The Romano-British Archaeology of Victoria Cave, Settle: Researches into the site and Its artefacts 9780860549574, 9781407319049

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The Romano-British Archaeology of Victoria Cave, Settle Researches into the site and its artefacts

Martin J. Deame and Thomas C. Lord With contributions by Keith Branigan, Paul C. Buckland, Brenda Dickinson, David Dungworth, Jerry Evans, John Gilks, Kay Hartley, Katherine Holman and David Shorter

BAR British Series 273 1998

BAR

PUBLISHING

F ron t i sp iece : J o seph J a ck son ( 1 816 -1886 ) , t h e f i r s t e xcava to ro fV ic to r ia C ave , p ho tog raphed a ged a bou t 6 0 b y A . H or ne r o f S e t t le c .1 875 .

1 1

I N ME MORY OF M R . TOT LORD ( 1900 -1966 ) W HOSE ASSE MBLY , CURATION AND RESEARCH I NTO THE F INDS AND RECORDS FRO M V ICTOR IA CAVE HAVE M ADE TH IS VOLU ME POSSIBLE

L IST OF CONTENTS

L is to fF igu re s L is to fP la te s P reface a nd A cknow ledgemen t s L is t o fA rch ive S ou rce sC i ted i n Abb rev ia t ion Chap ter 1 :

I n t roduc t ion

Chap ter 2 :

T he S i te : I t sF o rm a nd E nv i ron s

Chapter 3 :

T he S i te : I t sE xcava t ion H is to ry , S t ra t ig raphy a nd t h eN a tu re a nd D ist r ibu t ion o fR omano -Br i t i sh F ea tu re sa nd F ind s

1 6

Chap ter 4 :

T he C on tex to ft h eR omano -Br i t i sh A c t iv i ty ( Ke i th B ran igan )

2 7

Chap ter 5 :

T he P re -1977 F ind s : T he i rP rovenance a nd C u ra t ion a nd t h eP rob lem o ft h eC omp le tene ss a nd R ep resen t iv i ty o ft he C a ta logue s

3 1

No te o nC a ta logue F orma t

4 0

Chap ter 6 :

T he P reh i s to r ic P o t te ry ( J ohn G i lk s )

4 1

Chapter 7 :

R oman C o in s f r om V ic tor ia C ave ( Dav id S ho t te r )

4 5

Chapter 8 :

T he B rooche s

5 3

Chapter 9 :

T he O the rO b jec t s o fC oppe rA l loy

6 7

Chap ter 1 0 : EDXRF A na lys is o fC oppe rA l loy A r te f ac t sf r om V ic to r ia C ave ( Dav id D ungwo r th )

8 2

Chap ter 1 : T he Ob jec t so fL ead

8 5

Chapter 1 2 : T he Ob jec t so fI r on

8 6

Chap ter 1 3 : T he P os t -Pa laeo l i th ic Ob jec t so fI v o ry ,B one a nd An t le r

9 0

Chap ter 1 4 : T he Ob jec to f Wood

11

Chapter 1 5 : T he O b jec t so fJ e t /Sha le

11

Chapter 1 6 : T he P os t -P r eh is tor ic Ob jec t s o fS tone ( P au lB uck land a nd MJD )

12

Chapter 1 7 : T he M isce l laneou sa nd Unca ta logued F ind s

19

Chapter 1 8 : T he R omano -Br i t i sh P o t te ry ( Pau lB uck land )

1 20

Chap ter 1 9 : T he G la s s

1 31

cand inav ian R une s i nS e t t le? ( Ka the r ine H o lman ) Chapter 2 0 : S

1 35

iscus s ion : T he R omano -Br i t ish U sage o fV ic to r ia C ave Chapter 2 1 : D

1 39

B ib l iography

1 47

V

L IST OF F IGURES

F igur e 1 :

V ic to r ia a nd A lbe r tC ave s : T he p r e sen tf o rm o ft h es i te

F igur e2 :

T he l o ca t ion o ft h es i t e

F igur e3 :

V ic to r ia C ave : I t sp r e -excava t ion f o rm

F igur e4 :

L ong i tud ina l s e c t ion so fV ic to r ia C ave C hambe r s A( ` F i r s tC ave ' )a nd B /C ( ' Second C ave ' )p ub l ished i n Sm i th ( 1844 , 7 1 )

F igur e5 :

Av i ew o ft h ep r e -excava t ion f o rm o ft h ee n t rance st oa nd p la teau i nf r on to fV ic to r ia C ave p ub l i shed i n Sm i th ( 1 844 , P 1 XXV )

F igur e6 :

V ic to r ia C ave : I t sp r e -excava t ion f o rm s how ing ar e con s t ruc t ion o ft h ef i nd sr e co rd ing s y s tem s u sed i n1 870

F igur e7 :

T he s t ra t ig raphy a tt h e ' New '( 1 870 )e n t rance t oC hambe rAa ss hown b y D awk in s ( 1 872 , F ig s 1a nd 2 ;1 874 , F ig s2 0a nd 2 1)

F igur e8 :

V ic to r ia C ave : I t sp r e -excava t ion f o rm s how ing ap a r t ia lr e con s t ruc t ion o fi t sf i nd sd i s t r ibu t ion

F igur e9 :

Ma jo rs i te si nt h eS e t t le r e g ion

F igur e1 0 :

R omano -Br i t ish c av ea nd o pen s i t e si nt h ea r ea

F igur e1 :

T he p reh is to r ic p o t te ry

F igur e s1 2 -14 : C oppe ra l loy b roo che s F igur e1 5 :

C oppe ra l loy b roo che sa nd o the ro b jec t s

F igur e s 1 6 -20 : O b jec t s o fC oppe ra loy F igur e2 1 :

Z inc a nd T in c on t en t sf o re i gh teen D r agone sque b rooche s f r om N o r the rn E ng land

F igur e2 2 :

O b jec t s o fL ead

F igur e2 3 :

O b jec t s o fI r on

F igure s2 4 -33 : O b jec t s o fa nd c u tm a rked b one /an t le ra nd i v o ry F igur e3 4 :

O b jec t s o f Wood a nd J e t /Sha le

F igure s3 5 -38 : O b jec t so fS tone F igur e3 9 :

O b jec t so f Ambe re t c

F igur e4 0 :

T he S am ian

F igur e s4 1 -42 : T he c oa r se p o t te ry F igur e4 3 :

F i nd so fG la s s

F igur e4 4 :

T he S cand inav ian r u n ic a l phabe t

F igur e4 5 :

a ) b )

T he s o -ca l led S e t t le r un ic s l a te ;a nd C o r re spond ing r u ne s i nF a r r e r 's d r aw ing o f Ma e showe 1 7

v i

L IST OF PLATES

F ron t i sp iece :

J o seph J ack son ( 1 816 -1886 ) t h ef i r s te xcava to ro fV ic to r ia C ave , p ho tog raphed a ged a bou t6 0b yA . H or ne ro f S e t t le c . 1875 .

P la t e 1

P ho tog raph o ft h e S e t t le E xcava t ion C omm i t tee a tt h e mou th o ft h ec ave , 1 5 th J u ly 1 870 .

P la te 2

P ho tog raph t a ken f r om w i th in C hambe rAl ook ing o u to fi t se n t rance ,c . 1895 .

P la te 3

T he s ou th w a l l o fC hambe rAc . 6 -9m f r om i t se n t rance ,p ho tog raphed d u r ing t h e 1 870 e xcava t ion s a nd s how ing s t a lagm i te w a l lf o rma t ion sa tt h ep re -excava t ion f l oo rl e ve l .

P la te 4

T he e n t rance f r om C hambe r Ai n to C hambe rB , p ho tog raphed d u r ing t h e 1 870 e xcava t ion s .

P la te 5

Membe r s o f aL anca sh i re a nd C he sh i r eA n t iqua r ian S oc ie ty o u t ing t oV ic to r ia C ave i nA ugu s t 1 897 p ho tog raphed w i th in t h ee xcava ted c hambe rA .

P la te 6

T he e x te r io ro fV ic to r ia C ave p ho tog raphed o n2 5 th Ma r ch 1 870 , f ou rd ay s a f t e rt h eb eg inn ing o ft h e 1 870 s e xcava t ion s .

P la te 7

As e lec t ion o ft h ec u t ,s p l i ta nd s awn b one a nd a n t le r( Chap t e r 1 3N umbe r s 1 3 .130 -13 .145 ) .

P la te 8

R ak ing l i gh tp ho tog raph o ft h eu t i l ised e dge o ft h es t one ? p in b urn i she r( Chap t e r 1 6N umbe r 1 6 .8 ) .

P la te 9

C oa r sewa re v e s se l6 7 s how ing s t a lagm i te c oa t ing .

A l lp ho tog raph sa r e ©c opy r igh tT homa sC .L o rd e xcep t7 -9 c opy r igh t Ma r t in J .D ea rne .

v i i

PREFACE

T h i s v o lume p ub l ishe s e l emen t s o f mo re e x ten s ive r e sea r ch

e r bo t tom H o le C ave ,A rnc l if f ei th a s b een t h ough tb e s tt op ro d uce t h e c u r ren tv o lume i na dvance o fi t s c omp le t ion . D owk e r bo t tom C ave w a se xcava ted a tb road ly t h es ame t ime a nd b y

b y t h e ma in a u tho r s a nd o t he r s i n to t h e e xcava t ion h i s to r ie s o f ,a nd f i nd sf r om , an umbe ro fc ave sw i th in c . 10 m i le s( 1 6km ) o ft h e t own o fS e t t le No r th Y o rk sh i re , a nd c oncen t ra te so nt h e

s ome o ft h e s ame p eop le a sV ic to r ia C ave b u ti t s r e co rd s a r e s i gn if i can t ly mo re p rob lema t ic t or e conc i le a nd e va lua te .S im i l a r ly t h ef a una l ma te r ia l f r om V ic to r ia C av e , c ove r ing av e ry w ide c h rono log ica lr ange f r om t h e P le i s tocene a nd H o locene t h rough t h eR omano -Br i t i sh p e r iod a nd i n to p o s t -Roman t ime s i sc u r ren t ly s t i l l b e ing e va lua ted a nd i th a s n o t b een c on s id e r ed d e s i rab le t od i vo r ce i tf r om af u l l e va lua t ion o ft h eP l e i s t o cene l e ve l s . T he f ew b u t i mpo r tan t p re -Neo l i th ic a r te f a c t s

l a te rP reh i s to r ic a nd , ma in ly , R omano -B r i t ish a r chaeo logy o f t h e mo s tw e l lk nown c ave o ft h eg roup ,V ic to r ia C ave . P r ima r i l y i t s i n ten t ion s a r e i )t op r e sen t s umma r ie s o f t h e c u r r en t s t a te o fr e sea r ch i n to t h e s i te ' s p r e -excava t ion f o rm , e xcava t i on h i s to ry ,s t ra t ig raphy ,c on tex t ,a nd t h ep rovenance a nd d i s t r i bu t ion o ft h e f i nd s c e r ta in ly o rp robab ly f r om t h e s i te ; a nd i )t op ub l i sh i nd e ta i l t h e a r t ef ac t s c once rned , v e ry m any o f w h ich h ave n o t p r ev iou s ly b een n o ted i np r in t l e ad ing t oa n u nba lanced i mp re s s ion o ft h ea s semb lage i np rev iou sa ccoun t s

a r ea l so mo re a pp rop r ia te ly c on s ide red t o ge the r w i th t h e f a u n a le v idence a nd s oo n ly b r ief s umma r ie s o fr e sea rch i n to a s p ec t s s uch a st h e i rp rovenance a nd c u ra t ion a r ei n c luded h e re . I ti sh oped t h a t as ub sequen tp ub l ica t ion w i l ld ea l w i th a l t h e s i t e ' sf a una ,i t sP r eh i s to r ic a r chaeo logy a nd P l e is tocene d epo s i t s , t h e a r chaeo logy o fD owke rbo t tom H o le C ave a nd t h e o n g o ing r e sea rch i n to f i nd p rovenance a nd c u ra t ion .

o ft h e c ave . D e ta i led r e sea r ch i n to t h e p rovenance a nd c u ra t i on h i s to ry o ft h ef i nd s i ss t i l l o ngo ing a nd i nt h i sr e spec tt h e a c coun t p ub l i shed h e re i sp rov i s iona l . A s t h e r e sea rch i su n l i k e ly t ob ec omp le ted q u ick ly a nd a s af u l la ccoun to fi tw ou ld n ece ss i ta te t h ed e ta i led c on s ide ra t ion o f as e cond c ave ,D owk -

v i i i

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS

F o rf i nanc ia l s uppo r t MJD a nd P rof e s so rB ran igan a r ep a r t ic u l a r ly g r a t ef u l t ot h e L eve rhu lme T rus t , t h e Y o rk sh i r e D a le s N a t iona l P a rk , t h e K i ln T ru s t , t h e R .M . B u r ton T ru s t a nd t h e B r i t i sh A cademy . F o r a cce s s t oe x tan t f i nd s a nd s i te r e co rd s ,

T he m a in a u tho r s o ft h e p re sen t v o lume w ou ld l i ke t or e co rd t h e i rt h ank st oa l t h o se w ho se w o rk a ppea r sh e re in a nd t oo t h e r s i n c lud ing Me l G a scoyne , R oge r J a cob i , a nd J am ie Q ua r t e rma ine w ho se r e sea rch h a s a i ded i t s p r epa ra t ion a nd w i l l h ope fu l ly a ppea ri nd e ta i l i n as ub sequen tv o lume .I np a r t icu -

t h e a u tho r s a r eg ra tefu l t oM r s . D . We lsh , Mr . T .C . L o rd , M r . J .H . N unney o fL eed s C i ty Mu seum a nd C a the r ine J ohn s o f t h eB r i t i sh Mu seum . T he t e x tw a sd ig i t i sed b yt h es t af fo ft h e Y o rk sh i r eD a le sN a t iona lP a rk a nd t ype se tb yN e i l Mo r r i sP ub l i sh ing . C opy p r epa ra t ion w ou ld h ave b een i mpo s s ib le w i th o u t ag ene rou sg ran tf r om t h eR .M . B u r ton T ru s t .

l a r t h e m a in a u tho r s a r e v e ry g ra te fu l t oR obe r t Wh i te o ft h e Y o rk sh i r e D a le s N a t iona l P a rk a nd P rof e s so r K e i th B ran igan o ft h e D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy a nd P r eh i s to ry , U n ive r s i ty o fS h ef f i e ld w ho a sw e l la sc omm i s s ion ing o ne o ft h em ( MM ) t op r epa r er epo r t s o na r tef ac t s w h ich f o rm p a r to ft h e v o lume p rov ided much e ncou ragemen t a nd h e lp o ve r s eve ra l y ea r s .

i x

L IST OF ARCH IVE SOURCES C ITED I N ABBREV IAT ION

CROFTON MSS

RAISTR ICK ARCHIVE

Ag roup o fr e co rd sd e r iv ing f r om t h eR ev .A dd ison C ro f ton , a l a te rn i ne teen th a nd e a r ly t wen t ie th c en tu ry c o l lec to ro fa r chae o l og ica la nd e spec ia l ly f a una la nd g eo log ica l ma te r ia lw ho v i s i t ed ,d e sc r ibed a nd c o l lec ted m a te r ia lf r om many B r i t i sh s i te s . T he r e co rd sc omp r ise : i )p a r to f an o tebook o ft h e 1 860 s a nd

Ac o l lec t ion o fa nno ta ted a r tefac t d raw ing s b y A r thu r R a i s t r i ck a nd h i s s t uden t s m ade i nt h e 1 930 s a nd 1 940 s a nd r e la t i ng t op i ece s i nt h eP ig Y a rd C lub Mu seum . N ow i nt h eL o rd C o l lec t ion .

l a te rd e sc r ib ing many o fh i sv i s i t sa nd a cqu i s i t ion s ,m any p ag e so f wh ich h ave b een c u to u ta nd l o s t( p robab ly i nt h e 1 930 s ) ; i )s pec if i ca l ly a t t r ibu ted t r an sc r ip t so fe x tan ta nd m i s s ing p a r t s

R ICH MOND ARCH IVE An o tebook w i th d r aw ing s a nd n o te s o n t h e c o l lec t ion o ft h e P ig Y a rd C lub Mu seum c omp i led b y S i rI a nR ichmond .O r ig i n a l n ow i nt h e A shmo lean Mu seum a nd ac opy i nt h e L o rd C o l lec t ion .

o ft h es ame i nt h et ypew r i t ten S pe leo log ica lA s soc ia t ion Y o rk s h i re R eco rd s , p robab ly c omp i led i nt h e 1 930 s b y E l i S imp s on ,w h ich a l so i n c lude h and d rawn p l an sc u tf r om i )a nd s t uck i n ; i i ) a' s c rapbook ' p robab ly c omp i led i nt h e? 1890 sa nd l a t e rc omp r i s ing s ome h andw r i t ten n o te s a nd p l an s , n ew spape r c u t t ing s , p o s tca rd s , a nd w a te rco lou r s ke tche s mo s t ly r e la t ing t oV ic to r ia C ave . T he r e co rd sa r e a l n ow i nt h e L o rd C o l lec t i on .

J ACKSON /LORD ARCH IVE A m isce l laneou s c o l lec t ion o f p ho tog raph s , l e t te r s , m u seum l a be l s e t c . r e la t ing t ot h e f o rme r J ack son /Know le s c o l lec t ion a nd t ot h e P ig Y a rd C lub Mu seum . N ow i nt h e L o rd C o l lec t i on .

J ACKSON ' daybook '

J .W .J ACKSON ARCH IVE

Ap r iva t ed a i ly r e co rd o fe xcava t ion si n1 870 a tV ic to r ia C ave , h andw r i t ten i n ad i a ry b y t h e s i te s upe rv iso rJ o seph J a ck son a nd i n c lud ing an umbe ro fs k e tche so ff i nd s .N ow i nt h eL o rd

Al a rge a r ch ive r e la t ing t ot h er e sea rche s , p ub l ica t ion se t c . o f D r . J .W i lf red J a ck son w ho w a s c lose ly i n vo lved i nc ave r e s ea rch i nt h e S e t t le a r ea i nt h e 1 930 s . N ow i nB ux ton Mu se um .

C o l lec t ion .

LORD MS S .C .E .C . MSS Al a rge n o tebook a nd l o o se p age sh andw r i t ten b y Mr .T o tL o rd r e co rd ing h i s a nd c o -wo rke r s ' f i nd s a nd o b se rva t ion s i nt h e 1 930 s i nt h e S e t t le a nd G igg le sw ick a r ea s . N ow i nt h e L o rd C o l lec t ion .

An a r ch ive r e la t ing t ot h e 1 870 -8 S e t t le C av eE xp lo ra t ion C om m i t tee e xcava t ion sa tV ic to r ia C ave a nd i n c lud ing an umbe ro f c on tempo ra ry p ho tog raph s . N ow i nt h eL o rd C o l le c t ion .

x

CHAPTER 1 :I NTRODUCT ION

B yT homas C .L ord

O nt h e4 th A p r i l 1 840 J o seph J ack son , a2 3 y ea ro ld p lumbe r a nd g l az ie ri nS e t t le , w ro t et oC ha r le sR oa ch Sm i th , t h e em i n en tR oman a r chaeo log i s tw ho e d i ted t h ea n t iqua r ian n o te sf o r t h eG en t leman ' s Magaz ine .T he l e t te rd e sc r ibed J ack son ' s i n v e s t iga t ion si n ar e cen t ly d i scove red c ave n ea rS e t t le .J ack son a l so s en t Sm i th s ome o fh i s f i nd s . W i th in af o r tn igh t Sm i th h ad f o rwa rded ad e scr ip t ion o fJ ack son ' sm a t e r ia la nd h i sl e t t e rt oS i rH en ry E l l i s , S ec r e ta ry o ft h eS oc ie ty o f An t iqua r ie s o fL ondon .O nt h e3 0 th A p r i l 1 840 t h e se w e re r ead t ot h eS o c i e ty o f A n t iqua r ie s a nd d u ly p ub l ished ( Sm i th a nd J ack son 1 842 ) . T he c ave r e f e r red t oi s ,o fc ou r se ,V ic to r ia C ave a st h e i lu s t ra t ion o ft h es i te r e p roduced i n1 844 m ak e sc l ea r( Sm i th

I nt h eI c eA ge t h ec ave w a s ah ome f o rb rown b ea r s a nd s po t t e dh yaena s . Among t h er ema in sc a r r ied i n to t h ec ave b ys po t t e dh yaena s a r e b one s o fh i ppopo tamu s , a nd e x t inc t f o rm s o f e l ephan t , r h inoce ro s a nd g i an t d ee r . B rown b ea r s mu s t h ave l i k ed V ic to r ia C ave f o r t h ey u sed i ta ga in o n t h e i r r e tur n t o n o r the rn E ng land a f te rt h el a s tg l ac ia t ion .T hey p robab ly u sed t h ec ave t oh i be rna te o ve rw in te r .A l ly ea rr ound r e s iden t ss u ch a sf oxe s a nd b adge r s h ave a l so o ccup ied t h e c ave . I ta ppea r s t h a tt h e i ra c t iv i ty i n c rea sed a f t e rt h em a in p ha se o fh uman u s e i nt h eR omano -Br i t i sh p e r iod . H oweve r , n o ta l l a n ima l s u s ing t h ec ave w e re w i ld . H eav i ly g nawed c a t t le b one s s ugge s tt h a t i nt h eR omano -B r i t ish p e r iod d og sw e r ea c t ive i n s ide t h ec av e .

1 844 , P l .XXV ) . F rom t h el a t e 1 830 s t ot h e l a te 1 930 s t h e re w e re t h ree p ha se s o f e xcava t ion s : i n te rm i t ten t w o rk b y J o seph J ack son o ve r a

T he p u rpo se o ft h i sv o lume i st op roduce ar e co rd o ft h ee xca v a t ion s w h ich t o ok p l a ce a tV ic to r ia C ave o ve r t h e c ou r se o f t h e h und red y ea r s f r om t h e l a te 1 830 s t ot h e l a te 1 930 s . B y t h el a t te rd a te e xcava t ion h ad d e s t royed n ea r ly a l lt h ea r chaeo l og ica ld epo s i t sa nd ag r ea ta moun to ft h eu nde r ly ing I c e Age

p e r iod o fa bou tt h i r ty y ea r sa nd e nd ing i nt h e 1 860 s ;l a rge s c a le e xcava t ion s moun ted i n i t ia l ly b y t h e S e t t le C ave E xp lo ra t ion C omm i t tee i n1 870 a nd l a te rc on t inued w i th t h es uppo r to ft h e

s ed imen t s .C on sequen t ly ,e ven t oday ,w ea r ev e ry r e l ian tu pon

B r i t i sh A s soc ia t ion u n t i l 1 878 ; a nd f i na l ly e xcava t ion s b yT o t L o rd a nd o the rl o ca l e n thu s ia s t sb e tween 1 937 a nd 1 939 .

t h er e su l t so ft h e se i n ve s t iga t ion sf o ru nde r s tand ing t h er e co rd o fh uman a c t iv i ty a tt h e c ave a nd t h e s t ra t ig raphy o ft h e I c e

J a ck son w a s t h e o n ly s e r iou s i n ve s t iga to rd igg ing a tV ic to r ia C av ei nt h et h i r ty y ea r so rs of r om t h et ime o fi t sd i scove ry ,i n t h el a te 1 830 s ,t ot h es t a r to ft h el a rge s c a le e xcava t ion si nt h e 1 870 s . I nt h i sp e r iod h ea l so d ug i no t h e rc ave s i nt h ev i c in i ty , p a r t icu la r ly A lbe r tC ave , D owke rbo t tom H o le C ave a nd K e l c oC ave . J a ck son p robab ly w o rked ma in ly b yh im se lf o rw i t h a na s s i s tan t .A tV ic to r ia C av eh ed ug o n ly i n s ide t h ec ave .J a ck s on ' s c o l lec t ion o fa r tef ac t s , p o t te ry a nd a n ima l r ema in s w a s s e en a ti n te rva l s b y an umbe ro fc ompe ten t a u tho r i t ie s .A pa r t f r om m a te r ia l a cqu i red b y t h e B r i t i sh Mu seum i n 1 848 J a ck s on p robab ly k ep tt h roughou th i s l i f em o s to ft h e a r te f a c t sh e f ound a nd p o s s ib ly e ven t h e p o t te ry a nd a n ima l r ema in s . B y mak ing ma te r ia l a va i lab le f o rs t udy , J a ck son e n su red t h a th i s f i nd sw e r ei d en t if i ed a nd d e sc r ip t ion sw e re r e co rded i np ub l i c a t ion sa tt h et ime ( Sm i th a nd J a ck son 1 842 ; Sm i th 1 844 ;H ow -

A ge s ed imen t s . T he e a r l ie s t h uman a c t iv i ty a tt h e c ave o ccu r red d u r ing t h e c o lon i sa t ion o fn o r the rn E ng land b y I c e A ge h un te r s s hor t ly a f te rt h em e l t ing o ft h ei c es hee t wh ich h ad c ove red t h er eg ion a tt h e h e igh to ft h el a s tg l a c ia t ion . P i ece so fe qu ipmen t made f r om a n t le rp rov ide r a re d a t ing e v idence f o rt h ec h rono logy o f t h i se ven tw h ich i st h ef i r s tt ime t h a tp eop le a r ek nown t ob ei n t h eY o rk sh i r eD a le s .T he b one so fc on t empo ra ry a n ima l sw e re a l so p rese rv ed i nt h ec ave s e d imen t s ,g i v ing u sv a luab le g l imp s e s o f t h e n a tu ra l w o r ld e ncoun te red b y t h e se h un te r s , a bou t 1 2 ,000 y ea r s a go . T he c ave w a sm o s ta c t ive ly u sed ,h oweve r ,s ome 1 0 ,000 y ea r s l a te r d ur ing t h e R oman o ccupa t ion o f B r i ta in . T he ma te r ia l f r om V ic to r ia C ave i sp e rhap st h el a rge s tR omano -Br i t i sh c ave

s on 1 850 ;A non 1 855 ;D enny 1 860 ;B u r row 1 863 ; Sm i th 1 865 ; D awk in s 1 870 ; 1 872 ; 1 874 ) .

a s semb lage f o rw h ich ar e a sonab le a moun to fd ocumen ta t ion s u rv ives .A l though t h eb e s tk nown ,V ic to r ia C ave i so n ly o ne o f an umbe ro fc ave si nt h el ime s tone u p land o fC raven w h ich

Mo s to ft h ea r te f ac t si nJ ack son ' sc o l lec t ion w e re i d en t if i ed a t t h et ime a sR omano -Br i t i sh .I tw a sb e l ieved ,h oweve r ,t h a tt h e h i gh p ropo r t ion o fd eco ra t ive o b jec t s ,e spe c ia l ly b rooche s ,s ug g e s t ed mo re t h an n o rma ld ome s t ic a c t iv i ty .T oe xp la in t h ef i nd i n go ft h i s m a te r ia l i nt h ed a rk i n te r io ro ft h ec ave c on tempo r a ry a u tho r i t ie s b eg inn ing w i th R oa ch Sm i th f avou red t h e s ugge s t ion t h a tV ic to r ia C ave w a s o ccup ied b y w ea l thy r e f u g ee ss e ek ing s he l t e rf r om d ange re i the ri nt h el a te o ri mmed i a t ep o s tR omano -Br i t i sh p e r iod ( Sm i th a nd J a ck son 1 842 ,3 84 ; Sm i th 1 844 ,7 2 ; D enny 1 860 ,5 3 ) . I no ne f o rm o ra no the rt h e n ow u n tenab le n o t ion o fr e f ugee o ccupa t ion p e r s i s ted a st h e s t anda rd e xp lana t ion o ft h eR omano -B r i t i sh d epo s i t su n t i lt h e 1 930 s .P e rhap sJ a ck son 's mo s ti mpo r tan ts i ng le d i scove ry w a s , h oweve r , as po t ted h yaena j aw f ound i nt h e s i de o fe xpo sed

w i tnes sed a n u p su rge o fa c t iv i ty i nt h e R omano -Br i t ish p e r i o d . T he a c t iv i ty a tV ic to r ia C ave i sc l ea r ly p a r to f al o ca l p a t t e rn o fc av e u s e w h ich t o ok p l ace i n al a nd scape w h ich w a s a l ready s e t t led a nd f a rmed . I ndeed t h er a nge o fa r tef ac t sf r om V ic to r ia C ave s ugge s t st h a ti nt h i sp a r to ft h eY o rk sh i re D a le s R omano -Br i t i sh s e t t lemen tw a sp o s s ib ly o n ag rea te rs ca le a nd mo re i n ten se t h an h i the r to r e a l i sed . H umans ,h oweve r , a r eo n ly o ne o ft h em amma l st oh ave u sed V ic to r ia C ave .T he r ema in so fa n ima l st h a td i ed i nt h ec ave a s w e l la st h ef o od b one sc a r r ied i nb yc a rn ivo r e sp rov ide aw ea l th o fe v idence a bou tt h ep a s tn a tu ra lh i s to ry o ft h eY o rk sh i re D a le s . 1

d epo s i t s i nt h ep a r t o ft h e c ave s ub sequen t ly c a l led C hambe r B( T iddeman 1 878 ,2 15 ) .T he s pec imen w a si d en t if ied b yD ean W i l l iam B uck land , P ro f e s so r o fG eo logy a nd M ine ra logy a t O xfo rd U n ive r s i ty . B uck land i sr e cogn i sed a st h e f ounde r o f c ave r e sea r ch i nB r i ta in a nd J a ck son r e coun ted t ha tB uck land ,

a nd t h em i s iden t if ica t ion o fa n ima lr ema in s . F ur the rmo re i m p o r tan t ma te r ia l ,e spec ia l ly t h ep o t te ry ,w a ss ca rce ly c ommen t e du pon a nd s ome i t em s w e re e ven om i t ted . D awk in s 'f a i lu re t op rov ide s uf ic ien td e ta i l s o ft h ec ave t o pog raphy , c r uc ia l t o t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e R omano -B r i t ish a c t iv i ty , i s af u r the r s ho r tcom ing .

i nc ompany w i th T homa sS opw i th ,h ad a c tua l ly t r ave l led s pe c i a l ly t os e eh im , a r r iv ing a tS e t t le b yp o s t -cha i se f r om S k ip t o n ( Hor ne 1 894 /5 , 1 0 ) .

T he m ed ley o fR omano -Br i t i sh o b jec t sf ound i n1 870 c on t ra s t s v i v id ly w i th t h ed i s t inc t ly m eag re e v idence o b ta ined f o re a r l i e rh uman a c t iv i ty a tt h ec ave .D awk in s 'c l a im t h a tm a t e r ia lf r om t h e b r ecc ia a tt h e c ave e n t rance , n o tab ly ab is e r ia l h a rpoon , a c cumu la ted i nt h ec ou r se o f aN eol i th ic o ccupa t ion i sn ol o nge r t e nab le .I nt h e 1 920 st h ef amou sF rench p reh i s to r ian t h eA bbé

H av ing e xam ined J ack son 's c o l lec t ion i n 1 869 , P rof e s so r T . Mckenny H ughe s o rgan i sed ac omm i t tee t ou nde r take al a rge s c a le s y s t ema t ic e xcava t ion a tV ic to r ia C ave .T he S e t t le C ave E xp lo ra t ion C omm i t tee w a sf o rmed i nD ecembe r1 869 a nd w a s ar ema rkab ly d i s t ingu i shed b ody w i th m embe r si n c lud ing t h e g eo log i s t S i r C ha r le s L ye 1 1 , t h e a r chaeo log i s t S i r J ohn L ub b ock a nd t h ep rof e sso r so fG eo logy a tO xfo rd a nd C amb r idge U n ive r s i t ie s , J ohn P h i l l ip sa nd A dam S edgew ick . T he re w e re a l so p rom inen tl o ca lf i gu re s :t h eb anke ra nd c ave e xp lo re rJ ohn B i rkbeck ;t h em i l l iona i re f i nanc ie r Wa l te r Mo r r i son , o wne ro f Ma lham T a rn H ou se ; a nd J ame sF a r re ro fI ng lebo rough H a l l , C lapham w ho h ad e xcava ted t h e g r ea t N eo l i th ic c hambe red c a i rn o f Ma e showe i nO rkney i n1 861 .

B reu i lh ad r e cogn i sed t h a tt h eh a rpoon a nd p i ece so fa na n t le r r od w e re o lde rt h an N eo l i th ic ( Br eu i l 1 92 1 /2 , 2 75 ) . T oe xam ine t h ed eepe rs ed imen t si nt h ec ave ,t h ree s haf t sw e re s unk a sp a r t o ft h e 1 870 i n ve s t iga t ion s . T he d eepe s ta ch ieved ad ep th o f7 . 6m ( 2 5f t )a nd c u tt h rough ab ed o fl am ina ted c l ay a bou t 3 . 6m ( 12f t ) t h ick . T h i s d epo s i t w a s t oc on s ide rab ly i n f l uence t h ef u tu re c ou r se o ft h ei n ve s t iga t ions .T he b ed o fl am i n a t ed c l ay w a s e xam ined b y R .H . T iddeman o ft h eG eo log i c a lS u rvey ,a na u tho r i ty o ng l ac ia lg eo logy w ho w a sr e sea r ch ing

T he S e t t le C omm i t tee e xp la ined ' I th a sb een l ong k nown ,t h a t i nt h ed i s t r ic to fC raven t h e re a r e many B one C ave s ,a nd i th a s

t h e g l ac ia t ion o fN o r th We s t E ng land . T iddeman r e po r ted t o t h eS e t t le C omm i t tee i n1 871 t h a tt h el am ina ted c l ay i nV ic to -

b een t hough td e s i rab le t oo r gan i se at h o rough a nd s y s tema t ic e xp lo ra t ion o ft h em . F rom t h er epo r to ft h o se w ho h ave v i s i t e dt h eC ave s , t h e re i sr e a son t oh ope t h a td i scove r ie s o fg r ea t s c ien t if i ci n te re s t may b em ade '( S .C .E .C . Mss ) . P rof e s so rW . B oyd D awk in s o f Owen sC o l lege , Manche s te rw a s a ppo in ted s c ien t if i cd i rec to ra nd J o seph J a ck son ,n ow 5 2 , w a sa ppo in ted s i te s upe r in tenden tt o manage d ay t od ay r unn ing o ft h ee xca v a t ion s .T he S e t t le C omm i t tee s t ud ied t h ee xcava t ion m e thod s d eve loped b y W i l l iam P enge l ly w ho h ad b egun al ong c am p a ign o fe xcava t ion s a tK en t 's C ave rn , D evon , i n 1 865 . J a ck s on w a s s en tt oD evon , p robab ly t os e et h eK en t 's C ave rn e x c ava t ion s a tf i r s t h and . T he S e t t le C omm i t tee 's f i r s t y ea r

r i aC ave w a s l a id d own b y muddy m e l tw a te r s f r om ag l a c ie r

a c coun t s f o r 1 870 r e co rd t h ep aymen to f£ 64 s f o r ' M r . J a ck s on ' s( s upe r in tenden t )j ou rney t oT o rquay '( S .C .E .C . Ms s ) .T he S e t t le C omm i t tee 's f i r s te xcava t ion s ea son r an f r om Ma r ch t o D ecembe r 1 870 a tV ic tor ia C ave . T he f i nd sr e co rd ing s y s tem w a sb a sed o nt h a tu sed a tK en t ' sC ave rn a nd p ho tog raph sw e re t a ken a s t h e d igg ing p rog re s sed t o d ocumen t d e ta i l s o f t h e w o rk . I nt h ec ou r se o ft h e i n ve s t iga t ion s i n1 870 v i r tua l ly a l l t h ed epo s i t sc on ta in ing a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia li n s ide t h ec ave a nd a tt h ec ave e n t rance w e re r emoved .T he 1 870 e xcava t ion r e co rd s a r e t h e refo re v i ta l t ot h e i n te rp re ta t ion o fh uman a c t i v i ty a tt h ec ave .

I nt h e 1 820 sB uck land ' sa na ly s i so f ab one d epo s i tf r om K i rk h ead C ave , n ea rH e lm s ley , h ad d emon s t ra ted t h a ts po t ted h y a ena sh ad l i ved i nn o r ther nE ng land ,a nd t h e i rr ema in st oge th -

b l ock ing t h e c ave e n t rance ( Dawk in s 1 872 ; T iddeman 1 873 ) . T h i s i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e l am ina ted c l ay p rov ided ac h rono l o g ica l d a tum f o r t h e d epo s i t s i n s ide t h e c ave . Ma te r ia l l a id d own a bove t h el am ina ted c l ay w a sy ounge rt h an t h el a s tg l a c i a t ion o ft h e Y o rk sh i r e D a le s . Ma te r ia l l a id d own b e low t h e l am ina ted c l ay w a s o l de r t h an t h i s e ven t . T o u nde r s tand t h e s i gn i f icance o f t h i s a tt h e t ime , i ti sn ece ssa ry t oa pp rec ia te s ome d e ta i l s a bou tw ha tw a s a l ready k nown a bou tt h e o ccu r r e nce o fs po t ted h yaena r ema in s i nc ave s , a nd t h e c on tempo r a ry d eba te a bou tt h ea n t iqu i ty o fm an .

e rw i th g nawed b one s o f o the r a n ima ls , c ou ld b e p r e se rved a bundan t ly i nc ave s u sed a sd en s ( Buck land 1 823 ) . Mo re r e c en t ly , f r om t h e l a te 1 850 s , c ave e xcava t ion s b y P enge l ly i n D evon a nd D awk in si nS ome r se th ad f ound t h a ti ns ome c ave s o ccup ied a ss po t ted h yaena d en s ,t h es ame d epo s i t sc on ta ined P a laeo l i th ic s t one t o o l s . S po t ted h ya ena w a s o ne o ft h eg roup o fm amma l s r e cogn i sed a sl i v ing i nB r i ta in a tt h e s ame t ime a st h e make r s o fP a laeo l i th ic s t one t o o l s . I nt h e 1 860 s B r i t i sh a r chaeo log i s t s a nd g eo log i s t sh ad o n ly t h ed epo s i t sl a id d own b yt h ei c es hee t s w h ich h ad f o rme r ly c ove red much o fB r i ta in t ou se a s ac h rono log ica lg u ide t oe s t ima te t h e a ge o fP a laeo l i t h ic man . T he re w a s av i go rou s d eba te w he the rP a laeo l i th ic m an l i ved b efo re o ra f t e rt h es i ng le e p i sode o fg l a c ia t ion t h en

T he s t anda rd a ccoun t o ft h e 1 870 e xcava t ion i ss t i l l t h e d e s c r ip t ion b y D awk in s i nh i s b ook C ave H un t ing p ub l i shed i n 1 874 . I ti ss ub s tan t ia l ly t h e o r ig ina l r epo r t p repa red f o r t h e S e t t le C omm i t tee i n 1 871 a nd p ubl i shed i n 1 872 ( Dawk in s 1 872 ) . T he d e sc r ip t ion i nC a ve H un t ing i sv e ry r eadab le a nd e n joys s ome b eau t ifu l i lu s t ra t ion s .R omano -Br i t i sh b rooche s a nd o t he ro b jec t sf r om V ic to r ia C ave a r ed ep ic ted o n t h ec o l -

a c cep ted b y mo s ta u tho r i t ie s .A tV ic to r ia C ave J ack son 's f i nd o f as po t ted h yaena j aw s ugge s ted t h ee x i s tence o f ab one b ed

o u red f r on t i sp ie ce .I ti sn eve r the le s s ac u r iou s ly f l awed a ccoun t , e ven a low ing f o r t h e n ow o b so le te i n te rp re ta t ion s a dvanced

w i th s po t ted h yaena a nd o t he rr ema in s .T he S e t t le C omm i t tee mu s th ave s pecu la t ed a bou td i scove r ing i tb e fo re t h e 1 870 i n v e s t iga t ion s ;y e td e sp i te a ne x ten s ive e xcava t ion a nd t h es i nk -

b y D awk in s t oe xp la in h uman a c t iv i ty a tt h e c ave . T he re a r e b a s ic e r ro r ss uch a st h em i s r epo r t ing o ff i nd s po t s o fa r te f a c t s

i n g o fd eep s ha f t s , t h e w o rk i n 1 870 f a i led t of i nd i t .I n 1 872 t h ey c l ea r ly d ec ided t ot r ya ga in u nde rnea th t h el am ina ted c l ay 2

w he re , a cco rd ing t o T iddeman , t h e d epo s i t s w e re o l de r t h an t h el a s tg l a c ia t ion . T he S e t t le C omm i t tee b egan af u r the rd eep s ha f ti nt h es p r ing o f 1 872 .A tt h ee nd o f May ab one b ed c on ta in ing s po t ted h y a ena a nd o t he rl a rge mamma l s pec ie s wa s d i scove red i nt h i s s haf ta t ad ep th o fa bou t4 . 8m ( 16f t )b e low t h el am ina ted c l ay ( T iddeman 1 872 ) .W i th a na nnua lg ran tf r om t h eB r i t i sh A s so c i a t ion ,t h ee x cava t ion sc on t inued u n t i l 1 878 .D awk in sr e s igned a sd i rec to ri n1 873 . H e w a s s ucceeded b y R icha rd T iddeman u nde r who se d i re c t ion t h e V ic to r ia C ave e xcava t ion b ecame o ne o ft h ec l a s s ic n ine teen th c en tu ry c ave i n ve s t iga t ion s . T he w o rk i sl u c id ly d e sc r ibed b y T iddeman i n as e r ie s o fa r t ic le s a nd a nnua lr e po r t st ot h eB r i t i sh A ssoc ia t ion ( T iddeman 1 875 ; 1 875a ; 1 876 ; 1 877 ; 1 878 ; 1 878a ) . V ic tor ia C ave a l so b ecame t h e f ocu s o f af i e r ce i n te l lec tua l a nd , o ne s u spec t s , p e r sona l d i spu te b e tween T iddeman a nd D awk in s .T iddeman 's a ccoun to ft h eI c eA ge s ed imen t sa tV ic t o r ia C ave n o t o n ly r epud ia ted D awk in s ' w ide ly p ub l ic i sed v e r s ion o ft h eI c eA ge ,b u ta l so c a s td oub to nt h er e l iab i l i ty o f D awk ins a sa ne xcava to r .D awk in s 'v i t r io l ic r e spon se u ndoub t -

t h e e nc lo sed b one s w h ich i n c luded h i ppopo tamu s . B y i n f e r e nce t h e r e su l t s m u s t a l so d a te t h e g l oba l c l ima t ic p e r iod i n t h eI c eA ge w h ich p e rm i t ted h ippopo tamu st ol i ve a sf a rn or th a st h eY o rk sh i re D a le s ( Ga scoyne e ta l1 981) . W i th t h ep ub l i c a t ion o ft h e se u ran ium s e r ie sd a te s ,V ic to r ia C ave r e turned t o t h e f o re f ron t o fI c e A ge s t ud ie s , mo r e t h an ah und red y ea r s a f te rT iddeman ' sp i onee r ing w o rk . I nt h e 1 930 s ,T o tL o rd a l so b egan t oc o l lec tt oge the rt h e ma t e r i a lf r om p r ev iou si n ve s t iga t ion sa tV ic to r ia C ave wh ich , o t he r t h an t h e 1 848 B r i t i sh Mu seum a cqu i s i t ion f r om J ack son , w a s l a rge ly i np r iva te h and s . Mo s ti mpo r tan t ly T o tL o rd p re se rved t h em a t e r ia lf r om t h e 1 870 -1878 e xcava t ion sa f te rt h ed emo l i t i on o fG igg le sw ick S choo l Mu seum w he re i th ad b een h ou sed s i nce t h e 1 870 s .A s w e l l a ss ome s ma l l c o l lec t ions c on ta in ing i t em sf r om t h ep r e -1870 p ha se o fe xcava t ion s ,h ea l so a cqu i red t h e c o l le c t ion o fJ o seph J ack son , m a te r ia l w h ich h ad p a s sed t oJ a ck son ' s g randdaugh te r . T o tL o rd ' s l a bou r s e n su red t h e p re se rva t ion o f many o b jec t s r e la t ing t oV ic to r ia C av ew h ich o t he rw i se w ou ld n o th ave s u r v i ved t o day .H ed i sp layed t h e ma te r ia lh ea s semb led w i th f i nd s f r om h i so wn e xcava t ion s , u nde rt h eh ead ing o fV ic to r ia C ave C o l lec t ion i nh i sp r iv a t e mu seum .I d io sync ra t ica l ly n amed t h e

e d ly d amaged T iddeman ' s w o rk a tV ic to r ia C ave . I tp robab ly a l so c on t r ibu ted t ot h e q u i te e x t rao rd ina ry w ay i nw h ich t h e s i gn if icance o fV ic to r ia C ave t oI c e Age s t ud ie s w a s mo re o r

P ig Y a rd C lub Mu seum ,i tw a s v i s i ted b y s cho la r s o ve r ap e r i o do fs ome t h i r ty y ea r s . D rA r thu rR a i s t r ick w a s c l o se ly c on n ec t ed w i th t h e mu seum f r om i t s i n cep t ion , a nd h i s d raw ing s a nd n o t e sa r ea ni mpo r tan ta r ch ive .R a i s t r ick i n tended t op ub l i sh t h eR omano -Br i t i sh ma te r ia l f r om V ic to r ia a nd t h e o t he r S e t t le C a ve sw i th S i rI a nR ichmond .T he p age so fp re l im ina ry n o te s R ichmond m ade o n av i s i t t ot h e mu seum i n 1 948 a r e p r e se rved a mong s th i sp ape r si nt h eA shmo lean Mu seum ,O x f o rd . I ti sh oped t h a tt h e p re sen t w o rk i s ac on s ide rab le s t ep t owa rd st h a te nd .

l e ss l o s tt ot h es c ien t if ic w o r ld f o ra lmo s t ac en tu ry . T o t L o rd o f S e t t le u nde r took i n te rm i t ten t e xcava t ion s a tt h e c ave f r om 1 937 t o1 939 . T he ma jo rp a r t o ft h i s w o rk w a s t h e d i scovery o fp a r to ft h e s po t ted h yaena b ed s e a led d own b y a s t a lagm i te f l ow s tone . I n 1 980 D r . Me l G a scoyne u nde r took u ran ium s e r ie s d a t ing o n t h e s t a lagm i te e nc ru s t ing s ome o f t h e se b one sr e cove red b y T o t L o rd . T he d a te s f o rt h e s t a lag m i te s o fa bou t 1 20 ,000 y ea r s a go p rov ided r e l iab le a ge s f o r

3

CHAPTER 2 : THE S ITE : I TS FOR M AND ENV IRONS

B y Mar t in J .D eane a nd T homa s C .L ord

T he S i t e

T he P re -Excava t ion F orm o ft he C ave

V ic to r ia C ave ( SD 8 384 6 505 ) i st o day as chedu led a nc ien t m onumen t( SM 1 3246 )a nd i sr e p re sen ted b y ah i gh a nd w ide e n t rance t ot wo , ma in ly c l ea red ,p a s sage sa tc . 410 -420m A .O .D . ( F igu r e 1 ) .H oweve r ,t h e mo rpho logy o ft h es i t eh a sb een r a d -

Much o ft he o r ig ina l c ave t opog raphy w a s d e s t royed d u r ing t h e l a rge s ca le e xcava t ion s f r om 1 870 -8 . F o r tuna te ly t h ough , as u rp r i s ing a moun to fi n fo rma t ion e x i s t sa bou tt h es i te b e fo r e t h i sw o rk .L ong i tud ina ls u r vey so ft h ei n te r io ro ft h ec ave ,p r ob a b ly m ea su red b y J o seph J ack son w e re p ub l i shed w i th a n i l l u s t ra t ion o ft h e o u t s ide o ft h e c ave i n1 844 ( Sm i th 1 844 , 7 1 a nd P l . XXV ) ;t h e re a r ec on tempo ra ry d e sc r ip t ion so ft h ec ave p r io r t o 1 870 b y J a ck son a nd o the r e ye w i tne sse s ; m o re d e t a i l s a r e c on ta ined i nt h e 1 870 e xcava t ion r eco rd s ( S .C .E .C .

i c a l ly a l t e red b y t h er emova l o fv a s ta moun t s o fm a te r ia l a nd i t sr e depo s i t ion a ss po i lh eap s ,p r inc ipa l ly i n1 870 -8 .T h i sc hap t e r i sm a in ly c once rned w i th t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e s i te 's f o rm o n i t s d i scove ry a nd i nt h e R omano -Br i t i sh p e r iod a nd t h ef o l low ing c hap te rw i th t h ed e ta i l s o fi t sd i scove ry a nd e x c ava t ion , t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e r e co rd s o fi t s s t ra t ig raphy

Ms s ) wh ich i n c lude as e r ie s o f e x te r io r a nd i n te r io r p ho to g raph s ; a nd t h e re a r es ke tch s e c t ion s o fc . 1865 i nt h eC rof ton

a nd q ue s t ion s o ff i nd d i s t r ibu t ion a nd p o s s ib le R omano -B r i t i s h f e a tu re s . T he a ccoun t s g i ven a r e i ns ome r e spe c t s n ece s s a r i ly l e s sd e ta i led t h an o ne m igh tw i sh b u tr e p r e sen tt h eb e s t r e con s t ruc t ion sp o s s ib le b yd raw ing o na nd c o r r e la t ing t h ed i s p a ra t ep ub l i shed n i ne teen th c en tu ry s ou rce s , a r ch ive a ccoun t s a nd o r ig ina lp ho tog raph si nt h eL o rd C o l lec t ion .

Ms s a nd s ec t ion s i nD awk in s ( e .g . 1 874 , 8 6 F ig . 2 0 ) a nd a id d eman ( 1873 , 1 ; 1 875a , P l .V ) . I ni t sp re -excava t ion f o rm t h e c ave b a s ica l ly c on s i s ted o ft wo l a rge p a s sage so nt h en o r the rn s i de o ft h en ow f u l ly e xcava ted c ave .T he f i r s tp a s sage ( Chambe rAo nF igu re 3 ) wa se n te red d i rec t ly f r om t h eo u t s ide t h rough as ma l lo pen ing a tt h et o po f t h et a lu sf r on t ing t h es c a r .T he s e cond p a s sage ( Chambe r Bo n

T he e n t rance t oV ic to r ia C ave l i e sa tt h et o po f at a lu s( as l op i n gm a s s ,m a in ly o ff r o s t sha t t e red r o ck )l y ing a ga in s tt h el owe r p a r t o f al im e s tone c l if ft oday k nown a sL angcl if e S ca r b u t

F igu re 3 )d id n o to pen d i rec t ly t ot h es u r f ace ; i tc ou ld o n ly b e e n te red b y as ma l l c r aw l t h rough t h e n o r th w a l l o ft h e f i r s t

a l so i nt h ep a s tk nown a sK ing ' sS ca ra nd o cca s iona l ly V ic to r i aC l if f s( C rof ton Ms s ) .T he t o po ft h et a lu si sn ow r e p re sen t -

p a s sage .L ong i tud ina lp rof i le so fb o th p a s sage sw e r ep ub l i shed a t as c a le o f 1 : 396 i n 1 844 ( Sm i th 1 844 , 7 1) , w he re t h ey a r e

e db ys ma l lp l a teau a r ea sa nd n ume rou sv e ry u neven a r ea sr e p r e sen t ing t h es u r f a ce so fs po i lh eap se i the rs i de o f ad e ep c u t t ing l e ad ing i n to t h ec ave , amo rpho logy l a rge ly c r ea ted b yt h ev e ry

s imp ly c a l led ' F i r s t C ave ' a nd ' S econd C ave ' a nd a r e r e p ro d uced ,e n la rged , h e re a sF igu re 4 .I nt h e 1 870 e xcava t ion , t h e i n i t ia l 2 7m ( 90f t ) o ft h e ' F i r s t C ave ' w a s c a l led C hambe r A . T he ' S econd C ave ' w a s s ub d i v ided i n 1 870 . T he l a rge s t s e c -

c on s id e rab le e xcava t ion s o f t h e 1 870 s . L angc l if f e S ca r r un s s ou th e a s t t on o r th w e s t i n a n a r ea o fc l a s s ic k a r s t g eomo r p ho logy ( F igu re 2 ) a nd r ep re sen t s t h e w e s te rn e dge o f Ma l -

t i on o ft h ep a s sage , f r om t h e w e s te nd e a s twa rd s a sf a ra st h e p o s i t ion o ft h e f e a tu re d e sc r ibed a s a' we l l o fp u re w a t e r ' o n t h e 1 844 s ec t ion w a sc a l led C hambe rB .T he r ema inde ro ft h e

h am Moo r , t h ev i l lage o fL angc l if f ej u s tn o r th o fS e t t le b e ing a d jacen tt oi t ss ou th e a s te nd .A tt h eb a se o ft h es c a ri s as l igh t v a l ley w h ich t h e C rof ton Ms s . a ppea r s t oi n d ica t e c a r r ied a

p a ssage , e a s twa rd s o ft h e ' we l l o f p u re w a te r ' , w a s c a l led C hambe rC .T he se 1 870 t e rm s a r er e ta ined h e re .

s ma l ls t r eam i n1 865 ( t hough i ti st o day d r ya nd n oo t he rs ou r ce m en t ion s f l ow ing w a te r ) . F u r the r w e s t t h e l a nd i sr e la t ive ly f l a tf o rs ome d i s tance b efo re i tf a l l s s t eep ly i n to t h ev a l ley o f t h er i ve rR ibb le .

T he p o s i t ion o ft h ee n t rance t oC hambe rAu sed f r om 1 837 t o 1 870 i sr e co rded o nt h e 1 844 i lu s tra t ion ( Sm i th 1 844 ,P l . XXV N o . 1 ;t h e i lu s t ra t ion i sr ep roduced h e re a sF igu re 5 ) ; s hown

V ic to r ia C ave i t se lf l i e st owa rd st h es c a r 's s ou th e a s t e rn e nd i n

w a l led u p o n ap ho tog raph t a ken o ft h e S e t t le C omm i t te ee x c ava t ion a tt h e c ave mou th o n t h e 1 5 th J u ly 1 870 ( P la te 1 ) ; a nd f o ri n s tance , o nD awk in s ( 1 874 , F ig . 1 9a ; t hough t h ef i g u re c ap t ion i si n co r rec t ) . I tl i es i n an i che i nt h ec l if f ,i mmed i -

as l igh t ,a pp rox ima te ly s ou th w e s tf a c ing b ay s he l te red al i t t le b y as ma l ls pu rt ot h en o r th w e s t( wh ich a l so s epa ra te si tf r om A lbe r tC av e , al e s s e x tens ive ly i n ve s t iga ted c ave a t as l igh t ly h i ghe rl e ve l w ho se r o le i nt h e a r chaeo logy o ft h e a r ea i su n -

a t e ly b enea th ap rom inen tb edd ing p l ane . T he n i che i sv i s ib le i n ap ho tog raph p ub l i shed i n 1 876 w i th a c ap t ion r e co rd ing t h a tt h i s w a st h ee n t rance t h rough w h ich t he c ave w a sd i scov -

c l ea r ) . A round 8 00m s ou th o fV ic to r ia C ave L angc l if f e S ca r m ee t st h ee a s tw e s tm id -C raven f a u l t , h e r er e p r e sen ted b yA t t e rm i r eS ca r .T he f a u l t ,d own th rown o nt h es ou th g i v ing an ea r v e r t ica lc . 30m d rop f r om t h eb a se o fL angc l if f et ot h eb a se o f A t tenn i re S ca r s , r ep re sen t s as i gn if i can t g eo log ica l a nd c on s equen t ly p edo log ica la nd v ege ta t iona lb ounda ry . I mmed ia te -

e r ed ( T iddeman 1 876 , P l .V ) . T h i sp r e -1870 e n t rance s u rv ive s t oday o n ly a s an a r row s l o ta ga in s tt h en o r th w a l li nt h eu ppe r mo s tp a r to ft h ep re sen te n t rance .T he r o ck p i l la rs uppo r t ing i t a nd s epa ra t ing i tf r om as omewha t l owe ra nd l a rge re n t rance e xcava ted i nt h e 1 870 s mu s th ave c o l lap sed s ome t ime e a r l ie r t h i sc en tu ry b u ti ti ss hown o n ap ho tog raph t aken l o ok ing o u t o ft h ec ave c i rca 1 895 ( P la te 2 ) . P r io rt oe xcava t ion t h i so r ig i -

l yt oi t ss ou th i na na r ea k nown a st h eH a l s tead s mo re m a r shy v ege ta t ion i n d ica te s t h ep o s i t ion o ft h ef o rme rA t te rm i re T a rn w h ich w a sd e sc r ibed a s' l ong s i nce d r ied u p 'i n1 865 ( C rof ton M s s ) b u tm ay h ave b een as i gn if i can tr e sou r ce i fi tw a s o pen

n a l e n t rance h ad at a lu s o ff r o s t sha t te red r ock l e ad ing u p t o a nd s p i l l ing i n to i ta s as e c t ion i nt h e C rof ton Ms s r e co rd s .

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F igure 1 :V ic to r ia a nd A lbe r tC ave s : T he P re sen tF o rm o ft h eS i te ( f rom aS u rvey b y J am ie Q ua te r rna ine ,L anca s te rU n ive r s i ty A r chaeo log ica lU n i t ) . 5

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F igure 4 :L ong i tud ina l S ec t ions o fV ic tor ia C ave C hambe r A (` F ir s tC ave ') a nd B /C ( ' Second C ave ') P ub l i shed i n Sm i th ( 1 844 , 7 1) . ( F ea tu re s R e -Numbe red a nd L a te rC hambe rD e s igna t ions /Pos i t ion o fT u rn A dded ) . 8

F igur e 5 : AV iew o ft h e P re -Excava t ion F orm o ft h e E n t rance s t oa nd P l a teau i nF ron t o fV ic tor ia C ave P ub l ished i n Sm i th ( 1 844 , P l . XXV ) . K ey : 1 ,' En t rance t ot h eC ave ' , 2&3 , ' En t rance sN ow B locked U p w i th L oo se S t one s ' ;4 ,' A Sma l lC ave . . . ' . 9

T h is a nd o t he r e v idence s how s t h a t i tf o rmed a s l ope d own

T he f l oo ra nd al a rge p a r to ft h en o r th w a l lo fC hambe rA w e re

f r om t h ee n trance i n s ide t h ec ave . An e qu iva len tt a lu ss l ope a t

r emoved i nt h e 1 870 s e xcava t ions . T he r oo fs u rv ive s , h owev -

t h eb locked e n t rance e xcava ted i nt h e 1 870s may h ave e x tend -

e r ;t h eh ighe s tp a r to ccu r r ing o nt he n or th ,t h el i ne o ft h e 1 844

e d c . 3 .6m ( 1 2f t )i n to Chambe rA .

s u rvey , a nd c on s i s t s o f an a r row s o lu t ion e n la rged j o in t . T h is c u t si n to ama s s ive g en t ly d ipp ing l ime s tone b ed wh ich f o rms

T he p os i t ion o ft h ep re -1870 e n t rance may b ed e term ined q u i te

t h e r oof s ou th o ft h e e n la rged j o in t . T he s ou th w a l l w a s t h e s i de o f af u r the rm a s s ive l imes tone b ed ,s t epped d own a l ong a j o in tf r om t h e b edd ing p lane r oof o fC hambe rA . T he s u rv iv -

a ccu ra te ly f r om t h e J u ly 1 870 p ho tog raph ( P la te 1 ) . I tc an b e s een t o l i e i mmed ia te ly b enea th ap rom inen t b edd ing p l ane f r om wh ich p ro t rudes ac l a s t w i th ap ecu l ia r b lun ted , r hom -

i n g n o r th w a l l i ss o l id f o ra bou t 1 0m , t oj u s tb eyond t h e r oof a ven , t h en i tp robab ly c on t inued a s as e r ie s o fl a rge I c e Age

b o ida l s hape . T h is d i s t inc t ive c l a s t i ss t i l l t he re , e nab l ing t h e p os i t ion o ft h ep re -1870 e n t rance t ob e mapped q u i te p r ec ise -

r oof f a l lb lock sp a r t ly o ve r la in b y ? g lac ia ll am ina ted c l ay sa nd c a lc i te d epos i t s .

l y . I tn ow h ang se n t i re ly i nt h ea i rw i th o n ly t h en o r th w a l la nd p a r t o ft h ea pex s u rv iv ing a nd i ss i tua ted a lmo s ti mmed ia te ly a bove d eb r i s o n t he e xcava ted c ave f l oo r wh ich i sp robab ly p ar to ft h ec o l lapsed r ock p i l la r .

J a ck son o b se rved t h a tt h ep re -1870 e n trance w a sl a rge ly c hoked w i th s t one a nd o ve rg rown w i th n e t t le s when t h ec ave w a s f i r s t

B y f i x ing t h ep os i t ion o ft h i s p re -1870 e n t rance i ti sp os s ib le t oc heck d e ta i ls o ft he 1 844 l o ng i tud ina l s ec t ion s ( F igu re 4 ) .

t h e e n t rance a s 3 f t 9 in s ( 1 .1 m ) . A cco rd ing t ot h e s u rvey t h e

e xp lo red . T he c ap t ion t ot h e 1 844 s u rvey n o te s t h e w id th o f h e igh to ft h ee n t rance w a s al i t t le u nde r3 f t( 0 .9m ) . P re suma b l yb o th d imen s ion sw e re mea su red a f te rt h ec l ea rance o fs ome

A ccord ing t ot h e se t he ' F i r s tC ave ' ( Chambe rA )e x tended f o r ad i s tance o fa bou t 3 8m ( 1 26f t ) . Howeve r , a1 995 L anca s te r

o ft h es t one f o rm ing t h et a lus a tt he e n t rance b ecau se J a ck son

U n ive r s i ty A r chaeo log ica l U n i t s u rvey o ft he p re sen tf o rm o f

r e co rd s t ha t ' a f te rr emov ing t h e o b s t ruc t ion Iw a s o b l iged t o

t h ec ave c onduc ted f o rt h eY o rk sh i re D a le s Na t iona lP a rk ( F ig -

l i ed own a tf u l ll e ng th t og e ti n '( Sm i th a nd J a ck son 1 842 ,3 85 ) .

u re 1 )i nd ica te s t ha t t he d i s tance f r om t he p re -1870 e n t rance

D e sp i te r epea ted v i s i t sb yJ ack son i nt h ec ou r se o fh i se xcava -

t ot h e mo s te a s te r ly p o in to fC hambe rA , s u rv iv ing n ow o n ly a s ap h rea t ic h a lf t ube i nt h ec ave r oof ,i sa c tua l ly 2 7m ( 8 8 .5f t ) .

t i on s i n s ide t h e c ave a nd t h e p a ssage o f c a sua l v i s i to r s , t h e e n t rance r ema ined v e ry l ow a s l a te a s t h e 1 860 s . H en ry E ck -

I st h en t h e 1 844 s u rvey 1 0m ( 36f t )t oo l ong o rd id C hambe rA

r oyd Sm i th , d e sc r ib ing t h e e n t rance i n 1 865 n o ted : ' t ha t [ e n -

t u rn a nd c on t inue f o r t h e m i ss ing d i s tance i n to t h e r e a r o f a

t r ance ] n ow u sed b y v i s i to rs l i e s i n ar e ce ss o r a ng le o f t h e e l eva ted s cau r[ s ic ] f a c ing t h ew es t . Wi th in t h i sp or ta lt h ev i s i -

f u r the rp a s sage ( s ubsequen t ly c a l led C hambe r Di n1 870 )p a r a l le l t oa nd s ou th o f Chambe rA ?

t o ri sn ecess i ta ted f o r as ho r td i s tance t oc r aw ld ownwa rd ( f ee t f o remo s t ) , o nh and sa nd k nees , c a r ry ing h i sa l lo t ted c and le a s

Ap a r t ia l c heck o n t he a ccu racy o ft h e 1 844 s e c t ion s may b e t r ance t o ac l ea r ly ma rked a ven i n t h e c ave r oof . T he 1 844

h ec an ' ( Sm i th 1 865 , 2 05 ) . T he r e f e rence h e re t ot h ed if i cu l t i e s o fc a r ry ing ac and le s ugge s ts t ha t al i gh t w a s n eeded t o e n te r C hambe r A . B efo re t h e 1 870 e xcava t ion s t h e d ay l igh t

s urvey ( F igu re 4 )i nd ica te s ad i s tance o fa bou t 9m ( 29f t ) wh ich

z one i nC hambe r A mu s th ave b een v e ry l im i ted .

made u s ing t h er e co rded m ea su remen tf r om t h ep re -1870 e n -

ma tche st h ed i s tance f r om t h ee n t rance t ot h er oof a ven t oday , c onf i rm ing t h ea ccu racy a tl e a s to ft h ef i r s tp a r to ft h es u rvey .

A ti t sw ide s tp o in t , o ne n te r ing t h ec ave ,C hambe rAw a sp o s -

T hus , i ta ppea r s l i ke ly t h a tC hambe r Ad id i ndeed t u rn t ot h e s ou th a tt h eb ack o ft h e c ave a nd t h e J ack son ' d aybook ' p ro -

s i b ly a bou t9 . 1m ( 30f t ) w ide , a sc onf i rmed b yB u r row ( 1 863 ) . I tn a r rowed i nwa rd s t o ap o in t a bou t 1 7m ( 56f t ) f r om t h e e n -

v i des c onf i rma t ion o f t h is . O n t h e 6 th Augus t 1 870 J a ck son

t r ance w he re i tw a s p e rhaps a round 7m ( 2 3f t ) w ide a nd t h en

w ro te i nt h i s ' d aybook ' a bou t t h e e xcava t ions a tt h e e nd o f

n a r rowed f u r the r , i t s r ou te e a s t f o l low ing a w e l l d eve loped

C hambe rA' Men work ing w he re t h ec ave n ow t a ke s at u rn t o t h er i gh to n ly 3 f t [ 0 .9m ] w ide ' .T he f o l low ing w eek t h ey c on -

p h rea t ic h a lf t u be ,a na nc ien ts o lu t ion f e a tu re c u ti n to t h ec ave r oo f , t ot h e p o in t whe re i ti n i t ia l ly t u rned t ot h e r i gh t a bou t

t i nued t oe xcava te f orwa rd s ,p os s ib ly f o r af u r the r 1 . 8m ( 6f t ) ,

2 7m ( 90f t ) f r om t h e e n t rance a nd whe re , a s n o ted a bove , i t

t h en o nt h e9 t h Augus tJ ack son n o ted ' t he p a ssage n ow b r anch -

w a s me re ly 0 . 9m ( 3 f t ) w ide .

e s r i gh t a nd l e f t , t he r i gh t g oe s i n to C hambe r D ' . P rec ise ly h ow f a rt h er i gh th and b ranch w en ti n to t h e b ack o fC hambe r

C on s ider ing i t s w id th , C hambe rAw a s r ema rkab ly l ow . T h is

Di sn o tr e co rded a nd whe the rJ a ck son ,t h ir ty y ea r se a r l ie ra nd

i si n d ica ted b yt h e 1 844 l ong i tud ina l s urvey ( F igu re 4 )w h ich i n i t ia l ly r uns a l ong t h e l i ne o ft h e s o lu t iona l ly e n la rged j o in t

b efo re s i gn if i can t e xcava t ion , h ad a c tua l ly mea su red t h e d i s t a nce f r om t h ef i r s tt u rn t ot h ev e ry e nd o ft he p a ssage ,o rj u s t

i nt h ec ave r oof a nd s od ep ic t st he h ighe s tp a r to ft h ep a ssage . T h i ss urvey r e co rd s ,b eyond t he f i r s ts hor ts t re tch o ft h ec ham -

e s t ima ted i t ,i su nc lea rb u ti ti se v iden tt ha tt he 1 0m d i sc repan c y o n t h e 1 844 s urvey r ep re sen t st h is n a r row p a ssage r unn ing

b e r wh ich may h ave b een u pt o 2m ( 6 .5f t )h i gh ,o n ly o ne r e la t i ve ly s ho r ts t re tch whe re i twou ld h ave b een p o ss ib le t os t and

i n to t h e b ack o f Chambe rD . T he l e f t h and p a ssage n o ted b y J ack son w a s n o t e xcava ted i n1 870 b eyond ac ons t r ic t ion b u t

u p . T h i s i st h es ma l l c hambe rf o rmed b y t h eh igh a ven i nt h e

a ppea red t oe xpand a ga in b eyond i ta cco rd ing t oh i s' d aybook ' .

c ave r oof ,s hown a sc . 2 .5m ( 8 .5f t )h igh .T he l owne s so fC ham -

T hough , l i k e t h e r i gh t h and b ranch , i tw a s s ub sequen t ly d e -

b e rAw a s n o ted b y c on tempo ra ry v i s i to r s . H en ry D enny , c u -

s t royed i ti sl i ke ly t ha tt h is l e f th and b ranch r an r ough ly p a ra l l e l t o wha tw a sl a te re s tab l i shed a st h ee a s tern e nd o ft h ec ave

r a to ro fL eed s Mu seum w ro te ' e n te r ing b y as t eep f i ssu r ey ou h ave t oc raw l t h rough al ow a nd n a r row p a s sage i n to ac ave

a tl e a s t f o r as hor t d i s tance a nd i tm igh t e ven h ave g i ven a t

y ou c an s ca rce ly s t and u p r igh t[ i n ] '( Denny 1 860 ,4 7 ) .I n1 865

l e a s t a n ima l a cce ss t o a n e a s twa rd e x tens ion o f C hambe r D n amed t h eB i rkbeck Ga l le ry i nt h e 1 870 s ( F igu re 1 ) .

a no the rv i s i to rt ot h ec ave , Add ison C rof ton n o ted ' On c r eep i n g t h rough t h e o pen ing o fV ic tor ia C ave , o ne f ound as t eep 1 0

d e scend ing s l ope e nd ing i n af a i r ly l e ve l f l oo r o fc l ay .Al ow c hambe rw a ss e en o nt h er i gh t , a nd i n to i tal i t t le d ay l igh te n -

i n a l t o pog raphy o ft h i s p a r t o ft h e c ave w a s d e s t royed i nt h e 1 870 ss ot h a tt h ep o s i t ion o ft h eo pen ing h a st ob ei n f e r red b y r e f e rence t oi t s d i s tance f r om o the r f e a tu re s r e co rded o n t h e

t e red t h rough i n te r s t ice sb e tween r ock s o ft h et a lu s ' ( C rof ton M ss ) . Af ew y ea r se a r l ie r Sm i th h ad d e sc r ibed t h ev i ew o ne n t e r ing t h ec ave ,p o s s ib ly l o ok ing f u r the ri nt ot h er i gh tt owa rd s t h e s ou th w a l lo fC hambe rA . ' He re ' , h e w ro t e ' t ak ing as u r v ey o ft h e s i tua t ion , h e [ t he v i s i to r ] p e r ce ive s i nf r on t a nd t o t h er i gh t ,t h er oo fo fa ppa ren t ly as pac iou sc hamb e r ,b u tc l o s e re xam ina t ion s how s i tt ob e f i l led t ow i th in t wo -and -a -ha l f t ot h ree f e e t[ 0 .7 -0 .9m ] o ft h er oof , w i th s o l id a nd d e spe ra t e ly t e nac iou sc l ay '( Sm i th 1 865 , 2 05 -6 ) . T he r i gh th and c hambe r r e f e r red t ob y t h e l a s t t wo a u tho r s w a s e v iden t ly t h e p a r t o f C hambe r As ou th o ft h e e n t rance t h en i nu se , t h eg ap s i nt h e

1 844 s u rvey . S uch mea su r emen t s g i ve o n ly a n e s t ima te o fi t s d i s tance i n to t h e c ave . T h i s i ss uf i c ien t , h oweve r , t ot i e t h e o pen ing i n to as y s tem o f' p a ra l le l s ' u sed i nr e co rd ing t h e 1 870 e xcava t ion s ( b e low p 18&25 ) a nd t h e e n t rance w a s p robab ly o nt h ee x t reme l e f to fC hambe rAp a ra l le l s2 4a nd 2 5 ( F igu re s 3a nd 6 ) . T h i s o pen ing i n to C hambe r B , d e sc r ibed b y Sm i th ( 1865 , 2 06 ) a s ' c umbe red b y ma s se s o f r ock ' , w a s p ho to g r aphed i nJ u ly 1 870 a f te r s ome o ft h e l a rge r oof f a l l b l ock s a d ja cen tt oi th ad b een t a ken o u tb yt h ee xcava t ion t r ench d r iven a l ong t h e f l oo r o fC hambe r A ( P la te 4 ) , t hough al a rge r oof f a l l b l ock embedded i nc l ay s t i l l l i e s t ot h er i gh t o ft h e o pen i n g .T he r oof p rof i le si nt h ep ho tog raph c onf i rm t h ee s t ima ted p o s i t ion o f t h e e n t rance r e la t ive t ot h e 1 870 ' p a ra l le l s ' . T he ' p a ra l le l s ' w e re n umbe red f r om t h ee n t rance a t0 . 6m ( 2 f t ) i n t e rva l sa nd o ne , P a ra l le l 2 6 , c an b ep l o t ted a s al o ca t ion m a rk f o ri tr ema in s p a in ted o n to t h e r oof o fC hambe r Aa lmo s t d i r e c t ly a bove t h e l ong h and led h amme r t ot h e r i gh t i np l a te 4 a nd s o af ew f e e t f u r the r i n to t h e c ave t h an t h e o pen ing i n to C hambe rB .T he l ong h and led h amme ri s0 . 84m ( 2f t9 in s )l o ng ( i ti sp ho tog raphed a t al a te rs t age o ft h ee xcava t ion sa ga in s ta v e r t ica ls ca le ( S .C .E .C . Ms s ) ) .

r o ck wh ich a dm i t ted l i gh tb e ing w he re a ' n ew ' e n t rance w a s e xcava ted i n1 870 ,a nd t h ey s how j u s th ow l ow t h er oo fi nt h i s a r ea w a s . I n deed ,a l ong t h es i de o ft h es t epped d own l ime s tone b ed w h ich f o rmed t h es ou th w a l lo fC hambe rAi ti ss t i l lp o s s ib le t om ak e o u t s t a lagm i t e w a l l f o rma t ion s . T he b a se s o ft h e f o rma t ion s g i ve s ome i n d ica t ion o ft h ep o s i t ion o ft h ep re -excava t ion f l oo r a nd s ugge s tt h a ti tw a sl e s st h an 1 mb e low t h er oo f .P a r to ft h i s s ou th w a l lo fC hambe r Aa bou t 6t o 9m ( 20 t o3 0f t )f r om t h e e n t rance w a sp ho tog raphed i nt h e c ou r se o ft h e 1 870 e xcava t i on ( P la te 3 ) . C lea r ly m a rked o n t h e w a l l i st h ep r e - e xcava t i on f l oo rl i ne w h ich a ppea r s ,t oj udge f r om t h e0 . 6m ( 2f t )a pa r t n umbe r sp a in t ed o n t ot h e w a l l , t ob en o mo r e t h an 0 . 6 -0 .9m ( 2 -3f t ) b e low t h e r oof . S im i la r r oo f h e igh t s a r e i n d ica ted b y t h es ec t ion p ub l i shed b yD awk in s ( e .g .1874 ,F ig . 2 0 )o fw o rk i n1 870 s how ing d epo s i t s a tt h e c ave e n t rance a nd f o r a bou t 1 6m ( 40f t )i n to C hambe rAa nd b y Sm i th ' s( 1 844 ,7 1 )s e c t ion .

T he o pen ing i n to C hambe r Bi sv e ry l ow o n t h e p ho tog raph , p o s s ib ly l e s st h an t h el e ng th o ft h eh and le o ft h eh amme ra nd i n 1 860 D enny r ema rked t h a t i tw a s a' c on t rac ted a pe r tu re ' ( Denny 6 0 , 4 7 ) . When t h e o pen ing w a s f i r s t e ncoun te red b y J a ck son h er e co rded t h a ti t' h ad b een w a l led a tt h es i de s , a nd t wo u p r igh ts t one s a l so , a l l embedded w i th c l ay . I nt h ei n s ide w e r e s e ve ra l l a rge s t one s l y ing n ea r t h e h o le , a ny o f w h ich

T he l a ck o fh e igh ti nC hambe rA c r ea ted f u r the rd i ff i cu l t ie sa s D ixon ( w r i t ing a s" Daf f e lman" )d i scove red i nt h e1 850 s . ' L eav i n g t h e l i gh t o fd ay ' h e w ro t e ' we c r eep a l ong an a r row p a s s age w i th w a l l sc oa ted w i th al oo se l imey d epo s i t ,a nd af l oo r o fc l ay , v e ry s o f t i np l a ce s ; n e i the r f e a tu re f r iend ly t og ood c l o th ing ,b u ti fw ew ou ld h ave o u rc u r io s i ty f u l ly s a t i sf ied w e m u s tr ega rd a lf i l th a s as e conda ry o b jec ta nd n eve rc a re a ga in a bou t eme rg ing t h o rough ly w h i tewa shed a nd b edaubed f r om

w ou ld h ave c omp le te ly b l ocked i tu p b y m e re ly t u rn ing t h e s t one o ve r . Ip u l led t h ew a l ld own a nd t h ea pe r tu re i sn ow a bou t ay a rd [ 0 .9m ] w ide a nd 2 f t [ 0 .6m ] h i gh ' ( Sm i th a nd J a ck son 1 842 , 3 85 ) , t h ough i th ad c l ea r ly b een w idened al i t t le b y t h e t ime t h e p ho tog raph ( P la te 4 ) w a s t a ken . N o s ou r ce r e co rd s t h ed i s tance b e tween t h e C hambe rAa nd C hambe r Bs i de s o f t h i se n t rance b u ti ts eem s ,t oj udge f r om p ho tog raph ic e v idence , t oh ave b een a tl e a s t 1 . 8 m ( 6 f t ) a nd s o t h e e n t rance w ou ld h av eb e en ac on t rac ted c r aw la s much a sj u s t ag ap i nt h e' wa l l ' . I ti sp a r t icu la r ly r eg re t tab le t h a tn o mo re i n fo rma t ion i sa va i l a b le a bou tt h e ' wa l l ing 't h a tJ ack son m en t ion sa tt h ee n t rance t oC hambe r Ba s ,i fi tw a sa r t if ic ia l ,i tw ou ld b e ar a re i n s tance o ft h ed el ibe ra te mod if ica t ion o ft h ei n te r io ro f aR omano -Br i t -

h ead t oh ee l '( D ixon 1 856 ) .T he o n ly p a r to fC hambe r Aw he re s i gn if ican t , t h ough n o tc omp le te , s t ra t ig raphy t o day s u rv ive s , a d jacen tt o al a rge r oof f a l l b lock s ome 1 6m ( 5 2 .5f t ) i n to t h e c hambe r ,r ema in sl i t t le m o re t han ac r aw l . C hambe rA ' s f l oo r , a sf a r a sc an b e a s ce r ta ined f r om Sm i th 's ( 1 844 , 7 1) s e c t ion ( F igu re 4 ) w a s r e la t ive ly l e ve l e xcep t f o r

i s hu t i l i sed c ave . S ince h er e f e r st ot h ree s epa ra te c omponen t s ' wa l l ing ' a tt h e s i de s , t wo u p r igh t s t one s a nd , i nC hambe rB , s e ve ra ll a rge s t one sl y ing n ea rt h eh o le ,i tmay b el e s sl i ke ly t o a ccoun tf o rh i so b se rva t ion ss imp ly a sn a tu ra lr oof f a l l s .

t wo p o in t s a ta nd j u s t b efo re t h e r oo fa ven w he re i t s s u r f a ce r o se a nd f e l lm o r es t eep ly . D awk in s ' ( e .g . 1 874 , F i g . 2 0 ) s e c t i on wh ich s how s ag ene ra l s t eep d own s l ope t ot h ef l oo rf u r t h e rt ot h es ou th m igh tb eo fq ue s t ionab le v a lue i nt h i sr e spec t . H oweve r ,w ha te v idence i sa va i lab le s ugge s t s t h a tt h e r e w e r e l o ca l ised v a r ia t ion si nf l oo rh e igh ta c ro s sa nd a l ong b o th c ham b e r s o ft h e c ave . C e r ta in ly r oof f a l l b l ock s n o ted i nt h e m id n i ne teen th c en tu ry ( Denny 1 860 , 4 7 ) a nd c l ea r ly s t i l lp r e sen t a tl e a s ta tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h e 1 870 w o rk ( e .g .D awk in s 1 872 ,

A t t h e b a se o ft h e s ou th w a l l o fC hambe r A , a lmo s t d i rec t ly o ppo s i t e t h e e n t rance i n to C hambe rB , t h e re w a s a l so ac on s t r ic ted o pen ing t ha tg ave a cce s st o av e ry l ow p a s sage a lmo s t f i l led t ot h er oof w i th s ed imen t .T h i sw a sc a l led C hambe r Di n 1 870 .T he o pen ing l a yo nt h ee x t reme r i gh to fC hambe rA ' p a r a l le l s ' 2 2a nd 2 3 i nt h e 1 870 r e co rd ing s y s tem ( J a ck son ' d ay -

6 0 ) w e re f e a tu r e so ft h es i t e .

b ook ') .I tw a s a ppa ren t ly l a rge ly o b s t ruc ted w i th l ime s tone b l ock s a nd i tt ook t wo m en u s ing e xp lo s ive s t wo d ays t or e move t h em i nJ une 1 870 ( op . c i t . ) . P a r to ft h ef r on to fC ham b e r Dw a sa cce s s ib le f r om h e re ,a nd p a r to ft h er e a ro fC ham -

A bou t 1 5m ( 4 9f t )f r om t h ee n t rance t oC hambe rA , t h e 1 844 s u rvey r e co rd st h es ma l lh o le o nt h en o r th ( l ef t )s i de o fC ham b e r A wh ich g ave a cce s si n to C hambe r B( F igu re 4 ) .T he o r ig 1

b e r Dw a se v iden t ly a cce s s ib le b eyond t h e e nd o fC hambe rA ( a bove ) . I tm ay h ave b een p o s s ib le t oc r aw l b e tween t h e t wo

f r om C hambe r Ba l ong i tt or e ach t h eo u t s ide . O nt h e8 t hS ep t embe rJ a ck son n o ted i nh i s ' d aybook ' , ' Men w o rk ing i nn a r -

p o in t s o fa c ce s sb efo r e t h e 1 870 e xcava t ion . T h i s s eem s t ob e i mp l ied i nT i ddeman ' s g raph ic d e sc r ip t ion : ' Chambe r Dw i l l b er emembe r ed b yt ho se w ho m ade at ho rough v i s i to ft h ec ave , a nd e xp lo red a li t si nne rmo s tr e ce s se s , a s av e ry l ow c hambe r t ot h e r i gh to ft h ep r inc ipa l e n t rance , f i l led n ea r ly t ot h er oof w i th s of tm ud .I tw a ss ol ow o ve rt h eg r ea te rp a r to fi t se x ten t t h a tp rog re s s ion c ou ld n o tb ee f ec ted o nh and sa nd k nee s ,a nd

r ow p a s sage l e ad ing w e s twa rd o u t o fC hambe r Bt oo u t s ide , c ave e a r th m ixed w i th s t one sa nd s t a lagm i t ei nl o o se p i ece st o ad ep th o f2 f t( 0 .6m )c l ay u nder nea th ' .T he n ex td ay t h ew o rk w a s a bandoned , J a ck son w r i t ing ' S t i l l i n t h e p a s sage w h ich

as e rpen t l ike m ovemen tt h rough p oo l s o fw a te rl y ing o n s o f t m ud w a st h eo n ly w ay i nw h ich i tc ou ld b ev i s i ted '( T iddeman

t h e p re -excava t ion f l oo r , p robab ly c onf ined h uman a c ce s s t o a bou tt h ef i r s t 2m ( 7 f t )o fi t .T he p a r to ft h ep a s sage n ow o pen t ot h es u r f ace w a sp robab ly s e a led b yc ave e n t r ance s e d imen t s ;

w e f ound t og e t s o n a r row t h a t i tw ou ld b e f ound i mpo s s ib le t o make u se o fi t ' . T he n a r rowe s tp a r to ft h e p a s sage t o day i s a bou t0 . 4m ( 10 in s )w ide a nd t h i sc on s t r ic t ion ,a nd t h el e ve lo f

1 876 , 1 69 ) .

a n i ndu ra ted c a lca reou s b r ecc ia e x tend s s ome w ay i n to t h e p a s sage f r om t h eo u t s ide .

T he 1 870 e xcava t ion e ncoun te red l a rge b lock s o f l ime s tone e x tend ing a c ro s s C hambe r As ome 3 . 0 t o 3 . 6m ( 10 t o 1 2f t ) p a s tt h ee n t rance t oC hambe rB .O nt h e2 6 th J u ly J a ck son n o t e d ' f i n i shed 3 0 p a ra l le l a nd c ommenced 3 1 , me t w i th s ome l a rge s t one sw h ich r equ i red b l a s t ing ,l a rge b lock s o fs t one a r e n ow n ea r ly c on t inuou s a l l t h e w ay a c ro s s t h e c ave . . , h ad t o r emove s ome o n t h el e f tt og e t aw hee lba r row r oad ' ( J ack son ` d aybook ' ) . T h i s a r ea i st h e l owe s tp a r t o fC hambe r Ai nt h e 1 844 s u rvey w h ich i n d ica te s p r e -excava t ion f l oo r h e igh t s o f l e s st h an 0 . 9m ( 3 f t ) .T he b l ock so fs t one h e re a r ep robab ly t h e u ppe r p a r t o fa n e no rmou s b ed o fl ime s tone wh ich f e l l f r om t h ec ave r oo fb e fo re t h ed epo s i t ion o ft h eP le i s tocene l am ina t e dc l ay sa nd i ss e en i na nA ugu s t 1 897 p ho tog raph o ft h eL an -

T he m ax imum r oof h e igh tf o rC hambe r Bo nt h e 1 844 s u rvey ( F igu re 4 )i sa bou t 5m ( 1 6f t ) .T he l i ne o ft h is s u rv ey m u s tr un q u i te c l o se t ot h e s ou th w a l l o ft h ep a ssage a nd f o l low s al i ne s omewha tl owe rb u t mo r er e gu la rt h an t h eh i ghe s tp a r t o ft h e r oof . T he w ide s t p a r t o ft h e c ave t oday i sa bou t 6 m ( 1 9 .7f t ) . H oweve r , b l a s t ing o fs t one r oof f a l l b lock s a tt h ee dge s o ft h e c hambe ri n1 870 h a se v iden t ly i n c rea sed i t sw id th w h ich B u r r ow ( 1863 )g ave a sc . 4 .5m ( 1 5f t ) .I tw a sp o ss ib ly al i t t le w ide r a ti t sw e s te rnmo s te nd b e fo r et h ef a l len b lock sd i v id ing C ham b e r sAa nd B w e re r emoved i nt h e 1 870 s a nd t o day , a sp roba b ly p r io rt o1 870 ,C hambe r Bg radua l ly n a r row se a s twa rd s , a t

c a sh i re a nd C he sh i re A n t iqua r ian S oc ie ty ' s o u t ing t ot h ec ave ( P la te 5 ) . O nt h e p ho tog raph p a ra l le l 3 1 w ou ld l i e a bou t 3 m ( 1 0 f t ) b eyond t h e t op e dg e o f t h e f a l len l ime s tone b ed . T he ' whee lba r row r o ad ' c u t i nJ u ly 1 870 i st h e w ide n o tch i nt h e s e d imen tp rof i le a bove t h eg en t leman h o ld ing t h eh a ta nd c ane . I tc an a l so b es e en i nt h eJ u ly 1 870 p ho tog raph o ft h eo pen ing i n to C hambe r B( P la te 4 )i nf r on to ft h el ong h and led h amme r . T he t o p o ft h el ime s tone b l ock t ot h e r i gh t o ft h e h amme ri s t h et o pl e f to ft h ef a l len l ime s tone b ed s een i nt h e 1 897 p ho to -

i t s e a s ter n e nd t h e w a l l s t o day b e ing a bou t 4m ( 1 4 f t ) a pa r t . T he s t a lagm i te c r u s t s i n d ica t ing t h e p re -excava t ion f l oo rl e v e l sa ga in s tt h es i de w a l l ss ugge s t ,e ven h e re a tt h el owe s tp o in t o ft h e c ave , t h a t t h e p a s sage w a s a tl e a s t c . 1 .2m ( c .4 f t ) h i gh f o rt h e g r ea te rp a r t o fi t s l e ng th . H oweve r , t h e J a ck son ' d ay b ook 'd oe si nd ica te t h a tc . 14m ( 46f t )a l ong t h ec hambe ri tw a s p a r t ia l ly b l ocked o nt h es ou th b yb ou lde r s . Sm i th o b se rved t h a t C hambe r Bw a s ' af i ne c hambe r o fg rea t h e igh t a nd p ropo r t i ona te w id th ' ( Sm i th 1 865 , 2 06 ) a nd D enny ( 1860 , 4 7 ) n o t ed t h a ti tw a s ' al of ty c ave rn . . . T he f l oo ri sc ove red w i th s t a lag -

g r aph a bove t h eg en t leman w i th o u t s t r e tched l e g s .

m i te a nd c l ay ,s t rewn o ve rw i th b l ock so fl ime s tone w h ich h ave f a l len f r om t h e r oof ' . H oweve r , t h e l a t te r c on t inue s ( h av ing e a r l ie r n o ted t wo c on s t r ic t ion s i n t h e c ave , t h e e n t rance t o

C hambe rB , r unn ing r ough ly n o r th e a s t s u rv ive s t oday mo re c omp le te ly t h an C hambe rA , a l though t h e r ock w a l l d i v id ing t h et wo p a s sage si nt h ea r ea o ft h eo r ig ina le n t rance i n to C ham -

C hambe rAa nd t h a tf r om C hambe rAi n to C hambe rB ) ' h ence b y at h i rd a nd n ea r ly c l o sed p a s sage , y ou e n te ra no the rl a rge c ompa r tmen t ' ( op c i t ) .T he 1 844 s u rvey ( F igu re 4 )s how st h i s c on s t r ic t ion a bou t 1 6m ( 5 3f t )e a s to ft h ee n t rance t oC hambe r Ba t ap o in tw he re t h er oo fd e scend s ( a nd f l oo rr i se s )a nd s ug -

b e r Bi sn ow e n t i re ly g one .S ot o oh a st h e ' we l lo fp u re w a te r ' r e co rded i nt h e 1 844 s u rvey wh ich ma rked t h ee a s te rn e nd o f C hambe r Bi n1 870 . T h i s w a s d e s t royed i n t h e s i nk ing o fa s ha f t i nN ovembe r 1 870 a nd i t s s ub sequen t e n la rgemen t i n F eb rua ry 1 877 ( T iddeman 1 878 , 2 15 -6 ) . T he p re -excava t ion

g e s t s as ho r tc r aw lo fa bou t 1 . 5m ( 6 f t )w a sn ece s sa ry t oa c ce s s t h i s mo s te a s te r ly p a r to fC hambe rB .B eyond t h ec r aw l( wh ich

f l oo rl e ve la l ong t h en o r th w a l lo fC hambe r Bi se a s i ly i d en t i f i ed t o day b yt r unca ted b a se so ft h ef l ow s tone w a l lf o rma t ion s a nd t h es e c t ion so fs t a lagm i te f l oo rc ru s t s s t i l la dhe r ing t ot h e r o ck w a l l .A tt h e w e s ter ne nd o ft h e n o r th w a l l , t h e o l d f l oo r l e v e l l i e s a bou t 2m ( 6 f t ) a bove t h ep re sen t f l oo r . O n t h e c ave w a l l , a bove t h ep r e -excava t ion f l oo rl e ve la nd o u to fr e ach t o d ay , a r e s e ve ra l g r a ff i t i c on s i s t ing o fi n i t ia l s a nd n ame s . P re s umab ly t h e se w e re made i nt h en i ne teen th c en tu ry b efo re t h e l owe r ing o ft h e f l oo rb y e xcava t ion i nt h e 1 870 s a nd o ne , o n t h es ou th w a l lo fC hambe rB ,r e ad s ' R . S ne l l 1 867 ' .

may h ave b een r e s t r ic ted t ot h e n o r th s i de o ft h e c hambe rb y r oof f a l l b l ock s o nt h e s ou th )t h e 1 844 s e c t ion s how st h er oo f r i s ing a ga in i n to a na ven a bou t 4m ( 1 3f t )h igh .I tt h en d e scend s a ga in t og i ve a no the r s ho r tc r aw l t ot h e e dge o f a1 . 2m ( 4 f t ) s t ep d own t ot h e ' we l l o fp u re w a te r ' : t h e e nd o fC hambe r B i n 1 870 . T he c on t inua t ion o ft h e p a s sage b eyond t h e e nd o f C hambe r B( named C hambe r Ci n1 870 ) i s ma in ly ac r aw lf o r a bou t 1 2 .5m ( 42f t ) . T h i sa r ea d oe s n o t s eem t oh ave b een e x c ava ted i nt h e 1 870 s , i sn ow v e ry i n acce s s ib le a nd m ay h ave l a rge ly i n ta c td epo s i t s . S t a lagm i te f l ows tone sa nd e r oded g ou r p oo ld epo s i t s s ea l much o fi t sf l oo r .

