The Routledge Handbook of Intralingual Translation (Routledge Handbooks in Translation and Interpreting Studies) 103203761X, 9781032037615

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THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF INTRALINGUAL TRANSLATION

The Routledge Handbook of Intralingual Translation provides the first comprehensive overview of intralingual translation, or the rewording or rewriting of a text. This Handbook aims to examine intralingual translation from every possible angle. The introduction gives an overview of the theoretical, political, and ideological issues involved and is followed by the first section which investigates intralingual translation from a diachronic perspective covering the modernization of classical texts. Subsequent sections consider different dialects and registers and intralingual translation from one language mode to another, explore concepts such as self-translating, transediting, and the role of copyeditors, and investigate the increasing interest in the role of intralingual translation and second language learning. Final sections examine recent developments in intralingual translation such as the subtitling of speech for the hard-of-hearing, simultaneous Easy Language interpreting, and respeaking in parliamentary debates. By providing an in-depth study on intralingual translation, the Handbook sheds light on other important areas of translation that are often bypassed, including publishing practices, authorship, and ideological constraints. Authored by a range of established and new voices in the field, this is the essential guide to intralingual translation for advanced students and researchers of translation studies. Linda Pillière is Professor of English Language and Linguistics at Aix-Marseille Université, France. She is co-editor of several volumes, including Standardising English: Norms and Margins in the History of the English Language (2018), and authored Intralingual Translation of British Novels: A Multimodal Stylistic Perspective (2021). Özlem Berk Albachten is Professor of Translation Studies at Boğaziçi University, Istanbul, Türkiye. She has co-edited Perspectives on Retranslation: Ideology, Paratexts, Methods (2019) and Studies from a Retranslation Culture: The Turkish Case (2019) and authored Translation and Westernization in Turkey: From the 1840s to the 1980s (2004).

ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOKS IN TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING STUDIES

Routledge Handbooks in Translation and Interpreting Studies provide comprehensive overviews of the key topics in translation and interpreting studies. All entries for the handbooks are specially commissioned and written by leading scholars in the field. Clear, accessible and carefully edited, Routledge Handbooks in Translation and Interpreting Studies are the ideal resource for both advanced undergraduates and postgraduate students. THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF TRANSLATION AND RELIGION Edited by Hephzibah Israel THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF TRANSLATION, INTERPRETING, AND BILINGUALISM Edited by Aline Ferreira and John W. Schwieter THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF LATIN AMERICAN LITERARY TRANSLATION Edited by Delfina Cabrera and Denise Kripper THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF TRANSLATION THEORY AND CONCEPTS Edited by Reine Meylaerts and Kobus Marais THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF KOREAN INTERPRETING Edited by Riccardo Moratto and Hyang-Ok Lim THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF TRANSLATION, INTEPRETING AND CRISIS Edited by Christophe Declercq and Koen Kerremans THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF INTRALINGUAL TRANSLATION Edited by Linda Pillière and Özlem Berk Albachten For a full list of titles in this series, please visit www.routledge.com/Routledge-Handbooksin-Translation-and-Interpreting-Studies/book-series/RHTI

THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF INTRALINGUAL TRANSLATION

Edited by Linda Pillière and Özlem Berk Albachten

Designed cover image: © Getty Images First published 2024 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2024 selection and editorial matter, Linda Pillière and Özlem Berk Albachten; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Linda Pillière and Özlem Berk Albachten to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Every effort has been made to contact copyright-holders. Please advise the publisher of any errors or omissions, and these will be corrected in subsequent editions. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-032-03761-5 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-03763-9 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-18887-2 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003188872 Typeset in Times New Roman by Apex CoVantage, LLC

CONTENTS

ix xii xvii

List of illustrations List of contributors Acknowledgements Introduction Linda Pillière, Özlem Berk Albachten

1

PART I

Intralingual translation: a diachronic perspective

15

 1 Archaization, modernization, and representing the source language in intralingual diachronic translation Hilla Karas

17

2 Retrieving Belgium’s national past: 19th-century intralingual translation and transfer practices in the legal, linguistic, and literary domains Lieven D’hulst

33

3 Pinkeltje remains Pinkeltje: intralingual translations of a Dutch children’s icon Elke Brems

48

4 Forms and practices of intralingual translation in premodern China Barbara Bisetto

v

64

Contents

 5 Vergilian centos from the perspective of intralingual translation: stealing his club and much more from Hercules Ekin Öyken 6 Homer into Greek: intralingual translation in Greco-Roman antiquity Massimo Cè PART II

78 95

Intralingual translation: language varieties and ideology

111

 7 Intralingual translation as a prestige-endowing activity for the Cypriot Greek dialect Vasso Giannakopoulou, Spyros Armostis

113

8 Intra- and interlingual translation from a diachronic perspective: the South Slavic folk ballad Hasanaginica Višnja Jovanović 9 Translation from English into Scots John Corbett

130 145

10 Intralingual translation in subtitles and reception: the case of the movie Roma Laura Vilardell PART III

164

Intralingual translation: Easy and Plain Language

181

11 “Issues of the same order”? The microstrategies of an expert-lay translation compared to those of interlingual translation Karen Korning Zethsen

183

12 A typology of the various aspects of diaphasic intralingual translation – a systemic-functional approach Aage Hill-Madsen

196

13 Easy Language translation and comprehensibility as a social process Benjamin Schmid

217

14 Intralingual translation in Easy Language and in Plain Language Christiane Maaß

234

vi

Contents

15 Intralingual translation in expert-to-lay public communication: strategies and recurrent features in informative legal texts in the digital environment Francesca Luisa Seracini PART IV

252

Intralingual translation: rewording and editing

271

16 Editing and intralingual translation: rewriting for clarity and consistency Linda Pillière

273

17 Two sides of the same coin: the American version of a British medical dictionary Marta Gómez Martínez, Carmen Quijada Diez

290

18 “The rule is no fuss”: an analysis of Kazuo Ishiguro’s shift to unnatural narration from the perspective of intralingual translation and editing Enora Lessinger 19 Intralingual variation and transfer in legal and institutional translation: the case of pluricentric languages Fernando Prieto Ramos PART V

308

329

Intralingual translation: education and language acquisition

345

20 Expanding translation studies: a functionalist approach to the use of intralingual translation in language education Georgios Floros

347

21 Intralingual audiovisual translation as a foreign language aid: a methodological proposal for application at different levels Noa Talaván, Alberto Fernández-Costales

360

22 Graded readers as instances of intralingual translation Manuel Moreno Tovar

vii

377

Contents PART VI

Intralingual translation: accessibility from a practical perspective

393

23 Intralingual interpretation: simultaneous Easy Language interpreting as a new form of simultaneous interpreting Judith Rubanovsky-Paz, Hilla Karas, Shira Yalon-Chamovitz

395

24 Respeaking as a form of intralingual translation: intersections between linguistics and respeaking in the live subtitling of parliamentary debates Dan McIntyre, Zoe Moores, Hazel Price, John Vice

411

25 Intralingual translation and media accessibility at a crossroads: a museum project Cláudia Martins, Cláudia Ferreira

434

26 Translation into Easy Language: the unexplored case of podcasts Elisa Perego

453

Author index Subject index

472 481

viii

ILLUSTRATIONS

Appendices 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5

Ishiguro’s notes on The Unconsoled’s “back story” Ishiguro’s 23 “dream techniques” Ishiguro’s notes on the “warped frame time frame” technique Excerpt from the elevator scene in the first draft of “Experiment 2” Excerpt from the reception scene in the first draft of “Experiment 2”

321 322 323 324 325

Figures 5.1

Basic schema of translation types and threefold levels of source/target differentiation in Proba’s cento 5.2 Limestone slab with a fossilized fish and lines 307–312 of Proba’s Cento Vergilianus 12.1 The “architecture” of language according to SFL 12.2 A typology of aspects of Diaph-intra 12.3 Options in CHANNEL in Diaph-intra 12.4 Diaph-intra distinguished according to source text location 12.5 Diaph-intra distinguished according to domain 12.6 Options in PRESUPPOSED EXPERTISE in Diaph-intra 12.7 Possibilities of tenor changes in Diaph-intra 12.8 Options in RHETORICAL FUNCTION 12.9 Types of variation in rhetorical function in Diaph-intra 12.10 A complete overview of parallel sets of options in Diaph-intra 12.11 The taxonomic “ecology” of the medical term psoriasis 13.1 The safe use of electrical devices (excerpt from a fire prevention brochure) 13.2 Translation of Figure 13.1 into Easy Reading, level A2 14.1 Hildesheimer Treppe (“Hildesheim Steps”, the Hildesheim school’s accessible communication model) 14.2 Easy and Plain Language as pillars in the Easy Language/standard language continuum ix

84 89 198 200 200 201 201 202 203 207 208 210 212 219 220 236 237

Illustrations

14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 20.1 22.1 22.2 22.3 24.1 24.2 25.1

NDR news in Easy Language Expert Language source text and Plain Language target text Trade-off between Easy Language and Plain Language “Patient Decree in Easy Language” Schematic depiction of language education (LE) as a polysystem Paratextual self-descriptors in English Paratextual self-descriptors in Spanish Paratextual self-descriptors in German Lords Business, Monday 23 February 2018 Respeaking via Dragon voice recognition software Language varieties continuum

240 243 245 246 350 387 387 388 426 430 439

Tables 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 14.1 14.2 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 16.1 16.2 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 21.1 21.2 21.3

Lines 307–312 of Proba’s Cento Vergilianus A selection of parallel motifs in Vergil and Proba Lines 613–620 of Proba’s Cento Vergilianus Lines 101–109 of Ausonius’s Cento nuptialis The anonymous cento De panificio [On bread-making] from the Anthologia Latina Transcript and translation of the Easy Language news text Transcript and translation of “Patient Decree in Easy Language” Nouns referring to stakeholders in the Legislation Corpus and the Guidance Corpus Nouns referring to the object of legislation in the Legislation Corpus and the Guidance Corpus Nouns referring to conditions, tools, and measures in the Legislation Corpus and the Guidance Corpus Nouns referring to documents/sections in the Legislation Corpus and Guidance Corpus Key 2–3-grams in the Guidance Corpus compared to the Legislation Corpus A typology of editing modifications Copyediting suggestions for Amsterdam made by Pascal Cariss Procedural concepts corresponding to “due process” in most populated Spanish-speaking countries Examples of California’s civil jury instructions before and after rewriting in plain English Intralingual translations of Article 12 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child into Hungarian for three different age groups Functions of the European Commission as expressed in EU law and their rewordings in EU webpages Overview of intralingual variation and transfer in legal and institutional settings Chart showing intralingual didactic AVT possibilities Chart showing a sample lesson plan structure for a 60-minute session using AVT Chart showing didactic intralingual subtitling options x

82 85 86 86 87 240 247 258 261 262 263 264 279 281 332 336 337 338 339 365 366 366

Illustrations

21.4 21.5 21.6 21.7 21.8 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 23.1 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 24.5 24.6 24.7 24.8 24.9 24.10 24.11 24.12 24.13 24.14 24.15 24.16 24.17 24.18 24.19 24.20 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 26.6 26.7 26.8

Chart showing didactic intralingual dubbing and voice-over options Intralingual dubbing lesson plan (example 1) Didactic potential of example 1 Intralingual subtitling lesson plan (example 2) Didactic potential of example 2 Restructuring of information in GRs Explicitation of information in GRs Controversial themes in GRs GR series covered by the paratextual study ELI analysis 3-grams in Corpus A 4-grams in Corpus A 5-grams in Corpus A 3-grams in Corpus B 4-grams in Corpus B 5-grams in Corpus B Dragon entry for “noble lord” Macros for sound labels Macro for the phrase “Hear, hear” Macros for formulaic phrases Dragon entries for key words Recognition of names in Dragon Example 1: Modifications in sentence structure to allow for smoother respeaking Example 2: Serious recognition error Example 3: Serious edition error related to dates Example 4: Serious edition error related to a content word Example 5: Another serious edition error related to a content word Example 6: Rephrasing of a name for more accurate recognition Example 7: Using editing to reduce latency Example 8: Respeaking pragmatic content Differences between Easy and Plain Language Details on the translation process Corpus of texts Readability level of the original and final texts Linguistic and formal criteria for the translation of the texts Format and internal organization of She’s So Cool: Jane Fonda Main figures of the script of She’s So Cool: Jane Fonda Frequency list of the script of She’s So Cool: Jane Fonda Original and Easy English versions of the INTRO of She’s So Cool: Jane Fonda Main figures regarding the original and Easy English INTRO of She’s So Cool: Jane Fonda Customizable template for Easy Language podcast INTROs Original and Easy English versions of a SEGMENT excerpt of She’s So Cool: Jane Fonda Main figures regarding the original and Easy English SEGMENT excerpt of She’s So Cool: Jane Fonda

xi

368 370 371 371 372 383 383 384 386 407 418 418 418 419 419 420 424 425 425 425 427 427 428 428 428 429 429 429 429 430 439 442 442 444 446 459 460 461 464 465 466 466 467

CONTRIBUTORS

Spyros Armostis is Lecturer in Linguistics at the Department of English Studies, University of Cyprus. His publications lie mainly in the fields of phonetics, phonology, sociolinguistics, and clinical linguistics with Cypriot Greek and Cypriot Arabic being focal points of his work. Özlem Berk Albachten is Professor of Translation Studies at Boğaziçi University and a recipient of the British Academy Visiting Fellow 2023 (University of Reading). She is the author of Translation and Westernisation in Turkey (2004) and Açıklamalı Çeviribilim Terimcesi (Annotated Translation Terminology, 2005). She co-edited Perspectives on Retranslation: Ideology, Paratexts, Methods (2019), Studies from a Retranslation Culture: The Turkish Context (2019), and the Special Issue: Retranslation, Multidisciplinarity and Multimodality for The Translator (2020). Barbara Bisetto (PhD) is Associate Professor of Chinese Language and Literature at the University of Verona, Italy. She has published in Études Asiatiques/Asiatische Studien and AUC: Philo­ logica and has co-organized the international workshops “Intralingual translation, diglossia and the rise of vernaculars” (2017) and “Dynamics of knowledge transmission and linguistic transformation in Chinese textual cultures” (2021). She is on the editorial board of Sungkyan Journal of East Asian Studies. Elke Brems is Full Professor of Translation Studies and Dutch Culture at KU Leuven, Belgium. She is a board member of the Centre for Reception Studies (CERES), the Centre for Translation Studies (CETRA), and the Centre of Expertise for Literary Translation (ELV). She has published articles and book chapters on many topics regarding literary translation and cultural transfer and in journals such as Perspectives. Massimo Cè (BA Oxford, PhD Harvard) is currently a postdoctoral research fellow at the Bavarian Academy of Sciences. He has published several academic papers on Greco-Roman epic and reception studies and is the author of more than 20 lexicographical articles, including nervus and rhetor, in the Thesaurus Linguae Latinae. John Corbett is Professor of English at BNU-HKBU United International College in Zhuhai, China. He has published widely on Scottish literature and the Scots language; his books include Written in the Language of the Scottish Nation: A History of Literary Translation into Scots (1999). xii

Contributors

Lieven D’hulst is Professor Emeritus at KU Leuven, Belgium. His research addresses Francophone literatures of the 19th and 20th centuries and translation history. He is a member of the editorial committees of several international journals in translation studies, including Target. He is an elected member of the Academia Europaea. Alberto Fernández-Costales is Associate Professor in TESOL at the University of Oviedo (Spain). His research interests include content and language integrated learning, English-medium instruction, language attitudes, language teaching methodology, and didactic audiovisual translation. He is as an associate editor for two international journals: Perspectives: Studies in Transla­ tion Theory and Practice and Porta Linguarum. Cláudia Ferreira is a graduate in Translation studies (I.S.T.I. – Brussels) and holds a master’s degree in terminology and translation from the University of Oporto. She is currently pursuing her doctoral research (on subtitling and science dissemination) at the University of Aveiro, Portugal, where she has been teaching undergraduate and graduate courses since 1997. Georgios Floros is Associate Professor of Translation Studies at the University of Cyprus. He received a PhD in translation theory in 2001 from Saarland University. He is the author of the monograph Kulturelle Konstellationen in Texten and co-editor of a volume on Translation in Lan­ guage Teaching and Assessment. Vasso Giannakopoulou is Assistant Professor at the Department of English Studies, University of Cyprus. Her research interests and publications include translation and adaptation in theatre and comics, translation sociology, Shakespeare reception, and translation history. She has organized two conferences on intersemiotic translation. Her current work focuses on translation in transmedia. Marta Gómez Martínez is a graduate in Spanish and English philology and holds a PhD in Spanish language. She is Assistant Lecturer at the University of Cantabria and her areas of research interest cover the history of specialized vocabulary and lexicography. She has contributed to the scientific vocabulary for the Diccionario histórico de la lengua Española (DHLE) at the Real Academia Española. Aage Hill-Madsen is Associate Professor in modern English Language and Linguistics at the University of Aalborg, Denmark. His main research interests are translation, knowledge communication, and register and genre studies. He has published in international journals such as Meta – Journal des Traducteurs, Perspectives – Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, and Fachsprache – Journal of Specialized Communication. Višnja Jovanović is an independent researcher and translator and holds a master’s degree from the University of Warwick and a master’s and PhD from the University of Belgrade. She has recently published a monograph Intra- and Interlingual Translation in Flux (Routledge, 2023), based on her PhD dissertation. Jovanović is based in the USA. Hilla Karas is Senior Lecturer and Chair of the Department of Translation and Interpreting Studies at Bar-Ilan University. Her research focuses on intralingual and interlingual diachronic translation, heterolingualism, and non-prototypical translations. She has published in journals such as Target, Journal of Language and Politics, and Translation and Interpreting Studies and is the secretary of the Israeli Association of Applied Linguistics. Enora Lessinger is Senior Lecturer in Modern Languages and Translation at Oxford Brookes University. She holds a PhD from Sorbonne Nouvelle University on the translation of narrative xiii

Contributors

silence in Kazuo Ishiguro’s fiction. Additional research interests include audiovisual translation, gender in translation, and the translation of humour. Christiane Maaß is Professor for Media Linguistics at the University of Hildesheim, Managing Director of the Institute for Translatology and Specialised Communication, and Director of the Research Centre for Easy Language. She is the author of five monographical works on Easy Language as well as editor of the German Handbook of Accessible Communication. Cláudia Martins holds a PhD in translation studies, with a thesis on museum accessibility for people with visual impairment. Her studies also focus on terminology, translation and modern languages and literatures. Since 2001, she has been teaching English as a Foreign Language and English Linguistics, Terminology and Audiovisual Translation at in the Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Portugal. Dan McIntyre is Professor of English Language at Uppsala University, Sweden. He has published widely in stylistics, corpus linguistics, the history of English, and applied linguistics. He co-edits Babel: The Language Magazine (babelzine.com), and his most recent book is Communi­ cating Linguistics: Language, Community and Public Engagement (Routledge, 2023; co-edited with Hazel Price). Zoe Moores is a researcher, trainer, and freelance subtitler. Her main areas of research include translation, accessibility, and inclusion, with a particular focus on live subtitles created through respeaking. Based at the universities of Roehampton and Warwick, she is also a member of GALMA, the Galician Observatory for Media Accessibility. Manuel Moreno Tovar is a researcher at the University of Tartu, in Estonia. His doctoral project focuses on the intralingual translation of literature for language learners. In 2022, he participated in the 10th EST Congress as a convener for the panel “Advancing Intralingual Translation”. Ekin Öyken is Assistant Professor in the Department of Latin Language and Literature at Istanbul University, where he teaches Latin grammar, Latin poetry, and Roman religion. In 2013, he held a one-year postdoctoral research position in the Department of Classics at the University of California, Berkeley. His current research interests cover a range of topics from ancient musical thought to classical reception. Elisa Perego is Associate Professor of English Language and Translation at the University of Pavia, Italy. She is the author of Accessible Communication (Frank & Timme, 2020) and Audio Description for the Arts (Routledge, 2024), and co-editor of The Routledge Handbook of Audio Description (Routledge, 2022). She has published on audiovisual translation, language simplification, and media accessibility, and is currently partner in the European project SELSI (Spoken Easy Language for Social Inclusion). Linda Pillière is Professor of English Language and Linguistics at Aix-Marseille Université, France. She has published extensively on intralingual translation and stylistics. Her monograph Intralingual Translation of British Novels: A Stylistic Multimodal Perspective was published by Bloomsbury in 2021, and she has co-edited several volumes including Stand­ ardising English: Norms and Margins in the History of the English Language published by CUP in 2018. Hazel Price is Lecturer in English Language at the University of Salford, UK. Her recent publications include The Language of Mental Illness: Corpus Linguistics and the Construction of xiv

Contributors

Mental Illness in the Press (Cambridge University Press, 2022), the co-authored Babel Lexicon of Language (Cambridge University Press, 2022), and the co-edited Communicating Linguistics: Language, Community and Public Engagement (Routledge, 2023). Fernando Prieto Ramos is Full Professor and Director of the Centre for Legal and Institutional Translation Studies (Transius) at the University of Geneva’s Faculty of Translation and Interpreting. He regularly publishes on legal and institutional translation and has also translated for various organizations, including several years of in-house service at the World Trade Organization. Carmen Quijada Diez holds a PhD in translation and interpreting from the University of Salamanca. She is currently Assistant Lecturer at the University of Oviedo, Spain. She specializes in German-Spanish medical translation and has experience as a professional translator, reviewer, and proofreader. Her research focuses on specialized translation, mainly in the medical field, and science reception in 19th-century Spain. Judith Rubanovsky-Paz is a PhD candidate and lecturer at the Department of Translation and Interpreting Studies at Bar-Ilan University and Head of the English-Hebrew Translation Program at Beit-Berl Academic College. Benjamin Schmid holds a PhD in translation studies from the University of Vienna. His research interests cover Easy Language translation, theoretical aspects of intralingual translation, science communication, and intersemiotic translation and music. He is a staff translator, terminologist, and language specialist at WU (Vienna University of Economics and Business). Francesca Luisa Seracini holds a PhD in linguistic sciences and is a research fellow in English language and translation at the Faculty of Linguistic Sciences and Foreign Literatures at Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore (Milan). Her research focuses on specialized discourse and translation, professional and institutional communication in English, specialized English in movie language, and metaphor studies. Her output in specialized translation includes The translation of European Union legislation, A corpus-based study of norms and modality (LED, 2020). Noa Talaván is Full Professor in Translation and English for Specific Purposes at the Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED), Spain. Her main research interest is didactic audiovisual translation, and she has published more than 40 papers on the topic in national and international journals and collected monographs. She serves as an associate editor of two international journals: Encuentro Journal and Verbeia, Journal of English and Spanish Studies. John Vice worked for 32 years in parliamentary reporting before retiring in December 2022. He began working in the House of Commons Hansard team in 1989 and moved to the Lords in 2001, where he ended his career by spending 12 years as Editor of Debates, managing the Hansard team there. John was awarded the OBE in 2023 in recognition of his services to Parliament. Laura Vilardell holds a PhD from the Universitat de Vic and is Assistant Professor at Northern Illinois University. Her research explores literary translations and the history of publishing through the lens of reception, censorship, eco-translation, translation studies, and attention studies. Her latest book, Books Against Tyranny (Vanderbilt University Press, 2022), explores the vicissitudes of Catalan publishers under the Franco regime in Spain.

xv

Contributors

Shira Yalon-Chamovitz is Dean of Students at Ono Academic College and Head of the Israeli Institute on Cognitive Accessibility. She has developed a unique model of cognitive ramps, and her main current research areas are cognitive accessibility and simultaneous simplification. Karen Korning Zethsen is Professor of Translation Studies at Aarhus University. Her primary research interests include translation studies (in particular intralingual translation) and health communication. She has published in journals such as Target, the Translator, TTR, Meta, Across, Jostrans, Text & Talk, Communication & Medicine, and the Journal of Pragmatics.

xvi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank all those who have contributed in one way or another to this handbook. The chapters in this handbook are the direct or indirect result of a series of conferences and workshops that we have organized over the past six years or so, and we would like to thank all our colleagues who contributed to the fruitful discussions at those events. Special thanks go to all our authors, for their patience in replying to emails and queries and for respecting the different deadlines during a difficult period due to the global pandemic of Covid-19. The pandemic affected us all in different ways, causing subsequent delays and some authors to sadly withdraw. We are also grateful to Louisa Semlyen at Routledge for believing in this project and supporting us from the very start, and to Eleni Steck and Katya Porter for their invaluable expertise and prompt responses to our numerous questions. Our two universities supported us in our organization of conferences and panels, and Linda Pillière extends special thanks to the Laboratoire des Etudes du Monde Anglophone (LERMA EA 853) for its generous support. Last but far from least, we would like to thank our families for their continual support during this project.

xvii

INTRODUCTION Linda Pillière, Özlem Berk Albachten

Although intralingual translation has long been seen as a neglected area within translation studies (Baker, 1998/2020; Berk Albachten, 2014; Hill-Madsen, 2015; Pillière, 2021; Zethsen, 2009), recent years have witnessed an increased interest in the field, accompanied by a growing number of conferences and workshops on the topic. The first international workshop on intralingual translation was organized by Berk Albachten at Boğaziçi University in 2014, followed by another workshop at the Universities of Tel Aviv and Bar-Ilan in 2021; panels on intralingual translation were also organized by Berk Albachten and Zethsen at the Congress of the EST (European Society for Translation Studies) in 2016, and by Moreno Tovar, Zethsen, and Pillière in 2021, with other panels organized by Pillière and Berk Albachten at the ESSE (European Society for the Study of English) conferences in 2018 and 2021. In addition, workshops on specific languages have been held, such as the one organized by Bisetto and Lanselle on intralingual translation and East Asian classical and premodern cultures in 2017 and the 2019 workshop on intralingual translation and the Greek language at Ionian University, organized by Karvounis and Seel. This growing interest in intralingual translation can be linked to the changes in translation theory and practice at the end of the twentieth century. While early translation theory focussed on a “linguistics-oriented” approach to translation (Venuti, 1998, p. 22) and on the role of the translator, the latter half of the twentieth century marked a change in focus with the emergence of translation studies (Holmes, 1972/2004) that addressed a broader range of questions and embraced other theoretical frameworks, such as sociology, cultural studies, and new emerging technologies. New translation practices such as audiovisual translation (AVT), subtitling, and dubbing emerged, with an increased emphasis on accessibility, and new forms of rewriting such as Easy Language and Plain Language were developed. It is against this background of the expanding discipline of translation studies that traditional labels such as “intralingual translation” have been re-examined, encouraging scholars to resituate the term in relation to newly coined terms such as transediting (Stetting, 1989), translanguaging (García, 2009), transculturation (Rodríguez Murphy, 2015), and transcreation (Ray & Kelly, 2010). Yet, in spite of this renewed interest there is still no handbook on intralingual translation and only a mere handful of full-length works on the topic. Although some handbooks or collections of essays contain one chapter on intralingual translation (Berk Albachten, 2014; Kajzer-Wietrzny, 2019; Maronitis, 2008; Whyatt, 2017), others, such as The Palgrave Handbook of Literary 1

DOI: 10.4324/9781003188872-1

Linda Pillière, Özlem Berk Albachten

Translation and The Routledge Handbook of Translation Studies, mention it only in passing. The aim of this handbook is both to offer an overview of the theoretical questions raised by intralingual translation and to present current research in the field, focussing on different languages and diverse sociocultural contexts.

Some key issues and concepts Most scholars writing on intralingual translation begin with Jakobson’s (1959, p. 223, original emphasis) tripartite division of translation in his seminal essay “On Linguistic Aspects of Translation”: Intralingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language. Interlingual translation or translation proper is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language. Intersemiotic translation or transmutation is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal sign systems. In investigating the nature of translation, Jakobson was working from the Peircean tradition, and his definitions are based on the interpretation of signs, albeit verbal signs. Jakobson’s tripartite division is essentially “word-oriented” (Sturrock, 1991, p. 318); he uses the term “rewording” and comments that “intralingual translation of a word uses either another, more or less synonymous, word or resorts to a circumlocution”. This emphasis on the verbal sign has been questioned by later scholars (see Zethsen, 2007, for a detailed analysis; see also Schmid, Chapter 13, this volume for a discussion on the criterion of “linguality”), and as the “cultural turn” (Bassnett & Lefevere, 1990/1995) in translation gained ground, it became apparent that factors other than linguistics, such as the sociocultural context, needed to be considered. Despite Jakobson’s presenting three categories of translation, research and teaching has long tended to focus on only one of the categories, interlingual translation, to the detriment of the other two. This was probably due in part to the role of translation in the teaching of foreign languages (Bassnett & Lefevere, 1990/1995, p. xviii) as a means to improve linguistic proficiency, but perhaps due also to Jakobson’s use of the term translation proper in his definition. As Hermans (1997, p. 17) points out, while intralingual and intersemiotic translation are explained through rephrasing, interlingual translation is qualified by an adjective, proper, suggesting no further explanation is required. Moreover, the use of proper for one category suggests that in some way or other, intralingual and intersemiotic translation are not “proper” translations. As a result, for many years intralingual translation was neglected as a field of research, and the focus was on translation as a linguistic exercise, to such an extent that Baker, writing at the end of the twentieth century, contended (Baker, 1998/2020, p. xvii) that there is “no research that looks specifically at the phenomena of intralingual or intersemiotic translation”. The first question that arises from Jakobson’s definition is whether the boundaries between the three categories are as clear-cut as the definition would lead us to believe. As several chapters in this book point out (see in particular, Giannakopoulou and Armostis, Chapter 7; Corbett, Chapter 9; Jovanović, Chapter 8), the distinction between intralingual and interlingual translation “presupposes that one can know in the final analysis how to determine rigorously the unity and identity of a language, the decidable form of its limits” (Derrida, 1985, p. 173). The

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Introduction

unity and identity of a language is closely bound up in the concept of nationhood and political boundaries, but neither language nor boundaries are fixed stable entities. Labels such as “language” and “dialect” are not necessarily permanent. Berk Albachten (2014, p. 574) points out that the Turkic languages such as Azerbaijani, Kazakh, Kirghiz, Turkoman, Uzbek, Tatar, and Turkish are sometimes treated by academics as dialects and sometimes as varieties of the Turkic language family. Similarly, Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian have not always been considered as national languages, and translation from one to another is neither clearly interlingual nor intralingual (Longinović, 2011; Jovanović, Chapter 8 in this volume). Jakobson’s distinction, based on the belief that national languages are monolingual with clear distinct systems, also led to a neglect of multilingualism and plurilingualism, effectively excluding them from translation studies: First, most obviously, the keepers of the canon rather strenuously insisted on the linguistic purity of its foundational figures, such as Chaucer and Dante, and they routinely ignored the founders’ youthful translations of foreign texts . . . It is clear that well before the German Romantics extolled the mother tongue in such decisive terms, leaving translation theory with some heavy baggage, Renaissance commentators had already cleared the way for the West’s long embrace of nationalistic monolingualism. For centuries, theories of nation and genius erased the intercultural origins of literary innovation. (Hokenson & Munson, 2007, pp. 1–2) Moreover, not only are nations multilingual, heterogeneous states; many have exported their languages during periods of colonization and migration resulting in varieties such as English or Spanish (see Vilardell, Chapter 10 in this volume) being spoken across the world in diverse forms, and again underling the fuzzy boundary between intra- and interlingual translation. Pillière (2021) questions whether the adaptation of British novels for the North American reader be considered intra- or interlingual translation. By investigating the relationship between intra- and interlingual translation notions of source and target text become blurred. Similarly, the monolingual approach that underlies Jakobson’s definitions also ignores multivoiced text, works that contain heteroglossia and combine different languages. As Voellmer and Zabalbeascoa (2013, p. 237) observe: Moving beyond the longstanding view that translation involves two languages: L1, the language translated from, and L2, the language translated into, generally regarded as interlingual translation or translation proper (Jakobson, 1959), is a first step for translation theory to start accounting for heterolingual texts. The traditional L1-to-L2 view implies that texts and their translations are monolingual, and regards the non-verbal (and even paralinguistic) features as unimportant contextual features rather than as essential textual elements. In their study of the German and Spanish dubbed versions of Bender and Tarantino’s 2009 film Inglourious Basterds, Voellmer and Zabalbeascoa thus prefer the term “intertextual translation” to that of “interlingual translation” or “intralingual translation”. Jakobson’s neat division also poses problems from a diachronic perspective. Some languages are divided into clear periods such as Old English, Middle English, and Modern English, suggesting a clear continuity and lending credence to the monolingual state. Thus, for those scholars who wish to promote the unity of language and nation, the translation of Beowulf from Old English

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into Modern English is a case of intralingual translation. Yet the Germanic variety known as Old English, or Anglo-Saxon, with its complex declensions and conjugations, is near impossible to understand for the modern reader despite much of its vocabulary having persisted down the ages into Modern English, thus encouraging others (Birkett, 2022) to challenge the idea that such translations are intralingual ones. The practice of translating between different historical layers of the same language, sometimes referred to as diachronic intralingual translation, has been more precisely termed “intralingual intertemporal translation” (Karas, 2016). As Karas points out (2016, p. 453, emphasis original), there may be a correlation “between the perceived intel­ ligibility of the historical layer and the label translation”. Whether new translations of Beowulf are identified as interlingual or intralingual translations is based less on linguistic criteria than on political and sociocultural ones. For Karas (2016, p. 453) intralingual intertemporal translations “mark a sort of liminal state where the codes ‘belong’ to the same language but ‘are not’ the same language”. Despite these difficult beginnings and the underlying questions surrounding the label of “intralingual translation”, recent years have seen increased interest in the field, with fresh attempts to redefine the concept.

Exploring the concept The first major reworking of the relationship between intralingual and interlingual translation is to be found in Zethsen’s 2009 article where she studies five Danish translations of a biblical text and concludes “the microstrategies applied in intralingual translation (the additions, omissions, restructuring, etc.) are taken more to the extreme than is often the case within interlingual translation” (Zethsen, 2009, p. 809). The microstrategies that she studies include omission, addition, explicitation, restructuring, and paraphrase. This leads Zethsen (2009, p. 805) to propose four principal factors that play an influential role in intralingual translation: Knowledge, time, culture, and space. Intralingual translation thus occurs when the original text contains elements that are considered to be beyond the comprehension of the target reader. The most obvious examples would be the adaptation of scientific texts for the layperson and children’s versions of classical texts, and the typical microstrategies involved are explicitation, explanation, and addition. The factor of time comes into play when a text needs updating. The factor of culture is illustrated by the Americanization of British novels (Pillière, 2010, 2021), and space refers to abridgements or extensions of the original text. Zethsen (2009) thus initiates a useful discussion on the characteristics of intralingual translation and in doing so argues for a more open-ended definition of translation. Recent years have seen further attempts to define intralingual translation, including Petrilli (2003) who proposes three sub-types: Diamesic, diaphasic, and diglossic. Diamesic intralingual translation can be found in the translation between written and oral modes as in subtitling. Diaphasic intralingual translation covers translation between different registers and diglossic between a standard language and a dialect. Hill-Madsen’s study (2019) defines intralingual translation as the “the language-internal rewriting of a source text (ST) into a target text (TT) with the purpose of neutralizing a comprehension barrier” and focusses on dialectal, diaphasic, and diachronic intralingual translation as illustrations of the variety to be found within the category of intralingual translation. This wide variety is even more apparent in Gottlieb’s (2018) taxonomy where 34 types of translation are presented with the aim of expanding “the notion of translation in order to accommodate not only the nonverbal channels present in much modern communication, but also the types of communication not involving language in a traditional sense” (Gottlieb, 2018, 4

Introduction

p. 46). Under the title of intralingual translation is to be found synchronic translation (when the source text is abridged, for example), dialectal translation (e.g., rendering the standard variety into a localized variety), diaphasic translation (e.g., adapting a scientific text for the lay reader), diachronic translation (updating a text), transliteration (as in the modernizing of a font or resetting of Arabic letters into Latin), and diamesic translation (as in subtitling). Gottlieb’s detailed taxonomy applies the same categories to both intralingual and interlingual translation (which he relabels as intrasemitoic, following Toury) and to intersemiotic translation. This has the advantage of examining non-verbal modes of communication as part of translation. However, the problem of what constitutes a language is not really analysed and what exactly is covered by dialectal translation is once again problematic.

Expanding the field At the same time the terms employed by Jakobson have come under scrutiny and the distinction between interlingual and intralingual translation challenged, scholars have also been investigating various types of intralingual translation through specific case studies. There have been a number of studies that analyse specific types of intralingual translation, such as the rewriting of classics for a different generation or target reader (Delabastita, 2016; Maronitis, 2008); the adaptation of scientific texts for the layperson (Hill-Madsen, 2015; Meyer, 2001), the adaptation of the written text for reading aloud or audio books (Jobert, 2010); the use of Plain English guidelines in improving a text’s readability (Nisbeth Jensen, 2015); the comparison of audio dialogue and subtitles for the deaf and hard-of-hearing (McIntyre & Lugea, 2015); and the connection between intralingual translation and ideological norms (Berk Albachten, 2013, 2015; Pillière, 2021). These topics are also addressed by some of the authors in this handbook, but the handbook also includes some lesser-known areas in intralingual translation, such as the connection between intralingual translation and editing (whether that be carried out by the author themselves or by the publishers) and the live subtitling of parliamentary debates. PART I. INTRALINGUAL TRANSLATION: A DIACHRONIC PERSPECTIVE

The handbook is divided into six sections that reflect the main themes and concepts of current research in intralingual translation. The opening section explores perhaps one of the most researched areas of intralingual translation – diachronic intralingual translation. The chapters in this section investigate intralingual translation of a wide range of text types in various languages in modern and premodern periods, as well as in antiquity. These contributions demonstrate that the borders between intra- and interlingual translation are often minimal, if not artificial, and thus enlarge the definition and boundaries of (intralingual) translation. The first chapter by Hilla Karas, “Archaization, modernization, and representing the source language in intralingual diachronic translation”, discusses the challenges and complexities of translating texts that are separated by a significant time gap. It especially draws attention to what Karas calls the “internal paradox”, that is, finding an equilibrium between archaization and modernization in intralingual diachronic translation. Karas explores the strategies used to balance between these two strategies (including literal translations, conventionalized substitutions, and standardized representation of old morphosyntactic forms), discussing at the same time various factors, such as the prestige of the source text’s historical layer, ideology, language planning, layout, and script, that can influence the choice of the translation strategy. 5

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In the second chapter of this section, “Retrieving Belgium’s national past: 19th-century intralingual translation and transfer practices in the legal, linguistic, and literary domains”, Lieven D’hulst provides a historical approach to the role of intralingual translations in nineteenth-century Belgium, focussing on translations carried out for administrative, legal, and cultural purposes. He underlines the diversity of the language exchanges that took place in a multilingual context (Flemish and French), the tensions between the different language communities, and the impact of language policies on language rights, standardization, and literacy. The term “intralingual translation” serves as a basic tool “to identify past practices that would otherwise remain unnoticed” and also to locate these practices “within co-occurrent sets of practices of textual transmission”. Elke Brems’s chapter, “Pinkeltje remains Pinkeltje: Intralingual translations of a Dutch children’s icon” is the only contribution in the volume that focusses on children’s literature where intralingual translation is a common practice. It investigates a specific case, the intralingual translations of the Pinkeltje books by the Dutch author Dick Laan by Suzanne Braam between 1995 and 1999 in Belgium. Based on Karen Zethsen’s (2009) often quoted main factors – knowledge, time, culture, and space – proven to be influential in intralingual translation, and Brems’s (2017) suggestion of “cultural politics” as a fifth factor, the chapter investigates eight aspects (direction of the translation, field, medium/genre, stakeholders, paratexts, illustrations, reception, translation shifts) of intralingual translations that need to be taken into account to clarify which of the five factors were “influential in the creation of this translation, and therefore why the translation was considered useful or necessary”. Brems’s detailed analysis of Pinkeltje’s intralingual translations reveals various translation shifts and leads her to suggest two more important factors, those of “changing norms and values” and “preservation”. The following three chapters in this section deal with intralingual translations of classical texts, produced in antiquity and the premodern period, two understudied eras in studies on diachronic intralingual translation. Barbara Bisetto’s contribution, “Forms and practices of intralingual translation in premodern China”, focusses on premodern China and looks at intralingual translation as popularization of ancient canonical texts in the educational context. Bisetto analyses three textual genres, jujie (explication by sentence), zhijie (direct explication), and yanyi (elaboration of the meaning), from the twelfth century onwards from a historical and sociocultural perspective. Through the various examples Bisetto demonstrates the significance of the practices of intralingual translation “to promote the intelligibility and popularisation of canonical texts in favour of common and non-scholarly readers”, and, at the same time, fills a gap in studies on (intralingual) translation in Chinese history. In a chapter entitled “Vergilian centos from the perspective of intralingual translation: Stealing his club and much more from Hercules”, Ekin Öyken explores the genre of cento, more specifically Vergilian centos, as instances of intralingual translation. Öyken specifically focusses on two Latin centos from the fourth century by Proba and Ausonius, respectively. The two centos differ insofar as one is playfully erotic while the other is Christian in almost every respect, and the comparison of these two examples suggests that this particular type of ancient collage poetry qualifies as an interesting case of intralingual translation where there is minimal change in form but a significant change in context. The source culture is pagan Rome in the broad sense, while the target is the multicultural world of the Late Roman Empire in the process of Christianization. The final chapter of this section, “Homer into Greek: Intralingual translation in Greco-Roman antiquity” goes even further back in time and discusses the practice of rendering the Homeric epics into different forms of ancient Greek. In this contribution to the volume, Massimo Cè looks 6

Introduction

at the translations of the Iliad and Odyssey dating from the seventh century BCE onwards and demonstrates “moments of intralingual translation in the poetic genres of lyric, tragedy, and epic; glossographic and lexicographic materials; and prose paraphrases”. By further examining ancient Greek terminology of intralingual translation, Cè argues that Greek sources did not differentiate “between intralingual and interlingual translation, using the same set of terms for both textual practices”. PART II. INTRALINGUAL TRANSLATION: LANGUAGE VARIETIES AND IDEOLOGY

This section focusses on the intralingual translation between language varieties and deals with the complex question of defining what separates a language from a dialect or language variety. The chapters all underline the role of ideology in identifying what constitutes a language variety and, consequently, challenge the idea of a clear-cut definition of intra- and interlingual translation. The section opens with a chapter by Vasso Giannakopoulou and Spyros Armostis: “Intralingual translation as a prestige-endowing activity for the Cypriot Greek dialect”. The authors focus on the unique case of the island of Cyprus and its two main ethnic groups and languages: Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot. Concentrating on the relationship between translation and nation, the authors argue that intralingual translation has been under-researched because it inadvertently undermines the ideal of a monolingual nation by foregrounding the existence of other varieties (dialectal intralingual translation) or by underlining the need to translate older forms of the language (diachronic intralingual translation). Despite the intricate and hierarchical relationship between Cypriot Greek and Standard Modern Greek, Giannakopoulou and Armostis demonstrate how intralingual translations of many cultural products in various genres and media helped providing visibility, prestige, and legitimacy to Cypriot Greek. The authors argue that two cases of intralingual translation, The Little Prince and the staging of Waiting for Godot into Cypriot Greek and Cypriot Turkish, played an active role in bringing the two communities together by evoking a (bicommunal/bilingual) common Cypriot cultural identity. The authors’ main methodological reservations in relation with strict taxonomies, objections to clear-cut boundaries between languages and dialects, and categorizations of translation, are echoed by most of the contributions in this volume. The following chapter, “Intra- and interlingual translation from a diachronic perspective: The south Slavic folk ballad Hasanaginica” by Višnja Jovanović, also deals with the complex issue of language and nation, and more specifically, the examples of Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin, once (in former Yugoslavia) regarded as different varieties of the Serbo-Croatian language, now regarded as separate languages. Within this historical framework, she discusses the genealogy of the South Slavic folk ballad Hasanaginica that precedes “standardization of any of these South Slavic languages”, thus making its “linguistic classification ambiguous and complex”. Consequently, Jovanović challenges Roman Jakobson’s categorization of translation types, specifically the distinction of intra- and interlingual translation, as these categories are dependent on the definition of languages and their borders. The complicated relationship between English and Scots is the focus of John Corbett’s chapter, “Translation from English into Scots”. Corbett discusses the role of English-Scots translations from different angles: as a resistance against “global English”, as an effort to claim key texts in the Anglo-American literary canon for Scotland, as an assertion of the linguistic status of Scots in the political arena, and as an educational project to promote literacy in Scots. Based on the intricate cultural and linguistic relationship between English and Scots, Corbett 7

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argues that unless literacy levels in Scots improve and Scots as a legitimate language has greater acceptance, translations from English into Scots do and will continue to function as intralingual translations. The last chapter in this section by Laura Vilardell takes us to Alfonso Cuarón’s renowned movie Roma of 2018 and discusses Netflix’s decision of translating its subtitles from Mexican Spanish to Iberian Spanish. In “Intralingual translation in subtitles and reception: The case of the movie Roma”, Vilardell questions the reasoning behind this decision and analyses the translated subtitles. But Vilardell’s main contribution is her fresh perspective on intralingual translation with a study of immediate reception (of subtitles) in social media that became a platform to understanding the ideological issues that exist between Spain and Latin America. PART III. INTRALINGUAL TRANSLATION: EASY AND PLAIN LANGUAGE

The chapters in this section are devoted to a growing field of research: Intralingual translation into Easy and/or Plain Language. The contributors to this section present a number of contexts and reasons for this type of translation: Scientific, technical, and legislative texts are all frequently modified for lay readers who need to access information and/or want to educate themselves on the relevant subjects. Since the 1960s the Easy/Plain Language movements have grown in importance in European countries with the realization that there is a need for “easy” written texts for readers with cognitive impairments (cognitive or learning disabilities) or insufficient proficiency in the respective language. Translations in the field of health care is an important area where there are constant expert-lay translations, and the first two chapters focus on this subject. In the opening chapter, “‘Issues of the same order’? The microstrategies of an expert-lay translation compared to those of interlingual translation”, Karen Korning Zethsen argues that further research is needed on the similarities and differences between intra- and interlingual translation in various areas and media. Using the field of health communication, Zethsen analyses the intralingual translation of an expert medicinal product summary in English expert language into English layperson language in the form of the patient information leaflet. She demonstrates that the microstrategies used extensively in interlingual translation are also used in intralingual translation. Following her previous study (Zethsen, 2009), Zethsen argues that the differences in microstrategies are “more a question of degree and frequency than of kind”. The following chapter by Aage Hill-Madsen, “A typology of the various aspects of diaphasic intralingual translation – a systemic-functional approach”, also looks at the field of health care. Hill-Madsen analyses diaphasic intralingual translation from a theoretical and empirical perspective based on systemic functional linguistics. After elaborating a model of six different aspects of diaphasic intralingual translation and presenting some of the microstrategies involved, HillMadsen calls for further research on the typology of diaphasic intralingual translation in fields other than health care where intralingual translations commonly occur. He also points out the need to investigate the topic within educational settings. Benjamin Schmid’s chapter, “Easy Language translation and comprehensibility as a social process”, adopts a practical approach and looks at Easy Language intralingual translation from the translators’ perspective. It uses data collected from paratextual analysis and expert interviews to demonstrate that Easy Language translation is a collaborative process involving translators, their clients, and the target readers. Based on a case study focussing on a franchise network of

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Introduction

accessibility service providers in German language, Schmid sheds light on how “informational texts for target groups such as people with cognitive disabilities or people who speak German as a second language” were translated into Easy and Plain German and on the multimodal nature of these translations. In the following chapter, “Intralingual translation in Easy Language and in Plain Language”, Christiane Maaß analyses the principal characteristics of Easy and Plain Language and their main similarities and differences. Like interlingual translation, Maaß argues, intralingual translation into Easy and Plain Language functions to overcome communication barriers, and accordingly, professional translators are the necessary intermediary language experts to facilitate comprehension not only for people who do not know the source language but also for those with reading and comprehension difficulties. Francesca Luisa Seracini discusses another area in expert-to-lay public communication, that is, the translation of informative legal texts in the digital environment. Her chapter, “Intralingual translation in expert-to-lay public communication: Strategies and recurrent features in informative legal texts in the digital environment”, is based on a comparison of two online corpora from the UK. Seracini examines the intralingual translation of UK Coronavirus legislation for the nonspecialized audience in the form of popularized informative texts on the institutional website of the UK government, shedding light on the strategies of the popularization of legal knowledge as a form of intralingual translation in a digital environment. PART IV. INTRALINGUAL TRANSLATION: REWORDING AND EDITING

In Part IV, the focus is on intralingual translation from the perspective of rewriting, with all four chapters offering a varied approach to editing as a form of intralingual translation. The first chapter in this section by Linda Pillière, “Editing and intralingual translation: Rewriting for clarity and consistency”, examines the rewriting practices of editors and more specifically copyeditors. A parallel is drawn between the modifications they make to works of literary fiction and the strategies commonly identified with interlingual translation, thus underlining once again the fuzzy boundaries that exist between intra- and interlingual translation and supporting evidence for Zethsen’s claim that the same microstrategies are to be found in intra- and interlingual translation. Finally, a typology of copyediting modifications is proposed, which reveals that copyeditors’ modifications are motivated principally by a desire to improve a text’s clarity and consistency for the potential reader and are often optional style-based choices. Marta Gómez Martínez and Carmen Quijada Diez’s chapter “Two sides of the same coin: The American version of a British medical dictionary” is a study on the rewriting of Hoblyn’s A Dic­ tionary of Terms Used in Medicine and the Collateral Sciences. Originally written in the nineteenth century for British practitioners, the dictionary was revised by Isaac Hays for publication in the United States. The authors demonstrate that far from being a word for word substitution, the new edition also contained extensive rewriting due both to the geographical context (diatopic variation) and to the sociocultural context. Not all the changes made can be simply labelled as dialectal; others are due to content editing, providing fresh evidence for the need to study more closely the relationship between translation and editing. In Enora Lessinger’s chapter, “‘The rule is no fuss’: An analysis of Kazuo Ishiguro’s shift to unnatural narration from the perspective of intralingual translation and editing”, the concept of intralingual translation as rewriting is expanded to include self-translation. Through a close analysis of Ishiguro’s rewriting of The Unconsoled, Lessinger demonstrates that the microstrategies

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of omission and shortening, accompanied by the removal of rational explanations, contribute to the fictional world’s dream logic. Self-translation in this instance reveals that explicitation is not necessarily a translation universal when narrative strategies are based on implicitness. The chapter opens the way for further research on the norms of literary self-translation. Finally, in “Intralingual translation in expert-to-lay public communication: The case of pluricentric languages”, Fernando Prieto Ramos analyses intralingual variation and intralingual interactions between national and international legal orders and the creation of pluricentric languages, that is, languages that are official in more than one jurisdiction. Rewriting is required to avoid national singularities and to provide translations that are understandable for the global community. Prieto Ramos’s chapter develops some of the points raised in Part IV, but explores the topic from an international perspective. PART V. INTRALINGUAL TRANSLATION: EDUCATION AND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Part V investigates the increasing interest in the role of intralingual translation and second language learning. This covers the role of intralingual translation as a teaching tool as well as the role of monolingual subtitling in language acquisition. The opening chapter, “Expanding translation studies: A functionalist approach to the use of intralingual translation in language education” by Georgios Floros, looks at the use of intralingual translation in language acquisition, not only for learning a foreign language, particularly within the context of translanguaging in mixed classrooms, but also for learning older forms of a language, as in this case, teaching Ancient Greek in the Greek educational system. In that context, the chapter also contributes to diachronic intralingual translation discussed at length in the first section. The didactic application of different audiovisual translation modes – both intra- and interlingual – by the students in the foreign language learning setting is the focus of Noa Talaván and Alberto Fernández-Costales in their chapter “Intralingual audiovisual translation as a foreign language aid: A methodological proposal for application at different levels”. The authors argue for the positive outcomes of the active use of different audiovisual translation modes in language teaching. With specific tasks and lesson plans, they illustrate the potential and pedagogical possibilities of intralingual audiovisual translation at various educational levels. The final chapter in this section, “Graded readers as instances of intralingual translation”, is by Manuel Moreno Tovar and focusses on graded readers, “rewriting and shortening” of literary works, as instances of intralingual translation aimed at language learners. Moreno Tovar’s comparative textual and multilingual paratextual analysis of a corpus of graded readers of Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray reveals varied self-descriptors for graded readers and the significance of time as the main parameter that influences the production of graded readers. PART VI. INTRALINGUAL TRANSLATION: ACCESSIBILITY FROM A PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE

The final section of the handbook offers an insight into some of the new professional settings where intralingual translation can be found. As with many of the chapters in this handbook, the cases to be found in this section underline the fact that the very concept of “intralingual

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Introduction

translation” is influenced by context and the boundaries with other forms of translation are fuzzy. The first chapter in this section, “Intralingual interpretation: Simultaneous Easy Language interpreting as a new form of simultaneous interpreting” by Judith Rubanovsky-Paz, Hilla Karas, and Shira Yalon-Chamovitz, explores Easy Language interpreting (ELI) – also referred to as simultaneous language simplification. ELI is presented as an intralingual form of simultaneous interpreting (SI). However, while the two practices share points in common, they differ in terms of lexical and syntactic features as ELI interpreters will necessarily omit or add information and practise more rewording. These strategies are at odds with the interpreting standards of simultaneous interpreting that interpreters have been trained to practise, thus presenting professional and personal difficulties for ELI interpreters. The three chapters that follow describe specific projects within the field of intralingual translation. In the next chapter, “Respeaking as a form of intralingual translation: Intersections between linguistics and respeaking in the live subtitling of parliamentary debates”, Dan McIntyre, Zoe Moores, Hazel Price, and John Vice look at the live subtitling of parliamentary debates in the United Kingdom and the intralingual translation strategies used to provide a viewer reliant on subtitles with an experience as close to that of the hearing viewer as possible. This involves going beyond word substitution as associated paralinguistic features such as pitch, prosody, and politeness features also need to be taken into account, thus underlining the need to complement Jakobson’s original definition based on the verbal sign with other factors. The chapter by Cláudia Martins and Cláudia Ferreira, “Intralingual translation and media accessibility at a crossroads: A museum project”, presents the project on museum accessibility at the Museum of the Abbott of Baçal in Bragança, Portugal, and the rewriting of the panels and labels into more accessible language. The chapter picks up on topics explored in Part III and, as with the chapter by Schmid, underlines that translation into Easy or Plain Language is a collaborative enterprise that at times is far from easy. The final chapter in the handbook by Elisa Perego, “Translation into Easy Language: The unexplored case of podcasts”, looks at a relatively under-researched area in intralingual translation: Podcasts. While the medium has become increasingly popular, little research has been carried out to consider how it may be rendered more accessible for low-language-proficiency users, or individuals with cognitive or intellectual difficulties, and language learners. Perego explores the simplification strategies that could be implemented through intralingual translation into an easy-to-understand version of the same language – while also enhancing its listenability, through a case-study based on the episode “Jane Fonda” from the She’s So Cool podcast. We are grateful to all our contributors for producing the chapters that make up this handbook. They represent a wide range of origins and institutional affiliations, thus reflecting the international interest in intralingual translation. We are proud to be able to bring together both experienced researchers in the field and younger scholars, as well as academics and professionals. No handbook can ever be fully comprehensive, and we would have liked to have had more contributions in other areas and from different cultures and languages. However, the current handbook is still the first comprehensive volume on various aspects of intralingual translation that should not only be exceptionally valuable to scholars working on the topic itself or in Translation Studies, but also to researchers in many other fields from subtitling to history to comparative culture. We hope that this handbook will contribute to the ever-widening debate on intralingual translation and provide thought-provoking ideas for translation studies in general. The variety of the contributions

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Linda Pillière, Özlem Berk Albachten

in this handbook also demonstrates the need for more research on intralingual translation. This further research will certainly change the way we see intralingual translation and Translation Studies as a discipline.

References Baker, M. (1998/2020). Routledge encyclopaedia of translation. Routledge. Bassnett, S., & Lefevere, A. (1990/1995). Translation, history and culture. Cassell. Berk Albachten, Ö. (2013). Intralingual translation as “modernization” of the language: The Turkish case. Perspectives, 21(2), 257–271. https://doi.org/10.1080/0907676x.2012.702395 Berk Albachten, Ö. (2014). Intralingual translation: Discussions within translation studies and the case of Turkey. In S. Bermann & C. Porter (Eds.), A companion to translation studies (pp. 573–585). Wiley Blackwell. Berk Albachten, Ö. (2015). The Turkish language reform and intralingual translation. In Ş. Tahir Gürçağlar, S. Paker, & J. Milton (Eds.), Tradition, tension and translation in Turkey (pp. 165–180). John Benjamins. Birkett, T. (2022). On engliscre spræce? Old English and the politics of intralingual translation. Palimpsestes, 36. https://doi.org/10.4000/palimpsestes.7638 Delabastita, D. (2016). He shall signify from time to time: Romeo and Juliet in modern English. Perspectives, 25(2), 189–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/0907676X.2016.1234491 Derrida, J. (1985). Des Tours de Babel. In J. F. Graham (Ed.), Difference in translation (J. F. Graham, Trans., pp. 165–248). Cornell University Press. García, O. (2009). Bilingual education in the 21st century: A global perspective. Wiley-Blackwell. Gottlieb, H. (2018). Semiotics and translation. In K. Malmkjӕr (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of translation studies and linguistics (pp. 45–63). Routledge. Hermans, T. (1997). Translation as institution. In M. Snell-Hornby, Z. Jettmarová, & K. Kaindl (Eds.), Trans­ lation as intercultural communication (pp. 3–20). John Benjamins. Hill-Madsen, A. (2015). Lexical strategies in intralingual translation between registers. Hermes, 54, 85–105. https://doi.org/10.7146/hjlcb.v27i54.22949 Hill-Madsen, A. (2019). The heterogeneity of intralingual translation. Meta, 64(2), 537–560. https://doi. org/10.7202/1068206ar Hokenson, J. W., & Munson, M. (2007). The bilingual text: History and theory of literary self-translation. St. Jerome. Holmes, J. (1972/2004). The name and nature of translation studies. In L. Venuti (Ed.), The translation studies reader (2nd ed., pp. 180–192). Routledge. Jakobson, R. (1959). On linguistic aspects of translation. In R. A. Brower (Ed.), On translation (pp. 232– 239). Oxford University Press. Jobert, M. (2010). Livres audio et interpretation: du graphotexte au phonotexte dans The Clothes They Stood Up In d’Alan Bennett. Bulletin de la Société de Stylistique Anglaise, 3, 91–110. Kajzer-Wietrzny, M. (2019). Linking words in intra-and interlingual translation – Combining corpus linguistics and key-logging data. In L. Vandevoorde, J. Daems, & B. Defrancq (Eds.), New empirical perspec­ tives on translation and interpreting (pp. 114–138). Routledge. Karas, H. (2016). Intralingual intertemporal translation as a relevant category in translation studies. Target, 28(3), 445–466. https://doi.org/10.1075/target.28.3.05kar Longinović, T. Z. (2011). Serbo-Croatian: Translating the non-identical twins. In D. Asimakoulas & M. Rogers (Eds.), Translation and opposition (pp. 283–295). Multilingual Matters. Maronitis, D. N. (2008). Intralingual translation: Genuine and false dilemmas. In A. Lianeri & V. Zajiko (Eds.), Translation and the classic: Identity as change in the history of culture (pp. 367–386). Oxford University Press. McIntyre, D., & Lugea, J. (2015). The effects of deaf and hard-of-hearing subtitles on the characterisation process: A cognitive stylistic study of The Wire. Perspectives, 23(1), 62–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/090 7676X.2014.919008 Meyer, B. (2001). How untrained interpreters handle medical terms. In I. Mason (Ed.), Triadic exchanges. Studies in dialogue interpreting (pp. 87–106). St. Jerome.

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Introduction Nisbeth Jansen, M. (2015). Optimising comprehensibility in interlingual translation: The need for intralingual translation. In K. Maksymski, S. Gutermuth, & S. Hansen-Schirra (Eds.), Translation and comprehensibil­ ity (pp. 163–194). Frank and Timme. Petrilli, S. (2003). Translation, translation. Rodopi. Pillière, L. (2010). Cultural transformations in American editions of British novels. In C. Cottenet, J.-C. Murat, & N. Vanfasse (Eds.), Cultural transformations in the English-speaking world (pp. 15–29). Cambridge Scholars. Pillière, L. (2021). Intralingual translation of British novels: A multimodal stylistic perspective. Bloomsbury. Ray, R., & Kelly, N. (2010). Reaching new markets through transcreation. Common Sense Advisory. Rodríguez Murphy, E. (2015). Traducción y literatura africana: multilingüismo y transculturación en la nar­ rativa nigeriana de expresión inglesa. Editorial Comares. Stetting, K. (1989). Transediting – A new term for coping with the grey area between editing and translating. In G. Caie (Ed.), Proceedings from the fourth Nordic conference for English studies (pp. 371–382). University of Copenhagen. Sturrock, J. (1991). On Jakobson on translation. In T. A. Sebeok & J. Umiker-Sebeok (Eds.), Recent develop­ ments in theory and history. The semiotic web 1990 (pp. 307–321). De Gruyter. Venuti, L. (1998). The scandals of translation. Routledge. Voellmer, E., & Zabalbeascoa, P. (2013). How multilingual can a dubbed film be? Language combinations and national traditions as determining factors. Linguistica Antverpiensia, New Series – Themes in Transla­ tion Studies, 13. https://doi.org/10.52034/lanstts.v13i.72 Whyatt, B. (2017). Intralingual translation. In A. Ferreira & J. Schwieter (Eds.), The handbook of translation and cognition (pp. 176–192). Wiley-Blackwell. Zethsen, K. K. (2007). Beyond translation proper – Extending the field of translation studies. TTR, 20(1), 281–308. https://doi.org/10.7202/018506ar Zethsen, K. K. (2009). Intralingual translation: An attempt at description. Meta, 54(4), 795–812. https://doi. org/10.7202/038904ar

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PART I

Intralingual translation A diachronic perspective

1 ARCHAIZATION, MODERNIZATION, AND REPRESENTING THE SOURCE LANGUAGE IN INTRALINGUAL DIACHRONIC TRANSLATION Hilla Karas Introduction When the source and target texts of a translation are separated by a considerable time gap, this may be reflected in various features of the target text, such as its language (lexicon, morphology, syntax), poetic characteristics (genre, style) and cultural and ideological references to periodindicative items (Jones & Turner, 2004). One common strategy to emphasize the diachronic gap between the reader and the source is archaizing the target text. Intralingual translations however raise a distinct question, since often the very reason for the translation is precisely time-induced language change (Robinson, 1998). Indeed, phonological, morphological, syntactic and semantic changes frequently lead to several retranslations. To correctly decipher or recreate classic pieces from historical periods, or to present them in an accessible manner for contemporary readers, many linguistic, historical and textual skills are required (Alvstad & Assis Rosa, 2015; Brownlie, 2006). The text may be adapted for the different norms of the target readership not just when it is (first) translated, but also every time it is retranslated, or even just edited or reprinted for later generations (Buridant, 2015; Pym, 1998/2014, pp. 79–85). It was probably this gap between historical layers of a language which motivated Mossop (2016) to claim that what we refer to here as diachronic intralingual translation is indeed translation. This is opposed to many other intralingual transfer operations such as simplification, reporting and subtitling (cf. Hill-Madsen, 2019; Zethsen & Hill-Madsen, 2016) which scholars such as Mossop and Schubert (2005) consider to be non-translation. A former état de langue typically relies on a distinct repertoire of rules and items, barely intelligible, or even unintelligible, to speakers of a later period. It can be argued that the treatment of the original code, and consequently the attitude towards the axis of linguistic archaization versus modernization, constitutes the main particularity of intralingual diachronic translation. Archaizing the target text might converge, fully or partly, with the original linguistic material which has evolved in different ways over the decades or centuries, possibly to the extent of rendering the translation pointless. This chapter discusses the internal paradox of translating and simultaneously reproducing the same linguistic material, taking into consideration questions related to the ways in which the 17

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proportions between necessary modernization and possible archaization are determined. It also addresses the values assigned to this elusive balance in different settings, looking into the types of contexts and presentation which seem to impact a translator’s choices and reception.

Preliminary remarks We need to remember that the very question of representing the original language relies on the assumption that a translation attributes some attention to form and smaller text units, rather than opting for free interpretation or paraphrasing. Indeed, a translation which does not aspire to provide a complete version of the source text, but rather a summary, an imitation or an amplified version, is far less likely to represent its source language to begin with. However, a convention-derived representation of the source language may be required by norms, as shall be explained later. The meaning of the term translation varies in different languages or periods, reflecting the change in norms and ways of understanding the relation between the source and target, or the production of the target text (Toury, 1995/2012, pp. 93–95). In antiquity and in the Middle Ages, for example, translations could include paraphrases, non-marked comments and explanations as part of the text itself, as well as eliminations and additions aimed at improving the text’s perceived aesthetic, historical or political value (Grammenidis & Floros, 2019; Rizzi, 2008; on medieval views on translation: Copeland, 2006; and Toury’s remark, 1995/2012, p. 94). Moreover, a source text often cannot be simply categorized as belonging to a single état de langue. Firstly, the very delimitation of a historical layer is far from obvious and can be closely entangled with issues of literary stylistics (Delabastita, 2017, pp. 193–194). In addition, various segments in a work may combine different historical layers as embedded texts or as indices of diachronic change in the narrative itself. Neologisms may also be introduced into a text as samples from imagined futuristic periods and constructed languages (e.g., in science fiction or dystopic novels, cf. Cheyne, 2008). Conversely, a writer may use outdated linguistic elements throughout their text for narratological or stylistic reasons, creating a gap between authorial time and the time of the narrated event. If the plot takes place across several epochs, translators may search for devices ensuring the preservation of the different temporal layers, for instance by using a culturally marked intralingual diachronic contrast. Some examples would be Modern Hebrew vs. Biblical Hebrew or Modern English vs. Shakespearean English (Torop & Osimo, 2010). Another important point is that diachronic translations, both intra- and interlingual, can take place “backwards”, i.e., using a target language older than the source language, as illustrated by translations of Max and Moritz into medieval German and English (Busch, 1982; Görlach, 1986) or The Little Prince into Old French and Sanskrit (Saint-Exupéry, 2013, 2017). This type of translation may entail challenges beyond those covered in the following discussion, since the representation of older linguistic strata in more recent texts is relatively common and partly conventionalized in modern languages, while ancient linguistic layers very rarely need to represent newer ones in their texts.1

Between reduplication and translation: diplomatic transcriptions and critical editions An important aspect to consider before studying more conventional translations would be that several transfer procedures used in philology are actually very close representations (rather than simple copies) of the original text as written, for example, on the ancient plate, papyrus and parchment. In fact, the versions discussed in the present segment often serve as sources for intralingual 18

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modernizing translations. Thus, a “diplomatic transcription” (or a “diplomatic edition”) is a version which reproduces as many traits of the transcribed document (the “diploma”) as allowed by the characters used in modern print, as well as line breaks, page breaks, abbreviations and differentiated letter shapes. Strictly speaking, diplomatic transcriptions conserve the original spelling and punctuation, however irregular and inconsistent they may be, as well as capitalization, word division and variant letter forms. At times, even original slips of the pen are retained (Driscoll, 2006; Pierazzo, 2011). Various degrees of normalization may gradually take these diplomatic transcriptions further down the road towards critical editions. Indeed, “critical –” or “scientific editions” reflect their source material quite differently to diplomatic ones, since they attempt to improve and facilitate reading for modern audiences. A critical edition also methodically inserts word divisions, expanded abbreviations, normalized punctuation, accents and standardized spelling. Of course, the edition may also collate several manuscripts from the same tradition, creating a compilation based on aesthetic and philological considerations (Altschul & Nelson, 2007; Dembowski, 1993; Driscoll, 2010). Importantly, the interrelated French and German traditions of textual editing (ecdotics) have emphasized the “critical apparatus” providing information on the history of the language or literature, sometimes in separate publications for each focus of interest (Wilhelm, 2015). This type of information is placed in footnotes, endnotes, tables, bibliographies and complete chapters presenting detailed scientific discussions. Consequently, many linguistic issues are both presented and explicitly discussed in critical editions. In fact, new philology (Cerquiglini, 1983; Nichols, 1990) paid great attention to linguistic and textual variation in manuscripts, also known as “mouvance”. This was opposed to earlier editing conventions, which preferred dialectal normalization or reconstruction based on various speculations, rather than the representation of specific manuscripts (see Bak, 2012, pp. 25–27; Tanselle, 1983). Indeed, many critical editions constitute a representation of the source language which neither purports to adhere completely to modern linguistic norms nor provides the exact wording, spelling or dialect of the original (cf. Foulet & Speer, 1979; Lepage, 2001). Based on the broadly designed definition of intralingual translation suggested by Zethsen and Hill-Madsen (2016), scientific editions can indeed be seen as intralingual translations: While not directly discussed by the aforementioned scholars, such editions fulfil their criteria of mediating meaning across a potential comprehension gap, a semiotic barrier. Even diplomatic transcriptions may be considered as a borderline case, since they do sometimes bridge differences in alphabetical systems.2

Reduplication as archaization In addition to these newly suggested members for the category of intralingual translations, some long acknowledged translations adhere to a norm encouraging the reduplication of many linguistic elements in the target text, even if their semantic or morphological properties have changed. This is the case for what was known in France as the “style troubadour”,3 which in the current context denotes more specifically the imitation of medieval literary and linguistic writing styles. This was demonstrated in Corbellari’s (2015, pp. 147–160) discussion of modern French intralingual translations, where target texts would include particular obsolete lexemes which became accepted as indicating the medieval period and its linguistic layer, within a generally more modernly worded text. The medievalizing expressions typically belonged to categories (Buridant, 2005) such as period realia items, for example, transportation, navigation or social status; literary formulaic expressions; specific lexemes conventionally used to emphasize a medieval nuance (such as occire (“slay”) 19

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instead of tuer). In addition, the word order of the original was also partly imitated although it may have seemed uncommon, or marked, to modern-day speakers. These reduplications, using fragments of source text material just as they are without adjusting them to modern language standards, became so normalized that when translators started to steer away from these tendencies, particularly in terms of vocabulary, they were criticized for seemingly patronizing their readers, to whom they allegedly did not attribute even basic familiarity with the medieval style (see Trachsler, 2004). In some cases, translations avoiding easily recognizable archaisms are even deemed too modern and free to be considered real translations, and can be accused of adopting a “post-modern jargon which cultivated people would shy away from” (Trachsler, 2004, p. 256). The need to be well-versed in an earlier form of the language, to recognize its markers and use them in text production can also be found in some Bible translations (Karas, 2016b; Nida, 1994). Critics of this approach (such as Jonin [“Chanson de Roland”, 1979, p. 31] in France or Shalev [in Sapir-Wietz, 2011] in Israel) emphasize the need to cater to the common ground among present day speakers as opposed to encouraging linguistic skills signalling higher cultural proficiencies and tastes. Indeed, in France, early and particularly typical examples of the aforementioned translation style, also known as Marot-style translation4 or macaronic translation, have encountered increasing levels of criticism since the beginning of the 20th century (see Buridant, 2005). The tendency to embed antiquated expressions is not limited to obsolete vocabulary;5 it is also practised through the integration of words identified as archaic but which are still used by a modern-day speaker or found in the dictionary (Buridant, 2005). These present-day-but-marked alternatives are often outdated, technical, archaeological or regional terms and are still prone to affect the text’s readability (Buridant, 2005). Other examples are the creation of new items through applying outdated morphological rules on modern lexemes (for example, thu has as a fake representation of Anglo-Saxon English rather than thu hafst or simply the modern you have) or using the latter in contexts that are suitable for their older etymological form (English happy in the sense of “fortunate” rather than its modern one). Clearly, the reduplication of the source language material is particularly suitable for highbrow readers who are vastly familiar with the older language variety and its specificities. The practice may actually serve as a sociological marker, signalling the translator’s or their readers’ belonging to the intelligentsia (see Baer, 2006; Sela-Sheffy, 2005). Understandably, a generally modern text with obsolete terms sprinkled throughout produces heterolinguality, enjoys a higher readability than the source, but still unambiguously points at its original historical time frame and source language (Jones & Turner, 2004; Karas, 2016a). The term “heterolingualism”, introduced by Rainier Grutman (1997), refers to the use of foreign languages or social, regional and historical language varieties in texts. The heterolingual status of this type of intralingual diachronic translation is yet another reminder of the fact that no language is a single, monolithic entity. In the present context, it also serves as a reminder that the border between source and target language can be blurred and that the two may actually converge at some points, in spite of their apparent clear and binary opposition (see also Meylaerts, 2006).

Literal or conventional substitutions for source language items It is important to note that while there is certainly an affinity between the two tactics, the reduplication of exact source language terms is distinct from their substitution by literal translations or specific and conventionalized modern items. Indeed, in some cases the differentiation between the older item and its modern counterpart is debatable, as it may depend on a single letter or diacritical mark setting them apart. At other times, the more recent term evolved from the earlier one, 20

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or constitutes its cognate, and it now covers several meanings, within which readers are expected to choose the archaic one given the appropriate context. Beyond lexical items such as nouns and verbs, these literal translations may also include fixed expressions such as forms of address, formulas for reinforcing statements or the literal copying of longer syntactic structures which are no longer acceptable in present language, genre or stylistics. Examples may include binomials, outdated diction, kennings6 rendered literally or intralingual inkhorn terms (see Magennis, 2015, pp. 7–13; Tolkien, 1997). It can also cause confusion if the original item covered a wider semantic range than its modern version but is still reproduced as is rather than replaced by the appropriate, specific contemporary alternative for the given context. For example, Old French fier kept in a modern translation may be interpreted as “proud” rather than also covering the senses of “wild” or “intense” (Buridant, 2005, pp. 50–51). All of these instances may prove non-problematic for the informed reader, but a less knowledgeable person would have to spot the stylistic difference, then resort to reference books and perhaps attribute either a mysterious or a less cultivated character to the text, depending on the prestige of the represented period in their culture. As noted earlier, if prestige is high, these literally-translated-but-presently-opaque expressions may be interpreted as traces of the older linguistic layer with which modern-day readers need to familiarize themselves and correctly identify. The historical variety is then considered to belong to a verbal and aesthetic heritage which comprises a key to present-day high culture, as exemplified in the case of the Modern Hebrew Bible translation (Karas, 2016b, 2019). A clear and consistent representation of the source language is then required by those who support this view, who would object to more modernizing translations and support different sorts of reduplication tactics. In an article on English translations of 19th-century Italian literature, Venuti (1996a) mentions that readers interpreted archaisms as placing the work in the remote past because they were reminiscent of the English-language Gothic genre. The strangeness of the text also underlined for the reader that the text was a translation without interrupting the reading experience. This is an interesting point, since in intralingual diachronic translations this very strangeness may have multiple, possibly contradictory, effects: While indicating the antiquity of the text and highlighting the existence of a separate and less accessible original, this strangeness (possibly related to foreignization or lower acceptability) also raises doubts about the very translational nature of the target text. Reduced readability may turn into an advantage when such a translation is designed for, or used by, learners of the older état de langue. The target text exposes them to many linguistic features of the old language, possibly encouraging them to turn to the original and reread it; on the other hand the translation is still easier to access than the original. Archaizing conventions may therefore be beneficial, especially when they are accompanied by a didactic apparatus, such as endnotes, exercises, glossaries or declension and conjugation tables, each providing an explanation for certain linguistic particularities. This didactic practice has been used intralingually from as early as the Classical and Hellenistic periods (Grammenidis & Floros, 2019). In the example of the reprinted Bida translation of Aucassin and Nicolette, endnotes indicated that a modern French translation for a medieval piece presented word order, inconsistent use of address pronouns, specific verbal tenses and moods, as well as elision in possessive pronouns, all of which are more characteristic of Old French rather than modern-day French (see Karas, 2008). It is a fascinating situation in which a translation is used for teaching about the source language, while readers have to be cautious about distinguishing between target- and source-language features. If one has to be careful when studying foreign literature through translation (Venuti, 1996b), even more caution is needed when the source language is concerned; such caution, apparently, is not always practised when source and target language are considered as one.7 21

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In spite of the aforementioned advantages for students, we have here a paradoxical state of affairs where a modern translation does not replace outdated and unintelligible linguistic properties, thus attracting attention to the very fact that they are not acceptable any more. Naturally, the answer lies in finely balancing the use of modern-day and archaic language in the text: Too many items of an earlier form of the language and the text risks becoming unreadable. However, as noted earlier, obsolete components are often the main reason for the intralingual diachronic translation itself. Hence, this type of heterolingual target text contains the very items which one would expect to be converted.

Conventionalized representation of the earlier language The three practices discussed previously – the inclusion of completely obsolete linguistic material, literal translations obeying outdated rules and modern “faux amis” used with the sense of the words they have evolved from – create, in turn, new norms. Readers can grow accustomed to these anomalies without even mastering the original lexical or grammatical repertoire, taking these representations as the standard style for medieval romances or ancient epics. In such a context, the hybrid language can be appreciated by both the cultural elite (including specialists in the relevant fields) and the fans of a specific genre who have grown accustomed to the style. While such preferences can also develop in interlingual contexts (see Venuti, 1996a), it would seem that in intralingual cases, readers often have the impression that the strangeness encountered has been copied straight from the source. However, as a result of this convention, markers of antiquity become necessary in their own right and may be added as an independent translational strategy rather than directly deriving from source text details. As mentioned earlier, a special form of the language may be preferred because it signals in-group identification even if it is less accessible for the general public, not only for religious scriptures but also for other founding texts. An archaic style may be chosen for a translation for many reasons beyond the representation of a text’s authorial time or narrated time: It can also enhance the claims to authenticity of a pseudotranslation (Toury, 2005) or express a translator’s stance on opposing historical world views, such as medieval vs. modern ideals (Yoon, 2021). When a convention requires antiquity markers for founding texts, we have a historical genre which is expected to include particular types of archaisms; they are then independently introduced into the translation in a very plausible manner, creating an apparent representation of original linguistic features. As an example, Alexandre Bida’s 19th-century modern French translation of Aucassin and Nicolette (1878) included archaic morphological features (verbal suffixes), elision and the resulting apostrophe, an adjective replaced by its synonym spelt in an antiquated form (while the literal and direct translation would not permit it) and the use of a hyphen to combine an adverb and an adjective – all of which were the direct result of decisions made by the translator rather than the reproduction of an earlier linguistic variety. Since norms do not prevail forever, a 20th-century re-edition of the same translation (Williams, 1933) eliminated some of these characteristics, without hesitating however to use the remaining ones for didactic purposes (see Karas, 2008). We can therefore say that the norm of an archaic translation style may create an illusion of linguistic authenticity and transparency. Such an illusion is particularly powerful in intralingual transfer, due to readers’ assumptions that the source text would be relatively comprehensible and that its language could be very simply and directly adjusted to modern standards. To summarize, the strategy of archaizing and its methods of application depend on the interpretation of the source text, target system norms and the translator’s assessment of their intended 22

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readerships’ expectations and knowledge regarding linguistic forms, literary traditions or cultural references. The various transfer methods listed previously can be classified using what Hill-Madsen (2019) labelled “degree of translation” in intralingual translation; it covers the proportion of simple reduplication of linguistic material, compared to conversion resulting from linguistic differences. We would expect to find a very low degree of translation in diplomatic transcriptions and a somewhat higher degree in critical editions; renditions explicitly labelled as translations often display lower extents of reduplication, depending on accepted norms. On the other hand, modernizing translations would exhibit a low degree of reduplication and a higher degree of translation.

Modernization vs. intralingual diachronic translation If intralingual intertemporal translation basically results from the necessity to update a text, why do we even need to discuss modernization? First, “modernization” can refer to non-linguistic components, such as realia items or socio-cultural facts, as well as stylistic and genre features, which may all be replaced in a sort of diachronic domestication (Jones & Turner, 2004). Where language is concerned, normally this type of translation inevitably involves a certain level of modernization, which is therefore also widely acceptable. However, this linguistic modernization is frequently performed in a manner that would not draw too much attention to itself, through the use of unmarked contemporary expressions which readers take for granted. On the other hand, some linguistic forms indicate very clearly their period even without designating real world phenomena. For example, slang expressions and structures, forms of address, or loan words which have not yet completely integrated in a language comprise very noticeable signposts of their own time frame. These kinds of modernizations were referred to by Lefere (1994) and Jones and Turner (2004) as “violent modernization”, which readers can easily link to a later period than the source. When the artefacts, situations and textual details are datable to the same epoch as linguistic forms, this compatibility may encourage a better reception even in contexts where an archaizing translation is the norm. Similarly, the reception of violent modernizations is determined, among other aspects, by the attitude in the target culture towards the old language variety: As its prestige and relevance increases, so the reception of modernized translations deteriorates. When modernization removes the societal barrier between holders of cultural capital (Bourdieu, 1986) (the “well read”) and the other speakers, reactions from educators and other gatekeepers are likely to be unfavourable. At the opposite end of the scale, modernization can be viewed as the only way to salvage the content of a text, in a context where the source language is so remote from contemporary speakers that any linguistic representation would undermine the whole project. This position was expressed regarding key cultural texts, such as modern renderings of the Hebrew Bible8 or Turkish retranslations of Kelile and Dimne (Berk Albachten, 2019). In both cases, it was claimed by translators and supporters of their work that insisting on the obsolete language based on puritanism and outdated literary tastes might push the text into oblivion. Such a position promotes the use of a plain and accessible variety rather than a literary, highbrow register. Such retranslations of Biblical texts, drawing from Martin Luther’s (1530/2014) approach to his seminal German translation, were surveyed in Zethsen’s (2009) pivotal paper on intralingual translation. Modernization can derive from wider considerations than just language change or translational norms. When Greek intralingual diachronic translations took a modernizing turn, it was not a direct consequence of a shift in norms or individual translatorial choices; it resulted from a general shift in the norms of written language. Indeed, the famous Language Questions arose in the 23

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19th and 20th centuries concerning the specific variety to be adopted for purposes of highbrow culture and later as official language. The options included katharevousa, an artificially reconstructed variety based on Classical Greek but “purged” of non-Hellenic vocabulary and grammatical features, and the so-called Demotic (“popular”) written version (Dimotiki), now referred to as Standard Modern Greek. Importantly, even katharevousa was not identical to Ancient Greek, as it included grammatical modifications in features such as particles, numbers and connectives. Over the decades, the Demotic variety gained ground due to its affinity with the spoken language and was declared by law in 1976 as official in Greece and Cyprus (Mackridge, 2012; Vlachopoulos, 2007). The linguistic battle unavoidably affected intra- and interlingual translations in these countries: Since Classical Greek had become incomprehensible at that point, all translations had one of the two varieties as their target language. A significant portion of intralingually translated materials covered seminal texts such as Ancient Greek tragedies, comedies, poems and historical accounts (Grammenidis & Floros, 2019). As a result, any choice between Demotic and katharevousa inherently changed the proportion of reduplication and archaization in every intralingual diachronic translation. As the norm of translating into Demotic gradually spread, texts earlier translated into katharevousa had to be retranslated in a manner which modernized texts that would have been conventionally archaized. The Greek Orthodox Church declared after the 1901 riots that Demotic translations of the Bible were profane and might distort Biblical concepts due to linguistic divergences (Vasileiadis, forthcoming). With time, such translations were published and even gained recognition from the Orthodox Church.

Archaization, modernization and ideology Clearly, socio-cultural elements may impact the desire to reproduce original linguistic material. The first factor has already been mentioned: The prestige of the source text’s historical layer. For example, Classical Greek and Biblical Hebrew were – and in some respects still are – considered as pure, exemplary and “holy”, depending on the period or sub-group in the speakers’ community. A second relevant factor is the extent to which the old état de langue is viewed as a separate variety or evolutionary stage by the speakers’ community. If one cannot or should not separate contemporary written language from its classical form, there is no need to translate it, or alternatively, it can serve itself as a target language (Karas, 2016a). If we accept Sakai’s (2009) claim that languages are not naturally distinct entities, neither on the ethno-political level nor on the diachronic level, then such boundaries depend on cultural conceptions and other biases. Any group can insist that their linguistic code should not be separated into distinct, identifiable layers, even when they fail to comprehend their historical texts. They can choose instead to revive the old varieties and put them back into use, at least in writing. Such an effort can take the form of rejecting any modernizing intralingual translation, either by avoiding their publication or through negative reactions to such translations. This explains the majority of the reactions to the Modern Hebrew Ram Bible (see Karas, 2016b). In fact, some of the few positive reactions to the translation were based on Zuckermann’s claim that Modern Hebrew and Biblical Hebrew are not even the same language (cf. Zuckermann & Holzman, 2011), thus viewing translation as an obvious solution. Most writers on the subjects who emphasized sameness and continuity between the layers opposed the translation.9 A community wishing to avoid any division between old and modern language can opt for a second modus operandi, teaching the public the earlier historical forms through the use of kathar­ evousa in 19th- and early 20th-century Greece (Grammenidis & Floros, 2019). It would seem that in both cases, the ideological rationale behind the attempt to emphasize the sameness – or at 24

Archaization, modernization, and representing source language

least direct continuity – between old and modern versions of the language are related to nation building. In Israel, the emphasis on familiarity with Biblical Hebrew through laborious learning rather than use of modernized translations seems to ensue from the central role still played by the founding religious text in cultural, historical and political inner struggles. In the Greek case, both katharevousa and Dimotiki were presented as promoting linguistic continuity: While the first one was indeed largely based on the classical language, the very use of Dimotiki in translations of key historical texts such as the Bible and The Oresteia aimed, among other things, to establish its status as the natural modern substitute for both the original idiom and the formerly standard target variety. Apparently, this approach has been accepted by many, given that nowadays speakers complain that what is threatened by the world dominance of English is not just Standard Modern Greek but rather the “Greek language” as an undivided whole, after thousands of years of documented continuous use (Mackridge, 2012). In the two examples cited earlier, intralingual translation became entangled in larger debates about the history and continuity of languages, cultures, territories and nations. These debates demonstrate again the claim that historical translations and translation history both determine their own concepts in a circular manner (cf. Davis, 2014; Sakai, 2009). In this context, norms, expectations and innovations related to the way intralingual diachronic translations represent their source language play a very important role. Intralingual diachronic translation can also result directly from language planning, as it did in the case of the Turkish language reform, which included not just a change of alphabet but also the elimination of many foreign terms, mainly of Arabic and Persian origin, and their replacement by Turkish equivalents. This reflected an effort to remove traditional and Islamic influences from the culture as a whole, such that supporters of the Kemalist movement also promoted intralingual translations and retranslations to fit and proliferate their line of thinking (Berk Albachten, 2014). Clearly, this type of retranslation would mostly avoid representing the source language, precisely as part of the endeavour to recreate the nation and its renewed culture. From a slightly different perspective, Seamus Heaney finds traces of Irish terms in the Old English text of Beowulf and feels free to use them if he judges it poetically or historically right, in an effort to “come to terms with [the] complex history of conquest and colony, absorption and resistance . . . a history which has to be clearly acknowledged by all concerned” (Heaney, 2000, p. xxx). He therefore used reduplication as a tactic to voice and represent not just the historical layer of “English” but also the contemporary Irish speakers who preserve some of the old vocabulary along with its semantic and phonetic values.

Text layout and transparency An obvious way to grant readers access to the original language is to present it accompanied by the translation, in a bilingual edition. When both texts are displayed, a new parameter should be taken into consideration. Whether it is called “double presentation”, following Pym (1992/2010, p. 80) or “co-presence” following Kaufmann (2002), it may directly impact the translation itself as well as the intended reading (Hewson, 1993). In interlingual translations, the languages and their alphabets may present profound contrasts, to the level of complete unintelligibility; however, in intralingual cross-temporal translations, particularly when both codes use the same alphabet, readers are more likely to attempt reading the original and possibly compare the versions. Potentially, this comparison may encourage readers to judge the translation according to their own norms of fullness and equivalence (Pym, 1992/2010). If they expect the target text 25

Hilla Karas

to reproduce features such as sentential segmentation, vocabulary and syntactic structures, they may criticize any apparent violations. In order to prevent such reactions, a translator who is aware that their work is planned to be published in a double format may either opt for a very close, largely reduplicating translation or add various types of explanations and justifications for the discrepancies, for example in footnotes, prefaces or epilogues. In other cases, an existing standalone translation reprinted in double presentation may be “dressed up” with these supplementary elements by the editors. In fact, such notes inevitably point readers at the linguistic shifts behind translatorial decisions not to adhere to source lexical stems, verbal tenses or structures (Karas, 2007). The number and the volume of such comments depends on translation norms, the status of the translator or the type of publication. Nonetheless, if norms encourage younger people to learn the source historical layer, for example through their inclusion in important board or certification exams, then the double presentation may play the opposite role: Since readers are expected to use the source itself to study, then the translation, serving as a study aid, should be as accessible as possible, freed from expectations to represent or imitate linguistic and aesthetic properties. Such a switch can be detected in bilingual editions of French medieval literature, between the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century on the one hand, and the pocket-sized bilingual editions at the end of the 20th and the early 21st centuries on the other hand. Furthermore, the classical facing-page format of the bilingual edition is far from being the only layout providing double presentation. Different layouts may assume or inspire distinct ways to read both texts. A printed book may be one complete text followed by its translation or just relegate one of them to the end of the volume, as a separate chapter or an appendix, depending on the relative importance attributed to the respective versions. Such a setting discourages parallel reading and comparison, now reserved for specialists or particularly interested individuals. Even when source and target are both on the same page, their segmentation is significant: An interlinear setup, or two facing columns, facilitate parallel reading, while two long textual blocks one followed by the other make for less comfortable reading. In some cases, one version is also printed in a different or a much smaller font, emphasizing its lower prestige and status, again discouraging the reader. The division into smaller units presented on the page, whether in equivalent formats or not (size, typeset, column width), affects reading order as well, since a text broken into many short phrases can also interfere with any attempt to read fluently any one of the versions. Some translations indicate many modifications of their source wording through the use of bold or italic lettering, parentheses, brackets, asterisks and similar marks in the text itself (Bat-Zeev Shyldkrot & Karas, 2021; Pym, 1992/2010, p. 88). This technique underlines their adherence to the source language as well as their transparency as far as any such changes are concerned. In a double presentation, these signs attract attention to any such procedures, even if the reader was focusing solely on the translation, without any intent to correlate versions. The technique also creates an impression that all changes, as minor as they may be, are openly indicated, and that the rest of the text does adhere to a clear and coherent convention of equivalence. In intralingual diachronic translations, this equivalence often covers many linguistic details, such as verbal forms, orthography and ellipsis. However, this impression of transparency is not always authentic, for a variety of reasons, such as translator’s fatigue which may decrease the attention for such details, or a desire to disguise some interventions that risk provoking unwanted reactions. Additionally, all of these strategies and layouts may be applied to parts of a text: Some chapters or paragraphs may be presented as summarized translations, others in bilingual presentations, others yet may be omitted altogether (see D’hulst, 1995). The source language representation can 26

Archaization, modernization, and representing source language

therefore differ throughout the volume, depending on the importance of a textual fragment or its linguistic code. Finally, all of these options are equally valid for texts in digital formats. Yet, these may grant their readers tools to select different presentation modes, a fact that can directly affect translatorial decisions. Translators will have to take into consideration that their text may be read independently of its source or be compared to it at any point. It seems too early to describe the impact of such modular publication mechanisms on source language representation, but hypotheses can be formed based on the aforementioned descriptions. This section has focused on the ways in which translations highlight shifts as compared to the source text, and to overt indications of these shifts in the target text itself and its paratexts. The very existence of such indications implies readers’ assumptions about the type and scope of what consists of acceptable and noteworthy changes.

Script The whole prior discussion takes for granted that the same alphabet is used in both source and target texts, otherwise bilingual editions would not be as obviously prone to comparisons. Even so, intralingual cross-temporal translations do sometimes take place between different scripts. Clearly, the change in script has a direct impact on the issue of source-language representation. Two possible transfer procedures other than translation aim to represent original linguistic material. The first option is transliteration, which involves swapping letters in one script with particular letters or combinations in a second script, following accurate and predictable rules, in an effort to reflect the spelling of the source text. A second option is transcription, where the spoken language is noted through an equally conventional set of rules. Within a language, this is relevant if users of different alphabets also tend to have distinct pronunciations due to accent or dialectal differences, or due to phonetic changes taking place on the diachronic axis. Most often, diachronic intralingual transfer takes place beyond these fully conventional conversion methods.10 Nineteenth-century Ottoman Turkish is one example of multiple scripts (Berk Albachten, 2019). While it normally used Arabic letters, it also existed in additional alphabets: Karaman­ lidika, preferred by Christians, used Greek letters; Armeno-Turkish used Armenian script; JudeoTurkish used Rashi script; Cyrillic-Turkish used Cyrillic letters, and finally Syro-Turkish was written in Old Syriac script. This diversity was meaningful for the ethnic and religious groups, as it expressed their particularity and served as a means for self-differentiation within the wider linguistic community. Translations between these scripts obviously eliminated one identifying feature in the language; in addition, some further features may also disappear in such a translation. A translator may omit terms considered inappropriate or opt for plain language in order to increase comprehensibility, inevitably effacing other relevant characteristics or introducing new ones to emphasize a certain identity.11 Naturally, terms and structures marking communal identities, such as words of specific foreign origins or religious connotations, may be erased intentionally on ideological grounds, as it happens in any type of translation. The use of a specific alphabet as a means to express and draw mutual boundaries was lost in Türkiye when the language reform of 1928 abolished all these alternatives in favour of the Latin system alone. The intralingual translations and retranslations resulting from the reform often exceeded linguistic updating to include a “purification” of Ottoman and other elements along with content manipulations (Berk Albachten, 2014), both concealing and rewriting various identity markers which the new regime disapproved of. A phenomenon closely related to intralingual translation and scripts is kanbun kundoku (“Japanese reading of Chinese texts”). Although it is basically a method which historically enabled 27

Hilla Karas

Japanese speakers to directly deal with Chinese texts in Kanji through added annotations, attitudes towards it have not always likened it to translation proper. In fact, its long use in Japan over several centuries had “blurred the boundaries between the two written languages” to a point where it was regarded as an intralingual “register change” rather than an interlingual conversion (Wakabayashi, 2019, p. 59). Since the differentiation between inter- and intralingual depends on cultural schemata, and here the use of the same script delivered a close, very transparent representation of the source language, it was decided to mention kanbun kondoku despite the fact that it is not a typical case of intralingual diachronic translation.

Conclusion While archaization and modernization can occur in all diachronic translations, they touch upon the basic paradox of intralingual translation, where a product of archaization partly converges with the original, thereby not only masking the reason for translation but also signalling it. Modernization, on the other hand, minimizes the representation of the original text and language. The two trends normally coexist and complement each other. Transliteration, transcription, diplomatic transcription and critical edition are contiguous procedures which closely represent the original language, and may even count as translation under specific conditions. Within more typical translations, several strategies are used for archaization: Older linguistic items or those which by convention mark antiquity and can become the translational norm, to the point that they would be generated in the process of translation rather than derived from source material. This last archaizing technique creates an illusion of transparency and authenticity through the very addition of new elements. Literal translations, preference for older forms or earlier, technical and uncommon meanings of contemporary terms, as well as the preservation of outdated linguistic and stylistic habits such as binomials or kennings are other archaizing options. In general, these tactics can also serve as markers of knowledge or membership in privileged professional or social groups. In addition, these methods all emphasize the diachronic gap but at the same time make the translation less transformative. The latter fact renders archaizing translations a remarkably useful tool for learning the older linguistic variety in an intralingual setting, especially if a didactic apparatus accompanies the text. As a result, the translation reproduces some of the lower readability of the original while still providing readers with more accessible versions – again emphasizing the inherent paradox of intralingual intertemporal translation. This category of translation is closely influenced by language ideologies and norms in the target environment. If speakers underscore linguistic continuity, they often avoid such translations in favour of other procedures, refuse to name them translations, or reject or even ban the ones that do get published. They may also allocate more resources to teaching and preserving the older état de langue and texts. Conversely, a change of script in a language is often the result of continuitybreaking social and cultural changes, inducing a whole array of translational shifts. The translation layout can have a considerable impact on its reading and the extent to which it represents the source variety. Bilingual editions, particularly in juxtaposed or interlinear format, encourage comparison and dialogue between the textual versions; overt markings of translational shifts generate another illusion of transparency, or necessitate the addition of explicit discussions and justifications. The exceptionally varied parameters related to the representation of source language, as well as their cultural and social grounds, reveal the core specificity of intralingual diachronic translations, namely the indispensable and crucial reference to issues of linguistic continuity and difference within sameness. 28

Archaization, modernization, and representing source language

Notes 1 Obviously this is still possible, since the target text reader – necessarily belonging to a posterior period – is somewhat familiar with both linguistic codes or at least aware of their existence. 2 See a discussion of similar cases in Hill-Madsen (2019, p. 556). 3 This ambivalent term, also known as “genre troubadour”, can also refer to the general interest in and imitation of medieval painting, sculpture and music, starting mainly in France at the end of the 18th century (see Pupil, 1985). This sense of the term will not be used here. 4 Traduction marotique, after 16th-century Clément Marot, poet and translator of François Villon. 5 We are referring here to cases of homonyms rather than the more common polysemy. For example, the use of the term port in modern French not in the sense of “harbour” but rather as “parade” or “procession”, following its medieval meaning. See Buridant (2005, p. 33). 6 A kenning is a compound phrase, often figurative, corresponding to a common noun, used in Old Germanic, Old Norse and Old English poetry. Famous examples from Beowulf are hronráde, “whale-path” for “sea”, or hilde-leoma, “battle-light” for “sword”. 7 Interestingly, the translation mentioned here actually comprised a modern French translation of an Old French text destined for American college students, for whom French is indeed a foreign language (Williams, 1933). One can easily imagine the confusion of less than fluent readers when facing this hybrid creation. 8 See author Meir Shalev’s position in his interview with Sapir-Wietz (2011). 9 However, see Bornstein (2008) in Karas (2019). 10 For a discussion on the relations between these procedures and translation, see Hill Madsen (2019) and Gottlieb (2017). 11 See the example of Gavriilidis’s translation of Midhat’s text in Berk Albachten (2019).

Further reading For more on intralingual French diachronic translation and levels of representation: Galderisi, C., & Vincesini, J. J. (Eds.). (2015). De l’ancien français au français moderne. Brepols. On diachronic translations, including intralingual ones, as reflecting linguistic change: Lavidas, N. (2022). Intralingual translations: Two directions – to the past or to the present. In The diachrony of written language contact (pp. 90–102). Brill. On diachronic versions as intralingual (and interlingual) translations: Screnock, J. (2017). The overlap of transmission and translation. In Traductor scriptor (pp. 50–92). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004336568_004 On a diachronic translation as a means to detect stylistic features and effects: Sherry, B. (2017). Lost and regained in translation: The sound of Paradise Lost. In A. Duran, I. Issa, & J. R. Olson (Eds.), Milton in translation (pp. 33–50). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/ oso/9780198754824.003.0003 On the translators’ point of view: Sirés, P. M. (2020). Like walking on cobblestones: An analysis of translator’s prefaces in Japanese intralingual translations. SKOPOS. Revista Internacional de Traducción e Interpretación, 11, 81–102.‫‏‬

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Archaization, modernization, and representing source language Karas, H. (2008). ‫ על התועלת בניתוח הוצאות מחודשות של תרגומים‬:‫[ אותה גברת בשינוי אדרת‬Sameness and difference in two avatars of one text: The analysis of re-editions]. ‫חלקת לשון‬, 40, 150–165. Karas, H. (2016a). Intralingual intertemporal translation as a relevant category in translation studies. Target, 28(3), 445–466. https://doi.org/10.1075/target.28.3.05kar Karas, H. (2016b). ‫[ על )אי?( ההתקבלות של תנ“ך רם‬On the (non?) reception of the Ram Bible]. ‫העברית שפה חיה‬, VII, 367–386. Karas, H. (2019). Intelligibility and the reception of translation. Perspectives. Studies in Translatology, 28(1), 24–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/0907676X.2019.1612929 Kaufmann, F. (2002). La coprésence de l’original et de sa traduction. In I. Fortunato (Ed.), Identité, altérité, équivalence? La traduction comme relation (pp. 323–338). Minard. Lefere, R. (1994). La traduction archaïsante: Cervantes d’après M. Molho. Meta, 39(1), 241–249. https://doi. org/10.7202/003454ar Lepage, Y. G. (2001). Guide de l’édition de textes en ancien français (Vol. 1). Honoré Champion. Luther, M. (2014). An open letter on translating. Project Gutenberg. http://sermons.martinluther.us/Letter_ on_translation_ml.pdf (translated by Michael D. Marlowe) (Original work published 1530). Mackridge, P. (2012). Multilingualism and standardization in Greece. In O. Moliner, U. Vogl, & M. Hüning (Eds.), Standard languages and multilingualism in European history (pp. 153–177). John Benjamins. Magennis, H. (2015). Translating Beowulf. Modern versions in English verse. Brewer (Original work published 2011). Meylaerts, R. (2006). Heterolingualism in/and translation. How legitimate are the other and his/her language? An introduction. Target, 18(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1075/target.18.1.02mey Mossop, B. (2016). Intralingual translation’: A desirable concept? Across Languages and Cultures, 17(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1556/084.2016.17.1.1 Nichols, S. G. (1990). Introduction: Philology in a manuscript culture. Speculum, 65(1), 1–10. https://doi. org/10.2307/2864468 Nida, E. A. (1994). The sociolinguistics of translating canonical religious texts. TTR, 7(1), 191–217. https:// doi.org/10.7202/037173ar Pierazzo, E. (2011). A rationale of digital documentary editions. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 26, 463–477. https://doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqr033 Pupil, F. (1985). Le Style Troubadour ou la nostalgie du bon vieux temps. Presses Universitaires de Nancy. Pym, A. (2010). Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of cross-cultural communication (2nd ed.). Intercultural Studies Group (Original work published 1992). Pym, A. (2014). Method in translation history. Routledge (Original work published 1998). Rizzi, A. (2008). When a text is both a pseudotranslation and a translation: The enlightening case of Matteo Maria Boiardo (1441–1494). In A. Pym, M. Shlesinger, & D. Simeoni (Eds.), Beyond descriptive transla­ tion studies (pp. 153–162). John Benjamins. Robinson, D. (1998). Intertemporal translation. In M. Baker (Ed.), Routledge encyclopedia of translation studies (pp. 114–116). Routledge. Saint-Exupéry, A. (2013). Kanīyān Rājakumāraḥ (G. Mishra, Trans.). Samskrita Bharati. Saint-Exupéry, A. (2017). Li juenes princes (G. Taverdet, Trans.). Tietenfass. Sakai, N. (2009). How do we count a language? Translation and discontinuity. Translation Studies, 2(1), 71–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/14781700802496266 Sapir-Wietz, C. (2011, June 7). ‫ הדור הבא‬:‫[ תנ”ך‬Bible: The next generation]. NRG. www.nrg.co.il/online/47/ ART2/248/508.html. Schubert, K. (2005). Translation studies: Broaden or deepen the perspective? In H. V. Dam, J. Engberg, & H. Gerzymisch-Arbogast (Eds.), Knowledge systems and translation (pp. 125–146). Walter de Gruyter. Sela-Sheffy, R. (2005). How to be a (recognized) translator: Rethinking habitus, norms, and the field of translation. Target, 17(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1075/target.17.1.02sel Tanselle, G. T. (1983). Classical, biblical, and medieval textual criticism and modern editing. Studies in Bib­ liography, 36, 21–68. Tolkien, J. R. R. (1997). On translating Beowulf. In C. Tolkien (Ed.), The monsters and the critics (pp. 49–71). Harper Collins (Original work published 1940). Torop, P., & Osimo, B. (2010). Historical identity of translation: From describability to translatability of time. TRAMES: A Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, 14(4), 383–393. https://doi.org/10.3176/tr.2010.4.06 Toury, G. (2005). Enhancing cultural changes by means of fictitious translations. In E. Hung (Ed.), Transla­ tion and cultural change: Studies in history, norms and image-projection (pp. 3–18). John Benjamins.

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Hilla Karas Toury, G. (2012). Descriptive translation studies and beyond. John Benjamins (Original work published 1995). Trachsler, R. (2004). Review of: Le Livre du Graall. Joseph d’Arimathie, Merlin, Les premiers faits du roi Arthur, éd. préparée par Daniel Poirion, 2001. Romania, 122(485–486), 247–257. Vasileiadis, P. D. (forthcoming). An overview of the New Testament translations in vernacular Greek during the printing era. In F. Biver-Pettinger & E. Shuali (Eds.), Traduire la Bible: hier et aujourd’hui. Venuti, L. (1996a). Translation, heterogeneity, linguistics. TTR, 9(1), 91–115. https://doi.org/10.7202/037240ar Venuti, L. (1996b). Translation and the pedagogy of literature. College English, 58(3), 327–344. https://doi. org/10.2307/378715 Vlachopoulos, S. (2007). Legal meanings across linguistic barriers: The intralingual and interlingual translation of laws in Greece and Cyprus. International Journal for the Semiotics of Law, 20, 305–325. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s11196-007-9053-1 Wakabayashi, J. (2019). Japanese conceptualizations of “translation”. In Y. Gambier & U. Stecconi (Eds.), A world atlas of translation (pp. 54–79). John Benjamins. Wilhelm, R. (2015). L’édition de texte – entreprise à la fois linguistique et littéraire. In D. Trotter (Ed.), Ma­ nuel de la philologie de l’édition (pp. 131–151). De Gruyter. Williams, E. B. (1933). Aucassin et Nicolette and Four Lais of Marie de France (Edited with Introduction, Notes and Vocabulary). Crofts. Yoon, S. K. (2021). Medievalising Homer: William Morris’s archaizing translation of The Odyssey. Perspec­ tives, 29(1), 33–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/0907676X.2020.1721546 Zethsen, K. K. (2009). Intralingual translation: An attempt at description. Meta, 54(4), 795–812. https://doi. org/10.7202/038904ar Zethsen, K. K., & Hill-Madsen, A. (2016). Intralingual translation and its place within translation studies – a theoretical discussion. Meta, 61(3), 692–708. https://doi.org/10.7202/1039225ar Zuckermann, G., & Holzman, G. (2011). ‫ על המהפך הנדרש בהוראת תנ“ך ולשון בישראל‬:‫[ רעד אל העם‬Join the people: On the necessary revolution in Bible education in Israel]. ‫גילוי דעת‬, 1, 13–31.

32

2 RETRIEVING BELGIUM’S NATIONAL PAST 19th-century intralingual translation and transfer practices in the legal, linguistic, and literary domains Lieven D’hulst Introduction Although the history of views on translation and translation practices has consistently privileged literary and religious translation over a long period of time, for the last few decades the gap with translation histories in other fields, such as public and private everyday settings, institutional translation, cross-lingual practices and more is gradually closing. As an additional effect of the discovery or rediscovery of such views and practices of the past, a historical perspective may prove its ability to bridge past activities that have coexisted if not intermingled before their becoming embedded in separate disciplines like linguistics, literary studies and history. This chapter will deal with a specific century and area in which these disciplines were indeed knitted together more closely than they have been since. And it will argue that this process was favoured by translation, all sorts of translation, not least intralingual translation. Nineteenth-century Europe offers a vantage point for the study of the transversal role of translation across a range of disciplines and settings. As pointed out by Joep Leerssen, a major beacon for disciplinary kinship was set a century earlier by Giambattista Vico’s Scienza Nuova (1724), in which the term filologia or philology was recoined as a mode of investigation of all things by which humans make their world recognizable, knowable and predictable – which is tantamount to saying that philology deals with culture. Aspects of culture are, for Vico: mythology (a deferential way of saying that religion, too, is a cultural praxis providing certainties), history, manners and customs, law, literature and language. (Leerssen, 2008, p. 17) As is well known, philology developed considerably during the late 18th and 19th centuries in Europe, pervading legal history, comparative linguistics, literary history and more upcoming disciplines, designing and refining its techniques of finding, storing, describing, interpreting, editing and translating ancient, mostly medieval, texts (Espagne & Werner, 1994; Thiesse, 2022). Governments as well as learned societies sustained philological endeavours, both nationally and 33

DOI: 10.4324/9781003188872-4

Lieven D’hulst

internationally. Archivists, librarians, bibliophilists and antiquarians all provided access to a massive amount of erudite information for larger groups of learned people, while at the same time popular versions and schoolbooks aimed at children and the less educated flourished. As is equally well known, a strong driving force behind the growth of interest in philology is nationalism and the sentiment of belonging described by Miroslav Hroch as the first phase of a national movement, which consists of the rediscovery of the past culture and language of a nation (Hroch, 1985). Philological activities and nationalist feelings featured in smaller and larger cultures, as well as in multilingual ones, although one of the premises of nationalism was the supposed intimate if not exclusive connection between a language, its literature and its culture, a connection which the coexistence or rivalry between more languages within a single nation-state seemed to challenge if not contradict. Most new nations born after the Napoleonic wars and throughout the century had to find ways to reconcile the ideology of national belonging and the effective reality of multilingualism. Philology offered a useful tool here: Translation. And so, translation became the panacea to access the practices and disciplines of the past. Translation was omnipresent: Between different languages, between ancient and modern versions of the same language, between oral, manuscript and print media, within and between multilingual cultures. In this chapter, I will focus on translations carried out in administrative, legal and cultural practices, which are by themselves no more than samplings of political, socio-economic and cultural life (ministries, city administrations, police, trade, religious life, hospitals, education, etc.). As mentioned earlier, translation history has a long way to go here, in spite of the growing number of contributions on translating at pivotal moments in multilingual areas such as Belgium and the Netherlands during the French Revolution (cf. D’hulst & Schreiber, 2014), Germany in the Napoleonic period (cf. Paye, 2013), 19th-century Switzerland (Dullion, 2020), Italy (Schreiber, 2020) and the Habsburg regime (cf. Wolf, 2012). It may seem paradoxical that everyday translations are so ubiquitous and yet difficult to trace. But it is no paradox for the historian. First, these translations were far from systematically registered, being rarely written down, only occasionally printed and even less stored in archives. Second, they blended with other language practices, making up rather sophisticated networks of language relations and exchanges that have not been listed in catalogues of books and printed media or electronic databases, nor described in overviews or case studies by language or translation historians. Heuristic techniques that handle simple distinctions such as translation, adaptation and imitation are inadequate. To put it bluntly: With regard to the 19th century, the term translation is mainly used to designate interlingual translation, while, conversely, the large array of other cross-lingual or cross-media practices are never (or not yet) labelled by the terms and meanings coined by Jakobson in 1959, and multiplied and expanded by others (among others, Gottlieb, 2018; Zethsen, 2021). Of course, the same holds for many more notions including general ones that will recur hereafter, such as language and language family as well as their corresponding terms (idiom, dialect, etc.), which are far from solidly established in the 19th century.1 And so, theoretical debates on the concept of “intralingual translation” will not be the focus of this chapter. Instead, it will be used both as a basic tool to identify past practices that would otherwise remain unnoticed and to locate them within co-occurrent sets of practices of textual transmission2 (cf. D’hulst, 1995), including practices of interlingual and intralingual transfer. Like other periods, the 19th century is deeply permeated by all sorts of processes of mediation and re-mediation, which are relayed within and across geopolitical borders by publishers, translators, officials and readers. Overall, there is no reason to assume that the study of textual features or genetic processes should have precedence over other instances or parameters involved in intralingual translation: Mediators, spaces, language rights and so on. In the following sections, I will 34

Retrieving Belgium’s national past

consider cases of co-occurrence of intralingual, interlingual and intersemiotic translation with the aim of uncovering the diversity of the language exchanges that took place in 19th-century Belgium and of better understanding the functions attached to these exchanges. For the sake of clarity, the exchanges taking place between the two major national languages of Belgium will be labelled interlingual, while the exchanges taking place within each of these two languages (diachronic, diaphasic, dialectal, diamesic or other, cf. Gottlieb, 2018, p. 51) will be labelled intralingual. The chapter starts with a brief account of the historical context of 19th-century translation in Belgium, and then moves on to examine samples of exchanges between France and Belgium in the historical domain, translations between French, Dutch of the Netherlands and Belgian Flemish in the legal domain, and translations between ancient and modern Flemish in the linguistic and literary domains.

Translation and transfer directions in 19th-century Belgium: a brief overview The geographical space that will become the Kingdom of Belgium in 1830 bears a long history of occupation and annexation, starting with the Romans and followed by the Spanish, the French, the Austrian and the Dutch. Each period witnessed both varying tensions between different language communities and interlingual mediation. Two major languages have coexisted since the early Middle Ages, Flemish and French, however asymmetrically related. In the 19th century, the language situation had evolved as follows: In Flanders (located in the North), diglossia with bilingualism French-Flemish dominated, while in the South, that is, in Brussels and in Wallonia, there was diglossia without bilingualism (only French or Walloon was spoken).3 According to the sociolinguist Joshua Fishman, diglossia without bilingualism means that two or more speech communities are united religiously, politically or economically into a single functioning unit notwithstanding the socio-cultural cleavages that separate them. . . . Since the majority of the elites and the majority of the masses never interacted with one another they did not form a single speech community (i.e., their linguistic repertoires were discontinuous) and their intercommunications were via translators or interpreters (a certain sign of intragroup monolingualism). . . . Nevertheless, the body politic in all of its economic and national manifestations tied these two groups together into a “unity” that revealed an upper and a lower class, each with a language appropriate to its own restricted concerns. (Fishman, 1967, p. 33) What happens when a multilingual society turns into a nation-state in which one language, for example, French, is chosen as the official one, at the detriment of the other, even if the latter is spoken by the majority of the state’s inhabitants? During the 19th (and part of the 20th) century, Flemish activism strived for equal rights for their language in the official domain, which led in 1898 to the Equality law. Even so, more time elapsed before Flemish became an official language in all public domains. And other issues like status, standard, training, literacy and citizenship were all impacted by the government’s official monolingual language policy. However, this policy also provided language rights for the Flemish majority, as inscribed in the Constitution of 1831: “The use of languages spoken in Belgium is optional: It can only be regulated by law, and only for acts of the public authorities and for judicial affairs.”4 This article opened the way for translation and other transfer modalities in almost any domain or practice that 35

Lieven D’hulst

had to be adapted after independence: Political institutions, administration, journalism, justice and so on. Interlingual translation between French and Flemish reached unprecedented levels during these decades, and perhaps even disproportionate levels given the massive volume of translation on the one hand and the more than widespread mastery of French in Flanders on the other. Clearly, intra-Belgian translation is held up as a symbol of freedom of language and an allegiance to nonofficial language users. Conversely, it deprived the same citizens and their language of the same status as the official language. Belgian society became a playing field in which interlingual and intralingual exchanges intermingled and competed in complex ways. The rules of the game were set by private and public institutions. The latter handled an essential distinction, namely between official and non-official translation: The first type of translation was initiated and controlled by official instances such as ministries on the national level, governors at the provincial level and mayors at the local level of the cities and municipalities; it was executed by civil servants and printed and distributed by official printers and publishers. The bulk of the translations concerned legal documents: Laws, decrees and ordinances. Other translations featured a wide variety of public information emanating from national, regional and local authorities. During wartime, authorities also used placards and other means to spread military propaganda. Yet, in spite of their dependency on official bodies, the translations had no real status, since texts in French only were endowed with legal value. As for non-official or private translations, they seemingly hinged upon the market conditions that regulated the production, selling and distributing of books and journals in Belgium.5 Moreover, to ensure the outward legitimation of Belgium was another function of mediation, especially vis-à-vis its closest neighbours who had occupied it a few decades before, that is, France and the Netherlands. Hence, Belgian national identity had to be defended in spite of its linguistic affinities with both the North (Dutch and Flemish are close variants) and the South (French). This function initiated a second translation movement, which remained so to speak within the same language and could be called inter-Belgian interlingual and intralingual translation in and out of French and Flemish. This movement had two basic missions: To export national texts with high cultural value through interlingual translation and to import foreign texts deemed apt to cover internal weaknesses or “gaps”. The result of this double, intranational and international, bind is a highly ramified network of translation directions, completed by transfer directions, which were equally intra- or interlingual, but used other carriers, such as direct import, reeditions, pirate versions, paraphrases, comments, summaries, quotations and the like (cf. D’hulst, 2012). Hence, we may distinguish the following directions, which we deliberately restrain to the realms of law, history and culture:6 a Belgian French originals translated into Flemish (e.g., laws, regulations and public information distributed at national, regional and local levels by ministries, provincial governments and municipalities). b Belgian French originals translated into German7 (as previously but smaller volumes). c French originals from France translated into Flemish (for example, the Napoleonic codes). d Flemish originals translated into French in France and in France (pre-revolutionary customs and legislation, historical documents, literature, see D’hulst, 2022). e Belgian French originals translated into German in Belgium (see point a, but small volumes). Also, one may count in German originals and others in more languages (Latin, Italian) translated, be it to a far lesser extent, into French or Flemish in Belgium. As for transfer relations, the earlier directions apply also and are to be completed by the following (the list is not exhaustive): 36

Retrieving Belgium’s national past

f French originals from France reproduced and adapted into Belgian French or Flemish texts (codes, academic treatises, dictionaries, articles in legal journals). g Belgian French originals adapted into Flemish (lexical borrowings, loan translations of syntactic units and generic features). h Flemish originals reproduced and adapted into Flemish editions and translations (lexical borrowings and loan translations from customary law in modern Flemish). i Dutch originals and translations adapted into modern Flemish (lexical and syntactical borrowings in translations of the Civil Code). Of course, more is needed to chart all types and modes of transfer relations, to clarify in which practices and genres they occur and how frequent they are in comparison with translations proper. In the following paragraphs, the focus will be on three cases of intralingual translation and transfer relations which highlight attempts to ensure or improve the position of Flemish in the cultural, historical and legal domains, that is, relations between French (France) and French (Belgium), with regard to other Germanic languages and in relation to its own past.

Between French (France) and French (Belgium) The annexation of Belgium by France between 1795 and 1815 followed by the renewed imposition of French as the only official language in 1830 provoked a deep “Frenchification” of Belgian culture, manners and communication in general and the domain of legal thought, practice and language in particular (see Martyn, 2011). Yet, Frenchification did not take a single path, nor was it always accepted without further argument. In the following, I will compare two paths which illustrate the differences if not oppositions, depending whether translation takes place in Belgium or between Belgium and France. Diachronic intralingual translations as a means to provide access to prestigious past writings were a success story in 19th-century Europe, while also becoming the topic of lengthy debates: How literal should the rendering be, should one not rather provide direct access to the older language, should one limit translational interventions to spelling, morphology, lexicon or syntax, should significant changes be signalled in notes or in the text, and so on? Clearly, intralingual translation is an umbrella term to cover a wide range of philological operations, which were almost always expected to cover additional functions, such as the expression of nationality, authenticity or literary value. Yet, not all translation practices followed that path. In the legal domain, both the import of French and Dutch writings in Belgium yielded changes inspired not by their literary value but by their judicial suitability. Furthermore, the viewpoints on legal translating in French switched depending on whether the target language was French French or Belgian French. A key reference point for 19th-century legal translating into French of Latin and Flemish originals is the early 18th century, that is, the Treaty of Utrecht (1713–1715), which brought the former parts of the Netherlands, including the County of Flanders ruled by the Spanish Habsburgs, under the French crown. As a logical outcome of that treaty, old Flemish customary law had to be integrated into the French law. To that end a translation was made of the Flemish Coutumes et loix des villes et des chastellenies du Comté de Flandre (Customs and laws of the towns and castellanies of the County of Flanders, 1719, 3 volumes). In his letter to the French king, translator Alexandre Le Grand, also solicitor at the Parliament of Paris and Flanders, argues that the customs and laws of Flanders now belong to a “Famous

37

Lieven D’hulst

nation, which fills a large and beautiful Province, one of the first foundations of the Monarchy of the Gauls”8 (vol. 1, p. 2). To replace one idiom by another offers nothing but benefits: Your Majesty will see in it these customs and laws conceived hitherto in a Teutonic idiom, very narrow-minded, where they have remained as buried, and thereby unknown to other Nations, even to all of France, to present themselves in crowds at the feet of your Majesty, feeling, so to speak, the advantage of being transformed, in this book, in a language, which is that of your Majesty.9 (p. 2) Although Le Grand’s translation was based on an original deprived of the “beautiful expressions” (belles expressions) and the “purity” (pureté) of original French, it nevertheless aimed at conserving the “sentiments” (feelings) and the “genius” (génie) of the Flemish population. Also, it sought to solve a pragmatic dilemma for administrators and lawyers: Instead of appointing French officers with some mastery of the source language, these costumes and laws could be accessed “in a language that would be as easy and almost natural to those who were established members of this sovereign [French] Tribunal”10 (n.p.). The translator’s self-praise aims at countering the criticism of Flemish lawyers convinced that it was impossible to conceive and to render the meaning of the text, even for those whose mother tongue is that of the text (p. 3). Le Grand also insists on the translation norms he has respected throughout: in order not only to render the true meaning and spirit of the texts, but also to render them in good French terms, in a clear construction, which do not extend or restrict their ideas, either by the confusion of ambiguous terms in expressions, or by remaining attached too much to the letter, or by not being attached enough to it.11 (Caveat, n.p.) In addition, the translations were submitted to Flemish lawyers, who corrected misunderstandings and syntactic errors, replaced or added terms, modified punctuation and adapted the French version in view of a better fit with the Flemish original, while, conversely, the translator pruned non-standard French. Still, in a number of cases, the translator felt compelled to borrow or calque Flemish terms in view of enabling their understanding by those for whom these texts must serve as a rule (Caveat, n.p.). This attempt to incorporate Flemish and other provincial sources in French written law did not result in a homogenous text, on the contrary. The stylistic handling of provincial peculiarities led the translator to avoid the rendering of words that were deemed too “barbarian” (barbares) for the French (n.p.), or other terms, which would not give a correct representation of the concepts signified by these terms (n.p.). Be that as it may, this translation benefited from a Royal Privilege (Privilège du Roy, 1716), an exclusive authorization to publish this bilingual edition, with notes in Latin. It was successful enough to be integrated into the Nouveau Coutumier général ou Corps des coutumes générales et particulières de France (New General Customary or Body of General and Special Customs of France) (Bourdot de Richebourg, 1724). But what about the afterlife of this translation, and more importantly, how was it received in Belgium a century later? In 1846, the Belgian government charged a Royal Commission for the Old Laws and Ordinances of Belgium (Commission royale des anciennes lois et ordonnances de Belgique) composed of Belgian lawyers to produce a new French translation of the Coutumes. 38

Retrieving Belgium’s national past

According to Gheldolf, the editor of the first volume, the French translation by Le Grand could not be adopted, because it was imperfect (“à cause de son imperfection”, Coutumes des pays et comté de Flandre, Customs of the county of Flanders, 1868, p. X). And so Belgian French seemed more apt to translate old Flemish, while the editors’ philological standards required a revision of earlier Flemish versions that had not faithfully reproduced the spelling of the first original (p. X). The new edition took the form of a bilingual version Flemish-French, while in a number of cases, medieval French versions that were already in use were reproduced side by side with the Flemish originals, but transcribed into modern French. Gheldolf admits that the texts “offer a host of technical and local terms that are unknown in modern Flemish and which he is unsure of having understood or translated with exactitude” (p. XI). And so, it seems, intimate knowledge of the Belgian legal past and philological skills became the standards set for new translations. Only Belgian lawyers could meet these standards, which expressed both a resistance against direct French import and an unusual deference toward both ancient and especially modern Flemish, an “idiom” deprived of any official status as a legal language at that time. Philology and patrimonial history are national binding elements. Cultural belonging overrides adequacy to French language norms in this case. However, French of France remains the undisputed norm at the time, a dominant one that is hardly questioned when it comes to views and pragmatic legal practices of the present. In 1831, the Belgian government adopted the French Code civil (1804), better known by its second version, the Code Napoléon (1807), without any changes (“even the references to France and the French Empire remain in the Civil Code”, Possemiers, 2021, p. 207). And it had little interest in soliciting and divulgating Flemish translations of the Civil Code or of legislative, judicial and doctrinal texts of French origin. Yet, Flemish lawyers (Lorio, Lecat and others) had already provided private versions during the French period (1795–1815), while the return to French in 1831 was not accepted without question in Flanders. Karel Ledeganck was one of the most prominent romantic activists of the early Flemish movement, which strived to improve the status of Flemish in public life. At the beginning of the 1840s, he produced a new Flemish translation of the Civil Code meeting a demand from the wider Flemish language community. But Ledeganck’s work (1841) did not pass the practical test: Lawyers continued to use the French code, in spite of several reeditions that amended, commented and enriched the translation. The French Code Napoléon remained in place, solid as a rock, as the only official text endowed with legal value (van Gerwen, 2018, 2019). Seemingly, French legal content and verbal expression were considered as two in one, forged together to the extent that they continued to be the norm of legal thinking and writing in Belgium12 as elsewhere in Europe and far beyond (Soleil, 2017). And so, intralingual translation was either confined to small changes in spelling and punctuation13 or to the status of respectful comment or paraphrase of the official code. Here, legal pragmatism prevailed over cultural ideology. Nonetheless, in the long run, both enhanced the awareness of translation as a token of the legal or linguistic inability to produce a text with equal value in the shared language.

Comparative language analysis In the 19th century, philology spread and popularized models and methods to discover, describe, edit, translate and print exemplary texts of the past – epic poetry, songs, chronicles, memoirs and other prestigious texts that belonged to the cradle of nations. It became an important lever in the construction of national identity with a strong support base in practices like history, linguistics and literary history. In multilingual nation-states, an additional function appeared: That of legitimizing a minor language and its culture. 39

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In the Netherlands and Belgium these functions led to an increased interest in the history of Dutch, comparative linguistics and lexicography (Willemyns, 2013), while intralingual translation turned into an efficient philological instrument: As an indispensable device in the writing of dictionaries such as the Woordenboek der Nederlandsche taal (Dictionary of the Dutch language, 1864 ff.), the Middelnederlandsch Woordenboek (Dictionary of Middle Dutch, 1885 ff.) and numerous technical and legal dictionaries, as well as an occasional metalinguistic tool employed in footnotes and glossaries of historical studies, editions or language studies. Comparative linguistics of the early 19th century may be described as “a mixture of (proto) typological work, of studies belonging within historical-comparative grammar, glottogenetic speculations, and wide-ranging genealogical classifications” (Swiggers, 2011, p. 806). The historical-comparative bias was well represented by the work of Wilhelm von Humboldt, Franz Bopp, the brothers Grimm and others, and was picked up later on by linguists in the Netherlands and Belgium, one of whom was Pierre Lebrocquy, a professor of Germanic languages at Ghent University and an activist in favour of Flemish as a central type of the Indo-Germanic language family. Lebrocquy was perfectly aware of the gap between the past and the present, that is, between the former centrality and the present marginality of the same language. But how did he attempt to bridge the gap? By arguing that the study of Flemish antiquity was an asset for the recognition of its overall value and, more specifically, might dispel prejudices and foster the study of other Germanic languages. In his Analogies linguistiques (1845), which earned him his chair at the university of Ghent, Lebrocquy addresses, in an unusually explicit way, three groups of readers: We first and foremost address those Flemish Belgians, who, still slaves to old prejudices, persist in ignoring the language of their fathers, and who, for sure, would never open a book written in the disdained idiom. We then address the Walloon Belgians who falsely imagine that the knowledge of the language of their compatriots could only serve them to converse with the proletarians and peasants of three or four provinces of the Kingdom. Finally, we address here the French themselves and the inhabitants of southern Europe in general. If it happens that some of them read our work, they will have the opportunity to convince themselves that as soon as we have taken the trouble to learn a single language of Teutonic origin, we can in a very short time acquire the intelligence of all the others. A very simple truth, but of which we are not sufficiently penetrated in France, where the idioms of the North, although less neglected than in the past, are still only the subject of a superficial study.14 (Lebrocquy, 1845, p. VI) The comparative approach allows Lebrocquy to foreground common aspects of the Teutonic languages, a term also used in the singular to designate Flemish.15 He deliberately avoids the use of the concept “translation” because it would imply a kind of loss as with the translation from Flemish into French (p. 59). Translation between languages considered similar or belonging to the same family serves little purpose because it suggests difference when there is identity: What is the point of placing other words next to German words that differ only in small spelling changes? We will simply translate in parentheses some terms that are not part of the usual vocabulary of Flemish.16 (Lebrocquy, 1845, p. 154) 40

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Lebrocquy exhibits a similar reluctance with regard to notes explaining divergent spelling or meaning of dialects of the same language; samples of ancient German dialects are quoted without comments, and it will suffice to explain from time to time a word disguised under an outdated spelling to make reading easier (Lebrocquy, 1845, p. 59). Ancient Flemish being superior in many respects to modern Flemish, the past should be rendered as it was, without any mediation: This eighth-century Flemish language is remarkably beautiful. We have to envy especially its harmonious sweetness, then the richness of its inflections and its grammatical forms. In this double respect, Flemish arouses astonishment and admiration. Its grammar seems to approach the perfection of classical languages. Then, what abundance and what a happy use of vowels! the most pleasant, the purest resonate at the end of almost all words. . . . Really, if Flemish, in its later culture, had retained these precious qualities; if, to the rich developments of derivation received since, it had united the treasure of ancient harmony and the benefits of its first grammatical resources, we would today be in possession of the most beautiful and perfect language of Europe and perhaps of the world. Unfortunately, this was not the case.17 (p. 54) The editor makes his argument more vivid by presenting samples of records or charters of the 13th and 14th centuries, written in the Teutonic dialects or idioms of Holland, Flanders, Brabant, Guelders, Aachen, Cologne, Kleve, Wesel, Heinsberg, Westphalia, Magdeburg, Brandenburg and Mecklenburg. Clearly, Lebrocquy adheres to a philological tradition which loosely combines language history, text commentary and cultural history, while soliciting the seriousness of upcoming historical linguistics. But all means serve the same goal: The promotion of Flemish and the resistance against translation and in particular against the dominance exerted by official translation against which Flemish activism had started to react (Nouws, 2019). Unfortunately, in spite of his seemingly conciliant use of French to analyse the history of Flemish, Lebrocquy’s reputation as an activist cut short his university career, his appointment not being confirmed by Prime Minister Charles Rogier in 1847.

The leverage of past Flemish patrimony From 1830 onwards, the newly formed state of Belgium was compelled to redefine its relations with neighbours whose political hegemony it had rejected, yet all the while still undergoing their intellectual and cultural influence: Firstly, France, and secondly, the Netherlands. At the same time, institutions, officials, mediators in all domains as well as language users had to find a balance between the two national languages, within and beyond the public and official sphere. The cultural past offered an almost inexhaustible source of knowledge, texts and other artefacts which could act as leverage for a better recognition of Flemish in Belgium. A great number of Middle Dutch literary monuments (Beatrijs, Karel ende Elegast, Reinaert de vos, many courtly romances, folk songs, etc.) were rediscovered, edited and translated in the 19th century, not least by official cultural mediators aiming at the promotion of Belgium as a viable and prestigious nation in spite of its inner division, but also by Flemish activists who nurtured the ambition to restore the position of Flemish and place it on a par with French. Most mediators bear trace of this dilemma, by choosing one of two ways: The first consists of translating the Flemish 41

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original into modern French, the second of editing that original (in some cases supplementing the edition by an intralingual version in modern Flemish). But both remain deeply ambiguous. On the one hand, translating Flemish fits the realm of philology and turns the language into a historical object of study rather than a practice to be defended, learned and used in the present. This is the position taken by Flemish translator Jules de SaintGenois in the introduction of his translation of Charles et Elegast, ancien roman en vers (1836): The Flemish language has not always been, as it is today, disdained, almost relegated to the countryside and the lower classes. . . . May this pale translation make known how many works our old Flemish literature has that deserve to be studied.18 (p. 27) Translating is also a token of nationality, but outwardly oriented, as a way to make Belgium participate in emergent international philology, following the Germans, the English and especially the Dutch who have long studied the Flemish language and its literary achievements (pp. II–III). On the other hand, the promotion of nationality was also shaped by text editions with occasional intralingual and interlingual translations and bilingual passages as a matter of compromise. For instance, the Belgian government founded in 1834 a Royal Historical Commission (Commission royale d’histoire) with the aim of researching and updating previously unpublished Belgian chronicles.19 Flemish activist Jan Frans Willems was one of the first contributors and provided an annotated Flemish edition of a medieval chronicle by Jan van Heelu’s Slag van Woeringen20 (Willems, 1835). Curiously, though, the edition received two covers (in French and Flemish), while Willems’s introduction was in French only, expressing the kind of compromise that must have emerged after long discussions. Flemish activists concurrently launched private editorial initiatives, one of the first being once again Willems who, in 1837, started up a Belgisch museum voor de Nederduitsche tael- en let­ terkunde en de geschiedenis des Vaderlands uitgegeven op last der Maetschappy tot bevordering der Nederduitsche Tael- en Letterkunde21 (1837). This museum aimed at drawing the attention of Belgian citizens to both the inner excellence of their mother tongue and the memorials of their history and literature (1837, p. 6). French was neither the sole nor the privileged carrier of medieval Flemish texts, while editing also contributed to the methodical and scientific study of language. In the museum, essays and editions alternate, while intralingual translations of medieval texts in verse and prose are confined to fragments in footnotes. By contrast, full translations of the parable of the prodigal son in the Brussels, Ghent and Antwerp dialects act as leverage for the scientific or “linguistic” approach toward the history of Flemish.22 This vast endeavour bears witness to an almost frantic search for textual proof of national grandeur, a search which features the early phase of creating patrimonial repositories of the past. It resulted in real patchworks of genres (biographies, anecdotes, rhymed sayings and proverbs, but also modern poetry with a national or historical bias) and mixed use of techniques of editing, translating and commenting. In addition to the preceding examples, intermedial translation or transfer modalities deserve mention, especially when manuscripts are transformed into print, as with the Kronyk van Vlaen­ deren (Chronicle of Flanders), a 15th-century document edited by Serrure and Blommaert in 1839 with the aim of counterbalancing the common French image of Burgundian Flanders depicted by Froissart, Monstrelet and Commynes in their chronicles and memoirs: An image in which the just fight of freedom by the Flemings was presented as an act of rebellion and mutiny. Sound 42

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historiography should base on autochthonous sources adequately rendered in print (p. xviii). The editorial undertaking is supported by the “Maetschappy der Vlaemsche Bibliophilen” (Society of Flemish Bibliophiles) who issued a range of medieval texts on a private basis, as a supplement to the limited number of official initiatives and taking into account the vast amount of manuscripts material waiting in the archives. The editors provide literal transcriptions but no explanatory footnotes, which reduces readability for those with little philological expertise. However, a table of contents at the end of the volume transcribes the chapter titles in modern Flemish, while a lengthy glossary of obsolete words offers intralingual translation in modern Flemish. Yet, this should not make us forget that other and larger parts of the population, including those without reading skills, are taken into account by private agents, with different aims and using different techniques. Popular narrative and folk songs with roots in the medieval past find their way into reeditions frequently with a wide distribution. In fact, this tradition of cheap books and booklets simply pursued a longer tradition of collecting, anthologizing and adapting oral tales and written narratives, some of which fitted Herderian national projects, such as the ones by Grimm or Andersen, or those whose disputed origin became the occasion to defend fiercely cultural rights (as happened for example with the Roman de Renard claimed by the French and Flemish, see D’hulst, 2014, p. 151 ff; Leerssen, 2006, pp. 75–95). Increased accessibility was not only achieved through the transfer from manuscript to print, and from learned to popular versions of folk songs (D’hulst, 2018), but also by conserving traces of orality as with Lootens’s Oude Kindervertelsels in den Brugschen tongval (Old tales for children in the dialect of Bruges, 1868). In his preface, anthologist Lootens discusses two options offered to the editor of folktales for children: Our publication could have been carried out in a double way; one could, following the example of Grimm, have conveyed a single story in the original dialect and all the others in the ordinary written language, without changing anything about their childlike simplicity; but we were also free to spend all in the spoken accent, and it is the last way we have chosen, for good reasons.23 (n.p.) Once again, the acknowledged prestige of the language justified the literal rendering of the oral tales registered, while the threat of corruption of its purity if not its oblivion is an equally strong argument.24

Conclusion Language exchanges within Belgium and between Belgium and its neighbouring countries evoke the image of a railway network ensuring two-way and even multi-directional traffic between smaller and larger geographical poles, with varying frequencies in time and number of travelling persons and objects. But as always, metaphors do not capture the whole of reality: While it is useful to see the different types of exchanges (or translation and transfer modalities) and their multiple directions as a network that covers an entire nation and even extends beyond, trains have other functions than translations and transfer modalities, and translations and transfer modalities are first and foremost interconnected but non-identical discursive operations inviting a more germane approach. Intralingual translation as presented in this chapter was a method deployed by an emerging philology, with the support of public and private institutions and pervading the legal, language and 43

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literary domains. It had two aims. On the one hand, highbrow intralingual translation sustained the knowledge and hence awareness of Flemish as a legal language with potential and ambition, as well as the knowledge and awareness of the longstanding history of Flemish and its prestigious cultural patrimony. On the other hand, popular intralingual translation rendered a wider repertoire of national texts in Flemish accessible to a larger number of people and by that token sustained the idea of double group cohesion, of Belgium and Flanders. These two practices evolved differently, sometimes partially merging over a rather long period of time. The historical study of intralingual translation should not only nurture the ambition to lay bare the wide array of translation and transfer practices that coexist and interact over a longer period of time, but also aim at answering whether the functions carried by intralingual translation are cognate to those of other translation and transfer practices. This way one may hope to come closer to the main ambition of translation history, that is, to contribute to understanding how culture evolves, a process that cannot be metonymically pinned down to items such as literary genres, movements, language forms, ideas and ideologies, in which immediate and conspicuous changes are deemed more important because they are more visible. Slower changes and continuities stretching over longer periods are less visible and often more influential. At this point, one may venture to say that while the history of Flemish emancipation has long been considered as a linguistic, cultural, social and political struggle, it has also been a struggle against translation and adjacent transfer modalities that interposed between the direct and unrestricted use of Flemish as an autonomous language. To unravel the underlying forces of this evolution, the meanderings of its unfolding (including downturns and unpredictable turns), the “messy”, unsystematic if not inconsistent nature of the views, definitions and practices that went with it are at the very heart of translational evolution. It is time to acknowledge the need to move beyond oversimple statements about the nature and function of past translations: This is perhaps the main lesson of historical research. To end on a more general note: The debates on the nature of equivalence, the binarity of source-target relations or the construction of the original through the many means offered by cross-lingual transpositions have helped to “dethrone” both translation and its source in favour of an enriched understanding of both as being interrelated and mutually determined carriers of cultural exchanges.

Notes 1 Historical metalanguage needs proper consideration, as convincingly argued by A. Pym (2021). 2 See also the concept of textual “transformissions” (among others, Coldiron, 2019) applied to the early modern period. 3 For a historical overview, see among others, Witte and Van Velthoven (1998). 4 Original: L’emploi des langues usitées en Belgique est facultatif: il ne peut être réglé que par la loi, et seulement pour les actes de l’autorité publique et pour les affaires judiciaires. (All translations are mine unless stated otherwise.) 5 It should be noted accessorily that since the early years of independence, the Belgian market remained feebly structured, notably in comparison with the French (Durand and Winkin, 1999). 6 For a more detailed presentation, see D’hulst and van Gerwen (2018). 7 The German-speaking area represented less than 1% of the population. 8 Original: Nation célèbre, qui remplit une grande et belle Province, l’un des premiers fondements de la Monarchie des Gaules. 9 Original: Votre Majesté y verra ces coutumes et ces loix conçues jusqu’à présent dans une [sic] idiome teutonique, fort borné, où elles sont demeurées comme ensevelies, et par là, inconnues aux autres Nations,

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10 11

12 13

14

15 16 17

18 19 20 21 22 23

24

même à toute la France, se présenter en foule aux pieds de votre Majesté, se ressentant, pour ainsi dire, de l’avantage d’être transformées, dans ce livre, en une langue, qui est celle de votre Majesté. Original: dans une langue qui fût facile et devenue presque naturelle à ceux qui ont été établis membres de ce souverain [French] Tribunal. Original: afin de rendre non seulement le vray sens et l’esprit des textes, mais encore de les rendre en bon termes français, dans une construction nette, qui n’en étendissent ou n’en restreignent pas les idées, soit par la confusion des termes ambigus dans les expressions, soit en s’attachant trop à la lettre, ou en ne s’y attachant pas assez. “Belgium has remained very faithful to the French Code civil, in fact, even more faithful than France, many changes only being made after France had already led the way” (Heirbaut, 2004, p. 228). This helps to explain why the Civil Code has been fully “Belgified” only recently, i.e., in 2020. As ironically noted by Heirbaut: “the 1807 text of the Code civil has been changed by commercial editors to bring its language and punctuation more into line with current practice. Hence réglemens has become règlements, paiement was replaced by payement and so on. For punctuation the most remarkable change is that the comma before an enumeration has been replaced by a colon” (2004, p. 221). Original: Nous nous adressons d’abord et surtout à ceux des Belges flamands, qui, encore esclaves d’anciens préjugés, s’obstinent à méconnaître la langue de leurs pères, et qui, à coup sûr, n’ouvriraient jamais un livre écrit dans l’idiome dédaigné. Nous nous adressons ensuite aux Belges wallons qui s’imaginent faussement que la connaissance de la langue de leurs compatriotes ne pourrait leur servir qu’à converser avec les prolétaires et les paysans de trois ou quatre provinces du royaume. Nous nous adressons enfin aux Français eux-mêmes et aux habitants de l’Europe méridionale en général. S’il arrive que quelques-uns d’entre eux lisent notre travail, ils auront l’occasion de se convaincre que dès qu’on s’est donné la peine d’apprendre une seule langue d’origine teutonique, on peut en fort peu de temps acquérir l’intelligence de toutes les autres; vérité bien simple, mais dont on n’est pas assez pénétré en France, où les idiomes du Nord, quoique moins négligés qu’autrefois, ne sont cependant encore que l’objet d’une étude superficielle. See previous section. Original: à quoi bon continuer à placer en regard de mots allemands d’autres mots qui n’en diffèrent que par de minimes changements d’orthographe? Nous nous contenterons de traduire entre parenthèses quelques termes qui ne font point partie du vocabulaire usuel du flamand. Original: Cette langue flamande du huitième siècle est remarquablement belle. Nous avons à lui envier surtout son harmonieuse douceur, puis la richesse de ses inflexions et de ses formes grammaticales. Sous ce double rapport, elle excite l’étonnement et l’admiration. Sa grammaire paraît approcher de la perfection des langues classiques. Ensuite, quelle abondance et quel heureux emploi de voyelles! les plus agréables, les plus pures résonnent à la fin de presque tous les mots. . . . Vraiment, si le flamand, dans sa culture ultérieure, avait conservé ces précieuses qualités; si, aux riches développements de dérivation qu’il a reçus depuis, il avait uni le trésor de son ancienne harmonie et les avantages de ses premières ressources grammaticales, nous serions aujourd’hui en possession de la langue la plus belle et la plus parfaite de l’Europe et peut-être du monde. Malheureusement il n’en fut pas ainsi. Original: La langue flamande n’a pas toujours été, comme aujourd’hui, dédaignée, presque reléguée dans les campagnes et les classes inférieures. . . . Puisse cette pâle traduction faire connaître combien notre vieille littérature flamande possède d’œuvres qui méritent d’être étudiées. For more details, see D’hulst (2022). Battle of Woeringen. Translation: Belgian Museum of Low German Language and Literature and the History of the Homeland published by order of the Society for the promotion of Low German Language and Literature. Another private initiative was the successor of the Belgisch Museum (Belgian Museum) relabelled as the Vaderlandsch Museum voor Nederduitsche Letterkunde, Oudheid en Geschiedenis (Patriotic Museum of Low German Literature, Antiquity and History, 1855), edited by the same Serrure. Original: Onze uitgave kon op eene dubbele wijze geschieden; men kon, volgens het voorbeeld van Grimm, een enkel verhaal in den oorspronkelijken tongval en al de andere in de gewone schrijftaal overbrengen, zonder eventwel iets aan hunne kinderlijke eenvoudigheid te veranderen; doch ons stond ook vrij allen in den gesprokenen tongval uit te geven, en het is de laatste wijze, die wij, om goede redenen, verkozen hebben. For the non-local reader, Lootens adds footnotes and comments on phonetic and morphological features of the dialect of Bruges.

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Further reading Bell, D. A. (2001). The cult of the nation: Inventing nationalism, 1680–1800. Harvard University Press. Cohen, P. (2021). The translation state. Linguistic governmentality as language politics in early modern France. In C. Rundle (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of translation history (pp. 155–172). Routledge. McCain, S. (2018). The language question under Napoleon. Palgrave Macmillan.

References Bourdot de Richebourg, C. A. (1724). Nouveau Coutumier général ou Corps des coutumes générales et par­ ticulières de France. Michel Brunet, t. I. Charles et Elegast. (1836). Ancien roman en vers, traduit du flamand par Jules de Saint-Genois. L. Hebbelynck. Coldiron, A. E. B. (2019). Translation and transformission; or, early modernity in motion. Canadian Review of Comparative Literature/Revue Canadienne de Littérature Comparée, 46(2), 205–216. https://doi. org/10.1353/crc.2019.0018 Coutumes des pays et comté de Flandre par A. E. Gheldolf. (1868). Vol. 1. Gobbaerts. Coutumes et loix des villes et des chastellenies du Comté de Flandre. (1719). Traduites en françois . . . par Mr. Le Grand, avocat aux Parlements de Paris et de Flandre. 3 vols. Nicolas-Joseph Douilliez. D’hulst, L. (1995). Anthologies of French medieval literature (1756–1816): Between translating and editing. In H. Kittel (Ed.), International anthologies of literature in translation (pp. 1–14). Erich Schmidt. D’hulst, L. (2012). (Re)locating translation history: From assumed translation to assumed transfer. Transla­ tion Studies, 5(2), 139–155. https://doi.org/10.1080/14781700.2012.663597 D’hulst, L. (2014). Essais d’histoire de la traduction. Avatars de Janus. Classiques Garnier. D’hulst, L. (2018). Mediating Flemish folk songs across cultural borders during the 19th century: From patrimonial monuments to musical propaganda. In D. Roig-Sanz & R. Meylaerts (Eds.), Customs officers or smug­ glers? Literary translation and cultural mediators in peripheral cultures (pp. 235–262). Palgrave Macmillan. D’hulst, L. (2022, June 14). Œuvrer à la gloire nationale: Traductions interlinguales et intralinguales des anciennes lois flamandes [Keynote address]. Intralingual translation: Text, language and beyond. BarIlan University. D’hulst, L., & Schreiber, M. (2014). Vers une historiographie des politiques des traductions en Belgique durant la période française. Target, 26(1), 3–31. https://doi.org/10.1075/target.26.1.01hul D’hulst, L., & van Gerwen, H. (2018). Translation space in nineteenth-century Belgium: Rethinking translation and transfer directions. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 26(4), 495–508. https://doi.org/10.1080/0907676X.2017.1402940 Dullion, V. (2020). Bern in the nineteenth century: Emerging institutional translation in a multilingual state. In L. D’hulst & K. Koskinen (Eds.), Translating in town: Local translation policies during the European 19th century (pp. 67–90). Bloomsbury. Durand, P., & Winkin, Y. (1999). Des éditeurs sans edition. Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, 130, 48–65. https://doi.org/10.3406/arss.1999.3311 Espagne, M., & Werner, M. (1994). Philologiques III. Éditions de la Maison des sciences de l’homme. Fishman, J. (1967). Bilingualism with and without diglossia; diglossia with and without bilingualism. Journal of Social Issues, 23, 29–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1967.tb00573.x Gottlieb, H. (2018). Semiotics and translation. In K. Malmkjær (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of translation studies and linguistics (pp. 45–64). Routledge. Heirbaut, D. (2004). Editing and translating the code civil in Belgium, 1804–2004. Tijdschrift voor Rechtsge­ schiedenis, 72(3–4), 215–229. https://doi.org/10.1163/1571819042872609 Hroch, M. (1985). Social preconditions of national revival in Europe: A comparative analysis of the social composition of patriotic groups among the smaller European nations. Cambridge University Press. Jakobson, R. (1959). On linguistic aspects of translation. In R. A. Brower (Ed.), On translation (pp. 232– 239). Oxford University Press. Lebrocquy, P. (1845). Analogies linguistiques: du Flamand dans ses rapports avec les autres idiomes d’origine Teutonique. A. van Dale. Ledeganck, K. L. (1841). Het Burgerlyk Wetboek, uit het Fransch vertaeld, en beknoptelyk uitgelegd, met byvoeging der aen hetzelve toegebragte wyzigingen voor Belgie. H. Hoste. Leerssen, J. (2006). De bronnen van het vaderland. Taal, literatuur en de afbakening van Nederland, 1806– 1890. Uitgeverij Vantilt.

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Retrieving Belgium’s national past Leerssen, J. (2008). Introduction. Philology and the European construction of national literatures. European Studies, 26, 13–27. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789401206471_003 Lootens, A. (1868). Oude kindervertelsels in den Brugschen tongval verzameld en uitgegeven. Drukkerij van J. Nys. Martyn, G. (2011). L’influence du modèle français sur les barreaux belges (avant et après 1810) [The influence of the French model on the Belgian bars (before and after 1810]. In Ordre des Avocats du barreau de Liège. Deux siècles de libertés [Bar Council of the bar of Liège. Two centuries of liberties] (pp. 11–25). Ordre des Avocats du barreau de Liège. Middelnederlandsch Woordenboek. (1882–1941). 11 vols. Nijhoff. Nouws, B. (2019). ‘Van de woede der Noormannen en vertalers verlos ons heer!’ Opvattingen over vertaling en juridisch vertaalbeleid in België, 1830–1914 [Unpublished doctoral dissertation, KU Leuven]. Paye, C. (2013).“Der französischen Sprache mächtig”. Kommunikation im Spannungsfeld von Sprachen und Kulturen im Königreich Westphalen 1807–1813. Oldenbourg. Possemiers, W. (2021). Translating the Belgian civil code. Developments after 1961. In M. Bourguignon, B. Nouws, & H. van Gerwen (Eds.), Translation policies in legal and institutional settings (pp. 205–222). Leuven University Press. Pym, A. (2021). Conceptual tools in translation history. In C. Rundle (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of trans­ lation history (pp. 86–101). Routledge. Schreiber, M. (2020). Translation policies in northern Italian cities during the Napoleonic era: The case of Milan, Genoa and Turin. In L. D’hulst & K. Koskinen (Eds.), Translating in town: Local translation poli­ cies during the European 19th century (pp. 21–40). Bloomsbury. Serrure, C. P. (1855). Vaderlandsch Museum voor Nederduitsche Letterkunde, Oudheid en Geschiedenis. C. Annoot-Braeckman. Serrure, C. P., & Blommaert, P. (Eds.). (1839–1940). Kronyk van Vlaenderen (2 vols.). D. J. VanderhaeghenHulin. Soleil, S. (2017). L’emploi de la langue française et des néologismes dans les textes juridiques étrangers du XIXe siècle. Parallèles, 29(1), 90–106. http://doi.org/10.17462/para.2017.01.08 Swiggers, P. (2011). 19th century linguistics: Practice and theory. In B. Kortmann & J. van der Auwera (Eds.), The languages and linguistics of Europe. A comprehensive guide (pp. 805–820). Walter de Gruyter. Thiesse, A. M. (2022). The creation of national identities Europe, 18th–20th centuries. Brill. Van Gerwen, H. (2018). Translating the French civil code into Flemish: Stakes and limits of interlingual, intralingual and legal transfer in 19th-century Belgium. In S. Barschdorf & D. Renna (Eds.), Translating boundaries. Constraints, limits, opportunities (pp. 79–99). ibidem-Verlag. Van Gerwen, H. (2019). “Tous les citoyens sont censés connaître la loi.” Etude des pratiques de traduc­ tion et de transfert dans le domaine juridique belge (1830–1914) [Unpublished doctoral dissertation, KU Leuven]. Willems, J. F. (1835). Chronique en vers de Jean van Heelu, ou Relation de la bataille de Woeringen (publié par J. F. Willems). M. Hayez, imprimeur de l’Académie Royale. Willemyns, R. (2013). Dutch. Biography of a language. Oxford University Press. Witte, E., & Van Velthoven, H. (1998). Taal en politiek. De Belgische casus in een historisch perspectief [Language and politics. The Belgian case from a historical perspective]. VUBPress. Wolf, M. (2012). Die vielsprachige Seele Kakaniens Übersetzen und Dolmetschen in der Habsburgermonar­ chie 1848 bis 1918. Böhlau Verlag. Woordenboek der Nederlandsche taal. (1864–2001). 43 vols. Nijhoff. Zethsen, K. K. (2021). Intralingual translation. In Y. Gambier & L. van Doorslaer (Eds.), Handbook of trans­ lation studies (vol. 5, pp. 135–142). John Benjamins.

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3 PINKELTJE REMAINS PINKELTJE Intralingual translations of a Dutch children’s icon Elke Brems Introduction “I hope that my version will boost the popularity of Pinkeltje. . . . I consider it cultural heritage. . . there is no child in the Netherlands that has not ever read a book about Pinkeltje” (Kuipers & Smeets, 1996, p. 41).1 This is how Suzanne Braam legitimizes her rewriting of one of the most well-known children’s book series in the Netherlands. It is cultural heritage and therefore deserves to be “boosted”. But further on in the same interview, she also says that she would never do that for adult literature: “I wouldn’t dare, who am I to do such a thing?” (Kuipers & Smeets, 1996, p. 42).2 Rewriting, or intralingual translation, is presented as more acceptable and even necessary for children’s literature, whereas it is unacceptable for adult literature. In this chapter I will investigate the practice of intralingual translation in children’s literature, using the Pinkeltje books as an example.

Studying intralingual translation In an article in which she tries to put intralingual translation (back) on the map of translation studies, Karen Korning Zethsen lists “the main factors that seem to be influential in intralingual translation (and at the same time, the very reasons for the existence of intralingual translation)” (Zethsen, 2009, p. 5). These factors are knowledge, time, culture, and space. Regarding the first factor, knowledge, she points out that the knowledge of a certain target audience may be insufficient to understand a source text in its own language and that the text must therefore be rewritten. In Dutch-speaking Belgium (Flanders), for example, there is the newspaper called Wablieft for people with reading difficulties or people who are learning Dutch, in which “normal” newspaper articles are reformulated at language level A2 to B1 of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). In fact, “knowledge” is also related to the following two factors mentioned by Zethsen. The factor “time” is designed to encompass the fact that a source text was written in an older variety of an original language that is difficult to understand nowadays. For example, when students of Dutch have to read the 13th-century Reynard the Fox, a story written in Middle Dutch, they are often given an intralingually translated, modernized version alongside it. So, this also concerns a lack of “knowledge”. The same applies to the factor “culture”: The readers of the target text do not understand certain cultural references in the source text, so these DOI: 10.4324/9781003188872-5

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have to be translated intralingually. For example, an album of the Belgian Dutch-language comic Suske & Wiske may undergo changes for a Dutch-speaking readership in the Netherlands. Thus, the place name Grote Markt in Brussels becomes Schiphol Airport in the Netherlands. After all, the children who read these albums in the Netherlands are not familiar with the Grote Markt in Brussels. “Space”, the fourth factor mentioned by Zethsen, has to do with the length of the target text in relation to the source text: This involves shortening or (less frequently) expanding a source text. This often happens in journalism, for example, where press releases can be either lengthened or shortened. In an article on intralingual translation between Dutch-speaking Belgium and the Netherlands – two areas where Dutch is spoken, Brems (2017) identified a fifth factor, which she termed cultural politics. The article discusses cases of translation between Flanders and the Netherlands that involve power relations between the two regions. The article concluded that linguistic and translation norms are inextricably linked with cultural hierarchy and power relations and that studying intralingual translation flows within one language can reveal how power relations become manifest and how identity and alterity are fostered (see also, e.g., Berk Albachten, 2013, for Turkish and Longinovic, 2011, for Serbo-Croatian). Translation can thus serve to draw boundaries and alienate the other within the same language area. These five “reasons for the existence of intralingual translation” (Zethsen, 2009, p. 5) can no doubt be further expanded when more cases are studied. Case studies enrich, nuance, and refine categorizations as much as categorizations help us to find patterns and similarities among case studies. When one conducts a case study on intralingual translation, several aspects of that specific case can be studied. Here, I propose a list of eight aspects of intralingual translations to be taken into account (partly based on Brems, 2017). Studying these aspects might help to clarify which of the five factors previously mentioned were influential in the creation of this translation, and therefore why the translation was considered useful or necessary. It might even add more factors. The list of eight aspects to be studied has two important limitations: It is an incomplete list that allows for more aspects to be included. It must also be noted that not all aspects are relevant in any given case. 1 Direction of the translation. Which language variety finds it necessary to translate the other and does it also happen in the other direction? This may indicate hierarchies between the varieties of a language. 2 Field. In which field does intralingual translation take place, and do all societal domains use it? For example, intralingual translation is sometimes used on television but not in the political domain. 3 Medium/Genre. Intralingual translation may happen more often in spoken language than in written language, or in cartoons more often than in books. 4 Stakeholders. Either individuals or institutions may be involved in the initiating, carrying out, and officializing an intralingual translation process. 5 Paratexts. Texts surrounding the actual translation can help to contextualize an intralingual translation. For books, for example, it may be useful to study prefaces, footnotes, and blurbs in the book or interviews and book trailers outside the book. 6 Illustrations. Are the illustrations “replaced” or are they retained? What does that tell us about pictorial norms and traditions? Next to illustrations, other elements of “material text” can be studied. Pillière states, “to consider merely the textual transformations, the linguistic features, would be to neglect the contribution made by the other participants in the enterprise” (Pillière, 2021, p. 6). She stresses the importance of studying the “repackaging” of the text and shows how elements such as covers and illustrations are also part of intralingual translation. 49

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7 Reception. How do people react to it? On Mugglenet.com, for example, American readers reacted furiously to the fact that the American version of the Harry Potter books had been adapted for the American readership: “As a US reader, I hated that a separate version had to be put out for us. It makes me cringe every time I see ‘Sorcerer’s Stone’ instead of ‘Philosopher’s Stone.’ In my opinion, the books should have been left alone and the US readers made to figure out the differences. . . . Why would I want to read a bastardized version of the story?” (Mugglenet.com). 8 Translation shifts. This comprises a comparison between source and target text: What changes in translation and what remains the same? In the case study set out here I will mainly focus on six of the eight aspects: Stakeholders, paratexts, illustrations, reception, translation shifts, and genre. Direction and field are less relevant here.

Retelling children’s literature The present case study is drawn from the genre of children’s literature, a genre known for its frequent adaptations of source texts (Desmet, 2007, p. 78). Stephens and McCallum (1998, p. 3) compare the genre to “general literature” and notice a much larger portion of stories that are being retold in literature produced for children. These retellings take all kinds of forms (rewritings, translations, retranslations, transpositions, adaptations, reinterpretations) and occur in different media settings, from cinema to video applications (Douglas & Cabaret, 2014, pp. 327–328). Within the genre of children’s literature, fairy tales and children’s classics seem most likely to be retold. The reason for this common practice of tailoring source texts is “the perceived experience and requirements of the child reader in the target culture” (Lathey, 2012, p. 196). The source text must be adapted to the image that the adult translator has of the “contemporary child”: What do the children know, what do they need to know, which knowledge is not fit for children? This child image is not individual or particular but is embedded in the values and expectations related to childhood in the target culture. Adult translators mediate between the child image of the source and target cultures if they differ. Attuning a translation to the child image of a particular target culture is important because for children, reading is often considered to be a socialization process (both as readers and as citizens). Writing for children aims to introduce readers into the society and culture in which they grow up and are expected to function (Geerts & Van den Bossche, 2014, p. 7). So, the mediation of literary texts (in the form of retelling) is considered more legitimate and even desirable for children than for adults because children’s literature has to prepare children for their future role in society. Each time a text intended for children enters a new context, its social and moral values need to be tailored to suit the “supposedly malleable younger generation” (Douglas & Cabaret, 2014, p. 17); otherwise, the process of socialization cannot take place. Intralingual translation is one of those mediation processes that help literary texts for children to serve the purpose of socialization if norms and values change within the same language and/or culture. So, regarding children’s literature, a sixth factor that is influential in the creation of an intralingual translation comes into play: Shifting norms and values. This plays an important role in the Pinkeltje case study, as will be shown. A further complication is brought to the fore by Geerts and Van den Bossche when they rightly stress that retellings are not just about changing things, but also about preserving, conserving, and giving a new life to texts: “Retellings can simultaneously express a preoccupation with the preservation of a traditional text and the need for revising the very tradition it adheres to” (2014, p. 8). 50

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Paradoxically, this means that intralingual translation can serve the purpose of resisting change instead of implementing it. Preservation may hence be a seventh factor, or “reason for the existence of intralingual translation”. Commercial interests sometimes accompany the need for preservation, as the following case study will show.

