it w a s n o t i n a p o s i t i o n t o o p p o s e t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of s e p a r a t e s e c t o r s i n t h e g u i s e of l e a s e s by o t h e r p o w e r s . T h i s p r o c e s s b e g a n w i t h t h e H u d s o n Bay Company, which was allowed to l e a s e a c e r t a i n s e c t o r i n o r d e r t o r e n d e r t h e c o l o n y s e c u r e a g a i n s t a n y c l a i m s on t h e p a r t of E n g l a n d . A c o n s i d e r a b l e b a t t l e d e v e l o p e d o v e r t h e q u e s t i o n of l e a s i n g , w h i c h a f f e c t e d t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n R u s s i a and England, and the United S t a t e s . On t h e o n e h a n d , t h e R u s s i a n a m b a s s a d o r in E n g l a n d , B a r on B r u n n o w , out of d i p l o m a t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a n d out of f e a r t h a t t h e t e r r i t o r y t h a t h a d b e e n l e a s e d m i g h t be s u b j e c t t o d i r e c t s e i z u r e , i n s i s t e d c a t e g o r i c a l l y upon t h e r e n e w a l of t h e l e a s e w i t h t h e H u d s o n B a y C o m p a n y ; a n d on t h e o t h e r hand, the R u s s i a n a m b a s s a d o r to the United S t a t e s , Stoeckl, o u t of t h e s a m e c o n s i d e r a t i o n , i n s i s t e d j u s t a s c a t e g o r i c a l l y u p o n t h e l e a s i n g of t h e s a m e t e r r i t o r y t o t h e c o m p a n y of A m e r i c a n c i t i z e n s t h a t w a s l a y i n g c l a i m s t o i t . In 1 8 5 9 , in v i e w of t h e e x p i r a t i o n of t h e c o n t r a c t w i t h t h e H u d s o n B a y C o m p a n y , S t o e c k l p r o p o s e d t o t h e C o m p a n y , in t h e n a m e of a g r o u p of C a l i f o r n i a n c i t i z e n s , t h a t it l e a s e t h e t e r r i t o r y t o t h e m . The negotiations with the Governing B o a r d w e r e cond u c t e d by C l a y , U n i t e d S t a t e s A m b a s s a d o r to R u s s i a , w h o " m a d e a n o r a l o f f e r to p a y m o r e p e r y e a r f o r the t e r r i t o r y

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l e a s e d by the Hudson B a y C o m p a n y t h a n t h a t C o m p a n y h a d been p a y i n g . " 3 4 i n the event that his offer was r e j e c t e d , Clay e x p r e s s e d h i s r e a d i n e s s to i n i t i a t e n e g o t i a t i o n s at l e a s t f o r the i s l a n d s w h i c h w e r e not under l e a s e t o t h e Hudson B a y Company. T h e C o m p a n y , t h r e a t e n e d with t h e f o r c e d l o s s of a p o r t i o n of i t s t e r r i t o r / , c o u l d not o p p o s e s u c h i n s i s t e n t " s u g g e s t i o n s . " It w a s c o m p e l l e d to b r i n g b e f o r e t h e g o v e r n m e n t t h e q u e s t i o n a s t o the e x t e n t to which t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s c o n c l u s i o n of a l e a s e - a g r e e m e n t with Hudson B a y C o m p a n y f o r t e r r i t o r y on t h e m a i n l a n d w a s in h a r m o n y with t h e p a c t t o be c o n c l u d e d with t h e C o m p a n y of C a l i f o r n i a n m e r c h a n t s f o r t h e l e a s e of t h e i s l a n d s tQ t h e m . It w a s quite e v i d e n t t h a t in t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , when t h e t e r r i t o r y of t h e C o m p a n y h a d b e c o m e an o b j e c t of i m p o r t u n i t i e s on t h e p a r t of i t s n e i g h b o r s , t h e C o m p a n y w a s no l o n g e r of any u s e to t h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t . T h e p o l i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e of the C o m p a n y w a s r e d u c e d t o n o t h i n g . A s f o r i t s c o m m e r c i a l i m p o r t a n c e , the C o m p a n y h a d , a s we h a v e s e e n , l o s t any it e v e r had and w a s now a s e m i - p a r a s i t i c o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t c o u l d e x i s t only by g o v e r n m e n t s u p p o r t . In 1 8 6 6 , t h e total i n c o m e of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y a m o u n t e d t o 7 0 6 , 1 8 8 r u b l e s , of w h i c h 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 c o n s t i t u t e d a t r e a s u r y s u b s i d y . T h e o f f i c e of t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d in S t . P e t e r s b u r g c o n s u m e d m o r e t h a n 10 p e r c e n t of t h e g r o s s i n c o m e , or 7 1 , 6 6 0 r u b l e s . A s u m t o t a l i n g only 1 0 , 8 2 8 r u b l e s , or 1 .45 rubles per 1 5 0 - r u b l e s h a r e , was left for the payment of d i v i d e n d s . D u r i n g the l a s t y e a r s of the C o m p a n y ' s e x i s t e n c e t h e s e 1 5 0 - r u b l e s h a r e s of the C o m p a n y w e r e s e l l i n g on t h e s t o c k - e x c h a n g e at 70 r u b l e s , and only when t h e r e p o r t s on the s a l e of t h e c o l o n i e s b e c a m e w i d e s p r e a d did t h e p r i c e of t h e s h a r e s show a s h a r p r i s e . It a p p e a r e d f r o m t h e m o s t a c c u r a t e c a l c u l a t i o n s t h a t t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y would be a b l e t o c o n t i n u e in o p e r a t i o n only in the e v e n t t h a t it r e c e i v e a f u r t h e r a n n u a l s u b s i d y of no l e s s than 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s , and on c o n d i t i o n t h a t i t s whole i n d e b t e d n e s s t o t h e T r e a s u r y , a m o u n t i n g t o 7 2 5 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s , be c a n c e l l e d . " S h o u l d t h i s c o m e a b o u t , " r e p o r t e d t h e m a n a g e m e n t , " t h e r e would be no p o s s i b i l i t y at f i r s t of f i g u r i n g on the p a y m e n t of d i v i d e n d s t o t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s . Only when t h e s e l l i n g p r i c e of t h e m a i n p r o d u c t of t h e C o m p a n y , n a m e l y , p e l t r y , h a s b e e n r a i s e d a f t e r t h e t e r m s of t h e c o n t r a c t s have e x p i r e d , w i l l it be n e c e s s a r y t o f i g u r e on p a y ing b e t w e e n 4 and 6 p e r c e n t p e r s h a r e a n n u a l l y . " 3 7

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However, even a subsidy could not r e s t o r e the financial strength of the Company completely. In addition to the subsidy , the Company needed a single loan, since any ill-timed payment it might make on the loans it had contracted in R u s s i a and abroad would threaten it with bankruptcy. In spite of the Company's difficult financial situation, the London banks w e r e more than willing to grant it such a loan. The decline in the political importance of the A m e r i c a n colonies for the Russian empire and R u s s i a ' s growing i n c l i nation to s e l l them to the United States compelled the English government to come to the aid of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company in e v e r y way p o s s i b l e . P r e f e r r i n g a s neighbors the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company, which was incapable of l a r g e s c a l e colonization, r a t h e r than the A m e r i c a n s , the English government, acting through B r i t a i n ' s financial c i r c l e s , made an effort to a s s i s t the Company by putting at its disposal the loan it so d e s p e r a t e l y needed. The prospective sale of the colonies was kept a dark s e c r e t even f r o m the m e m b e r s of the management. The l a t t e r attributed the delay in the p r o mulgation of the new c h a r t e r to purely financial difficulties of the government which, for that r e a s o n , did not want to give any further s u b s i d i e s . During the period between 1862 and 1867, when the Company's f r a n c h i s e was due to expire and the question of a new c h a r t e r was left unsolved, London appeared to some of the m e m b e r s of the management a s the s u r e s t hope. The Company had long maintained contacts with London's c o m m e r c i a l c i r c l e s , inasmuch as that metropolis was the center of the f u r - t r a d e . During the t i m e , then, that the decision on the question of the f r a n c h i s e was being delayed, the Company started negotiations with a number of influential spokesmen for B r i t i s h finance, who p r o m i s e d to float a loan of between £150,000 and £200,000 on the London stock-exchange. "We have had many conversations, " wrote the owners of the Danking f i r m of Albert P e l l e y and Co. to the Governing Board of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company in M a r c h , 1864, "with influential people in these p a r t s . They were not a l l of the same opinion, and the expectations on the part of many of them of profits for t h e m s e l v e s were so g r e a t that we w e r e unable to a r r i v e at any decision. But some of my f r i e n d s a g r e e d to underwrite this loan at 92 per cent and 6 per cent for a period of twelve y e a r s , with the payment of l/20 e v e r y half y e a r , a f t e r the f i r s t two y e a r s , together with the i n t e r e s t .

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But in arranging the loan, the City wanted to have a d e f i nite guarantee that f r a n c h i s e s would continue to be granted to the Company in the f u t u r e , and that, consequently, the Russian colonies would not be sold to the United States. T h e London stock-exchange demanded that the loan should be guaranteed by the T s a r h i m s e l f and by the M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e . Such a demand, the stock-exchange b e l i e v e d , would l e a d to the retention of the Company and, hence, to the p r e s e r v a t i o n of the Russian colonies in A m e r i c a . T h i s is the text of the guarantee as w o r k e d out in London: " [ W e ] The E m p e r o r or the Russian G o v e r n m e n t in consideration of the trust we have placed in the company e s tablished in our e m p i r e and known by the name of ' R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , ' and in the d e s i r e to f a c i l i t a t e the operations of the said Company by o f f e r i n g it an o p portunity to c o l l e c t funds in the United K i n g d o m with which to conduct the business of the Company, h e r e w i t h g i v e our consent to this guarantee of the dutiful f u l f i l l m e n t by the Company of the obligations it has taken upon i t s e l f . " Then came the t e r m s of the loan. A s P e l l e y said in his l e t t e r of M a y 27, 1864, "that document should be signed by the E m p e r o r and countersigned by the M i n i s t e r of Finance o r the P r i m e M i n i s t e r . "39 The London banks would indeed have opened their c o f f e r s wide to the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company, if they had the slightest assurance that they would t h e r e b y prolong its e x i s t e n c e . " G i v e them the guarantee, and the £200,000 in cash w i l l be o u r s , "^0 w r o t e Rutkovsky, an o f f i c i a l of the Company who had been sent to London to look into the question of the loan. The g o v e r n m e n t , h o w e v e r , intent on liquidating its colonies in A m e r i c a , would not, of c o u r s e , g i v e the r e q u i r e d guarantee, but l i m i t e d i t s e l f to granting p e r m i s s i o n , in g e n e r a l t e r m s , to the floating of the loan. Just as unsuccessful was the attempt to obtain a loan in g o v e r n m e n t notes on the P e t e r s b u r g stock-exchange f r o m insurance companies and the l i k e . Negotiations f o r a loan of 1, 200, 000 r u b l e s , s i l v e r , in t r e a s u r y notes , out of the amounts coming in as poll tax and customs duties, w e r e also doomed to f a i l u r e . In summing up its financial status, the Company was f o r c e d to d e c l a r e " i n a l l frankness that without money to pay

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its d e b t s , nothing can save the e n t e r p r i s e f r o m having to suspend its operations altogether.'"^! On J a n u a r y 1 , 1 8 6 2 , t h e t e r m of t h e c h a r t e r of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y e x p i r e d . In v i e w of t h i s , t h e C o m p a n y h a d in t h e m e a n t i m e - - i n 1 8 6 0 - - s u b m i t t e d t h e d r a f t f o r a n e w c h a r t e r t o t h e M i n i s t r y of F i n a n c e . T h i s d r a f t d i d not p r o v i d e f o r any c h a n g e s f r o m the old c h a r t e r and only gave a d d i t i o n a l j u r i d i c a l s a n c t i o n t o t h e s t a t u s e x i s t i n g in f a c t . F o r i n s t a n c e , A r t i c l e 1 of t h e c h a r t e r w h i c h , in t h e o l d t e x t , r e a d that the Company " i s being e s t a b l i s h e d for the p u r p o s e of e n g a g i n g in h u n t i n g on t h e m a i n l a n d of n o r t h w e s t e r n A m e r i c a a n d on t h e i s l a n d s , " w a s f o r m u l a t e d m u c h m o r e c a n d i d l y in t h e n e w c h a r t e r . " T h e C o m p a n y , " it s a i d , " i s b e i n g e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e of a d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a . " A l l a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e c o l o n i e s w a s , a s b e f o r e , c o n c e n t r a t e d in t h e h a n d s of t h e g o v e r n o r , who w a s e l e c t e d by t h e m a n a g e m e n t of t h e C o m p a n y f r o m a m o n g t h e s t a f f - o f f i c e r s of t h e f l e e t . In o r d e r t o c l o a k t h e l a g g i n g n e g o t i a t i o n s f o r t h e s a l e of t h e c o l o n i e s , t h e g o v e r n m e n t did n o t r e f u s e i m m e d i a t e l y t o g r a n t i t s a p p r o v a l to t h e n e w c h a r t e r , but p r e t e n d e d t o b e s t u d y i n g it f r o m 1860 t o 1 8 6 7 , o r to t h e v e r y m o m e n t of t h e s a l e . D u r i n g t h a t w h o l e p e r i o d t h e C o m p a n y e x i s t e d by v i r t u e of an I m p e r i a l d e c r e e of M a y 2 9 , 1861 , a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h " u n t i l s u c h t i m e a s t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e f u t u r e d e s t i n y of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y h a s b e e n e x a m i n e d a n d decided, " the Company was p e r m i t t e d to continue its a c t i v i t i e s " a c c o r d i n g to the p r i n c i p l e s obtaining h e r e t o f o r e . " A s t h e n e w c h a r t e r w a s b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d by t h e g o v e r n m e n t h i e r a r c h y , e s p e c i a l l y s h a r p attacks w e r e leveled at the m o n o p o l i s t i c r i g h t s of t h e C o m p a n y - - t h e b a s i c c o n d i t i o n w h i c h distinguished the Company f r o m the other Russian joint-stock c o m p a n i e s of t h e t i m e a n d t u r n e d it i n t o a c a m o u f l a g e d w e a pon f o r the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e c o l o n i e s by t h e g o v e r n m e n t . T h e s h a r p c r i t i c i s m a i m e d a t t h i s a r t i c l e in t h e c h a r t e r of t h e C o m p a n y by t h e M i n i s t r y of F i n a n c e , t h e S t a t e C o u n c i l , a n d o t h e r d e p a r t m e n t s w a s s y m p t o m a t i c of t h e n a s c e n t c o u n t r y - w i d e conflict b e t w e e n t h e m i d d l e c l a s s e l e m e n t s and the m o n o p o l i e s w h i c h w e r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e s e v e n t e e n t h a n d eighteenth centuries. T h e s p o k e s m a n f o r t h e s e v i e w s with r e g a r d to the R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y w a s G r a n d D u k e C o n s t a n t i n e w h o , in o r d e r t o g a i n a m e a s u r e of p o p u l a r i t y , w a s d e m a g o g i c a l l y p a r a d i n g

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h i s " l i b e r a l i s m . " He b e g a n by d e c l a r i n g t h a t , u n d e r the c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l i n g i n R u s s i a , " i n t h e a b s e n c e of a n y p u b l i c i t y a n d in v i e w of t h e f a c t t h a t o n e c a n n o t w r i t e a n y t h i n g a g a i n s t the C o m p a n y , the h a r m the Company does is even m o r e p a l p a b l e . " 4 2 He t h e η d e m a n d e d , w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c o u r s e of t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s f o r the s a l e of t h e c o l o n i e s , t h a t t h e C o m p a n y be r e d u c e d in a l l r e s p e c t s t o t h e s a m e s t a t u s a s t h e o t h e r s t o c k - c o m p a n i e s , a n d t h a t t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e c o l o n i e s b e put u n d e r t h e g o v e r n o r - g e n e r a l of E a s t e r n S i b e r i a . In i t s i n t e n t i o n t o l i q u i d a t e t h e C o m p a n y , t h e g o v e r n m e n t b e g a n t o p r e p a r e p u b l i c o p i n i o n f o r s u c h a d e v e l o p m e n t . It w a s t h e f i g h t a g a i n s t t h e s e r f d o m e x i s t i n g in t h e c o l o n i e s t h a t w a s i n v o k e d t o j u s t i f y t h e l i q u i d a t i o n of one of t h e e a r l i e s t s t o c k - c o m p a n i e s , d u r i n g t h e v e r y p e r i o d of " g r i u n d e r s t v o " 4 ^ w h e n s t o c k - c o m p a n i e s w e r e s p r i n g i n g up i n R u s s i a w i t h i n credible rapidity. T h e D i r e c t o r s of t h e C o m p a n y , w h o , a p a r t f r o m r e a s o n s of s t a t e , h a d a p e r s o n a l s t a k e i n t h e m a t t e r , i n a s m u c h a s t h e l i q u i d a t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y w o u l d d e p r i v e t h e m of a s i z e a b l e i n c o m e , t r i e d in e v e r y w a y t o s a v e i t . T h e s t o c k h o l d e r s and the d i r e c t o r s , having f o r so m a n y y e a r s been obedient t o o l s in t h e h a n d s of t h e g o v e r n m e n t , c o u l d n o t u n d e r s t a n d , w h e n t h e l a s t m o m e n t c a m e , t h a t t h e r e w a s no s e n s e i n t h e f u r t h e r e x i s t e n c e of t h e C o m p a n y , s i n c e t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a had lost t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e . The G o v e r n i n g B o a r d m a d e t h e f u r f l y in a t t e m p t i n g t ò j u s t i f y i t s c o u r s e of a c t i o n with r e s p e c t to the a c c u s a t i o n s brought against the Company, w i t h o u t r e a l i z i n g t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n a t i s s u e w a s not t h a t t h e C o m p a n y h a d b e e n b a d , but t h a t it h a d l o s t i t s r a i s o n d ' e t r e . R e a r A d m i r a l E t o l i n , a m e m b e r of t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d , m a d e a valiant e f f o r t in a m e m o r a n d u m to r e f u t e the a c c u s a t i o n s h u r l e d a g a i n s t t h e C o m p a n y of e x p l o i t i n g t h e n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n , by p o i n t i n g t o t h e " p h i l a n t h r o p i c " w o r k s in w h i c h it w a s o s t e n s i b l y a c t i v e . "It i s u n j u s t . . . , " he w r o t e , "to a c c u s e t h e C o m p a n y of k e e p i n g t h e A l e u t s in a s t a t e of s l a v e r y . No o n e h a s d e p r i v e d t h e m of t h e i r p r o p e r t y , a n d w h a t e v e r t h e y m a n a g e t o p r o c u r e , w h e t h e r on l a n d o r on w a t e r , b e l o n g s to t h e m . But s i n c e t h e y would not be a b l e , without t h e a s s i s t a n c e of t h e C o m p a n y w h i c h i s s u p p l y i n g t h e m w i t h e v e r y t h i n g , t o e n g a g e in t h e i r p u r s u i t s of h u n t i n g a n d f i s h i n g , t h e y a r e n a t u r a l l y under obligation to s u r r e n d e r their catch to the C o m p a n y , f o r which it r e m u n e r a t e s t h e m at a f i x e d p r i c e and often even at a h i g h e r o n e . R a t h e r , the A l e u t s m a y be c a l l e d

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m e m b e r s of a f a m i l y of w h i c h t h e A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y i s t h e h e a d . A s h e a d of t h e f a m i l y , o r a s t h e s o l i c i t o u s g u a r d i a n , t h e C o m p a n y h a s a c e r t a i n o b l i g a t i o n , a n d it h a s i n d e e d a l w a y s a b i d e d by t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t i t i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e w e l f a r e of t h e n a t i v e a n d f o r t h e b e t t e r m e n t of t h e i r e x i s t e n c e , a s well a s f o r theii m o r a l and intellectual d e v e l o p m e n t , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m e a n s it h a s a t i t s d i s p o s a l . " 4 4 The m o s t s e r i o u s charge brought against the Company were the statistical figures t h e m s e l v e s , which showed that t h e A l e u t s w e r e d y i n g out u n d e r t h e C o m p a n y ' s " s o l i c i t o u s " p r o t e c t i o n . T o be s u r e , t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d a d v a n c e d a s t r o n g a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t t h i s w e i g h t y , a n d on t h e f a c t of i t , i r r e f u t a b l e a c c u s a t i o n . T h e C o m p a n y did not t r y to e x c u l p a t e i t s e l f o r to d i s p r o v e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e A l e u t s w e r e d y i n g o u t : It m e r e l y r e s o r t e d t o a n a n a l o g y . It w a s a f a c t , a d m i t t e d t h e C o m p a n y , t h a t f e w e r A l e u t s w e r e b o r n t h a n d i e d , but w a s it n o t a l s o a f a c t t h a t in K a m c h a t k a , w h i c h h a d f r o m t h e v e r y f i r s t b e e n a d m i n i s t e r e d by t h e C r o w n a n d w h e r e t h e n a t i v e s w e r e n o t s e n t o u t on a n y l a b o r p r o j e c t s , t h e y w e r e a l s o d y i n g out a t t h e s a m e r a t e a s t h o s e in t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s i n A m e r i c a ? T h e m a n a g e m e n t t h e n c i t e d t h e f i g u r e s on t h e d e a t h r a t e of t h e K a m c h a t k a n s : in 1854 t h e r e w e r e 274 b i r t h s a n d 4 8 0 d e a t h s of b o t h s e x e s . A s t o t h e o t h e r p o i n t s of t h e i n d i c t m e n t a g a i n s t t h e C o m pany, the Governing Board was unable to take exception to a n y of t h e m . T h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f f e r e d by t h e C o m p a n y i n r e f u t a t i o n of the r e p o r t that was d r a f t e d a f t e r an i n s p e c t i o n - t o u r , c a m e i n f o r e s p e c i a l l y h a r s h c r i t i c i s m a t t h e h a n d s of t h e D i r e c t o r of t h e N a v y M i n i s t r y , N . K r a b b e . T h e Company, the Governing B o a r d t r i e d to show, could n o t b u t b e f u l l of s o l i c i t u d e f o r t h e A l e u t s , i n v i e w of t h e f a c t t h a t i t s own w e l f a r e d e p e n d e d on t h e m : " T h e i n t e r e s t s of t h e C o m p a n y a r e i n t i m a t e l y b o u n d up w i t h t h e w e l l - b e i n g of the natives, the Aleuts, and the Company i s , t h e r e f o r e , obl i g e d , f o r i t s own s a k e , t o look a f t e r t h e i r w e l f a r e and c o n t e n t m e n t , in a c c o r d a n c e with t h e i r l o c a l u s a g e s and c o n d i t i o n s , a n d n o t i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e E u r o p e a n m o d e of l i f e . " In t h e m a r g i n K r a b b e w r o t e : " O b l i g e d it i s i n d e e d , b u t i t h a s not f u l f i l l e d i t s o b l i g a t i o n , a n d h a s b e e n c o n c e r n e d o n l y w i t h s t u f f i n g t h e p o c k e t s of t h e m o n o p o l i s t s . " 4 5 T h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d i n s i s t e d on t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r a g u a r d i a n s h i p o v e r t h e A l e u t s . "If h e [ i . e . , t h e A l e u t . - A u . ] w e r e

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t o be l e f t to h i m s e l f , " w r o t e t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d , " w i t h o u t C o m p a n y s u p e r v i s i o n , he would f r e q u e n t l y s t a r v e to d e a t h . " A g a i n K r a b b e n o t e d in t h e m a r g i n : " I t d o e s not n e c e s s a r i l y f o l l o w t h a t he m u s t be a s l a v e , and t h a t he i s a s l a v e i s a t t e s t e d by the r e p o r t i t s e l f . " 4 6 In c o n c l u d i n g i t s e x p l a n a t i o n , t h e C o m p a n y , i n an a t t e m p t t o j u s t i f y i t s p o l i c y with r e g a r d t o t h e A l e u t s , w r o t e t h a t " i t would be h i g h l y i m p r o v i d e n t to t r a i n t h e m t o e a t b r e a d " and t h a t t h e i r s i t u a t i o n " s h o u l d , in a l l j u s t i c e , b e c a l l e d w e l l m a n a g e d and s e c u r e . " K r a b b e i n d i g n a n t l y e x c l a i m e d : " O n l y t h e d e v i l knows what t h i s m e a n s . " Y e t , only a s h o r t t i m e s i n c e , t h e s a m e K r a b b e r e g a r d e d a l l t h i s in t h e o r d e r of t h i n g s and w a s not at a l l i n d i g n a n t . Now, h o w e v e r , i t w a s b e i n g b r u i t e d in g o v e r n m e n t c i r c l e s f o r e v e r y one to h e a r t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e C o m p a n y and the A l e u t s w e r e b a s e d on f o r c e and s h o u l d be a l t e r e d . In i t s m e m o r a n d u m on t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y t h e D e p a r t m e n t of S t a t e E c o n o m y s a i d o p e n l y t h a t t h e C o m pany " b e i n g g u i d e d , p r o p e r l y s p e a k i n g , by t h e p r i n c i p l e s of s e r f d o m , h a s r e g a r d e d , and s t i l l r e g a r d s , t h e hunting of f u r - b e a r i n g a n i m a l s a s i t s own p e c u l i a r p o s s e s s i o n and t h e natives as its s l a v e s . "47 On the e v e , t h e n , of t h e l i q u i d a t i o n of t h e t s a r i s t c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a t h e r e w a s f i n a l l y t a l k of a b o l i s h i n g t h e i n s t i t u t u i o n of s e r f d o m in t h o s e r e m o t e R u s s i a n p o s s e s s i o n s i n c e t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r s u c h s e r f d o m had now p a s s e d . T h e fight a g a i n s t the C o m p a n y w a s b e i n g w a g e d not only by g o v e r n m e n t c o m m i s s i o n s but in t h e p r e s s a s w e l l . At t h e i n i t i a t i v e of G r a n d Duke C o n s t a n t i n e " M a t e r i a l y d l y a i s t o r i i r u s s k i k h z a s e l e n i i po b e r e g a m V o s t o c h n o v o o k e a n a " ( M a t e r i a l s on the h i s t o r y of the R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s on the c o a s t of the E a s t e r n S e a ) , 4 8 c o n s i s t i n g of e x t r a c t s f r o m o f f i c i a l d o c u m e n t s and m e m o i r s , w e r e p u b l i s h e d a s a s u p p l e m e n t t o the " M o r s k o y S b o r n i k " (Navy J o u r n a l ) . T h e s e p a p e r s c i t e d f a c t s i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e p r e d a t o r y p o l i c y of the C o m p a n y . At the s a m e t i m e t h e r e a p p e a r e d t h e c a p i t a l w o r k of P . T i k h m e n e v , 4 9 a s t o c k h o l d e r of the C o m p a n y , who a t t e m p t e d on t h e b a s i s of o f f i c i a l d o c u m e n t s to s e t f o r t h t h e C o m p a n y ' s h u m a n e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s the n a t i v e s and t h e b e n e f i t s t h a t R u s s i a h a d r e c e i v e d f r o m that o r g a n i z a t i o n . B u t t h e f a t e of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y a s w e l l a s t h a t of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a w a s s e a l e d ; to a l l t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h a t we have e n u m e r a t e d w h i c h i m p e l l e d R u s s i a t o s e l l

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A l a s k a t h e r e w a s now a d d e d a n e w c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h a t w a s t r u l y d e c i s i v e in i t s e f f e c t . T h a t w a s t h e a t t e m p t of t h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t in t h e l a t t e r I 8 6 0 ' s t o o r i e n t i t s e l f t o w a r d A m e r i c a a s an a l l y in t h e b a t t l e f o r t h e a b r o g a t i o n of t h e T r e a t y of P a r i s a n d f o r t h e p a r t i t i o n of T u r k e y . In l a t e r t i m e s a c e r t a i n a m o u n t of s u r p r i s e w a s e x p r e s s e d in t h e o p p o s i t i o n p r e s s a t t h e d i s i n t e r e s t e d a t t i t u d e e v i n c e d by t h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t ' t o w a r d s t h e s a l e of i t s c o l o n i e s . "We m u s t r e m e m b e r . . . , " wrote "Golos" "that our North A m e r i c a n p o s s e s s i o n s l i e a d j a c e n t t o t h o s e of t h e E n g l i s h H u d s o n B a y C o m p a n y , t o w h o m t h e p a s s i n g of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in t h e h a n d s of t h e A m e r i c a n s c a n be l e a s t b e n e f i c i a l a n d d e s i r a b l e , a n d , if o n l y t o r i d i t s e l f of h a v i n g t h e A m e r i c a n s a s its n e i g h b o r s , the English company would undoubtedly have b e e n g l a d to p a y t h r e e o r f o u r t i m e s t h e a m o u n t o f f e r e d by the United S t a t e s . "50 T h e t r u t h i s t h a t if t h e R u s s i a n g o v e r n m e n t h a d b e e n g u i d e d o n l y by t h e d e s i r e t o s e l l i t s c o l o n i e s t o t h e h i g h e s t b i d d e r , it would have been able to get c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e f r o m England t h a n f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , s i n c e t h e A m e r i c a n p u r c h a s e of the Russian colonies was heavy with complications for England. B u t it w a s m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t f o r the t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t t o w i n a n a l l y , e s p e c i a l l y one w h o s e i n t e r e s t s w e n t c o u n t e r t o t h o s e of E n g l a n d . F r o m t h e v e r y m o m e n t t h a t - t h e q u e s t i o n of s e l l i n g t h e c o l onies to the United States a r o s e , the R u s s i a n diplomats n e v e r had the s l i g h t e s t doubt that the p r o j e c t e d sale w a s a d i r e c t c h a l l e n g e t o E n g l a n d . In t h e a c c o u n t t h a t S t o e c k l g i v e s in h i s d i s p a t c h , d a t e d D e c e m b e r 2 3 , 1 8 5 9 , of t h e c o u r s e of t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s f o r t h e p o s s i b l e s a l e of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , h e l a y s s p e c i a l e m p h a s i s on t h i s c i r c u m stance . " B e f o r e c l o s i n g t h i s r e p o r t , I f i n d it n e c e s s a r y t o i n f o r m Y o u r E x c e l l e n c y t h a t t h e p l a n f o r t h e c e s s i o n of o u r c o l o n i e s , if i t s h o u l d b e r e a l i z e d , h a s b e e n w o r r y i n g t h e B r i t i s h g o v e r n m e n t to the highest d e g r e e . " 5 1 T h e r e w e r e solid grounds for Stoeckl's o b s e r v a t i o n : the u n i o n of C a l i f o r n i a w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s a s e r i o u s blow t o B r i t i s h d o m i n a t i o n of t h é P a c i f i c . E n g l a n d ' s e f f o r t s , i n t u r n , t o i n t e n s i f y t h e c o l o n i z a t i o n of V a n c o u v e r I s l a n d a n d a s e c t i o n of O r e g o n m e t w i t h a s e r i o u s o b s t a c l e i n t h e s e v e r i t y of t h e c l i m a t e . In s u c h c o n d i t i o n s , "if t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , " w r o t e S t o e c k l , " s h o u l d win m a s t e r y o v e r o u r p o s s e s s i o n s ,