T he p r e -excava t ion f l oo r l i ne s a l ong t h e w e s t w a l l o fC ham b e r Be x t end al i t t le w ay i n to an a r row p a s sage w h ich n ow o pen s d i rec t ly t ot h e o u t s ide . T h i s p a s sage i sk nown t oh ave b een p a r t ly d ug o u ti n1 870 w hen a n a t temp tw a s made t od i g

C hambe r Bs t i l l c on ta in s l a rge c a lc i te r oo f a nd w a l l f o rma t i on s ,a l though many a r en ow b roken ; whe rea so nt h er oof a nd 1 2

G i l lC ave ,L i t tonda le Sm i th r ema rk s ' Ly ing s od eep ly b enea th t h e s u r f a ce a st h i s c ave d oe s , t h e re i sl i t t le i fa ny d r ip e ven i n t h e w e t te s t s e a son s , a nd c on sequen t ly b e ing much d r ie r t h an t h eS e t t le C ave s ,i ti s am a t t e ro fs u rp r i se t h a ta sy e tn ot r ace o f i t sh av ing b e en ar e so r to fm an h a sh i the r to b een n o t iced '( Sm i th 1 865 , 2 02 ) .

s u rv iv ing s ou th w a l lo fC hambe r At h e c a lc i t e f o rma t ion s a r e r e la t ive ly m ode s t .I n spec t ion o ft h er oo fo fC hambe r Br e vea ls b u lbou ss t a la c t i te sp a r t ia l ly o b scu red b yb l ue g r een a l gae a nd mo s se s w h ich a l so o b scu re t h ei mp r e s s ive c a lc i te w a l lf o rma t i on so nt h en o r th w a l l .A lgae a nd m o s se sa r en ow a b le t oc o l o n i se t h ef o rma t ion sb ecau se d ay l igh tr e a che st h em a s ar e su l t o ft h e o pen ing o u t o ft h e c ave i nt h e 1 870 s . H oweve r , w hen J a ck son e xp lo red V ic to r ia C ave i nt h el a t e 1 830 s C hambe rB

P o ten t ia l ly t h e mo s ts i gn if i can th yd ro log ica lf e a tu r eo fC ham b e r Bi st h e ' f i ne w e l l o fp u r e w a te r ' ma rked a tt h ee nd o ft h e c hambe ro nt h e 1 844 s urvey ( F igu re 4 ) .I tmay w e l lh ave b een f e db yt h ee x ten s ive d r ip w a te r se n te r ing t h ec hambe rb u tl i t t le i sk nown o fi to t he rt h an t h a ti tw a s d e s t royed i n1 870 -7 . T he s t a lagm i te f l oo rd epo s i t se xpo sed b ye xcava t ion t ot h ew e s to f t h e s ha f t t h a t d e s t royed i ta r e f r ac tu red a nd d ip t owa rd s i t s

p r e sen ted av e ry d if e ren t a ppea rance . H e o b se rved t h a t ' t he r oof o ft h ec ave w a s b eau t ifu l ly h ung w i th s t a lac t i te s i nv a r i o u sf a n t a s t ic f o rm sa nd a sw h i t ea ss now '( Sm i th a nd J ack son 1 842 , 3 85 ) . I nr e co rd ing a tf i r s th and a n i n f o rman t 's a ccoun t o ft h ec ave b efo r et h e 1 870 e xcava t ion s ,G .H .B rown o fS e t t le n o ted t h a t ' The l a rge c hambe r [ Chambe r B ] w a s ap l a ce o f g r ea tb eau ty . . .t h er oof w a st h ick ly h ung w i th s t a la c t i te s ;w axy s t a lagm i te c ove red t h ew a l l s ,a nd w a sw rough ti n to l a rge ra nd

f o rme rp o s i t ion w h ich m ay w e l lh ave o ve r la in a n a r ea o fs ub s i dence . T he w e l l i t se lf m ay h ave a t t rac ted l e ss a t ten t ion i n a nd b e fo r et h e 1 870 st h an af i nd i ni t sv i c in i ty a si ti sr e co rded t h a tJ a ck son h ad r e cove red as po t ted h yena j aw i nt h i sp a r to f t h e c ave ( T iddeman 1 878 , 2 15 ) . T h i s p robab ly c ame f r om a s t r eam c u t e xpo su r e n ea r t h e w e l l , D enny ( 1860 , 7 2 ) n o t ing t h a t ' M r .J a ck son f ound t h et o ot ho f at i ge r[ l a te rr e iden t if ied a so fb ea r ] o n t h e s u r f ace o ft h e f l oo r , n ea r ap l ace w he r e a s ma l l s t r eam o fw a te rh ad w a shed a way t h e s o i l , a nd t h ej aw o ft h e h yena w a s i nt h e c l ay j u s t u nde rnea th ' . G iven t h e s i g n if icance a tt h e t ime o fs u ch af i nd J ack son i sl i ke ly t oh ave

s ma l le rb l o ck s , o fv a r ied s hape s , a nd l i k e w h i te ma rb le u pon t h ef l oo r '( B rown 1 896 , 6 4 ) . I ts e em s t h a t n i ne teen th c en tu ry v i s i to r s t ot h e c ave h ad f ew q ua lm sa bou tr emov ing c a lc i te f o rma t ion s .A se a r ly a s1 850 i t w a sn o ted t h a t ' t he c ave w hen f i r s td i scove red w a sr i ch i ns pa r [ s ic ] a nd s t a lac t i te sb u t , a su sua l ,t h ey w e re b rok en ,d e s t royed o rc a r r ied o f ' ( How son 1 850 ) . B y 1 870 D awk in s c ou ld n o t e t h a tt h ec av e ' mu s ta to ne t ime h ave b een o fw onde r fu lb eau ty , f o r t h e re a r e t h e r ema in s o fm a s s ive s t a lac t i te s , a nd o ft h ick s t a lagm i t ic p avemen t s ;b u tn ow ,t h e se a r es od ecompo sed [ s ic ] b y t h e c a rbon ic a c id t h a tt h ey a r er e duced t ot h ec ond i t ion o f s o f t mo r ta r .C u r io s i ty h un te r sh ave a l so b een d o ing t h e i ru sua l r u th le ss m i sch ief ' ( Dawk in s 1 870 ) . E v iden t ly i tw a s n o to n ly r oof f o rma t ion s t h a t s uf e red , a sB rown r e coun t s : ' when t h e c ave b ecame mo re w ide ly k nown o f ,a nd p eop le b egan t ov i s i t i t ,t h ey w en t t os e e a nd t oo o f ten t ob r eak o ft h e s t a lac t i te s t h a th ad g r own o nt h er oof a nd t h ep l a t e so fs t a lagm i te o nt h e w a l l s '( B rown 1 908 ) .E ven b e fo r et h e 1 870 se xcava t ion st h e r e -

s e a r ched t h e a r ea i ns ome d e ta i l a nd t h a tn o s ou rce m en t ion s R omano -B r i t i sh f i nd sf r om i ts t rong ly s ugge s t st h a tn one w e re m ade . I ndeed t h ep o s s ib i l i ty e x i s t s t ha tt h e w e l l w a s o n ly f u l l o fw a t e r s e a sona l ly a nd s o o fl e s s s i gn if icance t h an i tm igh t o t he rw i se s e em . When h e v i s i ted t he c ave i n 1 865 C rof ton s e em s t oh ave r ega rded i ta se n t i re ly d ry ( C rof ton Ms s ) s o i t m ay b et h a tt h e re w a s as i gn if ican te l emen to fv a r ia t ion i ni t s h yd ro logy . O u t s id e t h e c ave , o the r t h an s ome movemen t o fs t one t oe n l a rge t h ep r e -1870 e n t rance t h e re a r en or e co rd so fe xcava t ion p r io r t ot h e S e t t le C omm i t t ee 's wo rk i n 1 870 . I nt h e i lu s t ra -

f o re d amage i nC hambe r Bm ay h ave b een c on s ide rab le a nd b e ing much l owe r r oof ed a ny c a lc i t e f o rma t ion s i nC hambe r Aw ou ld h av e b een i ne a s ie r r e a ch a nd s o p r e sumab ly f a red

t i on o ft h ec ave p ub l ished i n1 844 ( Sm i th 1 844 , P l .XXV ;F ig u r e 5h e re in )t wo p o in t s a tt h ef oo to ft h e s c a ra r er e co rded a s ' e n t rance sn ow b locked u pw i th l oo se s t one s '( op c i t , 7 0 ) .T he p o in tm a rked 3i st h e s ma l lr o ck s he l te rw h ich a bu t s o n to t h e n a r row p a s sage n ow o pen i n to t h e w e s t e nd o f C hambe r B . T h i s w a sb oa rded u p a nd u sed a s at oo l s hed a nd s t o r ef o rt h e 1 870 e xcava t ion a nd a ppa ren t ly r ema ined i nu se u n t i lt h ee nd o ft h e e xcava t ion s i n 1 878 . I th ad a l ready b een b oa rded u p f ou rd ay si n to t h e 1 870 w o rk a s ap ho tog raph ( P la te 6 )t a ken o nt h a td ay ( 25 th Ma r ch 1 870 ) s how s a nd t h eg round i nf r on t o fi ta ppea r s u nd i s tu rbed s o t h e a r ea d oe s n o t s eem t oh ave

e ven w o r se . A no the ra s pec t o fC hambe r Bi lum ina t ed a s much b y n i ne t e en th c en tu ry r e co rd s a sb yc on tempo ra ry o b se rva t ion s i si t s h yd ro logy .D r ipwa te r se v iden t ly i n c rea se i nt h ec hambe rs oon a f te rs u r f ace r a inf a l l . Du r ing t h ee xcava t ion o fC hambe r Bi n 1 870 J a ck son w ro te i n h i s ' d aybook ' o n t h e 1 8 th O c tobe r ' wo rk ing i np a ra l le l 1 8 b l a s t ing p a r to ft h ed ay , v e ry w e ta nd g r ea tq uan t i t ie so fw a te rc om ing i nt h rough t h er oof ' .T he s i t u a t ion mu s th ave b een e ven w o r se t h ew eek b e fo re f o ro nt h e 1 2 th O c tobe rJ a ck son w ro te ' ow ing t oh eavy r a in t h em en h ad

b een e xcava t ed b efo r e t h et o o ls hed w a sp u tu p . I ndeed , a pa r t f r om a ny d i s tu rbance c au sed b y i t s e r ec t ion a nd i t s d i sman t l i ng i n1 878 ,t h ea r ea o ft h et o o l shed may h ave r ema ined l a rge -

t od i scon t inue w o rk ing i np a ra l le 117 ,p roceeded w i th w o rk ing a tt h eo t he re nd o fC hambe rA ' .E v iden t ly C hambe rA w a sr a th e rd r ie rt h an C hambe rB ,a nd i ti sp robab ly C hambe r Bt h a ti s b e ing r e f e r red t ob y H en ry E ck royd Sm i th w ho w en t t ot h e c ave w i th J a ck son i nt h e 1 860 s a nd w ro te t h a t J a ck son h ad

l yi n ta c tp r io rt ow o rk a tt h ec ave i nt h el a te 1 970 s( b e low p 20 ) . T he s ub s tan t ia l t r ench c u ti n to t h er ock s he l te rd epo s i t si nt h e l a te 1 970 s h a s n ow e xpo sed a n i ndu ra ted c a lca reou s b r ecc ia e x tend ing i n to , a nd p re sumab ly f o rme r ly s ea l ing , t h e n a r row

f ound R omano -Br i t i sh o b jec t s ' g ene ra l ly i n am ixed s t a la c t i t i c ma s so rc r u s t ,w e tf r om d r ip a nd v e ry s l imy t ow o rk e ven i n t h ed rough ty mon th so fs umme r ' ( Sm i th 1 865 ,2 06 ) . Sm i th i n -

o pen ing t h rough t ot h ew e s te nd o fC hamb e rB . T he p o in tm a rked 2o n t h e 1 844 i lus t ra t ion a nd F igu r e 5i sa w ide re n t rance t oC hambe rA t h an t h a tu sed u pt o1 870 ( ma rked 1o n F i gu re 5 ) . P r io r t o 1 870 i tw a s b locked b y t a lu s c o rn -

d eed w a s p uzz led b y w hy a r te f a c t s w e re f ound i nc ave s l i k e C hambe rB ,w e tw i th d r ip w a te r sb u tn o ti nd r ie rc ave s .T hu s i nh i s d e sc r ip t ion o fh i s v i s i t t ot h e n ew ly d i scove red S l ee t s 1 3

p o sed ma in ly o fa ngu la r p i ece s o fl ime s tone f a l len f r om t h e c l if a bove ,t h is t a lu sc one b e ing b anked u p a ga in s ta n u nde r c u ti nt h ec l if a bove t h ee n t rance a nd t h eu nde r cu tf o rm ing a s ha l low r o ck s he l te r .T h i sr o ck s he l te ri sq u i te c on sp icuou so n t h ep ho tog raph t a ken o nt h e2 5 th Ma r ch 1 870 ( P la te 6 )a nd i n 1 870 t h e d eb r i s b lock ing t h e e n t rance w i th in i tw a sr emoved

f o rm i n1 837 .W i th in t h ec ave f l oo rd epo s i t sa c cumu la ted d u r i ng t h eR oman u t i l i sa t ion ,a nd ,p robab ly w i th s ub sequen tr oof f a l lb l ock sa nd b one d epo s i t s( s ee b e low p 20 )f o rmed t h en i ne t e en th c en tu ry f l oo rs u r face s .T he h e igh t so ft h ec hambe r sw i l l t h e refo re h ave b een g r ea te ra tl e a s ta tt h eb eg in ing o ft h e R o mano -B r i t ish p e r iod , t h ough a tt h e m o s t b y c . 0 .76m a nd i n many a r ea so n ly b yc . 0 .15m o rl e s s . S ome p o s t -R oman b u i ld u po fs ha t te red r o ck o nt h ep l a teau f r on t ing t h ec ave i sk nown

( s ee b e low ) . I nf r on t o ft h i s r ock s he l te r D awk in s r e co rded af a i r ly l e ve l a r ea w h ich h e d e sc r ibed a s ap l a teau ( Dawk in s 1 874 , 8 6 a nd F i g .20 ) .T he 1 844 i lu s t ra t ion ( F igu re 5 )s ugge s t st h a tt h i sm ay h ave b een s omewha t b ow l s haped , t e rm ina t ing o n t h e n o r th s oon a f te r t h e p ro jec t ing r o ck p i l la r s uppo r t ing t h e p r e -1870 e n t rance . B e tween t h i s e dge a nd t h e s pu r o f t h e c l if fw h ich

t oh ave o ccu r red ( b e low p 20 ) b u tt h eo n ly s i gn if i can tc hange s r e su l t ing f r om t h i sa r el i ke ly t oh ave b een a tt h ee n t rance ( s ) t o C hambe rA . Whe the rt h ep r e -1870 e n t rance w a si nu se i nt h eR omano -Br i t i s hp e r iod o rn o t( a nd t h e l a ck o fk nown f i nd sw i th in t h e p a r t o fC hambe r Ai tg ave d i rec t a cce s s t oi sn o tab le ; b e low p 26 ) t h ee v idence f r om t h e 1 870 e xcava t ion si st h a t am o re i mpo r t a n te n t rance e x i s ted .T h i sw a st h es ha t te red s t one b l ock ed p o r t a l n o ted a bove w h ich l a y w i th in t h er o ck s he l te rs ou th o ft h e p ro jec t ing r o ck p i l la r s uppo r t ing t h e p r e -1870 e n t rance . T he r ock s he l te r c an b e s e en a bove a nd t ot h e l e f t o ft h e d i gge r w i th h i sf oo ti nt h ew hee lba r row i nP la te 1a nd t h el i gh tp a ss i ng t h rough c h ink si nt h et a lu s ma te r ia lb l ock ing t h ee n t rance i tc on ta ined h ad b een n o ted a tl e a s ta se a r ly a s1 865 ( C rof ton Ms s ) s o t h a t i t s s e lec t ion a s a' n ew ' e n t rance i n 1 870 i sn o t s u rp r i s ing . O n r emov ing t h e b lock ing m a t e r ia l r e co rd s ( e .g .

s h e l te r st h eg ene ra la r ea t h es ame i lu s t ra t ion s ugge s t st h a tt h e r e w a s amo re u neven , r o ck s t rewn p l a t fo rm a t as l igh t ly h i ghe r l e ve l . T he s e c t ion p ub l i shed b yT iddeman ( 1875a , P I .V ) s ug g e s t st h a tt h ep l a teau n a r rowed t ot h es ou th s ot h a ta tt h es ou th e r n e nd o ft h e r o ck s he l te r i tmay h ave p inched o u t e n t i re ly . T he 2 5 th Ma r ch 1 870 p ho tog raph ( P la te 6 )a l so s ugge s t s t h a t D awk in s 'p l a teau l a y mo r eo n t h en o r th s i de o ft h er o ck s he l t e r .D awk in s 's e c t ion t h rough h e r e( Dawk in s 1 874 ,F ig .20 ;F ig u r e 7h e re in ) i nd ica te s t h a t t h e p l a teau e nded i nf r on t o ft h e r o ck s he l te rw i th a n a brup tb reak o fs l ope , p o s s ib ly v i s ib le a s av ege ta ted b ank o n t h e 2 5 th Ma r ch p ho tog raph . T h i s e dge m ay h ave b een u p t o 9m ( 30 f t ) o u t f r om t h e c l if f( Dawk in s

D awk in s 1 872 , 6 2 a nd F ig .1) s how t h a t t h e R omano -Br i t ish a nd s o -ca l led ' Neo l i th ic ' s t ra ta w e re c on t inuou s b enea th t h e s ha t te r ed s t one a nd r a nf r om t h ep l a teau i n to C hambe rA .C lea r -

1 871 , 1 )a nd t h eJ a ck son ' d aybook 's e em st or e co rd f i nd st h i s f a ro u tf r om t h ec ave e n t rance ,t h ough D awk in s '( u n sea led a nd p o s s ib ly r a the rs chema t ic ) s e c t ion a ppea r st os ugge s t al e s se r

l y a n e n t rance , o n ly c l o sed i n p o s t -Roman t i me s b y c . 0 .6m ( 2 f t )o r mo re o fs ha t te red l ime s tone w h ich a l so s p i l led i n to t h e c ave f o rc . 3 .5m ( 1 1 .5f t ) , h ad e x i s ted a tt h i sp o in t .

d i s tance . An a r row s e c t ion o f al e ve la r ea i sa l so v i s ib le i nt h e 1 5 th J u ly 1 870 p ho tog raph ( P la te 1 )j u s t a bove t h e p i ckaxe h and le o nt h el ef to ft h ee xcava t ion a nd m ay b ep a r to fD awk in s ' p l a teau .L y ing b enea th ah i gh s ca rt h ea r ea i nf r on to ft h er o ck s h e l te r w ou ld b e e xpec ted t oa ccumu la te at a lu s c one . T h i s a ppea r st oh ave h appened a tt h es ou ther ne nd o ft h er o ck s he l t e r ,t h er e co rd o f af a i r ly l e ve la r ea t h u ss ugge s t st h a tt h i sm ay h ave b een a na r t if ic ia l ly l e ve l led f e a tu re . T he a brup tb r eak o f

T h i se n t rance w a se n t i re ly r emoved i nt h e 1 870 sw o rk a nd i t s v i c in i ty h a s b een t h o rough ly a l te red s oi ti sd if i cu l tt oa s ce r t a in i t sp rec i se d imen s ion s .H oweve r ,p ho tog raph st a ken i nt he 1 870 sa low s ome a pp rox ima t ion t ob em ade .T he r o ck s he l te r w a s e v iden t ly a ti t s h i ghe s t o n i t s n o r the rn s i de w he r e i tw a s p e rhap s a bou t 4m ( 1 3f t ) h i gh a nd s e em s t oh ave b een a r ound 8m ( 26f t )w ide .T he c ompa r i son o fp ho tog r aph sw i th p ub l i shed

s l ope w h ich a ppa ren t ly t r unca ted t h eo u t e re dge o ft h ep l a teau m ay h ave b een w he re d eb r i sf r om t h el e ve l l ing w a sd umped .

s ec t ion s s ugge s t st h a tt h eR omano -B r i t i sh d epo s i ts u r f ace l a y o n ly 0 . 9m ( 3 f t )b e low t h et op o ft h er o ck s he l te ra nd t h a to n ly t h en o r the rn c . 2m ( 6 .5f t )o ft h es he l te rm ay h ave b een o pen i n R oman t ime s . T hu s , t h e ma in i fn o to n ly R omano -Br i t i sh e n t r ance t oC hambe r A may w e l l h ave b een q u i t e s ma l l , e ven i f a tt h ec ommencemen to ft h ep e r iod i t sh e igh tm ay h ave b een , g i ven t h e d ep th o ft h e R omano -Br i t i sh d epo s i t s h e r e , c . 1 .5m ( 5 f t ) .P e rhap ss i gn if ican t ly t h is s ma l le n t rance w ou ld h ave a d -

U nf o r tuna te ly t h e re a r en of u r the rd e ta i l sk nown a bou tt h es u r f a ce mo rpho logy o ft h ep l a t eau , b u ti tmay b e s i gn if i can tt h a t i tl a y mo r e o rl e s s i nf r on t o ft h e r o ck s he l te r , t h e s i te o fa t l e a s to ne e n t rance t ot h ec ave i nt h eR omano -B r i t i sh p e r iod . C e r ta in ly D awk in s p r ed ic ted i ta st h e mo s t s u i tab le p l ace f o r a c t iv i t ie sb yp o ten t ia lc ave u se r s . D e sc r ib ing t h ei n i t ia ls t age s o ft h e 1 870 e xcava t ion h e w ro t e ' The c omm i t tee r e so lved . . t o make an ew p a ssage , a t ap o in t w he re d ay l igh t c ou ld b e s e en t h rough t h ec h ink so fb roken d eb r i s ,w h ich t h e re p r even ted a c ce s s .G round w a sb roken o n as ma l lp l a teau i nf r on to ft h i s , w h ich , f r om t h e s unny a spec t a nd c ommand ing v i ew , w ou ld n a tu ra l ly b ec ho sen b y t h ed we l le r s o ft h e c ave a st h e i r mo re u sua lp l a ce f o re a t ing a nd l o ung ing '( Dawk in s 1 874 , 8 6 ) .

m i t ted l i t t le d ay l igh t i n to C hambe r Ai nt h e R omano -Br i t ish p e r iod a nd t h e c ave w ou ld h ave b een d a rk e xcep t f o ri t s f i r s t f ew m e t re s ;o n ly a' t w i l igh t 'm igh th ave p ene t ra ted f u r the ri n to C hambe r Aa nd C hambe r Bw ou ld h ave b een e n t i re ly l i gh t l e s s .

The E nv iron so ft he S i te T he R omano -B r i t i sh F orm o ft he C ave T he re i so n ly al i t t le e v idence t os ugge s t R omano -B r i t i sh o r e a r l ie rh uman u sage o fa ny o the rp a r t o ft h e i mmed ia te e nv i r on so fV ic tor ia C ave . As ma l lc ave k nown a s We tC ave ( ma rked 4o n Sm i th 1 844 , P l .XXV a nd F igu re 5h e re in ; c f . P l a te 6 )i n

T he re i sn o r e a son t ob e l ieve t h a t t h e b a s ic f o rm o fV ic to r ia C ave a nd t h e p l a teau i nf r on t o f i tr e con s t ruc ted a bove w a s s i gn if ican t ly d if e ren ti nt h eR omano -B r i t ish p e r iod f r om i t s 1 4

T ha tt h eo n ly u sefu lr e f e rence t oA lbe r tC ave i nt h e 1 870 si sa c ommen tt h a ti tw a s ' a sy e to n ly e xp lo red s uf i c ien t ly t op rove t h a t i tc on ta in s t h e s ame k i nd o f o b jec t s [ a s V ic to r ia C ave ] ' ( Dawk ins 1 874 , 1 01 )t e nd st os uppo r t ap re sump t ion t h a tf i nd s i ni tw e re f ew . G iven t h a t i ti s as i ng le p a s sage c ave , r a p id ly

t h ef a ce o ft h es ma l ls pu rn o r th w e s to fV ic to r ia C ave d oe sn o t c onne c tw i th i ta sa n t iqua r ian sh ad s u rm i sed b u tw a se v iden t ly e xam ine dt os ome e x ten tb y 1 844 ( c f . Sm i th 1 844 ,7 0 ) .T hough i tm igh ts t i l lc on ta in a r chaeo log ica ld epo s i t si td i dn o tp roduce a ny f i nd s w hen e xam ined i n 1 878 ( T iddeman 1 879 , 3 79 ) . A s e cond s ma l lc ave s ou th o fV ic to r ia h a sp robab ly n o tb een e x c ava t ed .

n a r row ing t ol i t t le mo re t h an 1 . 5m ( 5 f t ) w ide f r om al ow e n t r ance a nd t h a t t h e s l igh t ly w ide r i n ne rr ece sse s a r e v e ry l ow r oof ed i t may b e u n l ik e ly t oh ave b een o fg rea t a t t ra c t ion t o p o ten t ia l u se r s . Mo r eove r , i tc l ea r ly n eve rh ad a se x ten s ive o r

H oweve r ,t h ec ave mo s tl i k e ly t oh ave s e en a c t iv i ty c onnec ted w i th t h eR omano -Br i t ish u t i l i sa t ion o fV ic to r ia C ave l i e sj u s t

s he l te red ap l a t fo rm i nf r on t o fi ta sV ic to r ia C av e . T hu s , a l t h ough s t ra t ig raphy r ema in s w i th in i tt h e re i sn o r e a son o n p r e sen te v idence t oe nv i sage i ta sb e ing mo re t h an p e r iphe ra l t ot h eR omano -Br i t i sh a c t iv i ty a tt h es i te .

b eyond t h es pu rn o r th w e s to f , a nd j u s ta bove t h el e ve l o fV ic t o r ia C a v e . T h i s w a sd e s igna ted A lbe r tC ave a ts ome p o in ti n t h en i ne t een th c en tu ry a nd i ss hown o n av i ew o ft h ea r ea p ub l i shed b yD awk in s( 1874 ,F ig . 19c ;t h ough t h ec ap t ion i si n co r r e c t ; c f . P l a te 6 ) . I t s e xcava t ion h i s to ry i sr e la t ive ly o b scu r e b u ti na dd i t ion t os ome w o rk i n1 870 -8 ( p robab ly c omp r i s ing

T he o n ly o the ra r chaeo log ica l ly s i gn if ican te xcava ted s i t et h a t m igh tb ec on s ide r ed a sb e ing i nt h ei mmed ia te e nv i ron s ,r a th e rt h an t h e g ene ra l a r ea , o fV ic to r ia C ave i nf a c tc on s i s t s o fa n umbe ro fd i sc re te c hambe r s c . 500m n or th w e s to ft h el a t te r . T he g roup ,k nown a sF ox H o le s ,i n c lude s wha tw a ss ub sequen t l yn amed J ub i lee C ave w h ich y i e lded s ome R omano -B r i t i sh ma te r ia l w hen i tw a s e xcava ted i nt h e 1 930 s . I ti sb r ief ly r e v i ewed b e low ( p28 ) b u td e ta i led p ub l ica t ion o ft h e s i t e i sr e s e rved f o r af u tu re v o lume .A no the rp a r to ft h ec omp lex ,c a l led K ing 's S ca rC ave b y J .W . J a ck son ( i n C u l l ing fo rd 1 962 , 2 63 ) w a s e xam ined i n 1 871 ( Dawk ins 1 874 , 12 -3 ) b u t t h e f i nd s made d on o ta ppea rt oh ave r e la ted t oR omano -Br i t i sh a c t iv i ty a nd t h el o s so fa l l o ft h em e xcep t aR ed D ee rb one i nt h eL o rd C o l lec t ion make sa s se s s ing t h e i rs i gn if icance f o re a r l ie ra c t iv i t yi mpos s ib le .

o ne t r ench c u ti n? 1871) i ti sk nown t oh ave b een i n ve s t iga ted e a r l ie ri nt h en i ne teen th c en tu ry .T h i si si n d ica ted b y aw r i t ten n o te i nt h eC rof ton Ms s w h ich r e co rd st h et e s t imony o f aMr . J ohn H a ndby o fS e t t le w ho r e coun ted h ow , a s ay oung m an , h e h ad d ug i nA lbe r t ( o r ' Uppe r ') C ave w i th J o seph J a ck son a nd t h a t ' t hey f ound t h e r e s e ve ra l b r a ce le t s o f" coppe r w i re , t w i s t ed" a nd " ak n i t t ing s heaf" .T he M s se n t ry p r obab ly d a te s t ot h e l a t e 1 890 s a nd o ne s u spec t s t h a t t h e w o rk r e f e r red t o o ccu r r ed i nt h e 1 840 s o r 1 850 s , w h ich w ou ld b e b efo r e t h e d ea th o ft h ec ave 's n ame sake i nD ecembe r 1 86 1 .

1 5

CHAPTER 3 : THE S ITE : I TS EXCAVAT ION H ISTORY ,S TRAT IGRAPHY AND THE NATURE AND D ISTRIBUT ION OF RO MANO -BR IT ISH F EATURES AND F INDS

B y Mar t in J .D ea me a nd T homa s C . L ord

c ove r ie s o ft h e t wo c hambe r s c l ea r ly b e came c onfu sed o ve r

D i scovery a nd E xcava t ion H i s tory

t h ey ea r sa nd B rown h im se lf ,w r i t ing s i x ty y ea r sa f te rt h ee ven t s may h ave b een m i s in f o rmed b y h i s a ged s ou r ce s f o rh e g i ve s 1 838 , a nd i ns ome c a se s May 1 838 , f o rH ome r 's d i scove ry .I n f a c tt h e mo s tl i k e ly s c ena r io i st h a tH .E . Sm i th c o r r ec t ly i d en t i f ied Q ueen V ic to r ia ' sa ccess ion d a t e( 2 0 th J une 1 837 )a st h a t o fJ a ck son ' s f i r s te n t rance i n to ' V ic to r ia C ave ' ( i . e . C hambe r

T he re h a s b een c onfu s ion a bou t t h e p rec ise d a te a nd c i rcum s t ance so ft h ed i scove ry o fV ic to r ia C ave .H en ry E c i c royd Sm i th ( 1 865 ,2 05 )s ay st h a ti tw a sf ound o nQ ueen V ic to r ia 's a cces s i on d ay ( 20 th J une 1 837 ) ; D awk in s ( e .g .1874 , 8 1 ) , f o l lowed b yT iddeman ( 1 875a ,7 8 )s a ys t h a ti tw a sd i scove red o nQ ueen V ic to r ia 's c o rona t ion d ay ( 2 8 th J une 1 838 ) ;a nd C ha r le sR oach

B ) a nd t h a tt h i s w a s t h ree w eek s a f te rH or ne rh ad d i scove red t h ee n t rance t oC hambe rA( i .e . i n May 1 837 n o t May 1 838 ) . D awk in se v iden t ly j u s tc onfused t h ea c ce s s ion a nd c o rona t ion o ft h e mona r ch a nd J a ck son , who p ub l i shed a lmo s t n o th ing h im se lf a nd w ou ld a s ap lumbe ra nd g l az ie rh ave b een t h e ' s o c i a li n f e r io r 'o ft h o se t h a td id , may w e l lh a ve b een r e luc tan tt o

Sm i th ( i n Sm i th a nd J a ck son 1 842 ,3 84 )d a te st h ef i r s tf i nd st o t h e ' a u tumn o f1 837 ' .A l lt h ough c r ed i tJ o seph J ack son a st h e s i te 's d i scove re r . I nf a c t , w h i le R oach Sm i th w a s p e rhap s a p p rox ima te ly c o r rec t i nh i s d a t ing o ft h e e a r ly f i nd s a nd H .E . Sm i th i nh i sd a t ing o ft h ed i scove ry o ft h e s i te o n ly C hambe r Bw a s p robab ly f ound b y J oseph J ack son , t h e e n t rance t o

c o r r ec th i s ' b e t te r s 'e r ro r s ( c f . t h eb i og r aph ica l s k e tch i nL o rd 1 997 ) . I ndeed , i tw a s o n ly t he r e -pub l ica t ion o fD awk in s ' a c -

C hambe r Ah av ing b een d i scove red b y ay oung e mp loyee o f h i s , Mr . M ichae l H or ne r . T he c i rcum s tance s o ft h ed i scove ry

c oun t i nt h e S e t t l e A lmanac f o r 1 875 t h a t s e em s t oh ave i n s p i red B rown t or e co rd t h e d e ta i l s o fH ome r 's d i scove ry ( c f . B rown 1 904 , 5 6 ) . S ome c onf i rma t ion t h a tt h ed i scove r ie so c -

o ft h ee n t rance t oC hambe rAa r eo n ly f u l ly r e co rded b yG eo rge H . B rown , aS e t t le C ong rega t iona l m in i s te r w ho v i s i ted t h e c ave s eve ra lt ime sd ur ing t h e 1 870 -8 w o rk i nt h ec ompany o f J a ck son ( Brown 1 907 , 1 0 )a nd w ro te an umbe ro ft o u r i s tp am -

c u r red i n1 837 i sp r ov ided b y t h er e po r t s o f al o ca l l e c tu re o n t h es i t eb yJ .H . B u r row o n 9 th D ecembe r 1 862 . I nt h el e c tu re B u r row g i ve s 1 837 a st h ed i scove ry d a t e ( Bu r row 1 863 ) .

p h le t so ni ta nd t h eS e t t le a r ea ( Brown 1 896 ; 1 898 ; 1 903 ; 1 904 ; 1 908 ; 1 9 12 ; 1 92 1 ; 1 925 ) . T he d eg ree o f d e ta i l v a r ie s i nh i s

J o seph J a ck son ' s a c coun t o fh i s f i r s te xp lo ra t ion s o ft h e c ave a ppea r ed i n Sm i th a nd J ack son ( 1842 ) a nd w a s r e p r in ted i n l a te rs ou rce s ( e .g . Sm i th 1 844 , 6 9 -70 ; D awk ins 1 874 , 8 4 ) . I t i nd ica t e s t h a th e ( w i th H or ne r ; c f . b e low a nd J .W . J a ck son i n C u l l ing fo rd 1 962 , 2 62 ) h ad p ene t ra ted b o th C hambe r sAa nd B ,e xcava ted t os ome d ep th a nd o b ta ined R omano -Br i t i sh o b j ec t s . P rec i se ly w he re t h e se f i r s tf i nd s w e r e made i sn o tc l ea r f r om J a ck son ' si n exp l ic i td e sc r ip t ion b u th er e f e r st o a` s ta lag m i t ic c r u s t ' ( c once ivab ly ab u r ied b l ock o fr oof f a l len s t a lag m i te b u tp e rhap sm o re l i ke ly af l ow s tone s u r f ace r e vea led b y d r ip w a te re r od ing o ve r ly ing d epo s i t s )' m ixed w i th b one s ,b r o k en p o t s ,e t c 'o nw h ich h ef ound ' t he p r inc ipa lp a r to ft h ec o in s ' . T h i sm igh th ave b een i nt h e i n i t ia l p a r to fC hambe r Aa nd h i s o the rf i nd sw h ich w e re ' imbedded i nt h ec l ay ' [ s ic ] c ou ld a l so

p amph le t sb u tt h e mo s tc omp le te ( e .g . 1 896 , 6 2 -3 ; 1 904 , 5 -6 ) , c i t ing c onve r sa t ion s w i th t h en a ged r e s iden t s o fL angc l if f e ( e .g .1903 ,4 )a nd a na ccoun tw r i t ten b yH orne ra tt h et ime , r e l a te h ow H or n e r ,t wo o t he rb oys a nd aMr .J ohn J enn ing sp u ta d og i n to a' f ox h o le '( ? the ' n ew ' 1 870 e n t rance t oC hambe rA ) a nd i n t r igued b yi t se me rgence f r om ad if e ren th o le ( ? the p re 1 870 e n t rance t oC hambe rA )r e turned aw eek l a te r , moved a l a rge s t one a nd e n la rged t h e ( p re sumab ly l a t te r ) e n t rance e nough f o rH or ne rt oe n t e rw ha t wou ld l a te rb ec a l led C ham b e rA .H or n e re v iden t ly r e v i s i ted t h ec ave o nce o rt w ice i nt h e f o l low ing t h ree w eek s ,h av ing f ound ab rooch t h a tB rown s ay s h e h ad s e en as ke tch o f ,b e fo re t e l l ing h i se mp loye r , J a ck son , o fh i sd i scove ry .A tt h i st ime J ack son e n te red t h ec ave a nd b e g an h i sw o rk t h e re ,a s s i s ted b y Hor ne r .

h ave c ome f r om t h i sa r ea ( c f .D awk in s 1 870 ) .H oweve r , Sm i th ( 1865 , 2 06 ) s e em st or e co rd as of ts t a lagm i te l a ye rb e low t h e R omano -Br i t i sh d epo s i t si nC hambe r Ba nd o t he re v idence f o r w e l ld eve loped c a lc i te d epo s i t ion i nC hambe r Bh a sb een d i s c u ssed a bove . J a ck son a l so r e f e r st o ag r ave ly l a ye rb e low 2 3 2 5cm ( 9 -10 i n che s ) o f ' c lay ' f r om w h ich h e a l so r e cove red ' b one s , b rok en p o t sa nd o the ro b jec t s 'a nd t h i sm ay w e l l i n d i c a te t h a t i nt h i s i n s tance a tl e a s t h e w a s e xcava t ing i nC ham b e r B . D epo s i t s w h ich c ou ld , e spec ia l ly b y c and le l i gh t , b e m i s taken f o rg r ave l ( i n f a c tp robab ly l o o se c a lc i te c r y s ta l s o n i ndu ra t ed p oo lf l oo r s )a r ek nown t oh ave b een p r e sen ti nC ham -

T he re w a sn or e a son f o rB rown t oh ave i n ven ted t h i ss t o ry a nd i n deed i tw a sc u r ren tb e fo r eh i sp ub l ica t ions f o ri ti sr e pea ted , b u t w i th J a ck son ' s n ame r e p lac ing H ome r 's i na n ( un iden t i f i ed )n ew spape r 's a ccoun td a ted 1 875 i nt h eC rof ton Ms s , a nd i n al e c tu re b yB u r row g i ven i n1 862 ( Bu r row 1 863 ) . J a ck son t h ough c ou ld p robab ly c l a im t o h ave f ound ' V ic to r ia C ave ' b ecau se t h e r ei ss ome r e a son t ob e l ieve t h a ti tw a sC hambe rB t h a tw a si n i t ia l ly g i ven t h a tn ame a nd t h a tC hambe rAw a si n i t i a l ly c a l led ' t he B one C ave rn ' .T h i si st h ep robab le i n te rp re t a t ion o fa n a ccoun t o ft h e s i te i n t h e C rof ton Ms s a nd i ti s n o tab le t h a tR oach Sm i th n eve r u se s t h e t e rm V ic to r ia C ave ,

b e r B( b e low p 2 1 ) .I ti si n te re s t ing a sw e l lt h a t Sm i th ( i n Sm i th a nd J a ck son 1 842 )n o te s t ha tt h e g l a s s a nd j e tb ead sa mong s t J ack son 's i n i t ia l f i nd s w e re e nca sed i ns t a lagm i te . Ap o s s ib le

w h ich s e em st of i r s ta ppea ri np r in tc . 1850 ( How son 1 850 ,5 9 ; 1 852 e d i t ion O rdnance S u rvey map s ) . T he d a te s o ft h e d i s 1 6

e xp lana t ion f o rt h i sw ou ld b et h a tt h ey w e re ' c ave p ea r l s ' :s ma l l o b jec t s i ns ha l low p oo l s movab le b y d r ip w a te r s a nd a r ound w h ich c a lc i te i sd epos i ted o nt h ep e r iod ic d ry ing o ft h e p oo l . I fs oC hambe r Bw ou ld a ga in b et h e mo s t l i ke ly s i te o fs uch f i nd s . I ndeed , o n ly o ne i n i t ia l f i nd , t h e b rooch ( 8 .3 b e low ) w h ich i ss a id t oh ave b een w rapped i nh a i r ,c an c l ea r ly b el o -

J a ck son w a sc l ea r ly n o tt h eo n ly ' c ave h un te r 't ov i s i tt h e s i te d u r ing t h i sp e r iod b u th ed oe ss e em t oh ave b een t h eo n ly s e r i o u s e xcava to rt h e re . D enny a nd O 'Ca l laghan v i s i ted t h e c ave w i th J a ck son ( Denny 1 860 , 4 7 ) b u t t h ey c l ea r ly t o ok n o p a r t i na ny e xcava t ion s . H en ry E c i c royd Sm i th a l so v i s i ted t h ec ave w i th J a ck son s ome y ea r s l a te r a nd f ound a tl e a s t o ne b rooch ( Sm i th 1 865 ,2 05 -6 ,2 17 a nd 2 23 )b u tt h i ss e em st oh ave b een n om o re t h an ac a sua lf i nd . D awk in s( 1 874 , 8 4 -5 )c r ed i t sb o th D enny a nd J .W .F a r re r , b o th a c t ive ,i ft h rough t h ea gency o fa M r .H odg son , a tD owk e rbo t tom H o le C ave , w i th e xam ina t ion ' o ft h es upe rf ic ia ls t ra tum [ a tV ic to r ia C ave ]f r om t ime t ot ime ' b u tt h i s p robab ly i mp l ie s o n ly al i t t le d i s tu rbance o ft h e s u r f a ce o n c a sua l v i s i t s . I ndeed , c ompa r i son w i th D enny ( 1 860 ,

c a ted c l o se ly a nd t h is w a sf ound i nt h ev i c in i ty o ft h ee n t rance t oC hambe rB .I fC hambe r Ba l one w a s ' V ic to r ia C ave 'i nt h e 1 830 s i tm ay b e t h a t a l l o fJ a ck son 's f i nd s c ame f r om i t ,a nd r e co rd so fh i ss ub sequen tw o rk a tt h es i te ( b e low )d oa l so s e em t oe mpha s i se t h i sc hambe r . T ha tw eh ave a ny a ccoun ta ta l lo fJ a ck son ' se a r ly w o rk i nt h e c ave i sd ue t oC ha r le s R oach Sm i th t ow hom J a ck son w ro te o n 4 t hA p r i l 1 840 a nd e v iden t ly s e n t s ome o fh i s f i nd s a nd a r e g re t tab ly l o s tp l an .B yp a s s ing t h i sl e t te ro nt ot h eS oc ie ty o f A n t iqua r ie sa nd s ub sequen t ly d e sc r ib ing a nd i lu s t ra t ing s ome o ft h e f i nd s ( p e rhap s f r om t h e i n i t ia l s o n t h ep l a te s d r awn b y h im se lf a nd J a ck son ) a nd p ub l i sh ing as e c t ion o ft h ec ave i n h i s C o l l ec tanea A n t igua ( Sm i th 1 844 ) R oach Sm i th e n su red t h a tt h es i te b e came mo re w ide ly k nown . Wha tp romp ted J a ck s on t oc on ta c t R oach Sm i th i su nc lea r b u t w e d o k now t h a t

4 7 )m ay s ugge s tt h a tD awk in sh ad n oc l ea ri d ea o ft h e i ra c t iv i t i e s . Sm i th ' s( 1865 ,2 15 )a s se r t ion t h a tF a r re rr e cove red ' s ev e r a lh uman s ku l l sf r om t h eV ic to r ia C ave 'i sh i gh ly q ue s t iona b l ef o rt wo r ea son s . F i r s t ly t h e re i sr ema rkab ly l i t t le h uman s k e le ta l ma te r ia l f r om t h e s i te , B u r row ( 1863 ) c ommen t i n g t h a t ' human b one s w e re h a rd ly f ound a ta l l i nV ic to r ia C ave ' a nd D enny ( 1860 , 7 1) t h a t ' o n ly t wo h uman t e e th w e r ei d en t if ied ' ; a nd s econd ly i ta ppea r s t h a t Sm i th ( 1865 , 2 05 a nd 2 23 ) h ad c onfu sed F a r re r 's D owke rbo t tom H o le f i nd s ( wh ich mo s t ly p a s sed t o t h e B r i t ish Museum ) w i th f i nd s f r om V ic tor ia C ave , t h ef o rme rs i te s i gn if ican t ly h av -

J a ck son h ad b een r a the rs ec re t ive a bou th i se a r ly w o rk . ' J ack s on d i d n o tp r o c la im t h e d i scove ry f o rs ome t ime , b u tc on t in u ed h i s v i s i t s a nd f r equen t ly s pen tw ho le n i gh t s i nt h e c ave '

i n gp roduced h uman s ke le ta l ma te r ia l . I nf a c tt h e o ne v i s i t o rt ot he s i te o the r t han H .E . Sm i th w ho c an b e s hown t o

a c co rd ing t oS pe igh t ( 1892 , 1 20 ) a nd B rown ( 1 896 , 6 3 ) s ay s t h a t ' The t wo [ J ack son a nd H o rne r ]w en tu pt oge the ra nd p a id m any an oc tu rna lv i s i tt ot h ec ave b efo re t h ef a c to fi t sd i scov -

h ave l e f t w i th f i nd s i st h e R ev . A dd i son C rof ton w ho r e c o rded h i s ma in ly p o t te ry a nd b one f i nds f r om C hambe r ? A i nh i s Mss . T he se a ga in w e re p robab ly c a sua l s u r face f i nd s , t hough t h e p re sence o f s epa ra te f i nd s f r om t h e s i te i nt h a tp a r t o fh i s c o l lec t ion w h ich p a ssed t oL eed s Mu se um m igh tr a ise t h ep o ss ib i l i ty t h a th e made as epa ra te ( un r e co rded ) v i s i t t ot h e s i te .

e r yb ecame g ene ra l ly k nown ' . U n fo r tuna te ly b e tween t he se i n i t ia l e xp lo ra t ion s ( f rom 1 837 u n t i l p e rhap s Ma rch 1 840 ) a nd t h e w o rk b egun i n 1 870 t h e e xcava t ion h i s to ry o ft h ec ave i sa l so l e ss t h an f u l ly d ocumen t e d , t h ough r e sea r ch i n to J ack son ' s a c t iv i t ie s a to t he r s i te s i s s t i l lo ngo ing a nd may y e te nab le amo re d e ta i led a ccoun tt h an t h a tg i ven h e r et ob ep roduced a t af u tu re d a te . J a ck son , h ow -

Wh a teve rt h ep r ec i se d e ta i l s o ft h ee xp lo ra t ion sf r om 1 840 t o 1 870 t h ough i ti se v iden tt h a t n o w o rk t o ok p l ace o n t h ep l a t e au o u t s ide t h ec ave a nd t h a t ,e xcep t ing o ne l a rge t r ench ,o ne s ha f t a nd p robab ly af a i r a moun t o f s u r f ace d i s tu rbance t h e d epo s i t s i nt h ec ave c ou ld h ave b een r e la t ive ly i n tac ti n1 870 . A sJ a ck son o f ten h ad t ow o rk a tf u l ls t rea ch i nl ow s pa ce sw i th as i ng le c and le ( e .g . Sm i th 1 865 , 2 05 ) , a nd e ven i nC hambe r

e ve r , c l ea r ly c on t inued t o e xp lo re V ic to r ia C ave d u r ing t h i s p e r iod a l though h e w a s a l so a c t ive a to t he rs i te s , p a r t icu la r ly D owk e rbo t tom H o le C ave ,A rnc l i f f e ,a nd f o rmed ac on s ide ra b l ec o l le c t ion o fa r tefac t s , ma in ly d i s t inc tf r om t h ei n i t ia lf i nd s h eh ad l o aned R oach Sm i th w h ich w e re b ough tb y t h eB r i t i sh Mu seum i n1 848 . T he d e ta i l s o fh ow much e xcava t ion J a ck -

Bc an h a rd ly h ave b een e xcava t ing u nde r c ond i t ion s c onc lu s i v et ot h er e cove ry o fa l lm a te r ia lp re sen t , i ti sn o ts u rp r i s ing t h a t c ons ide rab le q uan t i t ie s o fR omano -Br i t i sh ma te r ia l r e m a ined t ob er e cove red b yt h ee xcava t ion st h a tc ommenced i n 1 870 . T he se r ep re sen tb y f a rt h e mo s t i mpo r tan t a nd b e s tr e c o rded p ha se o fn ine teen th c en tu ry w o rk a tt h e s i te a nd s aw ,

s on u nde r took i nV ic to r ia C ave a nd i nw h ich p a r t ( s ) o fi th e w o rked a r el im i ted .H is f i nd o f ah yena j aw i nC hambe r Bh a s a l ready b een n o ted a nd , p e rhap st a k ing a n i n c rea s ing i n te re s t t h e rea f te ri nt h el owe rd epo s i t si nt h ec ave ,h ei sk nown a mong s t o t he r d eep e xcava t ion s t oh ave c u t as haf t ? a t l e a s t 2m ( 6f t ) d eep a tt h ee a s te nd o fC hambe r B( D ixon 1 856 ;a nd c f .D enny 1 860 , 5 8 -60 ; a nd T iddeman 1 878 , 2 15 ) . T he C rof ton Ms s a l so

o v e ra ne i gh ty ea rp e r iod , t h e a lmo s tc omp le te c l ea rance f i r s t o ft h e R omano -Br i t i sh a nd ' Neo l i th ic ' l a ye r s a nd t h en o fI c e A ge d epo s i t sf r om v i r tua l ly a l o ft h ec ave . An umbe ro fc on -

r e co rd st h a tb y 1 865 al a rge t r ench h ad b een d ug i nt h ew e s te rn p a r to fC hambe r B( t hough p o t t e ry a nd b one sw e re s t i l lc o l lec t a b le f r om t h ef l oo r ) a nd t ha tJ a ck son h ad d one a tl e a s t al i t t le

t empo ra ry r epor t sw e re p ub l i shed o nt h ew o rk ( Dawk in s 1 870 ; 1 87 1 ; 1 872 ; 1 874 ; 1 874a ; D awk in s a nd T iddeman 1 873 ;T id d eman 1 873 ; 1 875 ; 1 875a ; 1 876 ; 1 877 ; 1 878 ; 1 879 ; Mo r r i son

e xcava t ion i nA lbe r tC ave .T he e mpha s i so nC hambe r Bi nt h e se r e co rd s i sc o r robo ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1 865 , 2 06 ) w ho s ay s t h a t

1 870 / 1 ; f o r o the r p ub l i shed n o te s s e e D awk in s 1 874 , 8 5 a nd T i ddeman 1 875a ,9 1-2 ;s umma r ie sa l so a ppea r ed i nN a tur ea nd m any o t he rj ourna l s ,p a r t icu la r ly r e g iona lg eo log ica lj our na l s ) a nd ap r iva te d ay t od ay r e co rd o ft h ew o rk i n1 870 ( t he J a ck s o n ' d aybook ') i se x tan t a l ong w i th n umbe r s o fp ho tog raph s ( many o ft h e ' o f f ic ia l 'r e co rd sr e la t ing t ot h e w o rk a r er e g re t t a b ly l o s t ) .

J a ck son h ad ' f ound h e re [ i n C hambe r B ] t h e g r ea te r p o r t ion o fh i sb e s to b je c t s 'i n c lud ing f i ve b rooche s ; a nd t h e r ea r es im i l a ri mp l ica t ion s i nB u r row ( 1 863 ) a nd i nH ow son ( 1 850 , 5 9 ) w ho l i s t s' b rok en p o t te ry ,b one so fa n ima l s ,f i bu lae ,c o in s ,b one h ook se t c ' ( t hough s ome o ft h e se c a tego r ie s p e rhap si n c luded m a te r ia lf o und i nh i si n i t ia l w o rk a tt h es i te ) . 1 7

A s n o ted i nt h e I n t roduc t ion t h e w o rk w a s i n i t ia ted b y ad i s t i ngu ished l o ca l c omm i t tee f o rmed a tt h e s ugge s t ion o fP ro f e s so rT . McKenny H ughe sw ho h ad s e en J ack son ' sc o l lec t ion o ff i nd s( c f .T iddeman 1 875a ,7 9 ;J a ck son 1 938 , 1 70 )a nd w a s l a te r l a rge ly f unded b y t h e B r i t i sh A s soc ia t ion . D i rec t ion o f t h ew o rk w a si n i t ia l ly i nt h eh and so fB oyd D awk in sa nd l a te r o f t h e d i s t ingu i shed g eo log i s t R .H . T iddeman . T h roughou t J o seph J a ck son w a ss i te s upe r in t enden ta nd i nd ay t od ay c ha rge o f t h e w o rk . F o r i t s t ime t h e e xcava t ion w a s v e ry s c ien t if i c a nd e ven r e ly ing o nJ ack son 's p e r sona lr e co rd sr a the rt h an t h e a lmo s tc e r ta in ly mo re d e ta i led ' of ic ia l 'r e co rd sw h ich h ep e r i od ica l ly s ubm i t ted t oD awk in s( who may n o to f ten h ave v i s i t ed t h e s i te )a nd T iddeman i ti sa ppa ren tt h a tf i nd sw e re c a re f u l ly n o ted i n t h ree d imen s ion s a nd t ha t t h e w o rk w a s s y s tema t ic .I ndeed ,J ack son a ppea r st oh ave b een s e n tt os t udy t h ep ionee r ing c ave e xcava t ion m e thod s o fP enge l ly a tK en t ' s C ave rn b efo r et h ew o rk a tV ic to r ia C ave b egan .

O n Monday 1 5 th A ugu s t a t ten t ion w a s s w i tched t oC hambe r B . T he h e re l e s s t h an e xp l ic i t ' d aybook ' e n t r ie s s ugge s t t h a t t h i sw a sw o rked i n i t ia l ly b ye xcava t ing as e r ie so f1 32 f t( 0 .6m ) w ide , a pp rox ima te ly e a s t w e s t p a ra l le l s t oc . 6f t ( 1 .8m ) f r om t h e c hambe r 's w e s t e nd a nd 4 f t ( 1 .2m ) d eep . E a s t o ft h e se a s e pa ra t es e r ie so f3 12 f t( 0 .6m )w ide ' p a ra l le l s 'r unn ing r ough ly n o r th s ou th w e re t h en e xcava ted ( F igu re 6 ) .A l though a tt ime s t h e c l ea rance o ft h eu ppe rd epo s i t s i nt h i sc hambe rm ay h ave b een e ven mo r e r a p id t h an i nC hambe rA , e spec ia l ly a st h ey w e re a tt ime sc onf ined t oi t sn o r th s i de ,c on s ide rab le t ime w a s a l so d evo ted t ot h eb l a s t ing a nd r emov ing o fl a rge s t one b l ock s a l ong i t s s ou the rn s i de . T owa rd s t h e e nd o f 1 870 t h e w o rk t u rned i ne a rne s tt oi n ve s t iga t ion o fd eepe rc ave d epo s i t s , e s p ec ia l ly i n al a rge s ha f tc u tn ea rt h ee nd o ft h es e r ie so f' p a ra l l e l s ' i nC hambe rB . N o u npub l i shed r e co rd s a r e a va i lab le t os upp lemen tt h e p ub l i shed a c coun t so fw o rk a f t e r 1 870 b u ti ti sc l ea rt h a to n ly w hen a r ea s o ft h e p l a teau w e re r emoved f r om i nf r on t o fC hambe r

T he p rog re s so ft h ee xcava t ion s i n1 870 ,b y t h e e nd o f wh ich a lmo s ta l lo ft h ed epo s i t si n c lud ing h uman o ccupa t ion m a te r i a lh ad b een r emoved a nd s ow i th w h ich t h i s v o lume i sp r ima r i ly c once rned , i sw e l l d ocumen ted . I np a r t icu la rt h eJ a ck son ' d aybook ' ,w h ich i sf a r mo re d e ta i led t h an t h es ome t ime sm i s l e ad ing p ub l i shed a ccoun t s , a low s b o th t h e p rog r e s s o f t h e w o rk a nd e l emen t so ft h er e co rd ing s y s tem i nu se t ob er e con s t ruc ted ( s ee a l so b e low p 25 ) . E xcava t ion b egan o n Monday 2 1s t Ma r ch 1 870 a nd w en to na lmo s tc on t inuou s ly f o rf i ve o r s i x d ays aw eek u n t i l a tl e a s t Monday 5 th D ecembe r ( when t h e ' d aybook ' e nd s ) , t h e e xcava to r s c omp r i s ing J a ck son a nd b e tween o ne a nd ( mo re u sua l ly )t h ree m en . D a tum s ,r e g r e t ta b l y n o l o nge r a l e xac t ly l o ca tab le , w e re l a in o u t , e v iden t ly p a ra l le l t ot h e c l if ff a ce a nd a tr i gh t a ng le s t oi tr unn ing i n to t h e ' n ew 'e n t rance t oC hambe r Am ade c . 1 .6m ( 5 .2f t )s ou th o f t h a t u sed p r ev iou s ly . A n a r ea o ft h e p l a teau i nf r on t o ft h i s ' n ew 'e n t rance w a st h en e xcava ted t o aw id th o fc . 2 .5m ( c .8f t ) f o r ad i s tance o f 6m ( 19 .5f t ) o r9 . 1m ( 30 f t ) f r om t h ec l if f a ce ( t he re i ss ome a mb igu i ty a bou tw he the rt h el a t te rd i s tance r e p r e sen t se xcava t ion o rj u s tc a sua lf i nd s po t s ) . C lea rance o ft h e r e s to ft h ep l a teau s e em sh oweve r , t oh ave b een l e f tu n t i l l a te r i nt h e y ea r ( when J a ck son r e pea ted ly r e co rd s t h a th e w o rk ed i nt h e a r ea o n h i s o wn ) , o re ven u n t i l s ub sequen t y ea r s a nd a r ea s n o r th o ft h ep re -1870 e n t rance w e re p robab ly n eve re x c ava ted .R a the rw o rk w a ss oon d i re c ted a to pen ing t h e' n ew 'e n t r ance a nd mov ing f o rw a rd i n to C hambe rA .W i th in t h ec hambe r d epo s i t s w e r ee xcava ted i n2 f t( 0 .6m ) w ide n o r th s ou th ' p a ra l l e l s '( F igu r e6 ) ,t h ed ep th o fe x cava t ion p robab ly v a ry ing b u tc e r t a in ly a tt ime sr e a ch ing 1 . 8m ( 6f t )a nd ,t h ough i np l a ce s ' p a ra l l e l s ' w e r ec l ea r ly l ef ti n comp le t e ly e xcava ted a tt ime sa nd l a t e r r e tu rned t o ,u pt oc . 8m3o fd epo s i t sm ay h ave b een r emoved e ve r yt h ree o rl e s sd ay sd u r ing t h em o s ti n ten s ive p e r iod so fw o rk . E xcava t ion o ft h e se ' p a ra l le l s 'c on t inued i nC hambe r Au n t i lt h e

Dw e r ed epo s i t sc on ta in ing h uman o ccupa t ion d eb r i se ncoun t e red ( a l though o ne R oman b rooch w a s r e cove red i n? Cham b e r Af r om b e tween l a rge r ock s w e l l b e low t h e o r ig ina l c ave f l oo r l e ve l , w he re i th ad p re sumab ly b een d i sp la ced d u r ing e xcava t ion ; a nd t wo c u t ma rked b one sp robab ly s im i la r ly d i s p l aced w e re r e cove red f r om al ow l e ve l , a tt h et ime l e ad ing t o s pecu la t ion a bou th uman u se o ft h e c ave i nt h e I c eA ge ) . T he f o cu s o ft h e w o rk a f te r 1 870 w a s t h e a lmo s t c omp le te c l ea r a nce o fC hambe r D , t h e l owe r l e ve l s o fC hambe r Aa nd t h e m a jo r i ty o ft h et a lu sf r on t ing t he s ca r .T h i sa l so r e vea led v a r i o u s c hoked f e a tu re s a tt h e b ack o fC hambe r Di n c lud ing t h e s o -ca l led B i rkbeck G a l le ry a nd ap a s sage l i nk ing C hambe r s A /D a nd B w h ich w a sp a r t ia l ly c l ea red ( F igu re 1 ) . Ad e ta i led a ccoun t o ft h e se l a te re xcava t ion s i sb eyond t h e s cope o ft h e p re sen t v o lume b u t t h ey c l ea r ly p rog re ssed m e thod ica l ly , C hambe r Da ga in b e ing e xcava ted b y 2 f t ( 0 .6m ) w ide n o r th s ou th ' p a ra l le l s ' ( t hough w i th ad if e ren tb a se l i ne t ot h o se i n C hambe rA )a nd w i th f a una l ma te r ia lb e ing r e co rded b yr e f e r e nce t o' p a ra l le l ' ,d i s tance l e f to ft h es ou th c ave w a l la nd d ep th . T he se l a rge s c a le e xcava t ions e nded i n 1 878 a nd n o f u r the r w o rk a tt h e s i te i sk nown t oh ave o ccu r r ed f o r t h e n ex t f i f ty y ea r s .T he s i te ,b yn ow al o f ty c ave w i th as i de p a s sage ( Cham b e rB )a pp roached a l ong ad eep c u t t ing i nt h et a lu s ,i t se lf c ov e r ed a nd a ugmen ted b yg ra ssed o ve rs po i lh eap s , w a sp re sum a b ly r e ga rded a s' wo rked o u t ' . Howeve r ,i n1 937 -1939 Mr .T o t L o rd , w ho a ta bou tt h e s ame t ime p u rcha sed many o fJ o seph J a ck son ' sr e co rd s a nd f i nd s f o rh i s P ig Y a rd C lub Mu seum i n S e t t le a nd w ho w a s o ne o f an umbe r o fl o ca l e n thu s ia s t s e x p l o r ing v a r iou sc ave se i the ri ndependen t ly o ra sp a r to fg roup s s uch a st h e S e t t le N a tu ra l i s t a nd A n t iqua r ian S oc ie ty a nd t h e P i g Y a rd C lub , b egan r e -exam in ing V ic to r ia C ave . T he L o rd Ms si n d ica te st h a th i sw o rk c oncen t ra ted p a r t ly o nr e -wo rk ing

4 5 th w a sc omp le ted i ne a r ly A ugu s t ,t h ough ag ood d ea lo ft im e h ad a l so e v iden t ly b een s pen to nb l a s t ing a nd r emov ing b l ock s o fs t one ,p a r t icu la r ly a ta nd n ea rt h ee n t rance t oC hambe rB ,a nd

t h e 1 870 s s po i lheap s i mmed ia te ly n o r th w e s to ft h ep r e -1870 c ave e n t rance i nt h e p roces s o f w h ich h e may w e l l h ave e n c oun t e red u nd i s tu rbed R omano -B r i t i sh s t ra t ig raphy b e low t h em ( i . e . f o rm ing p a r t o ft h e a r ea j u s t n o r th o ft h e c ave f r on t ing p l a teau ) . D u r ing t h i s w o rk h e r e cove red n umbe r s o fR omano -

i nc u t t ing s ha f t su pt o7 . 62m ( 2 5 f t )d own i n to I c eA ge d epo s i t s , n o tab ly a tt h e ' n ew ' C hamb e r Ae n t rance a nd t h e e n t rance t o C hambe r B( e .g . D awk in s 1 87 1 , 5 ) . B y t h e 1 0 th A ugu s t 1 870 t h ec l ea rance o fC hambe r Ab eyond t h e4 5 th ' p a ra l le l ' w a se v i -

B r i t i sh o b jec t s a nd d u r ing e xp lo ra t ions o f t h e c ave i t se lf h e a l so f ound as i ng le m e lon b ead a nd al i t t le p o t te ry i nC hambe r B . As e cond a spec to fh i s wo rk w a s t h ec u t t ing b a ck o f 1 870 s

d en t ly n ea r ly c omp le te , o n ly o ne ' d aybook ' e n t ry s ome t wo mon th s l a te rr e co rd ing ab r ie fr e in i t ia t ion o fw o rk h e r e . 1 8

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F igure 6 :V i c to r ia C ave : I t s P re -Excava t ion F orm S how ing aR econ s t ruc t ion o ft h e F ind s R eco rd ing S y s tem s U sed i n1 870 . 1 9

H ow f a r o the rp o s t -Roman d epo s i t s o ccu r red w i th in t h e c ave i sn o tc l ea r . T he re a r er e f e rence s t or oof f a l l b l ock s a tl e a s ti n C hambe rAw h ich ,t h ough l i t t le q uan t if ied m ay w e l lr ep re sen t t h i s p e r iod . H oweve r , w he the r s ed imen t s w e re e ve r p r e sen t a bove t h e R omano -B r i t i sh s t ra tum l a rge ly t u rn s o n t h e i n te r -

t r enche s d ug t oc onnec t C hambe r s Da nd B , r e vea l ing P l e i s t o cene s ed imen t s a nd r e cove r ing f l ow s tone s amp le s c on ta in i n gl a s ti n te rg lac ia lm amma l s .A l so i nt h e 1 930 sM r . J .S imp s on made as i gn if ican tP a laeo l i th ic f i nd s omewhe re w i th in t h e c a ve ( b e low p 32 ) .

p re ta t ion o f b r ie f c ommen t s made s oon a f t e r t h e c ave 's d i s c ove ry .J o seph J ack son ( e .g .i n Sm i th 1 844 ,7 0 )i nh i sa ccoun t o fh i sf i r s te n t ry i n to i tr e f e r st og r ea tq uan t i t ie so fc l ay i n' r ound p i eces l i ke b a l l s o f d if e ren t s i ze s ' b u t i ti su nc lea r w he the r

Mo re r e cen t ly M r .A lan K ing u nde r took as u rvey o ft h e c ave i n1 977 /8 a nd c l eaned b ack a no the r 1 870 s t r ench i nt h e i n ne r p a r to ft h ec a ve a d ja cen tt ot h e B i rkbeck G a l le ry . H e a l so e x c ava ted at r ench o u t s ide t h e c ave i mmed ia te ly n o r th o fM r . L o rd 's w o rk ing s .T he t r ench r a ns ou th w e s tf r om t h ee n t rance o ft h e s ma l lc ave p a s sage b oa rded u p a nd u sed a s at o o l s hed

t h i s r e f e r s t o ad epo s i t l a t e r t h an t h e R omano -Br i t i sh a nd n o o t he rp ub l i shed a ccoun to rs e c t ion i n c lude s a ny s uch d epo s i t . J a ck son 's ( e .g . Sm i th a nd J a ck son 1 842 , 3 85 )r e f e rence t oa n ' o r ig ina lf l oo r ' ,p robab ly i nC hambe rB , w h ich w a s ' h a rd a nd g rave ly , a nd s t rewed w i th b one s b roken p o t s a nd s eve ra l o f t h e[ Romano -Br i t i sh ]o b jec t s 'a nd e v iden t ly b e low 0 . 22 -0 .25m

i nt h e 1 870 s .T h i se xcava t ion r ema in su npub l i shed b u tr e cov e r ed as ma l l a moun to fR omano -Br i t i sh ma te r ia l i n c lud ing a p enannu la rb r ooch . Mr . K ing a l so r e cove red as i ng le c o in ( b e l ow p 50 ) f r om w i th in t h ec ave . S ub sequen t ly i n1 980 A nge la

( 9 -10 i n che s )o f' c lay 'i sp robab ly i r re levan th e r ea sh ei sl i k e l yt ob e r e f e r r ing t oi n du ra ted c a lc i te d epo s i t s w i th in t h e R o mano -Br i t ish l a ye r o fw h ich t h e ' c lay ' f o rmed p a r t . S ign if i c an t ly , t h e J ack son ' d aybook ' g i ve s n o h i n t t h a t as ucce s s ion w i th s t e r i le ma te r ia la bove t h eR omano -Br i t i sh l a ye rw a sf o und i nt h e c ave i n1 870 .

R a e c l eaned b a ck at h i rd 1 870 s t r ench s ec t ion , r ep re sen t ing t h e i n ne rmo s t p o in t o fC hambe r Bi n ve s t iga ted i nt h e n i ne t e en th c en tu ry , t oo b ta in m a te r ia l f o r U ran ium se r ie s d a t ing c a l ib ra t ion .T he m a te r ia l w a sn o tf o r thcom ing b u ts he d i do b t a in d a te s f o r s t a lagm i te f l ow s tone s . A l so i n 1 980 D r . P e te r Sma r t u nde r took E lec t ron S p in R e sonance d a t ing o fl am ina t -

C omp l ica t ion s a r e , h oweve r , i n t roduced b y t h e v a r ia t ion s i n n omenc la tu re u sed t od e sc r ibe t h e c ave d epo s i t s a nd b y c e r t a in a mb iguou s d e sc r ip t ion s . P ub l ished a ccoun t sb y D awk in s

e dc l ays f r om w i th in t h ec ave . I n1 995 a ne x ten s ive s u rvey o fb o th V ic to r ia a nd A lbe r tC ave s

a nd T iddeman r e f e rt ot h eR omano -Br i t i sh l a ye ra st h e ' b la ck e a r th ' o rB r i t -W e l sh s t ra tum .H oweve r , t h eJ a ck son ' d aybook ' c a l l s i tt h e c ave e a r th . B e low t h e c ave e a r th J a ck son c a l l s t h e d epo s i t st h e ' c lay 'a nd t h i st e rm s eem st oc ove rD awk in s 'p o s t u la ted ' Neo l i th ic l a ye r ' ( b e low ) a nd ' G rey C lay ' , at e rm f o r

w a su nde r tak en b yJ am ie Q ua r te rma ine o ft h eL anca s te rU n i v e r s i ty A r cha eo log ica l U n i t f o rt h eY o rk sh i re D a le s N a t iona l P a rk w ho c u r r en t ly o wn t h e s i te . T he f o l low ing y ea r , p r io rt o t h er emova lo fa n u n sa f eb l ock o fs t one t h e s ame u n i tu nde r t o ok al im i ted e va lua t ion e xcava t ion o fo ne o ft h ef ew r ema in i n ga r ea so fs t ra t ig raphy ,a d ja cen tt o ama ss ive r oof f a l lb l ock

t h el owe rc ave d epo s i t s ,t h eu ppe rh o r izon o fw h ich T iddeman r e f e r st oa st h eU ppe rC ave E a r th ( at e rm r e ta ined e ve rs i nce ) . U nfo r tuna te ly J a ck son ' su se o ft h et e rm ' c lay 'h e re i ss pec if i c b u ti nh i sa ccoun to fh i si n i t ia le xp lo ra t ion o ft h ec ave t h et e rm i sp robab ly u sed i nt h ev e ry l o o se s tf a sh ion s ot h a ti tc ou ld a s e a s i ly r e f e r t ot h e R omano -Br i t ish l a ye r a st o as epa ra t e d e p o s i t . O ne o ft h ef ew d e sc r ip t ion so ft h eu ppe rs t ra t ig raphy o f t h ec ave b efo re 1 870 i st h a ti n Sm i th ( 1865 ,2 06 ) .H ed e sc r ibed t h e d epo s i t s i nC hambe r Ba nd w o rk ing u pwa rd s a s ' i n s u c c e s s ion , h a rd s t a lagm i te , c l ay , s of te rs t a lagm i t e , e a r th , h uman r e l ic s , b one s , c ha r coa l a nd l a s t ly t h e s u r f ace o ft h e f l oo r i na l o amy s o i l f ound s t rewed w i th l oo se s t one s a nd b one s ' . T h i s m igh tb et a ken t oi mp ly as o i la bove t h eR omano -B r i t i sh f i nd s , b one s a nd c ha r coa l , b u tm o re c onv inc ing ly s e em sj u s tt ob ea d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e c on ten t s a nd a ppea rance o f as i ng le l a ye r

i nC hambe r Aj u s tb eyond t h ee n t rance t oC hambe rB .N os i g n i f i can t f i nd s w e re r e cove red a nd i ta ppea red l i ke ly t h a t R o m ano -Br i t i sh d epo s i t s i nt h i s a r ea h ad b een r emoved i nt h e 1 870 s ( p e r s .c omm .J .Q ua r te rma ine ) .

S tra t igraphy T he p ub l i shed a nd a r ch ive a ccoun t s o ft h e e xcava t ion o fV ic t o r ia C ave ,e spe c ia l ly t h o se r e la t ing t ot h ew o rk i n1 870 -8 a l l ow t h e b road o u t l ine s o ft h e h i ghe r c ave d epo s i t s i na nd i n f r on to fi tt ob ea s se s sed .H oweve r , af a rl e s sd e ta i led o rd ef in i t i ve a ccoun tc an b eg i ven t h an o ne w ou ld w i sh a nd t h ec om p l e te r emova l o ft h e d epo s i t s i n s ide t h e c ave m ean s t h a t i ti s n o l o nge rp o s s ib le t oc heck t h e a ccu racy o fs t a temen t s m ade

a bove t h es of ts t a lagm i te .T he ' l oo se s t one s ' ( r oof f a l lb l ock s ) a nd t h e ' bone s ' ( a lmo s tc e r ta in ly o fp os t -Roman a n ima l s a nd n o ted i no the rs ou r ce s ( e .g . D enny 1 860 , 5 8 ) ) t h e re fo re s e em t ob et h eo n ly p o s t -Roman ' d epo s i t s ' .

i nt h e a va i lab le s ou r ce s . I ti sc l ea rt h ough t ha tt h eh ighe s td e p o s i te ncoun t e red a tt h e s i te w a s o n t h e p la teau a nd a d ja cen t a r ea s i nf r on to ft h e c ave . T h i s w a s ap os t -Roman a ccumu la t i on o ff r o s t sha t te red a ngu la rl ime s tone b lock sf a l len f r om t h e c l if a bove a nd i ta l so b l ocked / sp i l led i n to t h eR omano -B r i t i sh e n t rance s t oC hambe r A . A l l t h e i nd ica t ion s a r e t h a t t h i s d e p o s i te x tended o ve rt h e who le a r ea o ft h ep la teau a tt h et o po f t h e ma in ( p r e -Roman )t a lu sb u ti t st h ickne ss w a sn o tu n ifo rm .

T he e xp lana t ion o fJ a ck son ' se a r ly c ommen t sm igh ti nf a c tl i e n o t w i th p o s t -Roman d epo s i t s b u t w i th r ewo rk ing o ft h e d e p o s i t s . T he r epea ted p a s sage o fv i s i to r s t ot h ec ave a sw e l l a s J a ck son 's e xcava t ion s i sl i ke ly t oh ave d i s tu rbed much o ft h e s u r f ace o ft h eR omano -B r i t i sh d epo s i tb y 1 870 .H oweve r ,m o r e

N ea r t h e ' n ew ' ( 1 870 ) e n t rance w h ich i tb locked i tw a s e v i -

e x tens ive d i s tu rbance b ya n ima l ss e em sl i k e ly t oh ave o ccu r red

d en t ly c . 0 .6m t h ick b u t f u r the r o u t f r om t h e c l if ff a ce i tw a s o n ly 0 . 3m t h ick . I t s t h ickne s s w he re i ti n t ruded i n to t h e e n t r ance s t oC hambe r Aa nd f o rmed s l ope s d own o n to t h e c ave

l ong b efo re t h e d i scove ry o ft h e c ave . T he r ema in s o fp roba b l yp o s t -Roman b adge r sa nd f o xe sw e re n o ted b yD enny ( 1 860 ,

f l oo ri sn o te n t i re ly c l ea rb u ta tl e a s tj u s tw i th in t h e p re -1870 e n t rance w a sp robab ly c on s ide rab ly mo re t h an 0 . 6m

5 9 ) a nd S pe igh t ( 1 892 , 1 20 ) r e coun t s h ow J a ck son e ncoun t e red t h e l a t te r u s ing t h e s i te w h i le h e w a s e xp lo r ing i t .I n 2 0

d eed , t h e s i te w a s d i scove red w hen ad og w a s p u t i n to w ha t w a s r e ga rded a s af ox h o le . I ti st h e r efo re p robab le t h a ti nu s i n g a tl e a s tp a r t s o ft h e c ave a n ima l s h ad s i gn if i can t ly mod i f i ed i t s d epo s i t s . T he c l ay b a l l s J a ck son n o ted p robab ly n ea r

t i on s i ni t s o r ig ina l t h ickne ss o r b ecau se o f mod if ica t ion b y b u r row ing a n ima l sa nd e a r l ie re xcava t ion .F u r the ri n to C ham b e r At h e l a ye r e v iden t ly t a i led o f , b e ing d e sc r ibed a s v e ry t h in 1 7m ( 5 5 .7 f t )i n , ame t re w e s to f ag roup o fb ou lde r sw h ich p a r t ly b locked t h e w ho le w id th o f t h e c hambe r , a nd h av ing

t h eC hambe rAe n t rance ,m igh tb e ' b adge rb a l l s ' , s u r f a ce s ed i men t s r e -wo rked i n to l am ina ted b a l l s b y b adge r s f o ru nce r t a in r e a son s( Lo rd ,r e sea r ch i np rog re s s ) .

d i sappea red o rb ecome i nd i s t ingu i shab le f r om l owe rd epo s i t s b eyond c . 20m ( 6 5 .6f t )i n ; a l though r e co rd so ff i nd s u pt o0 . 6 0 . 9m ( 2 -3 f t ) d eep a tt h e v e ry b ack o ft h e c hambe r p robab ly i n d ica te ac hange i nd epo s i t ion c ond i t ion s r a the r t h an al a ck o fd epo s i t sa tl e a s th e re .

T he R omano -Br i t i sh d epo s i ti sl i t t le d e sc r ibed e v en i nt h e' d ay b ook ' a nd w h i l s ti tc onf i rm s t h a ti ti n c luded o f ten c on s ide ra b l eq uan t i t ie so fc ha r coa l ,e spec ia l ly i nt h eo u te rp a r to fC ham b e rA ,p robab ly o nt h ep l a t eau a nd ,a cco rd ing t o Sm i th ( 1 865 , 2 06 ) , i nC hambe r Bt h et e rm ' b lack l a ye r ' w a se v iden t ly o n ly c o ined b y D awk in s . Whe the r t h e d epo s i t w a s i nf a c t b l ack t h roughou tt h ec ave a nd w he the ri t sc o lou rw a sd ue t ot h ei n c l u s ion o fc ha rcoa la l one ,o rt ot h ep re sence o fu nbu rn to rgan i c ma t te ri su nc lea r . I ndeed , D awk in s d oe s n o t s e em o f ten t o h ave v i s i ted t h ee xcava t ion sa nd i ti sp o s s ib le t h a ts ome o fh i s a c coun t s a r e p a r t ly e x t rapo la t ion s f r om t h e s i tua t ion n ea rt h e ' n ew '( 1 870 )e n t rance t oC hambe rA .C e r ta in ly t h e ' d aybook ' ,

I nC hambe r Bt h eJ a ck son ' d aybook 's how st h a tt h eR omano B r i t i sh d epo s i tw a s a ga in v a r iab le .A ti t s w e s te nd i t sd ep th i s s t a ted a s0 . 15 -0 .30m ( 6 inche s -l f t ) ( w i th 0 . 6m ( 2 f t ) o fd epo s i t m ixed w i th s t a lagm i te f r agmen t s i nt h e c hoked p a s sage a ti t s n o r th w e s tc or n e r ) . H oweve r , s ome 2 . 4m ( 7 .8f t ) t ot h e e a s t i t c l ea r ly b egan t ot h in o n t h e s ou the rn s i de o ft h e c hambe r , f o r i n s tance 3 m ( 9 .8f t ) i n to t h e p a s sage b e ing 0 . 45m ( 1 .5f t ) d eep o n t h e n o r th s i de a nd o n ly 0 . 15m ( 6i n che s ) o n t h e s ou th . I n d eed , t h e i mp r e s s ion g a ined i st h a t f o r much o f t h e e a s te rn p a r t o f t h e c hambe r t h e R omano -Br i t i sh d epo s i t w a s p r inc i p a l ly c onf ined t oi t sn o r ther ns i de a nd r oo ff a l lb l ock se ncum b e r ed much o ft h es ou th o ft h ec hambe r .T he n o r ther nR omano -

t o ge the r w i th c ommen t s b y s u ch a s Mo r r i son ( 1 870 / 1 ,109 ) m ake c l ea r t h a t t h e i mp re s s ion , i n ten t iona l o r n o t , g i ven b y D awk in s( e .g .1872 ; 1 874 )o f ar e la t ive ly h omogeneou s ,f a i r ly u n ifo rm 0 . 6m ( 2f t ) d eep l a ye r o fe a r th a c ro s s t h e w ho le p l a t e au a nd t h roughou t t h e c ave w a s ac on s ide rab le s imp l if ica t i on o ft h ea c tua ln a tu re a nd e x ten to ft h eR omano -Br i t i sh d e p o s i t .

B r i t i sh d epo s i t i t se lf v a r ied i nd ep th . F ive a nd ah a lf m e t re s ( 1 8f t )i ni tw a so n ly 0 . 15m ( 6i n che s )t h ick ,b u tc . 12 .8m ( 42f t ) i ni tw a s a ga in 0 . 45m ( 1 .5f t ) t h ick ( a nd h e r ei fo n ly l o ca l ly i t w a s t h e s ame t h ickne s s a c ro s s t h e w ho le c hambe r , p robab ly b ecau se 1 3 .5 -14m ( 44 .3 -46f t ) i nb ou lde r s a r e k nown t oh ave b l ocked a l lb u tt h en o r the rn s i de o fi t ) .I tt h en r e tu rned t o0 . 15m

A s e a r ly a s 1 840 J a ck son ( i n Sm i th a nd J ack son 1 842 , 3 85 ) h ad a lud ed t o as t a lagm i t ef i ow s tone s u r f ace ,p e rhap si nC ham b e r Bo nw h ich h eh ad f ound m o s to fh i sc o in sa nd w h ich m igh t h ave b een r e vea led b y d r ip w a te r s e r od ing a n o ve r ly ing s ed i m en t . S im i la r ly t h eh a rd g r ave ly s u r f a ce men t ioned a bove a nd a ga in p robab ly i nC hambe r Bi sl i ke ly t oh ave b een p a r to ft h e R omano -Br i t i sh l a ye r ,f o ri nt h e 1 870 J ack son ' d aybook '( e .g . f o rA ugu s t2 4 th -25 th )a na r ea o ft h eC hambe r Bd epo s i ti sn o ted a sh av ing ' al a rge a dm ix tu r eo fc a rbona te o fl ime i ns ma l lr ound p i ece s ' . I nf a c tt h e re i s ad i s t inc tp o s s ib i l i ty t h a tw ha th e w a s d e sc r ib ing w e re t h ei n du ra ted s u r f ace so fp oo l sw i th l o o se c a l c i te c r ys ta l so nt h e i rs u r f a ce sp a r t ly b ur ied i nt h eR omano -B r i t -

( 6i n che s ) d eep b y 1 5m ( 49 .2f t ) i n , a nd a r ound t h i s p o in t a l o ca l i sed 0 . 6m ( 2 f t ) l ong s t re tch a tt h en o r the rn c hambe rw a l l d eepened t o0 . 45m ( 1 .5f t )i nt h ickne s s . F ina l ly , 1 5 .25m ( 50f t ) i n to t h ec hambe rw he re t he ' d aybook ' s 'i n fo rma t ion c ea se st h e d epos i t w a s 0 . 45m ( 1 .5f t ) t h ick o n t h e n or the rn s i de a nd a b s e n to nt h es ou th . D e sp i te t h e se v a r ia t ion s i nd ep th t h e r e w a s n o t , a sf a ra si ti s n ow p o s s ib le t od e te rm ine , a ny s i gn if i can t v e r t ica l v a r ia t ion w i th in t h eR omano -Br i t ish d epo s i te xcep ti n so f a ra si ndu ra ted c a lc i te d epo s i t sf o rmed p a r to fi t .R a the rr e co rd so fn ea rby f i nd s o fd if e ren t( Romano -Br i t i sh ) d a te s i nt h eJ a ck son ' d aybook '

i s h d epo s i t . E spec ia l ly i nC hambe r Bt h e re fo r e t h e R omano B r i t i sh d epo s i t may h ave i n c luded c a lc i te s u r f a ce s a nd i n c lu s ion s .O ne p o s s ib i l i ty i st h a t ap e r iod o fi ndu ra ted c a lc i te a nd c a lc i te c r ys ta lf o rma t ion i np oo l si nf a c tc ame t oa ne nd a t s ome p o in ti nt h eR omano -Br i t i sh p e r iod t ob ef o l lowed b y a p ha se o fw a te rl a in s ed imen ta t ion , ap o s s ib le s c ena r io s e e ing t h i s a st h er e su l to fc hange si nd r ip w a te rc hem i s t ry ,h yd ro lo g y a nd s ed imen ts upp ly i nt u rn p e rhap s c onnec ted t oa g r icu l t u ra l i n ten s if ica t ion ( Lo rd ,r e sea rch i np rog re s s ) .

s ugge s t al a ck o fc h rono log ica ls t ruc tu re w i th in i ta nd i ts e em s l i k e ly t h a t i th ad b een s ub jec t t or e -wo rk ing , b e i td u r ing i t s d epo s i t ion o rs ub sequen t ly b y e a r ly e xcava t ion so r mo re l i ke l yb u r row ing a n ima l s . T h is may a l so h ave r e su l ted i ns ome b l u r r ing o ft h eb ounda ry b e tween R omano -B r i t i sh a nd u nde r l y ing d epo s i t s w i th in t h e c ave ( Dawk in s 1 872 , 6 7 ) . H oweve r , i ti sc l ea rt h a t ap ha se o fp re -Roman h uman a c t iv i ty w a s d e t e c ted b yt h e 1 870 e xcava t ion s . T h i sw a sD awk in s '( e .g .1872 , 6 7 ) s oc a l led " Neo l i th ic Ho r izon" ,t h ei n te rp re ta t ion o fw h ich

T he f i gu r e o f2 f t( 0 .6m ) f o rt h ed epo s i t 's d ep th a tb e s tr e p re s en t s i t s t h ickne s s o n t h e p l a t eau n ea rt h e e n t rance t oC ham -

r a i se s an umbe ro fp rob lem s w h ich n eed c on s ide ra t ion i nt h e p r e sen td i scu s s ion a st h ey r e la te n o to n ly t o? l a te U ppe rP a lae o l i th ic ma te r ia le xc luded f r om t h ep re sen tv o lume b u tt o? Ne o l i th ic ma te r ia li n c luded i nt h ep re sen tv o lume a nd t ot h em is d a t ing o fs ome R omano -Br i t i sh f i nd s .

b e rA .W i th in t h ec ave t h eJ a ck son ' d aybook 'i nd ica te st h a ti t s t h ickne s sv a r ied g rea t ly .I nt h ef i r s t6 . 7m ( 22f t )o fC hambe rA f i gu re s f r om 0 . 76m ( 2 .5f t ) d own t o0 . 23m ( 9 i n che s ) a r e r e c o rded a nd n ea rt h e e n t rance t oC hambe r Bt h e l a ye r w a s a s l i t t le a s0 . 15m ( 6i n che s )t h ick .T hu s ,a l though f o rt h ef i r s t 1 5 1 6m ( 50 -52 .5 f t )o fC hambe r At h eR omano -Br i t i sh l a ye rw a s p robab ly o n a ve rage 0 . 46m ( 1 .5f t ) t h ick i ti se v iden t t h a t b y

D awk in s ( e .g . 1 872 , F ig s .1 a nd 2 )s how st h e ' Neo l i th ic ' h o r i z on a s ad i s t inc t l a ye r b e tween t h e R omano -Br i t i sh h o r izon a nd t h e ' G r ey C lay '( t he U ppe rC ave E a r th a nd l owe rd epo s i t s i nT iddeman ' st e rm ino logy )w i th in t h ec ave ,w h i le a tt h e ' n ew '

1 870 t h ed epo s i tw a sf a rf r om r e gu la r , b e i tb ecau se o fv a r ia 2 1

( 1870 )c a ve e n t rance h es how s i ta sd i pp ing d own s t eep ly a nd t h en l e ve l l ing o u ta nd d i sappea r ing .H e re ad epo s i t , 1 . 8m ( 6 f t ) o rl e ss i nt h ickne s so ff r o s t sha t te red l ime s tone c emen ted w i th c a rbona te si n t e rvened b e tween t h eR omano -Br i t i sh a nd ' Neo l i th ic ' l a ye r s( F igu re 7 ) .T he l ime s tone d epo s i ti sd ocumen ted i nt h e ' d aybook ' a nd c l ea r ly r ep re sen ted at a lu s b u i ld u p i n

t r ance D awk in s ( 1872 , F ig .2 ) f a i ls t og i ve a ny f i gu r e f o r t h e t h ickne ss o ft h e s uppo sed ' Neo l i th ic ' h o r izon , s imp ly s how i n gi ta sa ni r regu la rl a ye ra r ound 0 . 3m ( I f t )d eep i fh i ss e c t ion i st os ca le . I nf a c t i nd e sc r ib ing t h e f ew f i nd s a sc r ibed t ot h e ' Neo l i th ic ' h o r izon h e s a y s t h a t t h ey w e re f ound ' o n t h e s u r f a ce o f[ t he G rey C lay ] u nde rnea th as po t whe re t h ed eb r i s

p re -Roman t i me s , w h ich m igh ti n deed h ave b locked t h e c ave e n t rance b e tween s ome p o in ti np reh i s to ry a nd t h eR oman p e r i od .H oweve r ,t h e re i sn oc l ea rr e f e rence i nt h e' d aybook 't oa l a ye rb enea th i t ,o ri nt h ec ave t o al a ye rb enea th t h eR omano B r i t i sh , w h ich w a sd if e ren t ia ted f r om t h e ' c lay '( i . e . t h eG rey

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F igure 7 :T h e S t ra t ig raphy a tt h e ' New ' ( 1 870 ) E n t rance t oC hambe rAa sS hown b y D awk in s ( 1872 , F ig s 1& 2 ; 1 874 , F ig s 2 0&2 1 ) . 2 2

C ave E a r th ,m a in ly a t ap o in tw he re i tw a s o ve r la in b y ap r e R oman t a lu sd epo s i t .T h i si sf u r the rs uppo r ted b y s ome f a una l e v idence . T h e ' d aybook ' c o r robo ra te s D awk in s ' ( 1872 , 6 7 )

r ep re sen ted b y ap oo r ly r e co rded s t ruc tu r e i nC hambe r A . Mo r r i son ( 1870 / 1 , 10 )r e f e r st o' l ong u nd re s sed s t one s l ab s . . . f ound a r ranged l i ke ag r ave ' , t h ough n o th ing w a s e v iden t ly f ound i nt h i s ' c i se .T he J a ck son ' d aybook 'f o r 1 0 th May 1 870 s eem s t ob e r e f e r r ing t ot h e s ame f ea tu re w h ich i tl o ca te s a t t h e l e f t h and ( no r the rn ) w a l l o fC hambe rAs ome 9 . 1m ( 30 f t )

c ommen tt h a t ' t he ma jo r i ty o ft h e r ema in s o fb rown b ea r , . . o ccu r red e i the r o n t h e s u r f a ce o f t h e [ G rey ] c l ay i n s ide t h e c a ve o re mbedded i ni tt o ad ep th o f af ew f e e ta nd s ome t ime s a s soc ia t ed w i th R omano -Ce l t ic a r t ic le s ' , b u tt h ev e ry f a c tt h a t t h eU pp e rC ave E a r th ( i . e .G rey C lay )f a una h ad b ecome m ixed w i th t h e R omano -Br i t i sh h o r izon ( ' so c onfu sed t oge the r t h a t i ti si mpo s s ib le t os epa ra te t h eo ne f r om t h eo t he r ' a sD awk in s

i n to i t ,i . e . i nt h e a r ea o ft h e r oof a ven wh ich g ave t h e o n ly a r ea o f h ead room i nt h e c hambe r b eyond t h e e n t rance a r ea . T he s t one s l ab s a r ed e sc r ibed t h e re in a so ne o fl i me s tone ( 1 .5 x0 . 6 x0 . 15m ; l f t 8i n che s x2 f t x6 i n che s ) a nd o ne o fg r i t s t one ( 1 .8 x0 . 6 x0 . 15 m ;6 f t x2 f t x6i n che s )e mbedded 0 . 9m ( 3 f t )i nc l ay .N ume rou sp o t te ry ' f ragmen t s ' , ' s eve ra lp i ece so f

( 1 872 , 6 8 ) h im se l fs ay s ) i mp l ie s t h a t n o o the r d epo s i t i n te r v ened b e tween t h em .

h a rd s l a te ( s i lu r ian )e v iden t ly made i n to s hape f o rc u t t ing p u r p o se s ' , a nd ab one s p ind le w ho r l s eem t oh ave b een f ound i n

O n b a lan ce t h e re fo re t h e c oncep t o fa ny d i sc re te p reh i s to r ic d epo s i t c on ta in ing e v idence o fh uman a c t iv i ty s hou ld b e d i s m i s sed . R a the r ,i ts e em st h a tt owa rd st h ee nd o ft h ef o rma t ion o ft h e U ppe rC ave E a r th f a una l ma te r ia l o fL a te G lac ia l a nd H o locene d a t eb ecame i n co rpo ra ted i ni t ,t oge the rw i th ah and f u l o fa r t e f ac t s ( p e rhap s d epo s i ted o n i t s s u r f a ce ) p r io r t oa

t h e i rv i c in i ty ,t h ough t h es i gn if i cance o ft h e se i su nce r ta in . Wha t i sc l ea ri st h a t ,a s sum ing t h a tt h ei d en t if ica t ion o ft h eg r i t s tone w a s c o r rec t , i ta tl e a s t mu s t h ave b een a r t if i c ia l ly i n t roduced t ot h ec ave , i t ss o l id g eo logy b e ing l ime s tone t h roughou t . I ti s mo s tr eg r e t tab le t h a tn oo t he rd e ta i ls a r ek nown a bou tt h i sf e a t u re .

p ha se o ft a lu sf o rma t ion a nd p e rhap sc l o su r eo ft h ec ave .T wo o ft h e a r te f a c t s a r e t e n ta t ive ly r ega rded a s N eo l i th ic ( b e low p 3i f )b u tt h em o s ts i gn if i can t( ab is e r ia lh a rpoon n o tc on s id e r ed i nd e ta i l h e r e ) i st h ough t t ob e ? l a te U ppe rP a laeo l i th ic , a si s as e cond p i ece ( ab roken a n t le r r od ) f r om t h e b a ck o f C hambe r Aw h ich may o r m ay n o t h ave b een i n ap r ima ry c on tex t .T aken w i th t h ef ew v e ry p oo r ly r e co rded l i th ic s f r om t h e s i t e ( b e low p 31f ) t h i s s ma l l c o rpu s o f ma te r ia l s ugge s t s

N oa c tua lh ea r th sa ppea rt oh ave b een f ound a tt h es i te ,u n le s s Mo r r i son 's ( 1 870 / 1 , 10 ) r e f e rence t o ' af i r e p l ace o f g r i t s t one s ' i st a ken l i t e ra l ly , w h ich w i thou t c o r robo ra t ion w ou ld b e i n adv i sab le . H owev e r , i n d ica t ions o fb ur n ing w e re r e pea t e d ly n o ted i n 1 870 a nd s ome a t temp t c an b e m ade t or e con s t ruc tt h e i rn a tu re a nd d i s t r ibu t ion .R epea ted r e f e r ence st oq uan t i t ie s o fc ha rcoa l , b ur n t b one a nd t o ' many r ounded p ebb le s

v e ry l im i ted a nd s po rad ic u se , ma in ly i fn o te xc lu s ive ly o ft h e o u t e rp a r to fC hambe rA ,p robab ly o ve r ac on s ide rab le p e r iod o ft i me .I tp r e sumab ly c ea sed l o ng b e fo re t h eR omano -B r i t i sh p e r iod w hen t a lu sd epo s i t sm ay h ave s ea led i t se n t rance a nd i t

w i th ma rk s o ff i r eu pon t h em , w h ich h ad b een p robab ly u s ed a s" po tb o i le r s" ( Dawk in s 1 872 ,6 5 )s eem t oa pp ly ma in ly t o t h e p l a teau a r ea , p a r t icu la r ly p e rhap s t ot h a tp a r to fi ta r ound t h e ' n ew ' ( 1870 ) e n t rance t oC hambe r Aa nd , a l though n one

m ay b e t h a tt h i s e n t rance b l ockage w a s d e l ibe ra te ly r emoved i nt h el a t ef i r s t /ea r ly s e cond c en tu ry A .D . .

o ft h i s ma te r ia lh a ss u rv ived ,s im i la rr e fe rence st ob ur n ts t one s p r e sumed t oh ave f o rmed h ea r th ss t rong ly s ugge s tt h a tt h i sa r ea w a su sed f o rf i r e sa nd q u i te p o s s ib ly c ook ing .C ha r coa la tl e a s t w a st h ough f a rf r om r e s t r ic ted t ot h is a r ea .A sw i l lb ea ppa r en t

T he U pp e rC ave E a r th w a so ne o f an umbe ro fl owe rd epo s i t s f o und i na nd i nf r on t o fV ic to r ia C ave i n c lud ing , a s n o ted i n t h eI n t roduc t ion , al am ina ted c l ay l a ye ra nd aL owe rC ave E a r th c on ta in ing ab one b ed w i th ac l a s s ic I p sw ich ian i n te rg lac ia l ' H ippopo tamu sf a una ' a sd ef ined b y S u tc l if f e ( 1960 ) . D a t ing o ff l ows tone s e nca s ing t h e f a una h a s b een u nder taken i nr e c en tt i me s( c f .p a r t icu la r ly G a scoyne e ta l1 981 )a nd i ti sh oped t h a t af u l lr e -a s se s smen to ft h es t ra t ig raphy p re -da t ing h uman u s eo ft h ec ave c an b ep r e sen ted i n as ub sequen tp ub l ica t ion .

f r om F igu re 8t h e ' d aybook ' m en t ion s c ha r coa l s po rad ica l ly t h roughou tC hambe r Aa nd t hough i tmen t ion si tl e s so f ten i n C hambe r Bt h i sc ou ld b e ar e f lec t ion o ft h ea moun to fe xcava t i on t h a t h ad a l ready t a k en p l ace h e re , Sm i th ( 1 865 , 2 06 ) r e c o rd ing ' c ha r coa l a she s ' b e ing e ncoun te red i ne a r l ie rw o rk i n t h e c hambe r . I ts e em s u n l ike ly t h a t much o ft h e c ha rcoa l i n C hambe rAr e la ted t oa c tua l f i re s g i ven i t sl ow h e igh t ,a nd n o f i nd i sk nown r e la t ing t oo t he r mean so fl i gh t ing /hea t ing ,s oi t mu s tb e mo s tl i ke ly t h a ti td e r ived f r om s om e th ing l i ke t o r ch e sc a r r ied d eep i n to t h ec ave .

T h eN a tur ea nd D i s tr ibu t ion o fR omano -Br i t i sh F ea tur e s a nd F ind s

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fs ome o ft h e R omano -B r i t i sh a r tef a c t s a nd p o t te ry f i nd s f r om t h e s i te c an b e p lo t ted ( F igu re 8 ) . T h i s i s l a rge ly d ue t ot h ef a c tt h a tt h eJ ack son ' d aybook 'r e co rd sm any o f t h e 1 870 f i nd p o s i t ion s ( s ome t imes w i th s k e t che s o f t h e f i nd s )a nd b ecau se f i nd sw e re ma rked w i th t h r ee e l emen tc ode s r e la t ing t ot h e i rf i nd p o s i t ion s , w h ich h ave e nab led o ne o ft h e a u tho r s( TCL )t ol i nk s ome s pec if ic p i ece sw i th ' d aybook 'e n -

A l though t h en a tu re o ft h ee xcava t ion s ,e spec ia l ly b e fo r e 1 870 , d o n o ta low o fc e r ta in ty n o c u t f e a tu re a ppea r s t oh ave b een e n coun te red a tV ic to r ia C ave .H oweve r ,i nt h ree i n s tance st h e r e i sa tl e a s ts ome e v idence t os ugge s tt h a tp a r t so ft h es i te w e r e m od if i ed b yh uman a gency .F i r s t ly ,a sd i scu s sed a bove ( p 14 ) , t h e re i sap o s s ib i l i ty t h a tt h ep l a teau o u t s ide t h e ma in e n t rance t oC hambe rAw a sc r ea ted ,o ra tl e a s t mod if ied ,p r e sumab ly t o g i v ea na c t iv i ty a r ea o u t s ide t h ec ave i t se lf .S econd ly ,a nd a ga in

t r ie s .T he l o ca t ion so fT o tL o rd ' sa nd Mr . K ing 's f i nd sa r ea l so a pp rox ima te ly k nown a nd ,l e s se xa c t ly ,t h a to fs ome f i nd sm ad e i n 1 874 ( T iddeman 1 875 , 1 36 ) a nd o ne l a te rf i nd ( T iddeman

d i scu s sed a bove ( p 11 ) ,t h ee n t rance f r om C hambe rAt oC ham b e r Bm ay h av eb een w a l led i ns ome w ay ,p o s s ib ly t or e s t r ic t a c ce s st ot h el a t te rb u tc once ivab ly t oe n su re t h a tt h ee n t rance

1 877 , 17 t h ough n o te t h a tt h e ' p a ra l le l s ' r e f e r r ed t ot h e re a r e d if e ren t t ot ho se n o ted b e low ) . H oweve r , i ti si mpo r tan t t o d ef ine i nd e ta i l t h e n a tu r e a nd l im i ta t ions o ft h e i n fo rma t ion

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d e r iv ab le f r om e x tan tr e co rd sb e f o re a t temp t ing t oa na ly se t h e

t h ey c anno t b e c l o se ly l o ca ted . I ti sk nown t h a t t h ey a l c ame f r om w i th in t h ec a v ea nd w ha ti n f o rma t ion i sa v a i lab le ( e .g . Sm i th 1 865 ,2 06 ;a nd e s pec ia l ly B u r row 1 863 )s ugge s t st h a t ama jo r i ty

o ft h es e quence ,a nd s o ac heck o nt h ep os i t ion o ft h ee n t rance , h a s b een p o s s ib le b y c a lcu la t ion f r om as o le r ema in ing p a in t e dn umbe ro nt h ec ave r oof i d en t if y ing , p re sumab ly , t h ee a s t e r ne nd o f' p a ra l le l '2 6 .T he d a tum l i ne r an a c ro s st h ep l a teau i n to t h e ' n ew ' ( 1870 ) e n t rance a nd a long t h e c hambe r t ot h e p o in tw he re i tt ur ned s ou th . I t sp o s i t ion o nF igu re s6 h a s b een i n f e r r ed b y c ompa r ing t h e p re sen t c ave w i th p ho tog raph s o f

c ame f r om C hamb e rB ,p e rhap sm a in ly i t sw e s t e rn p a r t .H owev e r ,t h e n umbe ra nd i d en t i ty o ft h e p r e -1870 f i nd s i sd if i cu l tt o e s tab l i sh ( c f .C hap te r5 )a nd o n ly o ne b rooch ( f rom n ea rt h ee n t r anc et oC hambe rB )c an b ee s tab l i shed w i th c onf idence a sc om i n gf r om amo re s p e c if i c f i nd spo tt h an ' Chambe rB ' . S e cond ly , w h i le T o tL o rd a nd M r .K ing ' sf i nd sp r obab ly i np a r tc ame f r om u nd i s tu rbed d epo s i t sj u s tn o r th o ft h ep l a teau ,t h ef o rme r ' se spe -

1 870 i nt h eS .C .E .C . Ms so nw h ich i ti s ma rk ed b y ab oa rd l ine a tt h ec ave e n t rance ( P la te 1 )a nd b y i n te r roga t ion o ft h e d i s t a nce sf r om i ti nt h e ' d aybook 'f o rt h e mo s tn o r the r ly a nd s ou th e r ly f i nd s . T h i s h a s p robab ly a l lowed ab road ly r e l iab le p o s i t i on f o r i tt ob e e s tab l i shed b u t e spec ia l ly w i th r e spec t t oi t s p r ec i se o r ien ta t ion , i ts hou ld b e p o in ted o u t t h a t ad eg ree o f c on jec tu r ei si n vo lved .

o b se r ved d i s t r ibu t ion . F i r s t ly , n o f i nd s m ad e b ef o re 1 870 a r e p l o t ted o n F igu re 8a s

c i a l ly a lmo s tc e r ta in ly i n c luded p i e ce sf r om o l ds po i lh eap sr a th e rt h a n p r ima ry c on t ex t s . T h i rd ly ,f a rf r om a l 1 870 f i nd s w e r e

F ind si nC hambe r Bw e re r e co rded s im i la r ly ,b u ta sn o ted a bove ( p 18 ) t wo s epa ra te s e t s o fp a ra l le l s w e re i nu se , t h e f i r s tr un -

r e co rded i nt h eJ a ck son ' d aybook 'a nd /o rr e ta in t h e i rf i nd c ode s , s ome c a tego r ie s b e ing e spec ia l ly u nde rr e p re sen ted ( e .g . b one

n i ng w e s te a s t f o rt h e f i r s t 1 . 8m ( 6 f t ) o ft h ec hambe ra nd t h e s e cond r unn ing n o r th s ou th b eyond t h is p o in t .T he f i r s ts e th ad n od a tum l i ne a nd t h ough ad a tum w a se s tab l i shed f o rt h es e c o nd s e t i t s l i ne c anno t n ow b e r e con s t ruc ted , b e s ide s w h ich t h e l o ca t iona l i n fo rma t ion n ow a va i lab le r a re ly g i ve s d i s tanc -

w o rk ing w a s t e , u np repo s se s s ing c oppe r a loy f r agmen t s , i r on w o rk , a nd p o t t e ry w h ich w a s n o t i t em i sed a nd o n ly n o ted a s f o und ,o ne s u spe c t sr a the ru n sy s t ema t ica l ly ) .F ou r th ly ,t h e 1 870 f i nd p o s i t ion sa r er e co rded w i th q u i t ev a r iab le d eg ree s o fp r e c i s i on i nt h eJ a ck son ' d aybook ' ,w h i ch a f t e ra lw a sJ a ck son ' sp r i v a t e d i a ry n o ta n of i c ia l s i te r e co rd . T hu s , a sw i l l b e a ppa r en t

e sf r om i t .T hus , o nF igu re 8mo s tf i nd s h ave b een p l a ced a r b i t ra r i ly i nr e spec to ft h e i re a s t -we s tp o s i t ion s . T he p r ec i s ion w i th w h ich t h e C hambe r B' p a ra l le ls ' c an b e p lo t ted i sl e s s

f r om F igu re 8 ,m uch ma te r ia lc an o n ly b ea s s igned t o ap a r t icu l a r ' p a ra l le l ' o rg r oup o f' p a ra l le l s ' a nd i ts hou ld b en o ted t h a ta b ook 'e n t r ie s .

t h an t h a tf o rC hambe rA , e spec ia l ly a s i ti sn o t e n t i r e ly c l ea r f r om w h ich p a r to ft h ew e s te nd o ft h ec hambe rt h e 1 . 8m ( 6 f t ) l e ng th o ft h ef i r s ts e tw a s m ea su red , b u tc ompa r i son b e tween

A no the rf a c to rl i m i t ing t h ep r e c i s ion w i th w h ich r e co rded m a t e -

' d aybook ' i n forma t ion a nd t h e p r e sen t f o rm o ft h e c av e s ug g e s t st h a tt h ey a r ea pp rox ima te ly c o r rec t .

f ew p i e ce s i n c luded a r e p lo t ted f r om s l igh t ly a mb iguou s ' d ay -

r i a lc an b em apped a nd i n t roduc ing p o ten t ia li n a ccu ra c ie s ,i st h e i mp r e c i s ion w i th w h ich t h e f i xed p o in t s o ft h e 1 870 r e co rd ing

I ti st h e r e fo r e c l ea r t h a tF igu re 8g ive s o n ly ap a r t ia l a nd a p p rox ima t e p i c tu re o ft h e f i nd s made s o le ly i na nd a f t e r 1 870 a nd an umbe r o fl i ke ly b i a se s i nt h e e v idence may b e n o ted f r om t h eo u t se t .F i r s t ly ,p r e -1870 w o rk h av ing b een s o le ly w i th i nt h ec ave ,a nd p e rhap sm a in ly i nC hambe rB ,t h ep e r cen tage o fp l o tab le ma te r ia l f r om i nf r on t o ft he c ave o ugh t , a l l o t he r t h ing sb e ing e qua l ,t ob eg r ea te rt h an t h a tf r om w i th in t h ec ave . S im i la r ly t h ep e r cen tage o f ma te r ia lo r ig ina l ly p r e sen ti ns ome a r ea so ft h ec ave w h ich c an b ep lo t ted i sl i ke ly t ob el e s st h an f o ro t he ra r ea s . C hambe r Be spec ia l ly i sl i ke ly t ob er e la t ive ly u nde rr e p re sen ted o nF igu re 8 ,a nd wh i ls tD awk in s( 1 870 )a s s e r t st h a tt h es ou the rn o u te rp a r to fC hambe rAl e ad ing t ot h e ' n ew '( 1 870 )e n t rance h ad n o tb een d i s tu rbed b e fo re h eb egan w o rk t h ec o r re spond ing a r ea l e ad ing t ot h ep r e -1870 e n t rance p re sumab ly h ad , r e su l t ing i n ap o s s ib le u nd e r r ep r e sen ta t ion o ff i nd si nt h i sa r ea o nF igu re 8 .O the ra ppa ren tb i a se si n c lude t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p l a teau f i nd s s e em t o b e l e s s w e l l r e co rded t h an t h e c ave 's a nd , c onve r se ly , t ha t u nl ike t h e c ave a l l a r ea s o ft h ep l a teau ,o ra tl e a s tt h ea r ea j u s tn o r th o fi t , may n o th ave b een e xcava ted .F i na l ly ,i ti sa ga in w o r th e mpha s i s ing t h a te ven i n 1 870 t h e f i nd s t h a t w e re w e l l r e co rded a r e l i ke ly t oh ave b een u nu sua l ,c omp le te o ri nJ a ck son 's e ye sp a r t icu la r ly i n te r e s t ing p i ece s .P ie rced s poon s ,b rooche s ,c o in s ,t o gg le s ,b ead s , b r ace le t sa nd s oo n w e re o f t en n o ted ; c u tb one s , b rok en p i n s ,

s y s t em c an b er e con s t ruc ted . S om ef i nd so nt h ep l a teau i nf r on t o ft h ec a ve w e r eo n ly r e co rded a sw i th in q u i t el a rge a r ea s ,t h em s e lve s l o ca ted b yr e f e rence t ot h e n ow d e s t royed ' n ew ' ( 1 870 ) e n t ra nce t ot h ec a v e , ad a tum l i ne w h ich r a ni n to i t( b e low )a nd o t h e rd a tum sp a ra l le lt ot h ec l if ff a ce b u tn ol o nge rr e loca tab le w i th c onf iden ce . A ny e r ro r i nt h e i r p l a c ing o n F igu re 8i sn o t l i k e ly t ob e g r ea t b u t t h e i r p o s i t ion s a r e n eve r the le s s o n ly a p p r ox ima t e .S om eo t he rp l a teau f i nd sa r eb yc on t r a s tn o mo re p r e c i se ly p r ovenanced t h an a s ' o u t s ide t h ec av e ' , o ra r el o ca ted b y r e f e r ence t of e a tu re s o ft h e s i t e n o l o nge ri d en t if iab le a nd i ti s o n ly p o s s ib le t og r oup t h e se t o ge the ra sf i nd s m ade o u t s id et h e c av e .W i th in C hambe rAf i nd sw e r eg i ven o ne o r mo re o ft h re e p i e ce so f loca t iona li n f o rma t ion i nt h e' d a ybook 'a nd v i at h ec ode s o r ig ina l ly m a rk ed o n t ot h em . O ne w a s ad ep th , o f t en b u t n o t a lwa y sb e low t h ec av ef l oo rl e ve l , as e cond w a s ad i s tance l ef to r r i gh to f ad a tum l i ne t h a tr a nt h el e ng th o ft h ec hambe r , a nd t h e t h i rd w a s a' p a r a l le l 'n umbe r . N o a temp t h a s b een made t ou s e t h e d ep th f i gu re s a si ta p p ea r s l i k e ly t h a t t h e R omano -Br i t i sh d epo s i t h ad n o v e r t ica l s t ruc tu r eb u ta sf a ra sp o ss ib le f i nd sh ave b een p lo t ted b y ' p a r a le l ' a nd t h e ,l e s so f ten r e co rded ,i n d ica t ion so fp os i t ion r e la t i ve t ot h ed a tum .F ind sw i th n od a tum i n fo rma t ion a r es hown t ot h er i gh to ft h ec hambe r .T he ' p a ra l le l s ' , a sh a s b een m en t i oned a bove , w e re as e r ie s o f0 . 6m ( 2 f t ) w ide s t r ip s r unn ing n o r th s ou th a c ro s s t h e c ave a nd w e r e n umbe red i ns equence f r om ab a se l i ne t h a t , a tl e a s ta pp rox ima te ly , w a s t h en ow d e -

h one s , i r onwo rk a nd s pec if i c p i ece s o fp o t te ry d id n o t n ea r ly a so f t en c ommand h i s d e ta i led a t ten t ion a tl e a s t i nh i s ' d ay b ook ' e v en i fh e d i d e n te r ' t he e xac t p os i t ion i nt h e c ave o f e ve ry o b jec t o fn o te ' ( Dawk in s 1 872 , 1 )i nt h e l o s t ' of i c ia l ' r e co rd s .

s t royed ' n ew '( 1 870 )e n t rance t ot h ec hambe r .R econs t ruc t ion 2 5

a r en o tc e r ta in ly s i gn if ican t .A na b sence o fw o rked /bu rn ts t one s

T he se , a dm i t ted ly c on s ide rab le , r e se rva t ion s a bou t t h er e p re s en t iv i ty a nd a ccu racy o ft h ep l o tab le d i s t r ibu t ion o ff i nd sh av i n g b een o u t l ined i ti ss t i l lc l ea rt h a tF igu re 8d emon s t ra te s a

i nC hambe r Ba s o ppo sed t oC hambe r Am igh t b e t a ken a s s i gn if ican t , b u t i ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a t i n d iv idua l s t one i t em s c an r a re ly b e i d en t if ied i nt h e s i te r e co rd s s oh one s e t c . a r e p robab ly m ixed w i th s t one st h a ta r ej u s tf i r er e ddened .

n umbe r o f s i gn if i can t p o in t s a bou t t h e h uman u t i l i sa t ion o f V ic to r ia C ave .T he mo s ti mpo r tan tp o in ti st h a tf i nd sc ame f r om t h ee n t i re l e ng th o fC hambe rA , e ven f r om b eyond i t ss ou the r l yt u rn a tt h eb ack o ft h ec ave ,a nd f r om much ,e xcep tp e rhap s

T og of u r the rt h an t h i si sd if i cu l tb ecau se t h ea v a i lab le r e co rd s o f ten a l low , f o ri n s tance , ab one f i nd t ob ep l o t ted b u td o n o t

t h ev e ry b a ck o f ,C hambe rB . Mo reove r ,b o th t h ec ave a nd t h e p l a teau ( a nd t h ea r ea j u s tn o r th o fi t )p roduced s i gn if i can tn um b e r s o ff i nd s . E ven a l low ing f o r s ome r e loca t ion o fi t em s b y

s pec if ica l ly i d en t ify i t s f o rm . C o in s a nd b r oo che s o f c oppe r a l loy a r e a n e xcep t ion t ot h i s a st h ey a r e c l ea r ly n o ted i nt h e ' d aybook 'w heneve rr e cove red b u te ven f o rr e la t ive ly d i s t inc t i ve a nd s o o f ten i d en t if iab le f i nd s o fo t he rt y pe s o n ly ap e r -

r e pea t ed h uman p a s sage , d ome s t ic d og a c t iv i ty a nd p o s t -Ro m an b adge r / fox a c t iv i ty i ti sa ppa ren tt h a ta l la r ea s o ft h e s i t e w e re i nu s e .E s tab l i sh ing w he the ra l lw e re e qua l ly i n ten s ive ly

c en tage o f 1 870 f i nd s c an b e p lo t ted w i th c onf idence . I nf ou r c a se s ,l a t e rR oman b race le t s , s p ind le w ho r l s( o fa l m a te r ia l s ) , b one p i e r ced s poon s a nd b one t ogg le s , as u ff i c ien tn umbe ro f

u sed i sm o re d if i cu l t .A na ppa ren tp auc i ty o ff i nd si nt h ew e s t e r np a r to fC hambe rAa nd i np a r t s o fC hambe r Bn ea ri t se n t r ance a nd f o r ad i s tance e a s to fi ta r el i ke ly o rp o s s ib ly i lu so r y a s t h e se a r e t h e a r ea s a lmo s t c e r ta in ly mo s t i n ten s ive ly s ea rched b e fo re 1 870 ;t h ough i ti sn o tc e r ta in t h a tt h ep r e -1870

f i nd s po t sc an b ei d en t if ied t o make a na t temp ta td i s t r ibu t ion a la na ly s i sv a l id w i th r e se rva t ion s ( F igu re 8 a )b u ti t se v idence s hou ld b e t r ea ted w i th c au t ion . A s w i l l b e s e en , t h e t o gg le s , mo s t ly d epo s i ted a f t e ru se w ea r ,a r ep r e sen ti n s ide a nd o u t s ide t h e c ave a nd a sf a ri n to t h e c ave a sh uman a c ce s s w a s p roba b ly p o s s ib le .B ra ce le t ss how much t h es ame p a t ter n ,a sd os p in -

e n t rance t oC hambe r Aw a s u sed i nt h e R omano -Br i t i sh p e r i o ds oa na b sence o ff i nd so nt h en o r the rn s i de o ft h eo u te rp a r t o fC hambe rA m igh tb er e a l .D i s t inc td e c r ea se si nf i nd si nb o th

d l e w ho r l s . O n ly t h ep i e rced s poon s ( many o ft h em b e ing t h e

c hamb e r sb eyond p o in t s w he re b ou lde r s w e re n o ted a sf o rm i n g a tl e a s tp a r t ia li mped imen t st oa cce s s a r et hough f a r mo re

b e t te rp r e se rved a nd mo re c omp le te e xamp le so ft h eo b jec tt y pe a s t h e se w e re t h e p i ece s t h a t a t t rac ted c omm en t i nt h e ' d ay b ook ') s e em t ob e mo re r e s t r ic ted w i th f i nd sg ene ra l ly a ppea r i ng d eep w i th in t h ec ave .

l i ke ly t ob eg enu ine . A st oc on cen t ra t ion so ff i nd si ts e em sl i ke ly t h a tj u s ti nf r on to f a tl e a s tt h e ' n ew '( 1870 )e n t r an ce t oC hambe rAt h e r ew a ss ome c oncen t ra t ion o fa c t iv i ty e v idence . S ome o ft h i s i sd o cumen ted i nt h e' d aybook 'a nd p l o t ted o nF igu r e 8b u ti fD awk in s( e .g .1874 , 8 7 )i st a k en l i t e ra l ly w hen h er e f e r st o a' l aye rc ompo sed o ff r ag m en t so fb one a nd c ha r coa l . . .a nd [ wh ich ]c on ta ined l a rge q uan -

Wha teve rt h ei mpo r to ft h e se f ew d i s t r ibu t iona lb i a se st h e re i s l i t t le e v idence f o r a ny i n tac t ' hoa rd ' o fa r t e f a c t s b e ing f ound w i th in t h e c ave .A l though t h e ' d aybook ' i so f t en v ague a bou t t h er e la t ion sh ip so fn ea rby f i nd so n ly af ew e n t r ie ss ugge s tt h a t t wo o r mo re o b jec t s w e re f ound i ni mmed ia t ep rox im i ty a nd , wh i le i tm ay b et h a tt h e re w e re s ma l ll o ca l i sed c oncen t ra t ions

t i t ie s o ft h eb roken b one so fa n ima l s . . .a nd c o in sa nd a r t ic le s o f l u xu ry ,a sw e l la st h o se i n s t rumen t sw h ich w e r e mo re n a tu ra l ly

o f f i nd s ( e .g . n ea r t h e ` c i se i nC hambe r A ) t h e r e i sn o e v i d ence t os ugge s t a ny s i ng le d i sc re te d epo s i t ion s . T h i s i sa l so t r ue o f 1 870 s f i nd s o n t h ep la teau . H owev e r ,j u s tn o r th o ft h e p la t eau T o t L o rd may h ave r e cove red o ne o r mo r e d i sc re te mu l t ip le d epo s i t ion s . T he c oppe r a l loy ? box s t ud s 9 . 52 -9 .62 b e low ( a nd p e rhap s 9 . 63 -9 .64 ) w e re c e r ta in ly f ound o n t h e s ame d ay a nd i nt h es ame a r ea a nd i tmu s tb ev e ry l i ke ly t h a t t hey w e r ef ound t oge the r , p robab ly h av ing b een a t tached t oa wooden o b jec to nd epo s i t ion .

s u i ted f o rt h e h a lf savage l i f e 't h en o t he rf i nd s o n ly l o ca ted i n t h e ' d aybook 'a sf r om ' o u t s ide t h ec ave ' may i nf a c th ave c l u s t e red n ea rt h ee n t rance . As e cond b r oad c oncen t ra t ion s e em st o b ea ppa ren ti nC hambe r Af o r6 7m ( 1 9 .5 -23f t )w e s to ft h eb ou l d e r s i mpea c i ing a cce s s . A ga in c au t ion s hou ld b e e xe r c i sed b e c au se o ft h e p o s s ib il i ty t h a t a r ea s o ft h e c hambe rf u r the r w e s t m igh th ave b een mo r ef u l ly s e a r ched b e fo re 1 870 ,b u ti ti sn o ta b l et h a tt h i sf i nd sc l u s te ri si nt h eg ene ra la r ea o ft h ee n t rance t o C hambe rB . Whe the r at h i rd c oncen t ra t ion , a tt h e w e s t e nd o f C hamb e r Bo r ig ina l ly e x i s t ed i ti sn ow i mpo s s ib le t os a y w i th c e r ta in ty a st h e f i nd s i nq ue s t ion w ou ld mo s t ly h ave b een r e moved b e f o re 1 870 b u tt h a ts u ch af o cu s o fa c t iv i ty w a s o r ig i n a l ly p r e sen ti s ad i s t inc tp o s s ib i l i ty .