Pinkeltje A year before the outbreak of the Second World War, filmmaker and children’s book author Dick Laan (1895–1973) published his first book for pre-school children, De avonturen van Pinkeltje (The Adventures of Little Pinkel/Pinkeltje, 1939).3 A reprint was only made after the war (1948); its appearance was however not appealing because only thin grey paper was available for producing books at the time. But after a second book, Pinkeltje en zijn vrienden (Pinkeltje and his friends, 1949), the rise of Pinkeltje was unstoppable. New adventures of the Pinkel family followed year after year, and old volumes were reprinted numerous times (Duijx & Linders, 1991, pp. 80–85). All Pinkeltje stories have a similar narrative structure, with a plot in which coincidence plays a major role. The little old man Pinkeltje invariably gets into trouble somewhere in the story. He falls out of a tree, lands in a snowball, sinks up to his arms in an “oliebol”, almost drowns in the treacle pot, but is saved just in time by his friends. The Pinkeltje stories are set partly in the world of grown-ups and partly in a gnome kingdom of their own. The latter world is a combination of fairy-tale elements (king, castle, court) and elements from modern life (telephones, cars, cafés). Pinkeltje usually acts as an aide to the authority (king Pinkelpracht). By the end of the book, Pinkeltje has often solved a riddle or put right a wrong. In the ninth book, Pinkeltje en de flonkersteen (Pinkeltje and the sparkle stone, 1957), Pinkeltje finds himself a wife, Pinkelotje, the epitome of a docile and caring partner. Pinkeltje’s immense popularity did not go unnoticed in the press. In 1970, the newspaper Nieuws-blad van het Noorden wrote: “Tens of thousands of children cannot sleep at night if Mummy or Daddy has not read to them from Pinkeltje.”4 Frank de Glas (1996) notes in a very critical article that it was a blessing for publisher Holkema & Warendorff to have such a steady seller in its publication list. “Despite the completely outdated nature of Laan’s work, despite the fact that he is ignored by the leading children’s book critics, the income from his continuing books contributes greatly to the publisher’s financial strength” (1996, p. 40).5 Twenty-nine volumes have appeared in a print run of almost three million copies (four were published posthumously). The books were translated into English, German, French, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish, Finnish, and Icelandic. Pinkeltje became the object of the first great wave of merchandising in the Netherlands, including placemats, bibs, glasses, puzzles, postcards, gifts, colouring competitions, chocolate bars, and the like (Duijx & Linders, 1991, p. 84). Although Pinkeltje remained very popular with its readers, its success in critical reception soon waned. Duijx and Linders describe the evolving reception of the Pinkeltje books. Initially, the Pinkeltje stories were praised for their appeal to children’s imagination and the inexhaustible fantasy of Dick Laan. The stories were considered entertaining, educational, and instructive. But this reception slowly turned more critical. In 1961 De Groene Amsterdammer wrote: “We have had enough and there should be no more Pinkeltjes, if only because the good impressions from the beginning are in danger of being wiped out.” In 1963, Miep Diekmann warned against the danger of rigidity in the thirteenth volume Pinkeltje en de parels (Pinkeltje and the pearls): “The author evidently concentrates more on finding ever new situations than on outlining the characteristics of his Pinkeltje character more clearly.” Other reviewers objected to the omnipresence of Mr. Dick Laan in the stories and to his simple style (Duijx & Linders, 1991, p. 83).6 In 1971, in the feminist 51

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magazine Sextant, Woosje Wasser rejected Dick Laan’s derogatory treatment of women. She criticized the fact that the women in the series remained nameless, that they were always busy baking biscuits, making pudding, or embroidering (Duijx & Linders, 1991, p. 83). In their history of children’s literature in Flanders and the Netherlands, Harry Bekkering, Netty Heimeriks, and Willem van Toorn strongly criticize the series. According to them, Pinkeltje shows resemblances to fairy tales but without the solid structure of that genre. Moreover, they claim Pinkeltje is too straightforward and does not make the connection between the child reader and the story world. The books lack suspense and are written in a very simple way. “It is all about the nice world that takes place at knee level, with woolly animals and oh, so scary adventures that fortunately always end well, but otherwise there is nothing interesting to note” (Bekkering et al., 1989, p. 427).7

Retelling Pinkeltje Yet all this sharp criticism did not prevent Pinkeltje from being popular. In 1982, the publisher Holkema & Warendorff decided to have children’s book author Corrie Hafkamp and illustrator Dagmar Stam adapt the Pinkeltje series. The duo produced 29 picture books. Their stories are much shorter, they use the same characters, but otherwise differ too much from the “originals” to be called intralingual translations. The covers read “Based on an idea by Dick Laan”8 and the names of Hafkamp and Stam are very clearly stated: “Written by Corrie Hafkamp” and “drawn by Dagmar Stam”. The series ran until 1989. By then, the publisher had conceived of the idea of producing an intralingual translation of Dick Laan’s 29 original books. The intralingual translator assigned to do the job was Suzanne Braam. Between 1995 and 1999, she translated all Dick Laan’s Pinkeltje books. It is these versions, and not those of Dick Laan, that have been reprinted since and have thus replaced the original works in bookshops and libraries. Unlike the books by Hafkamp and Stam, the cover of these books mentions Dick Laan as the author. Inside the books, written in small letters, however, is the following: “Adapted by Suzanne Braam with drawings by Julius Ros”. As mentioned earlier, retellings are intended not only to revise older stories, but also to preserve them. That is indeed the case with these intralingual translations. The publisher did not want to let go of Pinkeltje; he was still too popular and lucrative. But an update was needed. Besides the text, the layout was also in need of renewal. There was discussion at the publishers as to whether the yellow covers and the drawn appearance of Pinkeltje with which the readers were familiar should be retained (Kuipers & Smeets, 1996, p. 41). After all, as a publisher, they were capitalizing on the familiarity of the series among parents, who ultimately buy the books. But it was decided to renew the appearance of the books by using colourful, richly illustrated covers, and a new illustrator, Julius Ros, gave an entirely different, more modern look to Pinkeltje and the other characters. This was not Suzanne Braam’s first attempt at translation. She had already made new translations of the stories of Karl May and Selma Lagerlöf’s Nils Holgersson, among others. She had also translated other books originally written in Dutch, such as Dik Trom by C. Joh. Kieviet. She had thus acquired extensive expertise as an (intralingual) translator, and she also expressed that expertise publicly by legitimizing and explaining her translation practice. In an interview in Vooys, Braam notes that it is usually the parents who buy Pinkeltje books, often out of nostalgia, but that they soon realize that the books are now terribly old-fashioned. She claims that the old text of Pinkeltje had become indigestible for contemporary children, especially when you read them out loud “you can hardly believe your ears” (Kuipers & Smeets, 1996, p. 39).9 Nevertheless, Braam follows Dick Laan’s books sentence by sentence: “I try to keep Dick Laan’s style intact as much 52

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as possible. He wrote it, he invented it. To do justice to that writer, I follow the text line by line, very conscientiously” (Kuipers & Smeets, 1996, p. 39).10 Indeed, she usually does so, although sometimes she leaves out passages. For example, she notes herself that she thinks Pinkeltje cries too much for a grown man with a little beard, so she deleted some of those passages (Kuipers & Smeets, 1996, p. 39).11 It is indeed striking, when you compare the source and target texts, to note that Braam usually follows Laan sentence by sentence. But it is equally striking to note that changes have occurred in every single sentence: None of the sentences are identical to the source text.

Translation shifts The eighth aspect I mentioned that is worth pursuing when studying a case of intralingual translation is a comparison of source and target text. This involves reading both texts in detail and mapping the differences. Many models are available for studying translation shifts in detail; among those most commonly used are Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) and Chesterman (1997). The most basic model used to compare source and target text (both words and images) draws on the rhetorical concepts repetitio, adiectio, detractio, transmutatio, substitutio, and deletio (see also Delabastita, 1989; Kaindl, 1999). These models all allow students and scholars to map shifts, but they are only the first – at times tedious – step in any analysis. In fact, this mapping of shifts from source to target forms the groundwork leading to the more challenging, and most interesting, part of the analysis: Trying to group together and explain these shifts and work towards an interpretation of the similarities and differences between source and target texts. What do the shifts imply for the meaning, form, and function of the target text, as opposed to the source text? In what follows I do not present tables of translation shifts, but rather an interpretation of the shifts I found, which were grouped into four types. I am aware that another scholar might select and group the translation shifts differently; there is always a subjective element in any interpretation. I took a sample of five books (out of 29) to study the intralingual translation shifts they contain by contrasting them with the original versions. My corpus consists of Pinkeltje en het grote huis (Pinkeltje and the big house, 1953 and 1996), Pinkeltje en de parels (Pinkeltje and the pearls, 1961 and 1997), Pinkeltje en de gouden pen (Pinkeltje and the golden pen, 1963 and 1997), Pinkeltje en de boze tovenaar (Pinkeltje and the evil wizard, 1968 and 1998) and Pinkeltje en de Bibelebonse pap (Pinkeltje and the Bibelebonse porridge, 1976 and 1999), all five of course in both versions (referred to as “Laan” and “Braam” in the examples). These books were selected because they cover the whole period in which the series appeared, a period of 23 years. Moreover, my choice was determined by the availability of the books in two versions on the second-hand market.12

Changes in expressiveness Dick Laan wrote his books as read-aloud stories. Braam changed some of these typical characteristics drastically, although she certainly still conceived of them as read-aloud books. The originals, for example, are packed with onomatopoeia, sounds that the person who reads the books aloud to a child is supposed to make while reading. Braam leaves almost all of them out or reduces them drastically. Here is an example from Pinkeltje en de gouden pen: But what was that??? What was the sound they heard??? Proo-proo-proo-proo-proo!!! (Laan, 1963, p. 34) 53

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Suddenly, somewhere in the distance, there was the humming sound of a car. (Braam, 1997, p. 34)13 In this example, the onomatopoeia is omitted entirely, and the sound is described rather than imitated. In the following example from Pinkeltje en de boze tovenaar, the onomatopoeia is not completely omitted but reduced. Rrrrrrr-boonk, rrrrrrr-boonk, rrrrrrr-boonk, rrrrrrrr-boonk, rrrrrrr-boonk. That strange sound came from the cupboard. (Laan, 1968, p. 111) Rrrr-boonk, rrr-boonk! Pinkeltje ran upstairs. The sound came from the linen closet. (Braam, 1998, p. 92)14 In the first example, Laan uses many more question marks and exclamation marks than Braam. Like the onomatopoeia, this gives very explicit reading instructions to the person reading out loud; there’s not much room for one’s own input or creativity. Another typical feature of the read-aloud character of Laan’s books is the question-answer format. Here are two examples from Pinkeltje en de parels: And what do you think he saw there??? He saw Pinkeltje!!!

(Laan, 1961, p. 8)

He saw Pinkeltje.

(Braam, 1997, p. 7)15

And what do you think he was doing there? Yes, you guessed it right!

(omission)

(Laan, 1961, p. 14)

(Braam, 1997, p. 13)16

One could label the three shifts (onomatopoeia, punctuation, question-answer) as changes in expressiveness. They also cause changes in the relation between text, reader, and listener. With Laan, the listener is more directly involved in the story (is supposed to answer a question, for example), and so is the reader, who has to make sounds, ask questions, shout things out, and so on. Of course, the reader can do that too in Braam’s version, but then more of his/her own input is expected; it is less overtly spelled out. Laan’s version is more explicit. It is more oriented toward oral storytelling, with its clear markers of orality.

Change in tone The second set of shifts has to do with the tone of Laan’s books. It is more childish than in Braam’s translations. For example, Dick Laan uses a lot of diminutives, which can be formed in Dutch by adding the suffix -je or -tje to a noun. Here is an example from Pinkeltje en de parels: 54

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Wiebelstaartje (Wiggly-tail), the hondje (little dog), got a bit angry when he heard it. (Laan, 1961, p. 5) The hond (dog) Wiebelstaart (Wiggly-tail) did not like that sound

(Braam, 1997, p. 7)17

This difference is most striking in the naming of the characters: In Laan’s versions, every character’s name has a diminutive suffix: Krekelewietje, Mierepietje, Lappelientje, Zilverdraadje, Knaagtandje, Brommertje and so forth. Braam adopts all these names but always without the diminutive suffix. This makes the tone less childish. Braam also uses other means to give the story a more “adult” tone. When Laan writes: “He talked for a very, very long time” (Pinkeltje en de parels, 1961, p. 9), Braam translates: “He kept talking for hours” (1997, p. 9)18 and when Laan writes “the learned Mr. Owl” (1961, p. 57), Braam writes “Professor Owl” (1997, p. 48).19 The avoidance of repetition is also clearly a choice Braam makes. Because of their read-aloud character and to make it as easy as possible for the children, Laan’s stories contain a lot of repetition, which Braam often omits. A striking form of repetition in Laan’s work is that of proper names, instead of using alternatives or personal pronouns. Here is an example from Pinkeltje en de gouden pen: This is where Zwartsnoetje is sitting. And then they saw Zwartsnoetje sitting at the bottom of one of the empty milk bottles. (Laan, 1963, p. 108) That’s where Zwartsnoetje is. And indeed, the mouse was at the bottom of an empty milk bottle. (Braam, 1997, p. 96)20 Laan repeats the name “Zwartsnoetje”, while Braam uses “the mouse” the second time instead of the proper noun. And here is an example with a personal pronoun from Pinkeltje en de boze tovenaar: The next day, Pinkeltje and Pinkelotje left their house early to go to the village. (Laan, 1968, p. 17) The next morning, they were on their way to the village early.

(Braam, 1998, p. 15)21

Braam also uses what she herself calls “bolder language” to change the childish tone of Laan’s books (Kuipers & Smeets, 1996, p. 40). The tone has certainly become more brash in the translation. When the cat and the dog (two important characters) quarrel in Pinkeltje en de parels, for example, in Laan’s book the cat says to the dog: You “with that little tail waving back and forth” (1961, p. 5), while in Braam’s translation it sounds like this: “With that stupid tail of yours always waving back and forth” (1997, p. 7),22 and in the same quarrel we read: “I’d like to give you a little slap on the nose” (1961, p. 5) in Laan’s book and “You’re about to get a good whack, you know that?”23 in Braam’s translation (1997, p. 7). On one point, Braam’s translation is less brutal: Scenes in which children are punished, or people or animals are beaten, are often omitted. In Pinkeltje en de Bibelebonse pap, a child is spanked by Laan, but not by Braam. Changing parenting norms are probably the reason for this shift. 55

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In Dick Laan’s books, a number of terms or objects are explained to the children, such as the difference between a wizard (tovenaar) and a magician (goochelaar), a dry cleaner (stomerij), a flagpole (vlaggenstok), and mother of pearl (parelmoer). Braam often shortens these explanations and sometimes omits them altogether. This reduces the didactic tone in her versions of the stories. It also has pragmatic consequences: The person who reads aloud (and the narrator) now sound less pedantic and omniscient. Braam also usually omits the lessons that Dick Laan wants to teach the children (e.g., you should always wash yourself properly, or you shouldn’t eat sweets). Here is an example from Pinkeltje en de parels: Of course Pinkel covered his mouth to laugh, because it is not nice at all to just laugh at someone. (Laan, 1961, p. 85) (omission)

(Braam, 1997, p. 72)24

Updates to make the stories more contemporary A third set of shifts involves updates to the stories. These updates can be linguistic, factual, or pictorial. For example, Braam replaces many old-fashioned words with more modern terms, Father and Mother (Vader en Moeder) becoming Mum and Dad (mama en papa), or a flying machine (vliegmachine) becoming an airplane (vliegtuig). But there is also an update in terms of content. In Pinkeltje en het grote huis a baker calls at the front door in Laan’s version; in Braam’s translation that becomes a milkman (1953, p. 117, and 1996, p. 101) because bakers no longer called at people’s houses when Braam translated the book. Another example is the radio repairman who arrives on his tradesman’s bike in Laan’s version and now comes by car in the later translation (1953, p. 70, and 1996, p. 62). The mother who is depicted as cleaning the house in an apron with a headscarf in Laan’s book is not mentioned in Braam’s (1953, p. 110, and 1996, p. 96). These kinds of updates can be seen in the illustrations as well. In Pinkeltje en de gouden pen, for example, there is a drawing of a classroom. In Laan’s version, all the children sit neatly at their desks, which are in rows facing the teacher. In Braam’s translation, the children’s desks are placed together and face each other. Two children are seen painting and doing puzzles and one is writing something on the blackboard. The atmosphere in the classroom is more relaxed and disorderly. The children’s clothes and the teacher’s appearance also differ greatly in the two versions. Whereas in Laan’s book, the teacher is a distinguished old lady with a bun, glasses, and a long, pleated skirt, in Braam’s version the teacher is a young woman with ponytail and trousers. In Laan’s versions of the Pinkeltje books, Mister (meneer) and Madam (mevrouw) are often placed in front of a person’s name. Dick Laan himself, for example (who also appears in the books, see later), is called Mister Dick Laan. Braam almost always omits this. This reduces the distance between the child (the book’s audience) and the adult, a shift dictated by changing standards in the relationship (hierarchy) between children and adults.25 The books also get an update regarding some changed norms and values (see also the example of the punishments that are left out). Here and there, Braam takes the feminist criticism that was aimed at Pinkeltje to heart. Pinkeltje’s wife is called Pinkelotje (a name that could also be interpreted as a derivative of Pinkeltje), but Braam often shortens her name to Lot, to give her a somewhat stronger and more contemporary image. Here and there, she is given more room to 56

Pinkeltje remains Pinkeltje

speak and act. These changes are sometimes very subtle. Here is an example from Pinkeltje en de parels: Well, you can understand that Pinkelotje was happy when she saw Pinkeltje again. She embraced Pinkeltje and gave him ten kisses. (Laan, 1961, p. 39) Pinkelotje and Pinkeltje were overjoyed when they saw each other again. They hugged each other and gave each other twenty kisses. (Braam, 1997, p. 124)26 Whereas in the first version Pinkelotje is happy to see Pinkeltje again and embraces and kisses him, in the second version the feeling is mutual: They are happy to see each other and embrace and kiss each other (twice as much). Sometimes the changes in relation to gender are very explicit. In Pinkeltje en het grote huis, for example, she omits the following remark about the dry cleaner: “You could have everything cleaned there, if the Mothers didn’t have time for it” (1953, p. 132).27 Or in Pinkeltje en de parels: Behind them came the musicians with their flutes.

(Laan, 1961, p. 22)

Behind them came the musicians – men and women – with their flutes. (Braam, 1997, p. 18)28 Besides interventions in terms of gender, there are also interventions in terms of political correctness. Pinkeltje’s country (Pinkeltjesland) is, for example, situated in Africa (called a “country” by Laan, which Braam obviously does not adopt). Laan used the n-word to refer to the people there. This is deleted by Braam. When the characters see people referred to with the n-word from their rocket in Laan’s book, they see “giraffes” in Braam’s (Pinkeltje en de gouden pen, 1963, p. 46, and 1997, p. 45). Another example of updating to contemporary standards is the fact that Pinkeltje smokes less in Braam’s translations.

Change of voice The Pinkeltje books are conceived in such a way that the writer, Dick Laan, plays a role in them. Most books begin with a chapter in which Dick Laan (Mr. Dick Laan in the original versions) is visited by Pinkeltje who then tells him of an adventure that is retold in the third person in the rest of the book by Dick Laan. In other words: Dick Laan is the author, the narrator, and a character.29 In Pinkeltje en het grote huis the first chapter contains a whole scene in which Pinkeltje is angry because he finds himself so badly drawn by the new illustrator Rein van Looy in the two previous books (Pinkeltje op reis and Pinkeltje in Artis). It is a very curious scene in which the writer Dick Laan uses the characters Pinkeltje and Dick Laan to settle a dispute with his publisher and new illustrator. Dick Laan (the character) thinks that Pinkeltje should be a “long, thin man with an ordinary head and a neat, white beard”, while Van Looy draws them as “gnomes with short, fat bodies and big, silly heads and weird beards”. And the character Dick Laan sneers at his publisher when he says that he understands that it makes Pinkel angry: “I don’t like it either, but the man 57

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who has the books printed has not even shown me the drawings” (1953, p. 8).30 Braam deletes that scene and turns it into a scene where Pinkeltje is angry because Laan was on holiday and therefore could not be reached. The whole idea that Dick Laan plays this triple role makes Braam’s role more complicated. The fact that Laan was both the author and narrator and a character as well gave the books an illusion of authenticity and directness that is disrupted when Braam also moves into the diegetic space. The one-to-one relationship between the three Dick Laans can no longer be upheld. Braam’s voice can also clearly be heard. In Style and Ideology in Translation Jeremy Munday calls the translated text “a mix of source and target, an amalgam of author and translator . . . whereas, for many reviewers and readers . . . the translator [is] merely a layer of transparent varnish” (Munday, 2008, p. 13). According to Alvstad, “there is a dominant sociocultural convention according to which translated texts are read as if they were produced solely by the author” (Alvstad, 2014, p. 271). She calls this convention the translation pact. As readers of a translated text, we trust the translator to give us a faithful rendering of what the author has written. That is why Braam’s name is only mentioned in small letters inside the books and Dick Laan is still the sole author. The illusion of authenticity created by the identification of the three Dick Laans and the consistency of the one voice should be broken as little as possible. The translation pact also applies to intralingual translation, but it is complicated further. In the case of a book in a foreign language, it is clearer that a translation has been made and that a translator has been at work, even if one expects him or her to have faithfully followed the source text. Intralingual translation is different. It is often a form of intervention that needs legitimizing. Readers who are aware that they are reading an intralingual translation know that the target text differs from the source text, otherwise no translation would have been necessary. So, the translation pact in an intralingual translation is different from that in an interlingual translation, although as a reader you will still expect to be able to trust the translator. Braam also emphasizes that one should “not affect the essence of the story” and “not change the character”. Pinkeltje should remain Pinkeltje (Kuipers & Smeets, 1996, p. 38). Yet the question of power and authority arises in both interlingual and intralingual translation. Pillière calls this the issue of accountability (Pillière, 2021, p. 208). Alvstad reminds us, “the original text is filtered through an enunciating instance with power to alter and change everything in the original utterance” (2013, p. 207). And Braam certainly uses this power; as was demonstrated earlier, she makes quite a few changes. Moreover, she has a clear paratextual presence: She is also an agent presenting the text. The interview Braam gave in Vooys is a good example of this: She reveals herself there as a translator and explains her working methods and views. So, Braam manifests her voice both textually and contextually. And the illustrator Julius Ros also “voices” his interpretation of Laan’s text, as I have shown. So does the publisher, who gave the translation brief to Braam and ordered the illustrations by Ros. But of course, the illustrator and the publisher were also voices in Laan’s original versions, although Laan kept up the myth that it was a one man show, even by criticizing the illustrator and the publisher openly in the books, thus claiming his authority at all levels. This myth was effectively debunked by Pillière in her book: “(T)he text can . . . be seen as the result of a collaborative effort and not as the result of a single creative genius” (Pillière, 2021, p. 32). The intralingual translation by Braam lays that bare, but it was there all along.

Conclusion I have approached my case from some of the eight aspects listed previously: Stakeholders, paratexts, illustrations, genre, reception, and translation shifts. These aspects are interdependent and 58

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need to be discussed in relation to each other, for example, in the section on the translation shifts I involved several of the other aspects in the analysis. In this section I highlighted four types of change: (1) A change in expressiveness, which also causes a change in the relationship between the text, the person who reads it aloud, and the child: Providing less explicit reading instructions, leaving more room for personal reading styles; (2) a change in tone: The translations are less childish, less didactic and more brash, suggesting a child image that doesn’t expect too much pampering by the narrator and can handle a slightly more difficult text. This also means changing the relationship between adult and child, whereby the adult is no longer the “teacher” and the moral compass; (3) an update of the stories, bringing them closer to the society the contemporary child lives in and the language he/she speaks. The modernization also reflect changes in norms and values (gender, racism, etc.); (4) a change in voice, since the translator interferes in what seemed to be the closed circuit of author, narrator, and character. This also impacts on authority and authenticity in the stories. These changes are probably not just relevant to this case; further research may reveal whether they occur more frequently, with the same translator, in the same genre, in the same period, or in the same culture, for example. Returning to the five factors that are influential for intralingual translation mentioned earlier (Zethsen’s list, with the added cultural politics factor), we can now take a broader look at the case. It appears from my analysis of several aspects of the Pinkeltje series that “space” and “cultural politics” do not play a significant role in this case. “Knowledge”, “time”, and “culture” do play a role and are often intertwined. Changes are made by the translator because the children no longer know certain elements or words from the source text (such as outdated words or a baker who comes to the house), which, on the one hand, has to do with shifting knowledge, and, on the other hand, also with the time gap and with cultural differences between the Dutch society of the 1950s–1960s and that of the 1990s (think of the way the classroom is depicted in the illustrations). This is not always the result of a lack of knowledge; sometimes there is also an increase in the audience’s (the children’s) knowledge, which is why the translator did not find it necessary to make everything as explicit as in the source text. However, there are other factors at play besides the five mentioned earlier. I already mentioned the factor of changing norms and values that is at work here: Think of the different hierarchy between adult and child and the changes in views on gender and racism. One specific set of norms are aesthetic norms: The translator cuts back on the repetitions, on the onomatopoeia; in short, she makes stylistic changes because she has a different conception of children’s literature. The new layout and illustrations also belong to this category of stylistic-aesthetic changes, although for some interventions other factors (culture, knowledge) can be invoked. I also mentioned the factor of preservation: The publisher wanted to keep the Pinkeltje legacy alive and available. In order to preserve it, however, paradoxically changes needed to be made, because criticism of the original books had become too harsh. Based on this case study, I would thus add two more factors to the list: Firstly, one involving norms and values, which cause the intralingual translator to produce a version that is more in tune with how people in the target culture think about certain ethical and aesthetic issues, and secondly, one concerning preservation, where intralingual translation is undertaken not in order to change the original but in order to keep it. Preservation can also be for commercial reasons. Each case of intralingual translation can enrich the field of research and the research questions. I used two types of categorizations: Factors and aspects. Both a categorization of driving forces behind intralingual translations (“factors”, now extended from five to seven) and a list of aspects to be studied in a given case (I listed eight such aspects one can look at) are at all times dynamic and subject to change and improvement. This does not mean that such “lists” are not useful: They are 59

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a starting point in discussing cases of intralingual translation and can sharpen both the similarities and the differences between cases. Many of the factors and aspects mentioned are obviously also suitable when analysing interlingual translation. A few important differences can be named, albeit with proviso, since both intralingual and interlingual translations come in many shapes and sizes. Firstly, intralingual translation seems to require extra justification: If the text already exists in a certain language, why translate it into the same language? Discovering the motivation therefore often takes up a larger part of intralingual translation research. Secondly, in a case of interlingual translation, every word has changed: The source text is almost always completely replaced, whereas this “replacement” is sometimes less radical in intralingual translation, which calls for questions regarding what has and has not been translated and why. Thirdly, for readers of an intralingual translation, the source and target texts are often both comprehensible, which influences their reception and interpretation. The most striking particularity of a study on intralingual translation is that it can shed light on relations between varieties of a language, on the diachronic or synchronic inner dynamics of a certain language and culture. The case of translations between Flemish Dutch and Netherlandic Dutch (Brems, 2017) demonstrated that linguistic and translation norms are inextricably linked with cultural hierarchy and power relations and with the construction of identity and alterity. The Pinkeltje case is different. In this case, genre (children’s literature) is very important: The authority of the author seems less fixed in this case for example. There is more room for other agents, the author can be voiced over to a certain extent, whereas in adult literature that practice is much more controversial: As Braam said: “I wouldn’t dare, who am I to do such a thing?” (Kuipers & Smeets, 1996, p. 42). Children’s literature serves, among other things, to socialize a child audience. The child image shifts across and within societies and so do the norms and values that must or can be passed on through children’s literature. Therefore, the genre is open to all kinds of retelling, including intralingual translation. By examining a case of intralingual translation in children’s literature, one can trace societal changes within the same culture with regard to the image of the child, but also with regard to language and style and to morals and customs. The case then becomes a magnifying glass that can be used to bring societal changes into focus.

Coda Pinkeltje has been reintroduced as a “franchise” since 2014: The books are now no longer written by an individual, but by a collective “Studio Dick Laan”. The name Dick Laan is thus retained, but no longer belongs to that one real person, but to “the authorship of Pinkeltje”. Like the Hafkamp adaptations, they are mostly new stories that are always linked to a tourist attraction in the Netherlands (e.g., Pinkeltje in the Rijksmuseum, Pinkeltje in the Efteling, Pinkeltje on Texel): Pinkeltje is deployed in branding the Netherlands, as a kind of national icon. Possibly, the books are “ordered” by the attractions. It is striking that this new series has been reissued with the old yellow covers and with illustrations that are new but refer to the old illustrations in retro style. On the biggest web shop in the Netherlands, bol.com, they are recommended as funny and exciting adventures “of an iconic character from Dutch children’s literature: Who has not grown up with Pinkeltje?”

Notes 1 All translations are mine. This is the original Dutch text: Het is te hopen dat mijn versie Pinkeltje weer zodanig opkrikt dat de serie de komende tien jaar of langer nog steeds verkocht blijft worden. Ik vind het namelijk wel cultuurgoed. De boeken zijn zo ontzaglijk bekend, er is geen kind in Nederland dat niet ooit een boek van Pinkeltje heeft gelezen.

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Pinkeltje remains Pinkeltje 2 Daar waag ik me niet aan, wie ben ik? 3 The Pinkeltje series has had several illustrators. The oldest Pinkeltje is drawn by Dokie van Amstel who in the second edition of 1948 was replaced by a creation of E. M. ten Harmsen van der Beek. Froukje van der Meer drew the gnome figure in Pinkeltje en zijn vrienden (Pinkeltje and his friends) and later editions have a Pinkeltje by Rein van Looy. 4 Tienduizenden kinderen kunnen’s avonds niet slapen als papa of mama niet heeft voorgelezen uit Pinkeltje. 5 Ondanks het volstrekt verouderde karakter van Laans werk, ondanks het feit dat hij in de toonaangevende kinderboekenkritiek genegeerd wordt, dragen de inkomsten uit zijn steeds dóórlopende boeken flink bij aan de armslag van de uitgeverij. 6 De Pinkeltje-verhalen worden aanvankelijk geprezen vanwege de aansluiting bij de kinderlijke verbeeldingswereld en de onuitputtelijke fantasie van Dick Laan. Men vindt de verhalen gezellig, opvoedkundig en leerzaam, maar in 1961 uit De Groene Amsterdammer enig ongenoegen: “onder ons gezegd vinden we het nou welletjes en moesten er maar geen Pinkeltjes meer bijkomen, al was het maar omdat de goede indrukken van het begin erdoor uitgewist dreigen te worden.” In 1963 waarschuwt Miep Diekmann bij het dertiende deeltje Pinkeltje en de Parels voor het gevaar van verstarring: “De schrijver concentreert zich kennelijk meer op het vinden van steeds nieuwe situaties dan op het duidelijker omlijnen van de karakteristiek van zijn Pinkeltje-figuur.” Andere recensenten maken bezwaar tegen de alom aanwezigheid van mijnheer Dick Laan in de verhalen en tegen zijn simpele stijl. 7 Pinkeltje hoort bij het soort verhalen dat in de verte aan sprookjes doet denken, maar niet de sterke structuur ervan heeft en niet de relatie legt tussen het kind dat het verhaal leest of hoort en de geheimzinnige wereld waarin zich het verhaal afspeelt. Pinkeltje is daarvoor te ondubbelzinnig, heeft te weinig spanning en is ook veel te simpel geschreven. Het gaat dan allemaal wel over de aardige wereld die zich op kruiphoogte afspeelt, met wollige dieren en o, zo enge avonturen die gelukkig altijd goed aflopen, maar verder is er niets interessants over op te merken. 8 Naar een idee van Dick Laan. 9 Die oude tekst van Pinkeltje is echter onverteerbaar voor kinderen van nu. Als je het voorleest dan weet je niet wat je hoort. 10 Ik probeer de stijl van Dick Laan zoveel mogelijk intact te laten. Hij heeft het geschreven, hij heeft het bedacht. Om die schrijver recht te doen, volg ik de tekst regel voor regel, heel consciëntieus. 11 Bij Dick Laan huilt hij veel vaker dan ik hem laat huilen. Ik vind dat zo’n kletskoek, een volwassen mannetje met een baardje dat voortdurend met tranen in zijn ogen zit. 12 In 1978, a film called Pinkeltje was released, directed by Harrie Geelen. This film is an intersemiotic translation of the Pinkeltje series and as such falls outside the scope of my research. Moreover, it is not an adaptation of one of the books, but a new story, written by Geelen as a scenario and then adapted into a book by Imme Dros. The film is available (in Dutch) on YouTube. 13 Laan: Maar wat was dat??? Wat hoorden ze daar voor een geluid??? Proe-proe-proe-proe-proe-proe-proe-proe!!! Braam: Opeens klonk ergens in de verte het brommende geluid van een auto. 14 Laan: Rrrrrrrrrrr-boenk, rrrrrrrrr-boenk, rrrrrrr-boenk, rrrrrrrrrr-boenk, rrrrrrrrr-boenk. Dat rare geluid kwam uit de kast. Braam: Rrrr-boenk, rrr-boenk! Pinkeltje rende naar boven. Het geluid kwam uit de linnenkast. 15 Laan: En wat denk je dat hij daar zag??? Hij zag Pinkeltje!!! Braam: Hij zag Pinkeltje. 16 en wat denk je dat hij daar ging doen? Ja hoor, je hebt het goed geraden! 17 Laan: Wiebelstaartje, het hondje, werd een beetje boos toen hij het hoorde. Braam: De hond Wiebelstaart hield niet van dat geluid. 18 Laan: hij vertelde een heel, heel lange tijd. Braam: hij bleef uren achter elkaar praten. 19 Laan: de geleerde meneer uil. Braam: professor Uil. In an interview with the newspaper Het Nieuwsblad van het Noorden, Dick Laan himself said: You have to write your sentences in such a way that a six-year-old child, who is reading himself, can understand them. And if I have to use a difficult word, I explain it. My best review was once given to me by a man who said: “I won’t let my child read Pinkeltje because it won’t learn anything and that’s exactly what I want” (Laan, 1970). (Je moet je zinnen zo maken dat een kind van zes jaar, dat zelf leest, het kan begrijpen. En als ik eens een moeilijk woord moet gebruiken dan leg ik het uit. Mijn beste recensie heb ik eens gekregen van een man die zei: “Ik laat mijn kind geen Pinkeltje lezen, want het leert er niets van en dat wil ik nu net.”)

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Elke Brems 20 Laan: Hier zit Zwartsnoetje. En toen zagen ze Zwartsnoetje onder in één van de lege melkflessen zitten. Braam: Daar zit Zwartsnoet. En inderdaad, de muis zat op de bodem van een lege melkfles. 21 Laan: De volgende dag kwamen Pinkeltje en Pinkelotje al vroeg hun huisje uit om naar het dorp te gaan. Braam: De volgende morgen waren ze al vroeg op weg naar het dorp. 22 Laan: met dat heen en weer zwaaiende staartje. Braam: met die stomme staart van je die steeds heen en weer zwaait. 23 Laan: Ik zou je best een tik op je neus willen geven. Braam: Je kunt zo een mep van me krijgen, weet je dat? 24 Laan: Natuurlijk lachte Pinkeltje achter zijn hand, want het is helemaal niet aardig om iemand zomaar uit te lachen. 25 In the credits of the film Pinkeltje, it is also striking that the names are preceded by mister or madam, which is very unusual: for example, “music: mister Joop Stokkermans” or “styling: madam Marjolein Stokkink.” 26 Laan: Nu, je begrijpt wel, dat Pinkelotje blij was, toen ze Pinkeltje weer zag. Ze omhelsde Pinkeltje en gaf hem wel tien zoenen. Braam: Pinkelotje en Pinkeltje waren dolblij toen ze elkaar weer zagen. Ze vlogen elkaar om de hals en gaven elkaar wel twintig kussen. 27 Van alles kon je daar schoon laten maken, als de Moeders er geen tijd voor hadden. 28 Laan: daarachter kwamen de muzikanten met de fluiten. Braam: daarachter kwamen de muzikanten – mannen en vrouwen – met de fluiten. 29 In the 1978 film adaptation, the Dick Laan character even plays a leading role, although he is of course played by an actor, Aart Staartjes, complicating the “I-narrator” with whom the movie begins: “My name is Dick Laan. I have written many books about Pinkeltje. Some people think that I have invented the stories. But that is not true . . . Pinkeltje . . . (has) told me everything himself.” (“Mijn naam is Dick Laan. Ik heb al heel wat boeken over Pinkeltje geschreven. Er zijn mensen die denken dat ik de verhalen bedacht heb. Maar dat is niet zo . . . Pinkeltje . . . (heeft) zelf alles aan me verteld.”) 30 lang, dun mannetje met een gewoon hoofdje en een net, wit baardje, kabouters met korte dikke lijven en grote, malle hoofden en rare baarden, Ik vind het ook niet leuk, maar de mijnheer, die de boekjes laat drukken, heeft me de tekeningen niet eens laten zien.

Further reading Articles that further investigate the concept of intralingual translation are: Karas, H. (2016). Intralingual intertemporal translation as a relevant category in translation studies. Target, 28(3), 445–466. https://doi.org/10.1075/target.28.3.05kar Mossop, B. (2016). “Intralingual translation”: A desirable concept? Across Languages and Cultures, 17(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1556/084.2016.17.1.1 Two interesting volumes with contributions about cases of translated children’s literature (mostly interlingual or intermedial): Kérchy, A., & Sundmark, B. (2020). Translating and transmediating children’s literature. Palgrave MacMillan. van Coillie, J., & McMartin, J. (2020). Children’s literature in translation. Leuven University Press, available in Open Access: https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/42580. See also for an extensive discussion on the case study research method: Susam-Sarajeva, Ş. (2009). The case study research method in translation studies. The Interpreter and Trans­ lator Training, 3(1), 37–56. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750399X.2009.10798780

References Alvstad, C. (2013). Voices in translation. In Y. Gambier & L. van Doorslaer (Eds.), Handbook of translation studies (Vol. 4, pp. 207–210). John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/hts.4.voi2 Alvstad, C. (2014). The translation pact. Language and Literature: International Journal of Stylistics, 23(3), 270–284. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963947014536505 Bekkering, H., Heimeriks, N., & Toorn, W. van (Eds.). (1989). De Hele Bibelebontse berg: De geschiedenis van het kinderboek in Nederland & Vlaanderen van de middeleeuwen tot heden. Querido.

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Pinkeltje remains Pinkeltje Berk Albachten, Ö. (2013). Intralingual translation as “modernization” of the language: The Turkish case. Perspectives, 21(2), 257–271. https://doi.org/10.1080/0907676X.2012.702395 Brems, E. (2017). Separated by the same language: Intralingual translation between Dutch and Dutch. Per­ spectives, 26(4), 509–525. https://doi.org/10.1080/0907676X.2017.1417455 Chesterman, A. (1997). Memes of translation. The spread of ideas in translation theory. John Benjamins. Delabastita, D. (1989). Translation and mass-communication: Film and T.V. translation as evidence of cultural dynamics. Meta, 35(4), 193–218. Desmet, M. K. T. (2007). Babysitting the reader: Translating English narrative fiction for girls into Dutch (1946–1995). Peter Lang. Douglas, V., & Cabaret, F. (Eds.). (2014). La Retraduction en littérature de jeunesse/Retranslating children’s literature. Peter Lang. Duijx, T., & Linders, J. (1991). De goede kameraad: Honderd jaar kinderboeken. Van Holkema & Warendorf. Geerts, S., & Bossche, S. van den. (Eds.). (2014). Never-ending stories: Adaptation, canonisation, and ideol­ ogy in children’s literature. Academia Press. Glas, F. de. (1996). De bestseller Pinkeltje. Vooys, 14(3), 39–42. www.dbnl.org/tekst/_voo013199601_01/_ voo013199601_01_0038.php?q=pinkeltje#hl1 Kaindl, K. (1999). Thump, Whizz, Poom: A framework for the study of comics under translation. Target, 11(2), 263–288. Kuipers, M., & Smeets, K. (1996). “Die Pinkeltje is zo’n betweter af en toe . . .” Suzanne Braam over het hertalen van kinderboeken. Vooys, 14(2), 38–45. www.dbnl.org/tekst/_voo013199601_01/_voo013199601_ 01_0027.php Laan, D. (1953). Pinkeltje en het grote huis. Van Holkema & Warendorf. Laan, D. (1961). Pinkeltje en de parels. Van Holkema & Warendorf. Laan, D. (1963). Pinkeltje en de gouden pen. Van Holkema & Warendorf. Laan, D. (1968). Pinkeltje en de boze tovenaar. Van Holkema & Warendorf. Laan, D. (1970, July 31). Pappa, Pinkeltje lezen. Nieuwsblad van het Noorden, 17. https://resolver.kb.nl/reso lve?urn=ddd:011015785:mpeg21:p017 Laan, D. (1976). Pinkeltje en de Bibelebonse pap. Van Holkema & Warendorf. Laan, D. (1996). Pinkeltje en het grote huis (adapted by Suzanne Braam). Van Holkema & Warendorf. Laan, D. (1997). Pinkeltje en de gouden pen (adapted by Suzanne Braam). Van Holkema & Warendorf. Laan, D. (1997). Pinkeltje en de parels (adapted by Suzanne Braam). Van Holkema & Warendorf. Laan, D. (1998). Pinkeltje en de boze tovenaar (adapted by Suzanne Braam). Van Holkema & Warendorf. Laan, D. (1999). Pinkeltje en de Bibelebonse pap (adapted by Suzanne Braam). Van Holkema & Warendorf. Lathey, G. (2012). The role of translators in children’s literature: Invisible storytellers. Routledge. Longinovic, T. Z. (2011). Serbo-Croatian: Translating the non-identical twins. In D. Asimakoulas & M. Rogers (Eds.), Translation and opposition (pp. 283–294). Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/ 9781847694324-016 Munday, J. (2008). Style and ideology in translation: Latin American writing in English. Routledge. Pillière, L. (2021). Intralingual translation of British novels: A multimodal stylistic perspective. Bloomsbury Academic. Stephens, J., & McCallum, R. (1998). Retelling stories, framing culture: Traditional story and metanarratives in children’s literature. Routledge. Vinay, J. P., & Darbelnet, J. (1958). Stylistique comparée du français et de l’anglais. Didier. Zethsen, K. K. (2009). Intralingual translation: An attempt at description. Meta, 54(4), 795–812. https://doi. org/10.7202/038904ar

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4 FORMS AND PRACTICES OF INTRALINGUAL TRANSLATION IN PREMODERN CHINA Barbara Bisetto

Introduction This chapter looks at specific uses of intralingual translation in popularising canonical texts in the educational context of premodern China, from the 12th century onward. It focuses on the presentation of three textual genres, namely jujie (句解), zhijie (直解), and yanyi (演義), that gradually emerged in the commentarial literature of the Song (960–1279), Yuan (1279–1368), and Ming (1368–1644) dynasties. These genres appeared in a historical period characterised by significant sociocultural changes. First, there was the full-scale implementation of the civil service examinations as the way to access official careers in the imperial administration. The educational curriculum that informed the examinations centred on an in-depth knowledge of a corpus of Confucian canonical works dating back to the first millennium BCE, and it required a long process of close reading, hermeneutical training, and text memorisation. Then there was the development of governmental and non-governmental printing since the Song dynasty, which increased the availability of books and extended the variety of texts and the range of potential readers. These two factors were closely interrelated and are particularly relevant for the present discussion. The long educational training required to succeed at the different levels of the examination system and the increasingly high competition between prospective candidates supported the development of a rich network of agents and institutions devoted to teaching and learning activities. This situation stimulated the demand and supply of books and manuals to help students and examination candidates to train their ability to understand and interpret classical and canonical literature and to refine their writing techniques. At the same time, a growing class of educated scholars devoted themselves to teaching activities. It is in this context that new easy-to-read commentarial genres flourished. Studies on Chinese translation history have primarily focused on the analysis of the critical moments in which China was engaged in the translation of foreign works, such as the translation of Buddhist texts starting from the early centuries CE (Hung, 2011) and the translation of Western scientific and literary works at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries (Wong, 2011). Today, studies on intralingual translation focus on the contemporary modernization of ancient and premodern texts or examine intralingual translation as an intermediate phase in preparing for the interlingual translation of classical works (Huang, 2012; Luo, 2019). These studies leave

DOI: 10.4324/9781003188872-6

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out from the general picture instances of the historical development of this practice in the commentarial literature, generally considered a domain of philology. Similarly, the idea of premodern East Asia as “worlds without translation” (Denecke, 2014), which has been proposed on account of the widespread use of character scripts and literary Chinese as a written lingua franca, seems to rest implicitly on a conceptualisation of translation in terms of interlingual translation. However, these approaches toward translation in the Chinese context only become possible by erasing from theoretical discourse the semiotic significance of the multiple meaning mediating practices that, over the centuries, were elaborated within the Chinese textual culture to neutralise understanding barriers and overcome potential comprehension gaps in the transmission of texts. The large corpora of metatexts produced over the centuries, from commentaries to rewritings and adaptations, contain interesting material for research on the forms and practices of intralingual translation in premodern China. The structure of this chapter will be as follows: The next section will present the theoretical underpinning of this study based on current research on intralingual translation, particularly from a diachronic perspective. Then, I will outline the main categories adopted to define processes of language modernization of ancient texts during the 20th century in China. The final section before the Conclusion will be devoted to the analysis of the categories of jujie, zhijie, and yanyi in the premodern context.

Theoretical foundations As the life of texts is crucially related to their possibility to operate as signs in different temporal and spatial settings (Gorlée, 1997), commentary and translation represent two primary mediating forms of the interpretative program at the heart of semiosis. In the intertextual continuity they create between a text (prototext) and its further models or metatexts (Popovič, 1976), commentary and translation may interact in a variety of ways and degrees, sharing a communal space of mediation in metaliterature, which is what is here of interest in the perspective of intralingual translation. Intralingual translation is an umbrella term for various phenomena moving along diachronic and synchronic axes. Translation studies scholars have proposed different sub-categorisations according to the element informing the communicative transfer, either time (diachronic), linguistic variety (dialectal), register or genres (diaphasic), or linguistic mode (diamesic) (Gottlieb, 2018; Hill-Madsen, 2019). In addition, single instances may combine various sub-categories: The audible modernized version of a classical masterwork, such as Dante’s Comedy for children, combines the diachronic (modernization of language), the diaphasic (simplified version for children), and the diamesic (writing-to-speech) categories of intralingual translation. In her seminal empirical study on intralingual translation, Zethsen (2009) pointed out four factors that seem influential in intralingual translation: Knowledge, culture, time, and space. Of these, the first three play a relevant role in diachronic translation (Karas, 2016). In particular, the time parameter has stimulated further research on translation status between different chronological layers of the same language, for example in relation to the ideological implications of the language modernization of literary texts (Berk Albachten, 2014) and the role of translation in the formation of linguistic identity (Davis, 2014). From the perspective of language history, Davis argues that translation should not be considered simply as a mediation between different phases of a language but also as “what generates the historical lineage and the boundaries used to define a unified language in the first place” (Davis, 2014, p. 587). Furthermore, Karas (2016) has argued for singling out the intralingual intertemporal translation as a separate category within translation studies based on characteristics and behaviours shared by instances of translation between

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two chronological layers of the same language. Following Sakai (2009), who raised the question of bordering and countability concerning language and translation, all these studies on diachronic intralingual translation agree on the difficulty of distinguishing precise borders within a given language and highlight the perceived value that the ideas of the unity of language and cultural continuity may play in specific contexts or moments. As ideas about language identification are subject to change and do not depend only on linguistic features but may entail social, cultural, and economic factors, assumptions on translation in transfer practices between different layers of a language may vary accordingly. This aspect is crucial for a theoretical discussion on translation and the definition of diachronic intralingual translation. In her study on intralingual intertemporal translation, Karas (2016) moves away from Toury’s postulates about translation (source text postulate, transfer postulate, relationship postulate). She considers the presence of a transfer process between two languages and cultures and the idea of assumed translation to be particularly relevant for a definition of translation. Assumed translation (Toury, 1995) in particular refers to all the utterances presented or regarded as translation. However, Karas also recognises that assumed translation can be the result of a long and gradual process. This graduality correlates with the conceptualisation of translation as a cluster category in which translational phenomena present different degrees of prototypicality depending on different conditions. This factor helps to explain why instances of intralingual intertemporal translation are defined by terms other than translation and thus occupy a marginal position in categorising translation. By integrating Toury’s postulates and the prototypical conception of translation with the concepts of regulative ideas, translation regimes, and non-countable languages derived from Sakai, Karas proposes two hypotheses on diachronic translation. First, if the historical layers of the language have not become different languages, transfers between different layers are hardly considered translation. Second, where the continuity between language layers is questioned or loses importance, then instances of transfers between these layers are more likely to be referred to as translation. She, thus, identifies several possible attitudes towards the idea of diachronic intralingual translation, ranging from the unproblematic use of the term translation to cases where reservations are still present. This position, however, does not include in the discussion the possibility of unawareness, or in other words, cases of translation not recognised as such in a context, which undermines the idea of assumed translation. As pointed out by Zethsen (2009, p. 799, emphasis in the original), two requirements in Toury’s definition of translation, namely that “to constitute a translation a transfer process must have taken place between two languages/cultures and most importantly the resulting product must be assumed to be a translation by people in general” are not “necessary conditions for a document/product to constitute a translation”. Focusing on intralingual translation, albeit not specifically on diachronic translation, Zethsen and Hill-Madsen (2016) take this line of reasoning one step further by proposing a modification of Toury’s postulates which redefines the transfer postulate in terms of derivation, according to the fact that “translation is not a matter of ‘moving’ content, but a matter of producing a new text on the basis of the anterior one” (p. 704, emphasis in the original), and interprets the relationship postulate in the dimension of relevant similarity as defined by Chesterman (1996) and based on skopos. This theoretical perspective offers the possibility of investigating a broader range of phenomena in the context of translational practices.

Diachronic intralingual translation in the Chinese context Contemporary studies on diachronic intralingual translation in China focus primarily on instances of language modernization of historical, philosophical, and literary texts from ancient and premodern 66

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times. This translational practice is usually referred to by resorting to one of two expressions. The first is jinyi 今譯 (modern translation, modern language version), which foregrounds the separation between past and present, gu 古and jin 今, and is preferably used in scholarly editions, usually in combination with jinzhu (modern annotations). The second is baihua 白話 or baihua ben 白話本 (plain language version, modern language version), which emphasises the linguistic variety, that is, the common modern language as it has been shaped during the 20th century, and aims at a broader, general readership. Both expressions point to the difference that separates the historical layers of the language involved in the transfer process, and they both came into use in the first decades of the 20th century. The term baihua has been used since the early 20th century, initially to refer to vernacular language annotations (baihua zhushi 白話注釋; baihua zhujie 白話註解) of canonical and classical literary texts. According to a preliminary research conducted on different bibliographic catalogues, mainly from the National Libraries in Beijing and Taipei, earliest examples include an edition of uncertain date (around 1910) of the Three Hundred Tang Poems with annotations in the vernacu­ lar language (Baihua zhushi Tang shi sanbaishou 白話注釋唐詩三百首), edited by Xu Shunping 許舜屏; an edition of the Classic of Poetry with annotations in the vernacular language (Shijing baihua zhujie 詩經白話註解) published in Shanghai in 1918; an edition of the Four Books for Women, illustrated and annotated in the vernacular language (Huitu Nüsishu baihua zhujie 繪 圖女四書白話註解) also published in 1918 in Shanghai by the Huiwentang publishing house; an edition of the Four Books annotated in the vernacular language (Sishu baihua zhujie 四書白 話注解) edited by Tong Guanzhuo 童官卓 and Xu Fumin 許伏民 and published in 1924 by the Shanghai Qunxue xueshe publishing house; another edition of the Four Books with translation in vernacular language and punctuation in the new style (Xinshi biaodian Sishu baihua jieshuo 新式標點四書白話解說) edited by Jiang Xizhang and published in the same year by Shanghai Jinzhang tushuju, and followed shortly after, between 1926 and 1930, by another edition of the Classic of poetry, with the original text facing the vernacular version, vernacular annotations and punctuation in the new style (Yan wen duizhao baihua zhujie xinshi biaodian Shijing 言文對照 白話註解新式標點詩經). All examples fall into the category of reader’s guides (duben 讀本), “which emerged as a new bibliographical category at the turn of the twentieth century” (Sibau, 2021, p. 191). The rise and the development of this wave of publications aimed at popularising the classics by reproducing the original text with vernacular annotations were powered by the ascent of the vernacular language movement (baihuawen yundong 白話文運動) that enflamed the cultural and intellectual world at the end of the empire and in the early decades of the Republican period. In the vision of its fervent promoters, the use of the classical language in education was one of the greatest maladies in China at the time and one of the reasons for the country’s backwardness toward western nations. The modernization of China was inextricably linked to a reform of the education system that would allow more comprehensive access to literacy. The language reform, based on adopting a linguistic standard closer to the spoken language, represented a crucial part of this reformist process. Alongside the annotations, complete translations began appearing in the same years. For instance, the vernacular translation and adaptation in narrative form of Gao Ming’s play Pipa ji 琵琶記 (The Lute), Baihua Pipa ji 白話琵琶記, dates back to 1922, and it explicitly adopts the term yi 譯 (translated by) to introduce the author of the vernacular version. Compared to baihua, the term jinyi 今譯 came into use relatively later, during the 1930s, and then with increasing frequency from the 1950s and 1960s, when authoritative translations of works from ancient China’s historical, philosophical, and literary heritage began to be published in modern languages. For instance, the term figures in the title of the work Gushu jinyi (Ancient texts in modern translation 古書今譯) compiled by Ma Mingge 馬銘閣 in 1935, and later in a 67

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series of modern translation of poems from the ancient collection Chuci 楚辭 (Songs of Chu) by the poet Guo Moruo 郭沫若, such as Rhapsodies by Qu Yuan in modern translation (Qu Yuan fu jinyi 屈原賦今譯), published by Renmin wenxue chubanshe in 1953, and Encountering sorrow in modern translation (Lisao jinyi 離騷今譯) published in 1958 by the same publishing house. The explicit adoption of the term jinyi, which contains the word yi used since antiquity to refer to translation between different languages in its prototypical dimension, thus represents the culmination of a long process of metalinguistic categorisation of processes of transfer within different historical phases and varieties of the Chinese language and their modern definition in terms of translation.

Translation in premodern annotations The few instances mentioned in the previous section on the language modernization practices of classics during the 20th century reveal the prominent role annotation played in Chinese textual culture as a textual space designated to record processes of language transfer. This aspect is in continuity with the millennial-long tradition of commentaries, particularly in the context of so-called elementary learning, which in the variety and multiplicity of its textual genres accommodated various transfer practices, from lexical and exegetical glosses to paraphrases. Ever since antiquity, the types of commentaries have varied diachronically, influenced by factors such as agents, readership, and modes of production. In the premodern period, from the Song dynasty onwards, alongside scholarly commentaries, new commentarial works emerged oriented primarily towards reformulating prototext segments in a more straightforward linguistic style. In the Song-Yuan period (10th–14th c.), a rich body of commentaries aimed at popularising the Confucian canonical works began to flourish in the context of private village schools that prepared young students for the imperial examinations (Gu, 2014). Such works are usually marked by the presence of the term jujie, or “explication by sentence”, in the title. Based on extant editions and references included in bibliographic catalogues from premodern times, we know that all the fundamental canonical works, such as the Book of Poetry (Shijing 詩經), Book of Changes (Yijing 易經), Book of Documents (Shujing 書經), the Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu 春秋), Confucius’s Analects (Lunyu 論語), and the Mencius (Mengzi 孟子), had commentaries in the form of “explication by sentence”. The explanatory annotation included information on the meaning of words or aspects of ancient culture that could reduce the distance between the original text and the reader. Annotation included also a paraphrase or a more literal reformulation of the specific textual fragment. The annotation was reproduced after a minimal textual portion of different length (ju) and was graphically distinct from the prototext because it was written in smaller characters and a double column. The textual explanation was a component of a tripartite annotation system which included also phonetic and lexical glosses referred to respectively in the title by the terms zhiyin (pronunciation 直音) and pangxun (lateral glosses 傍訓). The work Zhiyin pangxun Mao Shi jujie 直音傍訓毛詩句解 (Explication by sentence of Mao’s version of the Book of Poetry with pronunciation and lateral glosses) by Li Gongkai (13th c.) is a representative example of this textual genre. Of uncertain date, the work features interlinear annotations to poems in the Book of Poetry. The following two excerpts contain the short prose preface that introduces the poem “A simple peasant” (poem 59) in Mao’s edition of the Book of Poetry and the poem’s first stanza, together with the annotations in Li Gongkai’s work, written in smaller characters. As mentioned before, in the extant printed editions of the work, the annotations are written in a double column format, while here they are reproduced in a single line following the modern punctuated edition edited by 68

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Li (2012). The translation of small preface and the annotations in excerpts 1 and 2 are my own. The English translation of the poem’s first stanza in excerpt 2 is from Waley (1996, p. 49).

《氓》，詩篇名，氓音萌。刺時也。所以刺當時也。宣公之時，衛宣公時。禮義消亡，禮義之 化消亡不存。淫風大行，淫亂之風盛行而莫遏。男女無別。男女混合，無有分別。遂相奔誘。 於是更相奔誘。 華落色衰， 及顏色衰如華之落。 復相棄背， 又相棄絕而違背。 或乃困而自 悔，或乃窮困而自悔悟其過。喪其妃耦。則已喪失其妃耦矣。妃，配。故序其事以風焉，所以 序述其事以爲風刺焉。美反正，其既失而能反於正道者，則嘉美之。刺淫泆也。其淫逸而不知自 反者，則譏刺之也。泆，逸。

Excerpt 1 – small preface A simple peasant, the poem’s title, the pronunciation of “simple peasant” (meng) is as “meng” (sprout) is a criticism of the times is meant to criticise those times. At the time of Duke Xuan, the times of Duke Xuan of Wei ritual norms and ethical righteousness had withered away, the influence of ritual norms and ethical righteousness had withered away and disappeared and immoral customs were widespread licentious customs were in vogue with no restrain. There were no distinctions between men and women men and women mixed with no distinction and therefore they united and seduced each other and for this reason they united and seduced reciprocally. As youth declined and appearance ruined that is the look was ruined following the passing of youth they abandoned and left the other again they cast aside and left behind the other again. And then one reduced to distress repented and then being reduced to destitution one realised the errors and repented having lost the partner but had already lost one’s consort. “Consort” (fei) is “spouse” (pei). Therefore this poem recounts this fact for edification for this reason, it narrates this fact in order to serve as edification and criticism to praise the return to the property to express admiration to those who, being lost, are able to return to the way of property to criticise indulging into licentiousness and to criticise those who indulge in debauchery and do not know how to turn back to oneself. “Licentious” (yi) is “dissolute” (yi).

Excerpt 2 – first stanza 氓之蚩蚩 婦人始見此氓，蚩蚩然無所知。蚩，尺之反。抱布貿絲 抱布而來，與我易絲。貿，茂。 匪來貿絲 徐察其意，則非來與我易絲也。 來即我謀 乃來就我謀為室家之事。 送子涉淇 於是渡涉 淇水。至於頓丘 直到頓丘之地。匪我愆期 氓欲與偕行，而女未肯往，謂之曰: 非我愆過汝所約之 期。子無良媒 汝自無好媒往來導達，故我行計未決耳。 將子無怒 謂吾子無發恚怒。將音鏘。秋 以為期 但以秋時為約而成昏也。 We thought you were a simple peasant [When] the woman met this peasant for the first time, [he] looked simple, ignorant. “Chi” (simple) reads as “Ch(i) and (Zh)i. Bringing cloth to exchange for threads. He came bringing cloth to trade threads with me. “Mao” (trade) is [pronounced] as “mao” (luxuriant). But you had not come to buy my thread Observing his intentions calmly, he had not come to trade threads with me. You had come to arrange about me. You had come to arrange about me as wife. You were escorted across the Qi Then we crossed the river Qi As far as Beacon Hill arrived directly to Dun qiu “It is not I who want to put it off The peasant wanted them to proceed together but the girl was not yet willing to go. [She] said to him: It is not me who is delaying the engagement you arranged. But you have no proper match-maker. You do not have a good matchmaker to present your salutation, so I have not yet resolved to go. Please do not be angry [She] said: Do not be furious. 將 is pronounced ‘qiang’. Let us fix on autumn as the time.” Still, let us consider the autumn season for the engagement and get married. 69

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These textual fragments show that the commentator’s focus is pedagogical: Annotations provide contextual details to help readers correctly read and understand each segment of the prototext. Since this is a poetic text, prosification plays a crucial role in the transfer process. There is no manifest interest in working specifically on the prosodic structure of every sentence, so that every line of the poetic text is rewritten in more readable prose. From this perspective, simplification is achieved by loosening the conciseness of the language of the source text. At the level of glosses, we find primarily phonetic glosses, which are registered according to different annotation systems, to single out specific terms (for example the phonetic glosses on chi and mao) or to disambiguate the pronunciation of a character in a specific line if the character has different readings (as for the gloss on meng after the poem’s title, and that on qiang in the stanza’s last couplet). Lexical glosses are almost absent, except for the glosses on “consort” and “licentious” in the prefatory text. At the lexical level, transformations are directly absorbed into the translation and involve the shift from monosyllabic to disyllabic terms, for example, in the case of qi 棄 and bei 背 which become qijue 棄絕 and weibei 違背, mei 美 becomes jiamei 嘉美, and qian 愆 adds the resultative guo 過 in qianguo 愆過, or the addition of a synonymic expression, as in the explanation of chi 蚩蚩 (ignorant, simple) in the stanza’s opening line, which is replicated in the annotation followed by ran 然 to mark the adjectival predicate and then by a paraphrase, “with no knowledge” (無所知). A significant feature of the metatext concerns the treatment of the referential dimension of the prototext and the cohesive ties. From this perspective, the text moves with “telescopic oscillation” (Cataldi, 1999, p. 246) between the dimension of commentary and that of translation. For example, in the note added to the poem’s opening line, the commentator introduces “the woman” as the subjective entity in the poem. However, this reference immediately takes the form of the poetic persona as suggested by the recurrent uses of the first person pronoun wo 我 (I), which is repeated five times in the following notes, in contrast to the two occurrences in the poem’s first stanza. The commentator’s presence surfaces again in the note to the seventh line, when he inserts a contextual reference to explain the woman’s words which are referred to afterwards introduced by the verb wei 謂. Similarly, in the note to the ninth line the woman’s words are also introduced by wei. In both cases, the “I” persona of the poems slides into the “she” of the commentator’s interpretative text. Next to jujie texts, another textual category for the popularisation of the classics that emerged after the Song dynasty is marked using the term zhijie (lit. “direct explications”) in the title (Kin, 2021). Other similar categories were zhishuo 直說, in which shuo 說 (lit. “to say”, “to explain”) (Xu, 2012) stands for “explanation”, and zhitan 直談 (lit. “direct discussion”) (Xing, 2020). As Kin (2021) pointed out, these texts translated the entire canonical texts into the colloquial language to help readers reach an accurate understanding of their meaning. They were evidence that “the gap between Literary Sinitic and the colloquial language had expanded to the degree that the old piecemeal explanations of the classics with annotations written in Literary Sinitic were no longer sufficient for an accurate understanding of the meaning of the texts” (Kin, 2021, p. 161). The oldest attested editions of zhijie texts are the works Daxue zhijie 大學直解 (Direct Explication of the Great Learning) and Zhongyong zhijie (Direct Explication of the Doctrine of the Mean) 中庸直 解 written by Xu Heng (1209–1281), “distinguished Confucian master, educator and adviser to Qubilai Qu’an” (Chan, 1993, p. 416) in the early Yuan period. In pursuing his work as a passionate and dedicated Confucian educator, Xu was also an important translator. According to Klein (2018, p. 92), “he translated the ossified, esoteric written language of the educated Chinese elite into the living language of the common people”, transforming the moral teaching and culture of the ancients into a living practice for the benefit of his contemporaries. 70

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The following excerpts are from Zhongyong zhijie in the Siku quanshu edition of Xu Heng’s collected works (Lu zhai yi shu 魯齋遺書, Collected Writings from the Lu Studio). As in the case of jujie works, the text is divided into segments of variable length, and the explanatory note appears immediately after each segment. In the Siku quanshu edition, the text and the note are separated only by a white space, and there is no difference in the size of the characters. Each new textual segment begins in a new column, and the note then continues with an indent in the upper margin of subsequent columns. To distinguish prototext and metatext, this chapter follows the edition punctuated and edited by Takekoshi (2007), with the Zhongyong segment in bold and the annotation text in standard font. The English translation of the Zhongyong is based on Plaks (Ta Hsüeh and Chung Yung, 2003, p. 26); the translation of the annotation is mine. 仲尼曰。君子中庸。小人反中庸。 「仲尼」是孔子的表字。「君子」是能體道的人。 「中庸」是不偏不倚。無過不及。平常的道理。「小人」是不能體道的人。「反」是 相背的意思。子思引他祖孔子之言説：君子之人於中庸之道身體而力行之。日用常行 無不是這道理。故曰「君子中庸」。小人之人於中庸之道不能身體而力行之。日用常 行都背着這道理。故曰「小人反中庸」。 Our Master Chung-ni [Zhongni] has stated: “The man of noble character embodies the ideal of the mean in common practice, whereas the man of base character behaves in a manner contrary to this ideal”. “Zhongni” is the style name of Confucius. “man of noble character” is the man who is able to embody the Way. “The mean” is the principle of being impartial and unbiased, without excess and without deficiency, the principle of being common. “The man of base character” is the man who is not able to embody the Way. “Contrary” ( fan) means “opposite” (xiangbei). Zisi quotes the words of his grandfather Confucius saying: The one who is a man of noble character places himself on the Way of the mean and practices it with earnestness. In his daily, ordinary activities, there is nothing which is not in accord with this principle. Therefore, he has stated “The man of noble character embodies the ideal of the mean in common practice”. The person who is a man of base character cannot place himself on the Way of the mean and practice it earnestly. In his daily, ordinary activities he always violates this principle. Therefore, he has stated “The man of base char­ acter behaves in a manner contrary to this ideal”. As this example shows, the annotation generally consisted of a first part with lexical glosses on the meaning of particularly relevant or complex terms or to provide contextual information helpful in understanding the message, and then a second part that provided a translation of the text in a more straightforward linguistic style that combines elements of classical and vernacular language in order to improve the comprehensibility of the text. Various elements of the annotation are distinctive of the written vernacular language, such as the use of shi 是 as a copula and the use of the particle de 的 for nominal determination, and on the lexical level the use of shuo 說 to introduce speeches in place of yue 曰 used in the classical language. Xu Heng’s activity as educator and translator greatly influenced the development of the zhijie writings, which in the following dynasties expanded from canonical texts to include other works considered fundamental for moral or cultural education. A classic example from the Ming period is represented by a corpus of works written by Zhang Juzheng (1525–1586), an eminent late Ming politician who rose to serve as Chief Grand Secretary during the reigns of Longqing (1567–1572) and Wanli (1572–1620) emperors and worked also as the tutor of the young Emperor Wanli in the early years of his reign. Zhang Juzheng compiled various zhijie commentaries and, in particular, 71

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an important zhijie edition of the Four Books with the commentaries by the Song dynasty NeoConfucian philosopher Zhu Xi (1130–1200), the Sishu jizhu zhijie 四書集注直解 (Direct explication of Collected annotations on phrases and sections of the Four Books), which in the 17th century served as basis for the Jesuits’ translations of the Four Books in Latin language (Meynard, 2015). The following excerpt is Zhang’s annotation of the same passage from Zhongyong discussed earlier.

仲尼，是孔⼦的字。反，是違背。⼦思引孔⼦之⾔說道：「中庸是不偏不倚，無過 不及，平常的道理，雖為⼈所同有，然惟君⼦為能體之，其⽇⽤常⾏，無不是這中 庸的道理。若彼⼩⼈便不能了，其⽇⽤常⾏，都與這中庸的道理相違背矣。」 “Zhongni” is the style name of Confucius. “Contrary” (fan) is “violate” (weibei). Zisi quotes the words of Confucius saying: “The Mean is the principle of being impartial and unbiased, without excess and without deficiency, the principle of being common. Although it is what men possess in common, only the person of noble character is able to embody it, so that in his daily, ordinary activities there is nothing that does not conform to this principle of the mean. On the other hand, however, the person of base character is not able to do so, and in his daily and ordinary activities, acts against this principle of the mean”. (Chongke Zhang Gelao jingyan Sishu zhijie 重刻張閣老經筵四書直解 (1679, Vol. 1), Zhijie Zhongyong 直解中庸 juan 2, p. 4a) The annotation structure mirrors that of Xu Heng’s text, with lexical glosses at the beginning, followed by the translation. However, in the translated text, the source text is no longer referred to with citations to the specific portion of the text, and the translation thus proceeds continuously. Linguistically, the translated text uses a vernacular style mixed with classical elements. A second important zhijie work by Zhang Juzheng is Nüjie zhijie 女誡直解 (Direct explications of the Lessons for Women), an annotated vernacular edition of Nüjie by Ban Zhao (ca. 45–116), one of the canonical texts on female education in the imperial period. The work was commissioned to Zhang by Empress Dowager Li on the emperor’s wedding in 1578 as an instruction book for the women entering the imperial palace. The text was intended for women’s instruction within the court and did not gain wider circulation until the first half of the 17th century when it was included in the printed edition of Zhang Juzheng’s complete works (Xia, 2010). The following excerpt is drawn from the first chapter, Beiruo diyi 卑弱第一 (The Lowly and the Weak). The English translation of Ban Zhao’s text is from Pang-White (2018). The translation of Zhang’s annotation is mine. In the edition contained in the Collected Writings of Master Zhang Taiyue, newly engraved (Xinke Zhang Taiyue xiansheng wenji 新刻張太岳先生文集), the textual spaces of prototext and annotation is marked visually, as the segment from Nüjie is indented by two spaces at the beginning of the column, while Zhang’s annotation follows and extends along the entire column. 古者生女三日，卧之牀下，弄之瓦磚，而齋告焉。 瓦磚，即今之紡磚。弄是以手拈弄。大家說：古人生女三日之後，臥之牀下，寢之 于地，將一塊紡磚與他拈弄，齋戒而吿之祖先說：我某日生一女。 On the third day after the birth of a girl, the ancients let her sleep [on the ground] below the bed, let her play with a tile [from a weaving machine], and after fasting they announced her birth to the ancestors at the ancestral temple. (Pang-White, 2018, p. 43) 72

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“Tile” is today’s spindle. “Play” is “to play [with something] in the hand”. The Lady said: Three days after giving birth to a girl, they laid her under the bed and made her sleep on the floor, gave her a spindle in her hands to play with, and after fasting announced to the ancestors: On such a day I gave birth to a girl. 卧之牀下，明其卑弱，主下人也。弄之瓦磚，明其習勞，主執勤也。齋告先君， 明當主繼祭祀也。三者蓋女人之常道，禮法之典教矣。 典即是常。這一節是解說上四句之意。大家説：古人生女所以臥之牀下者，明其不 高傲，不強梁，專尚卑弱之義。盖女人以事人為職。故專主于下人而不可高傲也。 所以弄以紡磚者。明其熟悉勞苦之義。盖女人以紡織為職，故主于執持勤勞而不可 懈怠也。齋吿先君者，盖女子長大嫁人將以內助其夫承家祭祀敬於誕生之初即齋戒 而吿之。這三件乃女人常行之道，禮法中常以為教而不容已也。 To let her sleep [on the ground] below the bed is to make it clear that she is the lowly and the weak, and that she should place herself beneath others. To let her play with a tile [from a weaving machine] is to indicate unmistakably that she should be accustomed to labor and be diligent in her work. Fasting and announcing her birth to the ancestors is to convey unambiguously that she is responsible for [preparing ritual offerings and] continuing ancestral religious rites. These three responsibilities depict the constant way of being a woman and the canonical teachings of the ritual law. (Pang-White, 2018, p. 43) “Canonical” [teachings] are constant. The above section is an explanation of the meaning of the last four sentences. The Lady said: That the ancients, after giving birth to a girl, placed her below the bed, was to make clear that she should not be arrogant, tyrannical, and should esteem the lowly and weak. It is a woman’s job to serve others. Therefore, she should place herself beneath other and not be arrogant. That they let her play with a spindle, was to make clear that she should familiarise herself with hard work. It is a woman’s job to weave. Therefore, she should set herself on being diligent and hard-working, and should not be lazy. As for fasting and announcing her birth to the ancestors, it is to make clear since the moment of birth that as a girl, once she is grown and married, she will assist her husband in performing the family rites. These three things are the constant way of being a woman, as they are taught in the ritual law, and cannot be discontinued. (Xinke Zhang Taiyue xiansheng wenji 新刻張太岳先生文集, juan 11, pp. 5b–6a) Similar to the examples presented so far, the text is divided into segments of varying length, followed by the annotation, written in a simple style mixing classical and vernacular elements. The annotation might include lexical glosses, a brief explanation of the meaning of the text, and the translation. The explanatory section is introduced with the words “Zhe yi jie shi jieshuo [. . .] . . . zhi yi” 這一節是解說 [. . .] 之意/義 (This part is the explanation of the meaning of [. . .]), while the translation segment is preceded by the expression “Dagu shuo” 大家說 (The Lady said), Dagu being the title name of Ban Zhao. The translation contains various insertions that reveal the interpretative and pedagogical objectives of the author, given the specific readership. For example, the insertion of “should not be arrogant, tyrannical” in the opening lines of the translation offers a practical and concrete reading of the meaning of “lowly” for a woman who enters the imperial court. The terms introduced in the lexical glosses to explain vocabulary from the prototext are 73

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usually repeated in the translation, an element suggesting the synchronicity between the glossary intervention and the making of the translation. A second late Ming zhijie version of Ban Zhao’s Lessons for Women is the work Cao Dagu Nüjie zhijie 曹大家女誡直解 (Direct explication of Lessons for Women by Lady Cao) compiled by Zhao Nanxing (1550–1627) and printed as a standalone text in 1587 (Xia, 2010). This work reproduces Ban Zhao’s text accompanied by an easy-to-read translation, mixing elements of classical and vernacular languages and offering another example of the premodern interest in popularisation practices. The last category considered in this chapter is that of yanyi (lit. elaboration of the meaning). Compared to jujie and zhijie, which as metaliterary categories belong firmly to the domain of commentarial literature, the case of yanyi is more complex, as it stretches between the domains of commentary and narrative fiction. Since the Tang dynasty and then more frequently from the Song-Yuan period onwards, the term yanyi appeared in the title of commentaries on religious, canonical, and poetic texts (Bisetto, 2017, 2018). During the 16th century, however, the term began to appear in the title of narrative works based on the rewriting of stories on historical and pseudo-historical subjects, in the wake of the success of the novel Sanguo zhi tongsu yanyi 三國 志通俗演義 (Lit. An elaboration of the meaning of the Sanguo zhi to reach the masses). If and to what extent there is a link between these different instances of yanyi in premodern textual culture is a matter that falls beyond the scope of this chapter. However, scholars have observed how yanyi narratives often incorporated more or less extensive translations of classical language sources that were rewritten and absorbed within the new narrative. In this perspective, and albeit careful analysis of individual instances, yanyi narratives may help shed light on the complex processes of recodification and reimagination associated with the diachronic transposition of texts. One interesting case is represented by the 17th-century work Gujin Lienü zhuan yanyi 古今 列女傳演義 (An elaboration of the meaning of Biographies of Women from past and present), a vernacularised version of another canonical work of women’s education in ancient China, the Han dynasty text Lienü zhuan 列女傳by Liu Xiang 劉向 (77–6 BCE). The work consists of six chapters for a total of 110 biographies, of which 91 are based on biographies from the first six chapters of Lienü zhuan and its sequel Xu Lienü zhuan, and the remaining 19 on stories included in other premodern anthologies. Unlike the other works presented in this chapter, in this case the metatext does not accompany the original text as a tool for helping its comprehension but replaces it, creating a new text elaborated starting from the linguistic transformation of the source text. Based on a preliminary comparison of a corpus of biographies from Liu Xiang’s text and the vernacular version, Bisetto (2014) observed the variety of microtextual strategies applied in the translation process, which included verbatim quotation, word-to-word translation, paraphrases, and amplification, adopting a linguistic style that combines the classical and the vernacular language. In explaining the general project informing the yanyi edition in the preface, the author, styled with the pseudonym You Longzi 猶龍子, claims explicitly that the work originates from the awareness of the linguistic hiatus that separates the Han text from its contemporary readers. He thus assumes the responsibility of transferring the text’s most profound meanings from the ancients’ style to the common language familiar to everyone. In so doing, he carefully indulges in those details that enrich the verbal composition of a text, thus continuously shifting the task from vernacularisation to fictional rewriting and plot development. In this way, the author helps the reader interpret some of the most disturbing issues raised by the heroine’s virtuous behaviours by offering detailed contextual information to clarify the woman’s inner mind: “Through this transformation, the Expanded Biographies creates a comprehensive accommodation between the Han dynasty classic and late imperial mores” (Moyer, 2020, p. 26). 74

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Conclusion The textual categories presented in this chapter show the importance that the practices of intralingual translation played in the premodern period as strategies to promote the intelligibility and popularisation of canonical texts in favour of common and non-scholarly readers. They belonged to or emerged in the context of commentarial literature, and they primarily addressed a pedagogical function. The three categories show the close interrelationship between commentary and translation in the premodern period. On the one hand, the categories jujie and zhijie allow us to examine the translative operations characterising these forms of commentary. The translation was seen as a valuable tool to help readers to understand the meaning of the prototext. As such, it did not enjoy an autonomous status, an aspect reflected in the hierarchical distribution of the different elements on the page: Prototext, annotation, and translation. On the other hand, the case of yanyi allows us to observe the traces of a shift in the opposite direction, with the embedding of the interpretive function of the commentary in a new, fully autonomous text, which presents itself – with varying degrees of accuracy – as a possible model of a previous text or even tradition of texts, in which comprehension and knowledge are linked not only to aspects of language transfer but also to aspects of meaning actualisation, as in the domain of invention.

Further reading Elman, B. A. (Ed.). (2014). Rethinking East Asian languages, vernaculars, and literacies, 1000–1919. Brill. Lanselle, R. (2022). Diglossia, intralingual translation, rewriting: Towards a new approach to the analysis of the relationship between Ming-Qing vernacular stories and their classical sources (1). Journal of the European Association for Chinese Studies, 3, 207–262. Li, G., Sieber, P., & Kornicki, P. (Eds.). (2022). Ecologies of translation in East and South East Asia. Amsterdam University Press. Li, X. A. (2019). Making classical Chinese literature contemporary. Translation “between centre and absence”. In J. Kiaer, J. Guest, & X. A. Li (Eds.), Translation and literature in East Asia between visibility and invisibility (pp. 13–48). Routledge.

References Berk Albachten, Ö. (2014). Intralingual translation: Discussions within translation studies and the case of Turkey. In S. Bermann & C. Porter (Eds.), A companion to translation studies (pp. 573–585). Wiley Blackwell. Bisetto, B. (2014). In altre parole: traduzione e riscrittura nell’opera Lienü zhuan yanyi. In C. Bulfoni & S. Pozzi (Eds.), Atti del XIII Convegno Associazione Italiana Studi Cinesi, Milano 22–24 settembre 2011 (pp. 75–86). Franco Angeli. Bisetto, B. (2017). Commentary and translation: Exploring the Du lü yanyi 杜律演義. Acta Universitatis Carolinae Philologica, 4, 97–108. https://doi.org/10.14712/24646830.2017.43 Bisetto, B. (2018). Le note di commento nell’antologia Du lü yanyi di epoca Yuan. In B. Bisetto & A. Maurizi (Eds.), La trasmissione del testo poetico in Cina e in Giappone (pp. 59–77). Mimesis. Cataldi, P. (1999). La strana pietà. Schede sulla letteratura e la scuola. Palumbo Editore. Chan, H. L. (1993). Hsü Heng (1209–1281). In I. de Rachewiltz, H. L. Chan, C. C. Hsiao, & P. W. Geier (Eds.), In the service of the Khan. Eminent personalities of the early Mongol-Yüan Period (pp. 416–447). Harrassowitz Verlag. Chesterman, A. (1996). On similarity. Target, 8(1), 159–164. https://doi.org/10.1075/target.8.1.10che Chongke Zhang Gelao jingyan Sishu zhijie 重刻張閣老經筵四書直解. (1679). Waseda University Library. www.wul.waseda.ac.jp/kotenseki/html/ro12/ro12_03039/index.html Davis, K. (2014). Intralingual translation and the making of a language. In S. Bermann & C. Porter (Eds.), A companion to translation studies (pp. 586–598). Wiley Blackwell.

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Barbara Bisetto Denecke, W. (2014). Worlds without translation: Premodern East Asia and the power of character scripts. In S. Bermann & C. Porter (Eds.), A companion to translation studies (pp. 204–216). Wiley Blackwell. Gorlée, D. (1997). Bridging the gap – a semiotician’s view on translating the Greek Classics. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 5(2), 153–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/0907676X.1997.9961307 Gottlieb, H. (2018). Semiotics and translation. In K. Malmkjœr (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of translation studies and linguistics (pp. 45–63). Routledge. Gu, Y. (2014). Jingxue wenxuan de yansheng he tongsuhua: yi jingu shidai wei chuanke wei zhongxin 經學 文獻的衍生和通俗化：以近古時代的傳刻為中心 [Derivation and popularization of Confucian classics document. Centred around circulation and block printing in late antiquity]. Beijing Daxue chubanshe. Hill-Madsen, A. (2019). The heterogeneity of intralingual translation. Meta, 64(2), 537–560. https://doi. org/10.7202/1068206ar Huang, G. (2012). Dianji fanyi: cong yunei fanyi dao yuji fanyi – yi Lunyu yingyi wei li 典籍翻譯：從語內 翻譯到語際翻譯–以“論語”英譯為例 [Translation of classics: From intralingual to interlingual translation. An analysis based on the English translation of the Analects]. Zhongguo waiyu 中國外語, 6, 64–71. Hung, E. (2011). The Buddhist translation movement in China (2nd to 11th century). In H. Kittel, A. P. Frank, N. Greiner, T. Hermans, W. Koller, J. Lambert, & F. Paul (Eds.), Übersetzung Translation Traduction. 3 Teilband/Volume 3/Tome 3 (pp. 2178–2184). Walter De Gruyter. Karas, H. (2016). Intralingual intertemporal translation as a relevant category in translation studies. Target, 28(3), 445–466. https://doi.org/10.1075/target.28.3.05kar Kin, B. (2021). Literary Sinitic and East Asia. A cultural sphere of vernacular reading (R. King, Ed.). Brill. Klein, S. E. (2018). Spreading the word of Zhu Xi: Xu Heng’s vernacular Confucianism under Mongol rule and beyond. Parergon, 35(2), 91–118. https://doi.org/10.1353/pgn.2018.0068 Li, S. (Ed.). (2012). Shi zhuan pangtong, Zhiyin pangxun Mao shi jujie 詩傳旁通, 直音旁訓毛詩句解 [Comprehensive commentaries on the Book of Poetry; Explication by sentence of Mao’s version of the Book of Poetry with pronunciation and lateral glosses]. Beijing shifan daxue chubanshe. Luo, X. (2019). What can intralingual translation do? Asia Pacific Translation and Intercultural Studies, 6(1), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1080/23306343.2019.1633008 Lu zhai yi shu 魯齋遺書[Collected writings from the Lu Studio], juan 5, Siku quanshu 四庫全書. Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/06042285.cn Meynard, T. (2015). The Jesuit reading of Confucius. The first complete translation of the Lunyu (1687) published in the West. Brill. Moyer, J. D. (2020). Women rules within. Domestic space and genre in Qing vernacular literature. Brill. Pang-White, A. (2018). The Confucian four books for women. A new translation of the Nü Sishu and the com­ mentary of Wang Xiang. Oxford University Press. Popovič, A. (1976). Aspects of metatext. Canadian Review of Comparative Literature/Revue Canadienne de Littérature Comparée, 3(3), 225–235. Sakai, N. (2009). How do we count a language? Translation and discontinuity. Translation Studies, 2(1), 71–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/14781700802496266 Sibau, M. F. (2021). Reader’s guides. In J. Chen, A. Detwyler, X. Liu, C. M. B. Nugent, & B. Rusk (Eds.), Literary information in China (pp. 190–197). Columbia University Press. Ta Hsüeh and Chung Yung (The highest order of cultivation and on the practice of the mean) (2003). (A. Plaks, Trans.). Penguin Books. Takekoshi, T. (2007). Zhongyong zhijie jiaoben (shang) 『中庸直解』校本(上) [Critical edition of Zhongyong zhijie]. Kotonoha, 60, 4–15. www.for.aichi-pu.ac.jp/museum/pdf2/takekoshi60.pdf Toury, G. (1995). Descriptive translation studies and beyond. John Benjamins. Waley, A. (1996). The book of songs (J. R. Allen, Ed.). Grove Press. Wong, L. (2011). Translation and politics in modern China, 1860–1980s. In H. Kittel, A. P. Frank, N. Greiner, T. Hermans, W. Koller, J. Lambert, & F. Paul (Eds.), Übersetzung translation traduction. 3 Teilband/Vol­ ume 3/Tome 3 (pp. 2188–2195). Walter De Gruyter. Xia, X. (2010). Jingdian chanshi zhong de wenti, xingbie yu shidai – Yi wan Ming yu wan Qing de Nüjie baihua zhujie 經典闡釋中的文體、性别與時代 – 晚明與晚清的《女誡》白話注解 [Language, gender, and times in classical exegesis: Vernacular annotations of Nü jie in the Late Ming and Late Qing]. Zhongguo wenxue xuebao 中國文學學報, 1, 201–224. Xing, N. (2020). Yuan Ming shiqi baihua de zhuanzhe yu jianjin. Yi Daxue zhijie Sishu zhangju jizhu Sishu jizhu zhijie (Daxue) ciyu bijiao wei li 元明時期白話的轉折與漸進 – 以《大學直解》《四書章句集 注》《四書集注直解》(大學)詞語比較為例 [The transition and advancement of the vernacular in the

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Forms and practices of translation in premodern China Yuan and Ming periods. An analysis based on the lexicon in Daxue zhijie, Sishu zhangju jizhu and Sishu jizhu zhijie (Daxue)]. Qinghai shifan daxue xuebao 青海師範大學學報, 42(6), 140–145. Xinke Zhang Taiyue xiansheng wenji 新刻張太岳先生文集 [Newly printed collected works of Zhang Juzheng]. Siku quanshu 四庫全書. Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/02100463.cn/page/n42/ mode/2up Xu, D. (2012) Yuan dai de zhishuo zuopin yu shumian baihua zhushu de zijue 元代的直說作品與書面白話 著述的自覺 [Zhishuo Texts and the conscious use of written vernacular in the Yuan dynasty]. Zhonghua wenshi luncong 中華文史論叢, 4, 307–334. Zethsen, K. K. (2009). Intralingual translation: An attempt at description. Meta, 54(4), 795–812. https://doi. org/10.7202/038904ar Zethsen, K. K., & Hill-Madsen, A. (2016). Intralingual translation and its place within translation studies – a theoretical discussion. Meta, 61(3), 692–708. https://doi.org/10.7202/1039225ar

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5 VERGILIAN CENTOS FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF INTRALINGUAL TRANSLATION Stealing his club and much more from Hercules Ekin Öyken Introduction This chapter has two interconnected purposes, one general and the other more specific. My general focus is to discuss the relevance of studying Vergilian centos from the viewpoint of intralingual translation, while a more specific purpose is to explore the tension between an original work and a translated text, and the cento as original poetry and as a literary game. I focus on two representative examples (both written in the fourth century CE) out of the 16 extant Latin centos from antiquity. These two, namely the Cento Vergilianus by Proba and the Cento nuptialis by Ausonius, are diametrically opposed in terms of theme and style, but they served as models for many centos that were written up to and beyond the early modern period.

What is a cento? Centos are poems composed of half-lines, complete lines or sometimes slightly longer sections taken non-consecutively and preferably with minimal modifications from the works of canonical poets, and they reached their apogee in late antiquity.1 Greek and Latin poetry was written in quantitative metre, which was based mainly on syllable length, and ancient cento poems followed that rule. Just like their source texts, usually epics, centos were cast in hexameters, and this formal element appears to have played a unifying role in the organization of these elaborate collages (Pavlovskis, 1989, p. 72).2 The Latin noun cento is derived from the Greek word ként(r)ōn, which signifies a multicoloured garment sewn together from old fabrics – in a word, a patchwork. This would suggest to anyone familiar with Homeric texts and their performative aspect a similarity with the Greek term rhapsōidós. This term implies a type of professional reciter of epic poetry as well as the formulaic composition technique of the earlier minstrels (West, 2001, p. 5, n. 5), and the verbal component (rháptein) of this compound word is semantically related to “sewing” (González, 2013). Although the two traditions (i.e., rhapsodic performance and cento poetry) are apparently different in terms of history and poetics (see Bright, 1984, p. 79, n. 1; cf. Pavlovskis, 1989, p. 71), repurposing already existing material is essential to both of them. The cento is more a literary technique than a generic genre; it is an “écriture such as parody, travesty, contrafacture,3 DOI: 10.4324/9781003188872-7

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and pastiche” (Verweyen & Witting, 1991, p. 172). Its unconfined presence in various genres that span from epic, didactic, and occasional poetry to drama and political essay can be considered as one of the aspects that enabled the cento to outlive antiquity, the medieval ages, and beyond.4 Centos have a wide variety of themes that range from wedding nights to bread making, from Christian teaching to dice games. Detailed studies that explore the cultural and literary value of centos appeared relatively recently, mostly because of the ossified prejudice of the conservative vein that compares ancient centos unfavourably to canonized poems of classical literature (see Bažil, 2002; Hinds, 2014, pp. 172–173; Pavlovskis, 1989, p. 70). Latin versions of these patchwork poems, of which barely more than a dozen are extant, are recycled verses mostly from Vergil’s Eclogues, Georgics, and Aeneid (thence the name Vergiliocentones),5 while their Greek antecedents drew mostly on Homeric verses.6 If we disregard the two relatively long examples, namely the 694-verse-long religious cento by the Christian poetess Proba and the 131-verse-long erotic one by the poet Ausonius, most of the Latin centos are anonymous. They are sometimes readily categorized according to their themes as Christian, mythological, or secular (McGill, 2005, pp. xv–xvi), but their close reading reveals that they differ in terms of literary/translational strategies and cultural paradigms.

The place of ancient centos in literary history Unlike nineteenth-century historiography, which in general tended to see late antiquity as a decline from the lofty standards of classical culture,7 many researchers today appreciate the wealth of ideas, inspiration, and production of the late Roman culture, especially following the works of Peter Brown (1971) and Alan Cameron (2011), among others. Some have even argued that the Roman culture of the fourth and fifth centuries CE, and patristic literature in particular, is comparable in these terms to the Athens of fifth century BCE (Conte, 1994, p. 678; cf. Pavlovskis, 1989, p. 71). Late Latin poetry has shared the same fate, in that it has only recently been paid proper attention, and the cento, which is one of its most radically experimental forms, was once called a “literary freak” even by one of its own scholars (see Bright, 1984, p. 80).8 One of the main characteristics of the late antique poets is their way of engaging with the literary tradition from which they largely derive (see McGill & Pucci, 2016, p. 15). A difference can be observed in this regard between the late antique Greek poets and the Latin poets.9 Some scholars have argued that late antique Greek poetry was associated mainly with educational purposes, and those Greek poems, unlike their Latin counterparts, were written mainly to be read rather than to be recited, and aimed more at imitating rather than emulating classical models (see Hose, 2004; Pollmann, 2017, p. 6). The Roman concepts of imitatio and aemulatio are important for understanding the artistic strategies of the centonists. We should first consider that Latin literature developed largely through translations, adaptations, and imitations of Greek literature from its beginnings in the third century BCE. This aspect of Latin literature is sometimes compared to the process by which Western literature largely grew out of Latin literature (Jensson, 2003, p. 86). Early Latin authors, some of whom were brought to Rome as slaves and learned Latin as a second language,10 not only imitated the Greek models but sometimes also competed with them, and the latter has usually been labelled as aemulatio in ancient literary criticism.11 Nevertheless, the distinction between translation, adaptation, imitation, and emulation was usually a fluid one in Roman culture. For instance, interpretatio, a Latin term that primarily means “explanation, interpretation”, was also used for translation in a wide array of intra- and interlingual forms. The rhetorical concept of imitatio, on the other hand, reflects the avowed dependence of writers upon their predecessors (Conte & Most, 2012), but it does not consist of mere 79

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imitation as its modern counterpart may initially suggest. Imitatio can be creative, and the difference between imitatio and aemulatio lies more with authorial self-positioning rather than with the degree of originality. Hence, the two concepts are not exclusive but complementary (Russell, 1979, p. 10), and they are naturally linked to the ancient Roman practice of translation (McElduff, 2013, pp. 159–160). Considering the extensive literature on these ancient concepts and their later reception, I will content myself here by quoting Hermans (2002, p. 10) as adapted by McElduff (2013, p. 15): “In looking at Rome, we must abandon our ‘metaphors of translation as likeness, replica, duplicate, copy, portrait, reflection, reproduction, imitation, mimesis, mirror image or transparent pane of glass’”. However, this should not lead us to think that the theory and practice of translation in ancient Rome was homogeneous. As with many other cultures where translation played a key role, there were competing perspectives and norms about translation in Roman times. The late antique authors, many of whom experimented with unusual poetic forms and techniques including the cento, have been until recently either undervalued and left in the shadow of classical authors or seen as the undeveloped forerunners of European literature. Such accounts have in general failed to realize the creative mediating function of these authors in the relationship between ancient and medieval literature, which involves continuity as well as rupture.

Centos and intertextuality There are several studies which explore centos within the framework of intertextuality (see especially Bažil, 2002; Verweyen & Witting, 1991). As probably the most extreme and structurally complex mode of intertextuality, cento came to the fore during the Middle Roman Empire (117– 305 CE), and it was added to many other intertextual modes and strategies that can be found in earlier Latin poets, including Vergil himself. Since influence and intertextuality in ancient literature is a vast topic on its own, I will here confine myself to a representative anecdote about the reception of Vergil’s use of Homeric material, recorded in the Suetonian vita of the poet: Asconius Pedianus, in a book which he wrote “Against the Detractors of Vergil,” sets forth a very few of the charges against him, and those for the most part dealing with history and with the accusation that he borrowed a great deal from Homer; but he says that Vergil used to meet this latter accusation with these words: “Why don’t my critics also attempt the same thefts? If they do, they will realize that it is easier to filch his club from Hercules than a line from Homer.” (Trans. Rolfe, 1914, p. 465) Roughly a generation later, another great poet, Ovid, reappropriated lines from eminent poets such as Vergil, not as an act of plagiarism, according to his friend, the orator Gallio, but as an overt borrowing that should be noticed. This information, which was recorded by Seneca the Elder,12 further indicates that even renowned poets such as Vergil and Ovid did not refrain from literary allusions and borrowings, and they considered them, on the contrary, part of their poetics. Indeed, the metaphor of “creative stealing” for the reuse of poetic material has been a recurring topos in Western culture.13 What is more striking, though, is its presence in Ottoman literature, for instance at the end (couplets 2078–2080) of Hüsn-ü Aşk [Beauty and Love] by the eighteenthcentury poet and mystic Şeyh Galip’s (see Gölpınarlı, 1940, p. 15): I found a new style in that buried vault I opened that cache and I spent it all 80

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I took its secrets from the Masnavi I stole, but I stole common property Endeavor to understand this yourself Find that precious pearl and steal it yourself. (Şeyh Galip, 2005, p. 202) I think that the authorial voice in these two examples, namely Vergil’s and Şeyh Galip’s responses to their detractors/critics, is strikingly similar, which further supports that to repurpose lines from illustrious poets of the past has not been an uncommon practice. However, the fact that centos consist almost entirely of borrowed material makes them unique. When we consider the cento as a mode of writing that uses larger units, that is half-lines instead of single words (Bright, 1984, p. 80), we are confronted with the problem of delineating the border between literary and ordinary language, a border whose existence has often been called into question by contemporary critical theorists (see Morgan, 1985; Rajan, 1991, p. 63; Semino & Steen, 2008). A poetic work is more than a sum of verbal expressions around a theme; it is an artwork with a unique perspective on even the most common human experience and condition. Therefore, to call the cento a game of reshuffling borrowed lines does not do justice to the contextual and intertextual dimensions of this literary art form. On the other hand, in late antiquity it probably was not seen merely as a form of intellectual vanity either. Contrary to their synthetic aspect, I consider late antique centos as the natural expression of the artistic quest to build a culture with multiple ethnic, political, and religious identities. I believe that a contemporary translation perspective is crucial in observing all these, even though centos, like the rest of ancient literature and its surrounding culture, are observable only through indirect and often fragmentary documents. While Ausonius, an overtly self-reflexive cento author, seems to consider his verbal art, with some poetic modesty no doubt, as far from being comparable to traditional forms of poetry in terms of value and use, he did not refrain from spotlighting the skilful playfulness he achieved. Unlike most ancient cento authors, many of his works in other poetic forms are extant. Therefore, one can hope to discover where this author placed centos in relation to other poetic forms. Even if his readers, and himself alike, did not regard the cento as literature per se, they may have cherished its artistic novelty. Indeed, regardless of which model is used for explaining change in art history, it seems difficult to claim that the pressure of novelty in art is of recent origin as once claimed (see Berlyne, 1971; cf. Martindale, 1986). We should yet remember that aesthetic conservatism is not a modern phenomenon either.

How do centos qualify as intralingual translation? The implications of defining centos as a mode of intralingual translation are twofold. Firstly, linguistic products that were not created from scratch, but borrowed and compositionally modified from canonical texts of the past in the same language, seem to have provided an unexpectedly convenient medium for cultural transfer, which can be studied fruitfully from the viewpoints of translation history, cultural translation, or other branches of translation studies. Secondly, from the viewpoint of literary history, considering centos as a form of intralingual translation can offer an interesting perspective where the seeming discontinuity between classical Latin poetry and its late antique counterpart can be alternatively explained as the inevitable alteration inherent in every act of translation. An intriguing aspect of considering centos from the perspective of intralingual translation is that the limitation of available signifiers (i.e., verse fragments from existing poems), which this 81

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form of writing requires, is itself a means for transferring meaning. It should be noted here that words not taken from canonical source texts; for Latin centos the three works of Vergil in general, seldom appear in centos. Their poet-translators appropriated this limited repertory of verse fragments instead of words or other lexical units for conveying meaning in thematically, structurally, and narratively different target texts. This is also a crucial aspect that separates the cento from other literary rewritings and qualifies it as a unique mode of intralingual translation. For the sole sake of understanding their basic mechanism, the combinations of these fragments (not necessarily syntagms) can be compared to the infinite combinations of the finite number of words that are used in communication. The original semantic and syntactic values of the words that constitute the fragments are preserved to varying degrees depending mainly on the combinations preferred by the poet-translators. The reason I call the centonists “poet-translators” is not that they both wrote poems and translated poems from or into other languages, but that the very nature of the cento required them to act as both a poet and as a translator. It seems that they, at least the ones we know by name, served as agents of change in late antiquity, during one of the great transformations of the West in terms of religion and politics, and that centos enabled them to bring Vergil, or versions of his works, to readers of later ages. To sum up, rather than coining new words or assigning new meanings to existing words, or creating new expressions by combining them freely, cento authors, as will be exemplified later, transform that limitation through a systematic type of intertextuality into a means to transfer, alter, or juxtapose meanings. An immediate example can be found in the well-known Cento Vergilianus de laudibus Christi [Vergilian Cento in Praise of Christ] by the fourth-century Christian poetess Faltonia Betitia Proba,14 in the section (307–312) where she retells the Deluge from Genesis (6:5 sqq.; 7:17, 21):15 Table 5.1 Lines 307–312 of Proba’s Cento Vergilianus Tum pater omnipotens ¦ graviter commotus ab alto aethere semittit: ¦ tellurem effundit in undas diluvio miscens caelumque in Tartara solvit. sternit agros, sternit sata laeta boumque labores diluit; inplentur fossae et cava flumina crescunt; et genus omne neci pecudum dedit, omne ferarum. (Ed. Lucarini & Fassina, 2015)

Aen. 7.770 etc. ¦ 1.126 (et) Aen. 9.645 ¦ 12.204 (effundat) Aen. 12.205 (solvat) Aen. 2.305 Aen. 1.326 Aen. 3.480

Then the almighty Father, deeply troubled launched himself, from the high heaven. He suffused the earth with water, mingling it with a flood and made the sky collapse into Tartarus. He covered the fields, covered the fertile orchards and washed away the work of oxen. Trenches filled up and the deep rivers swelled and all livestock species were handed over to death, and the wild animals. (Trans. Cullhed, 2015, p. 210)

Proba opens the section with the divine epithet of pater omnipotens (“the almighty father”, a well-known designation of the Christian God) taken from Vergil’s Georgics (2.325) or Aeneid (7.770 or 10.100),16 which originally describes the chief Roman god, Jupiter; continues with a half-line that reads in translation “greatly troubled, [looking out] from the deep”, originally referring to the powerful sea-god, Neptune (1.126), and ends the sentence with another half-line from Book 9 (645) of the epic to have: “Then the almighty father, greatly troubled launched himself from the high ether”. The adjective altus in late as in classical Latin has the opposite semes of “deep” and “high”. Proba seems to have used this polysemy to simultaneously evoke in the minds of her 82

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learned readers the pagan god, Neptune, who had the deep sea as his abode, and the Christian God, who resides in heaven. With the same mastery, she nullifies the meaning of “deep”, and hence the allusion to the pagan divinity, by setting a half line that begins with the word aether (ether), which is modified by the adjective altus of the previous line, and semantically modifies it in return from “deep” to “high” to confirm the adjective clause “high ether”. Since Proba was well versed in pagan Latin literature, this and similar instances are unlikely to be the accidental result of a merely linguistic and metrical bricolage.17 As an increasing number of studies show, this kind of semantic alteration was fundamental to the art of centonists (see, among others, Bažil, 2018; Fassina, 2006). These introductory remarks may illustrate why centos qualify as intralingual translation.18 However, if one draws on the highly elaborate taxonomy of Gottlieb (2018), it is impossible to find any category that covers centos even remotely, and the nearest option that one might consider seems to be the category of intralingual translation that is intrasemiotic and diachronic (I/b/ii), isosemiotic (II/a), adaptational (III/b), and verbal (IV/a), where “contemporary adaptation of ‘classic’ film” is given as an example. If the adaptation in the example were made by re-editing the images from certain classic movies, then centos could be considered in the same light, but obviously this is not the case. The ancient readers were definitely aware of the connection between centos and the canonical texts that provided their linguistic material. Therefore, centos cannot be thought of independently from the stylistic aspects and cultural contexts of their source texts, and the cultural context especially may be seen as the very dimension where translation is most obvious. Since the source and target culture in question represent different systems, namely classical Latin literature and its pagan world versus late Latin literature and its Christianizing world, and many of the linguistic entities acquire different meanings in their target culture, we are dealing with a very complicated case of translation where the form largely remains, and the content changes (see Figure 5.1). The peculiar case of centos may be instrumental in expanding the current definitions of intralingual translation towards more comprehensive frames that incorporate cultural theories to a larger extent. Furthermore, the evident self-reflexivity of some centos may offer some important insights about the diachronic types of intralingual translation in general.19 From the artistic perspective, the idea of “cumulative aesthetics” (Elsner, 2006) of late antiquity involves centos as well as the architectural reuse of spolia,20 in this case, pagan art works such as sculptures, reliefs, panels, and capitals, in new buildings of the henceforth Christian cities (Elsner, 2000, p. 176, 2006, p. 292). It should also be noted that the notion of originality at that time was different from both that of the earlier periods of antiquity and that of the Romantic era and beyond (Okáčová, 2009). This, I believe, further suggests that cultural theories of translation are well suited to study centos.

A close reading of centos The centos by Proba and Ausonius, and by the late Latin authors in general, reveal that in the field of literature intralingual translations do not always aim to clarify the source text and make its supposed meaning more accessible. As has been previously pointed out in some studies on late antique centos, representatives of this technique purposefully obscured the source texts by forcing their readers to perform an exegetical reading (see Pollmann, 2017, p. 117; Tissi, 2020, pp. 284–295). While this process of obscuration might appear at odds with the common strategy of explicitation in intralingual translation, it can also be seen as a key for indirectly introducing new readers to an otherwise unfavourable culture and literary tradition. Thus, I argue that the reorganization and recontextualization of the literary source text (usually more than one in Vergilian centos), for culturally distant readers of roughly the same language, 83

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Figure 5.1 Basic schema of translation types and threefold levels of source/target differentiation in Proba’s cento

can qualify as translation (see Pavlovskis, 1989, p. 75), and specifically as intralingual translation. Nevertheless, cento authors seem to have been more concerned with manipulating source texts for a wide variety of purposes rather than simply with transferring them literally into the target system. From another perspective, however, owing to this technique of literary collage, which enabled them to convert Vergil into a poet of late antiquity, the centonists could deliberately bridge the gap between the Augustan poet and fourth-century Latin readers (Conte, 1994, p. 662; Pavlovskis, 84

Vergilian centos from the perspective of translation Table 5.2 A selection of parallel motifs in Vergil and Proba Vergilian context of the verse fragments

Target context in proba

Motif

Giant sea serpents kill the priest who warned the Trojans against the wooden horse (Aen. II); the fury Alecto sends a serpent to enrage Amata (Aen. VII) Queen Dido’s story and her deception by the hero Aeneas (Aen. IV) Failure of a hive (G. IV) Prophetess Sibyl describes the punishment of impious figures in the netherworld (Aen. VI) Mercury with winged feet, the messenger of gods (Aen. IV)

Temptation of the serpent

Serpent as the symbol of evil

Eve’s deception

Deception of a potent woman Global destruction of life Punishment of impiety

Great Flood Jesus’s Sermon on the Mount about righteous living Jesus’s ascension into Heaven

Divine messenger

1989, pp. 72–73). As the target text is a collage or remix of the source texts,21 and it is not required to retain the semantic content of the originals, what then has been transferred exactly? My first answer to this would be a myriad of cultural symbols (see Table 5.2), such as the divine power of founding cities and civilizations endowed to humans, which in Proba’s religious cento was transferred from Aeneas to Jesus (see Clark & Hatch, 1981a).22 Elements of verbal and conceptual artistry as well can be transferred through cento, albeit in a fragmented form. In the case of Vergilian centos, the three works by Vergil (first century BCE), which were already canonized at that time (from the second century CE onwards), were known above all to the elite readership through their formal education (Marrou, 1964, pp. 444–446). However, the reception of these works, as well as the figure of Vergil, was significantly influenced by the cultural context of late antiquity and the emerging Christian worldviews. All these should be considered against the background of the larger framework of the Christianization of Rome, during which fierce debates took place regarding the question as to whether, and to what extent, authors and works of the pagan past should be included in the Christian curriculum. If the works of Vergil could maintain their place, this did not happen without some resistance to their pagan features such as polytheistic cults and myths, or some parodies of their canonicity.23 In that period, the social and economic scars of the military power struggles, which spanned a large part of the third century, were still raw, the religious tension between Christians and pagans was escalating, and the threat of Germanic invasions had become more worrying. During such a time of instability and radical change, Christianity, despite its own internal conflicts, appears to have played a unifying and revitalizing role in the late Roman world. However, the literary and artistic resources of this new era, especially in the West, were far from being adequate to compete with their earlier counterparts, and this holds true for poetry as well. This is one of the reasons why centos appeared. The rare instances where the same verse fragment is used in different centos are particularly illustrative. A striking example is found in Proba and Ausonius (see Pollmann, 2017, p. 118; Ziolkowski & Putnam, 2008, p. 479): The Vergilian fragment pedibus per mutua nexis (Aen. 7.66), describes the sudden appearance of a swarm of bees “with mutually intertwined feet”, as an omen of the coming of the mythic hero Aeneas and his men, the future founders of Rome. The expression per mutua (mutually), which mildly humanizes here the organizational skills of bees, may have inspired both centonists to introduce human agents instead. In line with the theme of salvation of her Christian cento, Proba redeployed the fragment to portray Jesus’s crucifixion (Matthew 26:27, 27:29; Mark 15:19 sqq.; Luke 23:33; John 19:18), specifically the nailing of his feet (v. 618): 85

Ekin Öyken Table 5.3 Lines 613–620 of Proba’s Cento Vergilianus Tum vero ¦ raptis concurrunt undique telis;

corripuere sacram effigiem manibusque cruentis

Aen. 4.571 etc. ¦ 7.520 Aen. 11.745 ¦ 12.462 etc. Aen. 2.167

ingentem quercum, decisis undique ramis,

Aen. 11.5

constituunt ¦ spirisque ligant ingentibus ¦ ipsum, tendebantque manus ¦ pedibus per mutua nexis,

Aen. 6.217 ¦ 2.217 ¦ 2.190 etc. Aen. 6.314 ¦ 7.66

triste ministerium, ¦ sequitur quos cetera pubes,

Aen. 6.223 ¦ 5.74

ausi omnes inmane nefas ausoque potiti.

Aen. 6.624

tollitur in caelum clamor cunctique ¦ repente

(Ed. Lucarini & Fassina, 2015)

Then they came running from all directions with drawn weapons. They raised their cry to the skies and suddenly everyone seized the holy figure. With their bloody hands they put up a large oak tree with cut branches, tied him with huge twisted bands, and stretched out his hands and pressed his feet together —a terrible undertaking—and the other young men followed them. All dared an atrocious sin and enjoyed what they dared. (Trans. Cullhed, 2015, p. 227)

Per mutua is semantically shifted there from reciprocity to physical alignment (of the feet). Likewise, the meaning of the word nexis, which is the past participle form of the verb nectere, is changed from “intertwined” to “pressed/fastened”. Ausonius on the other hand, in his obscene Cento nuptialis, uses the same fragment to depict the entwined limbs of lovers during sexual intercourse (v. 107). Table 5.4 Lines 101–109 of Ausonius’s Cento nuptialis Once they came together, in the shadows of lonely night, et mentem Venus ipsa dedit, ¦ nova proelia temptant. and Venus herself inspired them; they wage afresh the fight. tollit se arrectum, ¦ conantem plurima frustra He raises himself erect; of one who resists in vain occupat os faciemque, ¦ pedem pede fervidus urget. he attacks the mouth and face, proceeds fiercely step after step, perfidus alta petens ¦ ramum, qui veste latebat, treacherously steering for the deep, the rod within his garment, sanguineis ebuli bacis minioque rubentem with elderberries scarlet and with dye made ruddy, nudato capite ¦ et pedibus per mutua nexis, Aen. 12.312 ¦ its head left bare, as their legs together entwined, 7.66 monstrum horrendum, informe, ingens, cui lumen ademptum, Aen. 3.658 a ghastly, shocking monster, huge, no sight in its single eye, eripit a femore et trepidanti fervidus instat. he draws forth from his flank and eagerly presses as shequivers. (Ed. Green, 1991) (Trans. Evelyn-White, 1919, p. 387–389) Postquam congressi ¦ sola sub nocte per umbram

Aen. 9.631 ¦ 6.268 G. 3.267 ¦ Aen. 3.240 Aen. 10.892 ¦ 9.398 Aen. 10.699 ¦ 12.748 Aen. 7.362 ¦ 6.406 Ecl. 10.27

While the meaning of reciprocity of the expression per mutua and the original sense of the word nexis are preserved here, the agents are lustful lovers instead of industrious bees. While both 86

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centonists excluded the pagan prophetic background of the source section, Proba preserved its epic touch, as she did in the rest of her cento, though transferring it to the suffering of Christ. By contrast, Ausonius ridiculed here as elsewhere in his work that epic touch, by reusing its linguistic remnants in an obscene context. Close readings of this kind, however, can only partially enlighten the semantic shifts imposed in centos. It may be useful then to analyse them as having more than one layer, and, as Pollmann suggests (2017, p. 103), their division into micro and macro semantic shifts seems convenient. Thus, in the previous example about the “fixation of feet”, the variance of bees or humans can be considered as a micro semantic shift, while the change from the Roman omen and its cultural setting to the Crucifixion and its Christian framework or to the erotic scene with military overtones are at the macro level, which better reflects translation strategies.

Multimodality and intralingual translation in the case of centos As has been emphasized by Panofsky (1939, pp. 18–31), Rüpke (2014, pp. 255–269), and Elsner (2006) among others, in multicultural late antique Rome, there were intense interactions within the fields of literature and the visual arts between newly developing Christian elements and the traditional constituents of ancient polytheism. The fourth century CE was for the Latin world a distinctive period with a lasting effect, where the pagan and Christian cultures existed side by side and visuality, allegory, and above all intertextuality came to the fore in literature and culture in general. Hence, it is not surprising that arguably the most impressive examples of the cento appeared at that time. The complexity of the visual culture of the period seems to have played a Table 5.5 The anonymous cento De panificio [On bread-making] from the Anthologia Latina Ipse manu patiens ¦ immensa uolumina uersat adtollitque globos. ¦ Sonuerunt omnia plausu. Tum Cererem corruptam undis ¦ emittit ab alto. Septem ingens gyros, septena uolumina traxit, lubrica conuoluens ¦ et torrida semper ab igni. At rubicunda Ceres ¦ oleo perfusa nitescit. Scintillae absistunt, ¦ opere omnis semita feruet. Feruet opus redoletque, ¦ uolat uapor ater ad auras. Instant ardentes ¦ ueribusque trementia figunt, conclamant rapiuntque focis ¦ onerantque canistris. Vndique conueniunt ¦ pueri innuptaeque puellae. (Ed. Salanitro, 2009)

Aen. 7.143 (quatiens) ¦ 5.408 Aen. 3.574 ¦ 5.506 Aen. 1.177 ¦ 1.297 (demittit) Aen. 5.85 Aen. 2.474 (conuoluit) ¦ G. 1.234 G. 1.297 ¦ Aen. 5.135 Aen. 12.102 ¦ 4.407 G. 4.169 = Aen. 1.436 (redolentque) ¦ 7.466 Aen. 1.423 ¦ 1.212 Aen. 5.660 ¦ 8.180 Aen.5.293 = 9.720 ¦ 6.307 = G. 4.476

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He himself, with his hand, patiently rolls huge volumes, then moulds them into balls. Everything resounds with the slap of his hands. Then he lets Ceres fall again, mixed with water. He pulls seven huge circles, seven smooth volumes by rolling, and the fire dries them unceasingly. But then Ceres, bathed in oil, takes on a reddish glow. Sparks fly, the mouth of the kiln is boiling during the work. The product itself is effervescent and smells good; a thick vapor rises. People gather excitedly and they skewer the still trembling loaves. With loud shouts, they snatch from the hearths and load them into baskets. Young boys and unmarried girls rush in from all directions. (my translation)

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significant role in the emergence of this unique type of intralingual translation, in which the differentiation between source and target texts is minimal at the surface textual level, (i.e., verbal forms), while being more apparent at the semantic level, and fully manifest at the contextual one. This is because half-lines taken from Vergil, in addition to their linguistic meaning, must have functioned for most readers as triggers that evoked mental representations of some mythological artworks to which they were constantly exposed in almost all spheres of daily life. Indeed, myriads of painted and sculpted objects ranging from walls, sarcophagi, and monuments to vases, furniture, and various personal items with figures and scenes from the visual repertoire of pagan mythology continued to be created or repurposed in late antiquity. For instance, although statues of gods and goddesses that were used in worship were banned by the Theodosian Code (438 CE), other pagan sculptures were generally tolerated in public and private spheres (Bright, 2016; Kristensen, 2013, p. 27). In some cases, pagan and Christian iconographies were intermingled to such an extent that a Moses dressed as a Roman magistrate was not considered inappropriate for a funerary painting. Even in centos that seem only remotely mythological one can find some remnants of this pagan imagery (see Clément-Tarantino, 2013), though isolated in a lexical element, such as the word Ceres in the cento on bread making from the collection of Anthologia Latina. Ceres is the name of the Roman Goddess of agriculture and fertility, and the word also means “bread”. Some commentators (Galli, 2013, for instance) see in this short cento a humorous combination of solemn and playful themes such as the fireballs thrown from Etna during its eruption compared to the balls of dough turned reddish when baked. This is where the ludic aspect of centos comes to the fore. In his explanation of cento poetry, Ausonius compares centos to a tangram-like, 14-piece puzzle called ostomákhion. This helps us to understand the ludic and entertainment dimension of centos (Evelyn-White, 1919, pp. 395–397; see Pollmann, 2017, p. 102, n. 15). Ausonius’s comparison between the cento and this puzzle game brings to mind Goethe’s saying, “Only from intimately connected seriousness and play can true art arise”.24 Without intending to discuss the artistic value of cento technique, I want to emphasize that the ludic element is intrinsically and historically related to the notion of intralingual translation. A 150-million-year-old fish fossil with a dated (1543) inscription of a passage from Proba’s Cento Vergilianus (see Figure 5.2), which was brought from a castle in the Tyrol during the Napoleonic Wars, is part of the permanent collection of the Natural History Museum in Vienna, and according to experts it is “among the oldest artefacts documenting the correct interpretation of a fossil as a formerly living animal” (Harzhauser & Kroh, 2018, p. 514).25 As the verses are about the Flood and extinction, the fish fossil constitutes a striking multimodal hypertext. The Flood was a critical matter of dispute between biblical and natural history in the early modern era (see Dean, 1985). A cento passage on it (the same one I quoted at the beginning), which can be seen as a case of intralingual translation, is intersemiotically translated here through a visual language. The semantic continuity between the pagan god of sea Neptune, the Biblical Flood, and the fish fossil provides a striking intertextuality that elaborates the concept of sea as a major natural force in human life. One of the most exciting questions that appears here is whether the person who commissioned those lines to be inscribed on that slab was aware of cento poetry and the identity of the author of this very section. Although the sketchy museum record and uncritical accounts of some recent histories of palaeontology keep referring to that cento section as anonymous (Harzhauser & Kroh, 2018, p. 514), we know that Proba was as popular a figure in the early modern period as she was during the medieval era.26 Whoever chose it may have thought that the fish died during the Flood, if s(he) was considering the Biblical account as historical. 88

Vergilian centos from the perspective of translation

Figure 5.2 Limestone slab with a fossilized fish and lines 307–312 of Proba’s Cento Vergilianus

I think that a very creative analogy was drawn between the petrified remains of a living organism and the centonized fragments of Vergilian poetry, in that, to identify the fish in the fossil, a herring, is as difficult for unfamiliar eyes as to identify Vergilian sections in the cento for a reader unfamiliar with Vergilian texts.

Conclusion I believe that scholars of social sciences and humanities may have long assigned overwhelmingly static conceptual meanings to the Latin prefixes inter-, intra-, and trans- in terminologies, and that this may have contributed to or resulted from over-categorization about linguistic and cultural phenomena. As the often cited but still contradictory Jakobsonian typology of translation suggests, the definitions of intra- and interlingual translation seem to be no exception, and this is more than a problem of labelling or etymology.27 One of the things that systemic approaches have taught us is that cultures and languages are in constant flux, and none of them are homogenous. This is crucial when it comes to literature, even more so to experimental literature. Centos, however, can give us valuable insights into the non-stationary boundaries of meaning, signification, and representation, hence of languages and cultures. I think that the difficulty of attributing the cento to any of the existing categories of translation can be instrumental in balancing questions about where translation occurs and those about how it occurs. 89

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Notes 1 There are a few earlier examples written during the Early and Middle Empire such as the Medea of Hosidius Geta (second century CE), the longest and one of the earliest extant specimens of Vergilian centos (Pelttari, 2014, pp. 96–97; Rondholz, 2012, p. 94). 2 The length of the half-lines depends on the position of caesurae (word endings) in the original lines. Ausonius gives a list of possible lengths. 3 “The setting of a new text to an existing melody” (O’Sullivan, 2010, p. 1478). This is, indeed, comparable to cento, which is the setting of new meanings to an existing text. Pavlovskis (1989, pp. 70, 77, n. 26) draws interesting analogies between musical works that range from Handel’s Messiah (which is a kind of cento based on the King James Bible) to John Cage and Latin centos, especially Proba’s. 4 Centos continued to be written during the Middle Ages and modern times especially in the Renaissance and Victorian eras, although they fell into disfavour during the Romantic period (for an extensive but not exhaustive collection of centos up until mid-nineteenth century see Delepierre, 1874, 1875). While centos are occasionally written today (for a contemporary collection of centos in English see Welford, 2011; see also Pavlovskis, 1989, p. 77, n. 26), some scholars identify the legacy of cento in the present-day fanzine art (see Saint-Amour, 2003, p. 242, n. 58). 5 For a comprehensive survey of the ancient Latin centos, one may refer to Bright, 1984. Many of the ancient Latin centos, excluding the ones by Proba and Ausonius, are transmitted in an early medieval manuscript which is known as Codex Salmasianus and held in the National Library of France (Codex Parisinus Latinus 10318). This is the principal witness to the collection of mostly short Latin poems – of chiefly North African origin – known as Anthologia Latina (7–18 are centos), whose standard edition is (Riese, 1906). 6 There are some centos that draw on other authors such as Euripides (see Pollmann, 1997) and Ovid (a short example titled De aetate is preserved in the Anthologia Latina, 269, Riese, 1906 [1894]). The main difference between the poetic terms of “collage” and “cento” is that the latter can be composed only with lines from canonical poems, while any source text can be used for the former. 7 For an excellent historical outline of the reception of ancient centos see Bažil (2002, pp. 3–23). 8 Apart from the obviously negative reception of this composition/transfer technique, some less normative but terminologically biased accounts of cento seem to struggle to find proper terms to describe it. The label of “parasitic genre” for instance is another term of this kind (see Tucker, 2009, p. 331; on the negative connotation of this term in linguistic and literary domain see Gullestad, 2011, p. 302 ff.). 9 One should be cautious with the designation “Greek” or “Latin” for ancient authors because these identities were interwoven and complex. I use them here to distinguish the language of their literary output. Indeed, some late antique authors wrote in both languages. 10 Livius Andronicus (c. 280/260–c. 200 BCE) is a proverbial example. Brought to Rome as a war prisoner and charged with the education of his noble master’s children, he translated Greek works including Homer’s Odyssey into Latin and wrote dramas as well, and his translations have been considered the beginning of Latin literature. It is intriguing that the first works of this influential literary tradition were written by a native Greek speaker for whom Latin was a second language. Azra Erhat, a member of the first generation of classicists in Türkiye, also an essayist and translator of Greek classics, wrote a short but insightful Turkish article (1940) on this from the perspective of translation history; one can notice in it a silent comparison of the Roman and modern Turkish attitudes in the face of a dominant culture (see Berk Albachten, 2019, p. 99). 11 This can also be observed in the general strategies of ancient Latin terminologies for which the Greek terminologies had become both a model and a rival. 12 Suasoriae, 3.7, 23–4 (Håkanson, 1989) reads: “non subripiendi causa sed palam mutuandi, hoc animo ut vellet agnosci” [not in order to steal but openly borrow as he intended them to be recognized]. 13 The following remarks of Eliot revived this topos in the twentieth century: Immature poets imitate; mature poets steal; bad poets deface what they take, and good poets make it into something better, or at least something different. The good poet welds his theft into a whole of feeling which is unique, utterly different from that from which it was torn; the bad poet throws it into something which has no cohesion. A good poet will usually borrow from authors remote in time, or alien in language, or diverse in interest. (Eliot, 1999, p. 206)

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Vergilian centos from the perspective of translation 14 One may be surprised to learn that “there are more manuscripts and editions of the Cento [by Proba] than any other single work by a pre-modern woman” (Stevenson, 2005, p. 69), see also Ermini (1909, pp. 63–65). 15 I think that interlingual translation of centos is subject to similar difficulties as intertextual translation because it requires to consider the contexts of both the borrowed verses and the cento passages where they are used (see Clark & Hatch, 1981b, pp. 8–9; on intertextual translation see Venuti, 2013). 16 See Schenkl (1888) for the information about the location of Vergilian verse fragments used in this cento, as well as for the references of related Bible passages. 17 The view that Vergilian centonists chose their material meticulously has been further supported by quantitative studies (see especially Vidal, 1973). 18 Some Christian centos, especially the one by Proba, which is a retelling of the sections from Greek Bible, are at the same time interlingual translation, see Figure 5.1. 19 The dedicatory letter of Ausonius’s Cento nuptialis [Wedding Cento] comes first to mind (1–23, Green, 1991). For the self-reflexivity of centos see Hinds, 2014. 20 Spolia, or spoils, are architectural fragments that are taken out of original context and reused in a different context. 21 For the relation between cento and the concept of remix in art, see Frosio (2021). 22 Though the Jesus depicted by Proba differs from the biblical one in being irascible (see Opelt, 1964, pp. 106–116). 23 For a detailed survey of the legacy of Vergil’s works see Ziolkowski and Putnam (2008, p. 469 ff). 24 “Nur aus innig verbundenem Ernst und Spiel kann wahre Kunst entspringen” (Goethe, 1981, p. 96). 25 Previous explanations of fossils during the early modern period were mostly based on the Neoplatonic interpretation of the concept of universal sympathy, according to which “the stones that resembled animals and plants could owe those resemblances to their bonds of affinity with various organisms, and not to their origin as the remains of those organisms”, as Rudwick (1985, p. 19) aptly put it. 26 For the early modern reception of ancient centos see Bažil, 2002, p. 5; García, 1999; Hoch, 1997; Tucker, 2013. For women poets in late antiquity see Stevenson, 2005. 27 To put it differently, the problem seems to lie more in the way we categorize linguistic transfer than in finding better alternatives to the term “intralingual translation” (cf. Mossop, 2016 who proposes “cislation”).

Further reading On the history and etymology of the term cento: Belardi, W. (1958). Nomi del centone nelle lingue indoeuropee. Ricerche Linguistiche, 4, 29–57. Kunzmann, F., & Hoch, C. (1994). Cento. In G. Ueding (Ed.), Historisches Wörterbuch der Rhetorik, Band 2: Bie-Eul (pp. 148–157). Max Niemeyer. On centos in general: Garambois-Vasquez, F., & Vallat, D. (Eds.). (2017). “Varium et mutabile”: mémoires et métamorphoses du centon dans l’Antiquité. Publications de l’Université de Saint-Étienne. On intertextuality in centos: Mastrangelo, M. (2016). Towards a poetics of Late Latin Reuse. In S. McGill & J. Pucci (Eds.), Classics renewed. Reception and innovation in the Latin Poetry of late antiquity (pp. 25–46). Universitätsverlag Winter.

Reference list Bažil, M. (2002). “De alieno nostrum”: les centons de l’Antiquité tardive et la théorie de l’intertextualité. Listy Filologické = Folia Philologica, 125(1–2), 1–32. Bažil, M. (2018). Sensus diversi ut congruant. Semantische Kontext-strategien in den spätantiken Vergilcentonen. In U. Tischer, A. Forst, & U. Gärtner (Eds.), Text, Kontext, Kontextualisierung: Moderne Kontext­ konzepte und antike Literatur (pp. 295–317). Georg Olms. Berk Albachten, Ö. (2019). Mavi Anadolu sevdalısı bir çevirmen: Azra Erhat. In Ş. Tahir Gürçağlar (Ed.), Kelimelerin kıyısında: Türkiye’de kadın çevirmenler (pp. 86–115). İthaki. Berlyne, D. E. (1971). Aesthetics and psychobiology. Appleton-Century-Crofts.

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Ekin Öyken Bright, D. F. (1984). The theory and practice in the Vergilian cento. Illinois Classical Studies, IX, 79–90. Bright, D. F. (2016). Carolingian hypertext: Visual and textual structures in Hrabanus Maurus, in honorem Sanctae Crucis. In S. McGill (Ed.), Classics renewed. Reception and innovation in the Latin poetry of late antiquity (pp. 355–384). Universitätsverlag Winter. Brown, P. (1971). The world of late antiquity. From Marcus Aurelius to Muhammad. Thames and Hudson. Cameron, A. (2011). The last pagans of Rome. Oxford University Press. Clark, E. A., & Hatch, D. F. (1981a). Jesus as hero in the Vergilian “Cento” of Faltonia Betitia Proba. Ver­ gilius, 27, 31–39. Clark, E. A., & Hatch, D. F. (1981b). The golden bough, the oaken cross. The Virgilian cento of Faltonia Betitia Proba. Scholars Press. Clément-Tarantino, S. (2013). La “cuisine” de Virgile: à propos du centon virgilien “De panificio”. Dictynna: Revue de poétique latine, 10. http://dictynna.revues.org/1014 Conte, G. B. (1994). Latin literature: A history. Johns Hopkins University Press. Conte, G. B., & Most, G. W. (2012). Imitatio. In S. Hornblower, A. Spawforth, & E. Eidinow (Eds.), The Oxford classical dictionary (4th ed., pp. 727–728). Oxford University Press. Cullhed, S. S. (2015). Proba the prophet. The Christian Virgilian cento of Faltonia Betitia Proba. Brill. Dean, D. R. (1985). The rise and fall of the Deluge. Journal of Geological Education, 33(2), 84–93. Delepierre, O. (1874). Tableau de la littérature du centon. Chez les anciens et chez les modernes. Tome pre­ mier. Trübner. Delepierre, O. (1875). Tableau de la littérature du centon. Chez les anciens et chez les modernes. Tome deux­ ième. Trübner. Eliot, T. S. (1999). Selected essays. Faber and Faber. Elsner, J. (2000). From the culture of spolia to the cult of relics: The Arch of Constantine and the genesis of Late Antique forms. Papers of the British School at Rome, 68, 149–184. Elsner, J. (2006). Late antique art: The problem of the concept and the cumulative aesthetic. In S. Swain & M. Edwards (Eds.), Approaching late antiquity: The transformation from early to late empire (pp. 271–309). Oxford University Press. Erhat, A. (1940). Latince ilk edebi eser bir tercümedir [The first Latin literary work is a translation]. Tercüme, 1(3), 270–274. Ermini, F. (1909). Il Centone di Proba e la poesia centonaria latina. Loescher. Evelyn-White, H. G. (Ed.). (1919). Ausonius (Vol. 1). William Heinemann. Fassina, A. (2006). Alterazioni semantiche ed espedienti compositivi nel “Cento Probae”. In L. Cristante (Ed.), Incontri triestini di filologia classica 5: 2005–2006 (pp. 261–272). EUT. Frosio, G. (2021). A brief history of remix. From caves to networks. In E. Navas, O. Gallagher, & X. Burrough (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of remix studies and digital humanities (pp. 19–35). Routledge. Galli, M. T. (2013). Il centone virgiliano ‹De panificio› (AL 7 Riese): una proposta interpretativa. Materiali e Discussioni per l’analisi Dei Testi Classici, 71, 241–251. Garcı́a, L. P. (1999). Pervivencia del centón en el Renacimiento: Cento ex Virgilio Gallus de Lelio Capilupi. Cuadernos de Filologı́a Clásica. Estudios Latinos, 16, 363–412. Goethe, J. W. von. (1981). Goethes Werke/12, Schriften zur Kunst. Schriften zur Literatur. Beck. Gölpınarlı, A. (Ed.). (1940). Fuzuli. Sıhhat ve maraz [Fuzuli. Health and disease]. Istanbul Üniversitesi Tıb Tarihi Enstitüsü. González, J. M. (2013). The epic rhapsode and his craft: Homeric performance in a diachronic perspective. Centre for Hellenic Studies. https://chs.harvard.edu/book/gonzalez-jose-the-epic-rhapsode-and-his-crafthomeric-performance-in-a-diachronic-perspective/ Gottlieb, H. (2018). Semiotics and translation. In The Routledge handbook of translation studies and linguis­ tics (pp. 45–63). Routledge. Green, R. P. H. (Ed.). (1991). The works of Ausonius. Clarendon Press. Gullestad, A. M. (2011). Literature and the parasite. Deleuze Studies, 5(3), 301–323. Håkanson, L. (Ed.). (1989). Lucius Annaeus Seneca. Oratorum et rhetorum sententiae, divisiones, colores. B. G. Teubner. Harzhauser, M., & Kroh, A. (2018). WIEN: “To the realm of nature and its exploration”: The paleontological collections of the Natural History Museum Vienna. In L. A. Beck & U. Joger (Eds.), Paleontological collections of Germany, Austria and Switzerland: The history of life of fossil organisms at museums and universities (pp. 513–523). Springer.

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Vergilian centos from the perspective of translation Hermans, T. (2002). Paradoxes and aporias in translational and translation studies. In A. Riccardi (Ed.), Translation studies. Perspectives on an emerging discipline (pp. 10–23). Cambridge University Press. Hinds, S. (2014). The self-conscious cento. In M. Formisano, T. Fuhrer & A.-L. Stock (Eds.), Décadence: “Decline and fall” or “other antiquity”? (pp. 171–197). Universitätsverlag Winter. Hoch, C. (1997). Apollo Centonarius. Studien und Texte zur Centodichtung der italienischen Renaissance. Stauffenburg. Hose, M. (2004). Poesie aus der Schule: Überlegungen zur spätgriechischen Dichtung. Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, C.H. Beck. Jensson, G. (2003). The Satyrica of Petronius as a Roman palimpsest. Ancient Narrative, 2, 86–122. Kristensen, T. M. (2013). Making and breaking the gods: Christian responses to pagan sculpture in late an­ tiquity. Aarhus University Press. Lucarini, C. M., & Fassina, A. (2015). Faltonia Betitia Proba. Cento Vergilianus. De Gruyter. Marrou, H.-I. (1964). Histoire de l’éducation dans l’Antiquité (6th ed.). Éditions du Seuil. Martindale, C. (1986). Aesthetic evolution. Poetics, 15(4–6), 439–473. McElduff, S. (2013). Roman theories of translation. Surpassing the source. Routledge. McGill, S. (2005). Virgil recomposed. The mythological and secular centos in antiquity. Oxford University Press. McGill, S., & Pucci, J. (2016). Introduction. In S. McGill & J. Pucci (Eds.), Classics renewed. Reception and innovation in the Latin poetry of late antiquity (pp. 13–23). Universitätsverlag Winter. Morgan, T. E. (1985). Is there an intertext in this text? Literary and interdisciplinary approaches to intertextuality. The American Journal of Semiotics, 3(4), 1–40. Mossop, B. (2016). “Intralingual translation”: A desirable concept? Across Languages and Cultures, 17(1), 1–24. O’Sullivan, D. E. (2010). Contrafacture. In A. Classen (Ed.), Handbook of Medieval studies. Terms – methods – trends (Vol. 1, pp. 1478–1481). De Gruyter. Okáčová, M. (2009). Centones: Recycled art or the embodiment of absolute intertextuality? www.kakanienrevisited.at/beitr/graeca_latina/mokacova1.pdf Opelt, I. (1964). Der zürnende Christus im Cento der Proba. Jahrbuch Für Antike Und Christentum, 7, 106–116. Panofsky, E. (1939). Studies in iconology: Humanistic themes in the art of the Renaissance. Oxford University Press. Pavlovskis, Z. (1989). Proba and the semiotics of the narrative Virgilian Cento. Vergilius, 35, 70–84. Pelttari, A. (2014). The space that remains. Reading Latin poetry in late antiquity. Cornell University Press. Pollmann, K. (1997). Jesus Christus und Dionysos: Überlegungen zu dem Euripides-Cento Christus Patiens. Jahrbuch Der Österreichischen Byzantinistik, 47, 87–106. Pollmann, K. (2017). The baptized muse. Early Christian poetry as cultural authority. Oxford University Press. Rajan, T. (1991). Intertextuality and the subject of reading/writing. In J. Clayton & E. Rothstein (Eds.), Influ­ ence and intertextuality in literary history (pp. 61–74). University of Wisconsin Press. Riese, A. (Ed.). (1906). Anthologia latina sive Poesis Latinae supplementum. I/1 (2nd ed.). In aedibus B. G. Teubneri. Rolfe, J. C. (Trans.). (1914). Suetonius. Volume II. Lives of the Caesars (Books V––VIII). Lives of illustrious men. Harvard University Press. Rondholz, A. (2012). The versatile needle. Hosidius Geta’s cento “Medea” and its tradition. De Gruyter. Rudwick, M. J. S. (1985). The meaning of fossils: Episodes in the history of palaeontology. University of Chicago Press. Russell, D. A. (1979). De imitatione. In D. West & T. Woodman (Eds.), Creative imitation and Latin literature (pp. 1–16). Cambridge University Press. Rüpke, J. (2014). From Jupiter to Christ. On the history of religion in the Roman imperial period (D. M. B. Richardson, Trans.). Oxford University Press. Saint-Amour, P. K. (2003). The copywrights. Intellectual property and the literary imagination. Cornell University Press. Salanitro, G. (Ed.). (2009). Silloge dei Vergiliocentones minori. Bonanno. Schenkl, C. (Ed.). (1888). Probae Cento. F. Tempsky. Semino, E., & Steen, G. (2008). Metaphor in literature. In R. W. Gibbs (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of metaphor and thought (pp. 232–246). Cambridge University Press.

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Ekin Öyken Stevenson, J. (2005). Women and Latin poetry in late antiquity. In Women Latin poets. Language, gender, and authority from antiquity to the eighteenth century (pp. 59–82). Oxford University Press. Şeyh Galip. (2005). Beauty and love (V. R. Holbrook, Trans.). Modern Language Association of America [first written in the 18th century]. Tissi, L. M. (2020). The “poetics of enigma” as a cultural manifesto in late antique proems (fourth-sixth century AD): Some case studies. In J. Hernández Lobato & O. Prieto Domínguez (Eds.), Literature squared self-reflexivity in late antique literature (pp. 277–307). Brepols. Tucker, G. H. (2009). Érotisme, parodie, et l’art du centon dans le Gallus (1543; Centones ex Virgili, 1555) de Lelio Capilupi. In D. Sacré & J. Papy (Eds.), Syntagmatia. Essays on neo-Latin literature in honour of Monique Mund-Dopchie and Gilbert Tournoy (pp. 329–343). Leuven University Press. Tucker, G. H. (2013). From rags to riches. The early modern “cento” form. Humanistica Lovaniensia, 62, 3–67. Welford, T. (Ed.). (2011). The cento. A collection of collage poems. Red Hen Press. Venuti, L. (2013). Translation, intertextuality, interpretation. Romance Studies, 27(3), 157–173. Verweyen, T., & Witting, G. (1991). The cento. A form of intertextuality from montage to parody. In H. F. Plett (Ed.), Intertextuality (pp. 165–178). Walter de Gruyter. Vidal, J.-L. (1973). Observaciones sobre centones virgilianos de tema cristiano: La creación de una poesía cristiana culta. Boletín Del Instituto de Estudios Helénicos, 7(2), 53–64. West, M. L. (2001). Studies in the text and transmission of the Iliad. De Gruyter. Ziolkowski, J. M., & Putnam, M. C. J. (Eds.). (2008). The Virgilian tradition. The first fifteen hundred years. Yale University Press.

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6 HOMER INTO GREEK Intralingual translation in Greco-Roman antiquity Massimo Cè

Introduction This chapter pursues the double aim of presenting an overview of one of the earliest documented instances of intralingual translation – the practice of rendering the Homeric epics into different forms of ancient Greek – and situating this translational practice in the context of ancient Greek discourses of intralingual translation in general. The issues of intralingual translation and Homeric reception were intimately connected in the ancient Greek tradition. By virtue of their antiquity and monumentality, the IIiad and Odyssey assumed the principal position in the Greek literary canon early on, which in turn made them a privileged target for scholarly, philosophical, and artistic practices of all types. In the realm of critical and literary reception, the Homeric epics would inform – and transform – conceptions of textuality, just as they would shape ancient Greek (and, later, Roman) views on politics, gender, and religion. Consequently, frameworks for intralingually translating Homer, which first appeared in embryonic form in the late seventh century BCE and, in subsequent centuries, were further developed in response to perceived patterns of synonymy and self-paraphrase in the epics themselves, came to serve as an exemplar for the intralingual (and, eventually, interlingual) translation of other authors and texts. Ancient Greek rewritings of the Iliad and Odyssey are attested from ca. 625 BCE, approximately within a century of the epics’ original composition, and continue to be found throughout classical antiquity. We have no direct knowledge of a translation of the entirety of either of the two epics and given the monumental size of the Homeric poems – counting over 27,000 lines of dactylic hexameter – probably none was ever attempted. There existed, however, a vast and diverse corpus of materials that provides us with numerous partial and abridged versions of the Homeric epics in ancient Greek. Preserved on ancient writing surfaces, such as stone and papyrus, as well as through the medieval manuscript tradition, these materials range from poetic rewritings and glossographic and lexicographic sources to rhetorical and grammatical paraphrases and narrative epitomes. The motivation for translating Homer into ancient Greek was at first predominantly practical in nature but soon acquired a forceful cultural and even political dimension as well. Characterized by a unique admixture of dialectal, historical, and artificial elements, the language of the Homeric epics must have struck speakers of all varieties of ancient Greek as both broadly familiar 95

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and distinctively alien. Homer’s Kunstsprache can be illustrated with the present infinitive of εἰμί (“to be”), which exhibits five different forms in the Homeric epics: The Attic-Ionic εἶναι (Il. 1.91, etc.), the Lesbian or East Aeolic ἔμμεναι (Il. 1.117, etc.), and the Thessalian or West Aeolic ἔμμεν (Il. 18.364; Od. 9.455, etc.), as well as two artificial formations, ἔμεν (Il. 4.299, etc.) and ἔμεναι (Il. 3.40, etc.), which are formed by analogy and correspond to no historical language record of ancient Greek (Wachter, 2009, p. 89).1 As a result, whatever the dialect of Greek spoken by any given ancient recipient of Homer, at least four – in the case of a Doric speaker conversant with yet another form (ἦμεν), even five – of these forms need to be translated intralingually in order for a basic comprehension of the Homeric text to be achieved. At the same time, by assimilating a wide range of linguistic features from different dialectal varieties of ancient Greek, the Homeric idiom presents the poems as “glocal” entities in linguistic terms, thereby mirroring the transregional events of the Trojan War related in the epics. In Homer, therefore, content and language conspire to project a uniquely Panhellenic outlook, which would prove instrumental in establishing the Iliad and Odyssey as fundamental reference points for conceptions of Greek identity for centuries, indeed millennia, to come. The idiosyncratic composition of regionalisms, archaisms, and neologisms in Homeric language invited strategies of elucidation, including the translation of Homeric words, phrases, and passages into both vernacular forms of ancient Greek, such as Attic and Koine Greek, and specifically literary idioms inspired, in part, by the Homeric epics themselves. In the following four sections, I will treat different types of Homeric intralingual translation in the chronological order in which they are first attested. This selective journey through the ancient Greek reception history of the Homeric epics will lead us to consider moments of intralingual translation in the poetic genres of lyric, tragedy, and epic; glossographic and lexicographic materials; and prose paraphrases. A fifth and final section will provide an overview of ancient Greek translation terminology, arguing that our sources do not distinguish between the interlingual and intralingual translation of texts.

Homeric lyric: Alcman and Alcaeus Although there is no consensus about the precise date at which the Homeric epics were first fixed textually, their attested reception history begins in the final decades of the seventh century BCE (Burkert, 1976; West, 1995; Burgess, 2001, pp. 53–94). Numerous prior literary texts, inscriptions, and vase paintings independently datable to the period of ca. 730–630 BCE may have been created in response to the Iliad or Odyssey, but none of these supposed references constitutes an engagement specific enough with either the language or the plot of the Homeric epics to exclude the possibility that they simply draw on wider (i.e., extra- or pre-Homeric) epic and mythic traditions. The earliest secure textual references to the Homeric epics take the form of short snippets (what can be termed “translation moments”) in the archaic Greek lyric poets Alcman and Alcaeus, whose poetic activity – datable to the last quarter of the seventh and first quarter of the sixth century, respectively – accords well with the evidence from Greek vase painting, where specifically Homeric scenes begin to be depicted from around 630 BCE. The first of two Alcmanic passages, fragment 77 “bad-Paris, evil-Paris, a disaster for mannourishing (βωτιανείρᾳ) Greece”, combines the generically epic epithet “man-nourishing” (βουτιάνειρα = Il. 1.155; Homeric Hymn 3.363; Hesiod fr. 165.16) with the specifically Homeric compound formation “bad-Paris” (Δύσπαρις = Il. 3.39, 13.769). While Vasiliki Kousoulini (2013, p. 431) has questioned the specificity of the reference in “bad-Paris”, calling this term of abuse for Paris a “topos”, the examples she adduces in support of the word’s conventionality come from fifth-century BCE Attic tragedy (Aeschylus, Agamemnon 713; Euripides, Helen 1120, 96

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cf. Euripides, Hecuba 945), thus postdating Alcman by almost two centuries. More likely, therefore, the comparative passages themselves draw on Homer or Alcman and should not be viewed as independent witnesses to a rhetorical commonplace. Furthermore, the fact that the distinctly Greek viewpoint adopted by the speaker in fr. 77 is at odds with the Homeric context for the abuse (the Trojan warrior Hector rebuking his brother) need not contradict the specificity of Alcman’s reference, either. On the contrary, just as the Alcmanic hapax “evil-Paris” (Αἰνόπαρις) – later adopted by Euripides (Hecuba 945) – shows the poet as an innovator, so does his Greek refocalization of the rebuke against Paris. In fact, for both “bad-Paris” and “evil-Paris”, the very appreciation of the extent of Alcman’s innovation depends on the recognition of the Homeric intertext. Another Alcmanic passage composed in dactylic hexameters, fragment 80, likewise suggests a reworking of a specific Homeric passage as opposed to a response to the generic epic tradition: “And Circe at one time, having stopped up (ἐπαλείψασα) the ears of the companions (ὤατ’ ἑταίρων) of stout-hearted Odysseus”. While Alcman here combines two epic formulas, one exclusively Odyssean (καὶ τότ’ Ὀδυσσῆος “at one time . . . Odysseus”), the other found in both Homer and Hesiod (Ὀδυσσῆος ταλασίφρονος “stout-hearted Odysseus”), more significant are the nonformulaic words in Alcman’s fragment, which recall with extraordinary verbal precision a line of the Odyssey (12.47): “But stop up the ears of the companions”. Alcman takes over the Homeric phrase “the ears of the companions” (οὔατα . . . ἑταίρων) verbatim and undoes the tmesis in “stop up” (ἐπὶ . . . ἀλεῖψαι). The absence of significant parallels for the detail of stopping up the companions’ ears to shield them against the Sirens’ chant, as well as the word-for-word rewriting of a unique Homeric phrase in its entirety, strongly favours the view that Alcman, here too, specifically engages with a Homeric passage as opposed to the epic tradition as a whole. It has been objected that in the Odyssey it is Odysseus rather than Circe who stops up the companions’ ears, an incongruity already noticed by the scholiast who quotes the fragment. But this change in agent, far from invalidating Alcman’s direct recourse to the Odyssean passage, can be profitably interpreted as being predicated on the close relationship between the two passages, which serves to throw the shift in agency into greater relief (cf. Garzya, 1954, p. 137). In a poem of Alcman’s near-contemporary Alcaeus, fragment 44, we find the sea-goddess Thetis interceding with Zeus on behalf of her son Achilles in a scene closely modelled on Iliad book 1. Although none of the three figures is mentioned by name in the surviving papyrus scrap (P.Oxy. 1233 frs. 9.1–8, 3.1–7), the combined reference to “sea-nymphs” (νύμφ[αν ἐνν]αλίαν), “supplicating knees” (γόνων . . . ἰκέτευ’), and “a child’s anger” (τέκεος μᾶνιν) makes the identification certain (Page, 1955, pp. 281–282). Drawing on two separate Homeric passages, from the structurally prominent and thematically linked books 1 and 18 of the Iliad, Alcaeus gives a précis of the supplication scene at Iliad 1.493–512. Special emphasis is given to Zeus’“knees” (γόνων), already a marked reference because repeated feature in the Homeric account (500, 512). In the supplication scene, Thetis’ son is referred to as παῖς by the Homeric narrator (496) and as υἱός by the goddess herself (505). The word adopted by Alcaeus, τέκος, may look back to two instances earlier in Iliad 1, where Thetis addresses her son directly as τέκνον (362, 414). More specifically, τέκος occurs twice in character speech in Iliad 18: Thetis uses it once when referring to Achilles (63) and once in addressing him directly (95). While both τέκνον and τέκος have a strong emotional connotation, τέκος unlike τέκνον is specific to archaic epic, whose high register Alcaeus imports into his poem. Lastly, in μᾶνιν, while the word is also present in its verbal cognate μηνίω “to rage” twice in the immediate prelude to the Homeric supplication scene (422, 488), Alcaeus above all harkens back to the first word of the Iliad, μῆνιν, which he here translates interdialectally from Ionic to Aeolic. Although the line’s fragmentariness leaves the syntax of μᾶνιν opaque, the accusative singular form reinforces the recall of the Iliad’s 97

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incipit, where the “anger”, the theme of the poem, is likewise qualified by a possessive genitive (Ἀχιλῆος ~ τέκεος). Adrian Kelly’s (2015, p. 26) observation that Thetis’ supplication of Zeus constitutes one of the Iliad’s “momentous, marquee-episodes”, far from disqualifying Alcaeus’ textual reference to Homer, should be seen to reinforce the specificity of the translational act. The earliest datable literary references to either of the Homeric epics, therefore, are two passages of Alcman (frs. 77 and 80) and one passage of Alcaeus (fr. 44), which intralingually translate short sections of the Iliad and Odyssey. These constitute what can be termed “translation moments” – sequences of translated words occurring within, and framed by, original composition.2 Specifically, the two lyric poets’ intralingual rewording of Homeric epic takes the form of interdialectal translation, replacing the Ionic of Homeric epic with Doric and Aeolic phonology, evident in the substitution of ō (ω) for ū (ου), as in βωτιανείρᾳ for βουτιανείρᾳ (“man-nourishing”) and ὤατα for οὔατα (“ears”), and of ā (ᾱ) for ē (η), as in μᾶνιν for μῆνιν (“anger”).

Post-Homeric tragedy and epic: formulaic language Given the central role of the formula in Homeric diction, it is instructive to consider the intralingual translation history of one of these traditional fixed expressions: “Swift-footed Achilles”, which depending on the metrical position and syntactical function of the noun-epithet phrase is variously realized in Homer as, for example, πόδας ὠκὺς Ἀχιλλεύς “Achilles swift in his feet”, ποδάρκης δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς “foot-fast divine Achilles”, and ποδώκεα Πηλείωνα “swift-footed son of Peleus”. The earliest surviving engagement with Achilles’ formulaic epithets comes from the fifth century BCE. While the lyric poet Pindar already comments on Achilles’ speed in language reminiscent of his distinctive Homeric epithet (ποσσὶ . . . κράτεσκε “he was strong in his feet”, Nemeans 3.52), the first time in extant post-Homeric literature where Achilles appears in combination with an epithet is in Greek tragedy, in plays by the Attic dramatists Aeschylus and Euripides. In the opening line of Aeschylus’ Myrmidons, the first play in the fragmentary Achilleis trilogy, the hero is addressed as “shining Achilles” (φαίδιμ’ Ἀχιλλεῦ, Aesch. TrGF 131 F1). While the collocation could be regarded at face value as a simple quotation from Homer, where it occurs five times (e.g., Il. 9.434), the context of the Aeschylean fragment indicates a subtle subversion of the Homeric usage. When the Myrmidons approach the silent Achilles in the drama, they lament his reluctance to join the battle. Against this background, the address “shining Achilles” appears ironic, suggesting that the Aeschylean Achilles in fact falls short of his “shining” Homeric stature. In Euripides, Achilles’ speed is twice expressed through an accompanying adjectival phrase. At Electra 439, the hero is described as “light in leap of feet” (κοῦφον ἅλμα ποδῶν), which constitutes a variation on the periphrastic πόδας ὠκύς, which similarly deploys an accusative of respect (πόδας ~ ἅλμα ποδῶν). At Iphigenia at Aulis 206–207, Achilles is described as “equal to the wind in his two feet” (ἰσάνεμον . . . ποδοῖν) and “swift-running” (λαιψηροδρόμον), which not only refer to the hero’s characteristic speed in general terms but again do so by varying specifically Homeric language. The compound adjective “equal to the wind” (ἰσάνεμος) recalls the goddess Iris’ distinctive epithet “wind-footed” (ποδήνεμος). The other compound adjective, λαιψηροδρόμον, combines -δρόμος (from the root dram- “run”) with λαιψηρός (“swift”), the latter of which qualifies Achilles at Iliad 21.264, precisely where his speed is shown to be insufficient (καὶ λαιψηρὸν ἐόντα “although he was fast”) as he is overcome by the river Scamander. Although λαιψηρός is not used as an epithet there, Achilles is the only Homeric character thus qualified, thereby forging a strong connection between the adjective and the hero. In sum, the two Euripidean attributes of Achilles (ἰσάνεμος, λαιψηροδρόμος), while not themselves epithets found in Homer, nevertheless closely engage with the hero’s formulaic system in the Iliad. 98

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In later Greek epic, which insofar as it engages with Achilles is represented for us by Apollonius’ Argonautica, Quintus’ Posthomerica, and Triphiodorus’ Sack of Troy, Achilles is more rarely characterized by swiftness. Apollonius and Triphiodorus highlight the hero’s two attributes already explicitly mentioned in the Iliad’s opening line (1.1), his “anger” (μῆνιν) and his parentage (Πηληιάδεω “son of Peleus”). Set in the generation of Achilles’ father, the Argonautica fittingly refers to the hero as his father’s son when Achilles first appears in the epic (Arg. 1.558 Πηλεΐδην Ἀχιλῆα φίλῳ δειδίσκετο πατρί “[Chariclo] showed Peleus’ son Achilles to his dear father”). At his first appearance in Triphiodorus’ Sack of Troy Achilles is likewise called “son of Peleus” (17 Πηλείδης), but more allusively so: The patronymic here stands alone without the accompanying name (Miguélez-Cavero, 2013, p. 15). In Quintus of Smyrna’s Posthomerica, a similar process can be discerned regarding the Homeric Achilles’ distinctive quality of swiftness, which is mainly avoided. Although Achilles’ speed is mentioned three times in the Posthomerica – once using Homeric language (7.633) – other qualities of the hero assume a more central role in the poem. In Quintus, Achilles’ five most common epithet clusters stress the hero’s greatness (μέγας), greatheartedness (μεγαλήτωρ), facility with the ash-spear (ἐυμμελίης), godlikeness (ἀντίθεος), and warlikeness (ἐυπτόλεμος). Two of these attributes, “great-hearted” and “godlike”, also describe Achilles in Homeric epic, but the specific epithets used there are different. While Quintus deploys a whole range of broadly synonymous epithets to convey the quality of greatheartedness (i.e., courage), including “great-hearted” (μεγαλήτορος, 3.734, 5.2), “great-minded” (μεγαλόφρονος, 6.86), “mighty-minded” (κρατερόφρονος, 8.150), and “high-spirited” (ἐρίθυμος, 1.742, 1.756, 5.316; ἐρίθυμον, 4.13), in Homer we find a different epithet, “great-spirited” (μεγαθύμου, Il. 17.214, 18.226, 19.75), to express the same idea. The other Achillean attribute which Quintus adapts from Homer by using synonymous epithets but avoiding the specific Homeric appellation is “godlike”. In Homer the most common way of referring to Achilles’ divine status is through the epithet δῖος, which occurs as a generic epithet in the nominative formulas δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς (e.g., Il. 1.7) and ποδάρκης δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς (e.g., Il. 1.121), as well as θεοείκελος in the vocative (Il. 1.131, 19.155). Rather than applying either of these two epithets to Achilles, Quintus uses ἀντίθεος (e.g., 3.100), θεοειδής (11.234), and ἰσόθεος (14.180) to communicate Achilles’ godlike nature. As in the case of “great-hearted”, none of the epithets used by Quintus are applied to Achilles in Homer, which showcases the Posthomerica’s interest in transforming Homeric diction, even as it continues the Iliadic narrative.

Homeric glossography: from μῆνις to ὀργή The systematic glossing of Homeric words, attested directly through papyrus finds and indirectly through the activity of Alexandrian scholars, has its origins in at least the fifth century BCE. The present section focuses on the beginning and subsequent development of the glossographic tradition of Homer in order to spotlight a ubiquitous form of intralingual Homeric translation in antiquity. Throughout the following discussion the English noun “gloss” (and such cognates as “glossographer”, “glossography”) reflects the common modern usage of “explanation of a word or phrase”, while the Greek word γλῶττα (“tongue, language, word”) denotes a particular type of lexeme that appears as a lemma and becomes subject to glossing. The Aristophanic comedy Banqueters (Δαιδαλῆς), first performed in 423 BCE, shows us a father challenging his son to “explain” (ἐξηγήσασθαι) difficult Homeric expressions, including ἀμενηνὰ κάρηνα (“strengthless heads”) (Ar. fr. 233; Kassel & Austin, 1984, pp. 140–141). Galen, who is our source for the fragment, tells us that the son is asked to provide the “near-equivalent” (τὸ παραπλήσιον αὐτῇ) for “expressions” (γλῶτται), probably of the sort transmitted in the so-called D 99

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scholia, that is, the wealth of ancient grammatical and lexical information about Homeric language contained in the medieval manuscripts of the epics, especially the Iliad (Dickey, 2007, pp. 18–23). In that corpus ἀμενηνά, in the first of the word’s four Odyssean occurrences (Od. 10.521), is glossed as ἀσθενῆ (“powerless”) and μένος οὐκ ἔχοντα (“not possessing strength”) (schol. D Od. 10.521c1; Pontani, 2022, p. 238). The word ἀσθενῆ is also found in a gloss attested on a thirdcentury papyrus of the cognate verb ἀμενήνωσεν “weakened” (Il. 13.562), which is rendered as α[σ]θενη [εποιησε “made powerless” at P.Ryl. 3.536 verso, 2.20 (Lundon, 2012, p. 22). The noun, on the other hand, κάρηνα (“peaks, heads”), seems to present no similar lexical difficulties. Unlike the related singular form κάρη (“head”), which is frequently glossed as κεφαλή (e.g., at Il. 5.214 in P.Mich. inv. 2720 fol. 3 verso, 9; Lundon, 2012, p. 126), κάρηνα is never glossed by itself, even though forms of κάρηνον are not found in Koine Greek. However, in those instances where the word, with or without an adjective, designates people (e.g., ἀνδρῶν κάρηνα, “the heads of men”) or animals (e.g., ἵππων ξανθὰ κάρηνα, “the yellow heads of horses”), there are frequent references in both types of scholia to the “periphrastic” (περιφραστικῶς, περίφρασις) or “synecdochic” (ἀπὸ μέρους) usage deployed. Therefore, Aristophanes’ reference to the Homeric phrase νεκύων ἀμενηνὰ κάρηνα appears to combine lexical and stylistic difficulties, which are overcome by translating the phrase from Homeric into Attic Greek (ἀσθενῆ κάρηνα or ἀσθενεῖς κεφαλάς “powerless heads”) or from a poetic into a prosaic register (νέκυας ἀσθενεῖς “powerless corpses”). In the fourth century BCE, both the philosopher Plato and his student Aristotle take an interest in the glossing of Homeric words. The Platonic work of arguably greatest importance to the development of Homeric glossography is the metalinguistic dialogue Cratylus. Homeric diction is glossed in two places in the dialogue, once explicitly, once implicitly (Henrichs, 1971, p. 100 n. 9). At Cratylus 417a, the verb ὀφέλλειν is identified as Homeric and equated with αὔξειν (“increase”) and ποιεῖν (“create”), of which it is said to be a “synonym” (ἐπωνυμία). At Craty­ lus 421a, another verb in this form only attested in Homer (Od. 14.356), μαίεσθαι, is glossed as ζήτειν “seek”. The lemma’s distribution, combined with the fact that μαίεσθαι becomes a staple of subsequent Homeric glossographers – in addition to the D scholia (ἐπιζητεῖν “seek out”, schol. D Od. 14.356; Ernst, 2004, p. 299), it is glossed by Apollonius Sophista (ζητεῖν, Bekker, 1833, p. 109.30), Hesychius (μ 66 ζητεῖν, ἐρευνᾶν “track”; Latte & Cunningham, 2020, p. 781), and Photius (Bibl. 531a6–7 ζητεῖν) – strongly suggests that this second Cratylus passage likewise contains a gloss of a specifically Homeric usage. Aristotle goes one step beyond Plato, by combining examples of Homeric glosses with explicit theoretical discussion of the glossing process. In chapter 25 of the Poetics, having stated that γλῶτται, previously defined as “loan words” (1457b1–5), are characteristic of poetic usage (1460b11–12), Aristotle proceeds to give three examples of such γλῶτται from the Iliad (Poet­ ics 1461a10–15; cf. Pfeiffer, 1968, pp. 78–79): οὐρῆας (Il. 1.50), meaning ἡμιόνους “mules” or φύλακας “guards”; εἶδος (Il. 10.316), which could refer to a person’s σῶμα “body” or merely their πρόσωπον “face”; and ζωρότερον (Il. 9.203), whose ambiguous form suggests either the wine’s quality (ἄκρατον “unmixed”) or the speed in pouring it (θᾶττον “faster”). Like the γλῶτται of his predecessors, all of Aristotle’s examples concern difficult lemmas to be explicated by a synonym that is easier to understand. Because Aristotle’s conception of γλῶτται is restricted to foreign words, drawn from other Greek dialects or different languages entirely, his glosses more straightforwardly resemble interlingual translations. But structurally Aristotle’s glossographic procedure is analogous to that adopted by Aristophanes, Plato, and others, which is to translate individual Homeric words into neutral lexemes of Attic Greek or (in an adaptation of Aristotle’s terms) to replace the γλῶττα, or “foreign word”, with the κύριον, or “standard word” (Janko, 1987, pp. 148–150). 100

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Over time, the practice of Homeric glossing gave rise to a vast corpus of intralingual translations composed of interlinear and marginal glosses as well as lemmatized word-lists and lexica. By way of example, take the Iliad’s very first word, μῆνις (“wrath”), which describes the plotdriving anger of Achilles and is glossed by numerous ancient glossographic and lexicographic sources. For the lemma μῆνιν (Il. 1.1), the medieval D scholia give ὀργήν “anger” as the basic definition, but also provide a string of glosses apparently in ascending order of intensity: ὀργή “anger”, θυμός “rage”, χόλος “fury”, and κότος “rancor”, capped by the Homeric lemma itself, μῆνις “wrath” (schol. D Il. 1.1; van Thiel, 2014, p. 19). Three of these glosses – all except the most extreme, κότος “rancor” – can be paralleled from two surviving papyrological glossaries, which render μῆνιν as, respectively, χόλον ὀργήν θυμόν (P.Mich. inv. 1588, col. 1 l. 1; Renner, 1979, pp. 311–321) and ὀργήν (P.Achm. 2, l. 21; Collart, 1931, pp. 43–47). The ubiquity of the gloss ὀργή in these materials – also featured in a related Byzantine lexicographic corpus, the Lexeis Homērikai “Homeric Words” (μ 191; van Thiel, 2002, p. 91) – underlines its status as the principal intralingual rendering of the Homeric word. Interestingly, ὀργή is the only one of the μῆνις synonyms occurring with any frequency that is absent from the Homeric text itself (it is first attested in Homer’s contemporary Hesiod). The other synonyms, θυμός, χόλος, and κότος, do not only occur elsewhere in the Iliad but are specifically used there to describe the anger of Achilles. The origin of the glosses in the Homeric text itself is noted by an ancient scholiast, who states, “the poet (Homer) applies synonymous words to Achilles, such as ‘or whether to stop his fury (χόλον) and restrain his rage (θυμόν)’ (Il. 1.192) and ‘I’m not bothered by your rancor (κοτέοντος)’ (Il. 1.181)” (schol. D Il. 1.1; van Thiel, 2014, p. 19). The cluster of glosses surrounding μῆνις, therefore, offers us a glimpse of the practice of Homeric glossographers, who often look to Homer for their intralingual translation of individual Homeric words rather than simply replacing a poetic with a prosaic or a specifically Homeric with a generically Koine Greek word. In so doing, Homeric glossographers continued the hermeneutic principle of “explaining Homer out of Homer” (Ὅμηρον ἐξ Ὁμήρου σαφηνίζειν), which directs students of Homeric epic to find the solution to a query about Homer – whether ethical, theological, or literary – in the Homeric text itself (Nünlist, 2015). As a result, Homer’s own tendency toward synonymy and self-paraphrase provided the glossographic tradition with a substantive and methodological model. In addition to one-to-one noun equivalents, μῆνις is variously qualified by an adjective that refers to the “persistent” quality of the anger described: (χόλος, ὀργή, κότος) ἐπίμονος “enduring” in the D scholia (Il. 1.1; van Thiel, 2014, p. 19), the Lexeis Homērikai (μ 161; van Thiel, 2002, p. 90), and the lexicon of Hesychius (μ 1225; Latte & Cunningham, 2020, p. 830); (κότος) πολυχρόνιος “long-lived” in Apollonius Sophista’s Homeric Lexicon (Bekker, 1833, p. 112, 24), which in turn attributes this interpretation to Aristarchus, a Homeric scholar working in secondcentury BCE Alexandria. The interpretation of Achilles’ anger as lasting for a long time does not go back to any explicit statement in the Iliad itself. Rather, it appears to be based on a popular etymology associating the root mēn- (“anger”, as in μῆν-ις) with the root men-/mon- (“remain”, as in μέν-ω). Thus, a phonemic similarity between the two roots likely explains the frequent occurrences of ἐπί-μον-ος (“enduring”) as a qualifier of μῆν-ις in the ancient Homeric glosses. The other adjective, πολυχρόνιος “long-lived”, in turn can be understood as an intralingual rendering of ἐπίμονος, once the latter had been established in the glossographic tradition.