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t h e n B r i t i s h O r e g o n would be s q u e e z e d t o g e t h e r by t h e A m e r i c a n s f r o m t h e n o r t h and t h e south and would h a r d l y be a b l e to e s c a p e a g g r e s s i v e a t t e m p t s on t h e i r p a r t . " 5 2 In h e r a i m t o u n d e r m i n e E n g l i s h p o w e r in N o r t h A m e r i c a , a n d , at t h e s a m e t i m e , b r i n g about a c l a s h b e t w e e n t h e United S t a t e s and t h e B r i t i s h e m p i r e , R u s s i a d e c i d e d t o s e l l A l a s k a , and t h e a s p i r a t i o n of t h e United S t a t e s t o d o m i n a t e the A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t i n d u c e d t h i s e m p i r e t h a t w a s v i g o r o u s l y in the m a k i n g t o buy A l a s k a . In a c o n v e r s a t i o n with S e n a t o r Gwin of C a l i f o r n i a S t o e c k l p o i n t e d out t h a t t h e a m o u n t of f i v e m i l l i o n d o l l a r s w h i c h t h e United S t a t e s h a d o f f e r e d f o r A l a s k a would hardly s a t i s f y the R u s s i a n g o v e r n m e n t . " I a g r e e to r a i s e m y o f f e r , " s a i d G w i n , " a n d in t h i s c o n n e c t i o n I s h a l l h a v e t h e s u p p o r t of m y c o l l e a g u e s f r o m C a l i f o r n i a and O r e g o n , but I a m not c e r t a i n of t h e c o n s e n t of t h e o t h e r s t a t e s of t h e Union t h a t h a v e no d i r e c t i n t e r e s t in t h e m a t t e r . T h e only r e a s o n t h a t m i g h t i n d u c e t h e m to want to buy y o u r c o l o n i e s a r e t h e p r o s p e c t s of i n c r e a s i n g t h e p o w e r and i n f l u e n c e of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s in t h e v a s t e x p a n s e s of the P a c i f i c , to t h e d e t r i m e n t of G r e a t B r i t a i n . " " I t i s t h i s p o l i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n , " added G w i n , " w h i c h t h e d e l e g a t e s f r o m C a l i f o r n i a and O r e g o n w i l l not f a i l t o e m p l o y , and w h i c h w i l l , without t h e s l i g h t e s t doubt, h a v e a f a v o r a b l e i n f l u e n c e on C o n g r e s s . " ^ 3 T h e e c o n o m i c t i e s b e t w e e n E n g l a n d and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s did not at a l l p r e v e n t t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s of t h e S o u t h , when t h e y c a m e into p o w e r , f r o m b e i n g j u s t a s e a g e r a s t h o s e of t h e N o r t h t o o p p o s e B r i t i s h e x p a n s i o n on t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t . A l s o , both t h e N o r t h and t h e S o u t h , in t h e i r d e s i r e f o r new t e r r i t o r y w h i c h would be a d m i t t e d in t h e F e d e r a l Union a s an i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s , e a c h n u r t u r e d t h e s e c r e t hope of w i n ning t h e new s t a t e o v e r to i t s s i d e and t h u s i n c r e a s e i t s s t r e n g t h in C o n g r e s s . T h e n e g o t i a t i o n s f o r t h e p u r c h a s e of A l a s k a , d i r e c t e d , a s we h a v e s e e n , p r i m a r i l y a g a i n s t E n g l a n d , w e r e i n i t i a t e d d u r i n g the p r e s i d e n c y of F r a n k l i n P i e r c e , who w a s under the t h u m b of t h e S o u t h e r n e r s . T h e y w e r e c o n t i n u e d d u r i n g t h e i n c u m b e n c y of a n o t h e r p r o t a g o n i s t of t h e S o u t h , J a m e s B u c h a n a n , and f i n a l l y a s s u m e d a d e f i n i t e f o r m d u r i n g t h e p r e s i d e n c y of A n d r e w J o h n s o n who , a l t h o u g h he o p p o s e d t h e s e c e s s i o n of the S o u t h e r n S t a t e s , did r e p r e s e n t t h e i r i n t e r e s t s . In 1 8 5 9 t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s f o r t h e s a l e of the c o l o n i e s p a s s e d f r o m the s t a g e of g e n e r a l i t i e s into t h e r e a l m of c o n c r e t e p r o p o s a l s . In one of h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n s with S t o e c k l , S e n a t o r

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G w i n a g a i n r a i s e d t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e s a l e of t h e c o l o n i e s , e m p h a s i z i n g that P r e s i d e n t B u c h a n a n w a s v e r y m u c h in f a v o r of it a n d t h a t h e h a d a u t h o r i z e d h i m a n d t h e A s s i s t a n t - S e c r e t a r y of S t a t e A p p l e t o n t o c o n d u c t t h e n e c e s s a r y n e g o t i a t i o n s . Stoeckl r e p o r t e d that Appleton had told h i m , in the P r e s i dent's n a m e , that he, the P r e s i d e n t , "believed that the a c q u i s i t i o n of o u r c o l o n i e s w o u l d b e b e n e f i c i a l t o t h e p o w e r s t h a t a r e s i t u a t e d on t h e P a c i f i c , t h a t h e w a s p r e p a r e d t o s t a r t the plan m o v i n g , but b e f o r e he went any f u r t h e r he t h o u g h t i t n e c e s s a r y t o f i n d out w h e t h e r w e w e r e i n c l i n e d t o cede our p o s s e s s i o n s . "54 Should R u s s i a ' s r e p l y be f a v o r a b l e , Buchanan intended to d i s c u s s the question with m e m b e r s of h i s c a b i n e t a n d w i t h a f e w i n f l u e n t i a l m e m b e r s of Congress. H o w e v e r , t h e s h a r p e n i n g of c o n t r a d i c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e North and the South, and the approaching p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n s w h i c h h e l d out t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a n u m b e r of c h a n g e s in t h e d o m e s t i c p o l i c y of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , f o r c e d R u s s i a to d e s i s t f o r a t i m e f r o m giving a definitive r e p l y to B u c h a n a n ' s p r o p o s a l . " E v e r y t h i n g d e p e n d s on t h e c o m i n g p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n s , w h i c h w i l l t a k e p l a c e in N o v e m b e r , " w r o t e S t o e c k l a t t h e b e g i n n i n g of 1 8 6 0 . " U n t i l t h a t t i m e , we s h a l l c o n t i n u e t o l i v e in t h e s t a t e of c h a o s w h i c h now r e i g n s e v e r y w h e r e , b o t h in t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d i n t h e f e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i v e a s s e m b l y . "55 U n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , t h e s a l e of t h e c o l o n i e s t o t h e United States had lost its m e a n i n g , as f a r as the t s a r i s t gove r n m e n t w a s c o n c e r n e d . Appleton and Gwin w e r e i n f o r m e d that "the I m p e r i a l g o v e r n m e n t , without definitively declining t h e p r o p o s i t i o n f o r t h e s a l e of i t s A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s , r e g a r d s it n e c e s s a r y , though, to postpone the m a t t e r f o r a m o r e o p portune moment." O f f i c i a l l y s u c h an " o p p o r t u n e m o m e n t " w a s s t a t e d t o b e t h e e x p i r a t i o n of t h e C h a r t e r of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y i n J a n u a r y of 1 8 6 2 . T h a t d a t e c o i n c i d e d w i t h t h e c o n c l u s i o n of t h e e l e c t i o n c a m p a i g n , w h i c h now m a d e it p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n a c l e a r e r p i c t u r e of f u t u r e U n i t e d S t a t e s p o l i c y . T h e s a l e w a s p o s t p o n e d , t h e n , f o r , what s e e m e d at f i r s t a y e a r a n d a h a l f , but f o r , w h a t p r o v e d t o b e , s e v e n y e a r s . W h i l e s y m p a t h i z i n g w i t h t h e N o r t h a s a n e n e m y of E n g l a n d , R u s s i a could not, n e v e r t h e l e s s , d e s i r e a b r e a k between the North and the South, i n a s m u c h a s such a development would c e r t a i n l y weaken the United State as a m i l i t a r y p o w e r . " T h e

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d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of the United S t a t e s a s a n a t i o n , " wrote S t o e c k l , to G o r c h a k o v , "would, f r o m our point of view, be something to be d e p l o r e d . The A m e r i c a n confederation h a s a c t e d a s a c o u n t e r p o i s e to B r i t i s h p o w e r , and, in this s e n s e , i t s »continued e x i s t e n c e constitutes an important element in the b a l a n c e of power."56 R u s s i a w a s i n t e r e s t e d in a c o m p r o m i s e solution and in the election to the p r e s i d e n c y of a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the South, to the extent that it might prevent a final b r e a k between the North and the South. " E v e r y one who i s at the head of a f f a i r s i s s c a r c e l y above m e d i o c r i t y , " wrote Stoeckl with r e f e r e n c e to the d o m e s t i c situation in the United S t a t e s . " T h e r e a r e only two e x c e p t i o n s . One i s Senator Douglas of the D e m o c r a tic P a r t y ; he i s talented and e n e r g e t i c , but i s at odds with the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , which i s using a l l the m e a n s at i t s d i s p o s a l to keep h i m f r o m the p r e s i d e n c y . The other exception i s Senator S e w a r d , a r e a l s t a t e s m a n , but he i s one of the a n t i - s l a v e r y c h a m p i o n s , and, w e r e he to b e c o m e p r e s i d e n t , the South would l e a v e the Union a l t o g e t h e r . "57 A f t e r the election of L i n c o l n , whom Stoeckl w a s evidently unable to evaluate c o r r e c t l y , R u s s i a m a d e c e r t a i n e f f o r t s to bring about a r e c o n c i l i a t i o n between the North and the South, while p r e s e r v i n g the Union. We a r e r e f e r r i n g to the attempt m a d e by the R u s s i a n m i n i s t e r plenipotentiary to be allowed to take p a r t in the negotiations which S e c r e t a r y of State S e w a r d was conducting with the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the South. Although in O c t o b e r , 1862, R u s s i a declined F r a n c e ' s p r o p o s a l to intervene in the conflict on the A m e r i c a n continent, she did, n e v e r t h e l e s s , together with G r e a t B r i t a i n , p r e s e r v e her full f r e e d o m of action, while s t r i v i n g to e f f e c t u a t e a r e c o n ciliation between the w a r r i n g p a r t i e s . In a c o n v e r s a t i o n that s a m e O c t o b e r , (1862), with a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the United S t a t e s , Gorchakov laid p a r t i c u l a r s t r e s s on the f a c t that R u s s i a wanted above everything e l s e " t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of the A m e r i c a n Union a s an indivisible nation. "58 In 18b3, for a number of r e a s o n s , a R u s s i a n naval s q u a d ron w a s d i s p a t c h e d to A m e r i c a , under the c o m m a n d of A d m i r a l L i s o v s k y . The s q u a d r o n , together with the one under A d m i r a l Popov which w a s a l r e a d y stationed in the P a c i f i c , w a s intended, by its m e r e p r e s e n c e , to act a s a d e t e r r e n t to the s m u g g l i n g that the E n g l i s h w e r e c a r r y i n g on with the South and which enabled the C o n f e d e r a t e S t a t e s to continue their r e s i s t a n c e .

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A f t e r t h e e n d of t h e C i v i l W a r a n d t h e v i c t o r y of t h e N o r t h , R u s s i a had r e a s o n to believe that she would be able to utilize a n a l l i a n c e w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s in h e r c o n f l i c t w i t h E n g l a n d o v e r t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e N e a r E a s t e r n q u e s t i o n i n g e n e r a l a n d t h e a b r o g a t i o n of t h e T r e a t y of P a r i s i n p a r t i c u l a r . T h e r e w a s n o l o n g e r a n y n e e d , t h e n , of p o s t p o n i n g t h e s a l e of t h e colonies. In J u l y , 1 8 6 6 , a n A m e r i c a n d e l e g a t i o n , h e a d e d b y A s s i s t a n S e c r e t a r y of t h e N a v y F o x , a r r i v e d in R u s s i a . It e x t e n d e d i t s f e l i c i t a t i o n s t o A l e x a n d e r II, i n t h e n a m e of C o n g r e s s , on h i s " m i r a c u l o u s e s c a p e " f r o m a s s a s i n a t i o n on A p r i l 4 . T h a t w a s a n o p e n d e m o n s t r a t i o n of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a s a n a l l y of Russia against Great Britain. F r o m t h e p o i n t of v i e w of t h e n o b i l i t y , t h e a d d r e s s s e n t o v e r by C o n g r e s s w a s , to a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e , r a t h e r t a c t l e s s . C o n g r e s s , in sending i t s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e to St. P e t e r s b u r g " i n a s t a t e of f l a m i n g i n d i g n a t i o n " o v e r t h e A p r i l 4 i n c i d e n t , did n o t , e v i d e n t l y , f i n d t i m e t o l e a r n t h e o f f i c i a l v e r s i o n of t h e m o t i v e s b e h i n d t h e a t t e m p t on t h e T s a r ' s l i f e . K a r a k a z o v , t h e r e f o r e , is p i c t u r e d in the a d d r e s s as a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e n o b i l i t y , t a k i n g h i s r e v e n g e on t h e T s a r f o r h a v i n g e m a n c i p a t e d t h e p e a s a n t s . But t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r w i n n i n g a n a l l y force-d e v e r y b o d y c o n c e r n e d t o m a k e a h a p p y f a c e w h i l e p l a y i n g t h e m i s e r a b l e g a m e . " T h e r e i s no h a r m , " s h o u t e d t h e " M o s k o v s k i y e V e d o m o s t i , " " i n t h a t t h e C o n g r e s s of a t r a n s a t l a n t i c r e p u b l i c , which a s yet h a s no c o m m u n i c a t i o n s with E u r o p e by t r a n s a t l a n t i c c a b l e , s h o u l d e r r i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e c a u s e s of a n e v e n t t h e s u b s t a n c e of w h i c h it c o u l d not possibly understand."59 T h e r e w a s " n o h a r m " in i t b e c a u s e , a s t h e s a m e " M o s k o v s k i y e Vedomosti" declared, "thetwo nations have common f o e s . " T h e w h o l e R u s s i a n p r e s s of t h e t i m e w a s f u l l of d i s c u s s i o n s of t h e " c o m m u n i t y of f o e s " t h a t R u s s i a h a d w i t h o n e p o w e r o r a n o t h e r . " G o l o s , " and the o t h e r p a p e r s a f t e r i t , w e r e putting o u t a l l v a r i e t i e s of p r o p a g a n d a t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t A m e r i c a should b e c o m e a " E u r o p e a n p o w e r . " "A g r e a t new p o w e r h a d m a d e i t s a p p e a r a n c e on t h e E u r o p e a n h o r i z o n , " w r o t e " G o l o s , " " w h i c h , w i t h o u t o w n i n g a p a t c h of l a n d in o u r h e m i s p h e r e , m a y , in a l l i a n c e w i t h R u s s i a , r e a l l y b e c o m e a E u r o p e a n p o w e r , e x e r t i n g a p r o f o u n d i n f l u e n c e on t h e c o u r s e of E u r o p e a n e v e n t s . " Y e t , h o w d i d t h e R u s s i a n p r e s s p i c t u r e t h i s " c o n v e r s i o n " of A m e r i c a into a E u r o p e a n p o w e r ? T h e " c o n v e r s i o n " w a s t o b e a c c o m p l i s h e d by m e a n s of t h e

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joint partition of T u r k e y . T h i s was p r e c i s e l y the meaning of the " E u r o p e a n i z a t i o n " of A m e r i c a , as f a r as Russia was concerned. " N o doubt," wrote "Golos," "our harbors will hencef o r t h be open to A m e r i c a n w a r s h i p s ; but the harbor of a f r i e n d l y power i s still not the same as one's own; that is why, while the r u m o r s about the d e s i r e of the Washington g o v e r n ment to obtain f r o m the Sublime P o r t e one of the islands of the A r c h i p e l a g o may be p r e m a t u r e , they are not at all inconc e i v a b l e ; and if the partition of T u r k e y ' s l e g a c y should r e a l l y be in the o f f i n g , then our own i n t e r e s t s impel us to want to see the United States s e c u r e a share of that l e g a c y . With a naval station at its disposal in the M e d i t e r r a n e a n , the A m e r ican f l a g w i l l prevent any incursions into the Black Sea by f l e e t s f r o m the W e s t , while our Baltic f l e e t w i l l always be on the a l e r t to defend A m e r i c a ' s i n t e r e s t s in northern Europe."60 The fate of the Russian colonies was d e f i n i t e l y decided during F o x ' s stay in St. P e t e r s b u r g . Stoeckl, who returned to the Russian capital i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r F o x had departed, set to w o r k on the o f f i c i a l drafting of the sales a g r e e m e n t . " T h e t r a n s f e r of our colonies to the United States s e e m s to m e e s p e c i a l l y d e s i r a b l e p o l i t i c a l l y , " w r o t e the M i n i s t e r of Finance, M . K h . R e i t e r n , to A . D . Gorchakov in D e c e m b e r , 1856, a f t e r a conversation with Stoeckl. A p a r t f r o m the utter i m p o s s i b i l i t y of defending the c o l o nies in the event of war " w i t h one of the naval p o w e r s , " R e i t e r n f r a n k l y pointed out that the most important reason f o r selling the colonies to the United States was that the United States would thereby " b e c o m e a neighbour of the English colonies not only to the south but to the northwest as w e l l . " In his opí ion "such a development cannot but r e sult in the strengthening of our f r i e n d l y relations with the United States and in i n c r e a s i n g the chances f o r a d i s a g r e e ment between the States and England. "^1 A s i m i l a r v i e w was e x p r e s s e d by Grand Duke Constantine, who s t r e s s e d " t h e e x c l u s i v e advantages accruing to us f r o m a c l o s e association with the United States of North A m e r i c a and f r o m the elimination of any p r o b l e m that might cause d i s c o r d between the two g r e a t p o w e r s . T h i s aspect of the sale of the Russian colonies as a m o v e against England was also noted by M a r x in a l e t t e r to E n g e l s , w r i t t e n on the eve of the drafting of the sales a g r e e m e n t . On M a r c h 27, 1867, M a r x w r o t e to E n g e l s :

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" T h e Russians a r e m o r e active tnan they have e v e r been b e f o r e . T h e y have cooked up a pretty m e s s between F r a n c e and G e r m a n y ; A u s t r i a is rather impotent by h e r s e l f . And they a r e also going to stir up a good deal of trouble f o r the honorable English in the United S t a t e s . It is worth noting that both the i n c r e a s e d opportunity f o r aggravating A n g l o - A m e r i c a n relations and the strengthening of the association between Russia and A m e r i c a through the sale of A l a s k a w e r e thoroughly s c r u t i n i z e d in the f o r e i g n p r e s s . T o be s u r e , the English p r e s s passed o v e r the subj e c t in s i l e n c e , but the F r e n c h p r e s s , which was i n t e r e s t e d in drawing England's attention to a f f a i r s in Russia and away f r o m what F r a n c e was doing in Italy and Spain, devoted a g r e a t deal of attention to the s a l e . Said the " T e m p s " : " T h e c e s s i o n of the t e r r i t o r y by Russia m e r e l y sets the seal to the p a r a d o x i c a l alliance between E m p e r o r A l e x a n d e r and P r e s i d e n t Johnson. What w i l l come of i t ? P e r h a p s the naval squadron that A m e r i c a has f o r some t i m e been keeping in G r e e k w a t e r s w i l l one day p r o v i d e the answer to this question."64 M a r x d e c i s i v e l y r e j e c t e d the p o s s i b i l i t y of United States intervention in Turkish a f f a i r s and r e g a r d e d all these r u m o r s as " R u s s i a n i n v e n t i o n . " In a l e t t e r to the editor of the " C o u r r i e r F r a n ç a i s , " V e r m o r e l , M a r x w r o t e in August, 1867: " Y o u are reproducing canards (of Russian o r i g i n ) to the e f f e c t that North A m e r i c a w i l l take the initiative in a conflict with the T u r k s . You ought to know that the P r e s i dent of the United S t a t e s does not have the right to d e c l a r e w a r . That right belongs only to the S e n a t e . if P r e s i d e n t Johnson--that d i r t y tool of the s l a v e - h o l d e r s (although you a r e so naive as to picture him as a second Washington) - - i s t r y i n g to win s o m e popularity by making a muddle of international relations and by issuing a boastful d e c l a r a tion abroad, then r e m e m b e r that, a f t e r a l l , the Yankees a r e not children or F r e n c h m e n . The m e r e fact that the initiative in all these attempts c o m e s f r o m him is sufficient to d e p r i v e them of all r e a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . " ^ But even while it disseminated such c a n a r d s , the Russian government did not put much c r e d e n c e in the p o s s i b i l i t y that

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t h e United S t a t e s would i n t e r v e n e d i r e c t l y in the c o n f l i c t o v e r t h e p a r t i t i o n of T u r k e y , in t h e e v e n t it b e c a m e n e c e s s a r y t o u s e a r m e d f o r c e . At the s a m e t i m e , t h o u g h , t h e R u s s i a n g o v e r n m e n t r e a l i z e d full w e l l t h a t t h e c o m p l i c a t i o n s a r i s i n g f o r E n g l a n d on t h e P a c i f i c c o a s t , a s a r e s u l t of t h e s a l e of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a t o t h e United S t a t e s , would be of t r e m e n d o u s i m p o r t a n c e in r e d u c i n g E n g l a n d ' s a c t i v i t i e s on the c o n t i n e n t of E u r o p e . In h i s a n a l y s i s of L i l i e n f e l d ' s p a m p h l e t M a r x w r o t e t o K u g e l m a n n : " A n o t h e r e x a m p l e of t h e g r o s s i g n o r a n c e of t h e a u t h o r of t h e p a m p h l e t . In h i s e y e s , t h e c e s s i o n of t h e R u s s i a n p a r t of N o r t h A m e r i c a w a s nothing m o r e than a d i p l o m a t i c t r i c k of the R u s s i a n g o v e r n m e n t , w h i c h , l e t m e note in p a s s i n g , w a s in g r a v e f i n a n c i a ] s t r a i t s . B u t t h a t i s not t h e point at a l l , and the A m e r i c a n C o n g r e s s h a s r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d the d o c u m e n t s t h a t h a v e a b e a r i n g on t h i s d e a l . I n c l u d e d i s a r e p o r t by an A m e r i c a n a g e n t , a d d r e s s e d d i r e c t l y to W a s h i n g t o n , which s a y s t h a t t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s i s a s y e t of no e c o n o m i c v a l u e w h a t e v e r , but t h a t , a s a r e s u l t , the Y a n k e e s w i l l be a b l e t o cut off E n g l a n d f r o m the s e a on one side and s o h a s t e n the a c q u i s i t i o n of a l l of B r i t i s h N o r t h A m e r i c a by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h a t i s p r e c i s e l y the point. A s e a r l y a s t h e b e g i n n i n g of 1 8 5 7 , when t h e d i s c u s s i o n of the s a l e of t h e c o l o n i e s w a s r e s u m e d , t h e M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s t r i e d t o e s t i m a t e t h e f i g u r e with w h i c h t o s t a r t t h e b a r g a i n i n g . T a k i n g into c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e C o m p a n y h a d , d u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d , p a i d out t h e s u m of 1 3 4 , 7 1 2 r a b i e s in dividends on 7 , 4 8 4 s h a r e s , had added 1 3 , 4 7 1 r u b l e s t o t h e b a s i c c a p i t a l , and spent 673 r u b l e s on v a r i o u s s u b s i d i e s , t h e M i n i s t r y c a l c u l a t e d t h e annual p r o f i t of t h e C o m p a n y at 1 4 8 , 8 5 6 r u b l e s . P r o c e e d i n g f r o m t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n that t h e a v e r a g e a n n u a l r a t e of p r o f i t f o r t h e c o u n t r y w a s e q u a l t o 4 p e r c e n t , t h e M i n i s t r y a r r i v e d at t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t the C o m pany p r o p e r should be c o m p e n s a t e d t o the a m o u n t of 3 , 7 2 1 , 4 0 0 r u b l e s , s i l v e r . A l i k e s u m w a s s p e c i f i e d f o r t h e b e n e f i t of t h e g o v e r n m e n t . T h e full p r i c e , t h e n , of the c o l o n i e s w a s f i g u r e d at 7 , 4 4 2 , 8 0 0 r u b l e s , s i l v e r . T h i s w a s t h e " m i n i m u m program. " A n o t h e r v e r s i o n , t h a t w a s w o r k e d out at t h e s a m e t i m e a s t h e f i r s t , w a s b a s e d on a d i f f e r e n t s e t of f i g u r e s . T h e b a s i s f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s in t h i s c a s e w a s not t h e p r o f i t , but t h e t o t a l e x p e n s e s of t h e C o m p a n y on d i v i d e n d s , m a i n t e n a n c e of

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t h e s t a f f , a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , and s o f o r t h . T h i s s u m , f i g u r e d at 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s , s i l v e r , a c c o r d i n g to data s u p p l i e d by the M i n i s t r y , t h e C o m p a n y " s p e n t a n n u a l l y f o r t h e b e n e f i t of R u s s i a n s u b j e c t s . " S i n c e it r e g a r d e d t h i s a m o u n t a s e q u i v a l e n t t o a 4 p e r c e n t p r o f i t on t h e t o t a l v a l u e of the c o l o n i e s , t h e C o m p a n y a r r i v e d at an e v a l u a t i o n of t h o s e c o l o n i e s at 20 million rubles, silver. H o w e v e r , t h e Utopian q u a l i t y of t h e l a s t v e r s i o n w a s a p p a r e n t e v e n t o i t s a u t h o r s , s o t h a t d u r i n g the w h o l e c o u r s e of the negotiations the amount a s k e d f o r the c o l o n i e s fluctuated b e t w e e n 5 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s , o r the a m o u n t of the f i r s t v e r s i o n which w a s e q u i v a l e n t to a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 , 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s , s i l v e r , and 7 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s , o r the s u m m e n t i o n e d in t h e f i c t i t i o u s a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n and the American-Russian companies. A c c o r d i n g t o S t o e c k l , S e n a t o r Gwin of C a l i f o r n i a , who conducted the n e g o t i a t i o n s , o b s e r v e d m o r e than once that, in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p r i c e of t h e c o l o n i e s , " i t m a y be p o s s i b l e t o go a s high a s 5 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s . " ^ 8 It w a s e s p e c i a l l y d i f f i c u l t t o get a l a r g e r bid at t h a t t i m e , so soon a f t e r t h e end of the C i v i l W a r , when t h e T r e a s u r y w a s r e a l l y e m p t y . R u s s i a did not e x p e c t to get m o r e than 5 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s . R e i t e r n , the M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e , f i g u r e d t h a t t h e m o n e t a r y r e m u n e r a t i o n s h o u l d not go below 5 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s , or $ 2 , 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 l e s s than R u s s i a w a s a b l e t o get when t h e a g r e e m e n t w a s a c t u a l l y c o n c l u d e d . " I e x e r t e d m y s e l f t o the u t m o s t t o g e t $ 7 , 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 , " S t o e c k l i n f o r m e d the M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e . " I g r a d u a l l y b r o u g h t M r . S e w a r d up t o 6 - 1 / 2 m i l l i o n , but he would not go any h i g h e r . T h e n e g o t i a t i o n s w e r e b r o k e n off t e m p o r a r i l y , but I s t o o d m y g r o u n d , and t h e S e c r e t a r y yielded. T h e l a s t o f f e r of an a d d i t i o n a l $ 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 w a s m a d e on c o n dition t h a t t h e t e r r i t o r y in q u e s t i o n " b e f r e e d and r e l e a s e d f r o m all c l a i m s , special p r i v i l e g e s , e x e m p t i o n s , grants or p o s s e s s i o n s of t h e united c o m p a n i e s , c o r p o r a t e o r n o n - c o r porate, Russian or f o r e i g n . " T h e $ 7 , 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 which R u s s i a r e c e i v e d for the c o l o n i e s w a s e q u i v a l e n t t o a l i t t l e l e s s t h a n 11 m i l l i o n r u b l e s , s i n c e t h e a v e r a g e v a l u e of t h e d o l l a r in 1 8 6 7 w a s 1 . 5 0 r u b l e s and a f r a c t i o n . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e c l a i m s s u b m i t t e d by t h e D i r e c t o r of t h e M i n i s t r y of F i n a n c e on A u g u s t 3 1 , 1 8 6 8 , 7 1 that i s , a f t e r t h e C o m p a n y had b e e n l i q u i d a t e d , R u s s i a w a s s t i l l t o be c o m p e n s a t e d to t h e a m o u n t of 7 2 8 , 6 0 0 r u b l e s f o r m o v i n g

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t h e C o m p a n y ' s e m p l o y e e s t o R u s s i a and f o r b r e a c h of c o n t r a c t , and 9 5 9 , 7 1 6 r u b l e s f o r t h e l o s s of c o l o n i a l p r o p e r t y . M o r e o v e r , t h e C o m p a n y w a s t o be m a d e t o p a y i t s d e b t s t o the T r e a s u r y , amounting to 6 7 7 , 8 8 3 . 7 0 r u b l e s , including i n t e r e s t . ^ 2 In t h i s w a y , of t h e t o t a l a m o u n t r e c e i v e d f r o m t h e United S t a t e s , t h e C o m p a n y , a f t e r a l l i t s d e b t s h a d b e e n deducted, was to r e c e i v e 1 , 0 1 0 , 4 3 2 . 3 0 r u b l e s . As for all t h e o t h e r p r i v a t e d e b t s , t h e y , t o o , w e r e t o be p a i d off by t h e C o m p a n y out of t h e r e m a i n i n g a m o u n t . T h e T r e a s u r y had l e f t , t h e n , a n e t a m o u n t of o v e r 9 - l / Z r ' u b l e s - - a n i n s i g n i f i c a n t s u m , of c o u r s e , but s t i l l e q u a l l i n g m o r e t h a n one - h a l f of t h e a n n u a l budget of a g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t m e n t s u c h a s t h e N a v y , w h i c h had a budget of 1 6 m i l l i o n r u b l e s in 1 8 6 7 . In d i s c u s s i n g t h e m a t e r i a l i n t e r e s t s t h a t p r o m p t e d R u s s i a t o s e l l the c o l o n i e s , one c a n n o t p a s s o v e r in s i l e n c e t h e i n d i r e c t h i n t s in t h e f o r e i g n p r e s s of t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s t h a t w e r e going on b e t w e e n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and R u s s i a a b o u t a l o a n . Indeed, the t s a r i s t government during that p e r i o d c o n s i d e r e d a f o r e i g n l o a n t h e only s o l u t i o n f o r t h e f i n a n c i a l c r i s i s in which i t w a s m i r e d . " T h e d e f i c i t in c u r r e n t e x p e n s e s , both e s t i m a t e d and u n e s t i m a t e d , " w r o t e M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e R e i t e r n , in a s e c r e t r e p o r t to A l e x a n d e r in 1 8 6 6 , " w i l l a m o u n t t o s o m e 4 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 r u b l e s in t h e n e x t t h r e e y e a r s [ i . e . , 1 8 6 7 - 1 8 6 9 . - - A u . ] , o r an a v e r a g e of 1 5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 a n n u a l l y . T h i s a m o u n t we m u s t t r y t o o b t a i n t h r o u g h a f o r e i g n l o a n . T h e t w o l o a n s o b t a i n e d d u r i n g 1 8 6 2 - 1 8 6 5 , one a s o - c a l l e d f o r e i g n l o a n at 7 p e r c e n t and t h e o t h e r a j o i n t A n g l o - D u t c h one at 5 p e r c e n t , did not s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m t o any e x t e n t . T h e s t o r y , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t s o m e s o r t of n e g o t i a t i o n s f o r a l o a n w e r e b e i n g c a r r i e d on b e t w e e n R u s s i a and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s m i g h t h a v e s o m e foundation in f a c t . " T h e R u s s i a n g o v e r n m e n t , " wrote the " T e m p s , " " h a s t r i e d not s o l o n g a g o t o s e l l t h e P e t e r s b u r g - M o s c o w R a i l r o a d . In t h i s it did not s u c c e e d , but t h r o u g h t h e s a l e of i t s A m e r i c a n p o s s e s s i o n s it w i l l e n r i c h i t s t r e a s u r y by 7 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s , and t h e r e a r e a l s o r u m o r s t h a t R u s s i a h a s e n t e r e d i n t o n e g o t i a t i o n s with t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s on t h e s u b j e c t of a loan. T h e t r e a t y f o r t h e s a l e of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s to t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n 1 8 6 7 w a s d r a f t e d in t h e g r e a t e s t of h a s t e . " T h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s in w h i c h t h e d e a l w a s c o n s u m m a t e d s e e m t o i n d i c a t e a r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e f u t u r e i m p o r t a n c e of

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that inhospitable portion of the N o r t h A m e r i c a n continent, " notes A . Babin.^^ T h e son of S e c r e t a r y of State S e w a r d d e s c r i b e s in his m e m o i r s the f o l l o w i n g incident that took place during the drafting of the t r e a t y : " O n F r i d a y evening, M a r c h 29, Seward was playing whist in his p a r l o r with s o m e of his f a m i l y , when the Russian M i n i s t e r was announced. I have a dispatch, M r . S e w a r d , f r o m m y G o v e r n m e n t by c a b l e . The E m p e r o r g i v e s his consent to the c e s s i o n . T o m o r r o w , if you l i k e , I w i l l c o m e to the department, and we can enter upon the t r e a t y . ' " In r e p l y to the n e w s , a c c o r d i n g to S e w a r d ' s son, " S e w a r d . . .pushed away the whist t a b l e , saying: ' W h y wait t i l l t o m o r r o w , M r . Stoeckl? L e t us make the t r e a t y tonight. "76 T h e s e c r e t a r i e s w e r e summoned, and in the p r e s e n c e of C h a r l e s Sumner, chairman of the Senate F o r e i g n Relations C o m m i t t e e , the instrument was signed at 4 A . M . and sent to the Senate f o r a p p r o v a l . R u m o r s of the sale of the colonies to the United States p e r colated into the p r e s s even b e f o r e the t r e a t y was published. Some Russian p a p e r s , e s p e c i a l l y K r a y e v s k y ' s " G o l o s , " c a m e out with sharp c r i t i c i s m of the t r a n s a c t i o n . An e d i t o r i a l in " G o l o s " of M a r c h 25, 1867, had this to say: " T o d a y t h e r e a r e r u m o r s that they a r e selling the N i k o l a y e v s k a y a R a i l r o a d , t o m o r r o w they w i l l t e l l us that they a r e selling the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s . Who i s to a s s u r e us that day a f t e r t o m o r r o w those same r u m o r s w i l l not be selling the C r i m e a , T r a n s c a u c a s i a , the Baltic p r o v i n c e s ? T h e thing least l i k e l y to happen would be a shortage of e a g e r b u y e r s . A t the same t i m e " G o l o s " made the point that the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company did not m e r i t such t r e a t m e n t , and that the sum r e a l i z e d f r o m the c e s s i o n of the colonies was quite insignificant c o m p a r e d to t h e i r i n t r i n s i c v a l u e . T h i s e d i t o r i a l caught the eye of the c e n s o r . The c h a i r man of the St. P e t e r s b u r g C e n s o r s h i p C o m m i t t e e in a m e m o randum to the Main O f f i c e on A f f a i r s of the P r e s s quoted a number of p a s s a g e s f r o m the " G o l o s " e d i t o r i a l and o b s e r v e d that "although the p r e s s is not prohibited by c e n s o r s h i p r e g u lations f r o m discussing any steps taken by the g o v e r n m e n t , s t i l l , t h e r e i s no excuse w h a t s o e v e r f o r the e x p r e s s i o n of o f f e n s i v e opinions on m e a s u r e s by the established a u t h o r i t i e s , which, while not yet instituted, a r e known to be contemplated." In the e d i t o r i a l the c e n s o r d i s c e r n e d " s o m e t h i n g in the nature