I ti sp a r t icu la r ly r eg re t tab le t h a tl i t t le c an b es a id a bou tt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fo b jec t s o fd if e ren td a te s .T he m a in ly s e cond c en t u ry b rooche s , t h e l a te r R oman b race le t s , t h e c o in s a nd t h e p ie rced s poon s ( p robab ly l a te f i r s t /ea r ly s e cond c en tu ry ) a r e t he ma in s t rand s o fe v idence f o rd i s t r ibu t ion b y d a t e b u tt h ey i nd ica te l i t t le mo re t h an t h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a tt h ee a r l ie rm a te r ia l i s mo re p r eva len tw i th in t h ec ave t han o u t s ide i t ,w h i le t h el a t e r ma te r ia lh a s aw ide rs pa t ia ls p read . H ow v a l id t h i so b se rva t i on i sm ay a nyway b ed oub ted a ss o much m a t e r ia li sn o tc l o se l yd a teab le a nd s ome d i s t r ibu t ion s , s uch a st h a to ft h ep i e rced s poon sa r ec l ea r ly i n comp le te .R eg re t tab ly a na lys i so ft h es i te ' s p o t te ry d oe sn o ts hed l i gh to nt h i sp rob lem a sc e ram ic f i nd si n 1 870 c anno t b e i n d iv idua l ly p lo t ted a nd b eyond e s tab l i sh ing

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft ype s o ff i nd , a tl e a s t b y m a te r ia l , i s , a s w i l l b e s e en f r om F igu r e 8l a rge ly r a ndom w i th am ix tu re o f c o in s ,p o t te ry ,c oppe ra l loy b r ooche sa nd o t he ro b jec t s ,w o rked b one a nd s t one , af ew g l a s s ,j e t ,l e ad ,a nd ( p robab ly u nde rr ep r e sen ted )i r on i t em s .T he o n ly s i gn if i can td i s t r ibu t ion i sp rob a b ly t h a to n ly t wo b rooche s a r e p r e sen t o u t s ide t h e c ave ( one 1 870 f i nd a nd o ne b yM r . K ing )w h i le 1 8w e r ef ound i n s ide i t a nd ac on s ide rab le n umbe r o fo t he r s n o t s hown o n t h e p l an a r e k nown t oh ave c ome f r om i n s ide t h e c ave b efo r e 1 870 . Sma l l c l u s te r s o fg l a s s b ead f i nd s n ea r t h e b ou lde r c on s t r ic -

f r om n i ne teen th c en tu ry r e co rd s t h a t t h e w o rk b ef o re 1 870 ( wh ich w a s e xc lu s ive ly w i th in t h e c ave ) r e cove red m a te r ia l i n c lud ing e a r l ie r R oman w a re s , n o o t he r i n fo rma t ion o n p o t t e ry f i nd s po t si sa va i lab le .

t i on i nC hambe rB , as i ng le h uman t o o th f i nd w i th in t h ec ave a so ppo sed t oe l even o rt w e lve i nt h ree g roup so u t s ide i t ,a nd p e rhap s al i t t le c l u s te r ing i nt h e c o in s may a l so b e n o ted b u t 2 6

CHAPTER 4 : THE CONTEXT OF THE RO MANO -BR IT ISH ACT IV ITY

B yK e i th B ran igan

V ic to r ia C av e a nd t h e s u r round ing l a nd scape w e re p re suma b l yf i r s te ncoun te red b yt h eR oman a rmy i nt h ee a r ly 7 0 sw hen V e spa s ian o r d e red h i sl e ga t ei nB r i t a in ,P e t i l iu sC e r ia l i st oc am p a ign d e ep i nB r igan t ia f o l low ing t h eo ve r th row o fC a r t iman d ua , R ome ' sc l ien t -queen i nn o r the rn B r i ta in .T ac i tu s 'a ccoun t ( Agr ico la 1 7 ) a nd a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f r om R oman f o r t s i te s i nn o r ther nE ng land ( F r e re 1 987 , 8 3 -5 ) a g ree t h a t C e r i a l is c ampa igned w ide ly , p e rhap s a sf a ra st h eS ta inmo re P a s s a nd C a r l i s le ,a nd i ti st emp t ing t op l a ce t h e ma rch ing c amp a t

m i le sa way a tI ldey ,a ni n t ru s ive i mm ig ran tp opu la t ion o f3 , 000 m en w a si mpo sed o nt h ea r ea .A tt h es ame t ime t h el o ca lp op u l a t ion , p a r t icu la r ly o fy oung ma le s ,m ay h ave b een r educed . T h i s may h ave o ccu r red i n i t ia l ly d u r ing t h e h o s t i l i t ie s w h ich a c compan ied t h eR oman c ampa ign s ,b u t mo re s i gn if ican tl o s se s w e r e p robab ly c r ea ted b y r e cru i tmen ti n to t h e a rmy a nd c on s c r ip t ion i n to f o rced l a bou r u n i t s . G iven t h a t , o n p r e sen t a r c haeo log ica l e v idence , t h e a r ea w a s n o td en se ly p opu la ted a t t h et ime o ft h eR oman c onque s t ,t h ee a r ly y ea r s o ft h eR oman o ccupa t ion o ft h e a r ea m ay t h u sh ave h ad as i gn if ican td emo g r aph ic i mpac t .

Ma lham i nt h i sc on tex ta l though i tc ou ld o fc ou r se b e long t oa l a te rp e r iod .T a c i tu sm ake si tc l ea r ,h oweve r , t h a tC e r ia l is h ad i n su f i c ien tt i me i n wh ich t oc on so l ida te h i sc onque s t s -i ft h a t w a sV espa s ian 's i n ten t ion a tt h i st ime -a nd t h ee xcava ted e v i -

T he re w e re s ub sequen t c hange s a nd f l uc tua t ion s i nt h e s i ze a nd d i spo s i t ion o ft h eR oman g a r r i son i nt h ea r ea , mo s tn o ta b l yw i th t r oop sb e ing w i thd rawn f r om s e ve ra lf o r t si nt h eH ad r i -

d ence f o rt h ef o unda t ion d a te o ff o r t si nt h eP enn ine ss uppo r t s t h is c l a im .

a n ic p e r iod , o n ly t or e tu rn a f te rt h ew i thd rawa l f r om S co t land i nt h e 1 60 s ( Ha r t ley a nd F i t t s 1 988 , 2 4 -30 ) . T he rea f te rt r oop

T he s ub sequen td i ve r s ion o fR oman c ampa ign ing u nde rC e r i a l is ' s ucce s so r , J u l iu s F ron t inu s , t os ou th a nd c en t ra l Wa le s , g ave t h e B r igan te s i nt h e P enn ine s ab r ea th ing -space o fp e r h aps f ou r o rf i ve y ea r s , b efo re t h e R oman a rmy r e tu rned i n f o rce .U nde rJ u l iu s Ag r ico la t h ea rmy m oved s w if t ly ,b e tween A .D . 7 8 a nd A .D . 8 3 , f i r s tt os ubdue a nd t h en t og a r r ison t h e w ho le o fn o r ther nE ng land .

d i spo s i t ion sb ecame mo r es e t t led t h roughou tt h ep rov ince ,a nd i tw a s p robab ly n ow t h a ts a te l l i te s e t t lemen t s p rov id ing s e rv i c e s t ot h e t r oop s b ecame w e l l e s tab l i shed a round t h e f o r t s . V i c ia r ea t te s ted ,b yv a ry ing q uan t i t ie so fe v idence ,a ta l ls i xo f t h e f o r t s w i th in t wen ty -f ive m i le s o f S e t t le ( Somme r 1 984 ) . T he i mpo r tance o ft h e se c i v i l ian s e t t lemen t s ,e ven w he r et h ey a ppea ru n imp r e s s ive f r om t h ep r e sen ta r chaeo log ica le v idence , s hou ld n o t b e u nde r e s t ima t ed . I n t h i s a r ea t h ey a r e t h e o n ly n uc lea ted c i v i l ian s e t t lemen t s w h ich m ay h ave f u lf i l led s ome

L ike t h er e s to fB r igan t ia , t h e a r ea a r ound S e t t le f ound i t se lf e nme shed i n an e two rk o fR oman f o r t s , a l though t h e s peed w i th w h ich t h e e n t i re s y s t em w a s c omp le ted r ema in s u nce r t a in . B e f o r e t h e e nd o f t h e c en tu ry h oweve r , t h e S e t t le a r ea w a s r i nged b yp r obab ly f i ve f o r t s ( F igu r e9 ) . As i x th h a s b een p o s tu la ted ,a tL ong P re s ton l e s st h an f i ve m i le s( 8 I cm )s ou th o f V ic to r ia C av e , f o r mo r e t h an s e ven ty y ea r s ( V i l ly 1 923 ) b u t r e cen t f i e ldwo rk h a s f ound n o e v idence a ta l l t os uppo r t i t s i d en t if ica t ion ( E smond C lea ry 1 993 ,2 86 ) .T he n ea re s tk nown f o r tt h e re fo r e ,t e nm i le st ot h es ou th -ea s to fV ic to r ia C ave ,w a s a tE is lack . B e tween f i f teen a nd t wen ty m i le st ot h en or th -ea s t w a sB a inb r idge .B eyond t h eF o re s to fB ow land ,w e re t h ef o r t s a tR ibche s t e r ,a bou tt wen ty m i le st ot h es ou th -we s t ,a nd a tL an -

o ft h ef unc t ion s t h a tt own s n o rma l ly u nde r took i no the rp a r t s o ft h ep rov ince .R ema in so fb a th -hou se sa nd /o rm an s io sa ts e v e r a l s i te s p o in t t ob o th t h e p rov i s ion o f s e rv ice s a nd ar o le , h oweve r l ow ly , i nt h e a dm in i s t ra t ive n e two rk , b u t a si n mo s t m i l i ta ry v i c ii nnkeepe r s ,c r a f t smen ,a nd r e ta i le r s o ff ood ,p o t t e ry a nd c l o th ing p robab ly m ade u p as i gn if ican t p a r t o ft h e p opu la t ion . T he o n ly o t he rs e t t lemen ti nt h e a r ea w he re al i f e s ty le e i the r r e f lec t ing o ri m i ta t ing R oman f a sh ion i sc l ea r ly e v idenced i s t h ev i l la a tG a rg rave ( Ha r t ley a nd F i t t s , 1 988 ,7 5 -85 ) ,t e nm i le s ( 1 6 l c m ) s ou th -ea s t o fV ic to r ia C ave a nd l e s s t han f i ve m i le s ( 8km )f r om t h ef o r ta tE l s la ck . T he p rox im i ty o ft h ef o r tm a y

c a s te r ,a bou tt wen ty -f ive m i le sd ue w e s t .F ina l ly ,a bou tf i f teen m i le st ot h en o r th -we s t , af o r tw a sl o ca ted a tB u r row in -Lon s -

w e l lh ave b een ak ey f a c to ri nt h ed ec i s ion t oc on s t ruc t av i l la h e re ,c .A .D .160 .T he f a rm t a ke sa dvan tage o fw e l l -d ra ined f e r t i l es o i l s w h ich d eve loped o ve rt h eg rave l s o f af o rme rg l a c ia l l a k e , b u tt h i s a l one w ou ld n o th ave e ncou raged t h e v e ry c on s i de rab le i n ve s tmen tr e qu i red t ob u i ld av i l la l i ke G a rg rave . I t i st h eo n ly v i l la k nown i nt h eh ea r to ft h eP enn ine s ( Bran igan 1 980 ,2 1) a nd t h ea b sence o fo t he r s mu s tb ea s c r ibed t o ac om b i na t ion o fs ca r c i ty o fs u i tab le l a nd s t os uppo r t av i l la -e s ta t e , a n u nw i l l ingne s s a mong s t B r igan t ian f a rme r s t oa dop t aR o -

d a le ( Ha r t ley a nd F i t t s 1 988 , 1 8 -24 ;H an son 1 987 ,F ig .8 ) .T he se f o r t sw e r el i nk ed b ym i l i ta ry r oad st oe n su re s e cu r ec ommun i c a t ion s a nd s upp ly , a nd t h e d e ta i led r ou t ing a nd s t ruc tu re o f t h e se r oad sc on t inue st ob er e vea led b yf i e ldwo rk a nd e xcava t i on ( F re r e 1 9 90 ,3 28 ) . A l though w ed on o tk now t h en ame sa nd o r ig in so fa ny o ft h e o r ig ina lg a r r i son s ,t h ey w ou ld c e r ta in ly h ave b een r a ised e l se w he re i nt h e e mp i re , t h ough mo s t p robab ly i nE u rope r a the r t han A f r ica o rA s ia .A l l o ft h ef o r t sp robab ly h ou sed g a r r i son s

m an l i f e s ty le , a nd a nu nde r s tandab le c once rn t ha ts uch ad i s p l ay o fw ea l th m igh t a t t rac tt h e a t ten t ion s o fb r igand s , c a t t le

o fa round 5 00 m en ,a l though s ome w e re p robab ly c ava l rymen r a the r t h an i n f an t ry . W i th af u r the rf o r t l e s s t h an t wen ty -f iv e

r u s t le r s , o ro t he r ma lcon ten t s . B u t w hen G a rg rave w a s b u i l t , 2 7

t h e R oman s h ad r e -a s ser ted t h em se lve s i nt h e P enn ine s a f t e r t h eA n ton ine a dven tu re i nS co t land a nd s e r iou sd i srup t ion si n n o r the rn E ng land i nt h em id -150 s( Ha r t ley a nd F i t t s 1 988 ,2 7 -

m a te r ia l .A lmo s td ue w e s to fV ic to r ia C ave , b u tt h ree k i lome t r e sa way o nt h ew e s ts i de o ft h ev a l ley o ft h eR ibb le ,t h ec ave s o f G rea te r a nd L e s se r K e lco h ave y i e lded ab road ly s im i la r r a nge o f ma te r ia l i n mode s t q uan t i t ie s . Al i t t le f u r the r a f ie ld f u r the r s i gn i f ican t c ave u sage i sr e co rded a tD owke rbo t tom H o le C ave , n o r th e a s t o f Ma lham a nd S ewe l l 's C ave w e s t o f G igg le sw ick , a nd mo re mode s tf i nd sc ome f r om K in sey C ave

3 0 ) . T he r e -comm is s ion ing o fE l s lack w a s p a r t o f amuch w ide r r e -ga r r i son ing o ft h e P enn ine s . T he c on s t ruc t ion o fG a rg rave v i l la may r e f lec t an ew c on f idence i nt h e s e cu r i ty o ft h e a r ea i nt h es e cond h a lf o ft h es e cond c en tu ry A .D . I fs o , w em igh t e xpec tt os ee s ome r e f lec t ion o ft h i si nt h eo the r ,n on -Roman i s ed ,s e t t lemen t si nt h ea r ea ,i n c lud ing V ic to r ia C ave .C ave u t i l i s a t ion i s af e a tu re o ft h e a r ea i nt h e R oman p e r iod , w i th a t l e a s tf i ve c ave s w i th in af i ve m i le ( 8 km )r ad ius o fL angc l if f e S ca rr e vea l ing e v idence o fR omano -Br i t i sh o ccupa t ion o ru s a ge ( F igu re 1 0 ) .N ex tt oV ic to r ia C ave ,t h eb e s ta t te s ted e xam p l ei sA t te rm i re C ave , ak i lom e t re s ou th o fV ic to r ia .A bou t3 00 i t em s o fR omano -Br i t i sh m e ta lwo rk f r om t h e c ave , p l u s p o t t e ry ,g l a s s ,b one a nd s t one a r tef ac t si n d ica te s i gn if ican ta c t iv i t yo f ak ind a ppa ren t ly v e ry s im i la r t ot h a ti nV ic to r ia . S ome 5 00m n o r th o fV ic to r ia C ave i sJ ub i lee ( o r' A r row ') C ave w i th am uch s ma l le rb u tw ide rang ing s e lec t ion o fR omano -B r i t i sh

I I

AUX IL IARY FORT

•

CAVE

1 3

MARCH ING CAMP

0

C LA IMED FORT S ITE

A

V ILLA

s i tua ted b e tween t h eK e lco a nd S ewe l l 's C ave s . N one o ft h e se s i te s i sf u l ly p ub l i shed b u t , e xcep t f o r D owk e rbo t tom H o le , t h ef i nd s a nd r e co rd sa r e ma in ly e x tan ti nt h eL o rd C o l lec t ion a nd a l lw i l lh ope f u l ly b ep ubl i shed o rr e -a s se s sed i nd ue c ou r se . S umma r ie so fa l ,t h ough w i th i n comp le te c a ta logue s ,a ppea red i nB ran igan a nd D ea rne ( 1 991) a nd p a r t ia l e xcava t ion r epo r t s a ppea red f o rS ewe l l 's C ave ( Ra i s t r ick 1 936 )a nd K e lco ( J ack s on a nd Ma t t in son 1 932 ) , w i th s e lec ted o b jec t s f r om s eve ra l s i te s i nR a i s t r ick ( 1 939 ) a nd w o rk s b y K ing ( e .g .1970 ) . V a r i o u s b r ief a nd p rob lema t ic n i ne teen th c en tu ry a ccoun t s o f D owke rbo t tom H o le w e re p ubl i shed ( F a r re r 1 857 ;D enny 1 860 ; Sm i th 1 865 ; F a r re r a nd D enny 1 866 ; P ou l ton 1 881 ; a nd c f . Sm i th 1 844 a nd t h ed i scu s s ion s i nt h ef o l low ing c hap te r ) a nd r e sea rch i n to i t se xcava t ion h i s to ry i so ngo ing .

. . i ROMAN ROAD

L AND OVER 6 00 ' ( 183M )

F S E I S EA

L ONG P RESTON GARGRAVE E LSLACK •

R IBCHESTER

F igur e9 : Ma jo rS i te si nt h eS e t t le R eg ion . 2 8

I na s se s s ing t h ee v idence t h en a va i lab le t ou sf r om t h e se c ave s ,

a nd ? me ta lwo rk ing .A bou t ad ozen h u tc i rc le sh ave b een i d en t i f ied o f wh ich t h el a rge s ta r ea bou t 9m i nd i ame t e r ,a nd s ome f i ve o rs i xe nc lo su r e s .T ra ce so fc oppe r( ma la ch i te )m in ing a nd s me l t ing may b eR omano -Br i t i sh b u tt h a ti sn o tc e r ta in ( K ing 1 969 , 6 3 -4 ; 1 970 , 4 17 ; 1 970a , 6 5 ) .A bou t 3 00m s ou th e a s t o f t h e ' c amp ' t wo o r t h ree f u r the r e nc lo su r e s a nd t wo c i r cu la r h u t s a r e i d en t if iab le o n a e r ia l p ho tog raph s ( i n fo rma t ion f r om

m uch o fi ts t i l l u npub l i shed , t h e a u tho r a nd D r . D ea rne c ame t ot h e c onc lu s ion t h a t R omano -B r i t i sh u sage o fc ave s i nt h e S e t t le a r ea e x t ended t h rough mo s t o f t h e R oman p e r iod a l t h ough i tw a sn o tp o ss ib le o fc ou r se t od emon s t ra te u nb rok en c on t inu i ty o fu se ( Bran igan a nd D ea rne 1 992 , 4 1 ) . E qua l ly e p i sod ic ,s e a sona lu sage i sv e ry d i ff icu l tt oe s tab l i sh i nt h ea b s e nce o fr e cen t e xcava t ion s w i th me t icu lou s s amp l ing o fd e p o s i t sf o re nv i ronmen ta le v idence ,b u tt h e re i sl i t t le l i ke l ihood t h a ti n sec tf a una -ak ey s ou r ce o fe v idence -w ou ld s u rv ive i n m o s tc ave d epo s i t s . I ti sh oped t h a tV ic to r ia C ave ,w i th as i z e a b le f auna lc o l lec t ion may i nd ue c ou r se t h row a tl e a s t s ome l i gh t o n s e a sona l u sage . U sage o ft h e c ave s w a s a s se s sed b y t h ea u tho ra nd D r .D ea rne b ys e t t ing t h ee v idence o fc ave mo r p ho logy a nd l o ca t ion o n t h eo ne h and a nd t h ea r te f ac tua l ma t e r ia l o nt h eo t he r , a ga in s tc r i te r ia e s tabl i shed i n at h eo re t ica l d i scu s s ion o ft h ek ey f e a tu re so fd if e r ing t y pe so fc ave u sage

N a t iona lA rchaeo log ica lR eco rd a nd MORPH p ro je c td a taba se s k i nd ly made a va i lab le b yR obe r t Wh i te o ft h eY o rk sh i r eD a le s N a t iona l P a rk ) a nd a r ep robab ly R omano -Br i t i sh b u tp o s s ib ly I r on A ge .A e r ia l p ho tog raph s a l so s how t r ace s o fs t i l l f u r the r e nc lo su re sa nd p o s s ib le h u tc i rc le st ot h en o r th a nd e a s t / sou th e a s t o fV ic to r ia C amp , s o t h a t a l though t h e c on tempo rane i ty o fa l lt h eh u t s a nd e nc lo su re s i sn o tc onf i rmed t h e r ei s ac l ea r i mp re s s ion o fe x ten s ive a nd o rp ro longed o pen s e t t lemen to c c upa t ion n ea rt h ec ave .A t te rm i re C amp E a s t ,a bou t3 50m e a s t o fA t te rm i re C ave s ,i s as ma l le rc omp lex o fe nc lo su r e sw i th a t l e a s t as i ng le h u tc i r c le . S po rad ic e xcava t ion so ve r ap e r iod o f a bou tf i f ty y ea r sh ave c onf i rmed aR omano -Br i t i sh d a t ef o ra t l e a s tp a r to ft h es i te ,a l though o n ly a ni r on b r id le b i tw a sf o und i nt h e h u t ( K ing 1 974 , F ig .30 j b u tm i sp rovenanced A t t e rm i re C ave ) ' . T he s i te h a s a l so y i e lded a c o in h oa rd a nd s e ve ra l

( B ran igan a nd D ea rne 1 992 ,8 19 ) .I tw a sc onc luded t h a tc ave s i nt h eS e t t le a r ea p rov ided n oc l ea re v idence o fR omano -Br i t i s hu sage a ss h r ine s ,b u r ia lp l a ce so rh i deaway s ,b u tw e re p rob a b ly u sed m o s t ly f o rd ome s t ic o ccupa t ion w i th n oi n te rna le v i d ence a l low ing u s t od i s t ingu i sh b e twe en t h e se p o s s ib i l i t ie s . T h i sc onc lu s ion a sf a ra sV i c to r ia C ave i sc once rned i sr e v iewed i nC hap t e r 2 1 i nt h e l i gh t o ft h e a dd i t iona l r e sea rch i n to t h e

b ronze b rooche s ( Br i tann ia 5 ( 1974 ) 4 17 ; K ing 1 969 , 4 16 ; D ea rne a nd L o rd r e sea r ch i np rog re s s ) , a nd m any s h e rd s o f b o th s am ian p o t te ry a nd mo r ta r ia ( ma te r ia l i nt h e L o rd C o l l e c t ion ) .

s i t e 's f o rm a nd f i nd sp ub l i shed i nt h ep r e sen tv o lume . T he e v idence o fo pen a i rs e t t lemen tc l o se t oV ic to r ia C ave a nd A t t e rm i r eC ave sh oweve rm ay b er e levan tt ot h i sp rob lem .T he s i t ek nown a sV ic to r ia C amp o nt h eg round a bove V ic to r ia C ave

A l though t h ea r te f ac te v idence f r om t h e se o pen a i rs i te si sl im i t ed i nq uan t i ty a nd c h rono log ica l p rec is ion , i ti sd if i cu l t t o v i ew t h em a su n re la ted t oc on tempo ra ry u sage o fV ic to r ia a nd

i s ac omp lex o fh u tc i rc le s , e nc lo su re s a nd t r ace s o f? m in ing

L ANGCUFFE S CAR

S E WELLS

G IGGLES W ICK

K INSEY

S CAR

J UB ILEE

•

V ICTOR IA

•

K ELCO

•

R -B CAVE U SAGE

•

R -B S ET TLEMENT A ND E NCLOSURES

A TTERM IRE • A TTERM IRE CAMP

R -B F IE LD S YSTEMS 0

V ICTOR IA CAMP

2 50

KM

F igure 1 0 : R omano -Br i t i sh C ave a nd O pen S i te si nt h eA rea . 2 9

A t t e rm i re C ave s .G iven t h a tt h eu t i l i sa t ion o fb o th c ave ss e em s t oh ave e x tended o ve rt h ee n t i re p e r iod o ft h eR oman o ccupa t i on o ft h ea r ea a nd ,t oj udge f r om t h eq uan t i ty o f ma te r ia l , t o

1 970a , 5 7 ) .Q ua r ry ing i nt h eC raven L imewo rk si nt h e 1 930 s , h oweve r , y i e lded a R omano -Br i t i sh a s semb lage i n c lud ing c o in s , q ue rn s , a nd s e cond t of ou r th c en tu ry p o t t e r y w h ich i s p robab ly f r om ad omes t ic s e t t lemen tc l o se t ot h ef i e ld s y s tem s ( p e r s .comm .M r .T .C .L o rd ) .T he f i e ld sm ay t h e re fo r eh ave b een w o rked b y t h e o ccupan t s o ft h i s s e t t lemen t r a the rt h an t h o se

h av e b een q u i te i n ten s ive , i ti su n l ike ly t h a t u se o ft h e c ave s a nd t h eo pen a i rs i te s d i dn o tb road ly o ve r lap f o ra tl e a s tp a r t o ft h eR oman p e r iod .S pa t ia l ly t h ec ave sa nd o pen s e t t lemen t s a r e s epa ra ted b y o n ly t h ree o r f ou r h und red m e t re s , s o t h a t w h en a nd i fu sage w a sc on t empo raneou s ,t h eo ccup ie r so fe ach m u s th ave b een a tt h el e a s tv e ry w e l la wa re o fe ach o the r s a c t i v i t ie s .P o t en t ia l ly t h er e la t ionsh ip w a s mo re t h an t h a to fc l o se n e ighbou r s ,h oweve r ,s i nce t h e t wo t y pe so fs i t eo f e red c om -

o fV ic to r ia C ave a nd C amp .O nt h eo ppo s i te s i de o ft h eR ibb le v a l ley f u r the ro pen s e t t lemen t s w i th e nc lo su re s a nd f i e ld s a r e f ound a ta r ound 2 00 -300m a bove s e a l e ve l , s ugge s t ing l ow l y ing o pen s e t t lemen t sa s soc ia ted w i th t h eu se o ff i e ld s y s tem s , a nd o cca s iona lc a sua lf i nd si nt h eS e t t le /G igg le sw ick a r ea ( e .g . K ing a nd Wa lke r 1 966 ) p re sumab ly u l t ima te ly d e r ive f r om o pen s e t t lemen t s .T he o n ly a r tef a c tua ll i nk b e tween c ave sa nd f i e ld s y s tem sa tp r e sen ta r es ome i r on r e ap ing h ook sf r om A t t e rm i re C ave ,b u tt h ed e ta i led s t udy a nd p ub l ica t ion o ft h ef u l l r ange o fm e ta lwo rk a nd o the r ma t e r ia l s f r om t h i s a nd o t he r c ave sm ay r e vea lf u r the rl i nk si nd ue c ou r se .

p l imen ta ry f a c i l i t ie s . T he o pen s i te s o f e red s pa ce a nd e a sy a c ce s sf o rh e rd so rf l ock s , w h i ls tt h ec ave sm igh th ave o f e red s h e l te rf r om t h ew o r s to ft h ew ea the ra nd ad eg ree o fs e cu r i ty . T he r a nge o f ma te r ia lr e cove red f r om t h eo pen s i te si si n ev i ta b l y mo re l im i ted t h an t h a tf r om t h ec ave s , ma in ly d ue t o much l e s s i n ten s ive a r chaeo log ica l e xp lo ra t ion a nd t h e g r ea te r a r ea a nd v a r ie ty o fd i spo sa ll o ca t ion sf o rd ome s t ic r ubb i sh . N eve r t h e le ss t h em a te r ia lr e cove red f r om l im i ted e xcava t ion s a tA t t e rm i re C amp E a s ti sb road ly s im i la ri nc ha ra c te rt ot h a tf r om V ic to r ia a nd A t te rm i re C ave s -c o inage ,b ronze a nd o the rj ew e le r y a nd ar a nge o fp o t te ry w h ich i n c lude sm o re R oman i sed f o rm s( s uch a st h e mo r ta r ium ) .T ha ti s ,a sf a ra so ne c an j udge f r om t h el im i ted e v idence , t h e u se r s o ft h e o pen s i te s a nd t h e c ave s s ha re t h e s ame s oc io -econom ic n i che . I tm u s t b e c on s i d e red as t rong p o s s ib i l i ty t h a tc ave u se r sa nd o pen s i te u se r s w e r e i nf a c to ne a nd t h e s ame g roup o fp eop le , u t i l i s ing t wo

A pa r tf r om t h er e la t ion sh ip sb e tween o pen s e t t lemen t sa nd c ave s i te s , a ny d i scu s s ion o fV ic to r ia C ave a nd i t s o ccupan t s mu s t a l so t a ke i n to a c coun tr e la t ion sb e tween t h e se r u ra ls e t t lemen t s o ccup ied e n t i r e ly b y n a t ive f am i l ie s , a nd t h e R oman f o r t s a nd v i c i w he re amo re c o smopo l i tan p opu la t ion w a s t ob e f ound a nd amo re R oman i sed w ay o fl i f ew ou ld b e e ncoun te red .A f t e r t h e e a r ly y ea r s o fc onque s t R oman t r oop s w e r e p robab ly s een i nt h ev i c in i ty o fV ic to r ia C ave o n ly o cca s iona l ly o n p a t r o lo ro nt r a in ing e xe rc ise s ,c ha s ing t h eo cca s iona lf u g i t ive o r b r igand a nd o ve r see ing t h ec o l lec t ion o ft a xa t ion , p a r t icu la r ly t a x i n -k ind w h ich w ou ld p robab ly h ave b een u sed t of e ed t h e l o ca l g a r r i son s . F a rme r sa nd me ta lwo rke r sf r om a r ound S e t t le may h ave m ade j ou rney st ot h ev i c io u t s ide t h ef o r t s ,h oweve r ,

a d ja cen tl o ca t ion se i the rf o rd if e ren tp u rpo se s o ra td if e ren t t i me s . T he o pen s e t t lemen t s , w i th t h e i r e nc lo su re s a nd a tb e tween 3 50m a nd 4 50m a bove s e al e ve l ,s eem mo s tl i k e ly t oh ave b een u s ed i ns umme rh e rd ing o ff l ock so rp o s s ib ly h e rd s ,b u ti nt h e c a se o fV ic to r ia C amp , a tl e a s t , t op e rhap sh ave b een i n vo lved a l so i nt h e e x t ra c t ion o fc oppe r o re s . T he c i r cu la r h u t s w e re

t os e l ls u rp lu sf ood o r me ta lp roduc t sa nd t oa cqu i r em anuf ac t u red p roduc t s , p a r t icu la r ly p o t te ry . Mo s t o ft h e c ave s i nt h e a r ea f o r w h ich w e h ave a ny i n fo rma t ion c once rn ing R oman u sage p roduce e v idence o f s uch t r an sac t ion s i nt h e f o rm o f p o t te ry ,w h ich c ou ld o n ly b ea cqu i red f r om r e ta i le r sr a the rt h an d i rec t ly f r om p roduce r s( mos tn o tab ly s am ian w a re )a nd c o in a ge . B u tt h er e pe r to i re o fb ronzewo rk f r om t h ec av e s , a nd t oa l e s se r e x ten t t h a t o f i r onwo rk , g l a s s a nd b one a l so p o in t s t o w e l l e s tab l i shed c on tac t s w i th c en t re s o fp roduc t ion a nd e x c hange ,w h ich i nt h i s a r ea c an o n ly b et h ev i c i .

p r e sumab ly u sed f o rd ome s t ic o ccupa t ion a tt h i st ime .T he s c a r c i ty o f ma te r ia l c u l tu re f r om t h e h u t s e xcava ted a tV ic to r ia C amp a nd A t te rm i re C amp E a s t may r e f lec tt h es e a sona l i ty o f t h e i ro ccupa t ion .A l though t h ec ave sm igh tb es e en a sc omp l i m en ta ry w o rk shop p l a ce st ot h es umme ro pen s e t t lemen t s ,t h e re i sn o t ag r ea t d ea l o fe v idence t h a t t h e c ave s w e re p r imar i l y w o rk shop s . T he i r a s semb lage s , t hough r e sea r ch i n to t h em i s s t i l lo ngo ing ,s e em r a the rt oi n c lude t h er ange o f ma te r ia lc u l -

T he p a r tw h ich V ic to r ia C ave p l ayed i nt h i s s c ena r io h a s o n ly b een b r ie f ly t o uched o n h e re , b u t i tw i l l b e d i scu s sed f u r the r

t u r e t h a t c ou ld b e a s soc ia ted w i th d ome s t ic o ccupa t ion , a nd s ome a tl e a s to ft h ec ave si nt h eS e t t le a r ea c ou ld h ave b een i n u s ea sw in te rq ua r te r sf o rt h ew o r s t mon th so ft h ey ea rb yt h o se w ho s pen tt h es umme r mon th s i nt h eo pen s i te s .

i nC hap te r2 1 .

F oo tno te I ti sp o s s ib le t h a tt h e se s ame g roup sw e re a l so r e spon s ib le f o r c u l t iva t ing s ome o ft h e s ma l l f i e ld s f ound a tl owe r a l t i tude s o ve r look ing t h ev a l ley o ft h e R ibb le . B e tween L angc l if f e a nd S t a inf o r th t r ace s o ft h e se f i e ld s c an b e d e tec ted a mong s t t h e m o r e d om inan t e v idence o f t h e med ieva l l o ng f i e ld s ( K ing

1 . T h e ' h ou r -g la s s 'p enannu la rb rooch r e fe r red t ot h e s i te b y K ing ( 1 969 ,6 4 -5 )i sn o ta sh es ugge s t si nt h eL o rd C o l lec t i on ( p e r s .comm . Mr .T .C .L o rd ) ;i t sp rovenance m ay t h e re f o re b eu nc lea r .

3 0

CHAPTER 5 : THE PRE -1977 F INDS : THE IR PROVENANCE AND CURAT ION AND THE PROBLE M OF THE CO MPLETENESS AND REPRESENT IV ITY OF THE CATALOGUES

B y Mar t in J .D earne a nd T homa s C .L ord

I n troduc t ion

i nt h ec a ta logue s .A l lp r ev iou s ma jo ri lu s t ra t ion so fR omano B r i t i sh f i nd sh ave b een n o ted i nt h er e levan tc a ta logue e n t r ie s a st h ey a r e p a r t icu la r ly v a luab le i ne s tab l i sh ing p rovenance s . As ma l ln umbe ro fe xc luded f i nd s ,s ome t ime sw rong ly r e f e r red t oV ic to r ia C av ea r ea l so n o ted i nt he d i scu s s ion sb e low .

T he c a ta logue s b e low d ea l w i th a l l t h e e x tan t ( a nd w e l l r e c o rded l o s t ) a r te f a c t s o fN eo l i th ic o r l a te r d a te ( p lu s al i t t le p r eh i s to r ic p o t te ry )c e r ta in ly o rq u i te p o s s ib ly r e cove red f r om V ic to r ia C a ve ,i n c lud ing t h ep l a teau o u t s ide i ta nd A lbe r tC ave . T he i n ten t ion o ft h i s p re fa c to ry c hap te r i st os umma r i se e l e m en t s o ft h em o re d e ta i led ,a nd o ngo ing ,r e sea r ch u nde r taken b yt h ea u tho r s( e spec ia l ly TCL )o ve r many y ea r si n to t h ei n t i m a te ly c onnec ted m a t te r s o ft h e v e rac i ty o fa s se r t ion s o ra s s ump t ion so f aV ic to r ia C ave p rovenance f o rd if e ren tg roup s o f ma t er ia l ;t h eh i s to ry o ft h eo wne r sh ip a nd c u ra t ion o ft h e se

T he P reh i s tor ic Ma ter ia la nd C o in s N ine b a s ic p rovenance / cu ra t ion g roup ing sa r eo u t l ined b e low , e ach h av ing ac ode w h ich i su sed t oi nd ica t e p rovenance s t a t u s i ne ach c a ta logue e n t ry . H oweve r , t h ec o in sh ave n o tb een m a rked w i th t h e se c ode s a st h e i r p rovenance i s ap a r t icu la r ly

v a r iou so b jec tg roup s ;t h er e l iab i l i ty a nd r e conc i lab i l i ty o ft h e p ub l i shed a nd a r ch ive s ou rce s r e la t ing t o t h e f i nd s ; a nd t h e p r ob lem o fh ow r e p re sen ta t iv e o ft h e o r ig ina l a s semb lage t h e c a ta logueab le m a te r ia l i sl i ke ly t ob e . Af u l l a ccoun t o ft h i s

c omp lex ma t te ra nd i sd i scu s sed s epa ra te ly b e low ( p 46 f f ) .T he s ma l l a moun to fp r eh i s to r ic m a te r ia l , l i t t le o fw h ich i si n c lud e di nt h ep re sen tv o lume ,a l so h a si ns ome i n s tance s al e s st h an s t ra igh t fo rwa rd p rovenance / cu ra t ion h i s to ry .B o th i nt h ei n t e r -

o f ten c omp lex p roce s s , i n vo lv ing t h e d e ta i led c ompa r i son o f a r tef ac t s , much a r ch iva l ma te r ia l a nd a r ange o f p ub l i shed s ou rce s r e la t ing n o tj u s t t oV ic to r ia C ave b u t t os e ve ra l s i te s i n ve s t iga ted i nt h en i ne teen th c en tu ry , w ou ld b eu ndu ly l ong . H oweve r ,i ti si mpo r tan tt oe mpha s i se t ha tt h er e sea r ch h a sa l l owed t h ec o r rec t ion o fv a r iou se r ro r so rm i s lead ing ly u nqua l i f i ed a s se r t ion so fp rovenance , i d en t if ica t ion a nd o b jec tn um -

e s t so ft ho roughne s sa nd a sd a t ing a nd p rovenance e r ro r sc on n ec ted t oi ta r er e levan t t ot h e R omano -Br i t i sh m a te r ia l , i ti s t h e re fo re d e s i rab le t ob r ie f ly s u rvey t h e p r eh i s to r ic m a t e r ia l w h ich c an a c tua l ly b ep rovenanced a sf r om t h e s i te . As ma l l a moun to fp r eh i s to r ic p o t te ry ( b e low p 4 lf f ) i si nt h e L o rd C o l lec t ion b u t i t s p rovenance r e s t s ( l ik e t h e m a t e r ia l i n ' V ' b e low ) o n ly o n i t s h av ing b een d i sp layed i nt h e P ig Y a rd Mu seum a sf r om V ic to r ia C ave . O fo the r ' V ic to r ia C ave 'm a -

b e r s i ns om e mode rn w o rk s a nd i no l de r p ub l i shed o re a s i ly a c ce s s ib le a r ch ive s ou rce s . T hu s t h e c a ta logue s b e low r e p re s e n t , a sf a ra si sp r e sen t ly p o s s ib le ,d ef in i t ive f i nd r e po r t sa nd s upe r sede p r ev iou sp a r t ia ls e lec t ion sa nd c a ta logue s( e .g .R a i s t r i ck 1 939 ;K ing 1 970 ;B ran igan a nd D eane 1 991 , 1 05f f ) .T he m a te r ia l i n c luded r e p re sen t s b o th e x tan tp i ece s a nd t h e m in i m um n umbe r so fl o s ti t em si ne ach c a tego ry .

t e r ia l wh ich h a s f r om t ime t ot ime b een s e en a s p r eh i s to r ic o n ly ar e la t ive ly s ma l lp e rcen tage i nf a c tb o th s e em st ob ep r e R oman a nd t oh ave ar e l iab le p rovenance .A lmo s ta l t h es t one a nd b one f i nd sm ade i nt h e 1 870 s wh ich w e re a loca ted t ot h e P a laeo l i th ic b yB reu i l( 1 921 /2 ,F ig .9b a nd F i g s 1 0 -11) a r eh e r e r e ga rded a sR omano -B r i t ish .T wo o the rb one f i nd sa s sumed a t t ime s t ob eP a laeo l i th ic ( t hough J .W .J ack son ( 1 938 , 1 73 )e x p r e s sed d oub t sa bou tt h i sd a t ing )a r er ega rded a sp o s s ib ly N e o l i th ic a nd a r ed i scu s sed w i th t h e ma jo r i ty o ft h e s i te ' s b one w o rk ( be low p 90 ) . T wo p i ece s o f ` r udd le ' ( haema t i te ) a loca ted t ot h e" Neo l i th ic H o r izon" b y Mo r r i son ( 1 870 / 1 , 1 08 ) a nd , l e s s d ef in i t ive ly , D awk in s ( 1871 , 5 )a r er e ga rded a sR o mano -Br i t i sh , e spec ia l ly a so ne i sn o ted i nt h eJ a ck son ' d ay b ook ' a s h av ing b een f ound a t ad ep th mo re c on s i s ten t w i th t h e l a te r d a te . A n a l leged p i ece o f P a laeo l i th ic c ave a r t s up -

I ts hou ld a l so b ee mpha s ised t h ough t h a tr e sea rch i n to t h ee x c a va t ion h i s to ry o fo t he rc av es i t e si nt h ea r ea ( e spe c ia l ly D owk e r bo t tom H o le C ave ,A rnc l if f e ) i so ngo ing a nd m ay s hed f u r t h e r l i gh to n t h ec ompo s i t ion o fp a r t s o ft h e L o rd C o l lec t ion c a ta logued h e r e .T he d i scu s s ion o fp rovenance a nd c u ra t ion i s t h e refo re i n tended t ob e as ynop s i s o f t h e c u r ren t s t a te o f a l o ng t e rm p rog ramme o fr e sea r ch a nd , e spec ia l ly w he re t h e c o l lec t ion o fJ o seph J a ck son i sc once rned , i ti sl i k e ly t h a t a m o re d e ta i led d i scu s s ion t h an t h a tp r e sen ted h e r ew i l lu l t ima te l yb ep o s s ib le a nd c onc lu s ion sd rawn h e re a bou tJ a ck son a nd

p o sed ly f r om t h es i te ( K ing 1 970a , 2 3 ) a ppea r ss u scep t ib le o f t h ea l te rna t ive i n t e rp re ta t ion o f ad amaged /deco r a t ed ? Romano B r i t i sh ? kn if e / too l h and le , b e s ides wh ich i t sp r e sen t l o ca t ion

B ray shaw C o l lec t ion p rovenance sa r ep rov i s iona l . G ene ra l ly i ni n d ica t ing t h e r e su l t s a nd s ome th ing o ft h e n a t u r e o ft h e r e sea rch t od a te i th a s b een f ound s imp le s t t od e f i ne an umbe r o fp rovenance /cu ra t ion g roup ing s , t h e n a tu re

i su nc lea ra nd t h e a u tho r sk now o fn oe v idence f o ri t sa t t r ibu t i on t ot h e s i te .

a nd a no u t l ine o ft h eb a ckg round a nd s ou rce ma te r ia lp e r ta in i n g t ow h ich a r e g i ven b e low , a nd c ode s r ep re sen t ing w h ich a r eg i ven i ne a ch e n t ry i n mo s ta r tef ac tc a ta logue s . Af ew s pe c i f i cp rob lem sh ave i na dd i t ion b e en t r ea ted i n mo r ed e ta i lw i th -

O n ly t h ree l i th ic sn ow e x tan ti nt h eL o rd C o l lec t ion h ave r e a l l yt r u s twor thy V ic to r ia C ave p rovenance s . An umbe ro fo t he r L o rd C o l lec t ion l i t h ic s a r e o fu nce r ta in p rov enance , e spe c ia l 3 1

l y af l in ta x ec l ea r ly n o t , d e sp i te a s se r t ion si ns ome r e cen tl i t e r a tu re , f r om V ic to r ia C ave . T he r e l iab ly p rov enanced p i ece s a r ea l lf r om t h e1 870 sw o rk ( two r e co rded i nt h eJ a ck son ' d ay b ook ' a sf r om t h e ' n ew ' ( 1 870 ) e n t rance t oC hambe rAa nd a t h i rd r e co rded a sh av ing f a l len f r om as e c t ion i n1 874 ) . H ow e ve r , b o th d u r ing a nd b e fo re t h e 1 870 s w o rk af ew o t he r a l -

a nd p a s sed t ot h eB r i t i sh Mu seum ( 1 848 .5 -11 No s 8 1a a nd b ) , t hough o n ly o ne i sn ow t r aceab le i nt h e c o l lec t ion . D enny ( 1860 ,P 1 . 1N o s 1 8a nd 1 9 )p robab ly j u s tc op ied Sm i th 's i lu s t r a t ion so ft h e se b u te v iden t ly ( Denny 1 860 , 5 1) s aw f i ve o t h e r si nJ a ck son ' sc o l lec t ion ,i d en t if y ing t h ree s pec ie s( Card ium s p ( ?m ur ica tum ) -o ne , p e rhap s w o rn n o t p ie rced e xamp le ; N er i ta l i t tora l i s a nd T urbo l i t tora l i s ) . T he se a dd i t iona l p i ece s a r en ol o nge re x tan t .

l e ged E th ic s w e re r e cove red ; s ome c once ivab ly e x tan t i nt h e L o rd C o l lec t ion b u t t oo p oo r ly r e co rded t oi s o la te . D awk in s ( 1872 , 6 7 ; 1 874 , 11) r e co rd s ' t h ree r ude f l in tf l ake s ' h av ing b een f ound b u t t h e J a ck son ' d aybook ' n o t e s f i ve ' f l in t s ' a nd t h ree ` c he r t s ' f o und i n1 870 ( i . e .b efo re t h ep i ece t h a tf e l lf r om

T he P rovenance /Cura t ion G roup ing s

as e c t ion ) .T h i sm ay s ugge s tt h a tt h ree ' f l in t s 'a nd t h ree ` c he r t s ' a r e n ow m i s s ing /un iso la tab le . T he c he r t s a nd o ne f l in t c ame f r om t h ep l a t eau i nf r on to ft h ec ave w h i le a' f l in ta r rowhead '

B A : T he 1 870 -8 S e t t le C ave E xp lor a t ion C omm i t tee/Br i t i sh A s soc ia t ion F ind s

( s ke tched i nt h e ' d aybook ' , e v iden t ly b rok en a nd u n l ike ly i n f a c tt ob e ap ro jec t i le p o in t ) a nd a' f l in tf l ak ef r agmen t ' c ame f r om t h em idd le p a r to fC hambe rA . Whe the ra ny o ra l l w e re i nr ea l i ty w o rk ed f l in t / che r tt o o l s i sn ow i mpo s s ib le t oe s tab -

T he f i nd s f r om t h i s w o rk p a ssed , a sf a ra sc an b e d e te rm ined i nt h e i re n t i re ty , t ot h e f o rme r G igg le sw ick S choo l Mu seum , t h ence i n1 937 t oT o t L o rd ' s P ig Y a rd C lub Mu seum , S e t t le ( J a ck son 1 938 , 1 70 ) w he re t h ey r ema ined u n t i l i t s c l o su re , s ho r t ly a f te rT o tL o rd ' sd ea th ,c . 1970 .A tt h i sj unc tu re t h ey w e r e b oxed u pw i th o t he rm a te r ia l d i sp layed a sf r om V ic to r ia C ave t of o rm t h ed i sc r e t eV ic to r ia C ave s e c t ion o ft h e p re sen tL o rd C o l lec t ion . O n ly af ew p i ece s a r ek nown t oh ave d i sappea red i nt h is p r oce s s ( t he r e c tangu la r b rooch 8 . 36 , t h e c oppe r a l loy o b jec t9 . 14 1 , o ne o rt wo b one a nd s t one o b jec t s ( c f . 1 3 .2 a nd e . g . p 108 a nd p 118 b e low ) , a nd p robab ly a n umbe r o f g l a s s b ead s( b e low p 131 ) ) .I d en t if y ing w h ich i n d iv idua lo b jec t sn ow

l i sh w i th c e r ta in ty .P o s s ib le e a r l ie rf i nd ss a id t ob ei nt h eJ a ck s on C o l lec t ion a r ea l luded t oi n af ew s ou rce s .D enny ' s( 1860 , 5 1-2 ) ' i l l -def ined w edge s haped f l in t s ' a r e o n b a lance mo re l i ke ly t o h ave c ome f r om D owke rbo t tom H o le C ave , b u t H .E .Sm i th ( 1 865 , 2 08 ) d oe s l i s t n ume rou s f l i n t ' a r rowhead s ' e t c . a nd ' s tone d i rk s 'a sf r om ' t he S e t t le C ave s '( i . e . p robab ly ma in ly V ic to r ia C ave ) . H oweve rn o t o n ly i st h ef o rm o ft h e se p i e ce so pen t oc on s ide rab le d oub t ,a nd Sm i th ' sd i v i s ion o fJ a ck s on 's ma t e r ia lb e tween t h eS e t t le C ave sa nd t h eAn ic l if f eC ave s ( i .e . D owke rbo t tom H o le C ave ) s ome t ime s o pen t oq ue s t ion ( be low ) , b u ti ti sr a the rc u r iou s t ha tn o p r eh i s to r ic s t onewo rk

i nt h eL o rd C o l lec t ion ' sV ic to r ia C ave s e c t ion d e r ive f r om t h e 1 870 -8 w o rk h a s b een r e la t ive ly e a sy i n many c a se s . As e r ie s o fa ccoun t sw i th d e sc r ip t ion sa nd i lu s t ra t ion so fn o tab le f i nd s

p a s sed f r om t h eJ ack son C o l lec t ion t ot h eL o rd C o l lec t ion .I n d eed , i ts e em st h a tJ ack son r e cove red l i t t le n on f a una lp r e -Ro -

w e re p ub l i shed i nt h e 1 870 s ;t h ee x tan tJ a ck son ' d aybook 'd e s c r ibe s a nd o f ten g i v e s s ke tche s o f many mo re ; o the r s a r e s hown o n a r ch ive p ho tog raph s i nt h e L o rd C o l lec t ion ; mo r e p i ece sa r ed rawn i nB reu i l( 1921 /2 ) ,w ho s aw t he f i nd sa tG ig g l e sw i ck S choo l Mu seum ;a nd s t i l l mo re c an b ei den t if ied f r om t h ed i s t inc t ive t h r ee e l emen tc ode sm a rked o nt ot h em i n1 870 . N eve r the le s so ne o rt wo p ub l ished p i ece ss uch a sT iddeman 's ( 1875 , 1 36 ) c oppe ra loy ' b ow e nd o f ab roken k ey ' h ave n o t b een s p ec if ica l ly i s o la ted a nd s o may b e e i the r l o s t o rs uf i c i en t ly b ad ly m i sde sc r ibed t ob eu n iden t if iab le , wh i le ar a the r l a rge r n umbe r n o t n ow i s o la tab le a r e i n c luded i n g roup ' V ' b e low .

man ma te r ia la nd t h e re i sn or e a son t ob e l ieve t h a th e w a se i t h e rl e ss i n t e r e s ted i no rl e s sa b le t oi d en t i f ys u ch ma te r ia lt h an l a te r o b jec t so rt h a t h e d i spo sed o fp reh i s to r ic m a te r ia l mo re r e ad i ly t h an o t he ri t em s . T he re a r e , h oweve r , t h ree w e l l p rovenanced ? l a te U ppe rP a l a eo l i th ic b one /an t le r f i nd s f r om t h e s i te w h ich a r e e x tan t i n t h eL o rd C o l lec t ion .T he mo s t i mpo r tan t , ab is e r ia lh a rpoon , w a s f ound i n1 870 n ea rt h ee n t rance t oC hambe rA , d rawn i n t h eJ ack son ' d aybook 'i lu s t ra ted i nD awk in s( 1 872 ,P L I IN o .5 ; 1 874 , F ig .26 ) a nd s ubsequen t ly b y many o t he r s i n c lud ing B reu i l ( 192 1 /2 , F ig .8 N o .1) a nd K ing ( e .g .1970a , 2 1 ; 1 974 , F ig .30 c ) . Ab r oken a n t le rr od w a sr e cove r ed i nt wo p i ece sf r om t h ee x t reme i n ne re nd o fC hambe rAi n1 870 a se n t r ie s i nt h e ' d aybook ' c onf i rm a nd s ub sequen t ly i lu s t ra ted b y B reu i l ( 1921/2 ,F ig . 9N o s 1a nd 2 ) .A ' l ance p o in t 'w a sf ound ,t h ough p rec i se ly w he r ei su nknown , i nV ic to r ia C ave i nt h e 1 930 s b y Mr .J . S imp son , p ub l ished a f te r al ong d e lay c au sed b y af a l l i ng o u tw i th S impson b yJ .W .J ack son ( 1945 )a nd s ub sequen t l yi lu s t ra ted b yo the r s ( e .g . K ing 1 970a ,2 0 ; 1 974 ,F ig .30d ) .

T L : M r . T o tL ord ' sF ind si n1 937 -1939 T o tL o rd ' s f i nd sp a s sed s t ra igh ti n to h i s P ig Y a rd C lub Mu se um a nd s o , a so u t l ined a bove ,t ot h eL o rd ( V ic tor ia C ave )C o l l e c t ion . N one e xcep t am e lon b ead a r e k nown o r l i ke ly t ob e l o s ta nd m o s t ,t h ough p e rhap sn o ta l l ,a r es pec if ica l ly i d en t if i a b le f r om t h eL o rd Ms .

No p re -Roman m e ta lo b jec tc an b ee s tab l i shed a sh av ing c ome f r om t h e c ave a nd t h e a u tho r s k now o f n o b a s i s f o r K ing ' s ( 1974 , 1 92 ) s t a temen t t h a t ' a s ma l l b ag shaped s ocke ted [ Bronze A ge ] a xe . . , w a s f ound i nV ic to r ia C ave ' . H oweve r a n umbe ro fm a in ly l o s t ?Me so l i th ic p i e r ced s h e l l sw e re e v iden t ly a to ne t ime o ra no the ri nJ o seph J ack son ' sc o l lec t ion .T wo c e r t a in ly c ame f r om h i s i n i t ia l w o rk a tV ic to r ia C ave ( a s ' J I 'b e -

J I : J o seph J ack son ' sI n i t ia lF ind s Mad e i n1 837 a nd P erhap s u pt oc . 1840

l ow ) , w e re i l u s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1844 , P l .XXX N o s 4a nd 5 )

d i sp lay o f ma te r ia l w h ich l e d t ot h e p ub l ica t ion o f Sm i th a nd

J o seph J a ck son ' s ( a nd p e rhap s H o me r ' s ) f i nd s made o n t h e d i scov e ry o ft h e c ave a nd p e rhap s u p t o 1 840 ( t he d a t e o fa

3 2

J a ck son ( 1 842 ) a nd Sm i th ( 1 844 , 6 9 -72 a nd P l .XXV -XXX ) ) w e re i nl a rge p a r tb ough tb yt h eB r i t i sh Mu seum i n1 848 ( Br i t i s h Mu seum 1 848 .5 -11) f o r£ 15 .I ti sh oweve ru nfo r tuna te t h a t s ome m i sunde r s tand ing h a s g rown u ps u r round ing t h ep rov e -

l o s t b one o b jec t w h ich w a s c l ea r ly a no the r c heek p i ece . T o t h e se m ay b e a dded B r i t i sh Mu seum 1 848 .5 -11 N o .42 , as e c o nd f i nd f r om t h ec a i rn i d en t if ied i nt h er e g i s te rb u tn ol o nge r t r a ceab le i nt h ec o l lec t ion .T h i s ,h oweve r ,l e ave st wo p rob lem s . I nt h ed e sc r ip t ion o fh i sP la te XX IX Sm i th n o te s ' s eve ra l 'u n -

n ance so ft h ep i ece sa cqu i red a nd t h a t wha ti sd educeab le a bou t m a te r ia li n c luded i nt h ea cqu i s i t ion b u tn o ti n Sm i th ( 1844 )o r v i sa v e r sa h a sn o tg ene ra l ly b een a pp rec ia ted .

i lu s t ra ted b one p i n s w h ich o n t h e p re sen t a s se s smen ts hou ld b e f r om D owke rbo t tom H o le . T he B r i t ish Mu seum a cqu i red u pt ot h r ee p i ece s n o ti lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th t h a to ne m igh tl i nk t ot h i s( B .M . 1 848 .5 -11 N o s2 6a nd 2 8 -9 ; 1 3 .38 , 1 3 .7 a nd 1 3 .10

T he o r ig ina lB r i t i sh Mu seum a cqu i s i t ion sr e g i s te rr e ad s ' F ound I nC ave s ; s e e R oa ch Sm i th ' s C o l lec tanea A n t igua V on p 69 P l .XXV -XXX ' ( i . e . Sm i th 1 844 ) . H oweve r , f o l low ing ab r ie f c o r re spondence b e tween Mr .E .M .M .A lexande ro ft h eB r i t i sh

b e low ) ,p a r t icu la r ly a sn ob one p in sc l ea r ly f r om V ic to r ia C ave a r em en t ioned b yh im .Y e th i se xac tc ommen tt h a t' s eve ra l mo re [ b one p i n s ]o fv a r iou ss i ze sw e re f ound '( Sm i th 1 844 ,7 2 )m ay

Mu seum a nd aM r . No rman T ho rnbe ro fS e t t le i n 1 950 ( c op i e so fo r ig ina ll e t te r sk ind ly s upp l ied b yR .W a l te r so ft h eB r i t i s h Mu seum )t h er e g i s te re n t ry w a sg l o ssed w i th as pec if i cr e f e r ence t oD owke rbo t tom H o le C a ve a nd a na s se r t ion t h a tK ing ' s

s uppo r t ap r e sump t ion t h a t h e w a s r e fe r r ing t of i nd s n o t d i s p l ayed i n 1 840 a nd s o n o t a cqu i red b y t h e B r i t i sh Mu seum . G iv en a sw e l l t h a ti ti se v iden tt ha tn o ta l lV ic to r ia C ave f i nd s w e r e i t em i sed i nh i s a ccoun t t h e se t h ree p i ece s m ay e qua l ly w e l lh ave c ome f r om t h el a t te rs i te a nd ,w i th r e se rva t ion s ,t h ey

S ca r( t h el o ca t ion g i ven b y Sm i th 1 844 , 6 9f o rV ic tor ia C ave ; t h ough h ed oe sn o ta c tua l ly n ame t h ec ave )d i dn o te x i s t .T h i s g l o s s w a sp robab ly r e spon s ib le f o rt h e w ho le a cqu i s i t ion b e i n gr e ga rded b ys ome a sf r om D owke rbo t tom H o le C ave a nd , f o ri n s tance ,f o rP a in te ra nd S ax ' s( 1 970 , 1 63 -5 ,No .12 )w rong -

a r e i n c luded h e re a s f r om i t .T he s econd p rob lem c oncer n s B r i t i sh Mu seum 1 848 .5 -11 N o s 3 5 a nd 4 4 , ab one p i e r ced s poon a nd ap l ano -convex l e ad ' i ngo t ' wh ich t h em u seum a c q u i r ed w i th t h e o the r m a te r ia l i n 1 848 b u t w h ich d o n o t a p p ea r i n Sm i th ( 1844 ) . I ti sh i gh ly u n l ike ly t h a t Sm i th w ou ld h ave f a i led t om en t ion , a nd i ndeed i lu s t ra te , t h e se i mpo r tan t

f u l a t t r ibu t ion o fb rooch 8 . 15 b e low . I nf a c tt h e g lo s s i sm i s l e ad ing a sT ho rnbe rc l ea r ly o n ly s ough tt oi lum ina te av a r ia t i on o fn omenc la tu re , s ugge s t ing t h a tL angc l if f eS ca rb ecame u noff i c ia l ly k nown a s K ing ' s S ca rw i th t h ef i nd ing a nd n am i n g o fV ic to r ia a nd A lbe r t C ave s , a nd t o mak e c l ea r t h a t t h e ' c ave t e n m i le s e a s t o f S e t t le ' ( Sm i th 1 844 , 7 2 ) t h a t as ma l l

p i ece si ft h ey h ad b een a mong s tt he ma te r ia ld i sp layed i n1 840 a nd s ot h ey w e r ep robab ly f ound b e tween 1 840 a nd 1 848 .T he i r p rovenance i se n t i re ly u nknown a nd , g i ven J o seph J a ck son ' s a c t iv i t ie s a tD owk e rbo t tom H o le a nd t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t b y 1 848 h eh ad b egun mo re t h o rough ly i n ve s t iga t ing o t he rc ave s i nt h eS e t t le a r ea ( t en o fw h ich h es ays t h a th eh ad e n te red b u t

p a r to ft h ea cqu i s i t ion d e r ived f r om w a sD owke rbo t tom H o le C ave , Wha r f eda le . I n f a c t T ho rnbe r ' s o n ly r e a l q u ibb le w i th Sm i th ' s ( 1 844 , 6 9 -72 ) a ccoun tw a sp robab ly t h a t ' l oca l o p in i o n . . . [ i s ] t h a t s ome [ o f t h e B r i t i sh Mu seum m a te r ia l ] c ame f r om A lbe r tC ave w h ich i sw i th in af ew f ee t[ o fV ic tor ia C ave ] ' ( l e t te ro f2 1 /5 / 1950 i nt h e B .M . a r ch ive s ) ; w h ich i su n l ik e ly , t h ough J a ck son l a te r made f i nd si nt h i sc ave ( a bove p 15 ) .

r e cove red l i t t le ma te r ia l f r om b y 1 840 ; c f .Sm i th a nd J a ck son 1 842 , l e t te r s d a ted 1 840 ) i tw ou ld b e u nw i se t o mak e a ny a s s ump t ion a bou tt h em .T he t wo p i ece s h ave t h e refo re b een e x c l uded f r om t h i s s t udy , b u t w i l l h opefu l ly b e d ea l t w i th i na s ub sequen tp ub l ica t ion .

T he a c tua lp rovenance o ft h em a t e r ia l a cqu i red b yt h e B r i t i sh Mu seum a nd /o r d ea l t w i th b y Sm i th ( 1844 ) i sh oweve r s t i l l l e s s t h an s t ra igh t fo rwa rd e ven i f ad e ta i led r e ad ing o f Sm i th

J K : T he J ack son/Know le s C o l lec t ion P ur cha sed b y Mr T o t L ord a nd O ther J ack son C o l lec t ion F ind sn o ti nt h e B ra y shaw C o l lec t ion

a nd ac ompa r i son o fh i s p l a te s a nd t h e e x tan to b jec t sr e vea l s mu ch .I ti sc l ea rt h a t mo s to ft h ef i nd si nt h eB r i t i sh Mu seum d i dc om ef r om V ic to r ia C ave , t o ge the rw i th af ew n o ted a nd / o r i lu s t ra ted i n Sm i th b u t n eve r a cqu i red b y t h e mu seum ( ' co in s '( b e low p 48f f ) , ' p o t te ry ' , ac oppe ra l loy ? we igh t( Sm i th 1 844 , P l .XXV I I I F ig .1 ; 9 . 89 b e low ) a nd ab one c heek p i ece

J o seph J a ck son r e ta ined a tl e a s tt wo i t em sf r om h i si n i t ia lV ic t o r ia C ave w o rk ( 8 .8 a nd 1 3 .113 ; a bove ) , a sw e l l p robab ly a s o t he rf i nd s s uch a sc o in s , a nd b e tween c . 1840 a nd c . 1870 h e c on t inued t ob u i ld u p ac o l lec t ion o ff i nd se xcava ted f r om c ave s . I ti sk nown t h a t ,p r io rt oh i sd ea th i n1 886 a tl e a s t af ew i t em s w i th in i tw e r e d i spe r sed b y g if to rp e rhap s s a le . O ne o ft h e se w a s c l ea r ly t h e h one n ow i nt h e L o rd C o l le c t ion ( 16 .19 b e -

a nd c oppe ra loy b rooch b o th n ow i nt h eL o rd C o l le c t ion ( Sm i th 1 844 , P l .XXX F ig .2 a nd P l .XXV I F ig .7 ; 8 . 8 a nd 1 3 .113 b e l ow ) ) .E qua l ly Sm i th make sc l ea rt h a t am il i ta ry b e l tp l a t e( B .M . 1 848 .5 -11 .64 ,t h ough n ow u n t ra ceab le i nt h ec o l lec t ion ; Sm i th 1 844 ,P l .XXV IF ig .5 ;c f .Dea rne 1 990 )c ame r a the rf r om G r ea t e rK e lco C ave ,G igg le sw ick .H oweve r ,i ti sa l so s t a ted t h a tt h e f i nd s o n o ne o f Sm i th ' s p l a t e s d e r ived f r om D owke rbo t tom H o le C ave , Wha r f eda le C ac ave t e nm i le se a s to fS e t t le 'a sh e a ga in p u t s i t )a nd f r om ac a i rn n ea r i t .U n fo r tuna te ly a tt h i s p o in t Sm i th ' st e x ti si n exp l ic i ta nd i ti sn o tc l ea rw he the rh ei s r e f e r r ing t op l a te XXV II I o r XX IX . T he v i ew t a ken h e re i s t h a ti ti sp l a t e XX IX t ha tr ep re sen t sD owk e rbo t tom f i nd s ' . T he D owke rbo t tom Ho le f i nd s o n t h i s a s se s smen t c on s t i tu t e B r i t i sh Mu seum 1 848 .5 -11 N o s 1 8a a nd b ,2 2 -3 ,2 5 ,2 7 , 3 4 -5 , 4 0 1 a nd 4 3 , as p ind le who r lm ade f r om aS am ian s he rd a nd a 3 3

l ow ) r e ta in ing ap ape r l a be l r e co rd ing i nJ a ck son 's h and i t s V ic to r ia C ave p rovenance a nd i t sp re sen ta t ion t oH o rne , af e l l ow a n t iqua r ian . T h i sp a s sed o n Ho me 's d ea th t oC a s t le B o l t o n Mu seum ,f r om w he re T o tL o rd w a s a b le t oo b ta in i ti nt h e e a r ly 1 950 s . H .E . Sm i th ( 1865 , 2 05 ) a l so s ays t h a t ' many [ f i nd s ] p rocu red b y h im [ i . e . J ack son ] a r e n ow i nt h e L eed s Mu seum 'a nd D awk in s( 1 874 , 1 01) r epea t st h i s .T he o n ly mo re d e ta i led i n d ica t ion o fp r ec i se ly wha t may b em ean tb y t h i s i s i nD awk ins ( 1 874 , 14 ) w ho s ays t h a t ' a n a dze . . . o f av a r ie ty o fg r e en s tone ' ( me laphy r a cco rd ing t o T iddeman 1 875a , 8 2 a nd o t he r s )r e pu ted t oh ave b een f ound i nV ic to r ia C ave ' wa s p r e sen ted t ot h e Mu seum o ft h eP h i lo soph ica lS oc ie ty a tL eed s

b y Mr .J a ck son . 'T h i s' a dze o ft r ap 'a si ti sr e f e r red t oi ne a r l ie r s ou rce s w a s c l ea r ly i nt h e J a ck son C o l lec t ion b y 1 860 s i nce D enny ( 1 860 ,P 1 . 1N o .15 )i l u s t ra te si tb u ti t sf o rm v e r ys t rong ly s ugge s t s t h a ti ti nf a c t d e r ived f r om as ou rce o u t s ide B r i ta in ,

L o rd b e tween 1 937 a nd 1 948 . T hu s , a l though n o t s epa ra ted f r om o t he rf i nd s a t t r ibu ted t oV ic to r ia C av ei nM r . L o rd 's P ig Y a rd C lub Mu seum o rt h e s ub sequen tb ox ing u p o ft h e ma te r i a lo ni t sc l o su re c . 1970 af ew y ea r sa f te rh i sd ea th ,t h e 1 930 s p ho tog raph s i nt h e L o rd / Jack son A r ch ive a low a tl e a s t mo s t

i t s s im i la r i ty t oP o lyne s ian a r tef a c t s b e ing n o ted e ven i nt h e 1 860 sa nd 1 870 s( Denny 1 860 ,5 1 ;T iddeman 1 875a ,8 2 ) . Wha t o t he r ma te r ia lp a s sed t oL eed s i nt h e ? 1860 s a nd w ha ts ub se q uen t ly h appened t oi ti su nc lea r . T he a dze a tl e a s t w a s s t i l l a va i lab le f o rD awk in st om ake o rh ave made an ew d r aw ing o f i ta nd f o r T iddeman t ov i ew i n t h e 1 870 s ( Dawk ins 1 874 , F ig .28 ;T iddeman 1 875a , 8 2 ) .H oweve r ,t h eo n ly J a ck son ma t e r ia l t h a t i th a s c u r ren t ly p roved p o s s ib le t ot r a ce i nL eed s

o ft h eJ a ck son /Know le s ma te r ia lt ob ep o s i t ive ly i d en t if ied ,a l l b u to ne o rt wo i t em s i n c lud ing s ome g l a s s b e ing e x tan ti nt h e L o rd C o l lec t ion . T he p rovenance o ft h e ma te r ia l a ga in t h ough n eed s s c ru t iny . T he p i ece sJ a ck son r e ta ined f r om h i si n i t ia lw o rk ,a nd t h eh one , u ndoub ted ly c ome f r om V ic to r ia C ave a nd af ew o t he r s ( e .g . 9 . 74 b e low )c an p robab ly b ei d en t if ied w i th H .E . Sm i th ' s( 1 865 , 2 08 ) r e f e rence s t of i nd s f r om c ave s n ea r S e t t le a nd s op roba b ly i nt h e J a ck son C o l lec t ion b y 1 865 a nd n o t , i fh e i st ob e

C i ty Mu seum a r e as ma l ln umbe ro ff a una ls pec imen s ,p roba b l yf r om t h eR omano -B r i t i sh a nd l owe rl e ve l s( t he a u tho r sa r e g r a tefu l t oM r . J .H . N unney f o r t r ac ing t h i s ma te r ia l ) a nd i t mu s t b e e n t i re ly l i ke ly t h a t o n ly s ome f a una l , ? and p e rhap s c e ram ic ma te r ia lw a sd ona ted t oL eed s Mu seum .

b e l ieved , f r om D owke rbo t tom Ho le C ave . I no ne c a se a sw e l l ma tch ing f r agmen t s o f ab one ? need le ( 1 3 .93 b e low ) c ome f r om t h eJ a ck son /Know le sc o l lec t ion a nd t h e1 870 e xcava t ion s . O nt h eo t he rh and o ne p i ece e x tan ti nt h eL o rd C o l lec t ion ( a n

N eve r the le s s t h e l a be l led h one a nd t h e a dze a r e n o t t h e o n ly p i ece sk nown t oh av ep a s sed o u to ft h eJ a ck son C o l lec t ion a t

Ang lo -Saxon s i lve red d i sc -headed p i n p ub l i shed b y S wan ton

s ome p o in t , p robab ly b e f o re o ro n h i s d ea th i n1 886 . Al e t te r d a ted 2 5 th J u ly 1 89 1 i nt h eJ a ck son /Lo rd a r ch ive i san o t ef r om aJ u l iu sB r igg o fB i rkenhead ,w ho h ad e v iden t ly b een af r iend o fJ ack son 's ,t oE leano rJ a ck son , o ne o fh i sd augh te r s , t h ank i n gh e rf o rw ha tw a sc l ea r ly ab one p i e r ced s poon f r om V ic to r i a C ave wh ich h e h ad b een g i ven a s ak eep sake a f te r J ack s on 's d ea th .S im i la r ly t h eb r ooch r e ta ined b yJ a ck son f r om h i s i n i t ia lw o rk ( 8 .8 )d oe sn o ts e em t oh ave r ema ined w i th t h er e s t o ft h ec o l lec t ion b u tt oh av eb een r e -un i ted w i th i tb yT o tL o rd , a nd i ti se n t i re ly l i k e ly t h a t h e k new mo re a bou t t h e f a te o f c e r ta in i t em s o r ig ina l ly i nt h ec o l lec t ion t h an w r i t ten r e co rd s a low t ob ed educed .O the ri t em sk nown t oh ave l e f tt h eJ a ck s on C o l lec t ion , a nd n o t r e -un i ted b y T o t L o rd , i n c lude t h e b rooch ( 8 .29 )i lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1 865 ,N o .4 o ppo s i te p 217 ) a nd t h e c oppe r a l loy n eed le s ( a nd p e rhap s p in s ) ( 9 .46 ) m en t i oned b y Sm i th ( 1865 , 2 08 ) , D awk in s ( 1 872 , 6 2 ) a nd Mo t h s on ( 1870 / 1 , 10 ) . Mo reove rp a r to fJ a ck son 's c o l lec t ion p rob a b ly p a s sed o nh i sd ea th t oM r . B ray shaw ( s ee ' B 'b e low )a nd l a te rB rown ( 1 908 , 2 )c ommen ted t h a t ' t he c o l le c t ion o fB r i t i s ho rnamen t sa nd p o t te ry a nd o fR oman a nd B r i t i sh c o in st h a t M r . J a ck son g o tt o ge the rs hou ld n o th ave b een b rok en u p ' .

( 1969 ) ) s e em s mo re l i ke ly t oh ave c ome f r om D owke rbo t tom t h an V ic to r ia C ave s .C e r ta in ly t h i si st h ei mp l ica t ion i nD awk in s ( 1874 ,102 ) ,t h ough h i sa s se r t ion i sd if i cu l tt oc he ck .T he p i e ce w a si nt h eJ a ck son C o l lec t ion b y 1 860 w hen D enny i lu s t ra ted i t( Denny 1 860 , 5 1 a nd P 1 .2 N o . 1 ) a nd s oc ou ld b e t h e s i lv e r h ead o f ab ronze ? p in wh ich Sm i th ( 1 865 , 2 08 ) r e f e r s t o . H e l i s t s i ta sf r om ' c ave s n ea r S e t t le ' ( a s o ppo sed t o ' c ave s n ea r A rnc l if f e ' i . e . D owke rbo t tom Ho le w h ich w a s t h en r e ga rded a s mo re t h an o ne c ave )b u tt h i si sa to dd sw i th D awk in s 'p rov e nance .I nt h i sp a r t icu la rc a se t h ei t em h a sb e en e xc luded f r om t h e p re sen t v o lume a s mo re l i ke ly t ob e f r om D owk e rbo t tom Ho le C ave , ac onc lu s ion a l so r e ached b yJ .W .J a ck son ( i nC u l l i ngfo rd 1 962 , 2 62 ) . H oweve r , i ti sa ppa ren tt h a t H .E . Sm i th 's d iv i s ion o fJ a ck son ' s c o l lec t ion b e tween D owk e rbo t tom H o le a nd t h eS e t t le C ave s( ma in ly V ic to r ia )n eed st ob et r ea ted w i th c au t ion , a nd t h a tb yt h e 1 930 sa ,s ome t ime se r roneou s ,V ic to r i a C ave a t t r ibu t ion h ad b een a pp l ied t ot h e w ho le J a ck son / K now le sc o l lec t ion . An ew spape rd e sc r ip t ion o fS imp son 's d i sp lay o ft h em a te r ia l i n1 933 ( C rav en H era ld 2 8 /4 / 1933 ) n o ted aP a laeo l i th ic h and a xe d i sp layed a sf r om t h es i te ( wh ich i si n conce ivab le a se a r l i e ra u tho r i t ie sf a i lt o men t ion wha tw ou ld h a ve b een av e ry i m -

Wh i l s t t h e se d i spe r s ion s , e spec ia l ly t oB rayshaw , mu s t h ave r e duced t h eq uan t i ty o fm a te r ia lr ema in ing i nt h eJ a ck son C o l l e c t ion ,s ome a t temp tt oa s se s st h ee n t i re ly l o s tp a r t so fw h ich i smade b e low ( p 37 ) ,c l ea r ly al a rge g roup o fa r tef a c t ss t i l lr e m a ined t op a s s o n h i sd ea th t oJ a ck son ' s u nma r r ied d augh te r E leano r ( c f . S pe igh t 1 892 , 1 20 ) a nd o n h e rd ea th i n 1 895 t o h e ry ounge rs i s te rA gne sa nd h e rh u sband G eo rge K now le s , a

p o r tan ta r tef ac t ) ,a nd aT ra jan ic c o in w h ich a lmo s tc e r ta in ly i n f a c tc ame f r om D owke rbo t tom Ho le C ave ( b e low p 49 ) .I ndeed , i ti sc l ea rf r om J ack son ( 1938 , 3 31) t h a tb yt h et ime T o tL o rd a cqu i red t h eJ a ck son /Know le s ma te r ia li tw a sr e ga rded a sf r om V ic to r ia a nd o t her c ave s b u t t h a t i n 1 933 i th ad a l l b een l a b e l led V ic to r ia C ave e ven t h ough s ome p i e ce sh ad c ome f r om

j o ine r a tG range o ve r S and s , L anc s . ( c f . B rown 1 903 , 5 ) . O n A gne s 's d ea th i n 1 932 t h e c o l lec t ion w a s i nhe r i ted b y h e r

e l sewhe re . T he s can t d ocumen ta t ion s u rv iv ing f r om J oseph J ack son h im se lf h ad p e rhap s made t h i s a ne a sy o p t ion .

d augh te r ( J o seph J ack son ' s g randdaugh te r ) M i s s Ma r ion K now le s .I n 1 933 M i s s K now le s l e n tt h eg r ea te rp a r to ft h ese a r tef ac t st oE l i S imp son , w ho h ad r e cen t ly f ounded t h eS e t t le

T he re a r e , h oweve r , g ood g round s f o r b e l iev ing t h a t al a rge p a r to ft h eJ a ck son C o l lec t ion ( bo th t h a tp a r tc on s ide red h e re a nd o t he rp a r t sd i scus sed b e low i n' 1 3 ') d i dd e r ive f r om V ic to -

N a tu ra l H i s to ry a nd A rchaeo log ica l Mu seum i nw h ich t h ey w e re t h en d i sp layed .C ruc ia l ly f o rt h ep r e sen te xe rc i se t h el o an

r i aC ave .T he a b sence o fs pec if ic r e f e rence st oc ave so t he rt h an V ic to r ia , G rea te r K e lco a nd D owke rbo t tom H o le i nt h e S e t t le r eg ion i nD enny ( 1 860 ) , H .E . Sm i th ( 1 865 )o rp ub l ica t ion sr e -

s chedu le h a s s u rv ived i nt h e J a ck son /Lo rd A r ch ive a nd t h e m a te r ia l w a s p ho tog raphed i nd e ta i l t h e y ea r b e fo r e t h e l o an f o r l e ga l r e a son s , t h e p ho tog raph s b e ing a cqu i red f r om M is s

l a t ing t ot h e 1 870 se xcava t ion st e nd st os ugge s tt h a tJ a ck son 's f i nd sw e re c onf ined t ot h e se t h ree c ave s .H em ay h ave e n te red

K now le sa l ong w i th a l t h eJ a ck son ma te r ia ls he o wned b yT o t 3 4

o the r s b u t m a in ly u npub l i shed e xcava t ion r e co rd s f r om t h e 1 920 s a nd 1 9 30 s w hen m o s t o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l ly s i gn if i c an t c av e s o ft h e a r ea w e r e i n ve s t iga ted f a i l t op rov ide e v i d ence o fe a r l ie rd i gg ing . I ndeed , t h e mo s t s i gn if ican t ,A t te r -

s on /Know le s C o l lec t ion i ti sa l so p o s s ib le t ha t h e h ad v e rba l i n fo rma t ion ( e .g . f r om M i s s K now le s ) a bou t t h e m a te r ia l ' s p rovenance t h a t r e info rced p r ovenance a s sump t ion s . C lea r ly t h ough t h ec e r ta in ty o fp rovenance f o r a ny i nd iv idua l i t em i n t h eJ ack son C o l lec t ion c anno tt o day b ea sg rea ta st h a tf o ra n 1 870 s f i nd a sp i ece s f r om D owke rbo t tom a nd G r ea t e r K e lco

m i re C av e , w a s k nown b y 1 865 b u t w a s o f ' s econda ry n o te ' ( Sm i th 1 8 65 ,2 27 ) , o n ly t wo m ed ieva lc o in sb e ing n o ted f r om i t ,w h ich ,g i v en t h ev e ry g r ea tq uan t i ty o ff i nd si tw a s l a te rt o y i e ld , s ugge s t s t h a t i th ad b een l i t t le d i s tu rbed . J ack son c e r t a in ly r e cove red o ne p i ece f r om G rea te rK e lco C ave ( t he m i l i t a ry b e l tp l a t em en t ioned a bove )a nd D enny ( 1 860 , 4 8 )p roba b ly i mp l ie st h a t af ew mo r eo fh i sf i nd sc ame f r om ' t he K e lco

C ave s a r ep robab ly a mong s tt h em a te r ia l c a ta logued . I n deed , o ngo ing r e sea r ch i n to t h eh i s to ry o fD owke rbo t tom H o le C ave m ay y e ta l low s ome mo re a c cu ra te e s t ima te o ft h en umbe ro f D owke rbo t tom i t em s J ack son m igh th ave p o sse s sed a nd m ay s hed l i gh to ni s sue ss uch a st h er e la t ion sh ip b e twe en M r .H odg e son , w ho e xcava ted i nD owk e rbo t tom Ho le C ave o n b eha lf o fF a r re r ,a nd J a ck son .

c ave 'b u th ea l so n o te s t h a tb y 1 860 t h i s c ave h ad ' o n ly b een p a r t ly e xp lo r ed ' a nd h ad y i e lded l e s s m a te r ia l t h an V ic to r ia C ave . Mo r eove r t h e m a in w o rk a tG rea t e r K e lco C ave i sa t t r ibu ted b y Sm i th ( 1865 ,2 06 -7 )t ot h el a ndowne ra nd J ack son i sn o tm en t ioned .A ne n t ry i nt h eC rof ton M s s ,a ppa ren t ly m ade i n 1 897 , s e em s t oc onf i rm t h i s r e co rd ing t h a t K e lcowe ( s ic ) C ave w a s ' e xam ined b yM r .J ohn H a r t ley o fC a t te ra lH a l l 'a nd t ha tt h ef i nd sw e re l o aned t oJ ohn B i rkbeck J a r .f o re xh ib i t ion i nL anca s t e r a nd n eve rr e tu rned . F u r the r a r ch ive ma te r ia l i n t h eL o rd C o l lec t ion s uppo r t st h i sa nd i n deed i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t s ome o ft h i s m a t e r ia l i sn ow i nt h e B r i t i sh Mu seum ( Dea rne , r e sea rch i np r og re s s ) .

B : T he B ray shaw ( ?Ex -Jack son ) C o l lec t ion T he c o l lec t ion o fa n t iqu i t ie sf o rmed b y Mr .T homa sB r ay shaw , aS e t t le s o l ic i to r w a s a cqu i r ed b y T o t L o rd , p robab ly i nt h e 1 930 sa nd ,a l though n o tm a in ta ined a s ad i sc re te g roup ,m uch o fi tc an b ei s o la ted b y r e f e r ence t od raw ing s i nt h e R a i s t r ick A r ch ive mad ei nt h el a te 1 940 sa nd l a be l led B ray shaw C o l lec t i on ( an a t t r ibu t ion u ndoub ted ly d e r iv ing f r om T o tL o rd ) a nd

Mo re i mpo r tan t ly J a ck son d i d c e r ta in ly w o rk a tD owke rbo t t o rn H o le C a v en ea rA rncl if e , Wha r f eda le b e f o re 1 840 a s Sm i th ( 1844 )t e s t if ie s( a bove )a nd h ep rov ided D enny ( 1860 ,4 9 )w i th i n fo rma t ion o n i t s s t ra t ig raphy , b u ta l l t h ea va i lab le e v idence i st ha th i si n vo lvemen tw i th t h es i te ,w h ich w a s ac ons ide rab le a nd p r e sumab ly a r duou sj our ney f r om h i s h ome , c ea sed o ra t

f r om as i ng le r e f e rence i nt h eC ro f ton Ms s . T ha tt h em a t e r ia l w a sd i sp layed i nt h ef o rme rP igY a rd C lub Mu seum i nt h eV ic t o r ia C av e c a se s ( a nd s o b oxed u p o n t h e museum ' s c l o su r e w i th o t he r V ic to r ia f i nd s t of o rm t h e p re sen t L o rd ( V ic to r ia C ave )C o l lec t ion )i nd ica te st h a tT o tL o rd r ega rded B ray shaw ' s c o l lec t ion a sd e r iv ing f r om t h es i te .H e may w e l lh ave h ad v e r b a l e v idence f o r t h i s f r om B ray shaw o ro the r s , b u t p r ima r i ly

l e a s td ec l ined g r ea t ly i nl a te ry ea r s . D enny ( 1860 , 4 9 ) i nf a c t r e co rd sh i sg i v ing u pe xcava t ion si na tl e a s tp a r to ft h ec ave a s h e h ad f o und o n ly ' af r agmen t o f ab ronze f i bu la ' . A t w ha t d a te t h i so c cu r red i su nknown ,t h ough i ti sn o tab le t ha tn or e f e r ence i ne a r ly a ccoun t so fD owk e rbo t tom H o le C ave e xcava t i ons ( F a r r e r 1 857 ; F a r re r a nd D enny 1 866 ) c an b e t a ken t o i mp ly w o rk b yJ a ck son a f te rt h em id -1850 sa tt h el a te s t .P ou l t on ( 1 88 1 , 3 5 1) i n d ica te s t h a t n o w o rk o ccu r red a tD owk e r b o t tom b e tween 1 865 a nd 1 880 a nd a l though h e ( p353 ) a p p ea r s t oh ave m is in te rp re ted D enny 's ( 1 860 ) r e f e rence s t o J ack son ' sa c t iv i t ie sa si mp ly ing t h el a t te r ' si n vo lvemen ta tt h e s i te c . 1857 t h e r e i sn o e v idence t h a t J a ck son w a s w o rk ing a t D owk e rbo t tom a tt h i st ime .I ndeed ,D enny ( 1 860 )i sm i s lead i ng a tl e a s ti nr e spec to ft h ea r te f a c t st h a th ei lu s t ra te sb ecau se many o fh i s d raw ing s a r e s imp ly c op ie s o f t ho se i n Sm i th ( 1844 )a nd t h e se a r te f a c t sh ad l o ng s i nce p a s sed t ot h eB r i t i sh Museum . Wha tr ema in su nc lea ri st h es ca le o fJ a ck son ' sw o rk a t Dowk e rbo t tom f r om 1 840 t oc . 1850 a nd i ti sp robab ly e x c l u s ive ly h i s f i nd s i nt h i s p e r iod t h a t ' c on tam ina te ' t h e J a ck s on C o l le c t ion .

h ep robab ly b e l ieved t h a tt h e B ray shaw C o l lec t ion h ad o r ig i n a l ly f o rmed p a r to ft h eJ o seph J a ck son C o l lec t ion .D i r ec ta nd c i r cum s tan t ia le v idence c an b ea dduced t os how t ha ti na ll i k e l i hood h ew a sc o r rec ti nt h i sb e l ief . T he d i rec t e v idence i sp rov ided b y aw a te rco lou r o f am e lon b ead ( 19 .1 b e low )n ow i nt h eL o rd C o l lec t ion wh ich i si n c lud e di nt h eC rof ton Ms sw i th t h el e gend ' B lue g l a ss b ead ,f o und i nV ic to r ia C ave . Now i nt h ep o s se ss ion o f Mr .T homa s B ray s haw ,S e t t le [ 1 897 ] '( t he b r a cke t sa r eo r ig ina l ) .T h i ss how st h a t B rayshaw h ad a cqu i red a tl e a s to ne p i ece f r om V ic to r ia C ave . I ti sn o ts t a ted t h a th ea cqu i red i tf r om J a ck son , b u ti ti sd if i c u l tt os ee w he re e l se B ray shaw m igh th ave g o t h i s a tl e a s ta d ozen R omano -Br i t i sh o b jec t sw h ich i n c luded b rooche si fn o t f r om J ack son . B ray shaw i sn o t k nown t oh ave b een a ' c ave h un te r ' h im se lf , o r t oh ave h ad a ny o t he r i n vo lvemen t i na r c haeo logy . H i s ma te r ia l w a s l o ca l a si ti n c luded o b jec t t y pe s ( bone p i e rced s poon s a nd e spec ia l ly t ogg le s ) e spec ia l ly a s so c i a ted w i th a nd i ns ome c a se s u n ique t ot h e a r ea ; a nd c l ea r ly t h ec o l lec t ion w a s a tl e a s tp a r t ly i ne x i s tence b y 1 897 .

T he p rov i s iona l c onc lu s ion d r awn h e re i st h a t t h e p o s t -1840 J ack son C o l le c t ion c on s i s ted o ff i nd s f r om V ic to r ia C ave , t o g e the rp r obab ly w i th l e s se rn umbe r s o fp i ece s f r om D owke r b o t tom H o le , p o ss ib ly o ne o rt wo mo re f r om G rea te r K e lco C ave ( a nd m a y b e o t he rc ave s i nt h e a r ea ; c f . D awk in s 1 872 , 6 9 ) a nd p r obab ly af ew p i ece s l i ke t h e P a laeo l i th ic s t one a xe a nd t h e ' a dz eo ft r ap 'a cqu i red f r om o t he rs ou r ce s .C lea r ly T o t L o rd d i sp layed a l t h ep i ece sa sf r om V ic to r ia C ave a nd ,w h i l s t h e may h a v eb e en i n f luenced b yt h e 1 933 l a be l l ing o ft h eJ a ck -

I ti sh igh ly u n l ike ly t ha tB ray shaw a cqu i red a ny ma te r ia lf r om t h ec ave e xcava t ion so ft h e 1 920 sa nd 1 930 s i nt h eS e t t le a r ea ( e .g . a tA t te rm i r e a nd S ewe l l ' s C ave s ) . N o t o n ly w a s h i s c o l l e c t ion a tl e a s tp a r t ly f o rmed b y 1 897 ,a nd p e rhap si nT o tL o rd ' s h and s b e fo r e s ome o f t h e se e xcava t ion s w e re c omp le te , b u t Mr . L o rd w a s ama jo r f i gu r e i ns uch w o rk a nd w ou ld h ave b een f u l ly a wa re o ft h ew he reabou t so ff i nd sf r om i t( a sp rob a b ly w ou ld h ave A r thu r R a i s t r ick a nd S i r I a n R ichmond ) . I f 3 5

B ray shaw h ad o b ta ined p i ece s f r om a ny o ft h is w o rk ,m o s to f w h ich i sr ea sonab ly w e l l d ocumen ted i nt h e L o rd C o l le c t ion

t h eJ a ck son C o l lec t ion f i t st h ed e sc r ip t ion a nd i tmu s tb ep rob a b le t h a t8 . 11 h a ss imp ly l o s ts ome o r ig ina l ly p r e se rved e name l

s o t h a t t h e l i ke l ihood t h a t h e c ou ld h ave a cqu i red a ny th ing w i thou tr e co rd ss u rv iv ing i sl ow ,T o tL o rd w ou ld u ndoub t ed ly

o ri ndeed t h a tD awk in sw a sj u s t( c o r rec t ly )a s sum ing t h eo r ig i n a lp re sence o fe name l f r om i t ss e t t ing s . T hu s , a l l t h e a va i la b l ee v idence l e ad s o ne t oc onc lude t h a tt h eB ray shaw C o l lec t i on r ep re sen t s p a r t o ft h e f o rme rJ ack son C o l lec t ion ( who se p rovenance h a sb een e xam ined a bove ) .

h ave k nown a nd d i sp layed t h em a ss uch o nce t h ey w e r ei nh i s p o s se s s ion .B ray shaw ' sm a te r ia ls e em se qua l ly u n l ike ly t oh av e c ome f r om l o ca l o pen s i te s . O cca s iona l f i nd s w e re m ade i n t h e n i ne teen th c en tu ry a way f r om c ave s a nd t h e C rof ton M s s r e co rd s t h e f i nd ing o fa n i r on s pea rh ead ,r e cove red c . 1888 i n t h e d igg ing o f ad ra in ' o n Mr . F a r re r 's p rope r ty ' a nd w h ich B ray shaw d id i nf a c th ave i nh i s c o l lec t ion ( i ti si lu s t ra t ed i n t h eC rof ton Ms sb u ti ti sn ow i mpo ss ib le t ob es u re w he the ri t

S :H .E . S m i th ' sF ind ( s ) A n ow l o s t b rooch f ound i n 1 864 b y H en ry E ck royd Sm i th

p a s sed t o Mr . L o rd ) . H oweve r , t h e t y pe a nd q uan t i ty o fo b j e c t si nt h eB ray shaw C o l lec t ion a r ee x t reme ly u n l ike ly t oh av e d e r ived j u s tf r om c a sua lf i nd s .N o rw e re a ny o pen s e t t lemen t s e xcava ted , o r p robab ly r e cogn i sed , b efo re t h e e a r ly d ecade s o ft h et wen t ie th c en tu ry .

( 1865 ,2 17 )o n av i s i tt oV ic to r ia C ave w i th J o seph J a ck son i s o ne o f av e ry f ew s pec if ica l ly d e sc r ibed p i ece sc o l lec ted f r om t h ec ave b y a nyone o t he rt h an J o seph J a ck son b efo re 1 870 . I t i s mo s tl i ke ly t ob et h eb rooch i lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1865 , P 1 . 1 N o .2 ; 8 . 31 b e low ) , b u th i s i n exp l ic i t t e x ta lows o ft h e p o s s i b i l i ty t h a tt h ei lu s t ra t ed b rooch w a sp a s sed t oh im b yJ ack son a nd t h a th e h im se lf f ound as im i la rb u tm o re d amaged e xam p l e . Af u r the r r e f e rence b y Sm i th ( 1 865 , 2 23 ) t o ' av e ry f i ne f i bu la ,b roken b u tu nwo rn 'w h ich h ef ound ,p r e sumab ly i nV ic t o r ia C ave i n1 864 , m ay r e la t e t ot h e s ame b rooch , b u tm igh t i nt h e c on tex t o fh i s e r roneou s d a t ing o fp i ece s s uch a s 8 . 31 b et a ken t oi mp ly as e pa ra te ( ? bow )b rooch f i nd .

I tt h e refo re s eem s t h a t B ray shaw ' s ma te r ia l mus t i nt h em a in h ave c ome f r om o ne o ft h ec ave s e xcava ted i nt h e n i ne teen th c en tu ry a nd i tw ou ld a ppea rt h a tt h eo n ly c o rpu so ff i nd sw h ich i sk nown t o b e i n comp le te , i nl o ca l h and s a nd a va i lab le f o r a cqu is i t ion i nt h e 1 880 sa nd 1 890 s w a sJ o seph J ack son ' sC o l l e c t ion .C e r ta in ly w ha tc an b ed educed a bou tt h es i ze a nd c on t e n t o f t he J ack son C o l lec t ion f r om s ou rce s s uch a sD enny ( 1 860 ) a nd Sm i th ( 1 865 ) a l low s t h a tt h e f i nd s B ray shaw h ad c ou ld h ave c ome f r om i t( b e low p 37 ) ; t h e c o l lec t ion w a s i n S e t t le a nd i t mu s t h ave b een w e l l k nown t oa nyone w i th a n i n te re s ti na n t iqu i t ie si nt h ea r ea .J a ck son ' sd ea th i n1 886 w ou ld h ave b een j u s tt h ej unc tu r ea t wh ich p a r to ft h ec o l le c t ion m igh t h ave b een s o ld o f . C ave f i nd si no t he rh and s a tt h i st ime c an l a rge ly b ea ccoun ted f o r .T he G rea te rK e lco f i nd sa sw eh ave s e en s eem t oh ave l e f tt h ea r ea ( c f . Sm i th 1 865 ,2 06 -7 a nd p 34 f a bove ) ,J ack son 's i n i t ia lV ic to r ia a nd D owke rbo t tom f i nd sw e re i nt h e B r i t i sh Mu seum , l a te r f i nd s f r om D owke rbo t tom w en t t ot h e B r i t ish Mu seum ( f ind s made b y F a r re r c . 1857 ) a nd t o L eed s Mu seum ( t he f i nd si nF a r re ra nd D enny 1 866 ) .T he l a t t e r w e re s t i l l a tL eed s i n1 911 ( V i l ly 1 911 , 3 66 ) a nd o ngo ing r e sea rch b yt h ea u tho r s a nd Mr . B . S i tch o fL eed s C i ty Mu se u m s ugge s t s t h a tt h ey a r e s t i l l t h e re . O n ly t h e f i nd s f r om t h e f i na l p ha se o fw o rk a tD owke rbo t tom b y P ou l ton ( 1 881 ) a r e c u r ren t ly u na ccoun ted f o ra nd n o to n ly i st h e re n oe v idence t o l i nk B ray shaw w i th t h e se b u tt ho se p i ece sd e sc r ibed b yP ou l t o nf a i lt o ma t ch a ny B ray shaw i t em .