Homeric prose: rhetorical paraphrases Most ancient intralingual prose translations of the Iliad and Odyssey assume the form of summaries (van Rossum-Steenbeek, 1998; Squire, 2011; Cè, 2021). Prose texts that substantially abridge 101

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the Homeric source include the book-by-book hypotheses preserved on ancient papyrus and in the medieval manuscript tradition, such as the bilingual (Greek–Latin) pseudo-Dosithean Her­ meneumata; the continuous abridgments of Iliad and Odyssey that form part of larger collections, such as pseudo-Apollodorus’ Library (with summaries of the Iliad at epit. 4 and of the Odyssey at epit. 7.1–33); and the intermedial miniaturizations found on the stone inscriptions of the Tabulae Iliacae. The earliest extant prosification of Homer that does not make significant use of abridgment can be found in Plato’s Republic, which paraphrases what has been called “the most famous passage” of the Iliad (Fernández Delgado, 2012, p. 173). To illustrate the difference between “simple narration” (ἁπλῆ διήγησις) and “representation” (μίμησις), Plato’s speaker Socrates rewrites the beginning of the Iliad, specifically 1.12–42, in Attic prose. Narration is achieved by having Homeric characters such as Chryses not speak for themselves (in direct speech) but having the authorial narrator report their speeches (in indirect speech). The Republic’s removal of direct speech from the Iliad is accompanied by a removal of meter, which is explained as a result of Socrates’ “not being a poet” (Resp. 393d7; cf. Naddaff, 2002, pp. 62–63). The translation from the poetic language of Homer to Plato’s Attic prose brings with it a host of syntactical changes (Lake, 2011, pp. 488–508). Chief among these is the unemphatic use of the definite article, which in Homer fulfils the more emphatic function of a demonstrative (e.g., τὰ δ’ ἄποινα δέχεσθαι “and to receive this ransom”, Il. 1.20) but in Plato means simply “the” (e.g., τὰ τοῦ θεοῦ στέμματα “the garlands of the god”, Resp. 393e6) or accompanies a proper name (e.g., ὁ δὲ Ἀγαμέμνων “but [the] Agamemnon”, Resp. 393e4). On the level of diction, Socrates’ Iliad exhibits a number of striking continuities as well as innovations. In many instances, the Republic’s rendering continues lexical choices of the Homeric passage, taking over such collocations as ἄποινα δέχεσθαι (Il. 1.20 “to receive a ransom” ~ Resp. 393e1–2 δεξαμένους ἄποινα) and σκῆπτρον καὶ στέμμα (Il. 1.28 “scepter and garland” ~ Resp. 393e6 σκῆπτρον καὶ . . . στέμματα), with minor variation in mood (aorist in lieu of present) and number (plural for singular). While some Homeric words are replaced by different, if etymologically related, parts of speech (e.g., Resp. 393e7 γηράσειν “that she would grow old” ~ Il. 1.29 γῆρας “old age”), many others are simply replaced by synonyms (e.g., Il. 1.22 ἐπευφήμησαν “they agreed” ~ Resp. 393e4 συνῄνουν). The most significant changes from the Homeric passage consist in omissions. Accounting for the 33% condensation of Plato’s translation – which runs to 151 words compared with Homer’s 224 – a landmark of Homeric style, formulaic phrasing as well as many adjectives and certain periphrastic collocations are suppressed. In the case of noun–epithet phrases, Socrates’ Iliad either reduces the phrase to its constituent proper name (e.g., Il. 1.36 Ἀπόλλωνι ἄνακτι “lord Apollo” ~ Resp. 394a3 τῷ Ἀπόλλωνι “Apollo”) or omits it wholesale (e.g., Il. 1.12 θοὰς ἐπὶ νῆας “to the swift ships”). Other non-formulaic adjectives that are left out include ἀπερείσι[α] “boundless” (Il. 1.13 ἀπερείσι’ ἄποινα ~ Resp. 393e3 ἄποινα), while the periphrastic phrases “the city of Priam” (Πριάμοιο πόλιν, Il. 1.19) and “the son of Zeus, the far-shooter” (Διὸς υἱὸν ἑκήβολον, Il. 1.21) are replaced, respectively, by the explicatory “Troy” (τὴν Τροίαν, Resp. 393e1–2) and the generic “the god” (τὸν θεόν, Resp. 393e3). Taken together, these changes constitute a simplification of the Homeric text, thus bearing out Socrates’ promise to present Homer in the form of a “simple narrative”. Plato’s general tendency to omit formulaic phrases is self-consciously highlighted toward the end of the passage. There Socrates elides four verses (Il. 1.36–39) that contain cult epithets of Apollo (Ἀργυρότοξ[ε] “of the silver bow”, Σμινθεῦ “Smintheus”) and specify the geographical domain of his rule (Chryse, Killa, and Tenedos), as well as referring to his parentage (“whom 102

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beautiful-haired Leto bore”). Instead, the priest Chryses is said to “call on the titles of the god” (τὰς . . . ἐπωνυμίας τοῦ θεοῦ ἀνακαλῶν, Resp. 394a3–4). The use of the term ἐπωνυμία (“nickname, cult title” but also “epithet”) flags the important role that the omission of epithets and other ornamental phrases plays in Socrates’ rewriting of the Iliad passage. While Plato’s prose rewriting of the opening of the Iliad seems to belong to a wider cultural practice, as indicated by contemporary testimony (Plato, Gorgias 502c; Isocrates 9.10–11), Socrates’ Iliad is by far the earliest extant such paraphrase. However, there do exist two later ancient Greek translations of the Iliad’s opening section, both of imperial date, which can be directly compared with the passage from the Republic. The first imperial paraphrase (labelled a παράφρασις in the medieval manuscript), falsely attributed to Aristides (Rhetores graeci 1.14.1), which renders Il. 1.1–43 into Greek prose, significantly extends the ambit of the Platonic version. Plato entirely omits the Iliadic proem, whose extra-narratival quality cannot easily be accommodated in Socrates’ “simple narrative”, instead beginning with Chryses’ journey to the Greek camp (Il. 1.12). By contrast, the pseudo-Aristidean translation commences at the very beginning of the Iliad (Rh. 1.14.1.2–3): “For it is the task of the Muses to recount accurately the anger with which Achilles was angry at Troy”. The Iliadic incipit is doubly marked by the quotation of the Iliad’s opening verse as the section title for the paraphrase as a whole (1.14.1.1) and the etymological figure (τὴν μῆνιν, ᾗ ἐμήνισεν) highlighting the epic’s first word (μῆνιν). While the Republic paraphrase reduces the length of the Homeric passage to two thirds, the pseudo-Aristidean version – at 321 words beside the Iliad’s 314 – is in fact minimally longer than its Iliadic source passage. Taking into account the addition of definite articles in Attic as opposed to Homeric Greek, pseudo-Aristides’ paraphrase is roughly equivalent in length overall. Unlike Socrates’ Iliad, which omits formulaic epithets and other forms of ornamentation wholesale, the Ars rhetorica paraphrase routinely maintains them. For example, in translating the Iliadic proem’s final verse (Il. 1.7 Ἀτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς “the son of Atreus, master of men, and divine Achilles”), pseudo-Aristides endows both characters with epithets (1.14.1.10–12): Achilles is “the son of Peleus” (Ἀχιλλεὺς ὁ Πηλέως) and Agamemnon “the son of Atreus, king of the Greeks” (Ἀγαμέμνων ὁ Ἀτρέως βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἑλλήνων). Although Agamemnon receives a double explanatory gloss (his name and the identity of the “men” [ἀνδρῶν] as “Greeks” [Ἑλλήνων]) and Achilles’ patronymic is based on the first line of the poem (Il. 1.1 Πηληιάδεω ~ ὁ Πηλέως), both nevertheless retain the Homeric elaboration of their names. In the portion of the paraphrase that can be directly compared with the Platonic version, pseudo-Aristides supplies equivalents for the Homeric adjectives qualifying ἄποινα (Il. 1.13 ἀπερείσι[α] “boundless”) and σκήπτρῳ (Il. 1.15 χρυσέῳ “golden”), writing ἄποινα οὐκ ὀλίγιστα (Rh. 1.14.1.20 “no mean ransom”) and σκῆπτρον . . . χρυσοῦν (Rh. 1.14.1.18 “golden scepter”); in both instances, Plato omits the adjective. Similarly, in Chryses’ hymnic apostrophe of Apollo, which in Homer comprises both cult titles and regional allegiances but in Plato is reduced to the periphrastic summary description “the god’s titles”, pseudo-Aristides continues Apollo’s honorifics (Rh. 1.14.1.36 Σμίνθιον, Τενέδιον, Χρύσιον, Καλλίτοξον). Not only are the existing Homeric epithets semantically and morphologically simplified (Ἀργυρότοξ[ε] ~ Καλλίτοξον and Σμινθεῦ ~ Σμίνθιον), but the relative clause specifying the god’s geographical domain is also replaced by demonymic epithets (Τενέδοιο ~ Τενέδιον and Χρύσην ~ Χρύσιον); only the more obscure Killa is omitted wholesale. The artistic quality of the paraphrase is evident by the inverted order in which the four epithets are given in pseudo-Aristides. In sum, a Homeric locus conspicuously neglected in Plato’s paraphrase receives an equally conspicuous elaboration in the pseudo-Aristidean version. 103

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Despite these marked and systematic deviations from the Platonic model, the Homeric paraphrase in the Ars rhetorica in numerous aspects follows the paraphrastic method of the Republic. In addition to specific instances of phrasing, Socrates’ Iliad provides primarily a structural model for the Ars rhetorica’s prosification of the Homeric passage through its replacement of direct with indirect speech. Particular instances where the phrasing of the Platonic and pseudo-Aristidean paraphrases overlaps but, at the same time, substantially differs from the Homeric model include the rendering of the Iliadic ἐκπέρσαι Πριάμοιο πόλιν (Il. 1.19 “to fully destroy the city of Priam”): In Plato the phrase is both softened and simplified (Resp. 393e1–2 ἑλόντας τὴν Τροίαν “by sacking Troy”), and the same collocation recurs in pseudo-Aristides (Rh. 1.14.1.22 ἑλεῖν τὴν Τροίαν “to sack Troy”). Likewise, the Ars rhetorica paraphrase follows the Republic in reporting Agamemnon’s threat to Chryses in indirect speech (Resp. 393e5–394a1 ~ Rh. 1.14.1.27–33). In reporting Chryses’ prayer to Apollo, however, the author of the Ars rhetorica adopts a slightly different approach. While the first part of Chryses’ prayer is reported indirectly in keeping with the Platonic approach (Rh. 1.14.1.35–47 “now he was launching all voices, calling on Apollo as ‘Sminthius’, ‘Tenedius’, ‘Chrysius’, and ‘of-the-beautiful-bow’, mentioning all his names”), the second part, which contains Chryses’ specific request, is given in direct speech. The transition is first signalled by the use of the second-person pronoun σοι and the vocative δέσποτα (“lord”; cf. Il. 1.36 Ἀπόλλωνι ἄνακτι “to lord Apollo”) and then confirmed by first- and second-person personal pronouns (μοι “to me”; σύ “you”) and verbal forms (ἔθυσα “I sacrificed”; ἤτρεψα “I thatched”; ἔλθοις “please come!”). In a paraphrase that has made consistent – even emphatic – use of indirect discourse in rendering Homeric character speech and narrative alike, the eruption of Chryses’ voice in direct discourse adds substantial vividness to pseudo-Aristides’ version, not least because the switch from indirect to direct speech occurs halfway through a single speech. This unexpected shift from reported to direct speech highlights the character of Chryses and the emotional import of his speech. Whereas the Socratic Iliad has frequently been noted for its intentional stripping of Homeric emotionality (Naddaff, 2002, p. 58), the pseudo-Aristidean paraphrase restores some of the Iliad’s emotion by channelling it into Chryses’ appeal to the god. Another imperial paraphrase of the same Homeric passage, datable to the third century, survives on the wooden tablet of a schoolbook from Roman Egypt (MP3 2732). The scribe’s attempt to write out the paraphrase a second time (at lines 58–61) strongly suggests that the text was not an original composition, but rather was copied from a pre-existing template through transcription or dictation. Such a genesis fits the text’s ambitious literary agenda: While, as we have seen, the Republic reduces the Homeric passage to two thirds of its length and pseudo-Aristides roughly maintains the Homeric length, the writing tablet’s paraphrase runs to four times the length of the original passage (Il. 1.1–21). This extension of length comes with the expansion of Homer’s rhetorical repertoire and a general increase in ornamentation. For example, Homer’s one-time apostrophe of the Muse as “goddess” (θεά, Il. 1.1) is tripled, resulting in “o Muse” (ὦ Μοῦσα, line 1), “o mistress” (ὦ δέσποινα, line 3), and “o divine Muse” (ὦ θεὰ Μοῦσα, line 11). The diction of the paraphrase is recherché throughout, including τὴν . . . ἀγανάκτησιν (“vexation”, line 4) for μῆνιν (“anger”, Il. 1.1) and τὸ ναύσταθμον (“anchor-place”, line 34) for θοὰς . . . νῆας Ἀχαιῶν (“the swift ships of the Achaeans”, Il. 1.12). Both words are previously attested in the Attic historian Thucydides (2.41.3, 3.6.2), who can be considered as the source for part of the paraphrase’s Atticist language. Elaboration of diction also effects the expansiveness of the paraphrase. In their general tendency to move away from Homeric modes of expression, the author of the papyrological paraphrase omits formulaic epithets throughout, opting for other forms of lexical expansion instead. The Homeric epithet phrases ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν and δῖος (Il. 1.7), which are developed in the pseudo-Aristidean 104

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paraphrase (Rh. 1.14.1.10–12), are completely suppressed on the tablet (lines 17–18, cf. lines 20–21). By contrast, the papyrological paraphrase renders a number of non-formulaic adjectives, such as πολλὰς . . . ψυχάς (Il. 1.3 “many souls”), by pleonastically expanding the Homeric phrases (e.g., line 7 πολλοὶ καὶ ἀναρίθμητοι “many and countless [men]”). In the case of Chryseis, who receives no epithet in the Homeric passage, the anonymous paraphrast innovates with μονογενής “only child”, whose quasi-formulaic character is established by its repeated use (lines 36, 46). Beyond adjectives, the anonymous paraphrast also uses synonymy to expand verbal and nominal phrases, including λίσσετο (Il. 1.15 “he beseeched” ~ lines 43–44 συνεύχομαι . . . αἰτῶ “I pray and demand”) and Πριάμοιο πόλιν (Il. 1.19 “the city of Priam” ~ lines 40–41). The expansion of the Homeric passage in the papyrological paraphrase is centred on Chryses’ plea to the Greeks. Whereas the same speech is rendered in indirect discourse by both Plato (Resp. 393e1–3) and pseudo-Aristides (Rh. 1.14.1.15–21), the tablet version preserves the vividness of the Homeric original by keeping it in direct speech. Moreover, the five verses of the Iliad (Il. 1.17–21) are enlarged into 19 lines of prose (lines 38–56). This expansion is effected not only through the lexical and syntactic changes but also by incorporating elements of characterization (lines 43–44 “I pray and demand” ~ Il. 1.15) and description (line 53 “his garlands” ~ Il. 1.14) from the Homeric narrative context into Chryses’ direct utterance. By transferring these features of the Homeric omniscient narrator to the embedded speech of a character, the author of the papyrological paraphrase augments the importance of Chryses and the weight of his plea. This interest in a minor Homeric character, already demonstrated for the pseudo-Aristidean paraphrase of the passage, suggests a desire to boost the visibility of marginal figures within the Homeric world. Unlike Plato’s Socrates, whose excision of μίμησις strengthens the Iliad’s primary narrator (Resp. 393d4–5 “not as Chryses but as Homer”), the anonymous and pseudo-Aristidean Iliadic paraphrasts of the imperial period systematically foreground the embedded speaker Chryses.

Ancient Greek terminology of intralingual translation Translation is conventionally understood as the conversion of a text, specifically a text’s meaning, from one language into another. It is generally assumed that, by being translated, a text preserves its meaning but changes its language. As a result, Greek renderings of Homer, especially in antiquity, although demonstrably crucial for the canonization and interpretation of the Iliad and Odyssey, have been systematically downplayed in both scholarly and larger cultural discourses. However, this narrow view of translation as necessarily occurring between as opposed to within languages, which prevents a full appreciation of these texts from the perspective of translation studies, is problematic not only on conceptual but also on historical grounds. In fact, the notion of intralingual translation generally agrees with ancient linguistic terminology, as Greek sources do not differentiate between intralingual and interlingual translation, using the same set of terms for both textual practices. One of the three most common ancient Greek verbs denoting interlingual translation in the later tradition, ἑρμηνεύειν, occurs with that meaning as early as Xenophon in the fourth century BCE (Anabasis 5.4.5), where it is applied to the interpreter Timesitheus orally translating Xenophon’s speech from Greek into the language of the Mossynoecians, a people native to the northern shore of the Black Sea. In the second-century BCE Letter of Aristeas, which presents an intriguing account of the genesis of the Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible, the verb and its synonymous compound formations διερμηνεύειν and μεθερμηνεύειν, as well as the cognate noun ἑρμηνεία, are again used to refer to the act of interlingual translation (Wright, 2008). It has been convincingly argued, however, that ἑρμηνεύειν and its cognates are chosen in direct imitation of 105

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the vocabulary of Alexandrian scholarship, which used the same terms to denote critical exegesis within Greek (Honigman, 2003, pp. 42–49). Thus, at pains to stress the scholarly nature of the Alexandrian Bible translators, pseudo-Aristeas’ frequent use of ἑρμην- words may serve to present the Septuagint as a “critical translation”. A similar shift between intralingual and interlingual interpretation can be seen in Dionysius of Halicarnassus. In his treatise on Thucydides (Thucycides 49), Dionysius notes that, if the more obscure diction favoured by the Athenian historian were to be used in spoken language, listeners would require “translators” (ἑρμηνευσόντων) “just as if they were listening to the language of a foreign nation” (ὥσπερ ἀλλοεθνοῦς γλώσσης ἀκούοντες). By comparing the process of elucidating Thucydidean language in Greek with the translation of a foreign language into Greek, Dionysius highlights the fundamental similarity between interlingual and intralingual translation. The same parallelism is also evidenced by the collocation of ἑρμηνεύειν with adverbs denoting both languages (e.g., Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities 2.12 Ἑλληνιστὶ ἑρμηνευόμενον “being interpreted in Greek”) and types of discourse (e.g., pseudo-Hermogenes, On the Method of Forceful Speaking 30 πεζῶς ἑρμηνεύσῃ “interprets in prose”). While ἑρμηνεύειν preserves an oral dimension throughout, regardless of whether an intralingual or an interlingual rephrasing is meant, the verb μεταγράφειν as a compound of γράφειν (“to write”) always denotes the production of a written text. In general, μεταγράφειν signifies the alteration in medium or content to produce a piece of writing. Chiefly, the verb refers to the process of transcription from an oral to a written form (e.g., Euripides, Iphigenia at Aulis 108) and the act of multiplying a written text by making copies (e.g., Lucian, Against an Ignorant Book-Collector 4). On the level of content, it also refers to the change in wording that accompanies the process of rewriting, especially in public documents (e.g., Xenophon, Hellenica 6.3.19, referring to the replacement of “Thebans” with “Boeotians” in a treaty). Specifically, μεταγράφειν denotes the process of translation. This can be understood as a specialized form of the verb’s general meanings, combining alteration of medium with change in content. For the process of translation constitutes an act of both copying an original and transforming it. Instances of μεταγράφειν referring to interlingual translation – from another language into Greek – include Thucydides (4.50) and Lucian (How to Write History 21). In the context of the Septuagint, it has been argued that pseudo-Aristeas repeatedly evokes the basic meaning of μεταγράφειν – and the corresponding action noun μεταγραφή – to cast the Greek translation of the Bible as an act of transcription, that is, a faithful copying of the original Hebrew (Wright, 2015, p. 119). Although pseudo-Aristeas thereby may seem to deemphasize the transformative dimension of the Septuagint, μεταγραφή later becomes an unmarked term to refer to the “translation” of the Hebrew Bible (e.g., Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 12.2.6). Since μεταγράφειν also frequently denotes the rewriting of Greek texts in Greek, the verb’s use can plausibly be extended to include intralingual translation, for example, between different Greek dialects, even though no such occurrence has thus far come to light. The verb μεταγράφειν is generally applied to documentary rather than literary texts, and when used to characterize the Septuagint sits well with the view of the Hebrew Bible as a legal document (Brock, 1979, pp. 72–73). However, in Lucian (How to Write History 21), μεταγράφειν denotes literary translation, referring to the practice of a historian writing in the Atticist tradition who does not transliterate Roman names (e.g., Fronto rendered as Φρόντων) but translates them (e.g., Fronto rendered as Φρόντις). Therefore, literary translation, including that of Homer, can be situated within the domain of μεταγράφειν. A third verb used in Greek antiquity to describe the process of translation, μεταφράζειν, is of particular importance not least because it provides the origin for the modern Greek terms for translation, that is, interlingual translation, such as μεταφράζω (“to translate”), μετάφραση 106

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(“translation”), and μεταφράστης (“translator”). In antiquity, however, μεταφράζειν refers not only to interlingual translation but also to intralingual rewriting. The former meaning can regularly be found from the first century onward: Josephus uses it to refer to Greek translations from Phoenician (Jewish Antiquities 8.144, 9.283), Egyptian (Against Apion 1.73), and Hebrew (Jewish Antiquities 10.218), while in Plutarch it denotes translation from Latin into Greek (Marcus Cato 19.3, Otho 18.1) and, once, from Greek into Latin (Cicero 40.2). Before Josephus and Plutarch, Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Roman Antiquities 3.32.1) already uses μεταφράζειν to describe the translation of the Roman goddess Feronia (Φερωνία) into Greek, where her name is variously rendered as Ἀνθοφόρος (“Flower-bearer”), Φιλοστέφανος (“Garland-lover”), and Περσεφόνη (“Proserpina”). At the same time, the Augustan historian expresses through the same verb the notion of intralingual rephrasing, when he comments on Pericles’ populist practice of “restating in different terms what he has said previously” (Thucydides 45). Dionysius’ contemporary Philo of Alexandria, in describing the expressive capabilities of Greek, similarly highlights how the language can “rephrase in different ways” (Moses 2.38 μεταφράζοντα καὶ παραφράζοντα) one and the same thought. In the same vein, Plutarch uses the action noun μετάφρασις “translation” to signify the intralingual rephrasing in one’s own words of the speech of another (Demosthenes 8.2). Finally, the Homeric practice of varying the lexicon by using a range of synonyms (e.g., “flee”, “elude”) is described as μετάφρασις in the scholia (Il. 22.199–201c; Erbse, 1977, p. 310). This instance of Homeric self-paraphrase constitutes a special case of the practice of intralingual μετάφρασις, but one that may itself have served as a model for later glossators of Homer. Elsewhere in ancient Homeric scholarship, μεταφράζειν and its verbal adjectives μεταφραστικός and μεταφραστέος signify a simplified rewriting, which explains the meaning of a particular word, phrase, or verse. For example, Apollonius Sophista glosses the compound adjective δυσαριστοτόκεια, a Homeric hapax used by Achilles’ mother Thetis in self-address (Il. 18.54), as “she who has given birth to an excellent son destined to an unlucky fate”, but adds that others “rephrase” (μεταφράζουσι) the word differently, namely as “the unlucky one who has given birth to an excellent son” (Bekker, 1833, pp. 60, 27–28). Apollonius’ use of μεταφράζειν to introduce the alternative gloss demonstrates that the verb extends to the sort of intralingual glossing of Homeric language that is common throughout the ancient scholarly reception of Homer. In ancient scholarly and literary texts, the verb μεταφράζειν and its cognates denote various textual habits, ranging from translation from another language into Greek to grammatical and exegetical paraphrase within Greek. The coexistence of interlingual and intralingual meanings for the word suggests the fundamental continuity of interlingual and intralingual translation in antiquity. The co-presence of the two usages is not only reinforced by their general synchronicity – both being attested since the first century BCE – but especially by their combined occurrence in Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch, both of whom use the word to refer to translation between and within languages. In fact, most ancient occurrences denote the latter kind, that is, Greek-to-Greek rewriting, in keeping with the verb’s general meaning of “re-phrasing”. Ancient Greek terminology for denoting the act of interlingual translation also encompasses the act of intralingual translation. This semantic overlap is due to the history of the terms used for translation, primarily the verbs ἑρμηνεύειν, μεταγράφειν, and μεταφράζειν, as well as their compounds and derivatives. Since all these words denote cultural practices that are more fundamental than specifically interlingual translation, the latter is conceptually always already connected to processes occurring within a particular language, instead of emerging as an entirely separate phenomenon peculiar to the relationship between languages. Consequently, we are more truthful to ancient Greek translational theory – and, indeed, textual practice – if we recognize the coexistence of, and fundamental continuity between, interlingual and intralingual translation. 107

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Notes 1 Unless otherwise indicated, ancient Greek authors and their works, as well as papyri, are cited according to the “Authors and Works” and “Papyrological Publications” sections of Liddell et al. (1940, pp. xvi– xxxviii, xl–xlii). 2 Cf. the related notion of Homeric “Übersetzungseinlagen” (Walz, 2011, p. 2410).

Further reading Armstrong, R. H. (2014). Homer, translation. In G. K. Giannakis (Ed.), Encyclopedia of ancient Greek lan­ guage and linguistics (vol. 2, pp. 175–182). Brill. Cè, M. (2022). The secondary incipit of the Odyssey (Od. 9.39): Quotation, translation, and adaptation in the ancient reception of Homer. Classical Philology, 117(3), 411–437. Maronitis, D. N. (2008). Intralingual translation: Genuine and false dilemmas. In A. Lianeri & V. Zajko (Eds.), Translation and the classic: Identity as change in the history of culture (pp. 367–387). Oxford University Press. Montanari, F. (1995). Tradurre dal greco in greco: Parafrasi omeriche nella Grecia antica. In F. Montanari (Ed.), Studi di filologia omerica antica II (pp. 59–68). Giardini. Schironi, F. (2018). “The best of the grammarians”: Aristarchus of Samothrace on the Iliad (esp. pp. 76–90). University of Michigan Press.

References Bekker, I. (1833). Apollonii Sophistae lexicon Homericum. Reimer. Brock, S. P. (1979). Aspects of translation technique in antiquity. Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies, 20, 69–87. Burgess, J. S. (2001). The tradition of the Trojan War in Homer and the epic cycle. Johns Hopkins University Press. Burkert, W. (1976). Das hunderttorige Theben. Wiener Studien, 89, 5–21. Cè, M. (2021). The Ilias Latina in the context of ancient epitome translation. In M. J. Falcone & C. Schubert (Eds.), Ilias Latina: Text, interpretation, and reception (pp. 39–66). Brill. Collart, P. (1931). Les papyrus grecs d’Achmı̂ m à la Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris. Bulletin de l’Institut français d’archéologie orientale, 31, 39–110. Dickey, E. (2007). Ancient Greek scholarship: A guide to finding, reading, and understanding scholia, com­ mentaries, lexica, and grammatical treatises, from their beginnings to the Byzantine period. Oxford University Press. Erbse, H. (1977). Scholia graeca in Homeri Iliadem: Volumen V scholia ad libros Υ – Ω continens. De Gruyter. Ernst, N. (2004). Die D-Scholien zur Odyssee. Kritische Ausgabe [Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Universität zu Köln]. Fernández Delgado, J. A. (2012). La parafrasi omerica nei papiri scolastici. In G. Bastianini & A. Casanova (Eds.), I papiri omerici: Atti del convegno internazionale di studi: Firenze, 9–10 giugno 2011 (pp. 159– 176). Istituto Papirologico G. Vitelli. Garzya, A. (1954). Alcmane: I frammenti. S. Viti. Henrichs, A. (1971). Scholia minora zu Homer I. Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 7, 97–149. Honigman, S. (2003). The Septuagint and Homeric scholarship in Alexandria: A study in the narrative of the Letter of Aristeas. Routledge. Janko, R. (1987). Aristotle, Poetics I. With the Tractatus Coislinianus; a hypothetical reconstruction of Poet­ ics II; the fragments of the On Poets. Hackett. Kassel, R., & Austin, C. (1984). Poetae comici graeci. Volumen III 2: Aristophanes. De Gruyter. Kelly, A. (2015). Stesichorus’ Homer. In P. J. Finglass & A. Kelly (Eds.), Stesichorus in context (pp. 21–44). Cambridge University Press. Kousoulini, V. (2013). Alcmanic hexameters and early hexametric poetry: Alcman’s poetry in its oral context. Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies, 53, 420–440. Lake, P. G. (2011). Plato’s Homeric dialogue: Homeric quotation, paraphrase, and allusion in the Republic [Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Fordham University].

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Homer into Greek Latte, K., & Cunningham, I. C. (2020). Hesychii Alexandrini Lexicon. Volumen II (E – O). De Gruyter. Liddell, H. G., Scott, R., & Jones, H. S. (1940). A Greek-English lexicon (9th ed.). Clarendon Press. Lundon, J. (2012). The scholia minora in Homerum: An alphabetical list. Trismegistos Online Publications. Miguélez-Cavero, L. (2013). Triphiodorus: The Sack of Troy. A general study and a commentary. De Gruyter. Naddaff, R. (2002). Exiling the poets: The production of censorship in Plato’s Republic. The University of Chicago Press. Nünlist, R. (2015). What does Ὅμηρον ἐξ Ὀμήρου σαφηνίζειν actually mean? Hermes, 143, 385–403. Page, D. L. (1955). Sappho and Alcaeus: An introduction to the study of ancient Lesbian poetry. Clarendon Press. Pfeiffer, R. (1968). History of classical scholarship from the beginnings to the end of the Hellenistic age. Clarendon Press. Pontani, F. (2022). Scholia graeca in Odysseam V: Scholia ad libros ι – κ. Edizioni di storia e letteratura. Renner, T. (1979). Three new Homerica on papyrus. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, 83, 311–337. Squire, M. (2011). The Iliad in a nutshell: Visualizing epic on the Tabulae Iliacae. Oxford University Press. van Rossum-Steenbeek, M. (1998). Greek readers’ digests? Studies on a selection of subliterary papyri. Brill. van Thiel, H. (2002). Lexeis Homērikai. Universitäts- und Stadtbibliothek Köln. van Thiel, H. (2014). Scholia D in Iliadem. Universitäts- und Stadtbibliothek Köln. Wachter, R. (2009). Grammatik der homerischen Sprache. In J. Latacz (Ed.), Homers Ilias: Gesamtkommen­ tar. Prolegomena (3rd ed., pp. 61–108). De Gruyter. Walz, D. (2011). Der lateinische Homer in Antike, Mittelalter und Renaissance. In H. Kittel et al. (Eds.), Übersetzung – Translation – Traduction. Ein internationales Handbuch zur Übersetzungsforschung: 3. Teilband (pp. 2409–2417). De Gruyter. West, M. L. (1995). The date of the Iliad. Museum Helveticum, 52, 203–219. Wright, B. G. (2008). The Jewish scriptures in Greek: The Septuagint in the context of ancient translation activity. In B. G. Wright (Ed.), Praise Israel for wisdom and instruction: Essays on Ben Sira and wisdom, the Letter of Aristeas and the Septuagint (pp. 197–212). Brill. Wright, B. G. (2015). The Letter of Aristeas: ‘Aristeas to Philocrates’ or ‘On the translation of the law of the Jews’. De Gruyter.

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PART II

Intralingual translation Language varieties and ideology

7 INTRALINGUAL TRANSLATION AS A PRESTIGE-ENDOWING ACTIVITY FOR THE CYPRIOT GREEK DIALECT Vasso Giannakopoulou, Spyros Armostis Introduction1 Until the end of the 1990s, Jakobson’s (1959) tripartite categorization for the interpretation of the linguistic sign was cited as a curiosity, since the dominant, if not exclusive, understanding of translation as a practice was its interlingual form, which Jakobson himself designated “transla­ tion proper”. Since the turn of the millennium, with the strengthening of translation studies as an academic field, but also as a result of the dramatic changes brought about by globalization and the popularization of the Internet, intersemiotic translation has also developed exponentially reflect­ ing our broader understanding and daily experience of the concept of “text” to include systems of signification far beyond the verbal. The third type, intralingual translation, on the other hand, is still quite under-researched, albeit undeservedly so, as we will attempt to show.2 Intralingual translation as a practice, which usually includes cases of modernization from older forms of a language into the respective modern standard or from specialized registers to lay lan­ guage, corresponds to much fewer cases than the other two types of translation outlined by Jakob­ son. But the blatant oversight of this category cannot be explained solely on the basis of a smaller pool of case studies. In what follows, we shall show that it can be partly attributed to the fact that intralingual translation as a practice inadvertently undermines key premises of the concepts of nation and nationalism.

Translation and nation Translation in all its shapes and guises has been employed historically to promote widely different agendas beyond its obvious function of facilitating understanding across linguistic boundaries. At times, the promotion of these ideological agendas takes precedence over any communicative func­ tion the translations may serve. Canonical texts, and particularly the Bible, classical Greco-Roman texts, and Shakespeare’s works, have often been translated in order to use the symbolic capital held by those texts to endorse the validity of whatever agenda they were translated in the service of. One of the agendas that translation has been instrumental in promoting is the construction of nations and their respective national identities (see Damrosch, 2014). In the 15th century, the invention of the printing press in Europe, the rise of new collective identities, and the spread of 113

DOI: 10.4324/9781003188872-10

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humanism paved the way for multiple translations of the Bible into a large number of vernaculars throughout Europe. The symbolic capital of the Bible consecrated the vernaculars into which it was translated, endorsing their legitimacy as national languages of the new nation-states. One of the most politically influential Bible translations was that of Martin Luther. His transla­ tion of the Bible (the New Testament in 1525 and complete with the Old Testament in 1534) is con­ sidered the key text that triggered the Protestant Reformation. By offering the German-speaking people the Bible in the vernacular, Luther emancipated them politically and socially. Very soon after his Bible was published, there was unrest among the peasants, culminating in the Thuring­ ian revolt of 1525, despite Luther himself being adamantly opposed to it (for more on Luther’s translation, see Robinson, 2002, pp. 83–89). Furthermore, Luther’s translation was so sweepingly popular that it became the blueprint for German literary writing, and eventually for Modern High German. In the 19th century, translation was used again by the German Romantics to enrich the German language and literature and to help them both grow into worthy representatives of the new nation, while forging a German consciousness in the process.

Intralingual translation and nation: diachronic intralingual translation Diachronic intralingual translation is meant to bridge the gap between older texts and modern readers. Such modernizing efforts have often been greeted with scepticism or outright hostility, though, by traditionalists, who claim that such efforts are unnecessary, since the speakers of a lan­ guage have access to all its varieties, old and new, and that such translations will only vulgarize the source text and ruin its literary merits. The fallacious premise underpinning this claim is that the language on which a particular nation is firmly grounded constitutes a linear, uninterrupted historic continuum, which all its speakers partake in. In the case of the English language, for example, according to this premise, modern British readers can supposedly readily access Shakespeare’s works, written in Early Modern English over four centuries ago, as part of their heritage. Delabastita (2016, p. 1414) examines the moderniza­ tion of Shakespeare for contemporary readers “without taking sides in the controversy over their legitimacy”, but acknowledges that “this debate is definitely about more than ‘just’ language [as it is] predicated on a range of ideologically charged assumptions”. Among the many interesting points he raises, two are of particular relevance to us here. The first deals with English as the national language of England; if we called the modernizing versions “translations”, he says, “then Shakespearean English would appear to be an individual and historical dialect of the English language rather than a language in its own right” (p. 1413). The second one links intralingual translation with Shakespeare’s position as England’s national playwright; “Doesn’t the English language disown Shakespeare when one emphasizes his linguistic otherness by calling for transla­ tion?” (p. 1414). Such questions illustrate how scepticism towards modernizing Shakespeare via diachronic intralingual translation are inextricably linked with nation-related questions. The same narrative, according to which all native speakers have access to all previous forms of a language, can also be applied to the Greek language, only, in this case, the lineage of this sup­ posedly unified linear linguistic continuum, forming the foundation of the nation, can be traced as far back as 3,000 years ago. Upholding this claim leads to the untenable premise that modern speakers of Greek can fully access the language of Homer and therefore are in no need of intralin­ gual translation. An extreme expression of this stance unfolded at the beginning of the 20th cen­ tury, with a rally in 1901 to oppose the translation of the Gospels into Modern Greek and another one in 1903 to oppose the staging at the Royal Theatre of Aeschylus’ Oresteia trilogy in Modern Greek; both protests escalated into riots resulting in fatalities (for more on this see Horrocks, 2010, 114

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pp. 456–457; Mackridge, 2009, pp. 247–254). A milder expression of this narrative persists in high schools today, in which 2,500-year-old classical Greek texts are still taught in their original form. In the context of Greek culture, the very term “translation” to describe the modernization of texts from Ancient Greek into Modern Greek is considered hubris. To avoid challenging the official narrative, various alternative terms have been suggested, including George Seferis’ ‘transcription’ (metagrafi), Odysseus Elytis’ “a Modern Greek form” (morfi sta nea ellinika) in his translations of the Book of Revelation and Krinagoras or “recomposition and rendering” (anasyn­ thesi kai apodosi) in his translation of Sappho’s poetry (all terms mentioned in Maronitis, 2008, p. 382). So, not only is the practice of diachronic intralingual translation restricted as a result of the aforementioned premise, but even when it does take place, it is not acknowledged as being translation.

Intralingual translation and nation: dialectal intralingual translation Another form of intralingual translation that may inadvertently undermine the concept of nation is that which takes place across different dialectal varieties of the same language. Once a nation has chosen the variety that will be considered its standard form, it becomes sceptical or even outright hostile to all other varieties of the language. This is because the mere acknowledgment of the existence of other dialectal varieties destabilizes the supposed homogeneity of a nation (cf. Venuti, 2005, p. 178). The consecration of a particular variety as the standard version along with its ensuing codification lies at the very core of the nation-building process and the accompanying imaginary of a “common” language, culture, and history (see, e.g., Mackridge, 2009). Other varie­ ties are not to be codified or even written. As a result, translating between the standard and the various dialectal varieties of a language are met with strong scepticism, mirroring the aversion to their codification or even their potential to be written. The boundaries between languages and dialects are porous and depend on historical, political, ideological, and cultural factors. Our understanding of a “language” as opposed to a “dialect” depends on how we view the concept of “nation”, since a “national language” is nothing but the standardized version of one variety, chosen by a nation as its official one. The difference between a language and a dialect is thus as constructed and as contingent upon historical circumstance as the nation itself. This is mainly why intralingual translation from the standard variety into a dialectal variety and vice versa is generally viewed with scepticism, since acknowledging the existence of dialects alongside the standard variety of a language undermines the narrative of a homogeneous nation, whose very existence hinges on a common history and a common language (Anderson, 2006). In light of the aforementioned, Jakobson’s definition of intralingual translation as “an inter­ pretation of verbal signs by means of signs of the same language” (Jakobson, 1959, p. 233) is problematic, because it is porous; that is, whether one is translating within “the same language”, as Jakobson (1959, p. 233) put it, or from one language to another is directly linked to where we draw the boundaries of a language in relation to its other varieties be they temporal, geographi­ cal, or social. In other words, it is contingent and highly subjective. As Hill-Madsen states (2019, pp. 541–542, emphasis in the original): The well-known linguistic concept of dialect continua, the phenomenon by which different dialects shade into separate languages (Heap, 2006; Trudgill, 2006), means that translation between closely related and mutually intelligible languages such as Polish, Czech and Slo­ vakian or between Danish and Norwegian (Trudgill, 2006) borders on INTRA. Conversely, 115

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translation between distant dialects such as the Cantonese and Mandarin varieties of Chi­ nese can be seen as bordering on interlingual translation.3 Interestingly enough, but in accordance with its aforementioned versatility to promote the most contradictory causes, translation has also been used to promote “the preservation of so-called minor languages, or languages of limited diffusion” (Baer, 2000, p. 362). Once again, canonical texts have been regularly selected as source texts to be translated into “minor” languages or dia­ lectal varieties, so that the symbolic capital of the former can be tapped into in order to sanction the latter. To sum up, intralingual translation has, in our opinion, been under-researched, partly because it inadvertently undermines the concept of nation and nationalism, both inextricably linked with ideals of cultural, historical, and linguistic uniformity and stability. On the one hand, diachronic intralingual translation has historically been seen as redundant and, even when it has taken place, it has rarely been labelled translation; on the other hand, dialectal intralingual translation has also been frowned upon, because dialects have been viewed with scepticism and were not to be written or codified, as this could challenge the narrative of national and linguistic uniformity.

Cypriot Greek (CG) and its historical and socio-political background Historical background CG is a variety of Modern Greek (see, e.g., Newton, 1972) spoken by around 800,000 speakers on the island of Cyprus, but also by substantial diaspora communities abroad (Voniati et al., 2020). As is the case with all other Modern Greek varieties,4 CG derives from Medieval Greek (6th–15th centuries), itself having derived from Hellenistic Koine (3rd century BCE–6th century CE). It is believed to have developed as a distinct variety between the 7th and 13th centuries (Aerts, 1986, p. 388), arguably because, although the island was ruled jointly by the Arabs and the Byzantines until the 10th century, it was quite isolated from the rest of the Empire (Pantelidis, 1931, p. 324). The turbulent millennium that followed, during which the island successively fell under the rule of King Richard I of England and the Knights Templar (1191–1192), the French House of Lusignan (1192–1489), the Republic of Venice (1489–1570), the Ottoman Empire (1570–1878), and finally the British Empire (1878–1960), further reinforced the divergence of CG from other Greek varieties. In 1960, Cyprus became an independent sovereign state. As the two biggest ethnic groups on the island were the Greek Cypriot (GC) and Turkish Cypriot (TC) communities, the constitution of the fledgling Republic of Cyprus recognized Greek and Turkish as its two official languages. What the glottonyms “Greek” and “Turkish” actually refer to, though, are the respective standard varieties spoken in Greece and Türkiye, not the local varieties, CG and Cypriot Turkish (CT), which the members of each community acquire respectively from birth and use in their everyday communication.5 The new independent state originally encompassed both communities and the island in its entirety. However, animosity soon grew between the two aforementioned ethnic communities, cul­ minating in the inter-communal clashes of the 1960s, which drove the two communities apart and had drastic repercussions on all aspects of life on the island, including its linguistic landscape. In 1974, the intervention of the Turkish army in response to a coup d’état against the elected Cypriot government that had been staged with the support of the Greek dictatorial Regime of the Colonels culminated in the de facto partition of the island, which remains in effect to date. As a result, the 116

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two communities became segregated, with the TC community in the north and the GC community (along with all other Christian ethnic groups) in the south of the island. Despite the segregation, Standard Turkish (ST) de jure remains one of the two official languages of the Republic of Cyprus; in practice, though, it is no longer used in everyday communication in the areas controlled by the Government of the Republic of Cyprus, as there are no longer substantial Turkish-speaking popu­ lations there. In 2003, checkpoints across the UN-controlled buffer zone were opened, allowing the two communities to cross the demarcation line and meet after 29 years of complete segregation during which a whole new generation of Cypriots had been born and raised. This event had a profound impact on all Cypriots; it rekindled a reappraisal of the Cypriot issue and the relations between the two communities and triggered a series of bicommunal cultural projects, many of which included collaborations across the divide. Furthermore, it challenged the stereotypical view of the Other as the enemy and de facto induced Cypriots to reassess their cultural identity. Unsurprisingly, trans­ lation once again played an active role in bringing the two communities into contact, usually via English as the lingua franca, as the younger generations of both communities no longer speak the language of the Other.

The sociolinguistic situation in Cyprus today In 2004, the Republic of Cyprus joined the European Union. During the pre-accession period, in 1992, Cyprus signed the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and ratified it in 2002. Consequently, Western Armenian was recognized as a minority language (2002), followed by Cypriot Arabic (2008). In 2006, Cypriot Sign Language was officially acknowledged as the language of the deaf, yet another act that officially endorsed the island’s linguistic plurality. Regarding the Grecophone population of Cyprus, CG speakers have been described as bidi­ alectal (Papapavlou & Pavlou, 1998) or bilectal (Rowe & Grohmann, 2013), as they have (near) native competence in two proximal varieties: CG and Standard Modern Greek (SMG). While CG is acquired as the first language at home and is used as a vernacular, SMG is learnt mainly through the education system. As sister varieties stemming from a common ancestor, CG and SMG share fundamental lexico-grammatical elements. Nevertheless, due to their separate trajectories of his­ torical development (see above), the two varieties differ significantly in terms of structure and use, as they are considerably distinct regarding phonetics, grammar (phonology, morphology, and syn­ tax), lexicon/semantics, and even pragmatics (Newton, 1972; Terkourafi, 2007). These differences are arguably more obvious than the differences between, say, Serbian and Croatian, which have been recognized as distinct languages in the post-Yugoslav linguistic landscape. By contrast, CG and SMG are not considered as two distinct, even if related, languages, for his­ torical and socio-political reasons (also see Davis, 2014 and Hill-Madsen, 2019, pp. 541–542 on this). In sociolinguistic terms, CG is considered a dialect of Modern Greek that stands as the Low variety in its diglossic6 relationship to SMG, which is considered to be the High one (see, e.g., Rowe & Grohmann, 2013). Thus, SMG is the norm in institutional domains, such as government admin­ istration, formal education, and the media. This variety is associated with overt prestige, which means that it is deemed aesthetically and morally superior and appropriate for usage in more formal contexts; on the other hand, it is also considered by CG speakers as artificial and distant (Tsiplakou et al., 2006). Conversely, CG is perceived to have lower status, thus seen as an unsophisticated, “corrupt” version of SMG. However, CG speakers prefer using it in their daily transactions due to its covert prestige (Labov, 1966),7 that is, its being perceived as having positive traits, such as naturalness, sincerity, straightforwardness, authenticity, and thus as signalling solidarity and group 117

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identity (see, e.g., Papapavlou & Sophocleous, 2009). Nevertheless, its negative evaluation as an unrefined variety has resulted in its being restricted to informal use, mostly private, and primar­ ily spoken domains of interaction. CG thus lacks an officially codified writing system (Armostis et al., 2014), which in turn reinforces the perception that the dialect can only exist in its oral form, whereas the written medium is almost exclusively associated with the standard variety. These evaluative distinctions were mirrored in the genres in which each variety could be used. Until the end of the 20th century, the only “higher”/literary genres in which CG was acceptable were poetry (both popular and “elevated” poetry), staged comedies and vaudeville, radio sketches, and theatre with either comic or rustic themes, generally written in basilectal8 CG. It could also occasionally appear in “lower” genres, such as comic strips and caricatures in the press, radio advertisements (in which, like in radio sketches and theatre, comic and/or rustic themes were also typically in basilectal CG), traditional folk songs, or the odd off-script comment made by a television or radio programme host mostly aiming at a comic effect (Pavlou, 2004). SMG, on the other hand, was used in all other official or semi-official contexts, in public discourse, and “high” literature.

Goals and methodology In what follows, we will focus on how intralingual translation has added visibility and legitimacy to CG, especially since the turn of the millennium. In terms of methodology, we will adopt Gottlieb’s taxonomy (2018, pp. 51, 59–60), that sug­ gests the following six broad categories of intralingual translation: 1 Synchronic, “with original and translation as contemporaries” (p. 51). Examples of this type are abridged print versions of manuals and expanded online versions of magazine articles (p. 59). 2 Diachronic, “between texts belonging to different ages” (p. 51), which may include moderniza­ tions of old or archaic texts. 3 Dialectal, “between different geographical, social or generational language variants” (p. 51). 4 Diaphasic, “making expert texts accessible to the public, adult fiction suited for children, etc.” (p. 51). 5 Transliteration, “which involves a change in alphabet” (p. 51). 6 Diamesic, “involving a change in language mode, i.e., from speech to writing or vice versa” (p. 51). Although this chapter will focus primarily on dialectal intralingual translation, it will soon become apparent that most of our examples straddle a number of categories, as translation stubbornly defies all clear-cut categorizations.

Intralingual translation between Standard Modern Greek and Cypriot Greek Since the turn of the millennium, CG has been gaining increased visibility and a hitherto unimagi­ nable acceptability in a wider range of genres, contexts, and media. The following sections offer an overview of the many expressions of this trend (focusing specifically on the use of intralingual trans­ lation from and into CG), which, in the case of Cyprus, is particularly loaded for ideological reasons; despite the fact that Cyprus has never been part of the modern Greek state, the use of SMG symboli­ cally represents the strong cultural ties with Greece and the ethnic roots of the GCs. Conversely, the use of CG in the public domain is seen as a stance of Cypriot pride and ethnic independence. 118

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The early days: Cypriot Greek as oral tradition or curiosity The earliest intralingual translations from CG were the various bilectal dictionaries into the stand­ ard Greek variety of each period. Katsoyannou and Armostis (2019) mention the existence of only three dictionaries up until 1979, all published in Athens: One in 1868 during the Ottoman rule, and two during the British rule (one of which was a second edition of the 1868 dictionary). Since 1979, the number of new dictionaries has increased and they are published locally: One in the 1970s, five in the 1980s, 12 in the 1990s, ten in the 2000s, and 14 in the 2010s. Dialectal dictionaries of CG are a prime example of intralingual translation, as the standard practice in dialectal lexicography in Cyprus is the use of SMG as the target language, that is, for providing translation equivalents and brief definitions for CG lemmas; the use of CG both as a target and as a source language in a monolectal CG dictionary would be a marked choice, since the target language can only be a standard variety. Interestingly enough, even the Common Dictionary of Cypriot Greek and Cypriot Turkish (Hadjipieris & Kabataş, 2015) also uses the respective standard languages for translation equivalents and definitions of Cypriot lemmas. On the other hand, the second author of this chapter has recently been asked on several occasions to create an SMG-to-CG dictionary, a request that reflects the ever-growing interest of CG speakers in tools to help them write in the dialect. Another case of intralingual translation occurred between 1994 and 1995, when the authorities attempted to dedialectalize the toponyms on road signs to conform to the phonology of SMG. In some cases, the general public found the suggested toponyms unacceptable, for example Aglangia and Lakkia (pronounced as [ɐɣlɐɲˈɟɐ] and [lɐˈcɐ]) instead of Aglandjia and Latchia ([ɐɣlɐˈnd͡ʒɐ] and [lɐˈt͡ʃʰːɐ]) as normally pronounced in CG (Karyolemou, 2000). The residents of those two areas expressed outrage at this attempt and their protests annulled the decision, at least on the road signs, if not also on maps. This case of intralingual translation illustrates both dialectal and synchronic translation, as well as transliteration with the attempted changes in the written repre­ sentation of the toponyms. In the late 1990s, the IRC9 and electronic mail, and since 2000 text messaging or SMS, became quite popular means of daily computer-mediated communication in Cyprus. Synchronous commu­ nication via IRC chats and SMS text messages offers the means to exchange personal, unofficial messages that in essence employ oral language, despite being rendered in written form. In the case of Grecophone Cypriots, the language variety they use in everyday oral communication, as already mentioned, is CG, a variety, however, that lacks an officially codified writing system; this brought CG speakers up against the problem of how to render their oral communication in written form. By a twist of (technological) fate, though, a makeshift solution was employed to address the lack of a written representation for CG. The early Internet had a number of limitations, includ­ ing its limited support for non-Roman scripts. This led Greek-speaking Internet users to resort to Roman (and in general ASCII) characters to represent Greek, a practice popularly known as “Greeklish”. This practical solution was liberating for the CG-speaking users, as it provided a makeshift solution for the problem of the written representation of the dialect, with the additional benefit that it allowed the representation in writing of CG phonemes that do not exist in SMG. For the first time ever, GCs were thus exposed to massively reading and writing in dialect which, even if inadvertently, increased the dialect’s visibility and its legitimacy in the public sphere. In this instance, we not only have an example of dialectal intralingual translation but also diamesic intralingual translation, since in practical terms, the oral version of the language was encoded into writing. In 2001, the landmark sitcom Vourate Geitonoi [To the Rescue, Neighbours!] was launched on Cypriot television. The series became an instant hit and retained its popularity until its end in 2010. 119

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Its originality lay not in its urban setting, as there had been other such series before, but in its use of a youth slang, which made it extremely appealing to the audience. The series had contradic­ tory effects on its many viewers, though. On the one hand, it endowed CG with a certain prestige and visibility. On the other, it inadvertently reinforced the established stigma that CG is of lower standing, fit only for peasants in rural environments: This view was reaffirmed by the popularity of a character named Nastazia, a Bourgeois-Gentilhomme type, who frowned upon the use of dialect and attempted to express herself in SMG, but who blurted out ludicrous linguistic bricolages, as she was not well-versed in that variety (cf. Georgiou, 2010).

The interim: Cypriot Greek gradually loses its stigma and becomes more visible In the early 2000s, with the ever-growing popularization of the use of the Internet and the digital media, new forms of communication appeared in Cyprus, among which weblogs (aka blogs). Unlike types of synchronous communication discussed previously, blogs are understood as more permanent written forms of expression. What was interesting in the case of Cypriot bloggers was that, instead of using SMG, as would be expected for semi-formal communication, some chose to express them­ selves in dialect. Furthermore, in doing so, they ventured to find ways to encode their texts using the Greek script instead of the Roman one that had been used until then.10 This practice resulted in further promoting the visibility of CG and, even more importantly, in promoting its use in more elevated, “serious” or semi-formal cases of writing, for which it had been deemed “inadequate” until then. In 2007, Nikolai Gogol’s Diary of a Madman was staged in CG. The translation was intralin­ gual, as its source text was a translation of the play into SMG, rather than the Russian original. At the time, dialect was used only for plays with rural settings, comedies, and vaudeville, and was considered unacceptable for “serious”, “elevated” drama. The use of dialect in the Diary was groundbreaking, as it challenged the norm and used dialect in a “serious” play for the first time. The whole venture, from the choice of source text and the translation to the direction and staging, was undertaken by director Spiros Charalambous and actor Marios Ioannou. The single-act play was staged initially in the capital, Nicosia, but since then it has toured very successfully in towns and villages throughout the island and abroad, including a staging before a diaspora GC audience in London, as well as one at a theatre festival in Cairo. The production of the play is such that it allows for much spontaneity and improvisation, making every staging unique. The use of dialect by the main character, Poprishchin, was felicitous in that it managed to move the GC audiences as SMG could never have done, both in the first half of the play when the dialect produces a much more humorous effect, but also in the second half in which the afflicted and ailing hero has succumbed to madness. In both cases, the use of dialect effectively rendered the plot much more pertinent to the GCs, as, through its covert prestige that encompasses feelings of solidarity, it appealed to their sentiments and built their empathy with the hero, who became the man next door. The promotion of its most recent staging in 2020 included the following remarks: “A core aspect of this production is the fact that Poprishchin speaks in the Cypriot vernacular,11 so that his words are more comprehensible and accessible to the Cypriot viewer. . . . A bittersweet voyage in a sea of laughter and tears heading towards a redeeming horizon” (“A madman’s diary”, 2020). This state­ ment demonstrates that the choice of dialect was not incidental or peripheral, but a conscious, key decision to foreground the richness of CG and its expressive ability to cater for works of elevated literature. This pioneering move has been followed by many since then, to such a degree that the use of dialect is completely acceptable for all kinds of theatrical genres on Cypriot stages today. During the same year, 2007, the publication of Asterix at the Olympic Games in CG offered a quite different example of intralingual translation. While the previous case of intralingual 120

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translation had been the result of two artists’ spontaneous endeavour to break the norm and intro­ duce the use of the vernacular in an elevated play, the translator Loukia Taxitari was commissioned the translation by Mamouthcomix, the publishing house that owns the rights for the series of Asterix in Greece (Goscinny & Uderzo, 1968/2007). Alongside the reprinting of the title in SMG, the publisher launched a series of translations into various dialects, namely Cypriot Greek, Pontic Greek, and Cretan Greek, in addition to the Classical Attic Greek that had already been published as early as 1992. A loose pamphlet, informing the reader about the respective language variety and containing a glossary of terms, accompanied all these intralingual editions, dialectal and dia­ chronic. The choice of source text was, of course, not coincidental, since this is the only title in the series that is set in Ancient Greece. The publication of the translations was originally planned for the period leading up to the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens (Hoogeboom & Selles, 2021). Since this plan did not pan out, however, the publisher chose to launch them right before the French film of the same title (Astérix aux Jeux Olympiques, 2008) came out, apparently for marketing purposes (Hoogeboom & Selles, 2021). Unlike the previous cases of CG usage, which were initiated at grassroots level, these intra­ lingual translations, commissioned by an established publishing house, aimed at capitalizing on feelings of national pride during the period leading to the 2004 Olympic Games in Greece. Since Mamouthcomix was not seeking to promote the use of dialect, their initiative can be seen as topdown and does not challenge any norm, as it is used in a comic book, that is, a work of pop culture. That said, since Asterix is a canonical comic series and the particular title referring to Ancient Greece, a topic of high symbolic capital for speakers of all Greek varieties, it inadvertently pro­ moted the visibility of the dialectal varieties used. Although the translator, Loukia Taxitari (personal communication, 23 January 2022), used the original French text as her source for translating into CG, she also consulted the SMG version. Using multiple versions as source texts is quite common, especially in literary translation, as any practising translator would testify. Nevertheless, in terms of translation theory, this practice once again challenges the Jakobsonian categorization, since it constitutes both an interlingual and an intralingual translation practice. Another landmark in Cypriot television history was the sitcom Aigia Fouxia [Fuchsia-Coloured She-Goat] (2008–2010) set in a Cypriot village in the early 20th century. Unlike previous series with similar traditional settings, Aigia Fouxia was original in using a humorously anachronistic language stylization by mixing basilectal elements from diverse subvarieties of CG with modern CG slang, SMG, and English. Thus, the series became an instant success with an unprecedented linguistic impact in Cyprus, as it arguably contributed significantly to the legitimization of CG and to the removal of the stigma associated with its public use. By portraying very relatable characters who would speak about issues of interest to modern audiences in a language that was humorous but also fresh, the series increased the covert prestige of the dialect, that is, the feeling of pride in speaking their variety.

The present: the legitimacy of CG is expanding to more and more genres By the end of the 2000s, with the advent and rapid spread of social media, and particularly Facebook and Twitter, Cypriots started changing their means of everyday communication.12 The type of informal publishing encouraged by these platforms allows anyone to post messages on their walls, more often than not in dialect. People who until then were discouraged from using their dialect in public started writing in it on a massive scale. Never before in history had written CG been produced so massively. 121

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By 2009, the first tools to transcribe the dialect had appeared. A CG keyboard was originally devised in the framework of linguistic research by linguist Charalambos Themistokleous. Later, linguists Spyros Armostis and Dimitris Karayiannis designed CG keyboards to be used on various computer platforms, for the first time offering to the public a technological means to represent CG phonemes that do not exist in SMG. Since proponents of dialect use had long been striving to find ways to actually write in it, they jumped at the technical solution offered by the keyboards. Promi­ nent figures such as director and filmmaker Adonis Floridis and printmaker and author Hambis Tsangaris have been using the CG keyboard ever since to express themselves not only in their daily communication, but also in their public discourse, which can be categorized as dialectal, diamesic, and transliteration via the CG keyboard. Meanwhile, a number of popularized scientific texts started appearing in the press, written in CG and addressing the general public, including articles on the dialect itself (see Skarpari, 2016; Tsolakidis & Loizidou-Ieridou, 2012). These texts are also intralingual diaphasic transla­ tions, since they are essentially specialized texts simplified for the general public. Furthermore, they are also dialectal intralingual not only in the sense of employing a dialectal variety, but also from another perspective. As the norm for serious writing is SMG, the authors of these texts find themselves in the awkward situation of having to inhibit their default tendency to write in SMG, the variety which they have been inculcated to employ in formal settings, in order to use CG, the variety they choose to employ defying the norm, ending up constantly switching codes as they are attempting to translate their thoughts between the two varieties. Although these attempts remain rare, they are breaking new ground, since they are trying to prove the richness of CG and its ability to deal with specialized and technical topics. In 2010, a new National Curriculum for language was introduced, which, for the first time, included CG in the study of Greek in the context of a proposed pedagogy of critical literacy. As one of the primary aims of critical pedagogy is the critical awareness of the social-semiotic func­ tion of linguistic variation (see Tsiplakou et al., 2018), the new curriculum proposed capitalizing on variation as a tool for cultivating the students’ meta- and socio-linguistic awareness, which in the Greek-speaking context of Cyprus inevitably includes CG. The dialect was thereby introduced not as a distinct school subject, but as a tool to acquire SMG by comparing the structure, lexicon, and use of the two varieties. However, this unprecedented introduction of CG in the teaching of Greek and the proposed removal of its stigma through increased sociolinguistic awareness led to heated debates with even the official Church denouncing the new curriculum and critical literacy. As a result, the 2010 language curriculum was abandoned in 2013 under the new administration. Intralingual translation has also been employed in recent popular TV game shows, such as Paizoume kypriaka [“Playing in Cypriot Greek”] (2011–2014) and Pou sou nefko [Neither Here nor There] (2013–2014). In the former, the players’ main task was to select the correct rendering of CG words and phrases into SMG out of five options provided, whereas the latter comprised a series of challenges, including word games featuring the use of CG. Both shows met with unprec­ edented popularity, as they tapped into the dialect’s covert prestige to create a light, playful atmos­ phere built on the collective identity of the CG speakers. The use of CG in Ate Olan [“Oh, come on!”], a 2019 board game based on the classic game Taboo, also used the dialect’s covert prestige to promote a fun, communal spirit among its players.

Case study 1: The Little Prince In 2018, translator and Turkish Studies scholar Iakovos Hadjipieris decided to translate Antoine de Saint-Exupéry’s The Little Prince into CG from an intermediate English translation, as well as 122

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Greek and Turkish translations (de Saint-Exupéry, 1943/2018). His choice of source text was any­ thing but coincidental. The Little Prince has been allegedly translated into 300–400 languages and dialects, making it one of the most translated books in history, largely due to its easily translatable core and the universal human values it promotes, such as friendship, love, creativity, and imagi­ nation. A major motive for translating The Little Prince into CG was the translator’s love for the dialect and his confidence in its expressive potential. In a personal communication (Hadjipieris, 8 February 2022), the translator avowed that he chose to translate the Prince precisely because it is one of the most well-known books in world literature, that is, for its symbolic capital. Further­ more, this book has actually been employed in the particular service of preserving endangered languages, as Marjoleine Boonstra illustrates in her documentary The Miracle of the Little Prince (Boonstra, 2018). The publication of the book in CG was received enthusiastically in Cyprus by younger and older readers alike. Hadjipieris took great pains to promote it through numerous radio broadcasts and book presentations in bookshops and cultural spaces in the south and the north of the island. Since the book was aimed at children (albeit not exclusively), it was received very positively even by the mainstream media. Soon after its publication, the translation was adapted into a one-person play by Andreas Nikolaidis and staged at the ARTos Foundation cultural centre in May 2019, under the direction of Kostas Silvestros, with actor Giannis Minos playing all the parts. Hadjipieris also adapted one of Aesop’s fables, To Liontarin, o Lykos tzi’ o Aloupos [The Lion, the Wolf, and the Fox] (Hadjipieris, 2020) for CG-speaking children using the local fauna as heroes, one for each letter of the alphabet. The idea was once again to expand the use of CG to new genres and audiences. Following the great success of The Little Prince in CG and encouraged by their friend, transla­ tor Iakovos Hadjipieris, TC translators Ahmet Serdar Gökaşan and Hakan Karahasan, who had already been long pondering a respective venture in the north, decided to translate it into CT in 2019 with the title Güçük Prens – Kıbrıs Türkçesi (de Saint-Exupéry, 1943/2019). In a presenta­ tion of this second translation, Hadjipieris said proudly that “now that the Prince has been trans­ lated into both major dialects of the island, he has become fully Cypriot” (Mazi/Birlikte, 2020), implying that the two communities together form indispensable, complementary parts of Cyprus’ cultural identity. The intralingual translation from ST into CT was even more groundbreaking, as there have been very limited cases of writing and even less of translating into CT. All 1,000 copies of the book’s first edition sold out within the first 25 days of publication, and it is already running to its third edition, which is a tremendous feat for such a limited local book market. This unprecedented success demonstrates the people’s appetite for translations into CT and guarantees that more such ventures are bound to appear very soon.

Case study 2: Waiting for Godot In 2021, the theatrical group AntiLogos [CounterArgument] staged Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot in intralingual translation in both dialects, with a GC, Giorgos Kyriakou, and a TC, İzel Seylani, in the lead roles of Vladimir and Estragon respectively, in the UN Buffer Zone. The staging was conceived and directed by director Kostas Silvestros, who also directed the stage adaptation of The Little Prince; Silvestros had long been considering a production of Beck­ ett’s absurdist play before finally venturing to produce it (CyBC1, 2021). The play’s script was the result of intralingual translations from SMG into CG and from ST into CT. The Greek part of the text was an intralingual stage adaptation into CG by the director himself, based on the published translation of the play into SMG by Alexandra Papathanasopoulou 123

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(Beckett, 1952/1994). Translator Maria Siakalli was commissioned to produce the play script in ST and, to do so, she used both Silvestros’ play script in CG and the published translation of the play in ST by Uğur Ün and Tarık Günersel (Beckett, 1952/2012). Subsequently, during the rehearsal process, the TC actor İzel Seylani, who played the part of Estragon, rendered it interlin­ gually in CT. The production opened at the bicommunal cultural centre House of Cooperation in the UN Buffer Zone. The location could not have been more felicitous, as the audience would come from both sides of the divide, mingling outside the venue as they waited to be ushered in, and be seated on the rooftop overlooking the UN-controlled Ledra Palace Hotel, the barbed wire, and the checkpoints, as well as both sides of the divided city. The director painfully remembers that they had to rehearse at the House of Cooperation, in the no-man’s-land of the UN Buffer Zone, as the checkpoints were closed after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, but what was even more shocking and painful for him was to see the two actors heading off in the opposite directions of the divide after each rehearsal (CyBC1, 2021). In terms of the language choices made for the staging, what was groundbreaking and absolutely fascinating was that the two actors spoke in their respective language variety, while surtitles ran in real time in the background giving access to the audience to the other language variety. The play itself is so powerful and the effect of setting it in the buffer zone with an actor from each commu­ nity so brilliantly effective in underlining the absurdity of the whole situation, that the language barrier disappeared, and the audience, whatever their ethnic and linguistic background, were not conscious of the inaccessibility to the Other or their language. Ethnic and linguistic differences became irrelevant and inconsequential, and what was foregrounded was the characters’ shared lived experience through good and bad moments in their relationship while waiting in vain for Godot – a solution to their plight from above? a miracle? After its initial staging in the UN Buffer Zone, the production toured to many towns and vil­ lages on both sides of the divide with great success. According to the director (Kostas Silvestros, personal communication, 7 February 2022), the production had already been staged 42 times all over the island, with more appearances being advertised at the time of writing. In October 2021, the production participated in the Maltepe International Theatre Festival (Uluslararası Maltepe Tiyatro Festivali), after an invitation by the latter’s director, who was impressed when he saw it in Kyrenia. At the festival in Istanbul, it was met with great enthusiasm by audience and judges alike and it received two awards, one for the director and a joint one for the two actors. This is an intriguing case of intralingual translation, which challenges any strict categoriza­ tion. It is dialectal, from the two standards to their respective Cypriot dialects; it is also dia­ mesic, since there was a combination of oral and written language in the form of surtitles. The rendering into CT defies strict categorization even more, as it falls within an impressive number of categories. The translator worked from the director’s adaptation into CG, which makes it both interlingual and dialectal, as well as a published translation in ST, which also makes it intralingual. One might even consider it synchronic, since it toured addressing the “same” audi­ ences, albeit in a different context. And, of course, it is still dialectal and diamesic, in the sense described earlier.

Some closing remarks on intralingual translation Returning full circle to our initial discussion of intralingual translation and after having examined a number of different examples in the context of Cyprus, we would like to recapitulate some meth­ odological reservations in relation with strict taxonomies. 124

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Firstly, as we saw in the examples of Asterix at the Olympic Games, The Little Prince, and Waiting for Godot, the translators used more than one source text. Consulting different editions, translations in their target language and in any other languages they may have access to, as well as literary reviews and analyses is common practice for translators, especially when the source text is a canonical literary text. In such cases, it is practically impossible to separate the interlingual process from the intralingual one. Secondly, there is an inherent problem in Jakobson’s definition of intralingual translation because it hinges upon the definition of “language”, a category that is not delimited via objec­ tive criteria but is contingent upon historical, ideological, and political circumstances, and whose boundaries with “dialect(s)” are porous rather than hard and fast. Finally, however useful the various subcategories of intralingual translation may be for meth­ odological purposes, in real life translation practice stubbornly defies strict categorizations and more often than not crosses taxonomic boundaries, as became particularly clear in our example of the translation of Waiting for Godot. The rich and multifaceted practice described previously stubbornly resists bipolar opposites, such as translation as opposed to adaptation, source-oriented vs. target-oriented, translating the form or the content, the word or the spirit, and endless others.

Conclusion Despite all the taxonomic problems described earlier, intralingual translation can legitimately be perceived as a type of translation, not only because it is sometimes practised alongside interlingual translation, but also because it shares all the core problems posed by interlingual translation and opens up yet further fascinating questions of its own, some of which we touched upon in this arti­ cle, such as the boundary of a standard language in relation with dialects, the historical continuity of a language, and power relations among various language varieties. The examples discussed include some of the most notable cases of (intralingual) translation that have offered the necessary symbolic capital and by extension have been instrumental in legiti­ mizing CG in genres in which it would have been unacceptable not 20 years ago. By presenting a number of dialectal intralingual translations within the sociohistorical context of their production, we have showed how they became instrumental in adding visibility and in effect consecrating this particular variety of Modern Greek among its users. Due to the symbolic capital of its canonical source texts, intralingual translation has been particularly effective in legitimizing the relatively recent trend of the expanding uses of CG in increasingly more genres. Overall, intralingual translation provides a fascinating area of investigation, inextricably linked to a series of complex questions, and therefore definitely deserves more attention than what it has hitherto attracted.

Notes 1 We would like to thank Adonis Floridis, Iakovos Hadjipieris, Giorgos Kyriacou, İzel Seylani, Maria Siakalli, Kostas Silvestros, and Loukia Taxitari for all the information they provided us with in relation to their use of Cypriot Greek in various genres. 2 Notable exceptions include Berk Albachten (2013, 2014, 2015), Hill-Madsen (2014), Zethsen (2007 and 2009), and Zethsen and Hill-Madsen (2016). 3 Also see Berk Albachten (2014, p. 574) on this. 4 With arguably the exception of Tsakonian Greek (cf. Horrocks, 2010, pp. 87–88). 5 Before the segregation of the two communities, CG was also spoken natively by many members of the TC community, who were bilingual in CT and CG. Some TC villages were even monolingual, with CG (which they call Romeika) being their only first language (see Ioannidou et al., 2019).

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Vasso Giannakopoulou, Spyros Armostis 6 A diglossic situation exists in a society when two (or more) distinct language varieties are used in a fairly complementary functional distribution by a single speech community, in the sense that different varieties are used for a different set of circumstances (Ferguson, 1959; Fishman, 1967). One of the varieties has elevated social status and is thus considered the “High” variety, while the other one(s) the “Low”. 7 Or co-overt prestige, according to Rowe and Grohman (2013). 8 A basilect is the version of a language variety whose grammar and lexicon deviate the most from the form of the language that carries the highest prestige; the CG basilect consists of the rural sub-varieties of CG, which are characterized by emblematically dialectal lexico-grammatical elements (see e.g., Katsoyannou et al., 2006; Tsiplakou et al., 2006). 9 IRC or Internet Relay Chat is an interactive Internet service for synchronous group communication in online discussion forums (aka chat rooms) organized by topic. IRC was very popular in Cyprus during the mid-2000s (Themistocleous, 2010). 10 Indicatively, e.g., Ioannou (2006), who switched to the use of CG dialect as early as 2007, Andreou (2011), and Aceras Anthropophorum (2009). 11 By “Cypriot vernacular”, the translator refers to the “CG vernacular”, but considers it redundant to men­ tion which of the Cypriot vernaculars he is referring to, as the announcement is addressed to GCs. 12 According to Datareportal (accessed 2 February 2022), out of a population of 1.21 million in January 2021, there were 1.04 million Internet users, which equals to a penetration of 86.1% and 1 million among them or 82.5% of the population were users of social media at the time.

Further reading Cerruti, M., & Tsiplakou, S. (Eds.). (2020). Intermediate language varieties: Koinai and regional standards in Europe (Studies in Language Variation 24). John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/silv.24 Findlay, B. (2000). Translating standard into dialect: Missing the target? In C. Upton (Ed.), Moving target (pp. 35–46). St. Jerome. Hadjioannou, X., Tsiplakou, S., & Kappler, M. (2011). Language policy and language planning in Cyprus. Current Issues in Language Planning, 12(4), 503–569. https://doi.org/10.1080/14664208.2011.629113 Kullberg, C., & Watson, D. (2022). Vernaculars in an age of world literatures. Bloomsbury. Leerssen, J. (2006). National thought in Europe: A cultural history. Amsterdam University Press.

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Vasso Giannakopoulou, Spyros Armostis Katsoyannou, M., & Armostis, S. (2019). Διαλεκτική λεξικογραφία στην Κύπρο: Προκλήσεις και προοπτικές [Dialectical lexicography in Cyprus: Challenges and perspectives]. In G. A. Karla, I. Manolessou, & N. Pantelidis (Eds.), Lexeis: Festschrift for Christina Bassea-Bezantakou (pp. 187–210). Kardamitsa. Katsoyannou, M., Papapavlou, A., & Tsiplakou, S. (2006). Διδιαλεκτικές κοινότητες και γλωσσικό συνεχές: Η περίπτωση της κυπριακής [Bidialectal communities and the linguistic continuum: The case of Cypriot Greek]. In Μ. Janse, B. Joseph, & A. Ralli (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2nd international conference on Modern Greek dialects and linguistic theory (pp. 156–171). University of Patras. Labov, W. (1966). The social stratification of English in New York City. Cambridge University Press. Mackridge, P. (2009). Language and national identity in Greece, 1766–1976. Oxford University Press. “A madman’s diary” production team. (16 November 2020). Το ημερολόγιο ενός τρελού/Σπιθκιάσιμον edi­ tion [A madman’s diary/Homemade edition] [Press release]. https://parathyro.politis.com.cy/2020/11/ to-imerologio-enos-trelou-spithkiasimon-edition/ Maronitis, D. N. (2008). Intralingual translation: Genuine and false dilemmas (Y. Agoustis, Trans.). In A. Lianeri & V. Zajko (Eds.), Translation and the classic identity as change in the history of culture (pp. 367– 386). Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199288076.003.0017 Mazi/Birlikte [Together]. (2020, July 7). Mazi/Birlikte full program 05/07/2020 [Video]. Facebook. www. facebook.com/108904660565490/videos/1863327637137382/ Newton, B. (1972). Cypriot Greek: Its phonology and inflections. Mouton. Pantelidis, C. (1931). Περί της μεσαιωνικής κυπριακής διαλέκτου [About medieval Cypriot Greek]. Byzanti­ nische Zeitschrift, 31(1), 324–327. https://doi.org/10.1515/byzs.1931.31.1.324 Papapavlou, A. N., & Pavlou, P. (1998). A review of the sociolinguistic aspects of the Greek Cyp­ riot dialect. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 19(3), 212–220. https://doi. org/10.1080/01434639808666353 Papapavlou, A. N., & Sophocleous, A. (2009). Relational social deixis and the linguistic construction of iden­ tity. International Journal of Multilingualism, 6(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790710802531151 Pavlou, P. (2004). Greek dialect use in the mass media in Cyprus. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 2004, 168 (The Sociolinguistics of Cyprus I: Studies from the Greek sphere), 101–118. https:// doi.org/10.1515/ijsl.2004.026 Robinson, D. (2002). Western translation theory from Herodotus to Nietzsche. Routledge. (Original work published 1977 by St. Jerome). Rowe, C., & Grohmann, K. K. (2013). Discrete bilectalism: Towards co-overt prestige and diglossic shift in Cyprus. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 2013(224), 119–142. https://doi.org/10.1515/ ijsl-2013-0058 Skarpari, C. (2016, March 22). Αφιέρωμαν στην κυπριακήν διάλεκτον [A tribute to Cypriot Greek]. City.com. cy. Retrieved January 29, 2022, from https://city.sigmalive.com/article/2016/3/22/dialektos/ Terkourafi, M. (2007). Perceptions of difference in the Greek sphere: The case of Cyprus. Journal of Greek Linguistics, 8(1), 60–96. https://doi.org/10.1075/jgl.8.06ter Themistocleous, C. (2010). Writing in a non-standard Greek variety: Romanized Cypriot Greek in online chat. Writing Systems Research, 2(2), 155–168. https://doi.org/10.1093/wsr/wsq008 Trudgill, P. (2006). Language and dialect: Linguistic varieties. In K. Brown (Ed.), Encyclopedia of language and linguistics (2nd ed., p. 647). Elsevier. Tsiplakou, S., Ioannidou, E., & Hadjioannou, X. (2018). Capitalizing on linguistic variation in Greek Cypriot education. Linguistics and Education, 45, 62–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2018.03.006 Tsiplakou, S., Papapavlou, A., Pavlou, P., & Katsoyannou, M. (2006). Levelling, koinéization and their im­ plications for bidialectism. In F. Hinskens (Ed.), Language variation – European perspectives. Selected papers from the third international conference on language variation in Europe (ICLaVE 3), Amsterdam, June 2005 (pp. 265–276). John Benjamins. Tsolakidis, S., & Loizidou-Ieridou, N. (2012, February 17). Ομιλείτε ελληνικά; [Do you speak Greek?]. City Free Press, 295, 12–14. Venuti, L. (2005). Local contingencies: Translation and national identities. In S. Bermann & M. Wood (Eds.), Nation, language and the ethics of translation (pp. 177–202). Princeton University Press. Voniati, L., Tafiadis, D., Armostis, S., Kosma, E., & Chronopoulos, S. (2020). Lexical diversity in CypriotGreek-speaking toddlers: A preliminary longitudinal study. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, 73(4), 277–288. https://doi.org/10.1159/000507621

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8 INTRA- AND INTERLINGUAL TRANSLATION FROM A DIACHRONIC PERSPECTIVE The South Slavic folk ballad Hasanaginica Višnja Jovanović Introduction The South Slavic folk ballad Hasanaginica (literally The Wife of Hasan Aga) had been passed down through generations for probably more than a century before its publication in Alberto Fortis’ travelogue Viaggio in Dalmazia (A Journey to Dalmatia; 1774/1974). The discovery of Hasanaginica by the European intelligentsia soon led to it being translated by well-established literary figures: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe1 (1775) into German; Walter Scott2 (1798) into English;3 Alexander Pushkin (1835) and Anna Akhmatova (1950) into Russian; Prosper Mérimée (1827) and Adam Mickiewicz (1841) into French.4 To date, Hasanaginica has been translated into more than 40 languages, and it has frequently been retranslated into German and English (Jones, 2010). However, although Hasanaginica has proved popular in foreign languages,5 the name of its source language has been the subject of heated debates. The ballad’s language has been variously described as “Morlacchian” (Goethe, 1775/1975, p. 75); “Serbo-Croatian” (Burkhart, 2006, p. 26; Butler, 1980); “Bosnian” (Bulić, 2014, p. 12); “Croatian” (Lukežić, 2005); “Serbian” (Stefanović Karadžić, 1846/1975, p. 310); “Bosnian–Croatian–Serbian” (Jones, 2010); and “South Slavic” (Mecklenburg, 2015, p. 80). From a modern perspective, Hasanaginica is understandable to speakers of as many as four modern South Slavic standards – Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin.6 Despite the high degree of mutual comprehensibility, these modern standards are today considered to be separate languages. For most of the twentieth century, Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin were regarded as different varieties of the Serbo-Croatian language, which was spoken in the country of Yugoslavia. When Yugoslavia disintegrated in the 1990s, Serbo-Croatian was administratively replaced with the successor languages to Serbo-Croatian: Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, and later Montenegrin. These new languages corresponded to the newly created nation states of Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia, and later Montenegro. The ballad Hasanaginica, however, precedes standardisa­ tion of any of these South Slavic languages. Many linguistic features present in Hasanaginica are mutual to all of these standards, making the ballad’s linguistic classification ambiguous and complex in modern terms. Consequently, the poem seems to resist translation as well. For, if Hasanaginica is in, say, Croatian, how can we translate it into, say, Serbian, when the very original already reads as a Serbian text? By extension, one may ask: If Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, and DOI: 10.4324/9781003188872-11

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Montenegrin are separate languages, as their official statuses suggest, how come they resist being mutually translatable? The ballad’s trajectory through various linguistic, historical, and political entities can serve as a starting point to investigate different categories of translation. The linguistic fluidity sur­ rounding the ballad calls into question the rigidity of Roman Jakobson’s (1959/2012) concepts of intra- and interlingual translation. Intralingual translation refers to translation that operates within a single language, whereas interlingual translation refers to translation that operates between separate languages. An implicit premise of Jakobson’s (1959/2012) definition is the ability to distinguish between the source and target languages. With Hasanaginica, this is a com­ plicated task, thus challenging the idea that intra- and interlingual translation are clearly identifi­ able categories. This chapter aims to determine the cause of this instability from a diachronic perspective. The chapter is divided into three parts. The first part introduces the theoretical and methodolog­ ical framework. The second part presents a historical overview of South Slavic languages spoken in former Yugoslavia. The third part investigates Hasanaginica’s background and discusses the ways in which literature, languages, and their borders evolve – with a view to demonstrating how the passing of time affects how we identify intra- and interlingual translation.

Theoretical and methodological framework In his seminal essay “On linguistic aspects of translation” (1959/2012), Roman Jakobson distin­ guishes three types of translation: a Intralingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language. b Interlingual translation or translation proper is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language. c Intersemiotic translation or transmutation is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal sign system. (Jakobson, [1959] 2012, 127; bullet points and emphasis added) Although Jakobson presents three categories of translation, it is the distinction between intra- and interlingual translation that is central to this investigation, as the chapter focusses on the domain of verbal expression. Jakobson’s “three kinds of translation” are based on the “ways of interpret­ ing a verbal sign” (Jakobson, 1959/2012, p. 127). As these “ha[ve] been worked out in terms of the relations (differences and similarities) between the basic types of the two codes, in which the respective entities are encoded” (Toury, 1986, p. 1113, emphasis in the original), it is safe to refer to them as types of “translational relations”. Jakobson’s (1959/2012) typology has been widely commented upon (Berk Albachten, 2014; Davis, 2014; Derrida, 1985; Gottlieb, 2018; Hermans, 1997; Krstić, 2021; Pym, 1992/2010; Stur­ rock, 1991; Torop, 2002; Toury, 1986, among others). Examined from multiple perspectives (semi­ otic, cultural, sociological, sociolinguistic, multilingual, historical, philosophical), its critique revolves around six points: The relationship with interpretation, scope, polysemiotic mediums, lin­ guistic borders, translation unit, and monolingualism. Moreover, several re-categorisations have been proposed (Gorlée, 2010; Gottlieb, 2018; Huang, 2015; Jia, 2017; Torop, 2002; Toury, 1986). This chapter builds on the criticism regarding the difficulty of discerning linguistic boundaries (Berk Albachten, 2014; Davis, 2014; Derrida, 1985; Pym, 1992/2010; Toury, 1986). 131

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In this chapter, intra- and interlingual translation are contextualised from a sociolinguistic approach, which has proven to be a promising field of research (in demonstrating how these con­ cepts, devised on semiotic principles, become unstable in sociopolitical contexts (Berk Albachten, 2014; Davis, 2014; Hermans, 1997). The sociolinguistic approach has been prominent in the study of Serbo-Croatian and its successors, as it provides “optimally adequate tools for the exception­ ally complex Yugoslav language, social, and cultural situation (national, ethnic, political, confes­ sional, cultural, historical, etc.), closely connected with this paradigm by the nature of things” (Radovanović & Major, 2001, p. 1). Radovanović and Major imply that the linguistic landscape in question is almost inseparable from the accompanying sociocultural factors; addressing it in isolation, hence, becomes insufficient. Even though a substantial number of projects embracing a sociolinguistic approach to the study of former Yugoslavia directly engages with translation prac­ tices, the accent has been on interpreting current linguistic trends rather than expanding theoretical concepts. The contributions are therefore primarily attributed to the domain of Slavic rather than translation studies. The diachronic research in this chapter combines two methods: Comparative method and inter­ nal reconstruction. The key difference between these two fundamental tools of diachronic linguis­ tics7 is reflected in their scope: The comparative method is a “treatment of comparable elements in [two or more] related languages” (Lehmann, 1993, p. 27), whereas internal reconstruction “relies on data in only one language” (p. 31). The employment of both is necessary insofar as the chapter explores relations between as well as within languages.

A historical overview of South Slavic languages If we acknowledge that every text has a diachronic structure in the sense that it is tied to the his­ tory of the language in which it was created, as Steiner suggests, then it is crucial to situate the text within the linguistic context of its composition: An informed, avid awareness of the history of relevant language, of the transforming ener­ gies of feeling which make of syntax a record of social being, is indispensable. One must master the temporal and local setting of one’s text, the moorings which attach even the most idiosyncratic of poetic expression to the surrounding idiom. (Steiner, 1975, p. 25) This section will therefore attempt to reconstruct a timeline of the development of South Slavic languages spoken in former Yugoslav territories. The aim of this chronological overview is to examine the key conditions and documents that led to the joint standardisation of Serbian and Croatian so as to gain a better understanding of the circumstances that led to the language’s later demise. The focus, therefore, will be on the nineteenth century onwards. Jones (2010, pp. 286–287) shares his impression of the language in Fortis’ version of Hasanaginica: To modern Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian readers, the poem’s language is markedly old-fash­ ioned and regional. This is hardly surprising for a folk poem gathered almost a century before a standard language was established (though, interestingly, it was folk poetry from the regions where Croatian, Bosnian, and Serbian speech had most in common which gave the basis for this standard).

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The event that Jones considers to be the establishment of a standard language took place in March 1850, when Serbian, Croatian, and Slovene representatives8 gathered in Vienna to dis­ cuss the creation of a common literary language, leading to the signing of the document known as the Vienna Literary Agreement. Having rejected the idea of creating an artificial hybrid dialect not used by people, the eight intellectuals decided to “designate the southern dialect as literary” (The 1850 Literary Agreement, 1850/2004, p. 168). The Vienna Literary Agree­ ment concerns the adoption of the written standard, unnamed in the text of the agreement. The choice of this dialect, today known as Eastern Herzegovinian dialect (istočnohercegovački dijalekat; Milanović, 2010, p. 131), was a compromise. Its long-term significance lies in the Croatian adoption of the Štokavian dialect as the basis for its standard at the expense of the Čakavian and Kajkavian dialects (Petrović & Gudurić, 2010, p. 22). The Eastern Herzegovin­ ian dialect (istočnohercegovački) was selected on the grounds that “nearly all the folk poems are created in this dialect” (The 1850 Literary Agreement, 1850/2004, p. 168). Hasanaginica is no exception. The Vienna Literary Agreement set the grounds for a common national language: Serbo-Croa­ tian emerged in 1918 and remained in official use until the early 1990s – although it was variously defined and regulated throughout the succession of four states: The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (1918–1929); the Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1929–1941); the Federative People’s Republic of Yugoslavia (1945–1963); and the Socialist Federal Republic (SFR) of Yugoslavia (1963–1992). Joint national standardisation was abandoned with the breakup of SFR Yugoslavia in the early 1990s. Serbo-Croatian was replaced in administration by Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian (Bugarski, 2004, p. 12), and later Montenegrin. In 2017, linguists from Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herze­ govina, and Montenegro, the four successor states where Serbo-Croatian was spoken, signed the “Declaration on the Common Language” – a petition calling for all linguistic varieties stemming from Serbo-Croatian to be recognised as one variety, with a general note that “every state, nation, ethno-nation, or a regional community is free to independently codify its variety of the shared language” (Deklaracija o zajedničkom jeziku, 2017). The petition’s requests have yet to be put into practice: Despite the endorsement of the general public on all sides of the borders, institutional interest remains low. Whether Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin are one language or four separate lan­ guages in their own right is a highly sensitive issue these days, which inexorably leads away from intellectual engagement into the realms of political discourse and ideology. Bugarski (2004, p. 18) tries to explain this duality: If we discard various ideological extremes, is there a way of deciding whether Serbo-Cro­ atian is still one language or is it now several languages? I believe that this dilemma can no longer be resolved in a straightforward and unqualified way. The question must rather be posed on two or three levels simultaneously. On the linguistic and communication level, Serbo-Croatian can still legitimately be regarded as a single entity. Its different national norms are extremely close to each other structurally, a fact reflected in the unimpeded com­ munication among speakers of average education from, say, Belgrade, Podgorica, Zagreb and Sarajevo. In contrast, on the political and symbolic level there is clearly no more SerboCroatian, since – as already stated – this term does not occur in the legislation of the new states on formerly Yugoslav territory, where their separate standard languages serve as major symbols of national identity and statehood.

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The official status of the successor languages has been legally regulated by the respective constitu­ tion of each individual successor state. While the matter appears constitutionally clear, in practice pinpointing the exact number of Serbo-Croatian’s successors has been the subject of much debate. Some are willing to grant only Serbian and Croatian the status of a language, whereas others acknowledge Bosnian and Montene­ grin too. This chapter does not aim to challenge the current position of these languages or to further politicise the linguistic question by attempting to discern linguistic borders. When discussed from a contemporary perspective, the chapter will refer to Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin as separate languages – respecting their official statuses, as recognised by the respective countries responsible for their standardisation. In taking up this position, there is no attempt to legitimise the new standards but rather to use it as a means to explore how the complex phenomenon of linguistic fluidity influences translation categories.

On Hasanaginica The South Slavic folk ballad Hasanaginica (also Asanaginica, Hasan Aginica, Asan Aginica) revolves around the tragic destiny of the eponymous protagonist – noble wife of the Ottoman military commander Hasan Aga. While lying in a tent high in the mountains, wounded after a battle, Hasan Aga calls for his wife. Whether out of decorum or shame, Hasanaginica fails to visit her wounded husband. This enrages Hasan Aga, who orders her to leave their home. He not only divorces her, but also takes away their children and sends her back to her family. Her brother quickly arranges a remarriage. During the wedding procession, Hasanaginica sees her children one last time and dies of sorrow while bidding them farewell. Over the centuries, scholars have been fascinated not only by the poem’s extraordinary beauty, but also by the mystery surrounding its origins. As far as it is known, Hasanaginica was first printed in Fortis’ travelogue Viaggio in Dalma­ zia (A journey to Dalmatia; 1774/1974). In a chapter describing the customs of Morlacchi (For­ tis, 1774/1974, pp. 43–105) – a Dalmatian inland mountain people – Hasanaginca appears as an example of Morlacchian literature (Fortis, 1774/1974, pp. 98–105). Thought to be Slavicised Vlachs, the Morlacchi spoke a Slavic dialect. Many early publications assert that Hasanaginica was written in “Morlacchian” (Goethe, 1775/1975, pp. 75), following Fortis. Nevertheless, the ballad’s origins are complex and further complicated by Fortis’ (1774/1974) decision not to reveal his sources. Based on the poem’s content, most scholars claim Hasanaginica originated in the region of Imotski (Mahmutćehajić, 2010, p. 540; Murko, 1975, p. 355). Over the course of the seventeenth century, this inland strip belonged to the Bosnia Eyalet of the Ottoman Empire. In the aftermath of the Great Turkish War (1683–1699), the Ottomans lost most of Dalmatia and the control of this territory was split between two city-states: Venice and Dubrovnik. In 1717, Imotski passed to Venetian rule. The toponym Imotski is mentioned in the ballad along with two historical figures known to have lived nearby in the seventeenth century (Jones, 2010, p. 282). These historical ties have given scholars reason to believe the ballad dates from the period before 1717, the time when the Ottomans still ruled over this territory (Mahmutćehajić, 2010, p. 540). Some entertain the idea that the poem might have originated in Christian times, but at a time when the memory of the Otto­ man reign still persisted (Jones, 2010, p. 280). Alternatively, it has been suggested the ballad could have come to Dalmatia from Bosnia (Nakaš, 2010). Fortis (1774/1974) is thought to have written down the ballad in Dubrovnik. The original text in a Slavic language entitled “Žalostna pjesanca plemenite Asan-Aginice” was published alongside 134

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an Italian translation (Fortis, 1774/1974). More than a century after Fortis’ (1774/1974) publica­ tion, Franz Miklosich (1883) printed the so-called Split Manuscript, claiming this was the text Fortis consulted during his Dalmatian trip (p. 11). The original Split Manuscript is missing, fur­ ther complicating the issue of authenticity. Today, Fortis’ (1774/1974) and Miklosich’s (1883) texts are considered two versions of the most famous variants (Nakaš, 2010, p. 289). More than a dozen other variants exist (Gesemann, 1923; Ivić & Mladenović, 1984; Medenica, 1979; Thomas, 2014) – some relatively similar, some so widely different they could be considered poems in their own right (Butler, 1980). Nowadays the most widespread version is Vuk Stefanović Karadžić’s reduction from 1846 (1846/1975), which irons out Fortis’ (1774/1974) inconsistencies and follows the rules of modern orthography. In any discussion on intra- and interlingual translation, determining the source language is important. However, in the case of Hasanaginica this is far from easy. Studying the literary lan­ guage of the past is generally problematic, “because of the problem of obtaining a sufficiently clear bird’s eye view of the period in question” (Crystal, 1987, p. 43). The task becomes even more complicated when the language under study has changed and evolved. The fact that it is difficult to separate the two categories of intra- and interlingual translation characterises the language of Hasanaginica. This is why it is important to explain the ballad’s literary and linguistic ties with different modern communities. The first obstacle to specifying the ballad’s source language lies in the belief Hasanaginica originally belonged to an oral tradition. The ballad was written down at least a century after its cre­ ation. Damrosch (2009, p. 25) tackles the issue of the transition “from orature to literature”, noting that “writing is a fairly recent invention” and that we tend to forget “the earliest written works were usually versions of songs or stories that had been orally composed and transmitted” (Damrosch, 2009, p. 26). If we presume Hasanaginica stems from orature, the problem that emerges concerns possible deviations in different variants of the same work. Hasanaginica’s presumably verbal content was transformed into multiple texts. As outlined earlier, the ballad was recorded with slight – and occasionally not-so-slight – variations. Can we consider all these texts mere variants of a single original, even if certain versions vary greatly? Or, should each inscription be treated as an entity in its own right? Should we talk about For­ tis’ (1774/1974) or Miklosich’s (1883) Hasanaginica rather than Hasanaginica the folk ballad? Francis Jones’ translation into English, for example, depends solely on Fortis’ publication. Is not the “authoritative” version – such as the version Stefanović Karadžić (1846/1975) – also a con­ struct, a mere attempt at reconstructing the original rather than an insight into the authentic manu­ script? Moreover, improvisation is a general characteristic of the oral folk tradition. Parry (1930, pp. 80–81) cites the example of Serbian poets “guslars”, who used ready-made “formulae” to recite thousands of verses without deviating from the metric scheme, to argue that Homer’s oeuvre was originally oral rather than written. The complex storytelling techniques enabling variation in oral composition along with the consequential existence of several written versions challenge our perception of an artwork as a fixed structure, reminding us literature may not always be embedded in textuality. The shift from the spoken to the written medium removes the work from its original context. In discussing the traditional difference between “written” and “oral” communication, Derrida (1988, p. 9) asserts that an oral text exists in the moment and is tied to a speaking subject and the context in which it is uttered. What is written, however, not only transcends the specific timeframe but also operates independently of any speaking subject. The written can potentially dwell in different con­ texts, freed from its original context. The written version of Hasanaginica has enabled the ballad to travel along the temporal axis. Yet the departure from orature causes a rupture with the original 135

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context, a “breaking force” which is “the very structure of the written text” (Derrida, 1988, p. 9). This affects the language and how we view the text’s potential translational relations: The rupture with the original context and the ability to travel along the temporal axis prevent the text from belonging to one specific category. Derrida’s (1988, p. 9) “breaking force” is a precondition for the text’s afterlife (Benjamin, 1923/2012). How does this contextual rupture specifically affect the text’s language? What is the relationship between a text and its language? If an oral utterance is an expression tied to a par­ ticular moment, does this mean the name of its language is fixed, that it is unaffected by possible fluidity in linguistic identity? Is, by extension, the language of a text susceptible to change – in accordance with the prospective alterations in the unity, identity, or standardisation of the lan­ guage – despite the fixedness of the text itself? The folk ballad Hasanaginica, with its multiple variants and variations, challenges the idea of a text’s permanent nature. Derrida’s (1985) approach to Jakobson’s (1959/2012) tripartite division is from the angle of philosophy of language, and he finds Jakobson’s division problematic on several counts. In commenting on the synonyms that accompany each of the three translation categories, Derrida (1985) suggests that Jakobson (1959/2012) provided a tautological definition in explaining interlingual translation as translation proper, as both denote “translation in the ordinary sense, interlinguistic and post-Babelian” (Derrida, 1985, p. 173). Importantly, Derrida maintains Jakobson’s (1959/2012) notions of intra- and interlingual translation are contingent on the presupposition “that one can know in the final analysis how to determine rigorously the unity and identity of a language, the decidable form of its limits” (Derrida, 1985, p. 173). Two important factors are introduced – “the unity of a language” and “the identity of a language” – but Derrida (1985) does not elaborate on how these two factors may proliferate or alter over time. How to determine the boundaries of a language has also been examined by Toury (1986) and Berk Albachten (2014). Toury underlines the difficulty of placing interdialectal translation within Jakobson’s (1959/2012) framework, stating that translation between dialects poses “a borderline case”, which is “usually appended to the intralingual, but at times also to the interlingual type of translating” (Toury, 1986, p. 1113). Similarly, Berk Albachten (2014, p. 574) extends this criticism by asking how we can distinguish between languages and dialects and creoles. While Toury (1986) provides no illustration, Berk Albachten (2014, pp. 574–575) mentions Turkic languages – vari­ ously regarded as independent languages or dialects of Turkish. Moreover, Berk Albachten (2014, p. 574) acknowledges the pivotal role of a temporal determinant in asking how “the boundaries [can] be drawn between different historical stages of development of a language” as well as in wondering whether “the borders of a language [should] be determined by lack of intelligibility”. Criticism of Jakobson’s definitions from a “temporal” point of view can be found in Davis (2014), while the problems posed from a “spatial” perspective are illustrated by Pym (1992/2010). Having embraced a cultural approach, Pym (1992/2010) urges that the materiality of a text’s movement – across space and time – should be taken into account in the study of translation. His section “Translation can be intralingual or interlingual” expands the discussion regarding interdialectal translation, mentioned by Toury (1986). Pym (1992/2010) stresses the primacy of the interlingual (p. 23), questioning the assumption that there is “a radical division between interlingual and intralingual transfer” (p. 24). Pym (1992/2010) questions the separation on two grounds. First, he brands the distinction superfluous inasmuch as “[t]he kinds of translation that can take place between idiolects, sociolects and dialects are essentially no different from those between more radically distanced language systems” (1992/2010, p. 24). Much before Pym (1992/2010), Steiner (1975, p. 47) had suggested that the problems occurring in intra- and interlingual translation are the same – the difference being that translation between languages 136

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renders these problems more visible, but he does not question Jakobson’s (1959/2012) distinc­ tion. Sturrock challenges Jakobson’s (1959/2012) typology, stating, “the problem of translation – that is, of synonymy – remains the same whether the translation be affected between two natu­ ral languages or within one language” (Sturrock, 1991, p. 309) and noting the assignment of “rewording” only to the intralingual category is invalid as both intra- and intralingual translation are actually “forms of ‘rewording’” (Sturrock, 1991, p. 309). Second, Pym (1992/2010) goes a step further than Sturrock (1991) in asserting, “there are no natural frontiers between languages” (Pym, 1992/2010, p. 24). In considering the relationship between translation and culture, Pym arrives at the idea of using translation (whether intra- or interlingual) as a means of determining the level of cultural proximity by applying a simple formula: If translation occurs, the two cultures are distant; if translation is unnecessary, this is a sign of cultural continuity (1992/2010, p. 25). Contrary to expectations, yet in line with his statement “there are no natural frontiers between languages” (Pym, 1992/2010, p. 24), the level of transformations in a translation does not increase with cultural distance (Pym, 1992/2010, p. 24). While Pym acknowledges cases of “bicultural com­ munities” – “where it is difficult to decide if translation crosses a cultural frontier or not” (Pym, 1992/2010, p. 26) – the borderline cases involving cultural hybridity fall outside the schematisa­ tion. Although Pym (1992/2010, p. 26) declares, “[c]ulture is not geo-politics” and “[t]ransfer and translation concern situations of contact and exchange, not linear separation”, he, paradoxi­ cally, tries to determine cultural borders, reproducing a black-and-white map of what gets trans­ lated and what remains untranslated. Berk Albachten (2014), Davis (2014), Derrida (1985), Pym (1992/2010), and Toury (1986) all highlight the issue of linguistic borders – both spatially and temporally. As though foreseeing the problem, Jakobson (1959/2012, p. 218) states, “differential bilingual grammars” are the instru­ ments that “should define what unifies and what differentiates the two languages in their selection and delimitation of grammatical concepts”. Jakobson (1959/2012) puts too much faith in linguis­ tics in the narrow sense of the word and the primacy of a purely grammatical criterion. While such a definition could probably exist in a vacuum, it is surely naïve to think that grammar can over­ rule external factors such as sociopolitics. Linguistics in a broader sense, and sociolinguistics in particular, embrace a wide range of non-grammatical components that partake in the making of a language, as this chapter has hoped to demonstrate. Jakobson’s (1959/2012) synchronic approach to translation disregards the temporal dimension. Those criticising Jakobson’s intra- and interlingual translation often resort to Ferdinand de Saus­ sure’s scholarship. Pym (1992/2010, p. 24), for example, points out, “[t]hose who travel on foot or have read the diachronic part of Saussure know that there are no natural frontiers between lan­ guages”. Saussure (1959/2011, p. 179) opens a chapter on diachronic units by asserting, “[s]tatic linguistics works with units that owe their existence to their synchronic arrangement” and then sug­ gesting, “in a diachronic succession the elements are not delimited once and for all”. To support this statement, Saussure (1959/2011) offers instances from different branches of linguistics, indicating the conceptual issue of defining the scope of a “unit” – be it synchronic or diachronic. The inability of moulding a diachronic unit further conditions our understanding of diachronic identity. To say that two words as different as [Latin] calidum and [French] chaud constitute a dia­ chronic identity means simply that speakers passed from one form to the other through a series of synchronic identities in speaking without there being a break in their common bond despite successive phonetic changes. (Saussure, 1959/2011, p. 182) 137

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This reaffirms Pym’s (1992/2010) comment on the permeability of linguistic borders and serves as a basis for Davis’s (2014) argumentation. Using the example of the English language, Davis (2014) revisits Jakobson’s (1959/2012) sys­ tematisation mainly through the questioning of “linguistic unity”, following the direction indicated by Derrida (1985). While concluding that Jakobson’s (1959/2012) division is rooted in synchrony, Davis (2014, p. 588) urges that linguistic identity, one of the pillars of Jakobson’s definition, cannot be claimed independently from all considerations of the temporal dimension. Her paper adopts a historical perspective in the attempt to clarify the borders between various stages in the English language. Linguists agree that texts written in early forms of English, dating from seventh century CE, are inaccessible to the modern readership in their authentic form; yet, they disagree as to whether this language, commonly referred to as “Old English” or “Anglo-Saxon”, is in fact English. A diachronic inquiry into linguistic boundaries spotlights the tension between intra- and interlingual translation. In Davis’ opinion, we are unable to find a clear line between translation that takes place within one language and that which takes place between languages because trans­ lation is a continuous process. Davis (2014, p. 587) argues it is translation, both interlingual (Old English to Latin) and intralingual (Old English to more modern variants), that has enabled the continuity of the English language and secured its unity up to the present day, despite the radically different historical variations, which exist between Old English and its more modern counterparts. Translation, then, is to thank for an uninterrupted lineage that has bypassed understanding as the principal criterion in establishing internal linguistic boundaries. Davis’ (2014) essay expands Saussure’s (1959/2011) claim on the preservation of diachronic identity through a seamless succession of synchronic ones (p. 182). Davis (2014) uses the term linguistic identity without discerning between synchronic and diachronic identities as Saussure does. Saussure’s (1959/2011) distinction helps to closer examine the notion of vertical transla­ tion – that operating between different historical idioms. Nevertheless, Saussure’s (1959/2011) differentiation does not solve the problem of how we distinguish between the two identities. Davis (2014, p. 587) argues the processes of continuous (intralingual) translation has allowed for the preservation of English linguistic identity despite the loss of comprehension between its early and modern version. Debating on the relationship between Old English and modern English, Davis (2014, p. 58) refers to the epic poem Beowulf: The question of whether Beowulf is written in English thus misses the point, since it assumes that we can ascertain the identity and history of “English” without taking into consideration the translation history that enabled the reading, editing, publication, and institutionalization of texts like Beowulf. Davis (2014), therefore, stresses the importance of translation history in determining the temporal borders of a language. Hasanaginica’s case is different: Textual translation (intralingual) has contributed little to its preservation and institutionalisation – even if we count Stefanović Karadžić’s (1846/1975) abridged version as an intralingual translation. If our discussion is restricted to Fortis’ Hasanagi­ nica (1774/1974), textual translation has played no role whatsoever. Notwithstanding the archaic and regional texture, the language of Fortis’ variant is still understandable today for the speakers of Serbo-Croatian successor languages. If we extend Saussure’s (1959/2011) observations to the identity of a language in general rather than to its individual elements, we soon realise the question of whether Hasanaginica is in Serbian, Croatian, or Bosnian misses the point as it ignores the his­ toricity of the idiom in which the ballad was written and its development – which has not been one 138

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of “seamless succession” but one of rupture and ramification. Following Saussure (1959/2011), we conclude that there are two possible scenarios: A series of synchronic identities can result either in continuity or in change. The example of English described previously is presented as one of continuity; Serbo-Croatian, along with its predecessors and successors, is considered to be one of change. The evolution of languages, then, substantiates the claim asserting what is translated inside and what outside the language is contingent on the way speech varieties and languages are delimited. Let us analyse the possible translational relations between the successors of Serbo-Croatian. From the moment Serbian and Croatian (or any other successor pair) were standardised sepa­ rately henceforth, we can translate between these two languages, and it is an example of interlin­ gual translation by Jakobson’s (1959/2012) standards, operating between two distinct languages. While codified as two varieties of Serbo-Croatian, the translation between Serbian and Croatian was between different standard varieties of the same language, which is an example of intralin­ gual translation. What about the translation process operating from an idiom that precedes any standardisation (as that of Hasanaginica), with a language standardised in modern times, which is actually one in the series of descendants of the pre-codification idiom? Would such vertical translation be classified as intra- or interlingual? Vertical translation between different historical stages, where multiple modern versions originated from a historical one, problematises Jakob­ son’s (1959/2012) distinction between intra- and interlingual translation. It seems neither fully intralingual by virtue of the shift in linguistic identity, nor fully interlingual by virtue of retained comprehensibility. This brings us to Berk Albachten’s question as to whether “the borders of a language [should] be determined by lack of intelligibility” (2014, p. 574). This is the model Dixon (1997, p. 7) pro­ poses when introducing the distinction between a language in the linguistic and in the political sense. Is comprehension a criterion? The examples of Beowulf and Hasanaginica suggest: No. The English of Beowulf is not understandable for a modern English readership yet some linguists still consider it to be one language. The language of Hasanaginica is understandable to the modern Serbian/Croatian/Bosnian/ Montenegrin-speaking audience but no continuity exists between the ballad’s idiom and modern standards. Fluidity did not affect the language but its identity: The language has not changed beyond recognition, but its integrity has not been preserved. The example of Hasanaginica sup­ ports the statement that a lack of mutual intelligibility between separate linguistic varieties is not the necessary condition for considering languages to be separate. Pym’s (1992/2010, p. 25) formula for determining cultural proximity appears then as a promis­ ing tool for crystallising boundaries without succumbing to political divisions: It is enough to define the limits of a culture as the points where transferred texts have had to be (intralingually or interlingually) translated. . . . In this way, translation studies avoid having to link up all the points of contiguity in the way that political frontiers do. (Pym, 1992/2010, pp. 25–26, emphasis in the original) The unsaid premise of this approach is there has to be a one-to-one correspondence between a language and a culture, which leaves instances of linguistic and cultural hybridity outside the equation. To this end, the model has both linguistic and cultural implications. Real-life evidence, however, refutes the viability of Pym’s (1992/2010) approach for linguistic purposes, inasmuch as the formula presupposes that mutual intelligibility determines the borders of a language – which has been disproved from a diachronic perspective in the examples of Hasanaginica and Beowulf 139

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as outlined earlier. Nevertheless, Pym’s (1992/2010) model does present the advantage of bringing cultural paradigms to the fore. The fact that Hasanaginica does not need to undergo translation to be understood by those speaking Serbian, Bosnian, Croatian, and Montenegrin is a sign of cultural proximity according to Pym’s (1992/2010) model. Conversely, Beowulf, which can only be under­ stood by a speaker of modern English in translation, would be an example of cultural distance despite the English language’s unbroken lineage. Pym’s (1992/2010) model is therefore applicable to diachronic idioms as well as to synchronic lects. In the context of literary heritage, Damrosch (2009, p. 25) writes about striking the right bal­ ance when approaching centuries old literature: “In reading across time, we need to keep both aspects alive, neither submerging ourselves in antiquarian details nor absorbing the work so fully into our own world”. The same could apply to a diachronic assessment of linguistic aspects. The standardisation of Serbo-Croatian and its development came sometime after the composition (and inscription) of Hasanaginica. Therefore, we should not impose the modern linguistic debate on Serbo-Croatian successors upon Hasanaginica; rather, we should acknowledge the ballad’s historicity. Hasanaginica teaches us that the tension between early and modern times is embodied in the inability to impose a lect’s contemporary parameters onto a work from the past. Inevitably, any answer favouring one language over the others would be an appropriation formulated in the wake of nationalisation of non-material cultural heritage galvanised by the breakup of SFR Yugoslavia. The modern standards in their current form and institutionalisation are a relatively recent inven­ tion in Hasanaginica’s trajectory. Hence, any answer favouring one language variety over another would be based on a reconstructed variety, as there is no actual continuity in tradition – despite the preserved intelligibility. Hasanaginica, undoubtedly, belongs to the cultural heritage of all three linguistic communities – and to many more literary traditions through which it has passed. Yet, the debate over whether its language is Serbian, Croatian, or Bosnian is highly problematic insofar as the ballad precedes the division and labelling of these languages as we know them today. How­ ever, from the perspective of translation studies, there are a series of practical issues that need to be considered. How does the temporal uncertainty of linguistic borders affect Hasanaginica’s translational relations? We can honour the ballad’s historicity and avoid identifying it with a specific language but, from the perspective of translation studies, refusing to specify the source language becomes problematic for distinguishing between intra- and interlingual translation. Let us first consider possible translation directions. After all, translation, as a practical act, needs workable solutions. If we remove the ballad’s long and complex history from the equation and focus on the text in one of its preserved forms – say Fortis’ (1774/1974) manuscript – we are left with an ambiguous entity incorporating grammatical features common to Serbian, Croatian, and Bosnian. The most important mutual features are the Štokavian dialectal basis and the (i)jekavian pronunciation. All three modern standards have adopted Štokavian as their dialectal basis; consequently, between whichever modern standards we decide to translate (Serbian/Croatian/Bosnian), the Štokavian dialectal basis remains intact. With pronunciation, the situation is slightly different, as Serbian also standardises both ekavian and (i)jekavian; Bosnian and Croatian, however, codify only (i) jekavian. From the synchronic point of view, translating from (i)jekavian to ekavian could be regarded both as interlingual (from Croatian/Bosnian into Serbian) and as intralingual translation (from Serbian into Serbian). From the lexical perspective, the situation is further complicated by the presence of obsolete vocabulary in Fortis’ Hasanaginica (1774/1974). Modernising the vocabulary in the translation into any of the discussed standards would be regarded as intralin­ gual translation. 140

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This odd mixture of intra- and interlingual translation stems from the anachronism between the text of the original and the timeline of the modern standards which have developed from a diachronic idiom. A vertical translation between a historical variety of a language that precedes codification, on the one hand, and modern standards developed from this particular historical vari­ ety, on the other, escapes the confines of Jakobson’s (1959/2012) dichotomy. For this reason, Jakobson’s (1959/2012, p. 128) suggestion to turn to “differential bilingual grammars” is of little use. The “purely” grammatical criterion is obsolete in cases where one translation has both intraand interlingual properties. The studied example shows a single text and a single translation in one direction can embody both intra- and interlingual translation. This supports the claim that translation categories are not self-evident but determined contextually – not only in the contextual framework of time and space but also in that of the text itself. Overall, this chapter’s findings substantiate the main argument, that intra- and interlingual translation are not distinct stable categories. This chapter’s diachronic perspective demonstrates that languages constantly evolve, and it is indispensable to take this aspect into consideration when disusing and constructing translational types. Referring to the story of Babel, Derrida (1985, pp. 165–166) stresses precisely the incompleteness of the structure: The “tower of Babel” does not merely figure the irreducible multiplicity of tongues; it exhib­ its an incompletion, the impossibility of finishing, of totalizing, of saturating, of completing something on the order of edification, architectural construction, system and architectonics. ... What the multiplicity of idioms actually limits is not only a “true” translation, a transpar­ ent and adequate interexpression, it is also a structural order, a coherence of construct. The structure is incomplete as language is inherently bound to evolve, eventually multiplying or reducing in number. It is exactly on the basis of this inability to define a language as a fixed and durable structure that Derrida (1985) calls into question Jakobson’s (1959/2012) widely accepted categorisation of translation. The perpetually changing linguistic landscape is exemplified by the South Slavic languages under study in this chapter. Over time, languages either continue or cease to exist; in death, they multiply or vanish. With these changes in the linguistic landscape, trans­ lational relations are bound to shift. Any form of stability can only be illusory and temporary. As a result, translation categories cannot be predetermined but need to be established in relation to a concrete context.

Conclusion Hasanaginica embodies multiple ambiguities. First, the ballad was composed in the Eastern Her­ zegovinian dialect. Selected as the literary standard in the mid-nineteenth century, owing to its transitionary character, the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect later brought the Croatian, Bosnian, and Serbian idioms even closer together. Many of its features have entered all three modern standards. Furthermore, multiple variants and multiple reductions of a single variant exist. Likewise, the poem’s presumed transformation from orature into literature with the help of intermediators leaves room for speculation. These factors have placed the ballad at the centre of debates on the linguis­ tic debate, especially after the SFR Yugoslavia’s breakup. While this chapter avoids adopting a political and nationalistic stance, the already prolific research surrounding the ballad’s cultural and linguistic ambiguities – some of which is deeply ideological – has proven a fruitful starting point in the investigation of the relationship between intra- and interlingual translation. 141

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Departing from Jakobson’s (1959/2012) arguable neglect of the multidimensional nature of the relationship between various kinds of translation, this chapter has explored the temporal dimen­ sion through the case study of Hasanaginica. The unstated premise of Jakobson’s (1959/2012) definition is that in order to establish what is translated inside and what outside the language, one needs to be able to specify the “source” and “target” language. Adopting a diachronic approach, the chapter has revealed the problematic nature of this premise, since it is impossible to always clearly determine what counts as a language, especially prior to standardisation. Moreover, the evolution of a language tends to obscure its temporal borders. And, thanks to the invention of writing systems, literature is able to transcend its original context and travel through time. Hasan­ aginica’s rupture with the original context, accompanied with its language’s subsequently fluid identity, has caused a lack of balance between the past and the present in linguistic terms. This chapter’s sociological reassessment of Jakobson’s (1959/2012) definitions of intra- and interlingual translation reveals that the distinction is conceived from a synchronic perspective. In vertical translation, the distinction between the two categories is less valid: The distinction can only be applied to cases where linguistic unity has been preserved, but it fails to encompass the cases of linguistic discontinuity – as in the case of Serbo-Croatian lects. Hasanaginica’s language has gone through multiple phases: Pre-standardisation (when Hasanaginica was created/written); a joint literary standard; a joint national language; development of the joint language and establish­ ment of new national languages. Throughout these phases, understanding has remained intact – proving that mutual intelligibility does not affect linguistic borders. Translating from a diachronic idiom, which precedes any codification, into synchronic languages that have developed from that diachronic variety is problematic as the translation product features both intra- and interlingual properties. This makes it impossible to label the translation as fully intralingual or fully interlin­ gual, tying it to a textual context. This chapter attempts to broaden our understanding of the importance of the sociopolitical component in translation studies. The chronological overview of Serbo-Croatian and its succes­ sor languages has shown how these languages were sociopolitically regulated – at times brought together, at times separated by official state means. As codification is a social act, the results indi­ cate that the social factor plays a role in delimiting languages and the constitution of translation categories. Hence, in translations that involve standards, categories cannot be discerned solely on the basis of linguistic criteria, that is, independently of their diachronic codification.

Notes 1 See, for example, Miloš Trivunac’s essay (1932). 2 See, for example, Milan Ćurčin (1925). 3 Over the course of last few years, Vukova zadužbina (Vuk’s Foundation) published edited volumes in German, English, French, and Russian, which contain a selection of texts from Stefanović Karadžić’s oeuvre, including Hasanaginica, and an overview of their reception across Europe in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Please see Further Reading. 4 For more on French translations, see, for example, Mihailo Pavlović (1974). 5 Among others, the English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge was fascinated with Hasanaginica. See, for example, Ranka Kuić’s essay (1970). 6 The way of collectively referring to Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin in the post-disintegra­ tion context is quite problematic. This chapter, which borrows Ranko Bugarski’s now widely accepted terminology, opts for the Serbo-Croatian successor languages phrasing. This is neither to imply that these individual linguistic varieties have no history prior to the Serbo-Croatian phase nor that they have directly developed from Serbo-Croatian. Rather, the term denotes an administrative succession. It should be noted that Montenegrin is a belated successor of Serbo-Croatian, standardized in mid-2000s. The debate sur­ rounding Hasanaginica involves Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian.

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Intra- and interlingual diachronic translation 7 The term “diachronic linguistics” is synonymous to that of “historical linguistics”. 8 In addition to the two Serbian signatories, Stefanović Karadžić and Daničić, the document was ratified by five Croatian representatives – Ivan Mažuranić, Dimitrije Demeter, Ivan Kukuljević, Vinko Pacel, and Stjepan Pejaković – and one Slovenian delegate – Franz Miklošić.

Further reading Ćurčin, M. (1925). Ser Valtera Skota Hasanaginica (Hasanaginica of Sir Walter Scott). Nova Evropa. Kuić, R. (1970). Kolridž i Hasanaginica (Coleridge and Hasanaginica). Prilozi za književnost, jezik, istoriju i folklor, 26(1‒2), 79‒96. Pavlović, M. (1974). Slovenska antiteza u francuskim prevodima Hasanaginice (The Slavic antithesis in French translations of Hasanaginica). Naučni sastanak slavista u Vukove dane, 4(I), 473‒484. Suvajdžić, B. (Compiler). (2015). Vuk Stefanović Karadžić, 1787–1864–2014: Мündliches Volksgut der Serben (Vuk Stefanović Karadžić, 1787–1864–2014: Serbian traditional oral heritage) (Anete Đurović, Trans.). Vukova zadužbina, Čigoja štampa. Suvajdžić, B. (Compiler). (2016). Vuk Stefanović Karadžić: Serbian traditional oral heritage. (Sandra Josipović, Trans.). Vukova zadužbina, Čigoja štampa. Suvajdžić, B. (Compiler). (2017). Vuk Stefanović Karadžić: Le patrimoine oral serbe (Vuk Stefanović Karadžić: Serbian traditional oral heritage) (Brigitte Mladenovic, Trans.). Vukova zadužbina, Čigoja štampa. Suvajdžić, B. (Compiler). (2018). Вук Стефанович Караджич: Сербское устное народное наследие (Vuk Stefanović Karadžić: Serbian traditional oral heritage) (Ekaterina Yakushkina, Trans.). Vukova zadužbina, Čigoja štampa. Trivunac, M. (1932). Geteov prepev Asanaginice (Goethe’s translation of Asanaginica). Letopis Matice srp­ ske, 106(332), 16–20.

References The 1850 Literary Agreement (R. Greenberg, Trans.). (2004). In Greenberg, R. (Ed.), Language and identity in the Balkans (pp. 168–171). Oxford University Press (Original work published 1850). Benjamin, W. (2012). The translator’s task (by L. Venuti, trans.). In L. Venuti (Ed.), Translation studies reader (pp. 75–83). Routledge (Original work published 1923). Berk Albachten, Ö. 2014. Intralingual translation: Discussions within translation studies and the case of Turkey. In S. Bermann & C. Porter (Eds.), A companion to translation studies (pp. 573–585). Wiley Blackwell. Bugarski, R. (2004). What’s in a name: The case of Serbo-Croatian. Revue Des Études Slaves, 75(1), 11–20. https://doi.org/10.3406/slave.2004.6858 Bulić, R. (2014). Na kome je jeziku spjevana Hasanaginica. Lingvazin, II(2–3), 10–13. Burkhart, D. (2006). Paradoxical communication: The Bosnian oral ballad “Hasanaginica” as a pretext for literary texts. Russian Literature, LIX(I), 25–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ruslit.2006.01.002 Butler, T. (1980). Monumenta Serbocroatica. Michigan Slavic Publications. Crystal, D. (1987). Literature of the future: Language of the psst (and present). In L. Lindblad (Ed.), Proceed­ ings from the 3rd Nordic conference for English studies (pp. 41–52). Almqvist & Wiksell. Damrosch, D. (2009). How to read world literature. John Wiley & Sons. Davis, K. (2014). Intralingual translation and the making of a language. In S. Bermann & C. Porter (Eds.), A companion to translation studies (pp. 586–598). Wiley Blackwell. Deklaracija o zajedničkom jeziku. Jezici i nacionalizmi. (2017). Retrieved October 25, 2021, from https:// jezicinacionalizmi.com/deklaracija/. Derrida, J. (1985). Des tours de Babel (J. Graham, trans.). In J. Graham (Ed.), Difference in translation (pp. 165–207). Cornell University Press. Derrida, J. (1988). Signature event context (S. Weber & J. Mehlman, trans.). In Limited INC (pp. 1–23). Northwestern University Press. Dixon, R. (1997). The rise and fall of languages. Cambridge University Press. Fortis, A. (1974). Viaggio in Dalmazia. Verlag Otto Sagner (Original work published 1774). Gesemann, G. (1923). Die Asanaginica im Kreise ihrer Varianten (pp. 1–44). Archiv für Slavische Philologie.

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Višnja Jovanović Goethe, J. W. (1975). Klaggesang vom der edlen Frauen des Asan-Aga. Reprinted. In A. Isaković (Ed.), Hasanaginica 1774–1974 (pp. 75–86). Svjetlost (Original work published 1775). Gorlée, D. (2010). Metacreations. Applied Semiotics, 9(24), 54–67. Gottlieb, H. (2018). Semiotics and translation. In K. Malmkjær (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of translation studies and linguistics (pp. 45–61). Routledge. Hermans, T. (1997). Translation as institution. In M. Snell-Hornby, Z. Jettmarova, & K. Kaindl (Eds.), Trans­ lation as intercultural communication (pp. 3–20). John Benjamins. Huang, Z. (2015). A semiotic consideration of a critical system for translation. Foreign Language Education, 4, 95–97, 113. Ivić, P., & Mladenović, A. (1984). Filološke napomene o Hasanaginici. Naučni sastanak slavista u Vukove dane, 4(1), 361‒380. Jakobson, R. (2012). On linguistic aspects of translation. In L. Venuti (Ed.), Translation studies reader (pp. 126–131). Routledge (Original work published 1959). Jia, H. (2017). Roman Jakobson’s triadic division of translation revisited. Chinese Semiotic Studies, 13(1), 31–46. https://doi.org/10.1515/css-2017-0003 Jones, F. (2010). Passing on the Hasanaginica: Translator’s afterword. Forum Bosnae, 51, 278–288. Krstić, V. (2021). Theorizing about translation of multilingual and multiscriptal Texts: David Albahari’s “Learning Cyrillic” and its translation by Ellen Elias-Bursać. New Voices in Translation Studies, 25, 130–157. Lehmann, W. P. (1993). Theoretical bases of Indo-European linguistics. Routledge. Lukežić, I. (2005). Dijalektološko čitanje Fortisove “Asanaginice”. Čakavska rič, XXXIII(1–2), 101–129. Mahmutćehajić, R. (2010). Tajna Hasanaginice. Sarajevske sveske, 27–28, 537–559. Mecklenburg, N. (2015). Von den Sitten der Morlacken zur Weltliteratur. Zagreber Germanistische Beiträge, 24, 77–105. Medenica, R. (1979). Fortisova Hasanaginica i splitski rukopis. Zbornik Matice srpske za književnost i jezik, 27(3), 398‒431. Miklosich, F. (1883). Der Text der Spalatiner Handschrift. In Über Goethe’s ‘Klaggesang von der edlen Frauen des Asan Aga’ (pp. 11–13). Akademie der Wissenschaften. Milanović, A. (2010). Kratka istorija srpskog književnog jezika. Zavod za udžbenike. Murko, M. (1975). Asanaginica sa Šipana. In A. Isaković (Ed.), Hasanaginica 1774–1974 (pp. 354–362). Svjetlost. Nakaš, L. (2010). The ballad of Hasanaginica: Fortis’ redaction and the split manuscript. Forum Bosnae, 51, 289–312. Parry, M. (1930). Studies in the epic technique of oral verse-making. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, 41, 73–148. Petrović, D., & Gudurić, S. (2010). Fonologija srpskoga jezika. Institut za srpski jezik SANU. Pym, A. (2010). Translation and text transfer. Intercultural Studies Group (Original work published 1992). Radovanović, M., & Major, R. A. (2001). Introduction: On Serbian (socio)linguistics. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 151, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijsl.2001.045 Saussure, F. de. (2011). Course in general linguistics (W. Baskin, Trans.). Columbia University Press (Origi­ nal work published 1959). Stefanović Karadžić, V. (1975). Hasanaginica. Reprinted in A. Isaković (Ed.), Hasanaginica 1774–1974 (pp. 310–313). Svjetlost (Original work published 1846). Steiner, G. (1975). After Babel: Aspects of language and translation. Oxford University Press. Sturrock, J. (1991). On Jakobson on translation. In T. Sebeok & J. Umiker-Sebeok (Eds.), Recent develop­ ments in theory and history: The semiotic web, 1990 (pp. 307–321). Walter de Gruyter. Thomas, P. L. 2014. Asan-aginica iz Vukove Pjesnarice u odnosu na Fortisovu i kasniju Vukovu Hasanag­ inicu: uticaj na francuske prevode. Naučni sastanak slavista u Vukove dane, 44(2), 31‒46. Torop, P. (2002). Translation as translating as culture. Sign Systems Studies, 30(2), 593–605. https://doi. org/10.5840/signsystems200230224 Toury, G. (1986). A cultural-semiotic perspective. In T. Sebeok (Ed.), Encyclopedic dictionary of semiotics (pp. 1111–1124). Mouton de Gruyter.

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9 TRANSLATION FROM ENGLISH INTO SCOTS John Corbett

Introduction The translation of English into Scots raises some key theoretical problems for scholarly under­ standing of intralingual translation. In their discussion of the place of intralingual translation in Translation Studies, Zethsen and Hill-Madsen (2016, p. 705) offer an inclusive definition of the act of translation that would embrace intralingual modes: A translation is a text which conforms to the following conditions: • A source text (verbal or non-verbal) exists or has existed at some point in time. • The target text has been derived from the source text (resulting in a new product in another language, genre, medium or semiotic system). • The resulting relationship is one of relevant similarity, which may take many forms depending on the skopos. Obviously, the definition is pillared on certain key concepts, such as “source text”, “deriva­ tion” and “relationship”, which may themselves require a second round of definition. It is the “obvious” qualification that follows the definition that concerns us here. While the transla­ tion of English language texts into Scots evidently falls within the scope of the proposed inclusive definition of translation, the status of such translations as “intralingual” or “interlingual” depends on other “key concepts”, most pertinently, definitions of “language”. This issue applies to other sourcetext and target-text pairs: Translation of Chinese television programmes in and out of Mandarin and various mutually unintelligible Chinese “dialects” can be considered intralingual translation (cf. Chan, 2018). By comparison, a Portuguese text is interlingually translated into Spanish, a language with which it shares much of its vocabulary and grammatical structure. The intra/interlingual distinc­ tion will depend on what status the language variety of the source and target texts have at a particular time. In the case of English and Scots, the former might be considered a “national” language and the latter a “dialect” of it; the translation from one variety to the next would be intralingual. However, if as many Scots language activists would argue (e.g., McClure, 1997; Purves, 2002), Scots has the status of an autonomous, national language, then English-Scots translation would be interlingual. 145

DOI: 10.4324/9781003188872-12

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The present chapter argues that the case of English-Scots translation demonstrates that clearcut definitions of language, and of intra/interlingual translation, are not necessarily helpful in understanding the motivations and intended impact of particular instances. In the case of Scots, the definition of the variety as an autonomous language distinct from English, and English-Scots translation as interlingual, masks the intricate cultural and linguistic relationships that make trans­ lations into Scots desirable and successful. Although the literature of various languages has been translated into Scots (Corbett, 1999; Findlay, 2004), the translation of English occupies a special place. Any discussion of intralingual translation from English to Scots immediately raises the question of whether Scots is the same language as English. The affirmation of the difference of Scots from English is embedded in the more general history of translation into Scots. The work generally regarded as the foundation of literary translation into Scots – Gavin Douglas’ Eneados – famously proclaimed that it was “written in the language of the Scottish nation”, although Douglas’ earlier and later compatriots conventionally cited Chaucer as a prime exponent of “our” tongue (McClure, 1981). Later in the 16th century James VI of Scotland wrote Essays of a Prentice in the Divine Art of Poesie (1584), which included a treatise for his courtly poets and literary translators that again proclaimed a sure but undefined difference between English and Scots, while acknowledging that the former was “lykest our langage”. Translation from English into Scots is a relatively recent phenomenon – while translation into Scots from other European languages dates from the 15th century, translation from English into Scots largely dates from the 19th century onwards. That fact in itself is worth noting: As we shall see, the act of translating from English into Scots is itself an act of self-determination, the assertion of a distinct linguistic and literary identity for the northern tongue, even while its southern neigh­ bour assumes the role of a global language. Translations from English into Scots take place against a background of resistance to the hegemony of English as a lingua franca, first in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and later globally. This chapter discusses the role of English-Scots translations from different perspectives: As an act of resistance against what was shortly to become global English, as an attempt to claim or reclaim key texts in the AngloAmerican literary canon for Scotland, as a strategic move to assert the linguistic status of Scots in the political domain, and as an educational project to promote literacy in Scots across generations. The different perspectives will demonstrate that the intralingual nature of English-Scots transla­ tion does not depend wholly on the relative status of each language variety. However, the relative status of each variety is relevant, and so we begin by addressing the thorny issue of whether Scots is or was an autonomous national language.

Is Scots a language? As we have already noted, there has always been some uncertainty about the status of Scots as a language independent of English. Both English and Scots have their origins in the Anglian variety of Old English (Macafee & †Aitken, 2002). Scots, however, descends from the Old Northumbrian branch of Anglian, and is characterised by a greater number of vocabulary items taken from the Scandinavian languages brought to Britain by the Vikings who invaded and settled northern Eng­ land from the 8th to the 11th centuries. Speakers of this Anglo-Norse hybrid pushed north into what is now southern Scotland, and the language that developed from this hybrid, Scots, subse­ quently spread throughout the lowlands of the independent Scottish kingdom. Its diffusion was accelerated by forced population movement from the north of England in the wake of the Norman Conquest of 1066 (McColl Millar, 2020). 146

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Scots became the spoken and then the written language of the Scottish court, the earliest extant records dating from the late 14th century. Older Scots came to be the medium of a range of writ­ ten genres, literary and non-literary, including translation from Latin and French (Corbett, 1999). Notably, from the 15th century, it became the medium of the Acts of the Parliament of Scotland, prior to that body’s dissolution in 1707. As the language of parliamentary record, as well as the spoken medium for much of the population, Scots had a legitimate claim to be understood as the separate language of an autonomous nation (Aitken, 1984). However, the picture is not quite so clear-cut. Scots and the different varieties of English were clearly, up to a point, mutually intelligible, both in speech and writing, during a period when neither language boasted a fixed standard variety. As McClure (1981) has shown, many Older Scots writers referred to their own language as “Inglis” (“English”). Only towards the end of the 15th century did occasional natives and outside observers begin to make a claim that “Scottis” and “Inglis” were different enough to be considered separate languages (McClure, 1981), and even then, those who insisted on making the difference largely did so for ideological rather than linguistic reasons. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the 1603 Union of the Crowns merged the Scottish kingdom with that of England and Wales, and then the 1707 Treaty of Union combined the separate parlia­ ments into a unitary legislative body for Great Britain. During this period there was a distinct lan­ guage shift in the language of record in Scotland: There was a movement towards written English forms. With the codification of Standard English in the 18th century, the shift in written language was followed by a shift amongst the middle and upper classes in Scotland towards anglicised spo­ ken forms, and a hybrid variety, Scottish English, was born (Jones, 1995). This variety of speech, anglicised in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary preference, continues to be distinct both from southern English accents and from accents of “Broad Scots”. From a linguistic perspective, “Broad Scots”, “Scottish English” and “Standard English” exist on a continuum, and it is difficult to say where one merges into another. Broad Scots is charac­ terised by a set of regional and social accents, certain grammatical preferences and a frequent recourse to a wider range of “northern” vocabulary items which can be classified as overt or covert Scotticisms (Dossena, 2005). This set of regional and social accents is not confined to Scotland itself; the plantation of Scottish settlers in the north of Ireland in the 17th century led to a thriving and sustained variety, Ulster Scots, being established there. “Scottish English” is characterised by a set of accents that move from Broad Scots towards prestige southern English realisations (while not fully arriving there) and by a less frequent recourse to Scotticisms. Contemporary Scottish speakers tend to move back and forth along the continuum depending on the repertoire of forms at their disposal and how they judge their appropriateness to different social contexts (Stuart-Smith, 2003). From this purely technical perspective, the three varieties might be considered a single language. However, one key difference between “Broad Scots” and “Scottish English” is that the former might at least potentially be considered an emergent national language. That is, Broad Scots has the potential to be codified in such a way as to serve again as a language of official record and a medium of education, as well as serving as a vehicle for literature. If this potential were to be fulfilled the Scots–Scottish English–Standard English continuum would be more closely comparable to, say, that between Spanish, the hybrid “Portiñol” and Portuguese. That is, the two ends of the continuum would consist of two separate languages of common origin that to some extent are mutually intelligible, and there would be the possibility of speakers adopt­ ing a hybrid form for cross-linguistic communication. An appreciation of the ambivalent and contested nature of Scots as a variety of English or as a separate language is fundamental to an understanding of the nature of English-Scots translation. 147

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Modern translations into Scots from English generally function as an assertion of the status of Scots as an independent language. However, as we shall see, it is ironic that, to reach a broad readership, these translations tend to depend on the at least partial intelligibility of Scots texts to readers (including Scottish readers) who have been educated in Standard English.

Reappropriating origins: translations from Old English Chris Jones (2006, 2010) has written extensively on translations of Old English (OE) literary texts into Present-day English, arguing that such interlingual translations are motivated in part by the “strange likeness” between the two, historically separate varieties. The tension between the familiar and the strange also characterises interlingual translations from Old English into Scots. As Corbett (2001) observes, notable translations of Anglo-Saxon poetry into Modern Scots verse have been published by Alexander Scott (1920–1989) and Tom Scott (1918–1995), two poets (unrelated to each other, despite their surname) who were associated with the second wave of the Scottish Renaissance (c. 1945–1965). The first wave in the 1920s is associated primarily with the Modernist poet “Hugh MacDiarmid”, whose experimental, synthetic approach to the composition of poetry in Scots was adopted by a younger generation of cultural nationalists in the wake of the Second World War. In the mid-1940s, Alexander Scott translated the Old English elegies “The Seafarer” and “The Wanderer” into dense, literary Scots and also drew upon “The Battle of Maldon” for his own poem “Sang for a Flodden” (Robb, 2007, p. 47). Around 1960, Tom Scott translated further Scots versions of “The Seafarer” and “The Wanderer” and also a version of “The Dream of the Rood”. Corbett (2001) compares two Scots versions of “The Seafarer” in relation to the critical framework of the translator’s visibility, as proposed by Lawrence Venuti (1995). Venuti argues that the use of “dialect” in a translation is a foreignising strategy. Corbett argues that translation into Scots complicates the ideas of domestication, foreignisation and visibility common in translation studies: He concludes that Alexander Scott’s “Seaman’s Sang”, a version of the Old English elegy “The Seafarer”, is composed in a form of literary Scots that is more accessible than Tom Scott’s, particularly in its eschewing of grammatical complexity for a forthright speaking voice, and that it can thus be considered a domesticating translation from the perspective of a Scottish reader. Even the material culture depicted in the poem is Scotticised: The Anglo-Saxon harp becomes the Scottish “clarsach” and the drinking of mead becomes the “drinkin o drams” (Corbett, 2001, p. 166). Tom Scott, however, chooses a denser Scots literary medium, that is, it is characterised by a higher frequency of usage of more archaic and obscure Scots vocabulary and coinages. The grammar is more complex than is found in Alexander Scott’s version, and Tom Scott’s lines do not attempt to simulate the spoken voice. Like many texts in literary Scots, for Scottish readers, it is simultaneously domesticating (it is in what many Scots would recognise as their “mither tongue”) and foreignising (it is nonetheless difficult to understand). A Present-day English gloss of “The Seafarer” might be “I can sing a truthful song of my life/how, wandering, in troublesome days/ enduring the hard knocks of time/I’ve borne bitter pain in my breast/Known much care in my ship/ Among the rough surge of the waves”. Alexander Scott’s version (Scott, 1994, pp. 13–15) begins: Anent mysel I’ll tell ye truly: hou, stravaigin the sea in trauchlesome days, aye tholan the dunts o time, I’ve borne strang stounds in my briest, kennan my ship the hame o monie cares. Amang the coorse girn o the swaws. 148

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Tom Scott’s version (Scott, 1993, pp. 83–84) of the same lines is more difficult for readers imme­ diately to comprehend: A suthfast sang I can sing o my life, Vaunt o vaigins, hou I vexious tyauvin In days o sair darg hae dreeit aften. Bitter the breist-pangs I hae abydit, Kent abuin keels care-trauchlit wonnins, Mangset o the mainswaw. It might reasonably be asked why two Scottish cultural nationalists should be drawn to the translation of Old English (OE) verse at all. There are several possible answers to this question, one simply being the continuing presence of Old English philology in the undergraduate English curriculum of the “ancient” Scottish universities. Alexander Scott studied English Literature at Aberdeen University and Tom Scott at Edinburgh University, and both would have encountered poetry in OE as part of their studies. A Glasgow graduate of the same generation, Edwin Morgan, also translated OE verse in the 1940s, albeit into English, and it is likely that part of the attrac­ tion for his generation was that the martial ethos of Beowulf and the bleakness of the OE elegies, in particular, resonated with those who returned to their studies after military service in the war. However, there are other possible explanations. The attraction of “The Seafarer” to Scots poets who were self-consciously extending the Modernist ethos in Scottish literature was not only the OE original but the celebrated and controversial foreignising version by Ezra Pound, published alongside his translations of ancient Chinese texts in Cathay (1915). While neither Alexander nor Tom Scott’s version of “The Seafarer” directly borrows from Pound’s version (in the same way that, as we shall see, Edwin Morgan’s Scots version of another poem from Cathay does), it is sali­ ent that the two Scottish poets are treading the same path as a founding figure of Anglo-American literary Modernism. Perl (2014) has argued that one of the distinguishing, and counter-intuitive, features of literary Modernism was the rejection of the aesthetics of the present and the recent past, with their sup­ posed fragmentation and decadence, in favour of the supposed unitary ethos of past civilisations, distantly removed in time and space. By translating canonical works of Old English, both Alexan­ der Scott and Tom Scott assert that literature in Scots has the potential to transcend, for example, the homely sensibility that dominated verse in Scots from the late 18th century until the early 20th century. A further possible explanation for translation from Old English into Scots is indicated by Alex­ ander Scott’s epigraph to his version of “The Seafarer”: Not “From Old English” but “Fae the West Saxon”. By avoiding the label “English” to refer to the language of the source text, Alexander Scott implies that the Anglo-Saxon dialects should be considered equally the ancestors of English and Scots. In other words, “Old English” is also “Old Scots”. As noted in the preceding section, both Scots and Standard English derive from the Anglian variety of Old English, and both can be considered “cousins” of the West Saxon branch of the language. The translation of West Saxon into Scots is one means of claiming this early manifestation of “English” literature for the Scottish literary tradition. By doing so, the Scots poets complicate the cultural history of the English liter­ ary canon, undermining the hegemonic claim of global English to have an antecedent literature that gave rise to a singular tradition. Rather, the tradition of literature in lowland Scots is extended back to embrace the earliest extant literature in a language that is part of a common ancestral herit­ age of Present-day English and Scots. 149

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The act of appropriating Old English literature for the Scottish canon via the translation of a West Saxon elegy into different varieties of Scots also complicates the notion of “interlingual” translation. While Northumbrian OE is a more direct ancestor of Present-day Scots than West Saxon, there are more resonant echoes in contemporary Scots than in Standard English of the language of the OE elegies, as Chris Jones has observed. Jones (2006, p. 166) notes the “greater density of Old English cognates in Scots vocabulary than in Standard English” and argues, “a larger number of Scots words still share a consonantal palette with their Old English ancestors”. The Scots versions of Old English insist on difference while alerting readers and listeners to simi­ larity. This tension is evident in other English-Scots translations.

Reclaiming the canon: translating Shakespeare, Pound, and Williams If the translation of canonical Old English poems into Scots constitutes a claim for common origins, and, implicitly, equal linguistic status, then translations into Scots of later canonical texts have other purposes. Corbett (1999) argues that one function of the translation of canoni­ cal poetry into Scots is to supplement the Scottish literary tradition by importing exemplars of literary genres and movements that were lacking domestically. This form of translation is clearly interlingual. Thus, for example, the relatively sparse tradition of 17th-century drama in Scots is supplemented by a vigorous 20th-century tradition of translating Molière (Peacock, 1993). The celebrated poet Edwin Morgan (1920–2010) tended to reserve Scots for some of his many translations rather than his original poetry – amongst his most celebrated work in Scots are his versions of Mayakovsky poem sequence Wi the Haill Voice and Edmond Rostand’s Cyrano de Bergerac. Morgan also translated two English texts into Scots, a version of Ezra Pound’s English translation of one of the Chinese poems form Cathay (1915) and a small section of Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Up to a point, Morgan’s version of Pound’s “Lament of the Frontier Guard” serves a similar cultural function to Alexander and Tom Scott’s versions of “The Seafarer” in that it associates poetry in Scots with a founding Anglo-American Modernist text. However, unlike the Old English translations by the two Scots Modernists, Morgan’s version of a poem from Cathay is explicitly a translation of Pound, rather than new, direct translations of Li Po’s source text. It can be argued that by translating the OE elegies and Pound’s English version of Li Po, the Scots poets are engag­ ing with the Anglo-American Modernism of Pound, at least as much as with Anglo-Saxon or ancient Chinese cultures. Moreover, by the time Morgan was entering his maturity as a poet, in the 1960s, the tide of Scots Modernism was ebbing. It is clear from the first lines of Morgan’s version of Pound that his Scots is a wilful mixture of literary archaisms and urban demotic: The medium is treated with both gravity and irony. It wears its near incomprehensibility on its sleeve; Morgan appears to be aware that only a knowledge of Pound’s English original will allow most readers to make sense of the Scots translation. “Lament of the Frontier Guard” By the North gate, the wind blows full of sand. Lonely, from the beginning of time until now! Trees fall, the grass goes yellow with autumn. I climb the towers and towers to watch out the barbarous land: Desolate castle, the sky, the wide desert. (Pound, 1915, p. 16) 150

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“Murnin o the Merches-Gaird” By the Nor’Yett, the wund blaws fu o saun, Lanelie fae time’s jizzen tae thir days! The wid crines, the gress yallas at hairst. I sclim tours an tours tae vizzy the barbour straths: Oorie barmekin, the lift, the braid desart. (Morgan, 1996, p. 370) Here, Morgan moves towards post-Modernism in his use of an innovative, “synthetic” literary amalgam of archaic and contemporary Scots: The sense is opaque but recoverable (with reference to the original or to a dictionary of Scots). However, the identity of the speaker is elusive, elided by the non-specificity of the language. In its recourse to urban demotic as well as literary archa­ ism, Morgan oscillates between from earlier generations of Scots Modernists like Hugh MacDiar­ mid, Tom Scott and Alexander Scott and contemporary neo-Modernists like Tom Leonard, whose touchstones were not Ezra Pound or T.S. Eliot but rather William Carlos Williams and the Black Mountain poets. One of Leonard’s celebrated “Glasgow poems” can be read as an intralingual translation of Williams’ “Just to Let You Know”. In personal correspondence, Leonard denied that it was a trans­ lation, claiming that it was inspired by the American poet’s refrigerator poem. However, it fits the definition of translation proposed by Zethsen and Hill-Madsen (2016, p. 705), noted at the start of this chapter. There is a clearly identifiable source text that Leonard’s target text depends upon and there is “relevant similarity” between them. The plums in Williams’ icebox find cultural equiva­ lents in the cans of beer (“special lager” or “speshlz”) in Leonard’s fridge. From the perspective that Scottish and American English can be considered as two examples of vernacular World Eng­ lish (rather than two separate languages), then the Scots version is intralingual. Jist ti Let Yi No (from the American of Carlos Williams) ahv drank thi speshlz that wurrin thi frij n thit yiwurr probbli hodn back furthi pahrti awright they wur great thaht stroang thaht cawld

(Leonard, 2011, p. 38)

Those familiar with Glasgow discourse will no doubt appreciate the appropriateness of Williams’ “forgive me” being translated by Leonard into the grudgingly concessive “awright”. While the 151

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literal details of the target text differ in such details from the source text, the neo-Modernist ethos remains intact: Like Williams, Leonard is concerned with making poetry from the resources of everyday speech, conveyed as authentically as possible. In the Scottish poet’s case, this means rendering the idiom of the city in an adapted orthography that attempts to convey the sound of Glasgow speech with phonetic accuracy. Morgan and Leonard’s Scots translations of Pound and Williams, then, give us, respectively, an ironic, post-modern take on a foundational Modernist poem and a less ironic pastiche of an iconic neo-Modernist text. By insisting on specifically localised forms of the vernacular (i.e., Glasgow speech), both destabilise the notion of a “national” Scots language. Intralingual translation occurs among varieties that are powerful or stigmatised to different degrees. The classification of a translation as intralingual or interlingual, then, depends on how transla­ tor and reader understand the status of Scots. The stance taken by translators and, indeed, read­ ers, need not be consistent. Morgan’s other published translation from English takes on the most revered monument in the English canon, William Shakespeare, and reappropriates his “Scottish” play for the Scots language. The “literary Scots” chosen by Morgan for this excerpt is less local­ ised and therefore has the capacity to represent the nation; indeed the translation seems largely to be an exercise in reclaiming the “Scottish play” for Scotland (cf. Maley & Neely, 2004). Morgan’s short excerpt from Shakespeare’s Macbeth inspired no fewer than two full-length Scots versions of the play by other translators, David Purves and Robin Lorimer, whose translations are discussed by Derrick McClure (1999). It is perhaps worth recalling that one of Shakespeare’s several sources for Macbeth was at least indirectly John Bellenden’s 16th-century Chronicles of Scotland (1536), a Scots vernacular translation of his compatriot, Hector Boece’s Latin Scotorum Historia (1527). Bellenden’s Scots version (Batho & Husbands, 1941, pp. 150–151) has passages that foreshadow Shakespeare’s drama, as in Macbeth and Banquo’s first meeting with the “weird sisters”: Quhen Makbeth and Banqhuo war passand to Foreß, quhair King Duncan wes for ƿe tyme, thai mett be ƿe gaitt thre weird sisteris or wiches, quhilk come to ƿame with elrege clething. The first of ƿame sayid to Makbeth: “Haill, Thayne of Glammys!” Ƿe secund sayid: “Haill, Thayne of Cawder!” The thrid sayid: “Haill, Makbeth, ƿat salbe sum tyme King of Scotland!” Ƿan said Banquho: “Quhat wemen be ȝe, quhilkis bene sa vnmerciful to me and sa propiciant to my companȝeoun, gevand him nocht onlie landis and grete rentis bot als triumphand kingdome, and gevis me nocht?” To this ansuerit ƿe first of ƿir wiches: “Wee schaw mair feliciteis appering to the ƿan to him; for ƿocht he happin to be ane king, ȝite his empyre sall end vnhap­ pely, and nane of his blude sall eftir him succede. Be contrair, ƿou sall neuer be king, bot of ƿe sall come mony kingis, quhilk with lang and anciant lyage sall reioise ƿe crovun of Scotland.” Thir wourdis beand sayid, ƿai suddanlye evanyst oute of ƿair sycht. Bellenden’s version of Boece was, in turn, “translated out of the Scottish” into English for Raphael Holinshed by one of his assistants, William Harrison. The second edition of Holinshed’s chroni­ cles of England, Scotland and Ireland (1587) became Shakespeare’s main source for his version of the Scottish play (Carrington, 1958, p. xiii). The vocabulary of Morgan’s version of Shakespeare is archaic and formal, a pastiche of the kind of 16th-century written Scots found in Bellenden: LADY MACBETH Aye, ye are Glamis, ye are Cawdor, and ae thing mair ye sall be, ae thing mair. But och, I traistna 152

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sic herts as yours: sic fouth o mense and cherity: ower-guid for that undeemous breenge! Ye’d hae the gloir, the gree, the tap-rung, but ye want the malefice the tap-rung taks. (Morgan, 1996, p. 227) Morgan’s excerpt was clearly meant to be read rather than performed, but it inspired two fulllength Scots translations of Shakespeare’s play (Lorimer, 1992; Purves, 1992). McClure (1999, pp. 49–50) compares these two versions, coming to the following conclusion: Using the now well-recognised distinction between source-oriented and target-oriented translations, Lorimer’s clearly represents the former and Purves’s the latter. Purves has given a modern Scots reading (and hearing) audience as much of Shakespeare as he thinks they will understand and tolerate in Scots; Lorimer has endeavoured to convey as much of Shakespeare as can possibly be conveyed at the risk – indeed, in the certainty – of startling and challenging his audience. To support his conclusion, McClure (1999, p. 41) cites two passages by Purves and Lorimer, which respectively translate Macbeth III.i: MACBETH. Ay, in the catalogue ye go for men; As hounds, and greyhounds, mongrels, spaniels, curs, Shoughs, water-rugs, and demi-wolves are clept All by the name of dogs: the valu’d file Distinguishes the swift, the slow, the subtle, The housekeeper, the hunter, every one According to the gift which bounteous nature Hath in him clos’d. (Shakepeare) O ay, A’m gled ti hear it. A daursay ye micht be cawed men o a kynd – lyke hoonds, stray curs, toozie tykes, shilpit whuppits, an ill-faured mongrels is aw cryit dugs. Thair pedigrees refleks thair mony byuss Qualities – sum guid rinners, sum soumars, sum gleg, sum strang, an sum guid huntars – ilkane haes sum spaicial meith Naitur haes gien it. (Purves, 1992) Aye, i the register ye pass for men, like hunds an grewhunds, ratches, lyin-dugs, sleuths, collies, spainyels, messan-tykes, hauf-wowffs, 153

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at’s aa caa’d dugs, but in the kennel-beuk they’r sorted out intil the swift, the slaw, the weirers, hunters, hame-keepers, ilkane according til the giftie Naitur’s bountith in him hes set. (Lorimer, 1992) McClure, then, argues that in attempting to deliver a Scots version of Macbeth that would be act­ able (it was in fact performed at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe), Purves sacrificed the experimen­ talism of Shakespeare’s verse for a more accessible Scots. Lorimer follows Morgan more closely in making fewer concessions to immediate intelligibility. Their Scots versions combine archaisms and coinages, often compounds, and the target texts, while impressive, are often semantically opaque. The contrast between Purves’ and Lorimer’s versions can be compared to that between Alexander and Tom Scott. McClure identifies the contrast as one between source-oriented (or domesticating) and target-oriented (foreignising); but the latter effect is more complex and lay­ ered. For non-Scottish readers both the Purves and the Lorimer texts might be equally foreignising, while, for Scottish readers, the Scots of the Lorimer text might, like that of Tom Scott’s “The Seav­ aiger”, be both strangely familiar and startlingly unfamiliar. What makes Lorimer’s translation accessible to readers, if not theatre-goers, is, of course, the widespread familiarity in the Englishspeaking world with the source text.

The translation of political texts from English to Scots So far, we have argued that the literary translations from English to Scots in the period of the 20th century following the Second World War can be understood as part of a rising cultural and political nationalism in Scotland. The translators sought to problematise the origins of English by reclaim­ ing Old English texts for Scots and to appropriate canonical English texts for a Scottish literary tradition. While use as a literary medium is one possible criterion for evaluating the status of a language variety, others are just as important or even more so; for example, sociolinguists point to the use of a variety as an educational medium, its use in the country’s capital, its use in parliament and so on (Corbett, 2003). The use of Scots in the literary domain, while according that variety some prestige, is no guarantee of its recognition as a full language. As the 20th century closed, political changes resulted in greater legislative autonomy for the nations of the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland. The establishment of devolved parliaments or assemblies in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales in 1999 saw the potential, at least, of par­ liamentary business being conducted in indigenous languages other than English. Welsh, Gaelic, Irish and Scots were candidates for use as languages of debate, public record and signage in the newly devolved institutions. Perhaps surprisingly, in the early decades of these institutions there was more evident use of Scots in the Northern Irish public sphere than in Scotland itself. In Northern Ireland, the case for using Scots in the Northern Irish Assembly and in other aspects of the public sphere was strengthened by the 1998 Good Friday Agreement which stated, “All par­ ticipants recognise the importance of respect, understanding and tolerance in relation to linguistic diversity, including in Northern Ireland, the Irish language, Ulster-Scots and the languages of the various ethnic communities, all of which are part of the cultural wealth of the island of Ireland” (cited in Ferguson, 2018, p. 335). In the early years of the devolved assembly in Northern Ireland, as a consequence, there was funding for translation of public documents into both Irish and Ulster Scots. An example is the 2001 Annual Report of the North/South Ministerial Council (NSMC) 154

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which is available in all three languages. The following opening passage (NMSC, 2001a, p. 6; 2001b Ulster Scots version: 6) indicates how the English source text was translated into the Ulster Scots target text: The North/South Ministerial Council (NSMC) was established on Thursday 2 December 1999 on the entry into force of the British-Irish Agreement, which was signed by the British and Irish Governments as part of the Agreement reached in the Multi-Party Negotiations in Belfast on Good Friday, 10 April, 1998 (“the Agreement”). The Agreement stipulates that the North/South Ministerial Council will bring together those with executive responsi­ bilities in Northern Ireland and the Irish Government to develop consultation, co-operation and action within the island of Ireland – including through implementation on an all-island and cross-border basis – on matters of mutual interest and within the competence of each Administration, North and South. Tha Noarth/Sooth Cooncil o Männystèrs wus stellit oan Thursday 2 Decemmer 19 an 99 quhaniver tha British-Airish Greeance wus poustie gat. Tha British an Airish Govermenns pit thair hann tae thon as pairt o tha Greeance at wus wun tae oot o tha Monie-Pairtie throch inben Bilfawst oan Guid Friday, 10 Aprile, 19 an 98 (“tha Greeance”). Tha Greeance gars tha Noarth/Sooth Cooncil o Männystèrs bräng thegither tha boadies at haes guidin ontaks in Norlin Airlann an tha Airish Govermenn tae graith apen discoorse, complutherin an jeein ben tha islann o Airlann – takkin in bi wye o throchin oan tha steid o tha hale islann an athort tha meerin – anent maittèrs tha baith o thaim leuks tha gate o an at ilka Owerance, Noarth an Sooth, haes tha wisin o. In an analysis of the translation of another piece of “Civil Service prose”, John Kirk (2013) identi­ fies some of the translation strategies used in the attempt to fashion out of Scots a new medium for public discourse, many of which are evident even in the prior short passage, for example, respellings of grammatical and lexical items (tha, “the”, Airish, “Irish”), avoidance of English lexical items in favour of Scots items or forms (poustie gat, “entered into force”; apen discoorse, “consultation”), and lexical periphrasis (pit thair hann tae, “signed”). Kirk observes that the kind of Ulster Scots, or Ullans, represented by such translations was provided by a small “cadre” of language activists who were commissioned by civil servants and did not represent a form of Scots that the wider Scots-speaking population was likely to adopt with any enthusiasm. Kirk (2013, p. 299) concludes that this attempt to forge, through translation, a form of Scots suitable for pub­ lic discourse is “not easily teachable and is unlikely to extend beyond its inventor cadre”. Frank Ferguson (2018, p. 338) suggests that the more successful forms of Ulster Scots “were those who used a light or strategic deployment of the language, rather than those who tended towards a denser utilisation”. The dilemma facing those attempting to use translation to extend the functional domains of Scots usage from the literary domain to the non-literary public sphere is therefore similar to that facing the translators of Old English elegies or canonical literary texts: A relatively “thin” or “light” and “accessible” Scots increases intelligibility, while the frequent recourse to more archaic language, coinages and maximally differentiated linguistic forms increases the expressiveness of the medium, but at the risk of losing even those who might claim to be users. This dilemma was also faced by those who framed the most substantial Scots document yet produced by the Scottish Parliament, the Report on Inquiry intil the role o educational an cultural policy in uphaudin an bringin oot Gaelic, Scots an minority leids in Scotland (Education, Culture and Sports Commit­ tee, 2003a). This report was translated from English into a number of languages commonly used 155

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in Scotland: Arabic, Chinese, Gaelic, Punjabi, Urdu and (unusually) Scots. The passage from the report (paragraphs 96 & 97; pp. 15–16) explicitly refer to translation. In the subsequent excerpt, the Scots translation follows the English version (Education, Culture and Sports Committee, 2003b, pp. 15–16) below: 96. Immediately apparent from the submissions received, are the similarities between prevailing attitudes towards Community Languages and Scots. In a submission from, Hilary McColl, Educational Consultant, the perception that learning another language, or making provision for maintenance of community languages, will interfere with learning English. This again relates to the idea that monolingualism is the accepted “norm”. The Centre for Education for Racial Equality in Scotland (CERES) believe that there is a “lack of apprecia­ tion of bilingualism”. 97. There is the same lack of statistical data with regard to Community Languages as there is with Scots. The point made repeatedly in submissions was that people are stigma­ tised for speaking a Community Language rather than the education system valuing and making provision for languages other than English. It is worth bearing in mind that many children who speak a community language may effectively be trilingual, not bilingual, in that in addition to their community language they may speak a dialect of Scots as well as English in the playgroup and in the local community. Their trilingualism does present a challenge to the education system, but it is more productive to view this challenge as a “resource” to be developed rather than as a “problem” to be eradicated. 96. Immediately apparent fae the submissions ingaithered is the similarities atween pre­ vailin attitudes tae Community leids an tae Scots. A submission fae Hilary McColl, Educa­ tional Consultant, expressed the perception that learnin anither leid, or makkin provision for the uphaud o community leids, will intromit wi the learnin o English. This aye relates tae the idea that monolingualism is the acceptit “norm”. The Centre for Education for Racial Equal­ ity in Scotland (CERES) doots that there a “want o appreciation o bilingualism”. 97. The same want o statistical data exists for Community leids as exists for Scots. Ower an ower in submissions the point wis made that folk speakin a Community leid is flyted at insteid o the education system giein respect tae an makkin provision for leids ither nor English. It is worth haudin in mind that mony bairns that speaks a community leid micht weel be trilingual, no bilingual, for in addition tae their community leid they micht speak a dialect o Scots forby English in the pleygroup an the local community. Their trilingualism does gie the education system a challenge, but it is mair productive tae regaird this chal­ lenge as a “resource” tae be biggit on raither nor a “problem” tae be reddit oot. Admittedly, some of the characteristics that Kirk (2013) observes in the Ulster Scots translation are also evident here. There are again grammatical and lexical respellings (tae, “to”, oot, “out”; pleygroup, “playgroup”), avoidance of English lexical items in favour of Scots items or forms (leids, “languages”; ingaitherd, “received”), and lexical periphrasis that often prefers concrete­ ness to abstraction (reddit oot, “eradicated”). However, the frequency of such usages is lower and the recourse to obscure archaisms is less evident, and the result is that the Scottish report is more accessible than its Northern Irish counterparts. In a discussion of such texts at around the time they were being formulated, Corbett and Douglas (2003, p. 203) observed that, if they were to have a value beyond the purely symbolic, “Civil Service Scots has to be linguistically accessible, codi­ fied and fixed so as to be teachable to all those who have to draft and read leaflets and reports.” In other words, in public documents, Scots remains trapped in a space between the intralingual and 156

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the interlingual. “Civil Service Scots” in Scotland and Ulster depends for full intelligibility on the reader’s access to the Standard English source texts, which act as a gloss for the target text. At present, Scots translations draw on the spoken vernacular and more literary resources to fashion a medium that represents its users’ aspirations that it be autonomous from English; however, the target language remains, as it were, under construction. The fact that the translation into Scots of public documents, in Scotland and Northern Ireland, has not developed to any substantial extent since 2003 can, no doubt, be explained by many fac­ tors. However, one factor must be that the general literacy in both Scotland and Ireland is based on Standard English. For most readers of public documents, the most accessible form remains Standard English. A text presented in Scots to either a literate Scottish or a Northern Irish reader makes demands that a text in English does not. The reader who is schooled in English may not feel the need for a supplementary translation in Scots (unlike the target readership of, say, Arabic, Chi­ nese or Urdu translations of Scottish governmental texts). While translations of public discourse into minority languages used by immigrant communities serve a transactional function, the use of Scots remains largely symbolic. For this to change, more Scottish readers would need to feel com­ fortable with texts in Scots. It is in the acknowledgement of this fact that the final set of translations is considered here: The translation of popular children’s fiction into Scots.

Promoting Scots literacy: the Itchy Coo translations Since the early 2000s, the translation of children’s books from English to Scots has become a cor­ nerstone of the success of an imprint, Itchy Coo, established in 2002, and dedicated to improving literacy in Scots. James Robertson (2013), one of the three founders of the imprint, with Matthew Fitt and Susan Rennie, gives a detailed account of the first decade of the project, and an evaluation report by Robertson et al. (2011) is available online. All three founders were concerned that pub­ lishing in Scots had long been a piecemeal and sporadic operation, and, in collaboration with the then Scottish Arts Council (now Creative Scotland) and Black and White publishers, they procured National Lottery funding for a series of books, aimed at children from nursery to advanced second­ ary school age, which would be supported by the provision of further educational materials and schools outreach. Early productions included an alphabet book in Scots, shorter fiction and poems, and a non-fictional history of the Scots Parliament. While these were relatively successful, com­ mercially, the biggest success of the enterprise was The Eejits (2006), a translation by Matthew Fitt of Roald Dahl’s The Twits, boasting the original illustrations by Quentin Blake. Robertson (2013, p. 116) reflects on its success thus: Published not just with the permission but the enthusiastic support of the Dahl estate, this title struck an immediate chord with both adult and young readers, and went on to sell many thousands of copies and go through several reprints. It has also proved very effective as an educational tool, since many children are already familiar with the original English version before they read The Eejits: comparative readings can lead on to discussions about vocabu­ lary differences, language usage in different situations, the distinction between accent, dia­ lect and language, and so on. Typically, Scottish children report that they enjoy reading or listening to The Eejits because they find it “funnier” than The Twits. They respond to the story in Scots (as they do to most of the Itchy Coo books) initially because they recognise the words and sounds as their words, and their sounds: even when some of the vocabulary is unfamiliar, they are no more averse to acquiring new Scots words from a Scots text than they are to acquiring new English words from an English text. 157

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The commercial success of Fitt’s version of Dahl led to other translations in a similar vein. The Eejits was followed by translations of Dahl’s George’s Marvellous Medicine (Geordie’s Mingin Medicine, translated by Fitt, 2007), Fantastic Mr Fox (The Sleekit Mr Tod, translated by Robertson, 2007), Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (Chairlie and the Chocolate Works, translated by Fitt, 2016), Revolting Rhymes (Reeking Rhymes, translated by Fitt, 2018) and Matilda (Matilda in Scots, translated by Anne Donovan, 2019). Translations of other English works include versions by Robertson of A.A. Milne’s children’s stories, Winnie-the-Pooh in Scots (2008) and The Hoose at Pooh’s Neuk (2010); and Julie Donaldson’s stories, adapted as The Gruffalo in Scots (2012), The Gruffalo’s Wean (2013) and Room on the Broom in Scots (2014). Fitt also turned his hand to a specifically Dundonian version of Julie Donaldson’s Gruffalo sequel, The Dundee Gruffalo’s Bairn (2013), one of a number of localised Scots ver­ sions of the story that include The Doric Gruffalo’s Bairn (2013), translated by Sheena Blackhall, The Shetland Gruffalo’s Bairn (2013) by Christine de Luca, and The Glasgow Gruffalo’s Wean (2013), translated by Elaine C. Smith. Donaldson’s The Troll has also been translated into different varieties of Scots by Itchy Coo’s stable of translators – it became Da Trow (2016) in Christine de Luca’s Shetlandic version. In addition, stories by Raymond Briggs have been translated by Matthew Fitt as The Snawman (2020), and Briggs’ Big Friendly Giant (BFG), became, in Susan Rennie’s adaptation, GFG – The Guid Freendly Giant (2016). As part of an Edinburgh City of Literature project, Fitt contributed the text to a Scots graphic novel version of Robert Louis Stevenson’s Kidnapped (Kidnappit, 2007) illustrated by Alan Grant, an endeavour that combined the Itchy Coo team’s characteristic desire to use transla­ tion to extend the generic possibilities of Scots with, like the Macbeth translations discussed earlier, the appropriation of a canonical Scottish text for the Scots language. While all of these were Itchy Coo editions, the success of the project has seen similar interventions in the children’s market by other publishers. Susan Rennie, who left the Itchy Coo team in 2002, has continued to produce translations into Scots, notably a series of versions of the comic books featuring Hergé’s adventures of Tintin, as well as popular stapes like Judith Kerr’s The Teeger that Cam for his Tea (2018), and the Shetlandic poet, Christine de Luca, clearly inspired by the Itchy Coo volumes, produced her own version of Dahl’s George’s Marvellous Medicine as Dodie’s Phenomenal Pheesic (2008). Itchy Coo remains the principal outlet for Scots translations of children’s literature, and the most important of its recent publications is Matthew Fitt’s version of the first volume in J.K Rowling’s series of Harry Potter novels, translated as Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stane (2017). This translation can again be understood – somewhat tenuously, perhaps – as a reappro­ priation by Scotland of a text that has strong Scottish associations, insofar as its author wrote it in Edinburgh, where she still resides. But, in this instance, the more salient factors in the choice of translation must have been the commercial value of the property and the status endowed on Scots by having one of the most popular novels of recent decades, amongst both children and adults, available in the language. The opening paragraphs of the novel gives a sense of the distance between the English and Scots versions: Chapter One The Boy Who Lived Mr and Mrs Dursley, of number four, Privet Drive, were proud to say that they were per­ fectly normal, thank you very much. They were the last people you’d expect to be involved in anything strange or mysterious, because they just didn’t hold with such nonsense.