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of a s t u d i e d i n c l i n a t i o n on t h e p a r t of t h e e d i t o r i a l o f f i c e of t h e p a p e r t o d i s a p p r o v e of t h e a c t i o n s of t h e g o v e r n m e n t . " On t h i s p o i n t t h e c e n s o r w o n t h e a g r e e m e n t of t h e c h a i r m a n of t h e C e n s o r s h i p C o m m i t t e e . T h i s m a r k e d t h e e n d of t h e " s e d i t i o u s " o p p o s i t i o n on t h e p a r t of t h e R u s s i a n p r e s s t o t h e s a l e of t h e c o l o n i e s . A s e c t i o n of t h e A m e r i c a n p r e s s w a s e v e n m o r e s t r e n u o u s l y o p p o s e d t o t h e p u r c h a s e of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s by t h e United S t a t e s . Only individual p a p e r s , e s p e c i a l l y the New Y o r k H e r a l d , g a v e m o r e o r l e s s a p o s i t i v e a p p r a i s a l of t h e event. " L o o k i n g a t t h e p r o p o s e d c e s s i o n of R u s s i a n A m e r i c a t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f r o m a c e r t a i n p o i n t of v i e w , " w r o t e t h e New York H e r a l d , "it s e e m s t r i f l i n g and u n i m p o r t a n t , but l o o k i n g a t i t f r o m a d i f f e r e n t p o i n t of v i e w , i t i s , w i t h o u t a d o u b t , o n e of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a n s a c t i o n s in m o d e r n t i m e s . " A n o t h e r a r t i c l e in t h e s a m e N e w Y o r k H e r a l d d w e l t a n e w o n t h e g r e a t p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e s a l e . " T h e c e s s i o n of t h a t r e g i o n , " w r o t e t h e N e w Y o r k H e r a l d , " p o i n t s t o t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of a p o l i t i c a l , c o m m e r c i a l , a n d m i l i t a r y a l l i a n c e , d e f e n s i v e and o f f e n s i v e , between R u s s i a and the United States a g a i n s t E n g l a n d a n d F r a n c e , t o b e f o l l o w e d i n t h e f u t u r e by t h e s e t t i n g up of a b a l a n c e of p o w e r in t h e t w o h e m i s p h e r e s . " T h e m a j o r i t y of A m e r i c a n n e w s p a p e r s , t h o u g h , t o o k a d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n , on p r i n c i p l e . O n e of t h e m o s t a u t h o r i t a t i v e n e w s p a p e r s , t h e N e w Y o r k T r i b u n e , c a m e out s h a r p l y a g a i n s t t h e p u r c h a s e of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s a n d s u b j e c t e d S e w a r d ' s p o l i c y i n t h e m a t t e r t o w i t h e r i n g c r i t i c i s m . In an a r t i c l e captioned " R u s s i a n C h a r l a t a n i s m , " the New York T r i b u n e g a v e a c a u s t i c p i c t u r e of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s a c c o r d i n g t o S e w a r d . " T o j u d g e by S e w a r d ' s d e s c r i p t i o n , " s a i d t h e N e w Y o r k T r i b u n e , " t h e r e i s n o p l a c e in t h e w o r l d l i k e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a . A p l e a s a n t c l i m a t e , quite w a r m in the w i n t e r , w h e r e the E s k i m o s a r e t r y i n g to find p r o t e c t i o n in t h e s h a d e f r o m t h e b u r n i n g h e a t of t h e A r c t i c s u m m e r . T h e countryside is c o v e r e d with p i n e - t r e e s and blooming g r e e n g a r d e n s along the c o a s t . T h e r e you can a l s o find v a s t f i e l d s of w h e a t a n d b a r l e y , h e r d s of s e a l s , w h i t e b e a r s , i c e b e r g s , w h a l e s , a n d g o l d v e i n s - - a l l t h e w a y up t o t h e 6 0 t h p a r a l l e l of n o r t h l a t i t u d e . A l l t h e c o m f o r t s a n d a l l t h e n e c e s s i t i e s of l i f e a r e g a t h e r e d i n o n e p l a c e a n d , a s M r . S e w a r d a s s u r e s u s , w e s h a l l f i n d t h e w h i t e b e a r l o l l i n g on a b e d of r o s e s ,

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b a r l e y r i p e n i n g on t h e i c e b e r g s , g r a s s g r o w i n g i n a b u n d a n c e in the f i e l d s , with E s k i m o s going s l e i g h - r i d i n g all o v e r the place."81 In a n o t h e r a r t i c l e on t h e s a m e t o p i c t h e N e w Y o r k T r i b u n e d e c l a r e d t h a t i n t h e w h o l e h i s t o r y of d i p l o m a c y " t h e r e h a s not b e e n a n o t h e r m a d folly like that a g r e e m e n t , and yet t h e r e is actual danger that the-plan will p a s s the Senate without publicity and without e x a m i n a t i o n and will i m m e d i a t e l y win the n e c e s s a r y r e c o g n i t i o n . T h e a r t i c l e s in t h e N e w Y o r k T r i b u n e , w h i c h a p p e a r e d on t h e e v e of t h e S e n a t e d i s c u s s i o n of t h e t r e a t y , d e m a n d e d t h e r e j e c t i o n of t h e a g r e e m e n t in s h a r p t e r m s . S a i d t h e N e w Y o r k T r i b u n e : " T h e S e c r e t a r y of S t a t e h a s s h y l y a n d t i m i d l y m a d e public the t r e a t y in his a d d r e s s , and h a s a s k e d t h e S e n a t e t o c o n f i r m i t a n d t h e p e o p l e t o a p p r o v e i t . We a r e c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e S e n a t e w i l l s a y ' N o . ' ; we k n o w t h a t the people will say ' N o . ' " 8 3 A c t u a l l y t h e S e n a t e d e b a t e on t h e t r e a t y a r o u s e d s o m e a p p r e h e n s i o n on t h e p a r t of t h e R u s s i a n e n v o y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . A t t h e e n d of M a r c h a n o f f i c i a l t e l e g r a m w a s s e n t a n n o u n c i n g t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s c o n s e n t t o t h e s a l e of t h e c o l o n i e s . It w a s s e n t j u s t a t t h a t t i m e , b e c a u s e a n e w C o n g r e s s w a s n o w i n s e s s i o n , t h e m a k e u p of w h i c h h e l d o u t t h e h o p e of a s o l u t i o n of t h e q u e s t i o n t h a t w o u l d be f a v o r a b l e t o R u s sia. In a l e t t e r d a t e d F e b r u a r y 24 ( M a r c h 8), 1 8 6 7 , t h a t i s t h r e e w e e k s b e f o r e t h e t r e a t y w a s d r a w n up, S t o e c k l w r o t e to R e i t e r n : " I t w o u l d h a v e b e e n i m p o s s i b l e f o r m e i n t h e m i d s t of t h e s t o r m y d e b a t e s i n t h e l a s t s e s s i o n of C o n g r e s s t o b e g i n n e g o t i a t i o n s t h a t c a l l f o r t h e h e i g h t of d i s c r e t i o n . T h e new C o n g r e s s , which m e t f o u r d a y s a g o , will not be so t u r b u l e n t , a n d I s h a l l t h e n be a b l e t o d e v o t e m y s e l f t o that q u e s t i o n . "84 B u t e v e n i n t h e c a s e of t h e n e w C o n g r e s s t h e r e w a s s o m e doubt that it would a p p r o v e the t r e a t y . "I a m not e v e n c e r t a i n , " w r o t e Stoeckl in the s a m e l e t t e r , " t h a t o u r p r o p o s i t i o n will be a c c e p t e d , and I a m anticipating g r e a t d i f f i c u l t i e s . " It s e e m e d , t h e n , a t t i m e s , e s p e c i a l l y w h e n t h e o p p o s i t i o n c a m p a i g n w a s l a u n c h e d in the n e w s p a p e r s , that the Senate m i g h t n o t a p p r o v e t h e t r e a t y a n d t h a t t h e a f f a i r m i g h t e n d up

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as an international scandal, since "Senate r e j e c t i o n of the t r e a t y , " as Stoeckl said, " w o u l d appear in the e y e s of the w o r l d as an act of i n c i v i l i t y t o w a r d s the I m p e r i a l g o v e r n m e n t . "85 H o w e v e r , e v e r y t h i n g ended happily. On A p r i l 18, 1867, N e w Style C a l e n d a r , the T r e a t y was approved by the Senate, by a vote of 37 to 2, in spite of the f a c t that it b o r e the signature of S e w a r d , "the i m p l a c a b l e f o e of t h r e e - f o u r t h s of the S e n a t o r s . " The approval was g i v e n f i r s t because, as Stoeckl c o r r e c t l y o b s e r v e d , " the opposition in the Senate was not against the t r e a t y , but against the S e c r e t a r y of State, " and, secondly, because, as an A m e r ican h i s t o r i a n r e m a r k e d , " t h e whole transaction was tainted w i t h . . . [ t h e ] a r o m a of c o r r u p t i o n . . . . " 8 6 So that, notwithstanding the f r e n z i e d campaign by the n e w s p a p e r s , t h e r e w e r e no untoward incidents. In Russian l i t e r a t u r e on the subject, which in g e n e r a l sheds v e r y l i t t l e light on the complications that d e v e l o p e d around the sale of the Russian colonies in A m e r i c a , the question of the b r i b e r y taking place during the consummation of the deal i s naturally passed o v e r in s i l e n c e . In spite of the r u m o r s circulating about it, even A m e r i c a n students of the subject h a v e , until a c e r t a i n t i m e , kept silent about this touchy question. " T h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s which led to the t r a n s f e r [of the R u s sian c o l o n i e s . - A u . ], " w r i t e s B a n c r o f t , the author of an i m portant A m e r i c a n w o r k on the h i s t o r y of A l a s k a , " a r e still supposed by many to be enshrouded in m y s t e r y , but I can a s s u r e the r e a d e r that t h e r e i s no m y s t e r y about i t . In dipl o m a t i c c i r c l e s , even so s i m p l e a transaction as buying a p i e c e of ground must not be a l l o w e d consummation without the usual w i s e winks, w h i s p e r i n g s , and c i r c u m l o c u t i o n . " 87 The question has f i n a l l y b e c o m e c l a r i f i e d with the publication of contributions by G o l d e r , 8 8 Dunning, 89 F a r r a r . 9 0 and other A m e r i c a n students of the p r o b l e m . M r . D u l l e s , whom we have quoted above, and whose w o r k , published in 1932, s u m m a r i z e s a l l the i n f o r m a t i o n found in the w o r k of his p r e d e c e s s o r s , states unequivocally that if s o m e m e m b e r s of C o n g r e s s had not been b r i b e d , the t r e a t y would m o s t l i k e l y have run into undesirable c o n g r e s s i o n a l opposition. He s a y s : "Just what happened we do not know, but no doubt e x i s t s as to the f a c t that b r i b e r y was used t o smooth the path of c o n g r e s s i o n a l action. The whole t r a n s action was tainted with that a r o m a of corruption which was to b e c o m e so f a m i l a r to p o s t - w a r W a s h i n g t o n . "91

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D a l l e s , c a l l i n g in q u e s t i o n s S e w a r d ' s a l l e g a t i o n t h a t t h e r e w e r e no a g r e e m e n t s a s t o t h e t r a n s f e r of a n y f u n d s , u t i l i z e s the same source m a t e r i a l discrediting Seward that other h i s t o r i a n s h a v e u s e d . He m e n t i o n s S t o e c k l ' s d i s p a t c h t o h i s g o v e r n m e n t t h a t h e h a d s p e n t t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of " t h e f u n d s allowed for s e c r e t d i s b u r s e m e n t s , " and finally, cites a r e v e a l i n g d o c u m e n t f o u n d a m o n g t h e p a p e r s of P r e s i d e n t J o h n s o n . In t h a t d o c u m e n t t h e P r e s i d e n t , r e f e r r i n g t o w h a t Seward had told h i m , r e l a t e s that the R u s s i a n a m b a s s a d o r , in connection with the A l a s k a t r e a t y , h a d paid $ 3 0 , 0 0 0 to J o h n W . F o r n e y , $ 2 0 , 000 t o R . J . W a l k e r a n d F . P . S t a n t o n , $ 1 0 , 0 0 0 to T h a d d e u s S t e v e n s , and $ 8 , 0 0 0 to N . P . B a n k s . What w a s it, h o w e v e r , that i m p e l l e d the p r e s s , the New Y o r k T r i b u n e i n p a r t i c u l a r , t o c o m e out s o v o c i f e r o u s l y a g a i n s t S e n a t e a p p r o v a l of t h e t r e a t y t h a t c l o s e d t h e d e á l f o r t h e p u r c h a s e of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s ? The m o s t likely explanantion is that the t r e a t y was brought up f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n by t h e S e n a t e on t h e e v e of e l e c t i o n s in c e r t a i n of t h e s t a t e s . T h e c a m p a i g n l a u n c h e d by a n u m b e r of n e w s p a p e r s , e s p e c i a l l y by the New Y o r k T r i b u n e , against t h e p u r c h a s e of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s , w a s e v i d e n t l y i n t e n d e d to h e l p t h e e l e c t i o n of t h o s e c a n d i d a t e s w h o , a m o n g t h e i r o t h e r c a m p a i g n s l o g a n s , voiced the d e m a n d t h a t not one cent b e a p p r o p r i a t e d f o r t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of n e w t e r r i t o r y . S u c h a n a p p r o p r i a t i o n , they m a i n t a i n e d , would add to the t a x - b u r d e n of t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n t s . N a t u r a l l y , u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s of a p o s t w a r d e p r e s s i o n , a slogan like that might have been p a r t i a l l y successful. Then t h e r e was a connection between the election campaign a n d t h e a t t a c k of t h e p r e s s on t h e p u r c h a s e of A l a s k a m a y b e s u r m i s e d on t h e b a s i s of a v e r y r e v e a l i n g p a r a g r a p h i n t h e New York H e r a l d . " T h e r e a r e r u m o r s , " says the " H e r a l d , " "to the effect t h a t t h e t r e a t y w i l l n o t b e a p p r o v e d . We s u s p e c t t h a t t h e r u m o r h a s b e e n s p r e a d f o r t h e p u r p o s e of a f f e c t i n g t h e e l e c t i o n s in C o n n e c t i c u t . But s i n c e the e l e c t i o n s t h e r e h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n h e l d , w e h o p e t h a t t h e S e n a t e w i l l be i n a p o s i t i o n t o d i s c u s s m o r e c a r e f u l l y t h e q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r o u r g r e a t r e p u b l i c s h o u l d s t o p on i t s c o u r s e of d e s t i n y o r s h o u l d go on f o r w a r d to the n o r t h pole i t s e l f . "92 But at t h e s a m e t i m e it m u s t be t a k e n into a c c o u n t t h a t t h e i d e a of e x p a n d i n g t h e t e r r i t o r y of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a t t h e e x p e n s e of A l a s k a w a s n o t w i t h o u t a c e r t a i n f a s c i n a t i o n

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t o s o m e i n f l u e n t i a l c i r c l e s . A n d t h e New Y o r k T r i b u n e res o r t s t o a r a t h e r c l u m s y i n s i n u a t i o n . It w r i t e s t h a t t h e T s a r of R u s s i a p u r p o r t e d l y i n t e n d e d t o m a k e a p r e s e n t of A l a s k a t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , s i n c e h e h a d no u s e f o r i t a n y w a y a n d s i n c e it b r o u g h t h i m n o t h i n g but t r o u b l e . " T h a t i s o b v i o u s , " a s s e r t s t h e New Y o r k T r i b u n e . "And it is j u s t a s o b v i o u s , " c o n t i n u e s t h e p a p e r , " t h a t S e c r e t a r y of S t a t e S e w a r d k n e w about it. Unfortunately f o r our t r e a s u r y and f o r our t a x p a y e r s , it i s i m p o s s i b l e t o s e c u r e a n y f a m e in d i p l o m a c y by r e c e i v i n g a s i m p l e g i f t . I n s t e a d of a n n o u n c i n g t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of a t e r r i t o r y a p t t o f a l l i n t o o u r h a n d s in t h e f o r m of a s s i s t a n c e to the R u s s i a n t r e a s u r y , M r . S e w a r d is conducting n e g o t i a t i o n s a b o u t i t , s q u a n d e r i n g a s u m of t e n m i l l i o n d o l l a r s , m y s t e r i o u s l y c l o t h i n g t h e w h o l e d e a l in a s e c r e t t r e a t y , then suddenly m a k i n g his a p p e a r a n c e in the Senate with i t , a f t e r t h e c o n c l u s i o n of t h e r e g u l a r s e s s i o n of C o n g r e s s a n d u r g i n g t h e i m m e d i a t e a p p r o v a l of t h e t r e a t y . " 9 3 T h e a p p e a l t o t h e t a x p a y e r s in t h e a b o v e p a r a g r a p h d o e s not s e e m t o us t o h a v e b e e n a c c i d e n t a l . It w a s t h o s e t a x p a y e r s w h o w e r e a f r a i d t h a t t h e i r p o c k e t b o o k s w o u l d be a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d by n e w t e r r i t o r i a l a c q u i s i t i o n s . T h e f u r t h e r p r o m u l g a t i o n of t h e t r e a t y p r o c e e d e d w i t h o u t u n d u e d e l a y . On M a y 3 (15) t h e c o n v e n t i o n w a s r a t i f i e d by t h e T s a r . On J u n e 8 (20), 1 8 6 7 , t h e e x c h a n g e of r a t i f i c a t i o n s t o o k p l a c e i n W a s h i n g t o n , a n d on O c t o b e r 7 (19) t h e g o v e r n m e n t c o m m i s s i o n e r s a r r i v e d at Sitka. T h a t s a m e day the R u s s i a n flag w a s hauled down. T o g e t h e r with the t e r r i t o r y , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h A r t i c l e II of t h e t r e a t y , r e c e i v e d t i t l e t o a l l b u i l d i n g s not p r i v a t e l y o w n e d . B u t s i n c e t h e r e w e r e n o g o v e r n m e n t b u i l d i n g s in t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s , the United S t a t e s w a s given all the buildings belonging to the Russian-American Company.

CONCLUSION " T H E T S A R I S T G O V E R N M E N T h a s t r i e d f o r c e n t u r i e s to gain p o s s e s s i o n both of Constantinople and of an e v e r - i n c r e a s ing portion of A s i a , p u r s u i n g the a p p r o p r i a t e policy in e v e r y c a s e and utilizing e v e r y kind of contradiction and conflict a r i s i n g among the g r e a t p o w e r s . By s e i z i n g a b a s e on the w e s t c o a s t of North A m e r i c a , t s a r i s t R u s s i a was trying to f u r t h e r her a s p i r a t i o n s f o r e x pansion in the w e s t e r n h e m i s p h e r e . But when R u s s i a encountered en route a powerful opponent in the p e r s o n of E n g l a n d , and then c l a s h e d with a r i s i n g g r e a t p o w e r , the United S t a t e s , she finally abandoned her fight for consolidating her influence on the North A m e r i c a n continent. A glance at the m a p will s u f f i c e to show that the d e f e n s e and maintenance of t h o s e r e m o t e outposts r e q u i r e l a r g e f o r c e s and a m p l e r e s o u r c e s . But R u s s i a ' s attention, beginning with the 1 8 4 0 ' s , w a s r i v e t e d on those p r o b l e m s on the E u r o p e a n and A s i a t i c m a i n l a n d s that w e r e of p r i m e i m p o r tance to h e r . She w a s f o r c e d to renounce all f u r t h e r e x p a n sion in the w e s t e r n h e m i s p h e r e and, consequently, to a b a n don her c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a which she had e s t a b l i s h e d a s b a s e s for such e x p a n s i o n ; R u s s i a ' s expansion stopped at the w e s t c o a s t of the P a c i f i c . It was on this natural f r o n t i e r which o f f e r e d an outlet to the open s e a that R u s s i a w a s d e t e r mined to defend her vital i n t e r e s t s . The R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , an o r g a n i z a t i o n that w a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a c e r t a i n p e r i o d of h i s t o r y , played its p a r t in that e x p a n s i o n . The t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t was able to m a k e an attempt to such f a r - r e a c h i n g expansion without p r e cipitating international c o m p l i c a t i o n s , only under the c o v e r of an o r g a n i z a t i o n that w a s p r i v a t e in f o r m but g o v e r n m e n t a l in s u b s t a n c e . The t s a r i s t government a c t e d c a u t i o u s l y . When it b e c a m e c l e a r that any f u r t h e r expansion w a s i m p o s s i b l e , t h e r e w a s nothing e a s i e r to do than to liquidate the C o m p a n y ; and it w a s even p o s s i b l e to a c c o m p l i s h the s a l e of the c o l o n i e s , a s we have s e e n , with c e r t a i n c o m p e n s a t o r y benefits in the international f i e l d . 273

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T h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e C o m p a n y w a s of c o m p a r a t i v e s h o r t d u r a t i o n . I t s d e s t i n y w a s p r e d e t e r m i n e d . In t h e c o n d i t i o n s of d e v e l o p i n g c a p i t a l i s m t h e r e w a s n o r o o m f o r s t a t e m o n o p o l i e s of t h a t k i n d . In t h e c o u r s e of a f e w d e c a d e s t h e P a c i f i c O c e a n b e c a m e t h e b a t t l e f i e l d of s t a t e s t h a t h a d b e c o m e i m p e r i a l i s t i c . A n e w c o m p l e x of p r o b l e m s b e g a n t o a s s u m e shape in that a r e a , and t s a r i s t R u s s i a t a k e s h e r place among t h e p l u n d e r e r s , e n t e r i n g on a n e w s t a g e of t h e s a m e c o n f l i c t r i g h t on h e r own e a s t e r n b o r d e r s . It w a s n o t , h o w e v e r , o n l y i n t h e u n s u c c e s s f u l a t t e m p t m a d e b y t h e t s a r i s t g o v e r n m e n t t o e x p a n d on t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i nent that the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company played its p a r t . In d e s c r i b i n g t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e E a s t I n d i a C o m p a n y M a r x h a d t h i s t o s a y : " T h e p a g e s of h i s t o r y t h a t r e l a t e t o B r i t i s h r u l e i n I n d i a t e l l of a l m o s t n o t h i n g e x c e p t w r a c k and ruin; t h e i r constructive work is s c a r c e l y visible through t h e p i l e of r u b b l e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h a t c o n s t r u c t i v e w o r k h a s b e g u n . E l e m e n t s of s u c h c o n s t r u c t i v e w o r k w e r e a l s o p r e s e n t in t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a . By s c a t t e r i n g t h e A l e u t s a l o n g t h e w h o l e c o a s t a n d by making them virtually its slaves, the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company civilized t h e m to a certain extent. Under the C o m p a n y ' s d i r e c t i o n , a c e r t a i n p r o p o r t i o n of t h e n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n a c q u i r e d special s k i l l s . The a r e a , thanks to the C o m p a n y ' s intensive c o m m e r c i a l a c t i v i t i e s , was linked with all the f o r w a r d n a t i o n s , w i t h t h e w h o l e w o r l d of t r a d e . In a n a l y z i n g t h e p a r t p l a y e d by t s a r i s t R u s s i a i n t h e O r i ent and in c o m p a r i n g R u s s i a colonization with P o l i s h c o l o n i zation, Engels wrote to Marx: " . . . R u s s i a is actually playing a p r o g r e s s i v e r o l e with r e s p e c t t o t h e O r i e n t . In s p i t e of a l l i t s l o a t h s o m e n e s s and Slavic filth, R u s s i a n domination· is playing a civilizing r o l e i n t h e a r e a s of t h e B l a c k S e a , t h e C a s p i a n S e a , C e n t r a l A s i a , a s i n t h e c a s e of t h e B a s h k i r s a n d T a t a r s . A n d R u s s i a h a s a b s o r b e d m a n y m o r e e l e m e n t s of e n l i g h t e n m e n t a n d of i n d u s t r y i n p a r t i c u l a r t h a n a l l of P o l a n d , b y n a t u r e h a u g h t y a n d l a z y . R u s s i a h a s i t a l l o v e r P o l a n d by t h e v e r y fact that the R u s s i a n nobility, beginning with the T s a r and P r i n c e Demidov and ending with the l e a s t i m p o r t a n t boyar of t h e f o u r t e e n t h r a n k w h o i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d o n l y b y h i s noble birth, m a n u f a c t u r e s , s p e c u l a t e s , swindles, t a k e s b r i b e s , a n d i s m i x e d up i n a l l s o r t s of C h r i s t i a n a n d Jewish transactions . " 3

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T h i s was a step f o r w a r d , t h i s was p r o g r e s s , but the s o r t of p r o g r e s s that i s p e c u l i a r to a c a p i t a l i s t i c w o r l d . T h e Company o r g a n i z e d a whole s e r i e s of voyages around the w o r l d . It fitted out t h i r t e e n r o u n d - t h e - w o r l d expeditions in the p e r i o d between 1804 ( K r u s e n s t e r n ' s expedition) and 1840 ( Z a r e m b o ' s expedition). T h e s e expeditions a r e of v e r y g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e in the h i s t o r y of g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s c o v e r i e s . T h e y e n r i c h e d the s c i e n c e s of c a r t o g r a p h y , o c e a n o g r a p h y , and a n u m b e r of other r e l a t e d f i e l d s of knowledge. T h e r e sults of all t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s b e c a m e , within a s h o r t t i m e , the common p r o p e r t y of u n i v e r s a l s c i e n c e . On the b a s i s of r e s e a r c h done by the p r e c e d i n g e x p e d i t i o n s , K a s h e v a r o v was able in 1847 to c o m p o s e new m a p s of the s h o r e s of the P a c i f i c , and in 1852 T e b e n k o v was able to i s s u e his " A t l a s s e v e r o zapadnykh b e r e g o v A m e r i k i , o s t r o v o v Aleutskikh i nekotorykh m e s t S e v e r n o v o Tikhovo okeana" (Atlas of the n o r t h w e s t e r n s h o r e s of A m e r i c a , the Aleutian I s l a n d s , and s o m e p l a c e s in the North P a c i f i c ) , with a supplement of hydrographie o b s e r v a t i o n s . As c a r t o g r a p h e r s who a r e s p e c i a l i s t s in t h e i r f i e l d have s a i d , the R u s s i a n m a p s and a t l a s e s of the P a c i f i c , including the c o a s t of A m e r i c a , w e r e e x e c u t e d i n such a way " a s to a r o u s e even today the envy of many p l a c e s on the globe."4 But the p o s i t i v e a s p e c t s of the a c t i v i t y of the Company a r e not l i m i t e d to the civilizing r o l e (pointed out by E n g e l s ) that R u s s i a n expansion played in the O r i e n t a s a whole, nor to the r o u n d - t h e - w o r l d voyages and expeditions which, in the l i t e r a l s e n s e of the t e r m , opened up the n o r t h e r n p a r t of the P a c i f i c . T h e i m p o r t a n c e of the a c t i v i t y of the R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n Company i s m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e . T h e Company helped not only to d i s c o v e r that v a s t region but a l s o to s t r e n g t h e n R u s s i a n influence t h e r e ; it helped with the a c quisition of the west c o a s t of the P a c i f i c , of t h o s e n a t u r a l f r o n t i e r s w h e r e even today the U . S . S . R . , a g r e a t P a c i f i c p o w e r , i s keeping a watchful eye o v e r the vital i n t e r e s t s of her peoples.

NOTES

Preface 1. " R u s s i a n E x p a n s i o n to A m e r i c a : Its B i b l i o g r a p h i c a l F o u n d a t i o n s , " i n T h e P a p e r s of t h e B i b l i o g r a p h i c a l S o c i e t y of A m e r i c a , ( U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago P r e s s , 1931), Vol. XXV, pp. 111-129. Useful bibliographical i t e m s , e s p e c i a l l y o n m o r e r e c e n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s , w i l l b e f o u n d in S t u a r t R a m s a y T o m p k i n s , "Alaska: P r o m y s h l e n n i k and Sourdough" ( N o r m a n , U n i v e r s i t y of O k l a h o m a P r e s s , 1 9 4 5 ) , p p . 3 0 5 - 3 0 8 . 2. " R u s s k i e otkrytiia ν T i k h o m Okeane i Severnoi A m e r i k e ν XVIIIXIX v e k a k h " ( R u s s i a n D i s c o v e r i e s i n t h e P a c i f i c a n d m N o r t h A m e r i c a i n the E i g h t e e n t h and N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r i e s ) , M o s c o w , 1944, p . 6. Introduction 1. P . T i k h m e n e v , " I s t o r i c h e s k o e o b o z r e n i e o b r a z o v a n i i a R o s s i i s k o a m e r k i a n s k o i k o m p a n i i " ( H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w of t h e F o r m a t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company), St. P e t e r s b u r g , 1861-62. Author's Preface 1 . A c c o r d i n g to c e r t a i n s o u r c e s , no p r o v i s i o n w a s m a d e in the b u d g e t of t h e M i n i s t r y of F i n a n c e f o r t r a n s p o r t i n g t h e c o m p a n y a r c h i v e s , and the m a t e r i a l w a s left without any s u p e r v i s i o n . 2. F . A . G o l d e r , G u i d e to M a t e r i a l s f o r A m e r i c a n H i s t o r y in R u s s i a n A r c h i v e s , Washington, D . C . , 1917-(37). 3. P . Tikhmenev, "Istoricheskoe obozrenie obrazovaniia R o s s i i s k o A m e r i k a n s k o i k o m p a n i i i d e i s t v i i do n a s t o i a s h c h e v o v r e m e n i " ( H i s t o r i c a l S u r v e y of t h e F o r m a t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y a n d I t s A c t i v ities to the P r e s e n t T i m e ) , P t . I-II, St. P e t e r s b u r g , 1861-63. 4. S.S. Shashkov, "Rossiisko-amerikanskaia kompaniia, " Sobr. soch. , t . II ( T h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , i n H i s C o l l e c t e d W o r k s , V o l . I I ) , St. P e t e r s b u r g , 1898, pp. 632-652. Chapter I 1. la. S h t e r n b e r g , E t n o g r a f i i a , sb. "Tikhii o k e a n , " ízd. Akademn n a u k S S S R , ( E t h n o g r a p h y , in c o l l e c t i o n P a c i f i c O c e a n , p u b . by A c a d e m y of S c i e n c e s U . S . S . R . ) , 1 9 2 6 , p . 1 4 7 . 2. A r k h i v vnutrennei politiki, k u l ' t u r y i byta (AVPK ι B), L e n i n g r a d , f o n d N e p r e m e n n o v o s o v e t a ( A r c h i v e s of I n t e r n a l P o l i t i c s , C u l t u r e a n d W a y of L i f e , L e n i n g r a d , A r c h i v e s of P e r m a n e n t C o u n c i l ) , f i l e n o . 1 0 3 . ( F o o t n o t e r e f e r e n c e s t o a r c h i v e m a t e r i a l s in t h e R u s s i a n l a n g u a g e w i l l , a f t e r t h e f i r s t m e n t i o n , be g i v e n in E n g l i s h . - - E d . ) . 3 . W m . P e t t y , " T r a k t a t o n a l o g a k h i p o d a t i a k h " ( T r e a t i s e on T a x e s a n d C o n t r i b u t i o n s ) , in c o l l e c t i o n " M e r c a n t i l i s m , " L e n i n g r a d , 1935, p . 2 1 3 . 4. "Torguiushchee dvorianstvo, protivu polozhennoe dvorianstvu voenn o m u , ili dva r a s s u z h d e n n a o t o r n , s l u z h i t li to k b l a g o p o l u c h n u g o s u d a r stva, chtoby dvorianstvo vstupalo ν kupechestvo (Trading Nobility, Cont r a s t e d w i t h F i g h t i n g N o b i l i t y ; o r , T w o D i s c o u r s e s o n W h e t h e r It S e r v e s t h e W e l f a r e of t h e S t a t e f o r t h e N o b i l i t y t o E n t e r t h e M e r c h a n t C l a s s . St. P e t e r s b u r g ,

1766), p.