C : T he R ev . C r of ton ' sC o l lec t ion T he R ev . A dd i son C ro f ton f o rmed ac o l lec t ion o f o pen a nd p a r t icu la r ly c av e s i te f i nd s o ff a una l a nd a r te fac tua l ma te r ia l f r om v a r iou s p a r t s o fB r i ta in i nt h e s e cond h a lf o ft h e n i ne t e en th c en tu ry .T he C rof ton Ms sr e co rd sh i sc o l lec t ing p o t te ry a nd b one s a tV ic to r ia C ave i n 1 865 ( above p 17 ) a nd l i s t s t h e f i nd s ,t hough o n ly af ew m ino rp i ece s may n ow b ee x tan t . H is c o l lec t ion r ema ined i nh i sf am i ly h ome f r om h i sd ea th c . 1910 u n t i l 1 927 w hen i tw a s d i spe r sed , p a r t g o ing t oL eed s C i ty Mu seum ,p a r td i rec t ly t oM r .T o tL o rd a nd p a r tt oh im t h rough a n i n te rmed ia ry . N one o ft h ei t em st h a te n te r ed t h eL o rd C o l l e c t ion h ave a ny c l a im t oc ome f r om V ic to r ia C ave b u tt h rough t h eg ood of i ce so fM r .J .H .N unney ma te r ia lf r om t h es i te h a s b een l o ca ted i nL eed sC i ty Mu seum 's g eo log ica ls e c t ion .T h is may i n c lude o ne o r t wo o f t h e p i ece s r e f e r red t o a bove b u t a l so i n c lude sf i nd sn o tm en t ioned i nt h eC rof ton Ms s .C rof ton a ppea r st oh ave b een f a s t id iou sa bou tp rovenance sa nd p a r to f

I nf a c t f u r the r e v idence f o r B ray shaw ' s ma ter ia l h av ing d e r i ved f r om J o seph J ack son i sa va i lab le a so ne o fB ray shaw ' s b r ooche s( 8 .11 b e low )v e ry p robab ly m a t che so ne o fJ a ck son ' s V ic to r ia C ave f i nd s m en t ioned b y D awk in s ( 1874 , 1 00 ) . T he l a t te r d e scr ibe s t wo ' h a rp shaped f i bu lae . . . o rnamen ted w i th e name l [ a nd ]c oa ted w i th s i lve r , . .i no ne [ o f wh ich ]t wo s ma l l b l ock s o f t ha t me ta l s t i l l r ema in f i rm ly i mbedded [ s ic ] i n b ronze ' . B rooch 8 . 11 p robab ly h ad a w h i te me ta l c oa t ing , t h ough D awk in sm igh tj u s th ave b een r e f e r r ing t oi t sp a t ina a s

t h i s ma te r ia l c a r r ie s d i s t inc t ive b l ue e dged o rp la in l a be l s a f f i xed a nd g i v ing V ic to r ia C ave p rovenance s i nh i s o wn h and . H ow h e c ame b y mo s t o fi ti su nknown b u t i t mu s t b e v e ry l i ke ly t h a t h e e i the r m ade as e cond ( un reco rded ) v i s i t t ot h e c ave o rt h a th ew a sg i ven /bough tp i ece sb y / f rom J oseph J ack s on o r h i s h e i r s . T he se f i nd s ( and t ho se f r om h i s v i s i t r e c o rded i n h i s Ms s ) h ave b een i n c luded i n t he c a ta logues ( w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fs even t i ny p o t te ry s he rd s i n c lud ing C a lc i te G r i t ted ,B lack B u rn ished , O range a nd ? Co lour C oa t -

i mp ly ing as i lve red s u r f ace , i th a so ne o rp oss ib ly t wo b l ock s o f? s i lve r i n lay o n i t s b ow a nd h ead a nd f oo t c up s f o r ( m i s s i n g )e name l .I fi tw e re n o tf o rt h ei mp l ica t ion t ha te name ls u r v i ved , t h er a r i ty o fm e ta l b l ock i n lay o nR omano -Br i t i sh b ow

e d f abr ic s ) . A s econd g roup b y c on t ra s t h as o n ly t yped ( ?museum )l a be l sa ff ixed g i v ing aV ic to r ia C ave p rovenance a nd t hese p i ece s h ave b een e xc luded o r n o ted o n ly a tt he e nd o fc a ta logue ss i nce t h ev a l id i ty o ft h e i rp rovenance may w e l l b e i nd oub t .

b rooche s w ou ld make i ta lmo s t c e r ta in t h a t t h e s ame b r oo ch w a s b e ing r e f e r red t o . C e r ta in ly n o o t he r p iece r e f e r rab le t o 3 6

V .T he L es sS pec if i ca l ly I d en t if iab le Ma t er ia li nt h e V i c tor ia S ec t ion o ft h eL ord C o l l ec t ion

l e yda le , t wo o t he r s o fp o s t -Roman d a te ( 8 .57 a nd 9 . 140 ) a r e n o td ocumen ted a ta l l a nd af ou r th ( 8 .20 )i sf i r s td rawn i nt h e R a i s t r ick A rch ive , a l though F eachem ( 1 951 )p rovenance si ta s f r om V ic to r ia C ave ,p r e sumab ly o nt h es a ys oo fT o tL o rd .T he l a t te rm igh th ave b een o ne o f Mr .L o rd ' so wn f i nd sa ss ome o f

T he e x tan tm a t e r ia li nt h eL o rd C o l lec t ion r e ga rded b yT o tL o rd a sf r om V ic to r ia C ave w a sa ld i sp layed t oge the ri nt h ef o rme r P i g Y a rd C lub Mu seum , w a s b oxed u p o n i t sc l o su r e a nd r e m a in s ad i sc re t e p a r t o ft h e c o l lec t ion . T he i d en t if iab le f i nd s b e long ing t op rovenance / cu ra t ion g roup s ' BA ' , ' TL ' , ` JK 'a nd ' 1 3 ' c on s t i tu te much o f t h i s m a te r ia l b u t l e ave as i gn if i can t n umbe ro fp i ece sw h ich ,s i nce a r tef ac t sw e re n o tk ep ti ng r oup s a c co rd ing t oh ow t h ey h ad c ome i n to M r . L o rd ' s p o s se s s ion o n ly h i s d i sp lay ing t h em a sf r om t h e s i t e n ow g ene ra l ly p ro -

h i s r e co rd s may b e l o s t a nd w ou ld n o t b e o u t o fp l ace i nt h e c ave a s semb lage , b u tt h ep rovenance o ft h e o t he r s i np a r t icu l a rs hou ld b et r ea ted w i th c au t ion a st h ey d i do r may h ave c ome f r om s ou r ce sn o to bv iou s ly l i nked t ot h ec ave ,b ecau se t h eb a s i s f o r T o t L o rd ' s p rovenanc ing t h em i sn o t e s tab l i shed , a nd b e cau se t h ey s e em a noma lou st ot h er e s to ft h ec o l lec t ion . C lea r ly t h ep rovenance o ft h e ma te r ia lm a rk ed ' V 'i nt h ec a ta -

v i de st h ee v idence f o rt h e i ra t t r ibu t ion .H oweve r , much o ft h e m a te r ia l , e spec ia l ly t h e i r onwo rk a nd s ma l l ,o f ten b rok en a nd

l ogue si sl e s st h an c e r ta in , a nd l e s sr e l iab le t h an t h a to fp i ece s w i th o t he rp rovenance /cu ra t ion c ode s .N o to n ly a r ep i ece sw i th g ood p rovenance s ( 1870 s a nd T o tL o rd ' s o wn f i nd s ) l i ke ly t o

u n spec if ica l ly i d en t if iab le o b jec t s p robab ly d e r ive f r om t h e J a ck son /Know le s C o l lec t ion ( t he 1 933 J a ck son /Lo rd a r ch ive p ho tog raph so fw h ich c l ea r ly d i dn o td ocumen te ve ry o b jec t ) , p e rhap st h eB ray shaw C o l lec t ion ( t he R a i s t r ick A rch ive d raw -

b ei nd i s t ingu i shab ly m ixed w i th p i ece s o r ig ina l ly i nt h eJ a ck s on C o l lec t ion w h ich d id n o t c on s i s t e xc lu s ive ly o fV ic to r ia C ave m a t e r ia l ,b u ta ,p robab ly v e ry s ma l l ,a dm ix tu re o fp i ece s

i n g s o f wh ich a r ea ga in u n l ike ly t oh ave b een e n t i re ly e xhau s t i ve ) ,t h ef i nd so fT o tL o rd ( n o ta l lo fw ho se r e co rd sa r en ece s s a r i ly e x tan t ) a nd e spec ia l ly t h e 1 870 s e xcava t ion s ( a l l f i nd s f r om wh ich w e re c e r ta in ly n o tr e co rded i np ub l i shed a c coun t s

a r eo fq u i te q ue s t ionab le d e r iva t ion a nd t h e r e fo r ep rovenance . N eve r the le s s T o tL o rd 's b e l ief i n aV ic to r ia C ave p rovenance f o r a l t h e f i nd s h e d i sp layed t hu s m e r i t s i fn o th ing e l se t h e i r i n c lu s ion i nt h e p r e sen t v o lume : mo s t o ft h e f i nd s a r e i na l p robab i l i ty f r om t h e s i te a nd o n ly i nt h e c a s e o f ah and fu l o f

o re ven i nt h eJ a ck son ' d aybook ' a nd t h e f i nd sc ode sm a rked o nt o many o fw h ich h ave c o r roded o rw o rn o f f ) .I np a r t icu la r , a l though f ew p i ece so fi r onwo rk f r om t h e 1 870 sw ou ld b es pe -

p i ece si st h e re g ood e v idence t oq ue s t ion t h e i ro r ig ins .

c i f ica l ly i d en t if iab le f r om p ub l i shed /a rch ive a ccoun t s e ven i f t h e ma te r ia lw e re n o tb ad ly d ecayed , i ti sa ppa ren tt h a tn um b e r s o fi r on f i nd sw e re m ade . S ince i ti sa l so e v iden tt h a to n ly al i t t le i r onwo rk i nt h eJ a ck son C o l lec t ion s u rv ived t op a s s t o T o tL o rd , t h e 1 870 s w o rk i st h e re fo re t h e o bv iou s s ou rce f o r t h e f e r rou s o b jec t s d i sp layed b y t h e l a t te r a s f r om V ic to r ia . C e r ta in ly i tw ou ld b e s u rp r i s ing i ft h i s c a tego ry o ff i nd s h ad n o tp a ssed t oh im i ni t s e n t i r e ty a so t he r s h ad . U nfo r tuna te ly t h ough f o r mo s tf i nd s m a rked ' V 'o ne c an g o n o f u r the rt h an

T he C omp le tene s sa nd R epre sen t iv i ty o ft h eC a ta logue s T he c a ta logue s b e low i n c lude a l l e x tan t a r t e f ac t s f o r w h ich t h e re i ss ome g ood r e a son t oa s s ign a V ic to r ia C ave p rove n ance , a nd t h o se r e la t ive ly w e l l r e co rded p i ece s a s s ignab le a s im i la r p rovenance b u t w h ich a r e c e r ta in ly n o t a mong s t t h e e x tan tm a te r ia l .F o rt h ec omp lex r e a son so u t l ined a bove s ome o ft h i sm a te r ia li so fp robab le ( a nd i n af ew i n s tance sj u s tp o s s i b le ) r a the r t h an c e r ta in p rovenance ( a nd o ngo ing r e sea r ch may y e t l e ad t os ome p rovenance r e v i s ion s ) . T h i s may s ug g e s tt h a t t h e c a ta logue s o ve rr ep re sen t a tl e a s tt h e s i ze o ft h e c o rpu so f ma te r ia lr e cove red f r om V ic to r ia C ave .I nf a c t ,h ow e ve r , a nd e xcep t ing t h eo b jec t s o fp a r t icu la r ly d ub iou sp rov e n ance i ng roup ' V '( h igh l igh ted i nt h ec a ta logue s ) , t h ey p rob a b ly u nde rr e p re sen ti t ,e spec ia l ly i ns ome a r ea s . An umbe ro f

t h e se g ene ra l i sed s t a temen t s o fp robab i l i ty , e ven d raw ing s o f af ew p i ece s s u ch a s 9 . 38 a nd 9 . 40 i nt h e R a i s t r ick A r ch ive f r om t h e 1 940 s w h ich a r e c l ea r ly ma rked V ic to r ia C ave o n ly s e rv ing t oc onf i rm t h a tT o tL o rd b e l ieved t h ep i ece st ob ef r om t h es i te . Wh i l s tt h i sb e l ie fs hou ld n o tb et o ol i gh t ly d i sm i s sed ,M r .L o rd p robab ly h av ing af a r b e t te r u nde r s tand ing o ft h e c u ra to r ia l h i s to ry o ft h em a te r ia lt h an i ti sn ow p o s s ib le t oa t ta in a nd q u i te p o s s ib ly h av ing v e rba l e v idence f r om an umbe r o f s ou rce s , h i s i n c lu s ion o fa tl e a s t af ew p i e ce s i nh i s V ic to r ia d i sp lay m ay b e q ue s t ioned . I n a dd i t ion t ot h e J a ck son /Know le s a nd

p i ece sh av e b een n o ted a bove a se xc luded f r om t h e b ook b e c au se o fs e r iou sd oub t sa bou tt h e i ro r ig in 'b u to ve ra nd a bove t h e se e x tan tp i ece s ,t h e r ei sg ood r e a son t ob el i eve t h a tf a r mo r e ma te r ia l w i th g ood J ack son C o l lec t ion i fn o t V ic to r ia C ave p rovenance i sn ow l o s tw i thou tb e ing s uf i c ien t ly w e l lr e co rd e dt oi n c lude i ti nt h ec a ta logue s .F ind so fp o t te ry ,a lmo s tn one o f w h ich h a s s u rv ived , a r e m en t ioned f r om t h e v e ry f i r s t i n a ccoun t s o fJ a ck son ' s w o rk a nd c o l lec t ion a nd , w h i l s tt h ee x t a n tp o t te ry ( ma in ly f r om t h e 1 870 -8 w o rk )m ay w e l l b e r e p r e sen ta t ive o f t h a t o r ig ina l ly p re sen t a s i tw a s f ound a c ro s s much o ft h ep l a teau a nd t h roughou tt h ec ave ,t h e re i s ap o s s i -

B ray shaw C o l lec t ion s , T o t L o rd a t temp ted t or e -un i te o the r f i nd st ha th eb e l ieved h ad c ome f r om t h ec ave ,p r e sumab ly a l l p i ece so r ig ina l ly i nt h eJ a ck son C o l le c t ion .O ne s u ch p i ece w a s c l ea r ly t h e l a be l led h one d i scu s sed a bove ( s e e ` JK ') a nd a n o t he r may h ave b e en t h eb r ooch 8 . 8 .H oweve r ,d u r ing t h i sp roc e s s i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t a r t ef a c t s w i th l e s sr e l iab le p rovenance s e n t e red t h ec o l lec t ion .I np a r t icu la ri ti sr a the rs u rp r i s ing t h a ta s ma l l n umbe ro fc omp le te ,i d en t if iab le a nd c l ea r ly s i gn if ican t

b i l i ty t h a t i ti sw e igh ted t owa rd s t h e p l a teau ( wh ich h ad n o t a l ready b een s ea rched b yJ ack son ) . C e r ta in ly t h ec e ram ic c o r p u s a va i lab le t oday i sn o ta sl a rge a st h a to r ig ina l ly r e cove red f r om t h es i te .

o b jec t s , o f t en o fd a te s a tv a r iance t ot h e r e s t o ft h e V ic to r ia m a te r ia l a r ea mong s tT o tL o rd ' s d i sp layed c o rpu sb u ta r e n o t n o ted i na ny a r ch ive o rp ub l i shed s ou r ce r e la t ing t on i ne teen th c en tur yc o l lec t ion so re xcava t ion s .O ne o ft h e se ,t h ec r o s sbow b rooch 8 . 17 , T CL h a s b een a b le t oe s tab l i sh f r om a n e yew i t -

D enny ' s ( 1 860 , 5 0 ) o u t l ine o fJ a ck son ' s c o l lec t ion men t ion s ' a bou t2 4f i bu lae o fb ronze a nd f i ve o fi r on . . . ' , w h ich i s mo re

n e s s t h a th i s g r and f a the rp u r cha sed f r om ac o l le c to ri n Wen s 3 7

i nb o th c a se s t h an c an n ow b e a ccoun ted f o rb y t o ta l l ing t h e e x tan t b r oo che s w h ich c ou ld h ave b een i nJ ack son ' s p o s se s -

' d agge r g ua rd ' i sm en t ioned t hough p r ec i se ly w ha t i sm ean t m ay b e q ue s t ionab le ; ' h ook s ' a r e l i s t ed t h ough n one a r e n ow

s i on c . 1860 .A dm i t ted ly D enny d oe sf a i lt od i s t ingu i sh b e tween

r e cogn i sab le a mong s te x tan t ma te r ia l ; a' h amme rh ead 'm igh t b e e qua ted w i th 1 2 .2 b e low , b u t t h i s i sn o t c e r ta in ; a nd o ne i r on k ey i se x tan t( 12 .5 b e low ) ,p re sumab ly t h a tm en t ioned b y D awk in s ( 1 874 , 1 0 1) , a nd c ome s f r om t h e J a ck son /Know le s C o l lec t ion b u t Sm i th l i s t s ' k eys ' i nt h ep l u ra l .

J a ck son ' s m a te r ia l wh ich p a s sed t ot h e B r i t i sh Mu seum a nd t h a tw h ich h er e ta ined a nd f ound s ub sequen t ly , a tl e a s to nh i s p l a te s , s o i tm igh t b e t h a t t h e re i s ad eg ree o f e qu ivoca t ion h e re .H owev e r ,D awk in s( 1874 , 1 00 )a l so d e sc r ibe st wo b roo ch e si nJ a ck son 's c o l lec t ion s pec if ica l ly f r om ' V ic to r ia C ave . O ne h a s b een s hown a bove t ob ee x tan ti na l l p robab i l i ty a nd p a r t o f t h e B ray shaw C o l lec t ion , b u t t h e o t he r d oe s n o t s eem t o

N o ra r e a l l t h e p rob lem sr e la t ing t ol o s ti r onwo rk n ece s sa r i ly c onnec ted t o t h e J ack son C o l lec t ion . R a i s t r ick ( 1939 , 1 41) n o te s ' a r row -po in t s 'f r om V ic to r ia a nd o t he rs i tes .T h ree o fh i s f ou r i l u s t ra ted e xamp le s ( h i s F ig . IV N o s 1 , 4a nd 5 )c an b e p rovenanced t oJ ub i lee ( A r row ') C a ve o n t h e b a s i s o fd r aw i n g s i nt h e R a is t r ick A r ch ive ( t hough t h ey may n o t a l b e a r r owhead s ) .H oweve r ,t h ef o u r th ( Ra i s t r ick 1 939 , F ig . IV N o .2 ) ,

m a tch a ny e x tan tp iece . S im i la r ly E l i S imp son w r i t ing i nt h e C raven H er a ld ( 28 /4 / 1933 )j u s ta f t e rh eh ad b o r rowed t h a tp a r t o ft h e J a ck son C o l lec t ion w h ich h ad b een i nhe r i ted b y M i s s K now le sc ommen ted t h a t' t he r ea r es i xf i bu lae a nd t we lve b one s poon s [ p ie r ced s poons ] s t i l l t ot r a ce ' . E ven c oun t ing p i ece s s uch a st h e c r o s sbow b rooch 8 . 17 a nd Sm i th 's b rooch ( 8 .31) T o tL o rd o n ly s ub sequen t ly a cqu i r ed f i ve mo re b rooche s t h a t m igh th ave o nce b een i nt h eJ ack son C o l lec t ion a nd o n ly n i ne

b a rb ed a nd w i th f l a t tened e dge sr unn ing t o ap o in th ep r e sum a b ly r e ga rded a sf r om V ic to r ia C ave ( d oub t le s s o n T o tL o rd 's s a ys o )w hen h ed rew i ti nt h eP ig Y a rd C lub Mu seum . H ow i t e n te red t h e c o l lec t ion i st h ough u nknown , a nd w he the r i ti s n ow l o s to rr ep re sen ted b yu n recogn i sab le c o r roded f r agmen t s i ti si mpo s s ib le t ot e l l .

mo re b one p i e r ced s poon s ,s eve ra lo ft h em f r agmen t st h a tm igh t n o th ave b een i d en t if ied w i th s uch o b jec t s o r ig ina l ly ( t hough t h e f a te o fo ne p i e rced s poon c an b ee s tab l ished ; a bove p 34 ) . T hu s , w h i l s t S imp son 's s ou rce f o r h i s f i gu re s i su nknown i t w ou ld a ppea rt h a tp a r t so ft h eJ a ck son C o l lec t ion w e re n o tr e a s semb led b yT o tL o rd a nd f u r the re v idence f o rt h i si sp rov id e db y ad e ta i led c ompa r i son o fn i ne teen th c en tu ry a ccoun t so f t h e c o l lec t ion a nd t h e p a r t s o ft h e L o rd C o l lec t ion t h a t d o o r may d e r ive f r om i t .

I ti sa l so e v iden t t h a t t h e p rob lem s o fr e cons t ruc t ing t h e l o s t p a r t so ft h eJ ack son C o l lec t ion a r en o tr e s t r ic ted t oi r onwo rk . T hu s Sm i th 's ( 1865 , 2 08 ) t a b le u nde r ' c ave s n ea r S e t t le ' a l so i n c lude s b one a nd c oppe ra loy f i nd s w h ich a r e e i the rn o te x t a n to ra r e s op rob lema t ica l ly d e sc r ibed t h a t i ti sn o tp o s s ib le t ot e l lw he the rt h ey h ave s u rv ived ( bone ' c oun te r s ' , ' d raugh t s -

I r onwo rk i s ap a r t icu la rc a se i np o in t ,f o rt hough n oi r onwo rk

m en ' a nd ' f i sh h ook s ' ; b ronze ' swo rd -hand les ' , ' b e l t s ' a nd ` s t rap tag s ' ) . Ano the r p i ece f ound b y J a ck son , t h i s t i me u n -

i sl i s ted a sl o s ti nt h ec a ta logue t h i sr ef lec t so n ly t h ep rob lem s o fa sce r ta in ing t h eo r ig ina lf o rm o fv e ry c o r roded i t em si nt h e

d oub t ed ly i nA lbe r t C ave i sr e co rded i nt h e C rof ton M s s a nd c a l led ak n i t t ing s hea f ( ab one o r w ood t e x t i le w o rk ing t o o l w i th af l a tb a ck , ac oncave ly s l op ing u ppe rf a ce a nd ac i r cu la r

L o rd C o l lec t ion ,a nd t h eo f ten a mb iguou st e rm si nw h ich o l d e rs ou r ce sd e sc r ibe i r on f i nd s .I ti so f ten j u s tp o s s ib le t h a ta ny

s e c t ioned h and le ) . I td oe s n o ta ppea rt ob ee x tan tb u th ow a c c u ra t et h ea na logy b e ing d r awn w a s ( u n le s so fc ou r se i tw a s a r e la t iv e ly mode rn a r tef ac t )i su nknown .

i n d iv idua lo b jec t men t ioned b ys ou r ce ss uch a sD enny ( 1860 ) o r Sm i th ( 1 865 ) i sc o r roded b eyond r e cogn i t ion a mong s t t h e L o rd C o l lec t ion ; b u t i nm any c a se s i ti sv e ry u n l ike ly . V e ry l i t t le i r onwo rk i sk nown t oh ave e n te r ed t h e L o rd C o l lec t ion f r om t h eJ a ck son /Know le so rB ray shaw C o l lec t ion sa nd much i sv e ry p robab ly l o s t .T he p rob lem so fc ha ra c te r i s ing t h ep rob a b ly l o s tm a te r ia l may t h ough b e i lu s t ra ted b y af ew e xam -

I ns umma ry ,f i nd si n av a r ie ty o f ma te r ia l sc e r ta in ly i nt h eJ a ck s on C o l le c t ion a sw e l la so t he r sp robab ly b u tn o tc e r ta in ly t h e re i n , a nd a l l d ef in i te ly l o s tw i thou tb e ing w e l l e nough r e co rded t ou se f u l ly c a ta logue b e low e x i s ted . Q uan t ify ing t h em i si m p o s s ib le e xcep t f o r o ne o rt wo a r te f ac t t y pe s , b u t s i gn if i can t n umbe r s o f o b jec t s c ou ld b e i n vo lved a nd p o t te ry a nd i r on w o rk a r ee sp ec ia l ly l i k e ly t ob eh eav i ly u nde rr ep r e sen ted b e c au se o ft h el o s se s . H ow f a rt h el o sse sa f ec tt h ep i c tu re o ft h e s i te g i ven b y t h ea r te f ac tc a ta logue sc anno tb ec er ta in ,b u tt h e l o s s o fi r onwo rk may w e l l h ave r e su l t ed i na n a r t if i c ia l ly l ow p e rcen tage o ft o o l s a nd a g r icu l tu ra l i mp lemen t s b e ing a ppa r e n t .

p l e s .T he s p ea rhead 1 2 .1 i sp robab ly o ne d e r ived f r om t h eJ a ck s on /Know le sC o l lec t ion a nd i sp e rhap st ob ee qua ted w i th o ne i lu s t ra ted b yD enny ( 1860 ,P 1 .2 N o .18 ) ,t h ough t h ee x tan to b j e c ti st o oc o r roded f o rc e r ta in ty o nt h e l a t te rp o in t . Mo re i m p o r tan t ly p e rhap sD awk in s( 1874 , 8 3 )a ppea r st oi n d ica te t h a t J ack son ' sf i nd si n c luded mo re t h an o ne s pea rh ead ,a nd as im i l a ri mp l ica t ion may b ei n c luded i n ap rob lema t ic t a b le o fS e t t l e a nd A rn c l if f e c ave f i nd s p ub l i shed b y Sm i th ( 1 865 , 2 08 ) . T he ' c ave sn ea rA rnc l if f e ' ,t h e re in m ean sD owke rbo t tom H o le C ave ( a t t h e t ime e v iden t ly r e ga rded a s mo r e t h an o ne s epa r a te c ave )b u tt h ep h ra se ' c ave s n ea rS e t t le ' i s al i t t le a mb igu o u s . I tc e r ta in ly d eno te s ma te r ia lf ound b yJ ack son i nV ic to r ia C ave a nd a lmo s tc e r ta in ly t h i si st h e l a rge s tg roup o f ma te r ia l

F oo tno te s 1 . T he a s sump t ion t h a t i ti sp la te XX IX n o t XXV I I I t h a t i l -

s ub sumed i nt h ec a tego ry b u ti tp robab ly a l so i n c lude st h ef ew p i ece sJ a ck son h ad f r om G rea te rK e lco C ave a nd i ti sp o s s ib le t h a ti ta l so i n c lude so the rp eop le s '( n ow ma in ly l o s t )f i nd sf r om K e lco , t h ee xcava t ion o fw h ich h eh a s n o ted i nt h e p reced ing p age s . T he r efo r e p rec i se ly t h e i mp l ica t ion o fh i s ' l ance a nd

l u s t ra te s D owke rbo t tom f i nd s i ss o le ly t h e r e spon s ib i l i ty o f MJD a nd i sb a sed o nt h e f a c tt h a tp l a te XX IX i n c lude s o ne i t em f r om ac a i rn , as e cond p i ece f r om w h ich i ss pe c i f i ca l ly p rovenanced t o ac a i rn n ea rD owke rbo t tom H o le

s pea rh ead s 'f r om ' c ave s n ea rS e t t le 'i su nce r ta in . O the ri r on w o rk f r om ' c aves n ea rS e t t le ' i nt h i sl i s ti sa l so p rob lema t ic .A

i nt h e o r ig ina l B r i t i sh Mu seum r e g i s t e r e n t ry ( a s w e l l a s o t he rs uppo r t ing d educ t ion s f r om Sm i th ' s t e x t ) . H oweve r , 3 8

o ngo ing r e sea rch i n to J o seph J a ck son 's a c t iv i t ie sa tD owk -

2 . T he b one h and led i r on k n if ei nt h eB r i t i sh Museum ( 1857 1 .13 N o .1) i lus t ra ted a nd m is taken ly l a be l led V ic tor ia

e rbo t tom a nd h i s c o l lec t ion h ave r a ised q uer ie s a bou tt h is a s sump t ion a nd i ti sh oped t or e v iew t h ep rob lem i n mo re

C ave b y K ing ( 1 970a ,F ron t sp iece )u nque s t ionab ly c ome s f r om D owke rbo t tom H o le C ave .

d e ta i l i n as ub sequen tp ub l ica t ion .

3 9

THE CATALOGUES

THE FOR MAT AND PROVENANCE /CURAT ION CODES

T he c a ta logue s b e low , e xcep t ing t ho se o ft h e c o in s a nd p o t t e ry , h ave c ode sf o l low ing e a ch e n t ry w h ich a r e c ompo sed o f t wo p a r t s . T he f i r s t i nd ica te s t h e p re sen t l o ca t ion o ft h e i t em ( L =L o s t ; L C =L o rd C o l lec t ion ; L e =L eed s C i ty Mu seum ;

s ou r ce sw i th e x tan tp i ece s ,a nd ab r ie fc ommen to nt h ea s sem b l age , a tt h e e nd o fe a ch . I lu s t ra ted i t em s a r e ma rked * ,t h e i lu s t ra t ion n umbe r b e ing i d en t ica l t ot h e c a ta logue n umbe r . E xcep t w he re l o s t , o rw he re a n t iqua r ian f i gu re s a l low t h er e c on s t ruc t ion o fn ow l o s td e ta i l s , a l l R omano -Br i t ish a nd l a te r

BM =B r i t i sh Mu seum )w i th a ny mu seum a c ce s s ion c ode a dded w he re r e levan ta nd k nown .T he s econd p a r ti n d ica te st ow h ich o ft h e p rov enance / cu ra t ion g roup ing s d ef ined a bov e t h e i t em b e long s( TL =M r .T o tL o rd ' sF ind s ;J I = Jo seph J a ck son ' s I n i t i a lf i nd s ;J K =t h eJ a ck son /Know le sC o l lec t ion ; B =T h eB ray s haw ( ?Ex Ja ck son )C o l lec t ion ; S=H .E . Sm i th ' sf i nd ( s ) ; C= T he R ev .A dd i son C rof ton ' sf i nd s ; V =t h el e s ss p ec if i ca l ly i d en -

o b jec td raw ing s h ave b een made f r om t h e o b jec t s t h em se lve s b y Ma r t in J .D ea rne . T he p reh i s to r ic p o t te ry d raw ing s a r e b y J ohn G i lk s a nd t h er un ic i lu s t ra t ion sb yD r . K . H o lman .

T he f o l low ing a bbrev ia t ion sa re emp loyed i nt he c a ta logue s :

t i f iab le L o rd ( V ic to r ia C ave )C o l lec t ion m a te r ia l . Whe re t h e re i ss ome p a r t icu la rd oub ta bou t whe the ra ni t em b e long st ot h e s t a ted p rovenance / cu ra t ion g roup aq ue s t ion m a rk p re cede st h i s c ode . T he a r te f a c t c a ta logue s a r e n umbe red c on secu t ive ly i ne ach c a se w i th n o t e so nr e conc i l ing a r ch iva lm a t e r ia la nd p ub l i shed

4 0

L=

L eng th

W = H t= T h= D i=

W id th H e igh t T h ickne s s D iame te r ( I n t =I n te rna l ;E x t =E x te rna l )

CHAPTER 6 : THE PREH ISTOR IC POTTERY

B yJ .A . G i lk s

I n troduc t ion

3 .

T h ea lmo s tc on t inuou sc ampa ign o fe xcava t ion o fV ic to r ia C ave b e tween 1 838 a nd 1 878 ,a nd i t si n te rm i t ten te xp lo ra t ion t h e r e a f t e r , p roduced an umbe ro ff r agmen t s o fp r eh i s to r ic p o t te ry . T he t o ta ln umbe ro fs he rd s f ound i sn o tk nown , t hough t h ree d o s u rv ive i nt h e L o rd C o l lec t ion . I ti sn ece s sa ry t ok eep a n o pen m ind a st ot h ee xac td a t eo ft h ed i scove ry o ft h e s he rd s , e s pec ia l ly a st h ey a r en e i the rm en t ioned i na ny o ft h es u rv iv -

l e s se rd eg ree o nt h eo u t s ide , a bundan tc l o se ly s pa ced i r regu la r v o id s ( up t o7 nun ) , s ugge s t t h e m a in t em p e r ing a gen t w a s p robab ly c ru shed l ime s tone wh ich h a s l e a ched o u t . ( LC .V ) . R ef . n o . 1 764 .

i n gm anu sc r ip tn o te so ri np ub l i shed s ou r ce sa nd w ea r ef o r ced t oc onc lude t h a tt h es he rd sc ou ld h ave b een f ound a ta ny t ime d u r ing t h e i n ve s t iga t ion o ft h e c ave a nd t h a t t h e i ri n co rpo ra t i on i n to t h e ma in V ic to r ia C ave c o l lec t ion i sp o s s ib ly ac om p a ra t ive ly r e cen to ne .

E ar l ier B ronze A ge U ndoub ted ly t h e mo s ti n te re s t ing s he rd i nt h ec o l le c t ion i st h e l a rge f r agmen to fr im , w h ich i si n ah a rd f a b r ic w i th p r edom i -

N o to n ly d ow en o tk now w hen t h es he rd sw e re e xcava ted ,w e a l so h ave l i t t le i d ea i nw h ich c on t ex t , a nd n o i d ea i nw h ich p a r t o ft h ec ave , t h ey w e re f o und .A st ot h ec on tex ti t se lf , t h e

n an t ly r edd i sh -b rown t od a rk b rown s u r fa ce s , a nd t empe red w i th v e ry c oa r se l ime s tone ( F igu re 1 .1) ; t h e i n ne rs u r f a ce i s p i t ted w i th l a rge i regu la rv o id s , t h er e su l to ft h el e a ch ing o u t o ft h e l ime s tone i n c lu s ion s , a nd wh i l s t t h e o u te r s u r f a ce a p p ea r s t oh ave b een s moo thed ,i ti ss t i l l h a r sh t ot h et o uch .T he

g ene ra l c on sen su s o fo p in ion i st h a t t h e s he rd s w e re d i scov e r ed i n ap o s tp reh i s to r ic ,p o s s ib ly aR omano -B r i t i sh , c on t ex t a nd a ss u ch s hou ld b ec l a s sed a sr e s idua l . Wh i l s tt h i sv i ew i s t o ta l ly u n suppo r ted ,i tp r e sen t ly d oe ss e em t h e mo s tl i ke ly e x -

r im i sp o in ted , w i th as l igh t e x te rna l b eve l , b e low w h ich a r e l i gh t ly i n c ised ,w ide ly s pa ced ,d iagona ll i ne s ,w i th v e s t ige so f as i ng le h o r izon ta ll i ne a ppa ren t ly f i l l ing t h es pa ce b e tween a t l e a s tt wo o ft h em .I n s ide ,a nd i mmed ia te ly b e low t h et i po ft h e r im i s an a r row c i r cumf e ren t ia l b and o fi n c i sed l a t t ice , w h ich i sb o th mo re c r ude ly e xecu ted a nd mo r e d eep ly i n c i sed t h an t h ed iagona l l i ne m o t if f ound o n t h e o u t s ide o ft h er im .

p l ana t ion .

T h eP o t tery ( F igur e 1 ) T he t h re es he rd sf ound i nt h ec ave c omp r i se al a rge f r agmen t o fr im a nd p a r to f af l a t b a se , f r om i n d iv idua lE a r l ie rB ronze A g e v e s se l s , a nd ab a se a ng le f r om ap o t o fp robab ly L a te r B ronze A ge o rE a r ly I r on A ge d a te . * 1

T he r im f o rm ( f o rm 3 5 ; L ongwo r th 1 984 , 5 )a nd t h e d eco ra t i on s t rong ly s ugge s tt h a tt h i ss he rd i sf r om ac o l la red u r n .T he c omb ina t ion o f an a r row b and o fd eco ra t ion , h e re i n c i sed l a t t i ce ( mo t if L i ; L ongwor th 1 984 , 9 ,F ig . 9 ) , o n t h ei n s ide a nd i mmed ia te ly b e low t h e r im , a nd o fa n u p r igh t c o l la ra r e b o th c on s ide red e a r ly t r a i t s a nd a r e ama jo r f e a tu re o f ah i gh p ro p o r t ion o fv e s se l so fL ongwo r th 's P r ima ry S e r ie sc o l la red u r n s ( Longwo r th 1 984 ,4 -46 ; B u rge s s 1 986 ) . I ti s ,t h e re fo r e ,t ot h i s s e r ie s t h a tt h eV ic to r ia C ave c o l la red u rn s hou ld p r obab ly b e a scr ibed .

F ragmen to fr im i n ah a rd f a b r ic ,r e dd i sh -b rown ( 5YR 5 / 3 ) ,b rown ( 7 .5YR 5 / 4 ) t od a rk b rown ( 7 .5YR 4 / 2 ) , o u te rs u r f ace ,r e dd i sh -b rown ( 5YR 5 / 4 )i n ne rs u r f a ce , v e ry d a rk g r ey ( 7 .5YR N 3 / )c o re . H a r sh , i regu la rt o h a ck ly i nf r ac tu re , t empe red w i th mode ra te , m ed ium t ov e ry c oa r se ( u p t o 8mm ) , i l -a s so r ted , r ounded t o a ngu la r , l ime s tone . D eco ra ted o n t h e o u t s ide , w h ich h a sb een s moo thed ,w i th l i gh t ly i n c i sed d i agona l ,a nd as i ng le h o r izon ta l , l i ne s ; o n t h e i n s ide w i th i n c i sed

T h e V ic to r ia C ave u rn w a s p o s s ib ly , i ndeed p robab ly , o ft r i p a r t i te f o rm a nd f o rt h i sc l a s so fv e sse l o fm ed ium s i z e ,b e ing 2 30mm i nd i ame te ra tt h er im i tw a sp robab ly a tl e a s t3 20mm h igh . L ike a lmo s t a l l o f t h e o the r c o l la red a nd r e la t ed u rn s w h ich h ave b een r e co rded f r om c ave s a nd r o ck s he l t e r s i nt h e n o r the rn c oun t ie s o fE ng land ( s ee t a b le 6 . 1) , i tu ndoub ted ly s e rved ad ome s t ic r a the rt h an af une ra ry r o le .

l a t t ice .( LC .V ) . R e f . n o . 1 76 1 . * 2

N o t i lu s t ra ted . F ragmen t o f f l a t b a se ( 1 7 t o2 1 mm t h ick )i n am ode ra te ly h a rd f a b r ic ,y e l low i sh r ed ( 5YR 5 / 6 )o u te rs u r f ace a nd ma rg in ,v e ry d a rk g r ey ( 2 .5YR N 3 / )c o re . H a r sh ,i r regu la rt oh addy i nf r ac tu r e ,t em p e red w i th s pa r se , f i ne t oc oa r se , i l -a s so r ted , r ound e dt os ub -angu la r ,q ua r tz ;o nt h ei n s ide , a nd t o amuch

B a se a ng le i n ah a rd f a b r ic , d a rk r e dd i sh -g rey ( 5YR 4 / 2 )o u te rs u r f a ce ,d a rk r e dd i sh -g rey t ov e ry d a rk g r ey ( 2 .5YR N 3 / )i n ne rs u r f a ce a nd c o re . R ough ,i regu la r i nf r a c tu re ,t empe r ed w i th mode ra te ,i l -a s so r ted ,f i ne t ov e ry c oa r se ( u p t o5 nun ) , s ub rounded t oa ngu la r l ime s tone , much o fw h ich h a s l e a ched o u t , l e av ing a h eav i ly p i t ted o u te r ,a nd al i gh t ly p i t ted i n ne r ,s u r f a ce . I nne rs u r f ace s moo thed . ( LC .V ) .R e f .n o . 1 763 . 4 1

T he f r agmen t o ff l a t b a se ( no t i lu s tra ted ) i si n ah a rd f a b r ic , d en se ly p i t ted , e spec ia l ly o n t h e i n s ide , w i th v o id s , a nd q u i te t h ick , 1 7 t o2 1nun . Wh i l s t b o th p a r t o ft h e i n ne r c i r cumf e r -

0

40

20

60 i m m I i n

1

0

1

2

1 1• 2

F igure 1 : T he P reh is to r ic P o t tery ( 1 1 .1 E a r l ie r B ronze Age C o l la red U rn ; 1 .2 L a te r B ronze A ge o rE a r ly h on A ge B ow l o r S to rage J a r ) .

e nce a nd t h e a ng le b e tween t he b a se a nd t h e l owe rb ody wa l l

f r om L e s se r K e lco C ave ( p e r s . o b s . ) a nd T haw H ead C ave ( G i lk s 1 995 , 3 ,9 ) .

o ft h ep o ta r ep r e se rved ,i n su f i c ien ts u rv ive st ob ep r ec i se a bou t t h ed i ame te r ,b u ti tw a sp robab ly i nt h er eg ion o f 1 50mm o u t s i de . T he f a br ic s ugge s t s t h i s s he rd i sa lmos tc e r ta in ly f r om a

T he se f i nd s a r e a ugmen ted b y t h e r e la t ive ly r e cen t d i scove ry

s e cond E a r l ie rB ronze A ge v esse l , s uch a s af ood v e sse l , f ood

o f f ood v e s se l u r n s i nt wo r ock s he l te r s i nN o r thumbe r land , n ame ly G oa t sc rag ( Bu rge ss 1 972 )a nd C o rby 's C rag ( Becken -

v e s se l u rn o r ac o l la red u rn .

s a l l 1 976 ; C ow ie 1 978 , 4 0 ; G ib son 1 978 , 3 1 , 8 1 ) . T wo f ood E xc lud ing b eake rp o t te ry a nd c o l la red u rn s ,t h el a t te rd i scu ssed

v es se l u r n s , e ach o f w h ich h ad b een i n ve r ted o ve r ac r ema -

e a r l ie r ,f i nd so fE a r l ie rB ronze Age p o t te ry h ave b een made i n

t i on , w e re f ound a tG oa t sc rag ( S i te A ) , w h i ls ta tC o rby 's C rag

an umbe ro fo t he rc ave si nC raven . Wo r thy o fm en t ion a r ep rob -

a n u rn , w h ich c on ta ined ac r ema t ion , h ad b een b u r ied u p r igh t .

a b ly s he rd s o ff ood v es se l s f r om A t te rm i re C ave ( p e r s . o bs . )

T he re i s ,h oweve r , n o e v idence t os ugge s tt h a ta ny o ft h e f ood

a nd E lbo l ton C ave ( G i lk s 1 973 , 4 5 , F ig . 3 ,5 ,6 ) . a nd f r ag -

v e sse ls o rf ood v e sse l u rns f ound i nt h e C raven c ave s h ad e i -

m en t s o fe i the r f ood v e sse ls o r , mo re l i ke ly , f ood v e s se l u rn s

t h e rc on ta ined ac r ema t ion o ra ccompan ied ac r ema t ion o ra n i nhuma t ion a s ag rave o f e r ing . 4 2

NO OF URNS

URN TYPE P S

S S

UN .S

LOCAT ION

REFERENCE

B a r row Mu s . S e r .

B a rne s 1 970 , 4 -5 , F ig . 1 ;

CU MBR IA H ean ing Wood C ave

1

L ongwo r th 1 984 , 7 7 , 1 70 ( 2 4 ) DERBYSH IRE B unke r 's H i l l Wood C ave

S hef f i e ld Mu s . J . 1958 .148 .A

R ad ley a nd C oope r 1 966 , 9 3 -8 , F ig . 2 0a ; L ongwo r th 1 984 ,7 7 , 1 72 ( 2 53 ) , P l . 15c

S hef f i e ld Mu s .

R ad ley a nd C oope r 1 966 , 9 3 -8 , F ig . 2 0b ; L ongwo r th 1 984 , 7 7 , 1 72 ( 254 )

S hef f i e ld Mu s .

R ad ley a nd C oope r 1 966 , 9 3 -8 , F ig . 2 0c ;L ongwo r th 1 984 , 7 7 , 1 72 ( 2 55 )

P r iva t ec o l l .

P e rne t ta 1 966 ; L ongwo r th 1 984 , 7 7 , 1 73 ( 2 73 )

P S

S hef f i e ld Mu s .

G i lk s 1 990 , 1 6 ,F ig . 3 ,1 2

P S

S hef f i e ld Mu s .

G i lk s 1 990 , 1 6 ,F ig . 3 ,1 3

P r iva t ec o l l .

Manby 1 971 , 1 3 -16 , F ig . 5 ,3

S hef f i e ld Mu s . ; B o l ton Mu s .

G i lk s 1 990 , 1 7F ig . 3 ,1 4

b ody s he rd

Manche s t e r Mu s .

G i lk s 1 974 , 1 2 -14 ,F ig . 3 ,3 ; L ongwo r th 1 984 , 7 7 , 1 80 ( 3 48 )

b a se a ng le

Manche s t e r Mu s .

G i lk s 1 974 , 1 2 -14 ,F ig . 3 ,4 ; L ongwo r th 1 984 , 7 7 , 1 80 ( 3 49 )

C l i the roe Mu s . 8 37 .43

Mu s son 1 947 ; G i lk s 1 985 ; L ongwo r th 1 984 , 7 7 , 2 20 ( 8 46 )

S k ip ton Mu s .

G i lk s 1 973 , 4 1-54 ,F ig . 4 ,7 ; L ongwo r th 1 984 , 7 7 , 2 56 ( 1 294 )

S k ip ton Mu s .

G i lk s 1 973 ,4 1 -54 ,F ig . 4 ,8 ; L ongwo r th 1 984 , 7 7 , 2 56 ( 1 295 )

NWS

3

S ES

NWS

E tche sC ave

1

F i s su r eC av e

2

F ox H o le C ave

1

N ew C av e

1

P in H o le C ave

U n .

U n . P S

1 +

LANCASH IRE F a i ry H o le sC ave

1

S S

NORTH YORKSH IRE E lbo l ton C ave

NWS

2

NWS

R aven S ca rC ave

NWS

P r iva t ec o l l .

G i lk s 1 976 ; L ongwo r th 1 984 , 7 7 , 2 47 ( 1 184 )

T haw H ead C ave

b a r re l

P r iva t ec o l l .

G i lk s 1 995 ,4 -5 ,F ig . 2

U n .

P r iva t ec o l l ,

p re sen tr e po r t

S t oke -on -T ren t

L ongwo r th 1 976 , 6 2 -4 ,F i g . l r .5 ; 1 984 , 7 7 , 2 67 ( 1424 )

V ic to r ia C ave S TAFFORDSH IRE We t ton M i l lR ock S he l te r

K ey : P S ,P r ima ry S e r ie s ; S S , S econda ry S e r ie s ;U n .S ,U nc la s s if ied S e r ie s ; NWS , N o r th We s te rn S ty le ;S ES , S ou th E a s te rn S t y le T ab le 6 . 1 : C o l la red a nd r e la ted u rn sf ound i nc ave s i nt h eN o r th o fE ng land . 4 3

L a ter B ronze A ge o rE ar ly I ron A ge

' The c ommone s t[ t ype o fp o t te ry ] t h a to ccu r so na l s i te s ,b o th l a rge a nd s ma l lf i e ld sa nd h u tmen t sa nd i nc ave s ,i sav e ry d a rk

T he b a se a ng le , w h ich i sc . 200mm i nd i ame te r( F igu re 1 .2 ) , i si n ah a rd l ime s tone t empe red f a b r ic , e x ten s ive ly p i t ted ,p a r t i cu la r ly o n t h e o u t s ide , w i th o f ten e xcep t iona l ly d eep v o id s .

b rown t ob l ack , h eav i ly c a lc i te -g r i t ted w a re , w i th a " co rky" t e x tu re .F ragmen t so ft h i sh ave b een o b ta ined f r om p rac t ica l ly e ve ry s i te e xam ined . . '

T he f r ac tu re s u r f a ce s a r e i regu la r , e xcep t p a r t o ft h a t a c ro s s t h e b a se i t se lf w h ich i sr ounded a nd s moo th s ugge s t ing t h i s e dge h ad b een e xpo sed , p robab ly i nt h e f l oo r o ft h e c ave , t o

Ar ange o fj a r s ,w i th e ve r ted a nd t h ickened r im s ,w a sp roduced i nt h i s " co rky" f a b r ic ( Ra is t r ick 1 939 , F ig s . Va nd V I ) , e xam p l e so fw h ich h ave b een f ound ,a sR a i s t r ick n o te s ,i n an umbe r

a b ra s ion .

o fc ave s , i n c lud ing J ub i lee w he re i tw a s a s soc ia ted w i th o the r t y pe s o fc oa r se p o t te ry ,t h e who le a s semb lage b e ing a t t r ibu ta b l et ot h ep e r iod AD 1 50 -350 ( Bran igan a nd D eane 1 991 , 8 9 ) .

T he s he rd i sc l ea r ly f r om ac oa r se ,h andmade ,w e l l -po t ted a nd r e la t ive ly t h in -wa l led v e s se l w ho se f o rm i sn o te a sy t od e te r m ine .T he r ea son sf o rt h i sa r et wofo ld : f i r s t ,t h ea ng le b e tween t h e w a l l o ft h e p o t a nd t h e b a se i s as imp le a ng le , af e a tu re c ommon t o ar a nge o fl a te rp r eh i s to r ic v e s se l t y pe s , a nd s e c o nd , n oo the rf i nd so fp o t te ry o ft h i st ype ( bu ts e eb e low )h ave b een made i na ny o ft h en ume rou se xcava ted c ave so ro no pen s e t t lemen t s ,t h el a t te ro fp redom inan t ly L a te rB ronz eA ge ,I r on A ge a nd R omano -Br i t i sh d a te ( Ra i s t r ick 1 937 ; 1 939 ; K ing 1 985 ; 1 986 ) , i nC raven w i th w h ich t h e V ic to r ia C ave s he rd m igh tb ef a vou rab ly c ompa red ( T .C .Lo rd p e r s . c omm . ) .

Wh i l s t i tc an b e s a id t h a t s ome o ft h i s " co rky" p o t te ry i ss u p e rf ic ia l ly s im i la rt ot h eV ic to r ia C ave s he rd , t h e r ei s ,h owev e r , as i gn if i can t d if e rence b e tween t h e t wo , f o r w he rea s t h e V ic to r ia C ave v e s se l i sh andmade ,t ho se i n" co rky" f a b r ic a r e a l l w hee l th rown a nd a s s uch c an s u re ly b e d i scoun ted f r om t h ep r e sen tc ompa ra t ive a s se s smen t . T hu s w e a r e l e f t w i th o u r o r ig ina l Mam T or a nd C a s t le H i l l , S ca rbo rough , v e s icu la r f ab r ic s , t h e f o rme r a ppea r ing t op r e c ede t h el a t te r ,t h et wo s pann ing t h eL a te rB ronze A ge a nd t h e b eg inn ing o ft h eE a r ly I r on A ge ( 1 1 th t o6 t hc en tu r ie s BC ) .

Wh i l s tt h e l a ck o fc ompa ra t ive m a te r ia l f r om t h er e g ion i st o b e l amen ted i tc an , n eve r the le s s , b e s a id t h a t t h e v e s se l d oe s b ea rs ome af in i ty t op o t te ry f ound e l sewhe re .I np a r t icu la rw i th L a te rB ronze A ge p o t te ry o b ta ined f r om d ome s t ic c on tex t so n s i te ss uch a st h e Mam T o rh i l l -fo r ti nD e rby sh i r e( Coomb sa nd T hompson 1 979 ; B a r re t t 1 979 ; G e r r i sh 1 983 ; G u i lbe r t a nd V ince 1 996 ) a nd , mo r e s pec if ica l ly , C a s t le H i l l , S ca rbo rough i nN o r th Y o rk sh i re ( p e r s . o b s . ; Wa rd le 1 992 , 1 22 -37 ) .

I fw ea ccep tt h a tt h eV ic to r ia C ave p o ti sb road ly c on temp ra ry w i th t h e se v e s icu la r w a re s , t h en w e c an , p e rhap s , e nv i sage a l a rge s t o rage j a r o r , g i ven t h e b a se d i ame te r o f c . 200mm , a b ow l . Wha teve ri t s f o rm , t h e V ic to r ia C ave p o tj o in s t h e o n ly o t he r p o s i t ive ly r e cogn i sab le L a t e r B ronze A ge v e sse l f r om C raven , ab a r re l -shaped s t o rage j a r f r om T haw H ead C ave ( G i lk s 1 995 , 6 7 , F ig . 3 ) , wh ich n o ts u rp r i s ing ly a l so h a s i m m ed ia te p a ra l le l s a mong s tt h e b ucke t s a nd b a r re l s f r om Mam T o ra nd e l sewhe re .

T he r e pe r to i re o fv e s se lt ype sr e co rded f r om t h e Mam T o rh i l l f o r tc omp r i se g l obu la r ,b a r r e la nd b ucke t shaped j a r s ,i n ar a nge o fs i ze s , mo s t ly p l a in b u ts ome w i th r e s t ra ined ,f i nge r t ip ,d ec o r a t ion o n t h e s hou lde r , a nd p l a in b ow ls a nd a tl e a s t o ne f i ne w a re j a r( Ba r re t t 1 979 ; 1 980 ) . B a r re t t( 1979 , 4 9 )h a ss ugge s t e d ad a te b e tween 1 000 a nd 8 00 BC f o r t h i s a s semb lage , a n a s c r ip t ion p e rhap s s uppo r ted b y t wo r ad ioca rbon d e t e rm ina t i on s o f 180 ± 1 32 BC ( B i rm -2 02 u nca l . ) a nd 130 ± 15 BC ( B inn 192 u nca l . ) ( Coomb s a nd T homp son 1 979 , 4 4 ) .

C ommen t T he a ppa ren tf i nd ing o fj u s tt h ree s he rd so fp r eh i s to r ic p o t te ry d u r ing t h ei n ten s ive a nd p ro t rac ted e xcava t ion o fV ic to r ia C ave i ss u rp r i s ing , n o tl e a s t b ecau se f a rl a rge r c e ram ic a s semb lag e s , t h e ma jo r i ty c ompo sed o f ar a nge o fv e s se l t y pe s a nd o f v a ry ing d a te ,h ave b een r e cove red f r om an umbe ro ff a rs ma l le r c ave si nC raven .

T he f i ne w a re j a rf ound a t Mam T o r , wh ich i sd eco ra ted w i th a h o r se -shoe mo t if ,d i sp lay s ' v e s ic le s , s ugge s t ive o ff o rme rc a l c a r eou si n c lu s ion s ,p e rhap sw ea the red o u ti nt h ea c id ic s o i lo f t h e s i t e ' ( Gu i lbe r ta nd V ince 1 996 , 5 2 . F ig . 2 ,2 3 .4 ; C oomb s a nd T homp son 1 979 ,F ig . 2 3 ,4 ;B a r re t t 1 979 ,4 7 ; C ha l l i s a nd H a rd ing 1 975 ,i ,3 4 -5 ,i ,1 ;G e r r i sh 1 983 ) .T h i sv e s icu la rf a b r i ci sa l so f ound a tC a s t le H i l l ,S ca rbo rough , w he r ei ti s am a -

B et h i sa si tm ay , t h et h ree s he rd sa r eo fs ome i n te re s ta se ach r ep re sen t s ad if e ren t v e sse l , t h e e a r l ie s t b e ing , p e rhap s , a n E a r l ie rB ronze A ge f ood v e s se l , f ood v e s se l u rn o r ac o l la red u rn , a nd ac o l la red u rn , a nd t h e l a te s t aL a te r B ronze A ge o r E a r ly I r on A ge b ow l o rs t o rage j a r . C o l lec t ive ly t h e se v e s se l s ( t oge the rw i th t h ef ew l i th ic sn o ted a bove ( p 32 ) , o ne o fw h ich s i gn if i can t ly p r e -da te s t h e p o t te ry ) a t te s t t on o mo re t h an i n t e rm i t ten tu sage o fV ic to r ia C ave d u r ing t h e se p e r iod s a nd f o r r e a son sc l ea r ly n o ta s soc ia ted w i th b u r ia l .

j o rc omponen t o ft h ep o t te ry a s semb lage (W a rd le 1 992 , 1 22 2 5 ) , a n a s semb lage w h ich h a s b een d a ted b y B a r re t t ( 1979 , 4 9 )t oc . 800 BC a nd b yC un l if f e( 1991 ,6 7 -8 )t ot h el a te 7 t ho r e a r ly 6 t hc en tu ry . Av e s icu la r f a b r ic h a s a l so b een r e co rded , n o tab ly b y R a i s t r i ck ( 1939 , 1 43 -44 )f r om s i te si nC raven :

4 4

CHAPTER 7 : RO MAN COINS FRO M V ICTOR IA CAVE

B y Dav id S ho t ter

R oman c o in s h ave b een r e cove red f r om V ic to r ia C ave s i nce t h e e a r ly p a r t o ft h e n i ne t een th c en tu ry ; t h ir ty f ou r c o in s a r e n ow p re se r ved i nt h eL o rd C o l lec t ion wh ich w a sf o rme r ly o n d i sp lay i nt h e Mu seum o ft h eP ig Y a rd C lub a tS e t t le .H owev -

T ra jan ( t h ree c o in s ) 3 . AR D ena r iu s

R ev . COS V PPS PQR O PT IMO P R INC IP I DAC CAP R IC 9 6R ome LW A .D . 1 03 -11

e r , a l though t h e se c o in s h ave b een a s soc ia ted w i th V ic to r ia C ave , an umbe r o ft h em ' a ppea red ' f o r t h e f i r s t t ime i nt h e 1 940 s , b u t w i th n o d ocumen ta t ion t o e s tab l ish t h e i r t r ue p r ovenance ( s ) .T hu s ,w eh av et oa cknow ledge t h a t ,w h i l s ts ome o ra l l o ft h e se l a t te ra dd i t ion s may h ave c ome f r om t h e c ave , t h e i r a t t r ibu t ion c anno tb er e ga rded a sr e l iab le . H oweve r , t h e

4 . AR D ena r iu s

a s sump t ion a ppea r s t oh ave b een made s i nce t h e 1 940 s t h a t t h e p resence o fc o in s i nt h e c o l lec t ion o ft h e P ig Y a rd C lub g ua ran tee st h a tt h ey o r ig ina ted i nV ic to r ia C ave .

5 . AR D ena r iu s

L i t t le Wo rn Mod e r a te ly Wo rn V e ry Wo rn

C rawfo rd = C rawfo rd , M .H . ( 1974 ) , R oman R epub l ican C o inage . C amb r idge . i l l , P .V . , C a r son , R .A .G . a nd K en t , J . P .C . L RBC = H ( 1 960 ) ,L a t eR oman B r onze C o inage L ondon . M i lne = M i lne ,J .G .( 1 971) , AC a ta logue o fA lexand r ian C o in s . L ondon . R IC Ma t t ing ly , H . e ta l ( 1923 ) ,T he R oman I mper ia lC o inage . L ondon .

PR INC IP I R IC 2 69 R ome LW A .D . 12 -4 O bv .I MP CAES NER TRA IAN OPTIM AVG GERM DAC

R ev .F IDES MIL ITVM SC R IC 7 8R ome LW A .D . 2 36 -8 H o s t i l ianus ( o ne c o in ) 9 . AE S e s te r t iu s O bv . C VALENS HOST IL MES QU INTVS N C R ev . PR INC IP II VVENTVT IS SC R IC 2 15 R ome LW A .D . 2 50 1 G a l l ienus ( t h ree c o in s ) 1 0 . AE R ad ia t ec opy O bv . GALLIENVS A VG R ev .F EL IC I AET

T he ' Fu l l 'L i s to fC o in s

R IC 1 85 VW A .D . 2 59 -68 O bv . GALL IENVS A VG R ev . ( Pan the r )L IBERO PCONS AVG ± R IC 2 30 Rome M W A .D . 2 59 -68 1 2 . AE R ad ia t ec opy O bv . GALL IENVS A VG VW A .D . 2 59 -68

( N .B . Af r agmen ta ry t h ree -pence p i ece o ft h er e ign o fQ ueen V ic to r ia w a sf o und a tt h es i te b u ti sn o td e sc r ibed i nt h i sl i s t ) .

1 . AE R ad ia t e

a ) T he ' P ig -Y ard G r oup ' R epub l ic ( o n ec o in ) 1 . AR D ena r iu s O bv . C NORBANVS R ev .F a sce s , C aduceu s ,C orn e a r C r aw fo rd 3 57 R ome M W 8 3B .C . V i te l l ius ( o ne c o in ) 2 . AR D ena r iu s

O bv . I MP TRA IANO A VG GER DAC PM TR PCOS V I PP R ev . ( Ma r s ) S PQR OPT IMO

R ev . ( So l )P ARTH ICO PM TR P COS V I PPS PQR R IC 3 29 R ome M W A .D . 14 -7 Ma r cu sA u re l iu s( o ne co i n ) 6 . AR D ena r iu s O bv . M ANTON INVS A VG TR P XXV I R ev . ( Ma r s ) I MP V I COS I I R IC 2 6 1 R ome M W A .D . 1 7 1 -2 S ep t im iu s S eve ru s( o ne c o in ) 7 . AR D ena r iu s ( f ragmen ta ry ) VW A .D . 1 93 -211 Max im inu s( one c o in ) 8 . AE S e s te r t iu s O bv . MAX IM INVS P IVS AVG GEM

T h i s c hap t e rw i l l c ommence w i th al i s t o fa l l o ft h e se c o in s , a nd t h en a t t emp tt oe s tab l i sh ac o in l i s tf o rV ic to r ia C ave t h a t i sa sr e l iab le a sp o s s ib le . F ina l ly t h ei mp l ica t ion so ft h a tc o in l i s tw i l l b ed i scu s sed . I nt h ee n su ing l i s t s a nd d i scu s s ion , t h e f o l low ing r e f e renc ing w i l lb ee mp loyed : LW MW VW

O bv . I MP TRA IANO A VG GER DAC PM TR P

S a lon ina ( one c o in ) 1 3 . AE T e t rad rachm O bv . KOPNHA IA CAA WNE INA CEB R ev . ( T yche ) e

O bv . AV ITELL IVS GERMAN I MP TR P R ev .V ic to ry s ea ted l e f t R IC F . 69 R ome M W A .D .6 9

M i lne 4 092 A lexand r ia M W A .D .2 64 C laud iu s I( t wo c o in s ) 1 4 . AE R ad ia t ec opy O bv . I MP CLAVD IVS AVG VW A .D . 2 68 -70

4 5

1 5 . AE T e t rad rachm O bv . AVT K K .AAVA IOC CEB R ev . ( Eag le ) M i lne 4 202 A lexand r ia M W A .D . 2 68

3 2 . AE

O bv . CONSTANT INVS MAX AVG R ev . GLOR IA EXERC JTVS ( One s t anda rd ) l F i aLRBC 1 . 246 L yons LW A .D . 3 37 -4 1 3 3 . AE O bv . CONSTANS PFAVG R ev .V ICTOR IAE D D AVGG QN N LRBC 1 . 138 T r ie r LW A .D . 3 41 -6 3 4 . T he re i sa l so o ne s ma l la e s -co in ,w h ich d ep ic t so nt h e o bve r se ab a r e -headed f i gu re f a c ing r i gh t a nd o n t h e

D ivu sC laud iu s( one c o in ) 1 6 . AE R ad ia te c opy O bv . ]AV [ R ev . ( V a se ) R IC 2 91 LW A .D . 2 70 V ic to r inu s( t h ree c o in s ) 1 7 . AE R ad ia te c opy O bv . I MP C V ICTOR INVS PFAVG R ev .V IRTVS AVG R IC 7 8 MWA .D .2 69 -7 1

r e ve r se ap a lm t r ee w i th t wo s ea ted f i gu re s .Th i s c o in h a s b een i d en t if ied b y D rJ ona than O rna -O rns te in o f t h e D epa r tmen t o fC o in s a nd Meda l s o f t h e B r i t i sh Mu seum a sa ni s sue o fA n t iochu s I I ( 223 -187 B .C . ) o ft h em in to fT y re .

1 8 . AE R ad ia te

O bv .I MP C P IAV V ICTOR 1NVS PFAVG R ev . P AX AVG R IC 17 LW A .D . 2 69 -7 1 1 9 . AE R ad ia te c opy O bv . J V ICT [ VW A .D . 2 69 -71

b ) Mor e r e c en tf i nd 3 5 .

T e t r icu s I( s ix c o in s ) 2 0 . AE R ad ia te c opy O bv . I MP C T ETR ICVS PFAVG R ev . LAET IT IA AVGG R IC 8 7 MWA .D . 2 7 1 -3 bv . I MP C T ETR ICVS PFAVG 2 1 . AE R ad ia te c opy O R ev . P AX AVG * 1 ( f ragmen ta ry ) R IC 1 00 M W A .D . 2 71 -3 O bv .I MP C T ETR ICVS PFAVG 2 2 . AE R ad ia te R ev . SALVS A VG R IC 1 23 M W A .D . 2 71 -3

F ound i nt h e 1 970 si sas ma l l ,l i t t le -wo rn ,r ad ia t ec opy o fT e t r icu s I ;i th a s o nt h er e ve r se w ha ta ppea r s t ob e a no l ive -b ranch a nd m ay d e r ive f r om t h eP AX -p ro to t y pe ( R IC 1 00 ) . ( I nfo rma t ion f r om A lan K ing ) .

T he C o in sa nd t he ir P rovenance s( w i th Mar t in J .D earne a nd T homa sC .L ord ) T he re w e re t wo c h ief p ha se s o fw o rk a tV ic to r ia C ave d u r ing t h en i ne teen th c en tu ry w h ich p roduced c o ins -t h a tc onduc t ed b yB oyd D awk in si n1 870 ( Dawk in s 1 872 ; 1 874 ) ,a nd t h a te a r l i e ri nt h ec en tu ry o fJ o seph J a ck son w ho se c o l lec t ion f o rmed t h eb a s i so f an umbe ro fd i scu s s ion s( Sm i th 1 844 ;D enny 1 860 ; Sm i th 1 865 ) . F i r s t ly , h oweve r , i ti sn ece s sa ry t oe xam ine t h e

2 3 . AE R ad ia te c opy O bv . ] TETR ICVS [ R ev . ( V ic to ry ) VA [ a sR IC 1 41 M W A .D . 2 71 -3 bv .( T e t r icu sI ) 2 4 . AE R ad ia te c opy O R ev . ( Pax ? ) a sR IC 1 00 M W A .D .2 71 -3 robab ly T e t r icu sI 2 5 . AE R ad ia te c opy P MWA .D . 2 71 -3 T e t r icu s I( o ne c o in ) 2 6 . AE R ad ia te c opy O bv . CP IV E SV T ETR ICVS CAES R ev . ( Pon t if i c ia lI n s t rumen t s ) [ P IETAS AVGG ] R IC 2 54 LW A .D . 2 7 1-3 U na s s ignab le R ad ia te c opy ( one c o in )

e x tended l i s t s o fc o in s p roduced s i nce t h e 1 930 s . I n 1 938 D r . J .W i lf red J a ck son o ft h e Manche s te r Mu seum p ub l i shed al i s t c ompo sed o ff i nd s f r om t h e 1 870 e xcava t ion a nd f i nd s f r om e a r l ie rw o rk b y J o seph J a ck son ( J ack son 1 938 , 1 74 ) . W i lf red J a ck son w a sp r ima r i ly i n te re s ted i nt h ec o ins a s ag u ide t od a t i n g t h e R omano -B r i t i sh a c t iv i ty a tt h e c ave , a nd mo s t o ft h e c o in s o n h i s l i s ta r er e co rded o n ly b yr e fe rence t ot h e e mpe r o r ' sr e ign i nw h ich t h ey w e re i s sued .T he c h ief i n te re s to ft h e 1 938 l i s ti st h a tW i lf red J a ck son i n d ica te sb y w ay o fa n a s te r i s ka f te rt h ee mpe ro r 's n ame , s eve ra lc o in s , t hen e x tan t ,i nt h e J o seph J a ck son C o l lec t ion . S ign if i can t ly W i lf red J ack son s aw

2 7 . AE R ad ia t ec opy VW A .D . 2 70 -80 A u re l ian ( one c o in ) O bv .I MP AVREL IANVS AVG 2 8 . AE R ad ia te R ev . ORTENS AVG XX I R IC 6 2R ome LW A .D .2 70 -5 D ioc le t ian ( one c o in ) 2 9 . AE T e t rad ra chm O bv .AK [FOVA ] A IOKAHT IANOC CEB R ev . ( A thena ) M i lne 4 765 A lexand r ia LW A .D . 2 85

t h e se c o in s b e fo re T o tL o rd c on f la ted t h e J ack son C o l lec t ion w i th t h ef i nd sf r om t h e1 870 e xcava t ion s .W i lf red J a ck son n o ted t wo d enar i io fT ra jan , o ne a es -co in o fF au s t ina ( Io rI )* , a nd i s sue so ft h ef o l low ing : G a l l ienu s* ,V ic to r inu s* ,C laud iu sI * , T e t r icu s ,A u r e l ian* ,D ioc le t ian* , Max imu s ,C on s tan t inu s Max i mu s , C r i spu s , C on s tan t ine I * ,a nd C on s tan s . T he l i s t , w i th a t o ta l o fs even a s te r i sk s , r e co rd s f ou r teen c o in s i nT o t L o rd 's p o se ss ion i nt h em id -1930 s .

C ons tan t in ian ( f ou rc o in s ) 3 0 . AE

3 1 . AE

T he 1 933 l o an s chedu le o ft h e J a ck son C o l lec t ion ( d rawn u p

O bv .I VL CR ISPVS NOB C R ev . CAESARVM NOSTORVM VOT V A S IS R IC V I I( S i sc ia ) , 1 6 1 S i sc ia LW A .D . 3 20 -1

p r io rt oT o tL o rd 's p u rcha se o ft h e ma te r ia l ; a bove p 34 )n o te s at o ta l o f t e n R oman c o in s , b u t f a i l s t og i ve f u r the r d e ta i l s . T wo o ft h e se h oweve r , a r es u spec ted t ob e aT ra jan ic d enar iu s a nd aH ad r ian ic c o in f r om D owk e rbo t tom H o le C ave ( s ee b e l ow ) . I ti sp o s s ib le t h e re f o r e t h a t t h e 1 938 l i s t r e co rd s s e ven o u to f ap o s s ib le t o ta lo fe i gh tc o in sf r om V ic to r ia C ave i nt h e J a ck son C o l lec t ion i nt h e 1 930 s . F u r the r p e rusa l o ft h e 1 938

O bv . ( ? ) R ev . GLOR IA EXERC ITVS ( Two s t anda rd s ) MWA .D . 3 30 -5 4 6

l i s t s ugge s t s t h a tt h ee n t r ie s f o rt h et wo d enar i io fT ra jan a nd i s sue s o fT e t r icu sa nd C on s tan s a r et a ken f r om D awk in s 'c o in l i s t f o r t h e 1 870 e xcava t ion ( Dawk in s 1 874 , 9 3 ) , a nd t h e e n t r ie sf o ri s sue so f Max imu sa nd C r i spu sa r et a ken f r om Sm i th 's c o in l i s tf o rJ a ck son ' sw o rk a tV ic to r ia C ave ( Sm i th 1 865 ,2 08 ) .

d a ted , b u ti ti su n l ik e ly t ob e e a r l ie rt h an R ichmond 's l i s ta nd i sh e re p rov i s iona l ly d a ted t ot h e 1 950 s . O ne s u spec t st o ot h a t t h el a be li n co rpo ra te sd e ta i l sb a sed o nR ichmond ' s i d en t if ica t i on s . T he t h i r ty f ou r c o in s e x tan t i nt h e L o rd C o l lec t ion a r e mo s t l i ke ly t h e c o in s r e f e r red t oo n t h e l a be l , a l though i ti s p o s s ib le t h a tt h e re m ay b es ome d i sc repanc ie s .T he l i s to nt h e l a be li sa sf o l low s:

E x tan tc o in si nt h eJ o seph J a ck son C o l le c t ion a ppea ra l so i na n u npub l i shed l i s t f o r V ic to r ia C av e wh ich W i l f r ed J a ck son p r e p a red f o r al e c tu r ei nS e t t le i n1 935 ( J .W .Ja ck son a r ch iv e ) .T h i s l i s t a ga in s e em s t ob e c ompo s i t e i no r ig in . I ti sp r obab ly c om p i led f r om t h es u rv iv ing J a ck son C o l le c t ion c o in s ,w i th t h ea dd i t i on , mo s tl i k e ly u s ing n i ne te en th c en tu ry p ubl i shed s ou r ce s , o f

R epub l ican V i te l l iu s T ra ja n Ma r cu sA u r e l iu s Ho s t i l ianu s G a l l ienu s S a lon ina C laud iu sI V ic to r inu s T e t r icu sI T e t r icu sI R ad ia te c op ie s A u r e l ian D ioc le t ian C on s tan t ine Max C on s tan t ine Io rI C on s tan s U n iden t if ied

o t he rc o in sf o und b yJ o seph J a ck son a nd t h ec o in sf ound i n1 870 . T he 1 935 l i s tr e co rd s2 1 c o in s . . , t wo d ena r i io fT ra jan ,o ne c o in e a ch o fF au s t ina ( Io rI ) ,G a l l ienu s ,V ic to r inu s ,t wo o fC laud iu s I ,f ou ro fT e t r icu sI ,o ne e a ch o fA u rel ian ,D io c le t ian , Max imu s , C on s tan t inu s Max imu s , C r i sp s ,C on s tan t ine I LT e t r icu s Ia nd t h ree i m i ta t ion so fc o in so fT e t r icu sI . T he R a i s t r ick A r ch ive h a s ac opy o f al i s t i nt h e h and o ft h e l a te P rof e s so rS i rI a n R ichmond , a nd d a ted t o1 948 ; t h i s c on s i s t s o ft h ef o l low ing : R epub l ic V i t e l l iu s T ra ja n Ma rcu sA u r e l iu s H o s t i l ianu s S a lon ina C laud iu sI V ic to r inu s T e t r icus I T e t r icus I U na s s ignab le r ad ia te c op ie s A u re l ian D ioc le t ian C ons tan t ine I C ons tan t in ian i s sue I leg ib le

1 AR ( C rawfo rd 3 57 ) 1 AR ( R IC 1 2. 6 9 ) 3 AR ( R IC 9 6 ,269 ,329 ) 1 AR ( R IC 2 61 ) 1 AE ( R IC 2 15 ) 1 AE ( M i lne 4 092 ) 3 1 4 2 5 1 1 1 1 2

AE AE AE AE AE AE AE AE AE AE

1 1 3 1 1 3 1( A lexand r ian ) 2( i nc lud ing o ne A lexand r ian i s sue ) 2 4 1 6 1 1( A lexand r ian ) 1 1 1 3

T he mo s t r e cen t p ub l i shed l i s t a ppea r s i nK ing ( 1970 , 4 16 ) ; t h i s c on s i s t s o ft wen ty c o in s ( V i te l l iu s 1 ,T ra jan 3 ,H ad r ian 1 , H o s t i l ianu s 1 ,G a l l ienu s 3 ,C laud iu s I2 ,V ic to r inu s 2 ,T e t r i c u s I5 ,D ioc le t ian 1a nd C on s tan t ine I1 ) . H ea l so c i te so nt h e a u tho r i ty o ft h eB r i t i sh Mu seum ,t wo c o in so fC laud iu s Ia nd o ne o fT e t r icu sI ,w h ich o r ig ina ted e i the rf r om V ic to r ia o rf r om

( i nc lud ing M i lne 4 202 ) ( R IC 7 8 ) ( i nc lud ing R IC 2 54 )

Dowke rbo t tom H o le C ave . H oweve r , i ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a t t h eB r i t i sh Mu seum a cqu i s i t ion r e f e red t od e r ived e n t i re ly f r om t h el a t te rs i te .

( R IC 6 2 ) ( M i lne 4 765 ) ( LRBC 1 . 246 )

F o rt h ep u rpo se so fc ompa r i son ,t h e se l i s t sc an b ep re sen ted i n t a bu la rf o rm ( T ab le 7 . 1 ) . C lea r ly ,w ec anno ta r r ive a ts e t t led c onc lu s ion so nt h eb a s i so f t h e se l i s t s ; c o in s o ft h et h i rd a nd f ou r th c en tu r ie s w i l l b e d i s c u s sed m o r ef u l ly i nt h el i gh to f ma te r ia lp ub l i shed i nt h en i ne t e en th c en tu ry , b u t af ew p o in t s may b e made a bou t e a r l ie r i s sue s :f i r s t ,t h ed enar i io fG a iu sN o rbanu s( Repub l ican ) ,V i t e l l i u s a nd Ma r cu s A u re l iu s c anno t b e p l aced f i rm ly w i th in t h e g roup f r om t h e c ave . S econd ly , t wo d enar i i o f T ra jan w e re f ound i nt h ew o rk o f1 870 ( s ee b e low ) ,w h i l s tt h et h i rd i sp rob a b ly af i nd o ft h en i ne teen th c en tu ry f r om D owke rbo t tom H o le C ave ;i ti se qua l ly l i k e ly t h a tK ing 's H ad r ian ic c o in c ame f r om Dowk e rbo t tom ( Sm i th 1 865 ,2 08 ) .T h i rd ly ,J .W .Jack son 's c o in o fF au s t ina ( Io rI ) i sm en t ioned n owhe re e l se , a nd may r e p r e sen t ac onfu s ion w i th t h eA lexand r ian i s sue o fS a lon ina ,t h e w if eo fG a l l ienu s .I t sa u then t ic i ty ,h oweve r ,a s af i nd f r om V ic t o r ia C av es e em sl i ke ly i nv i ew o fi t sa ppa ren td e r iva t ion f r om J oseph J a ck son ' sc o l le c t ion . F ou r th ly ,t h es e s t er t ius o fH o s t i l i a nu sc anno tb er e ga rded a sr e l iab le ,a l though t h a to f Max im i -

( The r e f e rence st ot h ec onco rdance s a r e g iven o n t h eb a s i s o f R ichmond 's r e la t ive ly d e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion s o f many o f t h e c o ins ) . R ichmond m ade t h i sl i s td u r ing av i s i t ,a ccompan ied b yA r thu r R a i s t r ick ,t ot h en ew p r em i se so ft h eP igY a rd Mu seum a tT own h ead , S e t t le , o n 3 rd A p r i l 1 948 w hen p re sumab ly R ichmond i n spec ted t h ec o in sa s semb led i nT o tL o rd ' sV ic to r ia C ave C o l l e c t ion .B yt h et ime o fR ichmond ' sv i s i t ,T o tL o rd h ad a l ready , i nt h e c ou r se o fp repa r ing d i sp lay s , c on f la ted c o in s f r om t h e J o seph J a ck son C o l lec t ion w i th c o in sf ound i nt h e 1 870 e xca v a t ion . T he re a r e a l so s ome c o in s w h ich p robab ly o r ig ina ted f r om o the rc o l lec t ion sf o rR ichmond ' sl i s ti n c lude sd enar i io f G a iu s No rbanu s( Repub l ican ) ,V i te l l iu s a nd Ma r cu sA u r e l iu s , i s sue s h i the r to u n r eco rded i np r ev iou sl i s t s . T he f i na ld i sp lay o ft h eV ic to r ia C ave C o l lec t ion c o in s i nt h e

n u s( R IC 7 8 )i s ar e a sonab le i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h ef r equen tr e f e r ence st o ac o in o f' Max imu s ' . F ina l ly , i ts hou ld b e s a id t h a t

P i g Y a rd Mu seum w a s a ccompan ied b y at yped l a be l l i s t ing t h i r ty f ou rc o in s . T he d i sp lay w a s t a ken d own i na bou t 1 970 , s hor t ly b e fo re t h ed emo l i t ion o ft h e museum .T he l a be l i su n -

d i sc repanc ie so ve rt h en umbe r so fc o in sa s cr ibed t oi nd iv idua l 4 7

J ack son ( 1938 )

J a ck son ( A rch ive )

R ichmond ( 1948 )

-

R epub l ic V i te l l iu s T ra ja n

2

2

1

1

1

1

1

3

3

3

-

1

1

1

Ma r cu sA u r e l iu s Max im inu s

1

H o s t i l ianu s G a l l ienu s

1

K ing ( 1970 )

1

H ad r ian F au s t ina ( Io rI )

Mu seum l a be l ( ? 1950 s )

1

1

-

-

1

1

1

1

-

3

3

1

1

-

S a lon ina C laud iu sI

1

2

3

2

2

V ic to r inu s

1

1

1

2

2

T e t r icu sI

1

7

4

4

5

1

2

1

5

6

T e t r icu sI R ad ia te C op ie s A u re l ian

1

1

1

1

D ioc le t ian

1

1

1

1

C r i spu s

1

1

-

C ons tan t ine Max

1

1

1

1

C on s tan t ine Io rI

1

1

1

1

C on s tan s

1

1 4

-

1

1

U n iden t if ied ( M in imum n umbe r )

1

2 1

2

3

2 9

3 4

2 0

T ab le 7 . 1 : C o in l i s t sf o rV ic to r ia C av eP roduced s i nce t h e 1 930 s .

i s sue r sb e tween A .D .2 50 a nd 3 50 a r eh a rd ly s u rp r i s ing i nv i ew o ft h ep oo rc ond i t ion o f many o ft h e se c o in s ,t h ef a c tt h a t many a r e v e ry p oo rc op ie s o fR oman p ro to type s , a nd t h e f a c t t h a t t h el a rge n umbe ro fi leg ib le c o in sm en t ioned i nr e po r t so ft h e

Sm i th ( 1 844 ,7 2 )p rov ide sa na ccoun to fc o in sf ound b yJ o seph J a ck son -p re sumab ly i n1 837 -8 ;h es pec if ie sa es -co in so fN e ro

n ine teen th c en tu ry u ndoub ted ly c on s i s ted l a rge ly o fc o in s o f A .D . 2 50 -350 ; s ome o ft h e se a r e , i nf a c t , c apab le o fr e a sona b l yc e r ta in i d en t i f ica t ion .

man c o in s a nd o ft h o se o ft h e u su rpe r s i nG au l a nd B r i ta in ' . A l though Sm i th g i ve sn oi d ea o ft h eo ve ra l l t o ta l , h i s a c coun t d oe s s ugge s t t h a t t h e g roup i n c luded ac on s ide rab le n umbe r o fr ad ia te s o f t h e m id th i rd c en tu ry a nd c op ie s o ft h em . H i s r e f e rence t ot h e ' u su rpe r s ' w ou ld i nd ica te t h a t t h e g roup p r e -

( o rV e spa s ian ) , a nd o ne o rt wo o fC on s tan t ine , b u ts how st h a t t h e m a jo r i ty ' a re b a rba rou s i m i ta t ion s o ft h e s ma l l b ra s s R o -

I no rde rt oa ch ieve f u r the rc l a r i ty , w e s ha l l n ow t u rn t o ad i s c u s s ion o ft h ep rovenance so ft ho se c o in sw h ich f e a tu r ei np ub -

s umab ly i n c luded i s sue sn o to n ly o fr e gu la re mpe ro r s ,s u ch a s G a l l ienu s , C laud iu s Ia nd A u re l ian , b u t a l so o fr ebe l -empe r o r s o ft h eI mper ium G a l l iarum , s uch a sP o s tumu s ,V ic to r inu s a nd t h eT e t r ic i .

l i ca t ion so ft h en i ne teen th c en tu ry .A ss t a ted a bove ,t h e se p ub l i ca t ion s f a l l i n to t wo g roup s , d ea l ing w i th ma te r ia l f ound b efo re a nd d u r ing t h ew o rk o f 1 870 . T he c h ief p rob lem s w i th t h e f o rme r c once rn t h e ma t te r o fp rovenance a nd i d en t if ica -

I nt h ei n terva l b e tween R oa ch Sm i th 's p ub l ica t ion a nd t h a to f D enny i n1 860 ,w ef i nd t wo s ho r ta ccoun t sw h ich men t ion c o in

t i on ; i ta ppea r st h a t mo s to ft h ec o in sr e f e r red t od e r ived f r om V ic to r ia C ave ,t h ough s ome c l ea r ly c ame f r om D owke rbo t tom H o le C av e .A l l o ft h e se c o in s f o rmed ap a r t o ft h e c o l lec t ion

f i nd s . W i l l iam H ow son , i n ag u ide b ook t ot h e a r ea p ub l i sh ed i n1 850 , b r ief ly d e scr ibe s m a te r ia l f r om V ic to r ia C ave ( How s on 1 850 ,5 9 -60 ) .T he n o t ing o fh i the r to u npub l i shed f i nd sa nd

o fJ o seph J a ck son ,a nd i ti st h i s f a c to rw h ich h a sl e dt oc onfu s i on s o ve rp r ovenance .

4 8

t h e i n c lu s ion i nt h e b ook o f ag eo log ica l a c coun t b y J o seph J a ck son ( i b id , 19 -123 ) l i s t ing C a rbon if e rou s f o s s i l s m ake i t h i gh ly l i ke ly t h a tJ a ck son w a s t h e s ou rce o fH ow son 's i n fo r m a t ion .A cco rd ing t oH ow son ' sd e sc r ip t ion o ft h es i t e ,t h ec o in s mu s t h a v e b een f ound i nt h a t p a r t o f t h e c ave s ub sequen t ly

c l if f e ' ( t he v a r iou s c hambe r s o f D owke rbo t tom H o le C ave ) . T h i s i n d ica t e s t h a t t wen ty t ot h i r ty c o in s h ad b een f o und a t V ic to r ia C ave ,a nd af o o tno te s pec if ie s' t h i rd b r a s so fG a l l ienu s , C l . G o th icu s ,V ic to r inu s ,A u re l ianu s , Max imu s , C on s tan t inu s Max . , C on s tan t iu sI ,C r i spu s , a nd n ume rou s i l eg ib le ' . F rom

c a l led C hambe r Bi nt h e 1 870 e xcava t ion .H ow son s t a te s t h a t ' t he c o in s a r e a l l s ma l l , a nd o fc oppe r , a nd a mong t h em a r e s ome o fC laud iu s G o th icu s , C on s tan s , a nd C on s tan t ine I ,I , a nd I I ' ( How son 1 850 , 5 9 ) ; i ti st ob e a s umed t h a tt h e m en t i on i nt h i sr e f e rence o f ac o in o fC on s tan t ine I Ir e p re sen t sa c onfu s ion w i th o the rC on s tan t in ian p i ece s .

D owke rbo t tom H o le C ave a r e s pec if ied ad enar iu so fT ra jan , a nd f r om f ou r t os i x a es i s sue s , i n c lud ing ad upond ius o ra s e ach o fN e ro a nd N e rva , as e s ter t ius o fH ad r ian , a nd as e s t er t i us o fA n ton inu sP iu s( e v iden t ly R IC 7 42 ) .I ti st ob ea s sumed t h a tt h e c o in r e f e red t oa so f ' Con s tan t inu s Max ' i sp robab ly a ni s sue o fC on s tan t ine I a so ne s u rv ive si nt h ep r e sen tg roup w i th t h el e gend , CONSTANT INVS MAX AVG .

Al e ng thy t wo p a r ta r t ic le a bou ti n ve s t iga t ion si nV ic to r ia C ave a nd D owke rbo t tom H o le C ave w a sp ub l i shed i n aL eed sn ew s p ape ri n1 856 a nd i nt h e l o ca l mon th ly n ew spape r , t h e S e t t l e C hron ic l e ,i nD ecembe r 1 856 a nd J anua ry 1 857 .T he a u tho ri s g i ven a sJ e r ry D af f e lman w h ich i sp robab ly ap seudonym f o r J .H . D ixon , an o r th o fE ng land h i s to r ian a nd f o lk lo r i s t( D ix o n 1 881 ,4 67 -70 ) .P a r t so ft h ea r t ic le ( D ixon 1 856 )a r eq uo ted a tl e ng th b yD enny i n1 860 .U nfo r tuna t e ly i ti sn o tc e r ta in f r om w h ich c ave t h ec o in sl i s ted i nt h ea r t ic le c ame a nd t h el i s tm ay w e l l r e p re sen t ac on f la t ion o fc o in sf r om V ic to r ia a nd D owk e r bo t tom H o le C ave s . I tw a s a l so n o tc on s ide red c omp rehen s i ve , a st h el i s tb eg in s , ' Ih ave n o to b ta ined ap e r f ec tc a ta logue

A l though i ti sh a rd ly p o s s ib le n ow t op roduce al i s t o f p re 1 870 f i nd st h a ti st o ta l ly r e l iab le ,i tw ou ld n o tb eu n rea sonab le t oa s sume t h a tt h ef o l low ing s hou ld b ei n c luded :

o ft h e c o in sf ound i nt h e se c ave sb u tt h e mo s tc ommon s e em t ob eo fG a l l ienu s ,V ic to r inu s ,C laud iu sG o th icu s ,A u re l ianu s ,

Max im inu s G a l l ienu s S a lon ina C laud iu s1

1AE 1AE 1AE 2AE

V ic to r inu s Au re l ian D ioc le t ian

1AE 1AE 1AE

C r i spu s 1AE C on s tan t ine I 1AE

P robu s ,C on s tan t ine a nd C on s tan t inu sw i th r ude B r i t i sh i m i ta -

( R IC 7 8 =c o in N o .8 ) ( R IC 1 85 = c o in N o .10 ) ( M i lne 4 092 =c o in N o .13 ) ( M i lne 4 202 = c o in N o .15 ; p l u s c o in N o .14 ) ( R IC 7 8 =c o in N o .17 ) ( R IC 6 2 =c o in N o .28 ) ( M i lne 4 765 = c o in N o .29 ) ( R IC V I I ( S isc ia ) ,16 1 =c o in N o .30 ) ( LRBC 1 . 246 = c o in N o .32 )

t i on s ' ( D ixon 1 856 ) . I na dd i t ion w e s hou ld p robab ly i n c lude a n i s sue o fN e ro , a nd t wo f u r the rC on s tan t in ian c o in s ; i ti sa l so l i ke ly t h a t an umbe r o fr ad ia te c o in sc l a s sed a si l eg ib le s hou ld b ei n c luded ,i nv i ew o ft h et o ta ln umbe r( ' 20 t o3 0 ') g i ven b y Sm i th .

H en ry D enny ' s a ccoun t( 1 860 , 5 2a nd 6 0 )m ake s t wo f u r the r r e f e rence st ot h ed i scove ry o fR oman c o in s .I nt h ef i r s to ft h e se h e m en t ion s ' al a rge b ra s s a nd s i lve r d enar iu s o fT ra jan , a nd s ma l lb ra s so fC on s tan t ine a nd C on s tan t iu s ' . H et h en g oe s o n :' On af o rme ro cca s ion t h ec o in sf ound w e re o fN e rva ,N e ro , G a l l ienu s ,C laud iu sG o th icu s ,V ic to r inu s ,A u re l ianu sa nd Max i mu s ; mo s to ft h es ma l lb r a s s a r eb a se i m i ta t ion s p robab ly b y

T he R oman c o in sf r om t h ew o rk o f 1 870 a r ea tf i r s ts i gh te a s i e rt oi s o la te a nd d i scu s s i nt h e l i gh to ft h ef u l l r e po r t s w h ich w e re p ub l i shed ( Dawk in s 1 872 ; 1 874 ) a nd b ecau se t h e J a ck s on ' d aybook 'p rov ide sd e ta i l so ff i nd sa nd f i nd spo t s .H owev e r , i ts oon e me rge s t h a tc onfu s ion s a nd i n con s i s tenc ie s o ccu r h e re t oo . F i r s t , i nh i s r e sume o fe a r l ie r w o rk , D awk in s r e f e r s

e a r ly f o rge r s . T he re w e re a l so s e ve ra l s ma l l c o in s w e igh ing o n ly t wo g r a in s e a ch , w h ich Ih ave n o th ad a n o ppo r tun i ty o f e xam in ing ' . T he l a te rr e f e rence s a y s , ' I n t h e V ic to r ia C ave . . . w e re f o und c o ins o fG a l l ienu s ,V ic to r inu s ,C laud iu sG o th icu s , C on s tan t ine a nd C on s tan t iu s , e x tend ing d own t o t h e f ou r th c en tu r y . Wh i le i n D owke rbo t tom . . . o ccu r ed s i lve r a nd l a rge

t o t h e d i scove ry o f ' c o in s o f T ra jan , C on s tan t ine , a nd C on s t an t iu s ' ; t h i s a ppea r st oh ave b een t a ken f r om D enny a nd , a s w eh ave s e en , t h e se c o in sp robab ly d e r ived f r om D owke rbo t t o rn H o le C ave .

b r a s sc o in so fT ra jan . . . ' .A l though i ti sh a rd t ob ee n t i re ly c l ea r o ve rt h ef u l li mpl ica t ion so ft h e se t wo r e f e r ence s ,i tw ou ld s e em t h a tt h et wo T ra jan ic c o in s( d enar iu sa nd s e s t er t ius )c ame f r om

F o r D awk in s ' o wn w o rk h e p rov ide s d e ta i ls o f an umbe r o f n ew d i scove r ie s ; h e i n d ica t e s ( 1872 , 6 2 ) t h a t ac o in e ach o f T ra jan a nd T e t r icu s Iw e re f ound o u t s ide t h ec ave a nd ( 1 872 , 6 3 ) t h a tt h i r t een c ame f r om t h e ' Romano -Ce l t ic l a ye r ' i n s ide t h e c ave : t wo d enar i io fT ra jan , f ou r a e s i s sue s o fT e t r icu s I , o ne e ach o fT e t r icu s I ,G a l l ienu s , C on s tan s a nd C on s tan t ine I , a nd t h ree ' b a rba rou si m i ta t ion s ' , w h ich a r el a t e r( Dawk in s 1 874 ,6 3 )r e f e r red t op ro to type s o fT e t r icu sI .A p rob lem a r is e s h oweve r , i nt h a t t h e se l i s t s d o n o t t a l ly p r ec i se ly w i th t h e c on tempo ra ry J a ck son ' d aybook 'e n t r ie s ;t h e se s how t h a tn i ne t e en c o in sw e re d i scove red i na l l .T he n i ne teen c o in sa r el i s ted a s t wo d enar i i o fT ra jan , o ne a es i s sue o fV ic to r inu s , s i x o f T e t r icu s I ,t h ree o fC on s tan t ine , a nd f ou ri l eg ib le c o in s ; t wo

D owk e rbo t tom Ho le C ave ,w h i l s tt h er e s tp robab ly c ame f r om V ic to r ia C ave ,a l though o n mo re t h an o ne o cca s ion .T he i s su e r sh av eb een s wo l len b yt h ei n c lu s ion o fN e rva ;t h e ma in g r oup o fn ame s , h oweve r , i sc on s i s ten tw i th R oach Sm i th 's g ene ra l d e s c r ip t ion s , wh i l s t' Max imu s ' i sp r e sumab ly Max im inu s( A .D . 2 35 -8 ) , o fw hom as e s t er t iu sr ema in s i nt h e L o rd C o l lec t ion . I ti s , o fc ou r se , u nc lea r w he the r ' Ne rva ' i nf a c tr e f e r s t ot h a t s ho r t l ived e mpe ro r , o r w he the r i tc ou ld b e am i s read ing o f ' Ne ro ' o re ven ac onfu s ion a r i s ing o u t o ft h e c ommon i n c lu s i on o f' N e rva 'i nt h en omenc la tu re o fh i ss ucce sso r ,T ra jan . T he f i na l a t temp t t oa ch ieve s ome c l a r i ty r e ga rd ing t h e p r e 1 870 f i nd sw a st ha to fH en ry E c i c royd Sm i th ( 1 865 ,2 08 ) ;h e r e t h ew r i te rp roduced at a b le w h ich d i s t ingu i shed b e tween ' Cav e s

f u r the rc o in sa r ed e sc r ibed a s ' Br i t i sh ' , a nd o ne a sa ni s sue o f ' Ca rano iu s '( s ic ) . Ac on tempo ra ry p ho tog raph s how s ad i sp lay o fs i x teen c o in s ,w h ich i sr a the ri mp re c ise ly l a be l led ,b u tw h ich

n ea r S e t t le ' ( p r inc ipa l ly V ic to r ia C ave ) , a nd ' Cave s n ea rA rn 4 9

s e em s t os how t wo d enar i io fT ra jan , t wo c o in s o fG a l l ienu s , t wo ( o rp o s s ib ly t h r ee ) o fT e t r icu s I ,o ne o fT e t r icu sI ,t wo o f C on s tan s ,t h ree r ad ia te c o in s , a nd o ne u na t t r ibu ted c o in .

o fV i c to r inu s , f o u ro fT e t r icu s ,t wo o fC on s tan t ine a nd t wo i l l e g ib le c o in s . F rom o u t s ide t h e c ave w e re ac o in o fT e t r icu s , o ne i l eg ib le c o in , a nd t wo w h ich w e re t a ken a s' B r i t i sh ' .

A l though i tw i l l c l ea r ly n o t b e p o s s ib le t oe f ec t ac omp le te r e conc i l ia t ion b e tween t h e se l i s t s , s ome o b se rva t ion s m ay b e m ade:

Wh i l s tt h ea t temp t sa tc l a r if ica t ion w i l ln o th av ep roved t oh ave b een t o ta l ly r e l iab le , w e h ave p r obab ly m ade ar e a sonab le r e c on s t ruc t ion ( b e low ) o n t h eb a s i s o fs u rv iv ing i n fo rma t ion o n t h e c o in -f ind s m ade a tV ic to r ia C ave . H oweve r , i ts hou ld b e

i ) D e sp i te a ppea rance s , i ts eem sl i ke ly t h a to n ly t wo d enar i i o fT ra jan w e re f ound .

n o t ed t h a tt h et h i r ty t h ree c o in sh e r ei n c luded r e p re sen to n ly a l i t t le mo re t h an ah a lf o f t h o se r e po r ted t oh ave b een f ound s i nce 1 837 .

i ) T h r ee ' b a rba rou sc o in s 'a r es hown o nt h e 1 870 p ho tog raph ; t h e se c an b e r e cogn ised b y t h e i r s hape s a nd s i ze s a ss t i l l a mong s tt h eL o rd C o l lec t ion ma te r ia l . T wo c an b e i d en t i -

S umma ry o ft h ec o in sf ound a tV ic to r ia C ave :

f i ed a sc op ie s o fc o in s o fT e t r icu s I ,a nd o ne a s ap o s thu mou si s sue o fC laud iu sI . O ft h et wo c o in so nt h ep ho tog raph a t t r ibu ted t oC on s tan s , o ne i si n deed a ni s sue o ft ha t empe ro rw h i l s tt h eo t he ri sa C on s tan t in ian GLOR IA EXERC ITVS t y pe o fA .D . 30 -5 . T he u na t t r ibu ted c o in i s ap i ece o fc oppe ra l loy s hee tn ow r e cogn i sed a sn o t ac o in ( c f . C hap te r9 ) . O ft h e f i ve c o in s e v iden t ly a t t r ibu ted t oT e t r icu s I ,o ne i s a ni s sue o fV ic to r inu s( R IC 1 77 ) . T he t r ue a t t r ibu t ion o f ` Ca rano iu s 'i sn ow b eyond u s ; i ti s n o t ,h owev e r ,t o ta l ly i mp laus ib le t os ugge s tt h a ti tm ay h ave a r i sen f r om am i s read ing o ft h ed enar iu so fG a iu sN o rba n u s ( C raw fo rd 3 57 = c o in No .1) .T he t wo c o in sd e sc r ibed a s' B r i t i sh 'r ema in amys te ry ,a l though t h e re i s ap o s s ib i l i t yt h a to ne m ay b e am i s iden t if ica t ion o f ap i ece o fA n t io c hu s I I ( 2 23 -187 B .C . =c o in No .34 ) . I t s p re sence i nt h i s g roup i sh a rd t oe xp la in , a l though c o in so ft h i sp e r iod a r e o cca s iona l ly f ound i nn o r th -we s t E ng land ( Sho t te r 1 995 , 6 2 -3 ) .

R epub l ican ( ? ) N e ro ( ? ) T ra ja n

1 1 2

AR

Max im inu s G a l l ienu s S a lon ina C laud iu sI D ivu sC laud iu s V ic to r inu s T e t r icu sI T e t r icu sI

1 3 1 2 1 2 7 1

AE AE AE AE AE AE AE AE

Ac o in l i s tf o r 1 870 may n ow b ep ropo sed :

U na s s ignab le r ad ia te c opy A u r e l ian D io c le t ian C r i spu s C on s tan t ine I C on s tan s C on s tan t in ian H e l len i s t ic I leg ib le

1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1

AE AE AE AE AE AE AE AE AE

R epub l ican ( ? ) T ra ja n

F o r t h e p u rpo se o f ad i scu s s ion o ft h e i mp l ica t ion s o f t h e se c o in si na na s se s smen to ft h em a te r ia l f r om V ic to r ia C ave ,w e

i i )

i v ) v ) v i )

G a l l ienu s

1 AR ( C raw fo rd 5 7 =c o in N o .1 ) 2 AR ( R IC 9 6 ,2 69 = c o in N o s 3 a nd 4 ) 2 AE ( i nc lud ing R IC 2 30 =c o in

m ay r e p r e sen tt h em i nt he f o l low ing p e r iod so fi s sue ;t h ec o in s i nt h ef o rego ing ' r econ s t ruc ted 'l i s t ( A ) w i l l b ep l aced a l ong s i de t h el i s to ft h o se ( B ) n ow i nt h eL o rd C o l lec t ion :

N o s 1 a nd 1 2 ) 1 AE ( R IC 2 91 =c o in N o .16 ) 1 AE ( R IC 17 =c o in N o .18 ) 6 AE ( i nc lud ing R IC 8 7 , 1 00 ( 2 ) , 1 23 , 1 4 1 =c o in N o s2 0 -25 ) T e t r icu sI 1 AE ( R IC 2 54 =c o in N o . 2 6 ) U na s s ignab le r a d ia te c opy 1 AE ( =c o in N o . 2 7 ) C on s tan t in ian 2 AE ( i nc lud ing LRBC 1 . 138 =

D ivu sC laud iu s V ic to r inu s T e t r icu s 1

H e l len i s t ic

c o in N o s 3 1 a nd 3 3 ) 1 AE ( =c o in N o . 3 4 )

I leg ib le

1 AE

AR

I( -A .D .4 1) I( 4 1-54 ) I I ( 5 4 -68 ) I V ( 6 9 -96 ) V( 9 6 117 ) V I( 1 17 -138 ) V I I( 1 38 161 ) V I I I( 1 61 -180 ) I X( 1 80 -192 ) X( 1 92 -222 )

I na dd i t ion , w e s hou ld n o te t h er e cen tf i nd ( e a r ly 1 970 s ) o fa r ad ia te c opy o fT e t r icu s I( a sR IC 1 00 =c o in N o . 3 5 ) .

X I ( 2 22 -235 ) X I I ( 2 35 -259 ) X I I I( 2 59 -275 )

F ina l ly , an o te i sw o r th a dd ing r ega rd ing t h ee n t r ie si nt h eJ a ck s on ' d aybook ' r e co rd ing t h e f i nd s o f 1 870 ; t h e se a r e d i v ided i n to t h ree g roup s -' Chambe rA ' , ' Chambe r B ' , a nd ' Ou t s ide

X IV ( 2 75 -294 ) XV ( 2 94 -324 ) XV I ( 3 24 -330 ) XV I I ( 3 30 -346 )

t h e c ave ' .F rom t h ef i r s tc ame ad enar iu so fT ra jan , ac o in o f C ons tan t ine , o ne o f` Ca rano iu s '( s ic ) ,o ne o fT e t r icu s ,a nd o ne i l eg ib le c o in ;f r om t h es e cond c ame ad enar iu so fT ra jan ,o ne 5 0

A No . 1

3 . 23

1

3 . 23

2

6 . 45

N o . 1

3 . 03

1 3

3 . 03 9 .09

3 . 03 1

3 . 03 6 . 06 5 7 .58 3 . 03

1 1 9

3 . 23 6 1 .28

2 1 9

1

3 . 23

1

1

3 . 23

1

3 . 03

5

1 6 .12

3

9 . 09

XV I I I ( 3 46 -364 ) X IX ( 364 -378 ) XX ( 3 78 -388 ) XX I( 3 88 ) 3 1

a nd t h e re i s ar e a l p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e R epub l ican i s sue w a s i n deed f ound a tV ic to r ia C ave .I ti sk nown t h a tT ra jan r e ca l led ' o ld s i lve r ' i nc .A .D . 1 07 ( D io C a s s iu s H i s to ry o fR ome 6 8 . 1 5 , 3 ) , a nd t h a t t h i s m ean t t h a t i nB r i ta in b y a pp rox ima te ly A .D . 1 20 p re -Ne ron ian d enar i ih ad c ea sed t oc i r cu la te ( Reece 1 974 , 8 4 ) . T h i s w ou ld h ave b een e qua l ly t r ue i ft h e R epub l i c a n d enar ius w e r e ac a sua l l o s s o ri f ,a si sp o s s ib le , i tw e re o r ig ina l ly ap a r t o f as ma l l h oa rd o fd enar i i , w h ich i n c luded t h et wo T ra jan ic c o in s .

3 3

( No t e : f r om l i s t Aa r e om i t ted t h e c o in o fA n t iochu s I I a nd t h e i l eg ib le i s sue , wh i l s t t h ec o in o fA n t iochu s I I i s om i t ted f r om l i s tB ;t h et o ta l ss hou ld , t h e r efo re ,b er e spec t ive ly t h i r ty t h r ee a nd t h ir ty -fou rc o in s ) .