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Mr Dursley was the director of a firm called Grunnings, which made drills. He was a big, beefy man with hardly any neck, although he did have a very large moustache. Mrs Dursley was thin and blonde and had nearly twice the usual amount of neck, which came in very useful as she spent so much of her time craning over garden fences, spying on her neighbours. The Dursleys had a small son called Dudley and in their opinion there was no finer boy anywhere. (Rowling, 1997, p. 1) Chaipter Ane The Laddie Wha Lived Mr and Mrs Dursley, o nummer fower, Privet Loan, were prood tae say that they were gey normal, thank ye verra much. They were the lest fowk ye wid jalouse wid be taigled up wi onythin unco or weird, because they jist didnae haud wi havers like yon. Mr Dursley wis the heidbummer o a firm cawed Grunnngs, that made drills. He wis a muckle, beefy-boukit man wi a stumpie wee craigie, although he did hae a gey muckle mowser. Mrs Dursley wis a skinnymalinkie, blonde-heidit wummin whase craigie wis jist aboot twice as lang as ither fowk’s, which wis awfie haundy as she spent sae muckle time keekin ower gairden fences, nebbin at the neebors. The Dursleys had a wee son cawed Dudley and tae them there wisnae a brawer laddie in the haill warld. (Rowling, trans. Fitt, 2018, p. 1) Grammatically, the target text is practically identical to that of the source text, and the main dif­ ferences are in vocabulary and spelling. As a translation designed in part to promote literacy in Scots, it clearly offers the kind of potential Robertson notes earlier, in his description of the uses of the Roald Dahl translation in classrooms: Pupils might attend to familiar and perhaps unfa­ miliar Scots vocabulary and to the ways in which spelling conventions indicate and diverge from pronunciation. The way that spelling is a negotiation between visual expectations and strict pho­ netic representation is evident in the choices made by Fitt, for example, English “was” becomes Scots “wis” here rather than the more phonetically accurate “wiz”. Pupils might also debate whether English “director” is exactly equivalent in register to the Scots “heidbummer”. In short, despite the argument that Scots is a separate language, one of the implicit goals of the Itchy Coo translations in particular is not so much to educate readers in a new language but to extend their repertoire in reading and writing. Both familiar and unfamiliar Scots terms that readers might or might not have heard in their daily lives, and seldom, if ever, read are introduced into a text translated from a familiar source. Even if readers have not read the original novel, they are likely to have seen the film. The purpose of the Itchy Coo translations is explicitly to promote literacy in Scots among their readers, but this newly activated literacy is not necessarily at the expense of English, which assumes the role, perhaps paradoxically, of being a resource for the maintenance of Scots. Robert­ son (2013) does imagine a future – or present – in which younger readers extend their literacy by reading the English version after consuming the Scots one; however, this vision still foresees the competent user of Scots being an equally competent user of English. The Itchy Coo translations from English have been so successful as to have become, somewhat unexpectedly, the core activity of the ongoing Itchy Coo series of “braw books for bairns o aw ages”. The evaluation of the first decade (Robertson et al., 2011) includes survey responses from

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44 individuals working in education, politics and the creative industries. Comments elicited about the translations indicate their developing importance to the project: • The “translation” aspect of Itchy Coo publication of myths and children’s classics is one of the most interesting and worthwhile pieces of curriculum development that I ever observed in a long career in schools and teacher education. (60) • The translations of Roald Dahl and of course Winnie the Pooh were brilliant. (63) • I am always recommending Winnie the Pooh in Scots because I am fascinated by the impact of the Scots language on the character of Christopher Robin. I never enjoyed these stories when I was wee and I don’t think I ever read a full volume. I read the Itchy Coo translation from cover to cover over a couple of nights. (65) • The translations into Scots were superb; Comedy that teaches subliminally. (69) • Forward-looking, street-credible, professional appearance, no concession to twee nostalgia. The use of translated texts was inspired. (70) If the positive response from a largely well-informed and sympathetic group of educationists and fellow professionals might be expected, the broader response on the Amazon UK website (accessed in January 2020) for, say, Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stane is more mixed. Not all of those who post comments on the Amazon website are, of course, Scottish, but even amongst the Scots there are interesting comments that suggest that the Itchy Coo team and those follow­ ing in its footsteps have much still to do. One of the Amazon respondents, on receiving the book, assumed that it must be written in Scots Gaelic. Another, whilst extolling the virtues of Fitt’s trans­ lation, comments, “It just sounds so alien to read Harry Potter in slang but it is absolutely worth it!” Other commentators are quick to state the difference between Scots and Gaelic and to assert the status of Scots as a language, not “slang”. A further commentator gives evidence that the Itchy Coo translations can prompt Scots literacy and extend the Scots repertoire even of Scots speakers: There was a puckle o words ah wisna afa sure o and ah think they must come fae all ower Scotland bit ah kent maist o fit ah’ve read so far. Ah live in England so jist get te spik Scots te the dog nooadays cos naebody else kens fit ah’m oan aboot. Me and the dog are baith enjoying this book. [There was a number of words I wasn’t very sure of, and I think they must come from all over Scotland but I understood most of what I’ve read so far. I live in England so just get to speak Scots to the dog nowadays because nobody else understands what I’m on about. Me and the dog are both enjoying this book.] To sum up, then, over the last two decades the Itchy Coo project has overseen and stimulated a sus­ tained and commercially and critically successful series of translations of English children’s books into Scots. They have done this as part of a broader educational and cultural project to promote literacy in Scots amongst the younger generation. The fact that translation from English turned out to be one of the central pillars of the Itchy Coo project as it developed might not be, in hindsight, too surprising. The stories and novels of Roald Dahl, Julie Donaldson and J.K. Rowling have a brand recognition that new writers have not yet acquired, and there is clearly a public appetite to read their work in alternative versions. It is evident from the Amazon comments that while some readers are put off by the Scots versions, many do find in them the familiar co-mixed with the alien that characterises all translations from English into Scots. One challenge facing the translator into Scots is that there is no common, fixed core that can act as a standard: Most readers admit to 160

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finding words that they are not “afa sure o”. The dialectal differences amongst the diverse varieties of Scots are acknowledged in the different local versions of Julie Donaldson’s stories. However, those translations that are simply tagged as “Scots” do not simply unlock a latent but pre-existing literacy amongst their readers – they are in the process of creating a common Scots written reg­ ister that is not yet fixed but which may emerge through the consumption of the translations and the discussions they provoke, particularly about how formal vocabulary or abstract concepts are expressed in English and Scots. As we saw in the previous section of this chapter, the establishment of devolved parliaments in Scotland and Northern Ireland at the turn of the century saw definite but stalled attempts in both polities to make public documents available in Scots alongside English and other community languages. The Itchy Coo project to promote Scots literacy dates from around the same time. It is likely that if, in future, documents in the public sphere are more widely accepted and used by the broader public, it will be because of an enhanced literacy in Scots and a greater acceptance of Scots as a legitimate language – both of which will have been promoted, in large part, by transla­ tions from English. Scots language activists may be justified in asserting the status of Scots as a legitimate, autono­ mous language; much writing and indeed translation into Scots from different languages, includ­ ing English, affirm that part of the motivation for doing so arises from the desire to show that Scots is capable of functioning as a fully independent language. However, literacy levels in Scots remain low, such that the success of a translation into Scots from English depends in part on the readers’ familiarity with the source text. Effectively, the Scots target texts continue to function as intralingual translations. Only if and when literacy levels in Scots improve might translations from English to Scots properly be considered interlingual translations.

Further reading Corbett, J. (2006). “Nae mair pussyfootin. Ah’m aff, Theramenes”: Demotic neoclassical drama in contempo­ rary Scotland. In J. McGonigal & K. Stirling (Eds.), Ethically speaking (pp. 17–35). Brill. Corbett, J. (2007). A double-realm: Scottish literary translation in the twenty-first century. In B. Schoene (Ed.), The Edinburgh companion to contemporary Scottish literature (pp. 336–344). Edinburgh Univer­ sity Press. Findlay, B. (2000). Translating standard into dialect: Missing the target?. In C. Upton (Ed.), Moving target (pp. 35–46). Routledge. McClure, J. D. (2006). European poetry in Scots. In T. Hubbard & R. D. S Jack (Eds.), Scotland in Europe (pp. 89–104). Brill. McClure, J. D. (2020). Translating Polish poetry into Scots. ANGLICA-An International Journal of English Studies, 29(3), 177–193.

References Aitken, A. (1984). Scots and English in Scotland. In P. Trudgill (Ed.), Language in the British Isles (pp. 517– 532). Cambridge University Press. Batho, E. C., & Husbands, H. W. (Eds.). (1941). The chronicles of Scotland, compiled by Hector Boece (Vol. 2, J. Bellenden, Trans.). Scottish Text Society. Retrieved January 15, 2022, from https://digital.nls.uk/ publications-by-scottish-clubs/archive/107313232 Carrington, N. T. (1958). Shakespeare, Macbeth. Cambridge University Press. Chan, L. T.-H. (2018). The dialect(ic)s of control and resistance: Intralingual audiovisual translation in Chi­ nese TV drama. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 251, 89–109. https://doi.org/10.1515/ ijsl-2018-0005 Corbett, J. (1999). Written in the language of the Scottish nation: A history of liteary translation into Scots. Multilingual Matters.

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John Corbett Corbett, J. (2001). The seafarer: Visibility and the translation of a West Saxon elegy into English and Scots. Translation and Literature, 10(2), 157–173. https://doi.org/10.3366/tal.2001.10.2.157 Corbett, J. (2003). Language planning and modern Scots. In J. Corbett, J. D. McClure, & J. Stuart-Smith (Eds.), The Edinburgh companion to Scots (pp. 251–273). Edinburgh University Press. Corbett, J., & Douglas, F. (2003). Scots in the public sphere. In J. Kirk & D. O Baoill (Eds.), Towards our goals in broadcasting, the press, the performing arts and the economy: Minority languages in Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland and Scotland (pp. 198–210). Clo Ollscoil na Banriona. Dossena, M. (2005). Scotticisms in grammar and vocabulary. John Donald. Education, Culture and Sports Committee. (2003a). Report on inquiry intil the role o educational an cultural policy in uphaudin an bringin oot Gaelic, Scots an minority leids in Scotland. Scottish Parliamentary Corporate Body. Education, Culture and Sports Committee. (2003b). Report on inquiry into the role of educational and cul­ tural polity in supporting and developing Gaelic, Scots and minority languages in Scotland. Scottish Parliamentary Corporate Body. Ferguson, F. (2018). Home to a ghost: Ulster-Scots language and vernacular in Northern Irish culture since the Good Friday Agreement. Przegląd Kulturoznawczy, 37(3), 335–347. Retrieved January 16, 2022, from www.ejournals.eu/Przeglad-Kulturoznawczy/2018/Numer-3-37-2018/art/13508/ Findlay, B. (Ed.). (2004). Frae Ither tongues: Essays on modern translations into Scots. Multilingual Matters. Jones, C. (1995). A language suppressed: The pronunciation of the Scots language in the 18th century. John Donald. Jones, C. (2006). Strange likeness: The use of Old English in twentieth-century poetry. Oxford University Press. Jones, C. (2010). New Old English: The place of Old English in twentieth- and twenty-first-century poetry. Literature Compass, 7(11), 1009–1019. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-4113.2010.00760.x Kirk, J. M. (2013). Civil service Scots: Prose or poetry? In J. M. Kirk & I. Macleod (Eds.), Scots: Studies in its literature and language (pp. 277–304). Rodopi. Leonard, T. (2011). Outside the narrative: Poems 1965–2009. Word Power Books. Lorimer, R. (1992). Shakespeare’s Macbeth translated into Scots. Canongate. Macafee, C., & †Aitken, A. (2002). A history of Scots to 1700. Retrieved from A Dictionary of the Older Scot­ tish Tongue vol. XII, xxix––clvii. https://dsl.ac.uk/about-scots/history-of-scots/ Maley, W., & Neely, S. (2004). “Almost afraid to know itself”: Macbeth and cinematic Scotland. In E. Bell & G. Miller (Eds.), Scotland in theory: Reflections on culture and literature (pp. 97–106). Rodopi. McClure, J. D. (1981). “Scottis, Inglis, Suddroun”: Language labels and language attitudes. In F. Riddy & R. Lyall (Eds.), Proceedings of the third international conference on Scottish language and literature, Mediaeval and Renaissance (pp. 52–69). Glasgow and Stirling University. McClure, J. D. (1997). Why Scots matters. Saltire Society. McClure, J. D. (1999). When Macbeth becomes scots. Ilha do Desterro, 36, 29–51. McColl Millar, R. (2020). A sociolinguistic history of Scotland. Edinburgh University Press. Morgan, E. (1996). Collected translations. Carcanet. NMSC. (2001a). Annual report. North/South Ministerial Council. NMSC. (2001b). Annual report (Ulster Scots Version). North/South Ministerial Council. Peacock, N. (1993). Molière in Scotland. Glasgow University. Perl, J. (2014). The tradition of return. Princeton University Press. Pound, E. (1915). Cathay. Elkin Mathews. Purves, D. (1992). The tragedie o Macbeth. Rob Roy Press. Purves, D. (2002). A Scots grammar: Scots grammar and usage (2nd ed.). The Saltire Society. Robb, D. (2007). Auld campaigner: A life of Alexander Scott. Dunedin Academic Press. Robertson, J. (2013). Pittin the word(s) oot: The Itchy Coo experience of publishing in Scots in the twenty-first century. In J. M. Kirk & I. Macleod (Eds.), Scots: Studies in its literature and language (pp. 103–124). Rodopi. Robertson, J., Fitt, M., & Mitchelson, M. (2011). The story of Itchy Coo: Evaluation report 2001–2011. Itchy Coo. Retrieved January 16, 2020, from www.itchy-coo.com/resources/The+Story+of+Itchy+Coo.pdf Rowling, J. (1997). Harry Potter and the philosopher’s stone. Bloomsbury. Rowling, J. (2018). Harry Potter and the philosopher’s stane (M. Fitt, Trans.). Itchy Coo. Scott, A. (1994). The collected poems of Alexander Scott (D. Robb, Ed.). Mercat Press. Scott, T. (1993). The collected shorter poems of Tom Scott. Agenda/Chapman.

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Translation from English into Scots Stuart-Smith, J. (2003). The phonology of modern urban Scots. In J. Corbett, J. D. McClure, & J. Stuart-Smith (Eds.), The Edinburgh companion to Scots (pp. 110–137). Edinburgh University Press. Venuti, L. (1995). The translator’s invisibility: A history of translation. Routledge. Zethsen, K. K., & Hill-Madsen, A. (2016). Intralingual translation and its place within translation studies – a theoretical discussion. Meta: Journal Des Traducteurs/Meta: Translators’ Journal, 61(3), 692–708. https://doi.org/10.7202/1039225ar

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10 INTRALINGUAL TRANSLATION IN SUBTITLES AND RECEPTION The case of the movie Roma Laura Vilardell

Introduction After winning the Golden Globe for the Best Foreign Language Film in January 2020 for his movie Parasite, the South Korean filmmaker Bong Joon-ho famously declared the following: “Once you overcome the one-inch-tall barrier of subtitles, you will be introduced to so many more amazing films” (translated by Sharon Choi; Jackson, 2020). With this statement, Bong Joon-ho encouraged audiences to watch movies produced abroad in subtitles. In Spanish-speaking countries, however, there has always been a general preference for dubbing. This trend started for Mexican Spanish in 1938, with the first dubbed Disney movie, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. In Spain, dubbing has always been the preferred modality, not only in cinema, but also on television (O’Sullivan & Cornu, 2019, p. 23). For movies released before 1991, Disney offered only one dubbed version of Spanish, using what was called español neutro (neutral Spanish), a no-accent version that could be distributed in all Spanish-speaking countries. However, since 1991 the company has decided to offer two different Spanish-dubbed versions of each movie – one for Latin American countries and one for Spain (Mendoza, 2015). The traditional preference for dubbing among Spanish speakers seems to be challenged by the global preference toward subtitles (Patel, 2016). For example, the eighth article of the last reform to the Mexican Federal Law of Cinematography, published on 22 March 2021, established that “films shall be shown to the public in their original versions and subtitled in Spanish, in accordance with the terms established in the Regulations” (Estados Unidos Mexicanos, 2021). In this chapter, my focus is twofold: (1) I aim to investigate the reasoning behind the decision to create a new version with a different geographical variant of the same language. To do so, I first explore the literature on subtitling and intralingual translation and then focus on the controversy over the subtitles translated from Mexican Spanish to Iberian Spanish in Alfonso Cuarón’s 2019 Oscar-awarded movie Roma. (2) I focus on immediacy from the point of view of consumers, who can give instant feedback on an audiovisual product in countless ways, such as on social media platforms. To illustrate this point, I present the immediate reception of Roma’s subtitles on Twitter. In the following sections, I provide a brief overview of recent literature on the translation of subtitles, introduce the concept of intralingual translation, and then suggest criteria for assessing subtitles, based on Mossop et al. (2019).

DOI: 10.4324/9781003188872-13

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The product: intralingual translation and subtitles Preliminary remarks The term “intralingual translation” was coined by Roman Jakobson in 1959 and reviewed by sev­ eral scholars afterward (Denton, 2007 and Pillière, 2010, among others). It consists of rewording a message within the same language code to ensure communication. According to Neves, intralin­ gual translation in audiovisual products – known as “subtitling for the deaf and hard-of-hearing” (SDH) or “closed captioning” (CC) – was originally considered a transcription or adaptation intended for deaf or hard-of-hearing individuals; it was rarely attributed to language varieties emerging from different social groups or geographical areas. In audiovisual translation (AVT) studies, however, the literature suggests designating this prac­ tice as either translation or intralingual subtitling: “At present, there is a widely held consensus that SDH delivers intralingual or interlingual ‘translation’” (2019, p. 83). This understanding is shared by O’Sullivan and Cornu (2019, p. 16) and Johnson (2019, p. 418); in contrast, Díaz Cintas and Remael (2014, p. 14) use the term “intralingual subtitles”. In order to avoid confusion, in this chapter I use the term “intralingual translation” to indicate the act of translating, while I use “intra­ lingual subtitling/subtitles” to refer specifically to the product, the subtitles themselves. The following section summarizes the conceptualization of subtitling for audiovisual content, from the 1990s to the present, then suggests a classification system for subtitles.

Overview of the literature on audiovisual subtitles and classification Linguistic aspects Scholars in the 1990s concurred that intralingual translation was intended exclusively for deaf or hard-of-hearing individuals and that it was performed live. In the early 2000s, AVT scholars added three additional target audiences: Language students, karaoke singers (Díaz Cintas, 2001), and children (Bartoll, 2004, p. 58). However, regardless of the target audience, the final product was still considered a “transcription” (Bartoll, 2004, p. 57) or “captioning” (Díaz Cintas, 2003). The only exception that Bartoll noted concerned the purpose of the subtitles, as he argued that there were two different types: Documentary subtitles, which are literal transcriptions, and instrumental subtitles (Nord, 1995, as cited in Bartoll, 2004, p. 57), which blend transcription and transla­ tion. Other scholars, such as Romero-Fresco (2009), Szarkowska et al. (2016), and Lugea (2019), termed this distinction edited versus verbatim subtitles (Lugea, 2019, p. 24). In 2016, Karen Korning Zethsen and Aage Hill-Madsen broke down the concept of intralingual translation into three categories: Dialectal INTRA, for different geographical or social variants of the language; diachronic INTRA, when the original and the translation are chronologically distant from one another; and intergeneric INTRA or functional INTRA, which is employed, for example, while translating a technical text for a general audience.

Technical aspects Gottlieb (1997, pp. 71–72) distinguished between open and closed subtitles. While open subtitles are always on view, closed subtitles can be displayed or turned off, according to the end users’ preferences. Following Bartoll, the first distinction for subtitling an audiovisual product is whether we consider the subtitles as a process or as an end result. When considered as a process, the

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emphasis can be placed either on the translation process or on the technical aspects of subtitling (Bartoll, 2004, p. 58). In contrast, considering subtitles as an end result focuses on the target audi­ ence and its reaction. Bartoll argues that process and end result have different characteristics, even though, in some cases, elements of the two could potentially be combined. The variables that affect the work of the subtitler, according to Bartoll, are “language, purpose, the addressee, time and to a lesser degree the product to be subtitled”. Those that are restricted to the technicians implement­ ing the subtitles are “the means of broadcast, localization, placing, filing, mobility, optionality, the product and the colour, as all of these require special technical resources for each case”. For the end user, the variables are “language, the addressee, purpose, means of broadcast, localization, placing, mobility, filing, optionality and the product” (2004, p. 58).

Suggestion for classifying intralingual subtitles Following the Skopos theory of translation, before any translation process takes place, one must understand the purpose of the translation, its function, and how the translator responds to the tar­ get audience’s needs (Reiß & Vermeer, 2014, p. 86). In the case of subtitles, there are two broad distinctions: Those intended for people who are deaf and hard-of-hearing, where the sounds are described (these subtitles are known as SDH in the UK and closed captions in the US; Neves, 2019, p. 83), and those intended for people who can hear, but for some reason have trouble under­ standing the dialogue. Once the target audience has been identified, the subtitling process can be classified according to two categories: Technical and linguistic. • Within the technical aspects, I agree with Bartoll that subtitles need to be regarded both as a process and as an end result. However, for the technical aspects of the process, I propose to add synchrony between images and text as another category in the list of variables, as it is key to delivering the message and making it sound real (Martínez Sierra, 2004, as cited in Chaume, 2005, p. 11). • Regarding the linguistic aspects, the first distinction would be the language combination: Interlingual translation (from L1 to L2) and intralingual translation (from L11 to L12). Both cat­ egories can have open and/or closed simultaneous subtitles. Unlike other authors who restrict simultaneous subtitles to intralingual subtitling, my suggestion is broader, following the con­ cept of respeaking. According to Romero-Fresco, respeaking uses speech recognition to convert voice to live subtitles with the right mechanics and the minimum lag possible, using different colours for different characters (2011, p. 1). After all the adaptations (punctuation, technical aspects, and so on), Romero-Fresco concludes, “respeakers often end up paraphrasing, rather than repeating or shadowing, the original soundtrack” (2019, p. 96). Nowadays, artificial intel­ ligence can be combined with respeaking, as simultaneous subtitles can be generated by the increasingly widespread practice of auto-generated subtitles (or automatic captions), without any human interaction. In the case of translation within the same language, subtitles are done by an automatic speech recognition system (ASR), while the interlingual translation process combines ASR with machine translation (Matamala, 2019, p. 75). However, as shown by Romero-Fresco, auto-generated subtitles still need a “manual review pro­ cess to eliminate errors” (2019, p. 106). Consequently, the ideal scenario is to merge artificial intelligence with respeaking and then to submit the final product to a quality assurance process through the guidelines shown in the next subsection. This assesses the quality of the subtitles and 166

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ensures that they fulfil the expectations of the target audience. In order to guarantee that the subti­ tles meet the audience’s expectations, the post-production step needs to prioritize the fight against artificiality (Chaume, 2005, p. 9). Díaz Cintas agrees: “Translating only the linguistic component without taking into account the value of the other semiotic dimensions of the film would certainly be a recipe for disaster” (2009, p. 9). The dialogues need to sound plausible in the target language or geographical variant. In the following section, there is an overview of the quality control param­ eters that I argue subtitlers need to follow to identify problems.

Parameters for analyzing the quality of intralingual subtitles Subtitles are commonly revised twice, once by the original subtitler and once by someone else, normally a peer. For both revisions, the criteria need to be clear and systematic. Some companies establish their own quality control process (QC); Netflix, for example, uses a process based on an artificial intelligence (AI) prediction model (Govind & Balachandran, 2015). However, from the point of view of linguistic and cultural adaptation, I suggest that the revision parameters provided by Brian Mossop et al. (2019) handily summarize the most common aspects of subtitle QC. Mos­ sop and his colleagues identify and define five categories of problems: • Group A – Problems of meaning transfer, related to accuracy and completeness. • Group B – Problems of content, related to logic and errors. • Group C – Problems of language and style, related to mechanics (grammar, spelling, and punc­ tuation), coherence, cohesion, smoothness, and word combinations. • Group D – Problems with presentation, related to placement in text, typography, and organization. • Group E – Problems related to specifications, related to complying with the guidelines given by the client or the employer. Even though these are broad categories, the subcategories of each group are defined clearly, and the authors provide examples. I will use this approach to illustrate the controversy over the intra­ lingual translation of the subtitles of the movie Roma.

Target audience, streaming services, and reception The changing role of audiovisual consumers: from theatres to streaming services In the 1960s, cinema required gathering in a certain place to watch an already selected audiovisual product. Therefore, the relationship between producer/filmmaker and spectator followed a “topdown” model in which the bond between the two was “fundamentally asymmetrical” (Thompson, 1995, as cited in Jones, 2019, p. 183). As a result, “consumers were forced to assume a compar­ atively passive role” (Jones, 2019, p. 183). The arrival of television and home video technology led to a slight change of the “top-down logic” (Jones, 2019, p. 184), as users had slightly more freedom of choice and did not have to pay every time they decided to watch a movie. Audiovisual producers reacted quickly. Following a niche strategy, they focused on fans, offering extra content, such as spin-offs. This not only brought revenue to producers but also gave birth to an unstoppable phenomenon: “fandom” communi­ ties (Jones, 2019, p. 185). These groups became the seed for online fan forums and fansubbing 167

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(Pérez-González, 2007, p. 265). The technology also led to piracy, a fundamental element that is still present today: Anyone could spread illegal copies of any content without control (OrregoCarmona, 2018, p. 324). However, for the most part, the “top-down logic” remained, as television networks still decided the broadcasting schedule of shows on TV, which in turn obeyed the criteria of “profit-focused corporations” (Cubbison, 2005, p. 51, as cited in Jones, 2019, p. 186).

How the message is read: the digital revolution and the power of active audiences The digital revolution brought a radical change in entertainment consumption and reception. In 2021, 4.9 billion people, 63% of the population worldwide, had access to the internet (ITU, 2022) and thus had full control over when and where to watch a show (Orrego-Carmona, 2018, p. 323). Reed Hastings, Netflix CEO, declared that Netflix wanted to put an end to the limitations of shows broadcast at a certain time on a certain day: “For 100 years, you could only watch an episode of a show, say, at 8 o’clock on Thursday night, or you go to the theater. Now, it’s much more flex­ ible” (Döpfner & Hastings, 2021). The freedom derived from this change also allowed consumers to become active contributors to the reception of audiovisual content. I argue that two different concepts are essential for understanding the paradigm shift in the consumption of audiovisual products: Media and active audiences. Lisa Gitelman defined media as the technology by which we can communicate. “A medium is a set of associated ‘protocols’ or social and cultural practices that have grown up around that technology” (2006, pp. 13–14). In the case of the internet, the “numerical representation” or codi­ fication of content online poses risks regarding the “customization and manipulation” of contents (Jones, 2019, p. 186). The change of paradigm carried with it the empowerment of audiences. Huimin Jin described the term active audiences as the ability of individuals to react to a message (2012, p. 103). OrregoCarmona pointed out a subcategory: “Engaged audiences [that] interact online in discussions, forums, social media and websites dedicated to the content of their preferences” (2018, p. 324). The empowerment of audiences “can be seen as an alternative source of media power” (Jenkins, 2006, p. 4), as consumers’ knowledge is gathered in a single space, thus leading to what Jenkins calls “participatory culture” (2006, p. 3) and Lévy (1997) labels “collective intelligence”. How­ ever, the audience does not always express itself in the same way and through the same media. In the following section, I shed light on reception, based on the different ways to process the feedback of active audiences. Finally, I propose that social media is an element to consider when examining the immediate reception of a product.

Revising the methodology of reception analysis Changes in media and the advent of active audiences have led scholars to reinvent methods for measuring reception, particularly data gathering and data processing. In the following list, I pro­ pose new ways of assessment, based on the empowerment of users and immediate reception: • Data gathering: While other studies (Orrego-Carmona, 2015; Perego, 2016; Szarkowska et al., 2016) use eye-tracking to analyze the reactions of individuals, for this project I propose social media comments as a data source, which permits a broader, more inclusive sample. Following Jenkins (2006), the idea is to determine collective intelligence, in this case within a non-fandom community. The methodology gathers and then analyzes comments within a particular social 168

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media thread that were posted during a certain period of time. Orrego-Carmona validates the method in these terms: “Tweets could provide valuable information for scholars seeking to map audience preferences and reactions” (2019, p. 378). • Data processing: I base my approach to data analysis on Stuart Hall’s theory of reception (1973). He argues that media texts are coded by the producer and decoded by the target audi­ ence. Focusing on the decoding process, he established three different “encoding versions”: Dominant or hegemonic, negotiated, and oppositional (Hall, 1973, pp. 16–18). I categorize the data in the following case study using these three types. The digital revolution not only altered the behaviour and role of audiences, but it also changed the production of audiovisual products. To explore this change, I focus on the way that Netflix has selected language combinations for its subtitling. I centre my analysis on Netflix because it is a dominant media producer – Döpfner revealed that Netflix had 200 million subscribers around the world in 2021 (Döpfner & Hastings, 2021).

Coding the message: artificial intelligence versus tradition As stated in the introduction, in the case of Spain, “there is a culture of dubbing” (Benavides, 2018), “because they do not like to read subtitles” (Gil Ariza, 2004). However, the days of dubbing may be numbered. It is an open secret that some companies track our behaviour. Through artificial intelligence, they can establish certain patterns of conduct, and this information is priceless when they need to launch or to improve their products. Netflix has long been committed to this model. Todd Yellin, Netflix’s vice president of product innovation, shared their strategy with Wired UK: “The three legs of this stool would be Netflix members; taggers who understand everything about the content; and our machine learning algorithms that take all of the data and put things together” (Plummer, 2017). Indeed, the company’s decisions are based on “machine learning and statistical modelling” (Dye et al., 2020) of a large dataset of subscribers’ preferences. The variables include the num­ ber of users who watched a certain show, their location, and their language preference. Once the data is collected and cleaned, artificial intelligence foresees both the “audience size” (Dye et al., 2020) and “the per-language consumption”, that is the expected number of viewers per language (Kumar et al., 2018). According to the results obtained from the prediction, they determine the most successful language combination and the post-production process (dubbing, subtitling, or audio description). The following section offers a case study of the controversy that emerged over the intralingual translation in Spanish in the subtitles for the 2019 Oscar-winning movie Roma.

Case study Background Netflix bought Roma in 2018 after “an intense bidding war” and “for far more than its cost” (Thompson, 2018), and it was released the same year. It is set in the 1970s in a very specific neigh­ bourhood of Mexico City, though the topic of the movie is universal: The fight against patriarchy (Cuarón, 2018). Languages play a key role in the picture. Mexican Spanish is the dominant lan­ guage, while the indigenous language Mixtec is spoken by the maids, and English is only rarely spoken. According to the director, Alfonso Cuarón, “A film like this, in Spanish, indigenous, in 169

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black and white and a drama, not a genre movie, we know it would have huge difficulty just find­ ing space to be shown in theaters” (Roxborough, 2018). Maybe that was why Cuarón and Netflix decided to “break the rules of the display market and go to independent theatres” (Gutiérrez, 2018).1 Described by Thompson (2018) as a “mind-blowing digital game-changer”, Roma was not screened by the most popular theatre chains, such as Mexico’s Cinépolis and Cinemex, or Spain’s Espectarama. The causes are twofold: First, the format of the movie required specific high-quality systems, and second, big chains opposed Netflix’s unwillingness to respect the theat­ rical window – that is, the time that the movie would be exclusively available in movie theatres. On 20 November 2018, Cuarón used his Twitter account to encourage the independent theatres of Mexico to organize film screenings of his movie, stating that so far only 40 theatres had made it available. After his effort, a total of 100 theatres showed the movie in Mexico. In Spain, it was only available in five cinemas: Cines Verdi Madrid (two screens), Cines Verdi Barcelona (two screens), and Cines Albéniz in Málaga (ABC, 2018). Eventually, according to El País, the movie “was launched in more than 500 cinemas of about 40 countries” (Koch & Belinchón, 2018). Jordi Soler, a Mexican writer established in Spain, watched the movie at Cines Verdi in Barce­ lona. Outraged after the experience, on 16 December 2018 he tweeted: “In Spain @alfonsocuaron’s Roma is subtitled in peninsular Spanish, which is paternalistic, offensive and deeply provincial” (Soler, as cited in Green, 2019). His tweet gave rise to a major controversy: It got 1,065 retweets and had 3,980 likes. The debate reached the filmmaker, Alfonso Cuarón, who, in Spain’s news­ paper El País, stated that the decision was “parochial, ignorant and offensive to Spaniards them­ selves” (Morales et al., 2019). On 10 January 2019, Netflix decided to drop the Iberian subtitles and only kept the original closed captions. Currently, if the viewer does not choose to display sub­ titles, the Mixtec conversations are subtitled in Mexican Spanish, but the English dialogue is not subtitled. If subtitles in Spanish are chosen, the Mixtec dialogue is subtitled in Mexican Spanish, and the English dialogue is subtitled in English.

Analysis of the changes In order to understand the magnitude of the debate over the film’s subtitles, I provide here a brief sample of examples. As stated before, the methodology of analysis follows Mossop et al. (2019, pp. 137–157), who classify problems in translation in five broad groups: Meaning transfer, con­ tent, language and style, presentation, and specifications. More information is provided under the section “Parameters for Analyzing the Quality of Intralingual Subtitles” of this article. • Example 1 (minute 9:22) Original: “Se enoja el soldado, se baja el soldado y le disparó” [al niño]. (Literal translation: *gets mad the soldier, gets out the soldier and shot him [the kid]). Iberian translation: “El soldado se enfada, se baja y le dispara”. (Literal translation: The soldier gets angry, gets out and shoots him [the kid]). All the problems found in this first example can be categorized as problems of language and style. In the original version, one of the children speaks about a scene he witnessed. To do so, he uses repetitions and changes verb tense from present to past in the same sentence. Even though the shift in verb tense does not follow a logical sequence, this is the way the child speaks, and it is part of his identity. The subtitler for the Iberian Spanish version decided to omit the repetition (under­ lined), which is a problem of style (it is not a problem of meaning transfer because it is correct to

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omit the subject in this context in Spanish), to change the verb tense (in bold), which is a smooth­ ing of the tenses, and to change the position of elements (italicized), also related to smoothness. While the original structure of the sentence is Vp+S+Vp+S+Vpast, the translation’s structure is S+Vp+Vp+Vp (Vp stands for verb in present tense). • Example 2 (minute 1:58:42) Original: “No, mi amor, tengo que ir a checar las llantas del coche”. (Literal translation: No, my dear, I have to go check the tyres of the car). Iberian translation: “No, tengo que mirar las llantas”. (Literal translation: No, I have to go see the rims). In this case, the problems are related to meaning transfer. The first problem is underlined and is related to the completeness of the message, as the translation omits some words, such as “my dear”, “to go”, and “of the car”, resulting in information retention. This incompleteness is very obvious when the original audio is played, and the subtitles of the Iberian translation are shown. This is where the work of the translator, according to Díaz Cintas and Remael (2014, p. 55), is exposed and can be criticized. The second problem, accuracy, is italicized and is related to the verbs checar and mirar. While checar is “to check”, which involves an action taken by the speaker, the Ibe­ rian translation is mirar, that is “to see”, a verb that does not imply any kind of action taken by the speaker. The same process occurs with the noun llanta. In Mexico, this word means “wheel/ tyre”, while in Spain it means “rim”, which is the metal that holds the tyre. Thus, when the mother announced to her children that she had to go to check the tyres of the car, in Iberian Spanish the message was that she had to see the rim (the car is omitted, as well as the verb “to go”). • Example 3 (minute 1:50:12) Original: “Y, además, quiero un coche más chico”. (Literal translation: And, also, I want a smaller car). Iberian Translation: “quería un coche más pequeño”. (Literal translation: I wanted a smaller car). This example contains problems of language and style. This sentence comes after one of the chil­ dren asked why the mother did not buy a Ford Maverick. Her answer, in the original, is in the pre­ sent tense to note that her decision is still firm. The Iberian translation uses the past tense instead, which may make the audience think that she could have changed her mind. The change between chico and pequeño is related to meaning. While in Mexico chico is more widely used, people in Spain use pequeño, though both words are easily understood in Spain. The definition of both terms in the Diccionario de la Real Academia Española is almost identical. The omission of “y además” in the Iberian translation creates a problem of cohesion: The removal of the link words renders the speech less fluid, and the character’s words come across as being blunt and direct. • Example 4 (minute 30:17) Original: Gansito (chocolate snack). Iberian Translation: ganchito (cheese puff). The case of Gansito is classified as a problem of content, as the translation does not match the same reality as the original. While in Mexico Gansito refers to a chocolate snack, ganchito refers 171

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to a cheese puff in Spain. Moreover, the grandmother told Paco, one of the children, that she put them in the freezer for everyone. It is evident that a cheese puff does not belong in the freezer. • Example 5 (minute 1:58:54) Original: “si está bien suave ”. (Literal translation: but it’s really calm). Iberian translation: “está tranquila”. (Literal translation: it’s calm/quiet). This example can be categorized as a problem of meaning transfer. In this case, the problem is related to accuracy. When the mother asks the children to stay close to shore, one of the children answers that the sea is calm, so they can swim further out. In the Iberian translation there is the omission of si and bien. Si can be translated as “but” in this case, and bien is an adverb of empha­ sis (adverbio ponderativo), equivalent to muy, that can be translated as “really”. Besides these omissions, there is also a change of linguistic register in the word mar. Even though this term, translated as “sea”, can be used in both masculine and feminine forms, the general rule is to use it in masculine (Real Academia Española, 2019) and leave the feminine for literary register or idi­ omatic expressions, such as alta mar (high seas). In the context of a child articulating the sentence, the use of the feminine seems artificial. • Example 6 (minute 0:10:40) Original: “Se va a enojar tu mamá ”. (Literal translation: *is going to be angry, your mom). Iberian translation: “tu madre se va a enfadar”. (Literal translation: your mother is going to be angry). The first change to note is a compensation, or change of the place of some elements, in this case the subject. While in the original the subject is at the end of the sentence, in the Iberian translation the subject is at the beginning. Even though the verb tense is the same, the change from mamá (mom) to madre (mother) denotes a problem of language and style. Cleo, the domestic worker, is the one who pronounced this sentence, referring to Paco, one of the children. This creates a problem of coherence, because in an informal setting, it would be more likely that Cleo referred to the mother as mom, as in the original, not “mother”. The italicized change refers to a change of vocabulary to demonstrate the differences between Mexican and Iberian Spanish, even though in both geograph­ ical variants enojar and enfadar are interchangeable. According to the Real Academia Española, enojar causes anger while enfadar causes annoyance, but the difference between the meaning of the two words is very small. The subtitles have multiple examples of geographical variations, such as the use of babosa for tonta (fool) (10:01), where the second definition of baboso in the Real Academia Española is the word tonto. Other examples include using vosotros in the Iberian subtitles instead of ustedes (2:05:35), including some conjugations such as subtitling the spoken word vengan (come, in the form of ustedes) as venid (come, in the form of vosotros) (1:50:05), which does not interfere in any way with the communication. One other change in linguistic register is the replacement of the spoken word correr (to be fired) with despedir (to dismiss) in the subtitles (45:50). The words are spoken by Cleo, the domestic worker, who was pregnant but was scared to tell her mistress. Even though correr also means to run, in this case it is obvious that she is referring to her fear of being dismissed. In the Iberian Spanish translation, the word used is despedir, which can be translated as “to dismiss”. There is obviously a change of register here, and in this context it seems more plausible to use the word correr than despedir. 172

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Reception of the controversy in academic circles in Spain The controversial subtitling provoked reactions from well-known people from various institu­ tions. For example, philologist Pedro Álvarez de Miranda, from the reference institution in the study of the Spanish language, Real Academia Española, agreed with Cuarón’s judgment but also recognized, “it is intended to make it easier for the viewer, but it is an indication of their lack of confidence in the ability of the Spanish speaker to understand” (Morales et al., 2019). From all the examples presented previously, it can be concluded that the linguistic changes are not made in response to a possible lack of understanding by the receiver of the message from Spain. In fact, with examples such as the change from ustedes to vosotros or from mamá to madre, it is clear that the changes are rather arbitrary and nonsensical. I agree with Juan Cruz, co-founder and editor of the newspaper El País, who, in conversation with Álex Grijelmo, a writer who is in charge of the newspaper’s manual of style, stated that subtitles should be present when a dialect is difficult to understand, as, for example, in the case of Chilean Spanish (Figueroa & Morales, 2019, 9:02– 9:08). However, in the case of the subtitles in Roma, Cruz defined the Iberian version as “false subtitles” since some of the changes were not in line with the aim of the filmmaker (14:33–14:40). Moreover, Grijelmo added that “at most 3%” of the words of the movie could be difficult to under­ stand for a person from Spain (5:39–5:42). For all that, Cruz agreed with Soler, stating that Netflix’s action was the “result of the colonisa­ tion of the language” (Figueroa & Morales, 2019, 14:50–14:54). Even though at first glance this seems a very strong assertation, according to Bassnett and Trivedi, “colonialism and translation [go] hand in hand” (1999, p. 3). After more than 200 years of independence of Mexico, it seems incredible that we still speak about colonialism, but its impact continues. While Belgium recently apologized for the colonization of the Congo (Adamolekun, 2022), King Felipe of Spain, on 7 August 2022 at Gustavo Petro’s inauguration as president of Colombia, was the only head of state that refused to stand in front of the sword of Simón de Bolivar, the liberator of Spanish rule in Latin America (Gutiérrez, 2022). This lack of respect for Latin American symbols can be related to the decision to translate the film Roma into Iberian Spanish or Castilian in Spain, ignoring “the colour and texture of other accents” (Cuarón in Morales et al., 2019). For Agulló, Netflix’s deci­ sion was a problem of culturalization, because they had not measured the impact of the translation on the audience (Agulló, 2020). However, after analyzing the subtitles, it seems reasonable to sug­ gest that the decision was not that innocent.

Reasons for the intralingual subtitles of Roma and economic success in Spain A spokesperson for Cines Verdi in Barcelona explained to the newspaper Libertad Digital that a test was carried out to see if Spanish viewers could understand the film, and most of them could not (Cultura/Agencias, 2019). He defended the addition of Iberian Spanish subtitles as a way to reach a broader audience since they would guarantee that idioms and vocabulary from the 1970s could be well understood. Before my analysis of the movie, I hypothesized that the intralingual translation of its subtitles came from the results of AI forecasts derived from similar shows. How­ ever, after the analysis, it seems more likely that it was more than a linguistic decision. Rather, it seems Cines Verdi aimed to better fit the needs of “an individual, group, or culture” (ideology, as defined by Merriam-Webster Dictionary) that, in their mind, probably would not accept the original in Mexican Spanish. The arbitrary examples provided earlier that do not interfere in com­ munication, such as replacing ustedes with vosotros, illustrate this point. The reality, though, is that many Spaniards were offended by the subtitles, as the linguistic choices implied that they were not capable of understanding Mexican Spanish. 173

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Unfortunately, I was unable to identify the person who subtitled the Iberian Spanish version. Nei­ ther Netflix, Cuarón, nor Cines Verdi wanted to make a statement on the matter. However, I was able to speak with José Luis Saturno, the subtitler of the Latin American version of the film for Netflix (J. L. Saturno, personal communication, 4 November 2020), though he had no knowledge of the real reasons behind the Iberian Spanish subtitling or who oversaw the decisions about those subtitles. Regarding the economic success of the movie in Spain, Netflix does not provide data on audi­ ence or box office numbers, as they contend that such information should not be used to measure the success of a film (Griggs, 2019). The only data available from Spanish theatres was leaked from the catalogue of Instituto de la Cinematografía y de las Artes Audiovisuales and published by the newspaper El Español on 3 February 2019: “[T]he data of box office and spectators of Alfonso Cuarón’s drama revealed: 327,727 euros and 45,735 spectators” (Fdez, 2019). In order to put the data in perspective, the same organization indicated that The Marriage Story, a film released and distributed by Netflix that premiered in Spain on 22 November 2019, had 75,266.41 euros and 11,318 spectators (Instituto de la Cinematografía y de las Artes Audiovisuales, 2023) after a fourweek theatre run (Thompson, 2022). As the data of the number of views in the service are not available, it is difficult to ascer­ tain whether they compensated for Roma’s marketing campaign, the budget of which cost mil­ lions (Barnes, 2019). Likewise, the real losses that the adaptation into Iberian Spanish may have caused are also unknown, as Netflix declined to comment on the matter (Koch et al., 2019). What is certain is that with Roma Netflix introduced a different way of watching cinema and also of distributing films, giving space to independent theatres (Jarvey, 2019); in addition, the publicity surrounding the controversy over the subtitles probably brought them some extra revenue. In the following section, I analyze the immediate reception of the controversial tweet.

Results and reception analysis The analysis is based on 172 tweets and retweets found in the original thread created by Jordi Soler on 16 December 2018 (4:04 AM).2 Even though the thread has a total of 1,065 retweets, I aim to assess the reception on 16 December, from 4:04 AM to 11:59 PM, as the bulk of the controversy took place during those hours. I analyze the reaction of Twitter users according to Stuart Hall’s three categories, mentioned earlier in the section on reception: Dominant or hegemonic (1973, p. 16), negotiated (1973, p. 17), and oppositional (1973, p. 18). In this case, those messages that fall into the dominant-hegemonic category are the ones that totally agree with Soler’s tweet; nego­ tiated messages are those written by users who, while they understand the message, interpret it slightly differently or modify part of the message to be able to share their own experience. Finally, oppositional readers are those who decode the message with its connotations and understand the tweet in a contrary way. Nearly half (45.93%) of the messages analyzed fall into the category of negotiated, with exam­ ples such as “I am surprised that it is not dubbed”. Those who fully agreed with Soler, that is, those in the category of dominant-hegemonic, totalled 34.88%. Thus, around three-quarters of the reactions to Soler’s tweet agreed with his point of view, as in the following responses: “Colonial­ ism is the word [for that]” or “what a shame that they don’t respect the Mexican Spanish”. Only 19.19% of the tweets are oppositional – that is, they totally disagree with Soler’s reasoning and agree with the decision of Netflix – as in the following: “What’s the problem?” or “in reality some of the dialogues are difficult to understand. I recommend using the subtitles”. These early results show that the controversy had a very strong impact on social media and that Soler’s opinion went viral in a matter of seconds. 174

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Interestingly, only a very small percentage of tweets spoke about the movie itself. Most mes­ sages dealt with the users’ personal experiences with Latin American Spanish versus Iberian Spanish. Some offered generalizations and stereotypes, or discussed sensitive topics regarding the relationship between Mexico and Spain. That supports my hypothesis that the changes made went beyond a simple question of linguistic understanding and had ideological intentions. Those responding to the tweet did not have to watch the movie to have an opinion about the matter, because the subject of language, ideology, and colonialism is still present in both countries. As in general the comments were not about the movie, I was unable to apply Gambier’s model of the three Rs (response, reaction, and repercussion) to assess reactions at the cognitive level, to evalu­ ate the commenters’ judgment of the movie, or to explore their understanding about that and the repercussions of their experiences (Orrego-Carmona, 2019, p. 377). In a future study, I plan to analyze the reactions in the medium term through the theories of Gambier. As stated before, analyzing comments on social media opens new horizons in the study of immediate reception and can be easily related to the theory of active audiences. However, while it can provide valuable results in terms of content, it poses difficulties of identity and data processing.

Concluding remarks At the outset, the study of intralingual subtitles was related to closed captioning for hearing impaired people (Neves, 2019, p. 83). However, as time passed, subtitles became recognized as being also useful for language learners or for ensuring that people understood the message, as in the case of hard-to-understand geographical variants of the same language, for example in the movie Trainspotting (1996). The reasoning behind the preference for subtitles can be twofold: First, subtitles are cheaper than dubbing, and, second, they allow viewers to hear the original voices of the actors while making the content more accessible. After reviewing the linguistic and technical aspects of subtitles, I conclude that the characteris­ tics of interlingual subtitling can be shared with intralingual subtitling. This includes simultaneous subtitles that can be performed live with automatic speech recognition systems (ASR) and can include, if needed, machine translation, with a strong quality assessment afterwards. The five categories for classifying and assessing subtitles provided by Mossop et al. (2019) are helpful in identifying problems and challenges, as well as in reducing the vulnerability of the job of subti­ tlers, as pointed out by Díaz Cintas and Remael (2014, p. 55). It seems plausible that previous post-production preferences, such as the preference for dub­ bing in Spanish-speaking countries, are challenged nowadays with the advent of streaming ser­ vices and social media (Patel, 2016). Instead of relying on tendencies based on socio-political reasons, streaming platforms use artificial intelligence to leverage users’ preferences. In some cases, they make the movie fully accessible, providing the audio description for visually impaired individuals, along with closed captioning and a version without subtitles. This trend has quickly led more traditional media corporations to change their practices as well. As stated in the introduction, since 1991 Disney has offered two different dubbed versions of Spanish for their movies, one for Spain and the other for Latin America. However, the 2017 movie Coco, produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures, was screened in Spain in its original version, Mexican Spanish, without Iberian Spanish subtitles. The same hap­ pened with Encanto (2021). Even though at the beginning my hypothesis was that the reasoning behind the decision to add Iberian Spanish subtitles in the original Mexican Spanish dialogues in Roma could follow modern trends related to AI, after analyzing the examples in which the subtitles did not match the spoken 175

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language, I am inclined to believe there was an ideological reasoning behind it. Jordi Soler started the controversy on Twitter on 16 December 2018, and Netflix waited to respond until hearing the opinion of the filmmaker, pronounced on 9 January 2019. One day later, Netflix dropped the sub­ titles and removed the Iberian version. The only version of Spanish-language subtitles currently available is “Spanish CC” (in closed captions) – that is, the original subtitles in Mexican Spanish. This chapter proves that the advent of the internet resulted in the empowerment of audiences. Unarguably, it is a more inclusive way to beat the “top-down logic”, where there is a huge gap between filmmaker and spectators. In the case of the immediate reception of Roma on Twitter (16 December 2018), many users that commented on Jordi Soler’s thread did not even watch the movie but already had an opinion, most of them favourable to Soler’s point of view. This feedback would not exist without the internet. This also indicates that the decision to intralingually translate the movie was not simply a question of language; the movie became a pretext for understanding the ideological issues that still exist between Spain and Latin America. Netflix invested money on something (the translation of the subtitles) that was not necessary but helped to give visibility to the task of subtitlers, translators, and intralingual translation.

Notes 1 All translations from Spanish sources are mine. 2 The results have been classified according to their nature. Those that did not provide any information or were not related to the controversy, e.g., those that did not understand the original tweet, etc., were discarded.

Further reading Hastings, R., & Meyer, E. (2020). No rules rules: Netflix and the culture of reinvention. Penguin Press. Nikolić, K. (2018). Reception studies in audiovisual translation – interlingual subtitling. In E. Di Giovanni & Y. Gambier (Eds.), Reception studies and audiovisual translation (pp. 180–197). John Benjamins. https:// doi.org/10.1075/btl.141

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Intralingual translation in subtitles and reception Cubbison, L. (2005). Anime fans, DVDs, and the authentic text. The Velvet Light Trap, 56, 45–57. Cultura/Agencias. (2019, January 10). Netflix zanja la polémica con Cuarón y elimina los subtítulos en español de “Roma”. Libertad Digital – Cultura. www.libertaddigital.com/cultura/cine/2019-01-10/ netflix-fulmina-los-subtitulos-al-espanol-de-roma-tras-el-enfado-de-alfonso-cuaron-1276631105/ Denton, J. (2007). “. . . Waterlogged somewhere in mid-Atlantic.” Why American readers need intralingual translation but don’t often get it. TTR: Traduction, Terminologie, Rédaction, 20(2), 243–270. https://doi. org/10.7202/018826ar Díaz Cintas, J. (2001). La traducción audiovisual: el subtitulado. Almar. Díaz Cintas, J. (2003). Audiovisual translation in the third millennium. In G. Anderman & M. Rogers (Eds.), Translation today: Trends and perspectives (pp. 192–204). Multilingual Matters. Díaz Cintas, J. (2009). Introduction – audiovisual translation: An overview of its potential. In J. Díaz Cintas (Ed.), New trends in audiovisual translation (pp. 1–18). Multilingual Matters. Díaz Cintas, J., & Remael, A. (2014). Audiovisual translation: Subtitling. Routledge. Döpfner, M., & Hastings, R. (2021, November 5). Reed Hastings explains the psychology behind Netflix games in an exclusive interview: “We’re unafraid to fail”. Business Insider. www.businessinsider.com/ netflix-games-reed-hastings-interview-axel-springer-mathias-doepfner-2021-11 Dye, M., Ekanadham, C. (Chaitu), Saluja, A., & Rastogi, A. (2020, December 10). Supporting content decision makers with machine learning. Netflix Tech Blog. https://netflixtechblog.com/supportingcontent-decision-makers-with-machine-learning-995b7b76006f Estados Unidos Mexicanos. Presidencia de la República. (2021, March 22). DECRETO por el que se reforma el artículo 8o. de la Ley Federal de Cinematografía. DOF – Diario Oficial de la Federación. www.dof. gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo=5614075&fecha=22/03/2021 Fdez, J. (2019, February 3). Revelado el dato de taquilla de “Roma” que Netflix no quiere que sepas. El Español. www.elespanol.com/bluper/television/20190203/revelado-taquilla-roma-netflix-no-quiere-sepas/ 372714652_0.html Figueroa, V., & Morales, J. J. (Hosts). (2019, January 11). Quién dice que es mejor atasco que trancón (No. 9). ‎Las Historias de EL PAÍS. https://podcasts.apple.com/es/podcast/ep-9-qui%C3%A9n-dice-que-es­ mejor-atasco-que-tranc%C3%B3n/id1440051890?i=1000427472809 Gil Ariza, M. C. (2004, July). A case study: Spain as a dubbing country. Translation Journal, 8(3). http:// translationjournal.net/journal/29movies.htm Gitelman, L. (2006). Always already new: Media, history and the data of culture. MIT Press. Gottlieb, H. (1997). Subtitles, translation & idioms. University of Copenhagen. Govind, N., & Balachandran, A. (2015, December 10). Optimizing content quality control at Netflix with predictive modeling. Medium. https://netflixtechblog.com/optimizing-content-quality-control-at-netflixwith-predictive-modeling-712281658ab9 Green, J. (2019, January 9). Alfonso Cuaron says it’s “ridiculous” that Spain is subtitling his Mexi­ can drama “Roma”. The Hollywood Reporter. www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/ alfonso-cuaron-calls-spain-subtitling-mexican-movie-roma-ridiculous-1174888/ Griggs, B. (2019, February 18). This movie has 10 Oscar nominations. Its official box-office haul so far: $0. CNN. www.cnn.com/2019/02/18/entertainment/roma-movie-netflix-box-office-trnd/index.html Gutiérrez, Á. (2022, August 10). Críticas en la política española por gesto del rey Felipe VI ante la es­ pada de Bolívar. France24. www.france24.com/es/am%C3%A9rica-latina/20220809-criticas-en-la­ pol%C3%ADtica-espa%C3%B1ola-por-gesto-del-rey-felipe-vi-ante-la-espada-de-bol%C3%ADvar Gutiérrez, V. (2018, November 13). Roma no se estrenará en cines comerciales. El Economista. www.elecon­ omista.com.mx/arteseideas/Roma-no-se-estrenara-en-cines-comerciales-20181113-0132.html Hall, S. (1973). Encoding and decoding in the television discourse. Centre for Cultural Studies, University of Birmingham. Reprinted in Brudson (Ed.). (2021). Encoding and decoding in the television discourse. In Writings on media: History of the present (pp. 247–267). Duke University Press. Instituto de la Cinematografía y de las Artes Audiovisuales. (2023). Catálogo películas clasificadas. https:// sede.mcu.gob.es/CatalogoICAA ITU (International Telecommunication Union). (2022). Statistics. www.itu.int:443/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/ stat/default.aspx Jackson, L. M. (2020, February 13). Perspective | You should watch everything with subtitles on. Washington Post. www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/02/13/you-should-watch-everything-with-subtitles/ Jakobson, R. (1959). On linguistic aspects of translation. In R. A. Brower (Ed.), On translation. Harvard University Press.

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Laura Vilardell Jarvey, N. (2019, March 28). “Roma” producer talks Netflix ratings data: “They were pretty open”. The Hollywood Reporter. www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/business-news/roma-producer-talks-netflix-ratings-datathey-were-pretty-open-1197745/ Jenkins, H. (2006). Convergence culture: Where old and new media collide. New York University Press. Jin, H. (2012). Active audience: A new materialistic interpretation of a key concept of cultural studies. Co­ lumbia University Press. Johnson, R. (2019). Audiovisual translation and popular music. In L. Pérez-González (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of audiovisual translation (pp. 418–435). Routledge. Jones, H. (2019). Mediality and audiovisual translation. In L. Pérez-González (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of audiovisual translation (pp. 177–191). Routledge. Koch, T., & Belinchón, G. (2018, December 15). El éxito de “Roma” en salas impulsa a Netflix y a los ex­ hibidores a negociar. El País. https://elpais.com/cultura/2018/12/13/actualidad/1544705688_102153.html Koch, T., Roca, A. T., & Morales, M. (2019, January 11). Netflix retira los subtítulos de “Roma” en español peninsular. El País. https://elpais.com/cultura/2019/01/10/actualidad/1547131961_814032.html Kumar, R., Misra, V., Walraven, J., Sharan, L., Azarnoush, B., Chen, B., & Govind, N. (2018, March 27). Data science and the art of producing entertainment at Netflix. Netflix Tech Blog. https://netflixtechblog.com/ studio-production-data-science-646ee2cc21a1 Lévy, P. (1997). Collective intelligence. Basic Books. Lugea, J. (2019). The intralingual subtitling of The Wire: Changes of style and substance. Journal of Applied Linguistics and Professional Practice, 12(1), 23–49. https://doi.org/10.1558/jalpp.24620 Martínez Sierra, J. J. (2004). Estudio descriptivo y discursivo de la traducción del humor en textos audiovi­ suales. El caso de Los Simpsons [PhD dissertation, Jaume I University]. Matamala, A. (2019). Voice-over: Practice, research and future prospects. In L. Pérez-González (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of audiovisual translation (pp. 64–81). Routledge. Mendoza, M. (2015). El doblaje y el español neutro en las películas de animación de Disney. Universitat de Vic. Morales, M., Koch, T., & Beauregard, L. P. (2019, January 9). “Roma”, una película en español subtitulada en español. El País. https://elpais.com/cultura/2019/01/08/actualidad/1546979782_501950.html Mossop, B., Hong, J., & Teixeira, C. (2019). Revising and editing for translators. Routledge. https://doi. org/10.4324/9781315158990 Neves, J. (2019). Subtitling for the deaf or hard of hearing audiences: Moving forward. In L. Pérez-González (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of audiovisual translation (pp. 82–96). Routledge. Nord, C. (1995). Textanalyse und Übersetzen. Julius Groos. Orrego-Carmona, D. (2015). The reception of (non)professional subtitling [Universitat Rovira i Virgili]. www.tdx.cat/bitstream/handle/10803/306439/Tesi?sequence=1 Orrego-Carmona, D. (2018). New audiences, international distribution, and translation. In E. Di Giovanni & Y. Gambier (Eds.), Reception studies and audiovisual translation (pp. 321–343). John Benjamins. https:// doi.org/10.1075/btl.141.16orr Orrego-Carmona, D. (2019). Audiovisual translation and audience reception. In L. Pérez-González (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of audiovisual translation (pp. 367–383). Routledge. O’Sullivan, C., & Cornu, J. F. (2019). History of audiovisual translation. In L. Pérez-González (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of audiovisual translation (pp. 15–30). Routledge. Patel, S. (2016, May 16). 85 percent of Facebook video is watched without sound. Digiday. https://digiday. com/media/silent-world-facebook-video/ Perego, E. (2016). History, development, challenges and opportunities of empirical research in audiovisual translation. Across Languages and Cultures, 17(2), 155–162. https://doi.org/10.1556/084.2016.17.2.1 Pérez-González, L. (2007). Fansubbing anime: Insights into the “butterfly effect” of globalisation on audio­ visual translation. Perspectives, 14(4), 260–277. https://doi.org/10.1080/09076760708669043 Pillière, L. (2010). Conflicting voices: An analysis of intralingual translation from British English to Ameri­ can English. E-Rea. Revue Électronique d’études Sur Le Monde Anglophone, 8(1), Article 8.1. https://doi. org/10.4000/erea.1404 Plummer, L. (2017, August 22). This is how Netflix’s top-secret recommendation system works. Wired UK. www.wired.co.uk/article/how-do-netflixs-algorithms-work-machine-learning-helps-to-predict-what­ viewers-will-like Real Academia Española. (2019). Dudas Rápidas. “¿Es ‘el mar’ o ‘la mar’?”. www.rae.es/duda-linguistica/ es-el-mar-o-la-mar

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Intralingual translation in subtitles and reception Reiß, K., & Vermeer, H. (2014). Towards a general theory of translational action: Skopos theory explained (C. Nord, Trans.). Routledge (Original work published 1984). Romero-Fresco, P. (2009). More haste less speed: Edited versus verbatim respoken subtitles. Vigo Interna­ tional Journal of Applied Linguistics, 6, 109–113. Romero-Fresco, P. (2011). Subtitling through speech recognition: Respeaking. Routledge. Romero-Fresco, P. (2019). Respeaking: Subtitling through speech recognition. In L. Pérez-González (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of audiovisual translation (pp. 96–114). Routledge Roxborough, S. (2018, August 30). Alfonso Cuaron on making the autobiographical “Roma” with Net­ flix. The Hollywood Reporter. www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-news/alfonso-cuaron-talks­ making-his-autobiographical-roma-netflix-1138518/ Soler, J. [@jsolerescritor]. (2018, December 16). En España Roma de @alfonsocuaron está subtitulada en es­ pañol peninsular, lo cual es paternalista, ofensivo y profundamente provinciano. [Tweet]. Twitter. https:// twitter.com/jsolerescritor/status/1074243969003986944 Szarkowska, A., Krejtz, I., Pilipczuk, O., Dutka, Ł., & Kruger, J.-L. (2016). The effects of text editing and subtitle presentation rate on the comprehension and reading patterns of interlingual and intralingual sub­ titles among deaf, hard of hearing and hearing viewers. Across Languages and Cultures, 17(2), 183–204. https://doi.org/10.1556/084.2016.17.2.3 Thompson, A. (2018, September 14). TIFF 2018 Winners and losers: Timothée Chalamet shines, “Roma” wows, Xavier Dolan flops. IndieWire. www.indiewire.com/2018/09/toronto-2018-winners­ losers-roma-nicole-kidman-1202003281/ Thompson, A. (2022, June 8). Netflix movies in theaters first: Here’s why Ted Sarandos may go back to the future. IndieWire. www.indiewire.com/2022/06/netflix-movies-theaters-ted-sarandos-1234730835/ Thompson, J. (1995). The media and modernity: A social theory of the media. Polity Press. Zethsen, K. K., & Hill-Madsen, A. (2016). Intralingual translation and its place within translation studies – A theoretical discussion. Meta: Journal Des Traducteurs, 61(3), 692–708. https://doi.org/10.7202/1039225ar

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PART III

Intralingual translation Easy and Plain Language

11 “ISSUES OF THE SAME ORDER”? THE MICROSTRATEGIES OF AN EXPERT-LAY TRANSLATION COMPARED TO THOSE OF INTERLINGUAL TRANSLATION Karen Korning Zethsen Introduction For quite some years now there has been a debate within Translation Studies concerning the place of intralingual translation. With a few exceptions, there seems to be growing consensus that intra­ lingual translation is a translational activity which belongs under the Translation Studies umbrella (Berk Albachten, 2018, p. 168; Hill-Madsen, 2021, p. 3; Pillière, 2021, pp. 4–5). An increasing number of scholars now work with intralingual translation, and we are steadily gaining more insight, although the work carried out is still only a fraction of that within interlingual translation. For theoretical as well as practical reasons it is important to find out more about the similarities and differences of the two types of translation. I have argued elsewhere (Zethsen, 2018) that transla­ tors are well-equipped to carry out intralingual translation, though it still seems that the norm at translation training institutions is to teach interlingual translation almost exclusively. Interlingual translation is a natural starting point, but if translators are to improve their intralingual translation skills (and indeed be able to market these skills) it may be of practical value if we know more about the characteristics of intralingual translation compared to default interlingual translation. Theoretically, similarities and differences are also important. Similarities support the approach that intra- and interlingual translation are part of the same family of translational activity, and dif­ ferences show us why it may be valuable, at least from a pedagogical point of view, to distinguish between the two kinds of translation. In fact, the entire discussion of similarities and differences lead to another relevant theoretical question, namely whether Jakobson’s seminal tripartite divi­ sion of translation is still useful. In this chapter I will therefore discuss the theoretical and practical value of Jakobson’s model. Furthermore, I will review what we already know about the similarities and differences of inter- and intralingual translation, and finally I will provide illustrative exam­ ples from the intralingual translation of an expert medicinal product summary in English expert language into English lay language in the form of the patient information leaflet. The focus of my analysis will be similarities and differences in the translational microstrategies applied, compared to those traditionally used within interlingual translation, and the main purpose will be to shed

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more empirical light on my 2009 claim that the same range of microstrategies are used in the two types of translation, but that it is rather a question of a difference in degree than in kind.

Defining intralingual translation – a discussion of Jakobson’s model Jakobson builds on Peirce’s theory of signs and meaning and postulates, “the meaning of any linguistic sign is its translation into some further, alternative sign” (Jakobson, 1959/2000, p. 114). The implication is that translation is a component in all language transactions, and Jakobson divides these transactions into three kinds of translation or “ways of interpreting a verbal sign” (1959/2000, p. 114): Intralingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language. Interlingual translation or translation proper is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language. Intersemiotic translation or transmutation is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal sign systems. (Jakobson, 1959/2000, p. 114, original emphasis) Pillière (2021, p. 4) points out that Jakobson’s tripartite division has encouraged scholars to inter­ pret the three categories as separate/fragmented entities and not as phenomena sharing common features. Jakobson’s model has rarely been questioned, but perhaps it is because of the role it has attained where it is normally cited in introductions to translation studies to serve as some kind of definition of translation, and then authors normally move on to focus on interlingual translation. However, there is nothing in Jakobson’s original presentation of his model that claims it to be a definition of translation as a discipline or to represent three watertight categories. In fact, it seems that Jakobson’s original purpose with the model is that everything is translatable in some way (in the extreme case of poetry by means of creative transposition involving interlingual, intralingual or intersemiotic transposition), and the model therefore serves as an illustration of the tools we have when we interpret a sign and create meaning. He simply wants to show that “All cognitive experi­ ence and its classification is conveyable in any existing language” (Jakobson, 1959/2000, p. 115). Incidentally, this quotation contains the only instance in Jakobson’s essay when “language” could be said to be used in a broader sense than “national language”. Otherwise, Jakobson is not at all concerned with a definition of “language”, though in modern-day research such a definition is at the crux of the discussion of what constitutes a translational activity (see, e.g., Pillière, 2021, p. 21; Pym, 2010, p. 24; Zethsen, 2007, p. 293ff). But then again, Jakobson’s purpose was not to define translation as such. Thus, Jakobson’s seminal text is not so much a systematic and rigorous scientific article but rather a philosophical, meandering essay and commentary on translatability. The strength of Jakobson’s model seems to be its explanatory merits, namely that it points out that various kinds of translation exist and thus illustrates which tools we have when we inter­ pret and communicate cognitive content. What it does not necessarily show (or deny) is the fact that these kinds of translation often co-exist, and even though it is sometimes easy to distinguish between the types it is often impossible. For practical purposes, and as pointed out by Pillière (2021, p. 298), Jakobson’s tripartite division of translation into three categories “artificially frag­ ments three translation practices that share common features. All three are interpretations of a text, all three necessitate rewriting, all three are forms of mediated writing. None of the three is a clearcut monolithic category”. Within medical translation, for instance, it is also frequently the case that 184

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an interlingual translation of an expert text must at the same time be adapted to a lay audience, that is, be translated intralingually as well. Jakobson terms interlingual translation “translation proper” and no doubt sees this type as the prototype (although there is nothing explicitly hierarchical in the sequence, it seems that Jakobson has intuitively ranked the different kinds of translation according to their proximity to the proto­ type), which makes sense as it is the type most readily recognized by the general public as transla­ tion (Hermans, 1997, p. 5). However, we must not forget that “the general public” also readily uses “translation” metaphorically and does in fact, as a norm, use the concept to describe the process of intralingual translation, that is, of rendering something incomprehensible to a comprehensible format within the same language, be it dialect, expert language or archaic expressions that have to be translated. For instance, when hearing or reading expert language, it is quite common to say “somebody will have to translate this for me”. Notwithstanding whether the general public recognizes intralingual translation as translation or not, Hill-Madsen and Zethsen (2016) argue for a scholarly definition of translation to be used for academic purposes to define the discipline of Translation Studies. This quite naturally leads to the crux of the matter, namely how we define language. Even though Jakobson (1959/2000) mentions language in his definitions of both intraand interlingual translation, he does not define “language”. It is of course notoriously difficult to determine what constitutes a language and by default it seems to be nationality that determines the question. However, to make sense in connection with translation we need a broader working defi­ nition of language which accepts that within one national country there may be many sociolects and dialects which require translation. With such an understanding of language in mind, transla­ tion can be defined in an equally broad way to encompass all translational activities. A definition must of course not be so broad as to be meaningless, so the following definition of translation (Zethsen, 2007, modified in Hill-Madsen & Zethsen, 2016, p. 705) focuses on the existence of some kind of source text and a derivational relationship between the source text and the target text with resulting relevant similarity:1 • A source text (verbal or non-verbal) exists or has existed at some point in time. • The target text has been derived from the source text (resulting in a new product in another language, genre, medium or semiotic system). • The resulting relationship is one of relevant similarity, which may take many forms depending on the skopos. The translational activities which fall under this definition arguably share so many similarities that they may benefit from the same pool of translation studies insights. Jakobson’s tripartite division serves explanatory purposes well, but it is an abstract, decontextualized model that leaves aside the social, economic and cultural context in which translation takes place (Pillière, 2021, p. 20). As mentioned earlier, intra- and interlingual translation often go hand in hand. In a recent internal newsletter from Aarhus University (September 2021) the following translations could be seen: Danish: “Se feriematrice for 2021–2022”. [See holiday matrix for 2021–2022.] English: “See rules for registration of holidays in 2021–2022”. As can be seen from this simple example, a direct word-for-word translation as provided in the brackets is easy and results in idiomatically correct target language. So, no need for the translator to use other microstrategies. However, the translator has then further translated intralingually with the target group in mind and added the explanation that the holiday matrix concerns the registration 185

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of holidays and that the rules for such a registration are also to be found at the site. These additions seem to be intralingually motivated (and they do in fact provide information which many Danish employees would have liked as well). Another typical example of interlingual and intralingual translation taking place at the same time is when we have a lay target group. Even in situations where the source text is lay-friendly, the translator may deem something to be too difficult for the target group (perhaps a remnant of expert language) and choose a more lay-friendly solution at the same time as translating interlingually. In an English medical text for laypersons, it may say “appendicitis”. In Danish the word “appendici­ tis” exists but is used only by medical professionals. Consequently, very few Danes would under­ stand this word, as the everyday term is “blindtarmsbetændelse” [a lay term of non-Latinate origin meaning “inflammation of the blind intestine”]. A professional translator will of course choose the term which is most likely to be understood by the target group, that is, a term which belongs to the discourse community of the target group, but is this an interlingual or an intralingual activity? In many real-life translational situations, it seems that distinguishing between the two kinds of trans­ lation does not necessarily serve a purpose. For scholarly purposes, however, it may be relevant to isolate the intralingual elements (as argued by Hill-Madsen, 2021, p. 5). It is not only within the medical field, but also in many other expert-to-lay contexts that we find interlingual and intralingual translation being carried out simultaneously. For instance, in the context of interlingual financial news translation, that is, journalistic texts, Davier (2015) argues that intralingual translation is a fundamental part of the translational activity as journal­ ists work to popularize specialized knowledge for lay audiences. Gagnon et al. (2018, p. 236) follow Davier (2015) and argue that in financial news translation interlingual and intralingual processes coexist to such a degree that they should be studied together. García-Izquierdo and Montalt (2013, pp. 45–46) argue for the acknowledgement of the fact that within medical trans­ lation both types of translation are often needed at the same time, and also Whyatt (2017, p. 188) argues for, and provides a brief discussion of, the interplay between interlingual and intralingual translation.

Similarities and differences of intralingual and interlingual translation Jakobson himself briefly compares inter- and intralingual translation and mentions that normally there is no such thing as full equivalence in any case, but “adequate interpretations” in the form of more or less synonymous words or rewordings, and most frequently it is not separate code units which are transferred but messages (Jakobson, 1959/2000, p. 114). In other words, he does not at all dwell on the differences between the two kinds of translation, but on the contrary on the fact that everything is translatable, indeed must be translated (see later), one way or another. Conse­ quently, all cognitive experience is conveyable in any existing language: “Whenever there is defi­ ciency, terminology may be qualified and amplified by loanwords or loan-translations, neologisms or semantic shifts, and finally, by circumlocutions” (Jakobson, 1959/2000, p. 115). In other words, Jakobson indicates that the very same microstrategies are used within inter- and intralingual trans­ lation, and he is generally much more concerned with the fundamental need for translation in its broadest sense than with distinguishing between the three types he proposes. In fact, Jakobson (1959/2000, pp. 116–117) argues that the cognitive level of language directly requires translation because the definition of our experience stands in complementary relation (in Bohr’s sense, Bohr, 1948) to the metalinguistic level. Translation, in all its facets, is thus fundamental to communica­ tion and “Any assumption of ineffable or untranslatable cognitive data would be a contradiction in terms” (Jakobson, 1959/2000, p. 117). 186

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Also Whyatt (2017, p. 189), on the basis of the empirical Polish ParaTrans project, concludes that intralingual translation and interlingual translation “rely on the same faculty of the human mind: its ability to interpret meaning from linguistic expressions and reformulate it depending on the cognitive profile of the assumed reader”. Whyatt et al. (2016, p. 35) argue that professional translators transfer their processing patterns and expertise from interlingual translation practice to intralingual translation, thus “drawing from the same pool of generic skills”. As regards microstrategies, the ParaTrans project has reached the tentative conclusion that interlingual translation competence (which would of course include a set of available microstrategies) seems to be trans­ ferable to intralingual translation (Whyatt et al., 2016). Hill-Madsen (2019) analyses a diachronic, a dialectal and a diaphasic intralingual translation. The shifts (microstrategies)2 identified in these diverse types of translations are all well known from interlingual translation, such as direct translation, paraphrase, explicitation, condensation and so on. In fact, none of the microstrategies identified in the analyses are unknown within interlingual microstrategy taxonomies (see for instance Schjoldager, 2008, introduced later) though the terminology may sometimes differ. Hill-Madsen (2019, see also 2021) provides analyses at a deeper level than the microstrategy, investigating the many ways in which a microstrategy can be realized. That is, he further sophisticates what constitutes for instance an explicitation by show­ ing that a grammatical shift such as passive into active constitutes an explicitation of the subject. Zethsen (2009, p. 809) found that in addition to being motivated by one or more of the four key parameters time, culture, knowledge3 and space,4 intralingual translation seems to be characterized by two overall tendencies: • A tendency to involve a form of simplification – a strategy which is not so often applied as the overall skopos of a translation proper, but rather as the occasional microstrategy. • A tendency to apply certain strategies in a much more radical way than what is seen in the majority of interlingual translations. Because of the frequent purpose of simplification, the microstrategies applied in intralingual translation (the additions, omissions, restructuring, etc.) are taken more to the extreme than is often the case within interlingual translation. If, for exam­ ple, a text is translated intralingually for children, the explanations added may be much more comprehensive than what is normally seen within interlingual translation. In other words, the differences in microstrategies are more a question of degree and frequency than of kind. The fact that certain strategies seem to be used more frequently, and perhaps also more to the extreme, in intralingual and interlingual translation, respectively, is as such not an argument against their fundamental similarity (Pillière, 2021, p. 295). It would indeed be possible to find similar differences between various kinds of interlingual translation as witnessed by the variety of translation from Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) texts to poetry. Furthermore, each of the classic interlingual microstrategies (see Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958/2000, and the following list from Schjoldager, 2008) are certainly not used to the same degree. Also, the ParaTrans project mentioned before has reached the tentative conclusion that interlingual translation competence, which would include a set of available microstrategies, seems to be transferable to intralingual translation (Whyatt et al., 2016). Finally, Pillière, in her recent work (2021, p. 294), compares the intralingual translation of British English books to American English on a large scale and confirms what other scholars (e.g., Hill-Madsen, 2019; Zethsen, 2009) have suggested, namely “that intra­ lingual translation is not different to interlingual translation in terms of procedures or universals”. In the following I shall take a closer look at the microstrategies employed in an intralingual expertlay translation5 to see if they are indeed from the same pool as those applied in interlingual translation. 187

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Analysis of microstrategies in expert-lay intralingual translation To gain a deeper empirically based understanding of the microstrategies used in inter- and intra­ lingual translation, respectively, the aim of the following analysis is to find out whether the microstrategies traditionally employed in interlingual translation can also be found in intralingual translation. The data of the analysis consist of an English expert medicinal product summary for Panadol (Electronic Medicines Compendium, 2022b) and its intralingual translation into English lay language in the form of the patient information leaflet (Electronic Medicines Compendium, 2022a). A product summary (PS) is an expert text produced by health professionals and submit­ ted when applying for marketing authorization of a medicinal product. In the EU the governing body is the European Medicines Agency, and a product summary is produced and submitted in English and subsequently, when authorization has been granted, translated into the other European languages. On the basis of the product summary, a patient information leaflet (PIL) is produced; in fact there is an EU legal requirement that the PIL must be derived from the PS and the reword­ ing of the English PS into the English PIL thus constitutes an intralingual translation (for more on medical intralingual expert-lay translation see Montalt & Zethsen, 2022). According to the work of Hill-Madsen (2019), it is typically within diaphasic intralingual trans­ lation that we find most shifts, so it can be hypothesized that this is where the widest possible range of microstrategies can be identified. Since Vinay and Darbelnet introduced their well-known trans­ lation procedures (microstrategies in the terminology of this chapter) in 1958, many scholars have provided their own taxonomies. In the context of the present analysis, the aim is to test as many microstrategies as possible so therefore Schjoldager’s comprehensive 2008 taxonomy of the microstrategies employed in interlingual translation has been applied. Schjoldager’s taxonomy is inspired by the works of many scholars, but mainly by the seven translation procedures from Vinay and Darbelnet (1958/2000) and the five transformation categories of Delabastita (1989, 1993). Schjold­ ager (2008, pp. 89–112) lists 12 possible microstrategies for interlingual translation, namely direct transfer, calque, direct translation, oblique translation, explicitation, paraphrase, condensation, adaptation, addition, substitution, deletion and permutation. Although the place of each strategy on the list does not seem to be completely arbitrary, the list is not a reflection of the frequency of each strategy. However, it goes without saying that a strategy like direct translation is far more frequent than, say, permutation, where the translator compensates for a stylistic effect in the source text, typi­ cally word play or alliteration. So, frequency aside, the list aims to cover microstrategies available to the interlingual translator. The purpose of the analysis is not to assess the quality, or usefulness, of this particular taxonomy, but merely whether the strategies can also be found in expert-lay intra­ lingual translation. As with most taxonomies, it can sometimes be difficult to decide which category a phenomenon belongs to. It has not been a major problem in the analysis, but in a few instances, it may be argued that an example could also belong to another category. In the following I shall go through the 12 strategies in order to assess their relevance to expert-lay (diaphasic) intralingual translation, and in particular see if I can find examples in the data. In many cases more than one strategy is at play, but focus will be on the strategy illustrated. Graphic emphasis from the originals has been removed so that it is possible to underline the relevant phenomena.

Direct transfer The target text borrows a word from the source text and transfers it directly: PS: “Panadol Original Tablets is a mild analgesic and antipyretic”. PIL: “Panadol Original Tablets are used for the relief of headache”. 188

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This is a well-known strategy from interlingual translation, where it is in fact often used just as in this example in connection with (trade) names. Though it may not be the most frequent strategy in some types of expert-lay intralingual translation (as for instance the PS to PIL) because almost the entire text is reworded, it must be much more frequent in many kinds of intralingual transla­ tion where it is possible to transfer rather large chunks of a source text directly than in interlingual translation.

Calque The target text borrows the structure of the source text, often resulting in an understandable, but unidiomatic translation: PS: “Each tablet contains Paracetamol Ph Eur 500.0 mg”. PIL: “Each tablet contains Paracetamol 500 mg”. In everyday English the 500 mg would come before Paracetamol. In interlingual translation calque may be used as last resort, but in connection with expert-lay intralingual translation it is best avoided as it mimics the structure of the expert language and makes the translation sound too formal at best. In this example calque should not really be the last resort as a more standard word order would have served the target group better:

Direct translation This strategy consists of word for word translation: PS: “Pregnancy and lactation”. PIL: “Pregnancy and breast feeding”. This example illustrates how an everyday synonym in expert-lay intralingual translation plays exactly the same role as an equivalent in interlingual translation. The only difference between “lactation” and “breast feeding” is the level of formality, and they are otherwise absolute syno­ nyms. In expert-lay translation making difficult words or expressions accessible to laypersons is evidently a much-used strategy, and when a lay doublet exists it is simply done by replacing expert terminology.

Oblique translation In contrast to direct translation, this strategy aims to transfer contextual meaning sense for sense: PS: “Contraindications. Hypersensitivity to paracetamol or any of the other constituents”. PIL: “Do not take Panadol Original Tablets if you have ever had an allergic reaction to par­ acetamol or to any of the other ingredients”. In this example we see how an expert term “contraindications” cannot be replaced with a lay synonym as in the previous direct translation example, as no such alternative exists. Instead, the sense of the paragraph is translated taking the target group into consideration. The expert text is not merely paraphrased, but a direct warning is introduced using the imperative “Do not take”. The 189

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headline and the following sentence are merged to make it more readable, and other strategies such as direct translation of “hypersensitivity” and “constituents” and explicitation are made use of in the form of “if you have ever had”. The example illustrates well why oblique translation must be a frequent strategy in intralingual translation as it is fundamental to the activity of rewording in cases where no information is superfluous.

Explicitation Implicit information from the source text is made explicit in the target text: PS: “The speed of absorption of paracetamol may be increased by metoclopramide or domperi­ done and absorption reduced by colestyramine”. PIL: “Talk to your doctor or pharmacists before taking these tablets if you are taking any prescribed medicines; particularly metoclopramide or domperidone (for nausea [feeling sick] or vomiting [being sick]) or colestyramine (to lower blood cholesterol)”. The translation makes it explicit what the consequences of the information are to the patient and explains in detail what the medication mentioned is taken for. Again, it is a natural strategy for intralingual, in particular expert-lay, translation when a lay target group has to be accommodated.

Paraphrase The translator relays the meaning of the source text rather freely so that the meaning is conveyed: PS: “Posology and method of administration”. PIL: “How to take Panadol Original Tablets”. Like the oblique translation strategy, paraphrase is fundamental to intralingual translation and is a synonym to the Jakobsonian concept of rewording. This example resembles the earlier oblique, sense-for-sense example, but in this case the two “senses” of “posology” and “method of admin­ istration” are merged into a hypernymous sentence. It may be difficult to distinguish between oblique translation and paraphrase, and for practical purposes it can be argued that in most cases it does not serve a purpose to distinguish between the two categories.

Condensation The translation is shorter than the source text but renders the same contextual meaning: PS: “Paracetamol is excreted in breast milk but not in a clinically significant amount in recommended dosages. Available published data do not contraindicate breastfeeding”. PIL: “You can take this product whilst breast feeding”. The main strategy is condensation, and the message relevant to the target group is clearly trans­ ferred using significantly less space. In this case the strategy of deletion can also be said to be present as the background details of the first sentence have not been translated. The translation is directly aimed at the target group, and the condensed message can also be said to have been para­ phrased, especially by changing into the active voice. 190

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Adaptation The microstrategy adaptation is one of the hardest to define and according to Schjoldager (2008, p. 103) it is similar to oblique translation and paraphrase. Adaptation aims to recreate the effect of a source text item and is often quite creative. It is much used in literature and promotional texts to replace a cultural reference. This example may not be creative in a traditional sense, but neverthe­ less shows how the shift in target group has required an adaptation in the perspective: PS: “Reporting suspected adverse reactions after authorisation of the medicinal product is important. It allows continued monitoring of the benefit/risk balance of the medicinal product. Healthcare professionals are asked to report any suspected adverse reactions via the Yellow Card Scheme at: www.mhra.gov.uk/yellowcard or search MHRA Yellow Card in the Google Play or Apple App store”. PIL: “If you get any side effects, talk to your doctor, pharmacist or nurse. This includes any possible side effects not listed in this leaflet. You can also report side effects directly via the Yellow Card Scheme at www.mhra.gov.uk/yellowcard or search for MHRA Yellow Card in the Google Play or Apple App store. By reporting side effects you can help provide more information on the safety of this medicine”. Apart from the use of direct translation, deletion, addition, explicitation and paraphrase, the text has first and foremost been adapted to the new target group by replacing “healthcare profession­ als” with “you”.

Addition The translator has added information which cannot be directly inferred from the source text: PS: [nothing]. PIL: “Please read right through this leaflet before you start using this medicine. This medicine is available without prescription, but you still need to use Panadol Original Tablets carefully to get the best results from them”. This example shows the addition of information that meta-communicates with the target group by reminding them to read the information provided carefully before they start taking the medication. It can be argued that an element of adaptation is also involved as in the previous example.

Substitution The translator changes the semantic meaning of the source text: PS: “oral administration only”. PIL: “swallow 1–2 tablets every 4 to 6 hours as needed”. This may be a somewhat subtle example of substitution, but a readily available direct translation does exist, namely “by mouth only”, and the translation seems too specific to be categorized under paraphrase. Apart from the explicitation of the dosage, the translator has opted for a combination with a strategy which is not purely explicitation, but which involves a different semantic content by substituting the passive noun phrase “oral administration” with “swallow” (in the imperative 191

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form), presumably motivated by the shift in target group. Thus, “swallow” is more specific than “oral administration”, as the latter may also include for instance “chew” or “suck”.

Deletion Units of meaning from the source text are missing from the target text: PS: “Treatment with activated charcoal should be considered if the overdose has been taken within 1 hour. Plasma paracetamol concentration should be measured at 4 hours or later after ingestion (earlier concentrations are unreliable). Treatment with N-acetylcysteine may be used up to 24 hours after ingestion of paracetamol, however, the maximum protective effect is obtained up to 8 hours post-ingestion”. PIL: [nothing]. In this example, information on how to treat a patient who has overdosed has been deleted. The information is only relevant to health professionals and not to the new patient target group.

Permutation Recreating an effect in a different place in the target text for linguistic or stylistic reasons. The strategy is mostly applied in the translation of literary prose and especially when translating poetry to recreate the effect of, for instance, word play or alliteration. I have not been able to find any instances of permutation in the intralingual translation of the two medical texts I am examining. This seems quite natural as the obvious macrostrategy of an expert-lay translation is not recreating an effect but relaying concrete information. However, there is no doubt that the strategy is applicable within intralingual literary translation if, for instance, an archaic text is to be translated for a modern readership.

Discussion and conclusion The previous analysis of the microstrategies applied in the intralingual translation of an English PS to an English PIL clearly shows that the translator has made use of the same pool of microstrategies that is acknowledged within interlingual Translation Studies. It is not an exact science to assign a particular translation to a specific microstrategy as there is an element of overlap between some of the categories, but this is no different from interlingual translation analysis, and the important point is that exactly the same set of possibilities is relevant to both interlingual and intralingual translation. More specifically, the analysis has demonstrated that 11 of Schjoldager’s 12 microstrategies can be found in this particular instance of expert-lay intralingual translation.6 The 12th strategy of permutation has not been found but would no doubt be easy to identify in intralingual dia­ chronic literary translation. Due to limitation of space only one example of each category has been provided, but for the ten strategies of direct transfer, direct translation, oblique translation, explicitation, paraphrase, condensation, adaptation, addition, deletion and substitution numer­ ous examples were easily identified in the translation. Not surprisingly, since the strategy pro­ duces unidiomatic translations, calque seems to be rarer. In the case of substitution, it seems to be used quite frequently when for instance a translation with more specific semantic content than

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the original is chosen to make something more understandable to the lay reader, but in expert-lay translation it may be difficult to distinguish between the strategy of substitution and the very domi­ nant strategies of, for instance, paraphrase and explicitation in all cases. The analyses support my earlier empirical studies (Zethsen, 2009, p. 809, see also Hill-Madsen, 2019; Pillière, 2021) and the overall conclusion that the differences in microstrategies are more a question of degree and frequency than of kind. In fact, as appears from the analyses, the available microstrategies are often used in a much more radical way than in interlingual translation, and since direct translation is generally not used as much as in interlingual translation, there seems to be a more varied and frequent use of most of the strategies. In connection with expert-lay transla­ tion it is certainly the case, often with some form of simplification in mind. According to Hill-Madsen (2019), one cardinal aspect of intralingual translation that has hitherto received virtually no attention is the diversity of the phenomenon. This chapter has focused solely on expert-lay translation, but going through the various microstrategies it is easy to think of intralingual translations where some strategies would be used much more frequently than others. This is for instance the case with permutation, which was the only strategy that could not be found in the prior analysis, but which would probably be very easy to identify in diachronic literary intralingual translation. I fully support the assumption that intralingual trans­ lation is just as varied as interlingual translation, and it may well be the case that some kinds of intralingual translation have more in common with some kinds of interlingual translation than with other kinds of intralingual translation, and vice versa. Pillière (2021, p. 298) writes that underlying the debate of what belongs to the field of Translation Studies is the question of defining translation itself, and “the fear that by including different kinds of translation within the definition, the discipline itself becomes diluted”. This, it seems to me, is very much to the point, so it would be very useful if future research would provide more detailed empirical analyses showing the great diversity of intralingual translation and its affinity with interlingual translation. Based on the previous analysis and discussion of Jakobson’s tripartite division, I argue that a division in three separate categories may serve an explanatory purpose but is not an accurate reflection of reality. In real life, translational activities seem often to contain aspects of more than one category, and especially intra- and interlingual translation seem to be entwined to a degree that strongly supports the argument that they both belong to the field of Translation Studies, in fact sometimes to a degree where it is difficult to distinguish them from each other! According to Jakobson, translation, in all its facets, is fundamental to communication and, as cited earlier, “Any assumption of ineffable or untranslatable cognitive data would be a contra­ diction in terms” (Jakobson, 1959/2000, p. 117). This is a convincing argument that all kinds of translation belong to the same family. The phenomenon of intralingual translation has existed since time immemorial so if there were categories of microstrategies relevant only for intralingual translation, a specific set of such strate­ gies would presumably have been established long ago. So, it seems that Steiner’s words are still very much to the point: “What Jakobson calls ‘rewording’ – an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs in the same language – in fact raises issues of the same order as translation proper” (1975, p. 414). However, as indicated earlier, it may be a good idea for future research to investigate in more detail which strategies are mostly relevant, in which forms and to which degree, within various kinds of intralingual translation. This would especially be of interest to practice and could support a more direct marketing by trained translators of their intralingual skills and the need for intralingual translations, perhaps most pointedly within the expert-lay field (Zethsen, 2018).

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Notes 1 The definition is inspired by Toury’s very influential, broad and highly pragmatic definition of transla­ tion (1985, 1995), by Chesterman’s subsequent discussions of this definition, especially of the central concept of “similarity” (1996, 1997, 1998) and by the work of first Wittgenstein on family resemblances (1953/1958) and then Tymoczko (1998, 2005) on translation as a cluster concept. 2 “Shift” and “microstrategy” are used interchangeably in the literature, but there seems to be a preference for “shift” when the focus is on linguistic change and “microstrategy” when focus is on the available tools of the translator. 3 Incidentally, Pillière (2021, p. 25) mentions that Zethsen (2009) does not include omission (or deletion in the terminology of Schjoldager, 2008, used in this chapter) as a typical strategy under the parameter of “knowledge”. However, the strategies mentioned under each parameter were for illustrative purposes only and were not meant as exhaustive lists, and she is quite right in pointing out that omission is a much-used strategy under the parameter of knowledge, as can also be seen from the following analyses. 4 Pillière (2021, p. 26) mentions that the list of four parameters is not exhaustive; “other socio-economic factors, for example, might be involved”. Pillière does not provide examples of these other factors, but I doubt that they are not covered by the very broad categories of time, culture, knowledge and space. Though she agrees with the four parameters, Pillière (2021, p. 26) sees the fact that they “easily overlap and prevent the list from being a clear taxonomy” as minor drawbacks. I fully agree with Pillière that they easily overlap, and I certainly do not provide a clear taxonomy, for the very reason that I do not believe a clear taxonomy is possible (see also note 3). The purpose of the four parameters is (merely) to show what may motivate an intralingual translation and to create awareness about these motives as they should guide the translation strategies. 5 Diaphasic translation in the terminology of Hill-Madsen (2019), and for the sake of convenience I have used this term in the theoretical discussion. However, for my purposes I prefer the more specific term expert-lay translation which I will use in the rest of the chapter. Instead of following a detailed typology of various kinds of intralingual translation, as can be found in Hill-Madsen (2019), I rely on Zethsen’s (2009) four governing parameters of knowledge, culture, space and time as motivation for instigating an intralingual translation. These parameters readily overlap with each other and with the skopos(poi) of the translation. For purely research purposes it may be beneficial with a more fine-tuned typology such as that of Hill-Madsen (while acknowledging that such a typology can never be finite, as overlaps and thus new combinations are bound to occur), but for a practice-oriented, skopos-based conceptualization of intralin­ gual translation it seems to me that the four parameters suffice. 6 I would like to thank Anne Schjoldager for kindly taking the time to discuss the analysis with me.

Further reading Brøgger, M. N., & Zethsen, K. K. (2021). Inter- and intralingual translation of medical information: The importance of comprehensibility. In Ş. Susam-Saraeva & E. Spišiaková (Eds.), Routledge handbook of translation and health (pp. 96–107). Routledge.

References Berk Albachten, Ö. (2018). Challenging the boundaries of translation and filling the gaps in translation his­ tory. Two cases of intralingual translation from the 19th-century Ottoman literary scene. In H. V. Dam, M. N. Brøgger, & K. K. Zethsen (Eds.), Moving boundaries in translation studies (pp. 168–180). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315121871 Bohr, N. (1948). On the notions of causality and complementarity. Dialectica, 2(3–4), 312–319. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1746-8361.1948.tb00703.x Chesterman, A. (1996). On similarity. Target, 8(1), 159–164. Chesterman, A. (1997). Memes of translation. John Benjamins. Chesterman, A. (1998). Contrastive functional analysis. John Benjamins. Davier, L. (2015). “Cultural translation” in news agencies? A plea to broaden the definition of translation. Perspectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 23(4), 536−551. https://doi.org/10.1080/0907 676X.2015.1040036

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“Issues of the same order”? Electronic Medicines Compendium. (2022a, August 17). Patient Information Leaflet (PIL) for Panadol. Pan­ adol Original Tablets – Patient Information Leaflet (PIL) – (emc). medicines.org.uk Electronic Medicines Compendium. (2022b, August 17). Summary of Product Characteristics (PS) for Pan­ adol. Panadol Original Tablets – Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC) – (emc). medicines.org.uk Gagnon, C., Boulanger, P. P., & Kalantari, E. (2018). How to approach translation in a financial news corpus? Across Languages and Cultures, 19(2), 221–240. https://doi.org/10.1556/084.2018.19.2.5 García-Izquierdo, I., & Montalt, V. (2013). Equigeneric and intergeneric translation in patientcentred care. Hermes – Journal of Language and Communication in Business, 51, 39–51. https://doi.org/10.7146/hjlcb. v26i51.97436 Hermans, T. (1997). Translation as institution. In M. Snell-Hornby, Z. Jettmarová, & K. Kaindl (Eds.), Trans­ lation as intercultural communication (pp. 3–20). John Benjamins. Hill-Madsen, A. (2019). The heterogeneity of intralingual translation. Meta, 64(2), 537–560. https://doi. org/10.7202/1068206ar Hill-Madsen, A. (2021). Transformational strategies in diaphasic translation: Three case studies. Per­ spectives: Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 30(4), 643–661. http://doi.org/10.1080/09076 76X.2021.1953085 Hill-Madsen, A., & Zethsen, K. K. (2016). Intralingual translation and its place within translation studies – A theoretical discussion. Meta, 61(3), 692–708. https://doi.org/10.7202/1039225ar Jakobson, R. (2000). On linguistic aspects of translation. In L. Venuti (Ed.), The translation studies reader (pp. 113–118). Routledge (Original work published 1959). Montalt, V., & Zethsen, K. K. (2022). Translating medical texts. In K. Malmkjær (Ed.), The Cambridge trans­ lation handbook (pp. 363–378). Cambridge University Press. Pillière, L. (2021). Intralingual translation of British novels. A multimodal stylistic perspective. Bloomsbury. Pym, A. (2010). Translation and text transfer. An essay on the principles of intercultural communication (Re­ vised ed.). Intercultural Studies Group. https://usuaris.tinet.cat/apym/publications/TTT_2010.pdf Schjoldager, A. (with Gottlieb, H., & Klitgård, I.) (2008). Understanding translation. Academica. Steiner, G. (1975). After Babel: Aspects of language and translation. Oxford University Press. Toury, G. (1985). A rationale for descriptive translation studies. In T. Hermans (Ed.), The manipulation of literature. Studies in literary translation (pp. 16–41). Croom Helm. Toury, G. (1995). Descriptive translation studies and beyond. John Benjamins. Tymoczko, M. (1998). Computerized corpora and the future of translation studies. Meta, 43(4), 1–9. Tymoczko, M. (2005). Trajectories of research in translation studies. Meta, 50(4), 1082–1097. Vinay, J.-P., & Darbelnet, J. (2000). A methodology for translation (J. C. Sager & M. J. Hamel, Trans.). In L. Venuti (Ed.), The translation studies reader (pp. 84–93). Routledge (Original work published 1958). Whyatt, B. (2017). Intralingual translation. In J. Schwieter & A. Ferreira (Eds.), The handbook of translation and cognition (pp. 176–192). Wiley-Blackwell. Whyatt, B., Stachowiak, K., & Kajzer-Wietrzny, M. (2016). Similar and different: Cognitive rhythm and effort in translation and paraphrasing. PSiCL, 52(2), 175–208. https://doi.org/10.1515/psicl-2016-0007 Wittgenstein, L. (1953/1958). Philosophical investigations (G. E. M. Anscombe, Trans.). Blackwell. Zethsen, K. K. (2007). Beyond translation proper – extending the field of translation studies. TTR: Traduc­ tion, Terminologie, Redaction, 20(1), 281–308. https://doi.org/10.7202/018506ar Zethsen, K. K. (2009). Intralingual translation: An attempt at description. Meta, 54(4), 795–812. https://doi. org/10.7202/038904ar Zethsen, K. K. (2018). Access is not the same as understanding. Why intralingual translation is cru­ cial in a world of information overload. Across Languages and Cultures, 19(1), 79–98. https://doi. org/10.1556/084.2018.19.1.4

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12 A TYPOLOGY OF THE VARIOUS ASPECTS OF DIAPHASIC INTRALINGUAL TRANSLATION – A SYSTEMIC-FUNCTIONAL APPROACH Aage Hill-Madsen Introduction Diaphasic intralingual translation (henceforth Diaph-intra) is translation between functional or registerial varieties, often (but far from only) manifested in the rewriting of scientific or expert sources into target texts aimed at an audience of non-specialists. Diaph-intra may thus play a cen­ tral role in mediating scientific knowledge to a general public that is becoming increasingly used to accessing information and educating themselves on subjects that used to be the sole province of scientists and experts. In the field of health care, for example, “[i]nterest in health issues has greatly increased over the years with patients becoming ever more health conscious and wanting to be informed about existing medicines that are available” (European Commission, n.d.). However, as noted by Zethsen (2018), a significant problem for information-hungry members of the public is that the information which they are increasingly able to obtain tends to be contained in texts that are in no way intended for them as readers. As a case in point, also from the field of health care, Zethsen (2018) cites the fact that patients nowadays are typically able to access their own medical records, only to be confronted with the largely incomprehensible “medicalese” of the physician’s entries. To mediate understanding, therefore, intralingual translation is needed. The aim of this chapter is to provide a description of Diaph-intra, partly theoretical and partly empirical. The descriptive approach will be two-pronged, focusing on two different “levels” of source-to-target changes, viz. shifts at the level of function and contextual setting on the one hand, and shifts at the level of wordings and meanings on the other. The chapter will be divided into three further sections: The first is concerned with theorizing Diaph-intra as such from the perspective of both translation theory and linguistic theory. The second proposes a subclassification of Diaphintra from the perspective of contextual changes, and the third introduces a few of the central types of micro-level linguistic strategies on which (the most prominent type of) Diaph-intra is based.

Theoretical framework In the first of the two following subsections, the very concept of diaphasia will be traced back to its origins in the Romanian linguist Coseriu’s thinking and identified with key concepts in DOI: 10.4324/9781003188872-16

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A typology of the various aspects of diaphasic translation

systemic-functional linguistics (SFL). Diaphasic intralingual translation will be conceptualized as a case of recontextualization combined with the crossing of a registerial divide. In the second subsec­ tion, a closer definition of the notion of situational context, as defined within SFL, will be provided.

Conceptual archaeology and definition of diaphasic intralingual translation In terms of origins, the very notion of diaphasia can be traced back to the Romanian linguist Coseriu’s concept of diaphasic variation within a language system. In Coseriu’s own words (in Spanish) (1981, p. 12), this type of variation concerns “diferencias entre los tipos de modalidad expresiva, según las circunstancias constantes, del hablar (hablante, oyente, situación u ocasión del hablar y asunto del que se habla)” [“differences between the types of expressive modality of the language, (differentiated) according to the constituent circumstances (speaker, listener, situation or occasion of the speech event and subject matter)” (translated by AH-M)]. The definition reso­ nates with certain central tenets within M. A. K. Halliday and R. Hasan’s systemic-functional lin­ guistics regarding the concept of register, and so diaphasia will here be identified with registerial or functional variation (cf. Hill-Madsen, 2019; Petrilli, 2003). In Halliday’s definition (e.g., 1978), a register is defined as a class of texts (or discourse) with shared semantic characteristics, deter­ mined by the type of situational context in which the discourse is embedded. Diaphasic intralin­ gual translation is thus a special case of recontextualization, which is defined by Linell (1998) as: the dynamic transfer-and-transformation of something from one discourse/text-in-context . . . to another. Recontextualization involves the extrication of some part or aspect from a text or discourse, or from a genre of texts or discourses, and the fitting of this part or aspect into another context, i.e., another text or discourse (or discourse genre) and its use and environment. (Linell, 1998, pp. 144–145) However, in accordance with the broad translational definition offered by Zethsen and Hill-Mad­ sen (2016), further criteria apply for an instance of recontextualization to qualify as (intralingual) translation. These are: (a) The presence of a source text, (b) the existence of some kind of semi­ otic boundary or difference between ST and TT which may constitute a communication barrier and which the target text serves to neutralize, and (c) some kind of relevant similarity between source and target, defined by the particular “skopos” of the individual translation task (Zethsen & Hill-Madsen, 2016, p. 705). In other words, for a text to be considered a product of intralingual translation, the target text must be derived from a source text1 with which it exhibits some kind of semantic similarity,2 while at the same time it must involve some kind of semiotic transforma­ tion. This means that while there may (or may not) be invariance of signified content, some kind of variance at the level of form or expression is a necessary condition. This is why Diaph-intra is here identified with, and restricted to, recontextualization across a registerial ST-TT divide (entail­ ing differences in wordings), which is a restriction that does not appear to be necessarily inherent in Linell’s aforementioned definition, since simple quoting or “direct transfer” of source material may also come under the heading of recontextualization. In practice, the registerial ST-TT differ­ ence will consist in the contrast between specialized and general-language registers.

The SFL concept of context Inspired by the anthropology of B. Malinowski (e.g., 1935), SFL is a linguistic theory emphasiz­ ing function in social context as the key to understanding the nature of language. As a functional 197

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Figure 12.1 The “architecture” of language according to SFL

linguistics, SFL represents a post-Saussurian view of language as a stratified system of verbal signs comprising the three strata (or levels) of semantics (meanings), lexicogrammar (wordings), and phonology/graphology (language sounds/letters) (Halliday, 2003). The connection between the strata consists in realization, i.e., expression: Phonemes or graphs serve to realize, or express, wordings, and wordings serve to realize meanings. As Figure 12.1 (adapted from O'Donnell, 2011) illustrates, “on top of” the three strata, context is posited as a fourth, language-external stratum in which language use is embedded (Halliday & Mat­ thiessen, 2014, p. 25). As conceptualized in SFL, this fourth stratum should be understood as “rel­ evant context” in a language-exchange event, i.e., “that part of the extralinguistic situation which is illuminated [emphasis added] by language-in-use, by the language component of the speech event, the other name for which is text” (Hasan, 1995, p. 219). In other words, the language-external circumstances constituting context are those reflected in (cf. Hasan, 2009, p. 177), or indexed by, the choice of worded meanings exchanged. Thus, the context will determine the types of worded meanings exchanged, and, conversely, those worded meanings will in themselves signal what kinds of external circumstances surround the exchange. As for the individual “elements” of “relevant context”, these are Field, Tenor, and Mode, each defined by Halliday (1989) as follows: 1) The Field of Discourse refers to the nature of the social action that is taking place. . . . 2) The Tenor of Discourse refers to . . . what kinds of role relationship obtain among the participants, including permanent and temporary relationships of one kind or another. . . . 3) The Mode of Discourse refers to what part language is playing, what it is that the partici­ pants are expecting the language to do for them in that situation. (Halliday, 1989, p. 12) Elsewhere, Halliday himself offers more elaborate definitions. Thus, in a previous work, Hal­ liday (1978, pp. 142–144) introduced the important Field-related distinction that the “activity” illuminated by the text can be either language-external, in the form of some co-occurring, physi­ cal activity that somehow impinges on the language use (playing a game of cards, building a house etc.), or it may be purely verbal, featuring as the “subject matter” of the text. One further variable related to Field, highlighted by two other SFL scholars (Leckie-Tarry, 1995; Martin, 198

A typology of the various aspects of diaphasic translation

1992) and highly important to present purposes, is degree of specialization, reflecting the fact that an “activity” or a subject matter may be verbalized more or less technically, either in “com­ mon-sense” or “uncommon-sense” terms (Martin, 1992, p. 543), i.e., with the use of scientific or non-scientific terms. A problem with Martin’s terms, however, is that they must be taken to primarily apply to the nature of the worded meanings exchanged, rather than to extralinguistic context. Hence, a variable concerned with the extent to which specialized knowledge is presup­ posed in the verbalization of the “activity” (and thus concerned with characteristics belonging to the communicants, the “knowers”) is preferred here.3 Such a variable may be termed presup­ posed expertise. As for Tenor, the question of “role relationship” centrally pertains to the nature of the agent roles adopted by the participants (e.g., Hasan, 1989, p. 56), i.e., the sets of complementary roles recognized in the social system such as teacher-student, doctor-patient, attorney-client, vendorcustomer, parent-child, friend-friend etc. Two other variables, partly a function of the agent roles adopted, are the power relationship (hierarchic or non-hierarchic), and the social distance (degrees of familiarity and involvement) between the participants (Hasan, 1989, p. 57). For present pur­ poses, it is assumed that a hierarchical power relationship may be related to differences in exper­ tise (termed epistemic asymmetries by Maranta et al., 2003). Mode, which is arguably the opaquest of the three parameters, concerns the role of language in the situation. One aspect is defined by Halliday (1978, p. 144) as rhetorical function, correspond­ ing to pragmatic function or purpose, for example, telling a story (narrative function), reporting on facts (reportive function), providing instructions in how to perform an action (instructional function), laying down rules and regulations, as in legal texts (regulatory function), and so on. Two other important Mode dimensions relate to (a) the degree of “process sharing”, with monologue and dialogue as the opposed options, and (b) channel, i.e., the distinction between speech and writ­ ing (Hasan, 1989, p. 58).

A subclassification of diaphasic intralingual translation In Figure 12.2, systemic-functional notation has been used to render a (preliminary) typology of different aspects of Diaph-intra. As the figure shows, six different aspects have been identified as relevant. It should be emphasized that the model is not to be read as a subclassification consisting of six different types of Diaph-intra. As noted earlier, what the model identifies (via the capitalized “headings” to the right of the curly bracket) is six different aspects of Diaph-intra altogether, the point being that all six aspects are relevant to any individual diaphasic target text. Each of the six headings/aspects (CHANNEL etc.) covers a set of different options that are not represented in Fig­ ure 12.2 but only preliminarily indicated by the branching to the right of the headings. The logic of the model is that a given instance of Diaph-intra combines options or features selected from each of the six aspects.4 In the following subsections, the six aspects and their associated features will be elaborated on one by one.

CHANNEL As Figure 12.3 shows, Diaph-intra may either be invariant in channel, with both source and target belonging to speech or writing, or involve a change from writing to speech, or vice versa. Written genres are likely to constitute the bulk of Diaph-intra, whereas oral instances can be expected to occur mostly in brief face-to-face encounters between professionals/experts and citizens/clients/ non-experts, for example, the type of situation where a mechanic, in reporting to the customer how 199

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Figure 12.2 A typology of aspects of Diaph-intra

his/her car has been serviced, is forced to explain certain technical automobile terms. Longer, oral diaphasic target texts occur in educational settings, e.g., as part of university lectures. As for shifts in channel, instances of oral target texts derived from written sources occur, e.g., in courtrooms, when the judge decides to explain points of law (written source) to the jury.

Figure 12.3 Options in CHANNEL in Diaph-intra

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LOCATION OF SOURCE TEXT Though often the case, Diaph-intra does not always involve two different texts, but sometimes occurs as a text-internal phenomenon, i.e., with source and target merged in one and the same text. This is why the two options under LOCATION OF SOURCE TEXT (see Figure 12.4) are “separate” and “integrated with TT”, respectively. Thus, a distinction can be drawn between inter-textual and intra-textual Diaph-intra. A good example of the latter is educational dis­ course, where teachers tend to intralingually translate themselves “on the fly” in the classroom through strategies such as exemplification, definition, and paraphrase of technical/academic concepts.

Figure 12.4

Diaph-intra distinguished according to source text location

FIELD: DOMAIN In terms of field, subtypes may be distinguished according to discipline (see Figure 12.5), with domains such as health care and law being likely the most prominent ones to feature Diaph­ intra, since in both domains the professional-lay interaction is constitutive. Diaph-intra also occurs within a number of other academic disciplines in the form of “science popularization”, with diaphasic target texts appearing in popular science magazines and the science sections of newspapers. In the field of engineering, a specific instance of Diaph-intra is non-technical sum­ maries of the so-called Environmental Impact Assessment Report, a genre mandated by EU law (see, e.g., European Commission, 2017) and published by construction contractors in connection with large building projects. Conceivably, within every single discipline (law, engineering etc.) a subclassification of Diaph-intra target text types would be possible, but will only be pursued here in the field of health care.

Figure 12.5 Diaph-intra distinguished according to domain

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In the health care sector, lay-oriented texts (which are not necessarily all products of Diaph­ intra, it should be noted) can be grouped according to the following four main types of rhetorical function or communicative purpose (cf. Hill-Madsen, 2022): (a) Instruction, e.g., in how to take and handle a drug, (b) preparatory information, i.e., information to patients about a future operation or a medical experiment they have volunteered for, (c) education, in the form of mediation of con­ ceptual knowledge about, e.g., a medical disorder or a class of drugs, and (d) reporting of research from clinical trials and other types of medical research, e.g., for members of patient organizations. Examples of diaphasic target text types (all derived from separate, specialized source texts) from each of the four categories are: a Patient Information Leaflets (PIL): These are the small brochures that accompany the packag­ ing of medicinal products and whose primary purpose is to guide the patient in how to handle the drug, though the texts also feature educational elements (see Example 2 later). The source texts behind the PILs are the Summaries of Product Characteristics (SmPC), which provide health care practitioners with a clinical and pharmacological profile of the drug. b Informed Consent Documents (ICDs): ICDs are produced in connection with clinical trials or experiments in which patients are asked to participate. As diaphasic target texts, ICDs are drawn up on the basis of the specialized research protocol, which sets out the research aims and methodology of the trial or experiment. While the ICDs contain the (gist of) the same informa­ tion, they also contain educational elements and specifically prepare the patient for what to expect from participation in the trial/experiment. c Merck Sharpe and Dohme (MSD) Manuals: Published by the pharmaceutical company Merck & Co, Inc., these are a large repository of encyclopaedia-style articles providing information about hundreds of medical disorders. The entries come in both a “professional” and a “con­ sumer” version, with the latter derived from the former.5 Due to the generalized, conceptual nature of the knowledge mediated in the articles, the texts (both the “professional” and “con­ sumer” versions) must be regarded as educational in character. d European Public Assessment Reports (EPAR) – Summaries for the Public: In connection with the authorization process to which medicinal products are subject, the EU’s drug regulator, the Euro­ pean Medicines Agency (EMA), publishes a specialized document, the EPAR, detailing the out­ come of the clinical trials preceding authorization.6 As a diaphasic intralingual translation of the EPAR, a lay-oriented Summary for the Public of the main findings of the trials is also published.

CHANGE IN TENOR and PRESUPPOSED EXPERTISE Changes in tenor and presupposed expertise are closely connected in Diaph-intra, and will be jointly illustrated. The options in each parameter (see Figures 12.6 and 12.7) are:

Figure 12.6 Options in PRESUPPOSED EXPERTISE in Diaph-intra

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Figure 12.7

Possibilities of tenor changes in Diaph-intra

Expert-to-expert ST → expert-to-lay TT In tenor, the predominant “direction” of translation in Diaph-intra is from a source in which an expert addresses other experts to a target text in which an expert addresses a lay readership, as in Example 1.

Example 1 ST: Summary of Product Characteristics Levodopa may cause a false-positive reaction for urinary ketone bodies when a test tape is used for determination of ketonuria. . . . False-negative tests may result with the use of glucoseoxidase methods of testing for glucosuria. . . . Caution should be exercised when interpreting the plasma and urine levels of catecholamines and their metabolites in patients on levodopa or levodopa/dopadecarboxylase inhibitor therapy. (EMA, 2020, p. 5) TT: Patient Information Leaflet If you need to have tests on your blood or urine, tell your doctor or nurse that you are taking Inbrija. This is because the medicine may affect the results of some tests. (EMA, 2020, p. 26) The shift in tenor from expert to lay orientation is reflected in the concomitant shift (here: “decrease”) in the extent to which field-specific expertise is presupposed in the reader: The source text represents (something close to) a maximum in this regard, as manifested in the high frequency of specialized medical terminology, whereas only phenomena that form part of the patient’s “lifeworld experience” (cf. Mishler, 1984), e.g., blood, urine, doctor, and medicine, are referred to in the target. The move from shared, expert knowledge presuppositions (ST) to an epistemic asymmetry (TT) constitutive of the expert-lay relationship is accentuated in an extract like the following:

Example 2 ST: SmPC

Contraindications: • A previous history of neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) and/or non-traumatic rhabdomyolysis. (EMA, 2020, p. 3) 203

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TT: PIL

Do not take Inbrija • if you have previously suffered from neuroleptic malignant syndrome, a life-threatening reaction to certain medicines used to treat severe mental disorders or if you have suffered from non-traumatic rhabdomyolysis, a rare muscle disorder in which damaged muscle breaks down rapidly. [emphases original]. (EMA, 2020, p. 25) Example 2 is a core illustration of the process of recontextualization in Diaph-intra, reflecting the overt mediation of specialized medical knowledge to the non-expert addressee: Interestingly, the TT excerpt is not simply “lay discourse”, but in fact a mixture of specialized and register-neutral elements. Thus, two specialized terms, neuroleptic malignant syndrome and non-traumatic rhab­ domyolysis, are featured in the TT as “direct transfers” (see Schjoldager et al., 2008/2010, p. 93) from the ST, but each is followed by what may be termed semantic explicitation in the TT, i.e., explanations based on wordings much closer to a non-expert English vocabulary, viz. a life-threat­ ening reaction to certain medicines used to treat severe mental disorders and a rare muscle disor­ der in which damaged muscle breaks down rapidly. These explanations index the very knowledge that the expert sender does not presuppose in the non-expert reader. In connection with the “move” from ST expert orientation to TT lay orientation, a concomitant shift in the tenor dimension of social distance is sometimes seen, viz. from the impersonal tenor of the sources to the direct address of the reader in the targets:

Example 3 ST: SmPC Patients may experience new or worsening mental status and behavioural changes, which may be severe, including psychotic-like and suicidal behaviour during levodopa treatment or after starting or increasing the dose of levodopa. (EMA, 2020, p. 4) TT: PIL Talk to your doctor or pharmacist if you develop any of the symptoms below whilst using Inbrija: • changes in or worsening of your mental state, which may be severe such as psychotic and suicidal behaviour. (EMA, 2020, p. 26) It should be noted that while, obviously, PILs are generic texts, addressed by anonymous senders to an anonymous, mass audience of patients, the target text semiotically diminishes the social distance by signifying higher involvement with the reader than the STs on this point, by virtue of the direct address. This effect was confirmed in an interventionist study reported in Muñoz-Miquel (2019), where fact sheets for cancer patients (leaflets providing information to the patients about their dis­ ease) were registerially modified, among other things, through consistent replacement of the third person with direct second-person address. The effect was reported by patients as being “more reas­ suring and comforting, and also more empathic” (García-Izquierdo & Montalt, 2017, p. 606).

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Lay-to-expert ST → expert-to-expert TT When the direction of translation is from lay to expert discourse, the diaphasic “move” obviously correlates with an increase in presupposed expertise and manifests itself in the recontextualization of lay speakers’ utterances into the specialized registers of academic disciplines, for example, in the encounter between patients/clients and experts such as lawyers or health care professionals. In such cases, the translation is a matter of an expert “making sense of” a client or patient’s utter­ ances in terms of the scientific or technical concepts of the field in question. In the domain of law, concrete examples are lawyers drawing up legal documents, such as wills, from clients’ directions, or civil servants drafting legislation on the basis of politicians’ wishes. Presumably, such examples may sometimes be accompanied by a change in CHANNEL, from speech to writing. In the field of health care, an example can be found in connection with doctor-patient consultations, more specifically in the physician’s post-consultation entry in the patient’s medical record, where the patient’s description of his/her ailments and symptoms will be translated into a diagnosis (see also Hill-Madsen, 2015a). An example (from a psychiatric/psychotherapeutic consultation) is given by Berkenkotter and Ravotas (1997):

Example 4 On a day-day [sic] basis, client finds she is preoccupied with her relationship problems. She worries she has “screwed up yet another relationship with (her) neediness” and berates her­ self for not being able to control this. As a result she is having trouble concentrating on aca­ demic tasks, has a predominantly dysphoric mood, has w/drawn from socializing w/friends, experiences initial insomnia, and complains of “crying jags.” She reports occasional, passing thoughts of suicide, but adds: “I would never do that” [emphases original]. (Quoted in Berkenkotter & Ravotas, 1997, p. 267) Example 4 reflects the intertwining of Diaph-intra with the hermeneutic endeavours of professional practice: The practitioner in the prior extract is interpreting a client’s descriptions of symptoms as a step on the road towards a diagnosis of an underlying mental disorder or disturbance (Berk­ enkotter & Ravotas, 1997). While in the extract some of the client’s descriptions of her situation and behaviour are still present in the form of italicized quotes, others have been displaced and are only indirectly present as the inferable ST cues behind the bolded TT terms. These terms refer to categories from the DSM-IV7 classification of psychiatric symptoms, indicative of carefully defined psychopathologies (Berkenkotter & Ravotas, 1997). The use of these terms in the extract thus illus­ trates how Diaph-intra intervenes in the very process of diagnostic categorization. Discursively, such classification amounts to a “medicalization of life narratives” (Sarangi, 1998, p. 311), i.e., a reduction of individuals and their complex life experience to impersonal medical categories. These discursive implications, however, are an avenue that will not be further explored here.

Expert-to-expert ST → teacher-to-learner TT A third category with respect to changes in tenor is closely related to, but not identical with, the shift from expert-to-expert ST to expert-to-lay TT. This third type is the shift from expert source text to the didactic TT discourse of educational settings, where recipients are discursively posi­ tioned as learners rather than simply as “lay receivers of expert information”. At least two differ­ ent functions (possibly even more) of Diaph-intra within educational contexts may be identified:

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(a) Textual explication (presumably most prevalent in the humanities) and (b) taxonomizing, i.e., the building of domain-specific, conceptual taxonomies (a hallmark of educational discourse in the natural sciences). Example 5 below illustrates textual explication, deriving from notes pro­ vided to students in the subject of Religious Studies in upper-secondary schooling. The source text (brought here in English translation) is an extract from the philosopher F. Nietzsche’s famous work The Genealogy of Morality (1887), in which the Judaeo-Christian concepts of “good” and “evil” are traced back to, and denounced as, a “slave morality”:

Example 5 ST: The slave revolt in morality begins when the ressentiment itself becomes creative and gives birth to values: the ressentiment of those beings who are prevented from a genuine reac­ tion, that is, something active, and who compensate for that with a merely imaginary vengeance. (Nietzsche, 1887/2009, section 10) TT: [Only the bolded wording from the ST is commented on next.] By “those beings” Nietzsche is referring to the slaves of antiquity (the Roman Empire). The cen­ tral concept in the text is the ressentiment of these slaves, i.e., the enormous pent-up anger and hostility that slaves must necessarily be harbouring. If you live a life of total humiliation, as slaves do, it should be obvious that you will be filled with enormous anger. At the same time, the slaves are “prevented from a genuine reaction, that is, something active”, which means that they have no possibility of getting revenge and thus release their pent-up anger. They have no other option than to fantasize about revenge. That is how, for the slaves, revenge can only be “imaginary”8 (Hill-Madsen, 2004). In the target-text notes in Example 5, the textual explication takes the form of overt, sequential paraphrasing, signalled by items such as referring to, i.e., which means, and that is, all of which serve to connect quoted source wordings with their semantic content (as interpreted by the author of the notes). In terms of LOCATION OF SOURCE TEXT, the explicatory notes are thus a case where a separate source text exists, but where the ST objects of explication are integrated with the target text as well. An example of Diaph-intra in the service of taxonomizing in the natural sciences is given next (an extract from an online lecture on cell biology for fifth graders):

Example 6 There are two main types of cells. Those with a control center, and those without. . . . [Cells with a control center] are called eukaryotes, and they’re broken down into two more catego­ ries: plant cells and animal cells. Plant cells and animal cells have a lot in common. Both have a nucleus or a control center. This is where the organism’s DNA is stored, and where the blueprints for that organism are kept. A nucleus is usually sphere-shaped and looks a lot like a dark spot when viewed through a microscope. Both plant and animal cells also have cytoplasm. Cytoplasm is a thick, jelly-like fluid that fills the cell. It’s made up of water, salt and protein. The cytoplasm is held together by a membrane. The cell membrane is a barrier 206

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that holds the cell together and acts like a door to allow things to enter or leave the cell. If you look at the plant cell, you’ll notice that it has another layer outside of the cell membrane. Plant cells have a cell wall. A cell wall is a rigid layer on the very outside of a plant cell, made of a really strong sugar called cellulose. (Education Galaxy, 2020) Example 6 illustrates the role of Diaph-intra in the construction of classificatory and compositional taxonomies: A subclassification of cells (into plant and animal cells) is provided, and the compo­ sition of cells, primarily the nucleus, is detailed. The extract is a case of source and target items integrated in the same text, with no separate source text being identifiable. The target text in itself, however, bears witness to an ongoing process of translation: Most of the text oscillates between introducing scientific terms and translating them through definition in non-technical terms, for example, the term cytoplasm translated as a thick, jelly-like fluid that fills the cell. It’s made up of water, salt and protein. The usual direction of translation is the “movement” from a scientific term to a non-scientific definition, i.e., via a decrease in presupposed expertise. However, the opposite direction is also present in Example 6 through the strategy termed “naming/equating” in Maton and Doran (2017), which is when a definition or a paraphrase is provided first and only then suc­ ceeded by the technical label, as in a really strong sugar called cellulose. Despite the difference in didactic purpose in Examples 5 and 6 (explication vs. the building of taxonomies), Diaph-intra is seen to operate in much the same way in both, viz. by explicitly linking forms/wordings with semantic content.

Rhetorical function

Figure 12.8

Options in RHETORICAL FUNCTION

The rhetorical or pragmatic function of target texts (reportive, didactic, narrative etc.) may, in part or in toto, remain invariant in comparison with that of the source, or variation may occur, as illustrated in Figure 12.8. A good illustration of invariance is found in MSD manu­ als, where the “professional” and “consumer” versions are generally identical in rhetorical function, as in Example 7, which sets out some of the main characteristics of the skin disease psoriasis:

Example 7 ST: MSD manual, professional version Psoriasis is an inflammatory disease that manifests most commonly as well-circumscribed, ery­ thematous papules and plaques covered with silvery scales. . . . Psoriasis is hyperproliferation of epidermal keratinocytes combined with inflammation of the epidermis and dermis. (Das, 2020a) 207

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TT: MSD manual, consumer version Psoriasis is a chronic, recurring disease that causes one or more raised, red patches that have silvery scales and a distinct border between the patch and normal skin. . . . The patches of pso­ riasis occur because of an abnormally high rate of growth of skin cells. (Das, 2020b) The target text is a relatively close translation of corresponding wordings in the expert-oriented source (though not all ST elements are rendered), based to a large extent on the replacement of specialized medical terms such as erythematous, papules, hyperproliferation etc. by non-technical equivalents from a register-neutral vocabulary (red, patches, abnormally high rate of growth etc.). The rhetorical function, however, remains invariant, being informative/educational in both source and target. When the other feature in RHETORICAL FUNCTION is selected, i.e., “variant”, more specific options open up, as reflected in Figure 12.9.

Figure 12.9 Types of variation in rhetorical function in Diaph-intra

Figure 12.9 is a continuation of the option “variant” in RHETORICAL FUNCTION, indicating specific types of rhetorical variation. The first of these has already been encountered in Example 5 (the Nietzsche example), which, owing to the shift in genre from “philosophical treatise” to “didac­ tic notes”, involved a change from the expository function of the source to explication in the target. Another type of variance is found earlier in Example 4 (the psychiatric example), where elements from the patient’s description of her life experience were translated and embedded in the therapist’s diagnostic report. In that case, the rhetorical shift was from description/narration to categorization. Yet another type, also from the field of health care, occurs in PILs, which, like the SmPC source genre, are replete with “directive” messages, but nonetheless with a slight rhetorical difference:

Example 8 ST: SmPC A complete dose is 2 capsules taken one right after the other. • The patient should load 1 capsule into the Inbrija inhaler, breathe in and hold their breath for 5 seconds. The patient should hear the capsule “whirl”. • The used capsule should be removed from the Inbrija inhaler and the second capsule loaded into the inhaler. (EMA, 2020, p. 3)

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TT: PIL • A complete dose is 2 capsules used one after the other. • Load 1 capsule into the Inbrija inhaler, close your lips firmly around the mouthpiece, then breathe in (inhale) and hold that breath for 5 seconds. You should hear the capsule “whirl”. Then, remove the used capsule and load a second capsule into the inhaler. (EMA, 2020, p. 31) Messages like those in the source text of Example 8 must be categorized as being “regula­ tory” in mode, given that sentences such as these rhetorically serve to stipulate the “rules” to be observed by third parties in the handling of the drug, realized through declarative clauses with deontic modality (should) and the patient in subject position. In the target, on the other hand, while the “directive” sense is retained, the message shifts into the “instructional”, rather, featuring imperatives (Load, close, breathe etc.) directly addressed to the user of the product. Finally, rhetorical elements are sometimes added to a target text that are absent from the source in the corresponding segment of the text (hence the option “didactic elements added” in Figure 12.9). The phenomenon was seen in Example 2 (from a PIL, listing circumstances where the drug should not be taken), where certain medical terms were diaphasically translated (e.g., ST nontraumatic rhabdomyolysis → TT a rare muscle disorder in which damaged muscle breaks down rapidly). As explanations/definitions of abstract scientific concepts, completely parallel with those featured in Example 6 (the lecture on cell biology), the translations in effect introduce a didactic element in the PILs which is not to be found in the specialized source documents, where only the technical terms are listed. As also indicated in Figure 12.9, the list of imaginable types of variation in rhetorical function in Diaph-intra is likely incomplete. Completion of the list is a concern for future research.

A complete overview of options in Diaph-intra A complete overview of all Diaph-intra aspects and their associated options is provided in Figure 12.10: It should be noted that the model is unable to reflect a number of inevitable constraints on possi­ ble combinations of options: As previously indicated, some features necessarily co-occur, such as “decrease” in PRESUPPOSED EXPERTISE and “expert-to-expert → expert-to-lay” in CHANGE IN TENOR, while others are mutually exclusive. It is, however, beyond the scope of the present chapter to chart and incorporate all such restrictions in the model.

Central linguistic strategies in expert-to-lay Diaph-intra In the preceding section, Diaph-intra was characterized mainly from the perspective of con­ textual shifts, with occasional attendance to the micro-level linguistic changes underlying the contextual transformations. In the present section, the most central types of linguistic shifts in expert-to-lay Diaph-intra, identified in previous studies such as Piorno (2012) and Hill-Madsen (2015a, 2015b, 2022), will be commented on. These are familiarization, lexicogrammatical decompression, and rarefaction (see Hill-Madsen, 2022, especially), the former two of which belong to the lexicogrammatical stratum and the latter to the semantic stratum.

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Figure 12.10 A complete overview of parallel sets of options in Diaph-intra

Familiarization and lexicogrammatical decompression Familiarization is identical with the replacement of specialized terms by non-technical word­ ings (NTWs) that lay readers/learners are more likely to be familiar with (already illustrated in Example 7). A small number of further examples have been selected to illustrate in closer detail the lexicogrammatical mechanisms associated with familiarization as a Diaph-intra strategy. The examples derive from a collection of medical terms relating to the side effects of a particular drug:9 9 syncope → fainting. 10 trismus → lockjaw. 11 glossodynia → burning sensation in the mouth. 12 dyskinesia → abnormal body movements. 13 oculogyric crisis → prolonged rolling eyes upwards. 14 blepharospasm → involuntary tight closure of the eyelids.

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A typology of the various aspects of diaphasic translation

15 atrial, nodal or ventricular arrhythmias → heart beat problems. 16 melanoma → a type of skin cancer. 17 upper respiratory tract infection → infections of nose, sinuses, throat or lungs. The medical source terms are all of Greek/Latin origin and likely to be either completely unknown, or at least little known, to lay readers as labels. In Examples (9) and (10), the source items (syn­ cope and trismus) are instances of medical terms for which a one-word popular equivalent exists (fainting and lockjaw), whereas the other examples all involve lexicogrammatical decompression in the shape of multi-word solutions on the target side. In some cases (glossodynia, dyskinesia, oculogyric (crisis), blepharospasm), the decompression derives from a translation of the indi­ vidual morphemes of the source items (see also Hill-Madsen, 2015a; Hill-Madsen & Pilegaard, 2019): (11) gloss- (from Greek: “tongue”) → mouth; (11) -odynia (literally “pain”) → burning sensation; (12) dys- (“dysfunction”/”difficulty”) → abnormal; (12) -kines(ia) (“movement”) → movements; (13) ocul- (from Latin: “eye”) → eyes; (13) (o)gyr(ic) (“spinning motion”) → pro­ longed rolling . . . upwards; (14) blephar- (“eyelid”) → the eyelids; (14) -(o)spasm → involuntary tight closure. As several of the examples illustrate, although the individual source morphemes are in all cases somehow recognizable in the target versions, the translation is far from always literal. The translation of gloss- (literally “tongue”), e.g., involves holonomy (with TT mouth as the holonym of “tongue”). In some of the other cases (those not based on morpheme-by-morpheme translations), the translation is similarly far from “literal” but involves a less specific term on the target side. This is the case with (15), where atrial, nodal or ventricular arrhythmias (literally: “disturbances in the rhythms of the upper and lower heart chambers and nodes”) is rendered by the much more generalized target wording heart beat problems. Similarly, in (16), melanoma is rendered by the superordinate term (type of) skin cancer. In (17), the reverse is the case, with the source term upper respiratory tract specified through the meronyms nose, sinuses, throat or lungs on the target side. Cases where the element of familiarization in the Diaph-intra of specialized terms is less pro­ nounced can also be found. Examples are: 18 muscular rigidity → your muscles get very rigid. 19 impulse control disorders. → urges or cravings to behave in ways that are unusual for you or you cannot resist the impulse, drive or temptation to carry out certain activities that could harm yourself or others. While both Examples (18) and (19) are cases of translation (because they involve a change in form, i.e., lexicogrammar), the individual words of the source items are more likely to be known to lay readers than those in Examples 9–17, and, in the case of (18), likely to be perfectly understandable to most adult readers. What unites the two cases is the decompression, resulting, however, from two very different rewording strategies. In (19), the strategy is definition, in line with Example (6), despite the absence of an equating be. The definition is composed along the classic Aristotelian lines of a “genus”, i.e., a superordinate class (urges or cravings) combined with “differentiae”, i.e., dis­ tinctive features (in ways that are unusual for you or you cannot resist the impulse, drive or tempta­ tion to carry out certain activities that could harm yourself or others). In (18), the change consists in the conversion of a nominalized source structure into a TT clausal structure, a strategy that may be termed de-nominalization and which is frequent in lay-oriented Diaph-intra (see Hill-Madsen, 2015b, 2019).

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Rarefaction While expert-to-lay Diaph-intra and the popularization of science is commonly associated with “simplification” (see, e.g., Hilgartner, 1990), the source-to-target shifts illustrated in the previous subsection show that at the lexicogrammatical stratum, the opposite is often the case, with ST semantic content being often “spread out” across TT wordings that are longer and syntactically more complex. “Simplification” occurs at the semantic stratum, rather, as what appear to be the inevitable repercussions of the aforementioned lexicogrammatical strategies (familiarization and decompression). These semantic repercussions will here be termed rarefaction, a term borrowed from the educational philosophy of K. Maton (2014, p. 130), referring to a “dilution” of semantic content or “density”. The reason why rarefaction frequently accompanies lay- and learner-oriented Diaph-intra is that NTWs are rarely able to match the semantic density or “compactness” of specialized terms. This “compactness” derives from the fact that such terms, unlike general-language terms, tend to be organized in complex classificatory and compositional taxonomies from which the indi­ vidual terms derive their specific meaning, depending on their taxonomic “address” in the sys­ tem (cf. Maton & Doran, 2017). The medical term psoriasis (see Example 7) may illustrate the mechanism:

Figure 12.11 The taxonomic “ecology” of the medical term psoriasis

Figure 12.11 is a diagram of a small part of the ICD-11, the World Health Organization’s (WHO) international classification of diseases (WHO, 2021a). The diagram shows the taxonomic pathway from the most superordinate concept via a number of subclassifications down to psoriasis as a spe­ cific term, i.e., Diseases → Dermatoses [= “diseases of the skin”] → inflammatory dermatoses → papulosquamous dermatoses → psoriasis. In accordance with the lexical principle that hyponyms “inherit” the meanings of superordinate terms, the point here is that the semantic components “dis­ ease”, “of the skin”, “inflammatory”, and “papulosquamous” [= “papular and scaly”] all inhere in the term psoriasis. At each “node” in the taxonomic pathway, moreover, the semantic feature in question contrasts with a number of other options at the same taxonomic level, and even psoriasis in itself turns out to be a superordinate term, classified into a number of specific subcategories (not reflected in Figure 12.11). Moreover, according to the ICD-11’s definition (WHO, 2021b), the disease is characterized by further semantic components such as “epidermal” and “keratinization”, whereby psoriasis intersects with a number of other taxonomies, such as the compositional tax­ onomy of skin, of which epidermis is one part, and the classification of proteins, of which keratin is one among many. 212

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The point of the prior semantic analysis of the term psoriasis is to illustrate the way that specialized terms tend to “compact” a large number of semantic components deriving from the term’s taxonomic “ecology”. The relevance of this point for lay- and learner-oriented Diaphintra is that although NTWs may go some way towards “unpacking” such semantic components (see, e.g., examples 11–17), they (i.e., NTWs) do not carry the “deep” taxonomic resonance of specialized terms and are thus inevitably “shallower” in semantics. Hence the rarefaction, and hence a major reason why “equivalence” in Diaph-intra can rarely be anything but “relevant similarity”.

Concluding remarks Based on certain central concepts from systemic-functional linguistics, this chapter has theorized the contextual aspects of Diaph-intra and identified a small handful of central rewriting strategies at the levels of lexicogrammar and semantics. In rounding off the chapter, what remains is to point to future research avenues. First and foremost, the typology of (contextual aspects of) Diaph-intra proposed in the theoreti­ cal section is far from complete, insofar as not all sets of options are exhaustive, and since certain aspects may be even further subcategorized. Thus, an initial attempt was made to subcategorize Diaph-intra genres within the field of health care, and similar efforts are awaiting the other fields where Diaph-intra occurs. Indeed, future research needs to be taken beyond the field of health care, to which investigations of Diaph-intra have so far been more or less confined. Much more knowledge is needed about the role of Diaph-intra in law, engineering, and so on and about the kind of semantic and lexicogrammatical translation strategies at work when Diaph-intra occurs in these other fields. Also, translation strategies have only been explored in connection with the rewriting of expert-to-expert sources into expert-to-lay target texts, whereas the opposite direction has received virtually no attention. Similarly, the investigation of strategies in teacher-to-learner Diaph-intra within educational settings is more or less completely uncharted territory. Indeed, as several examples may have reflected, the view taken here is that Diaph-intra is, if far from identi­ cal with, then certainly central to pedagogic efforts in many school subjects. Given that, according to Maton (2014), much educational research fails to address the more concrete questions of how best to pedagogize specific types of knowledge in school subjects, some degree of integration between Intralingual Translation Studies and educational research would appear to be a desirable project for the future.

Notes 1 As later discussions will show, a source text is not necessarily a separate text, but may occur as separate and identifiable textual elements merged with a target text. 2 It should be noted that in positing “relevant similarity” as the required ST-TT relationship, Zeth­ sen and Hill-Madsen (2016) reject the traditional notion of equivalence as a necessary condition of translation. 3 This knowledge-related variable might be argued to equally belong under Tenor, having clear implications for the role relationship of the participants, but this is a consideration that will not be taken any further here. Only it may be noted that, as pointed out by Hasan (1995, p. 233), contextual parameters are perme­ able, meaning that choices in one parameter tend to influence those made in the others. 4 Explanation of notational conventions: Square brackets (“[“) mean “or”, indicating different options in relation to some kind of common denominator, such as “CHANNEL” (capitalized in accordance with systemic-functional conventions). Curly brackets (“{“) mean “and”, indicating simultaneous sets of options.

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Aage Hill-Madsen 5 Link to the MSD website: www.msdmanuals.com/. 6 The two related document types are published on the EMA’s website: www.ema.europa.eu/en/ medicines. 7 DSM-IV is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th edition) of the American Psychiatric Association. 8 The target-text notes are the work of the present author, produced during employment in the upper-sec­ ondary school sector in Denmark in the 2000s, long before the phenomenon of intralingual translation became known to the author. Aimed at students aged around 18, the notes were provided in Danish, as was Nietzche’s source text. An English translation of the source text was found for present purposes, and a documentary English translation of the target text notes was produced. 9 The source terms all feature in EMA (2020, pp. 7–9), the SmPC for the medicinal product Inbrija, and the target wordings in EMA (2020, pp. 26–29), the PIL section.

Further reading Eggins, S. (2004). An introduction to systemic functional linguistics. Continuum. Halliday, M. A. K., & Matthiessen, C. M. I. M. (1999). Construing experience through meaning: A languagebased approach to cognition. Cassell. Lyons, J. (1977). Semantics. Cambridge University Press. Vermeer, H. J. (1996). A skopos theory of translation (some arguments for and against). TexTconText.

References Berkenkotter, C., & Ravotas, D. (1997). Genre as a tool in the transmission of practice over time and across professional boundaries. Mind, Culture, and Activity, 4(4), 256–274. https://doi.org/10.1207/ s15327884mca0404_4 Coseriu, E. (1981). Los conceptos de “dialect”, “nivel” y “estilo de lengua” y el sentido propio de la dialec­ tologia. Lingüística Española Actual, 3(1), 1–32. Das, S. (2020a). Psoriasis. In M. Sharp & D. Corporation (Eds.), MSD manuals, professional version. Re­ trieved June 2, 2021, from www.msdmanuals.com/professional/dermatologic-disorders/psoriasis-and­ scaling-diseases/psoriasis Das, S. (2020b). Psoriasis. In M. Sharp & D. Corporation (Ed.), MSD manuals, consumer version. Re­ trieved June 2, 2021, from www.msdmanuals.com/home/skin-disorders/psoriasis-and-scaling-disorders/ psoriasis Education Galaxy. (2020). Plant and animal cells. Retrieved June 3, 2021 from www.youtube.com/ watch?v=G9gSZ1Ta73E European Commission. (2017). Environmental impact assessment of projects: Guidance on the preparation of the Environmental Impact Assessment Report. Retrieved June 2, 2021, from https://ec.europa.eu/envi­ ronment/eia/pdf/EIA_guidance_EIA_report_final.pdf European Commission. (n.d.). Information to patients – legislative approach. Retrieved June 2, 2021, from https://ec.europa.eu/health/human-use/information-to-patient/legislative_en European Medicines Agency. (2020). Inbrija: EPAR – Product information. Retrieved June 15, 2021, from www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/product-information/inbrija-epar-product-information_en.pdf García-Izquierdo, I., & Montalt, V. (2017). Understanding and enhancing comprehensibility in texts for pa­ tients in an institutional health care context in Spain – A mixed methods analysis. Revista Española de Lingüística Aplicada, 30(2), 592–610. https://doi.org/10.1075/resla.00008.gar Halliday, M. A. K. (1978). Language as social semiotic: The social interpretation of language and meaning. Edward Arnold. Halliday, M. A. K. (1989). Context of situation. In M. A. K. Halliday & R. Hasan (Eds.), Language, context, and text: Aspects of language in a social-semiotic perspective (2nd ed., pp. 3–14). Oxford University Press. Halliday, M. A. K. (2003). Introduction: On the “architecture” of human language. In J. Webster (Ed.), On language and linguistics. The collected works of M. A. K. Halliday (vol. 3, pp. 1–29). Continuum. Halliday, M. A. K., & Matthiessen, C. M. I. M. (2014). Halliday’s introduction to functional grammar (4th ed.). Routledge.

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A typology of the various aspects of diaphasic translation Hasan, R. (1989). The structure of a text. In M. A. K. Halliday & R. Hasan (Eds.), Language, context and text: Aspects of language in a social-semiotic perspective (2nd ed., pp. 52–69). Oxford University Press. Hasan, R. (1995). The conception of context in text. In P. H. Fries & M. Gregory (Eds.), Discourse in society: Systemic functional perspectives (pp. 183–284). Ablex Publishing Corporation. Hasan, R. (2009). The place of context in a systemic functional model. In M. A. K. Halliday & J. Webster (Eds.), Continuum companion to systemic functional linguistics (pp. 166–189). Continuum. Hilgartner, S. (1990). The dominant view of popularization: Conceptual problems, political uses. Social Stud­ ies of Science, 20, 519–539. https://doi.org/10.1177/030631290020003006 Hill-Madsen, A. (2004). Forklarende noter til F. Nietzches ‘Om moralens oprindelse’ [Explicatory notes on F. Nietzche’s ‘The Genealogy of Morality’] [Unpublished teaching material]. Hill-Madsen, A. (2015a). Lexical strategies in intralingual translation between registers. HERMES – Journal of Language and Communication in Business, 54, 85–105. https://doi.org/10.7146/hjlcb. v27i54.22949 Hill-Madsen, A. (2015b). The ‘unpacking’ of grammatical metaphor as an intralingual translation strategy: From de-metaphorization to clausal paraphrase. In K. Maksymski, S. Gutermuth, & S. Hansen-Schirra (Eds.), Translation and comprehensibility (pp. 195–226). Frank & Timme. Hill-Madsen, A. (2019). The heterogeneity of intralingual translation. Meta – Journal des Traducteurs, 64(2). https://doi.org/10.7202/1068206ar Hill-Madsen, A. (2022). Transformational strategies in diaphasic translation: Three case studies. Perspec­ tives – Studies in Translation Theory and Practice, 30(4), 643–661. https://doi.org/10.1080/09076 76x.2021.1953085 Hill-Madsen, A., & Pilegaard, M. (2019). Variable scope for popularization of specialized terminology: The case of medico-pharmaceutical terms. Fachsprache – Journal of Professional and Scientific Communica­ tion, 41(1–2), 22–40. https://doi.org/10.24989/fs.v41i1-2.1623 Leckie-Tarry, H. (1995). Language and context: A functional linguistic theory of register. Pinter Publishers. Linell, P. (1998). Discourse across boundaries: On recontextualizations and the blending of voices in profes­ sional discourse. Text, 18(2), 143–157. https://doi.org/10.1515/text.1.1998.18.2.143 Malinowski, B. (1935). Coral gardens and their magic: A study of the methods of tilling the soil and of agri­ cultural rites in the trobriand islands. American Book Company. Maranta, A., Guggenheim, M., Gisler, P., & Pohl, C. (2003). The reality of experts and the imagined lay per­ son. Acta Sociologica, 46(2), 150–165. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001699303046002005. Martin, J. R. (1992). English text: System and structure. John Benjamins. Maton, K. (2014). Knowledge and knowers: Towards a realist sociology of knowledge. Routledge. Maton, K., & Doran, Y. J. (2017). Semantic density: A translation device for revealing complexity of knowl­ edge practices in discourse, part 1 – wording. Onomazéin – Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Transla­ tion, Special Issue II, 46–76. https://doi.org/10.7764/onomazein.sfl.03 Mishler, E. G. (1984). The discourse of medicine: The dialectics of medical interviews. Ablex Publishing Corp. Muñoz-Miquel, A. (2019). Empathy, emotions and patient-centredness: A case study on communication strategies. HERMES – Journal of Language and Communication in Business, 59, 71–89. https://doi. org/10.1177/10.7146/hjlcb.v59i1.116990. Nietzsche, F. (1887/2009). The genealogy of morality (I. Johnston, Trans.). Retrieved June 25, 2021, from https://web.archive.org/web/20131209194217/http://records.viu.ca/~johnstoi/nietzsche/genealogytofc. htm O’Donnell, M. (2011). Introduction to systemic functional linguistics for discourse analysis. Course Notes: Language, Function and Cognition, Masters in English Applied Linguistics, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid. Petrilli, S. (2003). Translation and semiosis: Introduction. In S. Petrilli (Ed.), Translation, translation (pp. 17– 37). Rodopi. Piorno, P. E. (2012). An example of genre shift in the medicinal product information genre system. Linguis­ tica Antverpiensia New Series – Themes in Translation Studies, 11, 167–187. https://doi.org/10.52034/ lanstts.v11i.302 Sarangi, S. (1998). Rethinking recontextualization in professional discourse studies: An epilogue. Text, 18(2), 301–318. https://doi.org/10.1515/text.1.1998.18.2.301 Schjoldager, A., Gottlieb, H., & Klitgaard, I. (2008/2010). Understanding translation. Academica. WHO. (2021a). ICD-11 for mortality and morbidity statistics. https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en.

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13 EASY LANGUAGE TRANSLATION AND COMPREHENSIBILITY AS A SOCIAL PROCESS Benjamin Schmid

Introduction This chapter is based on empirical data from a case study looking at the professional translation of texts into Easy Language (Schmid, 2017). It aims to contribute to intralingual translation research in three ways: First, it looks at Easy Language translation from the translators’ perspective, focus­ ing on one of the rare areas in the “huge unexplored market for intralingual translation” (Zethsen, 2018, p. 79) where intralingual translation has actually established itself as a professional practice that is explicitly recognized as a form of translation. Second, it investigates Easy Language trans­ lation from a social perspective, combining qualitative data from paratextual analysis and expert interviews with constructivist theories of understanding. The chapter shows how Easy Language translators use a collaborative translation process to co-create comprehensibility together with their clients and target group representatives. Third, it highlights the key role that multimodal elements play in Easy Language translation and argues that Easy Language translation is more adequately described as a multimodal accessibility service (Bernabé & Orero, 2019) rather than just intralingual translation. On this basis, the paper addresses some of the problems inherent in the concept of intralinguality: It may be too narrow, failing to account for the multimodal dimensions of many fields of translation practice, and it is still predicated on the criterion of “linguality”, the relevance of which has been called into question by intralingual translation research.

Easy Language Easy Language refers to a simplified form of language that is optimized to be easier to understand for specific target groups. Vanhatalo et al. (2021, p. 1) offer the following definition: The term Easy Language (Germ. Leichte Sprache, Swe. lätt språk, Finn. selkokieli; ear­ lier easy-to-read language) refers to a modified variety of a natural language that has been adjusted so that it is easier to read and understand in terms of content, vocabulary and structure. Easy Language has been primarily targeted at people who have various difficul­ ties in understanding standard forms of language, for example, due to learning disabilities or neurocognitive disorders.

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Easy Language can be seen as part of a broader spectrum of efforts aimed at making texts easier to understand, for example, Plain Language initiatives. The evolution of Easy Language as it is used today started in Sweden in the late 1960s with the “Lättläst” concept (Bohman, 2017), which aimed to make information and literature accessible to people with cognitive or learning disabilities. The first European “easy-to-read” guidelines in 11 languages were published in 1998 by the Interna­ tional League of Societies for the Mentally Handicapped (ILSMH) – European Association (which changed its name to Inclusion Europe in 2000). It is important to note that these early guidelines not only included purely linguistic recommendations (e.g., short sentences, avoiding jargon, active verbs, etc.), they also highlighted the importance of looking at the specific needs of the target group and the communicative goals to be achieved, by using visual elements and layout for enhanced legibility and having the documents evaluated by people with learning disabilities. From a transla­ tion studies perspective, it is also important to point out that the 1998 ILSMH guidelines (ILSMH European Association, 1998) already used the term “translation” to describe the process of rewrit­ ing texts in easy-to-read language. Since these beginnings, many more Easy Language guidelines have been created. The 2008 UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) includes the right to accessible communication (e.g., Plain Language) and has provided additional momentum to Easy Language in many countries by creating demand for Easy Language translation. In the German context, a distinction is usually made between “Leichte Sprache” (“Easy Lan­ guage”), a highly simplified form of language originally aimed at people with cognitive disabili­ ties, and “Einfache Sprache” (“Plain Language”), which is closer to standard language and shows a lower degree of simplification (for more on this terminology, see Maaß, 2020, pp. 50–53). The body of research on Easy Language and Easy Language translation has grown rapidly over the last few years, especially in the German-speaking context (for an overview, see, e.g., Bock, 2018; Hansen-Schirra & Maaß, 2020; Maaß, 2020). Some researchers argue that Easy Language should be based on sets of standardized rules, while others see it more as a set of flexible, situation-specific principles. The researchers associated with the Forschungsstelle Leichte Sprache at the University of Hildesheim tend to advocate a standardized, rule-based approach (e.g., Bredel & Maaß, 2016), while the scholars affiliated with the Leipzig-based LeiSA project (e.g., Bock, 2018) adopt a more flexible, communication-oriented approach (for a critical discussion, see Schmid, 2017, pp. 41–58).

Easy Reading translation in practice This chapter outlines and further develops selected findings from a case study (Schmid, 2017) focusing on a franchise network of accessibility service providers who operate in the Germanspeaking region (Germany, Austria, Switzerland). Among other services related to accessibility and the social participation of people with disabilities, these service providers offer intralingual translations into what they refer to as Easy Reading (Leicht Lesen), the network’s own version of Easy and Plain German. This primarily includes translations of informational texts for target groups such as people with cognitive disabilities or people who speak German as a second lan­ guage. Typical examples include legal texts, instructions, information leaflets, posters, and official notifications from public authorities that are translated to different levels of Easy Reading. The network uses different sets of guidelines tailored to the communicative needs of various target groups, for example regarding sentence and text length, word choice, typeface, font size, the types of illustrations and visual elements used, and paper thickness. It produces texts at three levels of simplification, corresponding to the lowest levels of foreign language proficiency specified by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: A1 (highest degree of simplifica­ tion), A2 (medium level of simplification), and B1 (least degree of simplification). By combining 218

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Figure 13.1 The safe use of electrical devices (excerpt from a fire prevention brochure)

these three language levels with target-group-specific sets of language and text design rules, the network aims to produce texts that offer enhanced comprehensibility in a wide range of different communicative contexts, with varying degrees of complexity of the information presented and varying levels of prior knowledge required on the part of the target audience. Figures 13.1 and 13.2 present a typical example: The source text in Figure 13.1 is an excerpt from a fire prevention brochure (section on the safe use of electrical devices), and Figure 13.2 shows the corresponding page from the brochure translated into Easy Reading, level A2. 219

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Figure 13.2 Translation of Figure 13.1 into Easy Reading, level A2

The target text in Figure 13.2 shows some typical characteristics of Easy Language transla­ tions: Shortened sentences and simplified lexicon; a clear layout with short lines and bullet points; examples and explanations that make the target text longer than the source text; compound nouns are hyphenated and not written as a single word; where possible, only one piece of information is given per sentence/line; a photo is shown to explain a hard word; a colour-coded line indicates the topic addressed on the page; a word is underlined to indicate that it is explained in a glossary at the end of the brochure.

Multimodality and definitional questions Apart from the linguistic characteristics of Easy Language, it is also important to highlight the multimodal elements that are an integral part of Easy Language texts (cf. Bernabé & Orero, 2019; Castro Robaina & Amigo Extremera, 2021): Almost all translations analysed for this study use visual elements to make the target texts easier to understand on both the verbal level and the visual and material (e.g., paper thickness) levels. Bernabé and Orero (2019) rightfully define Easy Language not as a purely verbal medium but rather as a multimodal accessibility service. It is not only intralingual but also fundamentally multimodal. This has implications for how we should conceptualize intralingual translation (cf. Pillière, 2021). Easy Language translations include visual transformations such as larger font sizes, changes from serif to sans-serif fonts, pictograms, enhanced contrast, colour-coded frames for chapters and topics, underlined words that are explained in special glossaries, and photos that illustrate or explain the information presented (for a comprehensive discussion of the multimodal elements used in Easy Language see Bredel & Maaß, 2016, pp. 221–226; see also Bock, 2018, pp. 69–83, 89–91). 220

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The source text and target text samples in Figures 13.1 and 13.2 show elements of visual translation typical of Easy Language: Different formatting for better legibility (shorter lines, bullet points, one statement per line, where possible), colour-coded lines to mark sections on specific topics (e.g., green is used for information on electrical devices), a word is underlined to indicate that it is explained in the glossary at the end of the brochure, and – perhaps most interestingly from a translational perspective – a different photo is used: While the source text shows a steam iron with a broken power cord, the target text features a picture of a power strip, which serves as a visual explanation: The German word for “power strip” (“Mehrfachver­ teiler”) used in the text is a long technical term, so the photo has an explanatory function in the target text. This exemplifies that Easy Language texts often include a layer of translation that takes place exclusively on the visual level (translating one picture into another – in this case, a picture that illustrates the general topic of the section is translated into a picture that explains a hard word). Considering the key multimodal elements of Easy Language translation, it would be an over­ simplification to describe this type of translation only as intralingual. Easy Language translation shows that focusing only on the interlingual-intralingual dichotomy can pose the risk of creating blind spots and overlooking other key dimensions of translation. Pillière highlights the important role multimodal elements play for “creating meaning” (Pillière, 2021, pp. 11, 60–61) in liter­ ary intralingual translation, emphasizing that texts should be seen as “both linguistic and mate­ rial” (Pillière, 2021, p. 21). The case of Easy Language translation confirms Pillière’s findings and shows that multimodality also plays a key role in other fields of (non-literary) intralingual translation. As Pillière (2021, p. 21 et passim) notes, multimodality is one of the factors that make it necessary to reevaluate Jakobson’s (1959) famous classification of translation into three types – interlingual, intralingual, and intersemiotic translation (Jakobson, 1959, pp. 231–232). This tripartite classification may not have been intended as a definition of translation (Her­ mans, 2013, p. 76), but it has often been read as such: This reading is based on the assumption that the semiotic dimension tells us something so fundamental about how translation works that it can be used as the basis of a general, overall definition of what translation is and what forms it can take. The strong visual and material dimension that we see in Easy Language translation confirms Pillière’s arguments and calls into question the reading of Jakobson’s three semantic categories as a general definition of translation in all its possible incarnations. The case presented here serves as a reminder that intralingual translation is not a neat-and-tidy category. The adjective “intralingual” should be seen as one of the many qualifiers available to describe different types of translation, located on the same conceptual level as, for example, audiovisual, legal, and literary translation. This chapter presents Easy Language translation as diaphasic, intralingual, intersemiotic, and mul­ timodal at the same time. Intralingual translation research has called into question the criterion of “linguality” altogether by showing that the boundaries between languages sometimes have more to do with historical and socio-cultural factors than with the structure of the linguistic systems per se. There are many examples where varieties of the same language are less mutually intelligible than different lan­ guages. If we abandon “interlinguality” as a criterion for translation in the “proper” sense of the word, we should also be careful not to overstate the scope and relevance of the concept of intra­ linguality. The case of Easy Language translation highlights the richness of translation as an activ­ ity and a concept that transcends one-dimensional categories such as the interlingual/intralingual dichotomy. 221

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Approach and methods A social perspective on Easy Language translation This chapter looks at Easy Language translation from a process-oriented perspective, using a qual­ itative, social-sciences-based approach. So far, process-oriented studies on intralingual translation have focused primarily on the mental aspects of intralingual translation (e.g., Kajzer-Wietrzny et al., 2016; Whyatt et al., 2016). This chapter seeks to contribute to intralingual translation pro­ cess research by looking at the social dimension (cf. Schmid, 2017). It follows an approach similar to that proposed by Risku (2014), who argues that translation process research needs to take both the mental and the socio-cognitive dimensions into account to provide a fuller understanding of how translators translate and interact with other actors and with their environment (for a compre­ hensive theoretical research framework, see Risku et al., 2013). This perspective reveals that the Easy Reading translations discussed in this article are produced through a highly collaborative process that actively involves the clients and target group representatives. The insights presented here were obtained using semi-structured interviews and paratextual analyses (for details on the full case study, see Schmid, 2017).

Paratextual analysis Paratextual analysis was originally developed by French literary theorist Gerard Genette for the study of literary texts. Genette defines paratexts as verbal or other productions that “surround and extend” (Genette, 1987/1997, p. 1) a text to present it to the readers and guide their interpretation of the text. Paratextual analysis has been used by scholars working on intralingual translation (e.g., Berk Albachten, 2016; Pillière, 2021) because it allows researchers to investigate the status that authors, translators, publishers, editors, and so on ascribe to a text, that is, whether a text is presented as a translation, an adaptation, or some other type of (re)writing. Genette distinguishes two types of paratexts – peritexts and epitexts – based on where they are located: Peritexts accompany the text as an integral part of the book or document that contains it, for example, the title of a book, a preface, specific notes, and an indication of the genre of a book. Epitexts are located outside of the book or document that contains the text, for example, interviews with the author, letters, and diaries (Genette, 1987/1997, pp. 4–5, 11). Genette’s approach has been adapted and refined for research in translation studies and the analysis of contemporary textual practices (see Batchelor, 2018, for an in-depth discussion and an updated research framework), in particular to revise Genette’s view of translations as secondary texts that are subordinate to the original and the intentions of the author. In these adapted approaches, translations are now recognized as independent texts in their own right that can be accompanied by their own paratexts. Scholars have also expanded Genette’s narrow view of authorship and modified some of his categories for the study of digital and multimodal texts. This chapter looks at selected peritextual elements found in the translations to gain insights into the status ascribed to the target texts. The peritext corpus includes 192 documents, from brochures on legal, political, and medical topics to accessible websites, sports rule books, exhibition cata­ logues, and terms of use for a library. For the purposes of this study, the most relevant peritextual information is found in prefaces and forewords, notes and comments, and, most importantly, the required legal and copyright information boxes at the beginning or the end of the texts (“Impres­ sum” in German). These types of peritexts were selected because they often include explicit infor­ mation about whether the texts are presented as translations (e.g., “translated by . . .”) or as other 222

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forms of (re)writing (e.g., “written by . . .”, “designed by . . .”). In addition, epitextual material from the network’s website, business reports, communications, marketing materials, and so forth was analysed to find out more about how the network structures the translation process and how it presents its work to clients and the public.1

Expert interviews To complement the paratextual analysis, semi-structured interviews were carried out with nine network representatives at five branch offices in Austria and Germany (seven translators, one administrative assistant, and one of the network’s senior executives), based on an interview guideline prepared in advance. The purpose of the interviews was twofold: First, to find out if and in what sense the members of the network see their work as a form of translation and, sec­ ond, to reconstruct the translation process to gain an accurate picture of the various steps, people, and interactions involved. The interviews were held in early 2014, but the insights they offer remain relevant because the collaborative translation procedures described are still in use today (see capito, n.d., 2020). The interviews were processed using the method of extractive qualitative content analysis (EQCA) developed by Gläser and Laudel (2010, 2019) and their MIA2 software plugin. EQCA is designed to investigate social processes based on information extracted from interviews or other qualitative data. The interviewees are referred to as experts because they can provide first-hand knowledge about the social processes in which they participate.