10. 277

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5. Torguiushchee dvorianstvo, " p. 58. 6 . " M o r s k o i i s t o r i c h e s k i i a r k h i v " (MIA) ( H i s t o r i c a l N a v a l A r c h i v e s , L e n i n g r a d , C o l l e c t i o n of C o u n t I . G . C h e r n y s h e v ) in f i l e n o . 4 4 . 7 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 2 . 8. P . Tikhmenev, "Istoricheskoe obozrenie obrazovaniia R o s s i i s k o a m e r i k a n s k o i k o m p a n i i i d e i s t v i i e e do n a s t o i a s h c h e v o v r o m o n i ( H i s t o r i c a l S u r v e y of t h e F o r m a t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y a n d of i t s A c t i v i t i e s t o t h e P r e s e n t T i m e , P t . II, S t . P e t e r s b u r g , 1863), S u p p l . p . 2 2 . In q u o t i n g f r o m d o c u m e n t s p u b l i s h e d by T i k h m e n e v I h a v e d i s r e g a r d e d , f o r t h e c o n v e n i e n c e of t h e r e a d e r , c e r t a i n o r t h o g r a p h i c p e c u l i a r i t i e s of t h e t e x t ; I h a v e s e p a r a t e d t h e c o n j u n c t i o n s a n d p r e p o s i t i o n s f r o m t h e v e r b s a n d , w h e r e n e c e s s a r y , h a v e put in m y own p u n c t u a t i o n . 9 . I q u o t e f r o m e x t r a c t s of a m a n u s c r i p t t r a n s l a t i o n c i t e d by a c o r r e s p o n d e n t of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y ( A V P K a n d B ) , A r c h i v e s of t h e C h a n c e r y of t h e P r o c u r a t o r - G e n e r a l of t h e S e n a t e , 1800, N o . 2 4 0 2 , 11. 1 3 - 2 4 . 10. Ibid. 1 1 . A V P K a n d B , A r c h i v e s of t h e C h a n c e r y of t h e P r o c u r a t o r - G e n e r a l of t h e S e n a t e , 1 8 0 0 , f i l e n o . 2 4 0 2 , l e t t e r of N . P . R e z a n o v , c o r r e s p o n d e n t of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , t o P . K h . O b o l ' i a n i n o v , P r o c u r a t o r - G e n e r a l of thei S e n a t e , d a t e d O c t o b e r 1, 1800, 11. 1 3 - 2 4 . 1 2 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 2 . 13. Ibid. 1 4 . C o m p l e t e e d i t i o n of l a w s , V o l . VII, N o . 4 3 4 8 . 15. Ibid, Vol. XV, No. 11489. 1 6 . " P o l i t i c h e s k i i opyt o k o m m e r t s i i " ( f e s s a i p o l i t i q u e s u r l e C o m m e r c e , t r a n s l a t e d by S . B a s h i l o v , S t . P e t e r s b u r g , 1 7 b « ; , p . 4 5 . 1 7 . I b i d , p p . 45 -46. 18. V. B e r k h . " K h r o n o l o g i c h e s k a i i a i s t o r i l a otkrytiia Aleutskikh o s t r o v o v , ili p o d v i g i r o s s i i s k o v o k u p e c h e s t v a " ( C h r o n o l o g i c a l H i s t o r y of t h e D i s c o v e r y of t h e A l e u t i a n I s l a n d s ; o r , T h e E x p l o i t s of t h e R u s s i a n M e r c h a n t C l a s s , S t . P e t e r s b u r g , 1823), p . 114. 19. Ibid. 20. Ibid, p . 113. C h a p t e r II 1. "31 p r i s u z h d e n i i e u c h r e z h d e n n y k h Ν . N . D e m i d o v y m n a g r a d " ( T h i r t y - o n e a w a r d s of p r i z e s e s t a b l i s h e d by N . N . D e m i d o v , S t . P e t e r s b u r g , 1882), p . 6 7 . A n a l y s i s of P . T i k h m e n e v ' s " I s t o r i c h e s k o e o b o z r e n i e o b r a z o v a n i i a R o s s i i s k o - a m e r i k a n s k o i k o m p a n i i . " C f . n o t e 1, c h a p t e r I . 2 . In 1791 w a s p u b l i s h e d t h e book " R o s s i i s k o v o k u p t s a î m e n i t o v o r y l s k o v o g r a z h d a n i n a G r i g o r ' i a S h e l i k h o v a p e r v o e s t r a n s t v o v a n i e s 1783 po 1787 god i z O k h o t s k a po V o s t o c h n o m u o k e a n u k a m e r i k a n s k i m b e r e g a m " ( T h e F i r s t V o y a g e of t h e R u s s i a n M e r c h a n t , H o n o r a r y C i t i z e n of R y l s k , G r i g o r i i S h e l i k h o v , 1783-1787 f r o m O k h o t s k on t h e E a s t e r n O c e a n t o t h e A m e r i c a n s h o r e s ) ; a n d in t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r , t h e book e n t i t l e d " R o s i i s k o v o kuptsa G r i g o r ' i a Shelikhova p r o d o l z h e n i e s t r a n s t v o v a n i a po V o s t o c h n o m u O k e a n u k A m e r i k a n s k i m b e r e g a m ν 1788 g o d u " ( C o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e V o y a g e of t h e R u s s i a n M e r c h a n t G r i g o r i i S h e l i k h o v on t h e E a s t e r n O c e a n t o t h e A m e r i c a n S h o r e s in 1 7 8 8 ) . S h e l i k h o v h i m s e l f did n o t t a k e p a r t in t h e s e c o n d v o y a g e , t h e s o - c a l l e d " c o n t i n u a t i o n . " T h e m e m o i r s t h a t w e r e p u b l i s h e d c o m p r i s e I z m a i l o v ' s a n d B o c h a r o v ' s j o u r n a l of t h e

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e x p e d i t i o n . S t i l l , b o t h t h e t e x t a n d t h e p r o v e n a n c e of t h e f i r s t book w h i c h d e a l s d i r e c t l y with Shelikhov's " v o y a g e , " long gave r i s e to a c e r t a i n s c e p t i c i s m . O b s c u r e , t o o , w a s t h e r o l e S h e l i k h o v p l a y e d in t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e w o r k f o r p u b l i c a t i o n . T h u s , T i k h m e n e v n o t e d a s e a r l y a s 1 8 6 1 , t h a t " h i s ( i . e . , S h e l i k h o v ' s ) j o u r n a l of t h e v o y a g e w a s , a s i s w e l l k n o w n , p u b l i s h e d w i t h o u t h i s k n o w l e d g e " ( p t . I, p . 8). A n u m b e r of A m e r i c a n s c h o l a r s , B a n c r o f t in p a r t i c u l a r , h a v e p o i n t e d out t h a t t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of S h e l i k h o v ' s v o y a g e c o n t a i n s w h o l e p a g e s w h i c h w e r e l i f t e d b o d i l y f r o m books about the Aleuts (for d e t a i l s c f . Shelikhov's Voyage to A l a s k a , a B i b l i o g r a p h i c a l " N o t e " by A v r a h m Y a r m o l i n s k y ) . B a n c r o f t a s s e r t s t h a t S h e l i k h o v ' s j o u r n a l w h i c h l a y a t t h e b a s e of t h e t e x t of t h e b o o k , h a d b e e n p r e s e n t e d by S h e l i k h o v to Y a k o b i i , t h e G o v e r n o r of I r k u t s k . A f t e r t h e g o v e r n o r h a d r e t i r e d , t h e j o u r n a l w a s p u r l o i n e d f r o m t h e c h a n c e r y by h i s s u c c e s s o r P i l a n d p u b l i s h e d " a g a i n s t t h e w i s h of t h e l a t e " S h e l i k h o v . We w e r e a b l e t o f i n d c o n f i r m a t i o n of t h e v i e w t h a t S h e l i k h o v ' s j o u r n a l w a s p u b l i s h e d a g a i n s t his will,in s o u r c e s r e l a t i n g to t h e y e a r 1798, which b e l o n g e d t o S h e l i k h o v ' s widow who w a s c o n v e r s a n t w i t h a l l h i s u n d e r t a k i n g s . The d o c u m e n t , which, at f i r s t g l a n c e , fully c o n f i r m s B a n c r o f t ' s o p i n i o n , i s a " M e m o r a n d u m on t h e Solid E s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , " p r e s e n t e d by t h e w i d o w S h e l i k h o v t o t h e B o a r d of C o m m e r c e on O c t o b e r 7, 1 7 9 8 . I q u o t e in f u l l § 7 of t h e m e m o r a n d u m : " A l t h o u g h a l l t h e a c t i v i t i e s a n d o p e r a t i o n s of t h e A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y a r e s u c h t h a t it w o u l d not h a r m t h e g l o r y of o u r n a t i o n f o r t h e m t o b e c o m e known to the whole p e o p l e , still, taking into c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e t h a t t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n s e c t i o n of A m e r i c a i s not y e t e f f e c t i v e l y consolidated, explored, or made completely submissive to the Russian s c e p t e r , a n d t h a t t h e E n g l i s h , out of envy a n d g r e e d , m a y s o m e t i m e s c r e a t e d i f f i c u l t i e s , t h i s m a t t e r m u s t , of c o u r s e , b e r e g a r d e d a s s o i m p o r t a n t , t h a t a l l t h e o p e r a t i o n s of t h e c o m p a n y a r e t o be c o n c e a l e d f o r a t i m e f r o m t h e p u b l i c , in o r d e r t h a t f o r e i g n e r s m a y n o t l e a r n t o o s o o n of t h e a c t i v i t i e s b e i n g c a r r i e d on in t h a t r e g i o n . W i t h t h i s p u r p o s e c o n s t a n t l y in m i n d , m y l a t e h u s b a n d did not v e n t u r e t o c o m e out b o a s t i n g b e f o r e t h e p u b l i c w i t h a n e d i t i o n of h i s j o u r n a l a b o u t h i s A m e r i c a n d i s c o v e r i e s . He m e r e l y f e l t it n e c e s s a r y t o p r e s e n t t h a t j o u r n a l t o t h e g o v e r n o r of I r k u t s k , i n a s m u c h a s h e h a d b e e n o r d e r e d s e c r e t l y t o b u r y in s o m e m a r k e d s p o t s a n u m b e r of p l a t e s w i t h t h e i n s c r i p t i o n t h a t t h e l a n d w a s a R u s s i a n p o s s e s s i o n . However, t h e r e w e r e d i s c o v e r e d among the publ i c s o m e l i t t l e p r i n t e d b o o k s , i s s u e d w i t h o u t t h e b e n e f i t of c e n s o r s h i p , u n d e r t h e t i t l e of ' S h e l i k h o v ' s T r a v e l s . L a t e r on p r i n t e d a c c o u n t s a p p e a r e d dealing with other p r i v a t e naval e x p l o r a t i o n s and d i s c o v e r i e s as w e l l a s t h e p o l i t i c a l i n t e n t i o n s of t h e C o u r t of a l l t h e R u s s i a s b e c a m e k n o w n t o f o r e i g n e r s , w h i l e w e , in r e t u r n , h a v e h a d only s c a n t y i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e m a n d t h e i r d i s c o v e r i e s , i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t i s l a c k i n g in m u c h that is n e c e s s a r y and i m p o r t a n t . T h i s h a p p e n e d , I b e l i e v e , b e c a u s e t h e d o i n g s of t h e C o m p a n y w e r e p a s s e d a l o n g f r o m g o v e r n m e n t t o g o v e r n m e n t , a n d b e c a m e known t o m a n y p e r s o n s . A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , t h o u g h , t h e C o m p a n y h a s b e e n put u n d e r t h e p a t r o n a g e of t h e S t a t e B o a r d of C o m m e r c e . S t i l l , w i t h a l l t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e h a n d s of m a n y p e r s o n s , a s e c r e t could h a r d l y r e m a i n so for long. Taking the l i b e r t y of e x p r e s s i n g m y s e l f m o s t h u m b l y on t h i s m a t t e r , I a m p r e s e n t i n g a l l the m a t e r i a l , as well as everything written above for the sagacious ex-

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a n i m a t i o n and b e n e v o l e n c e of your E x c e l l e n c y . " (MIA, G . G . K u s h e l e v C o l l e c t i o n , f i l e n o . 79, 1. 241 - 2 5 8 ) . Notwithstanding s u c h convincing c o r r o b o r a t i o n of B a n c r o f t ' s opinion, c e r t a i n p a r t s of h i s h y p o t h e s i s give r i s e to s u b s t a n t i a l d o u b t s . T h e f i r s t r e a s o n f o r s u c h doubts l i e s m the c i r c u m s t a n c e that two e d i t i o n s of the j o u r n a l c a m e out during S h e l i k h o v ' s l i f e t i m e , and that the o f f i c i a l s t a t e ment about the p u b l i c a t i o n of " S h e l i k h o v ' s T r a v e l s " s u p p o s e d l y a g a i n s t his will w a s not m a d e till s e v e n y e a r s a f t e r the event and t h r e e y e a r s a f t e r the a u t h o r ' s d e a t h . In any c a s e , to j u d g e by the s o u r c e m a t e r i a l at our d i s p o s a l , t h e r e w e r e no p r o t e s t s on the p a r t of Shelikhov or of h i s h e i r s until 1 7 9 8 . A l s o , Shelikhov l e a r n e d i m m e d i a t e l y of the p u b l i c a t i o n of his j o u r n a l . In one of the l e t t e r s of A . R a d i s h c h e v of I r k u t s k to Count V o r o n t s o v , d a t e d N o v e m b e r 14, 1791, that i s the y e a r that the f i r s t edition of the " T r a v e l s " a p p e a r e d , w e find the following bit of i n f o r m a t i o n : " I have m a d e the a c q u a i n t a n c e " w r i t e s R a d i s h c h e v , " o f M r . S h e l i k h o v , who h a s j u s t r e t u r n e d f r o m Okhotsk w h e r e he g o e s e v e r y s p r i n g to m e e t h i s v e s s e l s on t h e i r r e t u r n f r o m A m e r i c a . Your E x c e l l e n c y knows h i m and h a s r e a d the j o u r n a l of h i s t r a v e l s which h a s j u s t b e e n p r i n t e d in M o s c o w and with which he i s d i s p l e a s e d . " ( A r c h i v e s of Count V o r o n t s o v , v . V, p . 3 3 0 ; t r a n s l a t e d f r o m the F r e n c h . ) S o , to j u d g e by R a d i s h c h e v ' s l e t t e r , it i s a q u e s t i o n only of S h e l i k h o v ' s " b e i n g d i s p l e a s e d , " which, p e r h a p s , w a s r e l a t e d not to the m e r e f a c t of the p u b l i c a t i o n of the s u p p o s e d l y p u r l o i n e d j o u r n a l , but to the editing which h a d , a p p a r e n t l y , been e n t r u s t e d to s o m e o n e . A s to N a t a l y a S h e l i k h o v ' s s t a t e m e n t , that m a y hav been m a d e d u r i n g the b i t t e r b a t t l e of S h e l i k h o v ' s h e i r s f o r the p r i v i l e g e of e x c l u s i v e e x p l o i t a t i o n of the A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s . T h e s t a t e m e n t m a y have been m a d e to t u r n a s i d e the o b j e c t i o n s a g a i n s t the g r a n t i n g of s u c h p r i v i l e g e s to a p r i v a t e c o m p a n y , on the g r o u n d that it m i g h t l e a d , a s it had l e d once b e f o r e , to the divulging of s t a t e s e c r e t s . F u r t h e r m o r e , P i l , G o v e r n o r - G e n e r a l of I r k u t s k , whom B a n c r o f t s u s p e c t s of p u r l o i n i n g S h e l i k h o v ' s j o u r n a l , w a s one of the m o s t a c t i v e p r o p o n e n t s of g r a n t i n g Shelikhov e x c l u s i v e p r i v i l e g e s ; it i s doubtful whether he would have* p u b l i s h e d , a g a i n s t the a u t h o r ' s w i l l , a d o c u m e n t which might have h a r m e d Shelikhov in any w a y . 3. Cf. " V e d o m o s t ' m e k h a m , vyvezennym chastnymi kompaniami" ( I n f o r m a t i o n about f u r s e x p o r t e d by p r i v a t e c o m p a n i e s ) and " V e d o m o s t ' m e k h a m , vyvezennym kompanieiu Shelekhova i Golkova" (Information about f u r s e x p o r t e d by the S h e l i k h o v - G o l i k o v C o m p a n y ) , s u p p l e m e n t to V. B e r k h ' s o p . c i t . 4 . A r k h i v G o s u d a r s t v e n n o v o G e o g r a f i c h e s k o v o o b s h c h e s t v a , fond G . I V . I, p l a n u s t r o i s t v a k o m p a n n , p r e d l o z h e n n y i S h e l i k h o v y m ν 1787 g . ( A r c h i v e s of the S t a t e G e o g r a p h i c a l S o c i e t y , C o l l e c t i o n G . IV. I, p l a n f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g the c o m p a n y , p r o p o s e d by Shelikhov in 1 7 8 7 ) , 11. 4 - 7 . 5 . Ibid, petition of Shelikhov and G o l i k h o v to E m p r e s s C a t h e r i n e , F e b r u a r y , 1 7 8 8 , on 11. 4 7 - 5 0 . 6 . Ibid, 11. 4 - 7 . 7 . Ibid. 8 . Ibid, p e t i t i o n of Shelikhov and G o l i k o v to C a t h e r i n e , F e b r u a r y , 1788, on 11. 4 7 - 5 0 . 9 . C o m p l e t e edition of l a w s , V o l . X X I I , n o . 1 6 7 0 9 . 1 0 . Ibid, V o l . X V I I , n o . 1 2 5 8 9 . 11. O p . c i t . in note 3 5 , V o l . X X I I I , n o . 1 7 1 3 5 .

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281

12. M o r s k o i i s t o r i c h e s k o i a r k h i v ( H i s t o r i c a l Naval A r c h i v e s , MIA) G . G . K u s h e l e v C o l l e c t i o n , f i l e n o . 7 9 , l e t t e r of S h e l i k h o v t o B a r a n o v , d a t e d A u g u s t 9 , 1 7 9 4 , on 11. 3 4 - 4 2 . 1 3 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 4 , S h e l i k h o v ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t o G o v . - G e n . P i l of I r k u t s k of F e b r u a r y 1 1 , 1 7 9 0 , o n 11. 5 2 - 5 7 . 1 4 . I b i d , r e p o r t of G o v . - G e n . P i l of I r k u t s k t o C a t h e r i n e , 1 7 9 0 , o n 11. 8 9 - 9 9 . 15. Ibid. 1 6 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 8 , f i l e n o . 1 4 0 , l e t t e r of S h e l i k h o v t o B a r a n o v , d a t e d A u g u s t 9 , o n 11. 2 4 - 3 5 . 1 7 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 12 . 18. Ibid. 1 9 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 3 , f i l e n o . 1 4 0 , l e t t e r of S h e l i k h o v t o B a r a n o v , d a t e d A u g u s t 9 , 1 7 9 4 , o n 11. 2 4 - 3 5 . 2 0 . A V P K a n d B , A r c h i v e s of C h a n c e r y of t h e P r o c u r a t o r - G e n e r a l of the Senate, 1799, file no. 1672. 2 1 . A V P K a n d B , A r c h i v e s of P e r m a n e n t C o u n c i l , d o c . n o . 1 4 0 , 1. 2 . 22. Ibid. 2 3 . I b i d , f i l e n o . 1 7 6 , 1. 5 8 . 2 4 . Q u o t e d f r o m P . T i k h m e n e v , o p . c i t . , P t . II, s u p p l . p . 86. 25. A Shelikhov employee. 2 6 . O p . c i t . in note 24, p p . 4 1 - 4 2 . 2 7 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 3 , f i l e n o . 1 7 6 , m e m o r a n d u m of G . I . S h e l i k h o v ' s h e i r s t o t h e B o a r d of C o m m e r c e e n t i t l e d " O p r i t c h i n a k h s o e d i n e n n a A m e r i kanskoi kompanii s Irkutskoi, o s o s t o i a n i i p o s l e d n e i do s o e d i n e n n a ι o p o s l e d s t v i i a k h s o v r e m e n i s o e d i n e m i a " ( T h e R e a s o n of t h e U n i o n of t h e A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y w i t h t h e I r k u t s k C o m p a n y , t h e S i t u a t i o n of t h e L a t t e r P r i o r t o t h e U n i o n a n d t h e C o n s e q u e n c e s S i n c e t h e T i m e of t h e U n i o n ) , 1 7 9 9 , o n 11. 5 8 - 7 5 . 28. M a r x and E n g e l s , " S o c h i n e n i i a " ( W o r k s ) , Vol. IX, p . 332. 2 9 . M I A , G . G . K u s h e l e v C o l l e c t i o n , f i l e n o . 7 9 , 1. 9 5 . 30. Ibid. 31. MIA, F o n d G . G . K u s h e l e v a ( G . G . K u s h e l e v Collection) file n o . 79, M e m o r a n d u m of t h e B o a r d of C o m m e r c e , e n t i t l e d " O v r e d n o s t i m n o g i k h ν A m e r i k e k o m p a n i i i p o l ' z e o t s o e d i n e n i i a i k h v o e d i n o " (On t h e H a r m f u l n e s s of M a n y C o m p a n i e s i n A m e r i c a a n d o n t h e A d v a n t a g e s of C o m b i n i n g T h e m i n t o O n e ) , A u g u s t 5 , 1 7 9 7 , o n 11. 9 5 - 9 7 . 32. Ibid. 3 3 . A V P K : B , A r c h i v e s of t h e P e r m a n e n t C o u n c i l , f i l e n o . 1 7 6 , 1. 2 4 . 3 4 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 2 0 , 1 7 9 7 , f i l e n o . 2 0 3 , 11. 1 6 - 1 7 . 35. Arkhiv Instituta istorii Akademii Nauk, Materialy o R o s s i i s k o a m e r i k a n s k o i k o m p a n i i ( A r c h i v e s of t h e H i s t o r i c a l I n s t i t u t e of t h e A c a d e m y of S c i e n c e s , S o u r c e M a t e r i a l o n t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y ) , doc. no. 126. 36. A V P K and B, G . G . K u s h e l e v Collection, file n o . 79, " M e m o r i a l o sposobakh k prochnomu vosstanovleniiu Amerikanskoi kompanii" (Memor a n d u m C o n c e r n i n g t h e M e t h o d s f o r t h e S o l i d E s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y ) , O c t o b e r 7 , 1 7 9 8 , o n 11. 2 4 1 - 2 5 8 . 37. Ibid. 38. O p . c i t . in note 36, d o c . n o . 7. 39. Ibid, d o c . no. 8. 40. Ibid, d o c . no. 7.

282

N O T E S T O P A G E S 4 3 T O 60

41. A. Kotzebue, Das m e r k w ü r d i g s t e J a h r m e i n e s L e b e n s , Berlin, 1802, t . II, p . 1 4 9 . 4 2 . Op. c i t . in note 36. 4 3 . C o m p l e t e e d i t i o n of l a w s , V o l . X X V , n o . 1 9 0 3 0 . 4 4 . MIA, G . G . K u s h e l e v C o l l e c t i o n , d o c . n o . 79, " O b i a s n e n i e N . Shelikhovoi o pol'zakh u c h r e z h d a e m o i A m e r i k a n s k o i kompanii" (Madam N . S h e l i k h o v ' s e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e a d v a n t a g e s of t h e A m e r i c a n c o m p a n y t o b e f o u n d e d ) , o n 11. 2 3 9 - 2 4 0 . 4 5 . A V P K : B , A r c h i v e s of t h e P e r m a n e n t C o u n c i l , f i l e n o . 1 7 6 , m e m o r a n d u m of G . I . S h e l i k h o v ' s h e i r s t o t h e B o a r d of C o m m e r c e , e n t i t l e d "O pritchinakh soedineniia Amerikanskoi kompanii s Irkutskoii, o sostoianii p o s l e d n e i do soedineniia i o p o s l e d s t o i a k h so v r e m e n i soedineniia," 1 7 9 9 , o n 11. 5 8 - 7 5 . 4 6 . Op. c i t . in note 61. 4 7 . Op. c i t . in n o t e s 8 and 53. 4 8 . See P . T i k h m e n e v , o p . c i t . , P t . I, p . 70. 4 9 . A V P K a n d B , A r c h i v e s of t h e C h a n c e r y of t h e P r o c u r a t o r - G e n e r a l of t h e S e n a t e , 1 8 0 0 , f i l e n o . 2 4 0 4 , e n t i t l e d " O p i s a n i i e p e r v o n a c h a l ' n o v o osnovaniia nakhodiashcheisia pod v y s o c h a i s h i m e . i . v. pokrovitel ' s t v o m R o s s i i s k o - a m e r i k a n s k o i k o m p a n i i , n a s t o i a s h c h e v o onoi p o l o z h e n i i a i s r e d s t v k u s o v e r s h e n s t v o v a n i i u o n o i " ( D e s c r i p t i o n of t h e F i r s t B e g i n n i n g s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y u n d e r t h e P a t r o n a g e of H i s M a j e s t y , a b o u t i t s P r e s e n t C o n d i t i o n a n d t h e W a y s t o I m p r o v e I t " ) , w r i t t e n by N . P . R e z a n o v , O c t o b e r 1 0 , 1 8 0 0 , o n 11. 1 3 - 2 4 . 5 0 . I b i d , 1. 4 0 . 51. Op. c i t . in note 75. C h a p t e r III 1 . A r k h i v v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i ( A V P ) ( A r c h i v e s of F o r e i g n R e l a t i o n s ) M o s c o w , C o l l e c t i o n of M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , A s i a t i c D e p t . , 1 8 0 3 , f i l e n o . 1 1 , 1. 1 . 2. Ibid. 3 . I b i d , f i l e n o . 8 , 11. 2 - 5 . 4 . M a r x and E n g e l s , "Sochineniia" ( W o r k s ) , Vol. IX, p . 357. 5 . A V P K a n d B , A r c h i v e s of H i s M a j e s t y ' s o w n C h a n c e r y , 1 8 0 2 , f i l e no. 152. 6 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 1 , 1 8 0 5 , f i l e n o . 1 2 . 11. 4 - 5 . 7 . I b i d , f i l e n o . 8 , M e m o r a n d u m of t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y t o t h e C o n s u l - G e n e r a l i n t h e U . S . , o n 11. 1 8 - 2 8 . 8 . T h e d a t a a b o u t t h e s i z e of t h e R u s s i a n a n d t h e n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e s e t t l e m e n t s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y a n d o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e m a r e b o r r o w e d f r o m "Obozrenie sostoianiia i deistvii R o s s i i s k o a m e r i k a n s k o i k o m p a n i i s 1 7 9 7 d o 1 8 1 9 " ( S u r v e y of t h e C o n d i t i o n a n d O p e r a t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y of t h e G e n e r a l C h a n c e r y of t h e M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e , s e c . 2 , 1 8 1 9 , f i l e n o . 1 0 , o n 11. 7 - 8 3 . 9 . A N K H , A r c h i v e s of t h e G e n e r a l C h a n c e r y n a n c e , 2 n d d i v . , 1 8 1 9 , f i l e n o . 1 0 , 1. 4 9 . 10. Known a f t e r 1817 a s t h e N i z h n y - N o v g o r o d 1 1 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 8 6 . 1. 5 1 . 1 2 . A N K H , A r c h i v e s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n n o . 1, L e t t e r f r o m t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d t o A . A . t h e C o l o n i e s , 1 8 0 3 , o n 11. 7 2 - 8 3 .

of t h e M i n i s t r y of F i Fair--(Tr.). C o m p a n y , 1802, file B a r a n o v , G o v e r n o r of

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13. Arkhiv Gosudarvstvennovo geograficheskovo obshchestva (Archives of t h e S t a t e G e o g r a p h i c S o c i e t y ) , K . K h l e b n i k o v ' s M e m o i r s of A m e r i c a , pt. Ill, p. 208. 1 4 . A N K H , A r c h i v e s of t h e D e p a r t m e n t of M a n u f a c t u r e a n d D o m e s t i c C o m m e r c e , s e c t . 2, 2nd b u n d l e , 1 8 1 5 , f i l e n o . 2 3 7 , r e p o r t of t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d t o t h e M i n i s t r y of t h e I n t e r i o r , 1815, on 11. 3 8 - 4 3 . 15. Ibid. 1 6 . I b i d , 1 8 2 6 , f i l e n o . 7 0 6 , R e p o r t of t h e C o m p a n y D i r e c t o r I . P r o k o f y e v t o t h e g e n e r a l m e e t i n g of t h e s t o c k h o l d e r s , on 11. 9 3 - 1 1 0 . 1 7 . A r c h i v e s of t h e C h a n c e r y of t h e P r o c u r a t o r - G e n e r a l of t h e S e n a t e , 11. 4 0 - 4 1 . 1 8 . I b i d , 1. 2 4 . 1 9 . G e n e r a l A r c h i v e s of t h e C h a n c e r y of t h e M i n i s t r y of F i n a n c e , 1. 24 v. 2 0 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 13, V e s e l a g o C o l l e c t i o n , f i l e n o . 8, r e p o r t of t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d f o r 1807, on 11. 1 - 7 . 2 1 . By C o m p a n y c a l c u l a t i o n s , i t s c a p i t a l a t t h a t t i m e w a s 3 , 0 2 8 , 3 3 4 . 6 1 5 r uble s . 2 2 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 9 0 , V e s e l a g o C o l l e c t i o n , f i l e n o . 2 9 , r e p o r t of t h e C o m p a n y D i r e c t o r I . P r o k o f y e v , 1824, on 11. 1 - 1 2 . 23. Ibid. 24. Ibid. 2 5 . S u p p l . t o " M o s k o v s k i i a V e d o m o s t i , " ( M o s c o w N e w s ) , 1783, n o . 79, p . 311. 26. K . F . Ryleev, "Polnoe sobranie sochinenii" (Complete Collected W o r k s ) , 1934, p . 4 9 0 - 4 9 1 . 2 7 . A V P K a n d B , A r c h i v e s of t h e S t . P e t e r s b u r g C e n s o r s h i p C o m m i t t e e , 1 8 2 5 , f i l e n o . 2 0 6 7 7 8 , 1. 1 . 2 8 . " S e v e r n a i a p c h e l a , " ( N o r t h e r n B e e ) 1 8 6 1 , n o . 109, S . Y a n o v s k y ' s notes to T r i d e c h n y ' s a r t i c l e . 2 9 . I b i d , n o . 7 2 , r e v i e w of " M a t e r i a l y po i s t o r i i r u s s k i k h z a s e l e n i i po b e r e g a m V o s t o c h n o v o o k e a n a " ( M a t e r i a l s on t h e H i s t o r y of t h e R u s s i a n C o l o n i e s A l o n g t h e S h o r e s of t h e E a s t e r n S e a , s i g n e d by T r i d e c h n y ) . 3 0 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 14, 1 8 2 6 , f i l e n o . 7 0 6 , L o b a n o v ' s p e t i t i o n s a d d r e s s e d t o t h e T s a r , on 11. 9 3 - 1 1 0 . C h a p t e r IV 1 . P . T i k h m e n e v , o p . c i t . , p t . I, s u p p . , p . 4 1 . 2 . K . K h l e b n i k o v ' s m e m o i r s of A m e r i c a in " M a t e r i a l y d l i a i s t o r i i r u s s k i k h z a s e l e n i i po b e r e g a m V o s t o c h n o v o o k e a n a " ( S o u r c e M a t e r i a l f o r t h e H i s t o r y of t h e R u s s i a n S e t t l e m e n t s on t h e S h o r e s of t h e E a s t e r n Sea), Vol. Ill, St. P e t e r s b u r g , 1861, p . 88. 3 . A V P , A r c h i v e s of t h e C h a n c e r y of t h e M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , 1 8 1 7 , f i l e n o . 1 2 1 8 0 - 1 2 1 8 4 , 1. 3 1 . 4 . A r c h i v e s of t h e D e p a r t m e n t of M a n u f a c t u r e a n d D o m e s t i c C o m m e r c e , 1 8 1 1 , f i l e n o . 4 7 , M e m o r a n d u m of t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d t o t h e T s a r , D e c e m b e r 18, 1811, on 1. 1 - 4 . 5. Ibid. 6 . I b i d , l e t t e r of t h e M i n i s t e r of t h e I n t e r i o r , O . P . K o z o d a v l e v t o S t a t e C h a n c e l l o r N . P . R u m i a n t s e v , f i r s t half of 1812, on 11. 1 2 - 1 4 . 7 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 3, 1 8 1 9 , f i l e n o . 1 2 1 6 0 , 1. 9 . T r a n s l a t e d f r o m the F r e n c h .