I na ny c a se ,t h ea ppea rance o fd enar i ii nt h eg roup a tt h is e a r l yd a te a nd i ng ood c ond i t ion s ugge s t st h a tt h es ou r ce o fs u ch ' wea l th ' w a s p robab ly b u s ine s s c onduc ted w i th u n i t s o f t h e R oman a rmy .T he p e r iod i nq ue s t ion w i tne s sed t h ec on so l ida t i on o ft h e f r on t ie ra nd t h ed eve lopmen to ft h e s uppo r t ing i n -

D i scu s s ion I na b so lu te t e rm s ,t h es amp le so fc o in sf r om V ic to r ia a nd o t h e rl o ca l c ave s a r es ma l l ; o nt h eo the rh and ,t h a tf r om V ic to r ia C ave a tl e a s ti sc on s ide rab ly l a rge ra nd mo re v a r ied t h an i st h e c a se w i th t h e c o in -f ind s c ommon ly r epo r ted f r om R omano B r i t i sh r u ra l s i te s i nn o r the rn E ng land . W e s hou ld n o t , t h e re f o r e , a s soc ia t et h e se c o in sw i th ap r im i t ive e x i s tence e ked o u t

f r a s t ruc tu re ;t h e re i se v idence t h a tl o ca lc r a f t smen w e re b e ing a t rac t ed o nt ol a rge a nd w e l l -o rgan i sed s i te s , s uch a sW i lde r s poo l (W a r r ing ton ) ,b ecau se o ft h e i rc onven ience f o rt h ec om m un ica t ion s -sy s tem ( Sho t te r , f o r thcom ing ) .A tt h es ame t ime , h oweve r , w em igh ta l so p o s tu la te t h a ts ome p re f e r red f o r av a r i e ty o fr ea son st or e ta in t h e i rl o ca l ' i ndependence ' .

b y p eop le l i v ing o n t h e m a rg in s o f R omano -Br i t ish s oc ie ty . T h e a c t iv i t ie s s u s ta in ing t h o se i n vo lved w e re c l ea r ly p rof i ta b l e , a nd t h e v o lume a nd v a r ie ty o fd eco ra t ive me ta lwo rk r e c o rded ( b e low )c ou ld h ave b een c onnec ted t o ap r inc ipa ls ou r ce o fw ea l th ,p ar t icu la r ly s i nce r aw ma te r ia l sw e re c l ose a th and .

A l though n o s ound ly -p rovenanced c o in s o ft h e s e cond c en tu r y( a pa r t , o fc ou r se , f r om t h ed enar i io fT ra jan ) h ave b een r e p o r t ed f r om V ic to r ia C av e ,t h e re i sa na bundance o fo t he re v i -

T h e n ea re s tR oman f o r t s -B a inb r idge ( W ade 1 952 , 1 19 a nd

d ence b e long ing t ot h e p e r iod i nq ue s t ion a nd , i na ny c a se , c o in so ft h es e cond c en tu ry h ave b een r e co rded f r om D owke r b o t tom H o le C ave ( Sm i th 1 865 , 2 08 ) . B e s ide s t h i s , h oweve r , i ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a t n ea r ly a l l R oman s i te s i nn o r th -we s t E ng land s how s ome d ec l ine i nt h e v o lume o fc o inage l o s t a s t h e s e cond c en tu ry p r og re s sed ; t h e g ene ra l c au se o ft h i s w a s e conom ic r a the rt h an o ccupa t iona l .D eve lop ing i n f la t ion i nt h e l a t e r s e cond a nd e a r ly t h i rd c en tu r ie s s aw t h e d i sappea rance f r om u se o f much o ft h e ' sma l l c hange 'o ft h e R oman money s y s tem ,l e av ing t h ed enar iu sa nd t h es e s t er t ius a st h ec h ie fc i r c u la t ing c o in s( Ca sey 1 974 ,4 4 ) .I ts hou ld ,t h e re fo r e ,o cca s ion n o p a r t icu la r s u rp r i se t h a t i ns o s ma l l a n o ve ra l l s amp le t h i s p e r iod i sn o tr ep re sen ted b yc o in s .

1 53 -166 ) ,E l s la ck ( May 1 9 11 , 1 47 -8 ) ,I l k ley (W oodwa rd 1 926 , 2 94 -301 ) , L anca s te r ( Sho t te r 1 990 , 1 4 -20 ; 1 995 , 4 -6 ) , a nd R ibch es te r( Sho t te r 1 990 , 3 0 -6 ; 1 995 , 1 2 -14 ) -s aw p ro longed o ccupa t ion , a nd w i l l h ave f u rn i shed r e ady ma rke t s f o r s u ch p roduc t s .F u r the r , t h er e co rded c o in sf r om t h e se f o r t s i te s , a l t h ough o fc ou r se f a r mo re n ume rou s t h an t h ep re sen ts amp le , a r ec on s i s ten ti nt h e ma in i nt e rm s o fc h rono log ica l d i s t r ibu t i on a nd t y pe w i th t h ec o in sr e co rded f r om V ic to r ia a nd o t he r l o ca lc ave s ( K ing 1 970 ,4 16 ) . O bv iou s ly ,w eh ave t oe xe r c i se c au t ion i nd r aw ing c onc lu s ion s f r om s o s ma l l as amp le o fc o in s , p a r t icu la r ly s i nce i ti sn o t c l ea rw he the ra l l a r eo fc ompa rab le s t a tu s ; i ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a t t h e s amp le f r om t h e n ea rby A t te rm i re C amp E a s t s e t t le m en th a sp roduced as ma l lh oa rd ( o fr ad ia t e sa nd c op ie s ) ,a nd , a l though t h e c o in s f r om V ic to r ia C ave h ave b een r epo r ted a s h av ing b een r e cove red f r om a l lp a r t s o ft h es amp led a r ea , w e

A t mo s ts i te si nn o r th -we s tE ng land ,t h i s l ow v o lume o fc o in l o s s c on t inue s w e l l i n to t h et h i rd c en tu ry ; i n deed ,t h e money s y s tem r ema ined u nde r p r e s su re f r om i nf la t ion , a si ss hown b y t h e i n t roduc t ion b y C a ra ca l la ( A .D . 2 11 -7 ) o f an ew c o in , c ommon ly k nown a st h e a n ton in ianu s w h ich r e p r e sen ted a d oub le -d enar iu s ;a so nt h ed upond iu s( o rd oub le -a s ) , t h ee m p e ro r ' s h ead w a s d ep ic ted w ea r ing t h e r ad ia te c r own o f t h e

s hou ld r ema in a l er t t ot h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f ah oa rd ( o r h oa rd s ) b e ing c oncea led w i th in t h ep r e sen ts amp le . F i r s t , t h ec h rono log ica l i mp l ica t ion s : a l though t h e c o in s r e p r e sen ted i nt h e r e cons t ruc t ed g roup a r e s p read f r om t h e f i r s t

s un .T he a ppea rance i nt h ep r e sen tg roup o f as e s t er t iu so ft h e m id th i rd c en tu r ym ay p o in tt oa no the rs i gn o fe conom ic t r ou b l e s , f o rs e s t er t i ia ppea rt oh ave r e ce ived an ew ' l ea se o fl i f e ' w i th t h ei n troduc t ion i nt h e2 40 so ft h er ad ia te ( o rd oub le )s e s -

c en tu ry B .C . t ot h ef ou r th c en tu ry A .D . ,t h e b u lk o ft h em d e r i ve f r om p e r iod XD1 ( A .D .2 59 -275 ) .I ts hou ld b en o ted ,h ow e ve r ,t h a tr a d ia te s a nd c op ie s o ft h em a ppea rt oh ave c i rcu la t e dc ommon ly o ve ra ne x tended p e r iod a nd ,i na ny c a se ,a tl e a s t

t e r t ius ( Ca sey 1 974 ,4 7 -8 )w h ich , a pa r tf r om t h er a d ia te h ead o nt h eo bve r se ,w a ss im i la ri ne ve ry o t he rr e spec tt ot h es i ng le

a sl a t ea st h em idd le o ft h e f ou r th c en tu ry . T he e a r l ie s tc o in s a r e n o t p a r t icu la r ly h e lp fu l i ne s tab l i sh ing ad a te o f e a r l ie s t

s e s t er t ius .

a c t iv i ty i nt h e R oman p e r iod , t h ough i ti su n l ike ly t h a t aR e p ub l ican d enar iu s o ra n a e s i s sue o fN e ro w ou ld h ave c i rcu l a ted much b eyond t h ee a r ly y ea r so ft h es e cond c en tu ry ; t h i s p e r iod r e ce ive ss ome s uppo r tf r om t h ef a c tt h a tt h et wo d enar io fT ra jan f r om t h ew o rk o f1 870 a r el i t t le w o rn .A sw eh ave s e en , t h e l i s t s o ft h e 1 930 s i n c lude t wo p r e -T ra jan ic d enar i i ,

U nde r t h e p re ssu r e o f ag row ing p o l i t ica l , m i l i ta ry a nd e co n om ic d e te r io ra t ion , c ond i t ion s i nt h e e mp i re i n ev i tab ly b e c ame l e ss s t ab le ; a na r chy b ecame e n t renched , a nd B r i ta in , a l ong w i th o the rw e s t er np rov ince s ,s e ceded i nt h eb r eakaway I mper ium G a l l iarum .A ne f ec to fs uch a na r chy w a st h e l a rge v o lume o fc o inage t h a t w a s r e qu i red t o ' b uy ' t h e b a ck ing o f 5 1

t h e a rmy , o r a tl e a s t i t s q u ie scence . T he money sy s tem c o l l a p sed i n to h ype r inf la t ion , a nd l ef ta st h e p r inc ipa l c i r cu la t i n gc o in t h ed eba sed a n ton in ianus ,w h ich b yt h el a te 2 50 sw a s

c a se s , t h e m in t s o f o r ig in c an b e i d en t if ied -o ne e a ch f r om S i sc ia , L yon s a nd T r ie r ; a l l o f t h e se a nd e spec ia l ly t h e l a s t t wo -w e r ep r inc ipa l m in t s s e rv ic ing t h eR oman a rmy i nB r i t a i nd u r ing t h ef i r s th a lf o ft h ef ou r th c en tu ry .S uch c o in s ,t h e re f o re ,s ugge s tt h a tt h e i ri mmed ia te s ou r ce c on t inued t ob ed ea l i n gb e tween l o ca lp eop le a nd n ea rby m i l i ta ry u n i t s .

l i t t le mo re t h an a no f t en s ma l l , p oo r ly p roduced , c oppe rr a d i a t e . B ecau se s o much m oney w a s e v iden t ly r e qu i red t om ake p u r cha se s ,t h e r ew e re l a rge a moun t so ft h i sv e ry p oo rc o inage i nc i rcu la t ion , much o fw h ich h ad t ob e made l o ca l ly i no rde r t os upp lemen ti n adequa te a moun t so fc o inage e mana t ing f r om t h e of i c ia lm in t s .

T he re a r e n o i s sue s i nt h e p re sen t g roup l a te rt h an A .D . 3 46 . T he a b sence o fl a te rC on s tan t in ian a nd V a len t in ian ic c o in sr e q u i re s ac ommen t , p a r t icu la r ly s i nce t h e s e cond h a lf o f t h e f ou r th c en tu ry i sw e l l r ep re sen ted b y c on tempo ra ry p o t te ry ; f u r the r ,t h ec ond i t ion o ft h eC on s tan t in ian c o in sw ou ld n o ts ug g e s tt h a tt h e i rl o s ss hou ld b ep ro jec ted l o ng b eyond t h e i rd a t e s o fi s sue .

T he f a c tt ha ta pp rox ima te ly s i x ty p e rcen to ft h ep r e sen t s am p l e i s made u p o fr a d ia te s a nd c op ie s o ft h e 2 60 s a nd e a r ly 2 70 s n eed o cca s ion n o s u rp r i se ; h oweve r , t h ea moun to fs uch c o inage i nt h e s amp le f r om V ic to r ia C ave i sa ga in f a r i ne x c e s s ( i n v o lume ) o fw ha t w e m igh t e xpec t t of i nd a t ar u ra l s i t e ,a nd s ugge s t st h a tt h o se t ow hom t h e se c o in sb e longed w e r e

A l though i n ag roup o ft h i ss i ze t h ec omp le te a b sence o fc o in s l a te rt h an A .D . 3 46 m igh t b e d ue s imp ly t os amp l ing , i tp e r h ap s mo r e p robab ly p o in t s t oc hang ing c ond i t ion s . I ti se v i d en t t h a t f r om t h e 3 40 s s e cu r i ty c ond i t ion s i nn o r ther nE ng -

n o t e ngaged i nr u ra l f a rm ing , b u t w e re i n vo lved i nc omme r c i a la c t iv i t ie sw i th n ea rby g a r r i son s .T h i s may e ven h av eh e lped t o p roduce a ' f a l se s en se ' o f p ro spe r i ty a s much c o inage c hanged h and s . T he c omme r c ia l ' t h ru s t ' i ss uppo r ted b y t h e p r e sence i nt h es amp le o ft h r ee i mpe r ia l p i ece s f r om A lexan d r ia . B o th o ft h e se p henomena -ah igh p ropo r t ion o fr a d ia te s a nd c op ie s , a nd t h e p r e sence o fs ome c on tempo r a ry A lexan d r ian c o in s -c an b ep a ra l le led a tt h e ma jo r i ty o fR oman s i te s i nn o r th -we s tE ng land ( Sho t te r 1 993a ) , I ti so fc ou r se , p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e manuf ac tu r e o fr a d ia te c op ie s w a s i t se lf a ' l oca l i n du s t ry ' .I ti sw o r th b ea r ing i nm ind t h a tA t te rm i r eC amp E a s t h a sa l so p roduced ac on s ide rab le n umbe ro fr ad ia t e sa nd c op i e s ( K ing 1 970 ,4 16 ) .

l a nd b ecame mo re t e nuou s ; t h e c hao s b rough t a bou t b y t h e ' Con sp i racy o ft h e B a rba r ians 'i nA .D . 3 67 w a s n o ta n i s o la t e de ven t ,b u tt h ec l imax o f at r end .A s ar e su l t ,i ts e em s l i ke ly t h a ts o ld ie r sa nd c i v i l ian si nf o r t sa nd v i c iw i l lh ave b een f o rced t ob ecome i n c rea s ing ly s e lf -su f i c ien t , a nd i n deed t h a tt h ei n h ab i tan t s o ft h ev i c i may h ave t a ken u pr e s idence i n s ide t h e i r a d ja cen t -a nd b e t te rp ro t ec ted -f o r t s ; v i cu s l if ei nL anca s te r , f o r e xamp le , a ppea r s t oh ave t e rm ina ted a ta r ound A .D . 3 50 ( Sho t te r1 993b ) .S uch move sw i l lh ave l e f tl e s ss cope f o rd ea l i n g sb e tween a rmy -un i t sa nd mo re d i s tan tg roup s ,s uch a st h o se u s ing s i te s s u ch a sV ic to r ia C ave . C hang ing c ond i t ion s , t h e re f o re , s e rved t ou nde rm ine t h e e n t rep reneu r ia l s p i r i t o f s uch g roup sa mong s tt h eR oman i sed B r i t i sh .

I ti sa ga in c ommon t of i nd l i t t le f r e sh c o inage o ft h el a te t h i rd a nd e a r ly f ou r th c en tu r ie so nn o r th -we s ts i te s .A na t temp tw a s m ade f r om t h e2 70 st os t ab i l i se af a s t -de te r io ra t ing e conom ic s i tua t ion a nd A u re l ian ( A .D .2 70 -5 )a nd h i ss ucce s so r st r i ed t o r e va lue t h er ad ia te .T he c o in o fA u re l ian i nt h ep r e sen tg roup s e r ve st oi lu s t ra te t h i s ;i ti st h ough tt h a t ` )O C I ' ,w h ich a ppea r s i nt h e e xe rgue o ft h e c o in w a s i n tended t oc onvey t h e s t a te m en tt h a tt h ec o in w a st h ee qu iva len to ft wo d enar i i ,o f wh ich ' X 'w a st h et r ad i t iona lv a lue -ma rk . I nB r i ta in h oweve r ,t h er e f o rmed c o in s made l i t t le h eadway i nc i rcu la t ion -p e rhap sb e c au se t h ey w e re h oa rded i np r e f e r ence (' G re sham ' s L aw ' ) a nd c i r cu la t ing c o inage c on t inued t ob ed om ina ted t h rough t h e r e s to ft h ec en tu ry b y o l de rr ad ia te s a nd l o ca lc op ie s o ft h em . I ti sa l so l i ke ly t h a ti nu nce r ta in t ime s many p r ev iou s ly c o in u s ing c ommun i t ie s r e tu rned , a tl e a s t i np a r t , t o as y s tem o f

F ina l ly , an o te r ega rd ing t h ep o ss ib le m ean ing o ft h e se c o in s ; a sw e h ave s e en t h e e n t r ie s i nt h e ' d aybook ' o f 1 870 a nd t h e l i s to f1 850 i n d ica te c l ea r ly t ha tc o in s ,a sw e l la so t he ro b jec t s , h ave b een r e cove red f r om a l lo ve rt h es i te ,b u tt h a tt h e ma jo r i t yh ave c ome f r om i n s ide t h ec ave .T h i si sn o tp a r t icu la r ly s u r p r i s ing s i nce ,i fw ea s sume t ha ta l lo ft h ec o in sr ep re sen tc a su a ll o s se s , t h en s uch l o s se s s u s ta ined o u t s ide t h e c ave w ou ld h ave b een m o re e a s i ly n o t iced , a nd t h e c o in s i nc on sequence mo re r e ad i ly r e t r ieved . H oweve r ,t h ec ave i t se lf , i nv i ew o fi t s p hy s ica l c ond i t ion s , may n o th ave b een s u i tab le f o rd ome s t ic p u rpo se s ;t h ep o s s ib i l i ty i st hu s h igh l igh ted t h a tt h ec o in s a nd o t he ro b jec t sm igh tr ep re sen tv o t ive ma te r ia l .T he c h rono log i c a ls p read o ft h ec o in si sc ons i s ten tw i th s uch ap u rpo se ,a nd i t

b a r te r . I ts hou ld a l so b e n o ted t h a t p a r t icu la r ly l o ng l ived a mong s ts uch c o in sw e r ei s sue so fo rc ommemo ra t ing C laud i u s I( A .D . 2 68 -70 ) ; t h i s w a s b ecau se membe r s o ft h e H ou se o f C ons tan t ine e v iden t ly c l a imed a s pu r iou s l e g i t imacy f o r t h em se lve sb ya l leg ing d e scen tf r om C laud iu sI .

t a k e sl i t t le i mag ina t ion t ou nde r s tand t h a tt h ec r af t smen ,w ho se p ro spe r i ty i ss ymbo l i sed b yt h ec o in s ,w ou ld b ea nx iou st os e ek c on t inued d i v ine s uppo r tf o rt h e a c t iv i t ie s w h ich h ad b rough t t h a t p ro spe r i ty . I ns umma ry , t h e re fo re , w e may v i ew t h e e v i d ence f r om V ic to r ia C ave a sd emon s t ra t ing t h rough t h ea c t iv i t i e s o f as ma l l , ? ' indu s t r ia l ' c ommun i ty t h e p e rva s ivene s s o f R oman i sa t ion , e ven i nt h eh ea r to ft h em i l i ta ry z one .

T he C on s tan t in ian p e r iod i t se lf i sr ep re sen ted b yf i v ec o in s ,o r 1 6% o ft h et o ta ls amp le -ap ropo r t ion n o ts ha rp ly a tv a r iance w i th t h a t o f ten f ound o n m i l i ta ry s i te s i nt h e n o r th . I nt h ree

5 2

CHAPTER 8 : THE BROOCHES

b y Mar t in J .Dearne

A l lb rooche sa r eo fc oppe ra l loy u n le s s o t he rw i se s t a ted . * 8 .1

c u la r p l a te w i th c a s t , b eaded f a l se c o l la r . S l igh t ly s hou lde red s u spen s ion l o op c a s t o n a bove . S ty l i sed a can thu s /pe ta l led k nop ( bu t ton f l anked b y c ro s s mou ld ing s w i th r e c tangu la r r eba te s ) , b ounded b y b eaded c ro s s mou ld ing s a nd w ide f l u te s . L owe rb ow

T rumpe t( L .6 .97cm ) . S p rung p in .O ve r lapped e nd so f mov ing w i r e s uspen s ion l o op f o rm a x i s b a r t h rough s i ng le p i e r ced l ug . S uspen s ion l o op c l a sped b y s hee t c o l la rw i th t h ree f r on ta lr i dge s , c en t ra l b eaded . P la in s wep t b ack h ead w i th d i s t inc t ma rg ina l f l a t ten ing . A can thu s /pe ta l led k nop w i th c en t ra lb u t ton , b ounded b y b eaded c ro s s mou ld ing s . P la in , t r iangu la r s e c t ion

* 8 .2

w i th c en tra l a r r i s a nd m a rg ina l g roove s . T h ree r e g i s t e rf oo tk nob ,c en t ra l b eaded . ( LC .JK ) .

l e g w i th o ne s u rv iv ing ma rg ina l g roove . E roded , c i r c u la r ,t wo r e g i s te rf oo tk nob .R e ce s sed ,o f -cen t re s po t

* 8 .7

D i t to ( L .4 .9 1cm ) . V e ry s im i la r t ot h e l a s t b u t s l igh t ly mo re a ngu la rl oop , f l a t te rb a se t oh ead a nd f oo tk nob o f w ide , n a r row , b a sa l p l a te b e low d eep , s t ra igh t

a nd a nnu lu s f o r m iss ing e name l u nde r f oo t k nob . C a tchp la te r i se s f r om b a ck o ff oo tk nob . ( LC .JK ) .

mou ld ing t opped ( L .C .?BA ) . * 8 .8

D i t to ( L .4 .12cm ) . S im i la r . P in g ea rl o s t , l e av ing b ro k en l u ga nd n ib o n h ead i n d ica t ing mov ing w i re s u s p en s ion l o op . Doub le c r o s s mou ld ing sb ound ing k nop . T h ree r e g i s te rf oo tk nob , p l a in u ndernea th . F la t tened

? D i t to ( o r H eads tud ) f r agmen t ( L .2 .5cm ) . B roken mov ing w i re s u spen s ion l oop c l a sped b y s hee tc o l la r w i th t h ree f r on ta lr i dge s . ( LC .JK ) .

* 8 .5

D i t to ( L .2 .66cm ) . C omp le te mov ing w i re s u spen s ion l o op w i th o ve r lapped l e g sf o rm ing a na x i sb a r .C la sped

mou ld ing .

D i t to ( L .4 .6cm ) . P ie r ced l ug b eh ind h ead f o r l o s t s p rung p i n . H ead s l igh t ly t r iangu la r i sed w i th s ma l l ,

s l igh tp ro jec t ing f oo t k nob . P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1844 , P 1 .26 N o .7 ) a nd H ave r f ie ld ( 1905 , F ig .41 ,l e f t ) . ( LC .J I ) . * 8 .9 D i t to ( L .6 .95cm ) . S im i la r t ot h e l a s t b u t l a rge r w i th e roded u ppe rb ow , l e s s _ t r iangu la r i sed h ead , t r a ce s o f awh i te m e ta l f i n i sh a nd ab rok en , f u l l s i zed , p i e r ced s u spen s ion l o op . ( LC .JK ) . 8 . 1-8 .3 r ep re sen t c l a s s ic u nename l led T rumpe t b rooche s ( t hough 8 . 3 h ad ah inged p i n l i k e 8 . 6 a nd 8 . 7 , af e a tu re a l so s e en o n t wo b rooche s f r om n ea rby S ewe l l ' s C ave ( Ra i s t r ick 1 936 , F ig .1 N o s 3a nd 4 )a nd o ne f r om e ven n ea re rA t tem i re C ave ( Lo rd C o l lec t ion t ob ep ub l i shed )b u tm a in ly o u t s ide t h e S e t t le a r ea a s soc ia ted w i th f i nd s e a s t o f t h e P enn ine s ( e .g . D eane a nd P a r son s , 1 997 , 5 20 ) . F ragmen t s 8 . 4 a nd 8 . 5 a r e l i k e ly t ob ef r om s im i la rb rooche sa nd 8 . 5i np a r t icu la rs ha r e s 8 . 1 ' s u nu sua l a x is b a r c on s t ruc t ion wh ich i sa l so s e en o n a T rumpe t b rooch f r om S ewe l l 's C ave ( Ra i s t r ick 1 936 , F ig .1 N o .2 )a nd a ga in o ne f r om A t tenn i r eC ave ( Lo rd C o l lec t ion t o b ep ub l i shed ) . T h i s p robab ly s ugge s t s ac ommon o r ig in i na n i d io sync ra t ic w o rk shop . T he c l a s s ic T rumpe t b rooch c l ea r ly e x i s ted b efo re c . 75 a s s hown b y o ne f r om t h e L un t ( Hob ley 1 969 , 10 , F ig . 1 9 .9 ) b u th ow f a rb efo re a nd f r om w ha ti td e v e loped i ss t i l ld eba teab le . I tc on t inued i nu s et oc . 150 /75 a nd mo s te xamp le s h ave n o th ing t om o re c l o se ly d a t e t h em . 8 . 5 ' s c o l la rb e long st o as ma l lg roup o fc a s tc o l la r sf r on ted b y or na m en t s w h ich a ppea re spec ia l ly i nn o r ther nE ng land . T he c o l -

b yp a s s ing l e g st h rough t wo h o le si n ac a s tb a rf r on t e db yl a rge c a s ts em i -c i rcu la rp l a te . ( LC .JK ) . * 8 .6

c r o s s

b ounded b yf l u te sa nd p a i red l e n to id m ou ld ing sa tb a se o fu ppe r b ow a nd t o p o fl e g . P la in t a pe red l e g w i th

D i t to ( L .4 .15cm ) . M is s ing h i nged p in ( c once ivab ly 8 . 53 b e low i ft h e d raw ing s n o ted t h e re a r e t a ken t o i mp ly p i nd e tachmen ts i nce d i scove ry ) .A x i sb a rh e ld i nt u bu la r mou ld ing a c ro ss f l a tb a ck o fh ead . Mov ing w i r e s u spen s ion l oop c l a sped b y b roken , c a s t i m i ta t i on o fs t r ip w i th t h ree f r on ta lr i dge s ,c en t ra lb eaded . E nd s o fl o op t u cked i n to t u bu la r mou ld ing . E l ip so i d a lh ead w i th ma rg ina lf l a t ten ing .B ow a s8 . 2b u to u t e rc r o s s mou ld ing s b eaded .T h ree r eg i s te rf oo tk nob , c en t ra lb eaded .R ece s sed ,c en t ra ls po ta nd a nnu lu sf o r m i s s ing e name lu nde rf oo tk nob .D amaged c a tchp la te w i th c a s tV shaped g roove se a ch s i de o ft o po fr e turn a nd c a s to ri n c i sed g roove d own t h e b ack . T h in r ed d i sh ( ? ename l ) d epo s i t o n p a r t o fl e g ? f rom c on tac t w i th a no the ro b jec t . When f ound ' i ta ppea r ed t oh ave b een w rapped i nh a i r ' n ea rt h e e n t rance t oC hambe r B( Sm i th a nd J ack son 1 842 , 3 85 ) . P rev iou s ly i lu s t r a ted b y Sm i th ( 1844 , P 1 .26 N o .1) a nd H ave rf ie ld ( 1 905 ,F ig .41 3 rd f r om l e f t ) . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .57 .J I ) .

8 . 4

n a r row

u np ie rc ed ' s u spen s ion l o op ' , o r l u g t os t op mov ing w i re s u spen s ion l o op , a bove . C en t ra l ly a r r ised u pp e r b ow . K nop o f t h r ee c r o s s mou ld ing s , c en t ra l l a rge r ,

c a t chp la t eb a se . ( LC .BA ) . * 8 .3

b y

l a r s t h em se lve s t a k e e i the rt h e f o rm h e re o ra r e f u l ly p i e r ced

T rump e t( L .4 .69cm ) . M i s s ing h i nged p in h e ld a s8 . 3 . F ron ta l ly t r iangu la r i sed h ead s u r rounded b ys em i -c i r -

r e c tangu la rl o op sa nd t h ef r on ta lo r namen t sa r e mo s to f t en r o 5 3

•3

8 .1

•5

•2

•7

•6

• 8

F igure 1 2 : C oppe rA l loy B rooche s( 1 :1) . 5 4

s e t te sa st yp if ied b yt h eC a rma r then e xamp le ( Boon a nd S avo r y 1 975 ) a nd al e ad mou ld f o rme rf r om P oo le ' s C ave rn , D e r b y sh i re ( Bran igan a nd D ea rne 1 991 , 4 9 N o .5 .4 )b u to t he rd e s i gn s d o o ccu r i n c lud ing e name l led r e c tangu la r p ane l s ( e .g . R o ss ing ton B r idge , S .Y o rk s . :D onca s te r Mu seum u npub l i shed ) .

l i ne o fb l ue e name ll o zeng e si n f i l led w i th ma in ly m i s s i n g r ed e name l t r iang le s . Emp ty ' c up ' f o r r i ve ted i n h ead s tud . A lmo s t l o s t c a t chp la te . B ad ly e roded . P r e v i ou s ly i lus t ra ted b yD awk in s( 1872 ,P 1 . 1 ,F ig . 1 ; 1 874 , f r on t i sp iece No .1) . ( LC .BA ) . * 8 .11 D i t to ( L .3 .5cm ) . B roken h i nged p i n . A x i s b a r i nc a s t t u bu la rw ing s . C a s tc r e s to n h ead t os t op l o s t mov ing

8 . 6a nd 8 . 7a r es u ff i c ien t ly s im i la rt oe a ch o t he r( a nd t o ab r oo ch f r om S ewe l l ' s C ave ( Ra i s t r ick 1 936 , F ig . ! , N o .4 ) ) t os u spec t t h a t t h ey c ome f r om t h e s ame w o rk shop . T hey a r e d e r iva t ive o ft h e c l a s s ic T rumpe t a nd t h e i r af in i t ie s s e em t ob e w i th a s ma l l g roup u sua l ly s p rung o n ap a i ro fl u g s a nd i nw h ich t h e s keumo rph o ft h es u spen s ion l o op c o l la rh a s d i sappea red a nd t h ek nop a nd f o o th ave b ecome o n ly as e r ie so ff l ange s . D i s c u s s ing t wo s u ch b rooche sf r om D e rby , Mac i c re th ( 1 985 , 2 93

w i re s u spen s ion l oop . R e la t ive ly l o ng , s wep t b ack w ing sw i th t h ree i n c i sed c hev ron so ne a ch a nd t a pe red e nd s b eyond p a i r s o fg roove s . L a rge ' c up ' f o rr i ve ted i nh ead s tud . P la in b ow w i th t a pe r ing ?s i lve r b l ock i n se t b e low ' c up ' a nd p o s s ib le t r ace s o fa no the r f u r t h e rd own . L a rge g rooved f oo t k nob b e low f l u te a nd p a i r o fa ng led c ro s s mou ld ing s . F oo t k nob h o l lowed f o r m i s s ing r i ve ted i ns t ud . C a tch p l a te t ol e ng th o f l owe rb ow .T he r e f e rence i nD awk in s( 1 874 , 1 00 )n o t -

N o s 3 1-2 )n o ted t h e i ra ppa ren t Ma r che s /Sou th P enn ine d i s t r i b u t iona l b i a s a nd t h e v e ry l im i ted e v idence f o r ad a te i nt h e f i r s tq ua r te ro ft h es e cond c en tu ry a nd l a te r( t hough u ndoub t e d ly b ef o re c . 150 /75 ) .T he h i nge ing o f8 . 6a nd 8 . 7m ay mak e ad i rec tc ompa r i son s l igh t ly l e s sc ompe l l ing b u ti ti ss t i l lv a l id a nd t h er e ten t ion o fe ven a na t tenua ted a can thu s /pe ta l led k nop

e da bove ( p36 )p robab ly i n d ica te s t h a tt h i sw a s o r ig i n a l ly p a r to ft h eJ ack son C o l lec t ion . ( LC .B ) . * 8 .12 D i t to ( L .6 .15cm ) .C omp le t eh i nged p i na st h el a s t .C a s t i m i ta t ion s u spen s ion l o op c o l la rw i th t h r ee r i dge s ,c en t r a l b eaded , b e low c a s t , t h icken ing s u spen s ion l o op .

a nd o t he r ' c la s s ic ' T rumpe t f e a tu re s o n 8 . 6 .and 8 . 7 ( a nd t h e S ewe l l 's C ave b r ooch ) p l a ce s t h em t ypo log ica l ly e a r l ie rt h an t h et w in l ug s p rung e n t i r e ly f l ange d eco ra ted s e r ie s .T h i sp e r h ap ss ugge s t s av e ry l a te f i r s to rv e ry e a r ly s e cond c en tu ry d a te . S uch t y po log ica ld a te sa r ep e r fo rce al i t t le s pecu la t ive b u tt h e f a c tt h a tf o r8 . 6a nd 8 . 7t h e re i s ac r ed ib le ' a nce s to r 'p robab ly f r om t h es ame w o rk shop i nt h e S ewe l l 's C ave b r ooch ( wh ich r e ta in s ar e a lm ov ing w i re s u spen s ion l oop a nd ' c la s s ic 'T rum p e th ead ) s t reng then s t h e c a se f o r ag radua l s imp l if ica t ion o f

S ho r t , f r on ta l ly f l a t tened w ing s w i th g roove b ounded b ead l i ne sa te nd s . We l l c u rved , s qua r e s e c t ioned , b u t a bove c a tchp la te l e ve l b ack h o l lowed ,b ow w i th ma r g i na lg r oove s .L a rge ,s l igh t ly o va l ,s o l id d ombed h ead s t ud w i th w o rn r ad ia l g roov ing . F oo t k nob i nt h ree r e g i s t e r s ,c en t ra lb eaded ,w i th c on ica lb o s su nder nea th . D amaged ,w ide c a t chp la te s e to fc en t re r unn ing w e l l u pb ow .P rev ious ly i lu s t ra ted b yD awk in s( 1 872 ,P 1 .1 , F ig . 5 ;1 874 , f r on t i sp iece , N o .5 ) . ( LC .BA ) .

f o rm f r om i tt o8 . 6 a nd t h en 8 . 7 , r a the r t h an av a r ia t ion i n b rooch c omp lex i ty n o tr e la ted t od a te .

* 8 .13 S t ud le s sH ead s tud ( L .5 .02cm ) .H inged p i na sl a s t .C a s t i m i ta t ion s u spen s ion l o op c o l la r a nd c a s t s u spen s ion l o op . S ho r tw ing s f l u ted b e tween c r o s s mou ld ing s a t e nd sa nd b e s ide b ow . P la in , h o l lowed b ow . S ing le e l e men t f oo t k nob b e low f l u ted mou ld ing . T race s o f

T he r ema in ing t wo b rooche s a r e o fH u l l ' s ' Che s te r ' t ype , o r v e ry n ea r ly s o ,o n ly 8 . 9 ' su n t r iangu la r i sed h ead w i thou ts u r r ound ing p l a t ed ev ia t ing f r om t h ef o rm , w h ich a nyway s hou ld p robab ly b ed ef ined al i t t le mo r e b road ly t h an H u l l ( 1 967 , 4 2 N o .108 )o r ig ina l ly e nv i saged .T he ' Che s te r 'e p i the ti sm i s lead i n ga st h et y pe ' sd i s t r ibu t ion e mpha s i se ss ou th w e s tB r i ta in a nd S e t t le i s ar a the rn o r ther nl o ca t ion i nw h ich t of i nd e xamp le s .

w h i te m e ta lf i n i sh . ( LC .JK ) . * 8 .14 H ead s tud f r agmen t( L .3 .49cm ) . Ma in ly l o s th i nged p i n a sl a s t . S t epped , s wep tb a ck w ings w i th i regu la r , t a p e r ing u ppe r e dge s . R ec tangu la r s e c t ioned b ow w i th w o rn m a rg ina lg roove sp a r t ly l o s t .C a s tc i r cu la rh ead s t ud o fr ad ia l ly i n c i sed o u te ra nnu lu s ,a nnu la rg roove a nd c en t ra l n ipp le . ( LC .BA ) .

A st od a te H u l l( o pc i t )n o t ed e xamp le sf r om s i te so ccup ied i n p r e - a nd p o s t -conque s t t ime s . Mo re e xac t t e s t imony t h ough i n c lud es a ne a r ly F l av ian e xamp le f r om ap i ta tU sk ( c f . Web s t e r 1 989 ,5 8 )w h ich s e em st od emon s t ra te t h et y pe 's d eve lop m en t , b ei tf r om t h es t i l lp oo r ly d a ted c l a s s ic T rumpe tb roo ch o r ac ommon a nce s to r ,p e rhap sa se a r ly a sN e ron ian t ime s( c f . a l so Web s te r 1 98 1 , 1 75 N o .24 ) . H oweve r ,e xamp le sf r om s e c o nd c en tu ry c on t ex t sa l so o ccu r( c f . B u tche r 1 993 , 1 52 -3 N o s

* 8 .15 V a r ian t H ead s tud ( L .5 .6cm ) . Ma in ly l o s t h i nged p i n a sl a s t . C a s t c r e s t o n h ead t os t op l o s t mov ing w i re s u spen s ion l oop .S ho r t ,h eavy w ing sc u rv ing i nt ob ow

9 10 ) . T hu sw h i le a n i n cep t ion d a te c . 65 /70 o re a r l ie ri si n d i c a ted t h e t y pe ' s f l o ru i tm ay h ave e x tended w e l l i n to t h e s e c -

w i th l ow r e l ief l a te C e l t ic p ane l s ( p robab ly d amaged ) s t opped b y w ing e nd r i dge s . L a rge c i rcu la r p i e r c ing f o rr i ve ted i nh ead s tud ( ? a s 8 . 12 ) .B ow w i th ma rg ina l r i dge se x tended o n to h ead a nd s p lay ing a nd w ide rc en t r a l r i dge d own f r om s t ud . F oo t k nob , b e low p a i r o f c r o s s mou ld ing s ,h o l lowed f o rm i ss ing r i ve ted i ns t ud .

o nd c en tu ry . * 8 .10 H ead s tud ( L .3 .93cm ) . F ragmen t o fh i nged p i n . A x i s b a ri nt u bu la r w ing s ( ? ca s t o pen t h en c l o sed a r ound i t ) .S tub so f mov ing w i re s u spen s ion l o op t u cked i n to w ing e nd s ,g roove sa l ong t op o fw ing st og u ide i t ,a nd

C a t chp la te t ol e ng th o fl owe rb ow .N ow d i s to r ted i n to a n S shape w i th d i s to r ted f oo t . P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1844 , P 1 .26 N o .1) , H ave rf ie ld ( 1905 , F ig .

c a s t c r e s to n h ead t os t op i ts l ipp ing f o rwa rd . S ho r t , s wep t b a ck , f l a t f r on ted w ing s e ach w i th p a i r o fr e s e r ved l o zenge s v e r t ica l ly i n af i e ld r e ta in ing t r a ce s o fr e de name l .N a r row ,t a pe red ,w e l l -cu r ved b ow w i th

4 12 nd f r om l e f t ) ,P a in t e ra nd S ax ( 1 970 , 1 63 -3 ,N o .12 5 5

8•10

•12

•1 3

• 15

• 18

B lue •17

Red

F igur e 1 3 : C oppe rA l loy B rooche s ( 1 :1) . 5 6

a nd F i g .3 ) , a nd B ran igan a nd D ea rne ( 1991 , 1 91 , F i g .26 ; 1 992 ,F ig .A6 N o .26 ) .P a in te ra nd S ax ' s( 1970 , 1 63 -5 )D owke rbo t tom C ave a t t r ibu t ion r e su l ted f r om am i s lead ing g l o s s i nt h e B .M .Reg i s te r( a bove p 33 ) . ( BM .1848 .5 -11 .56 .J I ) .

S nape 1 993 , 3 5 , N o .11) , S .Y o rk s . ( Dea rne a nd P a r son s 1 997 , 6 0 , No .37 ) a nd i nB ruce ( 1 867 , 4 3 c en t re b o t tom , t h ough t h e d raw ing i sv e ry p oo r ) , w h ich f o rm ag roup c ha ra c te r i sed b y t h e i r h eav ine s s a nd t h e u se o fl a te C e l t ic d eco ra t ion . S prung a nd h inged m echan i sm sa r er ep re sen ted a nd h ead s tud sm ay o r may n o tb ep r e sen t .T h i sm ay u nde r l ine t h es u sp ic ion t h a tt h e se

T h i sr a nge o fH ead s tud sa nd t h e i rr e la t ive sa r ea l h i nged .T he h i nge w a s al a te r d eve lopmen t o n t h e t ype t h an t h e s p r ing . H oweve r ,h i nged m echan i sm sc l ea r ly a ppea red w e l lb efo re t h e

a r eb rooche sm ade b yc r af t smen e xpe r imen t ing w i th t h eH ead s t ud f o rm ,p e rhap s a td if e ren tt ime sa nd i n dependen t ly .N one o ft h em a r ed a ted a nd t h ep r e sen te xamp le c ou ld b e long t ot h e l a te rf i r s to rs ome p o in ti nt h e s econd c en tu ry .

e nd o ft h e f i r s t c en tu ry ( Che lm sfo rd b efo re 1 00 : W ickendon 1 992 , N o .38 .24 ; D onca s te r 8 0 -90 : B uck land a nd Mag i l ton 1 986 , F i g .19 N o .13 ; a nd C o logne i n ag r ave w i th aT ra jan ic c o in : E xne r 1 939 , 7 3 T a f . 1. I . 1 ) . 8 . 10 may b e long t o ag roup c ha ra c te r i s t ica l ly w i th e name l led w ing sa nd d eep c one sf o rr i v e t ed i nh ead s tud s , t h ough t h eb ow i su sua l ly m o re s ub s tan t ia l a nd p l a in r a the rt h an w i th t h i se name l led p a t te rn w h ich i s mo r e a s soc ia t ed w i th c a s t h ead s tud g roup s . R ive ted i nh ead s tud s u sua l ly h e ld as e t t ing w h ich a lmo s tn eve rs u r v iv e s ( Macbet h 1 985 ,2 89 ;b u tn o te a no the rc omp le te f r om S ou th Y o rk sh i re i n D ea rne a nd P a r son s 1 997 , 5 4 N o . 2 4 ) . Ma cbet h( op c i t N o . 2 4 ) s ugge s t s t h a t t h ey b e long t ot h e f i r s t h a lf o ft h e s e cond c en tu ry w i th s u rv iva l st oc . 175 ,t hough a sh es a y st h ee v idence i sl e s st h an o ne w ou ld l i ke .

* 8 .16 K ne e f r agmen t ( L .2 .53cm ) . F ragmen t o f s p rung p i n o n a x i s b a rh e ld b e tween t wo p i e rced l u g s . S em i -c i r c u la rh ead p l a te a tt op o fc ur ved ,f a ce ted ,h o l low b ow f r agmen t( LC .JK ) . T he u ppe rp a r t o f ab rooch w h ich w ou ld h ave e nded i n af a n t a i led f oo t . Aw e l l k nown t ype w i th aw ide d i s t r ibu t ion ( c f . H a t ta t t 1 987 , N o s 1 224 -5 f r om E .Ang l ia a nd D o r se t , c i t ing e xamp le s i nH u l l ' s c o rpu s f r om K en t t oH ad r ian ' s Wa l l ) b u t wh ich i sp a r t icu la r ly f ound o n n or the rn m i l i ta ry s i t e s . S nape ( 1993 , 1 9 , t y pe 5 . 2 ) h a s r e cen t ly n o ted t h e n eed t or e -a s se s s t h et ype 's f o rme rt h i rd /ea r ly f ou r th c en tu ry d a t ing ,c i t ing e a r l ya nd m id th i rd c en tu ry e xamp le sf r om H ou se s tead sa nd V im d o landa a nd al a te second c en tu ry o ne f r om C a r l i s le .T he t y pe , w h ich i sp robab ly B r i t i sh ( Ha t ta t to pc i t ;S nape o pc i t ,2 0 )t h e r e -

8 . 12 -8 .13 a r es im i la rt oe a ch o t he r , t h e b i gge s td if e rence b e i n g t h e a b sen t h ead s tud o n t h e l a t te r . T h i s i sn o t s uf i c ien t t o r e -c la s s i f y i ta s a` Thea lby M ine ' b rooch , at e rm w h ich t h e a u tho rr e se rve s f o r av e ry s pec if ic H ead s tud v a r ian t t y pe ( c f . t h ed i scu s s ion i nD ea rne a nd P a r son s 1 997 ,6 10 .R a the ri tb e l o ng st o ag roup o fu sua l ly v e ry p l a in H ead s tud sm a in ly w i th o u tt h e s t ud i t se lf ( e .g . R ichbo rough : B u she -Fox 1 949 , P 1 .28 N o .37 ; N ew s tead : C u r ie 1 911 , P 1 .86 No . 1 7 ; K i rkby T ho re : P a in t e r &S ax 1 970 ,N o .2 1 ; S idbu ry : Mac bet hi nD a r l ing ton a nd E van s 1 992 , F ig .38 .2 ; S ou th S h ie ld s : A l la son -Jone s a nd M ike t 1 984 , N o s 3 . 66 a nd 3 . 69 -3 .71 ; Wa l l : R ound 1 990 / 1 , N o .1 ) . T he se a r e d if e ren t ia ted f r om p o s s ib le H ead s tud p ro g en i to r s( c f . Ma cbet hi nD a r l ing ton a nd E van s 1 992 , 7 6 ) b y f e a tu r e s s uch a sh inged p in s a nd c a s t s u spen s ion l o op s a nd c o l la r s w h ich d eve loped l a te r ( Hu l l 1 967 , 4 2 ) . S im i la r ly , t h e r i ve ted , r a d ia l ly g rooved s t ud o n 8 . 12 ( a l so s e en o ne xamp le s f r om B rough o n H umbe r (W a che r 1 969 , F ig .39 N o . 3 4 ) a nd S ou th F e r r iby ( Sheppa rd 1 907 ,P 1 .26 No . 1 ) )d oe sn o ti ni t se lf d eny 8 . 12 's m embe r sh ip o ft h e g roup ; i ti st h e g ene ra l t y pe n o tt h ep r e sence , a b sence o rf o rm o ft h e h ead s tud t h a ts hou ld b er e ga rded .T he f o rm i sp robab ly e s sen t ia l ly n o r the rn b u td a t i n gi sh a rd t os e ek ,o n ly t h e Wa l lb rooch f r om ad r a inage c han n e lw i th H ad r ian ic /ea r ly A n ton ine s am ian b u tw i th c oa r se w a re s i n d ica t ing d epo s i tc l o su r en oe a r l ie rt han t h em id second c en t u ry b e ing u se fu l ly s t ra t if ied .

f o r es e em st oh ave d eve loped i nt h el a te ro re ven m idd le o ft h e s e cond c en tu ry b u t a se ve r w i th k nee b rooche s , t h e l e ng th o f i t s f l o ru i t i sb edev i l led b y t h e p rob lem o fr e s idua l i ty . E xam p l e s s uch a st h e l a t e t h i rd / fou r th c en tu ry o ne f r om R ichbo r o ugh ( Bu she -Fox 1 949 , 1 8 , No .51) m igh t b e r e s idua l b u t a r ange i n c lud ing a tl e a s t t h e e a r ly i fn o t m id th i rd c en tu ry i s l i ke ly o np r e sen te v idence . * 8 .17 C ro s sbow ( L .9 .95cm ) . H inged p i n o n a x i sb a ri nh o l l ow , h exagona l s e c t ioned w ing s w i th f l ange s mou ld e dt o( c rude ly )r e semb le ? do lph in si np rof i le ,a nd f a c e t ed r a the r c on ica l t e rm ina l k nob s w i th b a sa l f l u te s a nd b eaded b u t ton s . R ounded , f a ce t ed k nob o n h ead w i th e r od ed b a sa l b u t ton . S o l id , h i gh ly c u rved , f l a t b a cked a nd c oncave s i ded b ow c onnec ted t ol e g b y n a r rowe ra nd t h inne rc a s tb l ock . S t ra igh tl e gw i th p i n s l o tt on ea r ly f u l ll e ng th a nd ,f r on ta l ly ,c ham f e r se ach s i d ei n t e r r up ted b yt wo r a i sed C shaped mou ld ing sa nd b a sa l s po t . U ppe rp a r t o fb rooch d i s to r ted b u tr e ta in i n gm uch g i ld ing .T h i sb rooch i so ne o ft h ep i ece sf r om p rov enance / cu ra t ion g roup V w ho se o r ig in sm igh tb e p a r t icu la r ly q ue s t ioned ; c f . p 37 a bove . P rev iou s ly i l l u s t ra t ed b y K ing ( 1 970 , F ig .l a ) . ( LC .V ) . Al a rge C ro s sbow b rooch , t h e ma in b ow b rooch f o rm o fl a te r

8 . 14 p robab ly h ad ac a s ts u spen s ion l oop a nd i t ss t y l ised o ne p i ece c a s tf o rm s ugge s t s e i the r ac heap b rooch o rt y po log ica l

R oman B r i ta in a nd p o s s ib ly p a r t icu la r ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e u ppe rr a nk s o fs o c ie ty . T he i rt ypo logy w a s s t ud ied f r om c on t i nen ta lg r ave f i nd sb yK e l le r( 1971) ,h i sc l a s s if ica t ion u sefu l l yb e ing c r i t ica l ly a s se s sed b yC la rke ( 1 979 ,2 57 -9 ) .T he p r e sen t e xamp le s hou ld p robab ly b e p laced i nK e l le r ' s t y pe 2( d a ted c . 310 -50 ) .

d egene r a t ion . Ap a ra l le l , e spec ia l ly f o r i t s s t ud c ome s f r om C u lve r H o le , G owe r ( Bran igan a nd D ea rne 1 992 , 7 8 N o .30 ) b u td oes n o th e lp i nd a t ing . B o th t hough a r e p robab ly s e cond c en tu ry a nd m igh tb e a sl a te a st h e t h i rd q ua r te ro fi t .8 . 15 i s t h e mo s tu nu sua lo ft h eg roup .I ti so ne o ff i v eo rs oH ead s tud V a r ian t s f r om N o r the rn E ng land i den t if ied b y t h e a u tho r ( Dea rne a nd P a r son s 1 997 , 6 1f ) , a l ong w i th e xamp le s f r om C he s t e r sa nd C o rb r idge ( MacG rego r1 976 ,F ig .5 .4 a nd 5 . 5 ;a nd

* 8 .18 S -Shaped P l a te ( L .4 .6cm ) .R a the rt h ick s e tw i th w or n , b l un t , r a the rb l ock l ike , g rooved t e rm ina l s a nd ap a i r 5 7

• 22

• 28

•29

• 36

• 31 •3 0

N

_> / a )

•35 •42

• 38

49

• 47

Red

B lue

• 48

7

F igur e 1 4 : C oppe rA l loy B rooche s( 1 :1) . 5 8

A

Yello w

Green

o fl a rge r a i sed m ou ld ing sa c ro s st h ec en t re g i v ing t h e s ame e f ec t .B a ck f l a te xcep tf o ri r regu la rc en t r a lh o l l ow .D amaged p i nl o oped o nt oo ne ' n eck ' . P r ev iou s l yi lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1 844 ,P 1 .27 N o .1) ,H ave r f ie ld ( 1 905 , F ig .41 r i gh t ) , B u lme r ( 1 938 , N o .9 ) , F eachem ( 1 951 , F ig .9 N o .1 1b ) , K i lb r ide -Jone s ( 1980 , F ig .48 N o .2 )a nd H a t ta t t( 1 982 ,F ig .66 N o .149 ) .( BM 1 848 .5 1 .48 . . 1 1 ) .

l ow ing b y F eachem ( 1951 , F ig .9 N o . I I ) , K i lb r ide J one s( 1 980 , F ig .48 No .1) a nd H a t ta t t( 1982 ,F ig . 6 6 , N o . 1 48 ) . Sm i th ( 1 865 ,2 06 )a lmo s tc e r ta in ly i n d ica te s t h a tt h i sb r ooch c ame f r om V ic to r ia C ave C hambe rB ( LC .JK ) .

* 8 .19 D ragone sque ( L .3 .62cm ) . Sma l l c en t ra l r ounde l o f ( n ow ) g reen e name l o n b ody . O ne ' h ead ' l i nked t o b ody b y r ece s sed m ou ld ing t os ea tl o s tp i n a nd w i th s ho r t ,w ide ' e a r 'w i th ( n ow )g r een e name ls po to r' e ye ' a nd s l igh t v e r t ica l g roove ma t ch ing a no the rd e f in ing as ma l l ' s nou t ' w i th n ow e mp ty s po t o r ig ina l ly w i th r e de name l . O the r ' h ead ' ? wor nb u t mo re c r ude w i th m o re b u lbou s ' s nou t ' , l a rge r ' e ye ' a nd t h e ' e a r ' n ow a tl e a s tc urved o n o ne s i de a nd s t ra igh t o n t h e o t he r . E name l s po t s a so t he r ' h ead ' . P rev iou s ly i lu s t r a ted b y D awk in s ( 1872 , P 1 .1 No .3 ; 1 874 , f r on t i sp iece N o .3 ) , B u lme r ( 1 938 , N o .4 ) , F eachem ( 1951 , F ig .2 N o .4 ) a nd K i lb r ide -Jone s ( 1980 , F ig . 4 8 N o .7 ) . ( LC .BA ) .

8 . 23

D i t to ( L .3 .43cm ) . I den t ica l e xcep tf o r o ne e x t ra r e g i s te r i n e ach t e rm ina l . P rev iou s ly i lus t ra ted b y D awk in s ( 1 872 F ig .1 No .8 ; 1 874 , f r on t i sp iece N o .8 ) ; a nd t h i so rt h ep reced ing a sa bov e . ( LC .BA ) .

8 . 24

D i t to ( L .3 .5cm ) .I d en t ica lb u tr eve r sed S shaped .P re s umab ly p r ev iou s ly i lus t ra ted b y F eachem ( 1951 , F ig .9 N o .I 1c ) . ( LC .BA ) .

8 . 25

D ragone sque /S -Shaped p in t i p ( L .2 .57cm ) . ( LC .V ) .

8 . 26

D i t to p i n( L .7 .8cm ) . S shaped i np rof i le w i th r ema in s o f' b a r r e led ' a t ta chmen tl oop . (LC .V ) .

Ap e r ce ived c oncen t ra t ion o fD ragone sque a nd p re sumed r e l a ted S -Shaped p l a te a nd w i re b rooche s i nV ic to r ia a nd o t he r S e t t le C ave s , a nd /o rs pecu la t ions a bou tt h ep l ace o fs eve ra l o f t h em i np u ta t ive D ragone sque b rooch d eve lopmen t s cheme s ( a nd t h e r e fo re a bou t t h e c ave s p lay ing ac en t ra l r o le i nt h o se

* 8 .20 D i t to ( L .3 .445cm ) .S im i la r .B lue e name la nnu lu ss u r r ound ing b ody r ounde l w i th t r ace s o f r ed e name l . L ooped o n p in e x tan t . B o th h ead s w i th c en t ra l ly g r oov ed ' e a r s ' ,r a the rs qua red ' s nou t s 'w i th b l ue e nam e ls po t s a nd c i rcu la r c e l l s o r ' e ye s ' w i th r e d e name l t r ace s . F la t b ack . P r ev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y F ea chem ( 1 951 ,F ig .2 No .42 )a nd K i lb r ide -Jone s( 1980 ,F ig .48 N o .9 ) . T he l a ck o fr e co rd s o ft h is b rooch p r io r t oa d r aw ing i nt h e R a i s t r ick A r ch ive a nd o fp rovenance e xcep tf o rF eachem ' sa t t r ibu t ion o fi tt ot h es i t e ( p r e s umab ly o n Mr . T o tL o rd ' s s ay s o ) make i tp r ob lem a t ic .I tm igh th ave b een f ound b yM r . L o rd ,b u ti nt h e a b sence o fa ny r e co rd o ft h a t s ome p a r t icu la r d oub t a ta che st oi t so r ig in s . ( LC .?V ) .

s c heme s )h av eb e en f e a tu r e so f mo s tp ubl i shed s t ud ie so fD rag o ne sque b rooch t y po logy . Unfo r tuna te ly t h e c l a s s if ica t ion s c h eme sa nd d eve lopmen ta lt y po log ie si nq ue s t ion a r el e s st h an s a t i sf a c to ry a nd t h e c oncen t ra t ion o f t h e t y pe s i n t h e S e t t le C ave s( p e rhap sp a r t ly b ecau se o ft he c onfu s ing ly d i spa ra te a nd i n comp le te p ub l ica t ion o f t h e s i te s ) h a s a tt ime s b een o ve r e mpha s i sed . T he f o l low ing e x tended d i scu s s ion o f D ragon e s que a nd S -Shaped b rooch t ypo logy a nd d a t ing h a st h e r efo re b een f e l tt ob en ece s sa ry . F ea chem ( 1951 ; 1 968 ) , b u i ld ing o n B u lme r ( 1 938 ) , p rov ided l i s t so ft h en k nown D ragone sque a nd S -Shaped b rooche s ,c l a s s i f y ing t h em s imp ly i n to b road g roups a cco rd ing t ot h ed eco r a t ion o ft h e i rb od ie s( e .g .t h o se w i th c i r cu la re l emen t s ,o rw i th p ane l s o fs qua r e s ) b u t p ay ing l i t t le a t ten t ion t ot h e i r b roade r d e s ign o r t h e t e chn ique s u sed ( e .g . o penwo rk ing o r e name l -

* 8 .21 D i t to ( L .4 .5cm ) .H o l low b a cked b ody w i th f o u re nam e led c e l ls o fr ed a nd ( now a tl e a s t )y e l low c en t ra l ly , f l anked b yt a pe r ing c u rved c e l l so fr ed a nd b l ue e nam e l ,t wo p a r t ly m i s s ing . O ne ' h ead ' l o s t ( w i th p a r t o f i t ss t ub b roken o fa nd c o r roded o n to t h ep i n ) . O the r h ead l i nked t ob ody f o rm ing s e a t ing f o rl o oped o np i n w i th w o rn g roove so nl o op .L a rge t r iangu la rs e c t ioned ' e a r ' w i th c en t ra lr i dge ,o ne p l a in s i de a nd o ne d eep ly g r ooved o r c o r ruga ted . Sma l l b l ue e name l ' e ye ' a nd l a rge ,h i gh ly c u rved ' s nou t 'w i th r ed e name ls po t .P r e v i ou s ly i lus t ra ted b yD awk in s( 1 872 ,P 1 . 1F ig .7 ; 1 874

l i ng ) . Many m o r e e xamp les a re n ow k nown a nd , w h i l s t F ea chem 's c a ta logue r ema in s u sefu l h i s c l a s s if ica t ion i st o o s imp l i s t ic t oh ave g r ea tv a lue f o rc h rono logy o r ,a tl e a s ti nd e t a i l , f o r t ypo log ica l s t udy ( t hough s ome r e a l d i v ide b e tween b r oo che s w i th c i r cu la r a nd r e c t i l inea r mo t i f s may w e l l e x i s t ( b e low ) ) .A ne a r ly a t temp tt op rov ide at y po log ica lf r amewo rk w a s made b y C o l l ingwood ( 1930 , 5 3 -4 ) w ho e nv i saged t h e s ma l lb rooch w i th t i ny ' h ead s 'f r om B raugh ing ( op .c i t .F ig .11a ; F ea chem 1 951 ,F ig .6 No . 1 ;K i lb r ide -Jone s 1 980 ,F ig .55 N o .9 ) a st h ep rogen i to ra nd b rooche sb o th s uch a s8 . 18 h e re a nd o t he r t y pe sw i th w ha ts e emed t oh im p a r t ly -fo rmed ' h ead s 'a si n te r m ed ia te s b e tween i ta nd f u l ly f o rmed D ragone sque s . H owev -

f r on t i sp iece No .7 ) , B u lme r ( 1938 , N o .D3 ) , F ea chem ( 1 951 , F ig .4 No .D3 ) , K ing ( 1970 , F ig .2e ; 1 970a , 4 1 b o t tom ) a nd K i lb r ide -Jone s ( 1980 , F ig .55 N o .1 ) . ( LC .BA ) .

e r , t h ough t h e B raugh ing b rooch i sr e la t ive ly e a r ly ( b e low ) i t i so bv iou s t h a t i ti sn o t t h e p rogen i to r o fD ragone sque s a nd C o l l ingwood ' s s c heme w ou ld i n vo lve a n u nbe l ievab le j ump

* 8 .22 S -Shap ed W i re ( L .3 .99cm ) . C i r cu la r s e c t ioned w i r e f o rmed i n to S w i th s p i ra l led c on ica l t e rm ina ls a nd

f r om i tt o as imp le ' h ead le ss ' f o rm a nd t h en t h e r e inven t ion o f t h e h ead s . B u lme r ( 1938 ) p a r t ly f o l lowed C o l l ingwood t h ough h ed i dn o tab ly e xemp tb rooche sl i k e8 . 18 f r om t h e ma in g r oup a nd , t h ough h i s d eve lopmen ta l s cheme f o r e name l led

h umped p in l ooped o n to o u te rr e g i s te ro fo ne . P rev i o u s ly i lu s t ra ted b yS m it h( 1865 ,o ppo s i te 2 17 ,N o .5 ) , a nd R a i s t r ick ( 1939 ,F ig . I IN o .26 ) ;a nd t h i so rt h ef o l 5 9

s ub -g roup sw a sv e ry l i nea ra nd s omewha ts imp l i s t ic ,h ec l ea r l ya pp rec ia ted t h a t mo re t h an as t ra igh t fo rwa rd t y po log ica l c h rono logy w a si n vo lved i nt h e i rd eve lopmen t .

b e l ief i n an ece s sa r i ly B r igan t ian ( l e ta l one s pec if ica l ly S e t t le C ave s ) o r ig in f o r ( a s o ppo sed t od eve lopmen t o f ) t h e t y pe i s v e ry d if i cu l tt oa ccep t .T he re a r ei nf a c to n ly s i xt r ue D ragon e sque b r ooche s f r om t h e S e t t le C ave s ( 8 . 19 -8 .21 ; o ne f r om

Mo re r e cen t ly K i lb r ide -Jone s ( 1980 , 1 70 ) s ugge s ted t ha t

A t te rm i r e C ave ( Feachem 1 951 , F ig .2 N o .34 ; K i lb r ide -Jone s 1 980 , F ig .48 N o .6 ) ; a nd o ne p lu s t h e h ead o f as econd f r om

b rooche s l i ke 8 . 22 -8 .24 h e re w e re t h ei n i t ia l f o rm w i th t hose l i k e 8 . 18 b e ing a n ' i nven t ion 'i nt h eS e t t le a r ea i n sp i red b y ,o r i np a ra l le lw i th ,t h em ( h i st e x ti si n exp l ic i t ) .F rom t h es o l id S S haped b rooch l i k e 8 . 18 h e s ugge s ted t h a ta n o penwo rk f o rm

G rea t e r K e lco C ave ( Fea chem 1 951 , F i g .2 N o .40 a nd F ig .8 N o .38 ) . A l l e xcep t 8 . 21 a r e a dm i t ted ly l i k e ly t ob e r e la t ive ly e a r ly i nt h es equence b u tn one ,e ven o nK i lb r ide -Jone s 's a na l -

t y p if ied b yt h eo ne f r om L akenhea th ( Bu lme r1 938 ,N o .7 ; K i l b r ide -Jone s 1 980 ,F ig .4 8N o .3 ;H a t ta t t 1 982 ,N o .150 )d eve l o ped a nd f r om t h a tt h e d eve loped D ragone sque w a s d e r ived .

p e rhap s s pec if i ca l ly V ic to r ia C ave a s p i vo ta l i nt h e p roces s ( K i lbr ide -Jone s 1 980 , 1 71 ) . L eav ing a s ide h i s a s se s smen t o f

y s i s , a r e t h e e a r l ie s t o f t h e t ype . I fs o l id a nd w i re S -Shaped b rooche sa r ee l im ina ted a sp rogen i to r si nf a c tt h ee a r l ie s td a t e dt r ue D ragone sque s a nd t h e i ru ns t ra t if ied p a ra l le ls a l l c ome f r om e a s te rn E ng land ( Lakenhea th , S u s sex d a ted c . 40 -60 ( e .g .Ha t ta t t1 982 ,154 ) ;C o .Du rham u nda ted ( Ha t ta t t 1 989 ,3 97 N o .1730 ) ;R o s s ing ton B r idge ,S ou th Y o rk sh i re u nda ted ( F ig .14 h e re in ;D onca s te r Mu seum o t he rw i se u npub l ished ) ;B raugh ing

m o re d eve loped D ragone sque t ypo logy f o r t h e momen t t h i s s c heme o fi n i t ia ld ev e lopmen ti sp rob lema t ic i ns e ve ra lr e spec t s .

? j u s t p o s t -conque s t ( K i lb r ide -Jone s 1 980 , 1 70 ) ; a nd L ong th o rpe C laud io -Ne ron ian ( Danne l l a nd W i ld 1 987 , 8 7 No .9 ) ) .

F i r s t ly t h ew i re f o rm a s8 . 22 -8 .24 m ak e sa nu nl ike ly p rogen i to r . I ti sn o t a ta l c l ea r w hy i t sl a rge , u nequa l , c i r cu la r h ead s a nd

I nt h el i gh to ft h e se a r gumen t si ta ppea r st h a ts o l id a nd w i r eS S haped b rooche s s hou ld b e d i sm i s sed a sp l ay ing a ny p a r t i n t h e o r ig in s o ft h e D ragone sque . R a the r i t so r ig in s s hou ld b e s ough te n t i re ly i no u r ( p robab ly i n comp le t e ) e v idence f o r a n

H e a l so a s se r ted t h a t t h e se s t age s o f d eve lopmen t o ccu r red e xc lu s ive ly i nB r igan t ia a nd h e c l ea r ly e nv i saged S e t t le a nd

n a r row b ody w ou ld g i ve r i se t ob r oo che sl i ke 8 . 18 w i th s ymme t r i ca lh ead ss ma l le rt h an t h eb ody a nd a no bv iou so ppo sed t r um p e ts hape ,o rt ot h eL akenhea th o r mo r ed eve loped D ragone sque b r ooche s . Mo r eov e rt h e i rl im i t ed d a t ing e v idence w ou ld a ppa r -

o penwo rk ed a nd e s sen t ia l ly o ppo sed t r umpe tf o rm t yp if ied b y t h eL akenhea th a nd R o s s ing ton B r idge f i nd sa nd c l ea r ly e x i s t i n g b e fo r e c . 60 , a nd f o r s ma l l p la in p l a te b rooche s p robab ly c r ude ly i m i ta t ing t h e f o rme r i nC laud io -Ne ron ian t ime s ( i . e . t h e B r augh ing a nd L ong tho rpe e xamp le s ) . T he a va i lab le e v i d ence i st h a t t h e se g roup s b e long t oe a s t er n E ng land a nd i t s e em s l i ke ly t h a t t h e o penwo rk ed f o rm a ppea red a round t h e

e n t ly p l a ce t h em f a rt o ol a t et ob er e lev an t .O fe i gh to rn i ne k nown , t h ree a r e f r om V ic to r ia C a ve , o ne f r om n ea rby S ewe l l ' s C ave ( Ra i s t r ick 1 936 ,F i g .1 , N o .7 ) ,o ne f r om N ew s tead ( Cu r le 1 9 11 , P 1 .85 No .6 ,F ea chem 1 95 1 ,F i g .f l e ) ,o ne f r om L och spou t sc r an n og , Maybo le ,A y r sh i r e( K i lb r ide -Jone s 1 980 ,170 c i t ing Mun ro ( 1 890 ) L ak e Dw e l l ing so fE ur ope ,4 24 , F ig .153 ) , o ne f r om A t -

m idd le o ft h ef i r s tc en tu ry ( ad a te o nw h ich mos ta g ree ) w i th , t oj udge f r om f i nd s s uch a s t h e R o s s ing ton B r idge e xamp le ' h ead s ' f o rmed o fv ege ta t ive mo t if s . T he se may q u ick ly h ave

t e rm i re C av en ea rt oV ic to r ia ( Lo rd C o l lec t ion ,t ob ep ubl i shed ) , o ne e v iden t ly f r om R ib che s t e rP l ay ing F i e ld ( c o r re spondence i n L e ed sC i ty Mu seum k i nd ly s uppl ied b yM r .B .S i t ch ) ,a nd t h en i n th i s av a r ian t w i th as n ak ing m idd le f r om A t te rm i re C ave ( Anon 1 927 ) .T he L , och spou t se xamp le i ss a id t oh ave h ad s e cond c en t u ry s am ian w i th i t( K i lb r ide Jone s 1 980 , 1 70 ,n o te 4 ) ,t h eN ew -

b ecome w ha th ave b een c a l led ' c apped T r umpe t s 'b u tt h ec en t r a lb od ie so ft h eb roo che si na l ll i ke l ihood v a r ied ag ood d ea l , l a te C e l t ic mo t if se nc lo sed i n ac i rc le p robab ly b e ing c ommon t h ough n o ti n va r iab le .R a the ri ti st h eb od ie s 'o penwo rk ing t h a t i st h ed ef in ing c ha rac te r i s t ic . T he B raugh ing a nd L ong tho rp e p i ece sc ou ld e a s i ly b es o l id a nd c r ude c op ie s o ft h e se b rooch -

s t ead e xamp le m u s tb ep o s tc . 80 a nd t h ec i ted S e t t le C ave sh ave m a in ly s e cond c en tu ry o rl a t e rs ma l lf i nd s ,e ven t h ee a r l ie s tn on D ragone sque /S -Shaped b r ooch b e ing o f6 0 /5 -70 /5 ( Ra is t r ick 1 936 ,F ig .1 N o .1 ) .

e s ,s t y l i s ing t h e ' h ead s ' ( a sK i lb r ide -Jone s 1 980 , 1 73 a l so s ug g e s ted ) a nd f o re shadow ing t h e om i s s ion o fo penwo rk ing f o r t h es imp l ic i ty o f manuf ac tu r e .

S econd ly , w h i l s ts o l id b rooche s l i k e 8 . 18 a r e c l ea r ly f o rmed o fo ppo sed t r umpe t sl i ke s ome o bv iou s ly e a r ly D ragonesque s ( b e low ) , t h ey a ppea rr a the rh eavy a nd c r ude t oh ave g i ven r i se

T he t y po logy o f mo re d eve loped D ragone sque b rooche s i s c on s ide rab ly mo re p rob lema t ic .K i lb r ide -Jone s( 1980 , 1 71 -82 ) p ropo sed t oi d en t ify t h ree ' s ty le s '( p lu s ar a nge o fu nc la s s if ied e xamp le s ) , t h e We s tB r igan t ian s t y le o ft h es e cond h a lf o ft h e f i r s tc en tu ry ,t h eE a s tB r igan t ian w i th al a t e rs t a r td a te b u ts im i l a r e nd , a nd t h e P a r i s ian s t y le o ft h e f i r s th a l fo ft h e s e cond c en tu ry .T h i sc l a ss if ica t ion i sa tb e s to n ly a n i mp rovemen to n F eachem 's , f o r e ven t h e mo s t h omogenou s ' s ty le ' ( t he E a s t

t ot h e much f i ne ro penwo rk L akenhea th b rooch .A ga in t h ed a t i n g e v idence i sa l so a to dd s w i th t h e i rb e ing a nce s to r s o ft h e D ragone sque . O n ly 8 . 18 , t wo f r om A t te rm i re C ave ( Feachem 1 951 , F ig .9 N o . 1 a nd L o rd C o l lec t ion , t ob e p ub l i shed ) , o ne f r om C o rbr idge ( Bu lme r 1 938 , N o .8 ; F eachem 1 951 , F ig .9 S nap e 1 993 ,6 3 ,N o .118 )a nd o ne f r om C a r l i s le ( Snape 1 993 ,9 4 ,N o .281 )a r ek nown ; aS ou th S h ie ld sb rooch ( Bu lm -

B r igan t ian )i s ma in ly u n if ied o n ly b y ap a i ro fe name l led c e l l s o nt h e ' e a r s ' .C e r ta in ly a sK i lb r ide -Jone s( o pc i t ,p a s s im )n o te s

e r1 938 , No .12 ;A l la son -Jone sa nd M ike t1 984 , 14 ,N o .3 .131 ) b e ing a n o dd i ty w i th in t h e D ragone sque f am i ly i fi ti sa ta l l

t h e r e a r e g roup s o f D ragone sque s w h ich c an r e a sonab ly b e a s s igned t ot h e s ame w o rk shop t r ad i t ion . B u tb roade rt empo -

r e levan t .A ga in t h eS e t t le C ave se xamp le si fa ny th ing s uppor t t h eo ne f i rm ly d a t ed f i nd f r om C a r l i s le w h ich i so fc . 120 -140 /

r a l ly a nd g eog raph ica l ly d ef ined g roup ing s b a sed o n i n ev i ta b l y s ub jec t ive a r t is t ic j udgemen t s o ra s sump t ion s t h a t d e ta i ls o fd e s ign r e f lec tl a rge s ca le t ypo log ica lm ovemen t sn o tw o rk s hop i d io sync ra c ie so rv a r ia t ion si nq ua l i t yr e f lec t ing c o s t( o r i nt h eb r oade s tt e rm sd a te )a r en o tc onv inc ing . K i lb r ide -Jone s 's

5 0 ( Snape 1 993 ,9 4 ,N o .281 ) . T h i rd ly , a nd e spec ia l ly i fs o l id a nd w i r e S -Shaped b rooche s a r e d i sm i ssed a sD ragone sque p rogen i to r s , K i lb r ide -Jone s ' s 6 0

( op c i t , 1 7 1 -4 ) ' W es tB r igan t ian s t y le 'i np a r t icu la rc on s i s t so f aw ide v a r ie ty o fb rooche s m any o fw ho se t y po log i ca l af i n i t i e s i ti sd if i cu l tt od i sce r na nd mo s to fw h ich m igh tb e t te rb e r ega rded a sd i v ided b e tween e a r ly f o rm sa nd ' c heap ' /deba sed b rooche s . I ti sd if i cu l t t oa vo id t h e c onc lu s ion t h a t h e re in a

b rooche s t ot h o se u s ing t h e S e t t le a r ea ' s c ave s w e re i n vo lved i nt h e se d eve lopmen t s ,b et h ey l o ca l i sed o r mo re w ide sp read . O nce e name l l ing a ppea r ed i te v iden t ly l e d t o aw ide r a nge o f d e s ign s ,p a r t icu la r ly o nt h eb od ie s , s ome r e ta in ing s ome f o rm o fc i r cu la rd ev ice b u tm any o t he r sw i th b and so rb lock so fr e c t a ngu la ra nd /o rc u rved c e l l s . Among s tt h e se t h e re i sc on s ide r a b le v a r ia t ion p e rhap s ,e xcep tw he r e as i ng le w o rk shop ' sp rod u c t s c an b e i s o la t ed , w i th v e ry l i t t le i mp l ica t ion f o r d a t ing ,

d e s ire t od emon s t ra te d evo lu t ion o f f o rm d ue t o ' ma s s -p ro d uc t ion ' ( a n a nyway i n app rop r ia te c oncep t ) a nd t op rov ide a d eco ra t ive p r og re ss ion t y ing D ragonesque o r ig in st o ap a r t ic u l a ra rea h a sl e dt ot wo i n compa t ib le g roup sb e ing c l a s sed t o g e the r .

t hough t h e c ompo s i t iona l v a r ia t ion o fc i r cu la r a nd r e c t i l inea r d eco r a ted p i ece s ( b e low p 84 ) s hou ld b e n o ted . A s t od a t ing , t h ei n cep t ion o ft h eD ragone sque p rogen i to ri sc l ea r ly a r ound t h e m idd le o ft h e f i r s tc en tu ry . T he d eba semen t o fo penwo rk

T he d eve lopmen to fD ragone sque b rooche s ,a tl e a s tt ot h ep o in t w he re e name l led b od ie s a nd e name l c e l l s o n t h e ' h ead s ' b e c ome a lmo s t i n va r iab le f e a tu re s , i sn o t d if i cu l t t oc ha r t a nd many o ft h en e ce s sa ry c onne c t ion sw e r e made b yC o l l ingwood , B u lme r a nd K i lb r ide -Jone s . T he o penwo rk p rogen i to r w a s c l ea r ly s imp l if ied a nd c hanged p roduc ing as ma l l g roup o f c rude r o penwo rked e xamp le s . F ou r a r e s o f a r k nown ( A t te r m i re C ave ( F ea chem 1 951 ,F ig .2 No .34 ;K i lb r ide Jone s 1 980 ,

e xamp le sa nd move t os imp le e name l led s o l id b rooche si sh a rd t op i nd own .T he S e t t le C ave sb r ooche sh e lp l i t t le f o rt h ey may b e s ome o ft h ee a r l ie s tp i ece s i nt h e c ave s ( ? even h e i r loom s ) . F o rw ha ti ti sw o r th t h ough mo s to ft h eo t he rf i nd s empha s ise t h e s e cond c en tu ry w i th j u s t af ew l a te f i r s t c en tu ry i t em s i n s ome c av e s .T he d e ta i l so ft h e Wa l l send f i nd a r en o ty e ta va i l -

F ig .48 N o .6 ) ; G rea te r K e lco C ave ( Feachem o p c i t N o .40 ) ; E dge r son , R oxbu rgh sh i r e ( Feachem o p c i t , N o .4 1 ; K i lb r ide J ones o p c i t , N o .4 ) ; a nd Wa l lsend ( Snape 1 993 , 13 , N o .A209 ) ) . T h e f i r s tt h ree a r e u n if ied b y as o l id -bo s s o n t h e b ody d e r iv a t iv e o ft h e L akenhea th e xamp le ' s p i e r ced c en t ra l d i sc a nd n od e ta i l sa r ey e ta va i lab le f o rt h ef ou r th .T he i d en t i c a l G rea te r K e lco a nd E dge r son e xamp le s h ave ' e ye ' a nd ' s nou t ' b o s se s , t h e l a t te r o bv iou s ly d eve lop ing o n t h e R o s s i ng ton B r idge b rooch , p r e sen t o n t he C o .Du rham o ne ? and d e r iva t iv e o ft h e s p i ra l t e rm ina l o n t h e L ak enhea th b rooch ( t hough t h e ' e ye ' b o s s i so n ly s een o n t h e s e cond o ft h e se ) . T he ' c apped t r umpe t ' e a r ' f o rm h a sb een l o s t( t hough i to cca s i ona l ly r e -appea r so ne name l led s pec imen s )b u tt h eh ead sa r e

a b le a nd o ne i st h e r e fo r ep r e sen ted w i th n o mo re t h an t h e g ap b e tween t h e L akenhea th b rooch o fc . 40 -60 w i th t h e C laud io N e ron ian i m i ta t ion s p e rhap s s ugge s t ing t h e p rogeno ra to r 's f l o ru i t b e p u t c . 50 -70 a nd t h e a ppea rance o ff u l ly e name l led D ragone sque s i nt h e l a te f i r s t c en tu ry .A n e duca ted g ue s s f o r d eba sem en ta nd t h eb eg inn ing o fe name l l ing m igh tt h e r efo re b ec . 70 -90 b u tc l ea r ly o n ly f u r the rf i nd s w i l l c onf i rm o rd eny t h i s . I ft h e f o r ego ing a na ly s i s i sa c cep ted 8 . 19 a nd 8 . 20 w ou ld b e l o ng t ot h i s t r an s i t iona lp ha se . 8 . 2 1 h oweve ri s af u l ly d eve l o ped D ragone sque w i th t h e c ommon p a t te rn o f e name l led s qua re sf l anked b yd i v ided c u rved c e l l s . K i lb r ide -Jone s( 1980 , 1 82 , F i g .55 N o .1 ) p l a ced i ti nh i s a noma lou s g roup b u tt h e re may b e ah i n tr e ga rd ing d a te i ni t sr i bbed ,t r iangu la rs e c t ioned e a rw h ich h a s b een s ugge s ted a si n d ica t ive o f aw o rk shop i n -

n o ty e t v i s ib ly z oomo rph ic ; a s sum ing t h a t ` z oomo rph ic ' i si n f a c t a n a pp rop r ia te t e rm . T h e A t te rm i re b rooch ' s h ead s t a k e t h e d eve lopm en t as t age f u r the r . T he ' e a r ' h a s b e come t r ian g u la r ( w i th as e c t ion g i v ing a n a r r i s a nd r i bb ing o no ne s i de ) w h ich i st h e g ene ra l f o rm o fu sua l ly f l a t te r e name l led D rag -

v o lved i nt h e d eve lopmen t o ft h e t y pe . T h i s s l igh t h in t m igh t s uppo r t al a te f i r s t c en tu ry d a te b u t i ti sv e ry f a r f r om p roof

o nesque s"ea r s 'o f ten w i th s ome c en t ra ld i v i s ion .T he ' s nou t ' o n t h eA t t e rm i r e b rooch h a s s imp l if ied i n to j u s tt h a tf r om t h e s p i ra l led e nd o ft h e mou ld ing o nt h eL akenhea th b r ooch .

a nd ad a t e a nywhe r e u p t ot h e t y pe 's d em i se a round t h e m id d l e o ft h e s e cond c en tu ry i se n t i re ly p o ss ib le . 8 . 18 a nd 8 . 22 8 . 25 a s a l r eady n o ted a r e r ega rded h e re a s s econd c en tu ry b rooche s ,p robab ly o fl im i ted p opu la r i ty .

F rom h e r et h r e es ma l lb roo che s ,8 . 19 -8 .20 a nd o ne f r om D owk e rbo t tom H o le C ave ( Fea chem 1 951 ,F ig .2 N o .24 )p l a in ly r e p r e sen tt h en ex ts t age .T he ' e a r s 'a r en ow f l a t tened ,b u tc en t ra l l yd iv ided , t h e ' e yes ' a nd ' s nou t ' b o s se s a r e n ow e name l led s po t sa nd t h eo penwo rked b ody w i th b o s sh a sb ecome a ne nam -

* 8 .27 T u tu lu s( D i .2 .98cm ) . S l igh t ly c oncave b ack w i th t wo l u g s , o ne b en t t oh o ld l o s t p i n ' s a x i s b a r . S ix s qua r e p e r iphe ra ll u g st od eep ly d i shed c i r cu la rp l a te w i th t wo c oncen t r ic g r oove s n ea re dge a nd r a i sed c en t ra l c one w i th r e ce s sed s umm i t a nd c en t ra l n i pp le . P rev iou s ly i l u s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1 865 , o ppo s i te 2 17 N o .3 ) w ho ( o p c i t , 2 06 ) a lmo s t c e r ta in ly i nd ica te s t h a t i tw a s f o und i nC hambe rB . ( LC .JK ) .

e ls po to n as o l id b ody . I ti sn o t i mpo s s ib le t h a t t h e se s pec if ic d eve lopmen t s ( i . e . t h e a bandonmen to fo penwo rk p rogen i to r s a nd t h em ove t os o l id b od ied v e ry s imp ly e name l led e xamp le s )o ccu r r ed i nt h eS e t t l ea rea .C e r ta in ly mo s to ft h eb roo che si n vo lved a r ef r om S e t t l e o rn ea rby c ave s ( t hough t h i s i sn o te v idence t h a tt h ec ave s t h em se lve sw e re w o rk shop s ) a nd 8 . 19 , 8 . 20 a nd t h eD owke r b o t tom H o l e b r ooch c l ea r ly c ome f r om t h e s ame w o rk shop w h i le 8 . 2 1 , t h e A t te rm i re b rooch a nd t h e h ead f r om G rea te r

T h e T u tu lu s o r b uck le r t y pe v a r ie s l i t t le . Af ew l a rge r o ne s ( e .g .Ha t ta t t 1 987 , 1 85 a nd 3 85 N o . 1 431) h ave e name l led z one s a nd af ew r e la ted h ave c oncen t r ic e name l r i ngs ( e .g . S nape 1 993 ,6 2 ,N o s 10 111 )w h i le as e pa ra t e? Gau l i sh t ype i ss ma l l , u n lugged a nd w i th af u l ly c on ica lc en t r e( e .g .Ha t ta t t 1 987 ,185 N o s 1 068 -70 ) b u t t h e m a in r un d i f f e r o n ly i nt h e n umbe r o f

K e lco C ave s e em t ob el i nked b yt r iangu la rh ead s e c t ion s ,a nd

l u g s a nd c oncen t r ic g r oove s a nd c one d e ta i l s . T hey a r e w ide s p read a c ro s s G au l , t h eL ow C oun t r ie s , S w i tze r land , G e rma -

t h e o the r G r ea te r K e lco f i nd a nd t h e E dge r son b r ooch o bv i o u s ly c ame f r om t h e s ame s ou rce . Howeve r , i tw ou ld b e u n w ise t oa s se r tm o re t han t h a tu pt ot h ree w o rk shop ss upp ly ing

n y a nd P annon ia w i th e xamp le s e ven f r om I t a ly , t h e e a s t a nd 6 1

D u ra -Eu ropo s ( Ha t ta t t 1 987 ,185 ; T o l l 1 949 , 4 0 , N o .21 a nd P 1 .9 ) . Mo r e t h ough a r e k nown f r om B r i ta in t h an H a t ta t t ( 1987 ,185 ) s ugge s ted a nd t h e i r d i s t r ibu t ion i sl e s s r e s t r ic ted t h an h e b e l ieved . S nape ( 1993 , 6 0 N o . 1 08 , 7 1 , N o . 1 68 , 8 1 N o . 2 22 ,a nd 19 N o .A408 )f o ri n s tance l i s t ss e ve ra lf r om t h e S t anega te /Had r ian 's Wa l l . T he t y pe ' s o r ig in s a r en o t w e l l d e f i ned b u t ap o s s ib le a nce s to rw i th as t epped c one c ome s f r om aF lav ian b u r ia la tW inche s te r( B idd le 1 967 ,F ig .4 ,N o .14 )a nd

t r ed o nt h ree p e l le t sa nd f o rmed b yt h ree S shaped e l emen t s w i th p e l ta a nd s em i -pe l ta e xpanded e nd s ( i . e . e ach t r i ske le ' l eg 'f o rmed ,o fo ppo sed p a i ro fe nc lo sed p a lme t te s w i th , b e tween t h e p e l ta s o f w h ich i ti s f o rmed o no ne s i de as p i ra lf o rmed b yt h et e nd r i le nd s o ft h ec en t ra lp o in to fo ne p e l ta a nd t h ei n ne rp o in to f

t h e T u tu lu s c l ea r ly e x is ted f o r m uch o f t h e s e cond c en tu ry ( c f . Ma c i c re th i nB ramwe l le ta l1 983 ,5 8N o .9 ; Ma c i c r e th 1 985 ,

p la te a ppea r st oh ave b een a pp l ied of c en t r e . ( L .S ) .

t h e o the r , a nd o n t h e o t he rs i de a n i n comp le te m i r ro r i mage w i th t h ep e l ta e nd t e nd r i l om i t ted ) .T he r e pou s s6

2 96 -7 N o .38 ) .I t sd em i se i sn o tc l o se ly d a ted ;o ne f r om af ou r th c en tu ry c on tex ta tC ae r leon ( Z ien l c iew icz 1 986 ,172 N o .23 ) i s p re sumab ly r e s idua l b u t t h e t y pe c ou ld h ave c on t inued i n to t h e t h i rd c en tu ry a so ne f r om P en t r e F a rm , F l in tp robab ly o f

8 . 32 D i t to ( D i .2 .46cm ) .S im i la rb u ts ma l le r .F ron ta l ly d am a ged b u tw i th e nough o ft h er epou ss6 p l a te r ema in ing t oi d en t ify at r i ske le p a t te rn w i th b eaded b o rde r .P rob a b ly v e ry s im i la rt o8 . 30 . ( LC .BA ) .

t h et h i rd c en tu ry ( W eb s te r 1 989a ,6 4N o .2 ) may s how ( t hough h e r ea nd e l sewhe re r e s idua l i ty i s ap r ob lem ) .

8 . 33

* 8 .28 C i rcu la rP la t e ( D i .2 .6cm ) . P a r t o fs p r ing f o rl o s tp i n c o r roded o n to o ne s u rv iv ing p i e r ced l u g .C en t ra l ,e mp t y , c i r cu la rc e l l d e f ined b y w ide r a i sed r i ng r e ta in ing h a l fo fa ppl ied ,b eaded wh i t em e ta lt r im a nd s u r round e db yw ide ( n ow )l i gh tg reen e name la nnu lu sw i th r i ng o f e i gh teen r e se rved me ta l s po t s a nd n a r row e dge . D amaged . ( LC .BA ) .

D i t to ( D i .3 .42cm ) . A ga in s im i la r . P in b roken . O n ly t r ace so fr epou s s6 p l a te b u to ft r i ske le f o rm .( LC .BA ) .

8 . 34 D i t to ( D i .3 .75cm ) . Mechan i sm a sp receed ing b u tl a r g e ra nd l a ck ing a l lt r a ce o fr epou s sé p la te . ( LC .BA ) . * 8 .35 ? D i t to ( D i .3 .05cm ) .( ?Cu t )i nh a lf w i th s qua r eo ff r on t p l a te a bove d oub le l u g sh o ld ing b roken h inged p i nc u t a way a nd r e so lde red o n .L ack ing a ny t r a ce o fr e pou s s6 f r on t p l a te . T he r e pa i ri sp robab ly r e cen t . P rev iou s ly

* 8 .29 D i t to ( D i .2 .3cm ) . L o s t b u t k nown f r om t h e i lu s t ra t i on i n Sm i th ( 1 865 , o ppo s i t e2 17 N o .4 )a nd aw a te r c o lou ri nt h eC rof ton Ms s . Me chan i sm u nknown .F ron t w i th w ide o u te rw a l l , a nnu lu sm i s s ing e name la nd e i t h e r ar e se rved s po t o rt h e s hank o f as t ud c en t ra l ly . Sm i th ( o p c i t , 2 06 ) a lmo s t c e r ta in ly i n d ica te s f ound i nC hambe rB .( L .JK ) .

i lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1844 , P 1 .27 No .2 ) w ho n o t e s ' i t h a s a ppa ren t ly b een e name l led ' , t hough n o t r a ce o f e name li sp re sen ta nd e name l l ing s eem s v e ry u n l ik e l y . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .63 .J I ) * 8 .36 ? D i t to ( D i .2 .6 1cm ) . L o s t p i n w i th e x tan t l a rge , e i gh t t u rn , i n te rna l ly c ho rded b i la te ra l s p r ing o n a x i s b a r h e ld o ns i ng le p i e rced l ug .T he s p r ing p ro jec t sb eyond

Aw id ev a r ie ty o fc i rcu la re name l led p l a te b rooche sw i th o ne o r m o r e c oncen t r ic z one s a nd w i th o rw i thou t v a ry ing n um -

t h e b rooch e dge s . F ron ta l ly c oncave w i th l a rge h o le c o r re spond ing t om i s s ing c a tch p l a te a nd n ot r a ce o f r epou s s6 f r on tp l a te . ( LC .JK ) .

b e r s o fr e se rved m e ta l s po t s e x i s t . Mo s t a r e s e cond c en tu ry , p e rhap sw i th af ew p e r s is t ing i n to t h ee a r ly t h i rd c en tu ry . 8 . 28 h a s m o r e s po t s t h an mo s t a nd t h ey a r e mo r e o f ten i no ne o f t wo e name l led a nnu l i n o t o ne w ide z one . T he s p r ung p i n a nd

S ix o ft h e se b rooche sr e ta in o rw ou ld h ave h ad d eco ra t iv er e p ou s s6 p l a te ss o lde red t ot h e i rf r on t s . 8 . 36 may h ave h ad s u ch

a pp l ied t r im i n d ica te t h a ti ti sB r i t i sh ( Ma ck re th i nB ramwe l l e ta l1 983 ,5 8 -9 ) . 8 . 29 i so f as l igh t ly s imp le rr e la t ed t y pe a nd a ga in p robab ly s e cond c en tu ry .

ap l a te b u t t h i s i sn o t c e r ta in a nd i ti sc ons ide red s e pa ra te ly b e low . 8 . 30 -8 .33 c e r ta in ly h ad t r i ske le p a t ter n s o n t h ep l a te s , ad e s ign a l so s e en f o ri n s tance o nr e pou s s6 s t uds ( Da r l ing w i th G u rney 1 993 , F ig . 9 7 N o .667 ) . H oweve r , a sw e l l a st r i sk e le s

* 8 .30 C i r cu la rP la te ( D i .3 .68cm ) . H inged p i n b e tween t wo

t h e r epou ss6 d eco ra ted p l a t e b rooch f am i ly i n c lude s ar a nge o fo t he rd e s ign s ,a l lc u r ren t ly r ep re sen ted b y a round f i f t een o r

p i e r ced l u g s .R epou ss6 d e co r a t ed ? s i lve rp l a t es o ld e red t of r on t . S l igh t ly d amaged . B eaded b o rde r t or i dge a r ound p e r iphe ry f r om w h ich s p r ing t h r ee d eba sed , h ook l i ke t e nd r i ls w i th s ma l le r , c u rved r i dge s w i th in h ook s . Ma in d e s ign o ft r i ske le f o rmed b yt h ree l a rge S shaped r i dge sw i th b lun te xpanded e nd s ,t h ree s ma l l e r ,s im i la rU shaped r i dge s , a nd s i xt e nd r i l sc onnec t e d t ot h e ma jo r e l emen t s . P r ev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1 865 ,o ppo s i te 2 17 N o .1 )a nd D awk in s( 1 874 , 9 5F ig .25 ) . Sm i th ( op c i t . 2 06 ) a lmo s tc e r t a in ly i n d i c a te sf ound i nC hambe rB .( LC .JK ) .

l e s se xamp le s . Mo s tn o tab le a r e ` Ad locu t io 'a nd ` V e ru lam ium ' t y pe s ( ' Ad locu t io ' : c f . G oodch i ld 1 94 1 ; H a t ta t t 1 982 , 1 45 -6 a nd 1 985 , 1 77 -8 No .630 ; H a t ta t ta nd Web s te r 1 985 ; K i lb r ide J one s 1 987 ; Ma c i c re th 1 986 , 6 1-7 N o s 1 0 -12 ; S nape 1 993 , 6 0 N o .107 ; H a t ta t ta nd Web s te r ' s 1 985 , 4 34 c i ted e xamp le f r om C oven t ina 's We l li sp r e sumab ly a ne r ro ra so n ly at r i sk e le s e em s t ob ek nown ( A l la son -Jone sa nd McKay 1 985 ,25 N o .47 ) ;W e r u l am ium ' : c f . G oodch i ld 1 94 1 ;H a t ta t t 1 987 , 1 88 -90 N o .1077 a nd 1 989 ,131 No .1578 ; a nd Mac be th 1 986 , 6 1-7 ) . T he se b rooche s ,u n l ik et h et r i ske le t y pe a r es p rung ,p r inc ipa l ly s ou th e r n a nd G oodch i ld ( 1941) d a ted t h em t op o s t 1 34 -7 a r gu ing

* 8 .3 1 D i t to ( D i .3 .62cm ) .S im i la rb u tm o r ed amaged a nd l o s t . K nown f r om a n e xce l len t i lu s t ra t ion i n Sm i th

t h a tt h ey w e re b a sed o n c o in s o ft h a t d a te a nd c i t ing as i ng le s t ra t if ied e xamp le , t h ough H a t ta t t a nd Webs te r ( 1985 , 4 35 -7 ) a nd K i lb r ide -Jone s ( 1987 ) h ave q ue s t ioned t h is , p o in t ing o u t p o s s ib le C e l t ic i n f luence s .

( 1 865 ,oppo s i t e 2 17 No .2 ) . Mechan i sm a nd b o rde ra s l a s t .P e r iphe ra lt e nd r i l sa r r i sed o rc apped .T r i ske le c en 6 2

O the rl e s s c ommon d e s ign s , v i r tua l ly a l l f r om s ou the rn E ng l a nd i n c lude a tl e a s tf i ve w i th ah uman h ead ( Ha t ta t t 1 989 , 1 32 3 ;1 982 , 1 47 N o .137 ;H u l l 1 967 ,5 1-2 N o .183 ) ,i nw h ich g r oup m ay a l so b e long aM ine rva h eaded r epou s s6 p l a te o ft h es e c o nd h a lf o ft h e s e cond c en tu ry t h a t c ou ld h av e c ome f r om a

b ead o rp e l le tb o rde r . As econd ( domed )a nce s to rw i th a n i r on r i ve tc ome sf r om af i r s tc en tu ry c on tex ta tB ank rof t( Ma ck re th i nW i l l iam s a nd Z eepva t 1 994 , 2 95 N o .28 ) a nd i ta nd o t he r s f r om K ing H a r ry L ane ( S tead a nd R igby 1 989 ,9 6N o .P3 ;d a t e d c . 40 -60 ) a nd C o lche s te r l e d Ma ck re th t os ugge s t a ga in a c l o se a ff in i ty w i th R o se t te t ype s ( c f . a l so t h e R o se t te p l a te

b r ooch (Whee le ra nd Whee le r 1 936 , F ig .46 N o .55 ) , t h ough i t m igh ta l so b e long t o as t ud ( c ompa re M ike t 1 983 , 11 N o .44 ) o re ven as ea lb ox ( c f .C oo l ,L loyd - Mo rgan a nd H oo ley 1 995 , 1 550 No .634 1 c i t ing o the r s ,t h ough a l lz oomo rp lüc ) . Ab rooch f r om Dove rw i th ah ead o n ar i ve ted p l a te h a so u te re name l led z one s ( Ph i lp 1 98 1 , 1 50 N o .73 ) ,i sl a te s e cond c en tu ry o rv e ry e a r ly t h i rd c en tu ry a nd c l ea r ly s ugge s t s i n te rp lay b e tween b r ooche sa nd s e a lb oxe s( c ompa re C oo le ta lo pc i t ) .S im i la r ly

b rooch f r om K ing H a r ry L ane ( S tead a nd R igby o p c i t , P l ; a ga in o fc . 40 -60 ) ) a nd p roduc t ion o ft h e se a nce s to r s c . 30 -40 w i th t h e i ru se c on t inu ing t oc . 50 -60 .T hough s ugge s ted a sA u g u s tan b y B ay ley , F oa rd a nd S imp son ( 1981) t h e Wha r ram b roo ch m ay b e c on s is ten t w i th t h i s a si to n ly n eed h ave b een l o s tb e fo re R oman i sed p o t te ry r e ached t h e s i te a nd d u r ing t h e l i f e t ime o f A uc i s sa a nd R o se t te t y pe s , i . e . a sl a te a st h e 5 0 s A .D .

t h ree o rf ou rb r oo che s i n c lud ing o ne f r om Wookey H o le w i th a n? an te lope /de e r( B ran igan a nd D ea rne 1 990 ,6 9 ,N o .3 .6 )f e a t u re a n ima l s( c f .a l so H a t ta t t1 989 , 1 32 -3 )a sd os ome s e a lb oxe s a nd , u n ique ly , ar e c tangu la rb rooch f r om C ame r ton ( W ed lake

T he d a t eo ft h et r i ske le r epou s s6 d e scendan t so ft h e se p re sumed a nce s to r si sh a rde rt of i x . Mo s tn on -t r i ske le t y pe ss e em t oe m p ha s i se t h e s e cond c en tu ry , w he the r o rn o t G oodch i ld ' s ' Ad l o cu t io7 ` V e ru la rn ium ' d a t ing i sa ccep ted b u t w he the ra ny o f t h i se v idence s hou ld b et r an sf e r red t ot r i ske le si su nc lea r . N o r i st h eo ccu rence o ft r i ske le sa tB rough -unde r -S ta inmo r e ,w ho se s i gn if i cance a s as econd c en tu ry m e ta lwo rk ing c en t re w a sf o r -

1 958 ,2 32 N o .54A ;m id th i rd c en tu ry a nd p robab ly s how ing a l i on ) . Mack r e th ( 1 986 , 6 1-7 ) a l so n o te s at y pe w i th h ead s a r ound a n a nnu lu s ; a nd o ne o rt wo s eem t oh av e s e t t ing s f o r p a s te j ewe l s( Hu l l 1 967 ,51-2 ,N o .183 ) .H oweve r ,l o zeng i f o rm o rp i r ifo rm o dd i t ie s ( Ha t ta t t 1 985 , No s 6 28 -9 ) a r e p robab ly i n dependen t o f shoo t s o fR o se t te /Keyho le b r ooche s ( c f . H a t t a t t 1 985 , No s 6 33 -4 wh ich a r e s u re ly a n tecedan t s o fH a t ta t t 1 989 , 1 31-2 N o . 1579 )a nd t h ef ew c on t inen ta lr e pou s s6 b roo ch -

m e r ly e mpha s i sed b y s ome c ommen ta to r s , o f r e levance ( c f . t h ec r i t ica ls ynop s i si n Web s te r1 986 ,5 3 ) .K i lb r ide Jone s( 1 980 , 8 5 -6 ) d a ted t r i ske le b rooche s o n a r t h i s to r ica l g round s t ot h e

e s( e .g . H a t ta t t 1 987 , 1 90 ; 1 989 , 1 32 )a r ec l ea r ly u nconne c ted t ot h eB r i t i sh t y pe .

s e cond h a lf o ft h e f i r s t c en tu ry , p l ac ing t h em i nh i s ` Ae s ica ' s t y le ,l o ca t ing t h e i r manuf ac tu r ei nB r igan t ia a nd e nv i sag ing a d evo lu t ion o f f o rm a nd s i z e t h rough t ime ( b rooche s s uch a s

A s f a r a s t h e b l ank 8 . 34 a nd 8 . 35 a r e c oncer ned t h e re fo r e a w ide r ange o fd e s ign s a r ep o s s ib le b u t mo s t o ft h ef o rego ing a r ep r edom inan t ly s ou the rn t y pe s a nd ` Ad locu t io ' a nd ` V e ru l am ium ' t ype s a tl e a s t a lway s s eem t oh ave b een s p rung n o t h i nged a s h e re . I n deed , t r i ske le t ype s a r e f a r mo r e c ommon t h an o the rd e s ign s , t h ea u tho rh av ing n o ted t h i r ty o ne i no n ly al im i ted s u rvey a nd n o tc oun t ing t he p robab le d e tached f r on t

8 . 30 l y ing s omewhe re i nt h e m idd le ) . H oweve r , aB r igan t ian o r ig in i sa tb e s tu np roven a nd h ow f a rd if e rence si nt h eb rooch e sr e p r e sen t' d evo lu t ion 'o ff o rm o ve rt ime i sd eba teab le .T he re i st h ough i ndependen t d a t ing e v idence t os how t h a t t h e f o rm w a s i ne x i s tence b y s ome p o in t i no r a f te r H ad r ian ic t ime s . T hu s af a ce le s s h inged d i sc a tS ew ing sh ie ld s ( M i leca s t le 3 5 ) mu s t h ave a r r ived p o s t c . 125 ( A l la son -Jone s 1 984 , 7 5 N o .2 ) ,

p l a te f r om C o lche s te r( Hu l l 1 958 , 18 N o .7 )o rt h ea l ledged ly e name l led Manche s te r b rooch c i ted b y A l la son -Jone s a nd M ike t ( 1984 , 18 ) . T he t r i sk e le t ype i sa l so w ide sp read ( e .g . S i lche s te r : B oon 1 974 ,F ig .19 No .2 ;C ae r leon B a th s :Z ienk ie w icz 1 986 , 1 70 N o .9 w i th a no the r f r om t h e v i cus ; H igham F e r re r s , No r than t s . : Mack re th i n Meadow s 1 992 , 9 1 N o .5 ; R ichbo rough : B u she -Fox 1 949 , P 1 .45 N o .170 ; a nd R o s s ing t o nB r idge ,S .Y o rk s . ;D onca s te r Mu seum u npub l i shed ) .I tm ay t h ough h ave b een p a r t icu la r ly p opu la ri nt h e n o r th ( ? pa r t icu l a r ly w i th t h e m i l i ta ry ) , S nape ( 1993 , 5 9 -60 , 7 1 , 8 1 , 9 4 , 13

at r i sk e le b rooch a t Ma rypo r t i sc on s ide r ed u n l ike ly t oh ave a r r ived b e f o re H ad ran ic t ime s (W eb s te r 1 986 , 5 2 ) a nd o ne i n C oven t ina ' s We l l mu s t b e p o s t c . 128 /30 ( A l la son Jone s a nd McKay 1 985 , 2 5 N o .47 ) . P re sumab ly t hough t h e t y pe d eve l o ped e a r l ie r a nd o ne f r om aF lav ian r ampa r t a t Med io lanum ( t hough i t s c on tex t i sn o t e n t i re ly c l ea r a nd d epo s i t c on tam i n a t ion i n to t h em id s econd c en tu ry s e em sp o s s ib le ) s hou ld b e n o ted ( J one sa nd Web s te r 1 968 , 2 45 N o .4 ) .T he d em ise o ft h e t y pe i ss im i la r ly p rob lema t ic . C e r ta in ly s eve ra l e xamp le s a p p ea rr e s idua l( V e ru lam ium : F re re 1 972 , 18 N o .24 d a ted 3 00 1 5 ;C a e r leon :Z ienk iew icz 1 986 , 1 70 N o .9 d a ted l a te t h i rd c en t u ry ; N e the r D en ton : S nape 1 993 , 9 4 N o .279 d a ted l a te R oman ) .H oweve r ,o ne f r om V indo landa o fc . 205 -7? ( B idwe l l 1 985 , 17 No . 1 ) may h in t a t ar e a l i s t ic c on t inuance o f t h e t y pe i n to t h e e a r ly t h i rd c en tu ty . T hu s , o ne s u spec t s t h a t t h e

a nd 1 59 )l i s t ing t h i r ty o ne t r i ske le o rb lank d i s c sf r om s i te so n t h eS t anega te /Had r ian ' s Wa l la l one a nd mo s to ft h eb l ank sp r ob a b ly f r om t h e i rh i nged p i n s b e ing t r i ske le n o t ` Ad locu t io ' o r s im i la r t ype s ( t hough t h ree f r om C o rb r idge ( Snape 1 993 , 6 0 N o s 1 07 , 1 07 .1 a nd 1 07 .5 )a r es p rung o rc e r ta in ly o f` Ad locu t i o ' f o rm ) .

t r i ske le d i sc b rooch d id o r ig ina te i nt h el a te rf i r s tc en tu ry ,c on t i nued a nd p e rhap s p a r t icu la r ly f l ou r i shed i nt h e s e cond c en t u ry a nd m ay h ave p e r s i s ted i n to t h e f i r s t y ea r s o ft h e t h i rd

T he i d ea o f r e pou s s6 d eco ra ted p la te b rooche s p re sumab ly d e r ive s f r om l a t eI r on A ge p r ecu r so r s s uch a se xamp le s f r om Wha r ram P e r cy ( Bay ley , F oa rd a nd S imp son 1 981 ) , i nt u rn

c en tu ry . I tw a s e v iden t ly mo re c ommon t h an o t he r r epou s s6 t y pe sb u t ,e ven s ot h ep re sence o fs i xe xamp le sa to ne s i te mu s t b en o tab le .

c onv inc ing ly a r gued a s ad eve lopmen to fA uc i s sa ,R o se t te a nd a l ied b rooche s .T hough a t Wha r ram P e rcy t h ed e s ign i s ar o s e t te a nd t h ef r on tp l a te i sh e ld r i g id b ys o lde r? and r i ve t ed i t s

8 . 36 h a s b een e xcep ted f r om t h i s d i scu ss ion . I t s o ve r s ized s p r ing a nd e spec ia l ly i t s c oncave f r on tw ou ld b ev e ry u nu sua l

p a r en tage o fR oman r epou s s6 d eco ra ted t y pe si ss ugge s t ed b y i t sr a i sed d o tb o rde r ,a nce s t ra lt ot h el a te rb rooche s 'i n va r iab le

o n aR omano -B r i t ish p la te b rooch ,t h ough i fi td oe sb e long t o 6 3

ar e cogn i sed t y pe c l ea r ly i tw a so ne o ft h er epou ss6 d eco ra ted

* 8 .42 D i t to ( L .2 .5cm ) . ? S t ra igh tened f r agmen t o f s im i la r

f o rm s .T he o t he rp o s s ib i l i ty w ou ld b e t h a ti ti st h e b ack p l a te f r om a nA ng lo -Saxon a pp l ied d i sc b rooch w i th b o th p l a t ea nd , a so f t en , as e pa ra te r im l o s t .S uch b rooche sd oo f ten h ave c on c ave b a ck p l a te s , b u tt h e i rp i n a ncho rage s a r eu sua l ly l o ca ted i ns l i t si nt h em o rs o lde red o n( i . e .a r en o ti n teg ra la st h ep r e sen t e xamp le ' s a ppea r s t ob e ) a nd t h e p in s a r e u sua l ly h inged a nd o fi r on ( e .g . MacG rego r a nd B o l ick 1 993 , 3 2 ) . Adm i t t ed ly a f ew a r ec a s t( e .g .o pc i t ,4 1 N o s 1 . 40 -4 1) b u tt h e se r e ta in r im s ; a nd e ven t h e o cca s iona l c oppe r a l loy ( ? rep lacemen t ) p i n s o n s ome ( e .g . S t ax ton ,Y o rk sh i re : E v i son 1 978 , 2 61) a r er a re ly i f e ve rs p rung .T hu s t h e mo s tl i ke ly i d en t if ica t ion w ou ld a ppea r t ob ea nu nu sua lR omano -Br i t i sh r epou s s6 d i sc b rooch ,p o s s i b l y t h e s e cond c en tu ry t ype w i th p a s te j ewe l s p ro jec t ing t h rough t h ep l a te ( Hu l l 1 967 ,5 1-2 N o .183 )a nd i ti sw o r th n o t i n gt h a t as omewha ts im i la r? b rooch c ome sf r om A ldbo rough ( B i shop 1 996 , 5 8 N o .342 ) .

b rooch b u ta ppa r en t ly w i th r e c tangu la rs e c t ioned h oop ( now t h inned a nd t a pe red a tb roken e nd ) c hamf e red b eh ind m i l led b un t e rm ina l . P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1844 , P 1 .26 N o .6 ) . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .71 .J I ) . 8 . 43

D i t to ( I n t .D i .2 .16cm ) . A s 8 . 41 b u t o n ly l o op o f p i n r ema in ing . ( LC .BA ) .