The status ascribed to the Easy Reading versions The study of intralingual translation is closely linked to the question of what translation is and what counts as a translation – a debate that forms part of what Tymoczko (2007, pp. 50–53) has called the “definitional strand” or “definitional impulse” within translation studies. These questions can be approached from various perspectives: Some researchers (e.g., Berk Albachten, 2014; Schmid, 2008; Zethsen, 2007; Zethsen & Hill-Madsen, 2016) have used concep­ tual reasoning to make the case for recognizing intralingual translation as an integral part of the discipline’s research framework, drawing from existing theoretical knowledge on translation, lan­ guage, transcultural communication, and so on. Another approach is to take the descriptive route and look at how the practitioners themselves perceive and describe their work (see, e.g., Dam & Zethsen, 2018). This is the path taken in this chapter: One of the main purposes of the interview and paratextual analyses was to find out if and in what sense the network and its translators see their work as translation. The peritext corpus offers important clues about the status that the network assigns to its tar­ get texts: Out of the 192 documents included in the corpus, 39 feature peritextual elements that describe the intertextual relationship between the target text and the source material. Twentyeight of these peritexts label the intertextual relationship as one of translation (e.g., “übersetzt und geprüft” or “Übersetzung in Leicht Lesen”). The remaining 11 peritexts describe the intertextual relationship as one of “rendering” the text into Easy Language (“Übertragung”), as an Easy Lan­ guage “version” or “summary”, or as an adaptation (“bearbeitet”). It is worth pointing out that not all of the network’s target texts are produced from a single source text. Some are also prepared using a mix of different source materials. In the documents that are not explicitly presented as translations, it was usually not possible to tell whether the work had been carried out from a single source text or from a mix of source materials. 223

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The epitext corpus comprises 25 documents: Product specifications for the network’s services, the network’s website texts, certificates confirming compliance with the network’s process and quality standards for Easy Reading translations, marketing texts, guidelines, the network’s activity and business reports, and articles written by network representatives. The analysis of these epitexts confirms that “translation” is the most common term the network uses to describe its Easy Reading services. The product specifications, for example, list the service as “translation” and specify the rates charged for these translations. In some cases, however, the epitexts also use other terms, most frequently “rendering” (“Übertragung”) and “design” (“Gestaltung”). In the interviews, all network representatives used the term “translation” to refer to their ser­ vices. However, they also expressed doubts about whether their view of intralingual adaptation as a form of translation was actually a “correct” use of the term. The interviews reflect an intuitive understanding of translation as a very broad concept. So we translate, yes, I think that’s true, if we see translation as something broader, in the sense of, “I make something comprehensible by translating it for you.” (Interview I-B1M, my translation)3 The statements also show, however, that this broad understanding clashes with the narrow notion of “translation proper” that is still highly influential and perceived as the norm, both among the general public and in many academic disciplines (cf. van Doorslaer, 2018): This view sees transla­ tion as an interlingual transfer that reproduces a (purely verbal) text in a different language without introducing any changes or adaptations. The following statement sums up the conceptual conflict between the translators’ broad intuitive concept of translation and what they perceive as the “tech­ nically correct” meaning of the term – and it illustrates the resulting insecurity in their use of the term “translation”: So everyone knows what a carpenter is, what a butcher is, what a doctor is. When I tell people that I translate, they ask me, “Into what language?” That’s the first thing they ask, so I try to bypass the issue and come up with a different word, one that is readily understood. Because in the literal sense, translation does of course mean moving from one language to another. I’d say that’s what it means to the average citizen, or to everyone, for that matter. So if I say, “I translate this text”, and someone asks me, I tell them that I break it down to make it less difficult. (Interview I-E4, my translation)4 The interviews show that the network representatives are unfamiliar with more open concepts of translation that have been developed in translation studies, specifically translation as mediation, rewriting, and adaptation relative to the target group, target situation, and target culture. These broad concepts of translation are, however, very much in line with the translators’ descriptions of their actual work, even though most of them believed that translation in the “technically correct” (interview I-A1) sense actually means a more limited, word-for-word transfer between different languages. It is worth pointing out that the interviews were held in 2014 and that use of the term “trans­ lation” in the field of Easy Language has become more widespread since then: By and large, “translation” has become the accepted term for the conversion of texts into Easy Language, both in academic discourse (see, e.g., Bock, 2018; Bredel & Maaß, 2016; Hansen-Schirra & Maaß, 2020; Maaß, 2020) and in the terminology used by professional associations, for example the 224

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Bundesverband der Dolmetscher und Übersetzer (BDÜ), the German translators’ and interpreters’ association. BDÜ is increasingly exploring Easy Language as a new field of work for professional translators, for example, by offering workshops and publishing practice-oriented Easy Language handbooks written specifically for translators (e.g., Helmle, 2017). These changes may well have destabilized the dominant role of “translation proper” and changed the way translation is concep­ tualized in the field of Easy Language, but further research is needed to confirm if and to what extent such a shift has taken place. Apart from this conceptual tension, the interview and epitext data show that the use of the term “translation” performs three key functions for the network: First, the term “translation” is itself easier to understand for clients and other stakeholders than alternative terms, for example, “rendering” into Easy Language (“Übertragung”). It conveys a clearer picture of the network’s service to people who are unfamiliar with this type of intralingual work. Second, the network deliberately takes advantage of some of the meanings associated with the notion of “translation proper” or the “non-change” view of translation (van Doorslaer, 2018) that is still prevalent among the general public: From this perspective, “translation” implies “faithful­ ness”. Deliberate use of the term “translation” therefore allows the network to activate these con­ notations in order to reassure its clients that the source text content will not be misrepresented in the target texts. Third, in the context of advocacy for the rights of people with cognitive disabilities, use of the term “translation” conveys the message that some people are excluded from information because the source texts are written in a type of language they cannot understand. This implies that it is not the readers’ fault if they cannot understand such texts. Instead, the problem lies with the texts because they were not written with the target group’s communicative needs in mind. This use of “translation” emphasizes that some people are excluded from certain types of communication and stresses their right to accessible information.

The Easy Reading translation process Process design The translation process used by the network is highly collaborative. The translators work closely with the different stakeholders of the translation projects at various stages during the process. Their collaboration with the clients and with target group representatives is systematic and institutionalized. The translators prepare draft translations, which are then refined and developed further based on several revision and feedback loops with the clients, and the drafts are then tested for com­ prehensibility by target group representatives (in most cases people with cognitive disabilities) in moderated group sessions. These formats of client and target group interaction are defined and structured by a set of internal process and quality guidelines that are applied across the network. The translators incorporate feedback from the clients’ and target groups’ perspectives into their translations to bring the different expectations of these stakeholders into alignment as closely as possible. This process design gives agency to the members of the target group and visibility to their rights and interests (as compared to other contexts where public authorities simply give people access to information without taking any steps to ensure that the information is actually understood, cf. Zethsen, 2018, pp. 93–94). 225

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Collaboration and interaction The interviews were held with the network’s translators, and the data therefore prioritizes the translators’ point of view. For this reason, my account of the translation process focuses on the translators, who are here presented as the central node within the social network in which the Easy Reading translations are carried out. The interviews and paratexts show three key levels of col­ laboration during the process: The translators’ collaboration within the network, with the clients, and with target group representatives. According to Cordingley and Frigau Manning (2014), “collaboration” and “collaborative trans­ lation” are context-specific concepts that defy a one-size-fits-all definition because their meaning varies across historical periods and cultural environments. These authors argue, however, that it is possible to identify different degrees of collaboration and distinguish genuinely collabora­ tive translation from other, less far-reaching types of stakeholder involvement in the translation process – on a case-by-case basis – for example by looking at how closely the collaborators are involved in the creation of the text and how integral their contributions are to the translation pro­ cess (p. 24). This chapter shows that the Easy Reading translation process involves systematic, institutionalized collaboration between translators, clients, and target group representatives. This collaboration has a direct impact on how the translations are worded and structured, and it is seen as an essential element of the Easy Reading approach.

Collaboration within the accessibility services network The translators work at various branch offices of the franchise network. The network plays an important role because it provides consistent quality and process standards and defines the targetgroup-specific criteria that the Easy Reading translations have to meet. These standards and criteria are laid down in key documents that are shared across the network. The translators are required to participate in centralized training courses offered by the network, and they attend regularly sched­ uled network meetings. In this sense, the network defines the basic parameters of how the Easy Reading translations are carried out and provides a common frame of reference for all translators. Collaboration within the teams at the different branch offices also plays an important role: Translation problems are discussed with fellow team members, team members with special sub­ ject area expertise help their colleagues by preparing draft translations, and sometimes translators supervise the assessment group sessions for testing the comprehensibility of their colleagues’ texts with members of the target group.

Collaboration with clients The translators interact and collaborate closely with their clients at various stages in the transla­ tion process. Before starting a translation project, they consult with the clients to define the target group, the medium of publication, and the communicative goals for the project in question. The translators then proceed to analyse the source material and negotiate the details of the project with the clients: Budget, time frame, and contacts for content-related and administrative questions. On this basis, the translators prepare a quote and send it to the client. Next, the translator in charge of the project creates a draft translation and consults with the clients and/or subject area experts in the client’s organization to discuss content-related questions. When the draft is com­ plete, it is sent to the client, who then checks the accuracy of the content, discusses any perceived problems with the translator, and approves the draft once all open questions have been resolved. After the comprehensibility of the text has been validated by the target-group assessors (see later) 226

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and their feedback has been incorporated, the revised target text is again sent to the client for final approval. An interviewee pointed out that some clients are actually surprised about how much active collaboration is required from them during the translation process: “And sometimes we hear things like, ‘What? I’m supposed to do part of the work myself?’ But the purpose of all this is to make sure that we don’t end up with something that’s no longer what the client had in mind” (Interview I-C1, my translation).5 The translators also pointed out that collaboration with the clients not only happens at specific, pre-defined stages in the translation process but also is often an ongoing process of consultations and discussions throughout an entire project. Some interviewees also mentioned that an important part of their collaboration with the clients was to raise awareness of the specific characteristics and requirements of Easy Language texts and to help the clients understand that far-reaching transfor­ mations and restructuring are necessary in Easy Language translations.

Collaboration with the target group One of the distinctive features of Easy Language translation is that members of the target group are often directly involved in the translation process and act as comprehensibility assessors or valida­ tors (cf. Maaß, 2020, pp. 183–185, 136–137). This is also standard practice for the network’s Easy Reading translations: For every translation project, at least three (potential or actual) members of the defined target group review the target text to ensure that it is comprehensible for the intended audience. These reviews take place in the form of moderated group sessions where the target group members work through the text together with a translator segment by segment. The group assesses the comprehensibility of the text, for example by answering questions about the content, rephras­ ing the information in their own words, or providing spontaneous feedback and suggestions. The target-group assessors act as experts because they can evaluate the texts based on their own unique perspectives, prior knowledge, and biographical backgrounds, complementing the translators’ expertise with feedback from the point of view of the intended target audience. This gives the target group an active and significant role in the creation of the target texts (for an overview of critiques and arguments for and against this method, see Maaß, 2020, pp. 183–185, 136–137).

Comprehensibility Evaluating comprehensibility The members of the network present this collaborative process as a means of making sure that the target texts are optimally comprehensible for the intended target group: In broad terms, the close collaboration with the clients is seen as a way of ensuring the accuracy of the content, and the col­ laboration with target group representatives is seen as a way of ensuring the comprehensibility of the target texts for the intended audience. The concept of comprehensibility plays a key role in intralingual translation in general, and it is even more central in diaphasic intralingual translation, where the goal is to make complex information accessible to target groups that do not have the communicative skills or background to understand the source texts adequately (cf. Zethsen, 2018). Comprehensibility is a complex con­ cept with many different dimensions, including aspects such as legibility, readability, and commu­ nicative effectiveness, which are often conceptualized and defined differently by different authors (cf. Cadwell, 2008, p. 35). 227

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Comprehensibility can therefore be approached from a variety of research perspectives. Based on Schriver’s (1989) overview of methods for evaluating text quality, Göpferich (2009) classi­ fies the research methods available to assess comprehensibility into three broad categories: Textfocused methods (e.g., readability formulas based on criteria like sentence length, word choice etc.), expert-judgement-focused methods (e.g., reviews based on pre-defined comprehensibility criteria), and reader-focused methods (e.g., paraphrasing tasks, recall tests, cloze tests, surveys, focus groups, etc.).

The social dimension of understanding Based on these various approaches, researchers have identified a number of criteria for optimiz­ ing the comprehensibility of texts. For drafting their target texts, the network translators use a catalogue of target-group-specific criteria that are partly based on this type of research. However, the data shows that the network’s translation process also addresses a social dimension of com­ prehensibility, which is particularly emphasized by the network and its translators in the epitexts and interviews. The process is presented as a collaborative co-creation of comprehensibility: The translators prepare draft translations and then work on the target texts together with experts (i.e., the clients as subject-matter experts and the target group representatives as experts for the target audience’s communicative needs), adding changes and improvements until everyone involved is satisfied with the level of comprehensibility and accuracy that has been achieved. Wittgenstein (1953/1986) laid important groundwork for a theoretical account of the social dimension of comprehensibility. He argued that reading (1953/1986, pp. 61–66) and under­ standing (1953/1986, pp. 56–60) can mean so many different things in different contexts that it is not possible to formulate general criteria for assessing whether someone has read or under­ stood something correctly. Such assessments only make sense within the situation: To determine whether and how someone has understood something, the communication partners apply criteria that are specific to the situation and the “language-game” in which they participate – by look­ ing at what the other person says or does in response to an utterance or a task given to them (1953/1986). Some of the authors associated with constructivism (cf. e.g., Maturana, 1978; Rusch, 2007; Schmidt, 2011) later explored these ideas from their own perspective and developed them into a theory of understanding that distinguishes between the cognitive and social dimensions of under­ standing, which are seen as mutually dependent. These authors argue that communication partners do not assess comprehension like an outside observer would (e.g., like a researcher who applies scientific criteria to measure the degree of comprehension). As they are directly involved in shap­ ing the communication situation, they assess it as observers from within. To gauge if and to what degree their communications have been understood, they must interpret clues from each other’s behaviour. This means that within a communication situation, whether someone has understood someone else’s message is negotiated based on social feedback (e.g., direct or indirect verbal confirma­ tion or validation, direct or indirect rewards or recognition for responding or acting as expected, favourable behaviour, etc.). These clues confirm that the message has indeed been understood “correctly” – i.e., as intended by the speaker or writer (Rusch, 2007, pp. 124–125) – and thus rein­ force “correct” ways of understanding. According to Rusch (2007, p. 124), understanding means meeting the expectations of a communicator. In the words of Schmidt (2011, p. 2), “understanding is attributed to communication partners in social interaction if the speaker deems the partner’s reaction to be correct or at least sufficient” (cf. also Maturana, 1978, p. 59). 228

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According to these theories, people are able to interact with each other in communica­ tive domains where, through processes of enculturation and socialization, they have built up closely intertwined networks of mutual expectations and assumptions. These frames of refer­ ence allow them to make sense of what other people communicate to them. Schmidt (2011) emphasizes that we are able to understand messages because we have built and tested expec­ tations about how others will communicate with us in different situations. According to con­ structivist theories of understanding, we also build up expectations about how other people expect us to communicate in different situations and assumptions about how they assume we will behave (“expected expectations” and “imputed imputations”, see Schmidt, 2011, p. 2), adding a reflexive, recursive layer to communication: “[I]f actors assume that (the) other com­ munication partners refer to similar orientations, understanding becomes possible, despite the cognitive autonomy of the individuals . . . that constructivists have always emphasized” (Schmidt, 2011, p. 2). Depending on the theoretical approach taken, these networks of mutual expectations and assumptions can be described as cultures (Schmidt, 2011; see also Schmid, 2008, pp. 41–54), consensual domains (Maturana, 1978), or “language-games”, a term Wittgenstein used “to bring into prominence the fact that the speaking of language is part of an activity, or of a form of life” (Wittgenstein, 1953/1986, p. 11). In essence, these concepts all describe shared frames of refer­ ence for meaning-making that are required for communication to be successful. In Easy Language translation (as in all types of transcultural mediation), the frames of refer­ ence the clients use as a basis for writing texts are different from the frames of reference that the members of the target group use when trying to make sense of the texts they read, which makes it difficult or impossible for the two sides to communicate successfully without mediation.

Co-creating comprehensibility The social dimension of comprehensibility means that an agreement needs to be reached between the source text authors and the readers of Easy Language translations to assure both sides that the text in question has indeed been understood, and that it has been understood as intended. In the case presented in this chapter, the clients have expectations about how they want the content of their texts to be understood by the target group. The members of the target group, in turn, have expectations about how texts should be designed to meet their communicative needs and about what information is useful in the contexts of their lives. In many other communicative contexts, communication partners are able to negotiate their expectations through direct interaction. In the case of Easy Language translations, however, media­ tion is needed because there is not enough overlap between the systems of “expected expectations” and “imputed imputations” (i.e., cultures/consensual domains/language-games) of the two sides involved. The clients write their source texts based on the expectations, “expected expectations”, and “imputed imputations” they have about “average readers”, but this frame of reference is not suitable for communicating with target groups like people with cognitive disabilities, people with insufficient language skills, or elderly people. Vice versa, “average readers” know what to expect from “average” informational texts and have certain “expected expectations” about the intentions of their authors. However, the expectations of target groups that need Easy Language texts may be so different from those of “average” audiences that comprehension problems occur, creating a need for translation. The mismatches between the frames of reference of the communication part­ ners can be due to differences in cognitive processing, biographical factors such as education and socialization, different language biographies, or differences in age. 229

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In a fundamental way, the workflow used by the Easy Reading translators is designed to man­ age the social dimension of comprehensibility. The feedback loops with the clients and target group representatives at different stages of the translation process allow the translators to negoti­ ate an agreement between authors and readers to ensure that the translations adequately reflect the authors’ intentions while at the same time providing good comprehensibility from the perspective of the target group. By involving the clients and the target audience in the translation process, the translators are able to coordinate the different stakeholders’ expectations for the specific goals of the project at hand: What needs to be understood? How does the information need to be presented in order to be comprehensible? The translators mediate between the different perspectives, and with their assistance, the partners are able to negotiate an agreement on the specific type of com­ prehensibility to be achieved in each individual project. This process design acknowledges that comprehensibility is situational (cf. Bock, 2018, pp. 21–22) – it does not presuppose any generalized, situation-independent criteria for evaluating whether the target readers have understood a text correctly, fully, partially, well enough, or insuf­ ficiently or for how the information should be presented to be comprehensible. In the interviews, some of the translators mentioned an example from their work that illustrates what this approach means in practice (interviews I-E2, I-E3, and I-E4; see Schmid, 2017, pp. 113, 139–141): A project where they were asked to translate training materials into Easy Language. The materials were needed for the training of nursing assistants who assist people with various impair­ ments in their activities of daily living. The target group of the translations were people training to become a nursing assistant who need Easy Language versions to understand the training materials. The source materials contained chapters about nutrition, including technical information about nutrients such as carbohydrates and other relevant chemical substances (e.g., sulphites and oxalic acids). The translators were unsure about how to deal with this information, especially the techni­ cal terms. In general, Easy Language guidelines call for technical terms to be avoided and replaced with descriptive explanations or examples. The translators considered this option, but then they consulted with the clients to find out more about the purpose and intended use of the training mate­ rials. This interaction with the clients revealed that some of the terms in question were required knowledge in the exams that aspiring nursing assistants would have to pass to qualify for the job. This meant that dropping the terms altogether was no longer an option, even though they were hard to understand for the target group. The technical terms required for the exam had to be preserved in the translation and explained as comprehensibly as possible (e.g., dropping details about the biochemical properties of carbohydrates and focusing more on the types of food that are rich in carbohydrates). The translators had to define a situation-specific type of comprehensibility that balanced the requirements of the communication situation, the intentions of the clients, and the communicative needs of the target readers, while at the same time enabling the target group to earn the qualifi­ cations required for the job. This balancing act between different factors of comprehensibility depends on the specifics of each project and is achieved through the collaborative process outlined earlier. In this sense, the study of Easy Reading translation can contribute to the “shift in perspective from the individual to the network level, suggesting a need to revise the individualistic concept of ‘the translator’” (Risku, 2014, pp. 340–341). The findings presented in this chapter illustrate one of the forms that collaborative translation can take. In the context of Easy Reading translation, collaboration serves as a way of co-creating comprehensibility together with the clients and target group representatives. According to Cordingley and Frigau Manning, the study of collaborative translation can shed light on “the motivations and social forces that animate collaborative projects 230

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and the cultural and political statements they embody” (p. 24). The Easy Reading translation pro­ cess makes a strong cultural and political statement by giving agency to otherwise marginalized target groups, such as people with disabilities, and by emphasizing that translation is capable of enabling comprehension between disparate spheres of communication even “within a language”.

Notes 1 See Schmid (2017) for a more comprehensive discussion of a broader range of Easy Reading paratexts and further insights they offer into questions that are beyond the scope of this chapter. 2 www.laudel.info/downloads/mia/ (accessed 8 January 2022). 3 Also wir übersetzen, das stimmt schon aus meiner Sicht, weil wir ja quasi, wenn man dieses Thema‚ Übersetzen breiter sieht, im Sinne von‚ ich mach etwas verständlich, indem ich es dir übersetze, ja. 4 . . . also man weiß, dass es einen Schreiner gibt, und dass es einen Metzger gibt, oder wie auch immer, oder einen Arzt oder sowas. Wenn ich jetzt sag, [ich] übersetze, dann kommt . . . ‚Ja, in welche Sprache?‘ Ja, also das ist einfach das nächste, insofern versuche ich da dem ein bisschen auszuweichen und einfach auch eine andere Formulierung zu finden, also für mich, dass es einfach verständlich ist, weil übersetzen bedeutet jetzt erstmal im wortwörtlichen Sinne natürlich schon eine Sprache in die andere. Also würd ich mal sagen, das versteht der Allgemeinbürger da drunter, oder jeder Bürger erst mal da drunter. Und dann sag ich halt, also wenn ich gesagt habe: ‚Ich übersetze diesen Text‘, ja, also wenn die Nachfrage kommt, ja, also ich brech den quasi runter was den Schwierigkeitsgrad jetzt einfach angeht. 5 Und oft einmal ist da einfach so das Ding da: ‚Ja, was muss ich jetzt da selber mitarbeiten?‘ Aber es soll halt einfach verhindern, dass da irgendwas dabei rauskommt, was nicht mehr im Sinne vom Auftraggeber steht.

Further reading Lindholm, C., & Vanhatalo, U. (Eds.). (2021). Handbook of Easy Languages in Europe. Frank & Timme. A detailed overview of Easy Language developments and approaches in a wide range of European countries. Vanhatalo, U., Lindholm, C., & Onikki-Rantajääskö, T. (Eds.). (2022). Easy Language research [Special issue]. Nordic Journal of Linguistics, 45(2). https://doi.org/10.1017/S033258652200018X A special is­ sue focusing on Easy Language research from a linguistics perspective, covering a number of different languages and national contexts.

References Batchelor, K. (2018). Translation and paratexts. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351110112 Berk Albachten, Ö. (2014). Intralingual translation: Discussions within translation studies and the case of Turkey. In S. Berman & C. Porter (Eds.), A companion to translation studies (pp. 573–585). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118613504.ch43 Berk Albachten, Ö. (2016, September 15–17). Studying intralingual translation: The insights paratextual analysis can offer [Conference presentation]. EST Congress 2016, Aarhus, Denmark. Bernabé, R., & Orero, P. (2019). Easy to read as multimode accessibility service. Hermēneus. Revista de Traducción e Interpretación, 21, 53–74. https://doi.org/10.24197/her.21.2019.53-74 Bock, B. M. (2018). „Leichte Sprache“ – Kein Regelwerk: Sprachwissenschaftliche Ergebnisse und Praxisempfehlungen aus dem LeiSA-Projekt. Universität Leipzig. https://nbn-resolving.org/ urn:nbn:de:bsz:15-qucosa2-319592 Bohman, U. (2017). Easy-to-read in Sweden. In B. Bock, U. Fix, & D. Lange (Eds.), „Leichte Sprache“ im Spiegel theoretischer und angewandter Forschung (pp. 447–455). Frank & Timme. Bredel, U., & Maaß, C. (2016). Leichte Sprache. Theoretische Grundlagen. Orientierung für die Praxis. Duden. Cadwell, P. (2008). Readability: Examining its usefulness in the field of controlled language. Localisation Focus, 7(1), 34–45. capito. (2020). capito Qualitätsstandard für barrierefreie Information. https://www.capito.eu/app/uploads/ Qualitaets-Standard_2020_BF.pdf

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Benjamin Schmid capito. (n.d.). Die capito Übersetzungen. Retrieved September 9, 2022, from www.capito.eu/die-capito­ methode/Castro Castro Robaina, I., & Amigo Extremera, J. J. (2021). Más que mil palabras: El rol de las imágenes en Lectura Fácil. In C. Martín de León & G. M. Wirnitzer (Eds.), En más de un sentido: Multimodalidad y construc­ ción de significados en traducción e interpretación (pp. 67–88). ULPGC Ediciones. Cordingley, A., & Frigau Manning, C. (2014). What is collaborative translation? In A. Cordingley & C. Frigau Manning (Eds.), Collaborative translation: From the renaissance to the digital age (pp. 1–30). Bloomsbury. Dam, H. V., & Zethsen, K. K. (2018). Professionals’ views on the concepts of their trade: What is (not) trans­ lation? In H. V. Dam, M. Nisbeth Brøgger, & K. K. Zethsen (Eds.), Moving boundaries in translation studies (pp. 200–219). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315121871 Genette, G. (1997). Paratexts: Thresholds of interpretation (J. E. Lewin, Trans.). Cambridge University Press (Original work published 1987). Gläser, J., & Laudel, G. (2010). Experteninterviews und qualitative Inhaltsanalyse als Instrumente rekonstru­ ierender Untersuchungen (4th ed.). VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften. Gläser, J., & Laudel, G. (2019). The discovery of causal mechanisms: Extractive qualitative content analysis as a tool for process tracing. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 20(3). https://doi.org/10.17169/fqs-20.3.3386 Göpferich, S. (2009). Comprehensibility assessment using the Karlsruhe Comprehensibility Concept. JoSTrans, 11. https://jostrans.org/issue11/art_goepferich.php Hansen-Schirra, S., & Maaß, C. (Eds.). (2020). Easy Language research: Text and user perspectives. Frank & Timme. Helmle, K.-S. (2017). Leichte Sprache: Ein Überblick für Übersetzer. BDÜ Fachverlag. Hermans, T. (2013). What is (not) translation? In C. Millán & F. Bartrina (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of translation studies (pp. 75–87). Routledge. ILSMH European Association. (1998). Make it simple: European guidelines for the production of easy-to­ read information for people with learning disability. ILSMH European Association. Jakobson, R. (1959). On linguistic aspects of translation. In R. A. Brower (Ed.), On translation (pp. 232–239). Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674731615.c18 Kajzer-Wietrzny, M., Whyatt, B., & Stachowiak, K. (2016). Simplification in inter- and intralingual trans­ lation – combining corpus linguistics, key logging and eye-tracking. Poznań Studies in Contemporary Linguistics, 52(2), 235–267. https://doi.org/10.1515/psicl-2016-0009 Maaß, C. (2020). Easy Language – Plain Language – Easy Language Plus: Balancing comprehensibility and acceptability. Frank & Timme. Maturana, H. R. (1978). Biology of language: The epistemology of reality. In G. A. Miller & E. Lenneberg (Eds.), Psychology and biology of language and thought: Essays in honor of Eric Lenneberg (pp. 27–63). Academic Press. Pillière, L. (2021). Intralingual translation of British novels: A multimodal stylistic perspective. Bloomsbury Academic. Risku, H. (2014). Translation process research as interaction research: From mental to socio-cognitive pro­ cesses. MonTI, Special Issue 1, 331–353. https://doi.org/10.6035/monti.v0i0.292859 Risku, H., Windhager, F., & Apfelthaler, M. (2013). A dynamic network model of translatorial cognition and action. Translation Spaces, 2, 151–182. https://doi.org/10.1075/ts.2.08ris Rusch, G. (2007). Understanding: The mutual regulation of cognition and culture. Constructivist Founda­ tions, 2(2–3), 118–128. https://constructivist.info/2/2-3/118 Schmid, B. V. (2008). A duck in rabbit’s clothing: Integrating intralingual translation. In M. Kaiser-Cooke (Ed.), Das Entenprinzip: Translation aus neuen Perspektiven (pp. 19–80). Peter Lang. Schmid, B. V. (2017). Leicht-Lesen-Übersetzungen und sozial perspektivierte Verständlichkeit: Eine In­ terview- und Paratextstudie [Doctoral dissertation, University of Vienna]. u:theses repository. https:// utheses.univie.ac.at/detail/42879 Schmidt, S. J. (2011). From objects to processes: A proposal to rewrite radical constructivism. Constructivist Foundations, 7(1), 1–9 & 37–47. https://constructivist.info/7/1/001 Schriver, K. A. (1989). Evaluating text quality: The continuum from text-focused to reader-focused methods. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 32(4), 238–255. https://doi.org/10.1109/47.44536 Tymoczko, M. (2007). Enlarging translation, empowering translators. St. Jerome.

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Easy Language translation and comprehensibility van Doorslaer, L. (2018). Bound to expand: The paradigm of change in translation studies. In H. V. Dam, M. Nisbeth Brøgger, & K. K. Zethsen (Eds.), Moving boundaries in translation studies (pp. 220–230). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315121871 Vanhatalo, U., Lindholm, C., & Onikki-Rantajääskö, T. (2021). Call for papers: Easy Language research. Nordic Journal of Linguistics, 44, 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0332586521000019 Whyatt, B., Stachowiak, K., & Kajzer-Wietrzny, M. (2016). Similar and different: Cognitive rhythm and ef­ fort in translation and paraphrasing. Poznań Studies in Contemporary Linguistics, 52(2), 175–208. https:// doi.org/10.1515/psicl-2016-0007 Wittgenstein, L. (1986). Philosophical investigations (3rd ed., G. E. M. Anscombe, Trans.). Basil Blackwell (Original work published 1953). Zethsen, K. K. (2007). Beyond translation proper – Extending the field of translation studies. TTR, 20(1), 281–308. https://doi.org/10.7202/018506ar Zethsen, K. K. (2018). Access is not the same as understanding: Why intralingual translation is cru­ cial in a world of information overload. Across Languages and Cultures, 19(1), 79–98. https://doi. org/10.1556/084.2018.19.1.4 Zethsen, K. K., & Hill-Madsen, A. (2016). Intralingual translation and its place within translation studies: A theoretical discussion. Meta, 61(3), 692–708. https://doi.org/10.7202/1039225ar

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14 INTRALINGUAL TRANSLATION IN EASY LANGUAGE AND IN PLAIN LANGUAGE Christiane Maaß

Introduction In the past decade, Easy Language and Plain Language (for the term “Easy Language”, see Lind­ holm & Vanhatalo, 2021a, pp. 11ff; Maaß, 2020a, pp. 50 ff) have had a significant impact: Firstly, they are now part of both international and national legislation (for an overview of the European situation on Easy Language, see Lindholm & Vanhatalo, 2021b; for a more elaborate overview on the German situation, see Lang, 2019, 2021) and international standardization processes (see ISO 24495–1 currently being developed). Secondly, a myriad of texts has been produced (see, Becker, 2020; Estévez Grossi, 2020 for the situation in the Hispanic world, or Hernández Garrido & Yepes Villegas in print for the specific situation of Colombia). Thirdly, there are numerous attempts at standardization from both a practical and a theoretical background (for the situation in more than 30 different countries, see Lindholm & Vanhatalo, 2021b). The available texts range from political, legal and medical communication to cultural offers and literature as well as offers in different medial realizations (Ahrens, 2020 and in print; Maaß & Hernández Garrido, 2020; Maaß & Rink, 2018; Rink, 2020a; Schulz et al., 2020). The main goal of Easy Language has been to make content more perceptible and comprehen­ sible (Bredel & Maaß, 2016a; Maaß, 2015). But maximal optimization of comprehensibility comes at a price: Reduced acceptability and even the risk of stigmatizing the target groups with texts that are visibly different from the standard (Bredel & Maaß, 2016a, 2020; Maaß, 2020a). One solution is to opt for Plain Language, which is less perceptibility and comprehen­ sibility enhanced and addresses average non-expert users in technical contexts (Asprey, 2010; Maaß, 2020a). The use of Plain Language has certainly increased in recent years with the development of an ISO norm (24495-1) and a rise in international co-operation and research. In Germany, Plain Language has become the preferred choice in health communication, with the Action Plan Health Literacy (Schaeffer et al., 2018) adopting Plain Language, to name just one example. The present chapter shows the main characteristics of Easy and Plain Language, their similari­ ties and their differences. It investigates the main ways in which Easy and Plain Language texts are produced: Through direct text production or through translation (Maaß, 2020a, 2020b). Producing Easy or Plain Language texts on the basis of source texts is intralingual, and partly intersemiotic,

DOI: 10.4324/9781003188872-18

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translation on both a diaphasic and/or diastratic level. Texts are usually translated into Easy and Plain Language when the source text represents a barrier for the target audience. This barrier may be an expert language barrier, an expert knowledge barrier, a cognitive barrier, a sensory barrier (Rink, 2020a, 2020b), a motivational barrier or an emotional barrier (Lang, 2021). To translate is to remove those barriers for the target audience. The barrier approach is a new way of conceptual­ izing translation in general (Hansen-Schirra & Maaß, 2019; Maaß & Hansen-Schirra, 2021; Maaß, 2020b; Rink, 2020a) and will be expounded on in this chapter.

Easier-to-understand varieties of a natural language: Easy and Plain Language Barriers in communication According to Hansen-Schirra and Maaß (2019, p. 3): [c]ommunication products or rather oral and written texts may potentially pose barriers for the users. Thus, the function of translation is to overcome these barriers in order to achieve appropriate and useful communication products. Barriers in communication (cf. Schubert, 2016; Rink, 2020a, 2020b; Maaß, 2020a; Lang, 2021) may arise when the textual features are incompatible with the target audience’s prior knowledge, reading abilities and/or communicative needs. This is especially the case in expert-lay communi­ cation, where subject-related content is communicated to an audience that is often a non-expert in the concrete situation and may have different needs and preferences. In such cases, the knowledge on the subject is asymmetrically distributed (Hansen-Schirra et al., 2020, p. 200; Maaß & Rink, 2020a). Not only expert texts, but also standard language texts, may exhibit communication bar­ riers for target groups with special communicative needs. If those needs are not met, such target groups cannot access the content. If texts are not easily retrievable, if they are not perceptible or comprehensible enough, if they contain too much new information that has no connection to the prior knowledge of the target groups or if they are inacceptable to them, then they are not suitable for enabling the target groups to act on their basis (Maaß, 2020a; Maaß & Rink, 2020a, p. 24). To act on the basis of a text requires that the given information can be successfully processed. This is not the case if the comprehension resource is overstrained on one of the described steps. For example, a person with low reading skills may well understand the content of each sentence but may be unable to enact what he or she has learnt from the text if it contains too much new information. Or a person who would have successfully mastered a certain text in a normal situation might not be able to do so if emotionally under stress. Figure 14.1 represents this process in the form of a flight of steps (“Hildesheimer Treppe”, the Hildesheim school’s accessible communication model): All steps have to be mastered in order to act on the basis of a text: According to this approach, text comprehension is a complex process that can be looked at from two different but interconnected angles: The text perspective and the user perspective (Maaß, 2020a, p. 28, for an overview, also Hansen-Schirra & Maaß, 2020). Communicative accessibility is not a question of user deficits, but rather of the textual qualities that are required in order to grant access: If users cannot perceive and understand a text offer, it is the text that does 235

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Emotional barrier

Motivational barrier

comprehensible

retrievable

Cultural barrier

Expert knowledge barrier

Expert language barrier

Language barrier

Cognitive barrier

Sensory barrier

Media barrier

Motor barrier

acceptable linkable

perceptible

action-oriented act

accept

recall

comprehend

perceive

retrieve

Figure 14.1

Hildesheimer Treppe (“Hildesheim Steps”, the Hildesheim school’s accessible communication model)

not meet their requirements. So the question is what quality a text offer has to have in order to allow people with special needs to access it. (Maaß, 2020a, p. 22, emphasis added) According to the Hildesheimer Steps, a text may pose a motor barrier if its design is not suitable for the target audience; for example, if a menu does not support oral-command browsing and the user cannot physically use mouse or keyboard controls. A text can represent a media barrier “if its media qualities or means of distribution are not accessible to or used by the target audience” (Maaß, 2020a, p. 23). This occurs for example when information is only in black print, but the target audience needs it in Braille or as an audio file. In both cases, the texts cannot be easily retrieved, which hinders the target audience from processing the next higher stage in the message. The perceptibility of a text as a communication product can be limited by a sensory or a cogni­ tive barrier. Thus, a text may pose a sensory barrier for the target audience if, for example, a text is presented in a visual format (as written text, images or film), but the target audience needs it as audio or tactile information. A text may pose a cognitive barrier if it contains too much informa­ tion and/or information that is too complex (Maaß, 2020a, p. 23). A text may pose a language barrier if, for example, it is in a language the target audience does not understand. It can also represent an expert language or expert knowledge barrier if the target audience is not familiar with the specialized language used in the text or does not have the knowledge required to understand it. If a text is hard to understand and/or not linkable to prior knowledge, the target audience might not be able to move to the next processing stage, as his or her cognitive capacities might have already been used up by then. 236

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A text can represent a cultural barrier for a target audience if it relies on values and standards that are culture-bound and therefore do not exist in the same manner or are unfamiliar in the target audience’s culture. As a result, information in a given text cannot be linked to prior knowledge. A text can represent a motivational barrier (Lang, 2021) if it “does not appear useful or interest­ ing enough to the target groups or will require disproportionately large effort” (Hernández Garrido & Maaß, in print). It may pose an emotional barrier (Lang, 2021) if the topic of the text causes strong emotions that use up free cognitive capacities, for example, in case of a life-threatening diagnosis or the notice of a relative’s death. In case of a motivational and/or emotional barrier, the acceptability of a text offer may be hampered. Therefore, the last stage of processing, which is action-orientation, may not be accessible anymore by the target audience, as all free capacities have been used up. The result will then be that they are not able to act on the basis of given information. Successful communication takes place when the textual characteristics of a text offer, either oral or written, online or offline, meet the (special) communicative needs of the target audience. One output of recent research on accessible communication is that experts equipped with special competences such as expert knowledge can act as intermediaries. Such experts can strategically remove the aforementioned barriers in a text to make it accessible for the target audience by adapt­ ing it to their needs.

Easy and Plain Language: different degrees of comprehensibility Easy Language and Plain Language are both used to make content more comprehensible and hence more accessible to text users. They differ in their degree of comprehensibility and are thus situated in different positions in the complexity-comprehensibility continuum (Hansen-Schirra & Maaß, 2020, p. 17). Not all users need Easy Language in order to understand a message. Easy Language texts pri­ marily address users with communication impairments resulting in low comprehension levels and weak reading skills. The texts often have reduced information, are redundant and explicit in their information strategies and are striking in their layout. These qualities tend to have a stigmatizing effect on potential target audiences (Bredel & Maaß, 2016a; Maaß, 2020a). Plain Language, on the other hand, is closer to the standard or expert texts but may be too complex to be accessible for

Figure 14.2 Easy and Plain Language as pillars in the Easy Language/standard language continuum (Hansen-Schirra & Maaß, 2020, p. 18)

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Easy Language users. Both varieties are thus needed in order to make adequate text offers for the target audience and their diverse needs.

Easy Language History and current state of Easy Language Easy Language is a concept that covers a variety of a natural language that is maximally comprehen­ sible on all linguistic levels (Maaß, 2015, 2020a). The aim is to facilitate comprehension for people with reading and comprehension difficulties, for example those caused by cognitive impairment. It was initially promoted under the term “easy-to-read” in European guidelines like those of Inclusion Europe (2009) and the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA, [1997] 2010). Easy Language is no longer limited to printed texts, but now also extends to spoken or audio­ visual communication offers (Maaß & Hernández Garrido, 2020), making the term “easy-to-read” too narrow to cover the concept. Thus, the term “Easy Language” has been gaining ground (Lindholm & Vanhatalo, 2021a; Maaß, 2020a). The first text offers in Easy Language in Europe were proposed by the Scandinavian countries as early as the 1980s (Leskelä, 2021, for Finland; Bovim Bugge et al., 2021, for Norway), with Sweden ahead of its time (Bohman, 2021). At a later stage, Easy Language was broadly promoted by two “Pathways” projects funded by the European Union (the first project lasted from 2007 to 2009, the second from 2011 to 2013; Bredel & Maaß, 2016a, 2016b). These projects collected cross-language principles that facilitate reading, resulting in the Inclusion Europe guidelines (Inclusion Europe is an association of people with cognitive impairments and their families founded in 1988) that are, in many European countries, still the leading principles for Easy Language text production. Over the past 10 years, Easy Language has attracted the attention of scholars, starting with the Hildesheim school and extending to various other universities (University of Leipzig, Univer­ sity of Mainz/Germersheim, University of Cologne). The Hildesheim school has provided scientifi­ cally based rule books (Bredel & Maaß, 2016a, 2016b; Maaß, 2015; Maaß, 2020a) that have shaped the understanding of Easy Language in Germany (see Maaß et al., 2021; for the situation in other European countries, see the contributions in Lindholm & Vanhatalo, 2021b).

Basic rules of Easy Language Texts in Easy Language, either oral or written, online or offline, follow certain rules on word, sen­ tence and text levels that also affect the semantic and pragmatic layers (cf. Maaß, 2015; Bredel & Maaß, 2016a; Maaß, 2020a; Hansen-Schirra & Maaß, 2020). The following bullet points summarize the most important strategies used to simplify content. At word level: • • • • •

Use of core vocabulary. Lexemes are short and familiar. Text-based abbreviations are avoided while well-known sigla are used. Foreign languages are avoided or only introduced into the text if necessary. Identical words are used for same concepts and designations, i.e., no synonyms.

At syntactic level: • Sentences are kept short, allowing one proposition per sentence only. 238

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• Verbal style is used (instead of nominal style). • Tense forms are restricted, simple present and present perfect are used, restriction on past and future tenses. • Subjunctive, negation, passive and genitive constructions are avoided or resolved. At textual level: • • • • • • • •

Clear information structure. Headings/subheadings and clear section structure. Essential information first. Main information highlighted in bold. Use of images and colour coding. Explanations given in reading direction, i.e., from left to right and top to bottom. Clearly perceptible font with enlarged font size and line spacing. Strong contrasts and abundant white spaces.

Following these rules results in clearer perceptibility and enhances the local and global com­ prehensibility of the given information. As different strategies are applied to create “a common ground between the communication partners” (Hansen-Schirra et al., 2020, p. 200), the given information is linkable to prior knowledge and the text as a whole is more acceptable for its recip­ ients as it does not overstrain their ability to process the information. Such a text design leads to more action-orientation as recipients’ processing costs are reduced (Hansen-Schirra et al., 2020, pp. 198ff). Based on the Hildesheim Steps, it can be assumed that optimized texts are a prerequisite for action-orientation. Content or information design has to meet the needs of a diverse audience. In the following section an example of Easy Language will illustrate the aforementioned textual features that contribute to more communicative accessibility.

An example of Easy Language translation The following example taken from Maaß (2020a, pp. 89ff) shows an excerpt of the Easy Language news offer of the North German Broadcasting Association NDR (bit.ly/3xwCz7d): The left-hand column contains the slightly modified original German text; the right-hand col­ umn shows the English translation. First of all, it is apparent that the amount of white space on this page is greater than for usual news texts and that the line spacing is enhanced (one-and-a-half times). The sans serif font is clearly perceptible and the contrast is high. An audio-version of the text is provided (below the heading) as an additional resource for weak readers (for Easy Language in audiovisual contexts, see Maaß & Hernández Garrido, 2020). The message begins with the actual new information, which is: “There was an accident in Lower Saxony”. This is in line with the standard language text type conventions for news articles. It is, however, remarkable for the Easy Language version that the sentences are kept very short and simple following the theme-rheme structure. Infrequent vocabulary such as “Motor∙segler” (“motor glider”, in English) is explained when first mentioned. The textual features are adapted to the anticipated communicative needs, reading skills and abilities of the Easy Language target groups (the NDR addresses people with poor reading skills, cognitive impairments and German as a second language) and their presumed grammatical, global and discourse knowledge. 239

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Figure 14.3

NDR news in Easy Language (ndr.de [accessed 31 August 2022])

Table 14.1 Transcript and translation of the Easy Language news text In Niedersachsen war ein Unfall. Dieser Unfall war in Lübbrechtsen. Lübbrechtsen ist ein Ort in der Nähe von Hildesheim. Und dieser Unfall war mit einem Motor·segler. Ein Motor·segler ist ein besonderes Flugzeug. Mit diesem Flugzeug kann ein Pilot auf 2 Arten fliegen: Mit dem Motor als Antrieb. Oder mit dem Wind als Antrieb. Bei dem Unfall ist der Motor·segler abgestürzt. Und der Motor·segler ist in 2 Wohn·häuser gestürzt. er Pilot von dem Motor·segler ist bei dem Unfall gestorben. Der Pilot war 79 Jahre alt.

240

There was an accident in Lower Saxony. This accident was in Lübbrechtsen. Lübbrechtsen is a place near Hildesheim. And that accident was with a motor glider. A motor glider is a special aircraft. With this aircraft a pilot can fly in 2 ways: With the motor as the drive. Or with the wind as a drive. The motor glider crashed during the accident. And the motor glider fell into 2 apartment buildings. The pilot of the motor glider died in the accident. The pilot was 79 years old.

Intralingual translation in Easy Language and Plain Language

Plain Language History and current state of Plain Language Plain Language is another way of creating more comprehensible texts. The Plain Language movement has been growing since the 1970s (Adler, 2012; Cornelius, 2015; for its use in legal contexts, see for example Asprey, 2010), but first efforts date back to more than a hundred years ago, such as Wharton’s (1917) work on Plain Language that is aimed at “the education of the workers by the workers” for English Language teaching. Wharton “focuses students’ attention on the mechanical aspects of producing clear and easily accessible texts” (Greer, s.a.). Since the 1960s, the concept has been endorsed by the White House (Bredel & Maaß, 2016a, p. 63; Maaß, 2020a, pp. 140f). The presidents Carter (1978, Executive Order 12044) and Clinton (1998, Memorandum on Plain Language in Government Writing) were especially firm in their support for Plain Language in the communication between experts and citizens in legal or administrative communication (Maaß, 2020a, p. 140). Plain Language also plays a role in US courtrooms, as Dyer (2017) reports: [C]ourts have found that plain language forms enable non-specialists to do a better job in completing the forms so that they are more acceptable to the courts and reduce costly delays. Also, court orders written in plain language are better understood and lead to better compli­ ance by the litigants. (Dyer, 2017, p. 159) Various US American government bodies have issued guidelines for Plain Language, such as the United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) (Maaß, 2020a, p. 141). The Plain Language Action and Information Network (PLAIN, plainlanguage.gov/), which is described as “a group of federal employees from different agencies and specialties” (plainlanguage.gov/ about/), have promoted Plain English for administrative communication since the mid-1990s (Maaß, 2020a, p. 141). Efforts stepped up with the Federal Plain Writing Act (H.R. 946) that was signed in 2010. It requires federal agencies to use a language that the citizens they deal with can understand. Such offers are, however, not a domain of translation, as text offers are often directly cre­ ated in Plain Language without the existence of a source text of any kind. This becomes clear in the definition of Plain Language of the Plain Language Association International (abbreviated to “PLAIN”, plainlanguagenetwork.org/; see Pedraza Pedraza, 2019, pp. 120ff) that claims to be “the international association for plain language supporters and practitioners around the world”, with members from 30 countries and communication in 15 or more languages. They define “Plain Language” as follows: A communication is in plain language if its wording, structure, and design are so clear that the intended audience can easily find what they need, understand what they find, and use that information. (plainlanguagenetwork.org/plain-language/what-is-plain-language/) This definition does not cover the aspect of translation. Differently from Easy Language, Plain Language text offers are often directly crafted as such and are not translations in the strict sense.

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Basic rules of Plain Language The guidelines for Plain Language have very similar rules and advice as the typical Easy Language guidelines. The rules presented in the following are taken from the influential German “Citizenoriented administrative language” Guidelines of the Federal Office of Administration (“Bürger­ nahe Verwaltungssprache”, Bundesverwaltungsamt, 1984). They were first issued in 1984 and last updated in 2002; they are accessible via the internet (Bundesverwaltungsamt, (4)2002; English translation in Maaß, 2020a, pp. 147f):

Word level: • • • • • • •

Use common words. Use unambiguous words. Prefer short words. Do not endanger comprehensibility by using abbreviations or foreign words. Use the same terms for the same contents. Do not use noun chains. Do not replace verbs with nouns.

Sentence level: • • • •

Prefer a clear sentence structure. Find the appropriate number of words per sentence. Do not nest too many sentences. Consider the relation between message and sentence structure.

Text level: • • • • • • •

Mind the internal structure. Reason consistently and coherently. The structure of your text should follow its function and content. Keep in mind the individual case even if you use preformulated text modules. Try to visualize abstract matters with the help of examples. Stick to the essentials. Is your text comprehensible without additional explanations?

The guidelines also give some more indications on how to increase comprehensibility: • Adapt explanations and justifications to the level of knowledge of the addressed persons. • Cite important regulations literally. • Explain regulations that are hard to understand – but be careful with “translations” (Bundesverwaltungsamt, (4)/2002; translation in Maaß, 2020a, pp. 147ff) The rules are very similar to Easy Language rules but differ in the extent to which they are sup­ posed to be applied. What are common words? This depends on the target audience and will differ 242

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for a citizen with an average education on the one hand or a person with cognitive disability on the other. The same is true for other criteria like “the appropriate number of words per sentence” (ibid.). Easy Language means that all measures that we know enhance comprehensibility are used, whereas Plain Language covers the field between Easy Language and standard/expert language and can be adapted dynamically. One more interesting aspect: The cited guidelines provide some more suggestions on how to further increase comprehensibility, inter alia: “Explain regulations that are hard to understand – but be careful with ‘translations’”. We are in a legal context here and the issuing authority tries to avoid legal hazards: If you “translate” a regulation, you produce a legal text that can be taken as a basis for legal claims. The manual is very explicit here: Caution: Even if it is often recommended, it is dangerous to “translate” or transcribe administrative expert language into everyday language. The greatest of caution is needed here! The content of a difficult expert text with its fine-grained gradations and references to the legal system is so highly delicate that it can be changed and even distorted by any “simplification”. (Bundesverwaltungsamt, (4)2002, p. 36, translation Maaß, 2020a, p. 149) Plain Language texts are often actual legal texts, while Easy Language texts usually are not, but instead are merely explanations of legal texts. Easy Language text can usually not be used to legally enforce claims (Bredel & Maaß, 2016b, p. 26; Maaß, 2015, p. 141; Rink, 2020a).

An example of Plain Language translation The example given in Figure 14.4 is taken from the plainlanguage.gov website, which is an official website of the United States government that provides information on the legal requirements and offers training to government bodies and institutions. The Plain Language text is not easy to understand. It simply uses some of the Plain Lan­ guage guidelines in order to make an expert legal text accessible to non-expert users. It is

If a deponent fails to answer a question propounded, or a party upon whom a request is made under § 4.70, or a party on whom interrogatories are served fails to adequately respond or objects to the request, or any part thereof, or fails to permitinspection as requested, the discoveringparty may move the admin­ istrative law judge for an order compel­ ling a response or inspection in accor­ dance with the request.

You may move the administrative law judge for an order compelling a response or inspection if: A deponent fails to answer a question; A party upon whom you made a request under § 4.70, or a party on whom you served interrogatories either does not adequately respond or objects to the request; or A party on whom you made a request under § 4.70, or a party on whom inter­ rogatories are served does not permit inspection as requested.

Figure 14.4 Expert Language source text and Plain Language target text (www.plainlanguage.gov/exam­ ples/before-and-after/wordiness/ [accessed 28 June 2022])

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not aligned with the needs of people with communication impairments, which is the domain of Easy Language. The main strategy of the Plain Language text is to optimize the visual structure of the information. Not even legal concepts are explained in the example. The target text, thus, remains legally binding but is not directed towards communicative accessibility in a broad sense. There are also examples for Plain Language texts that are much closer to Easy Language, that exploit the guidelines in a much more comprehensive way. Within the Plain Language universe, a partial application of the guidelines is, however, a possible option. Plain Language will therefore never be enough to achieve communicative inclusion. Additional Easy Language offers are required.

Balancing comprehensibility and acceptability Easy Language is clearly more comprehensible than Plain Language. But comprehensibility is not the only value at stake. On the downside, Easy Language has low acceptability as the texts are over-explicit and make it very obvious that they require very low cognitive skills from the target audience. Many of the Easy Language texts, moreover, show a blatant discrepancy from the estab­ lished typical text layouts: Very big font size and imagery that seems more appropriate for young children. This is especially the case if the texts are produced in inclusive settings for people with cognitive impairments. While such inclusive text production processes are a value in themselves, the actual outcomes of such processes have a tendency to stigmatize the target audience as texts look different from what is normally expected from established text type models (Bredel & Maaß, 2016a, 2020; Maaß, 2020a). Such texts have a symbolic function: They make the target groups visible in public, they point to the inclusion efforts of institutions and signal the institutions’ com­ pliance with legal accessibility requirements. This is valuable in contexts like general information on the homepage of a federal ministry. However, such texts accentuate the power and knowledge gap in expert-layperson interactions and are often refused by the target audience as well as by the professionals. Plain Language texts, on the other hand, are so close to the source texts that they usually do not run the risk of stigmatizing the target audience. But as we have seen, they are often not accessible enough to enable the target audience to overcome all communication barriers, that is, to access the content of the message and act on its basis. Hansen-Schirra and Maaß (2020) conceptualize the relation between those qualities as a balance; both Easy and Plain Language have complementary profiles: While Easy Language has high perceptibility and comprehensibility, it has reduced acceptabil­ ity and a risk of stigmatization. Plain Language, on the other hand, is acceptable to most users and has no obvious risk of stigmatization. However, its perceptibility and comprehensibility are not enough to grant access to content for people with more pronounced communicative needs. In order to mediate between those two poles, Maaß (2020) proposes a variety between Easy and Plain Language. As Plain Language is a continuum, this concept is backed by the Plain Lan­ guage concept. But many Plain Language texts are not easy enough, as experts depart from their expert language texts and do not use enough facilitation strategies to make them really accessible. Bredel and Maaß (2016a, 2016b) and Maaß (2020), on the other hand, propose to embark in the opposite direction: Leaving the whole set of Easy Language rules behind and enriching the texts especially with regard to qualities that are known to stigmatize the target audience (over-explicit information strategies, divergent layout etc.). This concept is called Easy Language Plus (EL+; see Maaß, 2020a; Hansen-Schirra & Maaß, 2020; for the corresponding concept for Dutch, see Moonen, 2018). 244

Intralingual translation in Easy Language and Plain Language

Figure 14.5 Trade-off between Easy Language and Plain Language (Hansen-Schirra & Maaß, 2020, p. 24)

Translation into Easy and Plain Language Intralingual, intersemiotic translation into Easy and Plain Language Easy and Plain Language text creation has been situated in the realms of translation on the one hand and text editing on the other, with Easy Language texts more often being considered trans­ lations than Plain Language texts. An important factor is the question of an existing source text (Bredel & Maaß, 2016a). Easy or Plain Language texts can be conceptualized as translations if they are the results of a transfer from a pre-existing source text or set of source texts of any kind: A source text exists or has existed at some point in time. A transfer has taken place and the target text has been derived from the source text (resulting in a new product in another lan­ guage, genre or medium), i.e. some kind of relevant similarity exists between the source and the target texts. This relationship can take many forms and by no means rests on the concept of equivalence, but rather on the skopos of the target text. (Zethsen, 2009, pp. 799f) Easy Language texts do not regularly replace the source text but are offered as an extra service to readers with weak proficiency or cognitive impairments. Plain Language texts are, by contrast, often the only text offer that is provided to meet the requirements of non-expert readers in an expert context. It is then situated in the realm of text production rather than translation in the strict sense. In the case of Easy and Plain Language, the source texts are usually in the same language, which makes the creation of Easy and Plain Language texts a subject of intralingual translation (Bredel & Maaß, 2016a, p. 181). Interlingual translation into Easy and Plain Language is also possible but much less frequent. An example of interlingual Easy and Plain Language translation 245

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is the translation between Easy and Plain Finnish and Swedish in Finland, where Swedish is a minority language and Easy Language text offers are produced on the basis of Easy Finnish source texts (Leskelä, 2021, p. 156 et passim). The most prominent example of an interlingual transla­ tion in different natural Easy Languages are the Inclusion Europe guidelines that were drafted in English and then translated into the other project languages (German, French, Finnish, Lithuanian, Portuguese). Easy and Plain Language translation is, in Jakobson’s (1959) broadly established terminol­ ogy, intralingual insofar as content is transferred between varieties of the same language, and it is intersemiotic, if other than verbal means are employed (for a transfer of Jakobson’s model to Easy Language, see Bredel & Maaß, 2016a, pp. 182ff; Maaß, 2020a, pp. 173ff; Maaß, 2020b, pp. 278ff). This is often the case for Easy Language, where pictorial resources are used in the Easy Language target texts to convey parts of the content or help readers anticipate the content. Some of the visual sources are closely related to inclusive settings. The imagery and layout of such texts tend to deviate sharply from those of the source texts and the standard text expectations and, in that scenario, carry a high risk of stigmatizing the target audience (Bredel & Maaß, 2016a, 2020). The following example taken from a patient’s decree in Easy Language published by the Catholic professional association SKM Freiburg is typical in this respect: Intersemiotic translation also occurs in Plain Language, where other types of codes are also used in order to make the content easier to perceive and process, in the present example, in the form of a table (Source: www.plainlanguage.gov/examples/before-and-after/monthly-due­ date/):

Figure 14.6

“Patient Decree in Easy Language” (https://freiburg.skmdivfreiburg.de/)

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Intralingual translation in Easy Language and Plain Language Table 14.2 Transcript and translation of “Patient Decree in Easy Language” Patient’s Decree A form in Easy Language This text is about a difficult topic. The topic is: • What shall happen with me if I am terminally ill? Or if I am dying? • How shall doctors treat me it I can no longer make decisions?

Patienten-Verfügung Ein Formular in Leichter Sprache In diesem Text geht es um ein schweres Thema. Das Thema ist: • Was soll mit mir passieren, wenn ich unheilbar krank bin? Oder wenn ich im Sterben liege? • Wie sollen die Ärzte mich behandeln, wenn ich keine Entscheidungen mehr treffen kann?

Source text: We must receive your completed application form on or before the 15th day of the second month following the month you are reporting if you do not submit your application elec­ tronically or the 25th day of the second month following the month you are reporting if you submit your application electronically. Target text: If you submit your form:

We must receive it by:

Electronically Not electronically

25th of the second month 15th of the second month

Moreover, there is a tendency to include Easy and especially Plain Language translation in audiovisual formats, especially in the context of news broadcasting, teaching and organization communication (Maaß & Hernández Garrido, 2020), with a focus on super- and subtitles (live and scripted) as well as speech-to-text-interpretation (ibid.).

Intralingual diastratic/diaphasic translation into Easy and Plain Language Translation from an expert variety to Easy or Plain Language may be seen as diastratic intralin­ gual translation: A message is transferred from one group variety (the expert variety of a certain domain, for example, in the legal or medical context) to address an outgroup without access to that group variety. But in fact, it is not that simple. The expert variety of the source text is a typical diastratic variable; it is characterized by low comprehensibility for those who are not members of this group. Plain Language transfers the content to the broad majority of non-experts of that domain. That is, Plain Language is devoid of group characteristics of any type and is neutral with respect to the diastratic variable. Easy Language, on the other hand, transfers the content from the expert group to another group: People with communication impairments. Being a non-expert with communication impairment carries a risk of being stigmatized; therefore, addressing people with Easy Language is risky in that respect and users tend to distance themselves from Easy Language offers (Gutermuth, 2020; Maaß, 2020a). This is even more the case if the Easy Language text offers are visibly different from the standard language. Easy Language in itself is not a group variety; that is, people with cog­ nitive impairments, for example, are not Easy Language “speakers”; Easy Language is rather used to address this group. From its conception, it is therefore not a typical realization of the diastratic variable, either. However, people with cognitive disabilities in Germany and their associations 247

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tend to claim Easy Language as their means of communication; they postulate that Easy Language texts always have to be created in inclusive settings. This is a strategy to claim Easy Language as a group variety as part of a political strategy to make people with cognitive impairments more vis­ ible in public through openly displayed Easy Language texts. Such texts are no longer optimized with regard to their comprehensibility and function in the target text situation, but instead have a predominantly symbolic function to make groups with disabilities visible in public (Maaß, 2020a, pp. 132ff). Translation from expert language into Easy Language with the participation of people with cognitive impairments in the role of text authors and text assessors can be defined as intralin­ gual diastratic translation. With regard to the diaphasic variable, it is Plain Language rather than Easy Language that plays a role. People with cognitive impairments and other Easy Language target groups will need Easy Language in all aspects of their everyday life, also in non-expert contexts, and not just in some specifiable situations. Plain Language, on the other hand, is used predominantly in contexts where expert communication is converted into expert-layperson communication to address non-expert users. Plain Language translation is therefore mostly intralingual diaphasic translation.

Intralingual translation as overcoming barriers The conceptualization of translation as overcoming communication barriers (cf. Hansen-Schirra & Maaß, 2019; Maaß & Hansen-Schirra, 2021; Rink, 2020a, 2020b) is also applicable to intralin­ gual translation into Easy and Plain Language. As mentioned above, an intermediary (language) expert can strategically remove communication barriers by applying different strategies to the translation process. The aim would be to make content accessible for target groups with special communicative needs. Barriers in communication may occur when the textual features of a com­ munication product do not correspond to the users’ needs, which is especially often the case in expert-layperson communication where the common ground between the source text author and the addressed users differs widely (Hansen-Schirra et al., 2020, p. 200; Maaß & Rink, 2021; Rink, 2020a, p. 177). But even standard language may entail communication barriers that impede or deny access to the text content for certain groups. The result is inaccessibility, which may lead to limited (communicative) participation. One way to alleviate this situation is to use professional translators acting as intermediary lan­ guage experts. As Hansen-Schirra et al. (2020, p. 202) point out: “Translators are trained to adapt the text to the reader’s prior knowledge and, if necessary, to simplify it without risking too much loss of information” (Hansen-Schirra et al., 2020, p. 202). In doing so, translators need to have translation competence as their special expert knowledge. Translation competence comprises a set of abilities and components such as linguistic and extralinguistic competences, knowledge about translation, instrumental competence, strategic compe­ tence and psycho-physiological components (cf. PACTE, 2003, p. 5; Rink, 2023) that affect and accompany the translation process and its result. Taking into account the translation order, the so-called skopos of the translation (Reiß & Vermeer, 1984), the concrete target situation and the users as well as the customer requirements, the professional translator applies different translation strategies (Maaß & Rink, 2020b; Rink, 2020a) to overcome communication barriers. Following Rink (2020a) and Maaß and Rink (2020a, p. 47), linguistic, conceptual and medial strategies have to be applied in the translation process to produce retrievable, perceptible, comprehensible, link­ able, acceptable and action-enabling texts (Maaß & Rink, 2020a, pp. 47ff) that serve as an orienta­ tion basis for different target groups and are a prerequisite for further action (see the modelling of this process in the Hildesheim Steps above). 248

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Further reading Lindholm, C., & Vanhatalo, U. (Eds.). (2021). Handbook of Easy languages in Europe. Frank & Timme. https://doi.org/10.26530/20.500.12657/52628 Perego, E. (2020). Accessible communication. A cross-country journey. Frank & Timme. https://doi.org/ 10.26530/20.500.12657/50590

References Adler, M. (2012). The Plain language movement. In P. Tiersma & L. Solan (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of language and law (pp. 67–83). Oxford University Press. Ahrens, S. (2020). Easy language and administrative texts: Second language learners as a target group. In S. Hansen-Schirra & C. Maaß (Eds.), Easy language research: Text and user perspectives (pp. 67–97). Frank & Timme. Ahrens, S., Schulz, R., Kröger, J., Hernández Garrido, S., Keller, L., & Rink, I. (Eds.). (in print). Accessibil­ ity – health literacy – health information. Interdisciplinary approaches to an emerging field of communi­ cation. Frank & Timme. Asprey, M. (2010). Plain language for lawyers. Federation Press. Becker, L. (2020). “Immigrants” as recipients of easy-to-read in Spain. Journal of Multilingual and Multicul­ tural Development, 41(1), 59–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2019.1621874 Bohman, U. (2021). Easy language in Sweden. In U. Lindholm & C. Vanhatalo (Eds.), Easy languages in Europe (pp. 527–567). Frank & Timme. Bovim Bugge, H., Berget, G., & Vindenes, E. (2021). Easy language in Norway. In U. Lindholm & C. Van­ hatalo (Eds.), Handbook of Easy languages in Europe (pp. 371–398). Frank & Timme. Bredel, U., & Maaß, C. (2016a). Leichte Sprache. Theoretische Grundlagen, Orientierung für die Praxis. Duden. Bredel, U., & Maaß, C. (2016b). Ratgeber Leichte Sprache. Duden. Bredel, U., & Maaß, C. (2020). Leichte Sprache. In C. Maaß & I. Rink (Eds.), Handbuch Barrierefreie Kom­ munikation (pp. 251–271). Frank & Timme. Bundesverwaltungsamt. ([4]2002). Arbeitshandbuch „Bürgernahe Verwaltungssprache“. www.bva.bund. de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/Oeffentlichkeitsarbeit/Buergernahe_Verwaltungssprache_BBB. pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=5 Bundesverwaltungsamt Bundesstelle für Büroorganisation und Bürotechnik (Ed.). (1984). Bürgernahe Ver­ waltungssprache, Merkblatt M18. Köln. Cornelius, E. (2015). Defining “plain language” in contemporary South Africa. Stellenbosch Papers in Lin­ guistics, 44, 1–18. Dyer, C. R. (2017). A cognitive linguistic approach to Plain Language translation of American divorce law. In M. Grygiel (Ed.), Cognitive approaches to specialist languages (pp. 150–184). Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Estévez Grossi, M. (2020). Leyes en “lenguaje claro” a través de internet: Políticas lingüísticas de simplifi­ cación de textos legales en Chile y Quebec. In M. Cisneros Estupiñán (Ed.), Glotopolítica latinoameri­ cana: Tendencias y perspectivas (pp. 181–216). Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira. Gutermuth, S. (2020). Leichte Sprache für alle? Eine zielgruppenorientierte Rezeptionsstudie zu Leichter und Einfacher Sprache. Frank & Timme. Hansen-Schirra, S., Bisang, W., Nagels, A., Gutermuth, S., Fuchs, J., Borghardt, L., Deilen, S., Gros, A., Schiffl, L., & Sommer, J. (2020). Intralingual translation into Easy language – or how to reduce cognitive processing costs. In S. Hansen-Schirra & C. Maaß (Eds.), Easy language research: Text and user perspec­ tives (pp. 197–225). Frank & Timme. Hansen-Schirra, S., & Maaß, C. (2019). Translation proper. Kommunikationsbarrieren überwinden. Univer­ sität Hildesheim: Hildok. https://doi.org/10.25528/015 Hansen-Schirra, S., & Maaß, C. (2020). Easy language, plain language, easy language plus: Perspectives on comprehensibility and stigmatisation. In S. Hansen-Schirra & C. Maaß (Eds.), Easy language research: Text and user perspectives (pp. 17–38). Frank & Timme. Hernández Garrido, S., & Maaß, C. (in print). Easy language in Germany. Development and research per­ spective. In R. Farkasné Gönczi & B. Kármán (Eds.), Easy to understand communication, equal access. Study volume of an international professional conference. ELTE Bárczi Gustáv Faculty of Special Needs Education.

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Christiane Maaß Hernández Garrido, S., & Yepes Villegas, P. (2023). Lenguaje Claro in Colombia – current situation and in­ tegration into translation studies and accessible communication research. In S. Deilen, S. Hansen-Schirra, S. Hernández Garrido, C. Maaß, & A. Tardel (Eds.), Emerging Fields in Easy Language and Accessible Communication Research (pp. 283–317). Frank & Timme. IFLA. (2010). Guidelines for easy-to-read materials (2010). Guidelines for easy-to-read materials, revision by Misako Nomura, Gyda Skat Nielsen & Bror Tronbacke, International Federation of Library Asso­ ciation and Institutions Professional Reports, No. 120. www.ifla.org/files/assets/hq/publications/profes­ sional-report/120.pdf). (Original work published 1997). Inclusion Europe. (2009). Information for all. European standards on how to make information easy to read and understand for people with intellectual disabilities. Brussels. http://easy-to-read.eu. Jakobson, R. (1959). On linguistic aspects of translation. In R. A. Browner (Ed.), On translation (pp. 232– 239). Harvard University Press. Lang, K. (2019). Die rechtliche Lage zu Barrierefreier Kommunikation in Deutschland. In C. Maaß & I. Rink (Eds.), Handbuch Barrierefreie Kommunikation (pp. 67–93). Frank & Timme. Lang, K. (2021). Auffindbarkeit, Wahrnehmbarkeit, Akzeptabilität. Webseiten von Behörden in Leichter Sprache vor dem Hintergrund der rechtlichen Lage. Frank & Timme. Leskelä, L. (2021). Easy language in Finland. In U. Lindholm & C. Vanhatalo (Eds.), Easy languages in Europe (pp. 149–189). Frank & Timme. Lindholm, U., & Vanhatalo, C. (2021a). Introduction. In U. Lindholm & C. Vanhatalo (Eds.), Easy languages in Europe (pp. 11–26). Frank & Timme. Lindholm, U., & Vanhatalo, C. (Eds.). (2021b). Easy languages in Europe. Frank & Timme. Maaß, C. (2015). Leichte Sprache. Das Regelbuch. Lit. Maaß, C. (2020a). Easy language – Plain language – Easy language plus. Balancing comprehensibility and acceptability. Frank & Timme (Easy – Plain – Accessible. Band 3). Maaß, C. (2020b). Übersetzen in Leichte Sprache. In C. Maaß & I. Rink (Eds.), Handbuch Barrierefreie Kom­ munikation (pp. 273–302). Frank & Timme. Maaß, C., & Hansen-Schirra, S. (2021). Removing barriers: Accessibility as the primary purpose and main goal of translation. In P. Castillo Bernal & M. Estévez Grossi (Eds.), Translation, mediation and acces­ sibility for linguistic minorities (pp. 33–54). Frank & Timme. Maaß, C., & Hernández Garrido, S. (2020). Easy and Plain language in audiovisual translation. In S. HansenSchirra & C. Maaß (Eds.), Easy language research: Text and user perspectives (pp. 131–161). Frank & Timme. Maaß, C., & Rink, I. (2018). „Das nennt Ihr Arzt: Rigor.“ Medizinische Fachtexte in Leichter Sprache und der Ansatz der Situated Translation. In S. Jekat, M. Kappus, & K. Schubert (Eds.), Barrieren abbauen, Sprache gestalten (pp. 24–38). ZHAW Zürcher Hochschule für Angewandte Wissenschaften (Working Papers in Applied Linguistics 14). Maaß, C., & Rink, I. (2020a). Über das Handbuch Barrierefreie Kommunikation. In C. Maaß & I. Rink (Eds.), Handbuch Barrierefreie Kommunikation (pp. 17–25). Frank & Timme. Maaß, C., & Rink, I. (2020b). Scenarios for Easy language translation: How to produce accessible content for users with diverse needs. In S. Hansen-Schirra & C. Maaß (Eds.), Easy language research: Text and user perspectives (pp. 41–56). Frank & Timme. Maaß, C., & Rink, I. (2021). Translating legal texts into Easy language. In Communicating the law and public information to vulnerable audiences. JOAL 9/1. https://ojs.law.cornell.edu/index.php/joal/article/ view/109. Moonen, X. (2018). De regels voor Taal voor allemaal. Vor mensen met zeer lage taalvaardigheden. Univer­ sity of Amsterdam. https://www.koraal.nl/IManager/Download/991/98937/24417/1989355/NL/24417_ 1989355_s7o2_Brochure_De_Regels_voor_Taal_voor_allemaal_lowres.pdf Norddeutscher Rundfunk. (n.d.). Hilfe für Obdach∙lose. bit.ly/3xwCz7d PACTE. (2003). Building a translation competence model. In F. Alves (Ed.), Triangulating translation: Per­ spectives in process oriented research (pp. 43–66). John Benjamins. Pedraza Pedraza, M. B. (2019). Democratización de la lengua de la administración pública: retos de una propuesta lexicográfica digital panhispánica [Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona]. https://ddd.uab.cat/record/213585 Reiß, K., & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Grundlegung einer allgemeinen Translationstheorie. Niemeyer. Rink, I. (2020a). Rechtskommunikation und Barrierefreiheit. Zur Übersetzung juristischer Informations- und Interaktionstexte in Leichte Sprache. Frank & Timme (Easy – Plain – Accessible. Band 1).

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Intralingual translation in Easy Language and Plain Language Rink, I. (2020b). Kommunikationsbarrieren. In C. Maaß & I. Rink (Eds.), Handbuch Barrierefreie Kommu­ nikation (pp. 29–65). Frank & Timme. Rink, I. (2023). Competences for easy language translation. In S. Deilen, S. Hansen-Schirra, S. Hernández Garrido, C. Maaß, & A. Tardel (Eds.), Emerging fields in easy language and accessible communication research (pp. 231–251). Frank & Timme. Schaeffer, D., Hurrelmann, K., Bauer, U., & Kolpatzik, K. (Eds.). (2018). National action plan health lit­ eracy. Promoting health literacy in Germany. KomPart. www.uni-bielefeld.de/gesundhw/ag6/downloads/ nat_aktionsplan_gesundheitskompetenz_en.pdf Schubert, K. (2016). Barriereabbau durch optimierte Kommunikationsmittel: Versuch einer Systematisierung. In N. Mälzer (Ed.), Barrierefreie Kommunikation – Perspektiven aus Theorie und Praxis (pp. 15–33). Frank & Timme. Schulz, R., Czerner-Nicolas, K., & Degenhardt, J. (2020). Easy Language interpreting. In S. Hansen-Schirra & C. Maaß (Eds.), Easy language research: Text and user perspectives (pp. 163–178). Frank & Timme. Wharton, M. (1917). Plain English. For the education of the workers by the workers. The People’s College. Zethsen, K. K. (2009). Intralingual translation: An attempt at description. Meta. Journal des traducteurs/Meta Translators’ Journal, 54(4), 795–812. https://doi.org/10.7202/038904ar

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15 INTRALINGUAL TRANSLATION IN EXPERT-TO-LAY PUBLIC COMMUNICATION Strategies and recurrent features in informative legal texts in the digital environment Francesca Luisa Seracini Introduction Based on Jakobson’s classification of different kinds of translation, “intralingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language” (Jakobson, 1959/2000, p. 114). This is a loose definition which covers various forms of rewriting and degrees of reformulation from one language variety to another. In the present chapter, a par­ ticular form of rewording is considered, that is, the adaptation of legal texts for a non-specialized audience. When specialized knowledge is communicated to the general public, there is asymmetry between the sender (i.e., the expert) and the receiver (the layperson) as a result of the different degree of prior knowledge of the two parties (Engberg, 2016, p. 37). This gap can be filled by means of a process of reformulation of the original text that employs strategies to make the target text more intelligible for the receiver. In many cases of expert-to-lay public adaptations, however, rewording is not the only process of transformation that is involved. Specialized knowledge often also undergoes a process of recontextualization (Calsamiglia, 2003) from contexts where the lay public has limited access (e.g., academic papers) to contexts which are more accessible to a wider audience (e.g., articles in the daily press, magazines, or the web). In their seminal paper, Calsamiglia and Van Dijk (2004, p. 370) define the process of refor­ mulation and recontextualization of specialized discourse for knowledge dissemination as “popu­ larization”. While reformulation concerns the intelligibility of the target text, recontextualization concerns its accessibility. Examples of popularized discourse include medical brochures and fact sheets (Muñoz-Miquel et al., 2018), summaries for patients (Muñoz-Miquel, 2021), patient infor­ mation leaflets (Ezpeleta-Piorno, 2021), newspaper articles reporting on medical research (Raffo, 2016), legal brochures (Rizzo, 2015; Seracini, 2021), publications popularizing scientific thought (Stadnik, 2017), institutional web communication (Cacchiani, 2018; Preite, 2018; Silletti, 2018), as well as face-to-face communication between doctors and patients (Gülich, 2003). As a process implying rewording, popularization can be viewed as a form of intralingual trans­ lation (Rizzo, 2015). There are, however, different views concerning the place of intralingual DOI: 10.4324/9781003188872-19

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translation itself – and, in particular, expert-to-layperson rewordings – within Translation Studies. This chapter will first explore these contrasting views from a general perspective; it will then focus on the process of popularization and consider the interrelation between intralingual translation and popularization in more detail by examining the case of British legislative texts rewritten in the form of informative texts and recontextualized on the institutional website for the general public. The aim is to highlight the strategies and recurrent features characterizing this form of intralingual translation in legal discourse.

Expert-to-lay public communication as a form of intralingual translation The view that intralingual translation should be fully included under the disciplinary heading of Translation Studies is not unanimously shared among scholars in the field. The main argument against this idea is ontological: Translation should be intended, by definition, as interlingual, that is, an activity that involves two or more languages, so the same term cannot be fully applied to the rewording of a text in the same language, despite the partial overlap between the two activities (Newmark, 1991, p. 69; Schubert, 2005, p. 126). Another argument is based on the view that intralingual translation also differs functionally from interlingual translation (Mossop, 2016). This argument is based on the claim that rewording and interlingual translation have a different focus. The focus of rewording is intelligibility, since it aims to transform a text and adapt it to an audience that differs from the original audience based on factors such as age or expertise. On the contrary, the focus of interlingual translation is on equiva­ lence between source text and target text. New terms, for example, “cislation” or “plain-language rewording” (Mossop, 2016, pp. 2, 7), are suggested to distinguish this form of adaptation from translation proper. Such a narrow interpretation of the concept of translation would greatly restrict the scope of Translation Studies, also leaving out many new forms of rewording that are emerging in digi­ tal communication (e.g., blogs, forums, websites, social networking sites, etc.). Other scholars (Hill-Madsen, 2015; Zethsen, 2009) have advocated a broader approach and have focused on the similarities between interlingual and intralingual translation rather than on their differences. One example is synonymy: The search for a synonymous word that expresses the same meaning in rewording can be assimilated to the search for an equivalent word in a different language in interlingual translation (Dam-Jensen & Zethsen, 2008; Jakobson, 1959/2000 p. 114). Zethsen and Hill-Madsen have put forward a new, more inclusive, definition of translation, based on the fol­ lowing conditions that can be satisfied by translation both within the same language and between different languages: • A source text . . . exists or has existed at some point in time. • The target text has been derived from the source text. . . . • The resulting relationship is one of relevant similarity, which may take many forms depending on the skopos. (2016, p. 705) The source text can be either verbal or non-verbal; the target text can be a translation into a different language or semiotic system, or an adaptation to a new genre or medium (Zethsen & Hill-Madsen, 2016, p. 705). This definition can be applied as follows to the specific case of expertto-lay public adaptations: A reworded text (i.e., the popularized text) is derived from a specialized text (i.e., the source text), which either exists now or existed in the past, and there is a relation of 253

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similarity, based on factors influenced by the aim to adapt the reworded text for a non-specialized audience (i.e., the skopos). In this chapter I adopt this broader approach to translation and base the case study on the assumption that expert-to-layperson rewordings are, in fact, a form of intralin­ gual translation.

Strategies in expert-to-lay public communication As mentioned earlier, the process of popularization implies both reformulation and recontextual­ ization of the original text. As part of the process of reformulation, words, sentences, and para­ graphs are reworded to make them suitable for the new recipients. Chesterman’s (1997, p. 104) definition of paraphrase is well suited to describe the resulting target text, that is, a text which is “loose, free, in some contexts even undertranslated” and where “[s]emantic components at the lexeme level tend to be disregarded, in favour of the pragmatic sense of some higher unit such as a whole clause”. Depending on the intended communicative purpose of the popularized text and the assumed knowledge of the target audience, reformulation takes place at different levels, such as text organization, register, and language (Gotti, 2012, p. 150), and aims to simplify the original text. The four parameters identified by Zethsen (2009, p. 808) as drivers of simplification in the process of rewording are (1) knowledge (changes involving a simplification at the level of termi­ nology and syntax), (2) time (substitution of obsolete language), (3) culture (adaptation to the tar­ get culture), and (4) space (additions or omissions that make the text more easily understandable). The first parameter is particularly important for expert-to-lay public adaptations since it addresses one of the main elements that have been found to hinder the layperson’s comprehension of a spe­ cialized text, that is, technical terms that pertain to a specific domain of expertise (Askehave & Zethsen, 2000, 2008; Bromme et al., 2001; Bromme et al., 2005). “De-terminologisation” (MontaltResurrecció & González Davies, 2007), that is, the process whereby technical terms are substituted by non-technical terms in the target text, is very frequent in popularization. It includes strategies such as providing explanations or definitions for a term, using examples, comparison, or substitu­ tion (Montalt-Resurrecció & González Davies, 2007; Montalt-Resurrecció & Shuttleworth, 2021, p. 16), using hypernyms in place of hyponyms (Hill-Madsen, 2015, p. 95), and using metaphors and similes (Gotti, 2016, p. 17). As a result of these strategies, concepts in target texts are often expressed with a higher number of words than in the source texts and a lower degree of formality (Hill-Madsen, 2015), which results in changes at the level of register as well (Gotti, 2012, p. 150). While the substitution of technical terms helps to make the text more intelligible for the target reader, this strategy also raises questions about the possibility of equivalence. Hill-Madsen (2015, p. 92) points out that it is “fiction” to assume that a non-technical term can be equivalent to a tech­ nical term in a reworded text and suggests the expression “decrease-in-technicality” to refer to the cases of near synonymy with a technical term. In some cases, an alternation between non-technical and technical language is preferred in the popularized text since retaining a certain degree of tech­ nicality both facilitates the experts’ communication and helps non-experts to gradually acquire new knowledge that they can subsequently apply to other contexts (Gülich, 2003, p. 240). Beside technical language, other factors affect intelligibility. A text that is complex at the level of syntax, discourse structure, and coherence can require more time and cognitive effort on the part of the recipient to be understood (Gibson, 1998; Lenzner et al., 2010; Pitler & Nen­ kova, 2008; Telles & Salotti, 2021). In order to reduce this complexity, popularization strategies often include changes at the level of syntax and text organization, such as shortening sentences (Muñoz-Miquel et al., 2018, p. 185) and using verbal rather than noun phrases. Texts are also simplified by means of a more direct, interpersonal style of communication that addresses the 254

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recipient directly (e.g., using first and second person pronouns) (Gotti, 2012; Muñoz-Miquel et al., 2018; Seracini, 2020, 2021). As regards content, in order to facilitate understanding, popularized texts often convey special­ ized knowledge by referring to hypothetical real-life situations that the audience can easily relate to (Gotti, 2012, p. 146; Seracini, 2020, p. 60). This strategy produces, therefore, a shift from the conceptual to the ontic level in the target texts (Simonnæs, 2003, cited in Engberg, 2013, p. 20).

Case study: the popularization of legislative texts in institutional communication Effective communication helps to build a relationship of trust between institutions and citizens (Cacchiani, 2018; Silletti, 2018). If, on the contrary, citizens find it difficult to access key basic information, for example, through an institution’s website, this can reflect negatively on the insti­ tution’s credibility and ultimately lead to a feeling of distrust (Cacchiani, 2018). The efforts to communicate effectively to citizens include the popularization of legisla­ tive texts in order to make rights and obligations easier to understand and more accessible through the institutional websites. For example, institutions at the European Union and in the UK make the legislative texts available on the institutional website both in their original form and in popularized versions that can range from brochures to web pages, infographics, and videos. The distinguishing element of this form of popularization is that recontextualization takes place within the same institutional context that has produced the legal texts (Engberg et al., 2018, p. XI). Efforts to ensure a better understanding of legal texts on the part of institutions go hand in hand with initiatives such as the Plain Language Movement in English-speaking countries and the Clear Writing campaign at the European Union. While the aim of these initiatives is to encourage the drafting of legal texts that are clear and easy to understand, the aim of popularization is to reformu­ late the original legal texts and recontextualize them so that they become a means to disseminate legal knowledge among the lay public. As in the case of any form of rewording, the process can involve some degree of manipulation and reinterpretation of the original text. This is the case, for example, of some popularized ver­ sions of EU legislation concerning consumer rights: While conveying information about consumer rights, these texts tend to highlight the protection and support provided by EU laws, thus shedding a positive light on EU institutions. As a result, while the original legislative texts have a prescrip­ tive function, the popularized texts acquire a promotional, as well as informative communicative purpose (Seracini, 2020). In the next section the analysis carried out on the texts popularizing British legislation concerning Covid-19 prevention measures on the government institutional website will be presented and discussed.

Materials and method The study was carried out on two corpora compiled by the author: A corpus of UK Coronavirus legislation and a corpus of informative webpages from the institutional website of the UK govern­ ment popularizing the same legislative texts. The Legislation Corpus comprises 32 legislative texts (451,519 words) downloaded from the section dedicated to the Coronavirus legislation on the gov­ ernment official website (legislation.gov.uk/coronavirus). This section contains all Coronavirus legislation for the UK. The Guidance Corpus comprises 58 webpages (197,900 words) from the dedicated government website (www.gov.uk/coronavirus) informing the lay public of the measures 255

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contained in the UK Coronavirus legislation. The texts included in both corpora were collected in the two-year period between the beginning of the pandemic in the UK in 2020 and 2021. The choice of UK Coronavirus legislation for the case study is due to the fact that, during that period, it was crucial for citizens to be aware of the measures and restrictions in place and, consequently, popularization of the legislation in this area was particularly important. The difference between the original legislation and the guidance webpages is clearly illustrated on the GOV.UK website (UK Government, n.d.) where it is specified that legislative texts are “what you must do”, while guidance texts are “a mixture of what you must do and what you should do”. Guidance texts are based on the legislative texts and they can additionally provide informa­ tion concerning “the best or most appropriate way to adhere to the law” (UK Government, n.d.). In a preliminary step of the analysis, the readability of the guidance webpages was compared with the readability of the legislative texts. This analysis was carried out with the aid of an online readability checker, freely available at ReadabilityFormulas.com (My Byline Media, n.d.), which automatically calculates the complexity of a text based on seven different readability formulas. Readability formulas estimate text difficulty based on the length of words and sentences; given that the complexity of a text does not depend on these factors only, the limitations of these formulas have been discussed widely (McClure, 1987; Pichert & Elam, 1985; Redish, 2020). However, as Ruohonen (2021) points out, they can be useful in providing a comparative evaluation of the overall different degree of complexity between different texts, which is the purpose of the present analysis. In order to have a clearer indication, in comparative terms, of the readability of the guidance webpages, the comparison was made not only with legislative texts, but also with other text types addressed to a non-specialized readership, that is, online news articles from the BBC website. The choice of these texts was based on the fact that, according to a survey carried out by Ofcom (n.d.), a high number of people in the UK refer to the BBC to obtain updates about Coronavirus. Moreo­ ver, in the UK, the BBC services are the main source of news both online and offline, and one of the most trusted (Nielsen et al., 2020). This data suggests that the lay public finds the information provided in the BBC online news articles accessible and not overly complex. The Online News Corpus comprises 125 news articles (95,715 words) from the BBC website (www.bbc.com) pro­ viding information concerning measures introduced by the government in response to the Covid­ 19 pandemic. The articles included in the corpus were published in the period 2020–2021. The analysis was carried out with a Corpus-based Translation Studies approach. Corpus Lin­ guistics tools and concepts were applied in order to identify the distinguishing elements that recur­ rently characterize the corpus of informative materials compared to the corpus of legislation. Quantitative data obtained with the aid of the concordance software Sketch Engine (Kilgarriff et al., 2004) was used as a basis for further qualitative research investigating the shifts between the original legislative texts and their popularized version. Since this study intended to identify the elements that distinguish popularized texts from leg­ islative ones, the first step of the analysis involved a comparison of the word frequency lists for nouns in the two corpora. The key 2–3-grams (lemmas) were then calculated in the Guidance Corpus, in order to obtain a list of the most unusually frequent 2–3-grams in the Guidance Corpus compared to the Legislation Corpus (i.e., the reference corpus). The list of key 2–3-grams was then examined with the aim of identifying elements that distinguish the guidance texts from the legisla­ tive texts at a morphosyntactic level. The results of the corpus analysis provided an indication of the linguistic elements that occur fre­ quently in the two corpora and that – based on the principle of Corpus Linguistics that “repeated events are significant” (Stubbs, 2007, p. 130) – were worthy of further investigation. In order to shed light on the strategies implemented during the rewording process, the analysis proceeded to investigate 256

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these elements with a qualitative approach, so as to identify the shifts between the two corpora. Since the popularization process involved the recontextualization of the legislative texts from written docu­ ments to webpages, the multimodal elements characterizing the guidance texts were also considered, with a focus on their function in terms of knowledge communication and text organization.

Analysis Readability As mentioned in the previous section, the analysis of the corpus based on readability formulas was intended as a preliminary step in the analysis, in order to obtain a general comparison of the overall complexity of the two corpora (cf. Ruohonen, 2021). The results of the analysis carried out with the online calculator available on ReadabilityFormulas.com (My Byline Media, n.d.) revealed that the average complexity of the guidance texts is much lower than the legislative texts. In particular, the average grade level for the guidance is 12, while it is 21 for the legislation. Guidance texts are suitable for 17–18-year-olds and they are evaluated as “fairly difficult to read”, while legislative texts are suitable for college graduates and they are labelled as “very difficult to read”. The per­ centage of “hard words” (i.e., words of three or more syllables) in the Guidance Corpus is 17%, while it is 20% in the Legislation Corpus. While these results clearly indicate that guidance texts are less complex than legislative texts, they also demonstrate that the former are not overly simplified either. In order to have an indication of how the readability of guidance texts compares with texts that are the main source of news for millions of people, the readability scores for the Online News Corpus were also calculated. The results of the analysis reveal that BBC online news articles are more readable, with a grade level 10, have a standard/average level of difficulty, and are suitable for 14–15-year-olds and older. The percentage of “hard words” is also lower in the BBC online news articles (11%). This preliminary analysis provided, therefore, a general indication of the fact that guidance texts are simplified compared to the original source texts (i.e., the legislation), but they also retain a certain degree of complexity. The next sections report on the features that characterize the guid­ ance texts differently from the legislative texts and the changes introduced during the process of intralingual translation.

Lexical choices The word frequency lists for the two corpora (Guidance Corpus and Legislation Corpus) were extracted with the aid of Sketch Engine (Kilgarriff et al., 2004). The top 100 most frequent words in each corpus were considered and classified into four main semantic fields: (1) Reference to stakeholders, (2) reference to the object of the legislation, (3) reference to conditions, tools, and measures, and (4) reference to documents/sections in documents. In the cases where the same noun could be classified in two different categories, it was included in both lists. Each semantic field was investigated both quantitatively and qualitatively; the findings are reported as follows. 1 REFERENCE TO STAKEHOLDERS

The category of stakeholders contains nouns that refer to interested parties, either people or enti­ ties that are in some way affected by the legislation. Table 15.1 shows the nouns belonging to this semantic field in the Legislation Corpus and the Guidance Corpus. 257

Francesca Luisa Seracini Table 15.1 Nouns referring to stakeholders in the Legislation Corpus and the Guidance Corpus Legislation Corpus Nouns (stakeholders) person authority england officer court education ireland wales state child secretary ministers worker member scotland department school council institution business body constable childcare

Guidance Corpus

Frequency (per million)

Nouns (stakeholders)

7,994 2,097 1,815 1,752 1,239 1,228 1,178 1,140 942 931 931 871 857 772 760 753 703 653 623 613 599 585 563

home people staff resident child student household patient provider nhs england school person individual employer bubble group uk visitor member family college education government childcare hospital apprentice worker friend parent manager authority

Frequency (per million) 4,530 3,351 2,715 2,318 2,251 2,013 1,973 1,757 1,629 1,576 1,571 1,399 1,386 1,289 1,231 1,024 1,020 1,006 975 914 812 755 746 640 582 578 565 521 512 494 485 441

Nouns from the Legislation Corpus tend to refer to institutions and entities (e.g., court; state; department; school; council; institution; business; body) and to the specific roles of people work­ ing within the institutions (e.g., officer; secretary; ministers; constable). On the contrary, the refer­ ence to the roles among the public (e.g., person; worker) is more generic. In contrast to the Legislation Corpus, the references to institutions in the Guidance Corpus are less frequent (e.g., NHS; school; college; government), and there are no references to roles within the institutions among the top 100 nouns, while reference to roles among the public is on the contrary more frequent and more specific (e.g., staff; resident; student; patient; employer; appren­ tice; parent). The shift from a general to a more specific reference is exemplified in the following 258

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extracts, where the noun person found in the law (example [1] from UK Statutory Instrument 2020 No. 568) is changed to traveller in the guidance text (example [2]).1 (1) The Health Protection (Coronavirus, International Travel) (England) Regulations 2020 This regulation applies where a person (“P”) – (a) arrives in England from outside the common travel area, . . . (2) P must remain in isolation from others (“self-isolate”). . . . (2) Guidance for investigating and managing individuals with a possible or confirmed SARSCoV-2 Variant of Concern or Variant Under Investigation Travellers who are permitted to enter the UK from countries listed within the travel ban . . . are currently required to self-isolate . . . The shift from a more specific reference to institutional roles found in the Legislation Corpus to a more generic reference in the Guidance Corpus can be seen in example (3) from UK Statutory Instrument 2020 No. 1005, and examples (4) and (5) from the related guidance texts. In example (3) from the legislative text, the role of officer is defined precisely, by means of premodification, and the term con­ stable is used to designate a different role within the police. The frequency of the term officer is much lower in the Guidance Corpus compared to the Legislation Corpus (see Table 15.1), which reflects the use of a more generic reference to the role (police officers, police), as can be seen in examples (4) and (5). Interestingly, in example (5), the police are defined as local partners, which conveys to the lay public the more reassuring idea of a supporting – rather than controlling – role played by the police. (3) The Health Protection (Coronavirus, Collection of Contact Details etc. and Related Require­ ments) Regulations 2020 In this regulation – (a) “authorised person” means (i) a constable; (ii) a police community support officer; (4) Guidance: COVID-19: Guidance for first responders Police officers, staff and volunteers should not be performing clinical assessments. (5) Guidance: COVID-19: Guidance for the safe use of places of worship “A risk assessment should also consider the security of worshippers. This may require involv­ ing local partners such as the police.” The comparison between the two word-frequency lists also revealed that non-technical expres­ sions in the Guidance Corpus frequently substitute the corresponding technical terms used in the legislative texts. One example is the noun bubble used in place of linked household (see example [6] from UK Statutory Instrument 2021 No. 364 and example [7] from the related guidance text). (6) The Health Protection (Coronavirus, Restrictions) (Steps) (England) Regulations 2021 . . . on their household being part of a linked childcare household with any other household for the purposes of . . . (7) Guidance: Making a childcare bubble with another household If you live in a household . . . you can form a childcare bubble. . . . Childcare bubbles are different from support bubbles 259

Francesca Luisa Seracini 2 REFERENCE TO THE OBJECT OF THE LEGISLATION

The second semantic field that was taken into consideration was the object of legislation. Nouns referring to an area or entity that was regulated by legal measures were included in the two wordfrequency lists. The comparison between the nouns included in Table 15.2 shows some similarities between the nouns used in the two corpora. The most frequent noun in the Legislation Corpus is health. This noun is the second most frequent noun in the Guidance Corpus and has a very similar number of occurrences per million words in both corpora. The nouns service, education, school, care, and childcare are among the top 100 most frequent nouns in both corpora, albeit with some differences in frequency. Despite the fact that there is no one-to-one correspondence between the legislative texts and their rewritings, since information from one single legislative text is often recontextualized in different guidance texts, the similar­ ity between the two corpora as regards the nouns referring to the object of legislation reveals that guidance texts tend to give similar relevance to many of the topics and legal issues found in the original law. In some cases, the different frequency of the same nouns found in the two corpora is due to the fact that where a hypernym is used in the legislative texts to refer to the object of legisla­ tion (e.g., education), the Guidance Corpus often introduces hyponyms (e.g., school and col­ lege). As illustrated by example (8) from UK Statutory Instrument 2021 No. 364 and example (9) from the guidance text, the general term gathering is used in the legislative text to refer to many people meeting up a group, while the guidance text uses event, which is more specific. (8) The Health Protection (Coronavirus, Restrictions) (Steps) (England) Regulations 2021 The gathering organiser . . . in relation to a gathering takes the required precautions. . . . The first requirement is that the gathering organiser or manager . . . (9) Coronavirus (COVID-19) How to safely plan a wedding or civil partnership, or funeral, wake or commemoration If you choose to have your event in a garden of a private home, . . . and you plan on having more than 30 guests at your event . . . 3 REFERENCE TO CONDITIONS, TOOLS, MEASURES

The word lists of nouns referring to conditions, tools, and measures include words that express a condition under which certain measures need to be applied, the protective tools to be used, and the steps to be followed, as well as the possible effects in case of breach of the law. Table 15.3 shows the nouns belonging to this category extracted from the word frequency list of the top 100 most frequent nouns in the Legislation Corpus and the Guidance Corpus. Data show that nouns referring to the breach of law are frequent only in the Legislation Cor­ pus (e.g., offence, penalty). The subsequent qualitative analysis revealed that, where reference to breach of law and penalties is occasionally made in the Guidance Corpus, it is reformulated and a non-technical word is used. As exemplified in example (10) from UK Statutory Instrument 2021 No. 364 and example (11) from the guidance text, while the term fixed penalty notice is used in the Legislation Corpus, the more colloquial word fine is introduced in the Guidance Corpus, followed by the legal term which is added as a gloss. Interestingly, after the legal term fixed penalty notice

260

Intralingual translation in expert-to-lay public communication Table 15.2 Nouns referring to the object of legislation in the Legislation Corpus and the Guidance Corpus Legislation Corpus Nouns (object of legislation) Health Service education gathering school hearing tenancy registration care business transmission childcare

Guidance Corpus Frequency (per million)

Nouns (object of legislation)

3,064 1,266 1,228 813 703 684 673 666 663 613 563 563

care health service school event work travel college education facility safety visit activity childcare transport

Frequency (per million) 4,971 3,196 1,686 1,399 944 896 808 755 746 693 671 635 609 582 556

has been introduced for the first time in the guidance, and its meaning is made clear to the reader, it is then used in the subsequent part of the text as an alternative to the synonymous word fine. (10) The Health Protection (Coronavirus, Restrictions) (Steps) (England) Regulations 2021 Amount of fixed penalty: Large gathering offences 14. – (1) In the case of a fixed penalty notice issued to a person in respect of a large gathering offence, the amount of the fixed penalty to be specified . . . (11) Guidance: Coronavirus restrictions what you can and cannot do If you break the rules The police can take action against you if you meet in larger groups. This includes . . . issuing fines (fixed penalty notices). You can be given a fixed penalty notice. . . . You can be fined . . . The comparison between the two word lists also shows that specific means of protection are men­ tioned in the Guidance Corpus (e.g., ppe; covering; mask; ventilation), whereas in the Legislation Corpus the hypernym protection, which encompasses all the different means, tends to be used. Similarly, while in the Guidance Corpus specific protection measures are mentioned (e.g., isola­ tion; distancing), the hypernym restriction tends to be used more frequently in the legislative texts. Nouns with a negative connotation (e.g., requirement, restriction, offence, penalty) are frequent in the Legislation Corpus, while they have a lower number of occurrences in the Guidance Corpus. On the contrary, references to care, support, and advice have a higher frequency in the Guidance Corpus and tend to project a more positive light on the information communicated in the guidance texts. The analysis also showed that the Guidance Corpus uses a broader range of synonyms to refer to the same concept (e.g., Covid-19; Coronavirus; infection; virus; outbreak; spread; pan­ demic) than the Legislation Corpus, in terms of frequency.

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Francesca Luisa Seracini Table 15.3 Nouns referring to conditions, tools, and measures in the Legislation Corpus and the Guidance Corpus Legislation Corpus Nouns (conditions, tools, measures) coronavirus provision period date notice end requirement restriction effect power proceeding protection detail day content offence case place information time duty emergency care commencement condition assessment area penalty step

Guidance Corpus Frequency (per million)

Nouns (conditions, tools, measures)

4,822 3,576 2,832 2,010 1,936 1,931 1,874 1,796 1,659 1,572 1,557 1,472 1,418 1,203 1,157 1,156 1,079 1,069 1,052 888 810 690 663 525 520 520 514 503 490

covid-19 care test risk contact symptom support assessment coronavirus advice face infection information testing ppe result use case time period measure hand isolation control covering transmission protection procedure pcr virus trace mask distancing outbreak rule spread equipment metre level number ventilation hour precaution pandemic

262

Frequency (per million) 7,462 4,971 4,344 4,035 2,962 2,803 2,331 1,973 1,938 1,805 1,801 1,629 1,620 1,598 1,514 1,342 1,329 1,298 1,240 1,170 1,121 1,011 949 927 922 900 812 790 790 790 768 746 710 706 662 627 613 609 600 596 596 596 591 560

Intralingual translation in expert-to-lay public communication 4 REFERENCE TO DOCUMENTS/SECTIONS IN DOCUMENTS

As the comparison between the two word-frequency lists in Table 15.4 shows, references to acts (e.g., act, regulation, document, version) and sections of acts (e.g., section, paragraph, sub-paragraph, arti­ cle) are very frequent in the Legislation Corpus, while they are very limited in the Guidance Corpus. Where reference to acts and regulations is occasionally made in the guidance texts, the nontechnical term rule is used most frequently, as examples (12) and (13) illustrate. (12) Guidance: Coronavirus restrictions what you can and cannot do The rules on weddings and civil partnership ceremonies and wedding receptions or civil part­ nership celebrations changed on . . . (13) Guidance: Travel to England from another country during Coronavirus The rules for testing and quarantine when you arrive in England are different for each list Similarly, the legal term amendment is replaced with the noun change in the Guidance Corpus (example 14). (14) Guidance: Admission and care of residents in a care home during COVID-19 This note outlines the changes to the “Admission and care of residents during a COVID-19 incident in a care home” Table 15.4 Nouns referring to documents/sections in the Legislation Corpus and Guidance Corpus Legislation Corpus Nouns (documents/sections in documents) act section paragraph regulation schedule direction part document regulations reg sub-paragraph s.i. subsection version legislation annotation para amendment article

Guidance Corpus Frequency (per million)

Nouns (documents/sections in documents)

8,468 5,439 4,912 4,396 3,383 3,169 3,145 3,021 2,762 2,060 1,867 1,785 1,775 1,572 1,544 1,217 965 929 769

guidance rule list

263

Frequency (per million) 5,753 662 582

Francesca Luisa Seracini

Text organization The key 2–3-grams (lemmas) were calculated in the Guidance Corpus with the aid of Sketch Engine (Kilgarriff et al., 2004). The Legislation Corpus was used as the reference corpus in order to obtain an indication of the most unusually frequent 2–3-grams in the Guidance Corpus com­ pared to the Legislation Corpus (Table 15.5). Table 15.5 Key 2–3-grams in the Guidance Corpus compared to the Legislation Corpus Key 2–3-grams

Guidance Corpus

Legislation Corpus

(Frequency per million) if you should be you be need to care home you should you can of covid-19 such as for example if you be can be they be risk of guidance on risk assessment who have this guidance guidance for you have health and will be have a the risk follow the if they at home continue to face covering test and they should test result contact with the guidance how to and trace test and trace the care test positive if you have

3,355.85 2,733.25 2,296.11 1,863.38 1,814.81 1,585.20 1,523.38 1,492.47 1,457.15 1,284.94 1,284.94 1,276.11 1,231.95 1,227.54 1,205.46 1,201.04 1,196.63 1,178.96 1,125.98 1,121.56 1,108.31 1,086.24 1,077.41 1,055.33 1,042.08 1,002.34 993.51 967.02 900.78 896.37 830.13 821.30 812.47 785.98 781.56 772.73 768.31 750.65 746.24 715.33

264

6.28 18.85 0.00 29.85 15.71 0.00 0.00 0.00 62.84 32.99 0.00 61.27 205.80 72.27 0.00 0.00 358.19 0.00 0.00 0.00 196.38 87.98 98.97 45.56 31.42 70.70 0.00 113.11 45.56 0.00 0.00 9.43 26.71 7.86 42.42 0.00 0.00 34.56 40.85 0.00

Intralingual translation in expert-to-lay public communication

The results of the analysis indicate that the hypothetical structure introduced by if is very fre­ quent (if you; if you+BE; if they; if you+HAVE). As examples (15) and (16) show, this structure is used to communicate the law by referring to specific hypothetical situations. (15) Guidance on shielding and protecting people who are clinically extremely vulnerable from COVID-19 if you are meeting friends and family . . . , you can make a personal choice on whether to socially distance within your own group (16) Guidance for commissioners and providers of services for people who use drugs or alcohol if someone has any of the symptoms above they should immediately self-isolate at home The high frequency of key clusters formed by the pronoun you provides evidence of the fact that one of the changes introduced during the rewriting process is that the recipients are addressed directly in the guidance texts. In example (17) (from UK Statutory Instrument 2020 No. 814), rules concerning furlough are provided using third person (employee), while in example (18) (from the Guidance Corpus) they are communicated using the second person pronoun you. (17) The Employment Rights Act 1996 (Coronavirus, Calculation of a Week’s Pay) Regulations 2020 . . . any reference in these Regulations to an employee who is . . . “furloughed” is to an employee who is . . . a furloughed employee or a flexibly-furloughed employee. (18) Guidance: What to do if you’re employed and cannot work This is known as being put “on furlough” or “on flexible furlough”, and means that you’ll get at least 80% of your normal pay. The analysis of the key 2–3-grams also provided evidence of the fact that another recurrent change introduced in the guidance texts concerns exemplification. As can be seen in examples (19) and (20), the additions introduced by such as and for example contribute to making the rules that are communicated clearer and more understandable. (19) Guidance: Higher education COVID-19 operational guidance It is important that shared areas within accommodation such as kitchens and bathrooms are cleaned regularly to minimise the risk of transmission. . . . (20) Guidance: Coronavirus restrictions what you can and cannot do This means, for example, that you and your support bubble can meet with another household, even if the total group size is more than 6 people The results of the analysis of the key 2–3-grams also show that guidance texts are characterized by a much higher frequency of should, need, and can than the legislative texts, thus revealing that guidance texts tend to provide information on rules and regulations in the form of advice (21), necessity (22), and possibility (23) rather than imposition. (21) Guidance for maintaining services within health and care settings To ensure maximum workplace risk mitigation, organisations should undertake local risk assessments based on the measures as prioritised in the hierarchy of controls 265

Francesca Luisa Seracini

(22) Coronavirus restrictions what you can and cannot do Attendees will need to show proof of vaccination or a recent negative test (23) Guidance: Admission and care of residents in a care home during COVID-19 The fund can be used to help maintain the normal wages of staff who may need to self-isolate

Multimodal elements The analysis took into consideration the multimodal elements that were introduced as additions during the rewriting process from the legislative text to the guidance texts. Given the abundance of hyperlinks that are present on the guidance webpages, the analysis focused on these elements with the aim of identifying the function they serve. As regards the layout, the hyperlinks are usually either embedded in the text or inserted as clickable titles. Both text hyperlinks (taking the reader to another page or document) and book­ mark hyperlinks (taking the reader directly to another part of the webpage) are very frequent. The present study takes into consideration text hyperlinks and classifies them into seven categories based on their function. The first category includes hyperlinks that lead to other guidance texts on the GOV.UK website (www.gov.uk/coronavirus). For example, in the guidance Making a support bubble with another household the hyperlink to the guidance Making a childcare bubble with another household is embedded in the text (example [24]; hyperlink underlined). (24) (Guidance: Making a support bubble with another household) Support bubbles are different from childcare bubbles. The second category is represented by hyperlinks that connect the readers with the original legisla­ tive texts, if they require a more in-depth knowledge of the law concerning a certain topic (exam­ ple [25]; hyperlink underlined). (25) Guidance: Stepdown of infection control precautions and discharging COVID-19 patients and asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infected patients Please note that this guidance is of a general nature and that an employer should consider the specific conditions of each individual place of work and comply with all applicable legisla­ tion, including the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974. Hyperlinks falling into the third category connect the readers with the website of other depart­ ments of the British government or external institutions. In example (26), the link (underlined in the example) takes the readers directly to the website of the National Health Service, where they can download the NHS Covid-19 app referred to in the guidance. (26) Guidance: Coronavirus: How to stay safe and help prevent the spread Using the NHS COVID-19 app helps stop the spread of the virus by informing you that you have been in close contact with someone who has since tested positive for COVID-19, even if you do not know each other.

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The fourth category comprises hyperlinks that lead the readers to other webpages which represent the rules visually and provide supplementary advice in the form of infographics or YouTube videos (e.g., how to hand wash step by step, how to wear a face covering). This advice represents an addi­ tion to the rules and regulations provided in the original legislation. The fifth category includes hyperlinks that connect the reader to other versions of the same text: Either the translation into other languages or the intralingual translations into easy read or large print versions (e.g., Meeting Friends and Family). Hyperlinks in the sixth category lead to different webpages where additional information is provided, such as a general overview of the situation, updates, and key measures in place. The seventh category comprises hyperlinks that provide the reader with forms and templates necessary to fulfil the requirements of the law (e.g., risk assessment template for weddings).

Conclusion This case study provided an insight into the strategies that characterize the popularization of legal knowledge as a form of intralingual translation in a digital environment. The study indicated that the popularization of legislative texts satisfies the conditions put forward in Zethsen and HillMadsen’s (2016, p. 705) broad definition of translation. Firstly, the existence of a source text, in this case the Coronavirus legislation, from which the target texts derive. Secondly, the fact that the target texts result in a new product, characterized by a different communicative purpose –an informative rather than prescriptive purpose – and by different language features and form. Thirdly, the fact that there is a relationship of relevant similarity between source and target texts and that this similarity varies depending on the skopos. The skopos of the popularized texts in the Guidance Corpus is to inform the lay public about the rules imposed by the legislation, as well as to provide guidance and advice as regards their implementation in people’s everyday lives. In order to be accessible to a wider audience, the leg­ islative texts have undergone a process of rewording that simplify the texts at different levels. At a lexical level, the changes concern omissions and additions in the target texts. Omissions concern, for example, reference to institutions (e.g., department; council; body), official roles within insti­ tutions (e.g., secretary; ministers), cross reference to legal documents and sections in documents (e.g., act; amendment; article), reference to breach of law (e.g., offence; penalty). Additions can be seen in the use of hyponyms that refer to specific events, people, and tools (e.g., ppe; covering; mask) in place of the hypernyms found in the legislative texts (e.g., protection). The omissions and additions reveal a shift in focus from the institutions to the public, and from authority to support (e.g., the police referred to as local partners) in the target texts. The high number of occurrences of nouns with a positive connotation (e.g., care, support, advice) and the frequent use of the modals should, need, and can which characterize the Guidance Corpus also provide an indication of this shift. While the legislative texts express the law in terms of obliga­ tions and prohibitions, the popularized texts disseminate knowledge about legal measures in terms of necessity, advice, and possibility. The frequent use of hyponyms is also a result of the fact that, in order to communicate the legal measures, the popularized texts make use of hypothetical, concrete situations that the reader can easily relate to, while the legislative texts express rules and regulations in abstract terms. This confirms the tendency to shift from the conceptual to the ontic level in popularization identified by Simonnæs (2003, cited in Engberg, 2013, p. 20). This tendency was also found at a morphosyn­ tactic level in the frequent use of the second person pronoun you to address the recipient directly

267

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when communicating measures in the guidance texts, as well as the high number of concrete examples provided. The aforementioned changes introduced in the popularized texts, as well as the process of “de-terminologisation” (Montalt-Resurrecció & González Davies, 2007) whereby technical terms (e.g., linked household) are substituted with colloquial expressions (e.g., bubble) also affect the register, which is less formal compared to the legislative texts. Despite the fact that legal terms are often replaced by non-technical near-synonyms, in some cases they are retained in the form of glosses added to their non-technical equivalent (e.g., fixed penalty notice/fine); on the one hand, this ensures that some level of precision is maintained in the popularized texts, while, on the other hand, it allows readers to gradually familiarize with the specialized terminology (cf. Gülich, 2003). At a textual level, the readability formulas revealed that the popularized texts are easier to read than the legislative texts, but they are still classified as fairly difficult to read. The comparison with the reference corpus of BBC online news concerning Coronavirus prevention measures confirmed that guidance texts are more complex than the online news articles. This provides further indica­ tion of the fact that the changes introduced during the rewording process do not over-simplify guidance texts, thus preserving accuracy and a certain degree of technicality. The process of recontextualization of the legislative texts from written documents to digital multimodal texts also contributes to simplification. The numerous hyperlinks added to the target texts allow readers to choose the level of depth of the information (ranging from the documents of the original legislation to infographics or YouTube videos) without adding complexity to the text itself. Moreover, the fact that hyperlinks also give direct access to instruments needed to implement the legislation (e.g., forms and templates) “redirects” the purpose of the target texts to become a practical tool for the lay public. As the case study has highlighted, the digital environ­ ment offers new opportunities for expert-to-lay public adaptations that extend the boundaries of intralingual translation: While maintaining a relation of similarity with the source text, the target texts acquire new forms, communicative purposes, and functions that the readers can co-construct and customize according to their needs.

Note 1 All quotations and extracts fromwww.legislation.gov.uk/ and fromwww.gov.uk/ are used in the present paper under the Open Government Licence v3.0 (www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/ version/3/).

Further reading Bhatia, V. K., Chiavetta, E., & Sciarrino, S. (Eds.). (2015). Variations in specialized genres: Standardization and popularization. Narr Francke Attempto Verlag. Engberg, J., Luttermann, K., Cacchiani, S., & Preite, C. (Eds.). (2018). Popularization and knowledge media­ tion in the law. LIT. Kermas, S., & Christiansen, T. (Eds.). (2013). The popularization of specialized discourse across communi­ ties and cultures. Edipuglia.

References Askehave, I., & Zethsen, K. K. (2000). Medical texts made simple – Dream or reality? HERMES – Journal of Language and Communication in Business, 13(25), 63–74. https://doi.org/10.7146/hjlcb.v13i25.25585 Askehave, I., & Zethsen, K. K. (2008). Mandatory genres: The case of European Public Assessment Report (EPAR) summaries. Text & Talk, 28(2), 167–191.

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Intralingual translation in expert-to-lay public communication Bromme, R., Jucks, R., & Wagner, T. (2005). How to refer to “diabetes”? Language in online health advice. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 19(5), 569–586. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1002/acp.1099 Bromme, R., Rambow, R., & Nückles, M. (2001). Expertise and estimating what other people know: The in­ fluence of professional experience and type of knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 7(4), 317–330. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-898X.7.4.317 Cacchiani, S. (2018). The voice of the law on Gov.uk and Justice.gouv.fr. Good value to citizens and institu­ tions? In J. Engberg, K. Luttermann, S. Cacchiani, & C. Preite (Eds.), Popularization and knowledge mediation in the law (pp. 117–148). LIT. Calsamiglia, H. (2003). Popularization discourse. Discourse Studies, 5(2), 139–146. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/1461445603005002307 Calsamiglia, H., & Van Dijk, T. A. (2004). Popularization discourse and knowledge about the genome. Dis­ course & Society, 15(4), 369–389. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926504043705 Chesterman, A. (1997). Memes of translation: The spread of ideas in translation theory. John Benjamins. Dam-Jensen, H., & Zethsen, K. K. (2008). Translator awareness of semantic prosodies. Target, 20(2), 203– 221. https://doi.org/10.1075/target.20.2.02dam Engberg, J. (2013). Legal terminology: On intelligibility and strategies for dissemination. SYNAPS, 29, 18–30. Engberg, J. (2016). Conceptualising corporate criminal liability: Legal linguistics and the combination of de­ scriptive lenses. In G. Tessuto, V. K. Bhatia, G. Garzone, R. Salvi, & C. Williams (Eds.), Constructing le­ gal discourses and social practices. Issues and perspectives (pp. 28–56). Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Engberg, J., Luttermann, K., Cacchiani, S., & Preite, C. (2018). Studying popularization in legal communi­ cation: Introduction. In J. Engberg, K. Luttermann, S. Cacchiani, & C. Preite (Eds.), Popularization and knowledge mediation in the law (pp. IX–XXV). LIT. Ezpeleta-Piorno, P. (2021). An example of genre shift in the medicinal product information genre sys­ tem. Linguistica Antverpiensia, New Series – Themes in Translation Studies, 11, 187–206. https://doi. org/10.52034/lanstts.v11i.302 Gibson, E. (1998). Linguistic complexity: Locality of syntactic dependencies. Cognition, 68, 1–76. https:// doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(98)00034-1 Gotti, M. (2012). La riscrittura del testo da specialistico a divulgativo. Altre Modernità (Special Issue: Tra­ duzione e riscrittura), 145–159. https://doi.org/10.13130/2035-7680/2468 Gotti, M. (2016). The translation of legal texts: Interlinguistic and intralinguistic perspectives. ESP Today, 4(1), 5–21. Gülich, E. (2003). Conversational techniques used in transferring knowledge between medical experts and non-experts. Discourse Studies, 5(2), 235–263. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461445603005002005 Hill-Madsen, A. (2015). Lexical strategies in intralingual translation between registers. Hermes, 54, 85–105. https://doi.org/10.7146/hjlcb.v27i54.22949 Jakobson, R. (2000). On linguistic aspects of translation. In L. Venuti (Ed.), The translation studies reader (pp. 113–118). Routledge (Original work published 1959). Kilgarriff, A., Rychlý, P., Smrž, P., & Tugwell, D. (2004). The sketch engine. In Proceedings of the 11th EURALEX international congress (pp. 105–116). www.sketchengine.eu/ Lenzner, T., Kaczmirek, L., & Lenzner, A. (2010). Cognitive burden of survey questions and response times: A psycholinguistic experiment. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(7), 1003–1020. https://doi.org/10.1002/ acp.1602 McClure, G. M. (1987). Readability formulas: Useful or useless? IEEE Transactions on Professional Com­ munication, PC-30(1), 12–15. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPC.1987.6449109 Montalt-Resurrecció, V., & González Davies, M. (2007). Medical translation step by step. Learning by draft­ ing. St Jerome. Montalt-Resurrecció, V., & Shuttleworth, M. (2021). Research in translation and knowledge mediation in medical and healthcare settings. Linguistica Antverpiensia, New Series -Themes in Translation Studies, 11, 9–29. https://doi.org/10.52032/lanstts.v11i.294 Mossop, B. (2016). Intralingual translation: A desirable concept? Across Languages and Cultures, 17(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1556/084.2016.17.1.1 Muñoz-Miquel, A. (2021). From the original article to the summary for patients: Reformulation procedures in intralingual translation. Linguistica Antverpiensia, New Series – Themes in Translation Studies, 11, 187–206. https://doi.org/10.52034/lanstts.v11i.303 Muñoz-Miquel, A., Ezpeleta-Piorno, P., & Saiz-Hontangas, P. (2018). Intralingual translation in health­ care settings: Strategies and proposals for medical translator training. In V. Montalt, K. K. Zethsen &

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Francesca Luisa Seracini W. Karwacka (Eds.), Retos actuales y tendencias emergentes en traducción médica/Current Challenges and Emerging Trends in Medical Translation. MonTI, 10, 177–204. http://doi.org/10.6035/MonTI.2018.10.7 My Byline Media. (n.d.). Readability formulas. Retrieved September 8, 2022, from https://readabilityformu­ las.com Newmark, P. (1991). About translation. Multilingual Matters. Nielsen, R. K., Schulz A., & Fletcher, R. (2020). The BBC is under scrutiny. Here’s what research tells about its role in the UK. https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/news/bbc-under-scrutiny-heres-what-research­ tells-about-its-role-uk Ofcom. (n.d.). Covid-19 news and information: Consumption and attitudes – interactive data. Retrieved June 27, 2021, from www.ofcom.org.uk/research-and-data/tv-radio-and-on-demand/news-media/ coronavirus-news-consumption-attitudes-behaviour/interactive-data Pichert, J. W., & Elam, P. (1985). Readability formulas may mislead you. Patient Education and Counseling, 7(2), 181–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/0738-3991(85)90008-4 Pitler, E., & Nenkova, A. (2008). Revisiting readability: A unified framework for predicting text quality. In Proceedings of the 2008 conference on empirical methods in natural language processing (pp. 186–195). Association for Computational Linguistics. Preite, C. (2018). Stratégies dialogiques et transmission du savoir juridique dans le site du Ministère de la Justice français. In J. Engberg, K. Luttermann, S. Cacchiani, & C. Preite (Eds.), Popularization and knowledge mediation in the law (pp. 149–167). LIT. Raffo, M. (2016). Translation and popularization: Medical research in the communicative continuum. Meta, 61, 163–175. https://doi.org/10.7202/1038691ar Redish, J. (2020). Readability formulas have even more limitations than Klare discusses. ACM Journal of Computer Documentation, 24(3), 132–137. https://doi.org/10.1145/344599.344637 Rizzo, M. (2015). Intralingual translation as a tool of popularization: From law to information, from a bind­ ing regulation to an informative brochure. In V. K. Bhatia, E. Chiavetta, & S. Sciarrino (Eds.), Variations in specialized genres: Standardization and popularization (pp. 229–250). Narr Francke Attempto Verlag. Ruohonen, J. (2021). Assessing the readability of policy documents on the digital single market of the European Union. In Proceedings of the eighth international conference on eDemocracy & eGovernment (ICEDEG 2021) (pp. 205–209). IEEE. arXiv:2102.11625v2. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICEDEG52154.2021.9530996 Schubert, K. (2005). Translation studies: Broaden or deepen the perspective? In H. V. Dam, J. Engberg, & H. Gerzymisch-Arbogast (Eds.), Knowledge systems and translation (pp. 125–146). Walter de Gruyter. Seracini, F. L. (2020). La popolarizzazione delle leggi europee attraverso i canali multimediali: Aspetti lingu­ istici e obiettivi comunicativi. Lingue e Linguaggi, 34, 47–72. Seracini, F. L. (2021). The popularisation of legal rights in brochures: A multimodal analysis. In F. L. Seracini & F. Poli (Eds.), Specialised texts. Features, strategies and intercultural aspects (pp. 77–99). Educatt. Silletti, A. (2018). Analyse des publications de l’Union Européenne à visée vulgarisatrice. Le cas des illus­ trations. In J. Engberg, K. Luttermann, S. Cacchiani, & C. Preite (Eds.), Popularization and knowledge mediation in the law (pp. 223–248). LIT. Simonnæs, I. (2003). Verstehensprobleme bei Fachtexten. Abhandlung zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde. NHH. Stadnik, K. (2017). Popularisation of science as translation: A cultural linguistic account. Zagadnienia Rodza­ jów Literackich, 60, 37–51. http://doi.org/10.26485/ZRL/2017/60.3/3 Stubbs, M. (2007). On texts, corpora and models of language. In M. Hoey, M. Mahlberg, M. Stubbs, & W. Teubert (Eds.), Text, discourse and corpora: Theory and analysis (pp. 127–162). Continuum. Telles, S. V., & Salotti, B. M. (2021). Intelligibility vs readability: Understandability measures of financial information. Revista Universo Contábil, 16(2), 110–126. https://proxy.furb.br/ojs/index.php/universocon­ tabil/article/view/8771. http://doi.org/10.4270/ruc.2020209 UK Government. (n.d.). Coronavirus legislation. The National Archives. Retrieved February 1, 2022 from www.legislation.gov.uk/coronavirus Zethsen, K. K. (2009). Intralingual translation: An attempt at description. Meta, 54(4), 795–812. https://doi. org/10.7202/038904ar Zethsen, K. K., & Hill-Madsen, A. (2016). Intralingual translation and its place within translation studies – A theoretical discussion. Meta, 61(3), 692–708. https://doi.org/10.7202/1039225ar

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PART IV

Intralingual translation Rewording and editing

16 EDITING AND INTRALINGUAL TRANSLATION Rewriting for clarity and consistency Linda Pillière

Introduction A novel is usually associated in most people’s minds with the name of a specific author, but writers do not write in isolation, locked away in some remote ivory tower, producing a book out of thin air. Before a book is published, it has undergone a great deal of rewriting by the author, as Lessinger (2020) demonstrates, but also at every stage in its production. Rewriting may be prompted by a senior editor’s suggestions or by the need to meet a publisher’s specific in-house norms or style sheet, or even by the suggestions of a copyeditor in the name of consistency and clarity. All these rewritings can be categorised as intralingual translation insofar as they entail rewording or the “interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language” (Jakobson, 1959, p. 233). This chapter explores editing as a form of intralingual translation, seeking to shed light on both the processes involved and the underlying reasons for the process. In doing so, it will also compare and contrast the techniques and procedures of editing and translation. The chapter will be divided into four parts. The first part will investigate translation as a form of rewriting. The second and third parts will compare and contrast editing and translating and examine the role of the editor in the rewriting of the typescript prior to publication. This will require a brief presentation of the various roles of the editor and a comparison of the role of the editor to that of a translator. In the fourth part, the rewriting techniques of the editor will be analysed in more detail, by comparing correspondence between authors and their editors and studying edited typescripts prior to publication. I will propose a typology of the various changes that are suggested before studying in more detail some of the microstrategies involved and how these may compare to interlingual strategies. My corpus will be using research material available at the Harry Ransom Center (HRC) which houses the archives of many twentieth- and twentyfirst-century writers. I have chosen to focus mainly on two of those authors: Jim Crace (1946–) and Ian McEwan (1948–) as both are British writers of a comparable age, and their works have been checked by both British copyeditors and US copyeditors for publication in the USA. The archives of both writers also offer comparable material. The works I will use for case studies are Crace’s Harvest (2013) and McEwan’s Amsterdam (1998). The limited time span in which these novels were written allows me to offer a synchronic analysis of copyediting as a form of intralingual translation. 273

DOI: 10.4324/9781003188872-21

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Rewriting and translation Rewriting as a form of translation was initially introduced by Jakobson (1959, p. 114) in his defi­ nition of intralingual translation as “rewording” or “an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language”. This definition implied that it was only intralingual trans­ lation that involved rewriting. However, in his seminal work, André Lefevere (1992) proposed that rewriting should be considered as an umbrella term for every type of translation, adaptation, editing and redrafting, all of which are constrained by economic, ideological or aesthetic norms. Lefevere’s definition of rewriting as “the adaptation of a work of literature to a different audi­ ence, with the intention of influencing the way in which that audience reads the work” (1982, p. 4), introduces a shift away from considering the concept of language as the primary object of transla­ tion studies, be that rewriting in the same language, or from one language to another, to the social actors involved in the process of translation: “Who rewrites, why, under what circumstances, for which audience” (Lefevere, 1992, p. 7). This implies that “translation can no longer be analysed in isolation, but . . . should be studied as part of a whole system of texts and the people who produce, support, propagate, oppose, censor them” (Lefevere, 1985, p. 237). Whatever degree of rewriting is involved, “rewriters adapt, manipulate the originals they work with to some extent, usually to make them fit in with the dominant, or one of the dominant ideological and poetological currents of their time” (Lefevere, 1992, p. 8). There are thus two principal forces at work influencing the rewriting: Poetics and ideology. Lefevere sees poetics as “an inventory of literary devices, genres, motifs, prototypical characters and situations, and symbols” (1992, p. 26), an internal constraint within the literary system, while ideology is an external constraint, represented by government, patronage and other agents of authority. Lefevere’s approach thus goes beyond a purely linguistic approach to translation that might focus on microstrategies, to considering the underlying reasons for the rewriting. Moreover, if rewriting can be considered common to all forms of translation, rewriting and adaptations, then we need to consider the ways in which the interventions of an edi­ tor may be comparable to that of a translator.

Translating and editing: two sides of the same coin? Although it may not be immediately apparent to the general reader, both editors and translators share many points in common (Greenberg, 2018; Pillière, 2021). Both remain invisible to the gen­ eral reader: Editors “are always in the ‘backroom’” (McCormack, 2006, p. 83), rather than centre stage, while translators’ names go largely unnoticed by the general reader who tends to identify a translated work with the original author. Indeed, “for readers who cannot check the translation against the original, the translation, quite simply, is the original” (Lefevere, 1992, p.110, original emphasis). Moreover, both translators and editors rewrite the source text. Indeed, for novelist and journal­ ist Louise Doughty, editing and rewriting are interchangeable terms (Greenberg, 2015, p. 104), and according to Ileene Smith, vice-president and executive editor of Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, “the editor’s engagement with the text is creative in the way that a fine translator is creative” (Green­ berg, 2015, pp. 50–51). For Ginna (2017, p. 3), the resemblance between editor and translator is more a question of communication; the editor is “a connector – a conduit from writer to reader – but also a translator, improving the communication from each to the other”. Both editors and trans­ lators rewrite with the potential reader in mind, seeking to correct or avoid textual ambiguities, while at the same time wishing to respect the author’s ideas. Mossop (2001/2014, p. 18) takes this a step further, drawing a parallel between the editor and “a language therapist who improves the 274

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text to ensure ease of mental processing and suitability of the text for future users”. The role of the editor as a “language therapist”, seeking to improve the readability of a text, is clearly evoked by Nan Talese in her correspondence with Ian McEwan concerning The Child in Time, where she suggests, “it is important in this novel to Americanize the words and make clear any scenes that might now lose the reader” if the novel is “to reach that larger American audience” that she feels McEwan’s novel deserves (McEwan, 1987b). The grey area between editing and translating was recognised by Stetting (1989, p. 374) who coined the term “transediting” and made a distinction between three types of transediting (Stetting, 1989, p. 376): “Adaptation to a standard of efficiency in expression or ‘cleaning up transediting’”; “adaptation to the intended function of the translated text in its new social context: ‘situational transediting’”; and “adaptation to the needs and conventions of the target culture ‘cultural tran­ sediting’”. Yet despite the common characteristics shared by editing and translating, there has been little research on editing fiction per se with the notable exceptions of Hemmungs-Wirtén (2001) and Schmid (2009). What research there has been has tended to focus on editing journalism (see Bielsa & Bassnett, 2009; Cheesman & Nohl, 2010). Editing fiction is more complex than editing journalism insofar as it involves a greater degree of creativity. Schneider (2023) goes as far as to argue that copyediting fiction requires a different mindset to that required for editing non-fiction. Among the differences that she notes are those of grammar and style which “are much more informal and cutting-edge in fiction . . . particularly in dialogue and first-person narration” (Schneider, 2023, p. 135). She suggests ignoring misplaced either/only, the who/whom distinction, comma splices and sentence fragments, all of which would probably fall victim to the blue pencil in journalism. Despite these differences, the values of “con­ sistency and clarity” (Schneider, 2023, p. 138) are still the main guidelines for editors in both fiction and journalism. Contrary to an interlingual translation, the rewriting practised by editors is, of course, always submitted to authors for approval, and how an author reacts to the suggestions will vary. Authors who are confident about their use of English and are firmly established writers may well write “stet” opposite the suggested changes far more often than those who are writing their first novel. Similarly, copyeditors may vary in how they present their suggestions, often adding an “ok?” after their suggestion (McEwan, 1998). In interlingual translation, a translator’s rewriting becomes apparent when the source text is compared to the target text, although there is always the possi­ bility that the rewriting may be the work of a copyeditor, rather than that of a translator (Kruger, 2017). In intralingual translation, changes only become apparent when two editions of a work are compared, as in the case of a US edition and a UK edition (Pillière, 2021), or when the type­ script and editorial correspondence are compared. In the first instance, it is of course possible that the author themselves made some changes for the US edition, especially if they themselves are American. This may be the case for the substitution of cultural references, for example, but when grammatical substitutions are made for structures that are acceptable on both sides of the Atlantic but are specifically criticised by US style guides, the changes are more likely to have been made by a copyeditor.

The various roles of editors as rewriters and translators The rewriting role of editors occurs at various levels and can be far more varied than that of a translator. A general distinction is usually made between substantive editing, which focuses on the book’s content, and in the case of a novel, its plot and characterisation; line editing which con­ centrates on the finer details of content and style, and copyediting which ensures the manuscript 275

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is ready for printing by checking spelling and removing ambiguities, repetitions and grammatical errors. Substantive editing may include advice on reorganising passages, omission and addition. Correspondence between Nan Talese, then publisher and editor-in-chief at Houghton Mifflin, and Ian McEwan, on the manuscript of The Child in Time, provides an example of how Talese suggests reworking the opening of the novel: I have read the beginning of the novel starting at page 11, and while I mainly think this is the perfect solution to the repetition of the early first meeting, I think something is lost in not setting up the committee and the place in time at the outset. If you start at page one, and follow to the top of page three, we will have the purpose of the committee introduced. Then you could cut to page 11 and write a transitional paragraph after line 8 (. . . attention and say nothing.), or even include the next two sentences to “. . . what he was going to do about himself”. (McEwan, 1986) In some cases, such structural rewriting occurs between two editions of a novel. Bill Bryson’s Notes from a Small Island (1996), for example, has been reorganised for the US reader. Its ini­ tial chapter begins by focusing on Bryson’s personal observations about life in Britain, unlike the UK edition (1995) which gives a more chronological sequence of events with a prologue that describes Bryson’s initial arrival as a foreigner in the UK in 1973. Bryson’s disembark­ ing from the midnight ferry at Dover “on a foggy night in 1973” (Bryson, 1995, p. 19) is not mentioned in the US edition until several pages later. Such structural rewriting can obviously introduce important changes to the narrative and influence how events are perceived by the reader. In the case of Bryson, the restructuring of the US edition results in a change of tone, with the narrator regarding the British from the perspective of an outsider, that of an American first focusing on the foibles and idiosyncratic behaviour of the British, before turning to his personal history. The UK edition, on the other hand, highlights the length of time that the nar­ rator has been in the UK, thus establishing his credentials both as an expert able to speak of all things British and as an “insider” which, in turn, results in the narrator no longer adopting an “us and them” approach. Rewriting on the macrolevel is not limited to changes in the overall plot structure. It can also occur when a work containing a number of cultural references is republished in another Eng­ lish-speaking country where the references could prove problematic. Works such as those by Bill Bryson illustrate this quite clearly. The republication of the work in the United States involves changing the standpoint of the speaker and rendering explicit what would have been understood by the British reader. The following examples from The Road to Little Dribbling (Bryson, 2015a, 2015b) illustrate this point: Everyone knows one thing about Skegness, that is that it is bracing. (Bryson, 2015a, p. 323) Everyone in Britain knows one thing about Skegness, a coastal resort in Lincolnshire, and that is that it is bracing. (Bryson, 2015b, p. 251) Lincolnshire is a long way from everywhere.

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(Bryson, 2015a, p. 324)

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Lincolnshire is a big, flat, boring, empty country a long way away from anywhere. (Bryson, 2015b, p. 252) Such additions are short but reveal a difference in point of view: “Everyone” is no longer inclusive of the British reader since Skegness is no longer presented as easily identifiable, and in the second quotation a more critical stance is taken towards Lincolnshire, which would risk alienating British readers from that county. Explicitations can sometimes run to several paragraphs, adding informa­ tion that the narrator, adopting the persona of a US citizen writing to and for US citizens, deems interesting for the new readership. Thus, in the US edition (Bryson, 2015b, p. 285) there are two extra paragraphs added to the text’s beginning, “Speaking of islands, here is an interesting fact. Nobody knows how many islands there are in the British Isles”. The rewriting here goes beyond an explicitation of a cultural reference and reveals a different stance in relation to the British and to the reader. Bryson’s works are an excellent example of extensive rewriting that can occur when a work is republished on the other side of the Atlantic. Such extensive rewriting is rarely found in interlingual translation, although ideological constraints may engender some omissions or rewrit­ ing, especially in translated children’s literature (Borodo, 2020). Line editors and copyeditors, on the other hand, are concerned with the finer details of a text, the types of changes more easily identified with translation strategies. However, in practice, the distinction between these different editorial roles is less obvious, added to which the titles given to the various roles may change slightly from one publishing house to another. Writing to McEwan (McEwan, 1997) about his novel Enduring Love, Pascal Cariss, then copyeditor with Jonathan Cape, combines the typical queries of a copyeditor – “minor confusions, the odd repetition” – with comments of a more substantive nature regarding the plot itself: Most of what follows is, editorially, nickel and dime stuff: minor confusions, the odd repeti­ tion or potential inconsistency. However, I have one larger question arising from when Joe suddenly remembers the significance of the drawn curtains and his mind races forward. . . . I guess I expected the implications of Clérambault’s theory to be revealed. My worries are, first the reader feels cheated of a scene you’ve almost led him (or her) to expect; second, that since the reader’s only access to the implications of de Clérambault’s syndrome at this time . . . the plot here will appear overly rigged. Similarly, Nan Talese may well focus on plot structure and characterisation as editor-in-chief, but that does not prevent her from drawing attention to details usually considered to be within the remit of a copyeditor; in correspondence to McEwan regarding The Child in Time, Talese not only suggests numerous cuts (substantive editing) but also substitutions of a proper noun for a pronoun (Stephen for he) or everyone for most people (line editing) (McEwan, 1987a). If the work of an editor can be compared to that of a translator, the question then arises as to whether they both use the same strategies and techniques. Translation strategies have been approached from a number of different perspectives and have been identified as operating at both the macrolevel and the microlevel. At the macrolevel, various scholars have identified translation universals (Baker, 1996), laws (Chesterman, 1997/2016; Toury, 2004) or norms (Hermans, 1999). Following Baker (1996), most have focused on the four universals that she proposes: Explicitation, the addition of extra information or specification of terms for the target reader; simplification which may be lexi­ cal, stylistic or syntactic (Laviosa Braithwaite, 2001, p. 288); normalisation or a tendency to “conform to patterns and practices which are typical of the target language, even to the point 277

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of exaggerating them” (Baker, 1996, p. 176) and levelling-out which refers to the tendency of translations to converge towards the middle of a continuum with respect to their features and so to standardise the language. The concept of translation universals has had a mixed reception, and space does not allow me to present the various arguments here (see Dam-Jensen & Heine, 2013; House, 2008; Pym, 2008). Suffice to say that the four universals are generally analysed through the use of specific linguistic features. Explicitation is found in the introduction of the optional complementiser that (Olohan & Baker, 2000; Williams, 2005) or the addition of linking adverbials (Mutesayire, 2004). Introducing inclusive language or avoiding neologisms is typical of normalisation while simplification is reflected in lexical density (Laviosa, 1998) and mean word length (Kruger & van Rooy, 2012). These universals have sometimes been placed under umbrella terms such as standardisation (Toury, 1995; Mossop, 2001/2014), decomplexification (Zanettin, 2012, p. 13), deforming tendencies (Berman, 1985/2012) and risk aversion (Pym, 2008). Whether one accepts the concept of universals or not, most scholars seem to agree that there is “an almost general tendency – irrespective of the translator’s identity, language, genre, period, and the like – to explicate in the translation information that is only implicit in the origi­ nal text” (Toury, 1980, p. 60). Insofar as editing, like translation, is a form of mediated discourse, it is hardly surprising that it has also been analysed in terms of universal strategies (Lanstyák & Heltai, 2012; Ulrych & Murphy, 2008) even though empirical studies on the existence of universals in edited texts, unedited texts and translated texts have not been conclusive (Kruger, 2012; Bisiada, 2017). Kruger’s (2012) study is especially interesting as it focuses on edited texts, unedited texts and translated texts. She points out that despite their similarities, fundamental differences exist between editing and interlingual translation. The latter is concerned with producing a new text and thus resorts more easily to explicitation or simplification whereas editing is more constrained and conventional. This leads her to suggest that editing may have its own specific linguistic features and that some features found in translation might be the work of editors and not translators. Her hypothesis is validated by Bisiada (2017) who applies Kruger’s univer­ sals to German and concludes that a more detailed analysis of editing is required to ascertain whether features that are identified as being typical of translated texts may in fact be the result of revisions and editorial interventions. A further study (Kruger, 2017) provides “support for the hypothesis that editing may affect texts in terms of formal and propositional explicitness, the degree of normalisation or conventionalisation, and relative complexity” (Kruger, 2017, p. 147). This suggests that the features commonly associated with interlingual translation might actually be the result of editing and revising (intralingual translation), thus calling into question the clearcut boundaries between intra- and interlingual translation that Jakobson’s tripartite distinction seems to suggest. Although these studies do not focus on fiction, therefore raising the question as to whether their conclusions are transferrable, they nevertheless provide a useful tool for exploring whether the editing tendencies that have been observed in transla­ tions can also be applied to any edited text. At the microlevel, strategies commonly identified with interlingual translation, such as sub­ stitution or expansion, can also be found in the editorial interventions, although the underlying reasons may well be different to those found in interlingual translation. Zethsen (2009) points out that the strategies or shifts found in intralingual translation have all been identified in interlingual translation. A number of typologies for these strategies exists, starting with Vinay and Darbelnet’s (1958/1995) study and its seven microstrategies – adaptation, calque, equivalence, modulation, borrowing, literal translation and transposition – and further developed by Baker (1992/2018), Catford (1965), Chesterman (1997/2016) and Newmark (1988), among others. 278

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A typology of copyediting modifications Robin (2014, 2018) proposes a typology of revisional interventions on the basis “of language and translational rules, norms and strategies” (Robin, 2018, p. 155). She presents five catego­ ries: Rule-based, norm-based, strategy-based, preference-based and defective-based. Rule-based modifications offer no alternatives and remove grammatical errors. Norm-based modifications are optional but conform to the norms of the target language; if they are not applied the text may read as unidiomatic, or stylistically original. In the photocopied typescript of The Remains of the Day, submitted by the agent to Faber, there are a number of handwritten annotations by the then editor Robert McCrum that are norm-based. He suggests replacing America with the United States (Ishiguro, 1988, p. 2) and sink (Ishiguro, 1988, p. 29) with basin. Deviating from the norm may of course be intentional on the part of the author, especially in literary texts. Crace, for example, is recognised for his use of neologisms and has even been labelled as a “consummate wordsmith” (Flood, 2015). Many of his neologisms are slight deviations from the lexicon such as cuissardes instead of cuisses for a frog or hock of bread instead of hunk of bread or even a brunette of bread instead of a baguette. Needless to say, the copyeditor, Donna Poppy, queried all these neologisms (Crace, 2001), but Crace refused to admit any changes. Contrary to norm and rule-based modifications, strategy-based modifications are optional and aim at making the text more readable and accessible. According to Robin (2018, p. 157) such modifications obey Grice’s (1975) maxims such as “the general principles of communication and cooperation, in accordance with conversational maxims such as adequate and truthful informa­ tion, clarity, relevance, brief and orderly manner of speech”. Preference-based changes, unlike the categories mentioned so far, are unnecessary and reflect the reviser’s personal preference. Finally, defective-based modifications are changes that are erroneous. Given that Robin’s research focuses on revisions carried out on translations, I have slightly modified her typology to represent more closely the possible modifications of a copyeditor (see Table 16.1). To Robin’s initial categories I have added content-based modifications, as copyedi­ tors also check for factual and logical errors, along with lay-out based modifications as some copyeditors also suggest changes concerning paragraphs, titles and so on. Finally, I have rela­ belled strategy-based modifications and used the term “style-based”, a term closer to Mossop’s (2001/2014, p. 134) group C revision parameters. This term covers removal of awkward phrasing and enhancing textual cohesion and readability. Under this heading can be found some of the strategy-based modifications outlined by Robin, such as avoidance of verbosity and clarity but also the smoothing of sentences (Mossop, 2001/2014, pp. 67–69), which includes expressing parallel ideas in parallel forms. Table 16.1 A typology of editing modifications (Adapted from Robin, 2018; Mossop, 2001/2014) Modification

Prescriptive force

Reason for intervention

Rule-based

compulsory

Content-based Norm-based Style-based Lay-out based Preference-based Defective-based

compulsory optional optional optional unnecessary Erroneous

linguistic rules of TL in-house style guide consistency, correctness accuracy TL norms readability, clarity, smoothing readability editor’s own preference not correcting errors or committing new ones

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As with any typology, the boundaries between the various categories outlined in Table 16.1 are not always as clear-cut as may at first seem. Style-based modifications sometimes border on per­ sonal preference. Repetition is a case in point. Writing to Jim Crace (Crace, 2006) regarding The Pesthouse, copyeditor Donna Poppy outlines the words that she feels have been “overused” in the typescript. Among these are then, of course and certainly at the start of a sentence, and though in the middle of a sentence, all of which she suggests removing. Insofar as repetition is involved here, these modifications could be deemed to be strategy-based. On the other hand, there is also an ele­ ment of preference on the part of the copyeditor. It could be argued that the expressions are typical of an oral narrative or the narrator’s idiolect and therefore have their place in the text. Querying the use of the pronoun they for a singular subject (McEwan, 1978) is both norm-based, insofar as some usage guides at the time would find the singular/plural switch unacceptable, and preference-based insofar as not all usage guides agreed. Despite this, the typology provides a useful starting point for our study and helps to illustrate the differences and similarities between the work of an editor and that of a translator and the degree to which there may be a rewriting of the text.

Case studies Using this typology, I have sought to ascertain the various levels of rewriting that might occur in the work of a copyeditor. Trying to measure the modifications proposed by copyeditors from a quantitative perspective is extremely difficult. Both copyeditor and author are individuals, and although they follow an in-house style guide and the advice of editing manuals such as Einsohn (2000/2019) or guides such as the Chicago Manual of Style, there will invariably be differences in approach. Table 16.2 therefore offers a qualitative approach, providing examples of the various categories. Out of the 40 proposed changes, 33 are style-based (82.5%) if the single preference-based proposed change is included. Of these proposed modifications, only eight were refused by the author. Style-based modifications, as we saw earlier, seek to improve the general flow of the text. This may involve removing wordiness or verbosity, smoothing the syntax or ensuring the con­ nections between the sentences are clear. These strategies, sometimes found under other names such as concision or clarity, are to be found in most usage guides and editing manuals (see for example Butcher et al., 2006; Einsohn, 2000/2019; Harris, 2017; Schneider, 2023). Repetition occurs 14 times (42%) as a reason for modification, either on grounds of concision, thus resulting in proposed omission, or more commonly because it is deemed “awkward”, thus requiring sub­ stitution or more extensive rewriting. The strategies used to improve the text’s fluidity therefore closely resemble some of the microstrategies identified in interlingual translation such as explici­ tation, omission and substitution (see Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958/1995; Catford, 1965; Chesterman, 1997/2016; Newmark, 1988). However, while these microstrategies may be necessary in interlingual translation, in intralingual translation they remain optional and, as seen in Table 16.2, are sometimes refused by the author. In fiction, rewriting for consistency, clarity and overall read­ ability takes a variety of forms, from simply substituting a proper noun for a pronoun to reworking the syntax or maintaining a specific perspective. In the final section of this chapter, I will focus on the effects of editorial rewriting and narrative perspective, as perspective and voice are especially important in works of fiction. Schneider (2023, pp. 139–140) underlines that novelists frequently change perspective and write from a range of perspectives or point of view, generally choosing “their narrative distance with care”, but she also points out that copyeditors should “watch for passages where narrative distance has inadvertently slipped from one form to another” and seek to “ensure 280

Editing and intralingual translation Table 16.2 Copyediting suggestions for Amsterdam made by Pascal Cariss (McEwan, 1998) Rule-based Page Line

Example (in bold in the original)

Proposed change

Reason for intervention

7

nineteen seventy-eight

1978

in-house style accepted guide: consistency

7

Content-based 90 3 Carlton Gardens 142–3 20/1 What Clive had intended on Friday and posted on Saturday was 158 15 Name of bridge to be inserted Norm-based 45 7 52

11

Style-based 17 1

Carlton Terrace as p. 41 consistency chronology: intended on consistency Thursday and posted on Friday No proposed change accuracy except re spelling Brouwersgeracht (without final e: gracht)

A grand piano was carried

Winched

a good story on Friday about a Siamese twin

a good story on Friday about a pair of Siamese twins

These are . . . we are

Addition of speaker (Garmony) Jack Mobey . . . Vernon. Remove repetition Lines 5–6 on the next page echo this. He knew exactly when it Backshifting of tense: when began the night before, it had begun, as he had as he stood up. . . stood up George thought/he Repetition. Suggested thought change: replace second thought with imagined right side . . . his finger Repetition right across Deletion of second right second hand./His hands Repetition deletion

30

5–7

30

16

33

6&7

37

12

37

15–16

42

17 & 18 see/seeing

43 44

3–4 12

Clive was . . . him to go Last occasion he was

53

4

Vernon visited

Repetition

Author’s reaction

accepted accepted information to be added

consistency, correctness accuracy TL norms

accepted

clarity

modified

concision

stet

clarity

accepted

smoothing

stet

smoothing

accepted

“awkward”

accepted and modified accepted and modified stet accepted

“awkward” smoothing clarity clarity

Backshifting Change of tense The last occasion he would be alone Backshifting: Vernon had clarity visited

accepted

accepted

(Continued) 281

Linda Pillière Table 16.2 (Continued) Rule-based Page Line

Example (in bold in the original)

55

1

64

4&6

There were long Backshifting: There had conversations been long conversations Small talk . . . small hotel Repetition “one small too many”

65

3

69 71 85 86 87

Proposed change

What actually happened Backshifting: What actually had happened 9 & 12 So and so (twice) Repetition 18 Of course. If it’s OK Substitution of dash for to . . . ellipsis point as character is interrupting 16 There was another Backshifting: There had possibility been another possibility 16 All the while he is talking Backshifting: All the while he was talking 19 over and over Avoid repetition since it’s anticipated by overlapping

Reason for intervention

Author’s reaction

clarity

accepted

smoothing clarity

accepted (delete second) stet

smoothing clarity

stet accepted

clarity

accepted

clarity

accepted

smoothing

accepted and modified (first “over” deleted, second replaced by “above” accepted Modified to “again and more” stet

88

3&4

more and more

Repetition

91

10

Then he pulled out

97

14

98

19–20

101

13

not so long ago he was afflicted Why did we so often lie about sleep on the phone? Was it our vulnerability we defended? The young man stalked

Backshifting: Then he had clarity pulled out Backshifting: he had been clarity afflicted Why do we so often lie . . . clarity Is it our vulnerability we are defending?

102

14

118

7&9

Backshifting: The young man had stalked time he started listening time he started listening to his junior staff, and to his junior staff, time he brought them on. brought them on. Repetition of also Removal

282

smoothing

accepted stet

clarity

stet

consistency of the feeling of a thought-process smoothing

accepted accepted and modified with “then” for second “also”

Editing and intralingual translation Rule-based Page Line

Example (in bold in the original)

Proposed change

Reason for intervention

Author’s reaction

119

2&4

Repetition of down

Removal

smoothing

119

4

Filled us in

consistency (of voice)

119

15

124

6&7

Vernon knew Garmony was sunk, but he could not help but not Fought her husband’s . . . neglected corners

Queried “conspiratorial us (narrator and reader?) jarred “abutting buts seems awkward” Although he could not help Repetition

accepted and modified: second “down” replaced with “by the trees” accepted

129

13ff

131

18

145

8

158

15

“Timescale is momentarily Backshifting: Alter was of disorientating” the first sentence to had been might not have felt so Might not feel so strongly strongly When Clive arrived Backshifting: When Clive had arrived the critic who Backshifting pronounced Insert had after who?

Preference-based 45 16 Some of the posters were “Anal I know, but double worth more than some of some still niggles” the paintings

smoothing

stet

smoothing

clarity

accepted and modified second corner = aspects Queried

clarity

Accepted

clarity

Accepted

clarity

Accepted

editor’s own preference

Accepted

consistency and clarity in whatever point of view and tense the author has chosen”. While the above is wise advice, it is also, perhaps deliberately, rather vague, and in the case of free indirect style, where there is unavoidably “some blending between the speech or thought of a character and the narrative voice” (Hodson, 2014, p. 87), there will automatically be slip­ page from one point of view to another. Such shifts may result from the presence of deixis or change of tense. Proximal deixis points to the speaker’s position in time (now) or space (here) while distal deixis refers to a time (then) and a space (there) unoccupied by the speaker. These adverbs are therefore crucial in indicating point of view, whether it be the character’s or the narrator’s, and “serve to anchor the fictional world, which, in turn, provides a window and vantage point for readers” (Simpson, 1993, p. 15). Other deictic markers include this, that and deictic verbs such as come and bring (see Sotirova, 2024, for a detailed analysis of the role of the linguistic features to be found in free indirect style). It goes therefore without saying that 283

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the substitution of one deictic for another, or its removal, or a suggested change in tense on the grounds of clarity and consistency can have important repercussions on the perspective or point of view created. In Harvest by Jim Crace, events are recounted by the main character Walter Thirsk, who nar­ rates both the past and the present “an instance of fairly complex simultaneous narration which leaves the exact position from which the story is narrated tantalisingly vague” (Huber, 2016, p. 71). For Huber (2016, p. 71), “the novel seems to attempt to evade historical hindsight both on the level of the historical distance of the reader and on the level of Walter’s own perspective on the narrated events”. It is therefore of little surprise that there are continual shifts from proximal deictics and present tense to distal deictics and past tense. Huber (2016, p. 73) posits that Crace’s use of the present tense is responsible for creating three effects: “The lack of a retrospective narra­ tive assessment of the situation” which “allows the novel to withhold judgement, while the reader is implicitly asked to weigh the moral implications of the characters’ actions”; the creation of an oral speaking voice that suits the uneducated main character, Walter; and finally the “fluent shift between a narrative and an iterative use of the present tense” which at times stresses “the continu­ ity and changelessness of the rural way of life” presented in the novel. Not surprisingly, the shifts from present to past did not escape the notice of copyeditor Donna Poppy, and while Crace is full of praise for the editing, he does note in an email to her that some of the changes that she suggests introduce a more formal note: “There was some tension between the formal and the conversational and I had to wonder once in a while if Walter would be as observant as you” (Crace, 2012a). In similar fashion, he writes to Kate Harvey, then editorial director at Picador, “there has been a tussle between Donna’s perfect grammar and Walter’s conversational tone. (Walter won mostly)” (Crace, 2012b). How far Walter “won” is open to question as the copyeditor’s suggested smoothing of tenses, and the substitution of the past tense for the present, found its way into the final published work, as shown by the following example: What wind there’s been since yesterday when we dispatched the final sheaf has gath­ ered up and spread much of the lighter, finer chaff. The village has been freckled by the chaff. (Crace, 2012c, p. 41) The suggested style-based changes, which were probably based on the presence of the adverb “yesterday” and a desire for consistency (distal deictic and past tense), resulted in the following modifications for the published work: What wind there was since yesterday after we dispatched the final sheaf gathered up and spread much of the lighter, finer chaff. The village has been freckled by the chaff. (emphasis added; Crace, 2013, p. 60) Similarly, at another point in the novel, Walter is describing Master Jordan’s version of events: The cousin’s version, though, is not so tender on the ear. There is no regret. He does not have a dream in which we “friends and neighbours” are made rich and leisurely, where we are sitting at our fires at home and weaving fortunes for ourselves from yarn; I think he judges us rich and leisurely enough already. No. Master Jordan only has a scheme. (Crace, 2012c, p. 68)

284

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The published novel has again followed the copyeditor’s suggestions: The cousin’s version, though, was not so tender on the ear. There was no regret. He did not have a dream in which we “friends and neighbours” were made rich and leisurely, where we were sitting at our fires at home and weaving fortunes for ourselves from yarn; I think he judges us rich and leisurely enough already. No. Master Jordan only had a scheme. (emphasis added; Crace, 2013, p. 100) Likewise, the reporting verbs for Master Jordan’s speech, which are in the present in the typescript, he says, are modified to he said in accordance with the copyeditor’s suggestion. The use of the pre­ sent tense to relate what someone else has said is typical of informal oral narratives (Quirk et al., 1972, p. 1457) and often used to present a more vivid account, but again the suggested change was probably made for reasons of consistency as the reporting verb in the present alternated with the narrative and reporting verbs in the past tense. Even past-tense narration may give rise to rewriting, notably when an action takes place in a past that is anterior to the main narrative. For Schneider (2023, p. 141), a common error in this instance is to forget to use the past perfect tense, what she calls the “super past”, and she illustrates her point with the following example: I tiptoed into the room, which was obviously ransacked before I arrived. (past tense only) I tiptoed into the room, which had obviously been ransacked before I arrived. (past tense followed by past perfect, to indicate prior action) Schneider goes on to comment: “Past perfect indicating the ‘past of the past’ usually provides an effective signpost that’s something happened before the current action”. In spite of these rec­ ommendations, Schneider (2023, pp. 140–141) recognises that the use of the past perfect is not “always necessary and can be intrusive, particularly in long flashback passages”. The problem then is that there is no hard and fast rule, so some copyeditors err on the side of safety, or practise what Pym (2008) labels as “risk aversion”, while others are more likely to adopt a less rigorous approach. If we take the case of Ian McEwan and Amsterdam (McEwan, 1998), as illustrated in Table 16.2, there are 13 instances when the copyeditor, Pascal Cariss, suggests a backshifting of tenses. Cariss (McEwan, 1998) queries “some possible tense confusions” which, in fact, are sug­ gestions for using the past perfect instead of the simple past, for example, referring to page 43 of the typescript, he writes: Clive was . . . him to go. Shouldn’t the tenses be altered here to read: Clive had been a true friend when Vernon’s second marriage came apart, and he had encouraged him to go? Or does the choice of tense reinforce the idea that this is Vernon’s thought process? As Table 16.2 illustrates, McEwan did not accept all the suggested changes for backshifting tenses suggested by the UK copyeditor. However, when the UK edition is compared with its US counterpart, there are 17 occurrences of backshifting of tenses that are not to be found in the UK edition (McEwan, 2006a). There seems to be little grounds for considering this to be a dialectal difference; it is far more likely that the US copyeditor applied the rules of clarity and consistency with more zeal (for a more detailed analysis of such changes see Pillière, 2021). These changes were apparently made without the knowledge of the author (private correspondence) or Nan Talese (McEwan, 2006b).

285

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Concluding remarks This chapter has examined the work of editors from the perspective of intralingual translation, and more broadly, as representing a form of rewriting. By studying editing as a form of rewriting, the idea of the novel as a collaborative enterprise is brought clearly into focus, be that a translation or not. As Harvey (2003/2014, p. 69) points out: “In-house editorial policies make it dangerous to assume that the translator as individual . . . is singly responsible for textual outcomes even in the main body of the text”. The existence of various versions and editions of a text also challenges the traditional concept of a stable identifiable source text or target text. The chapter has also highlighted some of the similarities between editors and translators and notably the fact that both rewrite a text with the target reader in mind while seeking to remain as close as possible to the intentions and aims of the original author. Both translators and editors are mediators and practise similar techniques and strategies at the macrolevel and the microlevel of the text. Universals that have been identified in translation studies such as explicitation, simplification and normalisation are also found in editing, as are microstrategies such as addition and substitu­ tion. However, in interlingual translation some of the strategies will be motivated not simply by a desire to clarify the text but by the fact that two different linguistic systems are involved. This is especially true in the case of strategies such as transposition and modulation, which have not been studied in this chapter and which are arguably less common in editing. Thus, while translat­ ing from one language into another, interlingual translation, requires skilful rendering of a source text into the target language, editing focuses more on clarity, consistency and concision (Butcher et al., 2006; Einsohn, 2000/2019). Nevertheless, these differences are differences in degree or focus rather than fundamental differences and are not sufficient to support arguments in favour of clear-cut boundaries between intra- and interlingual translation.

Further reading Gross, G. (Ed.). (1993). Editors on editing: What writers need to know about what editors do. Grove Press. Ulrych, M. (2015). Traces of mediation in rewriting and translation. EDUCatt.

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Editing and intralingual translation Chesterman, A. (2016). Memes of translation: The spread of ideas in translation theory. John Benjamins (Original work published 1997). Crace, J. (2001). The Devil’s Larder. Typescript with corrections, copy (Viking), March 2001. Box 8.7 Jim Crace Papers. Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin. Crace, J. (2006). Email from D. Poppy, 13 April, 2006. Box 53.5 Jim Crace Papers. Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin. Crace, J. (2012a). Email to D. Poppy, 16 June 2012. Box 53.5, Jim Crace Papers. Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin. Crace, J. (2012b). Email to K. Harvey, 20 June 2012. Box 53.5, Jim Crace Papers. Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin. Crace, J. (2012c). Harvest. Proof with edits, U.K. edition, September 2012. Box 50.4, Jim Crace Papers. Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin. Crace, J. (2013). Harvest. Picador. Dam-Jensen, H., & Heine, C. (2013). Writing and translation process research: Bridging the gap. Journal of Writing Research, 5(1), 89–101. https://doi.org/10.17239/jowr-2013.05.01.4 Einsohn, A. (2019). The copyeditor’s handbook: A guide for book publishing and corporate communications. University of California Press (Original work published 2000). Flood, A. (2015, June 17). Impac prize goes to “consummate wordsmith” Jim Crace for Harvest. The Guardian. www.theguardian.com/books/2015/jun/17/impac-prize-goes-to-consummate-wordsmith-jimcrace-for-harvest Ginna, P. (2017). What editors do: The art, craft and business of book editing. University of Chicago Press. Greenberg, S. L. (2015). Editors talk about editing: Insights for readers, writers, and publishers. Peter Lang. Greenberg, S. L. (2018). A poetics of editing. Palgrave Macmillan. Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In P. Cole & J. L. Morgan (Eds.), Syntax and semantics, vol 3, speech acts (pp. 41–58). Academic Press. Harris, R. A. (2017). Writing with clarity and style: A guide to rhetorical devices for contemporary writers. Routledge. Harvey, K. (2014). “Events” and “horizons”: Reading ideology in the “bindings” of translations. In M. Calzada-Pérez (Ed.), Apropos of ideology (pp. 43–69). St Jerome (Original work published 2003). Hemmungs-Wirtén, E. (2001). Glocalities: Power and agency in contemporary print culture. In J. Michon & J.-Y. Mollier (Eds.), Les mutations du livre et de l’édition dans le monde du XVIIIe siècle à l’an 2000 (pp. 565–573). Sainte-Foy/L’Harmattan. Hermans, T. (1999). Translation and normativity. In C. Schäffner (Ed.), Translation and norms (pp. 50–71). Multilingual Matters. Hodson, J. (2014). Dialect in film and literature. Macmillan. House, J. (2008). Beyond intervention: Universals in translation? Trans-kom, 1(1), 6–19. Huber, I. (2016). Present tense narration in contemporary fiction: A narratological overview. Palgrave Macmillan. Ishiguro, K. (1988). Original. Photocopied typescript with annotations by Faber editor Robert McCrum, 24 June 1988. Box 18.6, Kazuo Ishiguro Papers. Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin. Jakobson, R. (1959). On linguistic aspects of translation. In R. A. Brower (Ed.), On translation (pp. 232– 239). Harvard University Press. Kruger, H. (2017). The effects of editorial intervention. Implications for studies of the features of translated language. In G. de Sutter, M.-A. Lefer, & I. Delaere (Eds.), Empirical translation studies (pp. 113–156). De Gruyter. Kruger, H., & van Rooy, B. (2012). Register and the features of translated language. Across Languages and Cultures, 13(1), 33–65. https://doi.org/10.1556/Acr.13.2012.1.3 Lanstyák, I., & Heltai, P. (2012). Universals in language contact and translation. Across Languages and Cul­ tures, 13(1), 99–121. https://doi.org/10.1556/Acr.13.2012.1.6 Laviosa, S. (1998). Core patterns of lexical use in a comparable corpus of English narrative prose. Meta, 4, 557–570. https://doi.org/10.7202/003425ar Laviosa-Braithwaite, S. (2001). Universals of translation. In M. Baker (Ed.), Routledge encyclopaedia of translation studies (pp. 288–291). Routledge. Lefevere, A. (1982). Mother Courage’s cucumbers: text, system and refraction. Modern Language Studies 12(4), 3–20.