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8 . I b i d , 1 8 1 5 , f i l e n o . 1 2 1 7 4 , 1. 3 3 . 9 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 14, c h a p t e r III, 1819, f i l e n o . 4 4 0 , V . G o l o v n i n ' s l e t t e r of S e p t e m b e r 10, 1 8 1 9 , t o t h e D i r e c t o r s of t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , on 11. 1 0 - 1 7 . 10. Ibid. 11. Ibid. 12. MIA, D o c u m e n t s f r o m v a r i o u s s o u r c e s , f i l e n o . 1 2 3 . 13. Ibid. 14. Ibid. 15. Ibid. 1 6 . C o m p l e t e e d i t i o n of L a w s , V o l . XXXVII, n o . 2 8 7 4 7 . 1 7 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 3 , 1 8 2 2 , f i l e n o . 3 6 4 5 , l e t t e r of S t a t e C h a n c e l l o r K . V . N e s s e l r o d e t o M i n i s t e r of t h e I n t e r i o r D . A . G u r y e v , of J u n e 3, 1 8 2 2 , on 11. 2 9 - 3 4 . [In t h e t e x t G u r y e v i s r e f e r r e d t o a s M i n i s t e r of Finance.--Translator's note.] 18. Ibid. 19. Ibid. 2 0 . B r i t i s h M i n i s t e r of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s . 2 1 . B a r r a l - M o n f e r r a t , De M o n r o ë à R o o s e v e l t 1 8 2 3 - 1 9 0 5 . P a r i s , 1 9 0 5 , p . 15 [ T r a n s l a t e d f r o m t h e F r e n c h by C . G . ] 2 2 . A r k h i v g r a f o v M o r d n i n o v y k h ( A r c h i v e s of t h e C o u n t s M o r d v i n o v ) , V o l . VI, S t . P e t e r s b u r g , 1902, p p . 6 4 2 - 6 4 3 . 2 3 . A r c h i v e s of t h e C h a n c e r y of t h e M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , 1823, f i l e n o . 3 6 4 6 , 1. 19. 2 4 . I b i d , 1. 2 1 . 25. Vospominaniia kn. E . P , Obolenskovo, "Obshchestvenne dvizheniia ν R o s s i i ν p e r v u i u p o l o v i n u XIX v e k a " ( M e m o i r s of Count E . P . O b o l e n s k y , in S o c i a l M o v e m e n t s in R u s s i a in t h e F i r s t Half of t h e N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y ) , V o l . I , S t . P e t e r s b u r g , 1905, p . 2 3 7 . 2 6 . A r c h i v e s of t h e C h a n c e r y of t h e M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , 1827, f i l e n o . 7 3 1 6 , l e t t e r of N . S . M o r d v i n o v t o K . V . N e s s e l r o d e , F e b r u a r y , 1 8 2 4 , on 11. 7 - 9 . 2 7 . I b i d , 1824, f i l e n o . 3 7 1 7 , l e t t e r of Κ . V . N e s s e l r o d e t o Ν . S. M o r d v i n o v , 1824, on 11. 2 1 - 2 6 . 2 8 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 2 2 , p p . 6 5 6 - 6 5 7 . 2 9 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 2 3 , 1 8 2 4 , f i l e n o . 3 6 5 0 , 1. 6 . 30. Ibid. 31. G o s u d a r s t v e n n y i a r k h i v f é o d a l ' n o - k r e p o s t n o i epokhi (GAFKE, State A r c h i v e s of t h e P e r i o d of F e u d a l i s m a n d S e r f d o m ) , M o s c o w , A r c h i v e s of t h e I n v e s t i g a t i n g C o m m i s s i o n , f i l e n o . 4 8 , 1. 2 2 8 . 3 2 . I b i d , 1. 2 4 0 . 3 3 . I b i d , 1. 2 4 2 . 34.

O p . c i t . in n o t e 2 3 , 1 8 2 4 , f i l e n o . 3 7 1 7 , 1. 2 1 .

Chapter V 1 . E x t r a c t f r o m L a n g s d o r f s j o u r n a l , " M a t e r i a l y dlia i s t o r i i r u s s k i k h z a s e l e n i i na b e r e g u Vostochnovo okeana" (Source M a t e r i a l for the H i s t o r y of t h e R u s s i a n C o l o n i e s of t h e E a s t e r n O c e a n ) , 1 8 6 1 , p t . I V , p . 1 8 7 . 2 . A r c h i v e s of t h e D e p a r t m e n t of M a n u f a c t u r e a n d D o m e s t i c C o m m e r c e , 1 8 2 6 , f i l e n o . 7 4 7 , 1. 4 . 3 . I b i d , 1813, f i l e n o . 1 4 3 , 1. 3 . 4 . Ibid.

N O T E S T O P A G E S 9 8 T O 109

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5 . I b i d , 1811 , f i l e n o . 3 8 , 1. 6 . 6. Ibid, 1 . 1 2 . 7 . O p . c i t . m n o t e 9 , C h a p t . I l l , 1. 5 5 . 8 . Q u o t e d f r o m t h e s u p p l e m e n t t o P t . II of Ρ . T i k h m e n e v , o p . c i t . , p. 210. 9 . I b i d , p . 221 . 10. K . F . Ryleev, " P o l n o e s ó b r a m e sochmenii" (Complete Collected W o r k s ) , A c a d e m i a , 1934, p. 491. 11. G A F K E , G o s u d a r s t v e n n y i a r k h i v , I . V . ( G o v e r n m e n t A r c h i v e s ) f i l e n o . 1 2 , 1. 6 6 . 1 2 . M . D o v n a r - Z a p o l ' s k i i , " M e m u a r y d e k a b r i s t o v " ( M e m o i r s of t h e D e c e m b r i s t s ) 1906, pp. 130-131. 1 3 . A V P K a n d B , A r c h i v e s of t h e S t a t e C o u n c i l , D e p a r t m e n t of E c o n o m y , 1 8 2 7 , f i l e n o . 2 3 , s p e c i a l o p i n i o n of C o u n t N . S . M o r d v m o v , o n 11. 6 - 1 6 . It i s d i f f i c u l t t o s a y t o w h a t e x t e n t t h e f i g u r e s c i t e d b y N . S . M o r d v m o v a r e t r u e to f a c t , s i n c e t h i s whole q u e s t i o n h a s not b e e n t r e a t e d at a l l i n h i s t o r i c a l l i t e r a t u r e . A t a n y r a t e , t h e c o r r e c t n e s s of t h e b a s i c c o n c l u s i o n s of M o r d v m o v w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n of R u s s i a ' s f o r e i g n t r a d e , is not open to q u e s t i o n . 14. Ibid. 1 5 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 2 , 1 8 1 5 , f i l e n o . 2 2 2 , m e m o r a n d u m of t h e D i r e c t o r s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y t o t h e M i n i s t e r of t h e I n t e r i o r , O . P . K o z o d a v l e v , of J u n e 1 2 , 1 8 1 7 , o n 11. 1 2 3 - 1 2 6 . 1 6 . A r c h i v e s of t h e I n s t i t u t e of H i s t o r y of t h e A c a d e m y of S c i e n c e s , M a t e r i a l s o n t h e H i s t o r y of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , d o c . n o . 4 9 . 17. Ibid, d o c . no. 44. 18. Ibid. 1 9 . " S o c h i n e n n a ι p e r e p i s k a , " ( W o r k s a n d C o r r e s p o n d e n c e ) 2nd e d i t i o n , K . F . R y l e e v a , e d i t e d by P . E f r e m o v . S t . P e t e r s b u r g , 1 8 7 4 , p p . 3 0 9 - 3 1 0 . 2 0 . " R u s s k i y e p r o p i l e i " ( R u s s i a n P r o p y l a e a ) V o l . II, p . 1 0 4 . 2 1 . N . I . G r e c h , " V o s p o m i n a n n a o m o e i z h i z m " ( M e m o i r s of M y L i f e ) , A c a d e m i a , 1930, p. 452. 2 2 . G A F K E , A r c h i v e s of t h e C o m m i s s i o n of I n q u i r y , 1 8 2 6 , f i l e n o . 7 8 , t e s t i m o n y of R o m a n o v , o n 11. 6 - 1 0 . 2 3 . " V o s s t a m e d e k a b r i s t o v " ( T h e D e c e m b r i s t s ' I n s u r r e c t i o n ) , v o l . I, T s e n t r a r k h i v . 1925, p. 21. 24. Ibid, p. 179. 2 5 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 1 6 3 , f i l e n o . 3 5 9 , 1. 121 . 2 6 . A V P K a n d B , A r c h i v e s of t h e S e n a t e , H e r a l d s ' C o l l e g e , u n n u m b e r e d file, entitled "Ob opeke nad l m u s c h c h e s t v o m Ryleeva" (Trusteeship Over R y l e y e v ' s P r o p e r t y ) , 1. 1 5 . 2 7 . O p . c i t . in note 23, p . 155. 2 8 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 21 , p . 4 4 2 . 2 9 . N . K o t l y a r e v s k y , " R y l e e v , " S t . P e t e r s b u r g , 1 9 0 8 , p p . 4 9 - 5 0 . In h i s d e s i r e t o p r o v e R y l e y e v ' s u t t e r l a c k of i n t e r e s t m t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t h e C o m p a n y and the l i m i t e d opportunities which his position o f f e r e d h i m , K o t l y a r e v s k y s o m e t i m e s f a l l s i n t o g r o s s e r r o r s . In h i s c o m m e n t on t h e p a r a g r a p h quoted above he h a s t h i s to say about R y l e y e v ' s w o r k f o r the C o m p a n y : " T h e s p h e r e of h i s a c t i v i t i e s w a s r a t h e r n a r r o w a n d p r e c i s e l y c i r c u m s c r i b e d . S c h n i t z l e r i s h a r d l y c o r r e c t w h e n h e s p e a k s of s o m e s o r t of p r o t e s t b y R y l e y e v a g a i n s t t h e i r r e m o v a b i l i t y of t h e D i r e c t o r s of t h e C o m p a n y a n d of a p r o p o s a l t h a t t h e y b e e l e c t e d a n n u a l l y . " B u t , m

286

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calling to w i t n e s s S c h n i t z l e r ' s w o r k ( J . H . S c h n i t z l e r , H i s t o i r e i n t i m e de l a R a s s i e , II, P a r i s , 1847), K o t l y a r e v s k y f a i l e d t o t a k e n o t i c e of t h e f a c t t h a t , in s p e a k i n g of R y l e y e v ' s p r o t e s t a p r o p o s of t h e i r r e m o v a b i l i t y of t h e D i r e c t o r s , S c h n i t z l e r h a d in m i n d not t h e C o m p a n y , but t h e N o r t h e r n S o c i e t y . A t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e p a r a g r a p h on w h i c h K o t l y a r e v s k y b a s e s h i s c o n c l u s i o n s l e a v e s no d o u b t on t h a t s c o r e . " B u t h i s [ i . e . , T r u b e t s k o y ' s . - - A u . ] d e p a r t u r e f o r K i e v . . .brought about R y l e y e v ' s b e c o m i n g a m e m b e r of t h e B o a r d of D i r e c t o r s (at t h e e n d of 1824), a n d f r o m t h a t t i m e on R e p u b l i c a n t e n d e n c i e s g a i n e d t h e u p p e r h a n d t h e r e . A p u p i l of t h e A m e r i c a n s c h o o l , R y l e y e v h a d s i g n a l i z e d h i s b e c o m i n g a m e m b e r of t h e C o u n c i l by p r o t e s t i n g a g a i n s t t h e i r r e m o v a b i l i t y of t h e D i r e c t o r s - - i n his opinion they should have been e l e c t e d annually" (Schnitzler, p . 80; t r a n s l a t e d f r o m t h e F r e n c h . — T r . ) It i s a b s o l u t e l y i n d i s p u t a b l e t h a t in t h e g i v e n c a s e it i s n o t a q u e s t i o n of t h e C o m p a n y but of t h e N o r t h e r n S o c i e t y , of w h i c h R y l e y e v w a s a l s o e l e c t e d D i r e c t o r , a n d t h a t t h e r e f e r e n c e t o t h e A m e r i c a n s c h o o l i s t o h i s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i d e a l s a n d not a t a l l to the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y . 3 0 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 1 0 . 3 1 . I b i d , p . 481 . 32. Ibid, p . 484. 3 3 . V o s p o m i n a n i i a K n . E . P . O b o l e n s k o g o ( M e m o i r s of C o u n t E . P . Obolensky), " O b s h c h e s t v e n n y e dvizheniia ν R o s s i i " (Social M o v e m e n t s in R u s s i a ) , V o l . I , S t . P e t e r s b u r g , 1 9 0 5 , p . 2 3 6 . 3 4 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 19, p p . 3 0 9 - 3 1 0 . 35. Ibid, p . 284. 3 6 . G A F K E , A r c h i v e s of t h e C o m m i s s i o n of I n q u i r y , f i l e n o . 3 5 8 , 1. 3 2 . 3 7 . M I A , A r c h i v e s of t h e N a v y D e p a r t m e n t , 1 8 2 2 , f i l e n o . 2 5 9 5 , 1. 4 . 3 8 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 3 6 , f i l e n o . 78, 11. 6 - 1 0 . 3 9 . C f . B a r o n S t e i n g e l ' s m e m o i r s in " O b s h c h e s t v e n n y e d v i z h e n i i a ν R o s s i i " (Social M o v e m e n t s in R u s s i a ) , V o l . 1 , p . 3 7 9 . 4 0 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 12, p . 165. 41 . R y l e y e v a n d S o m o v l i v e d in t h e C o m p a n y b u i l d i n g . A . B e s t u z h e v l i v e d in a r o o m in S o m o v ' s a p a r t m e n t . S t e i n g e l a l s o s t o p p e d off t h e r e on his r e t u r n f r o m St. P e t e r s b u r g . 4 2 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 12, p . 1 8 7 . [ E m p h a s i s m i n e . - - A u . ] 43. M. Azadovskii, 14-e dekabria ν p i s ' m a k h A. E . Izmailova, " P a m i a t i d e k a b r i s t o v " ( D e c e m b e r 14 in t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e of A . E . I z m a i l o v , in "In M e m o r y of t h e D e c e m b r i s t s " ) , L e n i n g r a d , 1 9 2 6 , A k a d e m i i a N a u k SSSR, V o l . I , p . 2 4 2 . 4 4 . D . Z a v a l i s h i n , " Z a p i s k i d e k a b r i s t a " ( T h e M e m o i r s of a D e c e m b r i s t ) , St. P e t e r s b u r g , 1906, p . 88. 4 5 . A N K H , A r c h i v e s of E . F . K a n k r i n , f i l e n o . 3 5 , 1. 1 2 . 4 6 . Ibid. 4 7 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 4 4 , p . 9 1 . 4 8 . A V P K a n d Β A r c h i v e s of t h e C o u n c i l of S t a t e , D e p a r t m e n t of E c o n o m y , 1 8 4 1 , d o c . ' n o . 3 9 1 4 , d r a f t f o r t h e n e w c h a r t e r of t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , on 11. 1 2 3 - 1 2 4 . 4 9 . M a r x a n d E n g e l s , " S o c h i n e n i i a " ( W o r k s ) , V o l . IX, p . 3 5 3 . 50. Ibid, p . 332. 51. Ibid.

NOTES TO PAGES 118 TO 134

287

C h a p t e r VI 1. A r c h i v e s of the State G e o g r a p h i c a l S o c i e t y , IV, 1, S h e l i k h o v ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n to G o v . - G e n . P i l of I r k u t s k , on 11. 5 2 - 5 7 . 2 . Ibid, 1. 8 9 . 3 . A r c h i v e s of the Institute of H i s t o r y of the A c a d e m y of S c i e n c e s , M a t e r i a l s on the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , doc. n o . 183. 4 . P . T i k h m e n e v , P t . II, s a p p i , p . 2 6 0 . 5 . Ibid, p. 267. 6. Ibid, pp. 2 3 3 - 2 3 4 . 7. A V P , A r c h i v e s of the C h a n c e r y of the M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , 1823, f i l e no. 3645, 1. 116. 8. Ibid. 9. P . T i k h m e n e v , P t . I, p . 208. 10. That w a s the n a m e of the colony in C a l i f o r n i a . 11. H. B a n c r o f t , The W o r k s , Vol. XIX, C a l i f o r n i a , V o l . II, San F r a n c i s c o , 1885, p . 630. 1 2 . ANKH, A r c h i v e s of the D e p a r t m e n t of M a n u f a c t u r e and Domestic C o m m e r c e , 1819, f i l e no. 4 4 2 , Report of the Governing B o a r d of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company to the M i n i s t e r of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , August 13, 1817, on 11. 8 7 - 9 3 . 13. Op. c i t . in note 7, f i l e no. 3646, C o m m u n i c a t i o n of the State C h a n c e l l o r to the Governing B o a r d of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , D e c e m b e r 1, 1809, on 11. 2 5 - 2 6 . 14. Ibid, 1809, f i l e no. 12160, d r a f t of the i n s t r u c t i o n s to Count P a h l e n , 1809, on 11. 9 - 2 9 . • T r a n s l a t e d f r o m the F r e n c h . 1 5 . Ibid. 1 6 . C o m p l e t e edition of L a w s , Vol. XXXII, no. 25178. 17. A r c h i v e s of the State G e o g r a p h i c a l S o c i e t y , V e s e l a g o c o l l e c t i o n , f i l e no. 101, " I s t o r i c h e s k a y a z a p i s k a o s e l e n i i R o s s na b e r e g a k h Novovo Albiona" ( H i s t o r i c a l Note C o n c e r n i n g the Colony of R o s s on the S h o r e s of New A l b i o n ) , on 11. 1 - 4 . 18. The f i r s t " p r o c l a m a t i o n , " sent o v e r to C a l i f o r n i a with B a r a n o v in 1810, i s quoted in f u l l in V. P o t e k h i n ' s a r t i c l e , "Koloniia R o s s , " in " Zhurnal m a n u f a k t u r i t o r g o v l i , " 1859, Vol. VIII. 19. GAFKE, A r c h i v e s of the M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , P - 3 , 1816, f i l e no. 24, " P r o c l a m a t i o n of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , " 1813, on 11. 1 8 - 2 1 . 2 0 . Op. c i t . in note 12, 1819, f i l e no. 4 4 2 , R e p o r t of the Governing B o a r d of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company to the M i n i s t e r of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , August 13, 1817, on 11. 8 7 - 9 3 . 2 1 . Ibid. 2 2 . Op. c i t . in note 7, 1823, f i l e no. 3646, 1. 2 4 . 2 3 . Ibid, f i l e n o . 8735, 1. 5. T r a n s l a t e d f r o m the F r e n c h . 2 4 . Ibid. 2 5 . Quoted f r o m T i k h m e n e v , P t . I, p . 2 2 2 . 2 6 . Op. c i t . in note 7, 1820, f i l e n o . 7562, 11. 5 4 - 5 5 . T r a n s l a t e d f r o m the F r e n c h . 2 7 . Ibid, 1823, f i l e n o . 8735, 1. 6. T r a n s l a t e d f r o m the F r e n c h . 2 8 . Op. c i t . in note 19, s e c t . XXIV, 1825, f i l e no. 68, 11. 1 1 - 1 2 . 2 9 . Ibid, 1. 10. 3 0 . Op. C i t . in note 12, 1823, f i l e no. 5 8 2 . 3 1 . Op. c i t . in note 7, 1823, f i l e n o . 3646, 1. 19.

288

N O T E S T O P A G E S 135 T O 150

32. D. Z a v a l i s h i n , " D é l o o kolonii R o s s " (The Matter of the Colony of R o s s ) , in " R u s s k u vestnik, " 1866, t . 62, p. 55. 33. Op. c i t . in note 19, f i l e no. 358, 1. 2. 34. Ibid, f i l e no. 47, 1. 17-18. 35. Ibid. 36. Ibid. 37. Ibid, 1. 171. [ E m p h a s i s mine . - - A u . ] 38. Ibid, f i l e no. 48, 1. 22. 39. Ibid, f i l e n o . 47, 1. 84-85. 40. Ibid, 11. 17-18. 41 . Ibid, f i l e no. 48, 1. 88. 42. One dessiatine is equivalent to 2 . 7 a c r e s . One sagene is equivalent to seven English f e e t . - - T r . 43. K . K h l e b m k o v ' s m e m o i r s about A m e r i c a , entitled " M a t e r i a l y dlia i s t o r i i russkikh z a s e l e n i i po b e r e g a m Vostochnovo okeana" ( M a t e r i a l f o r the H i s t o r y of the Russian Settlements on the Shores of the East Sea), V o l . I l l , St. P e t e r s b u r g , 1861, p. 152. 44. The a r e a s away f r o m the sea y i e l d e d a crop that was between ten and twenty t i m e s as l a r g e as that of the a r e a s belonging to R u s s i a . 45. A r c h i v e s of the State Geographical Society, V e s e l a g o C o l l e c t i o n , f i l e no. 58, R e p o r t of the G o v e r n o r of the Colonies to the Governing Board, A p r i l , 1834, on 11. 1 - 2 0 . 46. Ibid. 47. Op. c i t . m note 12, 1819, f i l e no. 409, 1. 35. 48. Op. c i t . in note 45, V e s e l a g o C o l l e c t i o n , f i l e no. 58, R e p o r t of the G o v e r n o r of the Colonies to the Governing B o a r d , A p r i l 1834, on U. 1-20. 49. One v e r s t is equivalent to about two-thirds of a m i l e . - - T r . 50. Op. c i t . in note 45, V e s e l a g o C o l l e c t i o n , f i l e no. 58, Report of the G o v e r n o r of the Colonies to the Governing B o a r d , A p r i l , 1834, on 11. 1 - 2 0 . 51. G o v e r n o r of the colonies of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company. 52. Op. c i t . m note 91, 1825, f i l e n o . 692, 1. 3. 53. Op. c i t . in note 45, V e s e l a g o C o l l e c t i o n , f i l e no. 58, R e p o r t of the G o v e r n o r of the Colonies to the Governing B o a r d , A p r i l 1834, on 11. 1 - 2 0 . 54. Ibid. 55. Ibid. 56. Op. c i t . in note 1 2, 1834, f i l e no. 61, 11. 161-162. 57. Op. c i t . in note 45, 1834, f i l e no. 1116, 1. 13. 58. Ibid, 1. 15. 59. Ibid, 1. 17. 60. Ibid, 1. 18. 61 . Op. cit. in note 12, 1836, f i l e no. 71, 1. 98. 62. Ibid. 63. Op. c i t . in note 45, V e s e l a g o C o l l e c t i o n , f i l e no. 62, 1. 1. 64. Ibid, 1.. 7. 65. Op. c i t . m note 12, 1839, f i l e no. 1305, 1. 11. 66. Ibid, f i l e no. 1305, R e p o r t of the Governing B o a r d of the R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n Company to the M i n i s t e r of Finance, March 31 , 1839, on 11. 1 -6 67. Ibid. 68. Op. c i t . in note 7, !1839, f i l e no. 217, Exchange with Washington, on 11..238-239. T r a n s l a t e d f r o m the FrenGh.

N O T E S T O P A G E S 151 T O

169

6 9 . Ibid, 1 8 4 8 , f i l e n o . 1 8 4 , E x c h a n g e with W a s h i n g t o n , T r a n s l a t e d f r o m the F r e n c h . 7 0 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 1 2 , 1 8 4 9 , f i l e n o . 1 7 2 7 , 1. 2 3 . 71 . I b i d , 1 . 5 1 .

¿89 on 1.

54.

C h a p t e r VII 1 . A N K H , A r c h i v e s of t h e D e p a r t m e n t of M a n u f a c t u r e a n d D o m e s t i c C o m m e r c e , 1 8 1 9 , f i l e n o . 4 0 6 , M e m o r a n d u m p r e s e n t e d by S c h e f f e r t o A l e x a n d e r I , F e b r u a r y 1 8 1 9 , on 11. 1 - 6 . 2 . O p . c i t . m n o t e 1, 1 8 1 9 , f i l e n o . 4 0 6 , e x t r a c t f r o m S c h e f f e r ' s j o u r n a l on h i s v i s i t t o t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s , on 1. 3 5 - 3 7 . 3 . I b i d , 1 8 1 7 , f i l e n o . 3 5 0 , 1. 4 2 . 4 . I b i d , 11. 1 9 - 2 0 . 5 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 1 , 1 8 1 9 , f i l e n o . 4 0 6 , e x t r a c t f r o m S c h e f f e r ' s j o u r n a l on h i s v i s i t t o t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s , on 11. 3 5 - 3 7 . 6 . " T h e Hawaiian S p e c t a t o r , " Vol. I, p. 5 0 , Honolulu, 1 8 3 8 . 7 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 1 , 1 8 1 7 , f i l e n o . 3 5 0 , 1. 2 0 . 8. O. Kotzebue, " P u t e s h e stvie ν Iuzhnyi okean ι ν B e r i n g o v p r o l i v dlia o t y s k a n i a s e v e r o - v o s t o c h n o v o m o r s k o v o p r o k h a d a , p r e d p r i m a t o e ν 1 8 1 5 , 1 8 1 6 , 1 8 1 7 , ι 1 81 8 g o d a k h i z h d i v e n i e m g r . N . P . R u m i a n t s o v a n a k o r a b l e R i u r i k e " ( V o y a g e t o t h e South S e a a n d t h e B e r i n g S t r a i t f o r t h e P u r p o s e of F i n d i n g t h e N o r t h - E a s t P a s s a g e , U n d e r t a k e n in t h e Y e a r s 1 8 1 5 , 1 8 1 6 , 1 8 1 7 , a n d 1 81 8 at t h e E x p e n s e of C o u n t N . P . R u m y a n t s o v on t h e S h i p " R i u n k " ), V o l . I I , S t . P e t e r s b u r g , 1 8 2 1 , p . 18. 9 . O p . c i t . m n o t e 1 , 1 8 1 7 , f i l e n o . 3 5 0 , 1. 1 2 . 1 0 . I b i d , 1. 1 3 . 1 1 . Ibid, 1 . 2 1 . 1 2 . Ibid, 1 . 3 8 . 1 3 . I b i d , 11. 3 2 - 3 3 . 1 4 . A b p e c i e s of e d i b l e r o o t . 1 5 . O p . c i t . m n o t e 1, 1 8 1 7 , f i l e 3 5 0 , 1. 4 3 . 1 6 . I b i d , 1 8 1 9 , f i l e n o . 4 0 6 , e x t r a c t f r o m S c h e f f e r ' s j o u r n a l on h i s v i s i t t o t h e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s , on 11. 3 5 - 3 7 . 1 7 . I b i d , 1 8 1 7 , f i l e n o . 3 5 0 , 1. 4 5 . 1 8 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 1 , 1 8 1 9 , f i l e n o . 4 0 6 , l e t t e r of t h e H e a d of t h e M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , L . V . N e s s e l r o d e , to t h e M i n i s t e r of t h e I n t e r i o r , O . P . K o z o d a v l e v , d a t e d J u n e 2 4 , 1 8 1 9 , on 11. 5 2 - 5 5 . 19. [K. Khlebnikov] Zhisneopisanie A . A . B a r a n o v a , glavnovo p r a v i t e l i a r o s s n s k i k h k o l o n i i ν A m e r i k e ( B i o g r a p h y of A . A . B a r a n o v , G o v e r n o r of the R u s s i a n C o l o n i e s in A m e r i c a ) , S t . P e t e r s b u r g , 1 8 3 5 , p . 1 6 8 . 2 0 . F r o m t h e l e t t e r s a n d t e s t i m o n y of t h e D e c e m b r i s t s , e d i t e d by A . K . B o r o z d i n , S t . P e t e r s b u r g , 1 9 0 6 , p . 7 1 . [ E m p h a s i s m i n e . - - Au . 1 2 1 . G A F K E , A r c h i v e s of t h e I n v e s t i g a t i o n C o m m i t t e e , f i l e n o . 4 7 , 1. 1 5 6 . 2 2 . Z a v a l i s h i n , " Z a p i s k i d e k a b r i s t a " ( T h e M e m o i r s of a D e c e m b r i s t ) , p. 229. 23. Ibid. 2 4 . G A F K E , A r c h i v e s of t h e C o m m i s s i o n of I n v e s t i g a t i o n , file n o . 4 8 , Z a v a l i s h i n ' s t e s t i m o n y of O c t o b e r 4 , 1 8 2 6 , 1. 1 5 6 . 2 5 . A V P K a n d B , A r c h i v e s of t h e S t a t e C o u n c i l , D e p a r t m e n t of E c o n o m y , 1 8 2 7 file n o . 2 3 , 1. 2 . 2 6 . Ibid, S e p a r a t e opinion of Count N . S . M o r d v i n o v , on 11. 6 - 1 6 .

290

N O T E S T O P A G E S 1 6 9 T O 190

2 7 . I b i d , In t h e t e x t : Isthmus). 28. Ibid. 29. Ibid.

"Panaminskii peresheek" [--Au.]

(Panaminian

C h a p t e r VIII 1 . A N K H , A r c h i v e s of t h e D e p a r t m e n t of M a n u f a c t u r e a n d D o m e s t i c C o m m e r c e , 1 8 1 8 , f i l e n o . 3 6 1 , 1. 3 0 . 2 . I b i d , 1. 3 1 . 3 . I b i d , 1 8 1 5 , f i l e n o . 2 2 2 , 1. 1 0 8 . 4 . I b i d , 1 8 3 5 , f i l e n o . 1 1 3 9 , 1. 3 . 5 . S u p p l e m e n t s t o t h e R e p o r t of t h e C o m m i t t e e o n t h e E s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o l o n i e s , S t . P e t e r s b u r g , 1 8 6 3 , s u p p l e m e n t I I I . 6. Ibid, p. 291. 7 . A N K H , A r c h i v e s of t h e C o m m e r c i a l D e p a r t m e n t , 1 8 0 4 , f i l e n o . 146, II. 2-3. 8. Ibid. 9 . A V P K a n d B , A r c h i v e s of t h e C h a n c e r y of t h e P r o s e c u t o r - G e n e r a l of t h e S e n a t e , 1 7 9 9 , f i l e n o . 1 6 7 2 . 10. Ibid. 1 1 . A r c h i v e s of t h e I n s t i t u t e of H i s t o r y of t h e A c a d e m y of S c i e n c e s , M a t e r i a l s o n t h e H i s t o r y of t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , f i l e n o . 1 4 . 1 2 . A V P K a n d B , A r c h i v e s of t h e S e n a t e , 5 t h D e p a r t m e n t , 1 8 2 1 , f i l e n o . 9 8 9 , e x t r a c t c o m p o s e d i n t h e C r i m i n a l C o u r t of J u s t i c e a t S t . P e t e r s b u r g , 1 8 1 6 , o n 11. 2 6 - 1 1 3 . 1 3 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 1 , 1 8 2 5 , f i l e n o . 2 2 2 , R e p o r t of t h e c o m m a n d a n t of O k h o t s k t o t h e M i n i s t r y of t h e I n t e r i o r , 1 8 1 5 , o n 11. 3 4 - 6 3 . 14. Ibid. 15. Q u o t e d f r o m Τ i k h m e n e v , o p . c i t . P t . II, s u p p l . , p . 4 9 . 1 6 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 1 , 1 8 1 2 , f i l e n o . 7 8 , 1. 2 . 1 7 . Q u o t e d f r o m K . K h l e b n i k o v , " M a t e r i a l s f o r t h e H i s t o r y of t h e R u s s i a n C o l o n i e s o n t h e S h o r e s of t h e E a s t e r n O c e a n , " p . 2 7 . 18. Ibid. 1 9 . A r c h i v e s of t h e S t a t e G e o g r a p h i c a l S o c i e t y , V e s e l a g o C o l l e c t i o n , f i l e n o . 5 8 , R e p o r t of t h e G o v e r n o r of t h e C o l o n i e s t o t h e G o v e r n i n g B o a r d , A p r i l 1 8 3 4 , o n 11. 1 - 2 0 . 20. Op. cit. in note 297, pp. 106-107. 2 1 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 1 , 1 8 2 6 , f i l e n o . 7 0 9 , 1. 9 . 2 2 . E x t r a c t f r o m t h e a c c o u n t of C a p t a i n K r u s e n s t e r n 1 s v o y a g e a r o u n d t h e w o r l d on t h e " N a d e z h d a " ( H o p e ) , 1 8 0 3 - 1 8 0 6 , in " M a t e r i a l y d l i a i s t o r i i r u s s k i k h z a s e l e n i i po b e r e g a m Vostochnovo okeana" ( M a t e r i a l s f o r the H i s t o r y of t h e R u s s i a n C o l o n i e s o n t h e S h o r e s of t h e E a s t e r n S e a ) , S t . P e t e r s b u r g , 1861, Vol. IV, p . 72. 2 3 . E x t r a c t f r o m L a n g s d o r f s m e m o i r s , in o p . c i t . a b o v e , p . 190. 2 4 . I v a n G r i g o r ' e v i c h P o l o m o s h n o v , a c l e r k of t h e C o m p a n y . 2 5 . Q u o t e d f r o m Τ i k h m e n e v , o p . c i t . , P t . II, s u p p l . , p . 95. 26. Ibid, p . 109. 2 7 . M e m o i r s of C a p t . G o l o v m n o n t h e p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y (1818), in o p . c i t . in n o t e 17, V o l . I, p . 5 3 . 28. K h o r u n z h i i , a c o r n e t in t h e C o s s a c k c a v a l r y . — T r . 2 9 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 1 2 . 30. Ibid.