8 . 44

D i t to ( I n t .D i .2 .33cm ) .D i t to .P in e n t i re ly l o s t .( LC .JK ) .

8 . 45

D i t to ( I n t .D i .2 .55cm ) . D i t to . P in e n t i re ly l o s t . T e rm i n a l s f r on ta l ly f l a t tened . ( LC .BA ) .

8 . 46

D i t to ( Ex t .D i .2 .86cm ) .D i t to . P in e n t i re ly l o s t .T e rm i n a l sf r on ta l ly f l a t tened . ( LC .BA ) .

* 8 .47 D i t to ( I n t .D i .2 .24cm ) .C i rcu la rs ec t ioned h oop r e ta in i n g c omp le te h umped p in a nd m i l led , f r on ta l ly f l a t t e ned b i con ica lt e rm ina l s . ( LC .B ) .

* 8 .37 R ec tangu la r P la te ( D imen s ions u nce r ta in ) . L o s t b u t r e f e r ed t ob yD awk in s( 1872 , 6 4 )a nd s ke tched i nt h e ' d aybook '( on wh ich t h es ke tch h e r ei sb a sed ) . Mech a n i sm u nknown . F ace d i v ided i n to t r iangu la r c o rne r c e l l sa nd at r unca ted l o zeng ifo rm ma in f i e ld .B lue a nd g r een e name lr e co rded a nd D awk in s( 1872 ,6 4 )s e em s t oi mp ly t h eb l ue i nt h et r iang le s . ( L .BA ) .

* 8 .48 D i t to ( I n t .D i .1 .95cm ) .C i r cu la rs ec t ioned h oop r e ta in i n gh umped p i na nd u nequa l ,m i l led ,r e c tangu la rs e c t i oned , b lock l i ke t e rm ina l s . ( LC .BA ) . * 8 .49 D i t to ( I n t .D i .2 .99cm ) .C i r cu la rs ec t ioned h oop r e ta in -

T he s ma l l n umbe r o fr e c tangu la r p l a te b rooche s k nown a r e u sua l ly s p rung ,a lmo s tc e r ta in ly B r i t i sh a nd v i r tua l ly a l ls ou th e r n . H a t ta t t( 1 987 , 1 97 )n o ted s i x teen i nt wo , a sh er ema rked , p robab ly f o r tu i tou s g roup s , t h ough t h i s u nde r -e s t ima te s t h e

i n g h umped p i n w i th ' b a r re led ' l oop a nd b un t e rm i n a l sw i th i n c i sed l i ne st o pa nd b o t tom t os ugge s tb ud s a nd s i ng le a dd i t iona l mou ld ing s b eh ind . ( LC .JK ) .

t y pe ' s f r equency a l i t t le a nd e xamp le s c on t inue t o a ppea r ( e .g .Ha t ta t t1 989 , 1 84 N o .1652 a nd 4 00 ,N o .1735 ) .A l lb u to ne a r ee name l led w i th z oomo rph ic d e s ign s ( ar unn ing d og a nd a f i sh i np a r t icu la r ) , mo r e o rl e s s C e l t ic p a t te rn s o r g eome t r ic d e s ign s . N oc l o se p a ra l le l f o rt h e d e s ign h e re h a s b een n o ted b u ta ne name l led r e c tangu la rb e l tp l a te f r om T r ie ri nt h eA sh mo lean Mu seum h a s a n u n t runca ted l o zenge a nd f u r the r mou ld ing s( Ba te son a nd H edge s 1 975 , f a c ing 1 79 N o .19 ) .A s t od a t e ab r ooch f r om V e ru lam ium (Whee le ra nd Whee le r1 936 , F ig .45 N o .34 )w i th aC e l t ic d e s ign i sd a ted 8 0 -150 h e lp ing t o

8 . 51

D i t to P in ( L .3 .66cm ) . H umped . ( LC .V ) .

8 . 52 D i t to P in ( L .4 .65cm ) . H umped . ( LC .JK ) . 8 . 53

? D i t to P in ( L . ( n ow )3 . 5cm ) .R a the rs t r ip l i k en ow b u t a n a r ch ive p ho tog raph s how s an ow l o s t r o l led o ve r e nd w i th af o rked b r eak . ( LC .JK ) .

T he i r on p enannu la r s( 8 .38 -8 .40 )s e em t ob eo fF ow le r ' s( 1 960 ) t y pe A l , t hough w i th i r on p enannu la r s c o r ro s ion i sa lway s a p rob lem . T hey s eem t ob e t h e o n ly e x tan t i r on p enannu la r s

c onf i rm t h e ma in ly s e cond c en tu ry f l o ru i t t ob e e xpec ted o f e name l led p l a te b rooche s . O the r i ndependen t ly d a ted p i ece s a r ef ew a nd ma in ly r e s idua l ( Poundbu ry : S pa rey G reen 1 987 ,

a nd K ing ( 1970 , 4 15 ) w ho l i s t s t wo mo re may h ave i n c luded t wo o ft h ec o r roded a nd b en tb a r / r ing f r agmen t s( c f . 1 2 .23 o n -

9 7N o . 18 d a ted 2 00 -37 ;C ame r ton : Wed lak e 1 958 ,232 N o .54A d a ted m id th i rd c en tu ry a nd u n ique ly r e pou s s6 n o te name ld ec o r a ted ) . 8 . 38

8 . 50 D i t to P in ( L .3 .62cm ) . H umped . ( LC .V ) .

w a rd s ) , s ome o fw h ich d o s upe rf ic ia l ly s ugge s tp enannu la r s . T he c oppe r a l loy p enannu la r s 8 . 4 1 t o8 . 46 a r e F ow le r ' s t y pe A 2 ( w i th 8 . 47 a nd 8 . 48 s l igh t a be ra t ion s o fi t )a nd 8 . 49 i so f h e rt yp eA 3 . F ow le rd a ted t y pe A l f r om t h e f i r s tc en tu ry B .C . t ot h e t h i rd c en tu ry A .D . , t h ough s he n o ted t h a tt h ey a l so a p -

I r on P enannu la r( I n t .D i .c .1 .45cm ) . Sma l la nd v e ry c o r r oded . ? C i r cu la rs e c t ioned h oop r e ta in ing p i na nd o ne ? p la in t e rm ina l . ( LC .JK ) .

p ea ri nA ng lo -Saxon g r ave s . F o rt y pe A2 s he a s s igned af i r s t t of ou r th c en tu ry A .D . r a nge , a nd f o rt ype A 3 w i th s i ng le a d -

8 . 39 D i t to ( I n t .D i .2 .25cm ) . S im i la r .( LC .JK ) .

d i t iona l mou ld ing sa sh e r e as im i la rr ange w i th ac on t inuance 8 . 40 D i t to ( I n t .D i .2 .5cm ) . S im i la r b u t b o th t e rm ina l s r e -

8 . 4 1

m a in ing . ( LC .JK ) .

i n to A ng lo -Saxon g rave s .I tm ay b et h a ts ome m i l led t e rm ina l b rooche s c an b e g i ven ac l o se rd a t ing , p o s s ib ly i nt h e s e cond a nd t h i rd c en tu r ie s f o r t h o se h e re ( Mack re th 1 985 , 2 99 ) , b u t

C oppe rA l loy P enannu la r( I n t .D i .2 . 0cm ) .C i r cu la rs e c t i oned h oop r e ta in ing m i l led b un t e rm ina l s a nd h umped p i nw i th b rok en t i p . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .59 .J I ) .

w i thou t ar e cen tt ho rough s u rvey o ft h ee v idence ,a nd b ea r ing i nm ind t h ep rob lem o fr e s idua l i ty , a ny th ing l i k ec l o se d a t ing i ss t i l l al i t t le s pecu la t ive .F o rma lv a r ia t ion a mong s tp enannu l a r s i sl im i ted a nd s o n o tab le . Af r on ta l f l a t ten ing i sn o t t o o 6 4

u nu sua l b u tt h e b i con ica l k nob s o n 8 . 47 a r e mo re s o ; t h ough

b ea r so nt h ep r ovenance o ft h i si t em a si t sv e ry f o rm m u s tr a i se s u sp ic ion s a bou ti t sa u then t ic i ty a s aV ic to r ia C ave f i nd .

o t he r s c an b e c i ted ( e .g . B ou rnemou th : H a t ta t t 1 985 , 1 86 N o .649 ; A t te rm i re C ave , L o rd C o l lec t ion t ob e p ub l ished ) . N umbe r 8 . 48 i s mo re a be ran t , t h e o n ly i mp rec i se p a ra l le l

* 8 .58 A nnu la r ? Brooch ( I n t .D i .1 .79cm ) . F l a t r i ng t h icken i n gt owa rd s e x te rna l ly f l a t tened s e a t ing o fl o oped o n p i n w h ich h a s a na ng led p o in t . ( LC .BA ) .

k nown t ot h ea u tho rb e ing o ne w i th c y l ind r ica lt e rm ina l sf r om Ma id s tone ( Ha t ta t t 1 985 ,N o .646 ) wh ich i sa r guab ly o ft y pe A a nd e a r ly .T he u nequa l l e ng th s o f8 . 48 's t e rm ina l s m ay i mp ly t h a ti tw a sc a s ta nnu la ra nd t h en c u t . T he i n c i sed l i ne si m i ta t i n g b ud so n 8 . 49 a l so o ccu ro n ab rooch f r om aP eak D i s t r ic t c ave ( Th i r s t H ou se C ave : B ran igan a nd D ea rne 1 991a , 8 9 N o .2 .27 ) .T he ' b a r re l led ' e nd t ot h ep in o f8 . 49 m ay p o in tt o w a rd s al a t e rd a te t h an t h e o t he r s a s t h e re s e em s t ob e s ome

T he s imp le b u te f ec t ive a nnu la rb rooch h a s al o ng h i s to ry ,v e ry o cca s iona l e xamp le s a ppea r ing i n t h e R oman p e r iod ( e .g .Lu l l ing s tone : Mea te s 1 987 ,F ig .25 N o . 6 5 ; s e cond c en tu r y ) . H oweve r , t h e i rh eyday s w e re i n , b road ly , t h ef i f th t os e v e n th c en tu r ie s a nd i nt h e e a r ly Med ieva l p e r iod f r om a tl e a s t t h e t we l th c en tu ry o nwa rd s . 8 . 58 ( i fi ti s ab rooch a nd n o t a b uck le ) h a s ar e la t ive ly w ide , b l un t p i n t i p a nd p robab ly f a s t e ned s ome th ing o fr a the rc oa r se w eave .D e ta i l s ,e sp ec ia l ly t h e f l a t ten ing t of o rm t h e a x i s b a r w ou ld p robab ly s ugg e s t ad a te s omewhe re i nt h ee a r ly Med ieva lp e r iod . I fa l ter na t iv e ly i ti sa b uck le ar a nge o fd a te s m igh tb ec anva s sed , s imp le t h i rd c en t u ry m i l i ta ry r i ng b uck le s( c f .B i shop a nd C ou l s ton 1 993 , 1 52 -

t e ndancy f o rt h i sf e a tu r et od eve lop i nl a te rR oman t ime s ; b u t b a r re led a nd r i bbed D ragone sque p in sw a rn t h a ta tb e s tt h i si s p robab ly t h ew ide ru se o fa ne x i s t ing f ea tu re .T he h ump ing o f a l t h e e x tan tp i n s i sn o t l i k e ly t ob e c h rono log ica l ly s i gn if i c an ta nd i sr a the rt h eu sua lf o rm o nn o r the rn p enannu la r s ,p rob a b ly r ef l ec t ing t h e t h ickne s s o f t h e g a rmen t s t h ey f a s tened ( Mack re th i nB ramwe l le ta l1 983 , 5 9 ; Ma c i c re th i nl e c tu re ) . 8 . 54

? B rooch p in ( L .4 .95cm ) . R e semb l ing h i nged b ow b r ooch p i n b u t i t s t o p ( ? recen t ly ) c ove red b y o r r e p l a ced w i th s o lde r p r even t ing c e r ta in i d en t if ica t ion ( s ee a bove N o .8 .3 ) . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .67 .1 1 ) .

8 . 55

B roo ch p i n( L .4 .16cm ) .W i th i n te rna l ly c ho rded s p r ing f r om ab ow b rooch . ( LC .B ) .

3a nd p a r t icu la r ly F ig .108 N o .8 ) f o ri n s tance , t h ough u sua l ly l a rge r a nd w i thou tt h e a x is b a rf l a t ten ing a r e n o tt o od i s s im i l a r .

C ommen t

8 . 56

T h i s i sa n e xcep t iona l g roup o f b rooche s f o r an on -m i l i ta ry s i te i nn o r the rn B r i ta in . E ven l e av ing a s ide p o s t -Roman p i e c e s ,t h ed ub iou s ly p rovenanced C ro s sbow a nd u na s so c ia t ed p i n s ,

? Brooch p in ( L .4 .6cm ) . W i th t wo t ur n s o f ac rude ? s p r ing o no ne s i de .P e rhap s ar ep la cemen tb r ooch p i n . ( LC .JK ) .

t h e re a r es i x t een b ow b rooche s , t wen ty p l a te ,D ragone sque a nd w i r e o ne s a nd t we lve p enannu la r s ( w i th a no the r u npub l i shed f r om Mr .K ing ' se x cava t ion s ) .I ndeed ,i ta ppea r st h a te v en mo re b rooche s m a y o r ig ina l ly h ave b een p re sen t ( a bove p 370 a nd t h e n umbe ro fc a ta logued b rooche s i sc ompa rab le t oS nape 's l i s t f o r t h e e x cava ted a r ea s o fH ou se s tead s a nd c on s id e rab ly g r ea te rt h an t h a tf o rf o r t s l i ke Wa l l send ( c f . S nape 1 993 , 16 7a nd 12 -3 ) . C e r ta in ly s uch al a rge g roup mu s t b e s e en a s i n compa t ib le w i th a ny n o rma l r u ra l s e t t lemen t w ho e se cono my w a sb a sed o nf a rm ing a nd o t he re xp lana t ion sf o rt h e i rp r e s e nce s uch a sr i t ua ld epo s i t ion ( t hough n ob rooch l i s ted h a sa ny p re sen t ly r e cogn i sed r i tua la s soc ia t ion s ) ,m e r can t i le a c t iv i ty o r h oa rd ing s hou ld b e s ough t .

NB f o r8 . 57 a nd 8 . 58 s e eF ig . 1 5 . * 8 .57 C a te rp i l la r ( L .5 .4 1cm ) . M i ss ing h i nged p i n w a s h e ld o na x i s b a rb e tween t wo l a rge s qua re p i e rced l u g s a t o ne e nd . N a r row h ook l ike c a tch p l a te a to t he r e nd . S o l id , c a s t , p l ano -convex s e c t ioned b a r w i th h i gh ly a r ched c en t ra l s e c t ion . S l igh t ly w o rn /damaged b u t a ppa ren t ly s t ra igh t a nd o fc on t inuou s w id th . Twe lve c r o s s mou ld ing s i np a i r s al i t t le u nequa l ly a l ong i t . ( LC .?V ) . A n a n sa t eF rank i sh b rooch o f ' c a te rp i l la r ' t ype . Mo s tc l o se ly

C h rono log ica l ly ( e xcep t ing t h ed ub iou s ly p rovenanced C ro s s b ow ) , o n ly af ew n on -penannu la r R omano -Br i t i sh b r ooche s h ave d a te r a nge s e x tend ing b eyond t h e s e cond c en tu ry a nd , w h i le af ew p i ece ss e em t y po log ica l ly t ob el a te rf i r s tc en tu ry ( o rh ave b road d a te r ange si n c lud ing i t ) ,t h em a jo r i ty a r ep rob a b ly s e cond c en tu ry . T h i s i sn o t s u rp r i s ing i ni t se lf a s mo s t b rooch t ype s c ea sed t ob eu sed b y t h ee nd o ft h e s e cond c en t u ry ,b u ti td oe se mpha s ize t h a t mo s to ft h ec o rpu sw e r ep rob a b ly d epo s i ted i n ap e r iod o f 1 00 t o1 25 y ea r s .

m a t ch ing i tc ome f r om n o r th w e s tF rance o rH o l land ( Huben e r 1 972 , 2 20 G ruppe 9 ,K a r t e 5a nd Abb .20 ) , w i th o n ly t wo a ppa ren t ly c om ing f r om B r i ta in ( O ld E r r ingham ,S u s sex : E v i s on 1 966 ;N ea rD ove r : H a t ta t t 1 989 , 2 11 N o .1686 ) .T he l a t te r i st h ec l o se s tp a ra l le lf o rt h ep re sen tb rooch k nown t ot h ea u t h o r .A sE v i son ( 1966 )o u t l ined ' c a te rp i l la r 'b rooche sl i ke mo s t o t h e ra n sa t e t y pe s c an b ed a ted b e tween t h e l a te s e ven th a nd n i n th c en tu r ie sa nd s o l id o ne s a sh e re a ppea rt ob e long t ot h e l a te rp a r to ft h i sr ange . S he v i ewed e xamp le s l i ke 8 . 57 w h ich r e ta in c r o s sr i b sa sp robab ly e i gh th c en tu ry i nd a te ,t h ough s u r v i va l si n to t h ee a r ly p a r to ft h en ex tc en tu ry a r ep e rhap sn o tt o

T he c ompo s i t ion o ft h ec o l lec t ion i sa l so o fi n te re s t .T he p en a nnu la r s r e p r e sen ts imp le b rooche s u sed w ide ly a sf u nc t iona l c l o th ing f a s t ene r s a nd , t h ough al i t t le m o r e d eco ra t ive , b ow b rooche sl i k et h eT rumpe t s , mo s ti nt h eb road ly H ead s tud g r oup

b ee n t i re ly r u led o u t .

a nd t h eK nee b r oo ch m ay b er e ga rded s im i la r ly .T he d e ep c ur ve t o t h e p in s o f t h e D ragonesques a nd s o l id /w ir e S -Shaped b rooche s p o in ta ga in t ot h e f a s ten ing o ft h ick , f unc t iona l g a r -

T he r a r i ty o fs u ch b roo che s i nB r i ta in mak e s i te spec ia l ly r e g r e t tab le t h a t ,t h ough a ppa r en t ly d i sp layed i nt h eV ic to r ia C ave c a se o ft h ef o rme rP ig Y a rd C lub Museum ,n of u r the re v idence 6 5

r a ted c i rcu la rp l a te b rooche s o ccu r s . T he re i sn o u nu sua l c on -

m en t s . H oweve r , o the r b rooche s b y v i r tue o ft h e i r d eco ra t ive e l abo ra t ion ( 8 .15 a nd i fi tc ame f r om t h es i t e , 8 . 17 )o rt h en a r r owne s so ft h eg ap b e tween t h eb rooch a nd t h ep in ( 8 .27 -8 .37 ) w ou ld h ave b een mo re c o s t ly i t em sa nd /o rl e s ss u i ted t o ap u r e ly f u nc t iona l r o le , a tl e a s t a s f a r a s f i x ing h eavy c l o th ing g oe s . I ndeed , t h ough much f u r the r r e sea r ch i sr e qu i red al i t t le e v i d ence may s ugge s tt h a tp l a te b rooche sw e re p a r t icu la r ly a s so c i a ted w i th n on -ru ra l s i te sa st h ey w e re i n app rop r ia te f o rf a s t e n ing t h eh eavy g a rmen t sp robab ly w o rn b yt h o se w o rk ing i n t h e o pen ( Dea rne 1 996 , 7 5 ) . I ti sa l so a ppa ren tt h a tt h ese a r e

c en t ra t ion o fD ragone sque s ( d e sp i te t h e p rom inence g i ven t o t h es i t ei ns ome a ccoun t so ft h et ype )b u tc l ea r ly s o l id a nd w i r e S -Shaped b rooche s w e re p opu la r a tt h e s i te , p e rhap s b e ing a v e ry l o ca l i sed f a sh ion . T he l a t ea nd p o s t -Roman b r oo che sa r ev e ry p rob lema t ic i nt h a t 8 . 17 a nd 8 . 57 a r e o fd ub iou s p rovenance a nd 8 . 58 o fl e s s t h an c e r ta in d a te a nd e ven i d en t if i ca t ion . H oweve r , i f8 . 17 d i dc ome f r om t h es i t ei tw ou ld s ugge s tt h ep r e sence o f( o rt h ea cqu i s i t ion o ft h e p i e c e f r om ) s omeone p robab ly o fr e la t ive ly h i gh s o c ia l r ank . 8 . 57 w ou ld b e an o tab le f i nd w i th i mp l ica t ion s f o rA ng lo -

t h eb rooche sw h ich a r ed i sp ropo r t iona te ly o rs u rp r is ing ly r ep r e sen ted a tt h es i te .T rumpe t sa nd H ead s tud s a r et ob ee xpec t e d ( e ven i ft h e ' Che s te r ' T rumpe t s a r e al i t t le f a r n o r th ) a nd

S axon t r ad ing n e two rk s i fi td i d o r ig ina t e a tV ic to r ia C av e a nd w ou ld i mp ly u s e o ft h e s i t e f a r l a te r t h a t mo s t o t he r e v idence

mo s t p l a t e t y pe s a r e f a i r ly w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted . H oweve r , t h e p r e sence o f ar e c tangu la rp la te b rooch o n an o r ther ns i te s eem s t ob e u nu sua l a nd ad i s t inc t c oncen t ra t ion o fr epou s s6 d eco -

s ugge s t s . 8 . 58 , i fi th a sb e en c o r re c t ly i d en t if ied a nd d a t ed ,p r e s umab ly r e f lec t sc a sua ll o s sd u r ing t h e Med ieva lp e r iod .

6 6

CHAPTER 9 : THE OTHER OBJECTS OF COPPER ALLOY

b y Mar t in J .Dearne

* 9 .1

F inge r R ing ( I n t .D i .1 .85cm ) . C i rcu la r , D sec t ioned h oop w o rn a tb a se a nd e xpand ing t oo va l / lozeng if o rm b eze l w i th d eep s e t t ing f o rs im i la r ly s haped l o s t ? i n t a g l io r e ta ined b y f o u r u p s tand ing ' c law s ' . O u te r s hou lde r s o fh oop w i th f ou r p a i r s o fs c ro l l s a nd t wo p a i r so fd i agona l sf o rmed b yp unch ma rk s . ( LC .V ) .

* 9 .2

D i t to ( I n t .D i .1 .45cm ) . C a s t , p la in a nd D sec t ioned . ( LC .V ) .

* 9 .3

D i t to ( I n t .D i .1 .65cm ) .C a s t ,p l a in a nd f l a t tened c i r cu l a rs e c t ion . ( LC .V ) .

* 9 .4

D i t to ( Max . ln t .D i . 1 . 57cm ) . Two t u rn c i r cu la r s e c t i oned w i re s p i ra lr i ng .E nd sp o in ted . ( LC .TL ) .

* 9 .5

? D i t to ( Max . ln t .D i .1 .75cm ) .R e c tangu la rs e c t ioned b a r b en ti n to c i rc le .T e rm ina l ss l igh t ly o ve r lapped .( LC .V ) .

* 9 .6

D i t to ( I n t .D i .1 .7cm ) .C i r cu la r ,c i rcu la rs e c t ioned h oop w or na tb a se w i th i n c i sed l i ne si m i ta t ing b r a ided w i re . P o s s ib le t r ace s o fg i ld ing a nd r ed a nd t u rquo i se ? co r r o s ion p roduc t sn ea rb eze l w h ich i sc u rved ,f l a ta nd a t h inn ing a nd w iden ing o f t h e h oop . C i rcu la r b l ue e name lc e l li nb eze l .P r ev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b yD awk in s ( 1 872 ,P 1 . 1N o .4 ; 1 874 , f r on t i sp iece , N o .4 ) . ( LC .BA ) .

b e tween c r o s sg rooved z one s ,c r o s sg roove sc onf ined t oe dge st owa rd st a pe r ing t e rm ina l . ( LC .BA ) . * 9 .9

9 . 10

* 9 .7

D i t to ( I n t .D i .1 .72cm ) .C i rcu la r' t r ink e t 'r i ng ,n ow v e ry c o r roded . Ma rg in sr e ta in t r a ce so fs e r ie so fe xpan s ion s / k nob s . ( LC .V ) .

O ft h e se t e n f i nge rr i ng s o n ly o ne ,9 . 1 , w a s o r ig ina l ly s e tw i th as t one o ri n tag l io , t h ef ou r ' c law s 'k eep ing i ti np l ace b e ing a r e la t iv e ly u nu sua lf e a tu re .T he r i ng f o rm i sp r e sumab ly H en ig ' s ( 1 974 ,4 7a nd F i g .1) t y pe I Io ft h es e cond h a lf o ft h ef i r s ta nd e a r ly s e cond c en tu r ie sa nd t h eu nu sua lp unched s c ro l l sa r es im i l a rt ot h o se s e en o n s ome Hod H i l l b rooche s ( c f . p a r t icu la r ly o ne f r om S ou th Y o rk sh i re i n D ea rne a nd P a r son s 1 997 , 4 2 , N o .3 ) . Mo s t o f t h e r e s t a r e s imp le c a s t r i ng s ( 9 .2 a nd 9 . 3 ) , ' h omemade 'r i ng s( 9 .4 a nd 9 . 5 )o ro t he rf o rm so f' t r inke t 'r i ng , m any o f w h ich a r e n o t c l o se ly d a teab le . 9 . 6 's h oop i m i ta t e s t h o se o ft w i s ted w i r e ( e .g . Woodea ton : K i rk 1 949 , 2 2 N o .14 a nd F ig .5 N o .11 )a nd i t sb eze ls e t t ing i m i ta t e s ,l i ke 9 . 7 's ,r i ng s w i th s t one s e t t ing s .9 . 6i sh a rd t od a te b u t9 . 7p r e sumab ly f a l l s i n to / im i ta te sH en ig ' s( 1 974 ,4 9a nd F ig .2 )t y p eX bw h ich s e em s t ob e t h i rd c en tu ry . 9 . 8 i so fs t r ip f o rm , i t sd eco ra t ion m i r ro r i n gl a t eR oman b r a ce le tt y pe s( e .g .A r thu ra nd Wh i t ehou se 1 978 F ig .7 N o .13 ; Whee le r 1 932 , F ig .17 t ype K ) . I ndeed , i tm igh t e ven b e made o f ab r ace le tf r agmen t .T he r i ng 9 . 9h a s al a rge , s o l id b ez e ll i ke ar i ng f r om S .Sh ie ld s( A l la son -Jone sa nd M ike t 1 984 ,120 N o .3 .165 )a nd a ni n c ised ( ? ev i l )e ye d e s ign . No p a r -

D i t to ( Max . In t .D i .1 .65cm ) . B roken , t r iangu la r s e c t i oned , c on t inuou s ly e xpand ing h oop . O va l , s hou l d e r ed b eze l w i th i n c i sed l i ne d own m idd le o fs hou l d e r s . O va lr ed e name ls e t t ing i nb eze l .B roken a c ro s s b eze l i na n t iqu i ty , n ow g l ued t o ge the r w i th as l igh t d i s to r t ion , a nd i lu s t r a ted w i th t h e d i s to r t ion c o r r ec t e d .P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b yD enny ( 1860 ,P 1 .2 N o .7 ) . ( LC .JK ) .

a le l f o r t h i s h a s b een n o ted a nd d a t ing i sp rob lema t ic , o n ly t h ei n c i sed n a tu r eo ft h eb eze lp e rhap sh i n t ing a t al a te R oman o r ig in .

N .B . T he r ei sn od oub tt h a tt h i si t em w a sa mong s tt h eJ a ck s on m a t e r ia l p u rcha sed f r om M i s s K now le s b y M r .T o t L o rd a nd i ti sn o t ed a si nt h e J a ck son C o l lec t ion b y D enny ( 1 860 , 5 0 )b u t ad e sc r ip t ion o ft h ec o l lec t ion i nT he S e t t le C hr on ic l e f o r1 s t May 1 855 n o te s ar i ng t h a tm igh tb ee qua ted w i th i tb u t a ppea r s t ob ea t t r ibu ted t oD owke rbo t tom H o le C ave .T he e v i d ence o f an ew spape rr e po r tp robab ly c omp i led f r om ab r ie f

* 9 .11 B ead ( Ex t .D i .0 .58cm ) .B roken ,c i r cu la ra nd o fD sec t i on . ( LC .V ) . 9 . 12

B race le t f r agmen t ( L .unknown ) . T iddeman ( 1875 , 1 36 )r e co rd s af i ve s t rand b ra ided w i r e b r ace le tf r ag m en tw h ich d oe s n o t ma t ch a ny e x tan tp i ece , t hough i ti sp o s s ib le t h a ti tw a s am i sde sc r ip t ion o fo ne o ft h e f o l low ing . ( L .BA ) .

p e ru sa l o ff i nd l a be l s a nd w h ich i sa nyway o n t h i s p o in t o f p rovenance l e s st h an e xp l ic i t ,i sf a rf r om c onc lu s ive b u td oe s u r ge c au t ion i na ccep t ing 9 . 7a s aV ic to r ia C ave f i nd . 9 . 13 * 9 .8

D i t to ( I n t .D i .2 .2cm ) . C i rcu la r , D sec t ioned h oop e x p and ing al i t t le t o wo rn a nd p i t ted c a s t r e c tangu la r b eze l r e ta in ing i n c i sed e ye w i th c en t ra l p up i l a nd a s t ra igh t l i ne o n o ne s i de ( a n e qu iva len t o n t h e o t he r s i de i sr e p re sen ted o n ly b yv e ry s l igh tt r ace s ) .( LC .V ) .

D i t to ( I n t .D i .2 .0cm ) . C i rcu la r . S t r ip f o rm w i th o ne b l un ta nd o ne t a pe r ing t e rm ina l s .R ing a nd d o t mo t if s 6 7

D i t to ( I n t .D i .5 .58cm ) . App rox ima te ly h a lf o f at h ree s t rand b ra ided w i re b race le t , p robab ly r e con s truc ted f r om t wo f r agmen t s a si th a s az one o fg r ey s o lde ra t

8 . 58

9 .1

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9 .3

9 .4

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o ne p o in t .P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1 844 ,P 1 .27 N o .5 ) . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .55 .J I ) . 9 . 14

D i t to ( I n t .D i .4 .46cm ) . L e s s t h an h a lf o ft h ree s t rand b r a ided w i re b race le tl a ck ing t e rm ina l s .( LC .BA ) .

9 . 15

D i t to ( I n t .D i .5 .23cm ) . S im i la r . ( LC .BA ) .

9 . 16

D i t to ( L .7 .46cm ) . S im i la r , r e ta in ing ah ooked t e rm i n a la nd ma t ch ing t h en ex t . ( LC .BA ) .

9 . 17

* 9 .29 B ra ce le t( Max . In t .D i . 6 . 23cm ) . C a s t , p enannu la r ,c i r c u la rs e c t ioned ( D i .0 .54cm ) w i th c rude r ad ia l g roov i n g . P la in b l un t t e rm ina l s . P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y D enny ( 1 860 , P 1 .2 N o .4 ) . ( LC .JK ) . * 9 .30 B ra ce le tf r agmen t( L .2 .54cm ) .T e rm ina lf r agmen tf r om b ra ce le t s im i la r t ot h e l a s t . 0 .489cm D i . Z one s o f s t ra igh ta nd a ng led g roove s . ( LC .BA ) . * 9 .31 D i t to ( L .4 .9 1cm ) .A pp rox ima te ly h a lf o f ab r a ce le ts im i l a r t o t h e l a s t . 0 . 44cm D i . b a r . B race le t i n te rna l D i .c .4 .07cm .C rude r a d ia lg roov ing .P a r t much g r eene r a nd mo re c o r roded t h an t h er e s t , ? f rom b ur ia l i nc on t a c tw i th a no the ro b jec t . ( LC .BA ) .

D i t to ( L .7 .34cm ) .S im i la r ,l a ck ing t e rm ina la nd m a t ch i n gt h el a s t . ( LC .BA ) .

* 9 .18 D i t to ( L .4 .75cm ) . S im i la r , r e ta in ing l oop t e rm ina l . T wo o ft h et wen ty c a ta logued i t em s ,9 . 16 a nd 9 . 17 ,c ome f r om t h es ame b r a ce le ta nd af ew o t he r s may b ee qua tab le b u ts e v e n t een o re i gh teen s epe ra te b race le t s a r e l i ke ly t ob e r ep re s en ted h e re . Mo s tt y pe so fc oppe ra l loy b race le ta r ea ppa ren t l yl a te t h i rd a nd f ou r th c en tu ry i nd a te ( e .g . C rummy 1 983 ,

( LC .V ) . 9 . 19

D i t to ( L .4 .05cn i ) . S im i la rb u tr a the rf i ne g auge w i r e , r e ta in ing l o op t e rm ina l . ( LC .V ) .

9 . 20

D i t to ( L .2 .76cm ) . S im i la r ,l a ck ing t e rm ina l s . ( LC .V ) .

9 . 2 1

D i t to ( L .4 .53cm ) .S im i la r ,l a ck ing t e rm ina l s .( LC .JK ) .

9 . 22

D i t to ( L .3 .34cm ) . S im i la r ,l a ck ing t e rm ina l s . ( LC .V ) .

9 . 23

3 7 )a nd t h i si sr ef lec ted i nt h e i rf r equency i nl a te rR oman c em e t e r ie s a nd o n o t he r s im i la r ly d a ted s i te s s uch a s L ydney ( Whee le r1 932 , 8 2 -3 ) ,t hey ( Woodwa rd a nd L each 1 993 , 1 62 6 ) ,L ankh i l l s ( C la rke 1 979 , 3 0 1-14 ) a nd C o lche s te r( C rummy 1 983 , 3 7 -45 ) . T he c ommone s t t ype a tV ic to r ia C ave ( a nd A l b e r t C av e f r om w he re s ome o f t h em e v iden t ly c ame ; a bove p 15 )w a st h et h r ee s t rand b r a ided t y pe w i th w i re st i gh t ly t w i s ted

B race le t ( Max . In t .D i .5 .46cm ) . V e ry c o r roded . S t r ip f o rm w i th t wo l i ne s o fc ab l ing p robab ly d e tec tab le . E roded s pa tu la te o rp o s s ib ly s nake -headed t e rm ina l s . ( LC .JK ) .

a nd e x te rna l ly s moo thed , t o ge the r w i th a n u nconf i r rnab le r e p o r t o f af i ve s t rand b ra ided b r ace le t . Wh i l s t c ommon a tt h e a bove s i t e s s u ch b r a ce le t s a ppea ra se a r ly a st h ee a r ly s e cond c en tu ry ( Coo li nD a r l ing w i th G u rney 1 993 , 8 3 ) . Two h e r eh ave l o op t e rm ina l s , af e a tu re a ppa ren t ly a b sen ta tt hey o rC o lche s te r a nd r a re a tL ankh i l l s( a nd t h en mo re o f ad eve loped h ook t h an al o op ) b u tw he the rt h i s h a s c h rono log ica l s i gn if icance i sn o t c l ea r . O ft h e o t he r b r ace le t s a l l b u t o ne a r e l i ke ly t ob e l a te R oman . T he e xcep t ion i s9 . 23 w h ich i sv e ry b ad ly c o r roded mak ing i t sp r ec i se t y po logy h a rd t oe s tab l i sh b u tw h ich m igh t

* 9 .24 B ra ce le tf r agmen t( L .6 .85cm ) .S t ra igh tened o u t . S t r ip f o rm ,p a ra l le l ma rg ina lg roove sa nd z one so fc l o se s e t e l onga ted o va l ? punch m a rk s a c ro s s , n ea r ly p a ra l le l t oe dge sa nd i np a ir sf o rm ing r e ve r sed L s .P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1844 ,P 1 .28 N o .7 ) .( BM 1 848 .5 1 .69 .1 1 ) .

b ee a r l ie rt h an t h e o t he rf o rm s . O ft h e r e s t 9 . 24 may b e c om p a r ed w i th C rummy ( 1 983 ,4 0N o .1679 ) ,L loyd - Mo rgan ( 1 994 , 1 78 N o .27 a nd c i ted p a ra l le l s )a nd Woodwa rd a nd L ea ch ( 1 993 , F ig .127 , N o .24 a nd F ig .128 , N o .17 ) ; 9 . 25 w i th C la rke ( 1 979 , F ig .37 N o s 10 , 1 84 a nd 2 63 ) ; a nd 9 .26 w i th L loyd -Mo rgan ( 1994 , 1 78 N o .34 ; c i t ing l a te r t h i rd a nd f ou r th /f i f th c en tu ry p a ra l le l s ) . 9 . 27 i so f at y pe c ommon i nl a te R oman c on tex t s ( e .g .C rummy 1 983 , 3 8 N o s 1 640 -51) a nd 9 . 28 i sc ompa rab le

* 9 .25 D i t to ( L .5 .38cm ) .C a s ta nd D sec t ioned w i th t a pe r ing h ooked t e rm ina l b eyond t h r ee c r o s s g r oove s . D eco r a ted w i th g roove s g i v ing a l te rna t ing w ide r a nd n a r r owe r z ones , t h e l a t te r w i th c en t ra l p unch ma rk s . ( LC .JK ) . * 9 .26 D i t to ( L .2 .9cm ) . S t r ip f o rm . N ick s o rp unched t r ian g l e so no u te re dge o fo ne f a ce .( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .70 .J I ) . * 9 .27 D i t to ( I n t .D i .c . 3 .95cm ) .A pp rox ima te ly h a lf o fs ma l l , p l a in ,c a s t ,s ub -ova l s e c t ioned b ra ce le t . ( LC .JK ) .

b u t h a s u nu sua l t e rm ina l s , p e rhap s r a is ing as u sp ic ion t h a t i t h a sb een c u td own f r om s ome o the ro b jec t . 9 . 29 -9 .31 p r e sum a b ly c r ude ly i m i ta te b ra ided w i re t y pe s a sd o s ome s ha le a nd j e ta rm le t s ( e .g . C rummy 1 983 , 3 6 No .1556 ) . T he t y pe i sn o t

* 9 .28 ? D i t to ( I n t .D i . c . 3 .5cm ) . C i rcu la r s ec t ioned ( D i .0 .38cm ) c a s t b a rw i th r a ndom p unch ( ?o r c o r ro s i on )m a rk so n i nne rf a ce . F ound ( a sa na r ch ive p ho t o g raph c onf i rm s ) b en t i n to ac i r c le b u t n ow o pened

p r e sen t a tU ley , L ankh i l l s o r C o lche s te r b u t i sk nown f r om S .Sh ie ld s ( A l la son -Jone s a nd M ike t 1 984 , 1 26f f , t y pe 7 i n c . N o s 3 . 244 -7 ) a nd , f o ri n s tance f r om al a te f ou r th c en tu ry d e p o s i ta tS hak enoa l c( B rod r ibb ,H and sa nd Wa lke r 1 973 ,F ig .55 N o .210 ) .

o u ti n to ac u rve . One t e rm ina l w i th t r iangu la r c ham f e r ing s o n b o th f a ce s ; t h e o t he rs l igh t ly t u rned b a ck ,

* 9 .32 Z oomo rph ic H eaded P in ( L .4 .4cm ) . S ho r t , t a pe r ing ,

b roadened , t h inned a nd c ham f e red a c ro s s t h e e nd o f

r e c tangu la r s e c t ioned p i n . E roded h ead w i th s qua red

t h ei n ne rf a ce . ( LC .JK ) .

b a ck , p ro jec t ing s qua red s nou t /no se p o s s ib ly w i th a t r a ce o f ar a i sed mou ld ing a ti t s b ack , a nd a n a ng led

6 9

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. 41

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9 . 7 1 4 1 1 14

•

•42

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•43

I M O L UN O N L I • 37 •44

•50

•47

•48

• 52 —

• 62

Green

B lue

Wh ite

64

F igur e 1 6 : O b jec t so fC oppe rA l loy ( 1 :1 ) . 7 0

f

g roov ea ti t sm ee t ing w i th t h e s ha f t . P rev iou s ly i lu s t r a t ed b yK ing ( 1 970 ,F ig .3 c en t re r i gh t ) . ( LC .JK ) .

s a le xpan s ion b u ti tp robab ly f a l l sw i th in C rummy 's t y pe 4( l a t e t h i rd a nd f ou r th c en tu ry ) , e spec ia l ly a si ts e em s t ob e b ea ten / c u to u tn o tc a s t . N one o ft h e o t he rc o sme t ic i t em s a r ec l o se ly d a teab le , t h ough t h ee l abo ra t ion o f9 . 43 i sn o tab le .

C on t ra K ing ( 1 970 , c ap t ion t oF i g .3 ) a nd d e sp i te h eavy e ro s i on t h is i sc l ea r ly az oomo rph ic h eaded p i n a nd c an b e c om p a red i ng ene ra lt e rm st ot h a tf r om t h em a in ly l a te R oman a s s emb lage f r om t h e C hedda r C ave s ( Bran igan a nd D ea rne 1 991b ,F ig .1 ,N o .1 )a nd a no the rf r om al a te f ou r th c en tu ry c on -

* 9 .44 S ea l B ox L id ( D i .2 .29cm ) . C i r cu la r w i th o u te r m a r g in m i ss ing i nd ica t ing h i nge p o s i t ion . C hamp leve e name l led w i th s l igh t ly a s ymme t r ica ll e a fs haped c e l l n ow o fy e l lowy g reen c o lou ri nf i e ld r e ta in ing t r a ce s o fg r een . R e se rved l i ne sl i nk ing b a se a nd ( v ia as po t ) t o po fl e a ft o ma rg in a nd d e scend ing f r om s po tt of l ank l e a f . P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y D awk in s ( 1872 , P 1 . 1 N o .6 ; 1 874 , f r on t i sp iece N o .6 ) . ( LC .BA ) .

t e x t a tS hak enoak ( Brod r ibb ,H and s a nd Wa lke r 1 973 ,F ig .55 N o .205 ) . T he a s soc ia t ion s o ft h e se r ef lec t t h e f ou r th c en tu ry d a t e o fs uch p i n s . 9 . 33

P in t i p( L .2 .27cm ) . ( LC .V ) .

* 9 .34 N a i lC leane r( L .5 .5cm ) .S hee tf o rm w i th b roken h ead . N a r row w i th p a ra l le l s i des , a nd a ngu la rb a sa l e xpan s i on e nd ing i nt wo p rong s . P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y D awk in s( 1 872 , F i g .1 N o .2 ; 1 874 , f r on t sp iece , No .2 )

9 . 45

? Sea l B ox f r agmen t ( D imen s ion s u nknown ) . ' T i dde man ( 1 875 , 1 36 )r e co rd s ` . .a s c en tb ox o rv i na ig r e t te p e r f o ra ted w i th f ou r h o le s , i na ppea rance s ome th ing l i ke t h e t o p o f ap eppe rca s te r , o n ly o ne s i de o fi tr e ma in ing , t oge the rw i th t h e h i nge s t i l l i nw o rk ing o r -

a nd K ing ( 1970 ,F i g .3 ) . ( LC .BA ) .

d e r , a nd t h el oop b yw h ich i tw a ss u spended '. The o b j e c ti sc e r ta in ly l o s tb u tt h ed e sc r ip t ion m igh tw e l lf i t t h eb a se o f as ea lb ox ,p e rhap se ven f r om 9 . 44 .( L .BA ) .

* 9 .35 D i t to ( L .7 . 1cm ) . S hee t f o rm t opped b y r ounded s u s p en s ion l o op .W id e ,r ounded b ody w i th t h in l e gs l igh t l ye xpanded i n to f o rked b a se , u p f r om w h ich r un s a s p lay ing g roove .P r ev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b yK ing ( 1970 , F ig .3d b o t tom ) . ( LC .TL ) .

9 . 44 ' sd eco ra t ion i sc ommon ,w i th o rw i thou tt h ef l ank ing l i ne s w i th t e rm ina l s po t s ( s ty l i sed t e nd r i l s ) . Mo re o f ten i ta ppea r s o nl e a fs haped l i d s ( e .g . C o lche s t e r : C rummy 1 983 , 1 04 T ype

* 9 .36 E a r S coop ( L .7 . 1cm ) . I den t ica l t ot h e l a s t b u t w i th r ounded b a se w i th s ha l low o va lr e ba te . P rev iou s ly i l l u s t ra ted b y K ing ( 1 970 ,F ig .3d t o p ) . ( LC .TL ) .

4 a )b u tt h i s c i r cu la rf o rm i sk nown e l sewhe re ( e .g . N ew s tead : C u r le 1 911 ,3 30 a nd P 1 .89 N o .7 ;D o r che s t e r : Woodwa rd ,D av i e sa nd G r aham 1 993 ,F ig .68 N o .90 ;J ew ry Wa l l : K enyon 1 948 , 2 55 N o .9 ) . Mo s te name l led s e a lb oxe sa r ep robab ly s e cond o r t h i rd c en tu ry a nd i tmay b et h a ts e a lb oxe s c ea sed t ob em ade

* 9 .37 T weeze r s( L .4 .7 1cm ) .O ne l e go n ly .P a ra l le ls i ded ,a n g l ed j aw sa nd g roove d own e ach e dge . ( LC .V ) . 9 . 38

D i t to ( L .4 .3cm ) .A st h el a s tb u te n t i re ly p l a in .( LC .V ) .

9 . 39

D i t to ( L .5 .24cm ) . A s 9 . 37 b u t e xpand ing l e g a nd c u rved j aw s . ( LC .V ) .

i n t h e l a te t h i rd c en tu ry ( e .g . C rummy 1 983 , 1 03 ) b u t t h e p re sen td e s ign a tl e a s td oe sn o ts e em t ob e mo re c l o se ly d a tea b l e . 9 . 46

' Need le s ' ( D imen s ion su nknown ) . Sm i th ( 1865 ,2 08 ) n o te sc oppe ra l loy n eed le sa nd Mo r r i son ( 1870 / 1 , 10 ) ' Need le sa nd p in so fb one a nd b ronze 'w h i le D awk in s ( 1872 , 6 2 ) a ga in m en t ion s b ronze n eed le s f r om t h e s i te . N oc oppe r a l loy n eed le s a r ee x tan t a nd o n ly t h e f ew d i sa s soc ia ted b rooch p i n s a nd 9 . 32 -9 .33 a l ready

* 9 .40 T o i le tS poon /Spa tu la ( L .5 .76cm ) . S ho r t ,c i r cu la rs e c t i oned h and le a nd s l igh t ly a ng led , f l a t , p ea r -shaped ' b ow l ' . ( LC .V ) .

l i s ted .T he l a t te r may e xp la in Mo r r i son 's r e f e rence b u t Sm i th a nd D awk in sa r eu n l ike ly t oh ave made t h ee l -

* 9 .41 T o i le tS poon ( L .4 .12cm ) . S im i la rb u ts ma l l , s ha l low , r ound b ow l o n l i ne o fh and le . P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y K ing ( 1970 ,F ig .3h ) . ( LC .V ) .

e men ta ry m i s tak e o ft a k ing a ny a sn eed le s a nd , a si t i sp o s s ib le t oe s tab l i sh t h a ta tl e a s tf ou rs epa ra te i t em s a r ei n vo lved ,t h ey a r ea lmo s tc e r ta in ly r e co rd ing g en u ine ly l o s tf i nd s . ( L .S ) .

* 9 .42 D i t to ( L .8 .5 1cm ) .L a rge r ,w i th c i r cu la rs e c t ioned h an d l e ,t h ick ened n eck w i th i n c i sed d eco ra t ion ( ? im i ta t i n gb i nd ing ) ,a nd s ha l low ,c i rcu la rb ow lw i th p o in ted

* 9 .47 S tud ( D i .1 .9cm ) .C i rcu la r .P e r iphe ra li n c i sed l i ne a nd

f r on t . P r ev iou s ly i l u s t ra ted b y K ing ( 1970 , F ig .3h ) . ( LC .V ) .

c en t ra l p unch ma rk i nd i shed z one s u r rounded b y s l igh t ly r a ised e name l a nnu lu s a nd p la in ma rg in . E name lp i t ted a nd r agged i np l a ce sb u tb l ue w i th f i ve s l igh t ly i regu la r ly p l aced c i r cu la r / sub -c i rcu la rw h i t e

* 9 .43 D i t to ( L .5 .8cm ) . C i r cu la rs e c t ioned h and le w i th as e r i e so fb ead sa nd r e e l s ,a nd s ha l low ,o va lb ow l .P rev i -

r ounde l s ,t wo r e ta in ing ? da rk b l ue c en t ra ls po t s .S ho r t , c i rcu la rs e c t ioned t a pe r ing s hank e nd ing i nt h in ,w o rn , c i rcu la rb u t ton .P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1 844 , P 1 .10 N o .10 ) . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .65 .J I ) .

o u s ly i l u s t ra ted b yK ing ( 1970 ,F ig . 3 h ) . ( LC .V ) . 9 . 35 a nd 9 . 36 c l ea r ly f o rm ap a i ro rp a r to f ac ha t te la ine g roup , 9 . 35 b e ing o fC n immy ' s ( 1 983 , 5 8 ) t y pe 2 a ( d a ted m id / la te f i r s ta nd p robab ly s e cond c en tu ry )a nd 9 . 36 s ha r ing i t sd a t ing .

* 9 .48 D i t to ( D i .1 .6cm ) . C i rcu la r . D omed s hee t w i th p a r to f s u r round ing r i dge a nd s t ub o fc i r cu la rs e c t ioned s hank .

9 . 34 i s al i t t le p r ob lema t ic w i th i t sb roken t o pa nd u nusua lb a 7 1

P rev ious ly i lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1 844 , P 1 .27 N o .2 ) . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .75 .J I ) . 9 . 49

* 9 .71 D i t to ( D i .2 .6cm ) . S im i la r t op reced ing b u t w i thou t r a i sed ma rg in .B a ck r e ce s sed w i th i r on s hank s l igh t ly o fc en t re p ro jec t ing f r om i r on p l in th . ( LC .JK ) .

D i t to ( D i .1 .45cm ) . S im i la rb u tw i thou tr i dge . C en t ra l h o le whe r e s hank h a sd e ta ched . ( LC .V ) .

T he s t ud sa nd n a i lc ov e r9 . 47 -9 .71 i n c lude b o th f u nc t iona la nd d eco ra t ive p i ece s a nd a tl e a s tt wo g roup s o f ma te r ia l o fs ome w ide ri mpor tance . 9 . 47 m ay b ep a r to f aw ide sp read g roup o f

* 9 .50 ? Na i l C ove r ( L .1 .45cm ) . P robab ly o va l ; d amaged . D omed s hee tw i th o r ig ina lh o le s u r rounded b ya tl e a s t t wo i n c i sed e ye shaped l i ne s .P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1844 , P 1 .27 N o .4 ) . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .76 .J I ) . 9 . 51

d eco ra t ive ly v a r iab le s t ud s ( c onven ien t ly H a t ta t t 1 989 , 4 23 -5 i n c lud ing t h ree s t i l la t ta ched t o am e ta lp l a te ) .T he d e s ign h e re i sa l so k nown w i th g l a s ss po t s( c f . Woodwa rd a nd L ea ch 1 993 , 1 59 N o .2 )a nd may c opy s e cond c en tu ry p l a te b rooche s .H ow e ve r , ap a ra l le lm igh ta l so b ed rawn w i th t h ep robab le s i ze g rad -

? S tud H ead ( D i .1 .3cm ) . S im i la r t o9 . 49 b u t l a ck ing s hank o rs ca rf r om o ne . ( LC .TL ) .

u a ted ? m i l i ta ry h o r se / ca r t h a rne s s s t ud s e t s i nt h e m id th i rd c en tu ry Wange h oa rd ( Lodew i jcx e ta l 1 993 , 7 5 , N o .4 .3 ) , t h ough t h ey h ave s ho r t e rs hank s , s t ra igh te dge sa nd ac oncen t r i ce name l led z one p a t te rn . 9 . 48 a nd 9 . 49 ( c f .C r ummy 1 983 , 16 N o .3140 ) a r e n o t s pec if ica l ly i d en t if iab le a nd n o r i st h e n a i l c ove r 9 . 50 u n le s s t h e b road ly c ompa rab le ? m i l i ta ry s t ud f r om A lce s te r( L loyd -Mo rgan 1 994 , 1 82 No .148 c i t ing a no th e r )i so fr e levance .

* 9 .52 .9 .62 S tud s ( D i s . 2 . 1 -2 .3cm ) . E leven s t ud s , i d en t ica l e xcep t f o r w ea r / co r ro s ion v a r ia t ion s . C i rcu la r . F a ce s w i th o u te r c onvex z one w i th c en t ra l , t r unca ted , c en t r a l ly d imp led c one . B ack s f l a tw i th r i dged e dge a nd c omp le te ,u nd i s to r ted ,t a pe r ing ,s qua re s ec t ioned ,n a i l l i ke i r on s hank sc en t ra l ly . ( LC .TL ) . 9 . 63

B e l l -Shaped S t ud ( D i .3 .6cm ) .C i r cu la r . Two s ma l lm a r g i na lr i dge sa r ound d i shed c en t r ew i th t r unca ted ,c en t r a l ly d imp led c one .B a ck w i th s ma l lb u td eep c a s tc i r c u la r s k i r t s l igh t ly h o l lowed a nd r e ta in ing f r agmen t

T he e l even s t ud s 9 . 52 -9 .62 a r eo fs ome i mpo r tance s i nce , e x c ep t ing w ea r / co r ro s ion ( g iv ing a t mo s t a0 . 2 a nd u sua l ly a s l i t t le a s a0 .05cm v a r ia t ion i n d i ame te r ) t hey a r e i d en t ica l ( t hough n o td emon s t rab ly f r om t h es ame mou ld ) .T hey a r ea l so c omp le te a nd u nd i s to r ted a nd w e re a ppa ren t ly f ound t o ge the r o u t s ide t h e c ave ( Lo rd Ms s . ) , s ugge s t ing s imu l taneou s d epo s i t ion ,q u i te p o s s ib ly w h i le s t i l la t ta ched t o ap re sumab ly w ood e n o b jec t . S e t s o fs t ud s o ft h i s f o rm a nd n umbe r a r e u ncom mon f i nd s a nd t h e f o rm a nd l e ng th o f t h e ir s hank s i n d ica te t h a tt h ey w e re d r iven i n to s ome th ing w e l l o ve r 2 cm i nt h ick n e s s , mo s t p robab ly b e ing d eco ra t ive n o t f unc t iona l . I t mu s t b ev e ry l i ke ly t h a tt h i sw a s as ub s tan t ia lb ox o rc he s tb u tt h e re i su nfo r tuna te ly n o th ing o nw h ich t od a te t h es t ud s .

o fs qua re s e c t ioned i r on s hank . ( LC .TL ) . * 9 .64 D i t to ( D i .3 .6cm ) . I den t ica l t o l a s t b u t l onge r , b en t s hank f r agmen t . ( LC .TL ) . * 9 .65 S tud f r agmen t( L .2 .4 cm ) . F rom e dge o fc i r cu la rs t ud w i th s l igh t ly c oncave f r on t w i th t wo c oncen t r ic r i dg e sa round d i shed z one . B eg inn ing o f as k i r t o n b a ck . ( LC .TL ) . * 9 .66 B e l l -Shaped S tud ( D i .1 .9cm ) .C i r cu la r .F la t tened m a r g i na nd r i dge a r ound d i shed c en t r ew i th t r unca t ed ,c en -

S tud s 9 . 63 a nd 9 .64 w e re f ound o u t s ide t h e c ave o n t h e s ame d ay a st h e p reced ing g r oup ( Lo rd Ms s . ) a nd , w h i le i tc anno t b e p roven , o ne s u spec t s t h a t t h ey m ay h ave b een f ound w i th t h em . A ga in , b u t f o r d amage /co r ro s ion t h ey a r e i d en t ica l ( t hough t h i s t ime t h e s hank s a r e i n comp le te /ben t ) . T hey ( a nd

t r a l ly d imp led c one . B a ck c onvex w i th c en tra lc i r cu l a rs k i r t ma sk ing s t ub o fc i r cu la rs e c t ioned i r on s hank . ( LC .TL ) .

9 .65 -9 .67 ) a r e w ha t A l la son -Jone s ( 1985 ) h a s c a l led B e l l S haped S tud s . S he i d en t if ied t wo t y pe s o ft h e se , t y pe 1w i th

* 9 .67 S tud ( D i .2 .68cm ) . C i rcu la r . T h ree c oncen tr ic r i dge s a r ound d i shed c en t re w i th t r unca ted , c en t ra l ly d im p l ed c one . B a ck s l igh t ly c onvex w i th t h ree c oncen -

r e c tangu la rs e c t ioned i r on s hank s ( a s9 . 63 a nd 9 . 64 ) , a nd t ype 2w i th b a rl i ke ,o f ten p i e r ced c oppe ra loy s hank s .U n l ike t ype 2s t ud s w h ich s eem t oh ave b een b ox f i t t ing s ( A l la son -Jone s 1 985 , 9 7 )t ype 1s t ud sw e re u sed , o rr e -u sed , a sd agge rp om -

t r i c ,d eepen ing c en t ra l mou ld ing s ,t h ei nne r a? shank . ( LC .JK ) .

m e l s a nd d o lab ra s hea th h i nge s ( op c i t , 1 00 ) b u ti ti su nc lea r w he th e rs ome ( o ra l l )w e re o r ig ina l ly b ox f i t t ing s ,d r awe rh an -

* 9 .68 D i t to ( D i .1 .88cm ) . C i rcu la r . T wo r i dge s , i nne r f l a t t e ned , a round b o s st o pped s epa ra te ly made c one p r e s umab ly h e ld b y r i ve t f o rm ing s t ub o f i r on s hank .

d l e s o re ven d oo r s t ud s ( f o r e x ten s ive t ype 1a nd 2p a ra l le ls a nd u sage s ugge s t ion ss e eA l la son Jone sa nd M ike t1 984 ,2 39 4 2 ;A l la son -Jone s 1 984 ,7 8 ) .T he p r e sen tf i nd sa r eo fp o ten t ia l

( LC .V ) .

i mpo r tance s i nce A l la son -Jone s ( 1985 , 1 00 ) c ou ld c i te n oe x a mp le s o fi d en t ica l t y pe 1s t ud sf r om t h e s ame s i te a nd n o ted t h e i rs t rong b i a st owa rd sm i l i ta ry s i te s ( op c i t . 9 7 -100 , n o t ing o n ly t h ree f r om c i v i l s i t e s ) . T h e V ic to r ia f i nd s a r e t h e re fo re t h ef i r s tp o ss ib le e v idence t h a tt ype 1s t ud s w e re o n o cca s ion

* 9 .69 D i t to ( D i . 1 .6cm ) . C i rcu la r . C onvex e dge , r a ised m a r g i na nd r ece s sed c en t re w i th s ma l l ,l ow ,c en t ra la nnu l u s . B ack s l igh t ly c oncave w i th s t ub o fc i r cu la r s e c t i oned s hank .T race so fw h i te m e ta lf i n i sh . ( LC .JK ) .

u sed i n mu l t ip le sa st y pe 2s t ud sc l ea r ly w e re h ab i tua l ly . Whe th e rt h ey a dd t ot h e s l im e v idence f o r c i v i l a s w e l l a sm i l i ta ry u se i smo re e qu ivoca la si n d i spu tab ly m i l i ta ry f i nd sa r ek nown

9 . 70 D i t to ( D i .1 .55cm ) . I d en t ica l t ol a s tb u t mo re c o r rod e d .L onge rs hank f r agmen t . ( LC .V ) .

f r om an umbe r o f S e t t le C ave s i n c lud ing V ic to r ia ( c .f . 9 . 75 7 2

9 -6 5 66

68

•69

67 72

• 71

i • 74

• 76

• 75

• 77

• 78

I

I 79

F igure 1 7 :O b jec t so fC oppe rA l loy ( 1 :1 ) . 7 3

• 73

b e low ) . Mo s ti mpo r tan th oweve rm ay b et h es u sp ic ion t h a tt h ey w e re a s soc ia ted w i th t h e p robab le b ox f i t t ing s t ud s 9 . 52 -9 .62 a nd s om ay t h em se lve sh ave b een u sed o n ab ox .A ga in t h ough

* 9 .73 T h imb le ( Max .D i .2 .39cm ) . C a s t , c i r cu la r r i ng f o rm o pen a tb o th e nd sw i th f i ve r i ng so fs ub t r iangu la rd e p re s s ion s b e tween i n c i sed l i ne s . ( LC .V ) .

B e l l -Shaped S t ud s a r e n o t c l o se ly d a teab le , e xamp le s b e ing k nown f r om f i r s t t o f our th c en tu ry c on tex t s ( A l la son -Jone s

H o lme s ( 1976 , 6 -7 ) d ef ine s t wo f o rm so fR oman t h imb le a nd t h i sm a tche sh i s ' r ing type ' ,l i ke amode rn s a i lo r ' st h imb le a nd p robab ly f o r s ew ing r a the r t ough m a te r ia l s l i ke l e a the r ; a si s e mpha s ised b y9 . 73 ' sd i ame te r wh ich s ugge s t st h a ti tw a sw o rn

1 985 , 1 02 ) . T he re s e em t ob et h ree o t he rB e l l -Shap ed S t ud sp r e sen t .9 . 65 i s o n ly af r agmen tb u t may w e l l b e f r om ar a the rs ha l low ly c on -

o n t h e t h umb ( c f . H o lme s 1 976 , 3 4 ) . T he s i ze a nd s hape o f i nden ta t ion s h e re a l so s e em t o ma t ch R oman t h imb le ss ot h a t , a l though d a t ing s uch s imp le o b jec t s i sa lway s d if i cu l t , aR o man d a te i sl i ke ly .

c av e e xamp le . 9 . 66 a nd 9 . 67 o n t h eo t h e rh and s e em c l ea r ly t o b eB e l l -Shaped S t ud sb u td on o te n t i r e ly f i tA l la son Jon e s ' s( 1 985 ) c l a s s if i ca t ion .T h ef i r s t ,a sw e l la sh av ing ar a the rw id ec one ,d oe s n o t a g re e w i th h e r t y pe 1a sd ef ined b ecau se i t s i r on s hank i s c i r cu la rn o tr e c tangu la rs e c t ioned a nd b ecau se i ti ss ma l le rt h a t t h e2 . 5 -3 .5cm d i ame te rr a nge g i ven ( A l la son -Jone s 1 985 , 1 00 ) .

* 9 .74 F a s tene r ( L .3 .5cm ) . S l igh t ly a s syme t r ica l a nd d am a ged , r e c tangu la r h eaded s hee t f a s tene r w i th b l un t e nded l e g sf o rmed b yf o ld ing i na nd t h en b ack o ne a ch s i de . ( LC .JK ) .

H oweve r , o t h e r c i r cu la r a nd r e c tangu la r s e c t ioned i r on s hank s a r e s e en o ne xamp le s w i th d i ame t e r s o fa sl i t t le a s1 . 6 cm ( e .g . A l la son Jone sa nd M ike t 1 984 ,2 40 -4 )a nd i tm ay b et h a tA l la s on -Jone s ' s t y pe 1s hou ld b e w idened t oi n c lude t h em o rt h a t s ma l ls t ud s( ?w i th d if e ren tf unc t ion st ot h el a rge ro ne s )i m i ta ted

T he f o rm i sk nown f r om an umbe ro fs i te s ( e .g . Wh i t ton :J a r r e t ta nd Wra thme l l 1 981 , 1 87 -8 N o s9 9 -100 ; D a l ton P a r lou r s :

t h ef o rm .S t ud 9 . 67 w ou ld s e em t ob e amo re i s o la t ed a b e r ra t ion . U nu sua lb u tn o mo r ea r et h em a rked c hange o fa ng le o nt h eb ack w he re s ome m o r en o rma le xamp le sh ave a ni n c i sed l i ne ,a nd t h e

Wra thme l l a nd N icho l son 1 990 , 8 9 N o s 5 1-7 ; B ranca s t e r : H inch l if f e w i th G reen 1 985 F ig .31 N o .32 ; B rough -on -Hum b e r : Wa che r 1 969 , F ig .38 N o .26 ; G o rhambu ry : N ea l , W a rd le a nd H unn 1 990 ,F ig .129 N o .269 ;a nd C i rence s te r :' V ine r1 982 , f i che C O2 a nd F ig .56 N o .78 ) a nd mo re e xamp le s h ave d oub t -

s ma l l d i ame t e ro ft h e s k i r ti nr e la t ion t ot h a to ft h eb a se o ft h e b e l l . B u ta ga in t h es t ud i so ff a rl e s sd i ame te rt h an u sua li fi ti s r e ga rded a sc opp e r -a l loy s han l ced ( A l la son -Jone s 1 9 85 , 1 00 ; a d i ame t e rr a ng et h a td oe sn o ts e em t ob ec on t rad ic ted b ya ny o t h e re xamp le )a nd c oppe ra l loy s hanked ( t ype 2 )s t ud s o t h e rw i se h ave b a rl i k es h ank s .I ndeed ,i ti sn o ta ta lc e r ta in t h a tt h ei n ne r z one o nt h eb a ck o f9 . 67 i s as hank s t ub ;i tmay n eve rh ave b een

l e s sg one u npub l i shed o ru n recogn ised d ue t oc on to r t ion .T he c l ip sa r eo f ten made o fs hee tl o zenge sg i v ing p o in ted l e g sa nd h ead e nd sb u tv a r ia t ion si n c lude f r on ta l ly r e c tangu la rw i th u n p o in ted l e g s( a sh e re )a nd f r on ta l ly r e c tangu la rw i th o ne p o in t ed e nd . T he d i scus s ion o f t h e G o rhambu ry g roup ( op c i t ) s ug g e s ted t h a t t h ey w e re s p l i t p in s o r l e a the r w o rk ing r i v e t s . I t

l o nge r t h an i tn ow i s . T hu s o ne w onde r s , e spec ia l ly a st y pe 2 s t ud s ' s hank sm ay h ave b een mo re f u nc t iona l ly i mpo r tan tt h an t y pe l ' s ,w h e the r9 . 67 j u s tc op ie st h eB e l l -Shaped f o rm a nd w a s a n i n se r ted f i n ia l ( e .g . f o r as t af f , f u rn i tu re e l emen te t c . ) n o t a

T he r ema in ing f ou r s t ud s a r e o fd if e ren t f o rm , t h ough t h e re m ay b eB e l l -Shaped S tud i n f luence o n9 . 68 . N one a r ec l o se ly

s eem su n l ike ly t hough t h a tt h ey s e rved a ny p u rpo se i n vo lv ing s i gn i f ican ts t ra in a nd t h et r iangu la rp rof i le o ft h eu ppe rp a r to f t ho se t h a t a r e w e l l p r e se rved s t rong ly s ugge s t s t h a t t h e l e g s w e r ep a s sed t h rough as l i ti n? l ea the rb efo re b e ing f o lded b a ck , t hu s l e av ing t h e t r iangu la r s ec t ioned u ppe r p a r t c l ea r o ft h e ? l ea the r . I fs ot h ey m igh tw e l lb es e en a sg u ide se i the rf o rn a r r ow s t rap sp a s s ing a l ong w ide ro ne so rf o rs t rap sc ro s s ing e a ch

d a teab le ,a l w e re p robab ly p r ima r i ly d eco ra t ive a nd 9 . 69 a nd 9 . 70 , r em in i scen to ft h ee l even ? box s t ud s , f o rm ap a i r .

o the r . N o c h rono log ica l p a t te rn i sa ppa ren t f r om t h e f i nd s k nown t ot h e a u tho r .

s t ud a ss u ch .

* 9 .72 R o se t te S tud ( D i .1 .39cm ) .F l a t ,e r oded ,c a s ts t ud w i th s i xo r ig ina l ly t r iangu la re nded p e ta l s , a n i n c i sed l i ne a tt h eb a se o fe ach , f o rm ing ac en t ra l s t a rs haped r e b a t e w i th n ipp le . S tub o f c i r cu la r s e c t ioned s hank . ( LC .V ) .

* 9 .75 M i l i ta ry B e l tP l a te f r agmen t( L .3 .44cm ) .O penwo rk ed w i th c ro sse s a nd mu l t ip ly s t epped e l emen t s w i th in a b o rde r . S u rv iv ing e nd w i th p a i r o f w o rn , s t y l i sed s c ro l l sa nd r i ve th o le .D e s ign w o r n /co r roded b u tp a r t s c l ea r ly a s syme t r ica l . P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y D enny ( 1 860 , P 1 .2 N o .10 ) . ( LC .JK ) .

Sma l lr o se t t es t ud sa r ew e l lk nown a sR oman a rmou ra nd h e l m e tf i t t ing s( e .g . B ishop a nd C ou l s ton 1 993 ,F ig .52 N o s 8 12 a nd F ig .56 N o .4 )a nd v a ry c on s ide rab ly i ns i ze a nd d e ta i l( e .g . O lden s te in 1 976 ,T a f .57 ;L eech 1 982 , 1 30 N o s4 174 -5 a nd 1 32 N o s4 204 -8 ) .H oweve r ,t h ey a r eu sua l ly c i rcu la ra nd e mbo s sed , h ave f a r mo r ep e ta l s ,r a re ly h ave s uch b road g roove sb e tween

M i l i ta ry b e l t p la te o penwo rk d es ign s v a ry . T ha t h e re i sq u i te c ommon ( e .g . C ae r leon : Z ienc iew icz 1 986 , F ig .57 N o s 3 6 -7 ; C ae rwen t : B i shop a nd G r if f i th s 1 993 , N o .40 ; M i leca s t le 5 2a : A l la son -Jone s 1 988 , 2 15 N o .52a .3 ; C he s te r : L loyd -Mo rgan 1 987 , P 1 .118 ; S .Sh ie ld s : A l la son -Jone s a nd M ike t 1 984 , 2 24 No .3 .772 w i th e x ten s ive b i b l iog raphy ( t hough n o te t h e` Dowk e rbo t tom 'e xamp le i nf a c tc ome sf r om G rea te rK e lco C ave ,c f . D ea rne 1 990 ) ;H ad r ian 's Wa l la nd S t ragea th :B ishop a nd C ou l s t on 1 993 , F ig .80 N o s 2 3 ) a nd t h e re a r e s imp le rr e la ted p a t t er n s ( e .g . S aa lbu rg : O lden s te in 1 976 , T a f .62 N o .794 ) . H ow

t h ep e ta l sa nd n one h a sb een n o ted b y t h ea u tho rw i th t h es t a r r e ba t e a nd n i pp le h e re . I ndeed , o n ly c e r ta in l a te R oman m il i t a ry b e l ts t ud s w i th p ro jec t ing l o op s h o ld ing r i ng s( e .g . B i sh o p a nd C ou l s ton 1 993 , 1 74 F ig . 1 25 N o s 8 12 ) r e a l ly s e em s im i la r . T hu s , w h i le aR oman m i l i ta ry i n t e rp re ta t ion r ema in s p o s s ib le i ts e em s p rob lema t ic a nd e ven aR oman a so ppo sed

e a r ly o penwo rk b e l t p l a te s a ppea red i sn o t e n t i r e ly c l ea r b u t t h ey e x i s ted b ys ome p o in ti nt h es e cond c en tu ry ,p re f a c ing a n

t o Med ieva ld a te s hou ld n o tb e a s sumed a se s tab l i shed . 7 4

e xpan s ion o f o penwo rk ing i nt h e t h i rd c en tu ry ( B i shop a nd

P o s s ib ly am ina tu re t e r re t ( e .g . Manche s te r : J one s a nd G rea l e y 1 974 , 1 23 N o .16 ;c i t ing a no the rf r om W i lde r spoo l ) ,t h ough u sua l ly t h e se h ave o n ly mou ld ing s a r ound t h e r i ng l i ke f u l ly s i zed p i ece s . H oweve r , t oge the r p e rhap s w i th ar i ng w i th a s ma l le r c a s t o ne o n i t s s i de f r om R o s s ing ton B r idge , S ou th Y o rk sh i re ( Donca s te r Mu seum , u npub l ished ) t h i s m igh t h ave

C ou l s ton 1 993 , 19 ) . * 9 .76 B e l t S l ide /C l ip ( L .5 .6cm ) . N a r row r e c tangu la r b a r t u rned b ack t of o rm r e la t ive ly s ho r ta rm si nt h es ame p l ane . ( LC .V ) .

f unc t ioned s im i la r ly , w ha teve r p rec ise ly t h e i r f unc t ion w a s . * 9 .77 M il i ta ry ? Ha rne s s Moun t( D i .5 .07cm ) .D amaged ,t h in , c i rcu la r ,f r on ta l ly s l igh t ly c onv ex p l a t ew i th c en t ra lc i r c u la rh o le a nd t wo c a s t ,c i rcu la rs e c t ioned s hank sw i th b roade r , c i rcu la rh ead s s yme t r ica l ly o n e i the rs i de o f i to nt h eb ack .T iddeman ( 1 875 , 1 36 )a lmo s tc e r ta in ly r e f e r r ing t ot h i sp i e ce n o te st h a tt h eh o le w a s ' s i lve r ed ' , t h ough n ot r a ce so f aw h i te m e ta lf i n i sh a r en ow v i s i b l e ,a nd t h a ti tc ame f r om t h es po i lh eap . ( LC .BA ) .

Un le s st h ey w e re v o t ive ,w h ich s eem su n l ike ly ,t h ey p r e suma b l y l i nked t wo s t rap s t o ge the r ; t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h ey w e re u sed o n ' t oys '( e .g .t o yc a r t s )s hou ld n o tb ee n t i re ly d i sm is sed . * 9 .79 ?Moun t / Jo in ing S t r ip ( L .6 .3cm ) . N a r row ,r e c tangu la r s e c t ioned b a r , t h inn ing a nd e xpand ing t oo ne b roken a nd o ne f l a red ,r ound e nded t e rm ina l sw i th s l igh t ma r g i na l r i b s o n o ne f a ce a nd s i ng le c i rcu la r h o le s . ( LC .JK ) .

I g no r ing t h ec en t ra lh o le p a ra l le l sa r ep l en t ifu l( e .g . S . Sh ie ld s : A l la son Jone s a nd M ik e t 1 984 No s3 . 956 a nd p e rhap s 3 . 957 ; G e s t ing tho rpe : D rape r 1 985 , 3 6N o .100 ; F u lham :A r thu ra nd Wh i tehou se 1 978 ,F ig .7 N o .6 ; Mon t cha l :F euge re 1 983 ,F ig .28 N o s6 2 -3 ;N iede rb iebe r ,H o lzhau sen a nd S aa lbu rg :O lden s te in 1 976 , 1 86 -7 a nd T a f .56 N o s 6 86 -94 ; a nd e spec ia l ly Wange :

One p a ra l le l h a sb een n o ted f r om S andy , B ed fo rd sh i re ( J ohn s t on 1 974 , F ig .7 N o .20 ) , t h ough s eve ra l s upe rf i c ia l ly s im i la r b u t U shaped ? c rude v e s se l h and le s a r e k nown ( e .g . J ack son 1 990 ,3 8N o .79 a nd P 1 .7 ) .9 . 79 w a sp e rhap s af a s tene r / s t r eng th e ne r f o r aj o in t b e tween t wo p iece s o fm e ta l o rw ood b u t a mo re d eco ra t ive r o le c anno tb er u led o u t .

L odew i jckx e ta l1 993 ,7 5N o .4 .5 ) .T he i rd i ame te r sr a nge f r om 3 . 3t o6 . 4 cm a nd t h e Wange e v idence e s pe c ia l ly i n d ica te st h a t t h ey w e re u sed i ns i ze g r adua ted s e t s , s ma l le r o ne s d own t o c . lcm i nd i ame te rw i th as i ng le s hank b e ing p r e sen ti nc on s id e r ab le n umbe r sa t Wange ( c f . N o .9 .47 a bove ) . Many f r om t h e G e rman p rov inces r e ta in w h i te m e ta l f i n i she s ( A r thu r a nd

* 9 .80 C o l la r /F i t t ing ( L .3 .03cm ) . H eavy , w a i s ted , t ubu la r c a s t ing .P robab ly f r om al a rge rc ompo s i t eo b jec ts uch a s ad eco ra ted s t af f /p iece o ff u rna tu re . ( LC .V ) .

Wh i tehou se 1 978 , 5 8 ) w h i le t h e Wange p i ece s h ave at e chn i c a l ly s oph i s t ica ted e name l l ike s u r f a c ing .T he re i sl i t t le d oub t t h a tt h ey w e re d eco ra t ive h o r se o rc a r th a rne s sf i t t ing sa nd t h e h o le i n9 . 77 w a s p robab ly f o r as t ud ( wh ich m igh t a l so h av e p r ov ided at h i rd a t ta chmen t p o in t ) , t h ough n o p a ra l le l s f o ri t a r ek nown t ot h ea u tho r .

* 9 .81 F in ia l /Hand le ( L .4 .0cm ) . H o l low , c i r cu la r t u be w i th t r unca ted b i con ica l c ro ss mou ld ing b e tween p a ir s o f s imp le r mou ld ing s a tb a se . A bove u ndeco ra ted z one a nd w ide , c onvex t opped h ead w i th t wo e nc i r c l ing r i dge sa nd r a i sed r i ng a to pen s umm i t . ( LC .JK ) . P o s s ib ly ah and le s e cu red b y al ong , b road h eaded s hank b u t

A s e cond a nd t h i rd c en tu ry d a te r a nge s eem s e s tab l i shed

mo re p robab ly af i n ia lt opp ing aw ooden s ha f ta nd s e cu red b y ad eco ra t ive n a i l t h rough t h e t op , t h e mo s t o bv iou s c on tex t s

( e .g .D rape r 1 985 ,4 4 ;A r thu ra nd Wh i t ehou se 1 978 ,5 8 )a nd i s e mpha s i sed b yt h em id th i rd c en tu ry c on t ex to ft h e Wange s c rap

f o r wh ich w ou ld b es t af f so rf u rn i tu re i t em s . An umbe ro fo th e r s a r ek nown ( e .g . C a r s ing ton : D ea rne ,A nde r son a nd B ran i g an 1 995 ,7 2N o .3 .10 )b u tt h e re i sl i t t le c onfo rm i ty i nt h e d e t a i l .

h oa rd . Whe the ru se p e r s i s ted i n to t h ef o u r th c en tu ry i sn o tc l ea r . T he F u lham e xamp le 's c on tex ti sp robab ly l a te f our th c en tu ry b u t t h e p i ece i se n t i re ly l i ke ly t ob e r e s idua l . H oweve r , o ne f r om L ankh i l l s g rave 1 85 i sd a ted 3 10 -70 ( C la rke 1 979 , 3 2 1 a nd F ig .79 , 1 77 ; c i t ing f u r the rg rave f i nd s , o ne o fw h ich m ay b e f ou r th c en tu ry ) . T he L an ldü l ls f i nd w a s i n ac h i ld ' s g r ave s oi su n l ik e ly t oh ave b een i nu se a s ah a rne s sf i t t ing ( ?wa s i t t h ec h i ld ' st o y m i r ro r )b u ti td oe sr a i se t h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a tu se c on t inued i n to t h ef ou r th c en tu ry . Whe the rs u ch h a rne s so r na m en t s w e re e xc lu s ive ly m i l i ta ry i sn o t c e r ta in ( e .g . L odew i -

* 9 .82 ? Kn if e /T oo l Moun t ( L .3 . 1cm ) . E roded , a s syme t r ica l q ua t re f o i l moun t w i th l obe e dge s m i l led , p ro jec t ing a nd e x te rna l ly r ounded ,r e c tangu la r' w ing s 'o nt h ef a ce e i the r s i de o f c en t ra l , r e c tangu la r s l o t , a nd r e ce s sed r e a rs ugge s t ing t h ei n se r t ion o fa n ? ova lh and le p rob a b ly c . 2 .4 b y 2 . 7cm . P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra t ed b y Sm i th ( 1 844 ,P 1 .27 N o .3 ) . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .66 .J I ) .

j ckx e ta l1 993 ,9 8 ) .C lea r ly m any w e r ei nu se b ys o ld ie r sa nd c i v i l f i nd s m igh tr e la te t ov e te ran s o ra rmy d e tachmen t s , b u t e qua l ly s u ch t r app ing sc ou ld h ave b een a dop ted b y c i v i l of i c i a l sa ss i gn so fs t a tu sw h i le ,a tl e a s ta tWange ,t h ey w e re p a r t

* 9 .83 D i t to ( D i .2 .2 1cm ) . C i rcu la r p l a te w i th m i l led e dge s , s l igh t ly r e ce s sed f a ce s a nd s ub -squa re , n ea r ly c en t ra l h o le . ( LC .BA ) .

o f ap robab le h oa rd o fs c rap m e ta l .

* 9 .84 D i t to ( L .2 . 1cm ) . R ec tangu la r w i th o ne e dge s l igh t ly c u rved a nd m i l led .C en t ra lr e c tangu la rh o le .( LC .JK ) .

* 9 .78 ? M ina tu re T e r re t /S t rap J unc t ion ( D i .2 .34 cm ) . C i r cu l a r ,f l a t tened o va ls e c t ioned r i ng ,w idened o no ne s i de , o nt ot h eu ppe rf a ce o fw h ich i sc a s t ar e c tangu la rl o op w i th t wo i n c i sed l i ne sa l ong i t su ppe rf a ce . ( LC .V ) .

No s 9 . 82 -4 w e re p robab ly moun t s f i t t ing b e tween t h e b l ades a nd h and le so fk n ive s / too l s ,t h et a ng sp a s s ing t h rough t h eh o le s a nd t h em i l l ing sf a c i l i ta t ing g r ip .P a ra l le l sa r es u rp r i s ing ly f ew . 7 5

9 . 80 • 82

• 84

i t

=I I E IT M I :

= 1 1 1 1 1

• 83

81

• 86 • 85

87

• 92

90

• 88

93

—n e 94

•9 5

F igur e 1 8 : O b jec t so fC oppe rA l loy ( 1 :1 ) . 7 6

N one h a sb een n o ted f o r9 . 82 , a s sum ing t h a ti ti sR oman ,a nd t h es hape o fs ome s wo rd b l ade moun t s( e .g .H od H i l l : B i shop

* 9 .88 S ca le P an ( Max .D i .7 .4cm ) .I np l ace si r regu la ra nd a n g u la r ly e dged c i rcu la r , r a the r a s syme t r ica l s hee t p an w i th a tl e a s t f ou r o r ig ina l s u spen s ion h o le s ( i n t wo o ppo s ing p a i r s ) a nd t wo f u r the rs u spen s ion o rc o r ro s i on h o le s n ea r e dge s . F la t b a se r epou s s6 d eco ra ted w i th r i ng o fb o s se s( two n ow o n ly h o le s )b e tween t wo p unch ma rk r i ng s a nd c en t ra l ? bo s s n ow r e p re sen ted b y ah o le . ( LC .BA ) .

a nd C ou l s ton 1 993 , F ig .36 N o .3 ) c anno t b e d i rec t ly r e levan t a st h eb l ade h e re w a sc l ea r ly v e ry much n a r rowe r .F o rt h eo t h e r s t h e re i s ap a ra l le lf r om n ea rby A t te r rn i re C ave ( Lo rd C o l l e c t ion , t ob e p ub l i shed ) a nd t h ree u nm i l led e xamp le s c ome f r om C o rb r idge ( B i shop a nd D o re 1 988 , 1 77 N o s 1 47 -9 ) . N o .9 .83 c ome s f r om ak n if e w i th o va l s e c t ioned h and le a nd s qua re t a ng .N o .9 .84 , i ft h em i l l ing i s ag u ide ,c ome sf r om a n o b jec tw i th n a r row r e c tangu la rt a ng a tr i gh ta ng le st ot h a to na

9 . 89

k n if e ,s om igh th ave b e longed t o at oo ls u ch a s ac h i se lw i th a r e c tangu la rs e c t ioned h and le . * 9 .85 ? K ey H and le f r agmen t ( L .4 .2cm ) . B rok en a nd ? cu t r e c tangu la rs e c t ioned c a s t ing e nc lo s ing c o r roded i r on a nd w i th c o r roded ,c i rcu la rs e c t ioned i r on s hank p ro j e c t ing f r om o ne e nd .P la in ,f l a ts i de sw i th s i ng le r i v e th o le . ? Ba sa le dge w i th p la in m a rg ina lr i dge s . ? T op e dg ew i th m i l led m a rg ina lr i dge sa nd b u r ied i n ne rr i dg e sf l ank ing w ide c en t ra l g roove . ( LC .JK ) .

?W e igh t( D imen s ion su nc lea r ) .L o s t ,o va l ,c on ica lo b j e c tw i th c en t ra l c i r cu la rp i e r c ing , k nown f r om t h ei l l u s t ra t ion i n Sm i th ( 1844 , P 1 .28 N o .1) . ( L .J I ) .

* 9 .90 B a r( L .4 .42cm ) . O va ls e c t ioned ,t a pe r ing ,h igh ly c o r r oded a nd w i th v e ry i r regu la rs u r face . ( LC .BA ) . * 9 .91-9 .92 ? Ea r -r ing s o rC ha in L ink s ( L s .1 .5 a nd 1 . 4cm ) . Sma l l , d i s to r ted , b roken l o op s o f f i ne c i rcu la r s e c t i oned w i re , o ne w i th t wo t u rns o f s im i la r w i re w rapped a round ( ? im i ta t ing b ead ) . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .60 a nd 6 1 .J I ) .

A l though l a ck ing mo s to ft h es t em a nd w i th p a r to ft h eh and le p robab ly c u t o ft h i s s e em s t ob e t h e h and le f o r a n i r on k ey , p robab ly o r ig ina l ly w i th a na n ima l ( of t en l i on ) h eaded t e rm i -

P o s s ib ly c r ude A l la son -Jone s( 1 989 )t ype 1e a r r ing s , o ra l te r n a t ive ly l i nk sf r om af i ne c ha in .

n a l . T he s im i la re dge d eco ra t ion o n ag roup o fe l abo ra te k ey s f r om Aug s t( Kau fmann -He in imann 1 977 ,T a f .137 -9 ,e spec ia l l y No .218 )e mpha s ize st h i s ,t h ough r e la t ive ly f ew c ompa rab le p i ece sa r ep ub l i shed f r om B r i ta in .S uch k ey su sua l ly h ave c a s t f i gu ra ls c ene so nt h es i de p ane l sb u to ne s t rong ly s u spec t st h a t h e re t h ey w e r er e p laced b y c a rved ? bone p l aque s r i ve t ted o n t ot h er e ce s sed s i de s . B o th t h e p robab le c u t t ing o fo ft h ee n t i re ly c oppe ra loy c a s tt e rm ina l f r om t h ei r on f i l led s t em a nd ac i rcu la rd ep r e s s ion o no ne s i de c onv inc ing ly i n te rp r e ted a sa h amme rm a rk s ugge s tt h ed i sca rd o ft h el e s sd e s i rab le p a r to f as c rapped o b jec t .

* 9 .93 U nf in i shed O b jec t( D i .2 .cm ) .C a s t ,p enannu la rr i ng o f f l a t tened o va l s e c t ion r e ta in ing n ume rou s s ma l l f i l e m a rk s . B lun t t e rm ina l s p o s s ib ly r e ta in ing t r a ce s o f c a s t ing f l a sh . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .62 .J I ) . As upe rf i c ia lr e semb lance t os ome p enannu la rb rooche si sd i f f i cu l tt oi g no r eb u tp re sen t sp rob lem si nd e ta i l .F ow le r ' s( 1960 ) t y pe C a nd v a r ian t so fh e r Dt y pe sa r ek nown w i th r e c tangu la r s e c t ioned h oops b u th e re t h e re a r ec u rved e dge s . Mo re i mpo r t a n t ly o n ly t y pe s w i th t e rm ina l sf o rmed e n t i re ly b yp o s t -ca s t i n g w o rk c ou ld h ave b een made f r om 9 . 93 a nd o ft h e se o n ly t ype C w i th t h inned o u ts p i ra l led t e rm ina l sm igh tr e a l is t ica l ly

* 9 .86 ? Ba lance A rm f r agmen t( L .3 .95cm ) . T ape r ing ,c i rcu l a r s e c t ioned t u be r e ta in ing n a r rowe r , c i r cu la r s ec t i oned t a pe r ing i r on r od p ro jec t ing f r om i t sn a r rowe r e nd .N ea r ly c i rcu la rr i ng , h eav i ly w o rn o no u te r ma r g i n ,c a s to np a r tw ay a l ong .S p l i t ,p robab ly d ue t oc o r r o s ion r un s p a r t o f l e ng th . P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y D enny ( 1 860 , P 1 .2 N o .19 ) . ( LC .JK ) .

b ep roduced .T hu s ab rooch b l ank m igh tb e ap o s s ib i l i ty b u ta l e s s s pec if ica l ly i d en t if iab le p enannu la r o b jec t w a s p e rhap s i n tended . * 9 .94 R ing ( I n t . D i .1 .98cm ) . C a s t w i th c hamf e red o u te r e dge . ? T oo t h ick f o r af i nge rr i ng . ( LC .JK ) . * 9 .95 D i t to ( I n t .D i .1 .62cm ) .S im i la r .O va ls e c t ion . ( LC .BA ) .

A l though u sua l ly s l igh te ra nd t yp ica l ly o fs o l id c oppe ra loy i t i sa t t rac t ive t os e et h i s a st h e b roken o f fe nd o f as ub s tan t ia l b a lance a rm .

9 . 96 D i t to ( Max .I n t .D i .2 .94cm ) .S im i la r .C i rcu la rs e c t ion . D i s to r ted . ( LC .V ) .

* 9 .87 ? Coun te r /? W e igh t ( D i .1 .76cm ) . C i rcu la r , c a s t , f l a t b a cked , c onvex o b jec tw i th c a s tc en tra l c i r cu la rb o s s

* 9 .97 F e r ru le ( D i .2 .0cm ) . Sma l l , s l igh t ly d i s to r ted , c i r cu la r s hee tf e r ru le w i th o ve r lapp ing e nd sa nd t wo s ma l ln a i l h o le sn ea ro ne e nd .I nden ta t ion c au sed b yo ne n a i lt i p o n o ppo s i te i nne rf a ce . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .77 .J I ) .

s u r rounded b y i n c i sed l i ne . T ra ce s o fi r on c o r ro s ion p robab ly f r om p rox im i ty t oi r on o b jec td u r ing b u r ia l . ( LC .V ) .

* 9 .98 T ack ( L .C .1 .5cm ) .R ough ly f a ce t ted ,r e c tangu la rs e c t i oned ,b en ts hank a nd l a rge ,s o l id b un h ead . ( LC .JK ) .

T he re i sn oe v idence t h a tt h ep iece w a se v e ra t tached t o al a rg e ro b jec ta nd n op a ra l le lh a sb een t r aced b u ti ts e em sr e a sona b l et os ugge s tt h a tt h i sw a s as ma l ls ca le p an w e igh to ra ne l ab o ra te g am ing c oun te r .

* 9 .99 D i t to ( L .c .3 .0 cm ) . S im i la r . ( LC .JK ) .

7 7

0 C a l o . 1 03

9 •97

•98

• 10 5

•9 9

A •10

•1 14 •1 15

BW

11 7

•121

w

•1 18 -

•1 20

s r = . 12 4

_

2

• 1 32

. 1 25

8

• 13 3

•

. 13 4 135

• 138

. 1 37

F i gur e 1 9 : O b jec t so fC oppe rA l loy ( 1 :1) . 7 8

9 . 100

D i t to ( L .s im i la r ) . S im i la rb u ts ho r te r , u nben ts hank . L o s t b u t k nown f r om a r ch ive p ho tog raph i nJ a ck s on /Lo rd a r ch iv e . ( L .JK ) .

9 . 10 1

B ind ing ( L .1 .5cm ) . D i s to r ted , n a r row , ? o r ig ina l ly r e c tangu la rs t r ip . ( LC .V ) .

9 . 102

D i t to ( L .1 .24 cm ) . S im i la r . ( LC .V ) .

T h i s w a s p r e sumab ly p u re ly d eco r a t ive a nd a t tached t ol e a th e ro rw ood .T he s hape may i n d ica te a mu le t ic s i gn if icance ,l u n a t e o b jec t sh av ing al ong h i s to ry a ss uch i nE u rope ( e .g . Z a d ok s -Jo sephu s ,J i t ta a nd Wh i t teveen 1 977 ) . Al a rge ra nd k i dney s haped s hee tw a sa mong s t ag r oup o f ma in ly c i rcu la ri n sc r ibed s hee td eco ra t ion sc l ea r ly s e cu r ed t ol e a the rb yr i ve t si n ap i ta t N ew s t ead w h ich a l so c on ta ined much c ava l ry e qu ipmen t( Cu r le 1 911 , 1 74 a nd P 1 .31) a nd C u r le ,c i t ing s cu lp tu ra le v idence a nd as im i la rs e tf r om G e rmany ,s ugge s ted t h a tt h ey w e re p ha le ra e f r om t h e f r on to fm i l i ta ry u n ifo rm s . B et h a ta si tmay , a t ta ch m en t t oc ava l ry h a rne s s ( p a ra l le l ing w e l l k nown c r e scen t ic p endan t s )i sq u i te p os s ib le a nd l u na te d eco ra t ion so ft h i ss im p l ic i ty n eed n o ta nyway h ave b een m i l i ta ry a so ppo sed t oc i v i l .I ndeed , w ha t may w e l l b e a n a pp l ied c r e scen t ic p l a te m ay b e s e en o n t h e ? j ewe l b ox b e s ide R eg ina w if e o fB a ra te s o f P a lmy ra o n h e r t omb s tone a tS . Sh ie ld s ( c onven ien t ly H en ig 1 995 , F ig .38 ) .

* 9 .103 D i t to ( L .3 .4cm ) . N a r row a nd s t r ip l i ke w i th c en t ra l r a i sed o va l b o s s a nd t wo s ho r t ' l eg s ' w i th i n tu rn ing ' f ee t ' .( LC .JK ) . 9 . 104

Ca s tf r agmen t( L .4 .4 cm ) .I r regu la rw i th u neven s u r f a ce sa nd i r regu la rr a i sed a r ea a to ne e dge . ( LC .JK ) .

* 9 .105 F i t t ing f r agmen t ( L .3 .13cm ) . S t ra igh t , r e c tangu la r s e c t ioned b a rw i th s ho r t , b rok en ' l eg s ' a te ach e nd , o ne a t r i gh t a ng le s a nd t h e o the r more a ng led . ( LC .BA ) .

9 . 116

W i re ( L .6 .25cm ) .S t ra igh t ,c i rcu la rs e c t ioned a nd b r o k en a te ach e nd j u s tb eyond r i gh ta ng led t u rn s . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .68 .J I ) .

? Pa r to f ad i s tance p i ece o rd e co ra t ive e s cu tchon . * 9 .117 S hee t S t r ip ( L .5 .25cm ) . R ound e nded , r e c tangu la r a nd w i th t wo c i r cu la ri r on r i ve t sa te a ch e nd a nd f o u r s ha l low g roove so rc r ea se sa c ro s si t .( LC .V ) .

* 9 .106 U -Shaped B ind ing f r agmen t ( L .5 .28cm ) . C u rved . ( LC .V ) . 9 . 107

D i t to ( L .5 .47cm ) . S l igh t ly c u rved a nd al i t t le t h ick -

T he g roove s o rc r ea se s a r e n o t d ue t of o ld ing a nd a r e e i the r

e r ,d eepe ra nd w ide r . ( LC .V ) .

d eco ra t ive o rt h er e su l to fa pp l ica t ion t os ome th ing w i th r i b s .

9 . 108 - D i t to ( L s .3 .37 -7 .86cm ) . C on to r ted a nd /o r f l a t tened 9 . 112 f r agmen t s ( LC .V ; h oweve r o ne p i ece p robab ly

* 9 .118 - D eco ra ted S hee tS t r ip s( L s .9 .35 ,9 . 06 a nd 2 0 .0 cm ) . 9 . 120 T h ree p i ece so fi d en t ica l2 . 42cm w ide s t r ip w i th r e p ou s s6 r i dge a l ong e a ch e dge .A l l r e ta in f o ld l i ne s i n d ica t ing d i scove ry a ss ma l l ' p a rce ls 's ub sequen t -

L C .BA , c f . T iddeman ( 1875 ,136 ' ab and o f t h in b r onze p l a te , w h ich l o ok sa si fi tm igh th ave b ound as wo rd o rd agge r -shea th ') ) .

l yu n fo lded ( a l so e xp la in ing t h e i rb r igh tb ronze p a t i n a c ompa r ed t ot h e g r een p a t ina o f o t he r f i nd s ) . ( LC .JK ) .

L a rge g roup s o fU -shaped e dge b ind ing s s uch a st h e se c ome f r om s eve ra l S e t t le C ave s ( e .g . A t te rm i re a nd J ub i lee C ave s ; L o rd C o l lec t ion t ob ep ub l i shed ) .A l lb u to ne ( ma tch ing ac l ip w i th e xpanded t e rm ina l sw i th n a i lh o le s )a r ef a i r ly w e l lc ur ved a nd af ew h av e s ma l l c i r cu la r n a i l h o le s n ea r t h e i r ma rg in s . T he c u rva tu r ea nd l a ck o fl u g sp robab ly r u le st h em o u ta ss h ie ld b i nd ing sa nd t h ey a r e mo s tl i ke ly r im b i nd ing sf r om s ma l lb uck -

T hough e v iden t ly d epo s i ted a sf o lded ? s c rap t h e se s t r ip sp r e s umab ly d eco ra t ed t h es ame o b jec t .T he i rc omb ined l e ng th o f c . 40 cm s ugge s t s ar ea sonab ly l a rge i t em a nd s i nce n one r e ta in h o le s ,t h ough t h ey w e re p r e sumab ly t a ck ed o n , t h e s t r ip s f i x i n g sm u s th ave b een o ve r2 0cm a ppa r t . D eco ra t ive t r im t oa n o b jec t s uch a s ac he s t /box i s ap o s s ib i l i ty b u tt h e re a r e m any o t he r s .

e t so rs im i la r , as l o tp e rhap st oa ccomoda t e ah and le moun to n o ne f r om a no the rc ave s uppo r t ing t h i s . 9 . 113

T w i s ted R od ( L .6 .22cm ) . O f 0 . 23cm d iame te r .

* 9 .121 ? Be l t ( Tongue ) P la te ( L .5 .15cm ) . B ad ly d amaged r e c tangu la rs hee ts t r ip w i th o ne t a pe r ing ( ? o r ig ina l l yr ounded )e nd .O ne ? o fp a i ro fc i r cu la r? r ive th o le s

( LC .JK ) .

a tb lun te nd a nd o ne ? o f ap a i ri d en t if iab le a tt h eo t h e r .L ine o fr epou s s6 b o s se s( s eve ra l n ow l o s to rr e p r e sen ted b y c o r ro s ion h o le s ) a l ong e ach e dge . ( LC .JK ) .