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Linda Pillière Lefevere, A. (1985). Why waste our time on rewrites? The trouble with interpretation and the role of rewriting in an alternative paradigm. In T. Hermans (Ed.), The manipulation of literature: Studies in literary transla­ tion (pp. 215–243). Croom Helm. Lefevere, A. (1992). Translation, rewriting, and the manipulation of literary fame. Routledge. Lessinger, E. (2020). Genesis of a self-translation: Inside the archive of Kazuo Ishiguro’s A Pale view of Hills. Palimpsestes, 34, 84–100. https://doi.org/10.4000/palimpsestes.5982 McCormack, T. (2006). The fiction editor, the novel, and the novelist: A book for writers, teachers, publishers, and anyone else devoted to fiction. Paul Dry Books. McEwan, I. (1978). Letter from M. Stevenson, 13 February 1978. Box 35.6, Ian McEwan Papers. Harry Ran­ som Center, University of Texas at Austin. McEwan, I. (1986). Letter from N. Talese, 24 July 1986. Box 7.3, Ian McEwan Papers. Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin. McEwan, I. (1987a). Letter from Nan Talese, 17 January 1987. Box 7.3, Ian McEwan Papers, Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin. McEwan, I. (1987b). Letter from Nan Talese, 9 February 1987. The Child in Time. Box 7.3, Ian McEwan Papers, Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin. McEwan, I. (1997). Letter from P. Cariss, 7 February 1997. Box 8.7, Ian McEwan Papers. Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin. McEwan, I. (1998). Letter from P. Cariss, 11 March 1998. Box 1.7, Ian McEwan Papers. Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin. McEwan, I. (2006a). Letter from L. Pilliere, 20 July 2006. Box 13.8, Ian McEwan Papers. Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin. McEwan, I. (2006b). Letter from N. Talese, 3 October 2006. Box 13.8, Ian McEwan Papers. Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin. Mossop, B. (2014). Revising and editing for translators. St Jerome (Original work published 2001). Mutesayire, M. (2004). Apposition markers and explicitation: A corpus-based study. Language Matters, 35(1), 54–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/10228190408566204 Newmark, P. (1988). A textbook of translation. Prentice-Hall Europe. Olohan, M., & Baker, M. (2000). Reporting that in translated English: Evidence for subconscious processes of explicitation? Across Languages and Cultures, 1(2), 141–158. https://doi.org/10.1556/Acr.1.2000.2.1 Pillière, L. (2021). Intralingual translation of British novels: A multimodal stylistic perspective. Bloomsbury. Pym, A. (2008). On Toury’s laws of how translators translate. In A. Pym, M. Shlesinger, & D. Simeoni (Eds.), Beyond descriptive translation studies (pp. 311–328). John Benjamins. Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., & Svartvik, J. (1972). A grammar of contemporary English. Longman. Robin, E. (2014). Explicitation and implicitation in revised translations. In L. Veselovská & M. Janebová (Eds.), Complex visibles out there. Proceedings of the 2014 Olomouc linguistic colloquium (pp. 559–574). Palacký University Robin, E. (2018). The classification of revisional modifications. In I. Horváth (Ed.), Latest trends in Hungar­ ian translation studies (pp. 155–163). ELTE/OFFI. Schmid, S. (2009). Stunning or ridiculous? The marketing of global Harry Potter. Erfurt Electronic Studies in English EESE 1. Retrieved February 2, 2020, from http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/edoc/ia/eese/artic29/ schmid/1_2009.html Schneider, A. J. (2023). The Chicago guide to copyediting fiction. University of Chicago Press. Simpson, P. (1993). Language, ideology and point of view. Routledge. Sotirova, V. (2024). The representation of experience in modernist fiction. In L. Pillière & S. Sorlin (Eds.), Style and sense(s). Palgrave Macmillan. Stetting, K. (1989). Transediting – A new term for coping with the grey area between editing and translat­ ing. In G. Caie (Ed.), Proceedings from the fourth Nordic conference for English studies (pp. 371–382). University of Copenhagen. Toury, G. (1980). The nature and role of norms in literary translation. In G. Toury (Ed.), In search of a theory of translation (pp. 51–62). Porter Institute for Poetics and Semiotics. Toury, G. (1995). Descriptive translation studies and beyond. John Benjamins. Toury, G. (2004). Probabilistic explanations? In A. Mauranen & P. Kujamäki (Eds.), Translation universals: Do they exist? (pp. 15–32). John Benjamins.

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Editing and intralingual translation Ulrych, M., & Murphy, A. C. (2008). Descriptive translation studies and the use of corpora: Investigating mediation universals. In C. Taylor Torsello, K. Ackerley, & E. Castello (Eds.), Corpora for university language teachers (pp. 141–166). Peter Lang. Vinay, J.-P., & Darbelnet, J. (1995). Comparative stylistics of French and English: A methodology for transla­ tion (J. C. Seyer & M.-J. Hamel, Trans.). John Benjamins (Original work published 1958). Williams, D. A. (2005). Recurrent features of translation in Canada: A corpus-based study. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Ottawa]. Zanettin, F. (2012). Translation-driven corpora: Corpus resources for descriptive and applied translation studies. Routledge. Zethsen, K. K. (2009). Intralingual translation: An attempt at description. Meta, 54(4), 795–812. https://doi. org/10.7202/038904ar

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17 TWO SIDES OF THE SAME COIN The American version of a British medical dictionary1 Marta Gómez Martínez, Carmen Quijada Diez

Introduction Richard D. Hoblyn (1803–1886) wrote and published his medical dictionary in London in 1835 under the title A Dictionary of Terms Used in Medicine and the Collateral Sciences. He could not possibly have expected that, only a few years after it was first released, a second edition would see the light of day in 1844. This edition, one year later, would become the source for the first American edition (1845), printed in Philadelphia and revised by Isaac Hays (1796–1879), editor of the American Journal of the Medical Sciences, and one of the founders of the American Medical Association. Hays’ translation or adaptation includes not only a great number of new headwords but also a significant quantity of cross references and new definitions of terms. In the following pages, the methods and strategies applied in the intralingual translation carried out in Hoblyn’s work will be explained by analysing the final published product, released in both countries (Great Britain and the United States). This analysis will be accompanied by a wealth of examples and set within a theoretical background.

Historical background and lexicographical context During the 19th century, Europe experienced an extraordinary fever of lexicographical works dealing with medicine, mainly in France and, to a lesser extent, in Germany and Great Britain. In France, at least 20 modern original dictionaries of medicine were published between 1740 and 1800, as well as Diderot’s French translation of what is considered the first modern medical dictionary, written in English by Robert James, A Medicinal Dictionary (published in London between 1743 and 1745).2 In Germany and Great Britain in the last decades of the 18th century, lexicographical compendia also started to crop up, but to a much lesser extent than in France. This lexicographical fever was mainly reflected in two types of works: Terminological and encyclopae­ dic dictionaries, which differed fundamentally in their treatment of the terms and definitions they offered. On the one hand, encyclopaedic dictionaries were created to compile knowledge from different areas of medicine, taken from different books and even from journals or newspapers. On the other, terminological dictionaries (generally known at the time as “Vocabularies”) were aimed at words or terms, which explains why the lemmas therein were not particularly long, but rather short, accompanied by precise definitions, which is why this type of repertoire did not usually DOI: 10.4324/9781003188872-22

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comprise more than one volume, or two at the most. The aim of the authors was not to give an account of advances in medicine, but rather to fix, set, or clarify the meaning of the terms. The dif­ ference between dictionaries, glossaries, and encyclopaedic works has long aroused controversy (and continues to do so) in the specialized literature (Hoare, 2009; Loveland, 2019; Ogilvie & Safran, 2019; Yeo, 2001). Indeed, there is no clear red line between dictionaries and encyclopae­ dias. A medical terminological dictionary, however, was understood in the 19th century to be a work in which words were explained, defined, and clarified, while also explaining the correct use of the new ones and their meanings. In Germany, and particularly in France, terminological dictionaries were scarce, but ency­ clopaedic works developed rapidly. In Spain and Britain, on the contrary, where translations of medical texts from French and German were common, the concern to fix the meaning of the new words and to protect the national languages gave rise to the publication of terminological rather than encyclopaedic works (Gutiérrez Rodilla, 2017), since they would include etymologi­ cal information, as well as the explanation of the correct use of new words. These repertoires were mainly intended for medical professionals or students. It was in this context that Richard D. Hoblyn’s 1835 work, A Dictionary of Terms Used in Medicine and the Collateral Sciences (Lon­ don, 1835), was released, as well as R. G. Mayne’s A Medical Vocabulary or Explanation of All Names, Synonyms, Terms and Phrases Used in Medicine . . . (Edinburgh, 1836). These dictionaries were intended to help students of medicine find their way through the jungle of technical terms of classical origin. Due to the number of editions, there is no doubt that Hoblyn’s compilation was, by far, more well known. Richard D. Hoblyn had obtained his degree at the University of Oxford (Foster, 1891) and was a cleric who retired to become a prolific author of a great number of handbooks covering a wide range of topics (Hoare, 2009, p. 81): A Manual of Chemistry (1841); A Manual of the Steam Engine (1842); British Plants. Comprising an Explanation of the Linn. Classification, and Descriptions of the More Common Plants, Arranged According to That Method (1851), and A Manual of Natu­ ral Philosophy, reedition of the manual previously published by John Lee Comstock in 1846 and which contains the Dictionary of Philosophical Terms. That very same year, taking Com­ stock’s Manual as a source, he compiled various textbooks aimed at students, such as First Book of Astronomy, First Book of Natural Philosophy, and First Book of Heat, Light and Optics, and Elec­ tricity, which were expanded versions of previous works that eventually became part of the series Scott’s First Books in Science. This series was published as a collection of elementary textbooks “introduced in schools, as preparatory to a more finished education, and for students intended for the learned professions” (Comstock & Hoblyn, 1846b). The first two volumes in this collection included, in fact, dictionaries. Richard D. Hoblyn’s passion for lexicography can also be seen in his 1850 work, A Dictionary of Scientific Terms. However, given the numerous editions his medi­ cal dictionary achieved, one must assume that this was his most renowned work and the one that enjoyed the widest circulation. Only a decade after it was first published, the second edition saw the light of day in 1844 – it was still published as late as 1912 (15th edition, London) – and became the source of the American edition, published in 1845 by Isaac Hays (1796–1879), who was the editor of one of the first medical journals of the time (American Journal of the Medical Sciences) and, as stated earlier, would later found the American Medical Association. It should be mentioned that, around the time of the dictionary’s release, there were different ways to enter the medical profession. Thus, professional training in Great Britain was a concern that became a parliamentary battle from 1832, when the British Medical Association was founded, to 1858, when the Medical Registration Act was finally passed, and some sort of a standard was ultimately established (Walker, 1956). 291

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In the early years of the 19th century, only the wealthy could afford to attend the expensive medical studies at Oxford or Cambridge, where exams were conducted in Latin – there was an exception in Scotland, though, where students of lesser means could enrol at medical schools. In the United States, many benefited from private tutors and academies or studied abroad. Alongside these university physicians, there were other healers (i. e., general practitioners) who had received education in private and hospital schools, where the training gained through apprenticeship was supplemented with informal lessons and access to private libraries (Bonner, 1995, pp. 63–70). Apprenticeship had been very popular, especially in the American context, where (s)uccessful practitioners took in young men to serve as their assistants, read their medical books, and take care of household chores. They were fed, clothed, and at the end of their term, typically three years, given a certificate of proficiency and good character. An appren­ tice’s education might be as good as his preceptor’s library and personal commitment; there were expectations as to what had to be learned but no firm standards. (Starr, 1982, p. 40) Therefore, there were two types of teachers of medicine: “(T)hose who taught apprentices in Britain and America, especially outside the cities, were often hardworking general practitioners who lacked academic training or access to the wards of a hospital” and whose resources “for teach­ ing were therefore limited, and the instruction they gave was informal, sporadic, and practical”; and those who were “far more likely to have attended a university and to aspire to the standing of a gentleman” (Bonner, 1995, p. 89). Regarding the syllabus taught, by 1840 the following specialties were considered: Anatomy (including dissection, physiology, and morbid anatomy), medical chemistry, pharmacy, surgery, and midwifery. Students were also introduced to the practice of medicine “in a hospital or under the tutelage of a preceptor” (Bonner, 1995, p. 145). There was, consequently, a movement to create a more systematic approach to the training, that is, a common standard of medical education, both in the US and in Europe. In Great Britain, the Medical Registration Act, passed in 1858, “was the climax of a half-century of effort to bring order and some measure of legal equality out of the chaos of British practice” (Bonner, 1995, p. 193). In the United States, the American Medical Association took care of this reform effort to get medical faculties to establish a minimal standard training. However, regardless of the country, there was a desire for more practical training, so the alternative and cheaper ways outside the university were still available and quite successful. In short, there was a need for collecting medical terms in a single volume that would help future practitioners in their own language. Only by understanding this context can we fully grasp the importance and success of Hoblyn’s dictionary and Hays’ edition: The former had received his education in a university, such as Oxford, where Latin was used as a language of science, and the latter was an advocate for change in the training of doctors; though invisible, the impact of their personalities and views on physician training can be traced throughout the text.

Theoretical framework of intralingual translation as considered in this chapter After Jakobson’s canonic classification of interlingual, intralingual and intersemiotic transla­ tion, much has been discussed on the topic of intralingual translation, understood as rewording 292

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or “interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language” (Jakobson, 1959, p. 233), but this type of translation is in fact the variety that has garnered less attention from the part of scholars in favour of interlingual and intersemiotic studies (Mossop, 1998; Schubert, 2005; Whyatt, 2017; Zethsen & Hill-Madsen, 2016). Some authors fully question the notion of intra­ lingual translation such as Mossop (2016), who even suggests naming this type of intralingual rewording cislation. He proposes to clarify first what should be understood as lingua: A Lingua X (the source lingua) is different from another lingua Y (the target lingua) if the lexicon, the syntax or the sounding/spelling/signing of X are sufficiently different from those of Y, so that Y speakers need help because they lack the linguistic knowledge necessary to understand the basic meaning of what is being conveyed in X. (Mossop, 2016, p. 5) According to this definition, then, the case study at hand does not fall under the category of intra­ lingual translation, since differences between British and American English, as will be shown later, were not of such magnitude in 1845. Mossop mentions then a concept that might be considered for the case at hand, content editing (Mossop, 2016, p. 7), to which we refer later. Other authors argue that intralingual translation has no place within Translation Studies. Newmark, for example, states, “the qualitative difference between ‘interlingual’ and ‘intralingual’ translation is so great that it makes a nonsense of the concept of translation” (Newmark, 1991, p. 561). Some others erase the line between these categories, such as Pym: (t)he kinds of translation that can take place between idiolects, sociolects and dialects are essentially no different from those between more radically distanced language systems . . . (T)here is no strict cut-off point at which wholly intralingual rewriting can be said to have become wholly interlingual. Pym (1992, p. 25) A similar idea is at the core of Whyatt’s consideration, when stating that both intralingual and interlingual translation rely “on the same faculty of the human mind: Its ability to interpret meaning from linguistic expressions and reformulate it depending on the cognitive profile of the assumed reader” (Whyatt, 2017, p. 189). Indeed, as Pillière (2021, p. 15) puts it, “Jakobson’s model of communication and his tripartite definition of translation are abstract, decontextualized models that leave aside the context – social, economic, cultural – in which translation takes place”. How­ ever, defining intralingual translation solely on social, economic, and cultural distinctions could be problematic (Pillière, 2021, p. 15), and it also neglects the diachronic aspects of language. In fact, dealing with the two standard varieties of the pluricentric language that English is can also be understood from a political or even ideological perspective, as some researchers have pointed out (Algeo, 1986, 1989, 2006; Denton, 2007). We shall then turn our focus towards a definition of intralingual translation that allows both for a general categorization of “intratranslated works”3 and for the specific case at hand, the American adaptation of Richard D. Hoblyn’s dictionary. Zethsen (2009) combines Jakobson’s three dimen­ sions with Toury’s definition of translation (1995) and arrives at the following description of the concept of translation (also applicable to intralingual translation): Translation happens when a transfer has taken place between the source and the target text, and the relationship between source and target text can take many forms but it rests on the skopos of the target text (Zethsen, 2009, p. 800). This skopos thus becomes the key factor in analysing the kind of transfer that has taken 293

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place; the case study that will be presented later pivots on the notion of the skopos of the American version of Hoblyn’s work. If we understand the notion of skopos as Vermeer (1978) did when he first coined the term within Translation Studies, then one must bear in mind that specialized dictionaries such as Hoblyn’s work are intended to reach only a very specific and specialized audience. Kussmaul proposed that the skopos of a text is closely linked to its function, and therefore The function of a translation depends on the knowledge, expectations, values, and norms of the target readers, who are again influenced by the situation they are in and by the culture. These factors determine whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed. (Kussmaul, 1995, p. 149) This idea is clearly linked to that of the origin of dictionaries: They are designed to fulfil the intended audience’s needs, that is, “the content and design of every aspect of a dictionary must, centrally, take account of who the users will be and what they will use the dictionary for” (Atkins & Rundell, 2008, p. 5). Thereby, bringing together the notion of skopos with the need for such a work itself, as well as the reasons that motivated Isaac Hays to publish an American edition just for an American target audience, we then have all the pieces in place to tackle the case study of Hoblyn’s dictionary. If we return to Mossop’s approach, what we have here is a mixture of dialect rewording and content editing (Mossop, 2016, pp. 5–7) rather than intralingual translation, since Mossop considers dialectal translation or the Americanization of British texts to be interlingual and not intralingual translation, arguing that the latter is applied when the parameters used to dif­ ferentiate the target audience are knowledge and age. However, we agree with Pillière’s considera­ tion that labelling translations as interlingual or intralingual would mean dividing up a text and having to ascribe each fragment to different categories, which would lead to a never-ending circle of theorizing (Pillière, 2021, pp. 16–17). As regards the type of intralingual translation carried out on Hoblyn’s work, we shall draw from Petrilli’s diamesic, diaphasic and diglossic types (2003, pp. 19–20). We need not consider the dia­ mesic type, given that it refers to translation between written and oral texts. Rather, our focus then turns to diaphasic and diglossic translations. If diaphasic translation includes a “conversion between registers”, that is, turning an expert-oriented text into a text for lay people, then the editor of Hoblyn’s dictionary in the US did not use this type of translation, as the target audience possessed a similar degree of medical knowledge to that of the students and medical personnel targeted by the source text. The most applicable label then is diglossic. However, as Hill-Madsen posits, “it makes no sense to frame the opposition between American and British English as one between a ‘standard’ and a ‘non-standard’ variety of English”, and therefore diglossic translation “must be defined as conversion between dialects as such” (Hill-Madsen, 2015, p. 89). One could of course argue that American Eng­ lish should, by no means, be described as a non-standard dialect of English (on this point, see Pillière, 2021). One should also, however, bear in mind in that regard that the 19th century was the century in which Noah Webster published A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language (1806), con­ sidered the first (only) American dictionary, as well as the game-changing An American Dictionary of the English Language (1828). Webster, like many of his contemporaries, fervently believed in the independence of the US, and soon understood that language could play a major role in it. He there­ fore devoted his life to writing his dictionary, containing over 70,000 entries, among which many were strictly American vocabulary, first documented and registered therein (see Fodde-Melis, 2005). Hoblyn’s American dictionary was published merely 20 years after Webster’s seminal work. 294

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Case study: Richard D. Hoblyn’s A Dictionary of Terms Used in Medicine and the Collateral Sciences and its American edition The following case study does not focus solely on the previously discussed notion of intra­ lingual translation from British to American English, since it was too soon in 1845 to see the trace of Americanisms and American spelling in Hays’ edition. As mentioned previously, Mossop (2016) argues, “intralingual rewriters . . . engage in stylistic and content editing” (p. 9). It is therefore desirable to explore the differences and/or similarities between trans­ lation and editing, since “[e]diting plays an essential role in these transformations, and yet it is rarely the focus of literary or translation studies” (Pillière, 2021, p. 35). This issue is described in depth and via examples on BrE-AmE editions in Pillière’s work: She sets out the many different roles of an editor, in the light of our 21st-century publishing industry, and one has to conclude that Isaac Hays was indeed involved in the entire editing process, and therefore acted as: 1 Acquisition or commissioning editor: He decided to publish Hoblyn’s dictionary in America and had an expert knowledge on the issue and the American book market regarding medicine. 2 Developmental editor: He worked on the macro-level of the text (word choice, syntax, rewrit­ ing of sentences and even paragraphs). 3 Production editor or managing editor: He scheduled and managed the entire production pro­ cess, except for the last step of sending the book to be printed. 4 Line editor: He worked on the style and the creative content and also took care of major rewrit­ ing of the original text. 5 Copy editor: He carried out a detailed work on the manuscript at the micro-level of the text. 6 Last but not least, he also assumed the role of the proofreader, checking the final version of the text before sending it to the printing press. Given the time when Hoblyn’s edition was published in the US, it is then advisable to consider the role of Isaac Hays as both that of an expert and also self-made editor. He did not consider himself a translator, but rather an editor and reviewer. In fact, he hints at that idea on the very front page of the dictionary: “First American, from the Second London Edition, Revised, with Numerous Additions, by Issaac Hays, M.D., Editor of the American Journal of the Medical Sciences”. There are a few significant points regarding the compilation of this dictionary for the instruction of medical students. For this study three works have been analysed: The first and second London editions (1835 and 1844) and, of course, the 1845 American edition. An initial physical analysis shows that the three volumes are similar in size (19 cm for the 1835 edition and 20cm for both the 1844 and 1845 editions) and in the layout of pages in two columns. However, the number of pages increased in later editions from 328 pages in the first London edition to 394 in the second and up to 402 in the American version. The size of the font, on the other hand, decreased from edition to edition. The analysis of the megastructure4 of the dictionary, that is, the front matter – sections that precede the A–Z text – and the back matter – sections that follow the A–Z text, gains importance, for “the content of these sections varies a great deal depending on the perceived needs of users” (Atkins & Rundell, 2008, p. 176). The front-matter section in the first London edition (1835) is a 13-page-long author’s prologue and includes a list of 55 suffixes and the specialized terms that are coined with them. The front-matter section in the second London edition is just a pagelong preface; the American edition takes this second London edition as a source, and therefore includes

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the very same preface, only this time accompanied also by an editor’s preface as a front-matter section. On the other hand, the back-matter section includes a 44-page-long Supplementary List in the first London edition, whereas both the second London edition and the American edition include a 13-page-long list of affixes at the end of the dictionary, which happens to be the first edition’s front-matter section list of affixes. Furthermore, the second London edition completes this list with a collection of additional material, mainly tables, on different issues relating to the medical field which could not be included in the body of the text (Gómez Martínez, 2019). As far as the A–Z text is concerned, the American edition includes more than 700 additions, as will be explained under the section “Content variation or content editing”. However, this chapter focuses specifically on the adaptation of this medical dictionary for its potential readers, therefore taking into consideration Zethsen’s parameters regarding what in the light of current Translation Studies can be understood and interpreted as intratranslated works: Knowledge, time, culture, and space (Zethsen, 2009, p. 805). Mossop also considers that intralin­ gual rewriters write “for a new audience which differs from the original audience by some features other than the languages they know, such as expertise or age” (Mossop, 2016, p. 9). Out of the four parameters that Zethsen suggests, it should be considered that time cannot be applied to the case study at hand here, since both editions were published very closely in time (1835–1844 [first British editions] and 1845 [American edition]), and therefore with no temporal distance between them. The parameter space, on the other hand, refers to “instances where the text is either reduced or extended”. This is indeed the case of Hoblyn’s dictionary, but the extension of the reworded text has rather to do with the other two parameters (knowledge and culture) than with a clear extending or reducing intention on the part of the American editor, who as a close reader of the British dic­ tionary adapted the compilation to ensure that the potential reader had no problem understanding the text; so his task consisted in content editing, becoming a mediator between the original piece of work and the reader (Pillière, 2021). The other two parameters then, knowledge and culture, shall be the focus of our study.

Knowledge This parameter is related to the “target group’s ability to understand a text, its level of general background knowledge or its level of expertise (or lack of) in connection with a specific subject” (Mossop, 2016, p. 9; Zethsen, 2009, p. 806). The intended user of the dictionary determines, in most cases, the design of both the macrostructure and the microstructure, that is, the A–Z text. When designing a book, there is always a purpose or market to focus on or, as Landau puts it, the need to address the question “who will buy the book? This is the first consideration in diction­ ary publishing as well” (2001, p. 345). In the Preface to the 1835 edition, Hoblyn describes the intended users of the dictionary: The object of this Dictionary is to present to the student, in a concise form, an explanation of the terms which are most used in Medicine: modern, and even recent expressions, have been carefully introduced; the few obsolete terms which have been retained, will be prin­ cipally found, in a Supplementary List, at the end of the volume. . . . Although the primary object of this work is to explain medical terms, by giving their etymology and signification; it has been thought proper to furnish the student with nomenclatures of the several sciences connected with Medicine; . . . and other information useful to the student and to the young practitioner. (DTMCS,51835, p. vii) 296

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In the second edition (1844) he introduces a few changes as compared to the first, but always keep­ ing students in mind: An Appendix has been added, in which several important subjects have been treated at greater length than was compatible with their insertion into the body of the work. These subjects, some of which are arranged in a tabular form, afford matter for study, as well as for occasional reference, to the medical student. (DTMCS, 1844, preface) The editor of the American edition (1845), Isaac Hays, keeps Hoblyn’s first lines in his preface, so it is clear that the intended dictionary user is still the medical student: The object of this work is to present to the student, in a concise form, an explanation of the terms most used in Medicine, and the Sciences connected with it, by giving their etymology and signification. (DTMCS, 1845, editor’s preface) The target audience was thus the same in all three editions, regardless of the nationality, so no explanatory translations nor interpretation (be it explication or addition) were needed.

Culture Jakobson defined intralingual translation as the rewording of a text “by means of other signs of the same language”, and therefore we shall turn the focus towards that same language. However, if considered to be the same, why would there be a need of a rewording or interpretation? One can always go back to Oscar Wilde’s renowned words: “[W]e have really everything in common with America nowadays, except, of course, language” (1887/2006). Which are then the differences that cause British and American English to be considered different languages? If there were and still are indeed American editions of British texts of all kinds, there must be relevant differences. This issue has given rise to substantial research on the differences between British and American English and from various perspectives (for instance Algeo, 1986, 1989, and 2006; Armstrong & Federici, 2006; Bruyère & Cachin, 1997; Cachin, 1998; Cronin, 2000; Davis, 2014; Denton, 2007; Hill-Madsen, 2019; McArthur, 1998; Pillière, 2021, among many others). However, the dilemma that shapes intralingual translation, BrE and AmE adaptation and Zethsen’s parameter of culture, has not been fully explored yet, and Hoblyn’s dictionary adaptation or rewording gives us the opportunity to do so in the following pages. As translation theorist Bassnett (2007) reminds us in this precise quote, Language is embedded in culture, linguistic acts take place in a context and texts are created in a continuum not in a vacuum. A writer is a product of a particular time and a particular context, just as a translator is a product of another time and another context. Translation is about language, but translation is also about culture, for the two are inseparable. (p. 23) In view of this, the context where the editions of the dictionary were published becomes the key element to understanding the alterations made to the dictionary when transferred across the pond. As is often the case with interlingual translations, local dialects, as well as cultural references or 297

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idiomatic expressions that might be very different between source and target culture, are key topics that the translator necessarily has to address. Therefore, we must pay attention to the geographical context which could affect two cultural dimensions: On the one hand the diatopic variation, that is, changes in the language; and, on the other, what we have called content variation, which refers to changes in the concepts or the reality of the society who uses the target language. This goes hand in hand with what Mossop considers an alternative to the concept of intralingual translation, that is, “dialect rewording” and “content editing” (Mossop, 2016).

Diatopic variation AmE has long been considered a variety of the English language ever since Noah Webster declared linguistic independence shortly after American colonies gained independence; it was Webster who, for example, adopted the AmE distinctive spellings -or instead of -our and -er instead of -re. Furthermore, his two-volume An American Dictionary of the English Language (1828) included not only new words, but also new meanings of existing words which had appeared in the new nation (Romaine, 2009, pp. 594–595). Even though Hays’ edition (1845) of Hoblyn’s dictionary (1835/1844) was published a few years after Webster’s work, there is no trace of AmE in the text, either at a lexical level or in spelling. BrE’s preference for autumn over fall is well known: “French-derived words have often gained a strong grip on the standard dialect . . . autumn predominates . . . over fall, which until recently has been most favoured in the Midlands and south as well as being the norm in North America” (Upton, 2014, p. 403). On the other hand fall has been the most common form in the US since the early 19th century: fall, n.2 . . . a. The season between summer and winter; autumn. Although common in British English in the 16th century, by the end of the 17th century fall had been overtaken by autumn as the primary term for this season. In early North American use both terms were in use, but fall had become established as the more usual term by the early 19th century. (Oxford University Press, n.d.c) If we have a look at Hays’ edition, we soon realize that the term fall does not even occur and autumn is preferred, following the second London edition (1844): HARVEST BUG. The Acarus autumnalis, a variety of the tick insect, which infests the skin in the autumn,6 producing intolerable itching, succeeded by glossy wheals; it has hence been called wheal-worm. (DTMCS, 1845) In spelling, the North American dictionary does not differ from the British editions either. It does not follow Webster’s adoption for the -or and -er endings, in words such as colour, which “has been the most common spelling in British English since the 14th cent.; but color has also been in use continually, chiefly under Latin influence, since the 15th cent., and is now the prevalent spell­ ing in the United States” (Oxford University Press, n.d.b). Another clarifying example is centre: Though the prevalent spelling in the early modern period, from the 16th to the 18th centu­ ries, was center . . . , (h)owever, the technical volume of Bailey (Vol. II.), 1727–31, and the 298

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folio, 1730–6, have centre; Johnson (1755), who based his dictionary on an interleaved copy of Bailey’s folio of 1730, adopted this spelling, and following Johnson’s precedent, centre has become the usual form in British usage, whereas in U.S. usage center prevails. (Oxford University Press, n.d.a) The following are a series of examples extracted from Hoblyn’s three different editions: TEMPERING. The operation of heating iron to a certain extent, indicated by the colour presented on the surface of the metal. (DTMCS, 1835, 1844 & 1845) UVEA [uva, grape). The posterior surface of the iris, so called from its resemblance in colour to a ripe grape. See Iris. (DTMCS, 1884 & 1845) ACHROA. . . . A colourless state of the skin, depending upon a want of the pigmentary or usual colouring matter of the rete mucosum. Compare Dyschroa. (DTMCS, 1844 & 1845) ARGAND LAMP. A name applied, from one of the inventors, to all lamps with hollow or circular wicks. The intention of them is to furnish a more rapid supply of air to the flame, and to afford this air to the centre as well as to the outside of the flame. (DTMCS, 1844 & 1845) Not even in the additions to the original text is the AmE spelling used, as we can see under the definitions of achromatopsia or centrifugal: [ACHROMATOPSIA. . . . Inability to distinguish colours].

(DTMCS, 1845)

[CENTRIFUGAL. . . . Leaving the centre. In Botany this term is applied to inflorescences in which the central flowers open first.] (DTMCS, 1845) Diatopic variation does not affect the American edition of Hoblyn’s dictionary; thus, the editor, to fulfil his intention to fit the American medical students and doctors’ needs, as rendered in the preface, chose to focus on content variation.

Content variation or content editing Subject-field dictionaries are aimed at a restricted market that determines what should or should not be included. Dictionaries are, in this sense, shaped by the needs of their users, so the geo­ graphical distance between Great Britain and the United States affects other cultural elements and, 299

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therefore, the terms used to express the concepts or the reality. The new information added in the American edition (compared to the second London edition) is displayed within brackets, as out­ lined in the dictionary’s prologue. This edition includes more than 700 additions, of which more than 500 are new headwords or lemmas7 and around 100 are sublemmas8 (that is, a secondary form of the main entry). These are, on some occasions, the result of derivational processes. As the editor of this dictionary, Isaac Hays made sure that the text offered to the new readers, medical students mainly, reflected the state of the country. It is therefore necessary to consider the social context of the United States, a country that tried to emulate the European medical profession with the creation of medical schools, although the reality of medical training, especially in rural contexts, involved training with another physician, in order to acquire knowledge and share his library. The US was a different world from the one reflected in Hoblyn’s dictionary; hence, the editor specifies in the preface the introduction of native American plants, one of the greatest differences of the American edition, which also depends on the target user of the dictionary: Believing that its republication in this country would be useful, the Editor consented to revise and adapt it to the wants of the American practitioner. With this view he has added the native medicinal plants, – the formula for the officinal preparations, &c, – and made the work conform with the Pharmacopoeia of the United States. (DTMCS, 1845, editor’s preface) On many occasions, when dealing with plants or recipes, the sources are clear; some additions were extracted from the United States Dispensatory which had been first published in Philadelphia in 1833 edited by George B. Wood and Franklin Bache, both physicians and professors. This book was, for several decades, the only one of its kind in the US and thus remained a pharmaceutical book of refer­ ence (Sonnedecker, 1986, p. 279), so it seems clear that it was a reliable source at the time: Colchicine [Colchicia, U. S. Disp.]. A vegeto-alkali, procured from the Colchicum autumnale. (DTMCS, 1845) Apart from trying to reflect the geographical context – with the introduction of native medicinal plants, Hoblyn converts some of the dictionary articles into a pharmaceutical guide. By the time this compilation was released there had been a movement in the US to establish a standard in the training of doctors that would bring together theory and practice. Out of 424 doses, the American editor included 62 new ones from The Pharmacopoeia of the United States, which had been first published in 1820 (Haller, 1982): DOSE. . . . A determinate quantity of a thing given. Ride. – For children under twelve years, the doses of most medicines must be diminished in the proportion of the age, to the age increased by 12. . . . [The following list exhibits the doses for an adult, of the medicines (Ph. U. S.) most com­ monly employed in practice.] (DTMCS, 1845) The same applies to syrupus: SYRUPUS. A syrup. A solution of sugar in water, in watery infusions, or vegetable juices; the proportions are generally two parts of sugar to one of the fluid. . . . [The following are 300

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the officinal syrups of the Ph. U. S., with the mode of preparing them: [1. Syrupus. Ph. U. S. Refined sugar, ℔iiss.; water, Oj. Dissolve the sugar in the water with the aid of heat, remove any scum which may form, and strain the solution while hot. . . . [18. Syr. Ferri sesquinitratis. Syrup of sesquinitrate of iron. The following formula for this very useful preparation is given by Mr. A. Duhamel in the Am. Jour. of Pharmacy for July, 1845. “Take of iron wire, free from rust, and cut in pieces, ʒvj.; nitric acid, f℥ss; water, f℥viij.; Sugar, ℥xiv. Add to the iron the acid previously mixed with the water, and set aside the mixture for twelve hours, that the acid may be saturated. Decant the liquor from the undissolved iron, add the sugar, which you dissolve in it by heat, and finally strain.” Dose, gtt. x. to gtt. xxx. Very efficacious in some forms of chronic diarrhœa. (DTMCS, 1845) Nevertheless, in other cases, when not dealing with plants or recipes, the source is mentioned within the article: [CONTRO-STIMULUS. A term given by Rasori to a doctrine which he originated, and which is founded on the contro-slimulant properties supposed to be possessed by certain medicines.] (DTMCS, 1845) Though, on most occasions, the source remains unknown: [GIBBOUS. (gibbus, protuberant). An irregularity or swelling on the back, or other part of the body. In botany, applied to leaves, petals, &c., when irregularly swelled on one side or both.] (DTMCS, 1845) Some other additions that affect the collection of lemmas or sublemmas addressed are those intended to update the information offered in the British edition for the new audience and their knowledge of the world. In this sense, the climates of the US have been included within the main headword, climate: [III. CLIMATE OF THE UNITED STATES. [The United States stretch over a vast extent of territory, and embrace a corresponding variety of climate. The late Dr. Forry, who investigated this subject with much care, classified the country in three general divisions, embracing three systems of climate, viz; – the Northern, the Middle, and the Southern. [I. THE NORTHERN DIVISION. – This extends on the Atlantic coast from Eastport, Me., to the harbour of New York, and is characterized by great range of temperature and violent con­ trasts in the seasons; the rigour of the climate being somewhat tempered on the sea-coast by the ocean, and in the region of the lakes by those inland seas. 2. THE MIDDLE DIVISION. – This extends from the Delaware Bay to Savannah, and is char­ acterized by great variableness of temperature, though the extremes are much less than in the Northern Division. [3. THE SOUTHERN DIVISION. – This embraces the whole region south and west to Texas and the Rocky Mountains, and is characterized by the predominance of high temperature. [(1.) Peninsula of Florida (. . .).] (DTMCS, 1845) 301

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Also, the metric system of units of measurement is explained: [CENTIGRAMME. The hundredth part of a gramme, a French measure, equal to 0.1544 gr. Troy.] [CENTILITRE. The hundredth part of a litre, a French measure, equal to 2.7053 fluid drachms] [CENTIMETRE. The hundredth part of a metre, a French measure, equal to 0.3937 inch.] (DTMCS, 1845) While it is true that the addition of text provides useful information, the omission of con­ tent, for example etymologies, is no less valuable. In the professional medical training in Britain there was a clear distinction between university physicians who had received edu­ cation in classical languages and general practitioners who had learned by apprenticeship and at private schools. And so, one can understand that Hoblyn, having studied at Oxford, would pay close attention to etymologies, whereas Hays would dispense with that informa­ tion, for students who attended the medical schools in the US came, mostly, from years of apprenticeship. In all three editions, headwords, which include nouns – both simple words and multiword expressions, abbreviations, and partial words – prefixes, are followed by the etymology when the word is not English in origin. As expected, mainly Greek and Latin etymons are found: PRESBYOPIA (πρεσβυζ, old, ὥψ the eye). Far-sightedness. A state of the eye observed in advanced age, and strongly marked in old persons. It is the opposite of myopia. (DTMCS, 1835 & 1844) PRESBYOPIA (πρεσβυζ, old, ὥψ, the eye). [Presbytia.] Far-sightedness. A state of the eye observed in advanced age, and strongly marked in old persons. It is the opposite of myopia. (DTMCS, 1845) LIGNIN (lignum, wood). Woody fibre, or the fibrous structure of vegetable substances. When heated in close vessels, it yields pyro-ligneous acid; and a peculiar spiritous liquor is produced, called pyro-xylic spirit. (DTMCS, 1835) LIGNIN (lignum, wood). The basis of woody fibre – the most durable product of vegetation. When healed in close vessels, it yields pyro-ligneous acid and a peculiar spirituous liquor is produced, called pyro-xylic spirit. (DTMCS, 1844 & 1845) There also lemmas of German or Spanish origin: BECCABUNGA (bach bungen, German, water-herb.) Brooklime; a species of Veronica: Order Violaceai. (DTMCS, 1835) BRANCA (Spanish for a foot, or branch). A term applied to some herbs supposed to resem­ ble a particular foot, as branca leonis, lion’s foot; branca ursina, bear’s foot; &c. (DTMCS, 1835) 302

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Sometimes, this information, included in the definition in both London editions, has been deleted in the American: SAPO. Soap; a term derived, according to Beckmann, from the old German word sepe. According to the latest chemical views, Soap is not a combination of oil and alkali, but a true saline compound, resulting from the union of the salifiable base (sodium) with the oleic and margaric acids, which are formed from the oil by the re-action of the alkali upon it. (Paris.) . . . (DTMCS, 1835 & 1844) SAPO. Soap. The term soap is usually applied to the product of the action of alkalis on fixed oils and fats, while the term plaster is commonly applied to the product of the action of oxide of lead on fixed oils and fats. The former is frequently termed a soluble soap, while a plaster is denominated an insoluble soap. The term soap is also applied to alkaline resonates. . . . (DTMCS, 1845) The result of Hays’ rewording or rewriting is a lexicographical compilation where culture plays a crucial role and is the reason why the editor extended or reduced the content found in the original dictionary. Trying to fulfil the intended audience’s needs, he modified the original dictionary to include the terms that would describe the world as they knew it in the US. In this section the notion of intralingual translation has been explored in the light of current Translation Studies but also taking into account the 19th-century situation of medical sciences in Britain and America. It is never easy to draw a clear line between linguistic categories, and this case study is no exception: The scholarly works cited in this chapter prove that the mere notion of intralingual translation needs to be further developed, characterized, and studied, and it would be of great interest to have it done via the numerous examples that can be found in the medical field on the one hand, and on the specialized dictionaries on the other. We have seen that this case study corresponds to various categories: It is not a mere diglossic intralingual translation, nor is it solely an American edition of the original text. When undertaking research like this, scholars need to admit that it is possible to have one example illustrating the various categories of intralingual translation and one which also combines both content editing and dialectal rewording.

In conclusion In an environment of extensive development of medical lexicography in Europe, Hoblyn designed his Dictionary of Terms Used in Medicine and the Collateral Sciences with a clear pedagogical purpose in mind. As someone who specialized in writing educational texts, as proved by his pre­ viously published works, Hoblyn’s intention was to gather the medical terminology in use at his time and not only explain the etymology of the terms, but also give as much information about them as was available at that time. Therefore, this dictionary had a twofold purpose: Normative and informative. On the one hand, it was meant to account for new concepts with the largest and most complex explanation and classification possible, although some definitions are very short and precise. On the other hand, most lemmas are alphabetically ordered but some are nested in other headwords, for they belong to the same conceptual node or have the same morphological compo­ nents. The dictionary could, then, be used to resolve the communicative needs of students, as well 303

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as to study the different medical areas of knowledge like in an abridged handbook, on both sides of the Atlantic, as the chaotic nature of medical training was very similar: In 1851, medical education in the UK was in a mess. The training of a practitioner in Britain in 1850 could vary from university study, to a series of courses in a provincial hospital, to broom-and-apron apprenticeship in an apothecary’s shop. The Victorian public were con­ fused as to who was a doctor, a general practitioner (the term “general practitioner” was unknown before 1800 but was firmly established by 1840), a physician, a surgeon, a barber surgeon, an apothecary, a druggist, or a snake oil merchant! . . . It took 16 bills and two select committees over 18 years for the 1858 Medical Act to be passed. (Pickles, 2019, p. 515) In a context where medical training was being put to the test in an effort to establish a standard throughout the country, Hays, as one of the founders of the American Medical Association, an institution which fought for reform, took a well-known British dictionary and rewrote it for the new audience offering an adaptation acting mainly as an editor. The result was an intralingual translation where he had to decide on the parameters of knowledge and culture, that is, the target user and the cultural elements, such as diatopic variation and content variation due to the geo­ graphical distance. When designing a dictionary, there is always a target audience and market and, therefore, the target user of the dictionary dictates, in most cases, the macrostructure as well as microstructure of such compilations; in this case, medical students. If such users speak different varieties of a language (i.e., BrE and AmE) and live in different worlds, it follows that the editions of the same work are two sides of the same coin thanks to the intralingual translation process undertaken.

Notes 1 The authors wish to acknowledge their participation in the Research Projects funded by the Span­ ish National Research Programme PGC2018–094266-B-I00 and PID2019–109565RB-I00/ AEI/10.13039/501100011033, as well as in the Project FS/1–2022 funded by Fundación Memoria de D. Samuel Solórzano Barruso. 2 Some say the first was J. Guyot’s dictionary, published in Brussels in 1733 (Quemada, 1955, p. 36). Also, McConchie points out that James did compile his dictionary himself, but by stitching together the work of others, “sometimes in translation and sometimes epitomized or reworked” (2019, p. 143). 3 We understand “intratranslated works” as those works that underwent some type of intralingual transla­ tion, be it dialect rewording, content editing, or any of the types set out by Petrilli (diamesic, diaphasic, and diglossic). See Mossop, 2016, and Petrilli, 2003. 4 megastructure. The totality of the component parts of a reference work, including the macrostructure and the outside matter (Hartmann & James, 1998, s. v.). 5 DTMCS stands for Hoblyn’s Dictionary of Terms Used in Medicine and the Collateral Sciences. In all the examples given, the year of the published version is displayed: 1835 for the first British edition, 1844 for the second British edition, and 1845 for Hays’ American edition. Bold letters in the examples or quota­ tions are ours. 6 All bold type emphasis in this and the following quotations has been added; however, italics were in the source text. 7 lemma. The position at which an entry can be located and found in the structure of a REFERENCE WORK. The relationships of the lemma in the reference work are two-way: within the overall (e.g., alpha­ betical) MACROSTRUCTURE it constitutes the point of ACCESS where the compiler can place and the user can find the information listed; within the MICROSTRUCTURE it establishes the “topic” on which the rest of the entry is a “comment”, e.g., the definition of the HEADWORD. Some authorities favour including all information preceding the definition within the notion of the lemma, i.e., all “formal” items

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Two sides of the same coin such as spelling, pronunciation and grammar, while others use the term as a synonym for “headword” or even the whole ENTRY (Hartmann & James, 1998, s. v.). 8 sub-lemma. The position at which a SUB-ENTRY can be located within an entry. Typically, this is either one of several numbered senses of a HEADWORD, or one of several associated derivative words or phrases, which can be clustered by means of NESTING or NICHING (Hartmann & James, 1998, s. v.).

Further reading For those readers interested in further exploring the history and role of medical dictionaries in the 19th cen­ tury, as well as the role of intralingual translation from British to American English, which are the two main aspects addressed in this chapter, we shall recommend the works that follow: McConchie, R. (2019). Discovery in haste: English medical dictionaries and lexicographers 1547 to 1796. Walter de Gruyter. A first good reading to approach medical dictionaries in English language and, therefore, valid to gain general knowledge in order to tackle the study of works like the one dealt with in this chapter. This work offers an in-depth study of English medical lexicography up to the 19th century and presents a good approach to this issue for undergraduate and postgraduate students new to the field. Gutiérrez Rodilla, B. M. (1999). La constitución de la lexicografía médica moderna en España. Soto-Touxos. Written in Spanish, it has not been translated into any other language. Covering Spanish modern medical lexicography, this book offers a perfect overview of 19th-century medical dictionaries mainly in Spain, but deeply related to the European-wide lexicographical fever of the moment. This work could be a good complementary resource after McConchie’s reading. Pillière, L. (2010). Conflicting voices: An analysis of intralingual translation from British English to Ameri­ can English. E-rea. https://doi.org/10.4000/erea.1404 Regarding intralingual translation from British to American English, Pillière’s works are of great interest to students willing to gain both theoretical and example-based knowledge on this complex issue.

References Algeo, J. (1986). The two streams: British and American English. Journal of English Linguistics, 19(2), 169–284. https://doi.org/10.1177/007542428601900208 Algeo, J. (1989). British-American lexical differences: A typology of interdialectal variation. In O. García & R. Otherguy (Eds.), English across cultures. Cultures across English (pp. 219–241). Mouton de Gruyter. Algeo, J. (2006). British or American English? A handbook of word and grammar patterns. Cambridge Uni­ versity Press. Armstrong, N., & Federici, F. M. (Eds.). (2006). Translating voices translating regions. Aracne Editrice. Atkins, B. T. S., & Rundell, M. (2008). The Oxford guide to practical lexicography. Oxford University Press. Bassnett, S. (2007). Culture and translation. In P. Kuhiwczak & K. Littau (Eds.), A companion to translation studies (pp. 219–241). Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781853599583 Bonner, T. N. (1995). Medical education in Britain, France, Germany and the United States, 1750–1945. Oxford University Press. Bruyère, C., & Cachin, M. F. (1997). Transatlantic crossings: Publishing American literature in Britain and British literature in the United States. Biblion, 5(2), 171–188. Cachin, M. F. (1998). “C’ets loin l’Amérique?” ou la traduction transatlantique. Palimpestes, 11, 83–94. Comstock, J. L., & Hoblyn, R. D. (1846a). First book of astronomy. Adam Scott. Comstock, J. L., & Hoblyn, R. D. (1846b). First book of heat, light and optics, and electricity. Adam Scott. Comstock, J. L., & Hoblyn, R. D. (1846c). First book of natural philosophy. Adam Scott. Comstock, J. L., & Hoblyn, R. D. (1846d). Manual of natural philosophy. Adam Scott. Cronin, M. (2000). Across the lines. Travel, language and translation. Cork University Press. Davis, K. (2014). Intralingual translation and the making of a language. In S. Bermann & C. Porter (Eds.), A companion to translation studies (pp. 586–598). John Wiley and Sons. Denton, J. (2007). “. . . waterlogged somewhere in mid-Atlantic”. Why American readers need intralingual translation but don’t often get it. TTR, 20(2), 243–270. http://doi.org/10.7202/018826ar Fodde-Melis, L. (2005). Noah Webster and the first American dictionary. Rosen Books.

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Marta Gómez Martínez, Carmen Quijada Diez Foster, J. (1891). Alumni oxonienses. The members of the University of Oxford, 1715–1886: Their parentage, birthplace, and year of birth, with a record of their degrees, volume III – Later Series. James Parker & Co. Gómez Martínez, M. (2019). La práctica lexicográfica médica del siglo XIX a ambos lados del charco: el diccionario de Richard D. Hoblyn. Revista de Lexicografía, 25, 177–192. https://doi.org/10.17979/ rlex.2019.25.0.5998 Gutiérrez Rodilla, B. M. (2017). La preocupación por la lengua y su reflejo en la lexicografía: el caso de los vocabularios españoles de medicina en el siglo XIX y principios del XX. Moenia, 23, 583–602. Haller, J. S. (1982). The United States pharmacopoeia: Its origin and revision in the 19th century. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 58(5), 480–492. Hartmann, R. R. K., & James, G. (Eds.). (1998): Dictionary of lexicography. Routledge. Hill-Madsen, A. (2015). Lexical strategies in intralingual translation between registers. Hermes – Journal of Language and Communication in Business, 54, 85–105. https://doi.org/10.7146/hjlcb.v27i54.22949 Hill-Madsen, A. (2019). The heterogeneity of intralingual translation. Meta: Journal des Traducteurs, 64, 537–560. https://doi.org/10.7202/1068206ar Hoare, M. R. (2009). Scientific and technical dictionaries. In A. P. Cowie (Ed.), The Oxford history of lexicog­ raphy (pp. 47–93). Oxford University Press. Hoblyn, R. D. (1835). A dictionary of terms used in medicine and the collateral sciences. Gilbert and Riv­ ington Printers. Hoblyn, R. D. (1841). A manual of chemistry. Samuel S. and William Wood. Hoblyn, R. D. (1842). A manual of the steam engine. Scott, Webster and Geary. Hoblyn, R. D. (1844). A dictionary of terms used in medicine and the collateral sciences. Sherwood, Gilbert, & Piper. Hoblyn, R. D. (1845). A dictionary of terms used in medicine and the collateral sciences. Lea & Blanchard. Hoblyn, R. D. (1850). A dictionary of scientific terms. Appleton and co. Hoblyn, R. D. (1851). British plants. Comprising an explanation of the linn. Classification, and descriptions of the more common plants, arranged according to that method. Adam Scott. Jakobson, R. (1959). On linguistics aspects of translation. In A. Reuben Brower (Ed.), On translation (pp. 232–239). Harvard University Press. James, R. (1743–1745). A medicinal dictionary (Vol. I, II & III). J. Roberts. Kussmaul, P. (1995). Training the translator. John Benjamins. Landau, S. I. (2001). Dictionaries. The art and craft of lexicography. Cambridge University Press. Loveland, J. (2019). The European encyclopedia. Cambridge University Press. Mayne, R. G. (1836). A medical vocabulary or explanation of all names, synonyms, terms and phrases used in medicine. John Carfrae & Son. McArthur, T. (1998). The English languages. Cambridge University Press. Mossop, B. (1998). What is a translating translator doing? Target, 10(2), 236–266. https://doi.org/10.1075/ target.10.2.03mos Mossop, B. (2016). Intralingual translation: A desirable concept. Across Language and Cultures, 17(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1556/084.2016.17.1.1 Newmark, P. (1991). About translation. Multilingual Matters. Ogilvie, S., & Safran, G. (Eds.). (2019). The whole world in a book: Dictionaries in the nineteenth century. Oxford University Press. Oxford University Press. (n.d.a). Centre | Center, n.1 and adj. In Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved Janu­ ary 14, 2022, from www.oed.com/view/Entry/29696?rskey=YIR1Rx&result=1&isAdvanced=false#eid Oxford University Press. (n.d.b). Colour | Color, n.1. In Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved January 14, 2022, from www.oed.com/view/Entry/36596?rskey=SSIfS6&result=1#eid Oxford University Press. (n.d.c). Fall, n. 2. In Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved January 14, 2022, from www.oed.com/view/Entry/67826?rskey=GawkP5&result=2&isAdvanced=false#eid Petrilli, S. (2003). Translation and semiosis. Introduction. In S. Petrilli (Ed.), Translation translation (pp. 17– 37). Rodopi. Pickles, W. (2019). Training tomorrow’s doctors, 1851–2051. British Journal of General Practice, 69(687), 515–516. https://doi.org/10.3399/bjgp19X705929 Pillière, L. (2021). Intralingual translation of British novels: A multimodal stylistic perspective. Bloomsbury Academic. Pym, A. (1992). Translation and text transfer: An essay on the principles of intercultural communication. Peter Lang.

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Two sides of the same coin Quemada, B. (1955). Introduction à l´étude du vocabularie médical (1600–1710). In Annales Littéraires de L’Université de Besançon (2e série, Fasc. 5). Les Belles Lettres. Romaine, S. (2009). Global English: From island tongue to world language. In A. van Kemenade & B. Los (Eds.), The handbook of the history of English (pp. 589–611). Wiley-Blackwell. Schubert, K. (2005). Translation studies: Broaden or deepen the perspective? In H. V. Dam, J. Engberg, & H. Gerzymisch-Arbogast (Eds.), Knowledge systems and translation (pp. 125–146). Walter de Gruyter. Sonnedecker, G. (1986). Kremers and Urdang’s history of pharmacy. Lippincott. Starr, P. (1982). The social transformation of American medicine. Basic Books. Toury, G. (1995). Descriptive translation studies and beyond. John Benjamins. Upton, C. (2014). Modern regional English in the British isles. In L. Mugglestone (Ed.), The Oxford history of English (pp. 379–414). Oxford University Press. Vermeer, H. J. (1978). Ein Rahmen für eine allgemeinte Translationstheorie. Lebende Sprachen, 3, 99–102. Walker, W. B. (1956). Medical education in 19th century Great Britain. Journal of Medical Education, 31(1), 765–777. Whyatt, B. (2017). Intralingual translation. In J. W. Schwieter & A. Ferreira (Eds.), The handbook of transla­ tion and cognition (pp. 176–192). John Wiley and Sons. Wilde, O. (2006). The Canterville ghost. Pennsylvania State University (Original work pubished 1887). Yeo, R. (2001). Encyclopedic visions: Scientific dictionaries and enlightenment culture. Cambridge Univer­ sity Press. Zethsen, K. K. (2009). Intralingual translation: An attempt at description. Meta, 54(4), 795–812. https://doi. org/10.7202/038904ar Zethsen, K. K., & Hill-Madsen, A. (2016). Intralingual translation and its place within translation studies – a theoretical discussion. Meta, 61(3), 692–708. https://doi.org/10.7202/1039225ar

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18 “THE RULE IS NO FUSS” An analysis of Kazuo Ishiguro’s shift to unnatural narration from the perspective of intralingual translation and editing Enora Lessinger Introduction “I wanted to write a book not from the viewpoint of someone looking back and ordering his experi­ ence, but of someone in the midst of chaos”, Ishiguro said in an interview about his fourth novel, The Unconsoled (Shaffer & Wong, 2008, p. 117). The primacy of chaos over order described by Ishiguro is one of the most striking aspects of the British writer’s fourth novel. The metaphor of “looking back and ordering [one’s] experiences” is particularly fitting for the purpose of the present chapter, which explores the process of writing and rewriting of The Unconsoled as a particular type of intralingual self-translation. It studies in particular the genesis of the narrative technique of unnatural narration used in The Unconsoled (1995) by Nobel Prize winner Kazuo Ishiguro, through an analysis of the archival material present at the Harry Ransom Center (HRC) in Texas. This material reveals the author’s extensive rewriting from the first drafts of preparatory short stories to the published novel. The analysis in this chapter relies on the argument that the rewriting under study takes place as part of the editing work performed on the text, in line with the dictionary definition of the word “editing”: “To prepare for publication by correcting, rewriting, or updating” (Thesaurus Results for EDITING, n.d.). As shown throughout this chapter, this substantial editing amounts to an intra­ lingual translation process,1 with each new draft or version of the text constituting a translation of an earlier one, as well as being the source text for the next.

Theoretical framework Rewriting as intralingual translation As pointed out by Schrijver et al., “translation has sometimes been described as a form of rewrit­ ing” (2012, p. 99). Lefevere in particular, in his seminal Translation, rewriting & the manipulation of literary fame, writes, “[t]ranslation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text” (1992, p. vii). The present chapter adopts a comparable stance, but rather than adhere strictly to Lefevere’s model, it draws inspiration from it. Here, I argue that much as translation may be a form of rewrit­ ing, rewriting can in turn be a form of translation. It seems important to posit that the approach

DOI: 10.4324/9781003188872-23

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adopted here sees rewriting as a form of translation, rather than the other way round, for two reasons. The first is that the present discussion focuses on the notion of intralingual translation, relying on Jakobson’s landmark definition: Intralingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language. (1959/2000, p. 114, emphasis original) Rewriting being a variation of rewording (see, e.g., Lanselle, 2019; Weber & von Merveldt, 2020), it makes sense to approach it as a subcategory of translation rather than the other way round. The second reason is that I focus here on a very specific kind of rewriting: The genesis of a nov­ el’s narrative voice through different drafts and stages of writing and rewriting. While Lefevere’s model proposes a systemic analysis of the process of translation, taking into account a variety of intra- and extra-systemic constraints, my approach relies primarily on microanalysis and focuses on the influence of poetics. Here, I define a (creative) text’s poetics as the aesthetics precepts that dominate the form and language of that particular text, relying on Genette’s claim that “literary creation is always at least partially inseparable from the language in which it occurs” (Genette, 1982/1997, p. 216). The rewriting that can be observed in the HRC archive involves significant alterations of both the form and the content of the narrative. I argue that the interconnectedness of the two can be observed not only here but also in any text where language and aesthetics occupy centre stage. This interconnectedness, particularly characteristic of literary texts, forms the basis of my argu­ ment that in The Unconsoled, the author’s rewriting process corresponds to a type of intralingual self-translation. I define such self-translation as the process of rewriting performed on a given text by this text’s author, where the resulting text differs significantly from the original text in content and/or, where the text’s poetic plays a central role, in form.

Intralingual translation as editing I have argued that under certain circumstances, rewriting could be assimilated to intralingual selftranslation. I further argue that such self-translation also forms a key part of the editing process performed on a text. The striking similarities between editing and translating were first academically investigated by Stetting (1989), leading her to coin the term of “transediting” adopted by several researchers since (see, e.g., Schäffner, 2012; Schrijver et al., 2012). Stetting argues that editing “has always been included in the translation task” (1989, p. 371), with the translator adding, rephrasing and/ or removing portions of the text to make it fit its communicative aims. Particularly relevant to this paper is the fact that the “cleaning up” of manuscripts is included in her list of typical cases of transediting (373–374). Schrijver et al. (2012) address the question of the unclear boundaries between transediting and transcreation, the latter being a term widely used in the translation of marketing and advertis­ ing, suggesting that “[t]he overall function of the TT might be what sets apart the two concepts: Informative vs. persuasive function” (Schrijver et al., 2012, p. 101). This crucial distinction, based on Reiß’s seminal work on text types (1971/2000), is also highly relevant to the link made here between editing and intralingual translation. The focus of the present work is on stages of the editing process performed on a text whose main function is expressive. 309

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The honing of the novel’s unnatural narrative voice – that is to say, of the novel’s narrative poet­ ics – is plainly the main drive behind many of the changes observed. These changes in the narra­ tive voice pertain to the aesthetic organisation of content, which, in a text whose main function is expressive, makes them significant enough that each new version of the text can be viewed as an intralingual translation of the previous one. It should be noted, however, that self-translation differs from other kinds of intralingual trans­ lation in at least two ways. First, it is performed by the same person who wrote the original text, which means that source and target texts stem from the same person (though other people can play a role in these changes, and the HRC Ishiguro archive shows marks of the influence of Ishiguro’s wife and editors). Second, as a consequence of the first point, the translator also benefits from the status of author. This means that the pressure to be “faithful” or live up to the original text, or what Pym describes as the translator’s increased communicative risk (2005), does not apply to selftranslation. As I will show, this leads to the use of significantly different micro-strategies to those typically observed in intralingual translation.

Methodology Research questions and approach used in this chapter The aim of the present study is twofold: 1 To show that the rewriting performed by the writer on a literary text as part of the editing work before publication can amount to a particular type of translation: Intralingual self-translation. 2 To identify and analyse the (self-)translational strategies used by Ishiguro to achieve The Unconsoled’s narrative poetics of unnatural narration. To these ends, I explore the genesis of The Unconsoled’s narrative poetics through an analysis of the Kazuo Ishiguro archive acquired in 2015 by the Harry Ransom Center. I had the privilege of exploring this archive shortly after its acquisition, approaching the drafts and preparatory material for the novel through the prism of genetic translation studies,2 and this chapter exploits the results of my findings.

Material Ishiguro’s fourth novel starts with the first-person narrator – Ryder, a famous pianist – arriving in an unnamed city. He has come to deliver a musical performance, but nothing goes according to plan. Ishiguro’s notes on the novel’s “back story” (see Appendix 18.1) explicitly state that Ryder’s underlying motivation for giving this concert lies in the childish hope that it will bring his parents back together. During the days leading up to the performance, Ryder encounters more and more ludicrous obstacles. It thus comes as little surprise that the final performance is an unmitigated disaster: “Ends up isolated.” “Art as useless consolation.” (HRC 20.16). The material under study in this chapter comprises the novel The Unconsoled and its “genetic dossier” (see Cordingley & Montini, 2015, p. 2): The author’s numerous notes on the writing pro­ cess, the novel’s two main drafts, and a short story entitled “Experiment 2” with its three drafts, containing early versions of several scenes featuring in the published novel. This short story was explicitly written in preparation for The Unconsoled, in order to refine its narrative strategy of unnatural narration, which represented a shift from the unreliable narration typical of Ishiguro’s 310

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earlier novels (Fonioková, 2015). In his notes on “Experiment 2”, Ishiguro also reflects at length on the way the so-called dream techniques that underlie the novel’s structure are implemented in the short story and on how they should then make their way into the novel. The narrative voice itself is characterised by a violation of the laws of the rational world that has been described as unnatural narration (Richardson, 2000). More specifically, The Uncon­ soled is set in an oneiric, non-mimetic world that obeys laws of its own, so that it falls to the reader to decipher them. Not so, however, for the researcher who has access to the HRC archive, as these rules are explicitly formulated in the novel’s genetic dossier. In particular, Ishiguro lists the 20-odd “dream techniques” that he used to achieve his stated goal of implementing a convincing dream-like logic (see Appendix 18.2). Using the notes, drafts and different versions leading up to the published text, I explore the editing process performed by the author on the text, focusing on intralingual (self-)translational shifts reflecting the transition to a less realistic mode of writing.

Analysis The “tour de force” sequence in the lift “Experiment 2”, one of Ishiguro’s short stories aimed at refining some of his “dream techniques”, starts with the narrator arriving in a town where he is expected to give a musical performance, and which he gradually recognises as his hometown. He is taken to his room by the hotel porter, who gives him an uncannily long speech during the lift ride. Before they reach their destination, the narrator suddenly realises that somebody else is in the lift with them. The published novel contains a very similar scene from a diegetic point of view, but with some key stylistic changes explored here. In his preparatory notes for The Unconsoled, Ishiguro describes this whole first scene as a “tour de force sequence in the lift”. The lift ride that takes Ryder3 to his room is, in both the experiment and the novel, the first challenge to the implied reader’s4 assumptions of a verisimilar narrative, due to the absurd length of the ride itself and Ryder’s late realisation that there is a third person in the lift. When Gustav the porter launches into an extended monologue, the reader’s attention progressively shifts from the content of the discourse to its sheer length. The three dream techniques present in every version of “Experiment 2” and of the novel are what Ishiguro calls “warped time frame”, “extended, tangential monologue” and “delayed entrance”. Ishiguro’s archival notes show that he was always conscious of the relative opac­ ity of these narrative techniques and endeavoured to keep in mind the possibility of actual readers failing to identify them as deliberate narrative techniques rather than as the author’s clumsiness: The first time we use [warped time technique] is in the lift. Okay, so this is a bit crude. Gustav says we’re only going up two floors and they stay there for ages. . . . Only trouble is, someone might conceivably think it’s a very long way up, but surely not. (HRC 48.5, see Appendix 18.3) This last sentence shows the central role played by the implied reader in the self-translational pro­ cess of crafting the narrative voice. These two possible reader reactions pitched against each other are illustrated by two literary reviews of the novel’s translation into Brazilian Portuguese at the time of publication. The first one, published in the influent daily newspaper Folha de São Paulo 311

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by Ryoke Inoue, corresponds to the reader reaction described by Ishiguro as “someone might con­ ceivably think it’s a very long way up”: The discrepancies with what would be possible – for example, a conversation of over fifteen minutes while an elevator is ascending from the ground floor to the floor where Ryder will be hosted, which leads us to wonder how tall the building is or how fast the elevator can be – suggest that Kazuo Ishiguro simply transcribed a dream, or a nightmare, letting things occur exactly as they appeared to him, without even bothering to put them in order. (Inoue, 1996, my translation)5 Three months later, Brazilian writer Bernardo Ajzenberg published a review in answer to Inoue’s, displaying a reaction closer to that of the novel’s implied reader imagined by Ishiguro: Inoue . . . ironically quotes the conversation between Ryder and the porter while they are rising in the elevator. . . . Ishiguro has already demonstrated that he is fully in control of realistic narrative techniques, and it is obvious that he sought, in spite of the success of his previous novels, to boldly and deliberately subvert the model he was working with. (Ajzenberg, 1996, my translation)6 The inevitable gap between implied and actual reader is deepened by the fact that in The Uncon­ soled, “the reader cannot look for a natural explanation of the unnatural elements but needs to accept the world’s strange rules” (Fonioková, 2015, p. 126). The form taken by these underlying rules and their degree of prominence are the result of the intralingual translation process under study here.

Warped time frame In each version of the text, the central “warped time frame” technique lies in the length of the porter’s monologue. The first significant variation in this scene relates to Gustav’s remark, or lack thereof, on the floor number that Ryder’s hotel room is located on. Each of the experiment’s three drafts reads as follows: EX2–1; 2; ND7 “You know, you really ought to put those cases down.”/. . . “When I first started in this profession, very many years ago now, I used to place the bags on the floor. . . . But you won’t find me doing anything of that sort now. Besides, sir, we’re only going two floors up.”/We continued our ascent in silence for a few moments. (HRC 47.16) In the final version of The Unconsoled, the first and last sentences of the passage read slightly differently: FV “You know, you really ought to put those down.” . . . “Besides, sir, we’re not going up far.”/We continued our ascent in silence. (Ishiguro, 1995, p. 5) Here, there is no specific mention of the number of floors they have to cover, but instead a vague remark on “not going up far”. This corresponds to a form of implicitation, a phenomenon much 312

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less frequently observed in translation than its counterpart, explicitation.8 This deviation from typically observed patterns can be explained by the idiosyncrasy of the goal pursued through the editing process. The function of this particular change can be traced back to Ishiguro’s notes on “Experiment 2”: Gustav says we’re only going up two floors and they stay there for ages. . . . It might have been better without the direct reference to only being in the lift for two floors. . . . Whenever possible, it’s more subtle not to refer to the time warps directly. Certainly in dreams, people don’t refer to it, because there’s no surprise. (HRC 48.5) The decision to remove the reference to two floors thus stems from the stated goal to model fic­ tional reality after the logic of dreams such as we experience them in the actual world. This goal is highly idiosyncratic and differs significantly from that of typical intralingual translations, which often aim at making a text more accessible (see, e.g., Hill-Madsen, 2015; Zethsen, 2009). This in turn can explain the presence of implicitation, a relatively unusual micro-strategy recurrent in the material under study. Ishiguro’s notion that the characters should express “no surprise” is further illustrated by the implicitating shifts carried out in the passage from the first to the second draft of “Experiment 2”: Ryder and Gustav’s exit from the lift bears the trace of a similar effort to avoid drawing attention to the defamiliarising technique. EXP2–1 ‘ At this stage, the lift doors opened and we stepped out of the lift. It seemed to me we had been in the lift a long time, and I was surprised to see from the window in the corridor that we could have been only on the first or second floor. The porter, no doubt noticing my look, said quietly: ‘I’m sorry, sir. It is a slow lift. But it’s been here a long time and it’s perfectly safe. That’s what matters after all’. ‘Quite’, I said, and followed him down the corridor. EXP2–2; ND; D1 Just at this moment, the doors of the lift opened. The porter stepped out and set off down the carpeted corridor. FV Just at this moment the elevator doors slid open and the elderly porter set off down the cor­ ridor. (11) The erasure of everything following “we stepped out of the lift” in the second draft of “Experi­ ment 2” (see Appendix 18.4) and its omission in every subsequent stage of rewriting plainly stem from the observation, “it’s more subtle not to refer to the time warps directly”. After the first draft, no comment is made at all on the uncanny length of the ride, and its non-verisimilar dimension remains implicit. This omission takes the narrative away from realism and anchors it more firmly on the side of unnatural narration. No rational explanation is provided in subsequent versions, and no intra-diegetic reaction of surprise echoes the implied reader’s. Ishiguro’s stated desire for greater subtlety thus leads to a process of implicitation, and as a consequence, to complexification. This can seem to undermine the claim that in intralingual trans­ lation, “simplification is the keyword” (Zethsen, 2009, p. 808, emphasis original), but as outlined earlier, this can be explained by a difference in skopos and text types. Zethsen (2009), for instance, bases her analysis on Danish translations of the Bible; Hill-Madsen (2015) on specialised, pharma­ ceutical texts; and Whyatt et al. (2017) on tourism-related promotional texts. The main function of the first and third studies’ texts is, still according to Reiß’s category, operative, while the second’s is informative. In the present study, by contrast, the text’s main function is expressive: The editing 313

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process is driven primarily by the aesthetics rules dictated by the text’s poetics, rather than by concerns of readability and accessibility. The omission of any references to the novel’s departure from rational laws calls for an active participation of the reader, who is encouraged to perform her­ meneutic work on the text. In unreliable narration, the technique used in Ishiguro’s earlier novels, this interpretive work consists in uncovering the novel’s underlying version(s) of fictional reality (see Lessinger, 2020). Here, however, it involves identifying the laws regulating the textual world. The degree of interpretive work demanded by the narrative pact increases from the first draft to subsequent versions, whereas a tendency for translations to be easier to process than their corre­ sponding source text has been observed in both intralingual (e.g., Zethsen, 2009) and interlingual translation (e.g., Heltai, 2005, Saldanha, 2008). However, these shifts also result in a highlighting of the narrative strategy, and therefore amount to narratological explicitation (see Hirsch & Lessinger, 2020).9 As showed by Hirsch and Lessinger (2020), meaning processability and narratological explicitness can be inversely pro­ portional, but the more common scenario is for translators to perform shifts amounting to both increased meaning processability and narratological explicitation. Here again, it is the reverse that can be observed. This is likely to proceed from the fact that literary self-translation – especially where the author-translator is a well-established figure in the literary world, as is the case here – is regulated by a different set of norms. In other words, on Toury’s “continuum anchored between two extremes: General, relatively objective rules on the one hand, and idiosyncratic mannerisms on the other” (1995/2012, p. 65), literary self-translation is closer to the “idiosyncrasy” pole.

Delayed entrance The “tour de force sequence in the lift” also serves for the author to practise the dream technique of “delayed entrance/exit”: “[H]ow people enter and how they ‘fade away’ has to be done very subtly. . . . Someone just gets discarded by the viewpoint” (HRC 48.5). “Delayed entrance” occurs when a character that was not present in the scene suddenly appears, which is precisely what happens when the narrator suddenly realises the presence of a third person that was in the lift all along: EX2–1 “Miss Stella will confirm this to you, sir.” “Miss Stella?” I asked. The porter, I noticed, through his eyes, now crumpled in his face through the great effort of holding the bags – though he managed to keep any excessive sense of strain out of his voice – was looking past my shoul­ der to a corner of the lift behind me. I realized with a start that we were not alone in the lift. In the corner – I had not looked around when I had got in, so preoccupied had I been with the porter and his efforts to hold my bags – a small young woman was standing, practically pressed into the corner. EX2–2; ND; FV10 “I’m sure Miss Hilde will vouch for what I’m saying.” “Pardon me,” I said, “but who is this Miss Hilde you keep referring to?” No sooner had I said this, I noticed that the porter was gazing past my shoulder at some spot behind me. Turning, I saw with a start that we were not alone in the elevator. A small young woman in a neat business suit was standing pressed into the corner behind me. (1995, p. 9) Here again, the key variation takes place between the first and second drafts of the experiment. In the first draft, the narrator provides an explanation which, although it may not be sufficient to fully account for his obliviousness, tones down the unnaturalness of the episode. However, this explanation 314

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is discarded in the rewriting process, and Ishiguro writes in his notes, “[delayed entrance] is required to convey some surprise. But no great astonishment” (HRC 48.5, emphasis original). In line with this observation, only a moderate degree of surprise is expressed from the second draft of “Experiment 2” through to the published novel, perceptible only in the narrator’s body language: “I saw with a start that we were not alone.” As with the “warped time frame” tech­ nique, Ishiguro stresses the importance of not explicitly commenting on the departure from real­ ism, stressing, “disappearance/departure [should not be] explicitly commented upon” (HRC 48.5). This omission of Ryder’s comments on a new character’s sudden apparition results, here again, in a paradoxical highlighting of the unnatural dimension of the scene. Finally, we can observe a shortening of the passage in the translation from first to second draft. Zethsen (2009) presents space, that is, variations in lengths, as one of four main parameters in intralingual translation, arguing, “[i]ntralingual translations instigated by the parameter of space (reducing/extending translations) are typically . . . seen when explanation is needed due to com­ prehension limits in the target group caused by time, culture or lack of knowledge” (807). HillMadsen similarly observes a tendency to expansion in his case study of intralingual translation (2015, p. 93). Here, on the contrary, the text is shortened, as a result of which the textual world is even further removed from the implied reader’s actual world. The target text’s reduced meaning processability also leads to a complexification of the reader’s interpretive work, but the atypical nature of this shift reflects above all the idiosyncratic parameters in place here. The status of the translator – here, also the author; the type of text undergoing intralingual translation – a literary text where poetics plays a key role; and the goal pursued by the writer-translator – creating a non­ verisimilar fictional universe regulated by its own laws.

The “no fuss” rule “The dreaming mind just discovers without fuss”, Ishiguro writes in his notes (HRC 48.5, empha­ sis original). This idea, in line with the “no surprise” guideline explored earlier, recurs a number of times throughout the genetic dossier: “[T]he rule about this technique: no fuss”; “as usual, no fuss”; “[a]s ever, the rule is no fuss” (HRC 48.5). The translational shifts performed at different stages of the text’s genesis – erasures and omissions in particular – reflect this desire to avoid drawing attention to the defamiliarising techniques at work. This is particularly perceptible in the scene where the narrator recognises his hotel room as his childhood room, which makes use of the “unwarranted recognition of place” technique.

Unwarranted recognition of place In “unwarranted recognition of place”, the narrator experiences an unaccountable sense of famili­ arity with the place he finds himself in: “N. ‘recognises’ a place . . . though it’s very doubtful if it really can be the place he recognizes, and there’s no evidence at all that it is. His recognition is a purely interior one, even conflicting at times with the evidence” (HRC 48.5). Untypically, the archival material reveals here a high level of editing, with no less than five different versions of this scene, each presenting significant variations. For the sake of brevity, only the earliest version is reproduced here extensively, with elements undergoing key variations in subsequent versions highlighted. EX2–1 I had been examining the room for only a few seconds when I realised how very familiar it was . . . [A]s I came back into the main room, the wave of recognition hit me immediately. 315

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It was, I realised, the bedroom I had had as a child, up to the age of seven, before my parents had divorced and I had gone to live with my aunt. . . . Was it possible, I wondered, that the house had been converted into this hotel? In which case, it was a remarkable coincidence, or else extremely thorough preparation on the part of those organising this visit. Had it been planned? Then the manager must have been in on it, but primarily, and most obviously, Miss Stella must have been behind it. EX2–2; ND11 I had been examining it from the bed for a little time when an odd feeling came over me. . . . [A]s soon as I came back into the main room, the sense of recognition struck me again. This hotel room, I realised, was the same room that had served as my childhood bedroom, the room in which I had slept each night until the age of seven – until my parents had divorced and I had gone to live with my aunt. . . . There was no doubting it was the same room. Was it really possible the house we had lived in then had been converted into this hotel? If that were so, my coming to be in this room was the result either of the most remarkable coincidence, or else of elaborate forethought and planning. Had it been planned? If so, Miss Stratmann was the one behind it. D1 [A]t that point I am sure I did not have even the faintest stirrings of the revelation that was later to strike me to come. . . . But as soon as I came back into the main room, the sense of recognition struck me again. This room, I realised, was the very one that back in England had served as my childhood bedroom. D2 It was then . . . that the realisation first dawned on me. . . . [A]s soon as I came back into the main room, the sense of recognition struck me again. This room, I realised, was the very one that back in England had served as my childhood bedroom. FV [I] sat up on the bed and looked around, the sense of recognition growing stronger by the second. The room I was now in, I realised, was the very room that had served as my bedroom during the two years my parents and I had lived at my aunt’s house on the borders of England and Wales. (16) The first thing to note is that there is a marked shortening from the earliest to the latest version. This is consistent with the “no fuss” rule and with Ishiguro’s general tendency to strip down his narratives as he writes. Here again, one of the chief reasons why the earlier drafts are longer is that the narrator expresses surprise and provides tentative explanations for the unlikelihood of the episode. A number of textual elements appear in each of the versions reproduced here, albeit with slight differences, but a gradual de-explicitation12 and increased anchoring in unnatural narration can also be observed. Let us look in more detail at the passage where the narrator recognises his own childhood room: EX2–1 I realised how very familiar it was. . . . But as soon as I came back into the main room, the wave of recognition hit me immediately. EX2–2; ND [A]n odd feeling came over me. . . . But as soon as I came back into the main room, the sense of recognition struck me again. D1 [A]t that point I am sure I did not have even the faintest stirrings of the revelation that was later to strike me to come. . . . But as soon as I came back into the main room, the sense of recogni­ tion struck me again. D2 It was then . . . that the realisation first dawned on me. . . . But as soon as I came back into the main room, the sense of recognition struck me again.

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FV I was just starting to doze off when something suddenly made me open my eyes again and stare up at the ceiling . . . the sense of recognition growing stronger by the second. (16) The shift from “wave of recognition” in the first draft of “Experiment 2” to the more sober “sense of recognition” in subsequent versions, or the intralingual translation of “the revela­ tion that was later to strike me” to the less emphatic “the revelation that was later to come” in the novel’s first draft, bear witness to a process of de-explicitation of the narrative technique. Furthermore, the textual elements pointing to the divorce of Ryder’s parents are progres­ sively toned down, as can be seen in the description of the period in which he inhabited the room as a child. While the first and second drafts of “Experiment 2” mention the bedroom “before my parents had divorced and I had gone to live with my aunt”, the two drafts and final versions of the novel make only veiled allusions to the narrator’s aunt in England: “The very [room] that back in England had served as my childhood bedroom” (EXP2–1; EXP2); “the two years my parents and I had lived at my aunt’s house on the borders of England and Wales” (FV). Overall, this progressive de-explicitation makes the underlying version of fictional reality (the traumatic divorce of Ryder’s parents) less accessible for the reader – a process similar to that observed in the genetic dossier of Ishiguro’s A Pale View of Hills (Lessinger, 2020). In conclusion, in this scene, the editing work performed by Ishiguro on the text revolves around the honing not only of a dream technique, but also of the novel’s overall narrative mode, which largely relies on narratological implicitness. In particular, we can observe that the process of selftranslation in this passage gives rise to an implicitation of textual elements pointing to unnatural narration and to a de-explicitation of the novel’s subtext. In this light, I argue that on the adequacy– acceptability axis described by Toury (1995/2012), in his process of self-translation, Ishiguro moves here from greater acceptability – a more mimetic narrative mode – to greater adequation with the novel’s narrative poetics of dream logic.

Unwarranted familiarity with situation The last example analysed here is taken from the closing scene of “Experiment 2”. In this episode, Ryder is taken by Hoffman, the hotel manager, to a reception allegedly given in his honour. However, neither Hoffman nor the guests seem particularly honoured by Ryder’s presence, and their attitude even borders on rudeness. This scene corresponds, in the novel, to a reception attended by Ryder in his dressing gown in chapter 10, where he also goes largely unrecognised by the other guests. Shortly after arriving at the reception, Ryder starts realising the reason that the guests are paying him so little attention: They were originally waiting for another celebrity, and Ryder was called as a last-minute substitute. He then starts visualising the scene that took place before his arrival, a feat that corresponds to the dream technique of “unwarranted familiarity with situation”: N. arrives at a situation he should know nothing about. But he does and there’s no surprise on his part about how he knows. This is a familiar experience I have in dreams. . . . Now in fiction, we might be able to do this by having N. go into a room and just saying in the narra­ tive, “I realised A was thinking B”, or “It was clearly the case that B was having to XYZ . . . ” (HRC 48.5)

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In the novel, one of the most prominent markers of unnatural narration is precisely the use of the key expressions “I realised” and “it occurred to me”, which function as signals that the narrator is about to provide information that he would not normally have access to or describe a situation that contradicts rational laws. For the sake of readability, the variations that are most relevant to the narrative technique are highlighted: EX2–1 Then as I continued to walk in circles, led by my hostess, I gained the distinct impres­ sion that the people in the room had gathered not to honour me, but some other distinguished figure – perhaps this Hearn the hotel manager had talked of – and that . . . I had been called in as his replacement. This had led, I realised, to large sections of the room demanding an expla­ nation. . . . In fact No doubt, at first immediately after the announcement the atmosphere had been so hostile that there had been a real danger of the whole party dissolving then and there. But then one of the town elders – perhaps it was quite probably the very white-haired man I could see deep in conversation with two women on the other side of the room – had got up onto the platform and calmed down everyone. . . . [T]he speech would in all likelihood have gone on for so long, no-one daring to interrupt the old man, he being someone of great esteem, that the speech would have only finished minutes before my arrival. . . . It was clear this was what had taken place.13 EX2–2; ND14 [T]hen as I continued to walk with my hostess, I gained the distinct impression that the people in the room had gathered not to honour me, but some other distinguished figure – most probably this Rudolph Hearn the hotel manager had talked of. Then not long before my arrival, someone had announced . . . that at the last minute I had been secured as his replace­ ment. This had led to many people angrily demanding an explanation . . . Indeed immediately after the announcement, the mood had grown so hostile there had been a real possibility the party would break up then and there. But then one of the town elders – quite probably the little white-haired man I could see across the room deep in conversation with a young woman in a bright red dress – had got up onto the platform and calmed everyone down. . . . So it was that by the time I had arrived – just several minutes after the white-haired man had finished speak­ ing – a genuinely celebratory atmosphere had taken over the proceedings. Having grasped what had occurred, I was then somewhat disturbed when my large hostess waved towards the lectern. Here, I argue that three types of textual elements serve the author in honing the narrative voice: The opening and closing sentences in both versions, the use of epistemic markers and the presence or absence of the modal verb “would”. Firstly, in the opening sentence of the passage in each draft, the narrator mentions having “gained [a] distinct impression” of the reason behind the general lack of enthusiasm. This phrase works as a gateway into the narrative mode of the dream technique of unwarranted familiarity, echoed further on in the first draft by the expression “I realised”. In his notes upon re-reading his experimental short stories, Ishiguro ponders on the role and necessity of these markers, writing, [I]t’s important to keep the “I realised”, “It was clear” etc. lead-ins. . . . To not have these, the reader might just think, oh we’ve suspended first person for the moment. The bizarreness of the N having this power should be emphasized. But again, as usual, no fuss. (HRC 48.5) 318

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In this scene, the translational shifts performed by Ishiguro as part of his editing work render the narrator’s account progressively more assertive. In the first draft of “Experiment 2”, the sequence ends on “It was clear this was what had taken place”, underscored in the typescript, while the sentence closing the passage in the two subsequent drafts begins with “having grasped what had occurred”. These two sentences denote a marked evolution towards a more confident narrative voice within the passage, but it is also interesting to note that the second version is less emphatic than the first one, both from a typographic and semantic point of view – perhaps because emphasis was seen as contravening the “no fuss” rule. Second, both versions of the scene are punctuated by epistemic markers such as “perhaps” or “quite probably”. These markers reflect the degree of certainty expressed by the narrator in his account of a scene that he has in fact not witnessed and of which he has had no rational way of gaining knowledge. The overall tendency is again one of greater assertiveness in the later version: “Perhaps” becomes “most probably”, and “no doubt” is translated as “indeed”. This later version also has an additional “So it was that etc.” in the penultimate sentence, which contributes to anchor the scene in the textual world. The crossing-outs in the first draft further testify to the importance of these epistemic markers in Ishiguro’s conscious endeavour to strike the right balance between assumption and assertion of the narrative voice. This bears testimony to the prevalence of the narrative poetics in the suc­ cessive stages of self-translation, that is, of achieving a convincing and coherent reproduction of dream logic in the novel’s fictional reality. The modal “would” also plays a crucial role in this balance. In the first draft, towards the end of the passage, several verbs are used in combination with this modal. It corresponds here to the past form of the modal “will” in its radical dynamic value, that is, expressing a strong probability: “The speech would in all likelihood have gone on for so long etc.”; “the speech would have only finished minutes before my arrival”. However, the modal is absent from the second and neat drafts of the experiment: “This had led to many people demanding an explanation”; “by the time I had arrived – just several minutes after the white-haired man had finished speaking – a genuinely celebratory atmosphere had taken over the proceedings”. In the margin (see Appendix 18.5) of the first draft of “Experiment 2”, next to “Indeed, the speech would in all likelihood have gone on for so long etc.”, Ishiguro wrote, “ditch condi­ tional tense” (HRC 47.16, emphasis original). This editorial comment further confirms the importance of the presence or absence of the modal “would” in the intralingual translation strategy. The scene just analysed also appears in the novel, but in a different form. The main shared features of the two scenes are the pre-eminence of another figure compared to Ryder and the use of the dream technique of “unwarranted familiarity with situation”: FV Then, as I continued to cast my gaze about me, I began steadily to realise just what had taken place before our arrival. The present occasion was the largest to date of the dinners given in Brodsky’s honour. . . . I was still turning over all that had happened prior to our arrival when I caught sight of Stephan on the other side of the room, talking to an elderly lady. (126–129) The evolution towards greater assertiveness is even more pronounced here, with the passage from “I gained the distinct impression” to “I began steadily to realise just what had taken place”, and the absence of any qualifying modals: “Was”, “had turned up the tension”, “all that had 319

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happened”. The shift to this “unwarranted technique” is thus less gradual in the final version of the novel, which, in turn, is likely to make the meaning harder to process for the reader. This seems at odds, here again, with Zethsen’s claim that in intralingual translation, “[t]he parameter of knowledge often involves interpretation (explicitation, explanation, addition) of information” (2009, p. 802). I argue that this departure, too, can be attributed to the text’s idiosyncratic narra­ tive poetics, which entails a departure from the implied reader’s “real-world frames” (Fonioková, 2015, p. 126).

Conclusion I have explored here the shift to a new type of narrative strategy in Ishiguro’s fiction – unnatural narration – through an extensive editing process. The analysis has shown that this shift was imple­ mented by means of micro-strategies different to those typically observed in intralingual transla­ tion: Omission, shortening and de-explicitation. In particular, the passage from the first draft of “Experiment 2” to the novel’s published version shows a tendency to erase rather than to add. This is consistent with the results of the analysis of A Pale View of Hills’s genetic dossier (Lessinger, 2020). This use of omission as a recurrent micro-strategy seems at first glance to put in question Zethsen’s (2009) and Whyatt et al.’s (2017) claim that intralingual translation generally leads to simplification, but I argue that this discrepancy does not necessarily undermine their conclusions and can be explained by a combination of factors. First, we are dealing here with a self-translation, so that translator and (re)writer are the same person. This has a clear impact on the status of both the translator and the transla­ tion. Crucially, it leads to a decreased communicative risk for the translator: Ishiguro benefits from his status as an (acclaimed) author and does not have to bear the translator’s burden of increased communicative risk described by Pym (2005) and Becher (2010). Moreover, as evi­ denced in Ishiguro’s notes, narrative complexity is precisely at the heart of the poetics of the text, and poetics play a key part in the writing and rewriting process of a novel – or of any text in the category of “expressive” texts (Reiß, 1971/2000). Finally, the fact that “Experiment 2” was only meant to serve as an exercise to hone the narrative voice also creates a peculiar narrative pact. Since it was not intended for publication, the implied reader assumes a lesser importance, presumably leading to greater creative license. The recurrent use of these unusual micro-strategies in the editing process is clearly aimed at implementing the translation’s explicit goal: Striking the right chord for the narrative voice, so that the effect of the “dream techniques” regulating the fictional universe should be perceptible without being obvious. As a result of the erasure in the target text of any rational explanations proffered by the narrator in earlier versions and of the toning down of the signs of his surprise, the unnatural dimension of the narration becomes gradually more prominent, which in itself amounts to narratological explicitation (Hirsch & Lessinger, 2020). However, this absence of commentary on the novel’s underlying logic and the increasing gap between real world and fictional reality also result in decreased meaning processability, in itself a form of implicita­ tion. This illustrates two things. On the one hand, there is an overall tendency for narratological explicitness and meaning processability to be inversely proportional in the case of narrative strategies based on implicitness. On the other hand, literary self-translation does not seem to be subject to the same norms as the type of intralingual translation that has mostly been studied so far, that is, where the translator and author are different people and where the text type is informative or operative.

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Appendices

Appendix 18.1 Ishiguro’s notes on The Unconsoled’s “back story”

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Appendix 18.2 Ishiguro’s 23 “dream techniques”

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Appendix 18.3 Ishiguro’s notes on the “warped frame time frame” technique

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Appendix 18.4 Excerpt from the elevator scene in the first draft of “Experiment 2”

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Appendix 18.5 Excerpt from the reception scene in the first draft of “Experiment 2”

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Notes 1 I draw from Jakobson’s canonical definition of translation and the work of researchers who subsequently adopted or adapted it, arguing in favour of a broader definition of translation to include intralingual trans­ lation (see e.g., Hill-Madsen, 2015; Steiner, 1975; Whyatt et al, 2017; Zethsen, 2007, 2009). The defini­ tion of “intralingual translation” adopted here is based on Zethsen’s (2007, p. 299): “A source text exists or has existed at some point in time. A transfer has taken place and the target text has been derived from the source text”. Such is the definition also adopted here. 2 Crossing the fields of genetic studies and translation studies, genetic translation studies emerged as a disci­ pline of its own in the past 20 years or so. It studies the different phases of creation of translations, through the analysis of what all the available material surrounding the translating process – manuscripts, typescripts, drafts, translators’ notes, etc. See for instance Cordingley and Montini (2015) and Paret-Passos (2011). 3 Some of the characters’ names are different in “Experiment 2” and in the novel; from here on, for the sake of consistency and unless quoting, the characters’ names from the published novel will be used. 4 The term “reader” is generally taken here to mean “implied reader” (see Iser, 1978/1984, on the concept of implied reader), as opposed to actual, real-life readers. 5 “As discrepâncias com o que seria possível – por exemplo, uma conversa de mais de 15 minutos enquanto o elevador está subindo do térreo para o pavimento onde Ryder ficará hospedado, o que nos leva a per­ guntar qual a altura desse prédio ou qual a velocidade do elevador – fazem pensar que Kazuo Ishiguro simplesmente transcreveu um sonho – ou um pesadelo – fazendo suceder os fatos exatamente como eles lhe apareceram, sem nem ao menos se preocupar em ordená-los.” 6 “Inoue . . . cita com ironia a conversa entre Ryder e o carregador de malas enquanto sobem de eleva­ dor. . . . Ishiguro já demonstrou ter pleno domínio da técnica narrativa realista, e é evidente que procurou, apesar do sucesso dos anteriores, subverter ousada e conscientemente o modelo com o qual trabalhava.” 7 The mention “EXP2–1” precedes quotes from the first draft of “Experiment 2”, while “EXP2–2” refers to its second draft and “EXP2-ND” to the third, “neat draft” of the experiment. “D1”, in turn, refers to the first draft of The Unconsoled, “D2” to its second draft and “FV” to the published, final version of the novel. A semi-colon indicates that the version following it is identical to the preceding one. 8 Since Blum-Kulka first formulated her landmark explicitation hypothesis (1986), the phenomenon has been widely researched, in particular after Baker introduced and popularised the concept of translation universals (1993, 1995). Baker identified in particular the tendency for translations to display simplifica­ tion, explicitation, normalisation and levelling-out. While the definition of the term “explicitation” is much debated, the results of the various case studies investigating this phenomenon in translation support overall Blum-Kulka’s notion that translations tend to be more explicit than non-translated texts. See, e.g., Øverås (1998), Olohan & Baker (2000), and Saldanha (2008). 9 By narratological explicitation, Hirsch and Lessinger (2020) refer to cases where the narrative strategy is more prominent and perceptible in the target text than in the source text. 10 Some subtle differences exist between these different versions, but for the sake of brevity and because these variations were not relevant to the point being made, these versions are listed together here. 11 The only difference between the second draft of “Experiment 2” and its neat draft is the use in the neat draft of “preparation” instead of “planning” and of “would have been” instead of “was” in “Miss Strat­ mann was the one behind it”. 12 I borrow this term from Murtisari’s explicitation/implicitation framework based on relevance theory (2016). I speak of de-explicitation for intralingual shifts that do not render the information implicit (such as the erasure of the reference to the parents’ divorce) but merely make it less explicit or prominent. 13 This last sentence is underscored in the original text. 14 The only difference between the second and neat drafts of “Experiment 2” in this passage is the absence of the crossed-out text in the neat draft.

Further reading Alber, J. (2013). Unnatural narrative. In P. Hühn, et al. (Eds.), The living handbook of narratology. Hamburg University. www.lhn.uni-hamburg.de/article/unreliability Asimakoulas, D. (2020). Rewriting. In M. Baker & G. Saldanha (Eds.), Routledge encyclopedia of translation studies (pp. 241–245). Routledge (Original work published 1997). Cordingley, A., & Montini, C. (2015). Genetic translation studies: An emerging discipline. Linguistica Antver­ piensia, New Series – Themes in Translation Studies, 14, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.52034/lanstts.v14i0.399

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References Ajzenberg, B. (1996). Kazuo Ishiguro usa inspiração kafkiana em “O Desconsolado”. Folha de São Paulo. https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/fsp/1996/10/07/ilustrada/14.html. Baker, M. (1993). Corpus linguistics and translation studies: Implications and applications. In M. Baker, G. Francis, & E. Tognini-Bonelli (Eds.), Text and technology: In honour of John Sinclair (pp. 233–250). John Benjamins. Baker, M. (1995). Corpora in translation studies: An overview and some suggestions for future research. Tar­ get. International journal of translation studies, 7(2), 223–243. https://doi.org/10.1075/target.7.2.03bak Becher, V. (2010). Abandoning the notion of “translation-inherent” explicitation: Against a dogma of transla­ tion studies. Across Languages and Cultures, 11(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1556/Acr.11.2010.1.1 Blum-Kulka, S. (1986). Shifts of cohesion and coherence in translation. In J. House & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlingual and intercultural communication. Discourse and cognition in translation and second lan­ guage acquisition studies (pp. 17–35). Günter Narr. Cordingley, A., & Montini, C. (2015). Genetic translation studies: An emerging discipline. Linguistica Antver­ piensia, New Series – Themes in Translation Studies, 14, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.52034/lanstts.v14i0.399 Fonioková, Z. (2015). Kazuo Ishiguro and Max Frisch: Bending facts in unreliable and unnatural narration. Peter Lang. Genette, G. (1997). Figures of literary discourse. Columbia University Press (Original work published 1982). Heltai, P. (2005). Explicitation, redundancy, ellipsis and translation. In K. Krisztina & F. Ágota (Eds.), New trends in translation studies. In honour of Kinga Klaudy (pp. 45–75). Akadémiai Kiadó. Hill-Madsen, A. (2015). Lexical strategies in intralingual translation between registers. HERMES-Journal of Language and Communication in Business, 54, 85–105. https://doi.org/10.7146/hjlcb.v27i54.22949 Hirsch, G., & Lessinger, E. (2020). Obscuring the speaker’s stance: When explicitating results in im­ plicitation. Meta: Journal des traducteurs/Meta: Translators’ Journal, 65(3), 745–765. https://doi. org/10.7202/1077412ar Inoue, R. (1996). Ishiguro escreve para divãs. Folha de São Paulo. https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/fsp/ 1996/8/25/mais!/34.html. Iser, W. (1984). The act of reading: A theory of aesthetic response (W. Fink, Trans.). Johns Hopkins Univer­ sity Press (Original work published 1978). Ishiguro, K. (1995). The unconsoled. Faber and Faber. Jakobson, R. (2000). On linguistic aspects of translation. In L. Venuti (Ed.), The translation studies reader (pp. 138–143). Routledge (Original work published 1959). Lanselle, R. (2019). IntraTexTT: Presentation of a digital textual comparison tool for the analysis of rewriting and intralingual translation processes in pre-modern Chinese texts. In EATS3-The third East Asian transla­ tion studies conference-from the local to the global and back: Translation as a construction of plural and dialogic identities of East Asia. Ca’Foscari University. Lefevere, A. (1992). Translation, rewriting & the manipulation of literary fame. Routledge. Lessinger, E. (2020). Genesis of a self-translation: Inside the archive of Kazuo Ishiguro’s A Pale view of Hills. Palimpsestes. Revue de traduction, 34, 84–100. https://doi.org/10.4000/palimpsestes.5982 Murtisari, E. T. (2016). Explicitation in translation studies: The journey of an elusive concept. Translation & Interpreting, 8(2), 64–81. http://doi.org/10.12807/ti.108202.2016.a05 Olohan, M., & Baker, M. (2000). Reporting that in translated English. Evidence for subconscious processes of explicitation? Across Languages and Cultures, 1(2), 141–158. https://doi.org/10.1556/Acr.1.2000.2.1 Øverås, L. (1998). In search of the third code: An investigation of norms in literary translation. Meta: journal des traducteurs/Meta: Translators’ Journal, 43(4), 557–570. https://doi.org/10.7202/003775ar Paret-Passos, M. H. (2011). Da crítica genética à tradução literária: o caminho da (re) escritura. In-traduções revista do programa de pós-graduação estudosos da tradução da UFSC, 3(5), 1–12. Pym, A. (2005). Explaining explicitation. In K. Karoly & Á. Fóris (Eds.), New trends in translation studies. In honour of Kinga Klaudy (pp. 29–34). Akadémia Kiadó. Reiß, K. (2000). Type, kind and individuality of text: Decision-making in translation. In L. Venuti (Ed.), The translation studies reader (pp. 160–171). Routledge (Original work published 1971). Richardson, B. (2000). Narrative poetics and postmodern transgression: Theorizing the collapse of time, voice, and frame. Narrative, 8(1), 23–42. (Original work published 1971). www.jstor.org/stable/20107199 Saldanha, G. (2008). Explicitation revisited: Bringing the reader into the picture. Trans-kom, 1(1), 20–35. Schäffner, C. (2012). Rethinking transediting. Meta: journal des traducteurs, 57(4), 866–883. https://doi. org/10.7202/1021222ar

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Enora Lessinger Schrijver, I., Van Vaerenbergh, L., & Van Waes, L. (2012). An exploratory study of transediting in students’ translation processes. HERMES-Journal of Language and Communication in Business, 49, 99–117. https://doi.org/10.7146/hjlcb.v25i49.97740 Shaffer, B. W., & Wong, C. F. (Eds.). (2008). Conversations with Kazuo Ishiguro. University Press of Mississippi. Steiner, G. (1975). After Babel: Aspects of language and translation. Oxford University Press. Stetting, K. T. (1989). A new term for coping with the grey area between editing and translating. In G. Caie, K. Haastrup, A. Lykke Jakobsen, et al. (Eds.), Proceedings from the fourth Nordic conference for English studies (pp. 371–382). University of Copenhagen. Thesaurus Results for EDITING. (n.d.). In the Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. www.merriam-webster. com/thesaurus/editing Toury, G. (2012). Descriptive translation studies – And beyond. In Descriptive translation studies. John Ben­ jamins Publishing (Original work published 1995). Weber, J., & von Merveldt, N. (2020). Ideological manipulation of children’s literature through translation and rewriting by Vanessa Leonardi. Bookbird: A Journal of International Children’s Literature, 58(4), 115–116. https://doi.org/10.1353/bkb.2020.0080 Whyatt, B., Kajzer-Wietrzny, M., & Stachowiak, K. (2017). Intralingual and interlingual translation: Design­ ing a comparative study of decision-making processes in paraphrase and translation. In A. L. Jakobsen & B. Mesa-Lao (Eds.), Translation in transition (pp. 136–158). John Benjamins. Zethsen, K. (2007). Beyond translation proper – Extending the field of translation studies. TTR, 20(1), 281–308. https://doi.org/10.7202/018506ar Zethsen, K. (2009). Intralingual translation: An attempt at description. Meta : Journal Des Traducteurs, 54(4), 795–812. https://doi.org/10.7202/038904ar

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19 INTRALINGUAL VARIATION AND TRANSFER IN LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL TRANSLATION The case of pluricentric languages Fernando Prieto Ramos Introduction Legal knowledge structures and discourses are shaped by the varied ways in which social relations and institutions are organised across legal traditions and jurisdictions. These idiosyncrasies are reflected in culture-bound elements of legal texts and generate incongruities that are characteristic of legal translation. Studies in this field have traditionally focused on the challenges of mean­ ing transfer between the source and target languages and legal systems, most often resorting to comparative law methods. In this context, the search for communicative adequacy in translation decision-making may also involve comparative analysis of legal concepts of national systems that share the same language. This applies to institutional translation into “pluricentric languages” or languages that are official in more than one jurisdiction in particular, as multiple interrelated legal norms and linguistic conventions operate, and may interact, in the same language at various levels (regional, state, supranational), and condition the translator’s task. Culture-bound singularities at the national or local levels also coexist with institution-specific preferences and conventions at the international level, which can be regarded as characteristic discourse features and “institutional cultures” themselves. These features call for conformity and consistency across institutional texts for the sake of legal certainty, standardisation and continuity (Prieto Ramos, 2014; Šarčević, 2018; Stefaniak, 2017). This chapter will examine intralingual variation and intralingual interactions between national and international legal orders, and will question the extent to which forms of intralingual transfer are involved in legal and institutional translation into pluricentric languages or languages that are official in multiple national legal systems. To this end, it will first focus on cultural variations between jurisdictions in the same language. To gain a broader perspective, it will then review and illustrate other scenarios of intralingual translation primarily associated with time and knowledge as additional variation parameters (see, e.g., Zethsen, 2009, p. 809) that also apply to legal and institutional settings. In this review, of a predominantly qualitative and by no means exhaustive nature, intralingual translation or rewording will be understood in line with the seminal definition by Jakobson (1959, p. 233) as “an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language”. All 329

DOI: 10.4324/9781003188872-24

Fernando Prieto Ramos

forms of intralingual rewording or transformation will be considered, including those occurring for interlingual translation and those involving only parts of a text, particularly terminology and phraseology, and not necessarily reformulations of entire texts.

Intralingual variation and transfer across jurisdictional and institutional boundaries As a communicative bridge between legal systems and traditions, legal translation is constrained by the multiple specificities of legal language across jurisdictions. This “jurisdictional variability” can be associated with legal cultural boundaries that result in both interlingual and intralingual incongruities between legal concepts and structures in different jurisdictions. Such variability is generally considered as a distinctive feature of legal language as opposed to specialised language in other domains, such as chemistry or medicine, which revolve around universal concepts. Legal system-bound incongruities include not only conceptual and terminological diver­ gences, but also differences in textual genres and their discursive conventions (see, e.g., Biel, 2009; Chromá, 2011; Mattila, 2013). It is thus not surprising that legal translation has often been described as a matter of comparative legal analysis (De Groot, 1988; Engberg, 2013; Pozzo, 2015) in which the search for a “tertium comparationis”, or conceptual commonalities between incon­ gruous legal notions, is essential for informed decision-making. While the primary focus in legal translation studies has been on inter-systemic and interlingual translation, comparative legal anal­ ysis may also be paramount in intra-systemic translation (i.e., translation within a multilingual legal order), especially when translation decisions are made for an international audience sharing the same target language. This will be one of the four major instances of intralingual jurisdictional variation and transfer illustrated as follows.

Inter-systemic translation into pluricentric languages or between same-language jurisdictions The most typical consequence of intralingual jurisdictional variation is the need not only to situate the source text within its legal framework but also to identify the legal framework of reference for the production of the target text (TT) among several jurisdictions that share the same language. For example, the translation of a divorce decree issued by an Irish court for several administrative purposes in Spain will be different from the translation of a judgment of dissolution of marriage from California to be used in Peru (Example 1). Likewise, the translation of a bilingual confiden­ tiality agreement prepared by a multinational company for several Spanish-speaking jurisdictions may require adaptations depending on the target legal system (Example 2). The regulations and established terminology with regard to courts, termination, administrative proceedings or com­ pany types, to name but a few aspects, may differ significantly between countries. While national jurisdictions that share the same language also often share the same broad legal tradition, for example, the civil law tradition in French-speaking or Spanish-speaking countries, the influences on particular branches of national law may be very diverse, and not only from the legal system of the original colonising countries (see, e.g., Eder, 1950, for a historical overview of the impact of common law on Latin American legal systems). Culture-bound singularities can be especially marked in denominations of bodies and legal procedures, as they tend to reflect local idiosyncrasies and traditions. Jurisdictional variations may call for transfer adaptations in parallel, that is, several simultaneous target versions for several jurisdictions, or subsequent retranslations based on the original source text (ST) and/or a previous translation into the same target language. 330

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The degree of rewording will primarily depend on the level of divergence between national legal orders on the subject at hand and the concomitant need to conform to local requirements and expecta­ tions to ensure the relevant legal effects. For instance, in the preceding Example 1, the documentary translation in question (according to Nord’s (1997, pp. 47–52) distinction between documentary and instrumental translation) will facilitate target readers’ understanding of the details and nature of the original document so that a divorce can be recognised for administrative purposes in the target system. To this end, it might require adaptations to certified translation requirements in each of the countries involved. In the case of a divorce decree to be translated for official use by the Peruvian and the Span­ ish administrations, adaptations may affect not only parts of the wording, but also the format and cer­ tification formulas to be adhered to by a certified translator (“traductor público juramentado” in Peru and “traductor-intérprete jurado” in Spain) (on official translation, see, e.g., Mayoral Asensio, 2003). In Example 2, where the instrumental translation will be part of bilingual copies of an agree­ ment to be signed by the parties, intralingual rewordings and clause adaptations to local regula­ tions may be mandatory. In clauses on contract termination and dispute settlement, for instance, special attention must be paid to court names and proceedings, and to concepts such as “resolu­ ción” and “rescisión”, which may express “termination” under varying circumstances and with different effects according to the national legal system of reference for each target version.

Compromise building in the translation of international legal texts into pluricentric languages In the context of translation for the production of multilingual legal texts at international organisa­ tions, intralingual jurisdictional variability inevitably leads to processes of linguistic compromise building to facilitate understanding among international audiences. While macrotextual genre conventions are specific to each institution, terminological issues often emerge when translating notions whose closest corresponding concepts in the target language diverge between national jurisdictions to be covered by the translation. Intralingual comparative legal analysis thus becomes critical in the process of interlingual translation within an international legal order, especially when no rendering has been clearly established for the term in question. The ultimate aim of such a comparative analysis is to provide translations that are “neutral” and broadly understandable to a global community of target language users. This entails avoiding national singularities and prioritising conceptual commonalities when making translation deci­ sions. If we take the example of “due process” in the context of translating European Union (EU) texts and other international legal texts into Spanish, the primary referent legal system in the target language will be that of Spain (the only Spanish-speaking Member State) in the case of the EU, as opposed to those of the entire Spanish-speaking community in the case of intergovernmental organisations such as the United Nations (UN) or the World Trade Organization (WTO). The concept, which originated in common law, can be defined as: “The conduct of legal pro­ ceedings according to established rules and principles for the protection and enforcement of private rights, including notice and the right to a fair hearing before a tribunal with the power to decide the case” (Garner, 2014, p. 610). Table 19.1 shows the concepts that correspond most closely to “due process” in the most populated Spanish-speaking countries, including in constitutional law and procedural law, both civil and criminal. The concept of “garantías procesales” can be considered the most widespread “common denominator” in Spanish. It encapsulates the essential principle without conveying any national singularities. Albeit less used in national legislations, “debido proceso”, which reflects the influence of common law, can also be understood across jurisdictions in Spanish. These two concepts actually predominate in institutional database recommendations 331

Fernando Prieto Ramos Table 19.1 Procedural concepts corresponding to “due process” in most populated Spanish-speaking coun­ tries (Prieto Ramos & Guzmán, 2018, p. 87)

Mexico

Colombia Spain Argentina Venezuela

Constitution

Criminal procedure legislation

formalidades esenciales del procedimiento; garantía del debido proceso legal debido proceso tutela efectiva

garantías

juicio previo fundado en la ley debido proceso

Peru

debido proceso; tutela jurisdiccional

Chile

proceso previo legalmente tramitado; garantías de un procedimiento y una investigación racionales y justos derecho de defensa debido proceso; garantías básicas

Guatemala Ecuador

Civil procedure legislation

garantías procesales garantías procesales

debido proceso tutela judicial efectiva; garantías procesales

debido proceso; garantías del debido proceso

garantías procesales

juicio previo y proceso legal

igualdad efectiva de las partes en todas las actuaciones del proceso

garantías procesales juicio previo; garantías previstas

for the translation of “due process” into Spanish (in the EU’s Interactive Terminology for Europe [IATE], the UN’s UNTERM and the WTO’s dispute settlement glossary), while “tutela judicial efectiva” is also included in IATE in line with the terminology used in the Spanish legal system (Prieto Ramos & Guzmán, 2018, pp. 86–88; see also Bestué Salinas, 2009, on the translations into Spanish of the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts and the Principles of European Contract Law). However, institutional standards or recommendations do not always exist for such concepts, or they are insufficiently reliable or simply not applicable to a particular translation (see Prieto Ramos, 2020). They may vary between institutions and translation precedents (see next subsec­ tion), thus contributing to further constraints on the translation process. In all these instances, the intralingual comparative analysis remains “hidden” as part of terminological research to make interlingual translation decisions for international audiences. They do not involve the intralingual transfer between a ST and a TT but an instrumental intermediate step that permeates translators’ cognitive processes and may be reflected in translation resources (e.g., terminological entries).

Intralingual adaptations to international institutional conventions The varying nature and scope of supranational and international legal orders (e.g., EU law versus WTO law), and the divergent discourse conventions that characterise “institutional cultures” in each official 332

Intralingual variation in legal and institutional translation

language, condition translation work and also become apparent when such legal orders interact in the same language. The intralingual inconsistencies that derive from fragmented terminological work, in particular, often result in lexical dispersion not only between institutions but also between texts within the same institution. Regardless of the degree of terminological uniformity or disparity between or within institutions, editing and intralingual adaptations may be necessary when communicating with a particular organisation in order to conform to its conventions, for example, in a national notification on financial regulations for more than one international organisation (Example 1) or in references to EU trade measures in the context of WTO texts on trade policy implementation (Example 2). In the first case, the terminology preferred for “hedge fund” in Spanish, for example, may vary greatly between institutions. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) includes the borrowing and several other renderings of the term in its English-Spanish glossary: hedge fund, fondo de inver­ sión especulativo, fondo especulativo de cobertura, fondo de inversión de alto riesgo, fondo de cobertura, fondo de retorno absoluto, fondo de inversión libre (IMF, 2016). The last three transla­ tions were added in the 2016 edition of the glossary, which specifies that Spanish legislation is the source for “fondo de inversión libre”. Interestingly, UNTERM and IATE also integrated “fondo de inversión libre” in line with the term introduced by Spanish law in 2005.1 However, other transla­ tions of the term were also previously recommended and became widespread in international insti­ tutional settings, especially “fondo de cobertura” at the UN, which called for institution-specific intralingual adaptations. The persistent lack of harmonisation in the target language complicates translation work. This tends to affect the initial stages of importation of neologisms from English more severely (on terminological innovation and harmonisation in international organisations, see Prieto Ramos & Morales Moreno, 2019). While these institutional variations may occur in any field, texts of a legal nature are par­ ticularly sensitive to inconsistencies, not only because of their thematic heterogeneity, but also, in particular, because of the need to ensure legal certainty and the implications for the imple­ mentation of legal obligations. Conformity to terminological preferences may even entail intra­ textual inconsistencies in instances of interinstitutional quotations. In Example 2, the concept of “prima facie evidence” was translated as “información que contenga a primera vista elementos de prueba” in “information showing prima facie evidence” in Council Regulations (EC) 597/2009 and 1225/2009 on antidumping and anti-subsidy procedures, and in the latest amendments of these “basic regulations”, Regulations (EU) 2016/1036 and 2016/1037 of the European Parliament and of the Council. However, IATE has included a diversity of other recommendations for the transla­ tion of the term into Spanish over the years, while an internal glossary of mandatory reference for the subject, Léxico antidumping y antisubvenciones of 1997 (later updated in 2009), recommended “indicios razonables”. As a result, this translation of “prima facie evidence” prevails in EU texts on trade defence in Spanish. However, the Spanish formulation in the aforementioned basic regu­ lations is used in EU notifications on antidumping or countervailing measures to the WTO, where, in fact, “prueba prima facie” is the preferred term employed in Spanish (see Prieto Ramos, 2020, pp. 139–143). Interinstitutional inconsistencies may thus be necessary within a same text in order to observe divergent conventions at several institutions. In turn, this can lead to persistent intralin­ gual terminological fuzziness and to perpetuating the recourse to the original English text for legal interpretation and disambiguation purposes.

Conceptual transplants from international into national jurisdictions Intralingual cross-jurisdictional transfer also takes place when international or supranational legal concepts are integrated into national legislation based on legal instruments produced at the 333

Fernando Prieto Ramos

supranational level in a common official language. The implementation of international legal inno­ vations at the national level may rely on the direct applicability of legal acts (e.g., EU regulations) or may require the adoption of some domestic legislation (e.g., multilateral agreements integrated into national law through domestic statutes). The transposition of EU directives, that is, their incorporation into EU Member States’ national laws through domestic legislation, constitutes a particularly interesting example of the latter scenario. This process of “translating” or “localising” EU directives into national law has been described as a form of intralingual translation (Kjaer, 2007, p. 77; Biel, 2014, p. 59). In order to reinforce the autonomy of EU law and promote the harmonisation of EU national laws, without causing confusion or interference with national legal concepts, efforts are made to avoid the adop­ tion of these national concepts to express EU legal concepts. More “neutral” and non-nationalspecific terminology is preferred. This is reflected in Principle 5.3.2 of the Joint Practical Guide of the European Parliament, the Council and the Commission (European Union, 2015, p. 18): “As regards legal terminology, terms which are too closely linked to a particular national legal system should be avoided”. The following example is provided: The concept of “faute”, which is well known in French law, has no direct equivalent in other legal systems (in particular, English and German law); depending on the context, terms such as “illégalité” and “manquement” (in relation to an obligation) etc., which can easily be translated into other languages (“illegality”, “breach”, etc.), should be used instead.2 This kind of “legal engineering” (Prieto Ramos, 2014, p. 318) thus tends to involve both interlin­ gual and intralingual legal analyses in processes of drafting and translation, as well as intralingual verifications and adaptations in the context of transposing directives. The intralingual transfer into national legislation, however, does not need to be literal. The “forms and methods” are chosen by the national authorities (Article 288 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union). According to the CJEU: transposing a directive into national law does not necessarily require the provisions of the directive to be enacted in precisely the same words in a specific express legal provision of national law, since the general legal context may be sufficient if it actually ensures the full application of the directive in a sufficiently clear and precise manner. (Judgment in Case C-58/02 Commission v Kingdom of Spain [2004] ECR 0000, para. 26)3 Paradoxically, the terms used in the same official language for the same EU concept may dif­ fer between national legal systems as a result of divergent transposition decisions. For example, “advertising” in Directive 2006/114/EC was localised as “marketing communication” in Ireland’s Statutory Instrument No. 774 of 2007 (see this and other examples of “localisations” of EU ter­ minology of consumer protection directives in UK, Irish and Maltese transposing acts in Biel & Doczekalska, 2020, pp. 201–203). When EU terminology is not homogeneous as a result of inconsistent translations into an EU lan­ guage (as in the situation described in the previous subsection), this variability may be replicated at the national level in the same language. For example, Peruzzo (2012) observed that there has been a proliferation of EU Italian terms for “restorative justice” since 2002 and a more limited variation of terms to refer to the same new concept in Italian national legislation (see also Van Wallendael, 2016, summarised in English in Temmerman, 2018, on the impact of transposing Directive 2013/32/EU on migration in EU Dutch into transposing acts in Dutch in the Netherlands and Belgium). 334

Intralingual variation in legal and institutional translation

Intralingual adaptations to diachronic changes and specific target group needs within a jurisdiction Other instances of intralingual rewordings can be associated to time and knowledge variation parameters in legal and institutional settings. As opposed to the cross-jurisdictional interfaces con­ sidered earlier, the focus here will be on intralingual adaptations that take place within the same jurisdiction, either national or international, and not as a result of interactions between legal orders or diverse legal conventions across jurisdictions in a common language. The fact that legal provisions are in constant evolution makes legal communication subject to diachronic adaptations in line with new legal realities or amendments. Legal reforms may overturn previously existing denominations and definitions and trigger intralingual rewordings of related documentation (e.g., regulations, institutional websites, brochures), especially when they may have an impact on legal rights and obligations. For example, in the context of the reform of the French judicial system in 2019, two types of courts, “tribunaux d’instance” and “tribunaux de grande instance”, were merged into a single category, “tribunaux judiciaires”.4 Likewise, the reform of Spanish criminal procedure in 2015 brought about, among other changes, new terminol­ ogy to avoid the confusing and pejorative connotations of “imputado”.5 Following recommen­ dations of the “Comisión para la Claridad del Lenguaje Jurídico”, which promotes clear legal language, the term was replaced by “investigado” to refer to the “accused” during the pre-trial investigation phase, and “encausado” when initiating the trial (see also intralingual rewordings in the context of the reform of the Hungarian Criminal Code in Dobos, 2020, pp. 86–87). Given their further-reaching legal implications, intralingual translations of entire legal instruments are under­ standably uncommon. A prominent example is the intralingual translation of the Greek Civil Code from the Katharevussa form of Greek into Modern Greek, which was completed in 1984 with a view to modernising and simplifying the language (see Vlachopoulos, 2007, which also examines the special case of Cypriot common law in Greek). Simplification is also a major strategy of intralingual translations that are aimed at facilitat­ ing the comprehension of legal provisions and proceedings among the general public or spe­ cific non-expert target groups. Accessibility to the law has traditionally been hindered by the intricate formulations of “legalese”, a formal style or jargon developed by legal specialists for legal purposes (see, e.g., Mattila, 2013; Tiersma, 1999), and often perceived as “wordy, unclear, pompous [and] dull” (Mellinkoff, 1963, p. 24). Given the importance of law for many aspects of social life, it is not surprising that the demands for clear legal communication emerged as a key driving force of the so-called “plain language movement”, particularly since the 1970s in the United States, and then in other English-speaking countries and the rest of the world (see Williams, 2015, for a historical overview). According to the International Plain Language Fed­ eration: “A communication is in plain language if its wording, structure, and design are so clear that the intended audience can easily find what they need, understand what they find, and use that information”.6 The rewriting of legal texts in plain language to meet the needs of lay readers has gained momentum around the world and is probably the most widespread form of intralingual transla­ tion of legal texts to date. Interestingly, some of the earliest and most significant plain language rewriting initiatives were undertaken in areas where citizens’ understanding of legal texts can be especially beneficial for the functioning of justice and the legal system, including the rewriting of tax legislation in New Zealand (subsequently followed by the UK, Australia and South Africa; see Richardson, 2012; Sawyer, 2013a, 2013b), and the rewording of court instructions for juries and divorce law forms in the United States (see, e.g., Dyer et al., 2014; Marder, 2006). Table 19.2

335

Fernando Prieto Ramos Table 19.2 Examples of California’s civil jury instructions before and after rewriting in plain English7 Before (Book of Approved Jury Instructions)

After (Judicial Council Civil Jury Instructions)

Failure of recollection is common. Innocent misrecollection is not uncommon. (Instruction 2.21) “Preponderance of the evidence” means evidence that has more convincing force than that opposed to it. If the evidence is so evenly balanced that you are unable to say that the evidence on either side of an issue preponderates, your finding on that issue must be against the party who had the burden of proving it. (Instruction 2.60) The amount of caution required of a person whose physical faculties are impaired is the care which a person of ordinary prudence with similarly impaired faculties would use under circumstances similar to those shown by the evidence. (Instruction 3.36)

People often forget things or make mistakes in what they remember. (Instruction 107) A party must persuade you, by the evidence presented in court, that what he or she is required to prove is more likely to be true than not true. This is referred to as “the burden of proof.” (Instruction 200) A person with a physical disability is required to use the amount of care that a reasonably careful person who has the same physical disability would use in the same situation. (Instruction 403)

shows some illustrative plain English adaptations introduced in jury instructions for civil cases in California, a pioneering state in plain language drafting for the courts, in 2003 (see also Tiersma, 2006, 2010). More recently, rewriting into easy language has emerged as another prolific area of intralingual translation of legal texts as a result of new national legislation for the inclusiveness of people with intellectual disabilities or special needs, in line with the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities of 2006 (see Broderick, 2020). In comparison with plain language, easy language involves a higher level of comprehensibility and simplification. It has been characterised as “the maximally comprehensible variety of a natural language” (Maaß, 2020, p. 42). In countries such as Germany, new legislation on equality for people with disabilities has led to a growing demand for legal translation into easy language.8 According to Rink (2020), summarised in English in Maaß (2020, p. 126), legal texts “are rather problematic for readers with communication impairments as they are either too long and elaborate (Scenario A) or too short and trivial for them to develop concepts on the text subject (Scenario B)”. Other instances of intralingual tailoring to the needs of specific target groups may include age considerations, particularly for the dissemination of legal information of relevance for certain population segments. For example, Dobos (2020) discusses the retranslation of the Hungarian ver­ sion of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child into three versions for different age groups (see example in Table 19.3). This author also rightly notes that intralingual translation may also be necessary in the reverse direction, from non-expert to expert language, for example, in police interrogations and court trials (Dobos, 2020, p. 86). This points to intralingual register adaptations in oral interactions more broadly (see also Anesa, 2012; Heffer, 2005), including “popularising” communicative efforts by experts according to the needs of the target audience (see, e.g., Liao, 2013; Gotti, 2016). Among the organisations responsible for supranational or international law production and dissemination, EU institutions have stood out as early advocates of clearer legal communica­ tion. The need for further clarity in EU legal drafting was explicitly recognised at the Edinburgh 336

Intralingual variation in legal and institutional translation Table 19.3 Intralingual translations of Article 12 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child into Hun­ garian for three different age groups (back translations from Hungarian into English from Dobos, 2020, p. 85) Original text

Version for group under 8 years old

Version for 8–12 year old group

Version for 12–16 year old group

1. States Parties shall assure to the child who is capable of forming his or her own views the right to express those views freely in all matters affecting the child, the views of the child being given due weight in accordance with the age and maturity of the child. 2. For this purpose, the child shall in particular be provided the opportunity to be heard in any judicial and administrative proceedings affecting the child, either directly, or through a representative or an appropriate body, in a manner consistent with the procedural rules of national law.

Children have the Any time when In any matters right to say what an adult makes affecting you, their opinion a decision on a you have the is about what matter affecting right to express should happen you, you have the your opinion. when adults make right to express The adults should decisions on your opinion, listen to you, and matters affecting and adults should should consider them, and also take it into what you are have the right consideration. saying. of their opinion being taken into consideration.

European Council in 1992 and was established as the first drafting principle to be observed by EU legislative drafters for the sake of legal certainty and citizens’ equality before the law: “The drafting of a legal act must be: clear, easy to understand and unambiguous; simple and concise, avoiding unnecessary elements; precise, leaving no uncertainty in the mind of the reader” (Euro­ pean Union, 2015, p. 10). Efforts have been made to address “Eurospeak” or “Eurolect” readability issues (see, e.g., Gardner, 2016; Sandrelli, 2018), particularly in English original texts, which, unlike their transla­ tions into other EU official languages, are not primarily drafted by language professionals. The “Fight the Fog” campaign was already launched by the European Commission in 1999 to promote plain English, including a guide on how to write clearly (see latest version, European Commission, 2015). More than two decades later, however, it is not easy to perceive tangible progress in light of the complexity of EU legislative procedures and the important weight of precedents and the acquis communautaire in the development of EU law. This situation has made expert-to-layperson web communication even more critical for the dissemination of EU law and policies in plain language, especially as Brexit has added a renewed sense of urgency to the matter of EU communication with its citizens. Efforts have also been made to enhance accessibility among people with intellectual disabilities by provid­ ing easy language versions of key explanatory pages about the EU institutions (see European easy language standards in Inclusion Europe, 2017). Table 19.4 includes an example of how the functions of the European Commission are established in EU law and how they are outlined in EU webpages in plain English and easy-to-read English. The adaptation for the general public is characterised by a very significant restructuring of the content, as well as explicitation tech­ niques, while the easy-to-read version highlights the central role of the European Commission in a most simplified way. 337

Fernando Prieto Ramos Table 19.4 Functions of the European Commission as expressed in EU law and their rewordings in EU webpages Article 17 of the Treaty on European Union

Plain English version1

The Commission shall promote the general interest of the Union and take appropriate initiatives to that end. It shall ensure the application of the Treaties, and of measures adopted by the institutions pursuant to them. It shall oversee the application of Union law under the control of the Court of Justice of the European Union. It shall execute the budget and manage programmes. It shall exercise coordinating, executive and management functions, as laid down in the Treaties. With the exception of the common foreign and security policy, and other cases provided for in the Treaties, it shall ensure the Union’s external representation. It shall initiate the Union’s annual and multiannual programming with a view to achieving interinstitutional agreements

What does the Commission do? [T]he European Proposes new laws Commission The Commission is the sole EU institution The people of tabling laws for adoption by the Parliament the European and the Council that: Commission suggest laws for the European - protect the interests of the EU and its Union. citizens on issues that can’t be dealt with effectively at national level - get technical details right by consulting experts and the public Manages EU policies & allocates EU funding - sets EU spending priorities, together with the Council and Parliament - draws up annual budgets for approval by the Parliament and Council - supervises how the money is spent, under scrutiny by the Court of Auditors Enforces EU law - together with the Court of Justice, ensures that EU law is properly applied in all the member countries Represents the EU internationally - speaks on behalf of all EU countries in international bodies, in particular in areas of trade policy and humanitarian aid - negotiates international agreements for the EU

Easy-to-read version2

1 https://european-union.europa.eu/institutions-law-budget/institutions-and-bodies/institutions­ and-bodies-profiles/european-commission_en 2 https://european-union.europa.eu/easy-read_en

Discussion and concluding remarks Our review of scenarios of intralingual variation and transfer in legal and institutional settings, both between and within national and international jurisdictions, has revealed several forms of intralingual comparative legal analysis and rewordings, some of which are characteristic of pluri­ centric languages. As outlined in the following summary table (Table 19.5), we can conclude that the coexistence of a plurality of legal systems and discourses in the same language, denominated here as “intralingual jurisdictional variability”, often entails intralingual comparative analysis for interlingual translation for an international audience, or may require adaptations of a translation for multiple national or regional audiences. While the intralingual analysis involved in the first scenario remains “hidden” and instrumental in translation decision-making, the cognitive effort 338

Table 19.5 Overview of intralingual variation and transfer in legal and institutional settings Purpose

Main variation parameter

Form of intralingual analysis or transfer

Characteristic of pluricentric languages?

Diverse legal conventions in several jurisdictions in the same language

(a) Adaptation to target language group in a selected jurisdiction in interlingual translation (inter-systemic)

Legal culture (national and international)

(a) Rewording for different national jurisdictions in the same language (more than one target text in the same language)

Yes

(b) Intralingual comparative analysis for interlingual translation

Yes

(b) Intralingual compromise in interlingual translation for international audience (intra-systemic)

339

Diverse institutional conventions in the same language

Compromise-building for interlingual translation for international audience or consistency with institutional conventions

Legal culture (institutional)

Intralingual adaptations for interlingual translation or intralingual editing

Not necessarily, but more common

International legal provisions to be integrated into national law in the same language

Adapting national law to implement supranational or international law

Legal culture (national and international)

Intralingual adaptations for legal implementation

No, but more common

Legal reforms or innovations within a jurisdiction

Updating information in line with new legal provisions

Time

Intralingual rewording (ST and TT in same language)

No

Diverse levels of legal knowledge and special target needs within a jurisdiction

Adaptation to target reader needs to enhance understanding and accessibility

Knowledge

Intralingual rewording (ST and TT in same language)

No

Intralingual variation in legal and institutional translation

Origin of intralingual variation

Fernando Prieto Ramos

required of translators may be partially comparable to that applied to interlingual textual reformu­ lation, as incongruities between legal concepts and discourse conventions are above all culturebound rather than a question of language difference. In practice, legal translators working in pluricentric languages may spend as much time decoding the original texts as researching legal notions of several jurisdictions that share the same target language. Albeit not intralingual translation strictly speaking, this kind of intralin­ gual process deserves acknowledgment. For example, translators of an EU text in English into French or German, two languages that are official in more than one EU Member State, will have to consider the potential implications of intralingual variation, as opposed to the translators of the same text into Latvian or Hungarian, with a single referent national legal system. The degree of intralingual jurisdictional variation, and therefore the need for intralingual verifications, will also be higher when translating UN texts into Arabic or Spanish than into Chinese or Russian, for instance. Likewise, pluricentric languages that are official in several supranational and intergovern­ mental institutions are exposed to a wider diversity of institutional conventions or “institutional cultures”, especially with regard to terminological preferences, which call for intralingual adap­ tations. Transposition processes of international legal provisions into national legal systems are also necessarily more diverse, and prone to intralingual disparities, in the case of pluricentric languages. All in all, culture-bound variations associated with jurisdictional and institutional sin­ gularities lead to distinctive intralingual considerations in legal and institutional translation into pluricentric languages. In contrast, intralingual rewordings that derive from legal reforms (i.e., diachronic changes) or adaptations to specific group communicative needs (i.e., knowledge-bound variations) within a single jurisdiction are largely dependent on decision-makers’ actions to update the law and facilitate access to it in an efficient and inclusive manner. Developments in the areas of legal and institutional translation into plain language and, more recently, easy language have been very significant, although not always recognised as “intralingual translation” (e.g., the intralingual rewordings of tax legislation mentioned earlier were officially known as “rewrite projects”). Despite the fuzzy labels, intralingual translation has gained momentum as a result of new legal measures on inclusiveness and accessibility to the law. As legal communication specialists fac­ ing extremely diverse communicative needs, legal translators are well equipped to take a leading role in this growing segment of the language industry. In an environment of increasing automa­ tion, such prospects may add new resonance to Obenaus’s (1995) vision of the “legal translator as information broker”, as well as further motivation to explore this under-researched field. It is expected that the overview and perspectives offered here will also contribute to stimulating future reflection on this subject.

Notes 1 Real Decreto 1309/2005, de 4 de noviembre, por el que se aprueba el Reglamento de la Ley 35/2003, de 4 de noviembre, de instituciones de inversión colectiva, y se adapta el régimen tributario de las institu­ ciones de inversión colectiva (on collective investment undertakings). 2 This does not mean that EU legal concepts are not influenced by pre-existing legal traditions to varying degrees. When the same term is eventually used for an EU legal concept and a national one in a particular language, the meaning must be interpreted according to the applicable supranational or national legal framework, as confirmed by the case law of the Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU) (Case 283/81 Srl CIL­ FIT and Lanificio di Gavardo SpA v Ministry of Health [1982] ECR 3415, and Case C-103/01 Commission v Germany [2003] ECR I-5369).

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Intralingual variation in legal and institutional translation 3 In line with other case law mentioned in this judgment: Case 29/84 Commission v Germany [1985] ECR 1661, para. 23; Case 247/85 Commission v Belgium [1987] ECR 3029, para. 9; and Case C-217/97 Com­ mission v Germany [1999] ECR I-5087, para. 31. 4 See France’s Loi n° 2019–222 du 23 mars 2019 de programmation 2018–2022 et de réforme pour la justice. 5 See Spain’s Ley Orgánica 13/2015, de 5 de octubre, de modificación de la Ley de Enjuiciamiento Crimi­ nal para el fortalecimiento de las garantías procesales y la regulación de las medidas de investigación tecnológica. 6 www.iplfederation.org/plain-language/ 7 See other examples at www.courts.ca.gov/partners/314.htm 8 Maaß and Rink (2021, p. 1) refer to a “robust translation market for the translation of legal text types into Easy Language” in Germany, in compliance with the right of people with communication impairments to receive “official notifications, general rulings, public-law contracts and printed forms in Plain and com­ prehensible language” (“in einfacher und verständlicher Sprache”) and, if necessary, “in Easy language” (“in Leichter Sprache”) according to para. 11 of the Federal Act on Equality for People with Disabilities (Behindertengleichstellungsgesetz, BGG), as translated by the same authors.

Further reading Cheng, L., et al. (Eds.). (2014). The Ashgate handbook of legal translation. Ashgate. Prieto Ramos, F. (Ed.). (2018). Institutional translation for international governance: Enhancing quality in multilingual legal communication. Bloomsbury. Simonnæs, I., & Kristiansen, M. (Eds.). (2019). Legal translation: Current issues and challenges in research, methods and applications. Frank & Timme.

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PART V

Intralingual translation Education and language acquisition

20 EXPANDING TRANSLATION STUDIES A functionalist approach to the use of intralingual translation in language education Georgios Floros Introduction The resurgent interest in translation as a generally useful and diverse tool in language education (both language and content learning) has recently led to a much more systematic use of transla­ tion and of theoretical approaches from translation studies in language teaching. Within this very optimistic framework of using translation in other learning contexts, the focus has primarily been only on the interlingual mode, and more specifically on newer approaches and forms of translation such as corpus-based translation studies and audiovisual translation (see, for example, Lertola, 2019; Zanettin, 2014). This chapter adds another perspective to the possibilities of using transla­ tion and translation studies in language education by emphasizing the role that can be played by intralingual translation as opposed to interlingual translation, which is usually the preferred mode when it comes to using translation studies in other academic disciplines. More specifically, it will be argued that intralingual translation may fruitfully be used in some specific contexts of language education. Based on previous research (Floros, 2021a), as well as on forthcoming work on the teaching of Ancient Greek through translation, this chapter will high­ light two cases which are representative of the scope of intralingual translation within language education: The first case focuses on the possible use of intralingual translation in foreign language learning, and more specifically within the context of translanguaging in mixed classrooms (see Fu et al., 2019; for the explanation of the terms, see later). The second case focuses on the way intralingual translation is used in learning older forms of language, such as teaching Ancient Greek in the Greek educational system (see Maronitis, 2000), which exemplifies the problematic aspects of teaching diachronic variation. The conceptual frameworks of this chapter are (a) what has been termed by González Davies (2014) as translation in other learning contexts (TOLC) and (b) functionalism in its wider sense. TOLC draws on the emerging interest in translation studies as a discipline “(also) at the exporting end” (Dam et al., 2018, p. 9), that is, a discipline that is not only informed by other disciplines, but also informing other disciplines. The other conceptual framework used for this chapter is functionalism, understood as the prevailing paradigm in translation studies ever since the 1980s. This paradigm is wide enough to encompass all forms of translation, from literary to specialized translation, and questions that go beyond the issue of translation purpose to questions regarding 347

DOI: 10.4324/9781003188872-26

Georgios Floros

the positioning of cultural products and concepts within cultural formations, be they national or supranational (see, in particular, polysystem theory, Even-Zohar, 1979, 1990. For the understand­ ing of polysystem theory as a functionalist approach, see Snell-Hornby, 2006).

Translation in other learning contexts and functionalism When talking about the use of translation in language education today, reference is made to quite a wide range of possibilities regarding topics, methods, and genres (see, for example, Tsagari & Floros, 2013, and the Further Reading section). Translation exercises contribute to both language teaching and language assessment (Tsagari & Floros, 2013). Such exercises are now used not only in the traditional way, that is, for teaching grammar and vocabulary, but also for enhancing text comprehension and L2-writing skills, for boosting collaborative learning, and for creating more efficient interaction among students as well as between teachers and students. Translation is used as an activity that can provide tangible results in various sub-competences within language learn­ ing, and also in order to enhance the very experience of learning itself. The systematic inclusion of the native language(s) in a comparative framework of learning (as opposed to a strictly mono­ lingual classroom), as well as the use of textual genres which range from literature to multimodal texts from the areas of audiovisual translation and audio description (see, for example, Navarrete, 2018; Sokoli, 2018; Vermeulen & Escobar-Álvarez, 2021), have contributed to elevating the pro­ file and usefulness of translation in the classroom. The concept that perhaps best represents this elevated profile of the use of translation in language learning is that of translation in other learning contexts, which has been provided by González Davies (2014, 2021). In her description of TOLC, González Davies capitalizes on the optimal position regarding the use of L1 in language learning, which supports that there is peda­ gogical value in the use of L1 and that such value should be explored (Macaro, 2001), and departs from the assumption that “an optimal use of translation in learning contexts other than translation studies has substantial potential” (2014, p. 8). She then provides a detailed account of how TOLC is to be conceptualized, while implying, at the same time, that TOLC is not simply what is known so far as pedagogical translation. TOLC suggests that translation is a “skill in its own right, as well as a spontaneous or informed learning strategy for the development of (inter)linguistic and inter­ cultural competence” (2014, p. 8). Learning contexts where different languages and cultures come into contact thus offer the possibility of looking at translation as having an enriched scope and role to play, one that stems from the contemporary need to train not simply for linguistic competence, but also for the acquisition of intercultural mediation skills, that is, skills that allow a person to interact with people of different cultures and resolve cultural misunderstandings. Among the basic premises of TOLC are the ideas of plurilingualism and complexity. On the one hand, plurilingualism is understood as more than multilingualism, which implies knowledge and/or co-existence of several different languages (see also Council of Europe, 2001). Plurilingual individuals are those who have more than one language at their disposal (multilingualism) and, in addition, are characterized by multilinguality, which is defined by Aronin and Ó’Laoire (2004, p. 17f., quoted in Aronin & Singleton, 2012, p. 80) as “reflecting origins and ethnic belonging, political affiliations and environmental influences, reference groups, and individual development level and cognitive abilities”. Complexity, on the other hand, means that TOLC follows the prin­ ciple of connectivism, according to which all knowledge, of whatever kind, is related, and the interdependence hypothesis, which challenges the direct method and the exclusion of L1 from learning processes by positing that the inclusion and use of L1 through translation may outrun the drawbacks of interference (cf. González Davies, 2014, p. 12). Another aspect that supports the 348

Expanding translation studies

understanding of TOLC as relying on complexity is the adoption of the dynamic model of multi­ ligualism (Herdina & Jessner, 2002). This model suggests the application of chaos or complexity theory by positing that “linguistic, psychological, social and contextual factors interrelate to pro­ duce multilingual proficiency” (González Davies, 2014, p. 13). In this sense, the complexity of the model lies in the fact that the linguistic factors do not work in isolation but are complemented by other factors which interact with them in shaping the form of the multilingual outcome of speak­ ers. González Davies (2014) observes that translation is not even mentioned in the studies describ­ ing that model, probably due to lack of epistemological traffic and cross-fertilization between translation studies and language acquisition as distinct, yet related disciplines. However, transla­ tion has the potential to act as a tool that fosters the inclusion, exploitation, and advancement of multilingual proficiency precisely because it considers and incorporates not only the transfer of linguistic meaning, but also the social, contextual, and psychological aspects of meaning. The study conducted by González Davies (2014) shows strong evidence that the plurilingual para­ digm is beneficial for additional language learning, if translation is used in a way that unfolds its potential as a critically and socially oriented activity and not merely as an exercise in linguistic correspondence retrieval (see also Floros, 2020). In any case, perhaps the most valuable aspect of TOLC is its wide conceptualization, which allows for the examination of translation not only in foreign or additional language learning, but also in any learning context involving language. Seen from a functionalist perspective, translation in language education (and TOLC in particu­ lar) have the purpose of enhancing language and mediation competence, not of preparing profes­ sional translators. This is a widely accepted change of function regarding the use of translation outside translation studies, just like the changes of function that can be encountered in every professional translation task under skopos theory. But TOLC can be further explored within a dif­ ferent functionalist approach, that of polysystem theory. In his model for describing the position of translated literature and literary translation within the literary system of a particular cultural formation as well as within the literary (poly)system of the world, Even-Zohar (1979, 1990) intro­ duced the notions of centre and periphery as key components of any such system and understood cultural products (be they literary works or translated literary works) as being in a constant strug­ gle to occupy a (more) central, and therefore more dominant, position within the system. Thus, for example, in Even-Zohar’s view, translated literature has a pivotal role in the literary polysystem if it “participates actively in shaping the centre of the polysystem” (Even-Zohar, 1990, p. 46f.). The understanding of domains of cultural production as forming dynamic systems with a core (centre) that is surrounded by peripheral positions has been very influential in translation studies, and it may actually form the basis for understanding any cultural product and concept as engaging in a systematic interplay with other cultural products and concepts within society. In this sense, the notions of centre and periphery need to be conceptualized as the two ends of a continuum and not as mutually exclusive categories, since there may be constant relocation of products and concepts within a system across time, with centrally positioned items moving to more peripheral positions and peripheral items moving to more central positions as a society’s values, preferences, convictions, understandings, and so on change over time. Therefore, the theory of polysystems may also be seen as belonging to the functionalist approaches in translation studies, since it takes into consideration extralinguistic factors such as societal and cultural changes, the agents who are responsible for such changes and for the purposes they hide, as well as the possible changes and alterations of the concepts and products themselves, in order for them to be able to move to more central positions. Taking language education as an example, a schematic representation according to polysystem theory could probably yield a depiction such as the one shown in Figure 20.1. 349

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Figure 20.1 Schematic depiction of language education (LE) as a polysystem

If we imagine that the system as a whole (core and outer circles) refers to language education (LE) currently (at this particular moment in time), the centre of the system is occupied by a set of dominant approaches, while other approaches and concepts are positioned in the outer circles (peripheries). Thus, the various approaches may have a stronger or weaker influence on the core understanding of what language education is and how it is constituted, depending on how far from the centre they are positioned. If we assume that one of these approaches in the outer circles is translation, we may infer that currently it is positioned near the core, taking the form of TOLC (T-TOLC). Previously, when translation was still understood in the traditional form of pedagogical translation (T-PT), it was probably positioned far from the core, as it was not considered a useful activity that could reach beyond the teaching and learning of grammar. The contemporary conceptualization of the use of translation in the form represented by the TOLC concept has upgraded the position of translation within language education, bringing it closer to the elements forming the core of that discipline. Despite the undeniable improvement of the position of translation in language education, the discussion of translation is restricted to the interlingual mode. The interlingual mode is the default one when referring to translation in language education, since it is logical to immediately think of multilingualism when it comes to the learning of a second, foreign, or additional language. For a very long time, intralingual translation has been thought of as a mode of translation within the exact same language (see, for example, Mossop, 2016), despite chronologically or geographically conditioned differences between the forms of language in question. From the point of view of dialectology, emphasis has been given on the dialectal differences at the level of the so-called hardcore features of language, that is phonology, syntax, morphology, and lexis (cf. Crystal & Ivić, 2014), leaving aspects such as pragmatics, register, or terminology out of the realm of possible differences. Nevertheless, research in the last two decades has shown that the latter group of aspects 350

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also forms a domain where significant differences between varieties of the same language can be traced (regarding phraseology, see Piirainen, 2004; regarding terminology, see, for instance, Flo­ ros, 2014, 2017). A representative example is provided by the examination of the Cypriot Greek dialect (CGD, spoken on the island of Cyprus) as opposed to Standard Modern Greek (SMG, the variety of mainland Greece), where evidence suggests that, despite being indeed historically and diachronically related varieties of the same language, they still display significant differences that keep them apart, to the extent that while CGD speakers understand SMG, the same cannot be said for the other way round (for the lack of convergence between CGD and SMG see, indicatively, Tsiplakou & Armostis, 2020). When it comes to the translation between CGD and SMG, it was suggested in previous work (Floros, 2016) that there may even be untranslatability between the two varieties in specific contexts of occurrence, contrary to the widespread understanding that since Cyprus and Greece share the same language, no such issue might be posed. Intralingual translation has already been described by Zethsen (2009) as a mode of transla­ tion very similar to the interlingual one, in the sense that the differences between the intralingual and the interlingual mode seem to be more differences of degree than of kind. This means that in intralingual translation, one practically deals with the same translation problems and challenges as in the interlingual mode, even though such problems and challenges may occur with a lesser frequency and lower intensity, due to the apparent kinship between two varieties of the same language. In this framework, this chapter aims to put forward the idea that intralingual translation can also be used in language education just like the interlingual mode, by providing two examples which highlight such possibility.

Intralingual translation in contexts of translanguaging In so-called uniform educational contexts where students share the same L1 and learn an addi­ tional language, the use of translation seems almost self-explanatory. While the use of interlingual translation has been well advocated for in such contexts, a problem arises because contemporary economic, political, social, and cultural challenges such as migration and advances in educational approaches have turned uniform classrooms into an exception (see, for example, Fu et al., 2019; Ji & Laviosa, 2021). The reality today is mixed classrooms and high-complexity schools (González Davies, 2021), where plurilingual identities are at play and fostered. Still, translation could be seen in such classrooms as an effective tool not only for communication (cf. Källkvist, 2013), but also for the better integration of pupils of different provenance (see García & Sylvan, 2011). Mixed classrooms are linguistically diverse classrooms, which can actually mean two things: Classrooms where pupils/students learn an additional language without sharing the same L1 (e.g., EFL classes of students with different provenance), or classrooms for learning a language which for some students is their first language, while for others it is their second or third one. Such are, for example, the English classes in many American schools today, where first- or second-generation immigrant students from various cultural backgrounds intermingle with monolingual students with English as a first language. These circumstances pose additional challenges to the integration of translation in language learning, since there is no fixed language pair of L1 and L2 to translate from/into. It is usually impossible to find teachers who have a command of all L1 languages that may be spoken or understood by students; it is equally impossible to always appoint two or more teachers with knowledge of different languages for co-teaching such a classroom. Therefore, the deployment of (interlingual) translation in such contexts may at times become problematic. Meanwhile, the idea of the involvement of the different languages spoken in a classroom has generally not been neglected, despite practical difficulties. Building on the work by García (2009) 351

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and Garciá and Wei (2014), Fu et al. (2019) promote translanguaging for emergent bilinguals both as a discursive practice and as a teaching methodology. The authors maintain that translanguag­ ing reflects a dynamic conceptualization of bilingualism, in the sense that all language knowledge of an individual forms a single linguistic repertoire instead of separate repertoires corresponding to each language or language variety an individual commands. As a result, it is assumed that individuals use the knowledge and tools of all languages or varieties they know when they com­ municate. This simultaneous use of all language resources is encouraged in the classroom, as it alleviates intimidation, frustration, and feelings of incompetence in migrant children. Thus, today, translanguaging is gaining ground in US schools with large populations of plurilingual pupils. Contrary to a seeming opposition between translation and translanguaging (see Floros, 2021a, p. 290), the former fits very well into the framework provided by the latter, since translation is an activity that also requires bilingual performance by keeping all language resources active, espe­ cially in the transfer phase of translation. The approach by Fu et al. (2019) is very useful not only because it addresses the contemporary challenges in education but also because it offers space for translation to contribute to this. In fact, Fu et al. (2019) aptly refer to translation activities in the translanguaging classroom, which formed the basis for extensive suggestions to be made in Floros (2021a) regarding the use of translation, and especially of the interlingual mode, in translanguag­ ing. In this respect, a challenging problem arises with mixed classrooms that also encompass monolingual pupils. Monolingual pupils or students are not thought to possess the same linguistic resources as bior multilingual ones. Thus, when bi- or multilingual individuals are using translation exercises in the framework of translanguaging, monolingual individuals could be somewhat disadvantaged. In Floros (2021a), it was suggested that intralingual translation can provide a possible solution. The intralingual mode may be used as a tool for enabling monolingual students to work in the same classroom with bi- or multilingual ones and experience (the benefits of) translation through diatopic, diastratic, or diachronic variation of their own language, while others use the interlingual mode. In order to be able to capitalize on the intralingual mode for such a case, a series of hypoth­ eses and clarifications are needed. Habitually, individuals who do not speak a foreign language in the traditional sense, that is, a language that is not native, are considered monolingual. However, this is a rather problematic perception of monolingualism, since individuals might have (even passive) knowledge of dialectal variations of their first language or might live in diglossic contexts (Ferguson, 1959), where varie­ ties of the same language are used synchronically. The latter cases refer to contexts where the high variety is used along with the dialectal variety, as, for example, in Cyprus (SMG and CGD) or Switzerland (Hochdeutsch and Swiss German). Thus, national provenance or the institutionaliza­ tion of an official language in a country are not sufficient for understanding individuals as mono­ lingual. If, in addition, we take into consideration, as was indicated earlier, that dialectal varieties do not necessarily converge with high varieties over time or that the differences between varieties are not confined to hard-core features such as phonetic and syntactic aspects only, but extend to terminology, pragmatics, and register as well, one might easily infer that knowledge of a dialectal variety of the same language (diglossia or bilectism) can also be taken as a plurilingual condition (cf. also Grohmann & Kambanaros, 2016). Therefore, it can be assumed that such individuals also exercise translation between the varieties in the sense of what has been termed mental or silent translation in L2 learning (see, for example, Floros, 2020; Kern, 1994; Kobayashi & Rinnert, 1992; Pym et al., 2013; Titford, 1985). In this case, of course, the intralingual mode of translation is at play, instead of the interlingual one, and it is up to the teacher to encourage the conscious exercising of such translation in the form of suitable exercises and tasks. 352

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The fact that intralingual translation can take place if prompted brings about another param­ eter to be taken into consideration. A functionalist perspective regarding (so-called) monolingual individuals in a translanguaging classroom would entail that the purpose of using the intralingual mode is not the exact rendition of a text in a different language version or the improvement of lan­ guage skills. By looking at the various forms of the same language as resources that are of equal use to the resources provided by different languages, the purpose of using the intralingual mode is the very experience of what it takes to translate language, as well as the activation of the complete linguistic repertoire of the pupils/students. In this light, intralingual translation could capitalize both on dialectal (geographical) varia­ tions that “monolingual” pupils or students might command (as indicated earlier), or even on sociolectal variations of the same language, since translation can actively contribute to learning register as well. Realizing the differences among various registers (especially regarding tenor and mode) and learning to communicate in many of them simultaneously can be very fruitful not only for monolingual students, but also for plurilingual ones, especially with the learning of an addi­ tional language. It is true that when teaching an additional language, the form of language that is usually promoted is the official one, while other, more colloquial or – socially – more restricted ones such as youth language and slang are neglected. This, of course, is understandable, due to limited teaching times and possible lack of systematically recorded resources of sociolectal vari­ ations. Today, however, audiovisual material and social media texts can provide a useful resource for such intralingual exercises. Likewise, canonical and classical literary texts can also prove very resourceful for intralingual translation, especially for advanced classes. From a functional­ ist perspective, intralingual translation exercises focusing on register or diachronic variation can offer a much wider overview and understanding of the forms a language can take. This may prove beneficial for both monolingual and plurilingual students sitting in the same classroom, as such exercises enrich the spectrum of language resources and thus foster the learning of and advancing in the same language. The issue of diachronic variation is taken up more extensively in the next section, which will present the second example of the scope of intralingual translation within language education.

Intralingual translation in teaching diachronic variation The use of the intralingual mode for teaching diachronic variation of a language will be shown through the example of the Greek language, and, more specifically, with the example of teaching Ancient Greek in Greek secondary education. One of the most important figures in diachronic intralingual translation between Ancient and Modern Greek was Maronitis, who distinguished three subtypes to intralingual translation: The philological, the literary, and the school translation (see Maronitis, 2000). The philological and the literary intralingual translation differ in terms of the agent, the addressees, and the result. Regarding the agent, philological intralingual translation is carried out by specialists in Ancient Greek philology, while in literary intralingual translation it is carried out by literary authors. As for the addressees, philological intralingual translation addresses a specialist audience of philologists, while the literary type addresses the wider audience, who differ from philologists, as they do not necessarily have knowledge of Ancient Greek. As a result, philological intralingual translation produces a somewhat faithful translation. It depends on and is oriented towards the original, while the result of the literary type is a freer translation, oriented less towards the source language variety and more towards the target language variety, since it aims at creating a new text by reproducing the spirit of the original (see, also, Maronitis, 2008). According to Maronitis (2008), the consequence is that the philological type is often criticized for 353

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its neutrality and lack of stylistic vigour, while the literary type borders on self-assertiveness that may even result in semantic and stylistic deviations from the original. Maronitis (2000) considers the school type of intralingual translation, that is, the translation practised with the aim of teaching and assessing pupils’ knowledge of Ancient Greek, to be an aftereffect of the philological type. However, the agents, the addressees, and the result are quite different from those of the philological type. School translation is not practised by experts but by pupils, while the addressees are simply the teacher and other pupils. Most of the time, the result is a clumsy adherence to the original, without the research and care exhibited in a philological transla­ tion by experts, leaving school translation prone to ideological bias. Ideological bias can be found, of course, in many genres of the interlingual translation mode as well. But in the case of school translation, the function of the translation is purely didactic and aims at reaffirming identity; the prevailing ideology is that the original needs to remain “unspoiled” through a counterproductive literalness that is supposed to be paying due respect to the original “masterpiece”. To make mat­ ters worse, schoolbooks and crammer books provide “ideal”, model translations which pupils often learn off by heart. As a result, the wealth of the Ancient Greek language remains inacces­ sible to learners. As regards the didactic method, this is totally teacher-centred, a problem that is also found in the teaching of professional interlingual translation. This goes against any notion of collective quest in the classroom, or, to use Maronitis’ words (2000), of the heuristic process of teaching Ancient Greek through translation. Normally, the aim of exercising intralingual translation of ancient Greek texts into SMG is to offer SMG speakers access to a form of their language which is both related and distant. To keep this aim active, a repurposing of the intralingual translation class is needed. The purpose of intralingual translation can no longer be a philological interest in the grammatical particularities of Ancient Greek, nor can one aspire to make pupils learn to actively use that variety as an addi­ tional language or provide a translated version that could have the value and quality of a literary text in the modern variety. The purpose should be to provide access to the wealth of meanings, to the relationship between Ancient Greek and the modern variety at many levels (morphology, semantics, pragmatics), and to its discursive richness through different genres and registers. For such an endeavour to be successful, by now commonly accepted insights into interlingual translation, such as, for instance, correspondence vs. equivalence, pragmatic equivalence, and equivalence of effect, should be applied to intralingual school translation as well, if the latter is to prove fruitful in terms of understanding and appreciating the origins of the modern variety spoken. In other words, the philological and the literary type of intralingual translation are but two possible purposes for intralingual translation, which school translation need not necessarily fol­ low. School translation need not aspire to producing a result in the same way that the other two types do; it may simply be seen as a means to discover otherness, not to represent it. This is quite liberating for school translation, as it immediately makes clear that the aim is not to emulate a prefabricated, exemplary translation, but to learn a language passively, by learning to negotiate its similarities and differences with the modern variety, always in relation to genre, author, and other contextual factors. In the light of this new purpose for school translation, it seems useful to insist on translation techniques and principles in the classroom. Translation methodology is something that is not at all taught during school translation, probably due to the misconception that specific and targeted methodology is only needed in interlingual translation, not in translation between related varieties. This brings us back to the issue highlighted by Zethsen (2009), that the differ­ ences between the intralingual and the interlingual mode seem to be more differences of degree than of kind. Even if one fully accepts the ideological narrative of linguistic continuity between 354

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Ancient and Modern Greek, there are differences between the varieties that may support the argu­ ment that translation between them in fact resembles interlingual translation. One intralingual translation example is the Ancient Greek aphorism Γελᾷ δ’ ὁ μωρὸς, κἄν τι μὴ γελοῖον ᾖ (The fool laughs even when there is nothing funny, see Menander & Allinson, 1959; my translation), where the word γελοῖον [yelíon] (funny) has survived in SMG but with a different meaning: In SMG, the word γελοίο [yelío] means silly, ridiculous, but not funny. Interestingly, though, in the Cypriot dialect the word γελοῖον [yelíon] has survived with both the meaning of funny and the meaning of silly. Therefore, in SMG it needs to be changed to αστείο [astío] (funny). The same holds for the word μωρὸς [morós] (fool), which has survived in SMG as μωρό [moró] (baby) and thus needs to be changed to ανόητος [anóitos] (fool). In fact, a translation into SMG which would completely reproduce not only the meaning of the original but also the humorous tone would be a set phrase in SMG that is totally distant from the wording of the original: Χαζό παιδί χαρά γεμάτο (A silly kid is full of joy, something like happy-go-lucky in a depreciative tone; my translations). However, for teachers of Ancient Greek such a rendition might sound too low a register to function as a faithful equivalent to an original that is thought too prestigious to be toned down. It is thus very doubtful that such a leap would ever gain acceptance in the framework of such a class, where the ideological motivation is strong, due to the fact that it actually aims at extolling the value of the original. Another example is the beginning of the definition of Ancient Greek tragedy by Aristotle: Ἔστιν οὖν τραγῳδία μίμησις πράξεως σπουδαίας καὶ τελείας (A tragedy, then, is the imitation of an action that is serious and also . . . complete in itself, translated by Imgram Bywater, cited in Grube, 1958). The word τελείας [telías ] (complete) has survived in SMG mainly as perfect, impeccable, and also as complete. Therefore, it might need changing to ολοκληρωμένης [olok­ liroménis], which only means complete, that is, as used in this particular context. Furthermore, although the word μίμησις [mímisis] (imitation) has survived in SMG, it might be better translated in this context as αναπαράσταση [anaparástasi] (representation), since the Modern Greek μίμηση [mímisi] (imitation) is used much more in its literal sense than in its metaphorical one. However, the word αναπαράσταση [anaparástasi] (representation) might be thought of as too explicative and thus unable to reproduce the powerful connotations which are created today by reading a text that is considered ancestral. These intralingual translation examples show that several semantic and pragmatic shifts are required in intralingual translation from Ancient Greek to SMG if the text is to make sense in the target variety and if pupils are to understand the relationships between the two varieties. Such shifts could also be required from an interlingual translation between any foreign language and SMG and allow pupils to realize that the modern survival of Ancient Greek meanings does not automatically entail “sameness”. To achieve “sameness” they need to carefully compare the varieties and nego­ tiate the similarities and differences between them not only at the semantic level, but also at the pragmatic one, in order to reproduce a text. Teaching diachronic variation in schools cannot aim at producing philologists (researchers) or authors, but should train pupils to develop comparative skills and understand language as a communicative tool which can take different forms depend­ ing on particular historical and cultural contexts. Ultimately, it is precisely the notions of context and situation that intralingual translation can teach in order to exemplify otherness (cf. also Berk Albachten, 2014; Savaş, 2018). In this way, practising intralingual translation can have a much wider scope than simply teaching the features of an older form of language. It can contribute to the development of critical skills that go beyond language aptitude to understanding how to use language to communicate effectively through retrieving and negotiating multiple equivalences in relation to genre and style. In addition, if it is practised with other pupils under the teacher’s 355

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guidance and without predetermined solutions, it can also help develop social skills by promoting a collaborative meaning-making process; in short, a process that takes into consideration not only grammatical correctness and semantic precision or faithfulness, but also factors such as genre, ideology, and collective connotation.

Enhancing the positioning of translation in language education In the first case study (contexts of translanguaging), a TOLC-oriented use of the intralingual mode of translation was proposed. In this way, translation is proposed not only as a tool for learning language but also for offering more chances to experience mediation through consider­ ing the linguistic inequalities in the classroom and through broadening the linguistic resources of pupils. Integrating a mode of translation that was not thought of as useful before offers the possibility to expand the use of translational activities in teaching and learning a foreign language. In this case, language education is prompted to recognize the multifaceted nature of transla­ tion itself, to discern the potential of the forms it takes, and thus to accept an even more ben­ eficial role for it within education. Going back to viewing language education as a polysystem (see Figure 20.1), this would entail that translation may occupy an even more central role within this polysystem (see the positioning of T-TOLC as opposed to the positioning of T-PT in Figure 20.1). If translation already proves fruitful regarding its interlingual mode, the integration of yet another mode in language education might further enhance its role and positioning, provided that this expanded understanding of translation is indeed recognized by teachers, who are the most important agents in language education. Undeniably, the shifting of translation from a more peripheral position to a more central one within the polysystem of language education will not be fulfilled by simply suggesting that it has the potential to do so. Teachers need to embrace this possibility by actually embracing the effort implied by such possibility. In other words, it is indeed challenging to have to deal with yet another asymmetry within an already asymmetri­ cal mixed classroom consisting of various constellations of plurilingual and monolingual stu­ dents (such as the ones described in Fu et al., 2019), given the various time constraints teachers already face. For an integration of the intralingual mode of translation to make sense within the classroom, specific training needs to be provided regarding (a) the simultaneous management of groups of pupils working in different translation modes and (b) the ways in which the results of interlingual translation and the results of intralingual translation will be presented to the rest of the class respectively. Regarding the second case (teaching diachronic variation), a functionalist take does not imply the integration of an additional mode but the repurposing of the already practised mode. It was suggested that the main purpose for which intralingual translation is practised at schools should be to expose students to difference, to allow them to negotiate this difference for passive knowl­ edge, and to explore the potential of that older form to express and convey meanings, ideas, and notions, not to make students speak or write the older language form of their first language. In this case, the shifting of intralingual translation to a more central position within the polysystem of first language education is proposed to succeed through bringing forward a translation purpose that is more likely to be accepted by pupils as beneficial and meaningful. Working with prefab­ ricated translations or being guided to retrieve very particular equivalences that give priority to the reproduction of the grammatical features of the original, instead of to the multiple meanings that this original may have, often creates in pupils a counter-productive frustration about the reason for going to all the trouble of learning a diachronically different variety. To combat this 356

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frustration, and by consequence to accentuate the role of translation in the language class, the translation from the older variety needs to highlight the relevance of that older form to the form that is spoken and used. The key, and at the same time perhaps the most important obstacle to this endeavour, is again the teachers, but also the educational policy makers. This is because the proposed repurposing of the teaching of diachronic variation is not a practical problem but touches upon ideology and issues of identity preservation. Diachronic variation is often seen as fostering identity, and older forms of language are thought of as having a particular value and as promoting a particular func­ tion of (re-)connecting the modern world to the roots. Any attempt to place the emphasis on the modern variety at the expense of the philological value of the original might thus be seen as diminishing the ancestral tradition. Therefore, it is again the agents of intralingual translation that will take the lead and eventually contribute to pushing translation to a more central position in the educational polysystem.

Conclusions By adopting a functionalist perspective, this chapter highlighted the possibility of intralingual translation to occupy a more central position within the polysystem of language education, if intra­ lingual translation is examined as a legitimate mode of translation next to the interlingual type, and if the agents of educational policy and conduct accept to embrace the intralingual mode as a feasible aim that promotes not only equality in mixed classrooms but also a more critical stance towards ideological issues. The ultimate aim was not only to show that intralingual translation can be examined along the lines of the interlingual type, but also to stress the relevance of intralingual translation for a different discipline. This is to be seen as yet another instance of how translation studies may expand towards and inform other disciplines. In other words, an attempt was made to showcase translation not simply as a professional prospect, but also as a generic skill – or a specific form of literacy (Floros, 2021b) – that can be beneficial to professionals and practi­ tioners of various other fields. Such fields may extend beyond language learning and educa­ tion to all professional fields that encourage a comparative perspective for their purposes, thus highlighting a possible new field of application for translation, namely translation in other professional contexts (TOPC).

Further reading Cook, G. (2010). Translation in language teaching: An argument for reassessment. Oxford University Press. This book has become standard literature and is one of the most important contributions regarding the use of translation in language education, as it reintroduces translation with a solid argumentation, after a long period where translation had been abandoned as a learning tool. Laviosa, S. (2014). Translation and language education: Pedagogic approaches explored. Routledge. This book presents a translation-based pedagogy applied in real educational contexts, where translation is used both as a distinct skill and as a means for learning and teaching a foreign language. It aims at harmo­ nizing the teaching of language and translation in the same learning environment. Xuanmin, L. (2019). What can intralingual translation do? Asia Pacific Translation and Intercultural Studies, 6(1), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1080/23306343.2019.1633008 This article provides a comprehensive overview of the affordances of intralingual translation today, reaching from adaptation for specific audiences to shaping identity, and is thus an important source for the state of the art on the topic.