N O T E S T O P A G E S 190 T O 202

291

31. Ibid. 32. Ibid. 3 3 . V . M . G o l o v n i n ' s r e m a r k s on K a m c h a t k a a n d R u s s i a n A m e r i c a in 1809, 1810, a n d 1 8 1 1 , in o p . c i t . in n o t e 1 2 , V o l . II, p . 7 9 . 34. Ibid. 3 5 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 12, 1. 1 7 2 . 3 6 . I b i d , 11. 2 7 0 - 2 7 1 . C h a p t e r IX 1 . E x t r a c t f r o m t h e t r a v e l n o t e s of S i m p s o n , D i r e c t o r of t h e H u d s o n B a y C o m p a n y , 1841 a n d 1842, in o p . c i t . in n o t e 3 1 4 , V o l . IV, p . 2 3 1 . 2 . M I A , A r c h i v e s of t h e C h a n c e r y of t h e M i n i s t r y of t h e N a v y , M a n a g i n g D i v i s i o n , 1 8 6 0 , f i l e n o . 1 6 2 , P t . 1, 1. 4 . 3. S . S . Shashkov, " R o s s i i s k o - a m e r i k a n s k a i a k o m p a n i i a " (The R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , ) in S o c h i n e n i i a ( W o r k s ) , V o l . II, S t . P e t e r s b u r g , 1898, p p . 6 3 3 - 6 3 4 . 4 . G A F K E , S t a t e A r c h i v e s , 1789, f i l e n o . 2 7 4 2 , 1. 4 . 5 . A . M a r k o v , " R u s s k i e na V o s t o c h n o m okeane" (The R u s s i a n s in the E a s t e r n Sea), M o s c o w , 1849, p . 53. 6 . A V P K a n d B , A r c h i v e s of t h e C h a n c e r y of t h e P r o c u r a t o r - G e n e r a l of t h e S e n a t e , 1797, f i l e n o . 2 0 3 . 7 . A r c h i v e s of t h e H i s t o r i c a l I n s t i t u t e of t h e A c a d e m y of S c i e n c e s , M a t e r i a l s on t h e h i s t o r y of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , d o c . n o . 1 8 1 . 8 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 6, 1 7 9 7 , f i l e n o . 2 0 3 . 9. Ibid. 1 0 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 7, d o c . n o . 1 8 1 . 11. Supplement to the C o m m i t t e e R e p o r t C o n c e r n i n g the E s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o l o n i e s , p . 7 8 . 12. " P r a v i l a dlia toenov, i z b i r a e m y k h ν s t a r s h i n y nad o b s h c h i m i s e l e n i i a m i aleut ν K a d i a k s k o m otdele" (Rules f o r the Toyons who have been S e l e c t e d a s E l d e r s o v e r t h e G e n e r a l S e t t l e m e n t s of A l e u t s in t h e K o d i a k D i v i s i o n ) , § 2 , i n o p . c i t . in n o t e 1 1 . 13. Ibid, §3. 14. " D v u k r a t n o e p u t e s h e s t v i e ν A m e r i k u m o r s k i k h o f i t s e r o v Khvostova i D a v y d o v a , p i s a n n o e s i m p o s l e d n i m " (Dual V o y a g e t o A m e r i c a of t h e N a v a l O f f i c e r s K h v o s t o v a n d D a v y d o v , w r i t t e n by t h e l a t t e r ) , S t . P e t e r s b u r g , P t . II, 1 8 1 2 , p . 1 1 6 . 15 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 1 1 , ρ . 6 1 . 16. Ibid, p p . 49-50. 1 7 . P a r k a , a g a r m e n t m a d e out of t h e s k i n s of b i r d s o r m a m m a l s . 1 8 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 14, p . 1 2 7 . 1 9 . S a r a n a - - M a r t a g ó n , o r T u r k ' s - c a p l i l y , t h e b u l b of t h e w i l d l i l y used in food. 20. Ishkat, about a chetverik (roughly a bushel). 2 1 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 14, p . 1 2 9 . 2 2 . " D o k l a d k o m i t e t a ob u s t r o i s t v e r u s s k i k h a m e r i k a n s k i k h k o l o n i i " ( R e p o r t of t h e C o m m i t t e e on t h e E s t a b l i s h m e n t of R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Colonies), St. P e t e r s b u r g , 1836, p . 108. 23. The r e f e r e n c e s a r e to banknotes. 2 4 . C f . o p . c i t . in n o t e 11, S u p p l . X I . 2 5 . A N K H , A r c h i v e s of t h e D e p a r t m e n t of M a n u f a c t u r e a n d D o m e s t i c C o m m e r c e , 1824, f i l e n o . 6 0 3 , 1. 1 9 .

292

N O T E S T O P A G E S 2 0 3 T O 221

2 6 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 1 4 , p . 7 4 . 2 7 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 2 5 , f i l e n o . 2 2 2 , 1. 6 9 . 28. Ibid, line 70. 29. Ibid. 30. Ibid. 3 1 . I b i d , 1 8 2 4 , f i l e n o . 6 3 5 , 1. 1 1 . 3 2 . A r c h i v e s of t h e S t a t e G e o g r a p h i c a l S o c i e t y , K . K h l e b n i k o v ' s Memoirs Concerning A m e r i c a , pp. 118-119. 3 3 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 2 5 , 1 8 2 4 , f i l e n o . 6 3 5 , 1. 1 1 . 3 4 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 32, V e s e l a g o C o l l e c t i o n , f i l e n o . 4 9 . 3 5 . O p . c i t . in note 14, p . 115. 36. Ibid, p. 121. 3 7 . A N K H , A r c h i v e s of t h e M i n i s t r y of F i n a n c e , S e c t . 2 , 1 8 1 9 , f i l e n o . 1 0 , 1. 4 7 . 3 8 . O p . c i t . in note 11, p . 6 6 . 39. Ibid, pp. 66-67. 4 0 . A V P , A r c h i v e s of t h e M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , P - 3 , 1 8 0 5 , f i l e n o . 7 , 1. 2 8 . 41 . B a r a n o v is r e f e r r i n g h e r e to t h e A l e u t s who w e r e w i t h h i m . 4 2 . A V P K a n d B , A r c h i v e s of t h e P e r m a n e n t C o u n c i l , f i l e n o . 1 4 0 , l e t t e r of A . A . B a r a n o v t o G . I . S h e l i k h o v , 1 7 9 2 , o n 11. 3 6 - 4 5 . 4 3 . O p . c i t . in note 11, p . 3 1 0 - 3 1 1 . 4 4 . A . M a r k o v , " R u s s k i y e na V o s t o c h n o m o k e a n e " (The R u s s i a n s in the E a s t e r n Sea), p . 35. 4 5 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 2 5 , 1 8 4 2 , f i l e n o . 1 4 3 0 , 1. 1 . 4 6 . I b i d , 1. 2 . 4 7 . I b i d , 1. 1 3 . 4 8 . Quoted f r o m T i k h m e n e v , op. c i t . , P t . II, s u p p l . , p. 103. 4 9 . A V P K a n d B , A r c h i v e s of t h e S y n o d C h a n c e r y , 1 8 0 9 , f i l e n o , 2 7 3 . 5 0 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 2 5 , 1 » 2 6 , f i l e n o . 7 3 8 , 1. 7 . 51 . A N K H , A r c h i v e s of t h e D e p a r t m e n t of C o m m e r c e , 1 8 0 9 , f i l e n o . 4 3 5 , 11. 3 - 4 . 5 2 . A V P K a n d B , A r c h i v e s of t h e S y n o d o n t h e K a m c h a t k a E p a r c h y , 1 8 4 7 , f i l e n o . 2 7 4 3 , 1. 1 8 . 5 3 . T i k h m e n e v , o p . c i t . P t . II, s u p p l e , p . 2 1 4 . 54. Ibid. 5 5 . O p . c i t . m n o t e 2 5 , 1 8 1 8 , f i l e n o . 2 2 2 , 1. 1 0 8 . 5 6 . I b i d , f i l e n o . 361 , 1. 1 . 5 7 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 1 1 , p . 3 5 . Chapter X 1 . A V P , A r c h i v e s of t h e C h a n c e r y of t h e M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , 1 8 3 9 , f i l e n o . 2 1 7 , 11. 2 3 8 - 2 3 9 . T r a n s l a t e d f r o m t h e F r e n c h . 2 . A N K H , A r c h i v e s of t h e G e n e r a l C h a n c e r y of t h e M i n i s t r y of F i n a n c e , 5 t h S e c r e t a r i a t , 1 8 6 6 , f i l e n o . 5 8 / 2 5 , L e t t e r of t h e M i n i s t e r of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , K . V . N e s s e l r o d e , t o t h e M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e E . F . K a n k r i n , d a t e d J a n u a r y 4 , 1 8 3 9 , o n 11. 3 2 - 3 8 . 3 . A V P K a n d B , A r c h i v e s of t h e S t a t e C o u n c i l , D e p a r t m e n t of E c o n o m i c s , 1 8 4 1 , f i l e n o . 3 9 1 4 , 1. 1 4 4 . 4 . A N K H , A r c h i v e s of t h e D e p a r t m e n t of M a n u f a c t u r e a n d D o m e s t i c C o m m e r c e , 1 8 4 9 , f i l e n o . 1 7 2 7 , 1. 5 1 . 5 . I b i d , 11. 5 1 - 5 2 .

N O T E S T O P A G E S 223 T O 242

293

6. Supplement to the C o m m i t t e e R e p o r t Concerning the Establishment of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o l o n i e s , p. 545. 7. Quoted f r o m T i k h m e n e v , op. c i t . , P t . II, p. 62. 8. Report of the C o m m i t t e e on the Establishment of the Russian colonies in A m e r i c a , p. 63. 9. A V P K and B, A r c h i v e s of the Department of Public Instruction, 1847, f i l e no. 3179, 1 . 1 1 . 10. Op. c i t . in note 6, p. 226. 11 . Beginning with the y e a r 1844 the number of shares was f i r m l y s t a b i l i z e d at 7,484. F r o m ¡845 on the shares w e r e f i g u r e d in s i l v e r . The value of a share of 500 rubles in banknotes, in round numbers, was f i g u r e d at 150 rubles, s i l v e r . 12. A V P K and B, A r c h i v e s of the State Council, Butkov C o l l e c t i o n , f i l e no. 15. 13. Op. c i t . in note 9, 1. 12. 14. M I A , A r c h i v e s of the Chancery of the N a v y D e p a r t m e n t , M a n a g e ment Section, 1860, f i l e n o . 162, P t . II, 11. 71-72. 15. Op. c i t . in note 4, 1834, f i l e n o . 1103, 1. 21 -22. 16. Op. c i t . in note 9, 1848, f i l e no. 3179, 1. 34. 17. Op. c it. in note 4, 1849, f i l e n o . 1727, 1. 37. 18. Op. c i t . in note 14, P t . I I , I . 72. 19. Ibid, P t . I, 11. 317-318. 20. Ibid, P t . II, 11. 41-42. Chapter XI 1. L e n i n , " S o c h i n e n i i a " ( W o r k s ) , V o l . X V , p . 143. 2. A N K H , A r c h i v e s of the Governing Board of the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company, 1854, f i l e no. 28, 1. 55. 3. H . B a n c r o f t , op. c i t . , V o l . X X V I I I . H i s t o r y of A l a s k a , 17301885, p. 570. 4 . Op. c i t . in note 2, 1. 2. 5. Ibid, 1. 9. 6. Ibid, 1. 13. 7. Ibid, 1. 18. 8. Ibid, I . 50. 9. Ibid, 1. 51. 10. Ibid, 1. 48. 11. L i c e n s e s to engage in p r i v a t e e r i n g . 12. P r i v a t e e r , a v e s s e l owned by p r i v a t e p e r s o n s , that, under l i c e n s e of one of the w a r r i n g p o w e r s , p r e y s on the m e r c h a n t - m e n of the e n e m y , and is given the booty as a p r i z e . 13. Op. c i t . in note 2, 1. 51 . 14. Ibid, 11. 53-54. 15. Ibid, 11. 61-62. T r a n s l a t e d f r o m the F r e n c h . 16. Ibid, 1. 52. 17. Ibid, 1. 20. 18. A V P , A r c h i v e s of the M i n i s t r y of F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , A s i a t i c D e p a r t ment, 1857, f i l e no. 4, l e t t e r of D e c e m b e r 23, 1859 (January 4, 1860, N e w S t y l e ) , on 11. 36-41. T r a n s l a t e d f r o m the F r e n c h . 19. Op. c i t . in note 2, 11. 61-62. T r a n s l a t e d f r o m the F r e n c h . 20. A N K H , A r c h i v e s of the Chancery of the M i n i s t r y of Finance, l e t t e r "Sh. 1857, f i l e no. 1. , 1. 11.

294

N O T E S T O P A G E S 243 T O 259

2 1 . I b i d , 1. 6 . 2 2 . I b i d , 1. 1 . T h e r e f e r e n c e i n t h i s c a s e i s t o t h e a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n and the A m e r i c a n - R u s s i a n c o m p a n i e s . 2 3 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 1 8 , 1 8 5 6 , f i l e n o . 4 , l e t t e r of N o v e m b e r l / l 3 , 1 8 5 7 , o n 11. 2 1 - 2 3 . T r a n s l a t e d f r o m t h e F r e n c h . 2 4 . I b i d , 1 8 5 7 , f i l e n o . 4 , 1. 2 7 , l e t t e r of N o v e m b e r 20 ( D e c e m b e r 2 ) , 1857. T r a n s l a t e d f r o m the F r e n c h . 25. Ibid. 2 6 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 2 0 , 11. 9 - 1 0 . [ E m p h a s i s m i n e . - - A u . ] 2 7 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 1 8 , o n 11. 1 6 - 4 1 . T r a n s l a t e d f r o m t h e F r e n c h . 28. Supplement to the C o m m i t t e e R e p o r t C o n c e r n i n g the E s t a b l i s h m e n t of R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o l o n i e s , p . 2 8 3 . 2 9 . " T h e B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t " of J a n u a r y 1 4 , 1 8 6 2 . Q u o t e d f r o m t h e t r a n s l a t i o n p r e s e r v e d i n t h e A r c h i v e s of t h e S t a t e G e o g r a p h i c a l S o c i e t y , F . Veselago Collection. 3 0 . M I A , A r c h i v e s of t h e C h a n c e r y of t h e N a v y D e p a r t m e n t , M a n a g e m e n t D i v i s i o n , 1 8 6 2 , f i l e n o . 1 1 3 , 1. 1 1 . 31 . I b i d , 11. 2 4 - 2 5 . 32. " G o l o s , " 1867, no. 84. 33. New York H e r a l d , 1867. Quoted f r o m " G o l o s , " no. 103. 3 4 . A N K H , A r c h i v e s of t h e G e n e r a l C h a n c e r y of t h e M i n i s t r y of F i n a n c e , 5 b u s i n e s s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , 1 8 6 6 , R e p o r t n o . 5 8 / 2 5 , 1. 3 2 . 35. Even after the p r o p o s e d expenditures had been d r a s t i c a l l y r e d u c e d a t t h e d e m a n d of t h e M i n i s t e r of F i n a n c e , t h e m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t of t h e Governing Board amounted to 51,660 rubles. 3 6 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 3 0 , 1 8 6 0 , P t . II, s e c r e t s t u d y of t h e i n c o m e a n d e x p e n s e s of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y , o n 11. 1 8 - 2 8 . 3 7 . I b i d , 1. 2 2 . 3 8 . A V P K a n d B , B u t k o v c o l l e c t i o n , 1 8 6 4 , f i l e n o . 1 5 , l e t t e r of M a r c h 12, 1864. [ E m p h a s i s m i n e . - - A u . ] 39. Ibid. 4 0 . I b i d , l e t t e r of M a r c h 1 5 , 1 8 6 4 . 4 1 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 3 4 , 1. 3 . 4 2 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 20, I . 6. 4 3 . C f . t h e G e r m a n " G r ü n d e r - J a h r e , " a p e r i o d m a r k e d by the m u s h r o o m g r o w t h of c o r p o r a t i o n s i n i n d u s t r y , b a n k i n g , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , e t c . 4 4 . C o m m i t t e e R e p o r t C o n c e r n i n g t h e E s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e R u s s i a n American Colonies, pp. 377-378. 4 5 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 3 0 , 1 8 6 0 , P t . II, 1. 8 4 . 46. Ibid. 4 7 . I b i d , 1. 8 5 . 4 8 . Supplement to " M o r s k o i Sbornik," n o s . 1 - 4 , 1861. 49. P . Tikhmenev, "Istoricheskoe obozrenie obrazovaniia Rossiiskoa m e r i k a n s k o i k o m p a n i i , " ( H i s t o r i c a l S u r v e y of t h e F o r m a t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n Company), St. P e t e r s b u r g , 1861. 50. " G o l o s , " 1867, no. 84. 5 1 . O p . c i t . in n o t e 18. T r a n s l a t e d f r o m t h e F r e n c h . 52. Ibid. 5 3 . I b i d , l e t t e r of J u l y 4 / 1 6 , 1 8 6 0 , o n 11. 4 8 - 4 9 . T r a n s l a t e d f r o m t h e French. 54. O p . c i t . in note 18. T r a n s l a t e d f r o m the F r e n c h . 5 5 . I b i d , o n 11. 4 4 - 4 6 . T r a n s l a t e d f r o m t h e F r e n c h .

N O T E S T O P A G E S 260 T O 272

295

56. Soedinennye Shtaty ν epokhu grazhdanskoi voiny i Rossiia (The U n i t e d S t a t e s i n t h e P e r i o d of t h e C i v i l W a r a n d R u s s i a ) , i n " K r a s n y i a r k h i v , " 1930, n o . 1 (38), p . 154. 5 7 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 18 o n 11. 4 2 - 4 3 . T r a n s l a t e d f r o m t h e F r e n c h . 5 8 . O p . c i t . in note 5 6 , p . 1 5 5 . 59. " M o s k o v s k i e V e d o m o s t i , " (Moscow R e c o r d ) 1886, n o . 171. 60. "Golos , " 1866, no. 232. 61 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 3 4 , 1. 2 . 6 2 . I b i d , 11. 1 - 2 . 63. M a r x and E n g e l s , " S o c h i n e n i i a " ( W o r k s ) , Vol. XXIII, p . 399. 64. " T e m p s , " 1867. Quoted f r o m " G o l o s , " 1867, no. 86. 65. A c c o r d i n g to the United States Constitution, C o n g r e s s , not the Senate alone, has the power to declare w a r . — T r . 6 6 . Op. c i t . in note 63, Vol. XXV, p . 4 9 4 . 67. Ibid, Vol. XXVI, p. 43. 6 8 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 4 2 3 , l e t t e r of N o v e m b e r 2 3 , 1 8 5 9 ( J a n u a r y 4 , 1 8 6 0 , N e w S t y l e ) , o n 11. 3 6 - 4 1 . T r a n s l a t e d f r o m t h e F r e n c h 6 9 . M I A , A r c h i v e s of t h e C h a n c e r y of t h e N a v y D e p a r t m e n t , 1 8 5 8 , f i l e n o . 1 , 1. 1 9 . 7 0 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 3 4 , 1. 6 1 . T r a n s l a t e d f r o m t h e F r e n c h . 7 1 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 2 0 , 1 8 6 0 , P t . I I , 1. 1 7 8 . 7 2 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 2 0 , 1 8 6 6 , f i l e n o . 3 , 1. ¿ 4 . 73. Ibid. 74. " T e m p s , " 1867. Quoted f r o m " G o l o s , " 1867, no. 86. 7 5 . A . B a b i n , " I s t o r i l a S . - A . S o e d i n e n n y k h S h t a t o v " ( H i s t o r y of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s of N o r t h A m e r i c a ) , S t . P e t e r s b u r g , 1 9 1 2 , V o l . II, p . 2 2 1 . 76. F . W . S e w a r d , " S e w a r d at Washington, as S e n a t o r and S e c r e t a r y of S t a t e s , " N . Y . , 1 8 9 1 , p . 3 4 8 . 77. " G o l o s , " 1867, n o . 84. 7 8 . A V P , A r c h i v e s of t h e C h a n c e r y of t h e M a i n O f f i c e o n A f f a i r s of t h e P r e s s , 1 8 6 5 , f i l e n o . 1 5 , P t . I, 11. 1 8 9 - 1 9 0 . 79. New York H e r a l d , 1867. Quoted f r o m " G o l o s , " 1867, no. 104. 80. Ibid, no. 103. 81 . N e w Y o r k T r i b u n e , 1 8 6 7 . Q u o t e d f r o m u n d a t e d c l i p p i n g s o n f i l e a t t h e A N K H , A r c h i v e s of t h e G e n e r a l C h a n c e r y of t h e M i n i s t r y of F i n a n c e s , 5th S e c r e t a r i a t , 1866, f i l e n o . 5 8 / 2 5 . T h e N e w Y o r k T r i b u n e f o r t h a t y e a r w a s n o t a v a i l a b l e a t a n y of o u r l i b r a r i e s . 82. New York T r i b u n e , 1867. 83. Cf. note 81. 8 4 . O p . c i t . i n n o t e 3 4 , 11. 4 7 - 4 8 . T r a n s l a t e d f r o m t h e F r e n c h . 8 5 . I b i d , 1. 6 6 . T r a n s l a t e d f r o m t h e F r e n c h . 8 6 . F . R . D u l l e s , " A m e r i c a n in t h e P a c i f i c , " B o s t o n , 1 9 3 2 , p . 9 2 . 8 7 . H . B a n c r o f t , W o r k s , V o l . X X V I I I , " H i s t o r y of A l a s k a , " p . 5 9 5 . 8 8 . F . G o l d e r , " T h e P u r c h a s e of A l a s k a , " i n A m e r i c a n H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w , Vol. 25, 1920. 89. W. Dunning, " P a y i n g f o r A l a s k a , " in P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e Q u a r t e r l y , Vol. 27, 1912. 9 0 . V . F a r r a r , " T h e B a c k g r o u n d of t h e P u r c h a s e of A l a s k a , " i n W a s h ington H i s t o r i c a l Q u a r t e r l y , V o l . 13, 1922. 91. F . R . Dulles, op. c i t . , p. 92. 92. New York H e r a l d , 1867. Quoted f r o m " G o l o s , " 1867, no. 103. 93. New York T r i b u n e , 1867.

¿96

NOTES TO PAGES 273 TO 275

Conclusion Γ Lenin, "Sochineniia" (Works), Vol. XIX, p. 281. 2. M a r x and E n g e l s , "Sochineniia" (Works), Vol. IX, p . 363. 3. Ibid, Vol. XXI, p. 211. 4 . "Tikhii okean, " (The P a c i f i c , Collection of A r t i c l e s ) , A k a d e m u a Nauk SSSR, 1926, p. 35 .

INDEX

A b s o l u t i s m , S p a n i s h , 133 A c a d e m y of S c i e n c e s , USSR, 4 A c c o u n t s , w o r k e r , 177, 1 8 0 - 8 1 , 187 A d a m s , 156 A d d m g t o n , 240 A d m i n i s t r a t i o n : Aleut l o c a l , 19798; c o l o n i a l e x p l o i t a t i o n , 23, 31; c o l o n i a l l o c a l by C o m p a n y , 5 - 6 , 116, 1 4 3 - 4 4 , 220, 253; of c o l o n i e s , 3, 41 - 4 2 , 5 6 - 5 7 , 6 1 , 98, 1 0 1 - 1 0 2 , 172, 181, 1 8 4 - 8 5 , 191, 239; of C o m p a n y , 4 8 - 4 9 , 94, 99, 212, 225, 235, 2 3 7 , 251 ; C r o w n , 255 (See a l s o G o v e r n m e n t , t s a r i s t ) , of E a s t I n d i a C o . , 117; e x p e n s e s of C o m p a n y , 6 7 , 71, 221, 2 6 4 65; f i g h t o v e r C o m p a n y c o n t r o l o f , 4 4 - 4 9 ; H a i t i a n l o c a l , 168; l o c a l C a l i f o r n i a S p a n i s h , 120, 1 2 6 - 2 7 , 132, 135, 1 4 3 - 4 4 ; l o c a l R u s s i a n , 105, 134, 254; natives' complaints v. Company 2 0 3 - 2 0 4 , 2 0 9 - 1 0 ; p e r s o n n e l of C o m p a n y ' s , 39, 4 7 - 4 9 , 103, 105, 112, 115, 117; w o r k e r s v . C o m p a n y , 176, 1 7 9 - 8 0 , 1 8 6 87; w o r k e r s v . l o c a l c o l o n i a l , 1 8 8 - 9 1 , 193 " T h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of I n d i a , " K, M a r x , 36 A d m i r a l t y , B o a r d of t h e , 9 - 1 0 Afognak Is. , 22-23 A f r i c a , t r a d e , 12 A g r e e m e n t s : A n g l o - R u s s i a n of F e b . 16, 1825, 102; on c o l o n i e s ' s a l e , 262, 269, 271; of 1817, 128; of May 20, 1812, 77; M e x i c o a n d S u t t e r on R o s s , 151; n e u t r a l i t y a n d d e f e n s e , 240-41; T o m a n and C o m p a n y , 158; t r a d e , 16, 218, 238, 2 4 2 , 2 4 6 , 248, 2 6 5 . See a l s o by name

297

A g r i c u l t u r a l , c o l o n i a l , 6, 26, 33, 4 2 , 50, 5 7 , 119, 1 4 9 - 5 1 , 1 7 0 71, 211, 214, 233, 288n A i g u n , T r e a t y of, 224 Alaska: i n g e n e r a i , ν, v u , 14-15, 193; g o l d , 2 4 5 - 4 6 , 2 4 8 - 4 9 ; R u s s i a in, 9, 11 , 1 4 - 1 5 , 17, 37, 50, 54, 56, 2 1 3 , 2 5 7 - 5 8 ; U . S . m , 84, 270-72 A l d a n R . , 224 A l e k s a n d r o v s k f o r t , 56 A l e u t i a n I s . , 8 - 1 0 , 17, 37, 4 4 , 50, 53, 58, 60, 82, 90, 193, 220, 234 A l e u t s : C o m p a n y e x p l o i t a t i o n of, 27, 122, 141, 1 9 3 - 2 0 5 , 2 5 4 56, 274; h u n t i n g , 127, 1 3 4 - 3 5 , 143, 1 9 3 - 2 0 5 , 254, 256; f o r s e t t l e m e n t s , 8, 33, 5 4 - 5 6 , 2 1 0 12; a s w i v e s , 174, 204, 214 A l e x a n d e r I: c o l o n i a l a c q u i s i t i o n s , 1 2 4 - 2 5 , 1 3 2 - 3 3 , 153, 1 5 9 - 6 1 , 164-67; re Company, 63-64, 71, 113, 115; f o r e i g n a f f a i r s , 83, 85, 102, 130, 138; t r a d e , 51, 7 5 - 7 6 , 87, 103 A l e x a n d e r II, 244, 261, 263 A l l i a n c e s , 29, 7 6 - 7 7 , 125, 257, 2 6 1 , 263, 268 A l t i m i r a , J o s é , 137-39 A m a t - t i n , 128 A m e r i c a n - R u s s i a n C o m p a n y of San F r a n c i s c o , 238, 265 A m e r i c a n s , see U . S . ; Indians, American A m u r R . : R u s s i a n s in, 34, 5 0 , 88, 2 2 1 - 2 4 , 245; t r a d e , 224, 228-29 Anadyr R . , 8 A n d r e a n o f I s . , 5 5 - 5 6 , 195, 2 0 3 204 A n d r e y e v , A . I . , v i - v u , 247 Antilles, large, 168-68 A r a k c h e y e v , Count Aleksey A. , 105-106

298

INDEX

A r c h a n g e l W h a l i n g C o m p a n y , 18 A r c t i c S e a , 31, 111, 268 A r g u e l l o , Don, 139 A r k h a n g e l s k , 81, 156, 207 Armed forces : Californian, 136, 150-51; f o r c o l o n i e s , 25-26, 28, 32-33, 53, 87, 207, 214, 273; E a s t India C o . , 26; on H a w a i i , 155, 158, 160, 1 6 5 - 6 6 ; m e m b e r s of i n C o m p a n y , 1 7 - 1 9 , 24, 81, 2 3 4 , 2 4 7 - 4 8 ; in T u r k e y , 2 6 4 . See also F l e e t ; Navy A r t i s a n s , c o l o n i a l , 3 3 , 51 , 1 8 3 , 226

B a r t e r : in c o l o n i e s , 9, 5 8 - 5 9 , 6 7 - 6 8 , 7 4 - 7 5 , 82, 92, 156, 178; K i a k h t a , C h i n e s e , 50, 231; n a t i v e s , 7 4 - 7 6 , 169, 198, 208, 211, 217, 223-24 B a s e s , t r a d e and naval, 31, 50, 53, 119, 1 5 3 - 5 4 , 162, 165, 169, 273 B a s h k i r s , 274 Basov, Yemelyan, 8 B a t a v i a , t r a d e , 3 4 , 51 Batenkov, G . S . , 106-108, 112-13 B e a r s , 268 B e a v e r B a y , 201 Bechevin, 9

A r t i s t s , c o l o n i a l , 51 A s i a : re c o l o n i e s , v, 50, 234, 274; R u s s i a n p o s s e s s i o n s , 7, 80, 147, 2 4 4 - 4 5 , 249, 273; t r a d e , 10, 1 2 - 1 4 , 103, 153, 169

B e n y e v s k y , A u g u s t , 189 B e r i n g , C a p t . , 2, 7 - 8 , 17, 79, 120 Bering Sea, 56-57 B e r i n g S t r a i t , 3 1 , 4 4 , 5 8 , 82 Bering's Is. , 8 Berkh, V., 20-21 B e r r i e s , 178, 2 0 1 - 2 0 3 B e s t u z h e v , A l e x a n d e r , 104, 106108, 113 B e z b o r o d k o , A . A . , 17 B i l l i n g s , 1.1. , 195 B i r d hunting, 199, 201, 203 Bishop, colonies, 210-11 B l a c k S e a , 235, 239, 262, 274 B o a r d s , see under type name B o c h a r o v , 278n B o d e g a B a y , 8Γ, 1 2 2 - 2 3 , 138,

A s t o r , 77-78 A t a b a s k s , 193 A t k a I s . , 55, 2 0 3 - 2 0 4 A t l a n t i c O c e a n , 167, 239 " A t l a s of t h e n o r t h w e s t e r n . . . i n the North P a c i f i c , " Tebenkov, 275 Attu Is. , 8 Atuwaii, see Kauai A u s t r a l i a , t r a d e , 239 A u s t r i a , v. R u s s i a , 83, 85, 218, 263 A y a n B a y , 224, 229 B a v i n , A . , 267 B a i k a l , L a k e , 34 Balkan Peninsula, 83-84 B a l t i c S e a , 17, 78, 152, 169, 2 2 1 , 239, 267 B a n c r o f t , H u b e r t H. , vi, 123, 235, 270, 279n-80n B a n k s , N . P . , 271 Baranov, Gov.Α.Α.; a c t i v i t i e s of, 30, 3 2 - 3 3 , 35, 5 3 - 5 4 , 60, 100101, 122, 124, 156, 158-59, 161, 166; t o w a r d s w o r k e r s , 179, 182-84, 188-92, 194-95, 199, 208 B a r b e r , C a p t . , 54 B a r g e s , C a l i f o r n i a , 142 B a r l e y , 134, 141, 2 6 8 - 6 9 B a r r a l - M o n t f e r r a t , 84

145, 149 Bodisko, A m b a s s a d o r , 150-51 Bolshaya Zemlya, 7-8 B o n u s e s , d i r e c t o r , 71 B o s p o r u s S t r a i t s , 14, 83, 218 B o s t o n , t r a d e , 101 B o u n d a r i e s : b u s i n e s s , 170; R u s sian North American colonies, 73, 8 2 - 8 5 , 92, 115, 118, 121, 145, 170, 224, 247; Spanish c o l o n i a l , 129, 136 Boyer, Gen. Jacques, 167-68 B r a z i l , 165 B r e a d , 187, 198, 221, 226, 256 B r i b e r y , by C o m p a n y , 105, 155, 1 6 3 , 1 9 0 ; in c o l o n i e s ' s a l e , 2 7 0 ; of n e w s p a p e r s , 77 B r i c k m a k i n g , 150, 206 B r u n n o w , B a r o n , 218, 248-49