* 9 .114 D eco ra ted S t r ip ( L .7 .62cm ) .N a r row ,t r iangu la rs e c t i oned w i th t r iangu la r ly c ham f e red e nd s a nd t r ian g u la r f l a t ten ing s as ho r t d i s tance f r om e ach . N ow s t ra igh tened b u t f ound b en t i n to as ha l low S shape ( Lo rd Ms s ) . ( LC .TL ) . 9 . 122 T he c ham f e r ss ugge s tt h a tt h eo b je c ti sc omp le te s or a the rs ho r t f o r ab ra ce le t . A mo re a t t ra c t ive i n te rp re ta t ion i st ha tt h is w a s

C on to r ted S t r ip ( L .1 .8cm ) . F la red w i th e nd c u rv ed i np rof i le a nd c en t ra lb end .S upe rf i c ia l ly r e semb l ing t h e l owe rb ow o f av e ry s ma l l k nee b rooch b u tt h i s s e em st ob ec o inc iden ta l . ( LC .V ) .

ad eco ra t ive i n lay . * 9 .115 C r e scen t ic S hee t( L .3 .9cm ) . C i rcu la r? r ive th o le si n

9 . 123

e nd sa nd o nc onvex e dge . ( LC .V ) . 7 9

S hee tf r agmen t( L .5 .2cm ) .T h ickened , c u rved e dge . ( LC .V ) .

9•1 4 0

F igur e2 0 : Ob jec to fC oppe rA l loy ( 1 :1) .

* 9 .137 B uck le ( L .2 .95cm ) . C a s t , b road ly D -shaped , p l ano -

* 9 .124 D i t to ( L .5 .65cm ) . C u rved , a ng led e dge a nd o ne c i r c u la rh o le n ea ri t .( LC .V ) .

c onvex s e c t ioned l o op w i th s l igh t ly a ng led p rof i le . N a r row a x i sb a rb e tween b a ck p ro jec t ing ' t ab s ' , o ne b roken .E nd so fa x i sb a ra nd f r on to fl o op w i th p ro j e c t ing c a s ts c a l lop s he l l s . ( LC .JK ) .

B o th t h e p reced ing c ou ld b ef r om t h e l i d s o ft ubu la rc on ta in e r sb u ta r et oo f r agmen ta ry f o rc onf iden ta t t r ibu t ion . * 9 .125 S t r ip ( L .5 .85cm ) .R ec tangu la r .O ne s i de a nd o ne e nd i r regu la r .C i r cu la rh o le n ea ro ne e nd . ( LC .JK ) .

Ab uck le f r om K e s ton , K en t( Ph i lp e ta l1 991 , 1 75 N o .115 ) i s s im i la rb u tc rude rw i th o n ly as ma l l l o be o n t h e l o op , o bv ia t i n gt h en eed f o rt h ea ng led p rof i le . I tc ame f r om ad emo l i t ion

9 . 126 - S hee t f r agmen t s . Sma l l a nd v e ry r agged . S ome 9 . 131 f o lded . ( LC .V ) .

d epo s i t o fl a te r f ou r th c en tu ry d a te b u t w h ich i n c luded much r e s idua l ma te r ia l .

* 9 .132 S hee tf r agmen t( L .2 .65cm )T ape r ed s t r ip ,t u rned o ve r a tn a r rowe re nd .S t epped a nd b rok en a c ro s sr epou s s6 b o ss a to t he r . ( LC .V ) .

9 . 138 - ( ?Shoe )B uck le s( L s .3 .51 a nd 5 . 09cm ) .D oub le l oop 9 . 139 f o rm sw i th c en t r a lb a r s ,o ne r e ta in ing s imp le p i n .O ne w i th t r iangu la r p o in t s a tb a r e nd s a nd c en t re s o f

* 9 .133 S t rap T e rm ina l ( L .4 .0cm ) . S ub rec tangu la r s hee t .

l oop s ; o t he r w i th c i r cu la r l o be s a tf o rme r a nd p ro j ec t ion se i the rs i de o fe a ch l o op . ( LC .V ) . S ix teen th / s even teen th c en tu ry .

Two c i r cu la r ? r ive t h o le s a tt o p a nd s t eep t a pe r t o t u rned o ve re nd w i th ? r ive th o le . ( LC .JK ) .

* 9 .140 T umb r e lC o in B a lance ( L .6 .65cm ) .B en tb a lance a rm B o th t h ep reced ing m ay b ec ove r sf r om t h ee nd so fs ma l ls t rap s . T he s t ep i n9 . 132 m igh ti n d ica te t h eo ve r lapped e nd so f as t rap f o rmed i n to al oop wh i le 9 . 133 w a sa lmo s tc er ta in ly r i ve ted t o t h ee nd o f as t rap f r om t h eb a ck a nd t oi t s ma in p a r tf r om t h e f r on t .

w i th c i r cu la rc o in t r ay b eyond r a i sed l i p / s top ,d eco r a ted w i th t h r ee p unch m a rk sa nd s ma l lc en t ra lc ro ss g roove s o n b ack o f ' t a i l ' o f a rm a nd i n c ised h o r i z on ta l l i ne o n f r on t b e low f u lc rum . A rm p i vo t s o n b a rt h rough p i vo ta rm w h ich , a bove t h e f u lc rum , i s h o l low a nd d eco ra ted w i th c r o s s mou ld ing s ,g roove s , ac hamf e red r i dge a nd s i x p unch m a rk s i n ac i rc le

* 9 .134 S hee tf r agmen t( L .2 .5cm ) .R ec tangu la r .O ne e nd b r o k en a nd r ounded w i th n a i l /r i ve th o le .C o r ro s ion h o le

a round as e ven th . T h inned j u s t a bove f u lcrum w i th r e c tangu la r s l o t t oa ccommoda te b a lance a rm ; b e l ow f u lc rum b e come sa ngu la ra nd e nd si nl a rge ,d am -

a to the re nd . ( LC .V ) . * 9 .135 D i t to ( L .5 . 1cm ) .D shaped w i th t h ree n a i l / r ive th o le s .

a ged , c i rcu la r t e rm ina l b e low l a rge , w o rn c ro ss mou ld ing . P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra t ed b y K ing ( 1970 , F ig .3h ) . ( LC .V ) . G iven i t s d i s t inc t ivene s s a nd d a te t h e a b sence o fa ny r e co rd o f t h is p i ece i na r ch ive s ou r ce sm ake si t sa u then t ic i ty a s aV ic to r ia C ave f i nd p a r t icu la r ly q ue s t ionab le .

D amaged . ( LC .V ) . * 9 .136 D i t to ( L .4 .7cm ) .S ub t r iangu la r .T wo n a i l / r ive th o le s . ( LC .V ) .

8 0

T he f un c t ion , d a te a nd h i s to r ica l s ou r ce s f o rs uch t umb re l o r t reuche tc o in b a lance sh ave b een s e t o u tb y Mayhew ( 1975 ) d i scu ss ing o ne i nt h eA shmo lean a nd Ma cG r ego r( 1985a )p ub l i shed af u r the rs i x e xamp le s i nt h e s ame m u seum , c i ted o th e r s a nd n o ted c e r ta in f u nc t iona l a nd d eco ra t ive v a r ia t ion s . I n u se t h e f l a tp i vo t a rm t e rm ina l w a s i n se r ted i n to as o l id s u r f a ce , t h e b a lance a rm u nf o lded a nd ac o in p l aced o n t h e t r ay t os e e i ft h ea rm b a lanced i n d ica t ing t h a tt h e c o in w a s o ft h e c o r rec tw e igh ta nd s og enu ine .T hu st h eb a lance sw e re i n tend e dt ot e s ts pec if i cc o in t y pe sa nd s oc an b er e la t ive ly w e l ld a t e d i fs t i l l o pe rab le .T hey w e r e made i nc oppe ra loy a nd b one a nd , i nE u rope b egan i na tl e a s t t h e l a t e t we lf th c en tu ry b u t a ppa ren t ly w en to u to fu se a f te rt h e Med ieva lp e r iod ( t hough t h ey p e r s i s ted u n t i l mode rn t ime s i nt h e n ea re a s t ) ( c f . Mac G rego r 1 985a ,4 42 -3 ) .T he p re sen te xamp le i sd i s to r ted w i th a v e ry l o o se p i vo tp reven t ing a ccu ra te e s t ima t eo ft h ec o in w e igh t i n vo lved b u t ar a the rl i gh tc o in may h ave b een i n vo lved u n les s aw e igh tw a sh ung o nt h et a i lo ft he a rm ( p o s s ib ly o ve ro ne o f t h et h ree p unch ma rk s ,w h ich m igh ti mp ly t h a tt h ree d if e ren t

o n ly af ew ( p e rhap si ns ome c a se sd ub iou s ly p rovenanced )l a t e r a r tef a c t s g i ve a ny i n d ica t ion o f p os t -Roman a c t iv i ty . Wha t R omano -B r i t i sh t y po log ica l d a te s a r e a va i lab le g i ve ab road s p read f r om t h el a te -f i r s to re a r ly second c en tu r ie st ot h ef ou r th c en tu ry , t h e o n ly p o s s ib le c l u s te r ing w o r th n o t ing b e ing t h e n umbe r o fl a te R oman b ra ce le t s w h ich m igh t b e c on t ra s ted w i th t h es e cond c en tu ry a nd e a r l ie rd a te so f mo s tb rooche sf r om t h es i t e .

c o in s c ou ld b e t e s ted ) . T he d a te i sc l ea r ly Med ieva l a nd o ne s u spec t sl a t e rr a the rt h an e a r l ie ri nt h ep e r iod .

i n g s ,m oun t s a nd f i t t ing st h i sr ange o fo b jec t s w ou ld b e mo r e e xpec t ed a t am a jo rc i v i l /m i l i ta ry s i te .T he re fo re t h e i rp r e sence a tV ic to r ia C ave a ppea r st or equ i re s ome s pec ia l ised f unc t ion -

9 . 141

F unc t iona l ly t h ec o rpu si n c lude s ,a sw e l l a s al a rge a moun to f m i sce l laneou ss hee tm a te r ia l , an umbe ro fo b jec t sc ha ra c te r i s a b le a sp e r sona l o r namen t s ( c .31 o r mo re ) , a sc o sme t ic i t em s ( 10 )o ra sd eco r a t ive s t ud s( a tl e a s t2 3 ) . H oweve r ,i ti sa l so t h e r a nge o fo b jec t sp r e sen tt h a ti sn o tab le . I na dd i t ion t ot h ep r e c ed ing p i ece si t em sr e p re sen t ing w r i t ten c ommun ica t ion ( s ea l b ox e s ) ,s ew ing ,k n ive sa nd t o o l s ,w e igh ing ,l o ck sa nd p e rhap s r e la t ive ly e l abo ra t e f u rn i tu r e , b oxe s e t c a r e p re sen t a nd t h e re a r ea l so an umb e ro fp i ece s mo r eo rl e s sc a tego r ica l ly o fm i l i t a ry o r ig in .T oge the rw i th t h el e s ss pec if ica l ly i d en t if iab le b i nd -

U nce r ta in O b jec t( L .3 .5cm ) . T iddeman ( 1 877 , 17 ) r e f e r st o al o ng i tud ina l ly c u rved o b jec t ' i n t h ef o rm o fa no va te l e a f , w i th ab road m id r ib a nd r ude v e in i n g ' w ho se ' a pex ' w a s b roken a nd t h e o t he re nd o f w h ich h ad ' aq uad ra te e xpan s ion p i e r ced w i th ar i v e th o le ' . I tw a s 2 . 8cm w ide a nd c ame f r om ap re 1 877 s po i lh eap . ( L .BA ) .

a le xp lana t ion .I nt h i sc on tex tt h ep robab i l i ty t h a t9 . 85 ( t hough i t s p rov enance i sn o t b eyond d oub t ) h a s b een c u t a nd h am m e r ed a nd t h ep r e sence o fa tl e a s to ne u nf in i shed o b jec t( 9 .93 ) p l u sq uan t i t ie so fm a t e r ia l wh ich may b eo pen t ot h ei n te rp r e t a t ion o fs c rap s t ockp i l ing s hou ld b e n o ted . H oweve r , t h e r e i s n o c oppe r a loy w o rk ing w a s te p re sen t , mo s t f i nd s a ppea r t o h ave b een d epo s i ted e i the rc omp le te o ra f te rb reakage d u r ing u se a nd t h e i n c lu s ion o fm i l i ta ry i t em s i np a r t icu la r s ugge s t s t h ed epo s i t ion o fp i ece sd e r iv ing f r om o the r( r e la t ive ly d i s tan t ) s i te s .N one o ft h eo b jec t sa r e ' r i tua l ly k i l led ' o rr e cogn i sed a s p a r t icu la r ly a s soc ia ted w i th r e l ig iou s d epo s i t ion s a nd w h i l s t

C ommen t A s w i th t h e b rooche s t h i si s ac o rpu s o fc oppe ra loy o b jec t s i n compa t ib le i ns i ze , v a r ie ty a nd c ompo s i t ion w i th an o rma l r u ra l f a rm ing s e t t lemen t i nn or the rn B r i ta in . R e la t ive ly l i t t le o fi ti sc l o se ly d a teab le w i th in t h eR omano -B r i t i sh p e r iod b u t

t h e g roup o fs t ud s 9 . 52 -9 .62 s ugge s t t h e d epo s i t ion o f a n a t l e a s tp a r t ly i n ta c t ? che s tl i t t le o ft h e ma te r ia l s eem s l i ke ly t o h ave b een t h es ub je c to ft h eh oa rd ing o fp e r sona l w ea l th .

8 1

CHAPTER 1 0 : EDXRF ANALYS IS OF COPPER ALLOY ARTEFACTS FRO M V ICTOR IA CAVE

b y Dav id Dungwor th

I n troduc t ion

D i scu s s ion

F o r ty -f ive c oppe ra l loy a r te f a c t sf r om V ic to r ia C ave w e re mad e a va i lab le f o rs c ien t if ic a na ly s i s .T he se w e re a l la na ly sed t od e -

A l l o ft h e a r tef ac t s f r om V ic tor ia C ave wh ich h ave b een a na l y sed a r ec e r ta in ly R oman i nd a te ( w i th t h ee xcep t ion o f8 . 57 ) a nd mo s ts eem t oh ave b een manuf a c tu red i nt h es e cond c en -

t e rm ine t h e i rc hem ica l c ompo s i t ion . T he c ompo s i t ion s o ft h e a loy so fi n d iv idua l a r tef ac t sa r ed i scu s sed i nr e la t ion t os im i l a ra na lysed a r te f ac t sf r om e l sewhe re i nB r i ta in .T he r ange o f c oppe ra l loy sf r om V ic to r ia C ave a r ea l so c on s ide red a s awho le i na na t t emp tt ou nde r s tand t h ew ay si nw h ich t h ec ave sm igh t

t u ry AD . T he c oppe r a loys u sed t o manufa c tu r e t h e se a r te f a c t s a r e n o t u n typ ica l o ft h i s p e r iod , w i th v a ry ing l e ve l s o f z i nc ,t i na nd l e ad i n mo s to b jec t s .T ho se w i th a tl e a s t 1 5% z i nc a r e c l a s s if ied a sb r a s s , t h o se w i th a tl e a s t 5% t i n b r onze a nd t h e r ema inde r a r e g unme ta l ( e xcep t t hose w i th l e s s t h an 5% z i nc a nd t i n wh ich a r ec l a ss if ied a sc oppe r ) . I na dd i t ion t h o se

h ave b een u sed .

a l loys w i th a tl e a s t 1 % l e ad a r ec l a s s if ied a s l e aded . A na ly t ica l Me thod Many p rog ramme s o fa na lys i s o fR oman c oppe r a loy s ( e .g . C raddock 1 996 )h ave i lu s t ra ted t h el i nk s b e tween a loy c om -

A l l o ft h e s amp le s w e re a na lysed u s ing EDXRF a sp a r t o fa l a rge rr e sea r ch p ro jec t ( Dungwo r th 1 995 ) . T he s amp le s w e re p r epa red e i the r a s s ma l l c l eaned f r agmen t s i ne poxy r e s in m oun t so ra sd r i l l ing s s uppo r ted o n My la rf i lm .T he r aw d a ta w a sc a l ib ra ted a ga in s t2 1 s t anda rd so fk nown c ompo s i t ion .T he r e su l t s ( a long w i th t h e m in imum d e tec tab le l e ve l s a nd p rec i s i on l e ve l s )a r eg i ven i nt a b le 1 0 .1 .

p o s i t ion a nd t ypo logy : f r equen t ly o b jec t s w i th t h es ame f o rm a nd d eco ra t ion h ave t h e s ame a l loy c ompo s i t ion . D e sp i te t h e many t hou sand so fa na ly se s wh ich h ave n ow b een c a r r ied o u t t h i sr e la t ion sh ip h a so n ly b een e xp lo red i nd e ta i lf o r al im i ted n umbe r o f d if e ren t a r tef ac t t ype s . F o r tuna te ly b r oo che s a r e o ne o ft h e mo s ti n ten s ive ly s t ud ied c l a ss o fR oman a r t ef a c t s :

1 6 — E b •P l a in o rr ound d e s ign

1 4—

1 2 —

0

aSquare ,l a t t ice d eco ra t ion

•

1 0—

N

8—

-

•

•

4—

• 2—

•

t i

• • 2

8

4

• 1 0

1 2

T in

F igur e2 1 : Z inc a nd T in C on ten t sf o rE igh teen D ragone sque B rooche s f r om No r the rn E ng land . 8 2

1 4

R ef N o

D e scr ip t ion

C u

Z n

P b

S n

F e

N i

Mn

A s

8 . 1

T rumpe tb rooch ( s epa ra te h ead loop , R i i )

8 1

1 2 .5

3 . 5

2 . 7

0 .28

n d

n d

n d

8 . 2

T rumpe tb rooch ( c a s t ?h ead loop , R i i o ri v )

8 9

0 . 4

2 . 5

8 . 3

n d

n d

n d

n d

8 . 6

T rumpe tb rooch ( c a s th ead loop , R iv? )

8 6

6 . 4

2 . 9

4 . 1

0 .25

n d

n d

n d

8 . 7

T rumpe tb rooch ( c a s th ead loop , R i )

8 6

n d

1 0 .0

4 . 2

n d

n d

n d

n d

8 . 9

T rumpe tb rooch ( c a s th ead loop , R i )

6 6

9 . 2

2 2 .4

1 . 5

0 .28

n d

n d

n d

8 . 10

H ead s tud b r ooch ( s epe ra te h ead loop )

8 5

1 2 .1

1 . 8

1 . 0

0 . 16

n d

n d

n d

8 . 11

H ead s tud b r ooch ( s epa ra te h ead loop )

8 3

1 4 .7

1 . 2

1 . 4

0 .20

n d

n d

n d

8 . 12

H ead s tud b r ooch ( c a s th ead loop )

8 1

0 . 3

6 . 4

1 .8

0 .09

n d

0 . 02

0 . 19

8 . 13

H ead loop b r ooch ( c a s th ead loop )

7 5

1 . 1

1 5 .4

7 . 3

0 .78

n d

n d

n d

8 . 14

H ead s tud b rooch ?( s epa ra te h ead loop )

7 9

2 . 7

8 . 7

7 . 6

0 . 10

n d

n d

n d

8 . 19

D ragone sque b rooch

8 7

1 . 9

2 . 0

9 . 2

0 .09

n d

n d

n d

8 . 20

D ragone sque b rooch

8 5

4 . 6

6 . 1

4 . 3

0 . 15

n d

0 . 0 1

n d

P in t o8 . 20

9 4

1 . 4

0 . 3

3 . 7

0 . 19

n d

n d

n d

8 . 26

T au tu lu s b r ooch

8 1

0 . 2

1 2 .1

6 . 6

0 . 11

n d

n d

n d

8 . 27

D isc b rooch

8 7

3 . 2

1 . 7

8 . 2

0 .25

n d

n d

0 . 16

8 . 29

D isc b rooch ( T r isk e le )

8 7

0 . 6

1 . 1

1 0 .7

0 . 15

n d

n d

n d

8 . 32

D isc b rooch ( T r iske le )

8 3

2 . 4

5 . 3

9 . 5

0 . 17

n d

0 . 02

n d

8 . 33

D isc b rooch

8 5

3 . 9

3 . 5

7 . 1

0 .33

n d

n d

n d

A nnu la r b rooch

7 3

n d

1 7 .0

9 . 5

n d

n d

n d

n d

P in f o r8 . 57

8 6

0 . 9

4 . 6

8 . 3

n d

n d

n d

n d

8 . 57 9 . 75

O penwo rk b e l tp la te

8 1

2 . 1

8 . 8

8 . 0

0 . 37

n d

n d

n d

9 . 77

P i e rced moun t

7 0

0 . 8

2 1 .5

7 . 4

0 . 37

n d

n d

n d

9 . 25

R ibbed /no tched b r ace le t

8 3

n d

2 . 0

1 2 .7

0 .48

n d

0 . 03

n d

9 . 26

B race le t

8 6

1 . 7

3 . 5

8 . 8

0 .20

n d

n d

n d

B race le t( I nc i sed h a tch ing d eco ra t ion )

8 4

1 3 .9

0 . 5

1 . 6

0 . 19

n d

0 .0 1

n d

B race le t( I nc i sed h a tch ing d eco ra t ion )

8 3

2 . 8

7 . 0

7 . 3

0 .09

n d

n d

n d

9 . 28

'

9 . 29 9 . 35

N a i l c l eane r( ap a i rw i th 9 . 36 )

8 9

1 . 4

0 . 7

9 . 3

0 .08

n d

0 . 0 1

n d

9 . 36

T o i le ts poon ( ap a i rw i th 9 . 35 )

8 8

1 . 3

1 . 0

1 0 .0

0 .07

n d

n d

n d n d

3f r om

S tud

8 8

1 . 7

6 . 5

3 . 8

0 .08

n d

n d

9 . 52 t o

S tud

8 6

6 . 4

3 . 2

4 . 4

0 .21

n d

n d

n d

9 . 62

S tud

8 8

6 . 5

3 . 0

2 . 4

0 .29

n d

n d

n d

9 . 98

S pher ica l -headed n a i l

8 8

2 . 2

n d

9 . 3

0 . 16

n d

n d

0 . 26

9 . 99

S phe r ica l -headed n a i l

8 4

0 . 1

0 . 7

1 5 .1

0 . 17

n d

0 .0 1

n d

9 . 63

B e l l -shaped s t ud

8 5

4 . 7

5 . 1

5 . 0

0 .21

n d

n d

n d

9 . 64

B e l l -shaped s t ud

8 7

2 . 3

4 . 8

5 . 5

0 . 12

n d

n d

n d

9 . 67

B e l l -shaped s t ud

7 3

0 . 6

1 5 .8

9 . 5

1 . 11

n d

n d

n d

9 . 79

Moun t / jo in ing s t r ip?

8 8

2 . 2

1 . 1

8 . 2

0 . 11

n d

n d

n d

9 . 81

F in ia l /hand le

8 6

1 . 4

3 . 7

8 . 4

0 .67

n d

n d

n d

9 . 83

K n if e moun t?

8 1

1 8 .2

0 . 3

0 . 8

0 . 12

n d

0 . 0 1

n d

9 . 90

L ump ( Ba r )

8 5

0 . 7

1 . 9

1 2 .8

0 . 16

n d

n d

n d

9 . 94

R ing ( c ham f e red o u te re dge )

6 4

1 7 .3

1 5 .5

1 . 1

1 . 41

0 . 05

n d

0 . 60

9 . 95

R ing

8 0

1 .3

4 . 9

3 . 0

0 .40

n d

n d

n d

9 . 105

F ragmen t

6 5

4 . 4

2 3 .8

6 . 2

0 .30

n d

n d

n d

9 . 114

S t r ip

8 8

0 . 4

3 . 7

8 . 2

0 .05

n d

n d

n d

9 . 118

S hee t

8 6

0 . 1

0 . 8

1 2 .5

0 .07

n d

n d

n d

S t anda rd e r ro r±

0 . 45

0 . 60

0 .40

0 .02

0 . 06

0 . 02

0 . 35

M in imum D e tec tab le l e ve l

0 . 10

0 . 15

0 . 10

0 .05

0 . 05

0 . 02

0 . 10

n d =n o td e tec ted T ab le 1 0 .1 . 8 3

t hank sl a rge ly t ot h e wo rk o fJ u s t ine B ay ley ( Bay ley & B u tch -

m e ta l ( r e la t ive ly l ow l e ve l s o fz i nc ) w h ich i st y p ica l o fm i l i t a ry f i t t ing so ft h i st y pe a nd d a te .T he p a i ro ft o i le ti mp lemen t s ( 9 .35 a nd 9 . 36 ) w e re p robab ly m ade a tt h e s ame t ime f r om e xa c t ly t h es ame s t ock m e ta l( t he a ppa ren td if e rence si nc om p o s i t ion sa r en eg l ig ib le a nd e a s i ly w i th in t h ea na ly t ica le r ro r ) . N one o ft h eo t he ra r tef a c t s a na ly sed h ave b een s t ud ied b e f o r e i ne nough d e ta i l t oo f e ra ny m ean ingfu lc ommen ta bou tt h e i r a loy c ompo s i t ion i nr e la t ion t ot h e i rf o rm .

e rf o r thcom ing ) . T he l a rge n umbe ro fb roo che s f r om t h e c ave si n c lude s as ub s t an t ia ln umbe ro fT rumpe tb rooche s .T rad i t iona l ly t h e se h ave b een c l a s s if ied b y t he n a tu re a nd e x ten t o f t h e d eco ra t ion a r ound t h ek nob o nt he b ow . C o l l ingwood d ef ined : R i R l i R i i i R iv

a sh av ing ap la in mou ld ing a sh av ing a na can thu sd e co ra ted mou ld ing

I th a s b een s ugge s ted t h a t s ome c av e s o ccup ied d u r ing t h e R oman p e r iod may h ave b een t h e s c ene o fi n du s t r ia l a c t iv i ty ( B ran igan & D ea rne 1 992 ,2 6 ) . I np a r t icu la r , t h e h i gh p r opo r -

a ss im i la rt oR ib u tw i th d eco ra t ion o n ly o nt h ef r on t a ss im i la rt oR i i b u t w i th d eco ra t ion o n ly o n t h e f r on t

t i on o fd ragone sque b rooche sf r om t h eS e t t le C ave sc ompa red t oo t he r s i te s i nn o r the rn B r i ta in h a s s ugge s ted t os ome ( e .g .

( Co l l ingwood a nd R ichmond 1 969 ,2 96 -7 ) . I th a s n o tb een p o ss ib le t or e conc i le t h is t y po logy w i th a na ly s e so ft h ea loy su sed u n l ike many o t he rb roo ch t ype s . I n s tead a n a l te rna t ive t y po logy h a s b een s ugge s ted w h ich s t re s se s a n a spec to ft h e m ean s o f manuf a c tu re -t h e n a tu re o ft h e h ead -

K i lb r ide -Jone s 1 980 ) t h a ta tl e a s t s ome t y p e s o fd ragone sque b rooche s w e r e manuf ac tu red i nt h e c ave s . E v idence f o r t h e m e ta lwo rk ing i nt h e S e t t le C ave s i s ,h oweve r , a b sen t . Me ta l w o rk ing d eb r i s ( s uch a sc r uc ib le s ,s l ag a nd d rop le t s o fm e ta l ) h a s f r equen t ly b een f ound o n ar a nge o fR oman p e r iod s i te s

l o op ( s ee a l so B ay ley & B u tche rf o r thcom ing ) .T ho se w i th t h e h ead loop f o rmed a sa ni n teg ra lp a r to ft h eb rooch u sua l ly h ave

( e .g .t h en ea rby v i l la a tK i rk S i nk , G a rg rave : G oodbu rn 1 976 , 3 17 -8 , a nd t h e f o r ta nd v i cu sa t Wa te r c rook : P o t te r 1 979 )b u t n o ta tt h e c ave s i te s ( T .Lo rd , p e r s .comm . ) . T he r a nge o ff r ag -

h i ghe rt i na nd l e ad c on ten t st h an t h o se w i th s epa ra te ,w i r eh ead l o op s w h ich u sua l ly h ave h ighe r z i nc c on ten t s . T h i s a l te rna t i ve a pp roa ch c an a l so b e a pp l ied t oh ead s tud a nd h ead loop b rooche s . H e re t h e me ta l lu rgy a nd f o rm o f manuf ac tu re c u t

m en ta ry a r te f ac t sr e cove red b yt h en i ne teen th c en tu ry e xcav a t o r s a t te s t s t ot h e t ho roughne s s o fa tl e a s t s ome o f t h e c ave e xcava t ion s a nd s o t h e a b sence o fm e ta lwo rk ing e v idence i s p e r sua s ive . I t mu s t a l so b e a dm i t ted t h a t t h e e nv i ronmen t o f t h ec ave si su n su i ted t om e ta lwo rk ing .

a c ros st r ad i t iona ls t y l i s t ic c a tego r ie s . D ragone sque b rooches a r e ad i s t inc t ive ly n o r the rn B r i t i sh t ype o f R oman b r oo ch . Many o f t h e k nown e xamp le s h ave b een f ound i nt h e S e t t le C ave s . T he t r ad i t iona l d i v is ion o f t h e se

c u la r d eco ra ted o nes a r e u sua l ly m ade o fb ronze w h i le t ho se w i th s qua r e sa nd l ozenge d eco ra t ion a r e made f r om g unme ta l a nd b ra s s( i . e .h i ghe rz i nc c on ten t s , s e eF igu re 2 1) .

O nt h ew ho le , t h e S e t t le C ave s a s semb lage i ss omewha tu nu s ua l . When t h ea l loy su sed a r ec on s ide red i ti sc l ea rt h a tt h e re a r e v e ry f ew b ra s s a r te f ac t s a mong s t t h o se a na ly sed . T h i s i s c u r iou sa sa r ound 2 0% o fa l loy so n mo s tR oman s i t e sa r eb ra s s e s . I n a dd i t ion b rooche s f o rm av e ry h i gh p ropo r t ion o ft h e a r te f a c t sc ompa red t oc on tempo ra ry n on -cave s i t e s .I ft h ec av e s

T he c ave sh ave y i e lded f ew R oman m i l i ta ry c oppe ra l loy a r te f a c t s , o ft h e se t h eb e l tp la te a nd t h ep i e rced moun t w e re a na l y sed . B o th o ft h e se a r e made o fl e aded b ronze o rl e aded g un -

w e re s cene s o fr e l ig iou s a c t iv i t ie s a nd t h e d epo s i ted a r te f a c t s w e r e ' of e r ing s ' , t h en i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t b r a s s a r te fac t s w e re s e en a si n app rop r ia te f o rr e l ig iou sd epo s i t ion ( t h i si sd i scu s sed f u r the ri nD ungwo r th f o r thcom ing ) .

b rooche s b y t h e n a tu re o ft h e i re name l d eco ra t ion a ppea r s t o s t and u p ( Bu lme r 1 938 ; F eachem 1 951 ; 1 968 ) . P la in a nd c i r -

8 4

CHAPTER 1 : THE OBJECTS OF LEAD

b y Mar t in J .Dearne

* 11 .1 ? Sp ind le who r l ( Max .D i .1 .69cm ) . R a the r b a r re l s h aped w i th med ia lf l a t tened r i ng ,i n c i sed l i ne sa te a ch e nd a nd s t ra igh tp e r fo ra t ion . ( LC .? JK ) .

1 870 s f i nd s . 1 .1 m ay w e l l b e o ne o ft h e se p i ece sa nd o ne o r mo r eo the r sa r ep re sumab ly l o s t . * 11 .2 ?W e igh t( D i .2 .64cm ) . F la t , c i rcu la ra nd w i th s ha l low c i rcu la r r eba te o n o ne f a ce . Unusua l b l ack p a t ina . ( LC .V ) .

Ar e por t i na n u nce r ta in n ew spape r o f 1 9 th J une 1 875 p r e s e rved i nt h eC rof ton Ms sd e sc r ibe sv a r iou sf i nd se xh ib i ted b y J a ck son d u r ing av i s i tt ot h e We s tR id ing G eo log ica la nd P o l y t echn ic S oc ie ty i n c lud ing ' l ead s p ind le w h i r l s ( s ic ) ' w h ich s e em t oh ave b een among s t h i s c o l lec t ion r a the r t h an b e ing

T h i s may b e aw e igh tb u tm igh ta l te rna t ive ly b es e en a s av e ry l a rge g am ing p i ece .

1 1 -2

F igure 2 2 :O b je c t so fL ead ( 1 :1 ) .

8 5

CHAPTER 1 2 : THE OBJECTS OF I RON

b y Mar t in J .Dearne

N .B .R e sou r ce sw e r en o ta va i lab le f o rt h eX ray e xam ina t ion o f

T he re i sa tl e a s t as upe rf ic ia l r e semb lance t o as ma l l h a f ted t oo ls u ch a s ap a r ing c h i se l ,t hough i ti sr a the rs ho r ta nd c o r ro s i on /damage mak e sc e r ta in i d en t if ica t ion i mpo s s ib le .

a ny o ft h ei r onwo rk ,v i r tua l ly a l lo f wh ich i sn ow i n ap oo rs t a te o fp r e se rva t ion . Much o fi th a s e v iden t ly d e cayed s i gn if i can t ly s i nce r e cove ry b u t i th a s p roved p o s s ib le i ns ome i n s tance s t o a temp t ad eg r ee o fr e con s t ruc t ion o nt h ei l u s t ra t ion s b a sed o n

* 12 .4 L oop E nded O b jec t( L .4 .4cm ) . B roken t a pe r ing p l a te e nd ing i nt h icken ing s ub -ova l t e rm ina l w i th c en t ra l o va lh o le .P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1 844 ,P I .30

n i ne t een th c e n tu ry d r aw ing s . H oweve r , q uan t i t ie s o fi r onwo rk m ay b ee n t i r e ly l o s t( a bove p 38 ) a nd n oa t temp th a sb een m ad e h e r et oc a t a logue i t em sn ol o nge re x tan t .

N o .10 ) w ho se d raw ing i n d ica te s t h a tt h e p l a te o r ig i n a l ly w idened t or ounded s hou lde r s a nd t h en t a pe red t o ap o in t ,p robab ly s ugge s t ing t h a ti tw a sd r iven i n to w ood . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .50 .J I ) .

* 12 .1 S pea rhead ( L .15 .5cm ) . D amaged a nd b ad ly c o r rod e d ,l a ck ing t i pa nd much o fo ne s i de .L ea fs haped w i th s p l i t s ocke t . P o ss ib ly t ha t p rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1865 , P 1 .2 No .18 ) ; b u t s e e a bove p 38 .

* 12 .5 L -Shaped L i f tK ey ( L .14 .5cm ) . L ooped h ead ,r e c tan -

( LC .? JK ) .

g u la r s e c t ioned s ha f t a nd t wo r e c tangu la r s e c t ioned t e e th . P o s s ib ly t h a t i lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1 865 , P 1 .2

S pea rhead s a r e n o to r iou s ly d if i cu l t t od a te l e t a l one t oa lo c a t et om i l i ta ry o rc i v i lu se a nd t h ed eg r ee o fd amage a nd c o r r o s ion h e r em ak e sa ny a t temp tf u t i le .

N o .12 ) ;b u ts e e a bove p 38 . ( LC .JK ) . 1 2 .6

* 12 .2 P i ckaxe H ead ( L .15 .9cm ) . S ho r t , s l igh t ly c u rved , f l a red b l ade a to ne e nd . L onge r , r a the r mo re c u rved r e c tangu la rs e c t ioned p i ck a tt h eo t he r .B e tween t h em a s syme t r ica l t r iangu la r e xpan s ion w i th in w h ich o ne w ou ld e xpec t as ha f th o le ;h oweve ri fo ne w a sp r e sen t t r a ce so fi ta r es c an ta nd t h es u r f ace sa ppea rt ob ec on t i nuou sa nd c o r roded . ( LC .V ) .

? Lad le ( O r ig ina lD i .?c6 .6cm ) .N ow am a s so fc onc r e t i on a nd c o r ro s ion a nd p robab ly d i s to r t ed b u te v iden t ly c i r cu la ra nd c oncave i fn o tl a d le l ik e ;t h ough t h ei d en t i f i ca t ion i sf a rf r om c e r ta in . ( LC .V ) .

* 12 .7 B ucke t Moun t( L .10 .5cm ) .T ape red ,r ound h eaded a nd w i th l a rge c i rcu la r p i e r c ing i nh ead a nd r e c tangu la r n a i l h o le f u r the rd own . ( LC .V ) . * 12 .8 ? D i t to ( L .5 .3cm ) . B roken , s l igh t ly c u rved b a r t h ick e n ing al i t t le a nd e xpand ing a bove d i s t inc tn eck i n to w o rn s qua re o rc i rcu la r h ead w i th c o r roded c i r cu la r h o le . ( LC .V )

T h i s m ay b e aR oman m a son 's p i ck o f Mann ing ' s ( 1985 , 5 0 ) t y pe 2b u tt h eu nequa ll e ng th so ft he e nd s ,w id th o ft h eb road e ra nd a ppa ren t a s syme t ry o ft h e c en t re a r e u nu sua l . Mo r eo v e rt h e w ide rb l ade i ss e t i nt h e p lane o ft h e s ha f tl i ke ac a r -

* 12 .9 J o ine r s D og ( L .4 .6cm ) . P l a te l ike w i th b road r ound s hou lde red c r os s b a r a nd t a pe r ing , t h inn ing , b roken l e g s . P rev ious ly i lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1 844 , P 1 .30 N o .6 ) . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11-47 .J I ) .

p en t ry a xe .I nf a c tt h ef o rm i sv e ry much l i ke t h a to ft h em i l i ta ry p i ckax e ,t h ed o labr a ( c f . Mann ing 1 976 , 2 8 N o .77 f r om C a r r awbu rgh ; w h ich a l so h a s o ne s wo l len s i de t ot h e s ock e t i n p l an ) , o rt h em i l i ta ry m a t tock . H oweve r , t h e se a r e s ome th ing l i k et w ice t h es i ze o f1 2 .2 a nd a l so h ave l u g sa r ound t h es o ck e t .T he a dap ta t ion o fm il i ta ry f o rm si n to s ma l le r? ma son ry t o o l s i sp o s s ib le , o ri n deed t h e s ca l ing d own o fm i l i ta ry f o rm s f o r

Ac ommon f o rm ( c f . Mann ing 1 985 , 1 31 ) . * 12 .10 T -Shaped S tap le ( L .5 .8cm ) . B en t , s qua r e s e c t ioned s ha f ta nd b en tr e c tangu la rs e c t ioned a rm s .P rev iou s l y i lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1 844 , P 1 .30 N o .8 ) w ho

s pec if i c p u rpo se s , t hough t h e re i sn o e v idence f o r t h i s . O ne v e ry c l o se p a ra l le l , s ugge s ted a s ac a rpen t ry t o o l ,c ome sf r om W i lde r spoo l( H inch l if f ee ta l1 992 , F ig .45 N o .10 ) .T he a ppa r e n t a b sence o f as ocke t o n 1 2 .2 i sp rob lema t ic w ha teve r i t s

w rong ly s hows t h eb en te nd a st h er ema in so f al o op . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .49 .J I ) .

f un c t ion w a s .

* 12 .11 T -Ended ? Loop ( L .8 . 1cm ) .V e ry c o r roded .U nce r ta in s ha f ts e c t ion .C ro s sb a ra to ne e nd ,b i f u r ca t ion ( ? be -

* 12 .3 ?Ch i se l( L .7 .85cm ) .R ec tangu la rs e c t ioned b a rt a pe r i n g ( ? to f o rm at a ng ) a nd a tt h e o t he r e nd w iden ing a nd t h inn ing , p o s s ib ly t o f orm a c o r roded b l ade .

g i n ing so fl o op ) a to t he r . ( LC .V ) .

( LC .V ) .

8 6

1

•3

•2

•7 •8

•9

• 4

. 14

. 10

. 11

1 5

•82 •21

•2 2

1 :1

F igur e2 3 : O b jec t so fI r on ( 1 :2 , e xcep t 1 2 .82 a t1 : 1) . 8 7

1 2 .12

? Sw ive l ( L .2 .5cm ) . V e ry c o r roded U shaped b a r o f u nce r ta in s e c t ion a nd p o ss ib le e xpanded t e rm ina l s . S l igh t ly w idened b a se o fc u rve w i th c i r cu la rs c a ra nd c en t ra l s po to n o u te r f a ce ; p o s s ib ly f r om t h e s hank o f as w ive l . ( LC .JK ) .

* 12 .13 K n if e( L .16 .7cm ) .C o r roded ,i n comp le te a nd n ow i n t h ree p i ece s w i th d amaged f l a t b ack , c u rved e dge , p o in ted t i p a nd s ho r t t a ng o n t h e l i ne o ft h e b a ck .

1 2 .26

B lade /Shee t f r agmen t s ( L s u p t o6 . 35cm ) . S eve ra l ma in ly s ma l l f r agmen t s w i th l i t t le e v idence o fc o r r o s ion ; s ome p e rhap s mode rn . ( LC .V ) .

1 2 .27

S t r ip /Co l la rf r agmen t( D i .2 .69cm ) .B roken ,c i r cu la r , 2 . 38cm w ide s t r ip ? co l la r . ( LC .V ) .

1 2 .28 - S t r ip s ( L s .4 .9cm ) . Ova l s e c t ioned . B en t . ( LC .V ) . 1 2 .29

( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .45 .J I ) . 1 2 .30 Mann ing ( 1985 , 14 )t y pe h a .

R ing /Ba rf r agmen t( D i .0 .92cm ) . C u rved b a ro rb ro k en r i ng . C i rcu la rs ec t ion .V e ry c o r roded . ( LC .V ) .

1 2 .31 - B a r f r agmen t s ( L s .up t o 8 . 23cm ) . V e ry c o r roded .

* 12 .14 D i t to ( L .14 .0cm ) . B ad ly c o r roded a nd i n comp le t e w i th p robab ly s t ra igh t b ack , c urved e dge , m i s s ing t i p a nd s ho r t b rok en t a ng o n t h e l i ne o f t h e b a ck . P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1844 , P 1 .30 N o .6 ) t h ough t h ed r aw ing m ay b e al i t t le i d ea l i sed e ven i f t h e p i ece w a s t h en a l i t t le mo re c omp le te . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .46 .J I ) .

1 2 .35

C i rcu la rs e c t ion s u pt o 1 . 95cm i nd i ame te r . ( LC .V ) .

1 2 .36 - D i t to ( L s u p t o 1 .23 b u t ma in ly u nde r 7 . 0cm ) . 1 2 .51 S qua re / rec tangu la r s ec t ioned . Many p robab ly n a i l s hank s b u t i n c lud ing a t h ick , s qua r e s e c t ioned b a r ( t he l o nge s ti t em ) . ( LC .V ) . 1 2 .52

Mann ing t ype l a . * 12 .15 D i t to ( L .7 .2cm ) . F la t b ack , p a ra l le l t oe dge , a ng led

A ng led B a r ( L .5 .8cm ) . N a r row , r e c tangu la r s e c t i oned , t u rn ing a t r i gh t a ng le s a nd t h icken ing . ( LC .V ) .

t i pa nd s t ub o ft a ng o nt h el i ne o ft h eb a ck . ( LC .V ) . 1 2 .53 - B a r s ( L s . u p t o9 . 7cm ) . R ec tangu la r s e c t ion s . O ne 1 2 .54 c u rved . ( LC .V ) .

Mann ing t y pe l ab u tr a the rs ho r tf o rt h et ype . 1 2 .16

D i t to f r agmen t( L .5 .55cm ) .V e ry c o r roded .F l a tb a ck a nd t a pe r ing b l ade . ( LC .V ) .

1 2 .55

D i t to ( L .10 .6cm ) . Unce r ta in s e c t ion .C u rv ing a te nd t ob rok en s p lay ing . P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1844 , P 1 .30 No .11) . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .48 .J I ) .

1 2 .56

N a i l( L .5 .2cm ) .C i rcu la rs e c t ioned s hank .R ec tangu l a rh ead . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .5 1 1 ) .

1 2 .57

T -C lamp ( L .3 .4cm ) . F ragmen ta ry . ( BM 1 848 .5 1 .52 .J 1 ) .

1 2 .58

R od ( L .4 .8cm ) . S -shaped .C i rcu la rs e c t ioned .P r ev i o u s ly i lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1 844 , P 1 .30 N o .7 ) . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .53 .J I ) .

P o s s ib ly Mann ing t y pe h a . 1 2 .17

D i t to f r agmen t( L .3 .58cm ) .T ip o n ly . ( LC .V ) .

* 12 .18 S p iked L oop ( L .8 .5cm ) . R ec tangu la r s e c t ioned b a r w i th b roken p o in t e xpand ing i n to r e c tangu la r s e c t i oned ,s l igh t ly o va ll o op . ( LC .V ) . 1 2 .19

D oub le S p iked L oop ( L .4 .56cm ) . C o r roded , c i r cu l a rl o op w i th t wo s p lay ing ,p o in ted l e g s .( LC .V ) .

1 2 .20

? Cha in L ink ( L .3 .5cm ) .F la tt opped ,p a r t ia l ly c l o sed o va l o fr e c tangu la r s e c t ioned b a r e nd ing i nb rok en ? pa ra l le l l e g s . P robab ly o ne e nd o f as ub -f igu re -o f e i gh tc ha in l i nk . ( LC .V ) .

1 2 .59 - N a i l s ( L s . u p t o 6 .7cm ) . R ec tangu la r s e c t ioned 1 2 .74 s hank sa nd c i rcu la rh ead s( up t o2 . 1cm d i ame te r ) .A t l e a s to ne a nd p e rhaps a l lr e la t ive ly moder n . ( LC .V ) .

* 12 .21 N a i la nd Wa she r( L .2 .58cm ) .S qua re w a she rc en t ra l ly p i e rced b ys hank o fb r oken n a i l . ( LC .V ) .

1 2 .75 - M i sce l laneou s f r agmen t s . I n c lud ing s hape le s s 1 2 .81 c onc re t ion s ,c o r roded f r agmen t sa nd p robab ly mod er ns hee tf r agmen t s . ( LC .V ) .

* 12 .22 B ind ing f r agmen t( L .4 .42cm ) .R ec tangu la rs t r ip w i th o ne c u rved e dge a nd b rok en r i gh ta ng led p ro jec t ion s

* 12 .82 A nnu la r? Buck le ( I n t .D i .0 .82cm ) .C i rcu la rs e c t ioned w i th s t ra igh t p in h e ld o n l a rge p i e rced l u g a tb a se . P robab ly r e f er red t o b y D awk ins ( 1872 , 6 4 ; 1 874 ,101) . ( LC .?BA ) .

a te a ch e nd . ( LC .V ) . 1 2 .23

R ing ( D i .c . 3 .4cm ) .C i r cu la rs e c t ioned . ( LC .V ) . T he l a ck o fc o r ro s ion c ompa red t oo t he rp i ece s s ugge s t s al a t e rd a te t h an f o r mo s to ft h e o the ri r onwo rk . Wh i l s tS axon a nd Med ieva lb roo che so ft h i sf o rm a r ew e l lk nown ( s ee 8 . 57 a bove ) 1 2 .82 ' s s i ze , p ropo r t ion s a nd e spec ia l ly p i n f i x ing p robab ly

1 2 .24 - R ing s ( D i s . c . 4 .0 a nd 5 . 4 cm ) . E x t reme ly c o r roded . 1 2 .25

( LC .V ) .

8

i n d ica te t h a t i ti s a( ? shoe ) b uck le , p robab ly o fr e la t ive ly r e -

mo s t o ft h e i d en t if iab le p i ece s a r e f a i r ly f unc t iona l f i t t ing s t o b e f ound o n many R omano -Br i t i sh s i te s , t h e k n ive s a r e a ga in c ommonp lace a nd o n ly t h er a the rp rob lema t ic ? ma son 's p i ck a xe a nd p o s s ib le c h i se lm igh ta s s i s ti nt h e ma t te ro fs i te f unc -

c en td a t e .

t i on .T he p re sence o f as pea rhead i si n te re s t ing b u ti tn eed b e n o m o re t h an ah un t ing w eapon a nd t h e i n c lu s ion o f ak ey i s a c tua l ly n o t t h a t u nu sua l f o r aR omano -B r i t i sh c ave a s sem b l ag e( c f .t h ec a ta logue si nB ran igan a nd D ea rne 1 991) ;i tc e r t a in ly n eed n o ti mp ly ad oo ra so ppo sed t o al o ckab le b ox .

C ommen t A s t h e e x tan t i r onwo rk i sb ad ly c o r roded a nd q u i t e p o s s ib ly o n ly p a r t o ft h e a s semb lage o r ig ina l ly p r e sen t ( a bove p 38 ) i t i sd i ff icu l tt oc ommen tu se fu l ly o ni t sc ompo s i t ion . H oweve r ,

8 9

CHAPTER 1 3 : THE POST -PALAEOL ITH IC OBJECTS OF I VORY , BONE AND ANTLER

b y Mar t in J .D earne ( w i th ma ter ia li den t i f ica t ion sb y Mar t in J .D earne a nd T homa s C . L ord )

N .B . Whe re n o mo re s pec if i ci d en t if ica t ion o ft h es ke le ta l ma -

t r a ted b y D enny ( 1860 , P 1 . 1 No .17 ) a nd R a i s t r ick ( 1939 ,F ig . I I IN o .6 ) . ( LC .JK ) .

t e r ia l i n vo lved i sg i ven i ta ppea r s t ob e b one o ra n t le rb u td e f i n i t ive d if e ren t ia t ion b e tween t h et wo h a sn o tb een p o s s ib le . * 13 .5

D i t to ( L .6 .04cm ) . S ha f tf r agmen t . D oub le b ead a nd r e e lh ead . ( LC .V ) .

1 3 .6

D i t to ( L .6 .7 1cm ) . S im i la r . H ead b r oken a bove l ow e s to ft wo p l u sb eed sa nd r e e l s . ( LC .JK ) .

* 13 .7

D i t to ( L .9 .64cm ) .C omp le te . S l igh t ly t h ickened ,c i r c u la r h ead w i th f l a tt op a nd t h ree ? kn if e c u t s f o rm i ng r ough ly r a d ia lp a t te rn . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .28 .? J I ) .

* 13 .8

D i t to ( L .8 .2cm ) . C omp le te . G lobu la r b un h ead . ( LC .JK ) .

T he ? Pre -Roman Ma ter ia l * 13 .1 ?Neo l i th ic ? Bead ( D i .3 .2cm ) .C ircu la ra nd b i convex d i s c w i th s ma l l , s l igh t ly o f f -cen t re , s t ra igh t , c i r cu la r p i e r c ing , c oun te r sunk o n b o th f ace s a nd p a r t icu la r ly o n o ne . M id r if t s moo thed a nd f l a t tened w i th s ome ? s c ra tche s . ? D r ip s tone d epo s i t s o n t h e f a ce s . N .B . D awk in s ( e .g . 1 874 , 11 a nd F ig .27 ) e r roneou s ly i n d i ca t ed t h a t 1 3 .20 b e low r a the r t han t h i s i t em c ame f r om t h e' Neo l i th ic 'h o r izon b u tt h eJ ack son ' d aybook ' c l ea r ly d emon s t ra te st h a th ew a s i ne r ro r . ( LC .BA ) .

* 13 .9 1 3 .2

? D i t to .An e v iden t ly s im i la rb u tl o s to b je c tf ound s ome 4 . 3m f r om t h el a s ta nd k nown o n ly f r om D awk in s( e .g . 1 872 ,6 4 )a nd t h eJ ack son ' d aybook ' . ( L .BA ) .

D i t to ( L .5 .18cm ) .R econ s t ruc ted f r om t wo m a t ch ing , s epe ra te ly f ound p i ece s .B roken s ha f ta nd b un h ead . ( LC .JK a nd LC .BA o rV ) .

* 13 .10 D i t to ( L .8 .645cm ) . R econ s truc ted f r om t wo m a t ch i ng f r agmen t s . B roken s haf t . S l igh t ly t h icke r , a s sy me t r ica l b un h ead f l a t o n f r on t a nd b ack . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .29 . M ) .

N o .13 .1 ( a nd t h ep robab ly v e ry s im i la r 1 3 .2 ) a ppea r s t oh ave b een made p r inc ipa l ly f r om t h e i n te r io ro f al ongbone a nd i s v e ry l i gh tw h ich ,t o ge the rw i th i t ss ma l lp ie rc ing s e em st op r e c l ude i t s b e ing as p ind le w ho r l . I t s c on tex t i nt h e ' Neo l i th ic H o r izon ' ( t hough t h i s s e em st oh ave b een o n ly t h eu pp e rp a r t o f ag l ac ia ld epo s i ta nd t oh ave i n c luded ma te r ia l o f? l a te U p p e r P a laeo l i th ic d a te ) s ugge s t s , a l ong w i th i t s ? d r ip s tone d e p o s i t st h a ti ti sp r e -Roman .I ti st e n ta t ive ly s ugge s ted h e re t h a t i ti sa? Neo l i th ic ?bead .

1 3 .11

D i t to ( L .3 .64cm ) . P o in ted c i rcu la r s e c t ioned s ha f t f r agmen t? cu ta c ro s st h et op . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .32 .J I ) .

1 3 .12

D ino ( L .3 .87cm ) .B ad ly d amaged ,c i r cu la rs e c t ioned , p o in ted s ha f tf r agmen t . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .31 .J I ) .

1 3 .13

D i t to ( L .6 .47cm ) . C i r cu la r s ec t ioned , p o in ted s ha f t f r agmen t .R ough l o ng i tud ina l ? kn if ec u tf a ce t sp rob a b ly s ugge s t ing u nf in i shed .G reen i sh c o lou ra t ion d ue

T h eR omano -Br i t i sh Ma ter ia l * 13 .3

? A rm le t f r agmen t ( L .3 .28cm ) . C u rved , r e c tangu la r s e c t ioned s t r ip e xpand ing f r om n a r row ,c omp le te e nd w i th s ma l l c i rcu la rh o le t ob roken w ide r e nd . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .36 .J I ) .

1 3 .14

D i t to ( L .7 .075cm ) . S im i la r b u t u n s ta ined . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .30 .J I ) .

P e rhap so ne t e rm ina lo fa na rm le tw i th o ve r lapped r i ve ted j o in t o rb u t tj o in th e ld b yr i ve ted c oppe ra l loy p la te .E xamp le sf r om

1 3 .15

D i t to ( L .5 .63cm ) . T ape r ing a nd c i r cu la r s e c t ioned w i th b l un t ' p o in t ' . ? Unf in i shed . ( LC .JK ) .

1 3 .16

D i t to ( L .c .4 .5cm ) .L o s tp o in ted s ha f tf r agmen tk nown

t o b u r ia l i np rox im i ty t o c oppe r a loy o r s t a in ing . ( LC .JK ) .

L ankh i l l s( C la rke 1 979 , 3 13f f )a r e much t h icke ra nd n a r rowe r t h an h e r eb u to t he r s( e .g .C rummy 1 983 ,3 7 No .1584 )a r ec om p a rab le . S uch a rm le t sa r ef ou r th c en tu ry i nd a te .

f r om a na r ch ive p ho tog raph . ( L .JK ) . * 13 .4

P i n( L .8 .15 c m ) . C omp le te a nd s l igh t ly c u rved .T r i p l e b ead a nd r e e l h ead . P robab ly p rev iou s ly i lu s -

1 3 .17

D i t to ( L .4 .77cm ) . B a t te red , c i rcu la rs e c t ioned s ha f t f r agmen t ,n ow a tl e a s tb u lg ing n ea ro ne e nd .( LC . JK ) .

9 0

13•1

0

. 5

•

• 3

. 9

• 7

18

• 19 • 20

• 21

23

F i gur e2 4 :O b je c t so fB one /An t le r( 1 :1) . 9 1

O ft h ep i n sr e ta in ing h ead s 1 3 .4 -13 .6 a r eC r ummy ( 1979 )t y pe 6( c .200 t ol a te f ou r th o re a r ly f i f th c en tu ry ) ; 1 3 .8 a nd 1 3 .9 a r e h e rt y pe 3( s im i la r ly d a ted b u ta ppea r ing b efo re t h ee nd o ft h e s e cond c en tu ry i nt h es ou th w e s t ; Woodwa rd e ta l 1 993 , 1 85 6 ) ;a nd t wo d on ' tp rec i se ly ma t ch h e rt y pe s .O ft h e se 1 3 .7 i sa

* 13 .22 C o sme t ic S pa tu la ( L .11 .47cm ) . R econ s t ruc ted f r om t wo m a tch ing ? s epa ra te ly f ound p i ece s . S t em s l igh t ly c u rved a nd c i r cu la rs e c t ioned , ? b rok en a tt h et o pa nd w iden ing a nd t h inn ing t owa rd s t h in , b roken , c i rcu l a r ' b ow l ' . T h ree p a ra l le l s c ra tche s o n b ow l f a ce , e v iden t t o o l m a rk s a nd l ong b and o fr e gu la r i n den -

r e la t ive ly u ncommon v a r ian to ft y pe 6w h ich m ay a l so h ave a w ide n a i l l ike h ead ( e .g . G reep 1 986 , 1 97 t y pe B 2 ;a nd Wook e yH o le :B ran igan a nd D ea rne 1 990 ,7 5t y pe 4( t hough f u r the r

t a t ion so ns ha f t . ( LC .BA a nd BA o rV ) . A l though t h eb ow li su nu sua l ly l a rge f o r as pa tu la 1 3 .22 ' sl a ck o fd i sh ing s e em s t or u le o u t as poon a nd i t s s i ze a nd s hape a p i e r ced s poon l i ke 1 3 .24 -13 .46 .

r e sea rch s ugge s t st h a tt h e' I ron A ge 'e xamp le so fa l lt ype sf r om t h i s s i t e mu s th ave b een a l loca ted t ot h ew rong h o r izon b y t h e e xcava to r ) ' ) . T he p a t te rn o n i t s h ead a ppea r s o n o the r t y pe 6 p i n s ( e .g .B ran igan ,D ea rne a nd R u t te r 1 993 , 5 7 No .6 .15 )a nd i t sd a t es hou ld a ga in b ec . 200 t ot h el a t ef ou r th /ea r ly f i f th c en t u ry . N o . 1 3 .10 i sp r e sumab ly r e la t ed t oC rummy t ype 3 .S im i l a rp i n sc ome f r om D owke rbo t tom H o le C ave ( Br i t ish Mu se -

* 13 .23 ?W eapon H eaded S poon ( L .7 .9 1cm ) . Two m a t ch ing , g l ued f r agmen t so fb roken ,s t ra igh t ,s qua r es e c t ioned s ha f to f? an t le rt a pe r ing a nd t h inn ing t owa rd sb r eak .

u m 1 857 .11-13 .50 ) a nd P re s ta tyn ( G r eep 1 989 , 12 N o .27 ) , t h e l a t te rv e ry s ho r t w i th af l a tr ound h ead a bove ac ro s s b a r . T he l a te rR oman d a te o fa l lo ft h ep i n sr e ta in ing h ead si su sua l b u ti ti ss u rp r i s ing t h a to n ly o ne p i n ( 1 3 .17 )d i sp lay s a ny s i gn

T op w i th b rok en ' f l ange s ' c en t ra l ly o n e i the r s i de , r a p id ly t h inn ing t o? r ounded e dge s . S ho r ts u rv iv ing a r ea so fo r ig ina le dge ss ugge s ta na r row s haped t e r m ina l . ( LC .V )

o ft h eu sua ls wo l len w a i s to fl a te rR oman e xamp les . T he t e rm ina l , t h ough b ad ly d amaged , s eems t oh ave b een a r r ow s haped a nd a st h i si su n l ike ly t oh ave b een ap ro jec t i le ( o r

* 13 .18 B ead ( D i .1 .69cm ) . C i rcu la ra nd b i convex w i th c en t r a l , c i rcu la r p i e rc ing ( LC .V b u tq u i te p o ss ib ly BA i nv i ew o fD awk in s ' ( 1 872 ,6 2 )c ommen t s ) .

g i ven t h es ha f ts e c t ion av o t ive m ina tu re )t h e mo s tl i ke ly i d en t i f ica t ion i so ne o ft h es ma l lg roup o fb one s poon sk nown w i th w eapon h ead s( e .g .M inch in H o le :B ran igan ,D ea rne a nd R u t t e r1 993 ,N o .6 .5 ( s pea r ) ;F ro ce s te rC ou r tV i l la :G ra c ie a nd P r ice 1 979 , 2 1 a nd F ig .9 N o . 1( s pea r , s wo rd a nd a xe ) ) .T he M inch in a nd F roce s te rf i nd s a ppea rt ob ef ou r th c en tu ry .

* 13 .19 D i t to ( Max .D i .1 .9cm ) . R a the r r ough , f l a t a nd s ub c i rcu la r . C en t ra l c i rcu la r h o le h eav i ly c oun te r s unk o nb o th f a ce s . ( LC .V b u tq u i te p o s s ib ly BA a sl a s t ) .

* 13 .24 P i e r ced ' S poon ' ( L .15 .8cm ) .C i r cu la rs e c t ioned s ha f t

* 13 .20 ? D i t to ( Max .D i .2 .4cm ) . L a rge a nd b i con ica l w i th s l igh t ly o fc en t re ,s t ra igh tp i e r c ing .L owe rh a lf w i th z one o fs t ra igh t g roove s ; u ppe r w i th t wo z one s o f a ng led o ne s . P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y D awk in s ( 1 872 ,P l . I No .6 ; 1 874 ,F ig .27 ) ,t h ough h em i s took t h i s p i ece f o r t h e ?Neo l i th ic ? bead 1 3 .1 a bove .

t a pe r ing t owa rd ss t y l i sed ? sp ide rh ead w i th t wo p a i r s o fc en t ra l ly g rooved ' l eg s ' w i th r i ng a nd d o t a tt h e t o p o fe ach a nd a bove ap a i r o fl obe s s epa ra ted b y d eep g roove / s l i t a nd e ach w i th f ou r r i ng a nd d o t s . S l igh t ly r a t t a i led , a s syme t r ica l ly o va l , a lmo s t u n -

( LC .BA ) .

d i shed b ow l w i th o va l p i erc ing , v er t ica l g roove s a bove a nd b e low i t ,f ou r i r regu la r ly s paced d oub le r i ng a nd d o t sa r ound i t st op a nd s ma l le rr i ng a nd d o t s

B one /an t le rb ead sa r en o tc ommon i nR omano -Br i t i sh a s sem b l age s a nd 1 3 .18 -13 .20 d o n o t s e em t ob e c opy ing s pec if i c g l a s s / je tt y pe s . As l igh t ly l a rge r b u t s im i la rb ead t ot h e w e l l m ade 1 3 .18 c ome s f r om Dowk e rbo t tom H o le C ave ( B r i t i sh Mu seum 1 857 .11-13 .49 ) ; 1 3 .19 a ppea r s t ob e ' h ome made ' ; a nd 1 8 .20 ,t h ough , e xcep ti ns i ze , i tr e semb le ss ome l e ad a nd s t one s p ind le w ho r l sw a sp re sumab ly w or no n as t r ing o rt h ong r ound t h en eck l i ke ame lon b ead . As im i la rb ead t o 1 3 .20 i n t h e L o rd C o l lec t ion ( t o b ep ub l i shed ) c ome s f r om n ea rby A t t e rm i re C ave .

b e low i t .G en t le c u rve t oh ead a nd s ha f t ,r a the r mo re c u rved b ow la nd w e l lp o l i shed s u r fa ce w i th o fw h i te p a t ina .P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b yD awk in s( 1 872 , PM N o .1 ; 1 874 , F ig .22 ) a nd K ing ( 1970a , 5 1 ; 1 974 , F ig .3 f ) . ( LC .BA ) . * 13 .25 D i t to ( L .12 .4cm ) . D eep ly c a rved ' b a r ley s uga r ' s p i r a l s ha f t w i th e xpanded h ead r e p re sen t ing a? duck i np rof i le w i th g roove a nd c oncave z one a l ong b ody , b eak i n d ica ted a nd r i ng a nd d o t e ye o n b o th f a ce s . Z -shaped g roove o nf r on td e l in ia t ing ? w ing a nd h ead ? c re s t . O va l , a lmo s tu nd ished b ow l w i th c en t ra l t r i -

* 13 .21 ? Comb S ide B a r( L .12 .44cm ) . R a the rr ough ? an t le r b a r . F la t tened p iano -convex s e c t ion a nd t a pe r ing

a ngu la r p i e rc ing w i th e l onga ted a pex f r om w h ich t h ree g roove sr un u pt os ha f tb a se .T wo r i ng a nd d o t s

e nd s . C lea rl ong i tud ina l ? kn if e c u tf a ce t s o n e dge s . F ou rh o le sa l ong c en t r e ,t h r ee c i r cu la ra nd t h ef ou r th ? sub -c i rcu la r a nd r e ta in ing p a r t o f a? bone p eg .

b e low p i e rc ing . B ow l c u rved a nd s ha f t s t ra igh t i n p rof i le . P o l i sh a nd p a t ina a s l a s t . P rev iou s ly i lu s t r a ted b y D enny ( 1 860 , P 1 . 1 No .2 ) , R a i s t r ick ( 1939 , F ig . I I IN o .2 ) , a nd K ing ( 1970a , 5 1 ; 1 974 , F ig .30g ) . ( LC .JK ) .

( LC .BA ) . T he s e c t ion ,h o le d i spos i t ion a nd l e ng th a r er ough ly c ompa ra b l e w i th s ome l a te R oman c ompo s i t e c omb b a r s ( e .g . C rum m y 1 983 , 5 6 N o .1855 ) , t hough i r on r i ve t s n o t b one p eg s a r e u sua l . Al a ck o fi n te rden t ine g roove s i sa l so n o tab le s oi ft h i s

* 13 .26 D i t to ( L .12 .4cm ) . R ec tangu la r s e c t ioned s ha f t w i th t h ree o f al i ne o fi n c i sed l o zenge s s u rv iv ing f r on ta l -

w a s i n deed ac omb s i de b a ri tm igh tn o th ave b een u sed . 9 2

• 26

13.24

1

F igur e2 5 :O b jec t so fB one /An t le r( 1 :1 ) . 9 3

l y . H ead a pp rox ima te ly s qua re w i th t op a nd b o t tom g roove s a nd g rooved s a l ta i r e f o rm ing f ou rt r i ang le s w i th d oub le r i ng a nd d o t s . B ow l o va l w i th c en t ra l

* 13 .33 D i t to ( L .9 .645cm ) . C i r cu la r s e c t ioned s ha f t b roken j u s ta bove b ow l . S l igh t ly s p lay ing r e c tangu la rh ead , f r on ta l ly w i th t h r ee d eep b a sa l g roove s a nd d eep ly c u t s a l ta i re a nd o n b ack f ou r s yme t r ica l h o r izon ta l

s ub -c i r cu la r p i e r c ing , s l igh t ly e l onga ted a tt h e t o p a nd t h r ee g roove sr unn ing u pf r om i t .P rof i le a st h e l a s t . P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y D enny ( 1 860 , P 1 . 1 No .1) , R a is t r ick ( 1939 , F ig . I I I No .3 ) , a nd K ing ( 1970a , 5 1 ) . ( LC .JK ) .

g roove s . S t ra igh tp rof i le . ( LC .B ) . * 13 .34 D i t to ( L .11 . 1cm ) . R econ s t ruc ted f r om t wo ma tch ing f r agmen t s .C i r cu la rs e c t ioned s ha f tb rok en a to rj u s t a bove b ow l a nd s l igh t ly t a pe r ing t os l igh t ly s p lay -

* 13 .27 D i t to ( L .12 .9cm ) . C i rcu la rs e c t ioned s ha f t . B roken ,

i n g , r ounded s ub rec tangu la r h ead w i th t h ree f r on t a l ,h o r izon ta l g roove s . P rof i le a st h el a s t . ( LC .V ) .

s t epped b a ck h ead o fu nce r ta in f o rm e xcep t f o rb a s a l b a rw i th t r i angu la r i sed e nd s a nd ac i r cu la rh o le . R a t t a i led o va l b ow l w i th s ub -c i rcu la r p i e r c ing a nd s i ng le r ough g roove r unn ing u p f r om i t .P rof i le a s l a s t .( LC .BA ) .

* 13 .35 D i t to ( L .8 .3cm ) .B roken c i r cu la rs e c t ioned s ha f tf r ag m en t w i th r a tt a i led o va l b ow l , s l igh t ly d i shed w i th c en t ra l l o zeng ifo rm p i e r c ing . O ne g roove r unn ing d own f r om p i e r c ing a nd t h ree s p lay ing o u tf r om i t s t o p . ( LC .B ) .

* 13 .28 D i t to ( L .14 .42cm ) . S ub r ec tangu la r s e c t ioned s ha f t w i th t r a ce so fs ho r ta l te rna t ing a ng led g roove sf r on t a l ly . H ead , a bove f ou r h o r izon ta l g roov e s , b rok en a c ro s sb a se o fp robab le o penwo rked l o zenge . R a th e rr ounded o va lb ow l ,c onvex o nb o th f a ce sw i th c en t r a l , c oun te r sunk o va l h o le . S haf t a nd b ow l g en t ly c u rved i np rof i le w i th mo r es t rong ly c u rved b ow lt i p . ( LC .B ) .

1 3 .36

D i t to ( L .4 .2cm ) . R ec tangu la r s e c t ioned s ha f t f r ag m en t w i th s ma l l r e c tangu la rh ead . V e ry b ad ly d am a ged b y ? chem ica l a c t ion , t h e s u r f ace c ove red b y d eep , i regu la rp i t s . ( LC .JK ) .

* 13 .37 D i t to ( L .10 .25cm ) . L a rge , s l igh t ly c u rved b roken s ha f tf r agmen tw i th v e ry r ough ,u ndeco ra ted r e c tan g u la rh ead a nd l o ng i tud ina l? kn if ec u tf a ce t s .A lmo s t c e r ta in ly u nf in i shed . ( LC .BA ) .

* 13 .29 D i t to ( L .11 .15cm ) .D eep ly c a rved ' b a r ley s uga r 's p i r a l s ha f t . H ead a bove r ough g roove w i th t a pe re nd e d b a sa l b a r , c en t ra l h o r izon ta l g roove a nd a bove b rok en l o zenge w i th ? c ro s ss haped p i e rc ing a nd l o z e ng ifo rm g roove .B a ck o fh ead r a the rc oncave .B ad ly b rok en ? ova l ,r a tt a i led b ow lw i th t r ace so fp i e r c ing . N ea r ly s t ra igh tp rof i le e xcep tf o rs l igh tc u rve t ot h e b ow l . P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y K ing ( 1970a , 5 1) . ( LC .B ) .

* 13 .38 D i t to ( L .9 .6 1cm ) .F a i r ly l a rge f r agmen tc u tf r om c i r c u la rs e c t ioned s ha f tw i th b roken h ead r e ta in ing c en t r a l i n ve r ted V g roove . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .26 .? J I ) . * 13 .39 ? D i t to ( L .4 . 1cm ) .S ho r tf r agmen to fc i rcu la rs e c t ioned s ha f tw i th b rok en h ead a nd r a the rd amaged s u r face . H ead n ow a ppea r s t o b e c r e scen t ic w i th i n terna l c ham f e rb u tm ay h ave o r ig ina l ly b een ap i e r ced o va l / c i r c le .P robab ly f r om aP i e r ced ' Spoon 'b u tc once iv a b ly f r om ap i n . ( LC .JK ) .

* 13 .30 D i t to ( L .13 . 1cm ) . R econ s t ruc ted f r om t h r ee m a tch i ng f r agmen t s . C i rcu la rs e c t ioned s ha f t . S l igh t ly e x p anded , s ub rec tangu la r h ead w i th f r on ta l t o p a nd b o t tom g roove s b ound ing g rooved s a l ta i re , a nd o n t h eb a ck t r ipa lb a sa lg roove s ,s i ng le s i de g roove sa nd ac en t ra lg rooved l o zenge .O va lr a tt a i led b ow lw i th c en tr a lc i r cu la rh o le a nd r a the r mo re d i sh ing t h an p r e c ed ing e xamp le s .O n ly s l igh t ly c u rved ( r econ s t ruc t -

* 13 .40 ? D i t to ( L .3 .3cm ) . B roken , r e la t ive ly d eep ly d i shed

e d )p rof i le .( LC .JK ) .

1 3 .41

o va l s poon b ow l p robab ly o r ig ina l ly w i th ac en t ra l p i e rc ing . ( LC .BA ) .

* 13 .31 D i t to ( L .12 .17cm ) .C i rcu la rs e c t ioned s haf tt h ick en i n g al i t t le t owa rd sr ounded k nob l ike h ead ( o rw o rn h ead s t ub ) . D amaged o va l b ow l w i th c en t ra l ,c i rcu l a rh o le a nd w ide o b l ique g roove a c ro s sf a ce g i v ing

? D i t to ( L .7 .85cm ) . B rok en , c u rved f r agmen t o fc i r c u la rs e c t ioned s ha f tw i th b eg in ing s o fs p lay ing f o r b ow l . ( LC .V ) .

d i shed a ppea rance .A lmo s ts t ra igh tp rof i le .P r ev iou s -

* 13 .42 D i t to ( L .9 .5cm ) . T wo ma t ch ing f r agmen t s o ft a pe r i n g , r e c tangu la r s e c t ioned s ha f t c u rv ing s l igh t ly a t n a r rowe re nd a nd f r on ta l ly d eco ra ted w i th a l te rna t -

l y i lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1 844 , P 1 .30 N o .1) . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .24 .J I ) .

i n gp a i r ed a nd i no ne c a se t r ip le a ng led g roov e sf o rm i n ga ni n te rup ted z i g -zag . ( LC .V ) .

* 13 .32 D i t to ( L .7 .25cm ) .B roken ,r a the rt i gh t ,d eep ly c a rved

1 3 .43

' b a r ley s uga r 's p i ra ls ha f tc hang ing f r om r i gh tt ol e f t h anded s p i ra l p a r t o ft h e w ay d own . S t epped b ack , s ub rec tangu la r h ead w i th c en tra l c i rcu la r p i e rc ing

D i t to ( L .7 .0cm ) . T ape r ing , r e c tangu la r s e c t ioned s ha f tf r agmen t . ( LC .V ) .

1 3 .44

D i t to ( L .4 .2cm ) . S ub -squa r e s e c t ioned s ha f t f r ag m en t . ( LC .V ) .

a nd r ough g rooved l i ne sv e r t ica l ly a te ach e nd ,h o r i z on ta l ly j u s tb e low t h e u ppe re dge a nd ( c u rv ing ) a t t h eb a se .( LC .JK ) . 9 4

S . 30

• 33

•

F igur e2 6 :O b jec t so fB one /An t le r( 1 :1 ) . 9 5

• 34

•

39

• 38

1 3.37

•42

•40

) 1 / \ \/ /\ \/A N vAVA \ /A \ /

•

• 48

. 49

• 47

• 50 . 52

• 51

• 53

• 80

• 59

• 82

• 84

83

• 89

• 88

F igure 2 7 : O b jec t so fB one /An t le r( 1 :1) . 9 6

1 3 .45

? D i t to ( L .7 .7cm ) .S ub -ova ls e c t ioned s ha f tf r agmen t . ( LC .BA ) .

1 3 .46

? P ie r ced ' S poon ' B lank ( L .9 .5cm ) . R ough ly c l ub s h aped o b jec tw i th ap robab ly f i n i shed ? c i r cu la rs e c t i oned s ha f t ( now v e ry e r oded ) m ee t ing a t as l igh t a ng le amu ch t h icke r ,i regu la r ly s u r f a ced ,u nwo rked , a pp rox ima te ly o va l b lock w h ich c ou ld h av e b een w o rked i n to ab ow l . ( LC .V ) .

a nd M ike t 1 984 , N o .2 .95 ; t h e t r ip le g roove o n t h e b ow l s o f C o l l inge 1 935 , 2N o .3 a nd s e ve ra lS e t t le p i ece si n c lud ing 1 3 .35 ; a nd t h e o penwo rk l o zenge b e tween g rooved b a r s o f aC a s t le f o rd p i ece a nd S e t t le e xamp le sl i ke 1 3 .28 a nd 1 3 .29 ) .B u tt h ey h ave s e ve ra lo the ra t t r ibu te sn o ts e en o n mo s to the rf i nd s ,s u ch a s' b a r ley s uga r 'o rd e co ra ted r e c tangu la rs e c t ioned s t em sa nd a n h ab i tua l a nd ma rked u pwa rd c u rve t ot h e e nd o ft h e b ow l . T he s p i ra l led s t em s m ay w e l l s ugge s tt h e c opy ing o ft h e s p i r a l led g l a s sr od s( s ome o fw h ich a l so h ave s t y l ised b i rd t e rm i n a l s a nd i n deed l oop e nd s ) o ft h el a te rf i r s ta nd s e cond c en tu r i e s k nown f r om t h e w e s ter n p rov ince s a nd o f t en a s soc ia t ed w i th f ema le b ur ia l s . '

T h i s i st h e l a rge s t g roup o fP ie rced ' S poon s ' ( ' spoon s haped f i bu lae 'a sD awk in s( 1 874 ,9 0 )c a l led t h em , o r' s poon b rooch e s 'a st h ey a r eo f ten k nown ) f r om a ny s i t ea nd i sp a r to f ad i s t i nc tc oncen t ra t ion o fs uch f i nd sf r om t h eS e t t le /G igg le sw ick / Wha r f eda le C ave s . I ndeed , 4 7 o ft h e 7 1 e xamp le sa nd p roba -

T he f unc t ion o fP i e r ced ' S poon s ' i sp a r t icu la r ly p rob lema t ic . T hey c anno t h ave b een s poon s i nt h e s t r ic t s en se a nd e ven a r o le a sd ra in ing o r s auce mak ing s poon s s eem s u n l ike ly b e c au se o ft h er e la t ive f r ag i l i ty o fa tl e a s ts ome ,t h es ha l lowne s s o ft h eb ow l sa nd t h es i ze o ft h ep i e r c ing si ns ome b ow l s . Mo r e o ve rs ome a tl e a s ts e em r a the rh i gh ly d eco ra ted f o rc ook ing a s o ppo sed a tl e a s tt ot a b le i mp lemen t s .D awk in s '( 1874 ,9 0 )s ug -

b l ef r agmen t sk nown t ot h ea u tho ra r ef r om t h e se s i t e s( 1 3 .24 1 3 .46 a bove ; 2L o rd C o l lec t ion ,t ob ep ub l i shed :A t te rm i r eC ave ( 10 ) , J ub i lee C ave ( 1 ) , G rea te r K e lco C ave ( 1 ) , K in sey C ave ( 1 ) , S ewe l l 's C ave ( 3 ) ;B r i t i sh Mu seum 1 848 .5 -11 .35 : U nce r t a in ? Se t t le ? Cave ( 1 ) ; B r i t ish Mu seum 1 857 .11-13 .28 .34 : D owk e rbo t tom H o le C ave ( 7 ) ) 3.

g e s t ion t h a tt h ey w e re c l o the sf a s tene r s( t hu st h ee p i the t' s poon b rooche s ') may b e e n t i re ly d i sm i s sed a s mo s t a r e t o o l o ng ,

T he o t he r sd emon s t ra te t h a t t h e f o rm w a s r e s t r ic t ed t on o r th -

many h ave a lmo s tn oh ead ( e .g . 1 3 .31) o rt oo s ma l l ah ead t o p r even t s l ippage t h rough a b u t ton h o le ( e .g .13 .34 ) a nd t h e p i e rced b ow ls mak e l i t t le s en se i n s uch a c on tex t . K ing ' s

e r n B r i ta in w i th p a r t icu la r n umbe r s f r om n o r th e a s ter n s i te s ( Y o rk ( 5 ) , Ma l ton ( 1 ) , D u rham c oa s tb e tween H a r t lepoo l a nd S ea ton C a rew ( 1 ) ,G rea tC he s te r s( 1 )( Co ll inge 1 935 ,2 3N o s 1 5 a nd 8 10 ) ; S ou th S h ie ld s ( 2 ) ( A l la son -Jone s a nd M ike t 1 984 ,N o s2 . 95 a nd 2 . 96 ) ;N ew s tead ( 1 )( Cu r ie 1 911 , 38 a nd P 1 .92 N o .2 1 ) ; C a s t le fo rd ( 7 ) ( pe r s .comm . S .G reep ) ; D a l ton P a r lou r s ( 4 ) (W ra thme l l a nd N icho l son 1 990 , 1 28 N o s 1 9 -2 1 a nd 2 3 ) ; U np rovenanced ( 1 ) ( Br i t i sh Mu seum 1 896 .5 -1 .8 ) 5; a nd ? E l s la ck ( 1 )( May 1 911 , 1 67 ) ) . An umbe ro fo t he rp i ece s , p e rhap s s i gn if i can t ly m a in ly f r om t h es ame s i te s ,a l so a ppea r t ob ep a r t ly a na logou st ot h i sc o rpu si ne l emen t so ff o rm /dec o ra t ion a nd p robab ly r e p re sen t u nf in i shed e xamp le s , as ma l l g roup o fv e ry s ha l low b ow led t r ue s poon su s ing t h es ame d ec -

( 1 970a , 5 0 ) s ugge s t ion t h a t t h ey w e re u sed f o r d raw ing o u t r ope s o fw oo l t h rough t h ep i e rc ing i s mo re i n te re s t ing i nt h a t i tw ou ld e xp la in p o s s ib le w ea rp o l i sh o ns ome p i e r c ing s .A ga in t h ough t h ed eg ree o fd eco ra t ion m igh tb ea n o b jec t ion t ot h i s a nd mo re s e r iou so ne sa r et h a tt h el e ng th o fs t em a nd p r e sence o f ah ead s eem u nnece s sa ry , a nd e spec ia l ly t h a t t h e s i z e a nd s hape o fs ome p i e rc ing s ( e .g . 1 3 .25 -13 .26 , BM 1 848 .5 11 .23 a nd o no ne f r om C a s t le fo rd w i th t wo h o le s )a ppea ri n compa t i b le w i th s uch ar o le . R a the r mo s t e xamp le s g i ve t h e i mp re s s ion o f b e ing a tl e a s t

o ra t ive s t y le o ro fP i e r ced ' Spoon s 'l a ck ing f u l lp i e r c ing s ,a nd ag roup o fh ead f r agmen t s s im i la r t ob u t n o t c e r ta in ly f r om P i e rced ' S poon s ' ( Y o rk ( 5o r6 ) ( Co l l inge 1 935 , 2 3 N o s 4 -6 ? and 7 ) ; S . Sh ie ld s ( 4 ) ( op c i t N o s 2 3 =A l la son Jone s a nd M ike t1 984 ,N o s2 . 99 a nd 2 . 102 ;p l u sA l la son -Jone sa nd M ike t 1 984 N o s2 . 100 a nd 2 . 101) ; C o rb r idge ( 1 ) ( c i ted b yA l la son -

p a r t ly d eco ra t ive i ni n ten t a nd ap o s s ib i l i ty w h ich m igh t b e c on s ide red i st ha tt h ey w e re h a i ro rnamen t s / f a s tene r s . C u r ie ' s ( 1 911 , 38 ) o b jec t ion t ot h i s t h a t t h ey c ou ld n o t b e i n se r ted i n to ah a i rdo i nt h em anne ro f ah a i rp i n may b ed i scoun ted a s t h e ' b ow l ' w ou ld p robab ly b e t h e p a r t i n se r ted , i fi n deed t h e ' s poon ' w a s n o tw oven i n . T he b ow l p i e rc ing m igh th ave h ad al o ck o fh a i r p a s sed t h rough i t( e xp la in ing w ea r p o l i sh ) , i t s s hape t h u sb e ing i re leven ta nd i fs oa na logou su np ie rced p i ece s m igh tb e long t oh a i rdo sn o tc a l l ing f o r ' p ony t a i l s ' . H oweve r , n o f unc t iona l s ugge s t ion a ppea r s t oe xp la in f ea tu re s s uch a s t h e g roove s o n t h e b ow l s a nd t h i s e mpha s ize s t h a t n one a r e e n t i r e ly s a t i sf ac to ry .A su sua li ns uch c i r cum s tance s ab road ly

J one s a nd M ike t 1 984 ) ; D a l ton P a r lou r s ( 1 ) (W ra thme l l a nd N icho l son 1 990 , 1 28 N o .22 ) ; C a s t le f o rd ( 1 ) ( p e r s . c omm . S . G reep ) ;D owke rbo t tom H o le C ave ( 1 )( Br i t i sh Mu seum 1 857 . 1 -13 .36 ) ;A ldbo rough ( 1o r mo re ) ( B i shop 1 996 , 1 4 -16 N o s 2 9 -35 a nd e spec ia l ly 3 7 ) ) . D a t ing e v idence r ema in sl im i ted .T he N ew s tead f i nd i sa ppa r e n t ly F l av ian , t h eG rea tC he s te r s e xamp le mu s tb e H ad r ian ic o r l a te r a nd t h e C a s t le fo rd p i ece s r a nge f r om t h e e a r ly 7 0 s / m id 8 0 s t ol a te R oman ( p e r s .comm . C .P h i lo , We s tY o rk sh i r e A rchaeo logy S e rv ice ) . H oweve r , t h e l a t te r c e r ta in ly d emon s t ra te t h ef o rm 's e x i s tence w e l lb ef o r et h ee nd o ft h ef i r s tc en -

r i tua l f unc t ion mu s tt h e re fo re a l so b ec on s ide red ap o s s ib i l i ty a nd a no bv iou sc ompa r i son i sw i th We l sh ' l ove s poon s ' ,t h ough t h ec on tex to fu se n eed n o th ave b een p rec i se ly t h es ame .

t u ry a nd af i r s ta nd e a r l ie rs e cond c en tu ry d a te f o rm o s te xam p l e s c u r ren t ly s e em sl i ke ly w i th l a t e rC a s t le fo rd p i e ce s b e ing r e s idua l . A s t of o rm a nd d eco ra t ion t h e S e t t le /G igg le sw ick /

f i ve z one s ,c en t ra lp l a in a nd o t he r sw i th c l o se s e td i -

Wha r f eda le C ave s e xamp le s h ave s ome s pec if i c f e a tu r e s i n

F ig .24b )a nd p r obab ly t h a tn o ted i nt h eJ a ck son ' d ay b ook ' a sf ound o u t s ide t h ec ave . ( LC .JK ) .

* 13 .47 T ogg le ( L .4 .58cm ) . H o l low w i th c en t ra l c i rcu la r p i e rc ing a nd w a is t ing e i the r s i de . G roove s d ef in ing a gona lg roove s .B a ck b rok en a to ne e nd .P rev iou s ly i lus t ra ted b y D awk in s ( 1872 , PH I No .3 ; 1 874 ,

c ommon w i th p i e ce sf r om o the rs i te s( e .g .t h ew a te rb i rd h ead s a nd r i ng a nd d o td eco ra ted b ow l s o f 1 3 .25 a nd A l la son -Jone s 9 7

* 13 .48 D i t to ( L .5 .4 15cm ) . S im i la r w i th s l igh te r w a i s t ing s

* 13 .63 D i t to ( L .3 .40 cm ) .S im i la r ,w a i s t ed a nd p l a in b u tv e ry s hor t . O ne w a i s t ing ? i ncomp le te . C en t ra l c r ea se s

a nd s e ven z one s ,c en t ra la nd e nd sp l a in ,o u te rd eco r a ted z one s a sl a s t b u t r a the r i r regu la r i no ne c a se , i n ne ro ne sw i th g roup so fa l terna t ing a ng led g roove s ( f u l l s cheme s hown i d ea l i sed o n t h e d r aw ing ) . O ne e nd b ad ly c r a cked . ( LC .BA ) .

f r on t a nd b ack s ugge s t ing o v icap r id ? me ta ta r s i l . ( LC .B ) . * 13 .64 D i t to B lank ( L .4 .95cm ) . H o l low a nd w a i s ted b u tu n p i e r ced ,r ough o n ' b ack 'a nd s how ing ? kn if ec u tl o n g i tud ina lf a ce t s o n ' f ron t ' . ( LC . ? BA ) .

* 13 .49 D i t to ( L .4 .85cm ) . S im i la r , w e l l w a i s ted a nd r a the r f l a t tened ' f ron t ' a nd ' b a ck ' . S im i la r d eco ra t ion b u t g r oove a ng le a l te rna t ing i na d ja cen tz one s .P r ev iou s -

1 3 .65

l yi lu s t ra ted b y D awk in s ( 1872 , Pi l l , N o .4 ; 1 874 , F i g. 2 4a ) . ( LC .BA ) .

V a r iou s b one ( a nd c oppe r a l loy ) o b jec t s s uch a s ' d umb -be l l b u t ton s ' a nd t h ec heek p i ece sb e low a r e s ome t ime sd e sc r ibed a st o gg le s a nd t h ef o rme r may h ave b een f unc t iona l ly s im i la r

* 13 .50 D i t to ( L .3 .70cm ) . S im i la r b u t u nwa i s t ed . ? S ix u ne q ua lz one s ,c en t ra lp l a in ,r e s tw i th d i agona lg roove s . P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y R a is t r ick ( 1939 , F ig . I I N o .13 ) . ( LC .TL ) .

t o1 3 .47 -13 .65 . H oweve r , a sf a ra st h ea u tho ri sa wa re t o gg le s p rec i se ly l i ke t h o se f r om V ic to r ia C ave a r ee n t i re ly r e s t r ic ted t ot h eS e t t le a nd G igg le sw ick C ave s , s even mo r ec om ing f r om A t t e rm i re C av e ,o ne e a ch f r om J ub i lee ,K in sey a nd K e lco C av e s a nd t wo ( one u nf in i shed ) f r om S ewe l l ' s C ave ( a l l i nt h eL o rd C o l lec t ion ) ; a l l a r ep l a in o rd eco ra ted i n as im i la rw ay t ot h e a bove e xamp le s a nd mo s t s how u sage p o l i sh . T he o n ly f o r -

* 13 .51 D i t to ( L .3 .00 cm ) .S im i la r ,w a i s ted a nd w i thou tz one s . O ne u nwo rn ? t ape red e nd b rok en w i th c l o se s e td i a gona lg roove s ,o t he rc omp le te b u t mo re w or nw i th w ide rg roove s pa c ing . ( LC .JK ) . * 13 .52 D i t to ( L .6 .30 cm ) . S im i la r , w a i s t ing ? wo rn a way o n o ne e dge . D eco r a t ion w or n a way a to ne e nd , o the r w i th t e rm ina lc r o s sg r oove a nd t r ace so f? c ro s sh a tch i n g . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .2 1 .3 1 ) .

ma l ly s im i la rt o gg le sa r et h eI r on Age o nes t y p if ied b y t h e4 6 f r om D anebu ry ( Cun l if f e 1 984 , 3 78 -80 ; C un l if f e a nd P oo le 1 991 , 3 58 a l so c i t ing much s ma l le r n umbe r s f r om o t he rI r on A ge s i te s ) a nd as c a t te r ing o fo the r B r i t i sh a nd S cand inav ian p i ece s( c f . MacG rego r 1 985 , 1 02 -3 )b u ta lmo s ta l o ft h e se a r e ag ood d ea ls ho r te rt h an t h eS e t t le /G igg le sw ick t y pe ,n one h av e w a i s t ings o r much s im i la r i ty i nd eco ra t ion , a nd m o s t i mpo r t a n t ly o n ly am ino r i ty f r om D anebu ry a r e c en t ra l ly p i e r ced t h rough b o th s i de s , mo s t b e ing p i e rced o n o n ly o ne f a ce . I t s e em sl i ke ly t h a tt h eS e t t le /G igg le sw ick t ogg le sw e re a t ta ched t ol e a the r o r t e x t i le s b y s ew ing ( o r b y at h ong ) t h rough t h e c en t ra l h o le ( a s e mpha s ized b y t h e l a ck o fd eco ra t ion o n t h e

* 13 .53 D i t to ( L .5 .09cm ) . S im i la r , w e l l w a i s ted a nd r a the r o va ls e c t ioned . ? C ro s sh a t ch ing b ad ly w o rn .( LC .JK ) . 1 3 .54

D i t to ( L .4 .57cm ) . S im i la r , wa i s ted , p l a in a nd w i th s ma l li mpac th o le o no ne f a ce . ( LC .BA ) .

1 3 .55

D i t to ( L .4 .48cm ) . S im i la r , ( LC .BA ) .

wa is ted a nd p la in .

c en t ra lp ane l so fa lmo s ta l e xamp le s )a nd t h a tt h ey w e re u s ed i nt h e manne ro f mode rn d uf f le c oa t b u t ton s . Wha ti sn o tc e r -

1 3 .56

D i t to ( L .5 .05cm ) .S im i la r ,w a i s ted ,p l a in a nd c r acked . ( LC .BA ) .

1 3 .57

D i t to ( L .5 .53cm ) . S im i la r , w a is ted , p l a in a nd w i th

t a in i sw he the r t h ey w e re u sed o n c l o th ing o r o n o t he r f a s t e ned i t em ( s ) l i ke t e n tf l ap s o rl e a the rb ags . C un l if f e ' s ( 1 984 , 3 80 )a na lys i so ft h eD anebu ry t ogg le si d en t if i ed as pe c if i cw ea r p a t te rn ( no tp re sen to n t h e S e t t le /G igg le sw ick t y pe ) a nd c on -

h i gh ? wea rp o l i sh , w ea rf l a t tened w a i s t ing a nd f ou r d eep ,p a ra l le l ? damage g roove s . ( LC .BA ) . 1 3 .58

D i t to ( L .5 .75cm ) . S im i la r , ( LC .BA ) .

? D i t to B lank ( L .6 .29cm ) .L eng th o fh o l low b one ,c u t a nd s l igh t ly c hamf e red a te ach e nd b u t w i thou tf u r t h e rw o rk ing m a rk s . ( LC .V ) .

c l uded t h a t ,t h ough p i e r c ing v a r ia t ions may i n d ica t ev a r ia t ion s i nu sage t h e se t o gg le sw e re a l so f a s tene r s .H oweve r ,i tr ema in s u nc lea r whe the ra ny d i re c tr e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h eS e t t le /G ig g l e sw ick a nd D anebu ry t y pe si st ob ee nv i saged a nd s ome o t he r B r i t i sh a nd S cand inav ian t ogg le s h ave b een r e ga rded a sb ob b i n s o re ven t o y s( Ma cG rego r 1 985 , 1 02 -3 ) .

w a i s ted a nd p la in .

* 13 .59 D i t to ( L .3 .97cm ) .S im i la r ,w a is ted ,p l a in a nd b roken a to ne e nd . ( LC .BA ) .

* 13 .66 - T r iangu la r I n lays ( L .s 2 . 5 -2 .6cm ) . F ive s im i la r , 1 3 .70 r egu la r t r i ang le s w i th o n ly s l igh t v a r ia t ion s i nd i m en s ion s ,t h ree o fc on s i s ten t0 . 36 -0 .42cm t h ickne s s a nd t wo w i th t a pe r s i no ne o r t wo p l ane s f r om a

* 13 .60 D i t to ( L .4 .67cm ) . S im i la r , w a i s ted a nd p la in . H o le c oun te r sunk . ( LC .JK ) . 1 3 .6 1

max imum o f 0 . 55cm t o am in imum o f 0 . 36cm . F ound w i th in as ma l la r ea o u t s ide t h ec ave .( LC . 'TL ) .

D i t to ( L .4 .575cm ) . S im i la r , wa is ted a nd p la in . S u r f a ce d ecayed a nd p i t ted ? by c hem ica l a c t ion . ( LC .BA ) .

Aw ide v a r ie ty o ft r iangu la r p ie ce s o f b one i n lay o ft h i s o r g r ea te rt h ickne s s p e rhap s ma in ly f r om b oxe sb u ts ome p o s s i b l yf r om f u rn i tu r ec ome f r om R omano -Br i t i sh c on t ex t s .F ron -

* 13 .62 D i t to ( L .4 .67cm ) .S im i la r ,w a i s ted a nd p l a in .O ne e nd l ef tr ough a nd t r a ce s o f? kn if e c u tl o ng i tud ina l f a c -

t a l r i ng a nd d o t s a r e f r equen t b u t n o t u b iqu i tou s , a sa r e r e a r s e cu r ing g roove s( e .g .Z ienk iew icz 1 986 , 2 11 N o s3 1 a nd 3 7 ) .

e t s .( LC .B ) . 9 8

Other frontal decorations include incised horizontal grooves, triangles and concentric arcs (e.g. Meates 1987, 144 Nos 4023; Cunliffe 1964, 91 No.14; W heeler 1932, 91 No.155; Hassall and Rhodes 1974 inlay type xix; Barfield 1977, Pl.LX). Plain triangles without securing grooves (and so presumably glued in place) are a little less common but occur both as isolated finds (e.g. Wedlake 1982, 199 No.8; Woodward and Leach 1993, 203 No.3) and significant parts of large inlay groups (Hassal and Rhodes op cit, type xx (93 of 1,709 pieces); Bar­ field op cit). The possibility exists that two of the Victoria finds were of too inconsistent a thickness to be used successfully so these might indicate the production of inlay not the decay of an inlaid object.

though rectangular butts especially may have regional as well as chronological significance. The Victoria combs are not in themselves closely dateable but in the absence of evidence for Iron Age site activity they should probably be regarded like most other Roman period site finds as representative of a lim­ ited continuation of Iron Age traditions in the later first and perhaps earlier second centuries A.D. as emphasised by their northern distribution. *13.73 ??Spindle Fragment (L.7.26cm). Tapering, slightly oval sectioned, broken at both ends and apparently roughly re-worked around three quarters of the nar­ rower, probably removing some decoration. Deco­ rated with ring and dots in zones defined by three horizontal grooves and a vertical groove the length of the 'back'. Ring and dots, except in top two reg­ isters, in rings of three around shaft. (LC.JK).

*13. 71 Weaving Comb (L. l 2.19cm). ? Antler. Nearly com­ plete with three unbroken and eleven broken teeth at base of rather irregularly tapering, concavo-con­ vex handle with rectangular butt. Well polished, es­ pecially on left edge but badly scratched. Complete teeth with shallow cross cuts or wear grooves. Pre­ viously illustrated by Denny (1860, PU No.4), and probably Raistrick (1939, Fig.II No.2). (LC.JK).

Decoration such as this would be relatively unusual on a pin and it is tempting to see this, and a similar piece from Ilches­ ter Mead (Hayward 1982, 33 and Fig. 26 No.4) as spindle frag­ ments, though the present piece might have been re-worked for some secondary purpose.

*13.72 Ditto (L.4.25cm). Base of piano-convex handle re­ taining five central tooth stubs and broken vestiges of ?five more. Shallow, central ?wear groove down handle interupting lowest register of decoration. Finely worked decorative scheme with shallow hor­ izontal groove flanked by deeper ones of unequal width at base, similar but thinner and more regular pattern above diagonally defining a triangle with a double ring and dot, and at the break a slightly bowed horizontal groove. (LC.JK).

*13.74 Spindle W horl (Di.4.56cm). Reconstructed from two matching pieces. Flat antler disc with rounded edge and crude, slightly off centre circular pierc­ ing. (LC.JK). *13.75 Ditto (Di.3.33cm). Cut from femur head. Straight, flat edge, chamfered top and bottom and central, straight, circular piercing. Previously illustrated by Smith (1844, Pl.30 No.3). (BM 1848.5-11.37.Il)

Weaving combs are characteristic of the Iron Age, particularly notable collections coming for instance from Meare (Coles 1987, 104-117) and Danebury (Cunliffe 1984, 371-8; Cunliffe and Poole 1991, 354-7) but their appearance on Roman sites (notably northern ones) is well established. Examples may be cited from Colchester (Crummy 1992, 215 No.120); ?Prestatyn (Greep 1989, 114 No.34); W roxeter (Bushe-Fox 1916, 33, Pl.22 Fig.I.I); Newstead (Curle 1911, Pl.68 Nos 1-4); and S.Shields (Allason-Jones and Miket 1984, 38 No.2.23 citing more from Corbridge, Chesters, Housesteads, Wallsend, ?Car­ lisle, Piercebridge, York, Caerwent and Camelon). Their func­ tion and formal variation has been discussed by Hodder and Hedges (1977) and by Cunliffe (1984, 371-8; cf. also Cunliffe and Poole 1991, 354-7) and, though other uses such as in dress­ ing skins have been suggested, it still seems likely that they were used in weaving, even if their precise method(s) of use continue to be debated. In form the Victoria examples are eas­ ily paralleled at, for instance, Danebury, their concavo-convex and piano-convex sections both being well known, wear polish as on 13.71 being common, and both the rather irregular han­ dle of 13.71 and the much more regular taper on 13.72 often being seen. The grooves on the teeth of 13.71 are also com­ mon. Other features of the Victoria finds also paralleled at Danebury appear to be particularly characteristic of that site's latest phases, viz the rectangular butt, lack of decoration and relatively steep taper of 13.71, and 13.72's ring and dot motif;

*13.76 Ditto (Di.3.77cm). Cut from femur head. Hemi­ spherical with slightly hour glass piercing well off centre. This or the next previously illustrated by Denny (1860, Pl.l, No.7). (LC.JK).

*13.77

Ditto (Di.4.30cm). Similar but straight central pierc­ ing, rather convex base, and traces of grooved dec­ oration. Area of surface damage. (LC.JK).

13.78

Ditto (Di.3.885cm). Similar to the last but undeco­ rated and badly damaged. (LC.JK).

13.79- Ditto (Dis 3.24, 3.55, 3.63, 3.77, 3.94 and 4.05cm). 13.85 Similar to the last, one badly damaged and one with rather flattened top. (One LC.BA the rest LC.V). The antler disc 13.74 was presumably a spindle whorl, per­ haps used in combination with others. 13.75-13.85 are all made by cutting the head off of a femur and piercing it, only one being worked further and one decorated. T he form, utilising a relatively dense skeletal element left over from butchery oc­ curs sporadically on Roman sites (Chichester: Down 1989, 208 No.8; ?Lullingstone: Meates 1987, 151 No.456; Puckridge­ Braughing: Potter and Trow 1988, 88 No.38; Canterbury: Frere 1983, 172 No.23 (?redeposited in a ?fourteenth century con­ text); Dorchester: Woodward, Davies and Graham 1993, 189 99

•72

13 •7 1

0 1. 1 19 .

0

0

. 73

•75

0

0

0

0

•7 4

•87

•

•86

•76 -7 7

••8 8

•89

F igure 2 8 : O b jec t s o fB one /An t le r( 1 :1) . 1 00

No.51; Bromham: Tilson 1973, 56 No.305; and Colchester: Crummy 1992,198 No.1722). An apparent example from Danebury hillfort phase 7 (Cunliffe and Poole 1991, 366 No.3.369) suggests that the form was known in the Iron Age and the Bromham whorl is early first century. The Lulling­ stone piece is by contrast late fourth century and suggests that the form had a long life.

*13.98 Ditto (L.8.03cm). Similar but point complete and head unangled. Previously illustrated by Breuil (1921/2, Fig.8 No.2). (LC.BA). *13.99 ?Ditto Blank (L.12.38cm). Roughly cut ?antler strip of sub-rectangular section, tapering from rough as­ symetrically expanded head to blunt point. Clear ?knife cut facets side and back. (LC.V).

*13.86 Needle (L.9.07cm). Circular sectioned with rather pointed head and countersunk oval eye. Broken. (LC.B).

*13.100 ?Netting Needle/fhreader (L.13.39cm). Complete, long, thick slightly curved circular sectioned pol­ ished shaft (with deep angled groove across it) ta­ pering to a point. Made from a femur, the head of which has been cut across giving a large terminal worn or worked more on one side with a slightly concave polished zone centrally on the top and a straight circular hole pierced angularly from a point on its edge to the base of the head on the more worked/worn side. Previously illustrated by Denny (1860, Pl.1 No.16) and King (1974, Fig. 30b). (LC.JK).