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Expanding translation studies Kern, R. G. (1994). The role of mental translation in second language reading. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16(4), 441–461. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0272263100013450 Kobayashi, H., & Rinnert, C. (1992). Effects of first language on second language writing: Translation ver­ sus direct composition. Language Learning, 42(2), 183–215. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1992. tb00707.x Lertola, J. (2019). Audiovisual translation in the foreign language classroom: Applications in the teach­ ing of English and other foreign languages. Research-publishing.net. https://doi.org/10.14705/rpnet. 2019.27.9782490057252 Macaro, E. (2001). Analysing student teachers’ codeswitching in foreign language classrooms: Theories and decision making. The Modern Language Journal, 85(4), 531–548. https://doi.org/10.1111/0026-7902.00124 Maronitis, D. N. (2000, November 28). Issues and problems of intralingual translation in education [Confer­ ence paper]. One-day-conference organized by the Centre for Greek Language, Athens, Greece (in Greek). www.greek-language.gr/greekLang/ancient_greek/education/translation/proposal_studies/page_002.html Maronitis, D. N. (2008). Intralingual translation: Genuine and false dilemmas. In A. Lianeri & V. Zajko (Eds.), Translation and the classic: Identity as change in the history of culture (pp. 367–386). Oxford University Press. Menander (of Athens.), & Allinson, F. G. (1959). Menander, the principal fragments with an English transla­ tion. Heinemann. Mossop, B. (2016). “Intralingual translation”: A desirable concept? Across Languages and Cultures, 17(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1556/084.2016.17.1.1 Navarrete, M. (2018). The use of audio description in foreign language education: A preliminary approach. Translation and Translanguaging in Multilingual Contexts, 4(1), 129–150. https://doi.org/10.1075/ttmc. 00007.nav Piirainen, E. (2004). Cognitive, cultural, and pragmatic aspects of dialectal phraseology – exemplified by the low German dialect “Westmünsterländisch”. Dialectologia et Geolinguistica, 12(2004), 46–67. https:// doi.org/10.1515/dig.2004.2004.12.46 Pym, A., Malmkjær, K., Gutiérrez-Colón Plana, M., Lombardero, A., & Soliman, F. (2013). Translation and language learning: The role of translation in the teaching of languages in the European Union: A study. European Commission. Savaş, B. (2018). Intralingual translation as a means of intergenerational communication: A linguis­ tic approach. The Journal of International Social Research, 11(55), 182–193. http://doi.org/10.17719/ jisr.20185537190 Snell-Hornby, M. (2006). The turns of translation studies: New paradigms or shifting viewpoints? John Benjamins. Sokoli, S. (2018). Exploring the possibilities of interactive audiovisual activities for language learning. Trans­ lation and Translanguaging in Multilingual Contexts, 4(1), 77–100. https://doi.org/10.1075/ttmc.00005.sok Titford, C. (1985). Translation – a post-communicative activity. In C. Titford & A. E. Hieke (Eds.), Transla­ tion in foreign language teaching and testing (pp. 73–86). Narr. Tsagari, D., & Floros, G. (Eds.). (2013). Translation in language teaching and assessment. Cambridge Schol­ ars Publishing. Tsiplakou, S., & Armostis, S. (2020). Survival of the “oddest”? Levelling, shibboleths, reallocation and the construction of intermediate varieties. In M. Cerruti & S. Tsiplakou (Eds.), Intermediate language varie­ ties: Koinai and regional standards in Europe (pp. 203–230). John Benjamins. Vermeulen, A., & Escobar-Álvarez, M. A. (2021). Audiovisual translation (dubbing and audio description) as a didactic tool to promote foreign language learning: The case of Spanish clitic pronouns. Translation and Translanguaging in Multilingual Contexts, 7(1), 86–105. https://doi.org/10.1075/ttmc.00060.ver Zanettin, F. (2014). Corpus-based translation activities for language learners. The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 3(2), 209–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750399X.2009.10798789 Zethsen, K. K. (2009). Intralingual translation: An attempt at description. Meta, 54(4), 795–812. https://doi. org/10.7202/038904ar

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21 INTRALINGUAL AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE AID A methodological proposal for application at different levels Noa Talaván, Alberto Fernández-Costales Introduction When audiovisual translation (henceforth, AVT) is applied as a pedagogical resource, the literature tends to refer to this practice as didactic AVT (Talaván, 2020) or DAT. This educational applica­ tion of AVT needs to be understood as the active use of the different AVT modes (subtitling, dub­ bing, audio description, voice-over, etc.) by the students in the foreign language learning (FLL) setting, that is, students performing the translation for subtitling, dubbing, and so on themselves as the focus of a lesson plan or didactic sequence or as an isolated task. These tasks can normally be carried out in two different directions: Undertaking either an intralingual or an interlingual translation. AVT is a prolific field of study. Since the first monograph in 1957 by Simon Laks, research and practice in AVT have experienced an exponential growth; in the last decades, AVT “has been, with­ out a doubt, one of the most prolific areas of research in the field of Translation Studies, if not the most prolific one” (Díaz-Cintas & Remael, 2021, p. 1). The didactic applications of AVT to FLL found a place within the unstoppable research arena of AVT at the beginning of the 21st century, with a series of seminal publications, such as Williams and Thorne (2000), Talaván (2006), Sokoli (2006), and Danan (2010). Although the use of subtitles as a support had started to be researched a couple of decades earlier (Price, 1983; Vanderplank, 1988), it was not until the second decade of the present century when didactic AVT (which focuses on an active use of AVT as opposed to the use of AVT/subtitles as a support for FLL) started to receive scholarly attention: Two monographs have been written (Lertola, 2019a; Talaván, 2013), several theses have been defended, related arti­ cles increasingly appear in specialised journals (Ávila-Cabrera, 2022; Bolaños-García-Escribano & Navarrete, 2022; Correa Larios, 2022; Fernández-Costales et al., 2023; González-Vera, 2022; Ogea Pozo, 2022; Plaza-Lara & Fernández-Costales, 2022, just to mention a few of the most recent publications), and edited volumes on AVT have already included chapters on DAT (Incalca­ terra McLoughlin, 2019; Talaván, 2020). There was also a special issue devoted to didactic AVT (Incalcaterra McLoughlin et al., 2018) that was so positively received that the publishers decided to edit it again, this time in book form, two years later (Incalcaterra McLoughlin et al., 2020). DOI: 10.4324/9781003188872-27

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The main benefits of the application of DAT (whatever the language combination) can be said to derive, first and foremost, from the use of authentic video and specialised software (a subtitle editor or a video editing programme) as basic resources, that is, audiovisual input and technol­ ogy, both providing authenticity, familiarity, realism, and motivation to the educational setting. Additionally, the inclusion of various codes (semiotic and linguistic) and channels (written and oral), with which the learner actively interacts when performing the subtitling, dubbing, and so on, makes didactic AVT practice especially comprehensive and multiplies its potential benefits in the field of FLL, as will be explained in detail throughout the present chapter. Furthermore, supported by the renewed attention and well-deserved recognition translation as a pedagogical resource in FLL has been receiving in the past decade (Cook, 2010; González-Davies, 2020; Pintado Gutiér­ rez, 2021), DAT can be counted as a form of pedagogical translation or even as a translanguaging (understood as the use of different languages together as tools for communication within the edu­ cational context) practice, depending on the number of languages involved and the methodological approach chosen by the teacher (Wilson, 2020). This chapter will present didactic AVT from the intralingual perspective; however, certain ref­ erences to DAT in general will be made, provided that most methodological bases, approaches, and practical applications of the various AVT modes offered herein would also be valid in the interlingual combination.

Methodological bases Research has provided solid evidence on the benefits of using active AVT as a didactic tool in lan­ guage teaching (Incalcaterra McLoughlin et al., 2018). However, the methodological framework for the use of subtitling, dubbing, and other AVT modes has not been fully explored yet, and few researchers have approached the pedagogical foundations that support the introduction of AVT in language learning (Talaván & Lertola, 2022). Research on the educational use of AVT has reported empirical evidence on the positive out­ comes of AVT in several areas of language learning, such as vocabulary retention (Danan, 2010; Lertola, 2019b), intercultural awareness (Borghetti & Lertola, 2014), fluency (Navarrete, 2020; Sánchez-Requena, 2017), and production skills (Ávila-Cabrera, 2021; Talaván & Ávila-Cabrera, 2015). Notwithstanding the prolific research corpus published in the field, which is leading to the consolidation of didactic AVT (Talaván, 2020), there is a dearth of studies approaching the methodological bases of AVT modes in FLL. So far, most studies have focused on the effects of subtitling and dubbing on the language learning process, but the pedagogical dimension of DAT, understood as the formulation of guidelines and best practices for teachers, translators, and educators to design activities, teaching sequences, rubrics, and, in general, apply AVT in formal contexts, has been mostly overlooked.

DAT: what we know from the perspective of Translation Studies (TS) The pioneering contribution of Talaván (2013) to the field of DAT is the most relevant one con­ cerning the methodological framework of active subtitling. Talaván offers a model that combines theoretical and practical foundations for the active use of subtitling (intra- and interlingual) in FLL. The framework is contextualised in well-established theories of second language acquisition (SLA), such as Krashen’s (1992) affective filter, which stresses the relation between motivation and language acquisition. If pupils suffer anxiety in the classroom, their affective filter works as a barrier for language learning. Talaván claims that AVT is an aid that helps create a relaxed 361

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atmosphere and lower the affective barrier, promoting students’ engagement and active learning. This is of paramount importance, since affective factors contribute to successful language learn­ ing, as has been consistently found in specialised literature (Dörnyei, 2018). Talaván (2013) places active subtitling within communicative language teaching (Wilkins, 1976) and task-based learning (Nunan, 1999), which have been prominent paradigms in language teaching since the 1970s, and argues that the application of AVT fits within the post-method era, which is characterised by a dynamic, integrative, and eclectic approach to language teaching. The driving principles of Talaván’s methodological proposal are the communicative value of languages, the importance of using authentic materials in the classroom, the active role of pupils, and the relevance of “learning to learn” and “learning by doing”. This framework takes into account the fact that audiovisual products bring students closer to spontaneous or “real” language, which is not always the one portrayed in textbooks. Talaván offers a constructivist model to introduce productive subtitling in language learning contexts, taking into account the learners’ needs and methodological issues in the teaching pro­ cess. The hands-on guidelines suggested by this author’s work (Talaván, 2013) regarding teaching sequences, activity design, the teachers’ role, corrective feedback, and evaluation rubrics have been revised and elaborated on in several studies and applied to other DAT modes (Calduch & Talaván, 2017; Talaván, 2019b); they have also been tested and replicated in several projects, such as TRADILEX (Talaván & Lertola, 2022). The second significant contribution was made by Lertola (2018), who analyses the relevance of translation in the history of foreign language teaching, examining the role it has played from the grammar translation method (GTM) to the communicative approach. Lertola provides new insights by contextualising subtitling and dubbing activities in the post-method era, emphasising their communicative value as tasks to be performed by the students, concurring with Talaván’s (2013) conclusions. Although Lertola does not synthesise a specific framework here, she offers a comprehensive view on the current momentum of AVT in language teaching. Following this study, Lertola (2019a) provides a panorama of research conducted on the appli­ cation of several AVT modes in FLL. Taking Talaván’s (2013) model, the lessons learned through LeViS (2006–2008) and ClipFlair (2011–2014) – two European projects, and all the publications to date, Lertola explores the specific gains – and also challenges – of every AVT mode, taking into account learners’ language command, and the specific linguistic function to be pursued by the activities being implemented in the classroom.

DAT: what we know from the perspective of language teaching The establishing of the communicative approach as the paradigm in FLL – together with related models and conceptions, such as communicative language teaching and the notional-functional approach (Wilkins, 1976) and task-based learning (Nunan, 1999) – brought renewed insights into language classrooms, such as student-centred teaching styles, a communicative view on lan­ guages, the use of real and authentic materials, meaningful contents, and so on. However, the com­ municative turn also meant that any classroom strategy which was not ostensibly communicative was immediately received with suspicion: Following the so-called pendulum effect (Swan, 1985, p. 86), which has characterised language teaching history (with one method or approach automati­ cally opposing the preceding one), a tendency to avoid translation was established in foreign lan­ guage teaching (Cook, 2010; Lertola, 2018). The didactic value of translation has been stigmatised in modern didactic approaches due to the connection with the GTM and poor pedagogic strate­ gies in the classroom, with translation being a proxy for teacher-centred and non-communicative 362

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didactic contexts (Pintado-Gutiérrez, 2021). Although the GTM may have been suitable for its time, its overuse made the pendulum swing to the other pole, so translation was excluded from modern FLL approaches, as discussed by Lertola: The reasons for exclusion of translation from academic discourse can be found mainly in socio-political factors and long-established teaching habits. The arguments against the use of translation in second language teaching are still those which were raised at the end of the nineteenth century as an attack on the GTM. These “widespread misconceptions” are some of the reasons why translation has been largely ignored and often discouraged for so many years. (Lertola, 2018, p. 195) These “misconceptions” are the underlying cause for the scant interest in translation as a didactic tool from the point of view of scholars and researchers working in FLL, applied linguistics, teacher training, pedagogy, and education. As mentioned before, there is little research on the possibilities of AVT in language teaching and learning processes from the point of view of language didactics, with virtually no contributions analysing teachers’ perspectives – except for Alonso-Pérez and Sánchez-Requena (2018), Fernández-Costales (2021b), and Lertola and Talaván (2022) – or edu­ cational stages other than higher education (Fernández-Costales, 2021a). Having said that, the existing research gap is quite surprising if we take into account three elements: (1) The consistent and regular flow of evidence coming from research in TS endors­ ing the benefits of using active AVT in the classroom; (2) the educational (and social) relevance of language learning and language command today; and (3) the fact that the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages or CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) included translation and interpreting as assets to promote language competence – and the revisited version of 2018 includes “mediation” as a descriptor.

Didactic considerations Higher- and lower-order skills (HOTS and LOTS) Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy of educational objectives underlines the importance of working with higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) and lower-order thinking skills (LOTS). The taxonomy revised by Krathwohl (2002) classifies different types of thinking into two dimensions: Cognitive and knowledge. The cognitive dimension organises thinking into lower-order processes – remem­ bering, understanding, and applying – and higher-order processes – analysing, evaluating, and creating, while the knowledge dimension comprises factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacog­ nitive knowledge. Research on DAT confirms that using active subtitles in the classroom paves the way for students working with HOTS and LOTS (Fernández-Costales, 2021b), as they will have to use the language to activate several brain functions included in Bloom’s taxonomy, such as understanding, applying, and even creating.

Basic interpersonal communicative skills (BICS) and cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) Cummins’ (1981) dichotomy of basic interpersonal communicative skills (BICS) and cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) has been a groundbreaking concept in language teach­ ing in the last decades, as teachers aim at fostering the acquisition of the social and the academic 363

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dimensions of language. The use of active subtitling or revoicing (any AVT mode related to the production of a new audio track) can elicit language transfer and interdependence between lan­ guages; in the specific case of intralingual DAT, students can recognise the differences between everyday conversational English – BICS – and more academic language – CALP, as they work with diverse registers and degrees of formality. Furthermore, they will be dealing with real and authentic language, a typology which is not always found in language textbooks and related mate­ rials. Also, working with videos caters for the introduction of academic concepts in subject-con­ tents (non-linguistic areas); hence, students can face academic language more naturally through subtitling or revoicing activities.

Translanguaging (code-switching) Although the mantra 100% in the L2 has commanded language teaching since the advent of the com­ municative approach, the use of the L1 and the L2 in the classroom is a widespread practice in bilingual education. Code-switching – or translanguaging – can be defined as the “purposeful pedagogical alter­ nation of languages in spoken and written, receptive and productive modes” (Hornberger & Link, 2012, p. 262). The use of code-switching has proven to be particularly beneficial in content and language integrated learning, where research suggests that using the L1 may raise students’ language gains in the L2 and provide a better comprehension of non-language concepts (San Isidro & Lasagabaster, 2019). Obviously, the use of active AVT – subtitling or revoicing – in the classroom facilitates code-switching, as the L1 and L2 can be used to complete the activities. In the particular case of intralingual DAT tasks, the L1 can be used by introducing subtitles as a support in the video viewing part of the task (as sug­ gested in Table 21.2), promoting language transfer and metalinguistic awareness.

Task-based learning As suggested by Talaván (2013) and Lertola (2018), DAT should be framed within the paradigm of task-based learning (Nunan, 1999), where students should focus on the accomplishment of a specific assignment which is connected with a situation from the “real world”. In this case, subtitling or revoicing by the students is a practical application where they will use the language to fulfil a particu­ lar task. If working with “creative AVT” (Talaván, 2019a), students may also improve their creativity through writing alternative subtitles or a new script (to revoice) for the content of the videos.

Literacy The use of intralingual subtitling or revoicing may promote literacy in early education (FernándezCostales, 2021a), where students may practise basic subtitling tasks (simple sentences and even words) and create scripts for videos with no dialogues. This is also linked with the promotion of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in the classroom, as most curricula of pri­ mary and secondary education emphasise the need for students to develop ICT skills. Also, the use of intralingual DAT can contribute to promoting accessibility, as reported by research (Ibáñez & Vermeulen, 2014; Talaván & Ávila-Cabrera, 2021; Talaván et al., 2022).

Affective factors One of the fundamental gains of using didactic AVT in the language classroom is the motivating effect of subtitling and revoicing activities in language learning. Research in the field has reported on the 364

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potential of AVT activities to engage students in the language classroom (Fernández-Costales, 2021b; Talaván & Ávila-Cabrera, 2015). The use of subtitling and revoicing may contribute to lower the affective filter (Krashen, 1992) and facilitate language learning. Also, by using intralingual didactic AVT we may encourage basic educational principles such as learning by doing and learning to learn.

Didactic AVT modes Intralingual didactic AVT refers to the reformulation, paraphrasing, or repetition of the original message into subtitles or a new oral track. Zabalbeascoa et al. (2012, p. 17), in their conceptual framework for the ClipFlair project (Sokoli & Zabalbeascoa, 2019), speak of “repeat-rephrasereact options” when they refer to the types of activities that could be involved in DAT tasks. However, these possible options seemed to apply to interlingual AVT only. In the present pro­ posal, we expand the methodological potential of the repeat-rephrase-react concept to intralingual translation (see Table 21.1), providing the possibilities that emerge when students interact with audiovisual input through didactic AVT. Table 21.1 Chart showing intralingual didactic AVT possibilities Repeat

Rephrase

React

Students can “repeat” the original audiovisual text verbatim, mimicking it. This works only for didactic dubbing, since the other modes would involve rephrasing or reformulation as well

“Rephrase” applies especially to subtitling (including SDH) and voice-over, since intralingual translation for both AVT modes includes reduction and condensation as core strategies, so most messages need to be rephrased in the new subtitled or voiced-over versions produced by the students

The “react” option is more easily integrated in free commentary and audio description (AD), as well as in creative AVT tasks (various modes included) Free commentary and AD: Students need to react to an original text creating new dialogue, either by commenting on it or by translating the visual content respectively Creative AVT tasks (subtitling, SDH, dubbing, and voice-over): Learners react to an original audiovisual text by recreating it through a new version they produce

Creative intralingual AVT tasks ask learners to produce a new version in the same language as the original in order to create a particular effect on the receiver, normally parodic or humorous. These activities involve a total reaction to the original by recreating it; they do not need to involve repetition or rephrasing, and so they are cognitively more demanding for students, who need to produce a new text. However, they are less challenging (in linguistic terms) and potentially more motivating at the same time, since learners are free to choose their own story to tell (adapted to their level of command of the foreign language), be it departing from the images alone and/or from the interplay between the information conveyed by both the audio and the visual channels. There are plenty of pedagogical possibilities involved in intralingual didactic AVT depending on the AVT mode, not only regarding the “repeat-rephrase-react” options, but also through the particular fea­ tures of each type of task. Each activity will demand different modes of action on the part of the students, bring about diverse types of cognitive activities, and provide various degrees of motivation depending 365

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on the learning preferences of each individual learner. All those potential applications will be described in detail later and specific methodological guidelines will be provided in each case, accompanied by sample tasks (containing pre-selected video extracts) that could be used in the various combinations. Before beginning the presentation of the various DAT modes, a sample lesson plan structure that can be applied to both online and face-to-face settings is presented in Table 21.2 to help the reader understand the type of lessons that are typically used in didactic AVT contexts (adapted from Talaván, 2020). Table 21.2 Chart showing a sample lesson plan structure for a 60-minute session using AVT Duration Phase 10 min 10 min 30 min

10 min

Warm-up Reception and production tasks Video viewing Reception task

Description

Objective

Anticipating video content, characters, and events

To gather the necessary background knowledge

The video extract to be translated To understand the messages to be through AVT is watched translated and to get familiar accompanied by viewing activities with the key linguistic content Didactic AVT Getting familiar with the software To work on AV mediation skills Reception and and with AVT (if needed) and and strategies and to develop lexical, grammatical, and production task completing the corresponding AVT task intercultural competence Post AVT Related production tasks to practise To make the most of the linguistic Production tasks elements present in the video and cultural content of the (writing/speaking and video and to complement the mediation) previous mediation practice

Intralingual didactic subtitling Intralingual didactic subtitling refers to the production of subtitles in the same language of the original audio track, changing both the code (oral to written) and the channel (aural to visual) through text inserted on the screen. To accomplish this task, learners need a subtitling editor; there are various options available for free at the moment, but one of the most versatile and commonly used in didactic subtitling is Aegisub, valid for both Mac and Windows. There are various options for this type of task that can be applied depending on the focus of the task, the proficiency of the learners, and their degree of familiarity with subtitling techniques, as reflected in Table 21.3. Table 21.3 Chart showing didactic intralingual subtitling options Available combinations

Better for. . .

Intralingual keyword captions (fill-inthe-gaps in ready-made subtitles) Intralingual with pre-spotting

vocabulary acquisition and grammar, listening for specific information; for learners who are new to subtitling writing and listening skills enhancement, especially for learners starting to subtitle; less technically challenging writing, listening, mediation, and ICT skills; for learners familiar with subtitling writing, listening, mediation, and ICT skills, as well as creativity and extra motivation; for learners familiar with subtitling

Intralingual Intralingual creative

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The first two options described in the chart imply the creation of a subtitles file for the students to work with. In the case of keyword captions, the subtitles are created, and then relevant words and phrases are omitted for the student to complete. In the pre-spotted version, the timings are pro­ vided to save learners the technical effort of spotting the subtitles in temporal terms, synchronising them with the images, so that they can just focus on producing the subtitles in linguistic terms. It is relevant to note that when students produce intralingual subtitles, whatever the combina­ tion, they face authentic audiovisual video, and they need to make sense of that complete and realistic input by reformulating it into the subtitles they produce. To that end, they are encour­ aged to condense and reduce the original text, provided that this is one of the main features of subtitling, needed to suit the technical requirements of this AVT mode. Hence, when they subtitle, students develop not only interpretative listening skills and selective listening, but also writing skills, including paraphrasing and summarising, as well as coherence and cohesion, reg­ ister, and style, among others, while writing their own texts in the subtitles. Furthermore, through subtitling, learners become mediators in the sense established by the CEFR in its 2018 version, since they develop “strategies to explain a new concept” by “adapting language” (paraphrasing) and/or “breaking down complicated information” (Council of Europe, 2018, p. 116) because they need to look for the most suitable phrase to convey a particular message included in the original audiovisual text. Also, they usually enhance “strategies to simplify a text” by “streamlining a text”, either by “highlighting key information” (what they select to create the subtitles) or by “eliminating repetitions and digressions”, given the aforementioned reduction essence of sub­ titling; additionally, learners can eliminate elements by “excluding what is not relevant for the audience” (Council of Europe, 2018, p. 116), since omissions are also very common in subtitling, especially when the information can be derived from the context or from the messages that are already provided by the images. Mediation, listening, and writing are the most obvious communicative activities that benefit from didactic intralingual subtitling (Ávila-Cabrera & Rodríguez-Arancón, 2021; Ávila-Cabrera & Corral Esteban, 2021; Fuentes-Luque & Campbell, 2020; Talaván et al., 2016). However, vocabulary, grammar, intercultural skills, and pragmatic awareness can also be enhanced at all times (Borghetti & Lertola, 2014; Castro-Moreno, 2021; Lopriore & Ceruti, 2015; Soler Pardo, 2020), provided both listening and writing cognitive efforts are made by learners, the fact that information comes from various channels simultaneously (audio, images, and the new written text), and that there is a need to fully understand an audiovisual text as a whole (including cultural elements, gestures, etc.) in order to produce a correct subtitled version. Reading and speaking, in this case, could only be enhanced in previous or subsequent tasks within the lesson plan on didactic subtitling (warm-up, viewing – if subtitles as a support are used, or post-tasks), so they could also be part of the benefits derived from this type of pedagogical application of AVT, as well as collaborative learning, among other transferable skills (Barbasán & Pérez-Sabater, 2021; Ogea Pozo, 2020).

Intralingual didactic dubbing and voice-over Intralingual didactic dubbing and voice-over refer to the production of a new audio track in the same language of the original audio, maintaining both the code (linguistic) and the channel (oral), although a written script must be produced beforehand. To accomplish this task, learners need a video editor; there are various options available for free at the moment, but one of the most ver­ satile present options is the Google Chrome extension Loom, valid for both Mac and Windows. There are various possibilities for this type of task that can be applied depending on the focus of 367

Noa Talaván, Alberto Fernández-Costales

the task, the proficiency of the participants, and their degree of familiarity with revoicing tech­ niques, as reflected in Table 21.4. All options will be useful to enhance speaking skills (pronuncia­ tion, intonation, and speed of speech) in both revoicing AVT modes, and writing skills in the case of voice-over, since the main feature of this AVT mode is reduction, as it happened with subtitling; this is so because in voice-over, 1–2 seconds need to be left at the beginning and at the end of each character’s intervention, whenever possible, to allow the audience to listen to the original, which is always heard in the background at a lower volume. Table 21.4 Chart showing didactic intralingual dubbing and voice-over options Available combinations

Description

(Partial) Intralingual

A part of the video is already revoiced as a sample or learners are asked to dub one character only; for learners who are new to revoicing The whole extract needs to be revoiced; for learners familiar with revoicing The whole extract needs to be revoiced by reacting to the original, making use of individual creativity; for learners familiar with revoicing

Intralingual Intralingual creative

It is worth noting that when students produce intralingual revoicing, they face authentic audiovisual video and need to make sense of that complete and realistic input in order to repeat it, in the case of dubbing, or reformulate it by condensing it, in the case of voice-over. The creative option for revoicing (be it dubbing or voice-over) would imply extra creativity but also extra motivation. Hence, when learners revoice, they develop not only interpretative lis­ tening skills and intensive listening (especially when they need to decipher the exact script for dubbing), but also writing skills, mainly spelling in the case of dubbing, but also paraphrasing and summarising for voice-over, as well as coherence and cohesion, register, and style, among others, especially when they perform creative revoicing. Additionally, in voice-over and crea­ tive revoicing in particular, learners become mediators, in the same terms described earlier for subtitling following the CEFR. Although speaking, writing, and mediation are the most obvious communicative activities benefitting from intralingual didactic revoicing (Danan, 2010; Sánchez-Requena, 2017), vocab­ ulary and grammar, as well as intercultural skills and pragmatic awareness, can also be enhanced at all times for the very same reasons explained previously for subtitling. Reading, in this case, could only be enhanced in previous or subsequent tasks within the lesson plan containing didac­ tic revoicing and/or through the video viewing, when carried out with intralingual subtitles as a support.

Didactic intralingual media accessibility modes: AD and SDH Media accessibility has been receiving increasing attention over the last two decades, to the point that it has recently begun to be integrated as part of the filmmaking process (Romero-Fresco, 2020). The relevance of this field cannot go unnoticed in FLL, especially when the application of didactic media accessibility (DIMA) modes, such as audio description (AD) and subtitles for the deaf and hard-of-hearing (SDH), can clearly develop awareness of accessibility needs in students and teachers (Calduch & Talaván, 2017; Talaván, 2019b; Talaván & Lertola, 2016). Didactic intra­ lingual AD refers to the production of a new audio track in the same language as the original audio track (when the original contains dialogues), changing both the code (semiotic to linguistic) and the channel (visual to oral), although a written script must be produced beforehand. However, in 368

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AD, learners do not perform intralingual translation but intersemiotic translation, since AD implies the translation of the images into words for a blind or visually impaired audience. The task can be said to be intralingual because the source dialogues (if any) are normally in the same language as the translation, but the translation is intersemiotic. Didactic intralingual SDH, on the other hand, is similar to didactic subtitling, as described before, but the subtitles learners produce contain another layer of complexity: The paralinguistic descriptions needed by the deaf and hard-of-hearing addressees (sounds, music, mood, etc.). In terms of FLL skills enhancement, both DIMA modes help develop creativity, cultural and pragmatic awareness, mediation skills (creating bridges of communication for the blind and visually impaired or for the deaf and hard-of-hearing), writing skills (coherence, cohesion, register, style, accuracy, conciseness, guiding the receiver through the message, etc.), and lexical and grammatical precision (descriptions of objects, people and actions in AD and SDH descriptions plus the reformulation required in subtitling). The main difference between both media accessibility modes is that AD helps develop writing and speaking skills (the latter in terms of pronunciation, intonation, and speed of speech), while SDH has a clear potential to enhance listening (interpretative and selective) and writing skills, as well as vocabulary learning. It is worth mentioning that when students produce intralingual AD and SDH, they work with authentic audiovisual video and need to make sense of that complete and realistic input in order to recreate it, by either producing a new script containing the translation of the images (AD) or creating subtitles that rephrase and condense the original and are accompanied by paralinguistic descriptions. The options for SDH are similar to the ones included in Table 21.3 for subtitling, while AD offers the following possibilities: (Partial) intersemiotic (a section of the video is already audio described) and intersemiotic (the whole AD needs to be carried out); Also, the video selected can have no dialogues, little dialogue, or standard dialogue exchanges. For newbies, (partial) intersemiotic with no dialogues would be the best option, continuing with the other types in a scaf­ folded manner. AD has been much more researched than SDH (only Talaván, 2019b, Talaván et al., 2022, and Bolaños-García-Escribano & Ogea Pozo, 2023 to date to the authors’ knowledge), and we have relevant recent publications that back up the specific skills outlined earlier (Lertola, 2019a; Plaza-Lara & Gonzalo Llera, 2022).

Practical applications and examples As has already been explained, the application of DAT in FLL settings is well supported by empiri­ cal evidence. Theoretical frameworks have been developed, together with methodological models that allow teachers to introduce AVT as a teaching resource in language learning following some basic guidelines and recommendations. Next, we offer two examples that might illustrate some of the previous considerations. The lesson plans have been designed following the model presented in Table 21.2.

Didactic intralingual dubbing in primary education It is worth underlining that all AVT modes can be applied in FLL settings, irrespective of the age group. However, recent research on the combination of subtitling and dubbing in primary educa­ tion suggests that dubbing may be more engaging and attractive than subtitling for students aged between 6 and 12 (Fernández-Costales, 2021b). Following the available options presented in Table 21.5, this lesson plan will allow work­ ing with (partial) intralingual and (creative) intralingual varieties of dubbing. Both alternatives facilitate approaching critical elements in primary education since mimicking is a key strategy 369

Noa Talaván, Alberto Fernández-Costales Table 21.5 Intralingual dubbing lesson plan (example 1) CEFR level

A1/A2

Age group Video fragment

Primary education (third cycle) – Ages 10–11 Harry, Ron, and Hermione First Meet (Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone) (Columbus, 2001) Greetings; personal introductions (1) (Partial) intralingual dubbing – Mimicking (2) Creative intralingual dubbing To practise greetings and introductions To promote participation and students’ interaction To improve pronunciation in English Warm-up (10 minutes) Reading task (short text on the first day of school in the UK) Mediation task (finding differences between schools in the UK and Spain) Viewing (2 minutes) Watching the video where Harry Potter, Hermione Granger, and Ron Weasley first meet Didactic dubbing (40 minutes) Instructions, guidelines, and software reminder Post-AVT task (10 minutes) Writing task (creating a dialogue between two people who meet for the first time)

Communicative functions Didactic AVT mode Aims of the session Structure

when learning a foreign language at this stage. Also, creativity should be stimulated since early education, and students find creating alternative dialogues particularly appealing (FernándezCostales, 2021b; Talaván, 2020). Also, taking into account the “repeat-rephrase-react model” (Table 21.1), students will be repeating the dialogue (by mimicking the actual words of the characters) and they will be reacting through the creative AVT task. Bearing in mind the didactic considerations of the methodology section, the main benefits of the current activity are pre­ sented in Table 21.6.

Intralingual subtitling in secondary education Subtitling offers a wide range of possibilities in language classes in secondary education. The les­ son described in Table 21.7 has been implemented in several schools with students aged 15–16. It focuses on intralingual subtitling activities: In the first part of the video, students fill in the gaps of subtitles that have already been created by the teacher; next, learners work with blank subtitles (i.e., they have to create their subtitles but a proposal of spotting/timing and suggestions of the first letter are provided). Working with keyword captions will promote the acquisition of new vocabulary, as has been already reported by research (Lertola, 2019b), and students will focus on form and lexical features, which are essential elements at this stage. Additionally, listening skills might be enhanced, and the production of subtitles will facilitate working with grammar, syntax, and writing skills. Moreover, students will work with mediation and ICT skills, which are critical for their personal develop­ ment. The didactic potential of this proposal is summarised in Table 21.8. 370

Intralingual audiovisual translation as a foreign language aid Table 21.6 Didactic potential of example 1 HOTS/LOTS BIC/CALP

Code-switching Task-based learning Literacy

Affective factors

Students will work with basic cognitive processes (e.g., remembering) in the mimicking activity, while they will face a more challenging task (creating) when producing alternative dialogues for this clip Learners’ BICS and CALP will be approached with the proposed lesson, as they will work with “everyday English” in the dubbing activity (focused on personal introductions), and they may elicit more academic vocabulary in the reading and mediation tasks Language transfer may be stimulated if students are allowed to switch from L2 to L1 in some activities (for instance, when communicating to create alternative dialogues) Students will liaise with a real task, as they will be introducing themselves (in the L1 and the L2) from time to time out of the classroom. Also, the dubbing activity is a task in itself with a visible outcome As suggested by recent research (Fernández-Costales, 2021a), active dubbing contributes to promoting literacy in early education. Teachers may also consider other alternatives (for instance, using muted videos or fragments without dialogues and ask students to describe what is happening –i.e., storytelling) Based on the available research (Talaván, 2020) and the personal experience of the authors of the current chapter, creative dubbing –and didactic AVT in general– is engaging and stimulating for students learning a foreign language

Table 21.7 Intralingual subtitling lesson plan (example 2) CEFR level

B1/B2

Age group Video fragment Communicative functions

Secondary education (third cycle) – Ages 15–16 The Social Dilemma (Orlowsky, 2020) Expressing feelings and emotions Talking about past and present situations Intralingual keyword subtitling advanced (L2–L2) To express feelings and emotions To talk about the influence of social networks Warm-up (10 minutes) Reading task (short text on social networks today) Lexical task (matching activity on feelings and emotions) Mediation task (finding L1 equivalents for feelings and emotions) Viewing (5 minutes) Watching the clip The Social Dilemma, where experts discuss the side effects of social networks Didactic subtitling (30 minutes) Instructions, guidelines, and software reminder Post-AVT task (15 minutes) Speaking task (discussing the pros and cons of social networks) Writing task (describing their use of social networks)

Didactic AVT mode Aims of the session Structure

371

Noa Talaván, Alberto Fernández-Costales Table 21.8 Didactic potential of example 2 HOTS/LOTS

BICS/CALPS

Code-switching Task-based learning

Literacy

Affective factors

Basic cognitive processes –remembering, understanding, and applying– are triggered with the keyword subtitling activity. Similarly, higher-order thinking skills are activated with the production of subtitles, as learners have to analyse the oral channel and condense the message into the written linguistic code when creating the subtitles BICS will be approached with the video, as students will discuss everyday situations with their partners in the post-task activity, and they will also learn new vocabulary. As for the CALP, this activity may be implemented in several courses (not only in language-related subjects but also in content-areas such as social sciences), and subject-literacy can be promoted As in the dubbing activity, students may use their L1 when communicating with their partners in the AVT task. Also, there will be code-switching in the mediation activity Participants will engage in a lively debate on a key issue today – social networks. They will also have to practise the expression of emotions and feelings, which is a recurrent issue in everyday life. Moreover, completing the subtitling task is a “doable” assignment with a final product (the subtitles) Intralingual subtitling may contribute to the development of subject-specific literacy, which is of paramount importance in bilingual education. For instance, in content and language integrated learning (CLIL), where students learn content subjects through an L2, subtitling may facilitate the acquisition of key vocabulary and expressions related to non-language subjects Didactic AVT activities are motivating and engaging for students of all educational stages, including secondary education (Alonso-Pérez & Sánchez-Requena, 2018)

Final remarks This chapter has presented a panorama of the pedagogical possibilities and the potential of didac­ tic intralingual AVT by providing the theoretical grounds and offering best practices in several educational stages. The overarching goal of the authors is to contribute to the growth of DAT as a consolidated field within AVT and TS by exploring the benefits of using active intralingual AVT modes for language learning and discussing pedagogical possibilities and guidelines for teachers, educators, students, and scholars. Research in the field has consistently reported on the positive outcomes of introducing active subtitling and dubbing in formal contexts and, more recently, scholarly attention has been drawn to other modes such as AD, SDH, and voice-over. Although didactic intralingual AVT modes have been somehow overlooked – when compared to interlingual ones, this chap­ ter has analysed the theoretical backdrop and the methodological bases that support their use and suitability in formal contexts (not only in university settings but also in primary and sec­ ondary education). We believe that DAT offers a wide array of possibilities for educators and language teachers, and it also contributes to the learning process of language students, who feel engaged and moti­ vated towards AVT activities. Didactic AVT is a fruitful research arena in which the intersection of TS, applied linguistics, and pedagogy can optimise the way we learn and teach languages. Moreo­ ver, in a moment where interaction with technology and audiovisual materials is a critical element in our lives, using these resources to promote lifelong learning is a germane strategy. 372

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Acknowledgements The current chapter has been supported by the TRADILEX project sponsored by the Spanish Government, Science and Innovation Ministry/Gobierno de España, Ministerio de Ciencia e Inno­ vación (Project reference: PID2019-107362GA-I00 AEI/10.13039/501100011033).

Further reading Lertola, J., & Talaván, N. (2022). Didactic audiovisual translation in teacher training. Revista de Lenguas para Fines Específicos, 28(2), 133–150. https://doi.org/10.20420/rlfe.2022.555 DAT and teacher training through the TRADILEX project. Marzà, A., Torralba, G., & Baños-Piñero, R. (2022). Audio description and plurilingual competence: New allies in language learning? Revista de Lenguas para Fines Específicos, 28(2), 165–180. https://doi. org/10.20420/rlfe.2022.557 DAT focused on the enhancement of the plurilingual competence. Nicora, F. (2022). Moving online: Using Zoom and combined audiovisual translation tasks to teach foreign languages to children. Revista de Lenguas para Fines Específicos, 28(2), 80–100. https://doi.org/10.20420/ rlfe.2022.553 DAT applied to other less explored LE contexts: primary education.

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Intralingual audiovisual translation as a foreign language aid Lertola, J. (2019b). Second language vocabulary learning through subtitling. Revista Española de Lingüística Aplicada, 32(2), 486–514. https://doi.org/10.1075/resla.17009.ler Lertola, J., & Talaván, N. (2022). Didactic audiovisual translation in teacher training. Revista de Lenguas para Fines Específicos, 28(2), 133–150. https://ojsspdc.ulpgc.es/ojs/index.php/LFE/article/view/1448 Lopriore, L., & Ceruti, M. A. (2015). Subtitling and language awareness: A way and ways. In Y. Gambier, A. Caimi, & C. Mariotti (Eds.), Subtitles and language learning (pp. 293–321). Peter Lang. https://doi. org/10.3726/978-3-0351-0719-7 Navarrete, M. (2020). The use of audio description in foreign language education: A preliminary approach. In L. Incalcaterra, J. Lertola, & N. Talaván (Eds.), Audiovisual translation in applied linguistics (pp. 131– 152). John Benjamins. Nunan, D. (1999). Second language teaching & learning. Heinle ELT. Ogea Pozo, M. del M. (2020). Subtitling documentaries: A learning tool for enhancing scientific translation skills. Current Trends in Translation Teaching and Learning, E(7), 445–478. Ogea Pozo, M. del M. (2022). Into the shoes of visually impaired viewers: A pedagogical experiment to improve audio description and English language skills. International Journal for 21st Century Education, 9(1), 73–87. http://doi.org/10.21071/ij21ce.v9i1.15169 Orlowsky, J. (2020). The social dilemma. Exposure Labs. Pintado Gutiérrez, L. (2021). Translation in language teaching, pedagogical translation, and code-switching: Restructuring the boundaries. The Language Learning Journal, 49(2), 219–249. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 09571736.2018.1534260 Plaza-Lara, C., & Fernández-Costales, A. (2022). Enhancing communicative competence and translation skills through active subtitling: A model for pilot testing didactic audiovisual translation (AVT). Revista de Lenguas para Fines Específicos, 28(2), 16–31. https://doi.org/10.20420/rlfe.2022.549 Plaza-Lara, C., & Gonzalo Llera, C. (2022). Audio description as a didactic tool in the foreign language classroom: A pilot study within the TRADILEX project. DIGILEC: Revista Internacional de Lenguas y Culturas, 9, 199–216. https://doi.org/10.17979/digilec.2022.9.0.9282 Price, K. (1983). Closed-captioned TV: An untapped resource. MATESOL Newsletter, 12(1–8). Romero-Fresco, P. (2020). Accessible filmmaking and media accessibility. Oxford University Press. San Isidro, X., & Lasagabaster, D. (2019). Code-switching in a CLIL multilingual setting: A longitudinal qualitative study. International Journal of Multilingualism, 16(3), 336–356. https://doi.org/10.1080/1479 0718.2018.1477781 Sánchez-Requena, A. (2017). Audiovisual translation in foreign languages education: The use of intralingual dubbing to improve speed, intonation and pronunciation in spontaneous conversations [Unpublished PhD dissertation, Manchester Metropolitan University]. https://e-space.mmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/620483 Sokoli, S. (2006). Learning via subtitling (LvS). A tool for the creation of foreign language learn­ ing activities based on film subtitling. In M. Carroll & H. Gerzymisch-Arbogast (Eds.), Copenhagen conference MuTra: Audiovisual. 1–5 May (pp. 66–73). Copenhagen. www.euroconferences.info/ proceedings/2006_Proceedings/2006_Sokoli_Stravoula.%0Dpdf Sokoli, S., & Zabalbeascoa, P. (2019). Audiovisual activities and multimodal resources for foreign language learning. In I. Herrero (Ed.), Using film and media in the language classroom (pp. 170–187). Multilingual Matters. Soler Pardo, B. (2020). Subtitling and dubbing as teaching resources for learning English as a foreign language using ClipFlair software. Lenguaje y textos, 51, 41–56. https://doi.org/10.4995/ lyt.2020.12690 Swan, M. (1985). A critical look at the communicative approach (2). ELT Journal, 39(2), 76–87. Talaván, N. (2006). Using subtitles to enhance foreign language learning. Porta Linguarum, 6, 41–52. www. ugr.es/~portalin/articulos/PL_numero6/talavan.pdf Talaván, N. (2013). La subtitulación en el aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras. Octaedro. Talaván, N. (2019a). Creative audiovisual translation applied to foreign language education: A preliminary approach. Journal of Audiovisual Translation, 2(1). https://doi.org/https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5881-532 Talaván, N. (2019b). Using subtitles for the deaf and hard of hearing as an innovative pedagogical tool in the language class. International Journal of English Studies, 19(1), 21–40. https://doi.org/10.6018/ijes.338671 Talaván, N. (2020). The didactic value of AVT in foreign language education. In Ł. Bogucki & M. Deckert (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of audiovisual translation and media accessibility (pp. 567–591). Palgrave Macmillan.

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Noa Talaván, Alberto Fernández-Costales Talaván, N., & Ávila-Cabrera, J. J. (2015). First insights into the combination of dubbing and subtitling as L2 didactic tools. In Y. Gambier, A. Caimi, & C. Mariotti (Eds.), Subtitles and language learning (pp. 149–172). Peter Lang. Talaván, N., & Ávila-Cabrera, J. J. (2021). Creating collaborative subtitling communities to increase access to audiovisual materials in academia. The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 15(1), 118–135. https://doi. org/10.1080/1750399X.2021.1880305 Talaván, N., & Lertola, J. (2016). Active audiodescription to promote speaking skills in online environments. Sintagma, Revista de Lingüística, 28, 59–74. https://doi.org/10.21001/sintagma.2016.28.04 Talaván, N., & Lertola, J. (2022). Audiovisual translation as a didactic resource in foreign language education. A methodological proposal. Encuentro 30, 23–39. www3.uah.es/encuentrojournal/index.php/encuentro/ article/view/66 Talaván, N., Lertola, J., & Costal, T. (2016). iCap: Intralingual captioning for writing and vocabulary enhance­ ment. Alicante Journal of English Studies, 29, 229–248. https://doi.org/10.14198/raei.2016.29.13 Talaván, N., Lertola, J., & Ibáñez, A. (2022). Audio description and subtitling for the deaf and hard of hear­ ing. Media accessibility in foreign language learning. Translation and Translanguaging in Multilingual Contexts, 8(1), 1–29. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1075/ttmc.00082.tal Vanderplank, R. (1988). The value of teletext sub-titles in language learning. ELT Journal, 42(4), 272–281. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/42.4.272 Wilkins, D. (1976). Notional syllabuses: Theory into practice. Bulletin CILA (Commission Interuniversitaire Suisse de Linguistique Appliquee), 24, 5–17. Williams, H., & Thorne, D. (2000). The value of teletext subtitling as a medium for language learning. Sys­ tem, 28(2), 217–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0346-251X(00)00008-7 Wilson, J. (2020). Working within the plurilingual paradigm. Use of translation to enrich Additional lan­ guage learning and plurilingual competence in secondary education in Catalonia [Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Universitat Ramon Llull]. https://www.tdx.cat/handle/10803/670267 Zabalbeascoa, P., Sokoli, S., & Torres-Hostench, O. (2012). Conceptual framework and pedagogical method­ ology. CLIPFLAIR foreign language learning through interactive revoicing and captioning of clips. http:// hdl.handle.net/10230/22701

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22 GRADED READERS AS INSTANCES OF INTRALINGUAL TRANSLATION Manuel Moreno Tovar

Introduction The interaction between language teaching and translation studies (TS) has been described as one of “mutual alienation” (Colina, 2002, p. 1) and, more recently, as a long-standing relationship that is going through a stage of “estrangement” (Bazani, 2019, p. 3). The view that translation (in its interlingual sense) has no pedagogical role to play in the language classroom1 has been associated with narrow conceptualizations of translation (Bazani, 2019, p. 14). Many readers of this volume will agree that a truly inclusive view of translation – one that is “at ease with contemporary defi­ nitions of translation in the field of TS” (Bazani, 2019, p. 14) – cannot be complete without its intralingual dimension. Hoping to strengthen the synergies between language teaching and TS, this chapter will present certain pedagogical materials called graded readers (GRs) and approach them as instances of intralingual translation. It will include a comparative study of a GR in Eng­ lish and its source text, as well as a paratextual study of a multilingual corpus of GRs in English, Spanish, and German. Intralingual translation research has been at the margins of TS for decades, so it is not surpris­ ing that GRs have only recently begun to be approached as translations. This means that there are still plenty of gaps to bridge at ground level, starting with their denomination. In a recent article (Moreno Tovar, 2020), I used the term abridgements to refer to graded readers that are based on literary works and do not significantly alter the main story, as opposed to originals (graded read­ ers that are originally written) and adaptations, understood as graded readers that adapt the main story to make it suitable for a new audience (e.g., fairy tales with newly written happy endings for children). However, other classifications are possible: Wilhelmsen (2020) identifies three different types of GRs at the beginning of her study (factual texts, original stories, and adaptations) and then proceeds to use graded reader in the sense of adaptation. GRs are not to be confused with the easy-readers mentioned in Zethsen’s article “Intralin­ gual Translation: An Attempt at Description” (2009) and her entry in the Handbook of Transla­ tion Studies (2021). While Zethsen’s easy-readers are also shortened versions of literary works, they are aimed at children rather than language learners. Still, they share many similarities. Let us take the four main parameters involved in intralingual translation identified by Zethsen as a framework, that is, knowledge, time, culture, and space. Zethsen (2021, p. 137) explains that a 377

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particular intralingual translation can be referred “to one of the four main categories as regards the primary motivation for its production, but in many cases the categories overlap, and more than one parameter is involved”. She mentions easy-readers as examples of intralingual translations that are primarily motivated by the parameter of knowledge, but for which the parameter of space also plays a role. Similarly, Wilhelmsen (2020) considers knowledge as the main factor influenc­ ing GRs, but notes an overlap with culture and space: The target audience lacks knowledge of the source language and of culture-specific phenomena, and the text needs to be shortened to be made accessible. Since Wilhelmsen does not comment on how time might be relevant for GRs, the com­ parative textual study in this chapter will concentrate on that parameter. In doing so, it will attempt to shed light on how the temporal dimension of GRs may influence our understanding of them. Much like Wilhelmsen’s, this study will apply Toury’s methodology (1995/2012) for Descriptive Translation Studies. The subsequent paratextual study will explore the various terms that the editors and pub­ lishers of GRs use to describe their work. Against the backdrop of Genette’s paratextual theory (1997/1987), a distinction will be made between the categories of peritext (i.e., those elements and materials physically attached to the text) and epitext (i.e., those materials separate from it). Given the strict focus on self-categorization, there will be a limited application of Genette’s categories, and the peritextual aspects covered by the analysis will be restricted to the self-descriptors in the cover, the front matter (specifically, the title page and the copyright notice), and the blurb of the physical books. Regarding the epitextual aspects, the focus will be on the terms with which GRs and GR series are identified on the websites of their publishers. This study is inspired by Delabastita’s work (2017) on a corpus of modernized versions of Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. Delabastita’s corpus includes single-text editions, graphic novels, and parallel texts meant as study aids, but no GRs. He examines how these contem­ porary works categorize themselves paratextually and concludes that they do it “in the most diverse ways” (2017, p. 208). For instance, one of the parallel-text editions describes itself in a “bewildering plurality of competing terms” (2017, p. 206): A “modern English version”, “edited and rendered into modern English”, “told in clear, modern English”, “full modern trans­ lation”, and “modern paraphrase”. This chapter is expected to uncover a similarly diverse array of self-descriptors for GRs, which may prompt innovative conceptualizations. Prior to that, however, the theoretical underpinnings of GRs will be reviewed from a language teaching and a TS perspective.

Definitions from language teaching GRs have been repeatedly defined and redefined by scholars and language teachers. Hill once described them as “extended texts, mostly fiction, written in language reduced in terms of struc­ tures and vocabulary” (1997, p. 57). He distinguished between two types: “Simplified versions of classics, modern novels, and fairy tales (simplifications)” and texts “written specially for a series (simple originals)” (1997, p. 57). A few years later, however, he referred to these two forms as “the rewrite and the simple original” and stated that the term “simplified reader” had long been replaced “to reflect the change in practice from reducing a text to recreating it and the addition of original writing” (Hill, 2008, p. 185). This chapter will only cover the rewriting and shortening of (typically Western,2 canonical) literary works as a form of intralingual translation. In 2013, Nation and Waring defined GRs as “books which are specially written within a controlled vocabulary and use a grammatical syllabus at various levels of difficulty” (2013, p. 8). In a later publication, however, they de-emphasized the importance of grammatical 378

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syllabi, saying that these are “very rarely based on any serious linguistic analysis and tend to be pedagogical in nature” (Nation & Waring, 2020, p. 161). Rather than lists of grammati­ cal items, it is “careful vocabulary control that defines a graded reader and a graded reader series” (Nation & Waring, 2020, p. 20), and this control is typically exerted through word lists. Nation and Waring note that such lists must not only account for word frequency, but also for the specific needs of language learners, which “are not the same as those of native speakers”3 (2020, p. 19). Most GRs are written for learners of English: There are currently about 5,000 from over 20 publishers (Nation & Waring, 2020). Hill refers to GRs as a “product of the British ELT indus­ try, and almost unknown within the American TESOL4 industry” (1997, p. 57), while Nation and Waring claim that “each major ELT publisher has at least one graded reader scheme” (2013, p. 8). However, GRs exist in other languages: Hill (2012) describes GRs for learners of French, Ger­ man, Italian, Russian, and Spanish, and Nation and Waring (2020) mention GRs in Mandarin and Japanese. Outside English-speaking academia, GRs are increasingly being studied by scholars in fields such as ELE (Español como Lengua Extranjera, or Spanish as a Foreign Language) and DaF (Deutsch als Fremdsprache, or German as a Foreign Language). Within ELT, GRs are closely associated with a comprehension-based approach to language learning known as extensive reading. Definitions of extensive reading and the best ways to imple­ ment it abound in ELT literature, with many sources referring to Day and Bamford’s top ten prin­ ciples for teaching it:  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10

The reading material is easy. A variety of reading material on a wide range of topics must be available. Learners choose what they want to read. Learners read as much as possible. The purpose of reading is usually related to pleasure, information, and general understanding. Reading is its own reward. Reading speed is usually faster rather than slower. Reading is individual and silent. Teachers orient and guide their students. The teacher is a role model of a reader. (Day & Bamford, 2002, pp. 137–139)

Day and Bamford had already described their ten principles of extensive reading in their 1998 book Extensive Reading in the Second Language Classroom. This monograph boosted the popularity not only of extensive reading, but also of GRs themselves, reconceptualized as lan­ guage learner literature. According to Day and Bamford, works for language learners deserve as much esteem as other forms of writing, and language learner literature can be seen as “analo­ gous to the terms young adult literature and children’s literature – established genres in their own right” (Day & Bamford, 1998, p. 64, emphasis in the original). The authors elaborate as follows: Just as truly making love goes beyond a how-to manual like The Joy of Sex, communicating with language learners takes place on a different plane than, let us say, conjoining content and language. It is time, therefore, to consider language learner literature on its own merits, as a genuine art form. (Day & Bamford, 1998, p. 67) 379

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The term language learner literature was further popularized by the Language Learner Literature Award of the Extensive Reading Foundation. This annual award has been conferred on the best new GRs in English since 2004, when the Extensive Reading Foundation was established by Day and Bamford themselves (https://erfoundation.org/wordpress/about/). In contrast with extensive reading, Italian publisher Black Cat CIDEB has popularized the concept of expansive reading. The objectives of expansive reading include “expanding students’ learning in all kinds of directions and in all kinds of ways and expanding their cultural horizons, as well as expanding the range of activities that teachers can do with their students” (The Black Cat guide of graded readers, 2009, p. 7). Thus, while GRs published by Black Cat CIDEB can still be used for individual – extensive – reading programmes, the focus is on aspects such as cross-curricularity and interculturality. Driven by this approach, many GRs today include lengthy introductions, dossiers about the author and the context of the text, and internet projects.

Background and evolution Among ELT scholars, Michael West is considered “the true originator of graded readers”, as he was “the first to produce large quantities of readers and to develop strictly controlled and well-trialled word lists” (Nation & Waring, 2020, p. 17). In his early career as a colonial educator in Bengal, West became a prolific writer of textbooks for Longmans (Smith, 2003, p. ix). In 1926–1927, he published a series titled New Method Readers, which were to be accompanied by a “Companion” and by the so-called New Method Supplementary Readers. Many of these supplementary read­ ers were adapted and shortened versions of existing stories. Early examples included Robinson Crusoe and a collection of Welsh fairy tales, while others were original stories (Nation & Waring, 2013, p. 32). Therefore, West’s New Method Supplementary Readers are widely considered the first series of GRs, and their success laid the groundwork for many others to come. Reid Thomas and Hill’s reviews of GRs for the ELT Journal offer an excellent overview of the evolution of the traditional GR. For instance, in their first review (Reid Thomas & Hill, 1988), they observe how GR covers followed dominant trends in ELT materials: “Full-page illustrations, usually depicting characters from the story, have long since replaced a pictorial design as the back­ ground for titles and authors” (p. 45). In their third review (1993), Reid Thomas and Hill note a prodigious growth in GR production, with 14 new series published in four years. Among the new series, there was great emphasis on GRs for beginner levels, targeted to meet the needs of specific age groups, such as adults, and of learners from specific cultural areas. Blurbs became “almost universal” (Reid Thomas & Hill, 1993, p. 252), mixed activities including suggestions for group projects emerged as an alternative to long lists of comprehension questions, and the proportion of stories with female protagonists grew across the different series. In addition to his work with Reid Thomas, Hill’s subsequent reviews offer valuable informa­ tion about the tendencies in GR production since the turn of the century. He describes the period between 1997 and 2001 as one of “consolidation and rationalization, but also of innovation” (Hill, 2001, p. 300), which resulted in a heightened profile for GRs. However, by 2008, he is able to describe quite the opposite: A “largely hostile environment” (Hill, 2008, p. 189) for GRs as a result of various shifts in the cultural and educational landscape. Hill argues that the teaching profession was “confused” about the aim of GRs and laments the status of extensive reading as an “optional extra for a small minority” (2008, p. 186). He also mentions that school administrations were reluctant to support the purchase of GRs, so publishers had begun to rely more and more on direct selling to the public.

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Hill’s concerns contrast with Nation and Waring’s claim that extensive reading “boomed” in Northeast Asia in the 2000s, with new extensive reading associations appearing in different coun­ tries and “millions” of students reading extensively (2013, p. 3). However, in their recent mono­ graph, Nation and Waring admit that extensive reading has not yet been “fully accepted into the ELT family” (2020, p. 174) and that GRs do not occupy a central position in either school curricula or bookstores. Still, they remain optimistic about the future of GRs. In his last review, Hill trusts that extensive reading and GRs will “find their way back into the centre of language teaching” (2012, p. 125).

Contributions from translation studies Though most of the literature on GRs is from the field of ELT (and more specifically, by propo­ nents of extensive reading), GRs have been described as intralingual translations since at least the early 2000s. In an article which looks at the similarities and differences between interlingual and intralingual translation, Heltai (2003, p. 166) refers to GRs as an example of a “less prototypical” case of intralingual translation involving the use of similar codes, meaning that the language used in GRs may not be radically different from the original compared to other types of intralingual translation or to interlingual translation. In a more recent article in Portuguese, Becker (2015) notes the intersemiotic character of GRs, particularly regarding their use of pictorial resources (i.e., images and illustrations). Becker also refers to the front matter and end matter in GRs (e.g., introductions, exercises, and back cover information) as paratexts, and points out the following: It is common for adapters (and even illustrators) to have their names printed visibly on the covers, preceded by texts such as “Retold by . . .” or “Translated and adapted by . . .” or “Text adaptation by”, in such a way that they rival the names of the authors of the original texts on which the graded readers were based. (Becker, 2015, p. 15, my translation)5 Another thought-provoking contribution is Skopečková’s “A Marginal Phenomenon in the Field of Literary Translation: The (Im)possibility of ‘Translating’ Literature into a ‘Simplified’ Version” (2013), where she states, “from the functionalist perspective it seems questionable to consider graded readers as translation” (Skopečková, 2013, p. 250). Arguably, functionalist approaches, generally grounded in the idea that “to translate is to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” (Vermeer, 1987, p. 29), are, in fact, well suited for describing GRs as translations. It can also be argued that, unlike most literary transla­ tors, authors of GRs are not “expected to transfer not only the message of the source text but also the specific way the message is expressed in the source language” (Reiß, 1971, p. 42, as cited in Nord, 1997/2018, p. 89, my emphasis). Indeed, GRs could be regarded as a form of functionalist translation in which the skopos of the translatum differs from that of the source text (Reiß & Ver­ meer, 2013, p. 92). Furthermore, the questions of whether GRs fulfil their “function”, or what the specific purpose for their creation is, do not prevent us from conceptualizing them as translations. The year 2020 saw the appearance of three studies that provide empirical data on GRs: An article by Cândido and Evangelista (2020), which studies GRs as a form of “Sprachmittlung” or linguistic mediation; my own research (Moreno Tovar, 2020) on translation norms and laws; and Wilhelmsen’s study (2020) on translation shifts and strategies. Although Cândido and Evange­ lista’s contribution is not as firmly situated in TS as the other two, the authors make a crucial point regarding Jakobson’s tripartite division of translation: Besides being associated with intralingual 381

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and intersemiotic translation, GRs sometimes include – bilingual or multilingual – glossaries, which brings them closer to the category of interlingual translation. Both my paper and Wilhelm­ sen’s reach conclusions that support a view of GRs as instances of intralingual translation: I sur­ mise that the abridgement of literature for language learning purposes is a norm-governed activity, just like other translation processes, and Wilhelmsen finds that GRs bear significant similarities with other types of intralingual translation. The two following case studies will provide further empirical basis for the conceptualization of GRs.

Textual study: selection of the texts The selected source text (ST) is Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray, a pivotal work of the Western literary canon that is “often graded and abridged” (Skopečková, 2013, p. 248). Although previous versions of the novel exist, the 1891 edition is, by far, the most widespread today, so it is reasonable to assume that it serves as a source for most, if not all, GR versions of The Picture of Dorian Gray. As this chapter aims to go beyond the domains of the three leading traditional GR series (Pearson Penguin Readers, Macmillan Readers, and Oxford’s Bookworms, as identified by Hill, 2012, p. 92), the selected target text (TT) is a GR by Burlington Books, a publisher present in Greece, Cyprus, and Spain. Its Readers catalogue 2022/2023 features three GR series: Burlington Original Readers (formerly known as Burlington Readers), Burlington Activity Readers, and Burlington International Readers. The two former series are tailored to the ESO and Bachillerato syllabus in Spain (12- to 18-year-old students) and include introductions and glossaries in Spanish, Catalan, Basque, and Gali­ cian, whereas the latter is graded according to CEFR levels6 and aimed at an international readership. Both Burlington Original Readers and Burlington International Readers have a version of The Picture of Dorian Gray, from 2000 and 2016, respectively. Upon skimming through these GRs, it becomes apparent that the text in the international edition is an edited version (arguably, a retransla­ tion) of the intralingual translation for learners in Spain. The texts are almost identical at first sight, and most of the editions seem to strive on a micro-textual level to enhance clarity or add emphasis rather than to adjust the text to a different, more heterogeneous audience. Since the GRs of the Burl­ ington Original Readers series contain interlingual translations into some of the languages of Spain, which are not within the scope of this study, the monolingual international edition was selected.

Textual study: comparative analysis Due to spatial restrictions, this analysis will exclusively cover the first chapter of the ST (the 1891 ver­ sion, as published by Penguin Books in 2000; Wilde, 2000a) and the corresponding excerpt of chapter 1 (“In the Studio”) from the TT (Wilde [Baron, Trans.], 2016), included in what follows for reference. In the summer of 1870, an artist was working in his studio in London. The artist’s name was Basil Hallward, and he was finishing a portrait. His friend, Lord Henry Wotton, was sitting in an armchair, watching him paint. “That’s a marvellous portrait. I know all your paintings, but this is the best,” said Lord Henry. “The young man in the portrait is very handsome, with his dark curly hair and bright blue eyes.” “Yes, he is,” Basil said. “He’s also very innocent, and he doesn’t really know anything about life. Sometimes, I worry that Dorian Gray is too handsome and that he’ll suffer for it one day.” “Dorian Gray? Is that his name?” Lord Henry asked, laughing. 382

Graded readers as instances of intralingual translation

“Yes, it is,” Basil answered. “Dorian and I are good friends and we spend a lot of time together. He often comes and sits with me, even when I’m not painting his portrait. When he’s here, I paint much better than usual. He’s a very special young man.” “That’s interesting,” said Lord Henry. “I really want to meet him.” Basil was not happy when he heard his friend say this. Lord Henry was 40 years old, 10 years older than Basil. He knew a lot about life, but he didn’t believe in anything and didn’t care about anyone. He only saw the bad in everything and ridiculed the good. Nothing was important to him except things which gave him pleasure. He spent his life going to parties and drinking. “Henry is so cynical and he laughs at everything,” Basil thought. “It will be better if he doesn’t meet Dorian.” “I don’t think you’ll like Dorian,” Basil said to his friend. “He’s very different from you, but his friendship is important to me.” At that moment, a servant came into the studio. “Mr Gray is here, sir,” he said. “Can I ask him to come upstairs to the studio?” “Yes, please do,” Basil answered. He didn’t look happy, but Lord Henry laughed. “This is a coincidence!” he thought. “Now I can meet Dorian Gray!” “Henry, please be careful what you say to Dorian,” Basil said, seriously. “He’s only 19 years old. He’ll listen to what you say and I’m afraid you’ll have a bad influence on him.” Lord Henry laughed again. He was enjoying the situation. (Wilde [Baron, Trans.], 2016, pp. 8–9, emphasis in the original) The juxtaposition of “replacing” and “replaced” segments from the ST and the TT poses the same challenges, if not more, as it did in my previous study (Moreno Tovar, 2020). Indeed, the limita­ tions of Toury’s methods (1995/2012), and more specifically, those of the coupled pair, are par­ ticularly striking in intralingual translation. This is in line with Zethsen’s remark (2021, p. 139) that, because of the purpose of simplification, certain strategies, such as additions, omissions, and restructuring, are applied “in a much more radical way” in intralingual translation. Given that a whole chapter of the ST (almost 5,000 words) has been condensed into a text that is more than ten times shorter (less than 400 words), the TT could be seen as a GR that blurs the boundaries that I once tried to establish between abridgements and adaptations. The selected examples in Table 22.1 and Table 22.2 attest to the highly asymmetrical process of TT-ST segment alignment. Table 22.1 Restructuring of information in GRs Target text

Source text

He’s also very innocent and he doesn’t really know anything about life.

He has a simple and a beautiful nature. Your aunt was quite right in what she said of him. Don’t spoil him. Don’t try to influence him. Your influence would be bad.

Table 22.2 Explicitation of information in GRs Target text

Source text

“Henry is so cynical and he laughs at everything,” Basil thought.

“. . . You never say a moral thing, and you never do a wrong thing. Your cynicism is simply a pose.” “Being natural is simply a pose, and the most irritating pose I know,” cried Lord Henry, laughing. . .

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In Table 22.1, the segment that is assumed to have been “replaced” is in a completely different position in the ST compared to the TT, namely, at the end of the chapter. This restructuring, paired with the omissions, is sure to have an impact on the readers’ perception of the character of Dorian Gray, made less complex in the TT. The example in Table 22.2 is even less straightforward: While it remains possible to trace back some lexical choices in the TT to the ST, this process is complicated by the extreme degree to which information has been made explicit and digestible. Rather than stating that Basil believes that Lord Henry is “cynical” and “laughs at everything”, the ST allows the readers to reach their own conclusions based on the interactions between the two characters throughout the chapter. Despite the methodological limitations, one can turn to the word level to identify transla­ tions where the parameter of time plays a role. One example is the word “armchair” in the TT, which corresponds to “divan of Persian saddle bags” in the ST. Admittedly, this is probably due to “divan” and “saddle bags” not being included on the word list used in the production of this GR (meaning that learners are not expected to know such words at this level of pro­ ficiency). However, this translational choice may also be a way to eliminate a time-bound orientalist reference to Victorian London and create an image that is more familiar to the young readership. A further example is the word “picture”, conspicuously absent in the TT excerpt, although pre­ sent in the title of the GR. This word is used today to describe a visual representation of any kind, including a painting. However, when we use “picture” to specifically refer to a visual representa­ tion of a person’s face, we generally think of a photograph, which was not the case at the end of the 19th century. Thus, it is plausible that “picture” was avoided not because it is not on the word list, but because of a dated usage that may confuse learners. Instead, their attention is focused on the word “portrait”, whose meaning (“a painting of a person”) is intralingually explained in the glossary (Wilde [Baron, Trans.], 2016, p. 54). As a third example of a translation that is partly instigated by time, let us examine Table 22.3. The first chapter of the ST includes two references to Lord Henry smoking, but none to his fond­ ness of attending social gatherings or drinking. One possible explanation is that this translational choice alludes to Lord Henry’s inclination to life’s “vices” and aims at making them explicit from the beginning. In this regard, it is interesting to note that the “vice” of smoking “opium-tainted” cigarettes is thoroughly omitted in the TT. Arguably, opium is not only a controversial theme in a GR for young language learners (unlike alcohol, apparently), but also an indicator of the time setting of the novel.

Table 22.3 Controversial themes in GRs Target text

Source text

He spent his life going to parties and drinking.

From the corner of the divan of Persian saddlebags on which he was lying, smoking, as was his custom, innumerable cigarettes, Lord Henry Wotton . . . Lord Henry elevated his eyebrows, and looked at him in amazement through the thin blue wreaths of smoke that curled up in such fanciful whorls from his heavy opium-tainted cigarette.

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Graded readers as instances of intralingual translation

The erasure of certain time-bound references across the TT does not mean that the text becomes atemporal: On the contrary, it is firmly anchored in time, more specifically, in 1870. This specific­ ity contrasts with the ST, which never sets the story in a concrete year, but rather paints a colourful picture of the late Victorian period. Further time-related TT additions include Basil’s and Lord Henry’s age (30 and 40, respectively). The TT also introduces two modifications that prove dif­ ficult to explain: Dorian Gray’s age goes from “over twenty” to “only 19”, and his hair is described as “dark” rather than “gold”. If anything, this succinct analysis has served to demonstrate two things: First, that the param­ eter of time inevitably plays a role when intralingually translating a literary classic from another era, and second, that it is possible to find subtle yet insightful textual additions and modifications if one is able to look past the overwhelming number of omissions that naturally occur in the produc­ tion of a GR translation.

Paratextual study: corpus preparation In the preparation of the corpus for this multilingual paratextual study, the Extensive Reading Foundation’s Graded Reader List (https://sites.google.com/site/erfgrlist/) was helpful for GR series in English, but not in Spanish or German. When searching for GRs in these languages, it seemed that some publishers market their simplified literature series for both L1 and L2 readers.7 Specifically: • SM lists its series Colección Clásicos in its Catálogo Español Lengua Extranjera (SM, 2020), but also features it on the youth literature section of its website (https://es.literaturasm.com/ grandes-clasicos-de-literatura/). • Works in Cornelsen’s Einfach klassisch feature under “Deutsch” (German for L1 readers) and “Deutsch als Fremdsprache” (German for L2 readers) on its website (www.cornelsen.de/suche ?query=Einfach+klassisch/). • Beltz (www.beltz.de/service/fuer_deutschlehrer_innen/einfache_sprache.html) mentions peo­ ple with a limited command of German among its readers and states that its titles correspond to an A2/B1 level on the CEFR, but it does not place them in a grading scheme. • Passanten (www.passanten-verlag.de/) keeps the question of its readership open by claiming that they target everyone “who loves books but sometimes struggles to read” (my translation),8 and Spass am Lesen (https://einfachebuecher.de/) has a similar motto. In the light of these observations, and for the purposes of this study, a GR will be defined as any version of a literary work that: 1 is presented as primarily aimed at language learners, and 2 is part of a grading scheme (i.e., the series has more than one level). By this definition, there are still many books that qualify as GRs, though not from the publish­ ers listed before. The final corpus included 48 GRs: 31 in English, ten in Spanish, and seven in German; the GR series are presented in Table 22.4. Remarkably, some publishers have GRs in all three languages. Paratexts were assumed to be the same across a single GR series, and each title was therefore considered representative of its series. However, it is important to note that paratexts may change as new editions are released.

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Manuel Moreno Tovar Table 22.4 GR series covered by the paratextual study Language(s)

Publisher

GR series

English

Burlington Books Collins ELT Compass Publishing Express Publishing Helbling

Activity Readers, International Readers, Original Readers Collins English Readers Classic Readers, Young Learners Classic Readers Graded Readers Helbling Shakespeare, Readers Classics, Young Readers Classics English Explorers, Readers Graded Readers, Primary Readers, Top Readers Bookworms Library, Classic Tales, Dominoes, Progressive English Readers Active Readers, Readers, Story Readers Richmond Readers Audio clásicos adaptados Lecturas Clásicas Graduadas Lecturas Niños Leer en Español Literatura Hispánica De Fácil Lectura Deutsch – leichter lesen Earlyreads, Green Apple, Reading & Training; Leer y aprender; Leitchtzulesen, Lesen und Üben Teen ELI Readers, Young Adult ELI Readers, Young ELI Readers; Lecturas ELI Adolescentes, Lecturas ELI Infantiles y Juveniles, Lecturas ELI Jóvenes y Adultos; Erste ELI Lektüren, Erwachsene ELI Lektüren, Junge ELI Lektüren Easy Classics, Easy Readers (English), Easy Readers (Spanish), Easy Readers (German)

Macmillan MM Publications Oxford University Press

Spanish

German English, Spanish, and German

Pearson Education Richmond Anaya Edelsa enClave-ELE Santillana SGEL Ernst Klett Black Cat CIDEB ELI Publishing

Egmont (Alinea)

Paratextual study: corpus analysis As suspected, the corpus analysis revealed a diversity of self-descriptors across and within the GRs, and also within the same language. In the GRs in English, “retold” was the most common self-descriptor, followed by “adapted” and “adaptation”. Figure 22.1 shows a quantitative over­ view with the most commonly used terms. It should be noted that one single GR might count towards several categories, as each title might have multiple peritexts and epitexts (combined here and in the other figures). It is noteworthy that only one GR described itself as a “modern translation”: The title from the Helbling Shakespeare series, which offers lengthy annotations in parallel to the source text. This format resembles Delabastita’s study aids (2017) rather than the standard GR, which might be the reason why Helbling Shakespeare is not included on the Graded Reader List.9 Descriptions of the authors of the texts – in my own terms, the intralingual translators – are something Delabastita (2017) covered only superficially. The analysis revealed that the use of passive constructions such as “adapted by” results in an absence of nouns referring to the role of the authors. One notable exception is Helbling, which on its website refers to its GR authors as “adapters”. This epitextual use corresponds to Edelsa’s peritextual use of “adaptador” in its series 386

Graded readers as instances of intralingual translation

(carefully graded modern English) translation

1

abridged edition

2

(carefully) graded (story/modern English translation)

2

created for, specially-written story for, written specifically for

5

simplified book/edition/story/text/version

8

(carefully) adapted (by), (text/easy-to-read) adaptation

15

retold (version/story) (by)

18

Figure 22.1 Paratextual self-descriptors in English

versión fiel y accesible

1

texto original abreviado

1

edición resumida

1

edición simplificada, texto simplificado

1

reducción lingüística (de)

3

adaptación (didáctica) (de), obra/versión adaptada, texto (clásico) adaptado (por)

6

Figure 22.2 Paratextual self-descriptors in Spanish

Lecturas Clásicas Graduadas. As shown in Figure 22.2, “adaptación” and its related terms are the most common self-descriptors across the Spanish GRs in the corpus. The small size of the sample results in a comparatively high occurrence of the term “reducción lingüística” (meaning “linguistic reduction” or “linguistic abridgement”), though it is only used by ELI Publishing. In German (see Figure 22.3), the rare term “Adaption” only appeared once. The most com­ monly used term was “Bearbeitung”, which can also be translated into English as “adaptation”. Interestingly, adjectives and adverbs testifying to the high standards of both the process and the product of the translation appear in the paratexts of all three languages, that is, “carefully”, “fiel y accesible” (“faithful and accessible”), and “meisterhaft” (“masterfully”). This paratextual study has demonstrated that, in all languages covered, GRs clearly tend to refer to themselves as adaptations rather than abridgements, though it is not clear whether there is a 387

Manuel Moreno Tovar

Adaption

1

(meisterhaft) gekürzt

2

Nacherzählung, nacherzählt von

2

Didaktisierung, didaktische Bearbeitung

3

(sprachlich) vereinfacht, vereinfachter Text

3

bearbeitet von, didaktische Bearbeitung, Textbearbeitung

5

Figure 22.3 Paratextual self-descriptors in German

distinction between the two. It is also safe to state that simplified and its derivative terms, contrary to Hill’s affirmation (2008, p. 185), are still in use. However, if we pursue our analysis beyond mere term frequency, it becomes evident that these terms carry negative connotations to some. For instance, the Spanish GR by Egmont (Alinea) paratextually claims that the text, although simpli­ fied, retains the spirit of the original. Furthermore, aspects such as location and font size are impor­ tant here. In series by both Burlington Books and Oxford University Press, the phrases “simplified version” and “simplified edition” are less visible than other self-descriptors. This is because they only appear in the books’ copyright notice, which may have played a role in the wording.

Conclusions This chapter has examined GRs as a relevant research object for TS. The absence of the term translation in most of the corpus’s titles may prompt the conclusion that the producers of GRs do not conceive of them as translations. In this regard, a participant-based study would be more help­ ful in understanding how these professionals think of their work. For instance, the term language learner literature was similarly absent, and we know that many series editors and publishers (at least in the Anglosphere) are aware of said term through the Language Learner Literature Award.10 This research has focused on how we as researchers can conceptualize GRs in our own specialized terms. To this end, we might find it more productive to shift our view to self-qualifiers other than translation. Let us focus on terms such as adaptación didáctica and Didaktisierung, which emphasize GRs’ pedagogical purpose. This perspective is highly compatible with functionalist views of transla­ tion, such as Seel’s (2015). Seel affirms that intralingual translation is pragmatic-functional in its nature. From this point of view, we could conceptualize GRs as instances of intralingual transla­ tion for language learning purposes; this would bring them closer to semiotically “distant” types of intralingual translation, such as subtitles used in educational settings. On the other hand, the question arises as to whether GRs are mere tools for the acquisition of language proficiency. This 388

Graded readers as instances of intralingual translation

is their typical use in extensive reading programmes, but could they pursue additional goals? It would seem to be the case for GRs designed to be used as expansive reading materials. Besides, a functionalist understanding could be at odds with Day and Bamford’s contention (1998, p. 67) that GRs are “a genuine art form”. Self-descriptors such as specially written for and created for invite associations with a usercentred approach to translation (Suojanen et al., 2015). From this angle, GRs could be described as instances of intralingual translation for language learners. Again, this poses an important ques­ tion: Are GRs solely for language learners? Language learners are, indeed, their intended audience, but controlled vocabulary may appeal to other groups of users who struggle to read, such as people with cognitive disabilities and with low literacy skills. This is not to erase the specific needs of those groups but to acknowledge that different, sometimes overlapping groups of people may well access and use a single (user-centred) translation. The keyword here is the term accessible, which appears in the paratext of a Spanish GR in the corpus. It is no coincidence that the production of that GR was directed by Anula Rebollo, who has researched the applications of linguistic simplifi­ cation in the teaching of ELE by means of the term “español accesible” (Anula Rebollo & Revilla Guijarro, 2009). A stronger focus on the accessibility of GRs would not only highlight their simi­ larities to adjacent forms of simplified literature, such as the readers produced by Passanten and Spass am Lesen, but also to easy-to-read texts produced in the context of plain language initiatives. The somewhat vague self-descriptor retold also invites reflection. Thinking of GRs as retold rather than rewritten literature can help us understand them as the output of a complex multimodal phenomenon that involves more than one of the three Jakobsonian types of translation (intralin­ gual, intersemiotic, and sometimes also interlingual). In this light, a GR is quite an extraordinary object of study, which can allow us to examine how those different types of translation operate in conjunction – or even how the borders between them are fuzzier than we thought. The preceding conclusions are complemented by the main conclusion of the textual study: That GRs tend to be influenced by the parameter of time, as the need to diachronically update the language of older texts is central to their production. Admittedly, knowledge still stands as the primary factor, but in a hypothetical landscape in which more and more GRs are used for expan­ sive reading, the role of culture could become more prominent. In her 2020 paper, Wilhelmsen draws from Gottlieb’s semiotic taxonomy of translation (Gottlieb, 2018) to describe GRs as a form of diaphasic translation, understood as a translation that is aimed at a different audience within the same language culture. But why not also consider GRs as a form of diachronic translation? Blurred lines and terminological overlaps complicate our perceptions of the world, but they also open up new possibilities. In this regard, I hope that this chapter has not only helped my reader­ ship to learn more about GRs, but also that it encourages the exploration of conceptualizations that transcend the very distinction between intralingual, interlingual, and intersemiotic translation.

Notes 1 Malmkjær (2010, p. 185) observes that this is not true for all language pedagogic contexts (e.g., China), but it is the case in those influenced by applied linguistics as developed in English-speaking countries. 2 Hill notes this bias in one of his survey reviews of GRs (1997, p. 62), where he laments that “outstanding” GR series produced and set out in Africa were not distributed outside that continent. 3 The term native speaker is being increasingly replaced in academic circles by other terms perceived as more appropriate, such as highly proficient L1 speaker, proposed by the organization EVE: Equal Voices in ELT (https://twitter.com/sueleather/status/1280268312400678913). 4 The acronyms ELT and TESOL stand for English Language Teaching and Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages, respectively.

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Manuel Moreno Tovar 5 In Portuguese: “É comum que adaptadores (e até ilustradores) tenham seus nomes estampados com visibi­ lidade nas capas, precedidos de textos como “Retold by . . .” ou “Translated and adapted by . . .” ou “Text adaptation by”, rivalizando com os nomes dos próprios autores dos textos originais nos quais os graded readers se basearam”. 6 The CEFR is the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, developed by the Council of Europe. It divides language proficiency into six levels, A1 to C2 (www.coe.int/en/web/ common-european-framework-reference-languages/level-descriptions/). 7 The term L2 reader refers to a user who reads in their second language, in this case, a language learner. 8 In German: “Für alle, die Bücher lieben und denen es manchmal trotzdem schwer fällt zu lesen”. 9 It does however feature on Helbling’s readers website (www.helblingpublishing.com/int/en/readers) along with other GR series. 10 None of the titles in the corpus were finalists or winners of the Language Literature Award. Finalist and winning GRs may display a logo qualifying them as “language learner literature” on their covers.

Further reading Canepari, M. (2022). A new paradigm for translators of literary and non-literary texts. Brill. In the third chapter of this monograph, Canepari explores the intralingual translation of British literary clas­ sics for specific categories of readers, including language learners. Day, R., Bassett, J., Bowler, B., Parminter, S., Bullard, N., Furr, M., Prentice, N., Mahmood, M., Stewart, D., & Robb, T. (2016). Extensive reading (revised ed.). Oxford University Press. Written by extensive reading experts, this edited volume provides a valuable insight into graded readers and graded reader series, particularly in its second and third chapters. Rodrigo, V. (2019). La comprensión lectora en la enseñanza del español LE/L2: de la teoría a la práctica. Routledge. Rodrigo conducts an illustrative analysis of graded readers for learners of Spanish as a foreign language in the seventh chapter of this book, written fully in Spanish.

References Primary sources Anula Rebollo, A., & Revilla Guijarro, A. (2009). El español accesible y su aplicación en el ámbito de la enseñanza del español como L2. Los textos jurídicos y administrativos. In A. Vera Luján & I. Martínez Martínez (Eds.), El español en contextos específicos: enseñanza e investigación (pp. 199–211). ASELE, Fundación Comillas. Bazani, A. (2019). Translation and L2 teaching’s relationship status: From former “friends” and “enemies” to current “strangers”. In M. Koletnik & N. Frœliger (Eds.), Translation and language teaching: Continuing the dialogue (pp. 3–22). Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Becker, E. (2015). A escritura de graded readers: adaptação, princípios tradutórios e processo criativo. In L. S. Rebello & V. N. Flores (Orgs.), Caminhos das letras: uma experiência de integração (pp. 10–20). Ed. Instituto de Letras/UFRGS. Black Cat CIDEB. (2009). The Black Cat guide of graded readers. www.vicensvives.com/vvweb/view/ webwidgets/idiomas-2018/secciones_en/pdf/BlackCatGuide2009.pdf Burlington Books. (2022). Readers catalogue 2022/2023. www.burlingtonbooks.com/Spain/Catalogue/? catalogueID=41 Cândido, A. G., & Evangelista, M. C. R. G. (2020). Leituras facilitadas como mediação linguística no ensino/ aprendizagem de alemão como língua estrangeira. Pandaemonium Germanicum, 23(40), 90–114. Colina, S. (2002). Second language acquisition, language teaching and translation studies. The Translator, 8(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/13556509.2002.10799114 Day, R. R., & Bamford, J. (1998). Extensive reading in the second language classroom. Cambridge Univer­ sity Press.

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Graded readers as instances of intralingual translation Day, R. R., & Bamford, J. (2002). Top ten principles for teaching extensive reading. Reading in a Foreign Language, 14(2), 136–141. Delabastita, D. (2017). He shall signify from time to time. Romeo and Juliet in modern English. Perspectives, 25(2), 189–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/0907676X.2016.1234491 Genette, G. (1997). Paratexts: Thresholds of interpretation (J. E. Lewin, Trans.). Cambridge University Press (Original work published 1987). Gottlieb, H. (2018). Semiotics and translation. In K. Malmkjær (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of translation studies and linguistics (pp. 45–63). Routledge. Heltai, P. (2003). Message adjustment in translation. Across Languages and Cultures, 4(2), 145–185. https:// doi.org/10.1556/Acr.4.2003.2.1 Hill, D. R. (1997). Survey review: Graded readers. ELT Journal, 51(1), 57–81. https://doi.org/10.1093/ elt/51.1.57 Hill, D. R. (2001). Survey. Graded readers. ELT Journal, 55(3), 300–324. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/55.3.300 Hill, D. R. (2008). Graded readers in English. ELT Journal, 62(2), 184–204. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ ccn006 Hill, D. R. (2012). Graded readers. ELT Journal, 67(1), 85–125. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccs067 Malmkjær, K. (2010). Language learning and translation. In Y. Gambier & L. Van Doorslaer (Eds.), Hand­ book of translation studies – Volume 1 (pp. 185–190). John Benjamins. Moreno Tovar, M. (2020). (A)bridging the gap – A study of the norms and laws in the intralingual translation of the novel and then there were none by Agatha Christie. Revista de lenguas para fines específicos, 26(1), 51–68. Nation, I. S. P., & Waring, R. (2013). Extensive reading and graded readers. Compass Publishing. Nation, I. S. P., & Waring, R. (2020). Teaching extensive reading in another language. Routledge. Nord, C. (1997/2018). Translating as a purposeful activity: Functionalist approaches explained. St. Jerome. Reid Thomas, H., & Hill, D. R. (1988). Survey review: Graded readers (Part 1). ELT Journal, 42(1), 44–52. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/42.1.44 Reid Thomas, H. C., & Hill, D. R. (1993). Survey review: Seventeen series of graded readers. ELT Journal, 47(3), 250–267. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/47.3.250 Reiß, K. (1971). Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Übersetzungskritik. Hueber. Reiß, K., & Vermeer, H. J. (2013). Towards a general theory of translational action. St Jerome (Original work published 1984). Seel, O. I. (2015). The pragmatic-functional nature of intralingual translation and its affinity to top-downprocedures. Parallèles, 27(2), 71–82. Skopečková, E. (2013). A marginal phenomenon in the field of literary translation: The (im)possibility of “translating” literature into a “simplified” version. In J. Zehnalová, O. Molnár, & M. Kubánek (Eds.), Tradition and trends in trans-language communication (pp. 243–251). Palacký University. SM. (2020). Catálogo Español Lengua Extranjera (ELE). www.grupo-sm.com/es/sites/sm-espana/files/ resources/Imagenes/MKT/EN-LA-ESCUELA/ELE/Catalogo_ELE_SM_2020.pdf Smith, R. C. (2003). Introduction to volume III. In R. C. Smith (Ed.), Teaching English as a foreign language, 1912–1936: Pioneers of ELT. Volume III: Michael West (pp. ix–xxvi). Routledge. Suojanen, T., Koskinen, K., & Tuominen, T. (2015). User-centered translation. Routledge. Toury, G. (1995/2012). Descriptive translation studies – and beyond. John Benjamins. Vermeer, H. J. (1987). What does it mean to translate? Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 13(2), 25–33. Wilhelmsen, M. K. (2020). Graded readers: An intralingual translation case study [Unpublished Bachelor’s Project]. Norwegian University of Science and Technology. Zethsen, K. K. (2009). Intralingual translation: An attempt at description. Meta, 54(4), 795–812. https://doi. org/10.7202/038904ar Zethsen, K. K. (2021). Intralingual translation. In Y. Gambier & L. Van Doorslaer (Eds.), Handbook of trans­ lation studies – Volume 5 (pp. 135–142). John Benjamins.

List of titles used in the case studies Aesop. (2003). The fox and the dog (H. Q. Mitchell, Trans.). MM Publications. Aesop. (2017). Der Nordwind und die Sonne (D. Guillemant, Trans.). ELI Publishing. Aladdin and the magic lamp (J. Cadwallader, Trans.). (2012). ELI Publishing. Anonymous. (1996). El cantar de mío cid (C. Romero Dueñas, Trans.). Edelsa.

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Manuel Moreno Tovar Andersen, H. C. (2006). The ugly duckling (R. Hobart, Trans.). Black Cat Publishing. Austen, J. (2003). Pride and prejudice (A. Shell, Trans.). Black Cat Publishing. Bécquer, G. A. (2002). Leyendas (C. Ruiz Ibáñez, Trans.). Anaya. Bécquer, G. A. (2009). La corza blanca (F. Sánchez-Bordona Arizcun, Trans.). Santillana Educación. Brothers Grimm (2019). Die Bremer Stadtmusikanten (P. Traverso, & M. Knoth, Trans.). Black Cat Publishing. Büchner, G. (2013). Woyzeck (G. Schlusnus, Trans.). ELI Publishing. Carroll, L. (2015). Through the looking-glass (G. Munton, Trans.). Macmillan. Cervantes Saavedra, M. (2007). El ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha 1 (B. Rodríguez Rodríguez, Trans.). Sociedad General Española de Librería. Christie, A. (2020). And then there were none. HarperCollins Publishers. Conan Doyle, A. (2010). The hound of the Baskervilles. Easy Readers (Egmont). Conan Doyle, A. (2013). The narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket (J. Borsbey & R. Swan, Trans.). ELI Publishing. Ende, M. (2021). Die unendliche Geschichte (A. Seiffarth, Trans.). Ernst Klett. Fitzgerald, F. S. (2005). The great Gatsby (M. Tamer, Trans.). Macmillan. García Lorca, F. (2009). La casa de Bernarda Alba (D. Carpani, Trans.). Black Cat Publishing. Goldilocks and the three bears (S. Arengo, Trans.). (2011). Oxford University Press. Hauff, W. (2014). Der Zwerg Nase (B. Sauser, Trans.). ELI Publishing. Hodgson Burnett, F. (2016). Little Lord Fauntleroy (S. Sardi, Trans.). ELI Publishing. Hoffmann, E. T. A. (1999). Der Sandmann (A. Seiffarth, Trans.). Black Cat Publishing. Homer (2008). The Odyssey (F. Beddall, Trans.). Pearson Education. Martín Gaite, C. (2010). Caperucita en Manhattan. Easy Readers (Egmont). Nesbit, E. (2000). The railway children (J. Escott, Trans.). Oxford University Press. Orwell, G. (2003). 1984 (M. Dean, Trans.). Pearson Education. Perrault, C. (2015). Little red riding hood (R. Northcott, Trans.). Helbling. Perrault, C. (2020). Caperucita roja. enClave-ELE. Quevedo, F. (2015). La vida del Buscón (C. Bartolomé Martínez, Trans.). ELI Publishing. Quiroga, H. (2012). La abeja haragana (S. Cortés Ramírez, Trans.). ELI Publishing. Saki, Chesterton, G. K., Gaskell, E., Stevenson, R. L., Trollope, A., Kipling, R., James, M. R., & Conrad, J. (2009). Classic British short stories (P. Koster, Trans.). Compass Publishing. Shakespeare, W. (2006). The tempest (V. Heward, Trans.). Black Cat Publishing. Shakespeare, W. (2019). Hamlet. Helbling. Shelley, M. (2001). Frankenstein (E. Gray, Trans.). Express Publishing. Spyri, J. (2011). Heidi (P. Davenport, Trans.). Oxford University Press. Stevenson, R. L. (2012). Treasure island (D. A. Hill, Trans.). Helbling. Stoker, B. (1997). Dracula (P. Davies, Trans.). Richmond Publishing. Swift, J. (2012). Gulliver’s travels (J. Randolph Lewis, Trans.). Compass Publishing. Twain, M. (2012). Huck Finn (H. Q. Mitchell, Trans.). MM Publications. Valera, J. (2016). Pepita Jiménez (D. Tarradas Agea, Trans.). ELI Publishing. Wilde, O. (2000a). The picture of Dorian Gray. Penguin Books. Wilde, O. (2000b). The picture of Dorian Gray (V. Baron, Trans.). Burlington Books. Wilde, O. (2001a). The happy prince (H. Q. Mitchell & M. Malkogianni, Trans.). MM Publications. Wilde, O. (2001b). The selfish giant (M. Crook, Trans.). Pearson Education. Wilde, O. (2007). The picture of Dorian Gray (L. A. Hill, Trans.). Oxford University Press (China). Wilde, O. (2009a). The Canterville ghost (J. Hart, Trans.). Burlington Books. Wilde, O. (2009b). The picture of Dorian Gray. Easy Readers (Egmont). Wilde, O. (2016). The picture of Dorian Gray (V. Baron, Trans.). Burlington Books. Zweig, S. (2011). Novellen. Easy Readers (Egmont).

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PART VI

Intralingual translation Accessibility from a practical perspective

23 INTRALINGUAL INTERPRETATION Simultaneous Easy Language interpreting as a new form of simultaneous interpreting Judith Rubanovsky-Paz, Hilla Karas, Shira Yalon-Chamovitz Introduction Easy Language interpreting (ELI) or simultaneous language simplification1 (SLS) is a relatively new development in the fields of Interpreting Studies and Accessibility Studies alike. Similar to its interlingual counterpart – simultaneous interpreting (SI) between two distinct languages – ELI or SLS involves orally producing a real-time translation of a complex spoken text into a simplified or Easy Language version of it within the same language. These methods were initially intended to improve the accessibility of information for people with intellectual and developmental disability (IDD), yet were subsequently proved to be effective and beneficial for people with cognitive dis­ abilities at large2 (Yalon-Chamovitz et al., 2016). While the intralingual translation of written texts into Plain Language and Easy Language has been practiced and researched for several decades (Hansen-Schirra & Maaß, 2020; Lindholm & Vanhatalo, 2021), performing this activity orally has been reported in literature only in the past decade (Eichmeyer, 2018; Leichtfuß, 2013; Schulz et al., 2020, Yalon-Chamovitz et al., 2016; Yalon-Chamovitz & Avidan-Ziv, 2016). Due to the innovative nature of the field, a note must be made on the terminology selected for this chapter. In English, the terms Easy Language interpreting and Plain Language interpreting are often used interchangeably (Eichmeyer, 2018; Schulz et al., 2020). Previous works in Eng­ lish describing the field in Israel referred to this practice as simultaneous language simplification or real-time translation into Plain Language (Yalon-Chamovitz & Avidan-Ziv, 2016), although in practice, the result is closer to Easy Language. The lack of unified terminology hinders both research and potential cooperation between professionals.3 In written form, Plain Language and Easy Language can be distinguished based on their inter­ nal characteristics and their target audience. Plain Language is the use of simple, everyday lan­ guage designed to facilitate understanding for the general public, from professional documents for lay readers to texts adapted for non-native speakers or readers with reduced language skills. While some readers with disabilities may benefit from texts in Plain Language, it is not exclusively meant as a form of accessibility but rather as a general language policy. Easy Language, on the other hand, is explicitly aimed at providing cognitive accessibility for readers with disabilities and will be perceived as overly simplified by the general public. Complex language is thus transformed4 to a greater degree in Easy Language. The rules of Plain Language mainly involve changes to 395

DOI: 10.4324/9781003188872-30

Judith Rubanovsky-Paz, Hilla Karas, Shira Yalon-Chamovitz

vocabulary and syntax, whereas Easy Language requires a complete restructuring of the original text, rearranging the ideas in a way that will be most suitable for readers with disabilities, per­ forming more far-reaching changes to vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, using accessible font and layout and, most characteristically, adding symbols or pictographs to facilitate understanding (Inclusion Europe, 2021; Uziel-Karl et al., 2011). When the translation is performed orally, in the form of simultaneous interpretation or simplifi­ cation of live speech specifically for people with disabilities, the question arises whether the result should be termed Plain Language or Easy Language, as a text produced orally naturally cannot contain graphics – a mandatory component of Easy Language. Furthermore, some critics suggest that the complex, time-consuming process of rearranging the information and presenting it in a way that will be most easily understood by people with disabilities cannot be fully implemented when considering the time constraints of simultaneous interpreting (Maaß & Hernández Garrido, 2020). However, it can be argued that it is the designation of the target audience which is the most important element for this definition. Insofar as form of interpreting is aimed at people with disa­ bilities, it can still be labelled Easy Language regardless of how it might deviate from the standards of written Easy Language in practice (Maaß & Hernández Garrido, 2020). Based on this logic, and for the sake of clarity, in this chapter, we have chosen to use the term Easy Language interpreting (ELI) to describe the practice as it is performed anywhere in the world. To the best of our knowledge, no study to date has attempted to examine Easy Language inter­ preting vis-à-vis its parallel interlingual activity, simultaneous interpreting, particularly regard­ ing conference and media interpreting. Intuitively, the technique necessary for performing both activities seems very similar: interlingual interpreters and Easy Language interpreters must be able to listen to the original text, quickly process it, and then produce their rendition of it while still listening to the speaker’s following utterances and remembering them (Gambier et al., 1997). The interpretation is produced under stress with minimal chance for corrections or revisions (Pöch­ hacker, 2004). For professional simultaneous interpreters, this complex skill is usually the result of long, arduous training. And indeed, in Israel, the visible similarity between ELI and SI resulted in the requalification of several simultaneous interpreters to perform ELI. However, a comparison between the accepted standards of quality and good practice in inter­ preting (AIIC, 1999/2016; Bühler, 1986) and the principles and practices of Easy Language inter­ preting for people with cognitive disabilities (Israeli Institute for Cognitive Accessibility and ISRAIIC Israel Interpreters, 2020; Uziel-Karl et al., 2011) reveals that paradoxically the two tasks share many requirements while others are, in fact, at odds with each other. This poses a potential challenge for professional simultaneous interpreters wishing to engage in this new field of activity. This chapter will describe the use of ELI in the world to the best of our knowledge, with an emphasis on the training or retraining process involved. It will then analyze the standards of ELI compared with those of interlingual simultaneous interpreting and point to the areas of similarities as well as the main differences that may require specific attention during both training and practice.

Background Individuals with CD may encounter several barriers when attempting to receive and understand information. These include: 1 Literacy – adults with disabilities were found to be more likely than the general population to perform at the lowest literacy level: 87% of those with IDD5 and almost 60% of people with 396

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learning disabilities do not have functional reading skills (Kirsch et al., 1993). This makes their participation in aspects of information and communication in today’s predominantly literate society almost impossible. Attempts have been made to accommodate this need using readaloud software, pictograms, and alternative modalities, such as public address systems and auditory signs. 2 Complexity – individuals with CD may experience memory and attention deficits, prob­ lem-solving difficulties, and language comprehension difficulties, including understanding inference, understanding abstract or metaphorical content, and distinguishing primary from peripheral information. Messages with many parts, such as multi-stage instructions and com­ plex structures such as conditional sentences, multiple relative clauses, and complex grammar and syntax that require a relatively high level of understanding or problem-solving processes, are some of the most commonly recognized accessibility barriers for people with CD. As a result, simplification of such messages and processes is one of the most common accommo­ dations, spanning both written and oral communication, administrative procedures, product design, and even environmental layout (Yalon-Chamovitz, 2009). 3 Pace – individuals with CD often experience slow information processing and reaction times (Abbeduto, 2003; Kail, 2000; Yalon-Chamovitz, 2009). Even when the information is provided orally, to accommodate for the difficulty with reading, they may find the speed of regular oral communication challenging. The pace and temporal demands are almost always indicated as barriers to accessibility by people with intellectual disabilities themselves, as well as by their family members and by professionals (Yalon-Chamovitz, 2009). Additional barriers to understanding communication are expert knowledge barriers (when the text uses expert language or deals with professional topics that are unfamiliar to laypeople), cultural barriers (when the text presupposes cultural knowledge that the audience may be lacking), and media barriers (when the information is provided using a means of communication that is either entirely inaccessible for the target audience or is not their preferred means of communication) (Hansen-Schirra & Maaß, 2020). The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, which was adopted by the UN in 2006 and entered into force in 2008, is designed to serve as a human rights instrument guaran­ teeing that all people with disabilities, including those with intellectual or cognitive disabilities, receive the same basic human rights and fundamental freedoms as people without disabilities, such as the right for self-determination, access to justice and healthcare, and protection from mistreat­ ment or discrimination. Several articles in the Convention focus particularly on full participation in all aspects of life, detailing rights such as access to information and communication and par­ ticipation in cultural life, recreation, leisure, and sport (United Nations, 2006). These notions are further supported by similar national legislation, such as the Act on Equal Opportunities of Persons with Disabilities in Germany and the Accessibility and Equal Rights for Persons with Disabilities Regulations in Israel. Initially implemented by way of wheelchair ramps or braille signs for people with physical and sensory disabilities, the notion of accessibility was in recent years expanded to provide “cognitive ramps” – means such as modification of pace, complexity, and literacy level intended to bridge a gap in accessibility to information, processes, or environments and thus accommodate the acces­ sibility needs of people with varying cognitive skills and allow them to equally participate in all aspects of life (Yalon-Chamovitz et al., 2016). Such accommodations may include easy to read and understand signs in parks, pre-recorded cognitively accessible tourist information, and acces­ sible registration forms for sports activities. 397

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Whether written or audio, these accommodations are all prepared in advance, in a lengthy pro­ cess that usually involves a detailed analysis of the original text and its desired message, meticu­ lous editing, and wording of the simplified, accessible message, and often a consultation with representatives of the target audience who serve as an advisory group to guarantee understanding. In light of this complex, multistep process, it is clear why performing it live, without the traditional preparation process, would be considered very difficult, if not impossible. In written form, accessible texts must also follow clear guidelines for accessible design, includ­ ing matters such as font size and contrast, and must also be accompanied by symbols or picto­ grams. But while guidelines for written Easy Language are quite common (Inclusion Europe offers guidelines for Easy Language in 16 European languages!), guidelines for spoken Easy Language are scarce. Most existing documents refer to orally provided information that is pre-recorded, such as railway announcements or tourist information, and focus on technical issues, such as sound quality and clear pronunciation. De facto, the rules for written Easy Language are mostly applied in ELI, with the exception of the accompanying graphic symbols.

Overview of the current situation To the best of our knowledge, Easy Language simultaneous interpreting is currently provided, albeit sporadically, mostly in Israel (Yalon-Chamovitz & Avidan-Ziv, 2016) and in Germany (Eichmeyer, 2018).

Israel ELI (termed in Israel “simultaneous language simplification”) was first provided at the Sixth Issie Shapiro International Conference on Disabilities in 2015. It was performed by one of the authors, Shira Yalon-Chamovitz, the head of the Israeli Institute for Cognitive Accessibility of Agudat Ami and Ono Academic College, who had no prior experience in simultaneous interpreting. The interpretation was provided via a designated channel on the simultaneous interpretation earphonebased audio system to all conference attendees, including people with significant cognitive dis­ abilities (Yalon-Chamovitz & Avidan-Ziv, 2016). Soon after, the Institute formed a professional collaboration with ISRAIIC, the Israeli branch of AIIC (Association Internationale des Interprètes de Conférence), the oldest and largest international organization of conference interpreters. After undergoing a short, individual training, three simultaneous interpreters joined the simultaneous simplification team at the Institute. They provided ELI on several occasions, adopting the simul­ taneous interpreting model of working in teams of two (or three for longer assignments) and alternating every 20 minutes. From 2016 onwards, the Institute began providing ELI at conferences on matters of disability and accessibility organized by Access Israel, an Israeli non-profit organization whose mission is to promote accessibility and inclusion. In April 2019, ELI was first performed on Israeli televi­ sion during the election-night newscast on Israel’s main state-owned television channel Kan 11. The interpretation was broadcast on a designated website. In the same year, ELI was provided alongside additional modes of accessibility, such as sign-language interpreting and audio descrip­ tion, during the semi-final and final of the Eurovision Song Contest held in Israel. The service was widely publicized on social media and television before the contest and was positively received. Cognitive accessibility was further incorporated in Israeli mainstream media during election-night newscasts in September 2019 and in the 2020, 2021, and 2022 elections. At the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, Kan 11, with the support of the Ted Arison Family Foundation, broadcast 398

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the simplified evening news for 30 consecutive days between March and April 2020. Most televi­ sion broadcasts with ELI are available after the event on the station’s channel on YouTube. In total, seven Easy Language interpreters have attempted simultaneous simplification into Easy Language in Hebrew in Israel since the establishment of the field. An accessibility specialist from the Israeli Institute for Cognitive Accessibility accompanies all events, listens to the interpretation from the audience, and provides the interpreters with real-time feedback and post-event comments. Following the practice in written Easy Language, the Institute consults an advisory group of people with CD as part of its preparation to perform ELI at major events. An assessment study was conducted during the Issie Shapiro Conference (via observations) and afterwards (via focus groups and interviews), revealing that using ELI enabled people with significant cognitive disabilities to fully participate in the professional conference. Not only did the participants actively engage dur­ ing the event itself, but many also demonstrated learning and retention of conference content as far as several weeks after the conference (Yalon-Chamovitz & Avidan-Ziv, 2016). Similar focus groups were conducted after subsequent events with matching results.

Germany Compared with the top-down approach led by professionals, characterizing the development of ELI in Israel, the process in Germany was more grassroots-up and stemmed from local needs. ELI (“Leichte Sprache simultan”) was first performed in Germany in 2013 during an inclusive theatre festival whose organizers wished to make the event more accessible for audiences with CD (Eichmeyer, 2018; Schulz et al., 2020). The professional tasked with this innovative form of acces­ sibility was Anne Leichtfuß, who specialized in accessibility in online journalism and worked in an organization providing Easy Language services for people with Down’s syndrome but had never performed simultaneous interpreting before. Following the successful attempt at the festival, Leichtfuß was invited to perform ELI at a governmental conference on disabilities the same month and went on to work at various cultural events and medical settings throughout Germany since. She has also provided ELI at disability-related meetings in the Bundestag and is registered as an interpreter for Easy Language in the German governmental interpreting agency. In an attempt to recreate the work process of written Easy Language, which involves feedback from the target audience, Anne Leichtfuß invited listeners with Down’s syndrome to participate in events where she performed ELI, to serve as a control group and provide her with feedback on her work. Leichtfuß worked alone for the first two years before being joined by several colleagues she had trained herself. In 2020 there were ten Easy Language interpreters active in Germany (Eichmeyer, 2018). By 2022, their number had decreased to eight (Leichtfuß, personal communication, 2022). An additional difference between the situation in Israel and that in Germany pertains to the background of the interpreters involved. While in Israel, most Easy Language interpreters are professional simultaneous interpreters with no background in Easy Language or accessibility and, indeed, no experience with people with disabilities, in Germany, most of those who currently work in the field have had prior training in Easy Language (in written form) before learning ELI.

Additional initiatives ELI has been provided in FALC (“Français Facile à Lire et à Comprendre”) by Inclusion-Asbl Belgium since 2021. Based on the information provided on the organization’s website,6 it offers ELI at lectures, meetings, and conferences, as well as training for Easy Language translators 399

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and interpreters (Abls-be, 2021). ELI was performed in English at the Disability Unite Festival, streamed online from New York in 2020 and 2021. The interpreter was one of the authors: Shira Yalon-Chamovitz. A program for introducing ELI is currently being developed in Spain. The spar­ sity of publications on the matter and the use of different local terminology makes it challenging to locate similar initiatives.7

Training Training programs for Easy Language interpreters are quite rare. Anne Leichtfuß, who was the first to provide ELI in Germany, attempted to train some of her colleagues in 2015 in a two-day workshop, followed by a period of on-site training, where those of the participants who wished to, joined Leichtfuß at various venues where ELI was provided to observe and practice under her supervision until they had felt confident enough in their performance. All participants had prior knowledge of German “Leichte Sprache” and did not need to learn the guidelines at the workshop. Most had some experience in translation or interpreting as well. The first day of the workshop was dedicated to theoretical issues pertaining to interpreting in general and Easy Language in par­ ticular, while the second day provided opportunities to practice. Leichtfuß invited several people with Down’s syndrome with whom she had previously worked to serve as an audience during the second day of the workshop. They listened to the ELI by the students and provided feedback on their performance and the level of accessibility of the interpreting. In subsequent years, Leichtfuß organized workshops in a similar format in collaboration with German interpreting organizations for participants whose main area of expertise was interpreting and who did not have prior knowl­ edge of Easy Language. Her philosophy is that while official Easy Language guidelines, as well as interpreting techniques, can be taught relatively quickly, it is the personal experience of accessible communication with people who are the target audience of ELI, namely, people with cognitive or intellectual disabilities, that is indispensable for potential participants in this type of training (Leichtfuß, personal communication, 2022). Similar observations were made by Israeli Easy Language interpreters who voiced their con­ cern about not being familiar with their target audience. This meant they were less able to judge the level of simplification required, the background knowledge their listeners possessed, and their general preferences. Israeli ELI training also included a meeting with people with disabilities, as will be detailed later. However, as some interpreters noted, a one-time meeting cannot replace extensive, personal experiences and the insights they provide. Out of the 20 or so participants in Leichtfuß’s first course and a similar number of participants in the subsequent ones, only a few went on to actively work in the field (Eichmeyer, 2018, Leichtfuß, personal communication, 2022). Leichtfuß attributes this partly to the fact that the participants in her workshops are not officially certified in any way and because of the amount of time that must be invested in further independent practice after the workshop. In other words, the short workshop provides the participants with a basic understanding of the field, but as with interlingual interpreta­ tion, additional practice and feedback are vital to achieving the level of proficiency needed to work professionally. Unlike in interlingual interpretation, where the interpreters themselves are fluent in both languages and cultures and can provide themselves with feedback on their work after review­ ing their recordings, Easy Language interpreting trainees do not usually have access to a control group of listeners with disabilities or to Easy Language specialists. Thus, they will not be able to receive feedback and learn whether their interpretation is indeed suitable to the needs of their audi­ ence. Leichtfuß’s trainees may join events where ELI is provided to practice and receive feedback,

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but traveling throughout the country at one’s own expense may be difficult and time-consuming, particularly as most participants were already employed full-time in other organizations. Starting in 2019, the University of Hildesheim, in cooperation with the federal association of interpreters and translators in Germany, has offered three one-and-a-half-day workshops on ELI for professional translators and interpreters. Participants were already familiar with the rules of Easy Language, as it is often taught as part of master’s programs in translation in Germany (Uni­ versity of Hildesheim, 2022, Schulz, personal communication, 2022). The number of participants ranged from eight to 15. Prior experience working with people with cognitive disabilities was advised but not mandatory. No official certification was provided to the participants, and no data exists regarding the number of graduates who went on to work in the field. Course coordinators are currently examining ways of including ELI in master’s programs in interpreting (Schulz, personal communication, 2022). In Israel, the Institute for Cognitive Accessibility first provided a short, individual ELI training for three professional simultaneous interpreters in 2016. The ten-hour training centered on Easy Language guidelines and a practical session with feedback from the institute’s accessibility spe­ cialists. These interpreters immediately began working in the field, receiving feedback during and after the event from accessibility experts from the Institute. In February 2020, the Institute, in collaboration with the two now-experienced ELI inter­ preters and ISRAIIC, offered a four-day workshop (cut short to two days due to the outbreak of COVID-19) in ELI for 12 professional simultaneous interpreters. None of the participants had prior knowledge of Easy Language. The first day was dedicated to Easy Language and com­ munication barriers faced by people with CD. The training also included a meeting with people with disabilities, as most participants had no personal experience with such communication. The second day was devoted to practicing simplification and ELI. Participants received feedback on their work from accessibility specialists from the Institute and the two more experienced inter­ preters who were trained in 2016 and have worked since. No official certification was provided. Shortly after the cancellation of the final two days of practice due to the outbreak of COVID-19, the Institute was commissioned by Kan 11 television channel to provide ELI for the evening news. ELI was provided on the news for a period of 30 days to make information about the pandemic and the various regulations accessible to people with CD. Two of the participants in the training were recruited to participate in the project. They performed several more simulations of ELI with the workshop’s instructors over Zoom. No other participants in the 2020 workshop have worked actively in the field since. In Belgium, Inclusion-Asbl offers a two-day course in ELI which is open to Easy Language professionals and family members of people with ID and does not require participants to have prior experience in interpreting. However, they must first complete the organization’s course in written translation and be familiar with the rules of FALC. Both courses are taught with the help of people with disabilities, who serve as a control group and provide students with real-time feed­ back on their work. Course participants who wish to join Inclusion-Asbl and work in the field must pass an exam with the organization’s specialists to become certified FALC translators/interpret­ ers. Additional one-day workshops are offered to active FALC translators for further practice. All courses are taught by a FALC specialist from the Institute. Inclusion-Asbl also offers a course for people with cognitive disabilities wishing to become part of the organization’s control group and provide feedback on translations into FALC. This is a one-day, free course for people over 18 years old which also involves a certification exam for those interested in working in the field. To the best of our knowledge, this is a unique project, not available anywhere else. 401

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Comparison of standards and practices in ELI and SI ELI is perceived by many of its practitioners as a form of intralingual simultaneous interpreting owing to the technical resemblance between the two activities. Both require one to simultaneously listen to the original utterance, process it, and produce a new version of it while still listening to and remembering the next utterance. In Israel, simultaneous interpreters were thus seen as ideal candidates to perform ELI, and the training they received to do so mostly revolved around the rules and requirements of Easy Language as if it were another foreign language the interpreters must master. However, Easy Language guidelines encompass not only vocabulary, syntax, and gram­ mar, as they would in the case of a foreign language, but also the required mode of delivery, such as speaking pace, the structure of the interpreted message, and familiarity with the target audience in a way that can be likened to cultural understanding. These requirements force the interpreter to significantly deviate from their usual modus operandi. To gain further insight into the extent of the deviation and develop a greater understanding of where the new and important practice of ELI fits in with the general practice of simultaneous interpreting, a more in-depth analysis of the similari­ ties and differences between the two activities was performed. The following comparison was based on two types of documents containing guidelines for professionals in both fields. The first documents are AIIC’s general Guidelines for Interpreters (1999/2016) and a specific checklist of guidelines for interpreters for the media. AIIC’s nonlanguage-specific guidelines are recognized as universal standards of quality and good practice among interpreters worldwide (Bühler, 1986; Chiaro & Nocella, 2004; Zwischenberger, 2010). Almost all Israeli Easy Language interpreters are members of AIIC. The second group of documents includes the Israeli handbook for Easy Language (2011), pub­ lished by the Israeli Institute for Cognitive Accessibility and Israel’s Ministry for Social Services, and a separate guideline dedicated to ELI drafted by the Institute’s Easy Language interpreters together with ISRAIIC. It is important to note that the Easy Language guidelines refer to Hebrew Easy Language. Other languages may have different Easy Language standards or ELI practices. However, to the best of our knowledge, there are no official published guidelines for performing ELI in any other language. The comparison was performed on three levels: Message – the main idea of what is interpreted. Delivery – how the interpretation is performed. Structure – the lexicogrammar that is used during the interpretation.

Message AIIC’s Practical Guide for Conference Interpreters states that an interpreter must “communicate the speaker’s intended messages . . . their primary loyalty is always owed to the speaker and to the communicative intent that the speaker wishes to realize.” Similarly, Easy Language inter­ preters identify the speaker’s main message and communicate it in an accessible manner. Nei­ ther is allowed to express their own personal opinions instead of those of the original speaker or otherwise deviate from the original message. However, one might claim that Easy Language interpreters’ loyalty is equally owed to their audience and to guarantee their understanding. If in interlingual SI, a speaker’s vague or elaborate comment will be conveyed as such in the target lan­ guage, in ELI, the interpreter will clarify as needed. While the main message and communicative intent of the original remain unchanged in ELI, as they are in SI, they are nonetheless subject to more manipulation than is typical in interlingual SI, as will be detailed in the section on structure. 402

Intralingual interpretation

Delivery Regarding delivery, that is, how the message is conveyed, AIIC details six different principles: 1 Using clear speech and good pronunciation, which are easy to understand. 2 Using natural intonation resembling everyday speech. Taking long pauses to listen to the origi­ nal or search for the proper term and then making up for the lost time in sharp bursts is discour­ aged, alongside speaking in deadpan monotone or sing-song intonation. 3 Completing each sentence and making sense in each sentence. Even if the interpreter misheard the original, was forced to omit information, or rephrased the original message, the result must be a logical, coherent sentence, grammatically structured with a beginning, middle, and an end. 4 Using a professional tone, never betraying any personal reaction to the speech, be it skepticism, disagreement, amusement, or boredom. 5 Speaking in the first person on behalf of the speaker. 6 When interpreting for the media: Using a very short “ear-voice span” is recommended, that is, beginning the interpretation as closely as possible to the speakers and finishing in time with them. This technique helps the audience following the interpretation to better identify the changes of speakers in an interview or a rapid discussion. The first four principles are likewise present in the Israeli ELI guidelines. Easy Language inter­ preters are instructed to enunciate their words, speak with a natural intonation without stretching their vowels, complete their sentences, and use a professional, respectful tone. The guidelines particularly emphasize that Easy Language interpreters must be wary of using an infantile, patron­ izing, or teacher-like tone when speaking to their adult audience with a disability. When it comes to speaking in the first person, ELI, like interlingual simultaneous interpreting, should also be performed in the first person. However, Easy Language interpreters must some­ times step outside the first-person norm and provide their listeners with additional context and explanations to compensate for their audience’s knowledge gap. They may have to explain official roles, provide historical background for events, and so on. These are provided in the third person. Additionally, when interpreting for the media, Easy Language interpreters may also need to “frame” a particular utterance by attributing it to a specific speaker when there is a swift exchange between speakers. Unlike their interlingual colleagues, Easy Language interpreters may not shorten their ear-voice span and speak faster, as their listeners require longer information process­ ing time. Viewers without disabilities can also take advantage of the captions appearing on the screen to help them identify the speakers and follow the show, but listeners with disabilities are often unable to read the captions at the pace they appear on screen or at all, nor process the infor­ mation they provide fast enough. They may also find it difficult to navigate the complex structure of a newscast and deduce the connection between its various parts. Thus, in an item on the evening news, which may consist of a commentary from the studio, a pre-recorded video clip, and a report from the scene in quick succession, the Easy Language interpreter will be required to explain who the different speakers are and what their connection to the main topic of discussion is, before reverting to the first person. For example, after the anchor describes the shortage of beds in a hos­ pital and the video cuts to a soundbite of one of the patients, the interpreter may say, “here is what the person in the hospital thinks about there not being enough beds in the hospital.” The interpreter will then revert to the first person to relay the patient’s exact words. It should be mentioned that this practice is not detailed in the existing ELI guidelines. It was discussed as part of the 2020 ELI course organized by the Israeli Institute for Cognitive Accessibility and is currently practiced by Hebrew Easy Language interpreters. 403

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The question of pace is indeed where we find the most significant difference between ELI and SI regarding delivery. While interlingual interpreters speak as fast or as slow as the original speaker and shorten their ear-voice span when necessary for even faster delivery, Easy Lan­ guage interpreters are instructed to keep their pace particularly slow at all times to facilitate understanding for their audience, who may need longer information processing time. However, interpreting at a slow pace, especially if the original is not only fast but also complex in terms of the number of speakers or events happening on screen, creates a lag, or discrepancy, between what the audience hears and what they see. This poses a problem for all viewers, but particu­ larly those with disabilities. As mentioned earlier, to bridge this gap, which is a direct result of the ELI guidelines, the interpreter must rely on providing context in reported speech instead of continuing in the first person. The ELI requirement to speak slowly may also conflict with the interpreter’s ability to maintain natural intonation, as interpreters are trained to keep up with the speaker. When required to speak slowly, they occasionally play for time by stretching their vowels. While this practice is frowned upon in simultaneous interpreting as well, it is particu­ larly problematic in ELI as it hinders understanding. Nevertheless, with the exception of the speed and the occasional use of the third person to provide context, ELI and SI are quite similar in their delivery.

Structure However, when looking at the requirements pertaining to the structure, meaning the lexicogram­ mar used in the interpretation, we notice the biggest differences between the two activities. According to AIIC guidelines, interlingual simultaneous interpreters are to “interpret the original message, accurately, fully and completely.” The interpreter must “strive to convey both the substance and the emphasis, tone, and nuance of what is said” while at the same time, “never change or add to the speaker’s message” (AIIC, 1999/2016). However, preparing a text in Easy Language, be it written or spoken, involves an additional stage of editing the information and presenting it in a way that will be most accessible to people with cognitive disabilities. Many of the rules of Easy Language prevent conveying the original message fully and completely. ELI guidelines require that the interpreter omit all secondary information that is not immedi­ ately relevant to the message or information that is difficult for people with cognitive disabilities to understand. This may include names, ranks and titles, dates (sometimes substituted with a more general description such as “many years ago” and sometimes omitted altogether), places (some­ times substituted with a description like “in other countries” or “in the north” and sometimes omit­ ted altogether), figures of all sorts (sometimes replaced with a quantifier like “many” or “fewer than yesterday”), adjectives (especially if there are several adjectives describing the same noun), adverbs, and pronouns (substituted with proper nouns). Simultaneous interpreters often use the original sentence structure, with the necessary changes due to differences between the languages, so a speaker using intricate language or long sentences with many subordinate clauses will sound the same way in the interpretation as well. But Easy Language interpreters may not use long sentences or complex grammatical structures: ELI guide­ lines encourage them to use only simple sentences, consisting mostly of a noun, verb, and object. Easy Language sentences must have only one main idea. If the original sentence includes clauses and conjunctions, the Easy Language interpreter will have to split them into several short, simple sentences. ELI guidelines also require that the information be provided in chronological or other logi­ cal order, with the most important information mentioned first. If the original message is not 404

Intralingual interpretation

structured this way, as is often the case, the Easy Language interpreter will have to reorder the information and reorganize it for their audience with CD. In Easy Language, an explanation or examples will often be necessary when introducing new or complex terms, as the audience’s world knowledge may be lacking. For example, when discussing a “night curfew” announced as part of COVID restrictions, an interlingual interpreter may simply use the equivalent term in his or her language (for example, “un couvre-feu nocturne” or “otzer leili”). In contrast, in Easy Language, the term may be phrased as “no one is allowed to leave their home and go anywhere at night, when it is dark.” Mentioning the hours of the curfew will not be useful for people with CD as not all of them can tell the time. In addition, people with CD may have impaired deductive reasoning and thus tend to follow rules to the letter, so a further explana­ tion such as “but if you have an emergency, for example, if there is a fire in your home or if you are sick and need to go to the hospital, it is OK to leave your home” may be necessary to prevent potential danger. Finally, to guarantee understanding, the main idea or message of the text in Easy Language needs to be repeated more than once. Particularly for a message conveyed orally. The Easy Lan­ guage interpreter must therefore find a way to include a repetition of the main message in their rendition of the text, even if the original speaker does not repeat it. This is often to the detriment of other, less crucial information provided by the speaker. These requirements, coupled with the slow speaking speed mentioned earlier come at the expense of a full, accurate, and complete inter­ pretation. By definition, ELI cannot be full or accurate when it involves extensive omissions and additions. The second guideline pertaining to the structure of the interpretation in AIIC’s documents is that the register of the interpretation is to match that of the original. AIIC interpreters are reminded to “not distort the original by using abstruse terms or arcane expressions” and likewise not to “lapse into a familiar tone” on formal occasions: Idioms are ideally interpreted into parallel idioms in the target language, professional terms into equally professional terms, and flowery language and rhetorical devices are meticulously maintained. In comparison, Easy Language, both written and oral, uses simplified vocabulary, syntax, and grammar. ELI vocabulary guidelines include, for example: Using simple, everyday words and avoiding complex or professional terms which may be unfamiliar to the target audience; substi­ tuting abstract terms and concepts for concrete ones; avoiding idioms, metaphors, and figures of speech, as some listeners may understand them literally; and preferring conjugated verbs to ger­ unds and infinitives. The guidelines also recommend simplifying the syntax of the original text, by avoiding strings of adjectives or infinitives and replacing pronouns and demonstratives with proper nouns. Finally, ELI guidelines also address the grammatical changes necessary to make a text more easy-to-understand, such as preferring the active voice to the passive voice and avoiding condition­ als. In Hebrew, special emphasis is placed on using common colloquial verb conjugations rather than formal ones, such as using the future tense to denote imperative, and substituting future-tense verbs in the second and third-person feminine plural with the corresponding masculine forms. Like­ wise, it is recommended to avoid the inflection of nouns by adding a possessive clitic and instead using a noun followed by a possessive pronoun.8 These complex grammatical structures are consid­ ered high register or “literary language” and used in formal Hebrew (administration, media) but not in everyday speech. Although partly substandard, the colloquial alternatives are often shorter and easier to pronounce than the proper conjugations, making them more accessible. While rephrasing the text according to these rules makes it simpler and easier to understand, it also inherently means that its Easy Language rendition does not match the original in terms of style and register. 405

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Thus, while the message and the delivery method in ELI and SI are quite similar, the two activi­ ties are cardinally different when it comes to their lexical and syntactic features. ELI interpreters purposely omit and add information, significantly rephrase the text, and remove most of its stylis­ tic features, all of which goes against AIIC interpreting standards. The following excerpt from the evening news in ELI, broadcasted on Israel’s Kan 11 chan­ nel on 20 April 2020, illustrates some of the challenges and considerations involved in this practice. Original: ‫ נתניהו וגנץ נפגשים כעת ועל פי הדיווחים הם קרובים מאוד לחתימה על‬.‫ דרמטי‬,‫ ערב פוליטי‬,‫הערב שלפנינו‬ ‫ הערב אנחנו כרגיל עם כל העדכונים של כתבינו ופרשנינו בשטח ובאולפן גם כמובן לענייני הקורונה‬.‫הסכם‬ (45 words) ?‫ עד כמה הצדדים קרובים לחתימה‬,‫אבל מתחילים איתך כתבנו הפוליטי מיכאל שמש‬ The evening ahead of us is a political evening, dramatic. Netanyahu and Gantz are meet­ ing now [high register] and according to the reports, they are very close to signing an agree­ ment. Tonight, we are, as usual, with all the updates by our reporters and commentators out in the field and in the studio regarding everything to do with covid as well, but let us begin with you, our political reporter, Michael Shemesh: Just how close are the parties to signing? (78 words) ELI: ‫ נדבר עם הכתבים‬.‫ על נתניהו וגנץ שיכול להיות שיחתמו על הסכם כדי להקים ממשלה‬.‫היום נדבר על הממשלה‬ (32 words) ?‫ עד כמה נתניהו וגנץ יכולים לחתום על הסכם היום‬,‫ מיכאל‬.‫שלנו שנמצאים במקומות שונים‬ Today we will talk about the government. About Netanyahu and Gantz who will maybe sign an agreement to form a government. We will talk to our reporters who are in different places. Michael, can Netanyahu and Gantz sign an agreement today? (41 words) Although based on written Easy Language guidelines, ELI must occasionally deviate from them to adapt to the medium and context in which it is provided. In the aforementioned example, written Easy Language guidelines would require adding background information explaining who are “Netanyahu” (Benjamin Netanyahu, then head of interim government) and “Gantz” (Benny Gantz, then head of the second largest political party), and potentially even a more detailed explanation of “sign an agreement” and “government”. However, at this point in time, a political crisis has been unfolding in Israel for several weeks and extensively covered by the media, including in previous ELI broadcasts. The Easy Language interpreters are working under the assumption that viewers, even those with disabilities, would have prior contextual knowl­ edge, and therefore the interpreter intentionally chooses not to include this information in her interpretation. Similarly, the sentence “we will talk to our reporters who are in different places” would normally be omitted in written Easy Language, as it is irrelevant to the main idea of the politi­ cal report. However, the broadcast is showing a split screen featuring the correspondents in their various locations, forcing the Easy Language interpreter to explain the appearance of the people on screen and their relevance. In addition, omitting the sentence would have created a long pause that might cause confusion among viewers with disabilities and likewise hinder their understanding.

406

Intralingual interpretation Table 23.1 ELI analysis Original

Simplified/EL

Analysis

The evening ahead of us is a political evening, dramatic.

Today

• • • • •

Netanyahu and Gantz are meeting now and according to the reports, they are very close to signing the agreement.

about Netanyahu and Gantz who will maybe sign an agreement

•

to form a government

•

We will talk to our reporters who are in different places.

•

Michael,

• Rhetoric transition omitted • title (political reporter) and last name (Shemesh) omitted • Vague, professional term (the parties) replaced by proper names (Netanyahu and Gantz) • Complex phrasing (“just how close are . . . to signing”) replaced with “can [N+G] sign” • Implicit object (an agreement) made explicit • Logical connection to the beginning of the report added: All of this is happening today.

Tonight, we are, as usual, with all the updates by our reporters and commentators out in the field and in the studio regarding everything to do with covid as well, but let us begin with you, our political reporter, Michael Shemesh: Just how close are the parties to signing?

we will talk about the government

Can Netanyahu and Gantz sign an agreement today?

• • • •

•

Complete sentence replaced by adverb Dramatic, journalistic rhetoric omitted Foreshadowing main idea Simplified register Complicated, abstract term (politics) replaced by simpler, concrete one (government) Main idea only (meeting omitted, mention of reports omitted) Compound sentence replaced by simple sentence Gerund replaced by verb Adverbial phrase (serving as hedge) omitted Simplified choice of words (“will maybe” instead of “are very close to”) Addition of contextual information/explanation: The nature of the agreement to be signed Omitted peripheral information (future covid reports) Elaborate phrases replaced by one-word elements

Conclusion and future perspectives The difference between ELI and SI is not purely an academic discussion but also a practical one. SI is performed in various settings, each with unique features and requirements. However, profes­ sional interpreter training addresses each of these settings and their respective challenges so that interpreters are well prepared and feel confident in their ability to provide good interpreting in each field. ELI training, on the other hand, at least in Israel, is based on the assumption that the interpreters bring their professional expertise in simultaneous interpreting into the new activity. Conducted mostly by accessibility specialists, the training centers on Easy Language and the struc­ ture of the target utterances, without realizing that the structure is also part of that same expertise that makes interpreters into professionals.

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The ensuing difficulty, we would like to suggest, is more personal than professional. Studies worldwide (Bühler, 1986; Chiaro & Nocella, 2004; Zwischenberger, 2010) illustrate that most simultaneous interpreters, regardless of whether they are members of AIIC, adhere to profes­ sional standards very similar to those detailed earlier. In other words, the guidelines reflect what interpreters perceive to be good interpreting practices. Anecdotal evidence collected in personal conversations with simultaneous interpreters performing ELI in Israel suggests interpreters take pride in the unique skills they painstakingly mastered: Being eloquent and articulate under pres­ sure and not missing a single piece of information, be it names, dates, or adjectives. So, when asked to perform a task, which seems very similar to SI, almost automatic, yet produces an out­ come that sounds very different from what they are usually used to: Less precise, less elegant, less “professional,” they face a predicament: They are recruited for their professionalism as inter­ preters but are then required to violate some of the fundamental principles of the same profession. This inner conflict is particularly prominent when the interpreting is carried out on a public media channel during an event of great national importance and receives a great deal of attention. As one of Israel’s first simultaneous interpreters to perform ELI states: “It goes against everything I know!” Curiously, the training programs in Germany and Belgium do not target simultaneous inter­ preters specifically but rather candidates with prior experience with Easy Language. It would be interesting to examine how these trainees are able to master the difficult skills of simultaneous interpreting in such a short period of time, particularly compared with the lengthy training period in traditional interpreting. The small number of training courses in the world makes it difficult to draw conclusions on who is the perfect candidate for learning ELI at this time, but additional data could be collected on this matter for future analysis. Further research could also be conducted on the way professional interpreters perceive this conflict and the ways they manage it, emotionally and professionally: Are certain standards more difficult for them to adopt? Do they require different training from those who are not interpreters? Such insights could benefit future Easy Language interpreters and those who train them.

Notes 1 Historically referred to in Hebrew as “pishut koli simultani” (literally, “simultaneous voice simplifica­ tion”), the term is interchangeable with Easy Language interpreting. 2 Intellectual and developmental disability (IDD) is defined as a substantial limitation of intellectual, func­ tioning, and adaptive behavior originating during the developmental period (AAIDD, n.d.). Cognitive disability (CD) is a broader term that covers, in addition to IDD, a wide range of conditions (inherited, congenital, developmental, or acquired), including neurodivergence such as autism or learning disabili­ ties, brain conditions such as dementia, aphasia, and Alzheimer’s disease, brain injuries, mental health dis­ abilities, cognitive changes after chemotherapy treatments (“chemo brain”), long COVID, and cognitive impairment as a result of aging (Yalon-Chamovitz et al., 2022). 3 Research is further complicated by the fact that similar terminology may denote different things in vari­ ous countries. The Norwegian term for “easy to read”, lettlest, is mostly used in reference to literature adapted for young readers, while the Italian facile da capire (“easy to understand”) is an umbrella term for all forms of language comprehension enhancement, including both Plain Language and Easy Language. Similarly, In Hebrew, the verb pishut (“simplification”) describes any modification of texts to make them easier to understand, but the noun pishut leshoni (“language simplification”) is mostly used in the field of Accessibility Studies when referring to a text aimed at people with disabilities (Easy Language). Safa pshuta (“simple language”) is used to denote Plain Language, whereas ivrit kala (“easy Hebrew”) is his­ torically used to refer to texts adapted for Hebrew learners and not for people with disabilities. A separate term, “pishut koli” (“voice simplification”), describes the modification of a text which is to be provided orally, either in pre-recorded or live form, regardless of whether the result is in Easy or Plain Language.

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Intralingual interpretation 4 It should be noted that a text in Plain or Easy Language can be a simplified version of an existing complex original or be written in Plain or Easy Language from the start, without going through a formal “transla­ tion” stage. 5 Kirsch et al. (1993) use the term “mental retardation”, now replaced with intellectual developmental disability. 6 Several attempts were made to contact the organization, but further information was not obtained. 7 For this reason, a significant part of this study is based on personal communication with professionals worldwide who practice ELI and on information obtained online. 8 In formal Hebrew, bakashati (“my request”): composed of bakasha (“request”) + ti (possessive clitic), whereas in colloquial Hebrew, habakasha sheli: habakasha (“the request”) + sheli (“of me”).

Further reading Nahón Guillén, M. (2022). Simultaneous simplification. Communicate: 76. AIIC. https://aiic.org/site/ webzine/issue-76/simultaneous-simplification Uziel-Karl, S. (2022). Editorial: Simple and simplified languages. Frontiers in Communication, 4–5. https:// doi.org/10.3389.fcomm.2022.910680. Uziel-Karl, S., & Tenne-Rinde, M. (2018). Making language accessible for people with cognitive disabili­ ties: Intellectual disability as a test case. In A. Bar-On & D. Ravid (Eds.), Handbook of communication disorders (pp. 845–860). De Gruyter. https://adaptit.co.il/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Making-languageaccessible-for-people.pdf Yalon-Chamovitz, S., Steinberg, P., Shach, R., & Avidan-Ziv, O. (2019). Simultaneous language simplifica­ tion from the perspective of people with IDD: Overcoming cognitive accessibility barriers and token participation. SSRN. http://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3390380

References AAIDD. (n.d.). Defining criteria for intellectual disability. www.aaidd.org/intellectual-disability/definition Abbeduto, L. (Ed.). (2003). International review of research in mental retardation (Vol. 27). Academic Press. Abls-be. (2021). Service FALC.be: le projet de service Falc.be. www.falc.be/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/ projetfinal.pdf AIIC. (2016). Practical guide for professional conference interpreters (originally published 1999). https:// aiic.org Bühler, H. (1986). Linguistic (semantic) and extra-linguistic (pragmatic) criteria for the evaluation of confer­ ence interpretation and interpreters. Multilingua, 5(4), 231–235.‫‏‬ Chiaro, D., & Nocella, G. (2004). Interpreters’ perception of linguistic and non-linguistic factors affecting quality: A survey through the World Wide Web. Meta: journal des traducteurs/Meta: Translators’Journal, 49(2), 278–293.‫ ‏‬https://doi.org/10.7202/009351ar Eichmeyer, D. (2018). Interpreting into plain language: Accessibility of on-site courses for people with cog­ nitive impairments. In P. Bouillon, S. Rodriguez Vazques, & I. Strasly (Eds.), Proceedings of the sec­ ond Swiss conference on barrier-free communication (BFC 2018) Accessibility in educational settings (pp. 32–35). UNIGE Archive Ouverte. https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:123512 Gambier, Y., Gile, D., & Taylor, C. (Eds.). (1997). Conference interpreting: Current trends in research. In Proceedings of the international conference on interpreting: What do we know and how? John Benjamins. Hansen-Schirra, S., & Maaß, C. (Eds.). (2020). Easy language research: Text and user perspectives (Vol. 2). Frank-Timme. Inclusion Europe. (2021). Information for all – European standards for making information easy to read and understand. www.inclusion-europe.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/EN_Information_for_all.pdf Israeli Institute for Cognitive Accessibility and ISRAIIC Israel Interpreters. (2020). Simultaneous language simplification [Hebrew]. https://adaptit.co.il/ Kail, R. (2000). Speed of information processing: Developmental change and links to intelligence. Journal of School Psychology, 38(1), 51–61.‫‏‬ Kirsch, I. K., Jungebult, A., Jenkins, L., & Kolstad, A. (1993). Adult literacy in America: A first look at the findings of the national adult literacy survey. National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). https:// nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=93275

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Judith Rubanovsky-Paz, Hilla Karas, Shira Yalon-Chamovitz Leichtfuß, A. (2013). Simultan Übersetzung in Leichte Sprache. Hurraki Tagebuch. https://hurraki.de/blog/ simultan-uebersetzung-in-leichte-sprache/#more-4872 Lindholm, C., & Vanhatalo, U. (Eds.). (2021). Handbook of easy languages in Europe. Frank-Timme. Maaß, C., & Garrido, S. H. (2020). Easy and plain language in audiovisual translation. In S. Hansen-Schirra & C. Maaß (Eds.), Easy language research: Text and user perspectives (pp. 131–161). Frank & Timme. https://doi.org/10.25528/043 Pöchhacker, F. (2004). Introducing interpreting studies. Routledge.‫‏‬ Schulz, R., Czerner-Nicolas, K., & Degenhardt, J. (2020). Easy Language interpreting. In S. Hansen-Schirra & C. Maaß (Eds.), Easy language research: Text and user perspectives (pp. 163–178). Frank & Timme. https://doi.org/10.25528/043 United Nations. (2006). Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities. United Nations. www.un.org/ development/desa/disabilities/convention-on-the-rights-of-persons-with-disabilities.html Uziel-Karl, S., Tenne-Rinde, M., & Yalon-Chamovitz, S. (2011). Language accessibility for people with IDD: A guidebook. The Ministry of Welfare and Social Services. https://adaptit.co.il/wp-content/up­ loads/2020/02/txtver.doc [Hebrew] Yalon-Chamovitz, S. (2009). Invisible access needs of people with intellectual disabilities: A con­ ceptual model of practice. Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 47, 395–400. https://doi. org/10.1352/1934-9556-47.5.395 Yalon-Chamovitz, S., & Avidan-Ziv, O. (2016). Simultaneous simplification: Stretching the boundaries of UDL. In J. E. Garnder & D. Hardin (Eds.), Networking, implementing, research, and scaling universal design for learning (pp. 66–68). Proceedings from the 3rd Annual UDL-IRN Summit. Yalon-Chamovitz, S., Avidan-Ziv, O., Tenne Rinde, M., & Rimon-Greenspan, H. (2022). Thinking differently, cognitive accessibility: Evidence-based model and practical implications for people with intellectual and developmental disabilities. In M. Al-Yagon & M. Margalit (Eds.), Intellectual developmental disorders: Theory, research and implications (pp. 625–650). Keren Shalem. [Hebrew] Yalon-Chamovitz, S., Shach, R., Avidan-Ziv, O., & Tenne, M. R. (2016). The call for cognitive ramps. Work, 53(2), 455–456. https://doi.org/10.3233/wor-152244 Zwischenberger, C. (2010). Quality criteria in simultaneous interpreting: An international vs. a national view.‫‏‬ The Interpreters’ Newsletter, 15, 127–142.

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24 RESPEAKING AS A FORM OF INTRALINGUAL TRANSLATION Intersections between linguistics and respeaking in the live subtitling of parliamentary debates Dan McIntyre, Zoe Moores, Hazel Price, John Vice Introduction The process of respeaking is primarily used in intralingual translation (although its use in interlin­ gual translation is now growing)1 and was first rolled out by the BBC in 2001 and by Independent Media Support (IMS) in 2002. In effect, respeaking is the production of live subtitles by a person via speech recognition software. The respeaker dictates the dialogue that they hear into the speech recognition system which then produces on-screen subtitles that can be manually revised by the respeaker if necessary. Respeaking is now the most common method for producing live subtitles for television programmes such as the news, sports and entertainment programmes that are broad­ cast live. The grounds for considering respeaking to constitute intralingual translation rest on its being a form of what Gottlieb (2018) describes as intersemiotic adaptational translation, wherein – in this case – speech is converted to writing and it is not necessarily possible to reconstruct the original text from the translated one (see Gottlieb, 2018, p. 52). Whilst originally provided for d/ Deaf, deafened and hard-of-hearing audience members, live subtitles are increasingly used by a far wider audience. And since speech rates on television regularly reach speeds of 180 words per minute (wpm) or more in, for example, news or current affairs programmes (Romero-Fresco, 2011, pp. 123–129), typing on regular keyboards is not an effective way of producing live subti­ tles. Alternative typing solutions were sought in the 1980s to meet this challenge, including the use of regular QWERTY keyboards with abbreviation codes and specialist velo- and stenotype key­ boards (Lambourne, 2006), and in 1987 a regular velotype news subtitling service was set up for ITV. However, the training required for such work was long, ranging from 12 months to a period of more than two years, depending on the type of keyboard used. When it became clear in 1998 that speech recognition software could become a viable alternative method for transcribing text, research began at SysMedia into what would be required for speech input to be used for subtitling (Lambourne, 2006). In this chapter we focus on the use of respeaking to produce subtitles of political discus­ sions. In particular, we explore how the intralingual translation of live parliamentary debates can be improved by integrating insights from pragmatics and corpus linguistics into the process of respeaking. The potential value of these two areas to intralingual translation has to date been relatively underexplored, and our use of them here is in response to Zethsen’s (2009) call for a 411

DOI: 10.4324/9781003188872-31

Dan McIntyre, Zoe Moores, Hazel Price, John Vice

renewed focus on the microlinguistic strategies that intralingual translation necessitates. Zethsen (2009, pp. 805–807) identifies four parameters that influence intralingual translation, these being knowledge, time, culture and space. Knowledge refers to the comprehension capacity of the group at whom the translation is targeted. Time refers to the propensity of diachronic change to impact on the target group’s linguistic and cultural knowledge. Culture relates, obviously enough, to the req­ uisite cultural knowledge for understanding a translated text. And space refers to the spatial con­ straints that result in, for instance, the reduction of the original text. In the analysis that we provide in this chapter, knowledge and space are the prime drivers of the intralingual translation decisions that we made, though we suggest that text patterns can also be useful indicators for translators, as we demonstrate through our analysis of formulaic language and the use of corpus linguistic meth­ ods to discover this. Other parameters are also likely to impact on diamesic intralingual translation (see Eugeni & Gambier, 2023 for a detailed consideration of these in relation to respeaking, subti­ tling for the d/Deaf, deafened and hard-of-hearing audiences, and parliamentary reporting) and we outline some of these in our discussion later of the features of live television subtitles. To illustrate our argument, we use the example of a televised debate that took place in the House of Lords, the second chamber of the UK Parliament, on Monday 26 February 2018.2 We discuss how we might provide as similar an experience as possible to the original programme to those accessing the programme through subtitles. This means conveying not just words spoken but associated paralinguis­ tic features too (e.g., pitch, prosody, triggers of implicatures and politeness features). We aim to show how corpus linguistic and pragmatic analysis can be used to ensure the quality of subtitles produced via respeaking. Quality is defined here in terms of latency and accuracy (explained fully later).

The process of respeaking The process of respeaking can be split into three key stages. First, the respeaker listens to the broadcast content and speaks the aural content of the programme, voicing in punctuation, sound labels (e.g., APPLAUSE) and any additional content that needs to appear in the subtitle. As they do this, they may edit the original spoken content slightly. Next, the speech recognition software processes the input. Finally, the recognized utterances pass through the subtitling software and the respeaker is able to make further, slight adjustments to the subtitles as or after they appear on screen. Whilst steps two and three are taking place, the respeaker is continuing to listen to and respeak the content of the programme. In addition to this, the respeaker will have a block of time before a programme begins to prepare and research its content. It is here that we suggest insights from corpus linguistics can be particularly useful. Some programmes made accessible through respeaking contain sections that may be scripted. When available, and using specialist software, the respeaker will split the script into subtitles and edit it accordingly, ready to cue out as-live, as the start of each subtitle is uttered. A good example of this kind of programme is the news, where the main story may be scripted, whereas the follow­ ing reports or interviews are more likely to be subtitled live. Before we consider how respeakers might deal with unscripted segments of parliamentary dis­ course, in the next section we outline some of the challenges in producing live subtitles.

Features of live television subtitles Live television subtitles are marked by a number of features that extend beyond those found in more classical intralingual translation (for which see Zethsen, 2009, for example). In the follow­ ing, we summarize the most common. 412

Respeaking as a form of intralingual translation

Visual appearance In a completely unscripted programme, two lines of respoken subtitles will scroll across the bot­ tom of the television screen. Where name-straps (or Astons as they are also known, after the com­ pany Aston Broadcast Systems Ltd, an early producer of character generator software) containing text appear on screen, the respeaker will raise the position of the subtitle slightly to avoid the sub­ titles obscuring this additional on-screen information. The subtitles have a black background box, and the respeaker can alternate the font colour between white, yellow, cyan and green. A change in colour is used to indicate a new speaker, and the respeaker will most often alternate between white and yellow to ensure optimum legibility (Ford Williams, 2009; see also BBC, 2022); cyan and green are used less frequently as some people might find these colours more difficult to read. The main content of the subtitles appears as regular script, in a mixture of upper- and lower-case letters, and only sound labels appear in capitalized form; for example, APPLAUSE, BOOS, CHEERS.

Latency Another feature of live subtitling is the delay between a word being spoken and appearing on screen in a subtitle. This results from the time needed for the spoken word to be heard, respoken, recognized by the software and processed through the subtitling software and onto the screen. Whilst Ofcom’s guidelines (2015a) suggest a maximum latency of three seconds (repeated also in Ofcom’s most recently updated guidelines; see Ofcom, 2021), in their final report on the quality of live subtitling in 2015 (Ofcom, 2015b), an average latency of 5.6 seconds was seen across all the programmes sampled. In samples with only live respeaking (and no as-live cueing), latency averaged 7–8 seconds, with peaks of 10–21 seconds possible.

Accuracy Recognition errors are a common feature of respoken language, especially as respeakers are work­ ing at speed. There are three main types of error: real-life speech errors, human–speech recogni­ tion interaction errors and software-specific errors (Moores & Romero-Fresco, 2015). Errors may occur because the respeaker has said the wrong word (real-life speech errors) or because they have uttered the right words but have not done so in a way that will be easily processed by the speech recognition software (human–SR interaction errors). Errors may also be produced by the subtitling software (software-specific errors); sometimes the respeaker is able to prevent these when prepar­ ing a programme, but other errors in this category are beyond their control. Due to the live nature of respeaking, when corrections are made, they often follow a few words after the original error, which has already appeared on screen; a respeaker will use a double dash (--) to indicate that a corrected word/phrase follows. During respeaking, the original content of the programme is also edited slightly. Respeakers will subtitle the content they hear verbatim whenever they are able to; however, much depends on the speed of the speaker(s) and the occurrence of overlapping speech between individuals. It must be remembered that as the respeaker is voicing in every word that appears on screen, including punctuation marks and sound labels, if they were to respeak every word spoken in the programme, they would actually need to say more than the speaker(s) and ideally speak faster than them if latency is to be kept to a minimum (Romero-Fresco, 2011, p. 117). For this reason, some editing is essential and the speech rate of the respeaker is ultimately comparable to that of the original speaker (Romero-Fresco, 2011). 413

Dan McIntyre, Zoe Moores, Hazel Price, John Vice

The NER model (Romero-Fresco & Pérez, 2015) is currently used to assess the accuracy of live subtitling. N stands for total number of words spoken, E for edition and R for recognition. Using this model, edition (E) and recognition (R) errors are weighted and scored according to the impact they have on audience reception and deducted from the total number of words spoken (N). From this, an accuracy score is calculated. Any recognition/edition error that results in the audience being misled is considered as serious and carries the highest weighting of 1. A standard recogni­ tion error is one that the audience is likely to notice and be confused by; a standard edition error usually happens when an independent idea unit is omitted. Both carry a 0.5 weighting. Finally, minor errors may cause details to be omitted, or a slight error in accuracy (e.g., “he leave” rather than “he leaves”); these do not have the same effect on the audience’s ability to follow the content and are consequently weighted less, at 0.25. Accuracy of 98% is considered acceptable. In addition to editions where content is lost, respeakers also make many correct editions, where words may be omitted from the respoken subtitle, or paraphrased, but without any loss of information for the audience. These editions are noted, but do not carry a penalty within the NER model.

Grammar and punctuation As noted in Romero-Fresco (2011, p. 103), some punctuation marks used in regular writing and, indeed, pre-recorded subtitling, are absent from respoken subtitles. A respeaker is most likely to use sentence-end punctuation and the comma; they may also use dashes and speech marks, although the latter may also be replaced with a comma to indicate direct speech. It is also possible that longer sentences, made up of multiple clauses, may be split or reor­ dered slightly to aid recognition; in these instances, asides or inflections may be moved. The noncontracted form of the verb may also be more common than the contracted form during respeaking, as recognition can be clearer.

Speech recognition vocabulary If a word is not listed in the speech recognition word list, it cannot be recognized correctly. Only entries that are listed can appear; any non-existing entry is likely to appear as phonetically related words. The neologism “Brexit” provides a good example of this; without its own entry, it is likely to appear as “breaks it”; once entered as a new entry and trained, the term “Brexit” will appear.

Macros or spoken short cuts Some entries are more complex than others. Take the example of /reɪn/, which can be written as rain, rein or reign. If a respeaker wanted a particular form to appear, for example, reign, they might choose to set up a macro, or spoken short cut. Alongside the written entry reign in the vocabulary, they would add a spoken form, most likely “reign macro”, and train it. Then, when respeaking, they would say “reign macro” rather than “reign” for that specific spelling to appear. Macros can also be used at the sentence level, for example in situations when formulaic speech is used, as is common within Parliament. Here, longer phrases would be given a short macro form for the respeaker to voice.

Word testing and training During the preparation period, the respeaker would test any new words added to the vocabulary, to ensure they are being recognized accurately; they would also test new words in the contexts that 414

Respeaking as a form of intralingual translation

they are likely to appear in within a programme. In doing so, the respeaker will be able to detect many potential recognition issues and consider how to work around them. Ultimately, whichever of these tools are used, and whatever editions the respeaker makes, clear enunciation of all words respoken, in a way that the speech recognition software will best recog­ nize, is essential for every word.

Exploring the language of parliamentary debates To illustrate the practice of respeaking a parliamentary debate, we will take as an example a debate that happened in the House of Lords. Here is an extract from our transcript of the debate.

Context Monday 26 February 2018. Debate started at 2.34pm and ended Tuesday 27 February 2018 12.19am. The following transcript is from 14:44:14 to 14:45:57 (our full transcript covered from 14:44:14 to 14:59:31).

Participants A: Lord Kennedy of Southwark (Lab Co-op) B: The Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State, Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government and Wales Office (Lord Bourne of Aberystwyth) (Con)

Transcript

26.

A:

27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36.

A: A: A: A: A: A: A: A: A: A:

37. 38.

A: A:

39. 40.

A: B:

41.

B:

= the: >private rented sector electrical safety working group reelectrical safety checksgovernment consultation < which closes= ((glances up briefly, quickly returns gaze to podium)) =in april with a government response to follow >but with= ((looks forward and nods head in rhythm with speech)) = no date given= ((returns gaze to podium)) = that is< >my lords (.hhh)= ((gazes up, looks intently forward and shuffles from side to side)) = introducing< these checks (.hhh) can the >noble lord< give me an assurance about when we can expect= ((briefly glances down at podium then returns to intent gaze forward)) = some action from the government? >don’t wanna have to ask this question again at< this time next year [((shuffles backwards and resume seat)) [((stands and moves quickly forwards to podium, places speaking notes on podium, gaze down at notebook)) my lords =

415

Dan McIntyre, Zoe Moores, Hazel Price, John Vice 42.

B:

43. 44.

B: B:

45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65.

B: B: B: B: B: B: B: B: B: B: B: B: B: B:

66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73.

B: B: B: B: B: B: B: B:

B: B: B: B: B: B:

((leans forward, resting with arms on podium, smiles, glances from right to left across table, returns gaze to notebook)) =(.hhh) erm: haha (hhh) erm: (.hhh)= ((continues leaning on podium, glances left and forward slightly, still looking down, wrings right hand up and down)) =>cou- cou- cou- could I say my lords< that it’s= ((returns gaze to notes)) =important that some of these= ((head remains facing notepad, lifts eyes up to look forward)) =recommendations= ((raises eyebrows and nods head twice)) =which are-= ((joins both hands in front of face and moves them apart in an opening motion)) =are left open >are- are- areshould be able< to give their views on (.hhh) also some of the: recommendations °in the° working party are saying it should be left (0.4) to a volunteer ↑approach= ((glance right, return to gaze forward)) =(.hhh) now we need to test °that° more widely >to see whether< that is (.) that= ((returns gaze forward, nods head, return gaze down and right)) = is why we are taking ↓our time I can= ((returns gaze forward, nods head)) = understand >the n- the< noble lord’s impatience=

The preceding transcript is based on the webcast of the debate, available at https://parliamentlive. tv/Event/Index/50537165-632f-4576-aac7-6d63d57ae362. A slightly different transcript can be found in Hansard (available at https://tinyurl.com/4ws2z8rd). Hansard is the name of the official report of parliamentary proceedings in the UK. It is a substantially verbatim account of what is said in the House of Commons and the House of Lords Chambers every day that Parliament is in session. The terms of reference for Hansard can be found in Erskine May, a frequently updated record of parliamentary procedure and constitutional conventions. In effect, Hansard consists of transcripts of parliamentary debates, though it is sometimes necessary for small editorial changes to be made in order to ensure the readability of the document (see Vice & Farrell, 2017, for an informative and accessible history of Hansard).

416

Respeaking as a form of intralingual translation

In the next section, we consider how a linguistic analysis of the preceding extract, and of sup­ plementary data from Hansard, might be used to support the respeaking of other live parliamentary debates. We begin by considering formulaic language.

Corpus linguistics for identifying formulaic language Corpus linguistics is a methodology that uses software to identify patterns in large databases of language. As such, it is ideally placed to support the preparatory work that respeakers engage in before beginning to subtitle a programme. For instance, parliamentary debates contain numerous instances of formulaic language. Some of these are easily observable, for example the formula­ tion used by members to ask a question: “My Lords, I beg leave to ask the question standing in my name on the order paper.” However, corpus linguistic methods can also be used to identify sequences, known as n-grams, that are not so obviously foregrounded. N-grams are sequences of words that appear a specified number of times in the data. N stands for any number; hence a 4-gram is a four-word sequence, a 3-gram a three-word sequence, and so on. The number of times that a sequence needs to be repeated in order to be of interest is determined by the analyst. Identify­ ing n-grams may offer an insight into fixed phrases in the data that might then be set up either as macros or as shortcut keys in order to speed up the process of respeaking. To test this, we used two samples of Hansard to extract n-grams. The first of these was the data illustrated by the preceding extract (Corpus A). This was selected on the basis of its containing a range of subjectively inter­ esting linguistic features that would need to be taken account of when producing subtitles. The second was the transcript of the entire Lords Chamber debate from Monday 26 February 2018, from which the sample for qualitative analysis was taken (Corpus B). These two corpora allowed us insights into (i) the local textual features of the sample for qualitative analysis and (ii) potential fixed phrases in parliamentary discourse generally (with a focus on Lords debates).3 We used AntConc 3.5.7 (Anthony, 2018) to extract n-grams. There were three problems in determining the size of n-gram to extract. These were: i Short n-gram sequences can result in so much data that it ceases to have practical value; for example, in extracting 2-grams, even setting a minimum frequency of ten results in 985 from Corpus B. There are too many results here to consider setting these as macros/shortcut keys. ii Short n-gram sequences are unlikely to save time if used as macros. For example, the most frequent 2-gram in Corpus B is of the. There would be no time saved for the respeaker by using this as a macro as opposed to simply speaking the words. iii Long n-gram sequences can extend beyond the boundaries of a syntactic unit. Syntactically incomplete units may be difficult for the respeaker to identify as a candidate sequence for replacement by a macro, especially during the cognitively demanding process of respeaking. Consequently, we extracted n-grams of the following sizes:

Corpus A • 3-grams: minimum frequency = 5 • 4-grams: minimum frequency = 5 • 5-grams: minimum frequency = 5

417

Dan McIntyre, Zoe Moores, Hazel Price, John Vice

Corpus B • 3-grams: minimum frequency = 50 • 4-grams: minimum frequency = 50 • 5-grams: minimum frequency = 50 The results from the n-gram search were as follows:

Corpus A 3-grams Total no. of n-gram types: 7 Total no. of n-gram tokens: 52 Table 24.1 3-grams in Corpus A Rank

Freq.

Range

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

9 8 8 8 7 7 5

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

the noble lord bourne of aberystwyth lord bourne of lord o shaughnessy aberystwyth my lords of aberystwyth my my lords i

4-grams Total no. of n-gram types: 3 Total no. of n-gram tokens: 22 Table 24.2 4-grams in Corpus A Rank

Freq.

Range

1 2 3

8 7 7

1 1 1

lord bourne of aberystwyth bourne of aberystwyth my of aberystwyth my lords

5-grams Total no. of n-gram types: 2 Total no. of n-gram tokens: 14 Table 24.3 5-grams in Corpus A Rank

Freq.

Range

1 2

7 7

1 1

bourne of aberystwyth my lords lord bourne of aberystwyth my

418

Respeaking as a form of intralingual translation

Corpus B 3-grams Total no. of n-gram types: 22 Total no. of n-gram tokens: 1847 Table 24.4 3-grams in Corpus B Rank

Freq.

Range

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

179 138 137 134 133 93 93 87 78 75 71 66 66 64 61 60 59 52 51 50 50 50

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

the noble lord european union withdrawal union withdrawal bill noble lord lord the european union my noble friend the noble baroness the prime minister the noble and noble and learned and learned lord bill european union withdrawal bill european my lords i of the european the government x government x s with the eu noble baroness lady by the noble i do not of the charter

4-grams Total no. of n-gram types: 9 Total no. of n-gram tokens: 720 Table 24.5 4-grams in Corpus B Rank

Freq.

Range

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

137 133 73 71 66 66 66 57 51

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

european union withdrawal bill the noble lord lord the noble and learned noble and learned lord bill european union withdrawal union withdrawal bill european withdrawal bill european union the government x s the noble baroness lady

419

Dan McIntyre, Zoe Moores, Hazel Price, John Vice

5-grams Total no. of n-gram types: 5 Total no. of n-gram tokens: 335 Table 24.6 5-grams in Corpus B Rank

Freq.

Range

1 2 3 4 5

71 66 66 66 66

1 1 1 1 1

the noble and learned lord bill european union withdrawal bill european union withdrawal bill european union withdrawal bill european union withdrawal bill european union withdrawal

We excluded personal names since these would likely be dealt with by the respeaker as part of the general preparatory process for respeaking. We also disregarded n-grams that spanned a syntactic boundary (e.g., bill european union withdrawal) in favour of those that constituted complete syn­ tactic units (e.g., european union withdrawal bill), since we suspected that complete units would be easier for respeakers to recognize in a live subtitling scenario. The following, then, are candidates for use as macros/shortcut keys:

Corpus A • the noble lord • my lords i

Corpus B • • • • • • • • • • •

the noble lord the european union my noble friend the noble baroness the prime minister noble and learned my lords i european union withdrawal bill the noble and learned noble and learned lord the noble and learned lord

In discourse types where formulaic language is prevalent, such as parliamentary discourse, knowledge of such formulations could potentially be used to save time during the respeaking process. This may be of particular value for live respeaking, where common lexical patterns can be inserted using a macro or spoken shortcut. Using such shortcuts may give the respeaker more time to process the ongoing dialogue. In the case of Corpus A, there are two potential shortcuts to be made by using n-grams. These are the noble lord (9 instances) and my lords i (5 instances). 420

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The importance of pragmatics Having considered what the corpus linguistic methodology might uncover about patterns in parliamen­ tary discourse, we now consider the importance of pragmatics in respeaking. To this end, we comment later on some of the key pragmatic issues in the data sample, focusing particularly on implicature and politeness. The aim behind this analysis is to identify those features of dialogue that are likely to trigger inferential processes in those accessing the original audio. This is with a view to incorporating some of these features into live respeaking, thereby improving the pragmatic quality of the subtitles produced. In everyday conversation we rarely say exactly what we mean. If asked whether we enjoyed a meal and we didn’t, we might instead praise the atmosphere of the restaurant. In trying to avoid answering an uncomfortable question, we might instead change the topic of conversation. Interpreting people’s conversation relies on some fundamental assumptions about what we do when we converse. These are summarized by Grice (1975) as a series of maxims (Grice expresses these as imperatives though they are not instructions for conversation and are better thought of as a series of expectations). The Gricean maxims form what Grice called the Co-operative Principle and are as follows: • • • •

Maxim of quality: Do not say that which you believe to be false. Maxim of quantity: Do not say too much or too little. Maxim of relation: Be relevant. Maxim of manner: Be clear.

If we choose not to follow the Gricean maxims, we have three options. These are: 1 Violate the maxims. 2 Flout the maxims. 3 Infringe the maxims. Violating a maxim involves deliberately breaking it in such a way as for the hearer not to realize that it has been broken. Consider, for example, US President Bill Clinton’s famous 1998 claim, “I did not have sexual relations with that woman [Monica Lewinsky]”. In Gricean terms this con­ stitutes a violation of the maxim of quality since Clinton knew his claim to be false. Similarly, a politician who answers a direct yes/no question by saying, “That’s a fascinating question” is vio­ lating the maxim of relation, since they are deliberately choosing to make an irrelevant statement. Infringing a maxim involves breaking a maxim but being unaware of having broken it. For example, a high stress situation may cause a speaker to stumble over their words (thereby infring­ ing the maxim of manner) or to repeat a particular phrase (e.g., “I can’t, I can’t, I can’t”, thereby infringing the maxim of quantity). Flouting a maxim involves deliberately breaking it, as is the case with violating maxims. The difference in the case of flouting is that the speaker intends the hearer to recognize that the maxim has been broken and to infer some additional meaning from this.4 The importance of accuracy in respeaking is highlighted in the following example from our data. In the original transcription in Hansard, speaker A’s words (highlighted here in bold) were reported as follows: 36. A: = instituting< these checks (.hhh) can the >noble lord< give me an assurance about when we can expect= 37. A: ((briefly glances down at podium then returns to intent gaze forward)) 38. A: = some action from the government? > and will I have to ask this question again< this time next year?