INDEX B u c h a n a n , J a m e s , 151, 2 5 8 - 5 9 B u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s , 122 B u i l d i n g s , 128, 272 B u l d a k o v , M . M . , 3, 4 6 - 4 7 , 71, 9 4 , 1 0 5 - 1 0 6 , 111 Buldakov, M m e . , 43 B u l g a r i n , 106 B u s i n e s s : c o l o n i a l , 12, 16, 18, 2 2 - 3 0 , 76, 79, 8 3 - 8 4 , 1 0 7 , 170; C o m p a n y , 5 9 , 6 7 , 112, 225-26 B u t l e r , 148 C a l i f o r n i a : f o r e i g n a f f a i r s on i t s expansion, 123-26; gold, 228, 2 4 5 , 248; h i s t o r y of, v i i , 136, 1 4 8 , 257; R o s s ' s c o l o n y i n , 118-52; R u s s i a and, 50, 5 4 - 5 5 , 5 7 , 8 8 , 96, 1 0 2 - 1 0 3 , 1 0 8 , 1 1 1 , 1 5 3 - 4 , 185, 2 2 0 , 237; t r a d e , 1 2 9 - 3 0 , 149, 220 C a m e r o n , A m b a s s a d o r , 247 Canton, t r a d e , 34, 5 0 - 5 1 , 5 8 - 5 9 ; 78, 153, 1 6 2 - 6 3 , 2 2 6 , 2 3 0 , 233 C a p i t a l : in c o l o n i e s , 2, 104, 273; C o m p a n y , 4 7 - 4 8 , 62, 6 4 - 6 7 , 8 6 , 114, 1 2 4 , 132, 2 2 5 , 264; K i a k h t a t r a d e r s , 231; t r a d i n g c o m p a n y , 2 3 , 3 7 , 40 C a p i t a l i s m , 222, 226, 274-75 C a p t a i n ' s H a r b o r , 55 C a s p i a n S e a , 274 C a s t i l l a s I s . , 227 C a s t l e r e a g h , L o r d , 84 C a s t o r e u m , 5 8 , Z28 C a t h e r i n e II: on R u s s o - B r i t i s h relations, 16-17; re trading c o m p a n i e s , 9, 11, 14, 20, 2 5 , 2 7 - 3 1 , 37 C a t t l e , 119, 141, 150, 233 C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , 248 C h a p l i n s , f u r r i e r s , 229 C h a r l o t t e I s . , 15, 5 1 , 5 5 , 1 2 1 - 2 2 C h a r t e r : C o m p a n y , 6 4 , 7 3 - 7 4 , 78, 8 2 , 8 5 , 9 4 . 101, 1 1 5 - 1 6 , 173, 1 9 7 , 2 1 4 - 1 5 , 2 2 0 , 253, 2 5 9 ; t r a d i n g c o m p a n i e s , 4 4 - 4 5 , 83 C h e r n y s h e v , I . G . , 13, 106 C h i c h e r i n , G o v . , 28 C h i n a : v . B r i t a i n , 3 7 , 5 0 - 5 1 , 222; R u s s i a n r e l a t i o n s w i t h , 18, 5 0 , 81, 88, 153, 2 2 3 - 2 4 , 2 4 1 , 248; v . R u s s i a n t r a d e , 1 0 - 1 1 , 16,

299

18, 2 7 , 3 7 , 5 0 - 5 1 , 5 8 , 6 1 , 9 6 , 1 1 9 - 2 0 , 136, 153, 1 6 2 , 1 6 4 - 6 5 , 226-29, 231-32, 239; w o r k e r s , 194 C h i r i k o v , d i s c o v e r i e s of, 2, 8 - 9 , 17, 79 C h r i s t i a n i t y , 3 0 , 2 1 0 , 212 " C h r o n o l o g i c a l H i s t o r y of t h e D i s c o v e r y of t h e A l e u t i a n I s l a n d s , " V. Berkh C h u g a c h e s , 206 C h u g a t s k Bay, 21, 53, 56-57 C h u - g u - a u , 128 C h u g u c h a k , 232 C h u k c h i , 212 Chukchi Point, 7 C h u k u t k a , 119 C h u l o s h n i k o v , 190 C h u r c h , c o l o n i a l , v , 3 0 , 196, 210-13 C i v i l s e r v a n t s , 74 Civil W a r , U . S . , 248, 259-61, 265 C l a y , A m b a s s a d o r , 249 C l i m a t e , c o l o n i e s , 119, 140, 1 6 4 , 174, 2 1 1 , 2 3 3 , 2 5 7 , 268 C l o t h , 164 Clothing, w o r k e r s , 177-79, 1858 6 , 2 0 1 , 291n C o a l m i n i n g , 2 2 8 , 245 C o c o n u t s , 162 C o f f e e , 170 " C o l o n i a l c i t i z e n s , " 1 7 3 - 7 4 , 214 C o l o n i e s : A m e r i c a n , 85, 130-31, 149; f o r e i g n a f f a i r s a p a r t o f , 89; f u t u r e i n f l u e n c e of R u s s i a n , 13, 51; H a i t i , 1 6 7 - 7 0 ; H a w a i i a n I s . , 153-67; North A m e r i c a n , see North American colonies; S p a n i s h , 5 0 , 124. S e e a l s o c o u n t r i e s and a r e a s l i s t e d separately C o l o n i z a t i o n : p r o c e s s of, 5 4 - 5 5 , 133, 150, 1 7 1 - 7 2 , 175, 2 2 4 , 2 3 3 , 2 5 1 , 2 5 7 - 5 8 , 274; r e c r u i t m e n t of p e o p l e f o r , 6, 3 3 - 3 4 , 121, 171 Columbia: A m e r i c a n s in, 75-77, 8 0 , 96, 124, 247; R u s s i a n s i n , 5 5 , 73, 121, 247 Commerce, see Trade C o m m e r c e , B o a r d of, 3 6 - 4 0 , 4 5 - 4 6

300

INDEX

C o m m e r c e C o m m i s s i o n , 28 C o m m e r c i a l C o m p a n y of M y l n i k o v a n d A s s o c i a t e s of I r k u t s k , s e e Mylnikov Company " C o m m i s s i o n for the Description of t h e F o r e s t s a l o n g t h e K a m a and Belaya R i v e r s and T h e i r Tributaries, " 9 C o m m i s s i o n of I n q u i r y , 1 0 8 , 1 3 4 , 1 3 7 , 167 C o m m i t t e e of M i n i s t e r s , 9 7 , 1 0 4 , 1 6 8 , 1 8 6 , 191 Companies, trading, see Trading c o m p a n i e s a n d by n a m e s e p a rately C o m p a n y of C a l i f o r n i a , 2 4 9 - 5 0 C o m p a n y f o r T r a d e with P e r s i a , 19 " C o n c e r n i n g t h e B a n on A m e r i c a n Citizens to Visit the N o r t h w e s t C o a s t of N o r t h A m e r i c a , " D . I . Z a v a l i s h i n , 91 " C o n c e r n i n g the I s l a n d e r s , " 19798 Congress, U.S., re coast, 80-81. 84, 133, 2 5 8 - 5 9 , 261, 2 6 9 - 7 0 , 272 C o n n e c t i c u t , 271 Constantine, Grand Duke, 242-43, 2 4 4 - 4 5 , 2 5 3 - 5 4 , 256, 262 " C o n s t a n t i n e a n d Y e l e n a , " 57 C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , 14, 19, 273 C o n s u l t a t i v e j u n t a , 139 C o n t r a c t s , w o r k e r s in c o l o n i e s , 172-73, 175-83 C o n t r o l , B o a r d of, B r i t i s h , 117 C o n v e n t i o n s : of 1 8 1 8 , 1 0 3 ; of 1 8 2 4 25, 7 3 - 9 3 , 102, 1 1 3 - 1 4 , 133, 1 7 0 , 2 1 7 ; of 1 8 6 7 , 3 C o n v i c t s , as l a b o r e r s , 26-27, 33, 206 C o o k , J a m e s , 1 4 - 1 5 , 17, 2 2 , 165 C o o p e r r a n c h o , 149 C o o k s h a v e n ( C a p e C h u t k o t s k ) , 14 Copper, Alaskan, 245-46 C o r r e s p o n d e n t , C o m p a n y , 46, 94, 101 C o s s a c k s , 7, 1 8 9 - 9 0 C o t t o n , H a w a i i a n , 5 0 , 1 5 4 , 164 C o u n c i l of P e o p l e ' s E c o n o m y , 3 C o u n c i l of S t a t e , 1 1 6 " C o u r i e r F r a n c a i s , " 263

C o u r t , i n f l u e n c e w i t h , 27, 4 0 - 4 3 , 4 7 , 69, 106 C r a f t s , 150, 214 C r e d i t : R u s s i a n , 4 8 , 104; w o r k e r s in C o m p a n y s h o p s , 178, 180, 185 C r e o l e s , 1 4 1 - 4 3 , 171, 174, 2 1 3 15 C r e w s , C o m p a n y , 9 9 - 1 0 1 , 122 C r i m e a , 267 C r i m e a n W a r , 52, 234-35, 239, 2 4 1 - 4 2 , 244 C r i m s o n , s i g n i f i c a n c e of, 4 3 - 4 4 C r o s s Sound, 218 C u l t u r e , c o l o n i e s , vi, 4 1 - 4 2 , 274 C u s t o m s d u t i e s , 58, 74, 7 7 - 7 8 , 103, 168, 170, 197, 230,' 232 D a i r y p r o d u c t s , 141 D a s h k o v , C o n s u l - G e n . , 75, 77 D a v y d o v , 2 0 0 - 2 0 1 , 203, 205 D e b t s : i n d i v i d u a l , 10, 70, 151; C o m p a n y , 66, 71, 181, 232, 250, 253, 266; w o r k e r , 2627, 173, 177, 1 7 9 - 8 0 , 181, 183, 185, 215 De C a s t r o , J o h n E l i o t , 1 5 9 - 6 0 De C e a B e r m ú d e z , 1 2 7 D e c e m b r i s t s , N o r t h e r n Society of, 69, 91, 1 0 3 - 1 0 4 , 106-108, 110, 1 1 2 - 1 3 , 115, 134, 167, 286n D e c r e e s : A m u r R i v e r , 2 2 3 ; of N o v . 8 , 1 7 2 3 , 18; of M a r . 2 8 , 1 7 6 2 , 1 9 ; of M a r . 2 , 1 7 6 6 , 2 8 - 2 9 ; f u r t r i b u t e , 1779, 197; of S e p t . 1 2 , 1 7 8 8 , 2 8 ; of S e p t . 4 , 1 8 2 1 , 8 2 , 8 5 ; of M a y 29, 1861, 253 D e f e n s e : of c o l o n i e s , 1 7 , 1 9 , 2 5 28, 31, 39, 76, 78, 81, 114, 122, 124, 175, 214, 2 3 4 - 3 8 , 242, 244, 247-49, 262, 273; v . n a t i v e s , 2 0 - 2 1 , 32, 57, 128, 201, 207-209 D e m i d o v , N . N . , 22, 274 D e m o c r a t i c p a r t y , U . S . , 260 D e n m a r k , 45 D e p a r t m e n t s : of M a n u f a c t u r e a n d D Domestic C o m m e r c e , 4, 97-98, 1 6 4 ; of M i n i s t r y , B r i t i s h , 1 1 7 ; of S t a t e E c o n o m y , 2 5 6 De V i n c e n t , F e r n a n d e z , 1 3 3 - 3 4

INDEX Directors: British, Hudson Bay Co. , 236; Company, for administrative activities, 39, 47-49, 78, 88, 103, 105, 120, 149-50, 165, 191, 212, 254; and Company politics, 96, 106108; elections, 45-46, 285n86n; finances, 62, 68-72, 98; v. government, 110, 112-15 "Discourses," J. Justi, 11 Discoveries, geographic, 6-21 Dishes, Californien, 142 Dividends, Company, 67-69, 105, 225, 250, 264 Dike«, explorer, 15 Dobroya SogUllye (Concord) settlement, 55 Dondukov-Korekkov, Prince, 102 Douglas, Sén,, 260 Drake, Cape, 123, 149 Druzhinin, A . Y a . , 70, 97, 102 Dubinin, 204 Dulles, John Foster, 270-71 Dundas I s . , 121 Dunning, 270 Duty, see Customs duties East India Company: activities of, 14, 18-19, 24, 26, 35, 39, 63, 274; Britain re, 36, 52, 11617, 222 East Indies, 32, 51, 127, 239 Eastern Sea, see Pacific Ocean Economy: British, 258; Company, vi, 4-6, 31, 62-72, 97-98, 162, 221, 224-26, 228, 231, 250-52, 266; early, 11-13, 24, 28-29, 50; of Ross, 140; tsarist government, 264, 266; U . S . , 258, 264 Education, 43, 107, 215 Egypt, v. Turkey, 218 Elections: Company, 44-46, 101, 285n-286n; Connecticut, 271; U.S. presidential, 259-60 Elizabeth, Queen of England, 79 Employees, Company, 74, 101, 123, 151, 159, 163, 186, 204, 210, 224, 260 Engels, Friedrich, 52, 262, 27475 England, see Great Britain

301

Eskimos, 56, 193-94, 201-202, 268-69 "Essai politique sur le commerce," Melon, 19 Etolin, A . K . , 116, 254 Europe: politics, 7, 17, 42, 77, 92, 121, 165, 102, 198, 218, 233, 261-62, 264; Russia in, 29, 80-81, 92, 102, 255, 273; trade, 12-13, 16, 31, 59, 125, 170, 227, 233 Expansion: British, 1, 14, 38, 258; Company for Russia, vi, 6, 25, 31, 39, 50-55, 72, 11415, 123-26, 183, 220-21, 22829, 232-33; early, 7-21; expenses of, 19, 23-24, 80, 224; government towards, 26-27, 37, 125, 220, 222; Russian, ν , 38, 81-82, 84, 86, 88, 98, 102103, 118-25, 129, 131, 135-136, 150, 153, 160, 165, 167, 170, 221, 232, 244, 273-74; U.S. , 271-72 Expeditions: British, 14, 38, 111, 258; early Russian, 7-21, 31; early trading company, 23-28, 34-35, 278n-80n; expenses of, 67, 91; RussiaiT, 111-12, 12022, 154, 156-66, 168, 195, 201202, 223, 231; round-the-world, 4, 6, 66-68, 71-72, 91, 99, 119, 134, 142, 156, 184, 275; U.S. , 124 Expenses: for churches, 30, 21112; Company, 47, 65,-67, 71, 91, 118, 150, 175, 206, 215, 221, 224, 250, 264-65; expansion, 19, 23-24, 80, 224; fleet construction, 17, 99; of food transportation, 119, 231; fur trade, 10, 21; workers', 17778 Exports: Company, 56, 58, 60, 74; foreign, 16, 59, 75; Hawaiian, 50, 154-55, 157, 162; Russian, 58, 68, 226, 228-29, 232. See also Trade Fairweather, Mt. , 218 Farallones I s . , 123 F a r r a r , 270

302

INDEX

Fats, 51, 228 Federal Union, U . S . , 258 Ferdinand VII, 124-26, 132 Feudalism, ν F i g e r o a , B r i g . -Gen. , 146 Fines, wqrker, 178-79 Fish, 51, 178, 195, 198, 200203, 206-207 Fishing, 82-83, 89-90, 119, 19798, 220, 233, 254 F l e e t , Allied, 235-37, 240-41 F l e e t , Baltic, 262 F l e e t , Russian, 17, 75, 82, 136, 164, 167, 239, 248 F l e e t , Company, 98-101, 221, 224, 233, 253 F l e e t , trading companies, 31, 39 Florida, 129 Flour, 185 Fonvizin, Denis, 11 Food, for colonies, 119, 152, 207 Food, as pay, 185, 199 Food, trade, 10, 59, 86 Food, transportation of, 75, 11920, 187, 201, 231 Food, w o r k e r s ' , 143, 178, 187-89, 195, 198-202 Foreign a f f a i r s , see Politics; areas and countries listed separately Foreign A f f a i r s , Ministry of, re colonies, 121, 124, 128-30, 132, 150, 235-36, 240, 243, 264-65 Foreign A f f a i r s , Committee on, 97 Foreign A f f a i r s , Ministry of, policies of, 4, 90, 95, 146-47, 160-61, 223 Forney, John W. , 271 F o r t r e s s e s , colonial, 19, 21, 2526, 53-54, 56-57, 81, 159 F o r t r e s s e s , Company and, 100, 114-15, 123, 128, 134, 138, 140, 159, 207-209, 214, 217 F o r t r e s s e s , U.S. , 87 Fowl, 198 F o x , Secretary, 261-62 F o x Is. , 17, 55, 195 F o x e s , 21, 55, 58, 202, 206 France, foreign a f f a i r s , 76-77, 102-103, 167, 263, 268

France, middle-class revolution, 29, 37 France, Russia v . , 76-77, 102, 125, 147, 167, 237, 239, 241, 260, 268 France v . Spain, 263 France, trade, 19, 36-37, 239 Franchises, government to trading companies, 29, 31, 35 Franchises, Company, 43-44, 55, 62, 195, 197, 210, 214, 229, 237-38, 251-52 Franklin, 111 Fugitives, Ross, 142-44 F u r : animals, 79, 127, 141, 143, 150, 183, 256. (See also Fur seals; River otters; Sea otters; F o x e s ) ; market prices, 50-51, 57-61, 177, 182-83; native smuggling of, 74; processing of, 58, 60-62, 68, 194, 202, 208, 226-27; quantity and quality of, 22-23, 57-61, 68, 226-27; traders in, remuneration, 24; tribute, 10, 28-29, 197, 172; as worker pay, 177-78, 182 Fur seals: 55-56, 68, 107-108, 123, 141, 193, 208, 268; payment in, 181, 183; processing of, 227-28, 230; value and quantity of, 58-62, 150, 22628

Fur trade: colonial, 8-9, 23, 28, 36, 50-51, 77-78, 153-54, 188; Company monopoly of, 36, 22426, 229, 232-33; London the center of, 251; natives in, 87, 198, 202, 206, 209, 211, 217, 219; Russian domestic, 230. See also Trade Fox-hunters: f i r s t Russian on North American continent, 721, 53; Rusáian v . native, 41, 194-95, 198, 203, 205, 214; situation of, 6, 23, 44, 86, 110, 230 Gavrilov, 223 Geography, Russian discoveries in, 2, 140, 233, 275 Georgiyevsk f o r t , 56 Germany, v . France, 263 Ghiliacks, 223

INDEX G i l e v , 204 G i n s b u r g , D r . C a r l , vii G i v i n , S e n . , 242 G i z h i g a , 59 G l i n k a , F . Ν . , 109 Glotov, S . , 9 G o l d , ' 8 8 , 151, 179, 2 0 0 - 2 0 1 , 2 3 1 , 2 4 5 - 4 9 , 268 G o l d e r , F . , 4 , 270 G o l e n i s h c h e v - K u t u s o v , L . I . , 14 G o l e n i t s k y , 181 Golikov: 23, 26, 2 9 - 3 0 , 36, 38, 4 0 - 4 1 ; h e i r s o f , 70 " G o l o s " (The Voice), 248, 257, 2 6 1 - 6 2 , 267 G o l o v n i n , C a p t , V . M . , 4 , 6, 6 9 70, 7 8 - 7 9 , 9 7 , 103, 110, 1 3 2 , 174, 191, 2 0 2 , 2 0 8 , 2 4 5 - 4 6 G o o d H o p e , C a p e of, 71, 111 G o o d s : f o r e i g n , 16, 74, 8 2 , 1 0 3 1 0 4 , 231; m a n u f a c t u r e d , 3 4 , 3 9 , 5 8 , 169, 229; f o r n a t i v e s , 4 8 , 8 7 , 198, 2 0 8 ; p r i c e s o f , 7 4 - 7 5 , 92, 155, 162, 170, 177, 1 7 9 80, 185-86, 217; s m u g g l e d , 84; t r a d e , 5 9 , 72, 74, 78, 1 0 3 , 152, 155, 162, 169, 2 2 8 , 246 Gorchakov, Prince A . D . , 241-45, 2 6 0 , 262 Governing Board, colonial polic i e s , 1 2 4 , 1 2 6 - 2 7 , 1 2 9 , 132, 1 4 3 , 1 4 9 , 162, 1 7 2 - 7 3 , 1 8 4 8 5 , 191, 2 1 1 - 1 2 , 2 3 5 - 3 6 ; C o m p a n y c o n t r o l , 6 4 - 6 5 , 72, 9 5 97; v . g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y , 106, 1 1 3 - 1 4 , 223; m e r c h a n t s o n , 9 5 , 101, 103, 105, 1 1 5 - 1 6 ; r e n a t i v e s , 1 9 4 , 198, 2 0 3 , 2 0 5 2 0 6 , 2 1 0 , 2 1 4 , 255; t r a d e , 6 0 , 75, 78, 9 7 , 2 2 8 , 2 3 0 - 3 1 Government, t s a r i s t : v. Britain r e c o l o n i e s , 13-18, 29, 37, 5 1 52, 7 6 - 7 7 , 7 9 , 8 2 - 8 7 , 9 2 , 102, 1 2 3 - 2 4 , 139, 155, 160, 1 6 5 , 217-19, 235-39; and colonial t e r r i t o r i e s , 73-93, 118-52, 1 5 3 , 161, 1 6 8 , 171, 188, 2 1 8 , 224, 234-38, 242-72; r e c o l o n i e s ' s a l e , 2 3 4 - 7 2 ; c o n t r o l of t r a d i n g c o m p a n i e s , 2 6 - 2 7 , 31, 38-39, 47, 63, 94-117, 186-87, 195; r e e x p e d i t i o n s , 10, 2 6 - 2 8 ,

303

34-35; f i r s t North A m e r i c a n dis coveries, v, 7-21; foreign a f f a i r s , v i , 1, 2 4 - 2 5 , 2 9 , 3 7 , 5 0 - 5 5 , 72, 7 3 - 9 3 , 123-26, 218, 231-32, 235-39, 248-49; v. F r a n c e , 7 6 - 7 7 , 102-103, 124, 167; v . M e x i c o , 1 3 1 - 3 4 ; r e n a t i v e s , 205, 213, 215-16; v . S p a i n , 1 2 3 - 2 4 , 160, 165; s u p p o r t of C o m p a n y , 4 5 - 4 6 , 4 8 - 4 9 , 6 9 , 72, 2 2 0 - 2 1 , 2 2 9 , 2 3 1 - 3 2 ; t r a d e , 1 0 - 1 2 , 16, 2 0 , 4 2 - 4 3 , 8 6 - 8 8 , 1 0 4 - 1 0 5 , 108; u s e of C o m p a n y a s t o o l , v i , 9, 2 5 , 5 2 - 5 3 , 9 5 , 117, 125, 2 2 0 , 2 2 2 23, 2 3 1 - 3 3 , 243, 2 5 0 - 5 1 , 254, 273; v . U . S . , ν , 76-77, 12324, 129, 133, 139, 155, 2 1 8 19, 257 G o v e r n o r s , co lo n ial, 57, 100-101, 126, 142-43, 148-49, 179, 185, 1 9 7 , 253 G r a f t , 41 G r a i n , 1 1 9 - 2 0 , 134, 140, 152, 170, J 7 8 , 228 G r e a t B r i t a i n : v . China, 37, 505 1 , 222; h e r c o l o n i e s , 14, 3 2 , 5 0 , 8 5 , 1 3 0 , 149; in E u r o p e , 102, 2 3 3 , 264; r e I n d i a , 1, 3 6 37, 116-17, 274; m i d d l e c l a s s , 222; r e l a t i o n s with R u s s i a , 1617, 2 9 , 3 7 , 5 0 - 5 2 , 7 6 - 7 7 , 102, 123, 1 2 7 , 1 3 6 - 3 7 , 139, 147, 210, 217-19, 235-40, 243, 263, 2 7 9 n ; v . R u s s i a on t e r r i t o r i e s , 1, Í 4 - 1 8 , 3 8 , 4 2 , 5 4 , 7 3 , 79, 8 2 - 8 7 , 92, 111, 114, 145-46, 1 5 0 , 1 5 5 , 1 6 0 , 165, 170, 2 1 2 , 2 4 6 - 4 9 , 2 5 7 - 5 8 , 273; s e a p o w e r , 14, 2 4 2 , 2 4 7 ; v . S p a i n , 7 9 , 130; t r a d e , 3 - 1 8 , 3 6 - 3 7 , 5 0 - 5 1 . 54, 86, 114, 116-17, 169, 21719, 2 3 3 , 2 3 8 - 3 9 ; t r a d i n g c o m p a n i e s , 19, 4 5 , 2 5 1 - 5 2 ; v . U . S . , 77, 2 4 0 - 4 1 , 2 4 3 , 2 4 8 - 4 9 , 2 5 7 5 8 , 2 6 0 - 6 1 , 2 6 3 - 6 4 , 268 Grech, N . I . , 106-107, 109-110 G r e e c e , 8 3 , 8 5 , 167, 263 G r e e k O r t h o d o x C h u r c h , 30 G r e n v i l l e , L o r d , 15 G r o a t s , 74

304

INDEX

"Guide to M a t e r i a l s for A m e r i c a n H i s t o r y in R u s s i a n A r chives," F . Golder, 4 G u i l d s , 104 G u n t , E b e t s , 156 Guryev, Count D . Α . , 82-83 Gvozdev, Mikhail, 7 G w i n , 2 5 8 - 5 9 , 265 Hagemeister, Lt.-Capt. L . A . , 101, 128, 142, 184-85 Haiti, 102-103, 167-70 " H a l f - s h a r e , " w o r k e r s , 177-79, 181-84 H a m b u r g , 236 H a n a l e i V a l l e y , 159 H a n d i c r a f t s , 11, 42 H a r d t a c k , 74 H a w a i i a n I s . , vi, 50, 59, 81, 100, 1 5 3 - 6 7 , 193 " T h e H a w a i i a n S p e c t a t o r , " 159 H e a t i n g , n a t i v e , 202 H e m - l e - l e , 128 H e r b s , 178 H i s t o r i c a l I n s t i t u t e , A c a d e m y of S c i e n c e s , USSR, 4 - 5 " H i s t o r i c a l S u r v e y of t h e F o r m a t i o n of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y a n d i t s H i s t o r y of t h e Present Time, " P. Tikhmenev, vi, 48 " H i s t o r y of A l a s k a , " H . H . B a n c r o f t , vi Holland: Asiatic colonies, 50; trade, 18-20, 36-37 H o l y A l l i a n c e s , 83, 102, 160 H o n o l u l u , 163 Housing, settlement, 32-33, 5657, 171, 187, 202 H u d s o n B a y , 4 2 , 5 8 , 111 Hudson Bay Company: a g r e e m e n t s of, 235-36, 240-41; gold, 245, 2 4 9 - 5 0 ; t r a d e , 1, 1 1 2 , 1 9 3 , 2 1 7 - 1 9 , 244, 246, 257 H u n t i n g : in c o l o n i e s , 3 5 - 3 6 , 4 4 , 5 5 - 6 0 , 8 2 - 8 3 , 135, 141, 143, 150, 217, 220, 233, 253; n a t i v e s , 127, 134-35, 143, 193205, 207-209, 254, 256; U . S . , 78, 80, 90-91 Hunting p o s t s : c o l o n i e s , 14, 20, 23, 28, 74, 9 0 - 9 1 , 123; l a b o r f o r c e of, 27, 172, 175, 1 7 7 - 7 8 ,

1 8 1 - 8 2 , 187, 191, 232; n a t i v e s on, 1 9 9 - 2 0 0 , 204, 215 Huntington, D r . W. Chapin, vii Ice cutting, 228 I l y a m n a L a k e , 213 I m m i g r a n t s , 152, 2 2 8 , 244 I m p e r i a l i s m , e r a of, 1 I m p o r t s , 10, 48, 59, 74, 78, 101, 104, 119, 1 5 2 - 5 3 , 170, 226, 228, 2 3 0 - 3 2 . See a l s o T r a d e I n c o m e : C o m p a n y , 59, 62, 67, 72, 9 0 - 9 1 , 142, 150, 187, 225, 230, 232, 250; C o m p a n y d i r e c t o r s , 254; m e r c h a n t , 105; t e r r i t o r i a l , 8 0 ; w o r k e r , 179 I n d i a : B r i t a i n a n d , 1, 3 6 , 1 1 6 - 1 7 , 147, 274; t r a d e , 116-17 I n d i a n s : A m e r i c a n , in c o l o n i e s , ν , 33, 128, 131, 136, 1 4 1 - 4 4 , 175, 213, 209-10; P e r u v i a n and M e x i c a n , 201; t r a d e , 74, 76, 217 I n d i g i r k a , 31 I n d i g o , 170 I n d u s t r y , R u s s i a n , 153 I n f l a t i o n , 62, 67 Inquiry, C o m m i s s i o n of, see C o m m i s s i o n of I n q u i r y I o a s s a f , A r c h i m a n d r i t e , 210 I r k h u t s k : i n g e n e r a i , 9, 1 4 , 1 1 8 , 197, 203, 279n-80n; g o v e r n m e n t and g o v e r n o r s , 25, 3 0 32, 34, 3 7 - 3 8 , 4 0 , 4 8 - 4 9 , 59, 1 9 6 ; t r a d e , 1 8 , 3 6 , 5 9 , 176 Issmakhsk Strait, 9 Italy, v. F r a n c e , 263 I t u r b i d e , E m p e r o r of M e x i c o , 1 3 3 "Ivan Kusov's Sons, F i r s t - c l a s s m e r c h a n t s of S t . P e t e r s b u r g , " 107 Ivelich, Counts M a r c o and P e t e r , 102 I z m a i l o v , A . Y e . , 113, 278n J a p a n : v . R u s s i a , 17, 81, 153; t r a d e , 2 7 , 1 1 9 - 2 0 , 164 J e s u i t s , 213 J o h n s o n , P r e s . A n d r e w , 258, 263, 271 Joseph, 124-25 " J o u r n a l de S a i n t - P e t e r s b o u r g , " 70 J u l j a , t r a d e , 232

INDEX Justi, J. , 11-12 J u v e n a l , 213 K a c h i k m a t , B a y o f , 35 K a i g a n i , 87 K a l g i , 27, 3 3 - 3 4 , 185 Kamchatka: settlements, 7-9, 2 5 , 50, 5 5 , 5 8 - 5 9 , 1 8 9 - 9 1 , 2 1 1 - 1 2 , 2 2 1 , 255; t r a d e , 2 4 , 4 8 , 119, 2 2 8 - 2 9 K a m e h a m e h a I, s e e T o m i - o m i Kankrin, Ye. F.7~90, 113-15, 132, 170, 205 K a r a k a z o v , 261 K a r g o p o l , 101, 184 K a s h e v a r o v , 275 Kauai (Tuan-Kauai; Atuwaii), 1 5 4 - 5 5 , 1 5 7 - 5 9 , 1 6 2 - 6 3 , 166 K a y u r i , 2 0 5 - 2 0 6 , 210 K a z a n , 59 K e n a i B a y , 35, 5 3 , 5 6 - 5 7 , 174, 193, 198, 246 K e n a i p e o p l e , 193, 206 K h l e b n i k o v , Κ . , 5, 6 0 , 74, 134, 140, 166, 1 8 4 - 8 5 , 191, 205 Kholodilov, 189-90 K h v o s t o v , A . , 102 K i a k h t a , t r a d e , 16, 27, 5 0 - 5 1 , 5 8 - 6 1 , 2 2 0 , 226, 229, 231 K i s e l e v , 4 0 - 4 2 , 195-96 Kitak, s e e Kodiak K l ü p f e l 7 ~ V . F . , 116 K n y a z h e v i c h , 242 K o d i a k : a c t i v i t i e s , 58, 1 1 8 - 1 9 , • 1 8 2 , 194, 2 0 1 - 2 0 2 , 2 0 6 , 2 1 0 , 21·3; p o p u l a t i o n , 21; s e t t l i n g of, 8 - 1 0 , 3 3 , 53, 5 6 - 5 7 Kolushans, see Tlmkets K o l y m a , 31 K o m a n d o r s k y I s . , 8, 55 K o r e a , t r a d e , 27 K o r o v i n B a y , 55 K o s h e l e v , 176 K o s t l i v t s o v , 6, 185, 1 9 9 - 2 0 0 , 2 0 2 , 2 0 6 , 215 K o s t r o m i t i n o v , 2 3 7 - 3 8 , 242 K o t e l n i k o v , 35 K o t l y a r e v s k y , Ν . , 109, 2 8 5 n - 8 6 n Kotzebue, Capt, 4, 43, 159-60, 162 K o z o d a v l e v , O . P . , 98, 105, 160, 166, 214 Krabbe, Ν., 255-56

305 K r a m e r , V. , 6 9 - 7 1 , 105 K r a y e v s k y , 267 " K r e i s e r " incident, 136-37 Krenitsyn, L t . - C a p t . P . K . , 9-10 K r o n s t a d t , 71, 7 4 , 8 2 , 100, 156 K r u s e n s t e r n , I . , 2, 4 , 67, 94, 1 3 1 - 3 2 , 187, 275 K u a t k a of S t a k h i n e , 209 K U c h e l b e r g e r , 108 K u g e l m a n n , 264 Kukhkan, 209-10 K u r i l e I s . , 7, 15, 2 7 , 4 4 , 5 3 , 8 2 , 189, 196, 211, 2 2 0 , 241 K u r s k , 2 3 , 30 Kuskov, 121-22 K u s o v , N i k o l a y I v a n o v i c h , 107, .. 110,116 * K y k t a k I s . , 22 L a b o r : Company p r o b l e m s with, 1 7 1 - 9 2 , 2 0 1 , 206, 2 1 4 - 1 5 ; c o n d i t i o n s m c o l o n i e s , 2 5 - 2 7 , 171 92; e x p l o i t a t i o n of n a t i v e , 24, 119, 197, 2 0 1 - 2 0 2 , 2 5 5 . S e e also W o r k e r s ; Natives L a n a i , 158 L a n c a s t e r s c h o o l s , 107 Lang, Lorenz L a n g s d o r f , 9 4 , 187 L a w : a n d c o l o n i e s , 3, 39, 1 4 5 - 4 6 , 2 1 8 - 1 9 , 2 2 7 , 2 3 5 , 242; on C o m p a n y w o r k e r s , 173, 181, 188, 192, 197, 205; on t e r r i t o r i a l p o s s e s s i o n , 105, 127, 1 2 9 - 3 1 , 134, 150, 160 L a z a r e v , L t . , 100, 156 L e a s e s : C o m p a n y , 145, 150; H u d son Bay f r o m Company, 218-19, 236, 246, 248-50 L e a t h e r g o o d s , 5 1 , 150 L e b e d e v - L a s t o c h k m C o . (the L e b e d e v s k y s ) , 2 3 , 3 5 , 40 L e g i t i m i s m , S p a n i s h , 102, 147 L e m p s o n of L o n d o n , 227 L e n a , 31 L e n i n g r a d , State A r c h i v e s , 3 L e t t e r s of m a r q u e , 2 3 8 - 3 9 L e v a s h e v , A d j . - G e n . , 138 L i l i e n f e l d , 264 L i n c o l n , A b r a h a m , 260 L i q u o r , 89, 1 7 5 - 7 9 , 187, 2 0 9 , 211 L i s o v s k y , A d m . , 260 L i s y a n s k y , 67, 154

306

INDEX

L i t e r a t u r e as history s o u r c e s , 4 - 5 , 11, 109, 2 7 0 - 7 1 Little Bodega Bay, 121-22 Loans: f o r liquor, 178-79; to t r a d i n g c o m p a n i e s , 22, 2 7 - 2 8 , 3 1 , 6 6 , 72, 2 5 1 , 266; U . S . to R u s s i a , 266 Lobanov b r o t h e r s , 69-72 L o b u s I s . , 227 London: g e n e r a l , 147, 235-36, 2 5 1 - 5 2 ; t r a d e , 5 9 , 2 2 7 , 251 Lopukhin, P . V . , 43-44 L o s s e s : C o m p a n y , 4 7 , 6 1 , 6 6 , 68, 71, 9 1 , 100, 135, 144, 149, 151, 169, 2 2 8 , 2 3 0 , 238; m e r chant, 103-105; Opium W a r , 222; R u s s i a n t e r r i t o r i a l , 8889; t r a d e , 2 7 , 103 L u k a n i n , N i k o l a y , 196 L u m b e r , 16, 4 4 Luzhin, geodesist, 7 M a c a o , t r a d e , 3 4 , 162 M a c a r t n e y , L o r d , 16 M a d r i d , 130 M a i n O f f i c e on A f f a i r s of t h e P r e s s , 267 M a k a r y , P r i e s t , 4 1 , 196 M a k a r y e v f a i r , 59 M a l a k h o v , 35 Management, Company, see Administration; Governing Board; Directors Manpower, 141-44, 171-92 M a n u f a c t u r i n g , 5 1 , 104 M a p s , R u s s i a n , 108, 275 M a r c y , S e c r e t a r y , 241-42 M a r i a n a I s . , 34 M a r k e r s , buried claims, 14-15, 118, 121, 279n M a r k e t s : C h i n e s e , 10, 16, 5 0 , 5 8 6 2 , 153, 2 2 7 , 231; d o m e s t i c R u s s i a n , 10, 12, 5 8 - 5 9 , 6 8 , 103, 154, 1 8 2 , 2 2 0 , 2 2 5 - 2 8 ; f o r e i g n , 10, 12, 14, 3 4 , 5 7 62, 225-28 M a r k o v , Α . , 208 M a r t a g ó n , 2 0 1 , 2 0 3 , 291η M a r x , K a r l , 3 6 , 5 2 , 117, 2 6 2 - 6 4 , 274 M a s o n s , 107, 138 " M a t e r i a l s on t h e h i s t o r y of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s on t h e c o a s t

of t h e R u s s i a n c o l o n i e s on t h e c o a s t of t h e E a s t e r n S e a , " 256 " M a t e r i a l s f o r t h e H i s t o r y of t h e R u s s i a n Settlements along the S h o r e s of t h e E a s t e r n S e a , " 5 M a u i , 158 M a - Y e n R . , 224 M e a r e s , C a p t . , 15 M e a t , s a l t , 141, 185, 207 M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a , 2 3 9 , 262 M e d n a y a R . , I l l , 114, 2 4 5 - 4 6 M e l o n , 20 M e r c h a n d i s e , see Goods M e r c h a n t s : A m e r i c a n , 74-75, 7778, 8 4 , 8 6 , 162, 2 3 7 , 242; a n d Company administration, 45-49, 1 0 0 - 1 0 3 , 1 1 5 , 117, 173, 181, 184; e a r l y , 8 - 1 0 , 36, 4 0 - 4 1 ; f o r e i g n v . R u s s i a n , 18, 3 6 , 3 8 , 5 8 - 5 9 , 6 7 - 6 8 , 7 4 - 7 5 , 78, 8 2 , 8 5 - 8 8 , 9 0 - 9 2 , 142, 178, 184, 186, 2 0 8 , 2 2 6 , 229; v . g o v e r n m e n t , 11, 108, 113, 1 1 5 - 1 7 ; I r k u t s k , 36, 38, 4 0 - 4 1 , 4 7 - 4 9 , 197; l o s s e s of, 1 0 3 - 1 0 5 , 172, 175; v . n o b i l i t y , 1 2 - 1 3 , 4 5 - 4 6 , 1 0 0 - 1 0 2 , 105, 170; R u s s i a n , 2 0 - 2 2 , 2 4 , 5 9 , 6 3 - 6 4 , 101, 118, 153, 1 7 2 , 175, 181, 196, 198, 2 2 9 , 2 3 0 , 232; S a n F r a n c i s c o , 240 M e r i n o s h e e p , 154, 164 M e t a l o b j e c t s , 51 M e t t e r n i c h , P r i n c e , 218 M e x i c a n p a r t y , 1 3 6 - 3 7 , 139 Mexico: a c t i v i t i e s , 200-201, 239, 248; R u s s i a v . , 121, 126, 1 3 1 34, 145-47; t r a d e , 147-48 M i c h a e l t h e E l e c t L o d g e , 107 M i d d l e c l a s s , 2 2 2 , 253 Mikhailovsk palace, 43, 53-54 M i k h a i l o v s k y , F t . , 208 M i l i t a r y s u p p l i e s : in c o l o n i e s , 136, 155, 164; t r a d e , 4 4 , 75, 8 9 ; U . S . ν , 75, 164 M i l o r a d o v i c h , C o u n t , 106 M i n e r a l s , 233 M i n i s t e r s , s e e C o m m i t t e e of Ministers; Ministries M i n i s t r i e s : of C o m m e r c e , 9 7 , 120, 172; of F i n a n c e , 3, 5 - 6 , 8 6 , 97, 113, 121, 146, 150, 1 6 8 ,

INDEX 170, 187, 2 0 4 , 2 1 9 , 2 2 9 , 2 4 7 , 2 5 2 - 5 3 , 2 6 5 , 2 7 7 n ; of F o r e i g n Affairs, see Foreign Affairs, M i n i s t r y of; of t h e I n t e r i o r , 7 7 , 9 5 , 9 7 - 9 8 , 103, 162, 1 8 2 , 2 1 4 ; of t h e N a v y , 97; of P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n , 4 ; of S t a t e P r o p e r t y , 233 M i n i t s k y , C a p t . , 61 " T h e M i n o r , " D . F o n v i z i n , 11 M i s s i o n s , 3 0 , 121, 1 3 6 - 3 8 , 144, 210, 212-13 "Mita" s y s t e m , 200-201 M o l a s s e s , 74 M o l c h a n & v , P . S . , 97 M o l o k a i , 158 M o n e y , c o l o n i a l u s e of, 182, 184, 1 9 8 , 2 2 0 , 226 M o n o p o l i e s : B r i t i s h t r a d e , 1, 16, 2 1 7 ; C o m p a n y , 1, 5, 4 4 , 1 9 6 , 224, 229-30, 233, 243, 245, 2 5 3 , 2 5 5 , 274; g o v e r n m e n t o n , 3 1 , 38; H a w a i i a n e x p o r t , 155; R u s s i a n t r a d i n g company, 1820, 2 7 - 2 9 , 3 4 , 3 8 - 4 4 , 217 M o n r o e D o c t r i n e , 8 4 - 8 5 , 133 Monroe, P r e s . J a m e s , 84-85 M o n t a g u e I s . , 17 M o n t e r e y , 129, 149 M o r d v i n o v , C o u n t N . S . , 70, 86, 8 8 - 9 0 , 93, 95, 97, 103-104, 109," 111, 1 6 8 - 6 9 M o r m o n r e b e l l i o n , 244 M o r t a l i t y : native, 204-205, 255; w o r k e r , 187 M o s c o w : a c t i v i t i e s , v , 4 , 8, 4 8 , 5 9 , 106, 112, 156, 167, 196; as Company administrative s e a t , 4 9 , 5 9 , 105; M e t r o p o l i t a n of, 197; S t a t e A r c h i v e s , 3 " M o s k o v s k i y e V e d o m o s t i , " 261 M u l o v s k y , C a p t . , 17 M u r a v y o v , G o v . N . N . , 8 7 , 108, 112, 144, 2 0 7 , 2 2 0 - 2 3 Mylnikov, m e r c h a n t , 37-38, 4 0 41, 47-49 M y l n i k o v C o m p a n y , 3 7 - 3 8 , 62 Nagai Is. , 8 N a g e l , G o v . , 37 N a n k i n g , T r e a t y o f , 222 N a p l a v k o ν , 191 N a p o l e o n , 7 6 - 7 7 , 124, 126, 155

307 National A r c h i v e s , Washington, D . C . , vi N a t i v e s : c h u r c h on, 30, 210-13; v . C o m p a n y , 186, 190, 1 9 3 216, 221; exploitation of, vi, 2 , 2 4 , 4 1 , 184, 1 8 9 , 1 9 3 - 9 4 , 197, 2 0 0 , 2 0 3 - 2 0 4 , 2 1 5 - 1 6 , 2 5 4 - 5 5 ; f i s h i n g , 1 9 7 - 9 8 , 254; Hawaiian, 157-63; North A m e f i c a n , 4 , 6, 3 5 , 1 9 3 - 2 1 6 ; p o p u l a t i o n in s e t t l e m e n t s , 6 , 5 6 - 5 7 ; r e s i s t a n c e to R u s s i a n s , 21, 53, 5 8 , 122, 128, 135, 1 5 7 - 6 3 , 1 7 5 , 183; s m u g g l i n g , 6 8 , 84; a n d t e r r i t o r i e s , 15, 74; t r a d e , 9, 16, 5 9 , 8 2 , 8 6 - 8 7 , 9 0 - 9 1 , 156, 2 1 7 - 1 9 , 224, 229, 232; trading company culture, 42, 274; a s w o r k e r s , 2 6 - 2 7 , 3 3 , 1 0 1 , 119 Navigation: Company monopoly on, 4 4 , 9 6 , 167; in g e n e r a l , 169, 214, 217, 219. See a l s o Shipping N a v i g a t o r s : R u s s i a n , 2, 4 , 8, 7 8 - 7 9 , 9 9 , 131, 195; U . S . , 7 5 , 157 N a v i e s , f o r e i g n , 14, 2 3 9 , 2 4 2 , 2 4 7 , 263 N a v y : C o m p a n y a n d p e r s o n n e l of R u s s i a n , 74, 9 8 - 9 9 , 1 0 0 - 1 0 1 ; D e p a r t m e n t , 4 , 108; " J o u r n a l " ( M o r s k o y S b e r n i k ) , 5, 2 5 6 ; R u s s i a n , 17, 2 6 0 , 266 N e a r E a s t : B r i t i s h i n , 14; m a r k e t s , 14, 5 8 - 6 2 ; R u s s i a t o w a r d s , 52, 85, 218, 2 2 0 - 2 1 , 261 N e g r o e s , 191, 194 N e s s e l r o d e , K . V . , 77, 79, 8 2 - 8 3 , 8 6 , 8 8 - 8 9 , 93, 114, 1 2 9 - 3 3 , 151, 1 6 0 - 6 1 , 166, 231 N e u t r a l i t y p a c t of M a r . 3 1 , 1 8 5 4 , 237, 240-41 N e v a d a , 248 N e v e l s k y , L t . - C o m . G . I . , 223 Nevodchikov, Mikhail, 8 New A l b i o n , 124, 129 New C a l i f o r n i a , 120 New H o l l a n d , 111 New Y o r k C i t y , t r a d e , 227 New Y o r k H e r a l d , T h e , 2 4 8 , 2 6 8 , 271

308

INDEX

New Y o r k T r i b u n e , T h e , 2 6 8 - 6 9 , 271-72 N i c h o l a s I . , 104, 136, 1 4 6 - 4 8 , 151, 167, 2 0 9 - 1 0 , 237 Nihau, see Onihau N i k o l a y e v s k , 5 7 , 224 N i k o l a y e v s k a y a R a i l r o a d , 267 N i l o v , C a p t . , 190 Nobility, and t r a d e , 12-13, 4 5 4 6 , 6 3 - 6 4 , 100, 116, 1 7 2 - 7 3 , 2 6 1 , 274 N o r i e g a , Don, 139 N o r t h , U . S . , 2 5 8 - 5 9 , 261 North A m e r i c a n colonies : cons o l i d a t i o n , 7 3 - 9 3 ; e f f e c t of Conventions (1824-25) on, 7393; e x p l o i t a t i o n of, 15, 2 0 , 6 3 , 119, 198, 2 0 2 , 280n; f i r s t h i s t o r y of n o r t h w e s t s h o r e s o f , ν, vii, 4; f i r s t Russian p r o m y s h l e n n i k y on, 7 - 2 1 ; l a bor in, 171-92; natives in, 193-216; p o l i t i c s on, s e e P o l i t i c s ; p o p u l a t i o n , 10; R o s s , California, 118-52; Russian e x p a n s i o n o f , 5 0 , 5 3 - 5 4 , 167, 170, 244, 273; R u s s i a n t r a d e , 12, 2 7 , 169, 198; s a l e of, 3, 2 3 4 - 7 2 ; U . S . to d o m i n a t e , 258 N o r t h A m e r i c a n U n i o n , 88 N o r t h P o l e , 31 Northeastern Sea, see Pacific Ocean N o r t h e r n C o m p a n y , 34 N o r t h e r n D u m a , 108 N o r t h e r n Sea, see P a c i f i c Ocean N o r t h e r n S o c i e t y of D e c e m b r i s t s , see Decembrists " N o t e s on A m e r i c a , " K . K h l e b n i kov, 5 Novoarkhangelsk: d e f e n s e of, 208-209, 234-35, 237-38; sett l e m e n t , 3, 5 4 , 5 7 , 70, 8 1 , 122, 129, 175, 184, 238; t r a d e , 74, 8 6 - 8 7 N u t k a ( C a p e King G e o r g e ) , 14, 42 N u t k a Sound, 5 1 , 73 Oahu Is. , 155-57, 159-60, 162-63, 165-66 O b o l e n s k y , Y e . P . , 8 8 , 110 Obolyaninov, P r o c u r a t o r G e n . , 48

O f f i c e s , C o m p a n y , 5 6 - 5 7 , 59, 67, 105, 250 O k h o t s k : a n d c o l o n i e s , 10, 2 5 , 2 7 , 31, 3 2 - 3 3 , 59, 9 8 - 9 9 , 224, 28On; t r a d e , 6 1 , 75, 178; S e a of, 221; w o r k e r s , 175-76, 180, 191, 204 " O n t h e C r e o l e s , " 214 " O n t h e H a r m f u l n e s s of M a n y C o m p a n i e s in A m e r i c a a n d t h e A d v a n t a g e s of C o m b i n i n g T h e m i n t o O n e , " B o a r d of C o m m e r c e , 39 O n i h a u , 155, 157 " O p i n i o n s of t h e M a n a g e m e n t , " 165 O p i u m , 226 O p i u m W a r , 222 O p p e n h e i m a n d C o . , 227 O r d e r of R e s t o r a t i o n , 1 3 7 - 3 9 Oregon: B r i t i s h colonization of, 2 5 7 - 5 8 ; R u s s i a in, 73, 247, 257-58 O r i e n t , 18, 5 2 , 2 2 1 , 2 4 4 , 274 O r l o v , 224 O t t e r s , see Sea o t t e r s ; River otters P a c i f i c C o a s t : p r i v a t e e r i n g , 239; R u s s i a o n , 5 5 - 5 6 , 73, 8 1 - 8 2 , 136, 153; U . S . i n t e r e s t , 73, 80, 155, 2 5 7 , 2 5 9 , 273 P a c i f i c O c e a n : B r i t a i n on, 5 1 - 5 2 , 155, 2 3 8 , 264; m a p s , 275; R u s s i a n d o m i n a t i o n of, v - v i , 6 - 7 , 1 6 - 1 7 , 4 4 , 5 0 , 72, 140, 167, 220; R u s s i a n e x p a n s i o n , 1, 6, 14, 17, 2 4 - 2 5 , 3 1 , 3 8 , 1 0 2 - 1 0 3 , 153, 2 3 2 , 274; t r a d e , 1 6 - 1 7 , 2 2 , 36, 2 4 3 , 245 Pahlen, Count P . A . , 43-44, 7576, 1 2 4 - 2 5 P a l m e r s t o n , 218 P a n a m a , I s t h m u s of, 169 P a n o v , m e r c h a n t , 21, 23 P a r a g u a y , J e s u i t s , 213 P a r i s : 15, 2 4 2 , 2 5 7 , 261; P e a c e of, 2 5 7 , 261 P a s s p o r t s , colonist, 26-27, 17273 P a s t u r e , R o s s , 141 P a u l I: n a t i v e s a n d , 4 1 , 1 9 5 - 9 7 ; R u s s i a n e x p a n s i o n , 15, 3 7 - 3 9 , 4 2 - 4 5 , 73

INDEX P a v l o v s k , 3 5 , 56 P e a s a n t s , c o l o n i a l , 33, 172, 1 7 4 - 7 5 , 261 P e k i n g , 16 P e l l e y , A l b e r t , and C o m p a n y , 251-52 P e r m i t i n , V a s i l y , 185 P e r s i a , 56, 81 P e r u , 200-201 P e s t e l , G o v . - G e n . , 182 P e t e r the G r e a t , 18, 120 P e t e r III, 19 Petersburg, Censorship Committee, 69-70 P e t e r s b u r g S t o c k E x c h a n g e , 252 Petersburg-Moscow Railroad, 266 P e t r o p a v l o v s k , 81 P e t r o v s k o y e , 223 P e t t y , W i l l i a m , 11 P h i l a d e l p h i a , 7 5 , 77 Philippine I s . , t r a d e , 27, 34, 51, 153, 191 P i e r c e , F r a n k l i n , 258 P i l , G o v . - G e n . , 3 0 - 3 2 , 118, 280n P i t t A c t of 1784, 117 P o l a n d , 147, 274 Polar Star (Polyarnaya Zvezda), 110 P o l e t i k a , 7 9 - 8 0 , 8 3 , 1 2 8 - 2 9 , 131 P o l i t i c s : B r i t i s h - R u s s i a n , 218, 2 2 2 , 2 5 8 , 2 6 3 ; on C a l i f o r n i a e x p a n s i o n , 121, 1 2 3 - 2 6 , 136, 138-39; Court, 279; E u r o p e , 17, 121, 198; F r e n c h , 167, 263; government a i m s for C o m p a n y , v i , 4 9 - 5 5 , 72, 7 6 - 7 7 , 95-96, 162-63, 250-51; Haiti, 167; H a w a i i , 1 5 3 - 5 5 , 1 6 0 , 1 6 2 - 6 6 ; M e x i c o , 147; n a t i v e s , 198; s a l e of c o l o n i e s , 2 3 5 , 2 4 2 , 2 6 8 ; in t r a d i n g c o m p a n i e s ' f o r mation, 38-39, 95-96; U . S . , 4 , 2 5 8 , 2 6 3 ; w o r l d ' s on c o l o n i e s , v, 1, 13, 8 9 , 2 3 5 , 2 4 2 , 268 Politkovsky, Maj.-Gen. F . G . , 116 P o l i t k o v s k y , S e n . V . G . , 6 9 , 97 P o l o m o s h o V , 188 P o r t l o c k , 15

309

Portugal, 42 P o p o v , A d m . Ivan, 1 9 0 , 260 P o p u l a t i o n : condition of, 4 ; H a w a i i a n , 159; P e r u and M e x i c o , 2 0 1 ; n a t i v e in N o r t h A m e r i c a n colonies, 193-216, 2 5 5 ; N o r t h A m e r i c a n , 6, 10, 5 5 - 5 7 , 1 3 4 - 3 5 , 141, 171, 2 0 5 , 2 2 8 ; s e d e n t a r y , 175, 2 1 4 ; s i z e of, 6, 2 0 4 - 2 0 5 P o r t s : A s i a t i c , 50; Californien, 123; C h i n e s e , 51; R u s s i a n c o l o n i a l , 27, 3 2 , 74, 7 8 , 2 4 1 ; U . S . , 50, 262 P r e s i d e n t , U . S . , 263. See a l s o by n a m e P r e s s : B r i t i s h , 242, 246, 263; on C o m p a n y , 6 9 - 7 0 , 2 5 6 - 5 7 ; F r e n c h , 263, 266-72; R u s s i a n , 248, 261-62, 267-68; U . S . , 77, 2 4 8 , 2 6 7 - 6 8 Pribilof Is. 56 P r i c e s : a g r i c u l t u r a l , 152, 2 2 8 , 2 3 1 ; of c o l o n i e s , 2 6 5 ; C o m p a n y s t o r e , 1 7 7 - 7 9 , 185; C o m pany s h a r e s , 4 6 , 2 5 0 ; f o r e i g n m e r c h a n t , 1 4 2 ; f u r , 16, 5 0 5 1 , 5 7 - 6 2 , 1 8 2 - 8 3 , 202, 2 2 8 , 230-231, 233, 250, 254; g o o d s , 7 4 - 7 5 , 9 2 , 155, 162, 170, 217, 2 2 0 - 2 1 , 2 3 2 ; t a r i f f on, 104 P r i e s t s , see Church P r i n c e of W a l e s , C a p e of the, 8 P r i v a t e e r i n g , 239 P r i v i l e g e s : B r i t i s h , 240; c r e w s ' , 9 9 ; g o v e r n m e n t to C o m p a n y , 4 4 , 79, 170, 176, 2 2 0 , 2 3 0 3 1 , 280n; t r a d e , 155; t r a d i n g c o m p a n i e s , 20, 24, 28-29, 31, 4 1 - 4 2 , 28On; P r o d u c t s : natural, trade, 51; R u s s i a n , 34, 2 2 0 - 2 1 P r o f i t s : Company, 4 8 , 59, 6 4 - 6 6 , 6 8 , 72, 1 8 3 - 8 4 , 2 5 2 , 2 6 4 ; f u r t r a d e , 8, 10, 1 5 - 1 6 , 2 0 - 2 1 , 80, 149, 162, 175, 2 2 4 ; of w o r k e r s , 184 P r o k o f y e v , Ivan V a s i l y e v i c h , 6 2 , 71, 1 0 5 - 1 0 7 , Ί 0 9 , 1 1 1 - 1 3 , 115 "Promyshlenniky, " see F u r hunters; T r a p p e r s P r o m y s h l e n n o s t y , 175, 179

310

INDEX

P r o p e r t y : Aleut, 254; colonial, 266; of c o l o n i s t s , 171, 175; Company, 237-38, 240;natives a s , 2 7 , 205 P r o t a s o v Bay, 9 Provisional Committee, Company, 9 5 , 97 P a g e t , L t . , 15 R a d i s h c h e v , Α . , 280 R a w m a t e r i a l s , 5 9 , 153. S e e a l s o listed separately R e i t e r n , M. K h . , 262, 265-66, 269 " R e m a r k s of R u s s i a n A m e r i c a , " G o l o v i n , 191 " R e p o r t of a S u r v e y of t h e R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o l o n i e s in t h e Y e a r s 1860 a n d 1861 by A c t u a l State Councillor Kostlivtsov, " 6 R e p u b l i c a n i s m , native, 42 R e p u b l i c a n s , r e C a l i f o r n i a , 132, 137 R e s o u r c e s , of c o l o n i e s , 2 0 , 5 9 , 153, 170, 193, 2 2 5 , 248 R e s t o r a t i o n , T h e , 131 R e s t o r a t i o n , O r d e r of, 137-39 R e v o l u t i o n : A m e r i c a n , 14, 130; B o l s h e v i k , 3; b o u r g e o i s in E u r o p e , 52; F r e n c h , 29, 37; G r e e k , 8 3 , 8 5 , 167; S p a n i s h , 131, 135; S p a n i s h c o l o n i e s , 160; of w o r k e r s , 1 8 8 - 9 1 Rezanov, M m e . Anna, 43 R e z a n o v , N . P . , 16, 4 1 - 4 2 , 4 3 44, 46, 4 8 - 4 9 , 62, 9 4 - 9 5 , 1001 0 1 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 9 - 2 1 , 171, 1 8 3 84, 212-13 R i g a , 70 R i o d e J a n e i r o , 159 R i v e r o t t e r s , 2 2 6 , 2 2 8 , 230 Robbery, from natives, 9 R o c k y M o u n t a i n s , 114 Romanov, V . P . , 108,111 R o o t s , 178, 28 9n R o s s : a g r i c u l t u r e , 50, 140-41, 1 4 3 - 4 4 , 1 4 9 - 5 1 , 170; h i s t o r y of, 118-152; liquidation of, 88, 129-30, 145, 150-51; s e t t l e m e n t of, 5 7 , 7 9 , 8 5 , 108, 1 1 1 12, 1 4 4 - 4 5 , 154; t r a d e , 135, 140, 142, 1 5 1 - 5 2 ; w o r k e r s , 1 8 5 . 205

Royalist p a r t y (Spanish), 136-37 "Rules for Toyons Elected as E l d e r s , " 199 R u m y a n t s e v , C o u n t N . P . , 5 1 , 76 R u m y a n t s e v B a y , 1 2 2 , 145 Russia, see Government, t s a r i s t " R u s s i a n D i s c o v e r i e s in t h e P a c i f i c O c e a n a n d in N o r t h A m e r i c a in t h e 18th a n d 19th C e n t u r i e s , " A . I . A n d r e y e v , vii Russian Trading Company, Cons t a n t i n o p l e , 19 Russian-American Company: activ i t i e s , ν , 5 0 - 7 2 , 9 5 - 9 7 , 102, 1 0 9 - 1 1 , 115, 2 2 5 , 2 5 3 , 2 7 4 , 2 7 9 n , 285n; e a r l y e s t a b l i s h ment, 50-72; final period, 21733; a g o v e r n m e n t e x p a n s i o n t o o l , v i , 6, 2 5 , 3 1 , 3 9 , 5 0 - 5 5 , 72, 102-103, 114-15, 123-26, 153, 183, 2 2 0 - 2 1 , 228-29, 23233; a s g o v e r n m e n t institution, 9 4 - 1 1 7 ; and Haiti, 167-70; and Hawaii, 153-67; h i s t o r y p e r i o d s , v i , 1 - 2 , 225; i m p o r tance of, 274-75; l a b o r , 17192, 256; l i q u i d a t i o n o f , 1, 3, 193, 2 1 5 - 1 6 , 2 1 9 , 221, 2 3 2 - 3 3 , 2 5 4 , 2 5 6 , 2 6 5 , 273; o r g a n i z a t i o n o f , 4 , 2 2 - 4 9 , 67; p u r p o s e o f , 2 2 0 , 2 5 3 ; a s a t o o l of g o v e r n m e n t p o l i c y , v i , 1, 2 4 - 2 5 , 2 9 , 5 0 - 5 5 , 72, 7 3 - 9 3 , 9 5 - 9 6 , 1 0 2 - 1 0 3 , 117, 125, 2 1 8 , 2 3 1 32, 248-49 R u s s o - P r u s s i a n C o n v e n t i o n of 1 8 1 8 , 103 R u t k o v s k y , 2 2 7 , 252 R y l e y e v , K . F . : 6 9 - 7 0 , 88, 90, 103, 1 0 6 - 1 4 , 144, 2 8 5 - 8 6 n ; w i f e o f , 111 R y l s k , 3 0 , 118 S a b l e s , 58 S a c r a m e n t o R . , 136 S t . D a l m a t i u s I s . , 17 S t . D i o n y s i u s f o r t , 217 S t . E l i a s , C a p e o f , 5 7 , 118 S t . E l i a s M t n s . , 8, 248 S t . G e o r g e I s . , 56 S t . P a u l I s . , 56 St. P e t e r s b u r g , C e n s o r s h i p C o m mittee, 267-68; Company headq u a r t e r s , 4 8 - 4 9 , 6 7 , 250; c o n -

INDEX ference at, 84-85; Russian E m p i r e c e n t e r , 9, 41, 47, 72, 106-107, 113, 126, 134, 146, 149, 161, 163, 172, 196, 203, 212, 222, 229, 235, 261-62; Synod, 30, 211-12; t r a d e , 59, 119, 170, 228 St. Stephen I s . , 17 Sakhalin, 50, 235 San F r a n c i s c o : R u s s i a and, 12022, 127, 131-32, 138, 142-43, 239; U . S . in, 149 San F r a n c i s c o Bay, 121, 124, 13536, 148 San P a b l o , 135 Sandwich, L o r d , 165 Sandwich I s . , s e e Hawaiian I s . S a n t a - A n n a , P r e s i d e n t of Mexico, 239 S a r y c h e v , A d m . G . A . , 97 S c h e f f e r , D r . , 153, 156-65 Sea l a n e s , t r a d e , 8, 31, 153, 169, 231 S e r f d o m , and Company, v, 13, 99, 171, 173, 254, 256 S e r f s , a s c o l o n i s t s , 172-73, 194, 200, 214 S e w a r d , S e n . , 260, 265, 2 6 7 - 6 8 , 270-72 Shelikhov, G r i g o r y Ivanovich: 14, 2 2 - 3 2 , 3 4 - 3 8 , 46, 57, 118, 188, 194-95, 199, 204, 208, 210, 278n-80n; h e i r s of, 36, 38, 4043, 4 5 - 4 7 , 195-96, 210, 280n Shelikhov-Golikhov Company: a c -

311

t i v i t i e s of, 22, 31, 3 4 - 3 6 , 41, 62, 118, 196, 278n-80n; gove r n m e n t v . , 32; m e r g e r with Mylnikhov C o m p a n y , 38; upr i s i n g s v . , 188 Sitka: A r c h i v e s , v i - v i i ; R u s s i a n s e t t l e m e n t s , 5 3 - 5 8 , 91-92, 119, 156, 239, 246, 272; t r a d e , 141; w o r k e r s , 175, 179, 187, 191, 207-208 Special Council of the R u s s i a n A m e r i c a n Company: a c t i v i t i e s , 110, 117, 160-61, 236, 286n; f u n c t i o n s of, 9 5 - 9 7 , 103, 115 S t e v e n s , T h a d d e u s , 271 S u b s i d i e s , g o v e r n m e n t to t r a d i n g c o m p a n i e s , 19, 28, 46, 66, 221, 230, 232, 250-51, 264 Treasury: government, subsidies, 28, 104, 250, 266; U . S . , 265, 272 T r e a t i e s , s e e under p l a c e n a m e V a n c o u v e r I s . , 73, 257 V a n c o u v e r R . , 246 Vologda a r c h i v e s , 3 W a g e s , l a b o r , 143, 177-79, 18387, 195, 201-202 W r a n g e l l , F . P . , 97, 116, 140, 143-48 Yakutsk, t r a d e , 48, 53, 59 Z a v a l i s h i n , D . I . 9 1 - 9 2 , 107, 109, 111-13, 115, 134-38, 140, 145, 167-68 Zubov, Count, 30, 188