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Asking whether it will be necessary to ask the question again in 12 months’ time is not pertinent to the topic of the speaker’s actual question (i.e., “When will the government take action?”). In this respect, the speaker is breaking the maxim of relation. However, this is clearly not a violation of the maxim since it is obvious that it is being broken. It must, then, be an intentional breakage on the part of the speaker and therefore must constitute a flout. And flouts invite the hearer to search for additional meaning beyond that which has been uttered. In the case of the preceding example, it is likely that the implicated meaning (the implicature in Gricean terms) is “I do not believe the government is going to take action”. However, careful analysis of the actual recording of the debate reveals that the rendering of the bold line above in Hansard is erroneous. What speaker A actually says is “don’t wanna have to ask this question again this time next year”. This has an effect on the implicature generated, as well as affecting the face threat (Brown & Levinson, 1987; Goffman, 1967) inherent in speaker A’s remark. This is an issue of politeness. Many instances of failing to observe Grice’s Co-operative Principle are a result of a desire not to be impolite. Most contemporary theories of linguistic politeness are based on the con­ cept of face, and while contemporary work in politeness studies has significantly extended the insights of one of the most famous accounts of linguistic politeness, Brown and Levinson’s (1987) study, here we use Brown and Levinson’s original classification system because of its heuristic value. In their classic conception of politeness, Brown and Levinson explain that peo­ ple are assumed to have both a positive face and a negative face. Positive face is one’s desire to be liked and approved of. Negative face is one’s desire to be unimpeded. Any utterance which threatens either positive or negative face is known as a face threatening act (FTA). Linguistic politeness is the means by which speakers mitigate FTAs; that is, politeness offers a way of reducing FTAs so that they are less likely to be considered as such by the hearer. Mitigating FTAs is key to speakers achieving their conversational goals. By contrast, exacerbating FTAs via impoliteness can cause face damage. Mitigation strategies are based around what Brown and Levinson (1987) refer to as five superstrategies for politeness. These are: i Perform the FTA bald, i.e., using no mitigation strategies (“Your breath smells.”). ii Perform the FTA on record using positive politeness (“Would you like a mint? They make your breath smell great.”). iii Perform the FTA on record using negative politeness (“You probably didn’t get a chance for anything other than coffee at lunchtime. Would you like a mint to take the taste away?”). iv Perform the FTA off record, i.e., in such a way as to make it possible to deny have performed an FTA at all, if the hearer is upset by your utterance (“I hate the fact that at conferences people’s breath always smells of stale coffee!”). v Don’t perform the FTA at all. Strategies for mitigation include, respectively: i ii iii iv v

Perform the FTA in accordance with the Gricean maxims. Claim common ground; offer; promise; be optimistic; assume or assert reciprocity. Question, hedge, be pessimistic; minimise the imposition; apologise. Generate conversational implicatures; be vague; be ambiguous. Assume that the FTA is too potentially face-damaging to be performed. (Brown & Levinson, 1987, p. 69, pp. 103–227) 422

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As an example, another extract from our data: 36.

A:

37. 38.

A: A:

= instituting< these checks (.hhh) can the >noble lord< give me an assurance about when we can expect= ((briefly glances down at podium then returns to intent gaze forward)) = some action from the government? >

Requesting information constitutes a threat to negative face since it requires the hearer to engage with their interlocutor when they may not wish to. In the context of Parliament, of course, such engagement is to be expected. Nonetheless, conventional rules of conduct (and, in the case of parliamentary debates, specific rules) require such requests to be expressed politely. In lin­ guistic terms, mitigation is required in order to reduce the face threat. In the preceding example, this is achieved via indirectness. Note, for example, the use of an interrogative as opposed to an imperative (compare “Tell me when we can expect action!”). Additionally, we can observe that the interrogative is even more indirect that it need be (compare “When can we expect action?”), since the question is actually about whether the hearer can give an assurance rather than a request for specific information with regard to time. The mitigation strategy is further supported by the use of a conventional honorific (“the noble lord”) in third-person reference. Now, returning to the issue of Hansard’s erroneous rendering of what Lord Kennedy says in line 38 (transcribed as “will I have to ask this question again this time next year”), as we pointed out earlier, asking whether it will be necessary to ask the question again in 12 months’ time is not pertinent to the topic of the speaker’s actual question. In this respect, Lord Kennedy flouts the maxim of relation, with the consequent implicature that he does not believe the government will take action. In terms of impoliteness, this suggests a condescending view of the government – and condescension is one of the strategies for impoliteness listed by Culpeper (1996; see also Cul­ peper, 2011). The accurate transcription of Lord Kennedy’s speech (“don’t wanna have to ask this question again this time next year”) has a different pragmatic effect. In this rendering, he does not ask a question but makes a statement. This is already more direct than the Hansard rendering. Further­ more, this is no longer a flout of the maxim of relation but of the maxim of quantity; that is, Lord Kennedy says more than he actually needs to say. The implicature in this case is different, sug­ gesting an increased level of anger and possibly even a veiled threat. In effect this changes the impoliteness strategy from “condescend” to “threaten” (Culpeper, 1996), potentially affecting the perceived level of impoliteness. Our analysis of politeness reveals the importance of accurate respeaking, given the potential for inaccuracies to result in alternative implicatures and levels of face threat. For example, retaining FTA-mitigating features in subtitles is important in order to avoid casting the speaker as more/less polite than they originally were.

Respeaking in practice So far, we have considered how insights from linguistic analysis might support the practice of respeaking. Of course, actually producing live subtitles via respeaking is another matter. To dem­ onstrate the complexities of this, and to consider the extent to which it is possible to incorporate the kinds of insights discussed before, one of the authors of this chapter (Zoe Moores) undertook to respeak the debate discussed earlier. The full version of this lasts 15 minutes and 17 seconds. In what follows, we describe the process of respeaking and reflect on the decisions made during that process. 423

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The subtitles in the sample were created using the inbuilt notepad in the Dragon Professional Individual 15 speech recognition software package. A new voice model was created for the sam­ ple, and macros for key commands and punctuation were trained into the software. Colours were not marked during the sample, as subtitling software or a specialized keyboard would have been needed for this.

Genre-specific preparation Before the sample clip was respoken, three sections of sessions from the House of Lords in the week prior to Monday 26th February were respoken. The start of each session was selected, and committee and sub-committee sessions were avoided, so that the content and structure would resemble that of the sample clip. Each section lasted between 10 and 25 minutes. The purpose of these preparatory clips was for the respeaker to gain familiarity with the procedures, processes and conventions that exist within (in this case) the House of Lords, and identify patterns of language use that they will need to deal with when respeaking. Gaining experience of respeaking a genre offline before “going live” is common practice. Each clip was reviewed, the language used in the clip was noted and adjustments were made to the respeaker’s voice model.

Terms of address One marked feature of language used within the House of Lords is the way in which the members address and refer to each other. The n-gram analysis outlined earlier revealed the frequent use of many terms of address, including “the noble lord”, “my noble friend”, “the noble baroness” and “the noble and learned lord”. These are certainly phrases that the respeaker will need to be prepared for and be able to respeak with ease and accuracy. In this study, practice of the phrases revealed good recognition for the most part; when spoken quickly, “my noble lord” was occasion­ ally recognized as “my normal lord”, so a Dragon entry was created to ensure accurate recognition: Macros could also be used to ensure correct recognition; if this route were taken, macros would ideally be needed to capture the combinations of “noble” and “noble and learned”, people named (Lord, Lady, Baroness, friend) and their respective pronouns (the, my). In this instance, the respeaker preferred the decision to pre-empt the misrecognition of noble as normal, and respeak the address in full; with more familiarity of the patterns of parliamentary debate, macros might provide a smoother solution; a combination could also be used, with some forms respoken through macros and others in full.

Terms of reference When asking questions of other members of the House, the third- rather than second-person is used: “Can I ask the minister, is he confident that there are sufficient and competent people to carry out these checks . . .?” Table 24.7 Dragon entry for “noble lord” Written form

Spoken form

noble lord

normal lord

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Similarly, during the practice sessions it was noted that members frequently referred to “this place” and “that place”, meaning the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Both phrases draw on common deictic words (this, that, he, she) yet use them in a nuanced way. Since these phrases fell into the 2-gram range they were not noted in the n-gram analysis. Whilst no macro or alternative spoken form would be needed, the respeaker would need to be aware of the usage and ensure that, whilst working at speed, this convention is followed, without reverting to “you”, for example, and that these words are respoken clearly for accurate recognition.

Macros A number of possible sound labels were identified as relevant for the content of parliamentary debates; a macro was created for each: Table 24.8 Macros for sound labels Written form

Spoken form

APPLAUSE BOOS CHEERS LAUGH MURMURS THEY TALK OVER EACH OTHER

applause macro boo macro cheer macro laugh macro murmur macro talk macro

“Hear, hear” was a phrase commonly echoed in the chamber. When first respoken, it appeared as “here, here”, so a macro was created: Table 24.9 Macro for the phrase “Hear, hear” Written form

Spoken form

Hear, hear.

here macro

Two instances of long formulaic phrases were also noted during preparation. When a member has listed a question, they will first “beg leave to ask the question standing in (their) name on the order paper”; often, this is followed by them “draw(ing) attention to (their) interest as declared in the register”. In both cases, the use of a macro allows the respeaker to guarantee the production of an accurate sentence and pause for breath while the speaker continues.

Titles Many references are made to people, departments, groups and bills and the respeaker should be able to capture these in the subtitles with accurate capitalization, that is, the “Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government”. Table 24.10 Macros for formulaic phrases Written form

Spoken form

I beg leave to ask the question standing in my name on the order paper I draw attention to my interest as declared in the register

beg macro attention macro

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Initially, these titles were entered as new written forms in the speech recognition vocabulary; macros could also be used for this purpose. Clusters such as this are very important to the respeaker but were not highlighted in the n-gram analysis for two reasons: Firstly, although a common fea­ ture of parliamentary language, it does not necessarily follow that a single title would be repeated multiple times and therefore might not feature in the analysis; secondly, the n-gram analysis does not note features of punctuation or capitalization, which would be of interest to the respeaker.

Data-specific preparation In addition to becoming familiar with the genre of Parliament as a whole, preparation is also needed before each session as different topics will be discussed and different members of Parliament will speak. The Lords Business provides a list of each question that will be asked, along with the member who is asking it, in advance of the session. An example can be seen in Figure 24.1:

Monday 23 February 2018 at 2.30pm

*Oral Questions, 30 minutes

*Baroness Benjamin to ask her Majesty’s Government what plans they have for publicising a detailed evaluation of stage one of the National Child Obesity Strategy; and when a publication timetable for stage two will be produced.

*Lord Kennedy of Southwark to ask her Majesty’s Government what representations they have received, if any, opposing electrical safety checks in the private rented sector. [1]

*Baroness Thornton to ask her Majesty’s Government what plans they have to reduce waiting lists for consultant-led NHS treatment; and to what timetable they intend to carry out such plans.

*Baroness Rawlings to ask her Majesty’s Government what progress they have made in establishing the Northern Forest.

European Union (Withdrawal) Bill Committee (day 2) [Lord Callahan] 12th Report from the Delegated Powers Committee, 9th Report from the Constitution Committee

Figure 24.1 Lords Business, Monday 23 February 2018 (https://lordsbusiness.parliament.uk/?business PaperDate=2018-02-23§ionId=38)

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This provides the respeaker with enough information to research the content of the programme. Knowing that the topics of discussion were housing, electrical appliances and consultant-led treat­ ment, a range of websites were also referred to.5 Relevant vocabulary was trained into Dragon, with a mixture of spoken forms and macros, including: Table 24.11 Dragon entries for key words Written form

Spoken form

British Property Federation consultant-led Electrical Safety First Housing and Planning Act 2016 Residual Current Device National Landlords Association CAMS house

British Property Federation consultant led Electrical Safety First Housing and Planning Act 2016 Residual Current Device National Landlords Association cams macro house macro

As will be seen in the following section, the sample passage had a high speech rate, and, although trained, not all these phrases were recognized accurately. The use of more macros would have been beneficial. Regarding the acronym CAMS, in fact two different organizations exist: Collaborative Assessment and Management of Suicidality (CAMS) and Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services (CAHMS); this was missed during preparation and the incorrect spelling was entered as the written form. This highlights the need for thorough preparation and sufficient time to be able to achieve this. Finally, names were checked to ensure they would appear correctly in context; new entries needed to be created for the following to ensure correct recognition: Table 24.12 Recognition of names in Dragon Desired form

Actual form (1st attempt)

Baroness Jolly Lord Roberts of Llandudno Lord Reid of Cardowan

Baroness Jolley Lord Roberts of planned no candid no Lord Reed of Cardoen

Reflections on respeaking The fast-paced exchange of questions in the House of Lords averages at 175 wpm. During the clip, the respeaker spoke at an average of 155 wpm and the average subtitle speed was 152 wpm. From listening to the recording, it is clear that the respeaker actually spoke at a faster rate and intended the subtitles to be denser than the ones displayed on screen. Unfortunately, due to glitches with the speech recognition software, not all the words that were respoken were processed. In the subtitles that appeared, 13.04% of the original content was edited out. There were a total 241 correct editions, where the respeaker edited the content without causing a loss of information for the audience. There were 89 recognition errors in total, of which 13 were standard, causing some confusion to the audience, 74 were minor and would not affect comprehension and two were serious, causing the audience to be misinformed. There were 51 edition errors; four were serious, which would have caused the audience to be misinformed, six were standard, meaning 427

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that an independent idea unit was lost, and 41 were minor, meaning that a dependent idea – the who, where, why and how – was lost. Seven corrections were made in total. The NER accuracy rating for the clip was 98.13%, meaning that it was an acceptable standard for television subtitles; achieving 98.5% accuracy would have made it “good”. The average latency for the clip was 3.16 seconds, with a low of zero seconds (as a macro was used) and a high of 8.43 seconds. The coherence and content of the original was maintained in the respoken subtitles to a large extent. Of the original words spoken 13% were edited out, yet the high number of cor­ rect editions reveal that this was not at the audience’s expense and that good editing strategies were in place. For the most part, the words edited out were stumbles, hesitations or repetitions, addresses such as My Lords, and conjunctions and connectives (and, so, because), and discourse markers such as well. On other occasions, the respeaker respoke these, so the flavour of the pas­ sage remained. On occasions, there is evidence of the structure of the sentence being modified slightly to allow for smoother respeaking, but, again, the sense and feel of the original remains as shown in Example 1. Table 24.13 Example 1: Modifications in sentence structure to allow for smoother respeaking Original

Respoken

because otherwise there is a feeling, I think, of total isolation for those poor people.

Otherwise, there is a feeling of total isolation, I think, for those poor people.

Concerning accuracy, there was a large number of errors within the sample and of minor recog­ nition errors in particular, which is indicative both of the speed of the clip, the dense content and the fact that the respeaker was not respeaking (Parliament) regularly at the time. Although these would have had a minor impact on the audience, being able to avoid these would certainly improve the quality of the sample. The “--” was used on a number of occasions to correct errors. Technical issues meant that a number of sentences respoken accurately by the respeaker were not picked up or dictated by Dragon, and this accounted for a number of the standard recognition errors. The seri­ ous recognition errors often occurred during fairly fast passages. Clearer enunciation would have prevented them, as Example 2 shows: Table 24.14 Example 2: Serious recognition error Original

Respoken

and I share the noble Lord, Lord Kennedy’s frustration over the delay when they are introduced, will that cover white goods supplied by landlords?

and they show the noble Lord, Lord Kennedy’s frustration with the delay, when they are introduced, will that cover white goods supplied by landlords?

There were four serious edition errors, which mostly occurred as a result of the fast pace. Two related to dates, as in Example 3: Table 24.15 Example 3: Serious edition error related to dates Original

Respoken

But with no date given.

with two years given.

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The other two were linked to content words, as shown in Examples 4 and 5: Table 24.16 Example 4: Serious edition error related to a content word Original

Respoken

halting the growth in the waiting list

forcing a growth in the waiting list

Table 24.17 Example 5: Another serious edition error related to a content word Original

Respoken

that something was gonna be addressed in the near future.

They said something would be introduced in the near future.

Although these were minor points within the debate, they nevertheless led to the audience being misinformed and care must be taken to avoid this. Whilst editing out necessary content does make the transcription less complete, it can also have a positive role, as it allows the respeaker to match the pace of the speakers and reduce latency; edition can also be used to avoid potential errors. In Example 6, for instance, a reference is made to the name of a person/company that has made an appliance recall consideration. The respeaker is unsure of the name, and therefore respeaks it in the passive, avoiding a potential error: Table 24.18 Example 6: Rephrasing of a name for more accurate recognition Respoken My Lords, my noble friend will be aware that response has been issued to a product recall consideration and has created an Office for Product Safety and Standards.

In row 2 of Example 7, the respeaker choses to edit out a comment made, so that latency can be lowered: Table 24.19 Example 7: Using editing to reduce latency Original

Respoken

That is why we are taking our time. I can understand the, the noble Lord’s impatience, but it is important that we get this right, my Lords. My lords, my Lords, can the minister tell me what the position is about these appliances? Because that’s what has really caused every one of these terrible fires we’ve had.

That is why we are taking our time. I understand the noble Lord’s impatience. Can the Minister tell me what the position is about these appliances because that is what is really causing everyone of these terrible fires that we have had.

The respeaker has also taken steps to ensure correct recognition at key points in the debate; for example, when a reference is made to Grenfell, the respeaker voices in “Grenfell Tower”, to ensure accuracy and clarity. 429

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The content of Example 8 of the sample was discussed earlier with reference to its pragmatic content: Table 24.20 Example 8: Respeaking pragmatic content Original

Respoken

Instituting these checks will save lives. Can the noble Lord give me an assurance about when we can expect some action from the government? And will I have to ask this question again this time next year? My Lords, I do hope not.

These checks will save lives. Can the noble Lord give me an assurance about when we will have action from the government. Or, when I asked question at you? My Lords, I do hope not. LAUGHTER

Row 3 of Example 8 is a question which flouts the maxim of relation and implies that the speaker does not think that the government will take action (N.B. The error in the original Han­ sard transcript was not picked up until after the respeaking had been completed). Unfortunately, in the respoken transcript, this utterance is not captured. Although the respeaker did respeak, “Or will I ask this question next year?”, but the sentence was not rendered accurately by Dragon, as it was not enunciated clearly enough at speed. If we consider what was respoken, the implicature was captured by the respeaker, albeit in an edited form. The respeaker went on to insert a macro (LAUGHTER) to highlight the effect of this statement. The video in Figure 24.2 reveals that row 3 disappeared from the subtitle video extremely quickly, so it is likely the respeaker was unable to spot, and therefore correct, the error.

Figure 24.2

Respeaking via Dragon voice recognition software (note that row 3 of Example 8 has disap­ peared very quickly and so does not show up as a subtitle)

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Conclusion In this chapter we have aimed to outline the key factors involved in the production of live subtitles via the process of respeaking. In particular, we have demonstrated how this works through discussion of a respoken segment of a parliamentary debate held in the House of Lords. We have shown how using insights from linguistic analysis can support this highly specialized form of intralingual translation, and have aimed to integrate this into the general recommendations for practice to be found in this chapter. Of course, much more could be done to develop the practices described here. However, it is important to be aware of the ramifications of any new initiative. For example, one easy recommendation to make might be to use the font colour to indicate party affiliation, where blue indicates Conservative, red Labour, yellow Liberal Democrats, and green the Green Party. However, since colour indi­ cates a change in speaker, as noted earlier, adding a secondary layer of meaning may cause confusion for subtitlers and audience members alike and may have unintended consequences; people who are colour blind, for example, have difficulty distinguishing between red and green (Ford Williams, 2009, p. 18), so access may actually be reduced. Other markers of party affiliation, however, perhaps through the use of labels or Astons (graphic overlays in the lower third of the screen; the name derives from Aston Broadcast Systems), would certainly be helpful. What is certain is that, with all the subjectivity and inferences that it might contain, it is vital that political content is captured accurately. Any access provider, whether respeaker, subtitler or interpreter, must be closely attuned to precisely how they deliver the content they are working with.

Notes 1 The ILSA (Interlingual Live Subtitling for Access) and SMART (Shaping Multilingual Access through Respeaking Technology) projects provide two examples of research into this expanding area of respeak­ ing. ILSA is an Erasmus+ project, 2018-1-DE01-KA203-00. SMART is an ESRC-funded project, ES/ T002530/1. More information can be found at ilsaproject.eu and smartproject.surrey.ac.uk. 2 The analysis in this chapter was originally presented as part of McIntyre et al.’s (2018) report to the House of Lords on improving the speed and quality of live parliamentary subtitling. 3 The ideal situation would have been to extract n-grams from the entirety of Hansard. However, this was not at the time possible due to constraints related to the size of the dataset and its organization (N.B. the AHRC-funded Hansard at Huddersfield project is likely to be able to facilitate this in the near future; see Jeffries et al., forthcoming for details of this project). 4 This is particularly important in Parliament, given the strictness of the rules governing what can and can’t be said in the Commons and the Lords. Because of this, indirect meaning plays a significant role in parliamentary debates. For example, on 1 April 1981, Dennis Skinner (the then Labour MP for Bol­ sover) said in a Commons debate to David Alton (the then Liberal MP for Liverpool Edge Hill), “The hon. Member for Edge Hill seems a bit upset about my saying that he was not there half the time. Will he settle for my agreeing that he was there the other half? That is an advance” (Hansard Commons Debate, 1 April 1981). 5 Electrical safety checks: www.gov.uk/government/news/new-tougher-electrical-safety-standards-to-pro­ tect-private-tenants; https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attach­ ment_data/file/682100/Consultation_on_PRS_Electrical_Safety.pdf; https://www.electricalsafetyfirst. org.uk/guidance/advice-for-you/tenants/;https://landlords.org.uk/news-campaigns/news/electrical-safety; https://landlords.org.uk/news-campaigns/news/have-your-say-electrical-safety-requirements-landlords; Waiting list for consultant-led NHS treatment: www.nhs.uk/NHSEngland/appointment-booking/Pages/ nhs-waiting-times.aspx; www.england.nhs.uk/statistics/statistical-work-areas/rtt-waiting-times/; www. england.nhs.uk/statistics/statistical-work-areas/rtt-waiting-times/rtt-data-2017-18/

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Dan McIntyre, Zoe Moores, Hazel Price, John Vice

Further reading Moores, Z. (2022). Training professional respeakers to subtitle live events in the UK: A participative model for access and inclusion [PhD thesis, University of Roehampton]. https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails. do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.874897 This thesis explores the practice and reception of intralingual respeaking at live events. Romero-Fresco, P. (2016). Accessing communication: The quality of live subtitles in the UK. Language and Communication, 49, 56–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langcom.2016.06.001 This article analyses the Ofcom study into the accuracy, delay, speed and edition rate of 78,000 live subti­ tles from 300 programmes broadcast on UK television. Romero-Fresco, P., & Eugeni, C. (2020). Live subtitling through respeaking. In Ł. Bogucki & M. Deckert (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of audiovisual translation and media accessibility (pp. 269–295). Springer. This chapter provides an overview of respeaking and the development of current professional standards and outlines current teaching and research in this domain.

References Anthony, L. (2018). AntConc 3.5.7. Waseda University. Retrieved February 14, 2023, from www.laurencean­ thony.net/software BBC. (2022). Subtitle guidelines, v1.2.1. Retrieved February 14, 2023 from www.bbc.co.uk/accessibility/ forproducts/guides/subtitles/ Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge University Press. Culpeper, J. (1996). Towards an anatomy of impoliteness. Journal of Pragmatics, 25, 349–367. https://doi. org/10.1016/0378-2166(95)00014-3 Culpeper, J. (2011). Impoliteness: Using language to cause offence. Cambridge University Press. Eugeni, C., & Gambier, Y. (2023). La traduction intralinguistique: les défis de la diamésie. Editura Politehnica. FordWilliams, G. (2009). Online subtitling editorial guidelines, v1.1, 5th January 2009, bbc.co.uk. Retrieved Febru­ ary 14, 2023, from https://nanopdf.com/download/bbccouk-online-subtitling-editorial-guidelines-v11_pdf Goffman, E. (1967). Interaction ritual: Essays in face-to-face behavior. Aldine Publishing Company. Gottlieb, H. (2018). Semiotics and translation. In K. Malmkjær (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of translation studies and linguistics (pp. 45–63). Routledge. Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In P. Cole & J. L. Morgan (Eds.), Syntax and semantics 3: Speech acts (pp. 41–58). Academic. Hansard Commons Debate. (1981, April 1). Saving for things done under a licence. Hansard, Vol. 2, Col. 448. Retrieved February 14, 2023, from https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/1981-04-01/ debates/8fb8590a-1625-48b4-b5b2-ee7dbace08e2/Clause15; www.bbc.co.uk/guidelines/futuremedia/ac­ cessibility/subtitling_guides/online_sub_editorial_guidelines_vs1_1.pdf Jeffries, L., Stradling, F., Lünen, A. von, & Sanjurjo Gonzalez, H. (forthcoming). Hansard at Huddersfield: Streamlined corpus methods and interactive visualisations to pursue research aims beyond corpus lin­ guistics. In M. Korhonen, H. Kotze, & J. Tyrkkö (Eds.), Exploring language and society with big data: Parliamentary discourse across time and space. John Benjamins. Lambourne, A. (2006). Subtitle respeaking: A new skill for a new age. inTRAlinea, Special Issue: Respeaking. www.intralinea.org/specials/article/Subtitle_respeaking McIntyre, D., Moores, Z., & Price, H. (2018). Respeaking parliament: Using insights from linguistics to improve the speed and quality of live parliamentary subtitles. Institute for Applied Linguistics, University of Huddersfield. Moores, Z., & Romero-Fresco, P. (2015, June 12). The language of respeaking: A classification of errors [Con­ ference presentation]. In 5th international symposium on accessibility and live subtitling, Rome, Italy. Ofcom. (2015a, May 15). Ofcom’s code on television access services 2015, Annex 4, paragraph A4.18. Re­ trieved February 14, 2023, from www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/40273/tv-access-ser­ vices-2015.pdf Ofcom. (2015b, November 27). Measuring live subtitling quality: Results from the fourth sampling exercise. Retrieved February 14, 2023, from www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/41114/qos_4th_re­ port.pdf

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Respeaking as a form of intralingual translation Ofcom. (2021). Ofcom’s guidelines on the provision of television access services. Retrieved February 14, 2023, from www.ofcom.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0025/212776/provision-of-tv-access-servicesguidelines.pdf Romero-Fresco, P. (2011). Subtitling through speech recognition: Respeaking. St Jerome Publishing. Romero-Fresco, P., & Pérez, J. M. (2015). Accuracy rate in live subtitling: The NER Model. In R. B. Piñero & J. D. Cintas (Eds.), Audiovisual translation in a global context (pp. 28–50). Palgrave Macmillan. Vice, J., & Farrell, D. (2017). The history of Hansard. House of Lords. Zethsen, K. K. (2009). Intralingual translation: An attempt at description. Meta. Journal des traducteurs/Meta Translators’ Journal, 54(4), 795–812. https://doi.org/10.7202/038904ar

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25 INTRALINGUAL TRANSLATION AND MEDIA ACCESSIBILITY AT A CROSSROADS A museum project Cláudia Martins, Cláudia Ferreira Introduction There is no doubt that translation has crossed traditional borderlines, such as those presented in the widely known classification by Jakobson (1959). While intersemiotic translation has been the focus of considerable in-depth research, paving the way for media accessibility (Greco, 2018; Romero-Fresco, 2018), intralingual translation still lacks this wealth of knowledge and research. This probably explains why one can still hear translators confessing that they are not translators per se, because they carry out subtitling for the deaf and hard-of-hearing or audiodescription in their own language, or because they implement Plain or Easy Language. The case study for this chapter investigates the interplay between intralingual translation and media accessibility. It was carried out in a museum in Bragança (northeast of Portugal), the Museu do Abade de Baçal (Abbot of Baçal Museum). We were asked to “simplify” 17 texts that would be interpretive documents for each of the museum rooms, and thus to provide an accessible resource aimed primarily at people with intellectual impairment, although the resource could also cater for the needs and interests of many other groups: People with com­ munication impairments (Greco, 2018), children, older people, people with lower literacy or simply with less experience in museums, people with hearing impairments, or migrants speaking Portuguese either as their mother tongue (e.g., from Portuguese-speaking African countries, who have creole as their mother tongue and Portuguese as their language of instruc­ tion) or as a foreign language. These were the different groups we sought to test after the “simplification” process in the Portuguese texts. This chapter therefore includes a section on audiovisual translation (AVT) and media acces­ sibility, with a reflection on intralingual translation, followed by considerations on museum acces­ sibility. In the final section of this chapter, we will present the project, introducing the museum, its accessibility conditions, the methodology used and the stages of the work. We will also describe the intralingual strategies we used in the simplification of the museum texts, analysing one text in particular, report on the visitor questionnaire and briefly discuss the results. Finally, we present our concluding remarks.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003188872-32

434

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Audiovisual translation and media accessibility As a discipline, AVT was for many years dominated by Translation Studies, which enveloped it in “the Cinderella mantle” (Díaz Cintas, 2004). An example of this slow acknowledgment is pointed out by Chaume (2018, p. 41): 1957 was the year when the first monograph on AVT was presented by Simon Laks, who defended AVT as a field of study. Three years later, Babel (the International Journal of Translation published by the International Federation of Translators) published the first specialized issue partially devoted to AVT, that is, volume 6, issue 3. It was only in the 1990s that AVT entered academia and gradually became an autonomous discipline. For Gottlieb (1992), this heralded the golden age of AVT when it entered academia as “a new university discipline” no longer relegated to the fringes of translation studies. Progress was somewhat sluggish but the new millen­ nium marked a new era for AVT, especially with the exponential development of technology and the increase of media consumption through numerous platforms. As Díaz Cintas (2004, p. 24) puts it, “Within this theoretical framework, translation . . . ceases to be a Cinderella of academia, and trans­ lated works shake off the mantle of a secondary, deficient product”. Later, the same author would maintain that such a mantle had “(partially) evaporated” and was then (and now) “a resolute and prominent area of academic research” (Díaz Cintas, 2009, p. 1). The metaphor of Cinderella is also used by Bączkowska (2015, p. 221) who states that AVT is “no longer the Cinderella of Translation Studies but a full-blown research field in its own right”. A sign of this new status was the launching of the first journal dedicated solely to AVT – the Journal of Audiovisual Translation (JAT). In three decades, “AVT has certainly gained the right to constitute a legitimate and independent field of studies, matching the status of any other area of studies in translation and interpreting” (Chaume, 2018, p. 41). As a result, from the 21st century onwards, AVT has come of age, forming a distinct area of research within Translation Studies, and thus “deserve[s] a separate room . . . in the translation studies (TS) building” (Romero-Fresco, 2018, p. 188). Throughout this period, AVT evolved from focusing mainly on subtitling, dubbing and voice-over (its more traditional and mainstream modes) to encompassing a myriad of other more challenging modes (cf. Gambier, 2003), such as audiodescription (AD), subtitling for the deaf and hard-of-hearing (SDH), and surtitling or respeaking. In the course of its recognition as a discipline, AVT researchers and practitioners have often used Jakobson’s classic three-fold classification of translation to justify the uniqueness of their object of study and area of application, especially in the aforementioned challeng­ ing modes. Jakobson’s three types of translation “showed the extremely wide scope of reformulating meaning into different forms and for different receivers” (Whyatt, 2017, p. 176). It is then understand­ able that interlingual translation as translation proper “attracted most interest within translation studies” (Whyatt, 2017, p. 176). However, intralingual translation and intersemiotic translation were certainly a different matter: The former being regarded as rewording, reformulation or paraphrasing and the latter as a transmutation, that is, the interpretation of verbal signs by means of non-verbal signs. These epi­ thets have hindered the development and the status of these two translation types. In line with recent developments in AVT, the name “media accessibility” (MA) was coined to emphasize the particularities of the developing modes focusing on making cultural venues acces­ sible to people with sensory impairments. Its growth also followed the paradigmatic changes that occurred in the area and are clarified by Greco in his various publications (2018, pp. 211–214). MA has then shifted from 1 a “particularist account”, merely focused on people with impairments, to a more “universalist account”, where anyone with communication impairments may benefit from accessible modes.

435

Cláudia Martins, Cláudia Ferreira

2 a “reactive approach”, where people react to what they are given, to a “pro-active approach”, in which people become involved. 3 and a “maker-centred to a user-centred” perspective. These changes imply that accessibility created within AVT cannot be seen as merely directed at people with impairments, but rather addresses itself to anyone who at a certain moment may have communicative impairments. This notion of accessibility is presented as “an instrument for the human rights of all” (Greco & Jankowska, 2020, p. 62). As a result, users are expected to intervene and participate in the whole process of creation, becoming yet another actor – leading to creative collaboration, such as Romero-Fresco’s accessible filmmaking (2013, 2019). An accessibility revolution has taken place (Greco, 2018), giving visibility to these issues not only in various social contexts, but also in research: “From transportation studies to human com­ puter interaction, from geography to engineering, from design to sustainability studies, from trans­ lation studies to cultural heritage, from education to tourism studies” (Greco, 2018, p. 209). In line with this revolution, Neves’s (2018) universal access translation should be mentioned, which “bring[s] together translation, interpretation and accessibility, as a form of transcreation and transadaptation”. Accessibility and translation go hand in hand; one complements the other since the translation process makes multimedia and artistic products accessible for people with differing abilities. As such, Rizzo (2020, p. 2) sustains that translation is in itself a creative force, because it nourishes accessibility-oriented institutions and has become the driver of the spread of accessibility practices applied to the fostering and reassessment of cultural heritage, film­ making, TV programmes, museum exhibitions, theatre and the stage, web videos and perfor­ mances, and all the multifaceted forms and types of aesthetic discourse. On the other hand, Rizzo (2019, p. 94) argues that accessibility should not only be considered as a social potential that favours and stimulates knowledge dissemination, while assembling all citizens of the world (e.g., museums as spaces of social and multicultural encounters), and, on the other hand, as a universal concept in relation to its analogies with translation and interpreting processes as mechanisms of universal communication. Thus, translators must become universal access mediators, experts in intersemiotic, multimodal and intralingual translation, able to create a variety of resources that will enhance meaningful, holistic and multisensory experiences, such as subtitling, and including SDH, AD, and Easy and Plain Language. This universalist approach to MA “concerns access to media and non-media objects, services and environments through media solutions, for any person who cannot or would not be able to, either partially or completely, access them in their original form” (Greco & Jankowska, 2020, p. 64). By moving away from specific categories, Greco and Jankowska (2020, pp. 67–72) propose an initial classification of MA modalities based on various criteria, the primary one being access. In their classification, the authors also take into consideration three approaches: Jakobson’s clas­ sical triad (1959); Pöchhacker’s (2003) distinction between interpreting and translation; and the taxonomy of four semiotic channels involved in the audiovisual text – the verbal and non-verbal visual channels and the verbal and non-verbal audio channels. The authors suggest two main categories: Translation-based and non-translation-based modes. The first category includes audiodescription, audio narration, dubbing, enriched subtitling, 436

Intralingual translation and media accessibility at crossroads

extended audiodescription, live audiodescription, live subtitling, sign language interpreting, sub­ titling, transcripts and voice-over, whereas the second category encompasses audio introduction, audio subtitling, clean audio, speech rate conversion, screen reading and tactile reproductions. Interestingly, there is no reference to Plain or Easy Language in either of the two categories, which seems paradoxical considering that these language varieties represent a means to include people with communication impairments and are characterized by reduced lexical complexity and enhanced comprehensibility and readability when compared to standard language or expert, technical language. Despite Greco and Jankowska’s (2020) broad understanding of MA, not including Easy and Plain Language as translation-based modes may be indicative of the traditional focus on interlin­ gual translation. As mentioned earlier, intralingual translation has been conventionally reduced to translation within the same language, and is thus “perceived as being more peripheral in transla­ tion studies” (Zethsen, 2009, p. 797). The marginality of intralingual translation also derives from the fact that there has not yet been “a detailed, empirically-based attempt to describe the general characteristics of intralingual translation and the strategies employed or compare it with interlin­ gual translation” (Zethsen, 2009, p. 796), when other mechanisms of transfer are essentially the same: There is a source text and a target text. Intralingual translation does not have “a unified definition” (Whyatt, 2017, p. 178): It may be rewording and paraphrasing, as Jakobson upheld, or “expressing the same meaning in differ­ ent forms of the same language” (Whyatt, 2017, p. 178), so as to also include adaptation, a term usually applied to Plain and Easy Language translations. Although intralingual translation may deal with the same-speech community that shares the same national language, the truth is that the communicative purposes are very diverse, even within the same community, thus communica­ tion difficulties and impairments arise that must be dealt with (cf. Whyatt, 2017, p. 183). Nisbeth Jensen (2015) is cited by Whyatt (2017, p. 183) to emphasize the fact that “intralingual translation competence is needed to produce comprehensible texts” (Whyatt, 2017, p. 183) so that knowledge and communication barriers may be overcome. All in all, intralingual translation is “a highly diverse set of practices that often requires a very specific set of skills” (Moreno Tovar, 2021).1

Museum accessibility From the 1980s onwards, accessibility became a hot topic, accompanied by a timely paradigm shift: Moving from the medical model to the biopsychosocial, more commonly known as the social model. What started as a mere concern regarding access for wheelchair users in a public building developed into the spread of accessibility in all dimensions of social life, cultural venues included, such as galleries and museums; historical, archaeological and religious sites; the cinema; the theatre; the stadium; the church and the graveyard (i.e., weddings and funerals, respectively), for all people with impairments – physical, sensory and intellectual. Dodd and Sandell (1998) identify a number of barriers to social inclusion encountered in muse­ ums, such as accessibility to information; physical, cultural, emotional, financial, intellectual and sensory exclusion; and exclusion from decision-making. On the other side of the Atlantic, Sas­ saki (2005), a Brazilian scholar, approaches accessibility from a broader perspective, referring to architectural, communicational, methodological, instrumental, programmatic and attitudinal access. Despite their different approaches, we can draw parallels between Dood and Sandell’s and Sassaki’s approaches: Physical access and architecture are both concerned with making buildings physically accessible to people with reduced mobility, such as wheelchair users, families with children, older 437

Cláudia Martins, Cláudia Ferreira

people, people with obesity and pregnant women, among others. Information access equates with access to communication: Whether institutions reach their audiences and interact with them at vari­ ous levels, be it in written or interpersonal communication or digitally. Cultural access may match Sassaki’s concept of instrumental access leading to the elimination of barriers in a wide range of cultural and leisure activities, from school to daily routines, cultural venues and sports. Another possible parallel is related to emotional and attitudinal access, due to the need to change people’s attitudes towards disability and impairment, to sensitize them to functional diversity and tolerance and ultimately to turn the museum environment into a welcoming place with open-minded staff. The other obstacles recognized by Dodd and Sandell (1998) include particularly important aspects for the purpose of this project: Sensory access, whereby museums prepare their exhibi­ tions, events and facilities for people with visual and hearing impairments; intellectual access, guaranteed by providing texts in Plain or Easy Language for people with intellectual impair­ ment, learning difficulties, low literacy or little experience in visiting museums; and access to the decision-making process, which refers to the museums consulting visitors about their exhibitions and activities and welcoming their input (e.g., by means of questionnaires, as in the case of this project). Equally important is financial access related to the affordability of the entrance fee, the cafeteria and the shop for families or people on low incomes. As Sassaki (2005) advocates, inclusion requires educating social systems for all these barriers to be removed, in a relentless process that ensures people feel welcomed in any venue regardless of their individual differences. Overcoming the aforementioned obstacles implies a quantum leap in people’s and institutions’ mindset and providing financial resources that may cater not only for specific needs but also benefit the wider population. Both the UK and the USA have made great strides in improving museum accessibility, as have some European countries, such as Spain and Italy. Portugal, however, has lagged behind. Despite the growing number of initiatives in improving accessibility, Portugal has not yet made significant headway in terms of museum accessibility. There are, nevertheless, two outstanding examples of Portuguese museums that have increased museum accessibility: the Museum of the Commu­ nity of Batalha (Museu da Comunidade Concelhia da Batalha) and the National Museum of Tile (Museum Nacional do Azulejo). Museums must embrace the idea that providing a number of resources traditionally considered to be for people with an impairment is at the same time highly enriching for all visitors. If a cul­ tural venue combines a variety of texts, for instance shorter and longer, in Plain Language and in Easy language, in foreign languages, with videos with SDH or AD or Portuguese SL, as well as touch materials, such as replicas, maquettes and high relief, then this enhances the experience for all visitors because museums will rely on appealing to all the senses, not just sight, thus providing a more meaningful and holistic multisensory experience.

Plain and Easy Languages Plain and Easy Languages aim to enhance inclusion, especially in terms of communication inclu­ sion; they “can be considered language varieties of different national languages with reduced linguistic complexity, which aim to improve readability and comprehensibility of texts” (HansenSchirra & Maaß, 2020, p. 17). Although Easy Language has been traditionally directed to peo­ ple with intellectual impairments, its “simplicity and uniformity have a stigmatisation effect”, thus Plain Language offers an alternative with “less stigmatising linguistic structures and layout options” (Hansen-Schirra & Maaß, 2020, p. 17). According to these authors, there is a continuum from Easy Language to more technical language, as can be seen in Figure 25.1. 438

Intralingual translation and media accessibility at crossroads

Figure 25.1 Language varieties continuum (Hansen-Schirra & Maaß, 2020, p. 18)

The ISO/IEC DIS 23859-1 defines Easy Language as a “language variety in which a set of rec­ ommendations regarding wording, structure, design, and evaluation are applied to make informa­ tion accessible to persons with reading comprehension difficulties for any reason”. Furthermore, “A communication is in plain language if its wording, structure, and design are so clear that the intended audience can easily find what they need, understand what they find, and use that informa­ tion” (PLAIN, s.d.). Numerous documents describe how to create or translate texts into Easy Language or Plain Language. For instance, the Australian Centre for Inclusive Design puts forth each variety’s dis­ tinctive list of features, summarized in Table 25.1. Table 25.1 Differences between Easy and Plain Language (Centre for Inclusive Design, 2020, p. 14) Easy Language:

Plain Language:

short sentences; simple, everyday words; key information; explains hard words; dot points; clear sections and headings; images to support each point; lots of white space; large text size

short sentences; short paragraphs; simple, everyday words, avoiding jargon; clear sections of text; headings which are easy to understand; adequate white space

Easy Language may be directed primarily at people with cognitive and intellectual impair­ ments, but also at people with hearing impairments, children, the elderly, migrants and people with low(er) literacy, whereas the intended audience for Plain Language are people with a literacy level equivalent to secondary school.

A museum project The museum project for our case study was conducted in the Museum of the Abbot of Baçal (MAB), located in Bragança, in the northeast of Portugal. The museum opened in 1915 as a regional museum with valuable collections in arts and crafts, archaeology, numismatics, religious paintings, statues and silverware, and Portuguese painting. These objects were collected either by the Abbot who gave his name to the museum or subsequently through the patronage of and bequests by the museum’s friends. The building was originally the Episcopal Palace of the Bragança-Miranda Diocese of the Catholic Church and was later transformed and used to house various local services, such as the 439

Cláudia Martins, Cláudia Ferreira

National Guard, the City Library and the District Archive. When the museum opened, it took over the former palace and made use of two floors and the garden, which had been the former vegetable garden for the bishops. With two major renovation initiatives, it became what it is now: A museum with a large entrance, 15 rooms, one of which is used for temporary exhibitions, museum reserves and the garden. Despite these renovations, the museum is still not easily accessible. Accessibility at MAB has been targeted by three different studies: The first by Lira (1997), the second by Martins (2014) and the last by the General Direction of Cultural Heritage (conducted in 2018), which is yet to be published (Património Cultural, 2022). Lira (1997) gathered informa­ tion on various aspects without presenting a clear framework for improvement. For example, he stated that the museum did not offer a brochure about the museum, but, on the other hand, it did have a map of the museum and clear pricing at the entrance. He also made general criticism about the lighting and the position of some of the objects that affected people with physical impairment and pointed out that the collection labels, which were then only in Portuguese (nowadays also in English), were fading. In 2011, following Lira’s initial diagnosis, Martins (2014, pp. 397–401) conducted an analysis of the accessibility conditions at MAB, based on Colwell and Mendes (2004, pp. 87–103). This diagnosis is divided into two main areas: Access to the museum and the museum itself. For the access to the museum, the following points are included: Surrounding space, museum entrance and information on the museum, for example access to the museum includes the museum’s vis­ ibility from the outside, whereas the museum itself encompasses the entrance hall, access to exhi­ bition areas, the exhibition, the collections, the shop, the cafeteria, the auditorium and the garden. The drawback of the diagnosis grid is that it is based on a simple yes/no question and offers no suggestions for solutions, something that was overcome in the later matrix created by the General Direction of Cultural Heritage. Generally speaking, it is easy to reach the museum and it is well identified from the outside. However, the biggest flaws are the narrow pavements and the absence of a museum car park. The entrance through the garden requires all visitors to overcome a very uneven path on wobbly stones, and for a wheelchair user there is the added challenge of having to negotiate a flight of stairs. In 2011, the museum still lacked brochures in foreign languages and in braille or in large print and there was no tactile map of the museum, such as the one offered in the Batalha Museum. The light­ ing is still an issue to this day, as well as the total absence of resting places throughout the museum rooms. In terms of materials for people with visual impairment, there is no multisensory tour with tactile flooring, replicas or maquettes (although in recent dedicated visits2 the director allowed a few pieces to be touched), no customized information either with AD or in braille or large print. As for people with hearing and intellectual impairment, the museum also lacks information in Portuguese Sign Language and, when it comes to people with intellectual impairment, there is no information in Easy Language (be it text or audio). The study conducted in 2018 by the General Direction of Cultural Heritage was halted before completion, according to information obtained from official sources. Despite the fact that their matrix3 was indeed applied to the museum, for logistic reasons the report has not been published. The added value of this matrix lies not only in the areas covered by the accessibility assessment, but also in the fact that it measures accessibility for each area in terms of a percentage.

Context and methodology The MAB is centrally managed by the General Direction of Cultural Heritage in Portugal, region­ ally by the North Regional Direction of Culture and locally by its director. The director contacted 440

Intralingual translation and media accessibility at crossroads

the team in late 2020 with the request to “simplify” the texts that had been previously written by specialists for each of the 15 rooms, as well as the information on the museum, its building, the biographies of two of its former directors and a nearby historical building called Domus Munici­ palis – a total of 17 texts and 6,602 words in their original versions. The ultimate goal was for the texts to be placed on the wall in each of the rooms and the remaining ones to be provided on paper. In our initial briefing, we also discussed the ideal target audience, which was a somewhat fuzzy idea of “general visitors”. Over time, we realized the museum’s “general visitors” were understood as educated citizens with ample and thorough knowledge of history, archaeology and art, which in itself contrasted sharply with the whole process of “simplifying” texts. This project was conducted as a result of the collaboration between the Polytechnic Institute of Bragança (IPB) and MAB. It followed on from the three-month summer school “Verão com Ciência 2020” [Summer with Science] sponsored by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology. After this programme ended, various other stages in the project were developed and the final version of the texts is currently undergoing an ultimate editing stage by the museum’s new director.4 The simplification process went through six stages which we will briefly describe. Two master students, involved in the “Summer with Science” programme, were in charge of the first stage in adapting the texts, after which the lead researcher suggested further changes. At the end of this, a collective version was sent to the director, with whom we later met online and thoroughly dis­ cussed each of the texts. As a result of an extensive and demanding process of negotiation, we presented another version of the texts to be further discussed, which integrated many of the changes suggested by the director at the first meeting and also suggested new ones. A second meeting was held where further changes were debated and another version obtained. These meetings were of the utmost importance since it was then that the team truly understood what “simplification” meant to the director, which previous knowledge he expected visitors to the museum to possess and how he ultimately feared losing face when “making the texts far too simple and basic”. However, this seeming obstacle was overcome by constantly highlighting the advantages for the museum to offer such texts to visitors initially in Portuguese, and later in for­ eign languages, namely English and Spanish. After this, we engaged in the validation stages, which we will describe in detail later. Once the tests were concluded and the results of the questionnaires analysed, we made further changes to the texts and are currently expecting to confer with the new director to wrap up the whole process. Concerning methodology, we followed a user-centric iterative design process (in line with ISO/ IEC DIS 23859-1)5 with different stages for both creation and translation (often also called adapta­ tion). Table 25.2 summarizes the steps for the translation of texts into easy-to-understand language.

Description of the corpus The corpus is composed of 17 texts that will be described according to external criteria, that is, the initial number of words and sentences and final number of words and sentences, the addition of explanations at the end of the text and their readability level. As we can observe in Table 25.3, the length of the texts varies between 104 and 1,122 words. The word count of the longest text (T 1) was reduced and its number of sentences increased with five explanations added at the end of the text. At the other extreme, the word count of the shortest text (T 14) was actually increased, as was the number of sentences, and it included two explana­ tions at the end. 441

Cláudia Martins, Cláudia Ferreira Table 25.2 Details on the translation process

Translaton of the museum’s wall texts provide information about each of the 13 rooms of MAB, available to all visitors description of each room and some of its objects contextualisation/ mediation "all" visitors placed on the wall (and also on paper in foreign languages) highly technical and complex between 104 and 1122 no, but a glossary included informative and technical several authors many (from history to archaeology, to painting) between 104 and 1122 highly complex no design description of each room and some of its objects highly technical in paragraphs

aim

Project brief and  development plan

Analysis of the target text

Identficaton of target  audiences Basic structure and  organizaton Text draf Assessment of the text Inclusion of the feedback  and producton of the final  text

content function final target format linguistic features length inclusion of support texts text type authorship topic length complexity design content vocabulary structure

overall simplification and explanation of technical terms and unusual cultural references

needs main topic secondary topics vocabulary multimodal elements

many (from history to archaeology, to painting) depends on each room highly technical none for the time being (later audio narrations) (see examples provided) (validation groups − questionnaires) (not yet)

Table 25.3 Corpus of texts Text

Final version

Original version no. words

no. sentences

Differences

no. words

no. sentences

no. words

+/­

no. sentences

+/­

Explanations (end of text)

1

Building

1122

23

958

38

164

-

15

+

2

MAB

537

14

477

21

60

-

7

+

5 (42 w) 1 (5 w)

3

Territory Room

401

6

381

15

20

-

9

+

5 (55 w)

4

Abbot’s Room 1

291

8

306

13

15

+

5

+

1 (19 w)

5

Abbot’s Room 2

222

6

212

9

10

-

3

+

1 (11 w)

6

Room of the Pre-Roman Archaeology

745

22

773

30

28

+

8

+

10 (71 w)

7

Romanization Room

407

12

371

16

36

-

4

+

3 (19 w)

8

Chapel

298

8

340

13

42

+

5

+

3 (33 w)

9

Numismatics Room

130

5

135

5

5

+

0

=

10

Sá Vargas’ Room

304

6

317

15

13

+

9

+

5 (35 w)

11

Room of Sacred Painting and Sculpture

360

9

368

18

8

+

9

+

2 (11 w)

12

Room of Religious Silverware

196

5

259

8

63

+

3

+

10 (86 w)

13

Diocese Room

422

10

513

18

91

+

8

+

9 (78 w)

14

Room of the Writing Table

104

4

168

6

64

+

2

+

2 (18 w)

15

Ceramics Room

139

4

156

6

17

+

2

+

16

Painting Room

317

8

354

15

37

+

7

+

17

Domus Municipalis

378

9

404

19

26

+

17

+

Total

6373

159

6492

265

699

113

Average

375

9

382

16

41

7

442

4 (58 w)

3 (33 w)

Intralingual translation and media accessibility at crossroads

Generally speaking, in the original versions, there was a smaller number of sentences, because of their complex syntax. Notice, for instance, that in the text for the Territory Room (T 3), we added nine sentences to the original six, and the same occurred in the text for the Room of Sacred Painting and Sculpture (T 11), which increased from nine sentences to 18. Interestingly, only one text – T 9 for the Numismatics Room – maintained the same number of sentences, with a minor increase in its word count – from 130 to 135 – and no explanations were added. Another point to stress is that, in the simplified versions, the word count increased, not only due to the added explanations at the end, but also because of the syntax. For example, a reduced rela­ tive clause or an appositive clause are best made explicit and changed into a (full) relative clause or another type of subordinate clause, since this strategy enhances comprehensibility. These and other examples will be presented in the following section. Overall, the main difficulties in these texts were brought about by the lexical, terminological and syntactic complexity, inherent to the language of the experts in history, archaeology and arts studies who wrote the texts. In order to ascertain the level of comprehensibility of our corpus, we resorted to the website Legibilidade.com that tests and analyses Portuguese language text readability. This website uses English-based indexes that are then applied to Portuguese texts, namely the Flesch Read­ ing Ease and Gulpease Index, the Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level, the Gunning Fog Index, the Automated Readability Index and the Coleman-Liau Index. These indexes are metrics that were developed to assess the difficulty reading level of a text and are based on two variables: Length of the sentences (the longer they are, the harder it will be to understand them) and the length of the words (the higher the percentage of difficult words, the harder it is to grasp the text). The former is measured through the average number of words per sentence, while the latter mixes various methods, such as the number of letters or syllables in a word and its fre­ quency of use. Legibilidade calculates the readability of texts, based on the number of letters, syllables, sen­ tences and complex sentences, and applies the aforementioned indexes that were adapted to the Portuguese language by a group of Brazilian researchers (Moreno et al., 2022). It uses the scale zero to 20, and the higher the number, the lower the readability of the text. However, there can be texts with a level higher than 20 (as can be seen in Table 25.4), and a lower number does not necessarily mean a text is easy to read. Nonetheless, it must be stressed that these indexes focus solely on form and not on con­ tent. For instance, a text may be highly complex in its content but have a high readability level, because it is compact and uses fairly short sentences. This is why this assessment strategy must be complemented with human assessment, as the one we conducted with the validations. Table 25.4 shows the difference in legibility from the initial to the final version. Among the initial versions, the lowest level texts, which amount to the most comprehensible, were T 4 and T 14 with a readability level of 13 (i.e., average readability; understood by university students), whereas the highest, or the least comprehensible, was T 3 with a readability level of 23 (i.e., low readability; extremely difficult text). All in all, the 17 texts in their original versions had an average of level 16.3 in terms of readability, which means an average readability that can be understood by university students at the end of their graduation. After the simplification process, we managed to achieve an average readability level of 11.7. After the simplification process, the readability level decreased considerably – between nine and 16. However, in some texts where we repeated the most difficult words for the sake

443

Cláudia Martins, Cláudia Ferreira Table 25.4 Readability level of the original and final texts

Text

Original legibility

Final legibility (with explanations)

1

Building

17

11

2

MAB

16

11

3

Territory Room

22

14

4

Abbot’s Room 1

13

9

5

Abbot’s Room 2

14

11

6

Room of the Pre-Roman Archaeology

15

13

7

Romanization Room

16

13

8

Chapel

16

10

9

Numismatics Room

14

9

10

Sá Vargas’ Room

18

12

11

Room of Sacred Painting and Sculpture

18

11

12

Room of Religious Silverware

16

16

13

Diocese Room

19

13

14

Room of the Writing Table

13

12

15

Ceramics Room

16

12

16

Painting Room

16

11

17

Domus Municipalis

18

11

of explanation, the Legibilidade platform considered the text equally less comprehensible, so there is a visible difference between the readability with and without explanations. For example, T 12 has a readability level of 16 with explanations, whereas without explanations it decreases to 12.

Intralingual strategies In this subsection, we seek to list the strategies we identified and group them into lexi­ cal, syntactic, textual, pragmatic, discursive and visual, which were based on ISO/IEC DIS 23859–1, but also included criteria that were relevant for our project and the Portuguese language. In terms of lexical criteria, the ISO includes the following suggestions: Using frequent and common words that occur in everyday language; explaining unknown vocabulary or abstract, technical, complex, ambiguous and vague words; avoiding synonyms for the same concept; avoid­ ing metaphors unless they are needed for abstract concepts; using vocabulary that is suitable for the target reader, without resorting to childish language to address adults; avoiding derived or 444

Intralingual translation and media accessibility at crossroads

foreign words; opting for the most recent spelling without using old-fashioned forms; and avoid­ ing Roman numbers or adding the corresponding Arabic numerals. As far as syntactic criteria are concerned, it is important to avoid long and complex sentences, shorten paragraphs, vary the length of the sentences, prefer a verbal style rather than a nominal style, keep negation markers to a minimum, prefer the active voice over the passive voice and try to include one idea per sentence. Concerning textual criteria, some of the main points include choosing the appropriate mode of communication (oral, written, etc.); addressing the user directly; organizing the text with a short summary at the beginning, subheadings, marginal notes and numbers or bullet points; and high­ lighting important information. The pragmatic criteria encompass taking into account the target groups and the target situation, including accessible content that should be retrievable, perceptible, comprehensible, linkable and acceptable, and action-enabling information and acceptability. For discursive aspects, the following are included: Intertextuality should not be presup­ posed; online intertextuality can be provided in the form of hyperlinks; previous knowledge should be wisely considered, as well as knowledge users may have about the text type and its conventions. Finally, visual criteria must not be overlooked: Increased font size and line spacing to improve visual perception; sans serif fonts, wide margins and consistent format; bold for highlighting important information; visible explanations by using indentations or bold; avoidance of columns; and use of images with direct meaning and not simply to embellish a text. Table 25.5 presents the analysis we conducted on one of the texts in our corpus, taking the ear­ lier explained criteria. The selected text focuses on the building where the museum is set. As far as this specific text is concerned, it was originally highly complex with a length that is totally inappropriate for general visitors to museums. Therefore, we had to omit several sen­ tences altogether, including a quotation with old Portuguese spelling, and increase the number of sentences per paragraph to enhance understanding. For the same reason, five explanations were added for the terms that could not be omitted. As a result, the text’s readability level changed from 17 to 11.

Validation stage The simplified texts were assessed by a number of different groups, who all spoke Portuguese, either as their mother tongue (though from different varieties) or as a foreign language, but they belonged to different age groups and were with and without impairment. We organized six visits to the museum for different groups over a four-month period: Teenag­ ers, IPB students who speak Brazilian Portuguese; IPB African students who speak Portuguese but also their local creole language (often their mother tongue); older adults (as in senior citizens); migrants from East Timor, China and Venezuela; and people with intellectual impairment. Most visits mingled people from the different groups, with the exception of the older adults and the people with intellectual impairment who conducted their visits separately. The visits were autonomous: Visitors were given the texts on paper for each of the rooms, the only exception being people with intellectual impairment to whom we read the texts out loud. All visitors were asked to make their visit using the simplified texts and to identify any issues that might be problematic or unclear. At the end of the visit, they were asked to answer an online questionnaire that consisted of 36 questions, 22 closed questions (with one answer or multiple ones) and 14 open. The questionnaire was designed to retrieve information on sociodemographic 445

Cláudia Martins, Cláudia Ferreira Table 25.5 Linguistic and formal criteria for the translation of the texts

446

Intralingual translation and media accessibility at crossroads Table 25.5 (Continued)

data (7 questions), language profile (7 questions), visitors’ cultural habits (9 questions) and issues connected with MAB and its texts (12 questions). We received 47 answers to our questionnaire, although not everyone who visited the museum actually answered. The respondents’ ages ranged from 13 to 90 years and 53.2% were males. 56.4% of the visitors were Portuguese, while the remaining came from East Timor, Angola, Brazil, Venezuela, Cape Vert and Guinea. 80.4% of the respondents identified Portuguese as their mother tongue, with the remaining languages being different creoles from Portuguese-speaking African countries, Spanish and Tetum. In terms of their professions, respondents were essentially students (41.3%) and retired people (36.9%), the remaining encompassing civil servants (6.6%), translators (2.2%), gerontologists (2.2%), construction workers (2.2%), unemployed (2.2%) and 6.4% gave no answer. In terms of their qualifications, 34.1% had completed secondary school and 29.8% basic school, followed by 25.5% with a bachelor’s degree, 6.4% master’s degree, 2.1% doctorate degree and 2.1% presented no answer. 74% reported not having a disability, whereas 13% stated having visual impairment, 6.5% intellectual, 4.3% physical and 2.2% cognitive. Regarding respondents’ cultural habits, 55.3% stated they visit museums – 46.4% only go once a year, 42.9% up to five times a year and 10.7% once a month. 17.8% stated they always read the information provided by the museums, 48.9% read it frequently, 24.4% rarely read it and 8.9% never read any information. In terms of the information offered by museums, we provided the following choices: Museum brochures, labels, wall texts, exhibition texts, videos, exhibition catalogues, museum books and an open option for visitors to include another possibility. For this question, visitors could choose various options, and the three items that they mostly read were wall information (81.6%), followed by museum brochures (65.8%) and labels (63.2%). For those who don’t read information in museums, we asked them to explain why in an open question and, among the reasons given, their answers focused on the fact that texts were rather long and in small print. Regarding the texts provided for MAB, 68.9% stated they read either all or almost all of the texts provided. Only 51% remembered one of the 17 texts. These respondents recognized this was essentially for positive reasons, choosing multiple answers from the options provided: On the one hand, it helped understand the meaning of the room (71.4%), it was easy to understand (39.3%) and it contained original information (25%); but, on the other hand, it was hard to understand (14.3%). The other respondents who did not remember any text chose the following reasons among the options provided: The texts were long (70.6%), complex (47.1%) and not very interesting (5.9%). The respondents were also asked to present their general opinion about these texts. Among their responses the following reasons were given: • Long [texts], but informative and useful, despite the fact that it was confusing to find the room because its name was not mentioned (Respondent 2 – 16 years old, male). • They were long and quite clear but the first ones were long (Respondent 6 – 18 years old, female). 447

Cláudia Martins, Cláudia Ferreira

• They are texts that help to understand the works, quite didactic, even if using less common words they still helped me to better understand the works (Respondent 13 – 23 years old, female). • The texts should be more succinct and organized in bullet points (Respondent 19 – 76 years old, female). • Long and difficult (Respondents 18, 20, 26, 27, 30, 47 – 36 years old, female; 34 years old, female; 38 years old, male; 49 years old, male; 66 years old, male; 84 years old, male, respectively). In the penultimate section, we asked visitors to provide comments about the texts, and only 33 respondents out of the 47 provided responses. A selection of the answers are as follows: • The text about the building would be easier to read and memorize if it was organised under headings and written in larger font. This opinion applies for all the texts (Respondent 19 – 76 years old, female). • The texts helped a lot in understanding the the contents of the room (Respondent 4 – 15 years old, male). • Well organized and very informative (Respondent 7 – 21 years old, male). • Texts that were well explained, with relevant information for the understanding of each room (Respondent 10 – 27 years old, female). • They contextualize and create interest in the works (Respondent 12 – 22 years old, male). • The texts are important for the visitors, and enable them to know the museum better (Respond­ ent 23 – 22 years old, male). • And what I most liked is the vocabulary [explained] at the end of each text (Respondent 25 – 20 years old, female). • The texts lack numbers; the texts don’t include the number of the rooms (Respondent 33 – 70 years old, female). • Despite being a bit long, they were explicit, but the number of the rooms was lacking, in my opinion (Respondent 35 – 69 years old, female). • In some parts, the text has confusing sentences and they don’t match with the order of the works in the rooms (Respondent 17 – 36 years old, female). • Explanatory and very good for the contextualization of the exhibition. I just found the descrip­ tion about the structure and architecture of the museum a little difficult to imagine without a visual reference (Respondent 14 – 25 years old, male). Finally, they were asked to make suggestions to the museum, so as to improve future visits. Among the answers given, the visitors suggested that the museum should offer audioguides, videos and generally more audiovisual interactivity. In terms of the rooms, they recommended that the rooms be numbered, the lighting improved and chairs or benches provided. As for information, they con­ sidered it was important to have a map highlighting the spatial orientation through the rooms, as well as larger labels (both in terms of overall size and font size), with stronger contrast and in two foreign languages. The information about the history of the museum and the building should be divided and given in several rooms, instead of in one fell swoop at the beginning.

Discussion of the data The accessibility conditions of MAB are still insufficient in certain aspects, particularly in terms of sensory and intellectual access. For this reason, in 2020, we were approached by the director of the museum to “simplify” a number of texts that focused on each of the 15 rooms in the museum, on 448

Intralingual translation and media accessibility at crossroads

the history of the museum and of the building and the biographies of two former directors. Despite this straightforward intention, the director had no clear notion of what “simplifying” meant and especially what Plain Language entailed, whereas the research team did. Throughout the process, the director showed discomfort and reacted negatively to the changes we suggested. During the discussions, we attempted to clarify the aims of Plain Language, how it came across in a text and its advantages for a wide range of visitors. In the first meeting, the director refused to accept cer­ tain changes, claiming it would retrieve the intended content and abridge the content so drastically it would be too little. We managed to overcome some of these obstacles, but even so, as it was obvious from the responses to our questionnaire, the texts are still long and complex. The underlying reason for this reaction was fear of appearing to dumb down the language in the eyes of other directors and (semi)specialist visitors, who are a residual percentage of the visitors. Despite his good intents, the director had never fully grasped that Plain Language would simplify the syntax, imposing an Subject Verb Object (SVO) structure, thus eliminating highly complex sentences, or that it would have to remove highly technical language regarding architecture, sculp­ ture or painting, replacing them with simpler synonyms or ultimately eliminating them. He had not anticipated that there would be the need to include explanations that he initially regarded as condescending but at the end acknowledged as beneficial. At the end of this process, both parts recognize that the major shortcoming of this project was the idyllic idea that the original texts were suitable for being turned into wall texts. Had the length of the wall texts been decided at the start of the project, we would have had fewer problems in abridging the original texts. Believing that the texts written by specialists could be given to any visitor with just a slight tweaking was naïve and unrealistic and both the director and the research team’s responsibility. The best course of action would have been to identify the main ideas con­ veyed by the original texts and create new ones, bearing in mind where they would be placed and the number of words they could include. The original texts were clearly highly technical and com­ plex as seen in “Description of the corpus” subsection, thus their readability ranged from 13 to 23. When it comes to the visitors and validators of the simplified texts, there are several con­ clusions to be reached. Firstly, most of them enjoyed the information in some of the texts, but always pointed out that they were long, some more than others, and still rather complex. The explanations provided were greatly appreciated and the overall impression was that the texts achieved their purpose: To mediate, to contextualize and to explain the museum, the rooms and some objects. What was interesting about our visitors’ answers was that they made a number of very useful suggestions not only for improving the texts but also for enhancing the museum’s accessibility. One suggested that the text about the history of the museum should be divided into various rooms and a part be given in each room (as if it were a treasure hunt of the museum’s history), so that it would be less tiring and more stimulating and interactive. Interactivity was identified as lacking by several visitors: The museum had no audioguides (or similar), videos or other means to improve enjoyment. Besides this, they provided a few practical recommenda­ tions: The texts about the rooms should identify the number of the room, which should also be placed at the entrance, on the wall; texts could be organized in bullet points and have headings so that reading could be smoother; font should be larger both in the texts and the labels, the lat­ ter should also be translated into foreign languages. Lastly, they also commented on the lack of lighting and of resting places. Notwithstanding, there are two groups that should be highlighted: On the one hand, the visi­ tors with intellectual impairment found the texts extremely long and difficult, which is more than understandable given that they were not the original addressees and, on the other, the older adults were highly critical and spared no criticism for what they regarded as wrong and outdated. 449

Cláudia Martins, Cláudia Ferreira

In a nutshell, neither the format nor the purpose of the original texts were cut out to be placed on the wall. Although the methodology used could have been different, the research team fulfilled the initial aim which was to simplify the original texts as much as possible. This much was confirmed by most visitors: They found the texts enjoyable, informative and useful, despite some issues that remained unresolved.

Conclusion Intralingual translation has been overlooked for decades not only in Translation Studies, but also within AVT. Despite the development of accessibility modes in AVT and the birth of MA, the truth remains that intralingual accessible modes have not yet received full attention. If, on the one hand, SDH and AD, whether or not in the same language, have come to be accepted and included in translation-based modalities (cf. Greco & Jankowska, 2020), on the other hand, Easy and Plain Languages have not been fully acknowledged and introduced in these modalities. These language varieties can play a relevant role in museum access and other cultural venues, particularly for people with intellectual impairment, as well as a variety of other visitors from chil­ dren to people with lower literacy and migrants. Consequently, they provide a resource of the utmost importance for museum accessibility and to overcome a number of barriers visitors may encounter (cf. Dodd & Sandell, 1998; Sassaki, 2005), not to mention in various other areas of social life. The project developed at the museum of the Abbot of Baçal, in Bragança, aimed at simplifying a set of texts that were to be placed on the walls of each of the museum rooms. In Museum Project we characterized the corpus in terms of number of words, sentences, explanations and readability levels, described the methodology used and the simplification process followed, and analysed the changes that occurred in the chosen text, as well as the responses obtained from the questionnaire conducted with the visitors who were asked to validate the final wall texts. Although the research team’s purpose was to enhance information and intellectual access at MAB, it also encouraged access in the decision-making, since the visitors were given a voice to participate in improving the accessibility of a local museum, where they live(d). As Greco (2018, p. 213) purports, there is no accessibility without participation. Despite our project’s shortcom­ ings, it enabled the research team to achieve a learning curve that will guide our future accessibil­ ity endeavours, be it in Plain or in Easy Language.

Notes 1 Quote retrieved from EST’s 10th Congress Booklet with the description of the panel themes. 2 The visits were conducted within the Accessible Film Festival organized annually by the Polytechnic Insti­ tute of Bragança (cf. https://festivalcinemacessivel.ipb.pt/edicao-atual). 3 It includes the assessment of Building, Location, Exhibitions – permanent and temporary, Communication, Security Consulting, Training, Employment, Assessment and Management. 4 A new director was nominated on 1 November 2022. As such, changes from the new management are expected to the final version of the texts. 5 That is, “Information technology – User interfaces – Part 1: Guidance on making written text easy to read and easy to understand” (under development – preview used).

Further reading Bailey, E. (1990). The Plain English approach to business writing. Oxford University Press. Bogucki, Ł., & Deckert, M. (Eds.). (2020). The Palgrave handbook of audiovisual translation and media accessibility. Palgrave Macmillan.

450

Intralingual translation and media accessibility at crossroads Carlucci, L., & Seibel, C. (2020). El discurso especializado en el museo inclusivo: lectura fácil versus au­ diodescripción. In M. Richart-Marset & F. Calamita (Eds.), Traducción y accesibilidad en los medios de comunicación: de la teoría a la práctica/Translation and media accessibility: From theory to practice. MonTI, 12, 262–294. Cutts, M. (2020). Oxford guide to Plain English. Oxford University Press. Freyhoff, G., Hess, G., Kerr, L., Menzel, E., Tronbacke, B., & van der Veken, K. (1998). Make it simple. European guidelines for the production of easy-to-read information for people with learning disability for authors, editors, information providers, translators and other interested persons. International League of Societies for the Mentally Handicapped (ILSMH). Gambier, Y. (2021). Multimodalité, traduction et traduction audiovisuelle. Journal of French Language Re­ search, 2(3), 5–44. García, A., Mineiro, C., & Neves, J. (2017). Guia de Boas Práticas de Acessibilidade: Comunicação Inclu­ siva em Monumentos, Palácios e Museus. República Portuguesa – Cultura, Direção Geral do Património Cultural & Turismo de Portugal. García Muñoz, O. (2012). Lectura fácil: métodos de redacción y evaluación. Real Patronato sobre Discapacidad. Gonçalves, A. C. G., Valente, M., & Padilla, N. M. (2016). Orientações para adoção de linguagem clara. Governo do Estado Unido & Governo do Reino Unido. ICT4IAL. (2015). Linhas de Orientação para Informação Acessível Tic para a Acessibilidade À Informação na Aprendizagem. Agência Europeia para as Necessidades Especiais e a Educação Inclusiva. IFLA (International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions). (2010). Guidelines for easy-to-read materials. IFLA Professional Reports, 120. Inclusion Europe (2009). Information for all European standards for making information easy to read and understand. https://www.inclusion-europe.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/EN_Information_for_all.pdf ISO/TC 37 Language and terminology. ISO/WD 24495–1. Plain language – Part 1: Governing principles and guidelines. International Organization for Standardization (ISO). https://www.iso.org/standard/78907.html Lindholm, C., & Vanhatalo, U. (Eds.). (2021). Handbook of Easy languages in Europe. Frank & Timme. Maaß, C. (2020). Easy language – Plain language – Easy language plus – Balancing comprehensibility and acceptability. Frank & Timme. Naves, S. B., Mauch, C., Alves, S. F., & Araújo, V. L. S. (2016). Guia para Produções Audiovisuais Aces­ síveis. Ministério da Cultura. Secretaria do Audiovisual. Perego, E. (2020a). Accessible communication: A cross-country journey. Frank & Timme. Perego, E. (2020b). The practice and the training of text simplification in Italy. Lingue e Linguaggi Lingue Linguaggi, 36, 233–254. RGD Ontario. (2010). ACESSABILITY – A practical handbook on accessible graphic design. https://www. rgd.ca/database/files/library/RGD_AccessAbility2_Handbook_2021_09_28.pdf Taylor, C., & Perego, E. (2021). New approaches to accessibility and audio description in museum environ­ ments. In S. Braun & K. Starr (Eds.), Innovation in audio description research (pp. 33–54). Routledge. United Nations. (s.d.). Disability-inclusive communications guidelines. https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/ files/un_disability-inclusive_communication_guidelines.pdf

References Bączkowska, A. (2015). Learner corpus of subtitles and subtitler training. In S. Bruti & E. Perego (Ed.), Sub­ titling today: Shapes and their meanings (pp. 221–247). Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Centre for Inclusive Design. (2020). Easy English versus plain English – A guide to creating accessible content. https://centreforinclusivedesign.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Easy-English-vs-Plain-Eng­ lish_accessible.pdf Chaume, F. (2018). An overview of audiovisual translation: Four methodological turns in a mature discipline. Journal of Audiovisual Translation, 1(1), 40–63. https://doi.org/10.47476/jat.v1i1.43 Colwell, P., & Mendes, E. (2004). Temas de Museologia: Museus e Acessibilidade. Instituto Português de Museus. Díaz Cintas, J. (2004). Subtitling: The long journey to academic acknowledgement. The Journal of Special­ ised Translation, 1, 50–68. Díaz Cintas, J. (2009). Introduction – Audiovisual translation: An overview of its potential. In J. Diaz Contas (Ed.), New trends in audiovisual translation (pp. 1–18). Multilingual Matters.

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Cláudia Martins, Cláudia Ferreira Dodd, J., & Sandell, R. (1998). Building bridges: Guidance for museums and galleries to develop new audi­ ences. Museums and Galleries Commission. Gambier, Y. (2003). Introduction. Screen transadaptation: Perception and reception. The Translator – Studies in Intercultural Communication (Special Issue – Screen Translation), 9(2), 171–189. Gottlieb, H. (1992). A new university discipline. In Teaching translation and interpreting: Training, talent and experience. Papers from the First language international conference Elsinore, Denmark 31 May––2 June 1991 (pp. 161–170). John Benjamins. Greco, G. M. (2018). The nature of accessibility studies. Journal of Audiovisual Translation, 1(1), 205–232. https://doi.org/10.47476/jat.v1i1.51 Greco, G. M., & Jankowska, A. (2020). Media accessibility within and beyond audiovisual translation. In Ł. Bogucki & M. Deckert (Eds), The Palgrave handbook of audiovisual translation and media accessibility (pp. 57–81). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42105-2_4 Hansen-Schirra, S., & Maaß, C. (2020). Easy language, Plain language, Easy language plus: Perspectives on comprehensibility and stigmatisation. In S. Hansen-Schirra & C. Maaß (Eds.), Easy Language research: Text and user perspectives (pp. 17–38). Frank & Timme. ISO/IEC DIS 23859-1. (under development). Information technology – User interfaces – Part 1: Guidance on making written text easy to read and easy to understand. Jakobson, R. (1959/2000). On linguist aspects of translation. In L. Venuti (Ed.), The translation studies reader (pp. 113–118). Routledge. Lira, S. (1997). Do museu de elite ao museu para todos: públicos e acessibilidades em alguns museus portu­ gueses. Presentation at the APOM Seminar Museums, Architecture and Audiences, January 2000. www2. ufp.pt/~slira/artigos/domuseudeeliteaomuseuparatodos.htm Martins, C. (2014). A Acessibilidade Museológica – O Caso do Museu do Abade de Baçal. Brigantia, Revista de Cultura, 32, 383–404. Brigantia. Moreno, G., Souza, M., Hein, N., & Hein, A. (2022). ALT: um software para análise da legibilidade de textos em Língua Portuguesa. Computer Science. Computation and Language, 1–22. arXiv:2203.12135v3 Moreno Tovar, M. (2021). Panel 39. Advancing intralingual translation. EST22 Congress. https://www.hf.uio. no/ilos/english/research/news-and-events/events/conferences/2022/est22/program/est22-congress-pro­ gram/panel-39-advancing-intralingual-translation.html Neves, J. (2018). Cultures of accessibility: Translation making cultural heritage in museums accessible to people of all abilities. In S. Harding & O. Carbonell (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of translation and culture (pp. 415–430). Routledge. Património Cultural. (2022). Estudos. Estudo sobre a acessibilidade nos imóveis afetos. www.patrimoniocul­ tural.gov.pt/pt/acessibilidade/estudos/ PLAIN – Plain Language Association International. (s.d.). What is plain language? https://plainlanguagenet­ work.org/plain-language/what-is-plain-language/ Pöchhacker, F. (2003). Introducing interpreting studies. Routledge. Rizzo, A. (2019). Museums as disseminators of niche knowledge: Universality in accessibility for all. Journal of Audiovisual Translation, 2(2), 92–136. https://doi.org/10.47476/jat.v2i2.93 Rizzo, A. (2020). Introduction. The value of accessibility in the cultural and creative industries: Translationdriven settings. Bridge: Trends and Traditions in Translation and Interpreting Studies, 1(2), 1–17. Romero-Fresco, P. (2013). Accessible filmmaking: Joining the dots between audiovisual translation, acces­ sibility and filmmaking. The Journal of Specialised Translation, 20, 201–223. Romero-Fresco, P. (2018). In support of a wide notion of media accessibility: Access to content and access to creation. Journal of Audiovisual Translation, 1(1), 187–204. https://doi.org/10.47476/jat.v1i1.53 Romero-Fresco, P. (2019). Training in accessible film-making. Linguistica Antverpiensia, New Series in Translation Studies, 18, 47–72. https://doi.org/10.52034/lanstts.v18i0.513 Sassaki, K. R. (2005). Inclusão: o paradigma do século 21. Inclusão – Revista de Educação Especial, 19–23. http://portal.mec.gov.br/seesp/arquivos/pdf/revistainclusao1.pdf Whyatt, B. (2017). Intralingual translation. In J. W. Schwieter & A. Ferreira (Eds.), The handbook of transla­ tion and cognition (pp. 176–192). Wiley Blackwell. Zethsen, K. K. (2009). Intralingual translation: An attempt at description. Meta, 54(4), 795–812. https://doi. org/10.7202/038904ar

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26 TRANSLATION INTO EASY LANGUAGE The unexplored case of podcasts Elisa Perego

Introduction Translation can take many forms; it is a flexible concept and a flexible process. The fact that translation is not restricted to the transfer of a message from one language to another can be traced back to antiquity (Munday, 2016), and this view on translation was re-established in the 1960s by Jakobson’s position on translation. Jakobson’s renowned semiotics-based translation tripartition (1959) paved the way for the exploration and the inclusion of new forms of translation into the area of Translation Studies. According to the Russian-born American linguist, a verbal sign can be interpreted intralingually, interlingually, and intersemiotically. In the former case, the changes take place within the same language. Interlingual translation replaces a verbal sign with another sign belonging to a different language. Intersemiotic translation involves the replacement of verbal signs with non-verbal signs. Audio description (AD) for people who are blind or visually impaired is a reversed type of intersemiotic translation conceived primarily for audiences who need visual elements to be con­ veyed verbally and processed aurally. In audio described products, an oral track, which has been prepared following established rules (Remael et al., 2015),1 describes the relevant visual details of the source text, and this enables people who are visually impaired to access it, understand it more easily, and thereby appreciate it. The translation of a source text into a target text in a differ­ ent language is itself a way to overcome language barriers and ensure accessibility to a different language and a different culture, while same-language translation is an established service for the deaf and hard-of-hearing audience (SDH). Conversely, the adaptation of a source text into a text in the same language that is easier to understand is a type of intralingual translation mainly meant for users with intellectual and cognitive difficulties. Language and content simplification can in fact support persons who require a reduced level of complexity to access messages to fully or better participate in society and to profit from communicative inclusion (Bernabé & Orero, 2019; Lindholm & Vanhatalo, 2021; Maaβ, 2020; Perego, 2020a). AD, SDH, and translation into Easy Language are all referred to as accessible and inclusive types of translation. The need to produce texts that prevent communicative exclusion has become crucial to ensure the human rights of per­ sons with disabilities, and it has become the engine of several recent EU-funded research projects. In this chapter, I will illustrate two projects I was directly involved in that are particularly sig­ nificant in the field of accessibility and inclusion and that are closely associated to the delivery of 453

DOI: 10.4324/9781003188872-33

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oral content; I will provide an overview of simplification as a form of intralingual translation, and I will advance the proposal of making podcasts accessible through intralingual translation for the benefit of users who prefer to listen rather than to read (e.g., ILSM, 1998). To do so, I will first outline the main features of podcasts as a new media and then I will offer a structural description and linguistic analysis of the Jane Fonda episode of the American series She’s So Cool by Adrianne White. Finally, I will tackle the uncharted theme of podcast intralingual translation and provide examples, a working and transferable template, and a reflection on the best practices to implement when trying to adapt this emergent medium for new audiences.

Accessible translation Whenever accessibility is addressed within translation studies, it is most often linked to audio­ visual translation in its media accessibility varieties: Audio description for the blind and visually impaired audiences and subtitling for deaf and hard-of-hearing audiences, all of which is con­ nected to persons with disabilities (Neves, 2022). However, same-language translation from a standard language variety to an Easy Language variety (see following section) can fall into this category, too. A recently concluded project that has been conceived on this very premise is the three-year Easy Access for Social Inclusion Training (EASIT) project. Launched in 2018, it was financed by the European Union under the Erasmus+ Programme, Key Action 2 – Cooperation for Innovation and the Exchange of Good Practices, Strategic Partnership. The project was coordinated by Anna Matamala and focused on translating already existing multimodal texts (ADs, subtitles, and web news) into easy-to-understand (E2U) multimodal texts (ADs, subtitles, and web news) – as well as preparing them from scratch. Both translation and creation are crucial processes in making this type of semiotically complex content accessible to a growing sector of the audience, which includes disadvantaged users as well as potentially large groups of secondary users such as language learn­ ers and poorly literate audiences. The main objective of the project was to prepare specific course materials that enable AD, subtitle, and web news professionals to include new intralingual transla­ tion skills into their portfolio. The project’s rationale is that professionals working in the audio­ visual sector can learn language simplification strategies to implement them in their texts, and so expand their potential audiences. The project also evaluated how such additional skills could be added to already existing profiles developed as part of other projects in the field of accessible translation, such as ADLAB PRO (on audio description) and ILSA (on subtitling); thus proposing a highly innovative aspect of applied research as it proposed to merge already established skills with new ones, thereby improving the employability of professionals (Matamala & Orero, 2018, p. 69). Technically, the EASIT consortium collaborated to design a comprehensive and coherent curriculum to train experts in Easy Language by defining specific learning outcomes and a clear course structure, attributing European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTF) credits to each activity in order for them to be easily recognized in formal education systems, and pos­ sibly in European certification procedures, so as to guarantee the project sustainability and impact. The multilingual2 educational resources that have been produced allow both for self-learning and for their inclusion in different existing educational settings (EASIT, 2021). The overall course is structured into six units: (1) Media accessibility, (2) Easy-to-understand language (E2U), (3) E2U and subtitling, (4) E2U and audio description, (5) E2U and audiovisual journalism and (6) The profession. Each unit is broken down into several topics (elements) that enable trainees to focus on specific aspects of each unit. Further down in the third level, elements comprise various items which cover one or more of the learning outcomes. This results in a very finely grained structure 454

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that enables trainers and trainees to select the items they really need according to their background and learning specificities. So, for example, Unit 2 includes five elements: (1) Understanding E2U, (2) Legislation, standards and guidelines, (3) Processes, (4) The language of E2U, and (5) Visual presentation. Element (4) includes five items: (1) Textual aspects of E2U, (2) Lexical aspects of E2U, (3) Pragmatic aspects of E2U, (4) Syntactic aspects of E2U, and (5) Discourse aspects of E2U. In Unit 4, devoted to E2U and audio description, great attention has been given among other things to voice-related aspects that can enhance the comprehensibility of texts delivered vocally. This is an aspect that links EASIT to the project ADLAB PRO entirely devoted to audio descrip­ tion. The ADLAB PRO project (Audio Description: A Laboratory for the Development of a New Professional Profile, 2016–2019), that I coordinated, was financed by the European Union under the Erasmus+ Programme, Key Action 2 – Strategic Partnerships. ADLAB PRO concentrated on catering for the provision of free and fully customizable train­ ing materials for the formation of audio describers. This filled an awkward educational and pro­ fessional gap and at the same time enhanced the awareness towards a job that was still not fully recognized in Europe, as well as granting a long-term impact on a wide spectrum of potential ben­ eficiaries, including both the blind and the visually impaired communities as well as a wide array of persons with varied needs (Starr, 2022). The ADLAB PRO materials (ADLAB PRO, 2019) are made up of six modules divided into units that can be selected and matched according to the needs and existing educational or professional background of the trainees. The six modules include (1) General introduction, (2) Screen AD, (3) AD of live events, (4) (Semi) live AD and recorded AD for static arts and environments, (5) Additional services, and (6) Additional technical issues, devel­ opments and change – each further structured internally.

Simplification as a form of intralingual translation The expression “easy to understand” (abbreviated as E2U) has been crucial in the EASIT project, which revisited this concept (e.g., Bernabé & Orero, 2019; ILSMH, 1998) to make it a central notion in its theoretical background. E2U refers to a language variety that embraces a blend of fea­ tures belonging to both Easy and Plain Language (EL and PL) to refer to a usable and comprehen­ sible language variety that falls in between a continuum where EL and PL stand at the two ends. In a nutshell, both Easy and Plain Language “aim at text understandability and intelligibility via more or less substantial interventions on lexicon, sentence structure, text and content organization, and page layout”. It is sometimes easier to detect similarities rather than differences between these two varieties. However, EL and PL “differ considerably in terms of levels of simplification (with the former representing the maximal language and content simplification form) and target audience” (Perego, 2020b, p. 234). The convenience of such a hybrid variety is that it avoids the acceptability issues normally linked to Easy Language, which can be perceived as too simple and therefore be stigmatized along with its users, and it also avoids the possible complexities that Plain Language can present, being quite close to standard language (Maaβ, 2020; Perego, 2020a). Language simplification is crucial to reach accessible communication, which in turn is decisive in several inclusive social contexts. It can prevent communication exclusion and grant content vul­ garization as well as be an effective means for language comprehension, retention, acquisition, and learning (Bhatia, 1983). Caring for the delivery of comprehensible messages is therefore beneficial to a wide array of audiences, including people with cognitive or learning difficulties, prelingual hearing impairment, aphasia, different types of dementia, autism spectrum disorders, and multiple co-occurring disabilities, as well as people suffering from literacy deficits – such as migrants, language learners, tourists, etc. – and simply nonexperts (Perego, 2020a, 2020b). Currently, in 455

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Europe there is no consistent text practice to ease these groups of users, with some European countries being at the very forefront and others still trying to draw near (Lindholm & Vanhatalo, 2021), based on the awareness that a stronger focus on accessible communication would result in a better functioning and a more effective society. The consequences of unintelligible content can in fact affect negatively both the system and a person’s life, while clear communication is known to save time, money, and lives and also to greatly improve the overall quality of life and mental health of many people. There are general and language-specific guidelines created intentionally with the aim of mak­ ing content accessible to struggling audiences or to non-specialists (Lindholm & Vanhatalo, 2021; Maaβ, 2020; Perego, 2020a). EL, PL and E2U texts can be created from scratch by profession­ als or adapted (translated intralingually) from an existing text (a source text) based on specific principles. Either way, text professionals have to think about their target group and the main aim of their publication, but also organize content clearly and logically, prioritize information, have the draft read by end-users, fine-tune it, and check it again with a reader group before use (these last stages are referred to as “validation”; ILSMH, 1998; García Muñoz, 2012, p. 25; see the EU project TRAIN2VALIDATE entirely focused on validation). The production and the adaptation processes share procedural similarities, even though the latter is considered especially difficult by some professionals because it implies a relationship between two texts, the source (standard), and the target (simplified) texts (García Muñoz, 2012, p. 24). In this respect, the adaptation will imply the production of a new text in the same language that should maintain balance and fidelity with regards to the source text in terms of meaning and style or flavour. Such balance is the result of the adapter’s ability to analyse the source text thoroughly and identify its genre, main subject, and global tone and to maintain each of them in the target text with acceptable approximation (García Muñoz, 2012, p. 24). This process is nothing but a translation process – and in fact it obeys its basic principles (Jakobson, 1959; Munday, 2016). It should be noted however that professionals can decide to produce a new personal version which is just roughly based on the source content, a practice that somehow exceeds the still flexible boundaries of translation and could rather be considered a summarization activity (ILSMH, 1998). Whatever process is followed, making a text simpler in form (lexicon and grammar) and con­ tent (subject matter) means manipulating it and bringing it “within the area of language already assumed to be known to the proposed audience” (Bhatia, 1983, p. 42). Making it easier, on the other hand, involves techniques helping the text user to better access and consume it, for example by implementing strategies that guide them through the text and help them plan and implement their text-consumption strategies (e.g., layout and text organization). Whether and how it is possi­ ble to translate a podcast into Easy Language will be the focus of the following sections. Podcasts have in fact not yet been considered by media accessibility studies in spite of the considerable importance they have acquired as purveyors of content.

Podcasts as emergent media Although their rise in popularity is recent, nowadays podcasts are pervasive (Sawyer, 2020; Staff, 2019). We all know them, and we all have listened to one at least once. However, literature on the linguistic nature of podcasts is currently lacking. Studies in the field tend to focus on podcasts’ ori­ gins, their comparison with radio content, their mapping in terms of typology, or the best practical ways to script them well and engage listeners (Berry, 2016, 2020; Bond, 2021; Ciccarelli, 2021; Leonard, 2017; Lindgren, 2016; Lupo, 2019; Markman & Sawyer, 2014; Sawyer, 2020; Staff, 2019). To know what we are talking about, an overview of these aspects is essential. 456

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Origins and definition Although their origins can be traced back to the 1990s and the spread of home Internet connec­ tions, the term “podcast”, a portmanteau or blend of the words “iPod” and “broadcasting”, was coined in 2004 (Hammersley, 2004) to refer to original audio content available serially in the form of different-length and different-type episodes that can be downloaded from the Internet (vs. distributed from a broadcaster) and reproduced at will, thus liberating both the listeners and the producers from time and place. The technical features of podcasts have determined a new selec­ tive and voluntary way of consuming online content that characterizes this “emergent, and often amateur, medium” (Berry, 2016) and its increasing popularity in everyday life (Lupo, 2019; The Nielsen Company, 2021). Such popularity is also linked to the spread of Smartphones and the resulting increased mobility of (Western) people, who have more and more been relying on ondemand content (Atzori, 2017; Markman & Sawyer, 2014, p. 21).

Types It is not easy to classify and identify typologies when it comes to mapping podcasts. A myriad of labels and taxonomies exist based on the type of content they deliver (e.g., fiction vs. nonfiction), on the scope and communicative purpose they have (podcasts can inform, entertain, educate, or blend purposes), and on the interactive mode chosen to handle a topic (this involves different degrees of planning, with scripted vs. non-scripted podcast texts, the latter comprising for instance monologues by the podcaster or conversations in the form of dialogues between hosts, debates with guests and opinion leaders, interviews or roundtable discussions, panels, etc.). This is why we can come across several complex descriptive labels that combine reference to content-, scope-, and/or mode-related information in order to be as explicit as possible as to what a prospective lis­ tener is to expect, and help them to search, find, and select what they are looking for. Even though being able to group content based on conventional and recognized features could contribute to giv­ ing podcast types legitimacy (Biber, 1988; Swales, 1990), we are still dealing with unsystematic labelling systems. These can comprise more (e.g., Leonard, 2017) or fewer (e.g., Berry, 2020; Cic­ carelli, 2021) podcast types3 whose labels show different degrees of explicitness and of hybridiza­ tion in terms of types or genres. So, if we read “scripted fiction podcast” (Ciccarelli, 2021), this gives us information on the mode and on the content of the podcast, on its planned script and on the fact that it delivers a story, normally in the form of an audio drama, unfolding through a cast of voice actors and sound effects designed to immerse the listener in the narrative. In podcasting, fiction is a relatively new format that was pioneered by popular shows such as Welcome to Night Vale and Homecoming,4 and it is often regarded as a separate category to account for invented or untrue creative content (Ciccarelli, 2021). The label “nonfiction narrative story-telling” (Leonard, 2017), on the other hand, is quite redundant, offering information on the factual nature of the con­ tent (nonfiction) and on the mode of delivery: Narratives or storytelling podcasts are story-driven shows relying on heavy editing and displaying structured and planned content and language. Inter­ views, also referred to as conversations, include people talking to each other; they are normally made up of one host, with either a single guest interviewee or multiple guests throughout the course of the show (Ciccarelli, 2021). This podcast type provides listeners with different view­ points mainly through unplanned speech. Overall, the scope and communicative purpose of the podcast is not always made available, but a threefold structure label (SCOPE-CONTENT-MODE) could be useful to make the most relevant features readily available (e.g., “Informative nonfiction narrative podcast” or “Entertaining investigative panel”). 457

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Format Format (or internal structure) refers to the way content is organized or how material within a show is arranged. Although formats can vary, they enable podcast creators to better plan their content and listeners to know what to expect (Bond, 2021). Structurally, podcasts tend to include (but are not restricted to) specific “moves” (or text components, Bhatia, 1993) in a specific order. All pod­ casts contain at least an introduction (INTRO) and an ender (OUTRO), as well as a SEGMENT, that is the content element, or core, of the podcast. Depending on their type, podcasts can include an opening slogan or production elements such as a billboard and rundown, which are short text elements listing the content to follow and encouraging listeners to stay with the host for the entire podcast. Serial podcasts, whose episodes are linked and best consumed in a specific order, offer a summary, if previous episodes or content need to be explained, and they always introduce the new episode. Teasers, another frequent production element, offer just a little information to get listen­ ers excited about units of content that will appear later in the show, or teasing the next show at the end of a current show. Finally, transition elements, usually in the form of music clips or sound effects, typically carry the listener from one piece to another and separate portions of content, and salutations and acknowledgements, with or without a final theme song, normally close an episode.

The orality and listenability of podcasts Podcasts are auditory media closely linked to the listening process, whose content is perceived through a single sense and delivered through verbal and non-verbal meaning-making signs (e.g., monologues, dialogues or polylogues, as well as music, silence, sound effects). Their appeal in a multimodal soci­ ety succeeds based on the imaginative power of spoken language, on the narrative dimension which ensures intimacy and freedom, on the strong emotional reactions that podcasts generate, and on their ability to level out social discrimination, especially if compared to television and cinema products (Lupo, 2019, pp. 109–113). The total lack of visuals in fact enables listeners to focus on the voice and the emotions conveyed by the story, and not to be distracted by elements that could make them miss important parts of the narration. Voice plays a central role (Anolli, 2012, pp. 160–161; Lavinio, 2004, p. 80; Perrotta, 2017; see Kozloff, 2000 for the role of voice in films): It conveys “warmth, empathy, personality” and provides listeners with company (Lindgren, 2016, p. 37), which is an effective antidote to the condition of solitude of modern life (Lindgren, 2016). The oral nature of podcasts varies depend­ ing on the podcast type and can range from spontaneous to seemingly natural depending on the level of editing the script has undergone. However, irrespective of their typically planned or “prefabricated” (Baños-Piñero & Chaume, 2009) nature – to borrow a term from film language studies – the language of podcasts tends to share features of fictional dialogue and broadcast language (e.g., Vagle, 1991), including a balanced combination of elements used in spoken and in written texts that contributes to its specificity and listenability. Listenability is a decisive feature of all aural media which measures the “quality of discourse that eases the cognitive burden that aural processing imposes” (Rubin, 2012, p. 176). Listening is an active process and a complex ability involving working memory, vocabulary, attention, and neural processing (Beck, 2015). That can be facilitated at least by some strategies includ­ ing the use of an oral-based language style, signpost language guiding listeners through the audio text, a coherent text structure, a wise choice of (clear yet engaging) words, and the skilled use of most voice potentials: Strong prosodic stress or over-articulation can be exploited for instance to manage emphasis and direct the attention of the listener but also to favour “acoustic segmentation and lexical access” (Bernabé & Orero, 2019, p. 66). Using pauses in strategic spots and breathing properly is also condu­ cive to listenability as calibrating the pace of the narration and setting the right tone for each podcast, which will enhance its positive perception. 458

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A linguistic close-up and a simplification proposal of She’s So Cool: Jane Fonda Source text analysis She’s So Cool is an empowerment nonfiction narrative podcast for entrepreneurs hosted by Adri­ enne White, podcast strategist and business consultant, launched in January 2019 and designed to give women the tools they need to better understand their challenges and to enhance their quality of life. The 2019 episode on Jane Fonda will be my case study. It depicts the struggles and suc­ cesses of the well-known actress, author, activist, fashion model, and fitness guru Jane Fonda, and it outlines her family history, her relationships, her activism, and her journey to finding happiness. For this study, I selected a nonfiction narrative podcast (1) because of its informative yet informal and entertaining content, which makes it a podcast type that can easily engage listeners (including disadvantaged listeners) that wish to access true stories of others; (2) because of the strong presence in the market of this genre in several languages, which makes it representative of a widespread genre and ensures that reflections on its simplification can be applied irrespective of the source language; and (3) because of the highly planned nature of the script, which makes it easier to create a possible replicable – yet flexible – simplification template. Furthermore, this episode includes a varied array of listener-engaging strategies that typically characterize the language of most podcasts, which I thought would be useful to analyse with simplification in mind. The general choice of focusing on podcasts is instead linked to the need to make new media accessible to people with cognitive and intellectual disabilities who could not access authentic cultural content without simplification. Informal focus groups conducted in a local division of Anffas ONLUS, the National Association of Families of Persons with Intellectual and/or Relational Disabilities, has in fact shown a considerable interest by end-users in this type of product. An interest that might be reconducted to the fact that not all end-users process written language easily and they might prefer to access content aurally. The macrostructure of the Jane Fonda episode is conventional (INTRO/SEGMENT/OUTRO) with an elaborate internal organization (Table 26.1) linked to the richness of the content, which

Table 26.1 Format and internal organization of She’s So Cool: Jane Fonda INTRO

Salutation Presentation • Host • Target audience • Podcast Content warning Episode summary Introduction Opening questions Personal anecdotes Recommendations Content proper Rationale Teases Thanks Closing remarks Credits

CORE or SEGMENT

OUTRO

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is conveyed in approximately 20 minutes (146 wpm), and to the type of target audience, that is, mainly educated Western women with a strong sense of individual and collective awareness. The INTRO includes an informal salutation, the presentation of the host, of the listeners, and of the podcast, a content warning to notify reference to a possibly difficult or taboo topic, and a brief summary of the episode. The SEGMENT of the script, which is the longest section of the podcast (3,177 words), provides mainly content information. This is usually the most creative, varied, and unpredictable section of a podcast, where the host can organize content depending on the story, their presentation preferences, and market considerations. The OUTRO includes a set of conven­ tional closing moves such as thanks, closing remarks, and credits. The lexical density and therefore the informativity of the script is high, with sentences that can include a large number of lexical words (in bold in the examples) (e.g., these topics include sexual abuse suicide and eating disorders, 77.78%). This is compensated by an overall limited lexical variation and by passages with a substantial presence of listener engaging expressions rich in pro­ nominal forms, auxiliaries, and other grammatical items (e.g., do you strive for perfection?: 40%; or no release date has been shared but I will keep you posted on that: 35.71%) as well as stance expressions (I wish I wasn’t like that: 16.67%; or I wish I was braver than what I am: 22.22%). The limited lexical variation comes with a large number of repeats and frequent words. Table 26.3 shows that the first 30 words for frequency are all grammatical (with the exception of the personal noun Jane, which counts 60 occurrences in the whole script), which is typical of a spoken register. On the lexical level, although the majority of the words are short (with an average length of 4.28 letters, as per Table 26.3), long letter words do occur in the podcast, with 98 nine-letter words, 43 ten-letter words, 35 eleven-letter words, 15 twelve-letter words, 13 thirteen-letter words, and only 1 fourteen-letter word. Long letter words in English are normally rare and not native words (i.e., Latinae terms or borrowings), and they are words that tend to be less easily retained. The long-letter words detected in the script do not occur frequently, but they are either closely related to the content of the text, giving it its specificity and determining its style (e.g., encouragement, expectations, objectifying, etc.) or are morphologically complex stance words (e.g., unfortunately, unforgivable, interesting, etc.) used by the narrator to position herself in relation to the narration in terms of evaluation.

Table 26.2 Main figures of the script of She’s So Cool: Jane Fonda. Figures have been calculated based on WordSmith Tools (Scott, 2012) Length in minutes Characters Tokens Types T/T Ratio, Standardized TTR, SD Mean word length (SD) Sentences Mean in words (SD) Lexical density Gunning Fog Index Passive voice Words per minute Characters per minute

23.21 minutes 15,482 3,386 965 27.82%, 40.67%, 44.58 4.28 (2.31) 194 14.95 (8.95) 47.28% 10.83 17.53% approx. 145.88 667.04

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Translation into Easy Language Table 26.3 Frequency list of the script of She’s So Cool: Jane Fonda N

Word

Freq.

%

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

TO SHE HER THE AND I OF A THAT JANE WAS YOU IN FOR WITH S THIS IS IT HAD BE # ON ABOUT AS LIFE SO LIKE ARE THEY

113 108 106 96 90 82 69 69 62 60 56 51 49 43 38 35 34 31 26 24 23 22 21 21 20 19 18 18 18 17

3.24 3.09 3.04 2.75 2.58 2.35 1.98 1.98 1.78 1.72 1.60 1.46 1.40 1.23 1.09 1.00 0.97 0.89 0.74 0.69 0.66 0.63 0.60 0.60 0.57 0.54 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.49

Stylewise, we can observe the presence of a female narrator (podcast host Adrienne White) and a widespread use of I-language (I think . . . ; As a fitness instructor, I love this fun fact . . .). The first-person pronoun “I” is the sixth most frequent word in the text (with 82 occurrences; see also “we” N = 15 and “my” N = 13). The top left collocate of “I” is “that”, and its top right collocate is “think”, which suggest the close involvement of the narrator in the text and the required involve­ ment of the listener. Furthermore, the verbs that often pair with “I” are stative verbs expressing desire such as “wanna”, “love”, and “wish”. On the other hand, the direct involvement of the audi­ ence and the creation of expectations (On this episode, you will learn about . . .) is expressed using the second person pronoun “you” (N = 51) and the modal auxiliary “will” expressing an intention link to the moment of speaking and the decision to fulfil it (Lewis, 1994, p. 21). The central topic of the episode is the multifaceted life of Jane Fonda, who is referred to either with the first name “Jane” (N = 60), or with the third person singular pronoun “she” (N = 108). The full name “Jane Fonda” occurs only seven times at the beginning of the narration, where the 461

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scene is set, and twice when specific works are mentioned (such as the Jane Fonda workout video and the Jane Fonda in Five Acts). The overall qualitative analysis of the podcast shows that the core section especially is imbued with well-designed listener engagement strategies (Broersma, 2019; Wolvin, 2010). This is not surprising as capturing attention, delivering value, and making sure the audience remains until the end of the episode is a primary concern of any podcast host and producer. In fact, only highly engaged listeners will be exposed to all the key messages of the podcast, which is a good strategy to get more recommendations, grow one’s show, and improve monetization (Land, 2022). In “Jane Fonda”, the major listener engagement strategies include a short introduction to the episode and a series of opening questions addressed to the listener. These direct questions are meant to involve the listeners quickly, prepare them for the main topics covered in the text, attract their attention, build interest, and create immediate engagement: Do you strive for perfection? Have you ever felt like you aren’t good enough? Do you some­ times feel empty or anxious? Or have you ever wished your body looked different? These are all things Jane has struggled with. I’m here to share her story so we can learn and benefit from her experiences and wisdom. A similar aim is achieved thanks to varied hints at personal anecdotes: Sharing personal experience and giving people the impression that you’re talking directly to them helps podcast providers to create emotional connection with the listener who will be more likely to recommend the podcast. This speaker-listener connection is maintained throughout the segment also via the expressions of personal stance that verbalize overtly the personal attitude and the feelings or evaluation of the podcast host. These are mainly expressed through value-laden lexical choices (I’m thankful to Jane . . . ; I love this because . . . ; I’m super excited that . . . , I can’t wait to see . . .), detailed recommendations (If you haven’t seen it yet, watch Jane in “Feminists, What Were They Thinking” on Netflix), and relating host and listener to create a virtual yet strong bond (If you are like me . . . ; As a perfectionist myself . . .). Relating to a coming event (The “Women’s March” of 2019 is happening) and having a clear call to action (To find a march near you, visit womensmarch.com or you can find the link in the show notes) that does not interrupt the storytelling, making sure it blends with the rest of the epi­ sode, is a further strategy to build authentic podcast listener engagement – though the ability to make the call to action hard to miss, but at the same time natural and the perfect thing to say at that moment in your episode, is very challenging (Land, 2022). Currently there is no listenability measure that we can resort to. However, the script’s read­ ability5 calculated via the Gunning Fog Index6 (= 10.83) points to a text of average complexity, also in terms of listenability: The podcast is in fact delivered in General American, an accent that is widely recognized worldwide (other less widespread varieties of English might impede or compromise its intelligibility). According to the National Center for Voice and Speech, the speech rate is regular (146 wpm/11 cps),7 between the average conversation rate for US speakers (about 150 wpm) and that for radio presenters or podcasters (up to 160 wpm) but slow if compared to the average speech rate of, for example, TED Talks (173 wpm, ranging from 154 to 201) or commen­ tators (from 250 to even 400 wpm) (Barnard, 2018b). Wisely planned verbal pauses break up the content and give emphasis to key points (Jane was not trying to be defined by men, yet a lot of people were defining her, and all of them [LONG PAUSE] were men), slow down the speaking rate (Barnard, 2018a), increase clarity and overall listenability,

462

Translation into Easy Language

and give the listener time to absorb the messages – which should be stressed in an EL translation of the podcast. Overall, varying the rate through the speech is essential to make it more interesting and engaging – which happens rarely in the podcast in question. Words are articulated clearly, and sometimes even emphasized through paralanguage. Emphasis on a few selected key words through intensified stressed sounds, as in the case of a longer open back rounded vowel in the word strong: / strɒ:ŋ/ (This show is for listeners who want to learn about strong and influential women) or a longer bilabial nasal /m/ in the adverbial intensifier many: /ˈm:ɛni/ (She has lived a full life with many differ­ ent personas), or a blend of both lexical and paralinguistic strategies as in the case of the repetition of the adverb and its stressed version in the first occurrence (she said it was really, really hard, but . . .).

Target text creation: the intralingual translation process Almost any text can be simplified. Intralingual translation into EL, PL, or E2U can imply more or less substantial rewriting depending on the level of simplification and comprehensibility we wish to achieve, the nature of the source text, and the target audience. Simplification can occur through addition, omission, or reformulation. Dosing these strategies adequately is central when the source text is delivered through one channel. In a podcast, the catchy nature of the text must be retained, and its length cannot be extended. Podcasts are designed to respect the limited attention span and desire for instant gratification of their intended, often-multitasking, listeners while simultaneously educating them by providing new information. Achieving the same aims with an Easy Language podcast that lasts approximately the same time as the source text (or preferably less, not to overtax the end-user) is therefore a challenging objective for the Easy Language translator. There is not one unique way to proceed and there are no specific guidelines for podcast sim­ plification.8 Following existing recommendations for written language can help, but a substantial selection of the content and a great attention to listenability will be essential. So, choosing standard language varieties (but also a slow speech rate and a large amount of pauses) will ensure enhanced content accessibility to language learners, non-native English speakers, low-literacy audiences, audiences with poor phonological awareness or dialect sensitivity, and so on. Some individuals with dyslexia, for instance, find it difficult to recognize voices of multiple talkers (Long et al., 2016). In an Anglophone context, Received Pronunciation or General American should be pre­ ferred. Regarding structural and content-related choices, we saw that podcasts tend to have a macrostructure (INTRO, SEGMENT, and OUTRO) that is often replicated and that can be per­ sonalized to include a much more elaborate deep structure. The INTRO and the OUTRO sections are the most predictable and routinized elements in podcasts, and therefore the ones that can be simplified most effectively and whose simplification patterns are more easily transferrable and require only minor adjustments. Their communicative function is easy to identify, and it can be maintained without over-elaborating the target text (Table 26.4). In the case of Jane Fonda’s INTRO, the source simple and direct opening salutation can remain the same in an Easy English version. The source text host presentation resorts to a standard formula, enriched by captivating descriptive adjectives that define the scope of the podcast (“a female empow­ erment podcast”). However, although the use of a complex noun group pre-modified by nouns func­ tioning as adjectives can work well and be catchy in the original version, it could be too demanding for an Easy English version (its Gunning Fog Index is 21.6). There are several strategies that can be used to enhance understanding. These include substituting the two noun modifiers with a simpler adjective (“an inspiring podcast”, Gunning Fog Index: 14.53; or “a stimulating podcast”, Gunning Fog Index: 14.53) or rewriting it using a relative clause: “This is a podcast that can inspire you”

463

Elisa Perego Table 26.4 Original and Easy English versions of the INTRO of She’s So Cool: Jane Fonda

Salutation

Presentation 1) Host 2) Target 3) Podcast

Content warning

Episode summary

Source text: podcast script

Target text: simplified proposal

Hi! 1) I’m Adrienne, the host of She’s So Cool, a female empowerment podcast.

Hi! 1) I’m Adrienne. This podcast can inspire you.

2) This show is for listeners who want to learn about strong and influential women.

2) This podcast is for curious women.

3) Welcome to She’s So Cool where you’ll hear the life stories of female changemakers each week. Each woman’s story will inspire you to embrace who you are, love yourself fiercely and pursue your dreams.

3) This podcast is called She’s So Cool. You will learn the stories of important women. You will learn to love yourself.

Before I get started, I wanna let you know that this episode includes topics that might be difficult for some listeners. These topics include sexual abuse, suicide and eating disorders. Please, check the show notes for resources about these topics, if you or someone you know needs help or support.

Please listen to this warning. A warning is an important piece of advice. The podcast talks about - sex, - violence, - eating problems. If you wish, listen to the podcast with someone you trust.

On this episode you will learn about the struggles and successes of Jane Fonda, who has held many different roles throughout her life. She is living proof that we can overcome our challenges and become better versions of ourselves

This episode is on Jane Fonda. Jane Fonda is and actress. Jane Fonda did many things in her life. The life of Jane Fonda has been difficult.

(Gunning Fog Index: 3.2). The readability indexes confirm that nominal groups are more difficult to process than relative clauses, which should be kept in mind when writing in Easy English. If we move to the presentation of the target audience, its EL version can be reduced consider­ ably if we use a simple target-defining structure: X is for Y and try to encapsulate the nature of the prospective podcast listener into a simple adjective. In this case, “curious” seems to reflect well enough the idea of wanting to learn that is expressed in the original text. This simplification strategy is based on the compression of ideas into a single word. Using one word instead of a longer phrase necessarily comes with the loss of concepts. However, explaining all the concepts and nuances included in the source text is not the aim of Easy Language and would clash with a podcast’s time and usability constraints. 464

Translation into Easy Language

The presentation of the podcast and its scope can be reduced to very direct formulae: “This podcast is about” and “you will learn”. In the latter case, using the common verb “to learn” can stimulate a listening predisposition and the preparation for a list of items. Here, as in other parts of the text, relative clauses have been avoided. So instead of reformulating the complex noun phrase and idea of “female change-makers” and the reference to inspirational women we can learn from with a relative clause (“You will learn the stories [LONG PAUSE] of women who changed the world”), we decided to compress it even further: “You will learn the stories of important women”. Warnings, that is, notices that precede potentially sensitive content, are important to flag the contents of the material that follows so listeners can prepare themselves to adequately engage or, if necessary, disengage for their own wellbeing. In the Easy English proposal of the episode, I decided to gently attract the attention of the listener and appeal to him/her with the discourse marker and polite speech-act formula “please”, which is typical of the spoken language (Biber et al., 1999, p. 140, p. 1098), and to use the imperative mood for advising the listener – using a particularly engaging tone of voice: “Please, listen to this warning”. Finally, the episode summary can be of great help to some listeners with cognitive or intellec­ tual difficulties, because it prepares them for the longer text to come. Selecting only the most rel­ evant information units will not overload the listener, and delivering them aurally ensures proper segmentation and adequate pauses. As illustrated in Table 26.5, the intralingual translation strategies that have been implemented contribute substantially to reducing complexity by lowering the word count, the number of long words, and the average sentence length and possible variability, and by increasing the number of sentences – thus adhering to the principle that each sentence should include only one concept or idea (e.g., ILSMH, 1998). As a result, the Gunning Fog Index of the simplified proposal decreases dramatically even though the lexical density remains similar. Based on my translation proposal, the simplified INTRO section could be turned into a flex­ ible, reusable, and customizable template (Table 26.6), where slots – in square brackets – can be selected and filled in depending on the podcast type, scope, and content: A very similar process could be applied to the OUTRO section, equally formatted. Things are more complex when we deal with the SEGMENT of the podcast in terms of quantity and type of content conveyed, as well as the style used to convey it. We will focus on a short excerpt on Jane Fonda’s eating disorders (108 words; average sentence length 21.6; lexical density: 51.85%; Gun­ ning Fog Index: 12.71). Trying to maintain all the information units whilst simplifying the lexicon and syntax would be easy but unrealistic, especially if this strategy is applied to the whole podcast SEGMENT. The

Table 26.5 Main figures regarding the original and Easy English INTRO of She’s So Cool: Jane Fonda Source text Word count Sentence count Complex words Syllable count Average sentence length (SD) Gunning Fog Lexical density

158 8 14 220 16.75 (4.78) 11.23 52.3%

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Target text 94 15 4 129 6.47 (1.95) 4.21 53.19%

Elisa Perego Table 26.6 Customizable template for Easy Language podcast INTROs Salutation Presentation

Hi!

1) Host

I am [HOST NAME] This is my/a [POSCAST TYPE] This podcast is [TARGET] This podcast is called [PODCAST NAME] In this podcast you will learn - [TOPIC 1] - [TOPIC 2] - [ETC.] Please listen to this warning. A warning is an important piece of advice. This podcast talks about - [SENSITIVE CONTENT 1] - [SENSITIVE CONTENT 2] - [SENSITIVE CONTENT 3] - [ETC.] If you wish, listen to the podcast with someone you trust. This episode is on [MAIN TOPIC] It will deal with - [TOPIC 1] - [TOPIC 2] - [ETC.]

INTRO

2) Target 3) Podcast

Content warning

Episode summary

Table 26.7 Original and Easy English versions of a SEGMENT excerpt of She’s So Cool: Jane Fonda Source text: podcast script

Target text: simplified proposal

While in boarding school, Jane began binging and purging with her roommate. They learned about this from Roman History and did not realize how dangerous and addictive this behavior would be. Jane’s disordered eating lasted for about 25 years, it began her sophomore year and lasted through two whole marriages, and two children into her early forties. She was alternatively bulimic and anorexic, she said that she would maybe eat one soft boiled egg and some spinach per day. Jane took control of her body by going cold turkey, she said it was really really hard, but she got over the addiction, which changed her perception of herself.

When Jane was a child, she had problems with food. These problems are called “eating-disorders”. Sometimes, Jane ate a lot of food. Then Jane vomited. So, she did not put on weight. This disorder is called “bulimia”. Sometimes, Jane did not eat anything. This disorder is called “anorexia”. Jane had problems with food for 25 years. Often, she ate just an egg or so per day. One day, Jane decided to change. She got well. To get well was very difficult.

466

Translation into Easy Language

idea should rather be to rewrite a simpler and shorter text to be delivered at a slower pace than the original podcast. This implies achieving an optimum balance between what is added and what is left out. In the attempt to do so (Table 26.7), the translator can reduce specific concepts to broader, general ideas (boarding school > being a child), substitute at least part of the jargon related to eating disorders with common explanations (to binge > to eat a lot of food), remove redundant or over-specific terms and concepts. Identifying the really salient information and reorganizing it in the target text is part of this easifying intralingual translation process. The intralingual translation proposal of this excerpt results in a text that should be easy to understand (Table 26.8) and which shares the same features that we observed earlier, thus confirm­ ing that the implementation of the same strategies can assure comparable results. Table 26.8 Main figures regarding the original and Easy English SEGMENT excerpt of She’s So Cool: Jane Fonda

Word count Sentence count Complex words Syllable count Average sentence length (SD) Gunning Fog Lexical density

Source text

Target text

108 5 11 161 21.6 (6.58) 12.71 51.85%

81 13 9 109 6.23 (2.2) 6.94 62.96%

From a broader perspective, where a complete podcast script is translated, more selection will be in order. Delivering less information in a coherent and linear manner will be beneficial: Too many details and explanations can be difficult to process and retain. This is why a thorough quanti­ tative and qualitative source text analysis should be performed as a first working phase guiding the translation choices. Selecting and prioritizing the information to convey is in fact more challeng­ ing and decisive than performing a straightforward and mechanical lexical or syntactic simplifica­ tion process. In fact, not all long words are difficult, low-frequency, or specialized words – cf. the 10-letter word “everything”, with a frequency of 17,554 in the BNC or the 11-letter word “infor­ mation” with a frequency of 37,862 in the BNC. Furthermore, following most guidelines, we can easily envisage transforming morphologically complex words including a negative prefix (un- but also dis- or im- as in the cases of “unfortunately”, “unofficially”, “unforgivable”, “unnecessary”, “discouraged”, “impossible”) into simpler multi-word expressions (e.g., “impossible”: Not pos­ sible, or very difficult), relative clauses in the active voice (e.g., “unforgivable”: That you cannot forgive), or very simple sentence (“unfortunately”: It is sad that). However, local interventions on the text will be worthwhile only if paired with a broader perspective based on major text reformu­ lations that are linked to the processing skills and attention span of disadvantaged listeners.

Conclusions The role of intralingual translation in the form of same-language simplification is increasingly being recognized in most European countries given its cognitive and social benefits (Lindholm & Vanhatalo, 2021; Maaβ, 2020). The fields of application of same-language simplification, espe­ cially in the form of translating into Easy Language, normally include public administration and justice, followed by the fields of media and journalism, education, and finally culture and literature 467

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(EASIT, 2019). Podcasting belongs to this latter realm, but to my knowledge the intralingual translation of a podcast has never been explored. In this chapter, I analysed linguistically a podcast script and I investigated the possible implementation and impact of simplification in an episode (“Jane Fonda”) of the American nonfiction narrative podcast She’s So Cool by Adrienne White (2019). The source text analysis enabled me to detect the most salient linguistic specificities and structural features of the podcast (including its INTRO-SEGMENT-OUTRO macrostructure), to advance a threefold-structure labelling system for the definition of podcast types based on scope, content, and mode and to reflect on the power of voice to implement the listenability of this emergent aural medium. The intralingual translation of “Jane Fonda” into an Easy English script showed that the regularity of some podcast formats enables us to explore the possibility of offer­ ing format templates in Easy Language that can be used and adapted for specific podcast sections (e.g., the INTRO). Furthermore, the simplification of the form and the content proved challeng­ ing. However, the work carried out in this direction showed that a holistic content-restructuring approach is more decisive than a local, merely textual, approach. Figures show that in my case study this approach caused a substantially reduced complexity resulting from the use of fewer words in general, fewer long words, a heavy re-elaboration of complex nominal groups (that are widespread in English), and a shorter average sentence length, as well as an increased number of sentences all containing only one idea (e.g., ILSMH, 1998). In this respect, analysing and under­ standing the source text, prioritizing, and selecting content whilst respecting time- and audiencerelated constraints should represent the first working phase of any intralingual podcast translator, while fine interventions on the text can easily come after and can rely on existing Easy Language guidelines. Besides paving the way to further studies on different podcast genres, this study has the advantage of offering a possible – yet flexible and ameliorable – working template both for those (stakeholders and professionals) who wish to follow this approach and include podcasts into the category of content deserving enhanced accessibility. This study can also be exploited in diverse training settings. Intralingual translation necessarily involves highly complex and chal­ lenging activities such as same-language writing, editing, and summarizing. In fact, performing these activities involves cognitive and metacognitive processes that include activating previous knowledge, planning and organizing thoughts, converting passive into active vocabulary, con­ solidating literacy, and strengthening verbal skills (Graham & Herbert, 2011; Smetanová, 2013). These are all instrumental to L1 strengthening and Easy Language creation, and to L2 learning. In particular, selecting content and summarizing it for Easy Language delivery purposes can improve the ability to recognize, select, and paraphrase the main ideas in a text and create transitions between them, thus leading to the “syntactic maturity” (Robinson & Howell, 2008) expected from language learners and Easy Language professionals, too.

Notes 1 Besides still-existing local and in-house rules, the ADLAB guidelines (Remael et al., 2015) nowadays represent a landmark and reference for audio describers in need of strategic and flexible recommendations for writing audio descriptions mainly for the cinema and television. These guidelines are the result of the three-year project ADLAB (Audio Description: Lifelong Access for the Blind, 2011–2014), acknowledged for its best practices and awarded the status of success story, financed by the European Union (Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency) under the Lifelong Learning Programme, Key Action ERAS­ MUS Multilateral Projects, Cooperation between HEI and Enterprises. The project was coordinated by C. Taylor. 2 English followed by translated versions into Catalan, Galician, German, Italian, Slovene, Spanish, and Swedish, i.e., the languages of the project consortium.

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Translation into Easy Language 3 Leonard (2017) detects seven podcast types: the one-to-one interview, the solo commentary, the panel, the nonfiction narrative story telling, the fictional story telling, the hybrid, and the repurposed content. Cic­ carelli (2021) proposes the four-fold categorization including “nonfiction narrative podcasts”, “interview and/or conversational podcasts”, “hybrid podcasts”, and “scripted fiction podcasts”. Berry (2020) suggests that we can reduce podcast mapping to three overarching typologies (conversations, narratives, and fic­ tions) that are broad and flexible enough to contain most content. 4 Welcome to Night Vale (2012) was the first scripted podcast to break out as a mainstream hit. It is a surreal dark comedy presented as a community radio station bulletin from a fictional town. Homecoming, debuted in 2016, is a psychological thriller podcast that tells the story of a damaged soldier and the caseworker try­ ing to rehabilitate him back into society. 5 Although readability has been researched systematically is several languages, oral language and com­ munication have been given relatively little attention in spite of the large amount of information that is consumed aurally (Rubin, 2012). 6 The Gunning Fog Index is one among many readability indexes used for English. It is a weighted average of the number of words per sentence and the percentage of complex words (more than three syllables). The index estimates the years of formal education a person needs to understand the text on the first reading. An interpretation is that a text can be understood by someone who left full-time education at a later age than the index. 7 Longer, more complex words take slightly longer to say. If we count words per minute, it will affect speech pace slightly, although negligibly (Barnard, 2018b). This is why we provide cps, too. At the same time, content complexity is a further factor that can affect speech rate: When presenting complex content, you will want to speak slower than usual to give the audience time to comprehend the concepts and content (Barnard, 2018b). 8 The newly launched project Spoken Easy Language for Social Inclusion (SELSI, 2022–2024), financed by the European Union under the Erasmus+ Programme, Action Type KA220-ADU – Cooperation partner­ ships in adult education, Coordinated by the RISA Institute in Slovenia, will focus on the simplification or oral texts for the first time, with the aim of producing guidelines.

Further reading Berry, R. (2006). Will the iPod kill the radio star? Profiling podcast as radio. Convergence: The Interna­ tional Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, 12(2), 143–162. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1354856506066522 Berry, R. (2016). Podcasting: Considering the evolution of the medium and its association with the word “radio”. The Radio Journal International Studies in Broadcast & Audio Media, 14(1), 7–22. http://doi. org/10.1386/rjao.14.1.7_1 Gray, C. (2021). What is a podcast? An explanation in plain English. The Podcast Host. www.thepodcasthost. com/listening/what-is-a-podcast/ Inclusion Europe (2009). Information for all. European standards for making information easy to read and understand. www.inclusion-europe.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/EN_Information_for_all.pdf Rubin, D. L., Hafter, T., & Arata, K. (2000). Reading and listening to oral-based versus literate-based dis­ course. Communication Education, 49(2), 121–134.

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471

AUTHOR INDEX

Abbeduto, L. 409 Adamolekun, D. 173 Adler, M. 241 Aerts, W. 116 Agulló, B. 173 Ahrens, S. 234 Aitken, A. 146, 147 Ajzenberg, B. 312 Alcaeus 96–98 Alcman 96–98 Algeo, J. 293, 297 Allinson, F.G. 355 Alonso-Pérez, R. 363, 372 Altschul, N.R. 19 Alvstad, C. 17, 58 Amigo Extremera, J.J. 220 Anderson, B. 115 Anesa, P. 336 Anolli, L. 458 Anthony, L. 417 Anula Rebollo, A. 389 Aristotle 100, 355 Armostis, S. 351 Armstrong, N. 297 Aronin, L. 348 Askehave, I. 254 Asprey, M. 234, 241 Assis Rosa, A. 17 Atkins, B.T.S. 294–295 Atzori, E. 457 Austin, C. 99 Avidan-Ziv 395, 398–399 Ávila-Cabrera, J.J. 360–361, 364–365, 367

Bak, J.M. 19 Baker, M. 1, 2, 277–278 Balachandran, A. 167 Bamford, J. 379–380, 389 Baños-Piñero, R. 458 Barbasán, I. 367 Barnard, D. 462 Barnes, B. 174 Bartoll, E. 165–166 Bassnett, S. 2, 173, 275, 297 Batchelor, K. 222 Batho, E.C. 152 Bat-Zeev Shyldkrot, H. 26 Bazani, A. 377 Bažil, M. 79, 80–83 Becher, V. 320 Beck, D.L. 458 Becker, E. 381 Becker, L. 234 Beckett, S. 123–124 Bekker, I. 100–101, 107 Bekkering, H. 52 Belinchón, G. 170 Benavides, L. 169 Benjamin, W. 136 Berk Albachten, Ö. 1, 3, 5, 23–27, 49, 65, 131–132, 136–137, 139, 183, 222–223, 355 Berkenkotter, C. 205 Berlyne, D.E. 81 Berman, A. 278 Bernabé, R. 217, 220, 453, 455, 458 Berry, R. 456–457 Bestué Salinas, C. 332 Bhatia, V.K. 455–456, 458 Biber, D. 457, 465 Biel, Ł. 330, 334

Bączkowska, A. 435 Baer, B.J. 20, 116

472

Author index Bielsa, E. 275 Birkett, T. 4 Bisetto, B. 1 Bisiada, M. 278 Black Cat CIDEB. 380, 386 Blommaert, P. 42 Bloom, B. 363 Bock, B.M. 218, 220, 224, 230 Bohman, U. 218, 238 Bohr, N. 186 Bolaños-García-Escribano, A. 360, 369 Bond, S. 456, 458 Bonner, T.N. 292 Boonstra, M. 123 Borghetti, C. 361, 367 Borodo, M. 277 Bossche, S. van den 50 Bourdieu, P. 23 Bourdot de Richebourg, C. 38 Bovim Bugge, H. 238 Braam, S. 6, 48, 52–58, 60–62 Bredel, U. 218, 220, 224, 234, 237–238, 241, 243–246 Bright, D.F. 78–79, 81, 88 Brock, S.P. 106 Broderick, A. 336 Broersma, M. 462 Bromme, R. 254 Brown, Penelope 422 Brown, Peter 79 Brownlie, S. 17 Bruyère, C. 297 Bryson, B. 276–277 Bugarski, R. 133 Bühler, H. 396, 402, 408 Bulić, R. 130 Burgess, J.S. 96 Buridant, C. 17, 19, 20–21 Burkert, W. 96 Burkhart, D. 130 Busch, W. 18 Butcher, J. 280, 286 Butler, T. 130, 135

Castro Robaina, I. 220 Cataldi, P. 70 Catford, J. 278, 280 Cerquiglini, B. 19 Ceruti, M.A. 367 Chan, H.L. 70 Chan, L.T.-H. 145 Chaume, F. 166–167, 435, 458 Cheesman, T. 275 Chesterman, A. 53, 66, 254, 277–278, 289 Cheyne, R. 18 Chiaro, D. 402, 408 Chromá, M. 330 Ciccarelli, S. 456–457 Clark, E.A. 85 Clément-Tarantino, S. 88 Colina, S. 377 Collart, P. 101 Columbus, C. 370 Colwell, P. 440 Comstock, J. L. 291 Conte, G.B. 79, 84 Cook, G. 361–362 Copeland, R. 18 Corbellari, A. 19 Cordingley, A. 226, 230, 310 Cornelius, E. 241 Cornu, J.F. 164–165 Corral Esteban, A. 367 Correa Larios, O. 360 Coseriu, E. 196–197 Council of Europe 348, 363, 367 Crace, J. 273, 279–280, 284–285 Cronin, M. 297 Crystal, D. 135, 350 Cuarón, A. 169–170, 173–174 Cullhed, S.S. 82, 86 Culpeper, J. 423 Cummins, J. 363 Cunningham, I.C. 100–101 Dam, H.V. 223, 347 Dam-Jensen, H. 253, 278 Damrosch, D. 113, 135, 140 Danan, M. 360–361, 368 Darbelnet, J. 53, 187–188, 278, 280 Das, S. 207–208 Davier, L. 186 Davis, K. 25, 65, 117, 131–132, 136–138, 297 Day, R.R. 379–380, 389 De Groot, G.R. 330 Dean, D.R. 88 Delabastita, D. 5, 18, 53, 114, 118, 378, 386 Dembowski, P.F. 19 Denecke, W. 65 Denton, J. 165, 293, 297

Cabaret, F. 50 Cacchiani, S. 252, 255 Cachin, M. F. 297 Cadwell, P. 227 Calduch, C. 362, 368 Calsamiglia, H. 252 Cameron, A. 79 Campbell, A.P. 367 Cândido, A. 381 Cariss, P. 277, 281, 285 Carrington, N.T. 152 Castro-Moreno, C. 367

473

Author index Derrida, J. 2, 131, 135–138, 141 Desmet, M.K.T 50 D’hulst, L. 26 Díaz Cintas, J. 165, 167, 171, 175, 360, 435 Dickey, E. 100 Dixon, R. 139 Dobos, C. 335–337 Doczekalska, A. 334 Dodd, J. 437–438, 450 Döpfner, M. 168–169 Doran, Y.J. 207, 212 Dörnyei, Z. 362 Dossena, M. 147 Douglas, F. 156 Douglas, V. 50 Driscoll, M.J. 19 Duijx, T. 51–52 Dullion, V. 34 Dye, M. 169 Dyer, C.R. 241, 335

Fortis, A. 130–132, 134–135, 138, 140 Foster, J. 291 Foulet, A. 19 Frigau Manning, C. 226, 230 Fu, D. 351–352, 356 Fuentes-Luque, A. 367 Gagnon, C. 186 Galli, M.T. 88 Gambier, Y. 175, 396, 412, 435 García, O. 1, 351–352 García-Izquierdo, I. 186, 204 García Muñoz, O. 456 Gardner, J. 337 Garner, B. 331 Garzya, A. 97 Geerts, S. 50 Genette, G. 222, 309, 378 Georgiou, V. 120 Gesemann, G. 135 Gibson, E. 254 Gil Ariza, M.C. 169 Ginna, P. 274 Gitelman, L. 168 Glas, F. de 51 Gläser, J. 223 Goethe, J.W. 88, 130, 134 Gölpinarli, A. 80 González Davies, M. 254, 268, 347–349, 351, 361 González, J.M. 78 González-Vera, P. 360 Gonzalo Llera, C. 369 Göpferich, S. 228 Görlach, M. 18 Gorlée, D. 65, 131 Goscinny, R. 121 Gotti, M. 254–255, 336 Gottlieb, H. 4, 5, 34–35, 65, 83, 118, 131, 165, 389, 411, 435 Govind, N. 167 Graham, S. 468 Grammenidis, S. 18, 21, 24 Greco, G.M. 434–437, 450 Green, J. 170 Green, R.P.H. 86 Greenberg, S.L. 274 Grice, H.P. 279, 421–423 Griggs, B. 174 Grohmann, K.K. 117, 352 Grube, G.M.A. 355 Grutman, R. 20 Gu, Y. 68 Gudurić, S. 133 Gülich, E. 252, 254, 268 Gutermuth, S. 247

Eder, P.J. 330 Eichmeyer, D. 395, 398–400 Einsohn, A. 280, 286 Elam, P. 256 Eliot, T.S. 151 Elsner, J. 83, 87 Engberg, J. 252, 255, 267, 330 Erbse, H. 107 Ernst, N. 100 Escobar-Álvarez, M.A. 348 Espagne, M. 33 Estévez Grossi, M. 234 Eugeni, C. 412 Evangelista, M.C. 381 Evelyn-White, H.G. 86, 88 Even-Zohar, I. 348–349 Ezpeleta-Piorno, P. 252 Farrell, D. 416 Fassina, A. 83, 86 Fdez, J. 174 Federici, F. M. 305 Ferguson, C. A. 126, 352 Ferguson, F. 154–155 Fernández Delgado, J.A. 102 Figueroa, V. 173 Findlay, B. 146 Fishman, J.A. 35 Fitt, M. 157–160 Flood, A. 279 Floros, G. 18, 21, 24 Fodde-Melis, L. 294 Fonioková, Z. 311–312, 320 Ford Williams, G. 413, 431

474

Author index Gutiérrez, A. 173 Gutiérrez, V. 170 Gutiérrez Rodilla, B.M. 291 Guzmán, D. 332

Huang, Z. 131 Huber, I. 284 Hung, E. 64 Husbands, H.W. 152

Hadjipieris, I. 119, 122–123 Hall, S. 169, 174 Haller, J. S. 300 Halliday, M.A.K. 197–199 Hammersley, B. 457 Hansen-Schirra, S. 218, 224, 235, 237–239, 244, 245, 248, 395, 397, 438, 439 Harris, R.A. 280 Harvey, K. 286 Harzhauser, M. 88 Hasan, R. 197–199 Hastings, R. 168–169 Hatch, D.F. 85 Hays, I. 290–292, 294–295, 297–298, 300, 302–304 Heaney, S. 25 Heap, D. 115 Heffer, C. 336 Helmle, K.-S. 225 Heltai, P. 278, 314, 381 Hemmungs-Wirtén, E. 275 Henrichs, H. 100 Herbert, M. 468 Herdina, P. 349 Hermans, T. 2, 80, 131–132, 185, 221, 277 Hernández Garrido, S. 234, 237–239, 247, 396 Hewson, L. 25 Hilgartner, S. 212 Hill, D.R. 378–382, 388 Hill-Madsen, A. 1, 4, 5, 8, 17, 19, 23, 65–66, 115, 145, 151, 165, 183, 185–188, 193, 253–254, 267, 293–294, 297, 313, 315 Hinds, S. 79 Hirsch, G. 314 Hoare, M.R. 291 Hoblyn, R.D. 290–291, 296, 300, 302–303 Hodson, J. 283 Hokenson, J.W. 3 Holmes, J. 1 Holzman, G. 24 Homer 78, 80, 95–107, 114, 135 Honigman, S. 106 Hoogeboom, H. 121 Hornberger, N.H. 364 Horrocks, G. 114 Hose, M. 79 House, J. 278 Howell, K.W. 468 Hroch, M. 34 Huang, G. 64

Ibáñez, A. 364 Incalcaterra McLoughlin, L. 360–361 Inclusion Europe 218, 238, 246, 337, 396, 398 Inoue, R. 312 Ishiguro, I. 279, 308, 310–312, 315, 317–320 Israeli Institute for Cognitive Accessibility 396, 398–399, 402–403 Ivić, P. 135, 350 Jackson, L.M. 164 Jakobson, R. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 34, 113, 115, 125, 131, 136–139, 141–142, 165, 183–186, 193, 221, 246, 252–253, 273–274, 278, 292–293, 297, 309, 329, 381, 434–437, 453, 456 James, R. 290 Janko, R. 100 Jankowska, A. 436–437, 450 Jarvey, N. 174 Jenkins, H. 168 Jensson, G. 79 Jessner, U. 349 Ji, M. 351 Jia, H. 131 Jin, H. 168 Jobert, M. 12 Johnson, R. 165 Jones, C. 147, 148 Jones, F. 17, 20, 23, 130, 132–135 Jones, H. 167–8 Kabataş, O. 119 Kail, R. 397 Kaindl, K. 53 Kajzer-Wietrzny, M. 1, 222 Källkvist, M. 351 Kambanaros, M. 352 Karas, H. 4, 65–66 Karyolemou, M. 119 Kassel, R. 99 Katsoyannou, M. 119 Kaufmann, F. 25 Kelly, A. 98 Kelly, N. 1 Kern, R.G. 352 Kilgarriff, A. 256–257, 264 Kin, B. 70 Kirk, J.M. 155–156 Kirsch, I.K. 397 Kjaer, A.L. 334 Klein, S.E. 70

475

Author index Kobayashi, H. 352 Koch, T. 170, 174 Kousoulini, V. 96 Kozloff, S. 458 Krashen, S. 361, 365 Krathwohl, D.R. 363 Kristensen, T.M. 88 Kroh, A. 88 Krstić, V. 131 Kruger, H. 275, 278 Kuipers, M. 48, 52, 53, 55, 58, 60 Kumar, R. 169 Kussmaul, P. 294

Lira, S. 440 Lively, P. 273 Loizidou-Ieridou, N. 122 Long, G.B. 463 Longinović, T.Z. 3, 49 Lootens, A. 43 Lopriore, L. 367 Lorimer, R. 152–154 Loveland, J. 291 Lugea, J. 5, 165 Lukežić, I. 130 Lundon, J. 100 Luo, X. 64 Lupo, L. 456–458 Luther, M. 23, 114

Laan, D. 51–60 Labov, W. 117 Lake, P.G. 102 Laks, S. 360, 435 Lambourne, A. 411 Land, C. 462 Landau, S.I. 296 Lang, K. 234–235, 237 Lanselle, R. 1, 309 Lanstyák, I. 278 Lasagabaster, D. 364 Lathey, G. 50 Latte, K. 100–101 Laudel, G. 223 Lavinio, C. 458 Laviosa Braithwaite, S. 277 Laviosa, S. 278, 351 Lebrocquy, P. 40–41 Leckie-Tarry, H. 198 Ledeganck, K.L. 39 Leerssen, J. 33, 43 Lefere, R. 23 Lefevere, A. 2, 274, 308–309 Lehmann, W.P. 132 Leichtfuß, A. 395, 399–400 Lenzner, T. 254 Leonard, M. 456–457 Leonard, T. 151–152 Lepage, Y.G. 19 Lertola, J. 347, 360, 361–364, 367–370 Leskelä, L. 38, 246 Lessinger, E. 273 Levinson, S.C. 422 Lévy, P. 168 Lewis, M. 461 Li, S. 69 Liao, M.-H. 336 Linders, J. 51–52 Lindgren, M. 456, 458 Lindholm, U. 234, 238, 395, 453, 456–457 Linell, P. 197 Link, H. 364

Maaß, C. 218, 220, 224, 227, 336, 395–397, 453, 455–456, 467 Macafee, C. 146 Macaro, E. 348 Mackridge, P. 24–25, 115 Magennis, H. 21 Mahmutćehajić, R. 134 Major, R.A. 132 Maley, W. 152 Malinowski, B. 197 Maranta, A. 199 Marder, N.S. 335 Markman, K.M. 456–457 Maronitis, D.N. 1, 5, 115, 347, 353–354 Marrou, H.-I. 85 Martin, J.R. 198–199 Martindale, C. 81 Martínez Sierra, J.J. 166 Martyn, G. 37 Matamala, A. 166, 454 Maton, K. 207, 212, 213 Matthiessen, C.M.I.M. 198 Mattila, H.E.S. 330, 335 Maturana, H.R. 228–229 Mayne, R.G. 291 Mayoral Asensio, R. 331 Mazi/Birlikte 123 McArthur, T. 297 McCallum, R. 50 McClure, G.M. 256 McClure, J.D. 145–147, 152–154 McColl Millar, R. 146 McCormack, T. 274 McCrum, R. 279 McElduff, S. 80 McEwan, I. 273, 275–277, 280–281, 285 McGill, S. 79 McIntyre, D. 5 Mecklenburg, N. 130 Medenica, R. 135

476

Author index Mellinkoff, D. 335 Menander (of Athens) 355 Mendes, E. 440 Mendoza, M. 164 Meyer, B. 5 Meylaerts, R. 20 Meynard, T. 72 Miguélez-Cavero, L. 99 Miklosich, F. 135 Milanović, A. 133 Mishler, E.G. 203 Montalt-Resurrecció, V. 254, 268 Montalt, V. 186, 188, 204 Montini, C. 310 Moonen, X. 244 Morales, M. 170, 173 Morales Moreno, A. 333 Moreno, G. 443 Moreno Tovar, M. 1, 437 Morgan, E. 149, 150–154 Morgan, T.E. 81 Mossop, B. 17, 164, 167, 170, 175, 253, 274, 278–279, 293–296, 298, 350 Most, G.W. 79 Moyer, J.D. 74 Munday, J. 58, 453, 456 Muñoz-Miquel, A. 204, 252, 254–255 Munson, M. 3 Murko, M. 134 Murphy, A.C. 278 Mutesayire, M. 278

Ofcom 256, 413 Ogea Pozo, M. del M. 360, 367, 369 Ogilvie, S. 291 Okáčová, M. 83 Ó’Laoire, M. 348 Olohan, M. 278 Orero, P. 217, 220, 453–455, 458 Orlowsky, J. 371 Orrego-Carmona, D. 168–169, 175 Osimo, B. 18 O’Sullivan, C. 164–165 Page, D.L. 97 Pang-White, A. 73 Panofsky, E. 87 Pantelidis, C. 116 Papapavlou, A.N. 117–118 Parry, M. 135 Patel, S. 164, 175 Pavlou, P. 117–118 Pavlovskis, Z. 78–79, 84 Paye, C. 34 Peacock, N. 150 Pedraza Pedraza, M. B. 241 Perego, E. 168 Pérez, J.M. 414 Pérez-González, L. 168 Pérez-Sabater, C. 367 Perl, J. 149 Perrotta, M. 458 Peruzzo, K. 334 Petrilli, S. 4, 197, 294 Petrović, D. 133 Pfeiffer, R. 100 Pichert, J.W. 256 Pickles, W. 304 Pierazzo, E. 19 Piirainen, E. 351 Pilegaard, M. 211 Pillière, L. 1, 3, 4–5, 49, 58, 165, 183–185, 187, 193, 220–222, 293–297 Pintado Gutiérrez, L. 361, 363 Piorno, P.E. 209 Pitler, E. 254 Plato 100, 102–105 Plaza-Lara, C. 360, 369 Plummer, L. 169 Pöchhacker, F. 396 Pöchhacker, F. 436 Pollmann, K. 79, 83, 85, 87–88 Pontani, F. 100 Popovič, A. 65 Poppy, D. 279–280, 284 Possemiers, W. 39 Pound, E. 149–152 Pozzo, B. 330

Naddaff, R. 102, 104 Nakaš, L. 134, 135 Nation, I.S.P. 378–381 Navarrete, M. 348, 360–361 Neely, S. 152 Nelson, B.J. 19 Nenkova, A. 254 Neves, J. 165–166, 175, 436, 454 Newmark, P. 253, 278, 280, 293 Newton, B. 116–117 Nichols, S.G. 19 Nida, E.A. 20 Nielsen, R.K. 256 Nietzsche, F. 206, 208 Nisbeth Jensen, M. 5, 437 Nocella, G. 402, 408 Nohl, A.M. 275 Nord, C. 165, 331, 381 Nouws, B. 41 Nunan, D. 362, 364 Nünlist, R. 101 Obenaus, G. 340 O’Donnell, M. 198

477

Author index Preite, C. 252 Price, K. 360 Pucci, J. 79 Purves, D. 145, 152–154 Putnam, M.C.J. 85 Pym, A. 17, 25–26, 131, 136–140, 184, 278, 285, 293, 310, 320, 352

Salotti, B.M. 254 San Isidro, X. 364 Sánchez-Requena, A. 361, 363, 368, 372 Sandell, R. 437, 438, 450 Sandrelli, A. 337 Sapir-Weitz, C. 20 Sarangi, S. 205 Šarčević, S. 329 Sassaki, K.R. 437–438, 450 Saussure, F.de 137–139, 198 Savaş, B. 355 Sawyer, A. 335 Sawyer, C.E. 456–457 Sawyer, M. 457 Schaeffer, D. 234 Schäffner, C. 309 Schjoldager, A. 187–188, 191–192, 204 Schmid, S. 275 Schmidt, S.J. 228–229 Schneider, A.J. 275, 280, 285 Schreiber, M. 34 Schrijver, I. 308–309 Schriver, K.A. 228 Schubert, K. 17, 235, 253, 293 Schulz, R. 234, 395, 399, 401 Scott, A. 148–151, 154 Scott, M. 460 Scott, T. 148–151, 154 Scott, W. 130 Seel, O.I. 388 Sela-Sheffy, R. 20 Selles, H. 121 Semino, E. 81 Serrure, C.P. 42 Şeyh Galip 80–81 Shaffer, B.W. 308 Shakespeare, W. 18, 113–114, 150, 152–154, 378, 386 Shalev, M. 20 Shuttleworth, M. 254 Sibau, M.F. 67 Silletti, A. 252, 255 Simonnæs, I. 255, 267 Simpson, P. 283 Singleton, D. 348 Skarpari, C. 122 Skopečková, E. 381–382 Smeets, K. 48, 52–53, 55, 58, 60 Smetanová, E. 468 Smith, R.C. 380 Snell-Hornby, M. 348 Sokoli, S. 348, 360, 365 Soleil, S. 39 Soler, J. 170, 173–174, 176 Soler Pardo, B. 367 Sonnedecker, G. 300

Quirk, R. 285 Radovanović, M. 132 Raffo, M. 252 Rajan, T. 81 Ravotas, D. 205 Ray, R. 1 Real Academia Española 171–173 Redish, J. 256 Reid Thomas, H. 380 Reiss, K. 166, 248, 320, 381 Remael, A. 165, 171, 175, 360, 453 Renner, T. 101 Revilla Guijarro, A. 389 Richardson, B. 311 Richardson, I. 335 Rink, I. 234–235, 243, 248, 336 Rinnert, C 352 Risku, H. 222, 230 Rizzi, A. 18 Rizzo, A. 436 Rizzo, M. 252 Robb, D. 148 Robertson, J. 157–159 Robin, E. 279 Robinson, D. 17, 114 Robinson, L.K. 468 Rodríguez-Arancón, P. 367 Rodriguez Murphy, E. 1 Rolfe, J.C. 80 Romaine, S. 298 Romero-Fresco, P. 165–166, 368, 411, 413–414, 434–435 Rowe, C. 117 Rowling, J.F.K. 158–159, 160 Roxborough, S. 170 Rubin, D.L. 458 Rundell, M. 294–295 Ruohonen, J. 256–257 Rüpke, J. 87 Rusch, G. 228 Russell, D.A. 80 Safran, G. 291 Saint-Exupéry, A. 18, 123 Sakai, N. 24–25, 66 Salanitro, G. 87 Saldanha, G. 314

478

Author index Sophocleous, A. 118 Sotirova, V. 283 Speer, M.B. 19 Squire, M. 101 Stadnik, K. 252 Staff 456 Starr, K. 455 Starr, P. 292 Steen, G. 81 Stefaniak, K. 329 Stefanović Karadžić, V. 130, 135, 138 Steiner, G. 132, 136, 193 Stephens, J. 50 Stetting, K.T. 1, 275, 309 Stuart-Smith, J. 147 Stubbs, M. 256 Sturrock, J. 2, 131, 137 Suojanen, T. 389 Swales, J.M. 457 Swan, M. 362 Swiggers, P. 40 Sylvan, C.E. 351 Szarkowska, A. 165, 168

Vagle, W. 458 Van Dijk, T.A. 252 van Doorslaer, L. 224–225 van Gerwen, H. 39 van Rooy, B. 278 van Rossum-Steenbeck, M. 101 van Thiel, H. 101 Van Wallendael, C. 334 Vanderplank, R. 360 Vanhatalo, U. 217, 234, 238, 395, 453, 456, 467 Vasileiadis, P.D. 24 Venuti, L. 1, 21–22, 115, 148 Vermeer, H.J. 166, 248, 294, 381 Vermeulen, A. 348, 364 Verweyen, T. 79–80 Vinay, J.-P. 53, 187, 188, 278, 280 Vlachopoulos, S. 24, 335 Voellmer, E. 3 von Merveldt, N. 309 Voniati, L. 116 Wachter, R. 96 Wakabayashi, J. 28 Waley, A. 69 Walker, W. B. 291 Waring, R. 378–379, 380–381 Weber, J. 309 Webster, N. 294, 298 Wei, L. 352 Werner, M. 33 West, M.L. 78, 96 Wharton, M. 241 Whyatt, B. 1, 186, 187, 222, 293, 313, 320, 435, 437 Wilde, O. 297, 382–384 Wilhelm, R. 19 Wilhelmsen, M.K. 377–378, 381–382, 389 Wilkins, D. 362 Willems, J.F. 42 Willemyns, R. 40 Williams, C. 335 Williams, D.A. 278 Williams, E.B. 22 Williams, H. 360 Williams, W.Carlos 151–152 Wilson, J. 361 Wittgenstein, L. 228–229 Witting, G. 79–80 Wolf, M. 34 Wolvin, A.D. 462 Wong, C.F. 308 Wong, L. 64 Wright, B.G. 105–106

Takekoshi, T. 71 Talese, N. 275–277, 285 Tanselle, G.T. 19 Telles, S.V. 254 Temmerman, R. 334 Terkourafi, M. 117 Thiesse, A.M. 33 Thomas, P.L. 135 Thompson, A. 169–170, 174 Thompson, J. 167 Thorne, D. 360 Tiersma, P.M. 35–36 Tissi, L.M. 83 Titford, C. 352 Tolkien, J.R.R. 21 Torop, P. 18, 131 Toury, G. 5, 18, 22, 66, 131, 136–137, 277, 278, 293, 314, 317, 378, 383 Trachsler, R. 20 Trivedi, H. 173 Trudgill, P. 115 Tsagari, D. 348 Tsiplakou, S. 117, 122, 351 Tsolakidis, S. 122 Turner, A. 17, 20, 23 Tymoczko, M. 223 Uderzo, A. 121 Ulrych, M. 278 Upton, C. 298 Uziel-Karl, S. 396

Xia, X. 72, 74 Xing, N. 70 Xu, D. 70

479

Author index Yeo, R 291 Yepes Villegas, P. 234 Yoon, S.R. 22

165, 196–197, 217, 223, 225, 227, 245, 253–254, 267–268, 293, 296–297, 313, 314–315, 320, 329, 351, 354, 377, 383, 411–412, 437 Ziolkowski, J.M. 85 Zuckerman, G. 24 Zwischenberger, C. 402, 408

Zabalbeascoa, P. 3, 365 Zanettin, F. 278, 347 Zethsen, K. K. 1, 2, 4, 6, 9, 17, 19, 23, 34, 48–49, 59, 65–66, 145, 151,

480

SUBJECT INDEX

Note: Page numbers in bold indicate a table on the corresponding page. Beowulf 25, 138–140, 149 Bible translation 20–21, 24–25, 105–106, 113–114, 313 bilingual: education 352, 364, 372; bilingual text 25–28, 38–39, 42, 102, 137, 141, 330–331, 382 bilingualism 35, 156, 352 Bosnian 3, 7, 130, 132–134, 138–141

accessibility 43, 217–218, 226, 235, 239, 244, 252, 314, 337, 339, 364, 368, 389, 395–408, 434–450, 453, 463, 468; legal accessibility 224, 335, 340 adaptation 34, 67, 79, 83, 123–125, 158, 165, 167, 174, 188, 191–192, 222–224, 252–254, 274, 278, 290, 293, 296–297, 304, 337, 339, 377, 381, 386–387, 437, 441, 453, 456 addition 28, 70, 103, 173, 188, 191–192, 276–278, 286, 297, 302, 320, 378, 407, 463 American English 151, 187, 293–295, 297 American English edition 275–277, 290–291, 294–297, 299, 300, 303 ancient Greek 24, 78–79, 95–107, 115; and education 10, 347, 353–355 archaization 5, 17–28 artificial intelligence (AI) 166–167, 169, 173, 175; as a translation procedure 254, 278, 356 Aucassin and Nicolette 21, 22 audio description: lifelong access for the blind (ADLAB) 454–455, 468n1 audiovisual translation (AVT) 165, 221, 347–348, 360, 434; media accessibility 434–436, 448, 454; pedagogical resource 360 audiovisual translation didactic AVT (DAT) 360–372; advantages in language learning 361–365, 367–368, 372; practical applications 369–372; and translation studies 361–362 authenticity 22, 28, 37, 58–59, 117, 135, 361–362, 364, 367–369, 459 authorial editing 310–320 authority 35–36, 51, 58–60, 119, 218, 225, 243, 267, 274, 334

cento 6, 78–89; definition of 78–79; and intertextuality 80–81; and intralingual translation 81–83; as literary work 79–80; and multimodality 87–89 Chanson de Roland 20 children’s literature 34, 43, 48–60, 65, 123, 157–161, 277, 377, 379 China 6, 64–67, 445 Chinese diachronic intralingual translation: baihua ben 67; jinyi 67–68; jujie 6, 64–65, 68, 70–71, 74–75; yanyi 64–65, 74–75; zhijie 64–65, 74, 702 Classical Greek see ancient Greek code-switching 122, 371–372; see also translanguaging cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) 363–364, 367, 371 cognitive difficulties 218, 225, 229, 238–239, 243–245, 247–248, 389, 395–399, 401, 404, 439, 447, 453, 455, 459, 465 cognitive effort 254, 338, 367 collaborative translation 8, 11, 58, 217, 222–223, 225–228, 230 Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) 48, 363, 367–368, 370–371, 382, 385 comparative linguistics 33, 39–41

481

Subject index condensation 102, 187–188, 190, 192, 367, 369, 372, 383 constructivism 217, 228–229, 362 creativity 56, 80, 184, 191, 274–275, 309, 364–365, 368–370, 436, 460 critical edition 18–19, 23, 28 Croatian 3, 7, 117, 130, 132–134, 138–141 cultural heritage 48, 140, 436, 440 cultural politics 6, 49, 59 Cypriot Greek (CG) 7, 113–125, 351; historical background 116–117; and Standard Modern Greek 116–120, 123–124, 335, 351 Cypriot Turkish (CT) 7, 116, 119 Cyprus: sociolinguistic situation 117–118

editing 19, 33, 42, 83, 138, 245, 273–286, 293, 295, 308–310, 333, 398, 404, 413, 441, 457–458, 468; content editing 296, 298–303 editing strategies 428–429 English: Early Modern 114; Modern English 18, 138–140, 378, 387; Old English 3, 25, 29, 138, 148–150, 154–155 epitext 222–224, 228, 378, 386 equivalence 25–26, 44, 186, 213, 245, 253, 354–355 European Commission 196, 201, 337, 338 European Union 117, 238, 255, 331, 334, 337–338, 420, 454–455 explicitation 10, 83, 187–188, 190–193, 204, 277–278, 280, 286, 313–314, 317, 320, 337, 383

deaf and hard-of-hearing 117, 165–166, 368–369, 411–412, 434–435, 453–454 deletion 188, 190–192, 281 dialectal 35, 65, 118–119, 122, 124, 294, 412 diamesic 35, 65, 118–119, 122, 124, 294, 412 diaphasic 35, 65, 118, 122, 187–188, 196–214, 221, 227, 235, 247–248, 294, 389 diatopic 9, 298–299, 304, 352 didactic media accessibility (DIMA) 368–369 diglossia 35, 352 diglossic 117, 126n6, 294, 303, 352 diplomatic transcription 18–19, 23, 28 direct transfer 187–189, 192, 197 direct translation 22, 189, 191–193 domesticating 148, 154 dubbing 164, 169, 175, 360–361, 365, 367–372, 435–436

French 51, 121, 130, 147, 246, 290–291, 330, 340, 379; Belgian French 37–39; and Flemish 6, 35–36, 40–43; Latin 137; legal terms 334–335; Medieval French 21, 26; Modern French 19, 21–22, 42; Old French 18, 21 functionalism 347–349, 353, 356–357 glossary 43, 74, 121, 220–221, 332–333, 384 glossing 68, 70–73, 100–101, 107, 268 Greek 23, 211, 302, 335; alphabet 27; Greek Cypriot community (GC) 7, 116–117, 119; see also ancient Greek; standard modern Greek (SMG) 24–25, 114–118, 125, 335, 355 Hasanaginica 130–142 Hebrew 107, 399, 405; Bible 21, 23–24, 105–106; biblical Hebrew 18, 24–25; Easy Language 402–403 heterolingualism 20, 22 Hildesheimer Treppe 235–236 historiography 43, 79 hypernym 190, 254, 260–261, 267 hyponym 212, 254, 260, 267

Easy Access for Social Inclusion Training (EASIT) 454–455 Easy Language 434–438, 440, 450; barriers to communication 235–237, 248, 396–397, 453; characteristics of 220, 244, 396; children 244, 434, 439; compared to Plain Language 218, 234, 237, 241–244, 395, 438–439, 450, 455; and comprehensibility 227–230, 234–235, 237; definition of 217, 238, 439; evolution of 218, 238; interlingual translation 245–246; intersemiotic translation 245–246; intralingual translation 246–247; legal texts 336, 340; multimodality 218, 220–223, 244; see also Easy Access for Social Inclusion Training (EASIT); Easy Language and interpreting (ELI): social process 222, 225–231; textual guidelines 238– 239, 398 Easy Language and interpreting (ELI) 395–408; characteristics of 407; compared to simultaneous interpreting (SI) 402–406; in Germany 399, 408; in Israel 398–399; simplification 400–401; training 400–401, 408 Easy to Understand E2U 454–456, 463

identity: communal 27, 117, 122; cultural 7, 40, 49, 117, 123; diachronic 137–138; linguistic 65, 136, 138–139, 142, 146, 354, 357; national 36, 39, 96, 133 ideology 17, 24, 39, 65, 113–115, 118, 125, 133, 141, 147, 173, 175–176, 274, 277, 293, 354–357, 382 illustrations 49–50, 56, 58–60, 157, 218, 380–381 institutional translation 33, 329, 340 inter-and intralingual translation: ancient Greek terminology 105–107; blurred boundaries 28, 34, 79, 89, 96, 105–107, 124–125, 135; similarities and differences 2–5, 7–9, 24–25, 58, 106, 175, 183–193, 293, 314, 330, 381; in subtitles 165–167, 175 intercultural competence 348, 366, 367–368

482

Subject index interculturality 380 interlingual translation 24, 35–36, 42, 95, 100, 148, 150, 161, 297, 330–332, 377, 437, 645; and audiovisual translation 360–361, 365, 372; and diachronic variation 18, 22, 353; and Easy/Plain language 246–247; and education 183, 347, 350–352, 354–356, 357; and interpreting 395–396, 400, 402–405; vs editing 275, 277–278, 280, 286 intersemiotic translation 2, 5, 35, 113, 131, 184, 221, 234, 245–246, 292–293, 369, 381, 389, 411, 434–436, 453 intralingual translation: and education 347–357; and Easy/Plain language 335–338; in expert-to-lay communication 253–254; and international institutional conventions 332–334; and legal translation 329–340; and simplification 455; and translanguaging 351–353; vs editing 273

Portuguese 145, 147, 246, 434, 438, 440–441, 443–445, 447; Brazilian Portuguese 311, 445 pragmatics 117, 350, 352, 354, 411, 421–423

language planning 4, 25 layout 25–28, 52, 59, 218, 220, 237, 244, 246, 266, 295, 396–397, 438, 455–456 learning difficulties see cognitive live subtitling 11, 437 live subtitling features 412–414

Scots 145; archaic Scots 148, 151–152, 155; Broad Scots 147; Civil Service Scots 156–157; contemporary Scots 147, 150–151; Itchy Coo translations 157–160; literary Scots 148, 152; translation from Old English 148–149; translation of English political texts 154–157; translation of literary canon 150–154 self-translation 308–310, 314, 317, 319–320 Serbian 3, 7, 117, 130, 132–135, 138–141 Serbo-Croatian 7, 49, 130, 132–134, 138–140, 142 simplification 17, 70, 187, 193, 212, 218, 254, 277–278, 286, 313, 320, 335, 383, 389, 443, 450, 453, 468; see also Easy Language; Easy Language and interpreting (ELI); rarefaction skopos theory 66, 145, 166, 185, 187, 197, 245, 248, 253–254, 267, 293–294, 313, 349, 381 Spanish (Iberian) 164, 169, 173, 302, 389, 447; and graded readers 377, 379, 382, 385, 386, 387–389; institutional and legal terms 330–333, 335, 340; Mexican Spanish 164, 170–176; Spanish vs Portuguese 145, 147 standard variety 125, 132–133, 139, 141–142, 147–150, 157, 160, 218, 234–235, 237, 239, 243, 246–248, 291, 293–294, 298, 351, 437, 454–456, 463 stigmatization 120–122, 152, 156, 234, 237, 244, 246, 362, 438 substitution 20–22, 98, 188, 191–193, 254, 274–275, 277–278, 280, 282, 284, 286 subtitling 17, 164–176, 360–372, 411–431, 434–437, 454; active subtitling 361–362, 364, 372; classification 165–167; technical aspects 165 surtitling 124, 435

rarefaction 212–213 readability 20–21, 28, 43, 227–228, 256–257, 268, 275, 279–280, 314, 318, 337, 416, 437–438, 464 readability level 441–445, 449–450 Real Academia Española 171–173 reception 18, 23, 50–51, 58, 60, 80, 85, 95–96, 107, 164, 167–169, 173–176, 414 reduplication 18–21, 23–25 register 23, 28, 65, 97, 100, 113, 159, 161, 172, 196–197, 204–205, 208, 254, 268, 294, 336, 350, 352–354, 364, 367–369, 405–406, 460; see also diamesic respeaking 166, 411–431, 425 revoicing 364–365, 368

media accessibility 368–370, 434–450, 453–456 modernization 17–28, 56–57, 59, 64–68, 113–115 Montenegrin 130–131, 133–134, 139–140 multimodal accessibility 87–88, 217, 220–222, 257, 266–268, 348, 389, 436, 454, 458 multimodality 87–89, 220–221 oblique translation 188–192 omission 54, 56, 103, 171–172, 276, 280, 302, 313–315, 320, 463 paralinguistic features 369, 412, 463 paraphrase 18, 36, 39, 68, 70, 74, 95–96, 101–105, 107, 187–188, 190–193, 201, 207, 254, 378, 468 paratext 58, 217–218, 223, 377–378, 385–389 parliamentary language 417–420 peritext 222–223, 228 permutation 188–193 Pinkeltje 48–60 Plain English 434, 437–438; and barriers to communication 243–244; characteristics 395–396; definition of 241; evolution of 241; and intersemiotic translation 246; and legal texts 241, 243; textual guidelines 242; and translation 245–246 podcast: translation into Easy Language 457–468; format 458; orality 458; types 457 polysystem theory 320, 348–350, 356–357

483

Subject index target audience 48, 165–169, 219, 227, 230, 235– 238, 242, 244, 246, 254, 294, 297, 304, 336, 378, 395–400, 402, 441, 455, 459–460, 459, 463–464 target culture 23, 50, 59, 83, 224, 237, 254, 275, 294, 298 transcription 19, 27, 28, 104, 106, 115, 165, 421, 423, 429 transediting 275, 309 translanguaging 347, 351–353, 356, 361, 364 translation in other learning contexts (TOLC) 347–350, 356 translation pact 58 translation procedures 188, 223, 273; see also adaptation; condensation; deletion; direct transfer; direct translation; explicitation;

oblique translation; omission; paraphrase; permutation; simplification; substitution translation shift: change in expressiveness 53–54; change of voice 57–59, 148, 280, 283; shift change in tone 54–55; see also modernization translation strategies see translation procedures translation universals see addition; explicitation; simplification transliteration 5, 27–28, 118–119, 122 Turkic languages 3, 136, 331, 397 Turkish 3, 23, 25, 49, 116–117, 122–123, 136; Ottoman Turkish 27, 134; Turkish language reform 25, 27 Turkish Cypriot community (TC) 7, 116–117 United Nations (UN) 331, 397

484