*13.87 Ditto (L.14.065cm). Oval sectioned with expand­ ing pointed head and irregularly oval counter sunk eye? made by drilling two adjacent holes. Previously illustrated by Denny (1860, PU No.3). (LC.JK). *13.88 Ditto (L.10.29cm). Slightly curved and rather thick with pointed head and circular eye. Surface, espe­ cially on one face rough; probable ? knife cut fac­ ets. (LC.BA). *13.89 Ditto (L.6.2cm). Fragment. Steeply tapered and flat with angled rounded head and circular eye. Perhaps made from pig fibula. (LC.BA). *13.90 Ditto (L.11.93cm). Curved and flat with pointed head and irregular oval, countersunk eye. ?Antler. (LC.JK). *13.91 Ditto (L.9.lcm). Very thin, curved and flat with ex­ panded, flat topped head and circular eye. (LC.V). *13.92 Ditto (L.7.71cm). Shallowly curved thin strip form broken across ?circular eye. ? Antler. (LC.BA). 13.93

?Ditto (L.12.2lcm). Two separately found match­ ing fragments. Slightly curved and sub-rectangular sectioned shaft retaining point. Upper part rather rough, lower showing some ?knife cut facets. (LC.JK and LC.BA).

13.94

?Ditto (L.7.85cm). Curved, pointed, sub-circular sectioned shaft fragment. (LC.V).

*13.95 ?Ditto (L.7.0cm). Broken oval sectioned shaft with rather assymetrical point and one rough face. (LC.JK). 13.96

Breuil's (1921/2) conclusions regarding the dating of 13.97 and 13.98 are not accepted here and 13.86-13.100 are all re­ garded as Romano-British. Most appear to be needles, frag­ ments more likely of needles than pins and probable needle blanks (though some of these may alternatively have been piercers), while 13.100 clearly had some sewing like function. There are few needles retaining heads that fall easily into pro­ posed classification schemes which stress head and eye shape (e.g. Greep 1986, 198; Crummy 1983, 65; Crummy 1992, 214). However, 13.86 and 13.88 are Crummy's (1983; and cf. Crum­ my 1992) type lb and 13.87 of type le, though 13.87 and 13.88 have more expanded heads than usual. Type 1 needles seem to date before c.200. Needle 13.89 might be compared to Crum­ my type 2 (dated throughout the Roman period but not cer­ tainly made in bone before the second century) but its length, rectangular section and angled head perhaps place it outside the classification scheme. Similarly 13.90-13.92 might be com­ pared again to Crummy types le (13.90) and lb but their lengths, sections and profiles are unusual and might suggest some spe­ cialised functions, possibly in leather working. Of headless fragments several might well be unfinished and again non­ standard sections and profiles occur while 13.96 and especial­ ly 13.97 might be piercers but could be blanks for needles like 13.89. 13.99 is very suggestive of a rough out for a needle like 13.90-13.92. 13.100 has a single very close parallel, with more oval shaft and smaller head from Dowkerbottom Hole Cave (British Museum 1857.11-13.38). Its form suggests some sort of sew­ ing with a thick thread, cord or even thong and making netting is one possibility; as would be some form of threading func­ tion.

?Ditto Blank/?Piercer (L.5.2cm). Circular sectioned shaft fragment. Slightly expanded, rounded but un­ pierced head. (LC.V).

*13.97 ?Ditto Blank/?Piercer (L.7.62cm). Tapering, ap­ proximately square sectioned shaft. Rough with lon­ gitudinal ?working scratches. Head slightly expand­ ed unpierced and slightly angled. Point broken. Previously illustrated by Breuil (1921/2, Fig.9 No.3). (LC.BA).

*13.101 Piercer (L.6.2cm). Worked from longitudinally cut longbone fragment. Top and very tip of point bro­ ken. Upper surfaces and cut faces on back show some polish. (LC.V).

101

0 -

. 92

I

•

• 95

•97

. 91

13. 90

101

• 99

• 98

•103

F igur e2 9 : O b jec t so fB one /An t le r( 1 :1 ) . 1 02

1 3 .102

D i t to ( L .6 .23cm ) .S im i la rb u tt o pa nd o ne s i de b r o k en ,p o in tb lun te r w i th s ome p o l i sh b u t a l so s ome p o s t -u sage d amage . ( LC .V ) .

a nd i r regu la r . C i rcu la rh o le c en t ra l ly i nb a se a nd a s e cond d i agona l ly c ro s s ing i t .P o s s ib ly m ade f r om ah o rn c o r e . ( LC .BA ) .

U n l ike s om e o ft h e p reced ing t h e se a r e c l ea r ly s imp le p i e r c e r s .

N o t e s omewha t s im i la r p i ece s f r om C an te rbu ry ( F re re 1 983 , 1 72 N o .25 ;b u td i agona lh o le o n ly t h rough o ne f a ce )a nd Wh i t t i ng ton C ou r tV i l la ( O 'Ne i l 1 952 , 8 3 No .4 ; b u tf a r mo re d eco r a ted ) .A l la r ep r e sumab ly s ma l lt oo lh and le sw i th ap i nt h rough t h e c r o s s h o le h o ld ing at a ng ; b u t t h e t oo l c anno t h ave b een i n tended t ot a ke much s t re s s .

* 13 .103 P o in t ( L .6 .5cm ) . H o l low , w e l l p o l i shed , t r iangu la r s e c t ioned a nd p o in ted b yc u t t ing o ne f a ce o b l ique l yl e av ing a ne l onga ted o va lh o le ( a d jacen tt o an a t u r a lc r ea se ) . Made f r om p rox ima le nd o fo v icap r id t i b ia .( LC .?BA ) .

* 13 .108 ( ?T oo l )H and le ( L .6 .8cm ) .T ape r ing ,r a the ro va ls e c t i oned a nd w i th c hamf e red ,c u tt i pa nd r ough ( ? b ro -

1 3 .104 - D i t to ( L s 5 .25 a nd 6 . 85cm ) . S im i la r t o t h e l a s t . 1 3 .105 ( LC .BA a nd LC .?BA ) .

k en ) b u t t . D amage t o o ne f a ce . T ip h a s p robab ly s ho r t , c en t ra l , s ub rec tangu la r p i e rc ing r e ta in ing p robab le i r on c o r ro s ion p roduc t s .R ough l i ne o fr i ng a nd d o t s a r ound b u t ta nd c rude ly e xecu t ed , p oo r ly s pa ced l i ne so ff i ve , s i xa nd e i gh tr i ng a nd d o t sr un n i ng u pt ot h et i p . ( LC .BA ) .

S im i la rp o in t sm ade f r om o v icap r id o rp i gt i b iae a nd o f t en r a th e rl o nge r w i th ac i rcu la r h o le t h rough t h e b u t t e nd a r e mo s t t y p ica l o ft h eI r on Age ( e .g . C un l if f e a nd P oo le 1 991 , 3 59 -6 1 N o s3 . 291 -3 .334 )b u td oo ccu ri nt h eR oman p e r iod ( c f .G reep 1 989 , 12 w i th f ou r e xamp le s l i k e t h o se h e re ) . O the r f i nd s p o t s i n c lude C o rb r idge ( B i shop a nd D o re 1 988 , 2 09 No .40 ) , P oundbu ry ( Spa rey G reen 1 987 ,F ig .80 N o s 1 4a nd 6 -8 ) a nd R ud s ton ( S tead 1 980 , 1 05 N o s 7 4 -6 ) . T he i ru se i su nce r ta in .

* 13 .109 T oo l H and le ( L .5 .25cm ) . L ong i tud ina l ly s p l i t a nd t a pe r ing w i th ? b roken b u t t . N a r rowe re nd c en t ra l ly d r i l led f o r ( p a r t ia l ly p re se rved ) s qua re s e c t ioned i r on t a ng . ( LC .BA ) .

T h e D anebu ry f i nd s v a ry c on s ide rab ly i nd e ta i l a nd d a te a nd w e re d i v ided i n to a w ls a nd g ouge s w h i le G reep ( 1989 , 12 ) r e ga rd st h em a s mo s tl i ke ly m u l t i -pu rpo se t o o l s .L ea the rw o rk i n ga pp l ica t ion sm igh tp a r t icu la r ly b ec anva s sed a nd t h o se w i th b u t t e nd h o le s e spec ia l ly m igh th ave b een u sed l i ke w eav ing s hu t t le s .

* 13 .110 U nf in i shed ? Hand le ( L .7 .9cm ) .T ape r ing ,c u tf l a ta t e ach e nd , o ne a nd p robab ly b o th c hamf e red a nd w i th s u r f ace r emoved t o p roduce r e gu la r c i r cu la r s e c t ion .A n t le r . ( LC .JK ) . * 13 .111 ? Cheek P i ece ( L .8 .35cm ) .R e con s t ruc ted f r om t h ree

* 13 .106 I vo ry Swo rd P omme l ( Max .D i . c . 4 .9cm ; H t .5 .98cm ) .O r ig ina l ly r ough ly o va li ns e c t ion w i th f l a t ,p o l i shed b a se a nd s l op ing b a sa l e nd s . Ma jo r i t yo f ' b ack ' b rok en a way a ta n a ng le , t op ( ? o r ig i n a l ly r ounded a nd s em i -con ica l ) b ad ly b roken a nd p a r t o f o r ig ina l ' f ron t ' s ur f ace m is s ing ( t hough c oa r se ? t oo lm a rk sa nd p o l i sh s ugge s tc on t inued u s e a f te r d amage ) . R ema in ing o r ig ina l s ur face a r ea s s moo th a nd p o l i shed a nd r e ta in ing q u i te p oo r ly d e f i ned ,r a the ri r r egu la rv e r t ica lf a ce t s .A pp rox ima te l yc en t ra l v e r t ica lp i e r c ing s ub rec tangu la ra tb a se a nd b ecom ing c i r cu la rh a lf w ay u p a tw h ich p o in t az one o fd eep g roove s , r e s t r ic ted t o p a r t o f t h e h o le 's c i rcumf e rence b eg in .B a se a nd o ne b a sa le nd h ave an umbe ro fc u tm a rk s , o ne a tl e a s tp robab ly c onnec ted t ot h e m a rk ing o u t /cu t t ing o ft h e p i e rc i n g .N ow s p l i t t ing l o ng i tud ina l ly a nd r ad ia l ly .A p -

ma t ch ing f r agmen t s f ound t oge the r , t wo c u r ren t ly g l ued t o ge the r . P a r t so f ' b ack ' a nd ' f ron t 'm i s s ing . H o l low , s ub -c i rcu la r s ec t ioned , g en t ly t a pe r ing a t e ach e nd a nd w i th l a rge s l i t l ike v e r t ica l p i e r c ing ( w i th r ounded e nd s ,t oo l ma rk sa nd u s ep o l i sh )c en t r a l ly . ' F ron t 'd eco ra ted i nt h ree v e r t ica lg r oove s ep a r a ted z one s ,e ach w i th c en t ra ld oub le r i ng a nd d o t a nd r e la t ive ly s t ra igh t i n c ised l i ne s d ef in ing f ou r s ub t r iangu la ra r ea s a nd g iv ing s em i sp i ra l l ing e f f e c t . Two a r ea si ne ach z one f i l led w i th s ma l l ,r an d om ? d r i l led p i t s . ' Back 'p la in . ' T op 'w i th l o ng i tu d ina l g roove b eg in ing t o s p l i t a nd a ppea r ing p a r t icu la r ly p o l i shed . P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y D awk in s( 1 872 ,P l . I I No .2 ; 1 874 ,F ig .23 )a nd Ma c G rego r( 1976 ,V o l .2 N o .44 ) . ( LC .BA ) . * 13 .112 D i t to ( L .8 .42cm ) .C omp le te a nd u ndeco ra ted .S im i l a r t ot h e l a s t b u t p i e rced f r om ' f ron t ' t o ' b ack ' . L onge r s i de s o f p e r fo ra t ion d i sp lay w ea r p o l ish . V e ry s l igh tg roove sd ef ine s l igh t ly r a i sed r e c tang le c r o s s ing c en t r e o f p e r fo ra t ion ' f ron t ' a nd ' b ack ' . ( LC . BA )

p a ren t ly made f r om E lephan tI vo ry . ( LC .BA ) . D amage n o tw i th s tand ing c l ea r ly ap re sumab ly m i l i ta ry s wo rd p omme l .I nd a te p robab ly l a te rR oman ,i t sp robab le s hape b e i n ge spe c ia l ly c ompa rab le w i th t h a t o f ap omme l o n af ou r th c en tu r y s pa tha f r om ab u r ia l a tK o ln ( e .g . B i shop a nd C ou l -

* 13 .113 D i t to ( L .9 .6cm ) . A ga in s im i la r b u t u ndeco ra ted .

s t on 1 993 ,F ig .116 No .1) .

R a the r mo re i r regu la r s ub -rec tangu la r p i e r c ing . ' Ba ck ' c r a cked a nd b roken a to ne e nd . ' F ron t ' a nd

* 13 .107 ( ?T oo l )H and le ( L .4 . 1cm ) . P o in ted c one w i th b a sa l a ng led g roove d eco ra t ion b e low aw ide re nc i r c l ing g roove a nd a bove as e cond p robab le o ne n ow l a rge l yl o s ta tt h eb a se . R e s to fs u r f ace b ad ly p re se rv ed

' b a ck ' w i th as e r ie s o fc l ea r , c oncen t r ic s t r ia t ion s c en t r ed o n t h e p i e rc ing . P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y Sm i th ( 1 844 , P 1 .30 N o .2 ) . ( LCJ I / JK ) . 1 03

• 1 08

13.1 0 6

• 107

• 109

• 11 0

• 1 12 • 11 3

F igure 3 0 : O b jec t s o fB one /An t le ra nd I vory ( 1 :1) . 1 04

. 11 5

•1 18

. 11 7

• 12

• 11 9

•123

• 121

• 12 2

F igur e3 1 :O b jec t so fB one /An t le r( 1 :1 ) . 1 05

T hough v a r iou s ly d e sc r ibed a st o gg le s ,s l ide r so rc heek p i ece s o b jec t sl i k e 1 3 .111 -13 .113 m ay ,i n mo s tc a se s ,h ave b een b r ida l c heek p i e ce s b u t t h ey v a ry q u i te al o t i n f o rm a nd c ome i n

I ts eem s u n l ike ly t h a t t h i s w a s ah a i r p i n e ven c u t d own a nd r e -wo rked f o r a no the r p u rpo se t h ough a n u nu sua l c oppe r a l l oy a nd l e ad p i nf r om V ineya rd sF a rm s hou ld b en o ted ( Rawe s 1 991 ,6 4N o .7 ) .R a the ri t sf o rm i sp robab ly o r ig ina la nd i tm igh t h ave b een i n tended a s at o y ; p robab ly n o t as p inn ing t o p b u t u p s ide d own i nr e la t ion t ot h ei lu s t ra t ion i tm igh tb es e en a sa m ina tu re s p ind le w i th t wo p i ano -convex w ho r l s , t hough i ti s r a the rs ho r t .A no the rp o s s ib i l i ty i st h a tt h eo r ig ina lf o rm w a sa s t ud l i ke o ne f r om t h e C o rb r idge h oa rd ( A l la son -Jone s a nd

b o th b one /an t le ra nd c oppe ra l loy .T he V ic to r ia p i ece s a r ea p p rox ima te ly s im i la r t o mo s t b one /an t le r e xamp le s b u t s ome ( e .g . L ong tho rpe :D anne l l a nd W i ld 1 987 ,9 5N o .96 ;R ichbo r o ugh :B u she -Fox 1 949 ,P 1 .54 N o .227 )a r ew a i s ted a tb o th e nd s a nd i ndeed i nt h em idd le w h i le I r on A ge e xamp le sa tl e a s tm ay l a ck t h e l o ng i tud ina l h o l low ing ( e .g . D anebu ry : C un l if f e a nd P oo le 1 99 1 ,3 65 N o .3 .362 ) .C oppe ra l loy v e r s ion sh ave s t rong l yw a is ted e nd sa nd t e rm ina l mou ld ing s ( e .g . S t anw ick : Ma c G rego r 1 976 ,2 7N o .4 )a nd may b ee name l led ( e .g .S i lche s te r : B oon 1 974 ,F ig .21 N o .5 ) .B one /an t le rp i ece sa r eo f t en u ndec -

B i shop 1 988 , 8 3 N o .288 ) , t h ough a ga in t h e p ro jec t ing s ha f t mu s tb ed amaged a nd t h el owe r ' b ead 'd i sp laced . I na ny e ven t s im i la r p i ece s l a ck ing t h e l owe r ' b ead ' a ppea r t oh ave c ome f r om o t he rl o ca lc ave s( Ra i s t r ick 1 939 , 1 39 a nd F ig . I IN o .15 ) .

o ra ted b u tk nown d eco ra t ion v a r ie sf r om s imp le i n c i sed l i ne s a tt h ee nd s (W inche s te r :C un l if f e 1 964 ,91 No .15 )t of a i r ly e l ab o ra te o f ten r i ng a nd d o t p a t te rn s ( e .g . C o lche s t e r : C rummy 1 992 , 1 69 N o .982 ; C i r ence s te r a nd u np rovenanced : Wa che r a nd Mc Wh i r r 1 982 , 1 03 N o .70 a nd 1 09 No .95 ; P re s ta tyn :

* 13 .117 ? Moun t( L .6 .95cm ) .F la t ,t h inn ing s l igh t ly t owa rd s t h ee nd sa nd o ne e dge . R ough a nd s l igh t ly c oncave b ack . Smoo th , f l a t f r on t . E nd s w o rked i n to r ound e d ,l o be l ik ep ro jec t ion so no ne s i de ,t h eo t he re dge r a the rc oncave c en t ra l ly w i th d i s t inc tp o l i sh ing a nd

G reep 1 989 , 16 N o .36 ; a nd A ldbo rough : B i shop 1 996 , 6 N o .4 ) . Wea rp o l i sh i so f ten n o ted o nt h ep ie r c ing 's e dge ss up p o r t ing t h ep r e sump t ion t h a t as t rap moved t h rough t h em b u t

t wo c i rcu la rc oun te r sunk h o le sn ea rt h ec en t re .P r e v i ou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y D enny ( 1860 , P 1 . 1 No .6 ) . ( LC .JK ) .

s ome w ea rp a t te rn s( e .g .C rummy 1 992 , 2 23 N o .202 ) s e em t o i mp ly t h a t a tl e a s t s ome ' c heek p i ece s ' h ad o t he ru se s o rr e u se s . T he re fo r e t h e s t r ia t ion s o n 1 3 .113 a r e o fi n t e r e s t . T hey d o n o t s e em l i ke ly t or e la te t o am anuf ac tu r ing p roce s s b u t s eem t oi mp ly r o ta t ion i nc on tac tw i th u neven s u r f a ce s .

* 13 .118 D i t to ( L .6 .66cm ) . R econ s t ruc ted f r om t wo ma tch i n g f r agmen t s . B roken b u t s im i la r t ot h e l a s t w i th b o th e dge s 'c en t re sc oncave , o ne e nd r a the rt h ick e r t h an t h eo t he r , ar a the rf l a t te rb a ck a nd l e s sr egu la r s l an ted h o le s .S u r f ace t o od ecayed f o rv a r ia t ion si n s u r f a ce p o l i sh t ob ed e tec ted . ( LC .JK ) .

Wh i ls tI r on A ge i no r ig in s uch ' c heek p i ece s 'c l ea r ly s u rv ived i n to t h eR oman p e r iod i nr e a sonab le n umbe r sa nd t h ee v idence s ugge s t st h a tt h ey may h ave c ea sed t ob eu sed i nt h ee a r ly s e c o nd c en tu ry .T hu s , t h eL ong tho rpe e xamp le i sC laud io -Ne ro n i an , t h e R ichbo rough o ne b efo r e c . 85 , t h e W inche s te rp i ece 4 3 -140 , t h eC i rence s te r o ne f r om a n e a r ly R oman s i te w h ich

No g ood p a ra l le l s h ave b een n o ted f o r t h e se t wo p i ece s . T he l obe s w e re p r e sumab ly j u s td eco ra t ive a nd i ti sl i k e ly t h a tt h e p iece s w e r e a t ta ched t ob one o rl e a the r b y p eg s o rr i ve t s u n -

h a sy ie lded o t he r sa nd o ne o ft h eC o lche s te rp i ece si ss im i la r l ye a r ly . L a te rf i nd s ( c f . C rackne l la nd Mahany 1 994 ,2 13 c i t i n ge xamp le sf r om Wroxe te rw i th as ugge s ted d a t ec . 160 a nd a na ppa ren t ly A n ton ine p i ece f r om I l k ley ) may w e l lb er e s idu -

l e ss t h eh o le st o ok t h ong s .C lea r ly t h ec oncave e dge o f1 3 .117 w a ss ub jec tt op o l i sh ing w ea rw h ich m igh ts ugge s tt ha ti tw a s t he u ppe r e dge b u t b eyond t h e p o ss ib i l i ty t h a t t h e se w e re moun t s o fs ome s o r tt h e i rf unc t ion i si n obv iou s .

a lo rl a te s u rv iva l s . * 13 .119 ?S t rap L inke r ( L .7 .45cm ) . F la t a n t le r s t r ip w i th c en t ra lw a i s t ing a nd r a the ri regu la re nd s ,e ach w i th ac i r cu la rh o le . ( LC .B ) .

* 13 .114 H ook ( L . 6 . 7cm ) . Made f r om a n t le rt i ne .T h inned , i regu la r ly e xpanded , p i e r ced h ead . P robab ly p r e v i ou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y D enny ( 1860 , P 1 . 1 N o .13 ) . ( LC .JK ) .

No te av e ry s im i la rp i e ce f r om D owk e rbo t tom H o le C ave ( Br i t i s h Mu seum 1 857 .11 13 .37 ) . B o th c ou ld h ave b een r i ve ted a t e i the r e nd t od if e ren t l e a the r s t rap s , f o rm ing af l ex ib le l i nk b u tt h i si so n ly as ugge s t ion .

* 13 .115 ? D i t to ( L .6 .59cm ) . Sma l l ,b a sa l ly b r oken a n t le rt i ne w i th s moo thed s u r f ace ,i n c i sed l i ne a l ong b a ck a nd i n c i sed z i gz ag o ne a ch s i de . ( LC .B ) .

* 13 .120 U n iden t if ied O b jec t( L .7 .69cm ) .T h in ,s t ra igh ts i d e ds t r ip o f? an t le rw i th o ne d i agona l ly c u te nd a nd o ne w i th aU shaped s l i t , r ounded e i the rs i de o fi t s t o p . ( LC .V ) .

As im i la r h ook t o 1 3 .114 a nd a n u np ie rced o ne c ome f r om D owke rbo t tom H o le C ave ( Sm i th 1 844 ,P 1 .29 N o s9 10 =B r i t i s h Mu seum 1 848 .5 -11 .18a a nd b ;o nt h ep rovenance s e ea bove p 33 ) .

* 13 .12 1 P eg ( L .3 .28cm ) . R ough ly c i r cu la rs e c t ioned t a pe r * 13 .116 ?T oy /S tud ( L .3 .11cm ) .T wo s l igh t ly u nequa lh em i s phe r ica l ' b ead s ' w i th c en t ra lp i e rc ing sn ea rt h et o p o f as ho r t , p o in ted , t a pe r ing , h ead le s s s ha f t w i th r ough s u r f a ce t owa rd s i t s t i p . T he ' b ead s ' m ove a l i t t le b u tt h el owe ra tl e a s tp r esumab ly h a s at a pe red p i e r c ing a si tw i l ln o ts l ip d own t h es ha f t .P rev iou s l yi lu s t ra ted b yD enny ( 1860 ,P 1 .2 N o .8 ) . ( LC .JK ) . 1 06

i n g s ha f t w i th ?k n if e c u t f a ce t s a nd b l un t o r b ro k en e nd . U nexpanded , u nd if f e ren t ia ted h em i sphe r i c a l h ead . ( LC .BA ) . * 13 .122 D i t to ( L .3 .32cm ) . S im i la r t o t h e l a s t . T race s o f g roove a r ound b a se o fh ead . ( LC .B ) .

13.125

a

126

. 1 27

. 1 34

• 12 9

•13 6

F igure 3 2 : O b jec t so fa nd C u t Ma rked B one /An t le r( 1 :1) . 1 07

U n l ik e s l igh t ly l a rge r f i nd s f r om P re s ta tyn ( G reep 1 989 ,112 N o s 2 6 -8 ) 1 3 .121 a nd 1 3 .122 d o n o th ave e xpanded o rd eco r a ted h ead sa nd a r ee v iden t ly f unc t iona lp eg sn o tt o y o rm ina t u re p i n s . T hey m igh th ave f unc t ioned a sd owe l s , b een ? i n lay f a s tene r so rh ave p egged c ompo s i te b one o b jec t s ,i nw h ich c a se t h ef a ce ted s ha f t s n eed h ave n or e levance t ow he the rt h ey h ad b een f i n i shed o rn o t .H oweve r ,s e t so fp eg su sed i nb oa rd g ame s h ave al o ng h i s to ry ( c f . S t ead a nd R igby 1 989 , 1 08 N o s 3 5 i n c lud ing 2 1 p eg s f r om ab u r ia l o fA .D . 1 40 r ep re sen t ing a d eco ra ted a nd ap la in s e tp robab ly o fc ompa rab le l e ng th t ot h e

w i th u nwo rked f a ce s . T e rm ina l sr a the rs ub r e c tan g u la r , o ne w i th ar i dge o nt h eu ppe rf a ce a ti t se nd . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .19a .J I ) . I ti sn o tc l ea r w he the rt h e i n ne r e dge r e ce s s i sd ue t ow ea r o r n o t b u t i fi ti st h i s m ay h ave b een ac r ud e h ange r , t h e ' b a r ' b e ing h ung o n ah ook a nd ac o rd b e ing t i ed a r ound e a ch t e r m ina l( c once ivab ly t os u spend s t r ing so fd r ied /p r e se rved f o od s ) . A l te rna t ive ly i t si regu la r i ty may s ugge s tt h a tt h ep i ece i su n f i n i shed , o ri ndeed j u s t ap i ece o f wh i t t l ing .

V ic to r ia p i ece s ) . * 13 .123 D eco ra ted O b jec t ( L .5 .85cm ) . S l igh t ly t a pe r ing , c oncavo -convex s e c t ioned ? an t le r r e c tang le w i th o ne b roken c o rne r . O ne e nd f a i r ly r ough w i th p o s s i b le ,i n te rm i t ten tt r ace so fp o l i sh . N a r row b and o f i n c i sed z i gz ag o rnamen tb ounded b yc r o s sg roov e a tt h i se nd . S econd ,w orn c r o s sg roove n ea rc en t re . We l lp o l i shed b a se . ( Le .C ) .

* 13 .127 Wedge ( L .3 .3 1cm ) . P o in ted a nd t r apezo ida l s e c t i oned .A n t le r . ( LC .V ) . MacG rego r( 1985 , 5 7 ) h a s o u t l ined t h e p o s t -Roman e v idence f o rt h e u se o fw edge s s uch a st h i s t os p l i t a n t le r a nd , t h ough p re sumab ly R omano -Br i t i sh , 1 3 .127 i sv e ry l i ke ly t oh ave h ad t h es ame f unc t ion . 1 3 .128

S ome f o rma l a nd d eco ra t ive r e semb lance t ow eav ing c omb s i se v iden tb u tt h e l a ck o fi n te rden t ine g r oove s l e t a l one t e e th m ake ss u ch a ni d en t if ica t ion u n l ike ly .

F ig . I I Iu nnumbe r ed b e low N o .11) . ( LC .V ) . * 13 .129 R ing ( Max .D i .c .4 .9cm ) .S ub -c i r cu la r ,c u tf r om l a rge a n t le rt i ne a nd w i th c l ea rs aw m a rk so nb o th f a ce s . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .19b .J I ) .

* 13 .124 U n iden t if ied O b je c t( L .8 .4 cm ) .L a rge ,a pp rox ima t e l yr e c tangu la ra n t le rb l ock , n ow v e ry f r ag i le a nd i n p l ace sb ad ly b rok en . O ne e nd c u tr a the ro b l ique ly , o t he rn ow r a the rr ounded .P i e r ced n ea r ly v e r t ica l ly a nd c en t ra l ly b y? t ape r ing ,c i r cu la rd r i l led h o le ( n ow b roken a ti t se dge o n ' t op 'a nd ' b o t tom 'f a ce s ) , t h e h o le o n t h e ' t op ' i n ac u t r e c tangu la r r e ce s s ; a nd f r om f r on t t ob a ck b y ac r o s s ing s qua re h o le . C u t e nd h a s ac en t ra lc av i ty a sf a ra st h ec ro s sed p i e r c i n g sb u ti td oe sn o ts e em t ob ea r t if i c ia l . ( LC .BA ) .

F ragmen t ( L .2 .2cm ) . C onvex , o va l a nd w i th s ma l l p ro tube rance .R ough b ack s how ing s p l i tf r om l a rg e ro b jec t .P rev iou s ly i lus t ra ted b yR a i s t r ick ( 1 939 ,

R e la t ive ly r ough a n t le rr i ng s , wh ich may h ave s e rved v a r iou s r o le s , a r e k nown f r om s eve ra l R omano -B r i t i sh c on tex t s ( e .g . S hakenoak : B rod r ibb , H and s a nd Wa lke r 1 968 , 10 N o .4 ( 32 c omp le te a nd b rok en l a te f ou r th /ea r ly f i f th c en tu ry e xamp le s ) ; E xe te r : Ho lb rook a nd B idwe l l 1 991 , 2 70 -1 N o .23a ; S ou th S h ie ld s :A l la son -Jone s a nd M ike t 1 984 ,N o s2 . 120 2 1 ) . 1 3 .130 - C u ta nd C u t Ma rked B one a nd A n t le r : N .B . T h ree 1 3 .145 p i ece s a r ed rawn ( ma rked * )a nd as e lec t ion o ft h e o the r sa ppea ro nP la te 7 .

P robab ly p a r to fs ome l a rge rc on s t ruc t ion ,p e rhap sh ou s ing t h e c r o s s ing o f as qua re ? wooden e l emen ta nd a? rope . * 13 .125 ? Unf in i shed O b jec t( o rS hu t t le )( L .11 .65cm ) .A n t l e rt i ne c u ta tb a se a nd w i th s ma l l , c i r cu la r ,c en t ra l , c oun te r sunk h o le d r i l led u pf r om t i pt o ar e c tangu -

i )

F ive p i ece s o f l ongbone ( L .3 .74 -7 .9cm a nd a l l LC .V ) c u t o r s awn a to ne o r b o th e nd s a nd t h ree w i th p ro tube rance si n d ica t ing s napp ing b e fo r es aw i ng w a sc omp le te .F ou rs p l i tl ong i tu dina l ly ( o ne a nd

l a rc u to u th a lf t h ed ep th o ft h et i ne r e ta in ing r ough s aw ma rk s o n o ne f a ce . R e s to ft i ne b roken l o ng i t u d ina l ly a l ong n a tu ra ls u r f a ce f o ld c o inc iden tw i th

p e rhap s t h ree d e l ibe ra te ly ) i n c lud ing a tl e a s t t wo c a t t le m e ta ta r sa lf r agmen t s ( one d i s ta le nd a nd o ne p a r t icu la r ly s l ende rs ha f t ) . O ne ( * ) w i th t h ree p a r a l le l , a ng led b and so fs ho r tr egu la ri n den ta t ion s .

b a se o fc u to u t , p robab ly l e ad ing t ot h ed i sca rd ing o ft h e p iece .A n o va l s e c t ioned c hanne l a l ong t h e r e cons truc ted b roken s e c t ion s e em s t ob e d ue t o d ecay n o tw o rk ing .( LC .JK ) . I ti sc once ivab le t h a tt h i so b jec tb roke d u r ing u se i n wh ich c a se o ne m igh te nv i sage at h read o rc o rd b e ing p a s sed t h rough t h e d r i l led h o le a nd k no t ted i nt h e c u t o u tt op roduce s ome f o rm o fs hu t t le H oweve r , i ts e em sf a r mo re l i k e ly t ob e u nf in i shed , t h ough w ha t w a s b e ing m ade ( un le s s i tw a s as hu t t le ) i su n -

i )

' A l e g b one o f a n o x p o l i shed i nt h e m idd le b u t r ough a te a ch e nd '( Mo r r i son 1 870 / 1 , 10 ) .( L .BA ) .

i i )

B roken d i s ta l e nd o f o v icap r id h ume rous ( L .4 .27cm ) ( * ) a nd b roken ? ov icap r id r i b ( L .6 .35cm ) ( * ) w i th a n umbe r o f c u t ma rk s

c l ea r , i t ss upe rf ic ia l r e semb lance t o aw h i s t le p robab ly b e ing

( LC .BA ) . R ecove red f r om t h e L owe r C av e E a r th

n o mo re t h an t ha t .

a nd c l a imed i nt h e 1 870 sa se v iden ce f o rP l e i s tocene h uman a c t iv i ty b u t u ndoub ted ly d i sp laced f r om a h i ghe r( Romano -Br i t i sh ) l e ve l .

* 13 .126 ? Hange r ( o r U nf in ished O b jec t ) ( L .5 .7cm ) . S ub s qua re s e c t ioned , w e l l c ur ved ' b a r ' w i th s em i -c i r c u la rr e ce ss o n i n ne re dge a nd e xpanded t e rm ina l s 1 08

i v )

v )

S even a n t le r t i ne a nd o ne a n t le r t i ne o r h o rn c o r e f r agmen t s ( LC .V e xcep t f o r o ne LC .BA ) . A l l c u t a c ro s sb a se o rh i ghe rp a r to ft i ne ( o f ten o b l ique ly ) , o ne a l so c u t ( a nd o ne b roken ) a c ro s s t i p , a tl e a s t o ne s awn a nd t wo w i th n o tche s n ex t t op ro tube r a nce si nd ica t ing s n app ing b e f o re c u t t ing , / saw ing w a s c omp le te . O ne a l so h a s t h ree v e r t ica l c u t s b e s ide a nd t wo s ho r th o r izon ta l g roove s a bove a n a r ea o f s u r f ace d amage . P a r to fr ed d ee rs ku l l w i th t h el owe rp a r to fa na n t l e ri n c lud ing t h e l owe s tt i ne s t i l l a t tached . S eve ra l k n i f e c u t s o n t h et i ne a nd a tt h e b a se o ft h e a n t le r . ( Le .C ) .

c e ivab ly w o rked t o ap o in t ; ab roken o r , l e s s l i ke ly , w o rked o v icap r id t i b ia ; ap o s s ib le n eed le f r agmen t b roken a c ro s s t h e b a se o fa n ? eye ;a nd at i ny u n labe led R omano -Br i t i sh p i nh ead w i th ad oub le b ead a nd r e e lb e low ab un h ead .

T he P o s t -Roman Ma ter ia l * 13 .147 C omb ( L .6 .775cm ) . R econs t ruc ted f r om t h ree ma tch ing f r agm en t s t h rough a r ch ive p ho tog raph s a nd a dhe s ive t r a ce sd emon s t ra t et h a tt h eo b jec tw a s f o rme r ly r e con s t ruc ted w rong ly . Ma jo r i ty o f ad ou b l e s i ded o ne p i ece c omb w i th mo s t o ft h e t e e th , s paced c . 1 .5mm c en t re t oc en t r eo n b o th s i de ss u r v i v ing .O ne e nd c omp le te w i th r a the rs i nuou se dge , c i rcu la r p e r fo ra t ion i nc en t ra l c onvex p ro jec t ion , r i ng a nd d o td eco ra t ion f r on t a nd b ack a nd a n a n g u la rd ecl ine i nt o o th l e ng th o nb o th s i de s .O ne s i de p l a te r ema in s ,r e la t ive ly w ide a nd f l a tw i th t wo o fa l i ne o fd oub le r i ng a nd d o t se a ch s u r rounded b yf ou r s i ng le r i ng a nd d o t s .T h ree i r on r i ve t s s u rv ive . P r e v iou s ly i lu s t ra t ed b y D enny ( 1860 , P 1 . 1 F ig .5 ) ; Swan ton ( 1969 , F ig .63 ) ; MacG rego r ( 1985 , F ig .51f ) ; a nd K ing ( 1970a ,5 0 ) . ( LC .JK ) .

T he se p i ece sm a in ly a ppea rt or e p re sen tp r ima ry ma te r ia lp r ep a r a t ion o fb one a nd a n t le r f o r w o rk ing . S eve ra l p i ece s w e r e c l ea r ly s awn w h i le o the r s m ay h ave b een s awn o r c u t a nd a n umb e ro fp i ece sw e re s napp ed b e fo re s aw ing / cu t t ing w a sc om p l e te . S ome o ft h e b one h a s a l so b een s p l i ta nd al i t t le o ft h e m a te r ia lh a st h ef i r s ts i gn so ff u r the rw o rk ing /ma rk ing o u t .O ne o rt wo p i ece s l i ke t h e d ee rs ku l l may t h ough r e f lec t o n ly d e f l e sh ing ,c a sua l wh i t t l ing e t c . N .B . D enny ( 1 860 , P 1 . 1N o .2 1 ) i lu s t ra ted a' Bone a r t ic le ,u se u nknown ' w h ich d oe s n o t m a tch a ny e x tan t o b jec t i nb one . H oweve r ,h i si lu s t ra t ion i sv i r tua l ly i d en t ica lt o Sm i th 's ( 1 844 , P 1 .30 N o .6 ) o ft he i r on s t ap le i nt h e B r i t i sh Mu seum ( 12 .9 a bove ) a nd i ts eem s v e ry l i k e ly t h a t D enny t ook s ome o fh i s d r aw ing ss t ra igh tf r om Sm i th b u tm i s took t h e ma te r ia lo fw h ich

S ee Ma cG rego r( 1 985 ,9 2 -4 )w ho r ega rd st h i sc omb a sa no u t l i e r o f aD a rk A ge t y pe f ound ma in ly i nI r e land a nd a r ound t h eA t lan t ic c oa s to fB r i ta in a nd e spec ia l ly S co t land .

t h ep i ece w a s made . As ma l l n umbe ro fe x tan tp i ece so fb one a mong s tt h e C rof ton C o l lec t ion i nL eed s C i ty Museum h ave

C ommen t

b een e xc luded f r om t h e c a ta logue , i nt h e c a se o f a? r ib f r ag m en t b ea r ing aC rof ton l a be l g i v ing a V ic to r ia C ave p rove n ance b e cau se i ti sn o tc e r ta in ly w o rked a nd i nt h ec a se o fo t he r p i ece s b ecau se , a l though b oxed w i th V ic to r ia C ave f i nd s a nd i ns ome c a se sb ea r ing t yped l a be l sg i v ing t h a tp rovenance ,t h e i r o r ig in i sd oub t fu l ( t he t y ped l a be l s p robab ly h av ing b een a f f i xed o t he rt h an b yC rof ton ) . Amon s tt h e se a r e a? ve r teb ra p r oc e s s o rr i bf r agmen tw i th s e ve ra l c u t s a nd t wo ? t ee th ma rk s ; a b r oken ( c once ivab ly wo rk ed )f ox o rh a re t i b ia ; a? f ox u l na c on -

T h i si s al a rge a s semb lage o fw o rked s k e le ta l ma te r ia l w i th a n umbe ro fi n te re s t ing a spe c t s .T he o ccu rence o fi v o ry ( 1 3 .106 ) d e r iv ing f r om am i l i ta ry s ou r ce i sn o tab le a t as i te d i s tan tf r om f o r t s b u t t h e mo s t s i gn if i ca n t f e a tu re s a r e p robab ly t h e b one a nd a n t le r w o rk ing e v idence , t h e q uan t i ty ( a nd i nt h e c a se o f p i e r ced s poon s p robab ly q ua l i ty ) o f e xamp le s o f i n d iv idua l a r te f ac t g roup s p re sen t , t h e d epo s i t ion o fs e ve ra l p i ece s w i th s t rong I r on A ge t y po log ica la s soc ia t ion s ,a nd p e rhap st h ef unc t i ona lv a r ie ty o fp i ece sp r e sen t .

r s

r

r ,

I .

e y .A r

13 . 14 7

F igure 3 3 :O b jec to fB one ( 1 :1) . 1 09

T he e v idence f o rb one a nd p e rhap se spec ia l ly a n t le rw o rk ing i sq u i te p e r sua s ive a nd i n c lude s i n i t ia l ma te r ia l p r epa ra t ion

b u t ion i n l a te r n i ne teen th c en tu ry w o rk ( a nd a r e u n l ike ly t o h ave s u rv ived u nmen t ioned f r om e a r l ie r e xcava t ion s ) s ot h a t

e s ,t h em se lve s am ino r i ty , t h e re i ss ome e mpha s is o nt h ee a r ly p a r to ft h i s r a nge . T hough t h i s i sp a r t ly d ue t ot h e n umbe r o f p i e r ced s poon s p r e sen t i ti sa l so a ppa ren t t h a t t h ree ( o r f ou r ) o b jec t t y pe s m o re t y p ica l o f t h e I r on A ge b u t s ur v iv ing i n to t h el a te rf i r s t /ea r ly s e cond c en tu r ie sa r er e p re sen ted ,v i zc heek p i ece s , ' p o in t s '( 1 3 .103 -5 ) , w eav ing c omb sa nd p e rhap sa ni n s u la rt y pe o ft o gg le . S ince , u n l ik eo no t he rs i te s w i th s uch o b j e c t s( e .g .P re s ta tyn :G reep 1 989 ) ,t h e re i sn oe v idence f o rI r on A ge a c t iv i ty a tV ic to r ia C ave t h i s s e em s t oi mp ly t h a t n a t ive b one w o rk f o rm s w e re i n t roduced t o as i te w h ich d i d n o t b e g i nt ob eu sed u n t i l a f te rt h ec onque s t .

t h e i ro r ig in i nV i c to r ia C av ei sv e ry l i ke ly .U n fo r tuna t e ly t h ough i ti sd if i cu l tt oe s tab l ish t h ed a te a tw h ich t h i sb one a nd a n t le r

I ti sa l so o fr e levance t on o te t h er a nge o fo b jec tt y pe sp r e sen t

( 1 3 .130 -13 .145 ) , p robab ly a nd c e r ta in ly u nf in i shed o b jec t s ( 1 3 .37 , 1 3 .46 , 1 3 .64 , 1 3 .65 ,t wo a tl e a s to f1 3 .66 -13 .70 , 1 3 .97 1 3 .99 , 1 3 .110 a nd 1 3 .125 ) ,a n a n t le rs p l i t t ing w edge ( 1 3 .127 ) a nd v a r iou s p i ece s w h ich e ven i ff i n ished r e ta in s aw /kn if e m a rk s a nd f a ce t s( e .g . 1 3 .129 ) .A l though mo s to ft h e se p i ece s h ave l e s s t h an a b so lu te ly c e r ta in p rovenance st h ey a r eb y a nd l a rge t h es o r to fo b jec t st h a tw ou ld h ave e scaped s p ec if i ca t t r i -

w o rk ing w a s t a k ing p l ace , t h e o n ly p robab ly u nf in i shed o b j e c t sw i th at y po log ica ld a t ing b e ing t h ep i e rced s poon s 1 3 .37 a nd 1 3 .46 ( l a t ef i r s t / ea r ly s e cond c en tu r ie s ) .T he r a nge o fp i ece s b e ing made ,b ei ta to ne d a te o rv a r iou sd a te s ,i sr e la t ive ly w ide ( p ie rced s poon s , t o gg le s , ? i n lay , n eed le s , ? hand le s a nd l e s s c e r ta in ly i d en t if i ed o b jec t s )a nd i n c lude sb o th f unc t iona l ,l ow v a lue i t em st h a tn eed o n ly h ave b een f o rp e r sona lu s ea nd mo r e e l abo ra te p i ece st h a tm igh tr e p re sen tp roduc t ion f o r am a rke t . T he n umbe r o fe xamp le s o fc e r ta in c l a sse s o fo b jec t s m igh t a l so i ns ome c a se sb ec onnec ted w i th b one /an t le rw o rk ing . I n t h ec a se o fb one t o gg le s an umbe rw e re c l ea r ly d epo s i ted a f te r c on s ide rab le u s e m ak ing p roduc t ion s t ockp i l ing u n l ike ly . I n t h e c a se o fp i e r ced s poon s t h ough i ti s ap o s s ib i l i ty . Many o f t h em a r e d amaged o r f r agmen ta ry b u t n one a r e n ece ssa r i ly w o rn t h rough u se ; mo reove rt h ec omp le te o ne s s u ch a s 1 3 .24 a nd 1 3 .25 w i th d i s t inc t ive ly p o l i shed p a t ina ted s u r f a ce sc ou ld r ef lec ts ome f i n i sh ing p roce s s ( ? u s ing a n ima l f a t )r a the rt h an u s e . I ndeed t h e a b sence o fd ef in i te w o rk ing m a rk s o ru nf in i s h ed e l emen t s o n t h e d amaged / f ragmen ta ry p i e r ced s poon s d oe s n o t i n mo s t c a se s r u le o u t t h e i r d i sca rd ing b e fo re t h ey w e re c omp le te a nd t h ec o rpu sm igh tr ep re sen t ac omb ina t ion

i nt h ec o rpu s .I ft h ep i e rced s poon sw e re ,a tl e a s tb road ly ,d ec o r a t ive a round 4 0 R oman o b jec t s w e re p e r sona l o rnamen t s ( c omp le te o r u nf in i shed ) , t wo c o sme t ic i t em s , o ne as poon , n i ne teen c omp le te o r u nf in i shed f a s tene r s ( t ogg le s ) , f i ve i n l a y s , t wen ty n i ne c omp le te o ru nf in i shed t e x t i le / lea the rw o rk i n gi t em s i n c lud ing p i e rce r s , o ne am i l i ta ry o b jec t , t h ree h an d l e s , t h ree e que s t r ian i t em s , t wo h ook s , a nd a n umbe r m i sce l laneou s /u n iden t if ied o b jec t sa nd p i ece so fw o rk ing d e t r i tu s .T hu s , a l though b one /an t le rw o rk ing e v idence m ay h ave s kewed t h ef unc t iona l make u p o ft h e ma te r ia l ,p e r sona lo rna m en t s ,f a s tene r sa nd t e x t i le / lea the rw o rk ing i t em ss t and o u ti n t h ea s semb lage .

F oo tno te s 1 . T he a u tho r i sg r a tefu l t oD r . S .G reep f o r d i scu s s ing t h is m a t te rw i th h im . 2 . A no the ra nd p e rhap ss eve ra l mo re w e re a l so p robab ly f ound a tt h es i te , s e ea bove p 38 . 3 . Af ew o ft h e se h ave p rev iou s ly b een i lu s t ra ted i nw o rk s

o fs t ockp i l ing a nd u nf in i shed p i ece sd i sca rded a f t e rb r eakage . T he e v iden ti n ve s tmen ti nt ime n eeded t op roduce p i ece ss uch a s1 3 .24 , 1 3 .25 , 1 3 .29 a nd 1 3 .32 s hou ld a l so b en o t ed a nd i n t h e c a se o ft h ef i r s tt wo i ti sd if i cu l tt oa ccep tt h a tt h ey w e re d epo s i ted o the rt h an d e l ibe ra te ly . Whe the ra ny s im i la rs i gn if i c ance f o rp roduc t ion m igh ta t ta ch t oo t he rc a tegor ie so ff i nd i s l e s sc l ea r .T he r ea r ef i f teen c e r ta in a nd p robab le b one p i n s( s ev e nw i th h ead s )b u tt h i si sn o ta ne xce s s ive n umbe ra mong s ta n a s semb lage o ft h i ss i ze .T he t h i r teen , mo s t ly v e ry s im i la rs p in d l e who r l s a r e m o r e s ugge s t ive b u t a ga in t h e n umbe r i sn o t g r ea t e nough t oh ave c e r ta in s i gn if icance , a tl e a s t f o r b one

b y R a i s t r ick ( 1936 ; 1 939 ) a nd K ing ( 1 969 , F ig .39 ) . 4 . F o rt h ep rovenance c o r rec t ion f r om C o l l inge 's s e eA l la son J one s a nd M ike t( 1984 , 4 8 ) . 5 . A l la son -Jone s a nd M ike t 's ( 1 984 , 5 1) s ugge s ted G louce s t e r sh i re p rovenance s eem s u n l ike ly .

a lo b jec t st ob eu sed a se v idence .

6 . T he L och lee f i nd c i ted b y C u r le ( 19 11 , 3 38 ) a nd C o l l inge ( 1 935 , 1 )i su n l ike ly t ob e c onnec ted a nd t h e f a rn a r rowe r a nd d eepe r b ow led p i e rced ? s poon s f r om G e s t ing tho rpe ( D rape r 1 985 , 7 1 No s 3 97 -8 c i t ing a no the r f r om C a is to r b yN o rw ich )a r ec l ea r ly n o tr e la ted .

T he a s semb lage i nt e rm s o fd a te o bv iou s ly i n c lude s t h e s e c o nd ( i f n o t l a t e f i r s t ) c en tu ry t ot h e f ou r th c en tu ry ( p lu s a n i s o la ted D a rk A ge f i nd )b u to ft h et ypo log ica l ly d a teab le p i ec -

7 . T he a u tho r i sv e ry g ra tefu l t oD r . B i rg i t ta H of fmann f o r s ugge s t ing t h is c ompa r i son a nd f o rp rov id ing i n fo rma t ion o nt h eg l a s sr od s .

w o rk ing ; a nd t h e n eed le s a r e at o o v a r ied a nd i ns ome c a se s u nce r ta in ly i d en t if ied g roup o fa nyway v e ry s imp le ,f unc t ion -

10

CHAPTER 1 4 : OBJECT OF WOOD b y Mar t in J .D earne * 14 .1 C omb ( L .2 .9cm ) .C a rbon i sed f r agmen to fd oub le s i d -

S im i la r w ooden c omb s f r om R omano -Br i t i sh c on t ex t s i n c lude

e d c omb w i th s l igh t ly c onvex c en t ra l b a r ( w i th t wo v e ry f a in t ? do t s , p e rhap s f r om r i ng a nd d o t mo t if s ) . B o th s i de sr e ta in i n t e rden t ine g roove sa nd s ome t o o th s t ub so no ne s i de i n d ica t ing c oa r se ( 1 .8mm c en tre t o c en t r e ) t e e th o n o ne s i de a nd f i ne ( 0 .5mm c en t r e t o c en t r e )t e e th o nt h eo t he r . ( LC .BA ) .

C hew P a rk We l l( Rah tz a nd G reenf ie ld 1 976 ,277 N o s9 12 )a nd D a l ton P a r lou r s( Mo r r i s 1 990 ,c i t ing o t he r sf r om C a s t le f o rd ,L on d on a nd V indo landa ) . A s p r e se rva t ion i sr a r e e xcep t i nw a t e r l o gged c ond i t ion ss u ch c omb sw e re p re sumab ly mo re n ume rou s t h an f i nd ss ugge s t . Wh i l s tt h ep re sump t ion t h a tt h ey w e r et o i le t c omb sm ay b ev a l id al i t t le e v idence ( c f . Mo r r i s 1 990 )r a i se st h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a ts ome a tl e a s tw e re u sed i nt a nn ing .

•

•2

14-1 15 •1

•3

F igure 3 4 :O b jec t so f Wood a nd J e t /Sha le ( 1 :1) .

CHAPTER 1 5 : OBJECTS OF J ET AND SHALE b y Mar t in J .D earne N .B .T h ef o l low ing o b jec t s ma y b eo fj e to rs ha le . * 15 .1 A rm le t f r agmen t ( L .4 .5cm ) . O va l s ec t ioned w i th a d e ep g roove a to ne e dge o ft h ei n ne rf a ce .N ow s p l i t t i ng l ong i tud ina l ly . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .16 .J I ) . * 15 .2 B ead ( L .1 .46cm ) . C i r cu la r s e c t ioned , l o ng i tud ina l ly p i e r ced ,e l onga ted b a r re ls haped b ead . ( LC .BA ) . * 15 .3 D i t to ( L .1 .655cm ) . R a th e r t a pe r ing , f l a t , s ub rec tan g u la ra nd w i th t wo p a ra l le lc i rcu la rp i e rc ing sl o ng i tu d i na l ly ( f rom wh ich o ne s u r f ace h a ss p l i ta way a to ne e nd ) .C oncen t r ic ? l a the m a rk so no ne f a ce a nd d o ta nd p a r to f ac i rc le c en t red o ni to nt h eo the r .( B M1848 .5 -

B ead 1 5 .2 r e p r e sen t s af a i r ly c ommon j e tb ead t y pe ( e .g .M ike t 1 983 , 1 33 N o .5 ) .B ead 1 5 .3 i sp re sumab ly av a r ian to f ar a nge o fl a te rt h i rd / f ou r th c en tu ry s pace r b ead s w i th d oub le p i e r c i n g s . Wh i l s t mo s t o f t h e se a r e t r unca ted o va l s o rr e c tang le s w i th c u r ved l o ng e dge s o rt r unca ted c o rne r s , af ew a r e f u l ly r e c tangu la r( e .g .U ley : Woodwa rd a nd L ea ch 1 993 , 1 62 N o .5 ) . E qua l ly , t h ough u sua l ly w i th c onvex o rl ow p y ram ida l u ppe r f a ce s , af ew a r ef l a to rn ea r ly s o( e .g . Whee le r1 932 , 8 4N o .78 ) . N umbe r s a l so s how c en t ra l c huck p o in t s a nd s p inn ing m a rk s ( e .g . D rape r 1 985 ,7 3N o .4 18 ) .I nt h ec a se o f1 5 .3 t h ough o ne s u spec t st h a tt h ep i ece h a s b een made b y c u t t ing d own ap r e v i ou s ly l a the t u rned o b jec ts uch a s al a rge c i r cu la rb ead o rf r om ap i ece o fm anuf a c tu r ing w a s te . N .B . Mo r r i son ( 1 870 / 1 , 1 09 ) s eem s t oi mp ly t h a t a( l o s t )j e t

1 .17 .1 1 ) .

' r i ng ' w a s f ound i n 1 870 ; b u t i ti sc once ivab le t h a t t h e r i ng w a so fc oppe ra loy . 1 1

CHAPTER 1 6 : POST -PREH ISTOR IC OBJECTS OF S TONE

b yP au l C .B uck land a nd Mar t in J .D earne

N .B . Mo s tp i ece sd i sp lay n a tu ra l o ra r t if ic ia ls u r f a ce p o l i sh t o s ome d eg r ee ,o f t en o na l ls u r f a ce sa nd many p e t ro log ica lo p in i o n s a r et h e re f o re b a sed o n l e s s t h an i d ea l e xpo su r e s . N o t a l l o ft h el i s ted m a te r ia lh a sc e r ta in ly b een u t i l i sed a ss uch b u ta l l

o u s ly i lu s t ra ted b yD enny ( 1 860 ,P 1 .2 N o .7 )a nd p e r h aps t h es ou rce o f Sm i th ' s ( 1 865 , 2 08 )r e f e rence t o ' q uo i t s ' ( LC .JK ) . * 16 .7

o ft h e p i ece s w h ich d o n o t s how s i gn s o fp o s s ib le mod if ica t i on b y h uman a gency s e em l i ke ly t oh ave b een d e l ibe ra te ly s e lec ted a nd i n t roduced t ot h es i te .T he d a t ing o fB reu i l( 1921/ 2 ) , w ho s aw m any o ft h ei t em sa sP a laeo l i th ic i sr e jec ted h e re a nd t h e re s e em s n o r e a son n o t t oa s sume t h a t a l o b jec t s a r e R omano -Br i t i sh e spec ia l ly a sp i ece s s u ch a s 1 6 .4 1 a r e k nown f r om t h e 1 870 ' d aybook ' t oh ave c ome f r om w e l l w i th in t h e

s moo th f a ce s , e a ch w i th l a rge c . 1 .2cm d eep s moo th s i ded ,i n ve r ted c on ica lr eba te a pp rox ima te ly c en t ra l l y . T he r e ba te s i fc on t inued w ou ld n o t p roduce a s t ra igh tp i e r c ing a nd o ne h a s as ma l lp i ta tt h eb a se . Q ua r tz i te w i th t r ace s o fb edd ing , p robab ly a n e r ra t i cf r om l o ca ld r if td epo s i t s . ( LC .V ) .

c ave a nd f r om t h eu ppe rt wo f e e t( 0 .6m )o fd epo s i t s . * 16 .1

* 16 .2

A l though f o rma l ly t h i s m igh t b e s e en a sa n i n comp le te s p in d l ew ho r l i ti sr a the rt o oh eavy a nd a l i t ss u r f ace s s eem t ob e

C o sme t ic P a le t t e ( L .8 .27cm ) . S l igh t ly t r apezo ida l w i th s l op ing e dge s ,r a the rr ounded c o rne r s a nd p o l i s hed s u r f ace sw i th s ome d amage t ot h eu ppe rf a ce . I n aw h i te m a rb le w i th g r een s e rpen t ine b and ing , p o s s ib ly c u tf r om w a l lv enee r . ' ( LC .JK ) .

s moo th s ugge s t ing t h a t i ti sc omp le te . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e r eba t e sw e r eu sed a sm ina tu re mo r ta r sf o rc r u sh ing s ma l lq uan t i t ie so fs ome th ing l i ke p igmen t . * 16 .8

D i t to ( D i .7 .35cm ) . C i r cu la r w i th s t ra igh t e dge a nd p o l i shed s u r f a ce si n ar ed -b rown ? Lak eD i s t r ic ts l a te .

?P in B u rn i she r ( L .5 .6cm ) . B roken , r ounded , o va l s e c t ioned p ebb le , o f g rey -b lue s l igh t ly m icaceou s s i l t s tone , ? f rom t h eC on i s ton F l ag s . S upe rf ic ia lc a l -

Sma l l p o s t -u sage e dge c h ip s a nd s u r f ace s c ra tche s a nd ab and o fs l igh tr ad ia l w o rk ing s c r a tche s , p a r t i cu la t r ly o n o ne f a ce a nd e x tend ing c . 1 .13cm f r om

c a reou sd epo s i to no ne e dge .T he o t he re dge b ea r sa r ow o fs ha l low b u td i s t inc tc l o se s e t , n a r row ,r ound e dg roove s o ne ach f a ce . ( LC .V ) .S ee P la te 8 .

t h ee dge . ( LC .JK ) . 1 6 .3

U n iden t if ied O b jec t ( Max .D i .5 .5cm ) . S l igh t ly o va l , 2 . 95cm t h ick o b jec t w i th s moo th , c onvex e dg e a nd

T he g roove s s t rong ly s ugge s tt h a tt h ep i ece h a s b een u sed f o r f i n i sh ing /bur n i sh ing r ounded b one o b jec t s s uch a s h a i r p i n s ( o rp i e r ced s poon h and le s ) .

? Pa le t t e ( L .7 .73cm ; W .7 .6 cm ; T h .1 .77cm ) . S ub s qua r e f r agmen t o fo r ig ina l ly ? r ec tangu la r p i ece o f t h in ly b edded , w e l l i ndu ra ted s and s tone /qua r tz i te ( ? f rom t h e Y o reda le s e r ie s ) w i th s moo th u nb roken s i de s a nd f a ce s , o ne r ounded c or ne r a nd o ne w i th s u r f a ce d amage .O ne f a ce h a s ad i s t inc tb rown p a tch p o s s ib ly o fr e d o ch r e a nd b o th may h ave b een u t i l i sed .( LC .V ) .

* 16 .9

Whe t s tone ( L .5 .02cm ) . P a r t o f as ma l l , r e c tangu la r s e c t ioned w he t s tone o fs i l t s tone b roken a tb o th e nd s a nd w i th s moo th f a ce s a nd s i de s . ( LC .V ) .

* 16 .10 D i t to ( L .5 .93cm ) . S im i la ra nd ? c omp le te w i th r a th * 16 .4

S p ind le Who r l ( Max .D i . 3 . 48cm ) . S l igh t ly o va l a nd f l a tw i th c ham f e r ed /wea rr ounded e dge a nd s t ra igh t c en t ra l p i e rc ing . D a rk g r ey t ob l ack p robab ly C a r -

e r mo r e r ounded e dge s a nd p a r to fo ne f a ce b roken b efo re /du r ing u se a l ong ab edd ing p la in .T h in ly b ed d ed , s l igh t ly m icaceou s ? Ca rbon if e rou s s and s tone . ( LC .V ) .

b on i f e rou sL ime s tone . ( LC .BA ) . 1 6 .5

* 16 .6

D i t to ( Max .D i .3 .93cm ) . S im i la rb u tw or na nd d am a ged w i th much o fo ne f a ce m i s s ing . ( LC .BA ) .

* 16 .11 D i t to ( L .5 .86cm ) . S im i la r w i th s t ra igh t s i de s a nd

D i t to ( D i .4 .4 cm ) . Smoo th b u ts l igh t ly i regu la r ,c on -

o u s ly i lu s t ra ted b y B reu i l ( 1 92 1/2 , F ig .10 N o .1) . ( LC .BA ) .

c u rved f a ce sb roken a tb o th e nd sa nd w i th ac h ip i n o ne f a ce . L oca l ? Y o reda le S e r ie s s and s tone . P rev i -

v ex b a se w i th t r a ce so ff l a t tened z one a to u te re dge . F l a t t ened m id r if tw i th b a sa lg roove a nd w ide rs l igh t ly c oncave z one a bove .T runca ted c on ica lt o pw i th t wo c oncen t r ic g roove s a nd f l a t b u t a ng led u ppe r f a ce .

* 16 .12 D i t to ( L .8 .33cm ) . Two m a tch ing f r agmen t s n ow s t uck t o ge the rr e p re sen t ing o ne e nd o f as im i la rb u t

C en t ra lp i e r c ing w i th d i s t inc tt a pe rf r om b a se t ot op . L igh t g r ey m ica ceou s s and s tone . S l igh t d amage t o p i e r c ing o nu ppe rf a ce a nd o ne m id r if fc h ip .I ti sp o s s i b le t h a tt h ep i ece h a sb een t u rned o n al a the .P rev i -

l a rge rw he t s tone i n aC a rbon i f e rou s s and s tone . P r e v i ou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y B reu i l ( 1 921/2 , F ig .10 N o .6 ) . ( LC .BA ) .

12

. : " :e . , ..4 1 2 3 % • • • •b; : .

16 1

.

• 2

4

• 6

• 7

•8

. 9

F igure 3 5 : O b jec t s o fS tone ( 1 :1) . 13

16 •10

-

•12

• 11

•1 3

. 16

• 14

• 1 5

F igure 3 6 : O b jec ts o fS tone ( 1 :1) . 14

* 16 .13 D i t to ( L .6 . 1cm ) .F ragmen to f ar e c tangu la rs e c t ioned w he t s tone b rok en a tb o th e nd s i n ap oo r ly s o r ted , w e l l i n du ra ted , t h in ly b edded s a nd s tone ? f rom t h e C on i s ton F lag s .A l lu nb roken f a ce se s pec ia l ly t h et o p b ea r t r a ce s o f r ed o ch re . P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y B r eu i l ( 1921/2 , F ig .10 N o .5 ) . ( LC .BA ) .

t h e f l a t s u r f ace t owa rd s o ne e dge . P rev iou s ly i lu s t r a ted b yB reu i l ( 192 1/2 ,F ig .10 N o .3 ) . ( LC .BA ) . 1 6 .23

? D i t to ( L .9 .56cm ; Max .W .4 .39cm ; Max .Th .2 .45cm ) . Smoo th , e l onga ted s and s tone p ebb le w i th s l igh t , p robab ly n a tu ra ld amage t oe ach e nd . ( LC .V ) .

* 1 6 .14 D i t to ( L .6 .73cm ) . O ne e nd o f ab r oken s t ra igh t s i d e d ,t a pe r ing w he t s tone w i th r ounded e dge sa nd e nd , i n aq ua r tz i te ? f rom t h e C on i s ton F l ag s . P rev iou s ly i l u s t ra ted b yB r eu i l( 1 92 1 /2 ,F i g .10 N o .2 ) .( LC .BA ) .

1 6 .24

? D i t to ( L .9 .93cm ; W .5 .82cm ; Max .Th .3 .37cm ) . L a rge ,s moo th ,b roken ,p l ano -convex s e c t ioned c ob -

* 16 .15 D i t to ( L .9 .64cm ) . S im i la rb u tl a rge ra nd t a pe r ing i n t h ickne s st owa rd s t h e b r eak w i th ar a the rr ough e x t a n te nd ,i n as l igh t ly m ica ceou s ,q ua r tz i t ic s and s tone w i th t r a ce s o f b edd ing . P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b y B r eu i l( 1921/2 , F i g .10 N o .4 ) . ( LC .BA ) .

* 16 .25 ? D i t to ( L .6 .02cm ) . Smoo th , e l onga ted , o va l p ebb le o ff i ne g ra ined s and s tone / s i l t s tone w i th n o s i gn s o f b edd ing f r om a? Lake D i s t r ic ts ou rce .A na r ea o fo ne

b l e o fp oo r ly s o r ted , w e l l i ndu ra ted t h in ly b edded s and s tone ? f rom t h eC on i s ton F lag s . ( LC .V ) .

f a ce i sm i s s ing a nd b o th f a ce sh ave s po t so fr e do ch r e . P rev iou s ly i lus t ra ted b y B reu i l ( 192 1/2 , F ig .10 N o .9 ) . ( LC .BA ) .

* 16 .16 D i t to ( L .8 .38cm ) . B roken , w e l lp o l i shed , t r iangu la r s e c t ioned w he t s tone i n aw e l l i n du ra t ed s and s tone ? f rom t h eC on i s ton F lag s . ( LC .V ) . 1 6 .17

? D i t to ( L .11 .2cm ;W .10 .0cm , Max .Th .3 .0cm ) .I r reg u l a r ly s ub squa re b l ock o fs l igh t ly m icaceou s , w e l l i n du ra ted q ua r tz i te w i th e v iden t b edd ing p robab ly f r om aL ake D i s t r ic t s ou r ce . T h ree s i de s r ough ly d r e s sed / smoo thed a nd f ou r th i r regu la r ly b roken . B a ck i regu la r w i th o ne r e cen t ly f l ak ed a r ea . F ron t p o l i shed w i th a f ew b rown ( ? r e d o ch re ) l i nes . ( LC .V ) .

Ma rk ed S l ab ( L .8 .2cm ) .S ub rec tangu la rs l ab o ft h in l y b edded l o ca l C a rbon if e rous L i me s tone w i th s t reak s o fr ed o ch r e o n o ne f a ce . P rev iou s ly i l u s t r a ted b yB reu i l ( 192 1 /2 ,F ig .10 N o .7 ) . ( LC .BA ) .

1 6 .27

U t i l i sed S tone ( L .13 .84cm ) . R a the r i r regu la r , e l on g a ted t r apezo ida l s e c t ioned p ebb le o fs i l t s tone w i th l o ng i tud ina l s c ra tche s o n o ne f a ce a nd o ne s i de e x t e n s iv e ly m a rked w i th r e do ch re . ( LC .V ) .

* 16 .28 T ouch s tone ( L .4 .48cm ) . Sma l lr e c tangu la rh aema t i te b l ock w i th d a rk c hoco la te b rown , h igh ly p o l i shed s u r f a ce s ,r ounded e dge s / cor ne r sa nd o no ne e dge a n o r ig ina l n o tch a nd amode rn k n if e c u tn o tch r e vea l -

* 16 .18 S ha rpen ing S tone ( L .10 .93cm ) .I r regu la rs ub rec tan g u la rs l ab o ft h in ly b edded s l igh t ly m icaceou s C a r b on if e rou ss and s tone w i th as e r ie so fs ha l low d i shed a r ea s r unn ing a c ro s s o ne f a ce , p robab ly r e su l t ing f r om t h es ha rpen ing o f at o o l . ( LC .V ) . 1 6 .19

1 6 .26

i n gt h el i gh te rc o lou ro ft h ei n te r io r . ( LC .JK ) . T ouch s tone s , i n c lud ing t h e s o c a l led L yd ian s t one w e re u sed f o rs t r eak t e s t ing t h eq ua l i ty o fg o ld ( Moo re 1 978 ) a nd , i ft h e a s c r ip t ion i sc o r r ec t , t h i s p i ece w ou ld b e s ugge s t ive o fm e ta l w o rk ing a tt h es i te .

? Bu rn i she r /? Whe t s tone ( L .10 .06cm ) .N ea r ly s qua re ( t yp ica l ly 5 . 1 x5 . 9cm ) s e c t ioned , s l igh t ly t a pe r ing b l ock o fM i l l s tone G r i t w i th s ome s u r f a ce p o l i sh , e spec ia l ly o n t h e s i de s a nd w ide r e nd . A n o r ig ina l p ape r l a be l r ema in s a ff ixed r e co rd ing i t s V ic to r ia C ave o r ig in a nd J o seph J ack son ' s p r e sen ta t ion o fi t t o al o ca lc o l lec to r ,W .Ho rne .( LC .JK ) .

* 16 .29 H aema t i t e S t ick ( L .4 .4 1cm ) . S ho r t , t r iangu la r s e c t i oned s t ick o fm e ta l l ic a ppea rance w i th o ne b l un t a nd o ne p o in ted e nd . ( LC .TL ) .

* 16 .20 D i t to ( L .11 .59cm ) . C omp le te , s moo th s u r f aced , t a p e r ing p ebb le ,o ft h in ly b edded ,w e l li n du r a ted mud s t one , w i th s u r f a ce p o l i sh o n b o th a nd p a r t icu la r ly o ne g en t ly c u rved s i de s a nd s ome n a tu ra l c rack ing

1 6 .30

U t i l i sed H aema t i te ( L .4 .84cm ; Max .Th .2 .75cm ) .I r r e gu la rh aema t i te p ebb le w i th s eve ra la d ja cen tw ea r f a ce t sa to ne e nd o fo ne f a ce . ( LC .?BA ) .

1 6 .31

D i t to ( L .3 .33cm ; Max .W .2 .49cm ; Max .Th .1 .78cm ) . I r regu la r ly t r iangu la rp ebb le w i th s l igh te rw ea rf a c e t s a tt h e r ounded a pex , e spec ia l ly o n o ne f a ce . ( LC .BA ) .

o nt h eu ppe rf a ce . ( LC .V ) . * 16 .21 B u rn i she r ( L .13 .64cm ) . E longa ted , s ub -p lano -con v ex s e c t ioned p ebb le o f? Lak eD i s t r ic tp hy l l i te .P o l i s hed s u r f ace sw i th s ome s t r ia t ion so nt h eb ack . ( LC . F ound b yT homa sC .L o rd o u t s id et h ec ave i n1 986 ) .

T he se a r el i ke ly t ob ef r om s ou r ce si nt h eC a rbon if e rou sL ime s t one o rS l c iddaw S l a te s a l ong t h eC umb r ian c oa s ti nF u rne s s o rt h eL ake D i s t r ic t( F i rman 1 978 )a nd a r et h ep robab le s ou r ce o fr e do ch re m a rk s o no t he rp i e ce si nt h ec o l lec t ion .

* 16 .22 D i t to ( L .11 .0cm ) .C omp le te p l ano -convex s e c t ioned p ebb le o f? f ine g ra ined q ua r tz i te w i th n a tu ra l d am -

1 6 .32

a ge t oo ne e nd a nd as ha l low l i nea rr e ba te w o rn i n to

U t i l i sed

S tone

( Max .L .8 .7cm ;

Max .W .7 .6cm ;

Max .Th .3 .23cm ) . I r regu la r ly o va l p ebb le o fq ua r tz 15

1 8.1 8

• 21

• 22

20

29 • 28

F igur e3 7 : O b jec t so fS t one ( 1 :1) . 16

i

• 35 ( 1: 2)

1 6• 3 4

( 1: 2)

I

B lackened

\ \

Sooted

F igure 3 8 : O b jec t so fS tone ( 16 .34&16 .35 a t1 : 2 ; 1 6 .4 1 a t1 : 1 ) .

i t ed i sp lay ing s ome w ea rp o l i sh , ? r ed o ch r e s t reak s i n t h e c en t re o f o ne f a ce a nd a ppa r en t ly b u rn t ( LC .BA ;p e rhap s ap i ece k nown t oh ave b een f o und o u t s ide t h ec ave ) . 1 6 .33

1 6 .36

O va l S tone ( 6 .89 X 6 . 03 X 2 . 03 c m ) . Smoo th o va l p ebb le o ff i ne g ra ined d a rk g r ey t ob l ack ? l ime s tone . P o s s ib ly u sed a s ab u rn i she r . ( LC .V ) .

1 6 .37

S t one B a l l ( D i .2 .6 -2 .8 c m ) . N ea r ly s phe r ica l b a l l o f s moo th , d a rk g r ey t ob l ack l ime s tone . ( LC .JK ; c f . D enny ( 1 860 , 5 1 -2 ) a nd Sm i th ( 1 865 , 2 08 ) w ho r e f e r t op e r f ec t ly r ound ' s l ing s t one s ' i nt h e J a ck son C o l lec t ion ) .

1 6 .38

D i t to ( D i .5 .44 -5 .83cm ) . A s t h e l a s t w i th an a tu ra l d a rk e ra r ea ( LC .JK ;c f . a st h el a s t ) .

B u rn t ? Wh e t s tone ( L .7 .8cm ; W .5 .39 cm ; T h . 2 . 77cm ) . B roken r e c tangu la rf r agmen to fr e c tangu l a r s e c t ioned b l ock o fs l igh t ly m ica ceou s , w e l l i n d u ra ted s and s tone w i th r ounded e dge s a nd s moo th f a ce s , o ne r e ddened b y b urn ing a nd l a ck ing p a r t o f i t ss u r f ace .( LC .TL ) .

* 16 .34 G rooved S tone ( L .17 .5cm ) . F la t b a cked , e l onga ted T he se t wo s phe re sd on o ts how a ny e v idence o fu sage a ss uch b u tm ay h ave b een r e pea ted ly h and led .

p ebb le o f v e ry p oo r ly s o r ted , w e l l i n du ra t ed g r ey s and s tone w i th ab l ack ( ?i r on m ine ra l i sed )a r ea a nd as e r ie so fd eep g roove sp robab ly m ade b y am e ta l l i c b l ade o n t h e u ppe rp a r t . ( LC .?BA , p r e sumed t o

1 6 .39

D i sc ( Max .D i .7 .96cm ) . R ough ly c h ipped f r om a 1 . 25 -1 .64cm t h ick s l ab o ft h in ly b edded ? Ca rbon if e r ou s s and s tone w i th a n i r regu la rb ack a nd s moo th b u tu npo l i shed f r on ts u r f ace .P o s s ib ly ar oughed o u t p a le t te . ( LC .BA ) .

1 6 .40

? D i t to . Ar a the rs ma l le ra nd v e ry r ough o va l t os ub c i r cu la rf l a t t i sh s l ab o fl o ca lC a rbon if e rou sl ime s tone

b eo ne o ft h e s t one s r e f e r red t ob y D awk in s ( 1 874 , 9 2 ; a nd p e rhap s 1 872 , 6 5 ) ) . * 16 .35 D i t to ( L .10 .85cm ) . R ounded s ub t r iangu la rp hy l l i te p ebb le w i th b ad ly b roken b ack a nd t wo d eep ly c u t? m e ta l l ic b l ade g roove so nt h ef r on t .( LC .?BA ;a st h e l a s t ) .

p o s s ib ly b u tn o tc e r ta in ly w o rked . ( LC .BA ) .

17

* 16 .4 1 H amme r s tone ( L .8 .34cm ) . Smoo th o va l p ebb le o f w e l l b edded ? sand s tone r e ddened b y b u rn ing a nd h eav i ly s oo ted i ns eve ra l p l a ce s . S ub sequen t t ot h e s oo t ing b o th f a ce s s how e v idence o fr e pea ted s t r ik i n g .T he ' b ack 'h a s as ma l lg r oup o fp oo r ly d ef ined , i regu la r ,l i nea ra r ea so fs u r f a ce l o s sw i th s ome p o l i sh

s t r ik ing 'a nd ' one p i ece o fs and s tone , s haped a r t if ic ia l ly ( s eg m en to f ac i rc le ) p robab ly p a r to f ah and m i l ls tone ' .

o ft h es oo ted s u r face b e tween .T he ' f ron t 'h a s ac en t r a l c i r cu la r p i t s eve ra l mm d eep s u r rounded b y a n i regu la r ly o va la r ea o fs u r f a ce l o s sw i th c l ea rl i nea r e x t en s ion s , e spec ia l ly a te a ch e nd . T h e ' f ron t ' f a ce e spec ia l ly s ugge s t s e i the rt h e s t ab i l i s ing o f am e ta l r o di nt h eh o le a nd i t so cca s iona ls l ipp ing w h i le f o rce w a sb e ing a pp l ied o r mo re l i k e ly t h eu se o ft h es t one t od r ive ac i rcu la rr od ( ? o rn a i l )h ome ,t h es t one b e i n g h e ld a ta n a ng le i nt h e h and r e su l t ing i ns ome d i agona lm i s s t r ike s .P rev iou s ly i lu s t ra ted b yB reu i l ( 1 92 1 /2 ,F ig .10 No .8 ) . ( LC .BA ) .

T he m a te r ia l p re sen t r e p re sen t s m a in ly p rocu remen t o fD r if t p ebb le s ,u l t ima te ly d e r iv ing f r om e i the rL ake D i s t r ic to rm o re l o ca li n l ie r s( Con i s ton F l ag sm a t e r ia le t c . ) ,t o ge the rw i th al e s se r

C ommen t

n umbe ro fp i ece so fl o ca l ly a va i lab le l ime s tone sa nd s a nd s tone s a nd o ne p iece ( 16 .1) o f i mpo r ted ( p e rhap s r e -u sed ) m a rb le . W i th t h e e xcep t ion o ft h e l a t te r a nd t h e h aema t i te , a l c ou ld h ave b een p rocu red f r om t h eb ed o ft h eR ibb le .S p ind le w ho r l s a nd w he t s tone sa r er e gu la r ly m e tw i th o nR omano -Br i t i sh s i t e s b u tt h eb u rn i she r s ( ? connec ted w i th l e a the r wo rk ing ) a r e l e s s o f ten r e por ted , t hough t h e re may b ea ne l emen to fn on recog n i t ion i nt h is .T he p re sence o f1 6 .18 i nd ica t ing t h es ha rpen ing o f at o o l( ?w i th ac u rved e dge )a nd e spec ia l ly o f1 6 .8 i sp a r t ic -

F ou rf u r the rp i ece s a mong s tt h eL o rd C o l lec t ion a r ev e ry u n l i ke ly t oh ave b een u t i l i sed i na ny w ay b u t m igh th ave b een c o l lec ted a nd t a k en t ot h e c ave a sc u r io s . A l l a r e ( LC .V ) a nd t h ey c omp r i se at h in o va l L owe r C a rbon if e rou s ( ?Y o reda le

u l a r ly n o tab le w i th r e ga rd t ot h e q ue s t ion o fc ra f t a c t iv i ty a t t h e s i te . T he p re sence o f h aema t i te ( a nd r ed o ch re s t r eaked b l ock s ) may i mp ly av a r ie ty o f a c t iv i t ie s i n c lud ing t h e b u r n i sh ing o f me ta lwo rk o r ma rk ing o fo b jec t s ( o r e ven o fl i v e -

S e r ie s )p ebb le w i th aw ide l e ng thw i s eg r oove e xpo s ing al i gh te r c o lou r ed c o r e ; as ma l l s i de r i te m ud s tone p ebb le ? f rom t h e Y o reda le S e r ie sw i th o ne r ounded e dge a nd much m u l t i -d i rec t i ona l s c ra t ch ing ; at h in s ub -c i rcu la r p ebb le o f f a i r ly c oa r se ( ?Y o reda le S e r ie s )s and s tone w i th f l a tf a ce sa nd r ounded e dge ; a nd al a rg es t r ia ted ? Bo r rowda le T uf fp ebb le w i th o ne f l a ts u r f a ce . An umbe ro fi n adequa te ly d e sc r ibed s t one o b jec t sa r ea l mo s t c e r ta in ly l o s t . T hey i n c lude p o s s ib le p o t b o i le r s ( c f . D awk in s 1 872 ,6 5 ; 1 874 ,9 1) ;p e rhap s at h i rd p i ece l i ke 1 6 .39 a nd 1 6 .40 ( c f . T iddeman 1 875 , 1 36 w ho r e f e r s t ot h r ee C a r b on if e rou sg r i t s tone d i scs r eddened a nd e v iden t ly b u rn t , f r om t h et a lu s ) ,t h ough g i ven t h ed i sc repancy i np e t ro logy ,t h ef a c t t h a tT iddeman w a s al e ad ing g eo log i s ta nd t h ea b sence o fr e d d en ing o n t h e e x tan t p i ece s i t may b e t h a t t h e se t h ree d i sc s s hou ld a l b ec on s ide red a sl o s t ; a nd c once ivab ly o ne o r mo re g rooved ' s l ab ( s ) '( c fD aw l c in s 1 872 ,6 5 ; 1 874 ,9 2 ,p r e sumab ly r e f e r r ing t o 1 6 .34 a nd 1 6 .35 b u t c once ivab ly a l so t o 1 6 .8 ) . Whe the r Mo r r i son 's ( 1870 / 1 , 10 ) ' b lock o f s t one . . , h av ing o ni tar ude s qua re f i gu re , a ppa ren t ly f o rs ome g ame 'i sr e p re s en ted a bove ( e .g . b y 1 6 .34 o r 1 6 .35 ) o ri sl o s ti sn o tc l ea r .A f ew l o s tf i nd sm ade b y C rof ton a r e a l so r e co rded i nh i s Ms s , v i zt wo p i ece so f' s la te ' , ar ounded p ebb le ' p robab ly u sed f o r

s t ock ) b u tt h e i n c lu s ion o ft h e p o s s ib le g o ld s t reak t e s tb l ock ( 16 .28 ) i sv e ry i n te r e s t ing a nd make s i tp a r t icu la r ly r e g re t ta b l et h a ti ta nd t h ef i ne rc o sme t ic p a le t te sc ome f r om t h eJ a ck s on C o l lec t ion a nd s oc anno tb e i n d i spu tab ly p rovenanced a s f r om V ic to r ia C ave . I ti sa l so c l ea rt h a ts ome s t one o b jec t sc a t a l ogued a nd n o ted a bove , w h i l s tt h ey may h ave b een s e lec ted a nd i n t roduced t ot h es i te b e cau se o ft h e i rs hape s / su r f a ce c ha r a c te r i s t ic s w e re n o t u t i l i sed a s s uch o rw e re f r equen t ly h an d l ed r a the rt han e mp loyed i nc onnec t ion w i th a ny c r a f tp roc e s s( e .g . 1 6 .37 a nd 1 6 .38 ) .T he p o s s ib i l i ty t h a ts uch ' h and l ing ' i mp l ie s s ome ' r i tua l ' a c t iv i ty i nt h e b roade s t s en se c anno tb e e n t i r e ly d i sm i ssed b u te ven i ft h es u r f a ce p o l i sh c an b ea c cep t e da st h er e su l to fn on -c ra f th uman a c t iv i ty i tmu s tb ee qua l ly l i ke ly t h a ti td e r ived f r om c a sua lh and l ing o fc u r io so rt h eu s e o ft h es t ones a sp lay th ing s . F oo tno te 1 . T he wh i te a nd o f -wh i te ma rb le s a r e n o to r iou s ly d if i cu l t t o s epa ra te o n mac ro scop ic e xam ina t ion ( c f . p ape r s i n Wae lkens e ta l1 992 ) , b u tt h er o ck i sl i ke ly t ob eo fm ed i t e r ranean o r ig in .

18

CHAPTER 1 7 : MISCELLANEOUS AND UNCATALOGUED F INDS

b y Mar t in J .D earne

17 . 1

-3

F igur e3 9 : O b jec t so f Ambe re t c ( 1 :1 ) .

* 17 .1 Ambe rB ead ( L .1 .70cm ) .V e ry b ad ly c r acked a nd b r o k en . R ec tangu la rw i th r ounded e nd sa nd l o ng i tud ina l

N .B . D enny ( 1 860 ,P 1 . 1N o .20 )i lu s t ra te sw ha th ec a l l s a' Po r t i on o fa n Ambe rR ing ' . H oweve r , h i s i lu s t ra t ion i sp robab ly ac opy o fo ne i n Sm i th ( 1 844 )a nd t h ei t em i si nf a c tp robab ly o ne o ft h eg l a s so rj e tf i nd si nt h eB r i t i sh Mu seum c a ta logued a bove .

c i r cu la rp i e r c ing o fc en t r e .T h ee ccen t r ic p i e r c ing h a s w eakened t h e ' b a ck ' f a ce w h ich h a s b roken a way . ( LC .JK ) . Ambe rb ead s a r ef a i r ly r a re o n R omano -Br i t i sh s i te s a nd ,e s p ec ia l ly a sa mbe rh ad ap a r t icu la ra ppea la s amag ica l ma te r i a lc onne c ted w i th f e r t i l i ty , w ou ld h ave b een e xpen s ive i t em s . D a t ing i sp rob lema t ic b u t 1 7 .1 i s mo r el i k e ly t ob el a te rr a the r t h an e a r l ie rR oman . 1 7 .2

Two g roup s o f ma te r ia lr e cove red f r om V ic to r ia C av e a r e n o t c a ta logued i nt h ep re sen tv o lume ,t he f a una lm a te r ia l , a nd t h e h uman s ke le ta l ma te r ia l .N os umma ry i so f e red o ft h ef i r s ta s much r e sea rch i n to t h em a te r ia lr ema in st ob ec a r r ied o u t .H ow e ve r ,i ts hou ld b en o ted t h a tn i ne teen th c en tu ry s t a temen t sa bou t t h ef a una l ma te r ia lp robab ly o fR omano -B r i t i sh d a te a r ea tb e s t i nadequa te a nd t h e ma te r ia l i su n l ike ly t or e p re sen te x ten s ive

Mo the r o f P ea r l D i sc ( D i . c . 0 .94cm ) . A t i ny d i sc . ( LC .V ) .

' f ea s t ing 'o u t s ide t h e c ave ; i ndeed s ome m ay r ep re sen t s ma l l c a rn ivo re /dome s t ic d og a c t iv i ty a tl e a s tr e -d i s t r ibu t ing f a una l ma te r ia l . T he h uman s ke le ta l ma te r ia l i sv e ry s pa r se , o n ly 1 2

* 17 .3 F inge r R ing S e t t ing ( Max . D i . 1 . 64cm ) . P lano -con v ex ,o va l ,p o l i shed s t one .P a le g r ey tu rquo i se a nd p i nk b rown i n w h i t e l i gh t . Sma l l c h ip a t o ne e nd a nd s c ra tched u ppe rf a ce . ( LC .V ) .

o r 1 3 t e e th ( one f ound i nt h ec ave a nd t h er e s ti nt h ree g roup s o u t s ide )a r er e l iab ly r e co rded f r om t h es i t e( s ome e x tan ti nt h e L o rd C o l lec t ion ) .

T hough p robab ly f r om af i nge rr i ng t h i ss e t t ing may b eo fr e l a t ive ly r e cen td a te ( t he a u tho ri sg r a t e fu l t oD r . H .E .M . C oo l f o rd i scu s s ing t h is i t em w i th h im ) .

I ti sh oped t h a ta l l o ft h i s ma te r ia l w i l l b ee xam ined i nd e ta i l i n as ub sequen tp ub l ica t ion d ea l ing w i th a s pec t so ft h es i t eo n ly t ouched o ni nt h ep re sen tv o lume .

19

CHAPTER 1 8: THE RO MANO -BR IT ISH POTTERY

B yP au l C .B uck land

Wi th C on tr ibu t ion sb yB .D ick in son , K . EH ar t ley ,J .E van sa nd M .J .D ea me

P rovenance ( Mar t in J .D earne )

S am ian ( Br enda D ick in son )

O n ly al i t t le p o t t e ry s u rv ives f r om t h ep re -1870 e xcava t ions a t t h e s i te a nd e a r ly a ccoun t s s e rve o n ly t oc onf i rm t h a tp o t te ry w a s r e cove red ( e xc lu s ive ly f r om w i th in t h e c ave ) b y J o seph J a ck son f r om 1 837 t o1 870 ;i nd iv idua ls he rd sa r ea lmo s tn ev e rd e sc r ibed .T h ep i e ce s wh ich a r ek nown t oh ave b een a mong s t J a ck son 's c o l le c t ion b y t h e 1 930 s ( a nd s op a s sed t oT o tL o rd f r om M i s s K now le s ) a r e i d en t if iab le f r om p ho tog raph s i nt h e J a ck son /Lo rd a r ch ive a nd c omp r i se t h ree o ft h es am ian s he rd s c a ta logued a sN o .1 b e low , s am ian N o . 2 ,c oa r sewa re N o . 1 0 , a tl e a s to ne s h e rd o fc oa r sewa re N o . 3 0a nd o ne f u r the rc oa r s e wa re s he rd . T he f a te o f t h e r ema inde r o ft h e p o t te ry r e cov e r ed a tt h i s t ime i su nknown . T he p r e sen t c o rpu s , e xcep t ing t h e p i ece s n o t ed a bove , d e r ive s f r om t h e 1 870-8 e xcava t ion s

D ecora t ed f orm s

a tt h es i t e ,a nd p a s sed s t ra igh tt ot h ef o rme rG igg le sw ick S choo l Mu seum ( wh e r eV i l ly 1 911 ,F ig s2 -9 d r ew al i t t le o fi ti n c lud i n gt wo mo r es h e rd so fs am ian No . 1b e low a nd t h es t amp No . 1 2 , p lu s c oa r se v e sse l s 3 8 , 4 1 a nd amo r ta r ium , p e rhap s No . 1 4 ) . O nt h em u seum 's c l osu re , t h e who le p o t te ry g roup a sf a r a si sk nown p a s sed t oT o tL o rd a nd h i sP igY a rd C lub Mu seum ( whe re R a i s t r ick d rew af ew mo re c oa r sewa re p i ece s ( Ra is t r i ck 1 939 , F i g s Va nd V I I i t em s ma rked K .S . ) i n c lud ing N o s 5 8 , 6 7 a nd 7 3 . U n fo r tuna te ly t h e 1 870 s r e co rd s d o n o t a l low t h ef i nd spo t so fa ny s he rd st ob ed educed , b u tt h ey d od emon s t ra te t h a tp o t t e ry c ame f r om a l lp a r t s o ft h ec ave a nd t h ep l a t e au i nf r on t o fi t .O ne v e sse l ( No . 6 7 ) w i th at h ick c a lc i t ic c oa t ing c ha ra c te r i s t ic o f d epo s i t ion i n s t and ing w a te r ( p e r s . c omm .TC .L o rd ) ,h oweve r ,c l ea r ly c ame f r om w i th in t h ec ave ( v e ry p robab ly f r om C hambe r B ) , a s d id s ome o t he r p i ece s w i th c a lc i t ic d epo s i t s .T he l o s so ft h ep o t te ry f ound b e f o r e 1 870

1 .F o rm 3 7 b ow l ( s ) i nt h e s t y le o fS a ce r o fL ezoux , C en t ra l G au l . H ad r ian ic /An ton ine . AD 1 25 -145 . 1 s he rd s , p o s s ib ly f r om t wo v e s se l s . 2 .F o rm 3 7 C en t ra l G au l i sh b ow l o fP o t te rX 5 —L ezoux AD 1 25 145 . I td ep ic t s ab ea rded ma sk a nd as t o rk , e a ch w i th in a d oub le r inged m eda l l ion , d i v ided b y w avy l i ne s f r om ad o l p h in b enea th , a nd h av ing t wo s ma l l ' r i ng ' -mo t if i nf i l l s . 3 .F o rm 3 7 C en t ra l G au l ish b ow l , p robab ly b y G em inu s , AD 1 25 145 .F rom n ea rt h eb a se o ft h ed eco ra ted z one , i ts how s a d e s ign o f v i ne a nd g rape -bunche s , d i v ided b y w avy b o rde r s w i th h ea r t mo t if f r om a n a r ea i n co rpo ra t ing ap e r son ' s f e e t ? a nd ap a i ro f? co rnucop ia i nf i l l s . 4 .F o rm 3 7C en t ra lG au l i sh -L ezoux ;A n ton ine ,p o s s ib ly T e t t u ro AD 1 35 -160 . Ab ad ly a b raded s he rd w i th e r oded d e s ign d ep ic t ing ab ea rded ma sk ( l ook ing l e f t )s e tw i th in as ma l lr e c t a ngu la rf r ame w i th r ounded ' b lob ' a tt h ec ome r s ; t oi t sr i gh t t h el e go fh oof ed a n ima lo rs a ty r . 5 .F o rm 3 7 E a s t G au l ish , R he inzabe rn AD 2 00 -260 . S he rd s how s o vo lo a nd p a r t o ff i gu re d if i cu l tt od i sce rn , p o s s ib ly a d ance ro rg l ad ia to ra sO swa ld ( 1936 -7 )f i gu re t y pe 9 98 . 6 .N o t i lu s t ra ted . T iny s he rd s how ing f a ce t s o f a' c u t -g la s s ' d eco ra ted v e s se l . C en t ra lG au l i sh .A n ton ine -a f te r AD 1 60 .

m ay h ave l e dt o mo re ma te r ia l , r e la t ive t ot h e q uan t i ty o r ig i n a l ly p re sen t ,s u rv iv ing f r om o u t s ide t h ec ave ( no ti n ve s t iga t e d b efo re 1 870 ) t h an i n s ide a nd h a s c e r ta in ly d ec rea sed t h e

7 .N o ti lu s t ra ted .C en t ra lG au l i sh ,p a r to ff oot ing ,f a b r ic s ug g e s t s ad a te o fl a te 2 nd /ea r ly 3 rd c en tu ry .

q uan t i ty o fp o t t e ry a va i lab le f o r s t udy . H oweve r , i ti sl i ke ly t h a te ven i nh eav i ly i n ve s t iga ted a r ea sw i th in t h ec ave ,p o t te ry r ema ined t ob ec o l lec ted i n1 870 a nd ,c h rono log ica l ly a tl e a s t ,

8 .N o t i lu s t ra ted . Ac o l lec t ion o f 9s he rd s -o ne b roken r im , e i gh tb ody s he rd s . C en t ra l G au l i sh , H ad r ian ic /An ton ine , p o s s i b ly f r om t h eS ace rv e sse l ( s )?

o t he rc a tego r ie so ff i nd s g ive l i t t le i nd ica t ion o fs pa t ia l v a r ia t i on a c ro s st h ew ho le s i te . I ti st h e r efo re r e la t ive ly l i ke ly t ha t t h es u rv iv ing m a t e r ia li sar ep re sen ta t ive s amp le o f ao nce l a rge r c o rpu s .

P la in f orm s

F ab r ic c o lou rd e sc r ip t ions f o l low Mun se l l ( 1992 ) a nd a r ef o l -

9 .F o rm 2 2 -3 ,S ou th G au l i sh .A nu nu sua lf o rm i nB r i ta in ,t h e r e i sa ne xamp le f r om N ew s tead ( Cu r le 1 9 11) T ype 1 2 ,l a te i s te a r ly 2 nd c en tu ry .

l owed b yt h ea pp rop r ia te c ode .

1 20

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F igure 4 0 : T he S am ian Wa re ( 1 :1 ) . 1 2 1

a r

1 0 . F o rm 1 8 /31 b a se s he rd w i th f oo t r ing . Ma t r e s d e V ey r e , C en t ra l G au l . T ra jan ic . T he s he rd s how s ag r a ff i to c u t a f te r

3 . Mo r ta r ium w i th mu l t i reeded r im ,i n ah a rd ,w h i te ( N8 )f a b r i c , w i th af ew s ma l l d a rk r e dt ob l a ck a ngu la rt r i tu ra t ion g r i t . Mance t te r /Ha r t sh i l l . AD 2 70 -350 .

f i r ing a bove t h ef o o t r ing . P .C .B . a nd M .J .D . a r em o s tg r a tefu l t oD r . R .S .O . T om l in f o rc ommen t ing t ha t , a l though t h e f i r s t l e t te ri sp a r t ly l o s t ,i ts hou ld r e ad [ . . ]ANNAM I ,p robab ly A nn anu ' ( P rope r ty )o fA nnamu s ' . H e n o tes t h a tt h en ame A nna mu s /Adnamu si sl o ca l t oN o r icum a nd n o tp r ev iou s ly r e co rd e df r om B r i ta in ( s ee R oman B r i ta in i n 1 997 I I n sc r ip t ion s , i n B r i tann ia f o r th com ing ) . 1 . F o rm 3 5 6 , C u r le 1 , w i th b ead r im a nd b a rbo t ine d eco r a ted f l ange ; f l ange n o t h ooked d own a te x t rem i ty b u t v e ry f l a t tened u nde rnea th , o n ly c u rved e dge t o u ppe r r im . S ou th G au l i sh ,F lav ian -l a te i s t -e a r ly 2 nd c en tu ry .

4 .H amme rhead r im o f amo r ta r ium w i th f ou rr e ed s ,i n ah a rd , f i ne t e x tu red , w h i te ( N8 )f ab r ic .T he b a se a nd r im s how t r aces o f ap a le y e l low ( 2 .5 Y 7 / 3 )t oy e l low ( 2 .5 Y 8 / 6 )s l ip .T he r im s u r f ace h a st h er ema ins o f as i ng le ,p a in ted d e s ign o f ar ough l ye xecu t ed c i r c le i n ad a rk r edd i sh b rown ( 10 R 4 / 6 )s l ip .T r i t u r a t ion g r i t c on s is t s o fa ngu la rf i red c l ay , g rey t ob l ack , w i th r a re d a rk r e df r agmen t s ,p o s s ib ly f r om c ru shed k i ln o rk i ln f u r n i tu re d eb r i s . 5s he rd s . H a r t sh i l l /Mance t te r , Wa rk s . AD 2 20 3 00 . 5 .S he rd f r om t h e w o rn b a se o f am o r ta r ium i n ap a le b rown

P la in f orms n o ti lu s tra t ed: 1 2 .F o rm 1 8 /31 b a se s he rd ,p o r t ion o fs t amp : ` ADVOC . . ' -p r ob a b ly A dvoc i su so fL ezoux . H ad r ian ic /An ton ine .T he s t amp i s a l so k nown f r om L anca s te r ,Y o rk , C a r l i s le , C o rb r idge , C he s t e r , Manche s t e r ,N ew s tead ,a nd p robab ly I l k ley . 1 3 . Two r im s he rd s , p lu s o ne b ody s he rd f r om aF o rm 1 8 /31 o r3 1 b ow l .C en t ra lG au l i sh .H ad r ian ic /ea r ly A n ton ine .

( 2 .5 Y 8 / 2 ) f a b r ic . T r i tu ra t ion g r i t c on s is t s o fa bundan t a ngu l a r ,d a rk r e da nd b l ack f i red c l ay ,p robab ly a sa bove . H a r t sh i l l / Mance t te r , Wa rk s . AD 1 40 -350+ . 6 . Wa l l s ided mo r ta r ium ,d i ame te ri n de te rm ina t e ,i n av e ry h a rd d en se wh i te ( N8 )f a b r ic , a lmo s t as t onewa re , w i th s ome s ma l l l i nea rc av i t ie s a nd r a re , t r an s lucen tq ua r tz i n c lu s ion s ; r edd i sh y e l low ( 7 .5 YR 7 / 6 )o nt h eo u t s ide o ft h ef l ange , wh ich i sd ec o ra ted w i th v e r t ica l l i ne s i nr edd i sh -ye l low ( 5 YR 6 / 8 ) s l ip . T he t r i tu ra t ion g r i ti so fb lack a nd a ngu la rf i red c l ay ,a sa bove , w i th az one o f 1 0 -15 mm b e tween t h e r im a nd t h e w e l l -de f i ned e dge o ft h eg r i t .T he b a se o ft h er im a ppea r st oh ave b een d e l ibe ra te ly t r immed of . Mance t te r /Ha r t sh i l l , Wa rk s . P roba b l y4 t hc en tu ry .

1 4 .F o rm 3 3 s he rd .C en t ra lG au l i sh . An ton ine . 1 5 . R im s he rd o fd i sh o rb ow l . C en t ra l G au l i sh f a b r ic .A n to n i ne .T he e dge so ft h es he rd h ave b een c h ipped a nd s haped t o f o rm ar ough ,s l igh t ly c oncav ed i sc ,b u tn o ts moo thed o f ;p rob -

7 . Mo r ta r ium ,s l igh t ly b u rn t ,w i th i nwa rd s l op ing b ead r im a nd r e eded f l ange , i n ah a rd , p a le y e l low ( 2 .5 Y 8 / 2 ) f a b r ic w i th s ma l l p i nk a nd g r ey i n c lu s ion s a nd ag rey ( 2 .5 Y 6 / 1) c o re . T r i tu r a t ion g r i ti sa ngu la r , mode ra te ly s i zed ,i l so r ted i r on s l ag p a r t ic le s . T he p rof i le h a s b een r e con s t ruc ted f r om 1 5 s he rd s .

a b ly i n tended f o r u se a s as p ind le w ho r l , p a le t te o rs ha l low s coop . 1 6 . S he rd f r om amo r ta r ium ( Fo rm 4 4? ) i na n E a s t G au l i sh T r ie rf a b r ic . i s th a lf o f3 rd c en tu ry .

Mor tar ia ( K .F . Har t ley )

Aw a l l s he rd a nd c h ip f r om ar im a r ep o s s ib ly f r om t h e s ame v e s se l . P robab ly N ene V a l ley , l a te r t h an AD 2 20 , b u t C ram b eck w ou ld n o tb ei mpo ss ib le i nw h ich c a se t h ed a te w ou ld b e a f te r2 80 .

1 .T h ree j o in ing s he rd so f am o r ta r ium ,w i th f l ange r i s ing a bove t h eb ead .T he f l ange h a sb een l o oped b ack u nder nea th t ot o uch t h eu nde r r im . H a rd ,l i gh tr e d( 2 .5 YR 7 / 8 ) f a b r ic w i th av e ry p a le b rown ( 10 YR 7 / 3 ) c o re a nd much s ma l l , a ngu la rq ua r tz

& Mo r ta r ium , i n amode ra te ly h a rd , p a le y e l low ( 2 .5 Y 8 / 2 ) f a b r ic ,w i th o cca s iona lr ed i n c lu s ion s .T r i tu ra t ion g r i ti sc l o se l ys pa ced t r an spa ren t a nd b rown a nd p ink r ounded g ra in s o f q ua r tz a nd o cca s iona lh aema t i te t oj u s tb e low t h er im .L igh t ly

t empe ra nd s ome r e di n c lu s ion s .T he t r i tu ra t ion g r i ti se n t i re ly o fs ubangu la rq ua r tz u pt o 3mm l ong , me rg ing w i th t h et em p e r . S l igh t t r a ce o fw h i t e s l ip b e tween b ead a nd f l ange . T he v e s se li sc oa ted w i th s t a lagm i t e ,w h ich e x tend so ve rt h eb r eak s .

b ur n t o ve r t h e r im , a ppa ren t ly a f te r b reakage . C f . Ox fo rd . Y oung ( 1 977 )T yp e M22 , c l o se s tt o M22 .5 /9 . AD 2 40 -400+ .

A nu nu sua lf o rm ,p o s s ib ly aN o r th -W es tE ng l i sh p r oduc tf r om a n u n loca ted k i ln .F i r s th a l fo ft h es econd c en tu ry .

9 .R im s he rd o f as ha l low ly r e eded , h amme rhead mo r ta r ium , 2 60 mm i nd i ame te r , i n ar a the rs o f t , s l igh t ly m icaceou s , f i ne t e x tu red , l i gh tr e d ( 2 .5 YR 7 / 6 ) f a b r ic , w i th w h i te g rog i n c lu s i on s , a nd o cca s iona l r ed -b rown p a r t ic le s ; n o t r i tu ra t ion g r i t

2 . Mo r ta r ium w i th mu l t i r eeded r im , i n aw h i te ( N8 ) f a b r ic w i th s ca t te red o r ange , b l ack a nd wh i te i n c lu s ion s .N o t r i tu ra t i on g r i t s u rv ive s . A Mance t te r -Ha r t sh i l l p roduc t , c . AD 2 50 -

s u rv ive s , a l though a b ody f r agmen t p robab ly a t t r ibu tab le t o t h i s v e s se l h a s a ngu la r , b la ck i r on s l ag g r i t , s im i la r t ot h o se u sed i nt h e l owe rN ene V a l ley . N o k i ln i sk nown w h ich p ro -

3 50 . As e cond e xamp le i sv i r tua l ly i d en t ica l , a nd ab ody s he rd , p robab ly f r om o ne o ft h e se v e s se l s , h a s a ngu la rd a rk g r ey t o

d uced mo r ta r ia o ft h i s f o rm a nd i nt h i s f a b r ic a nd w i th b l ack s l ag t r i tu ra t ion g r i t . T he f o rm a nd g r i tw ou ld f i tw i th p roduc -

b l a ck t r i tu ra t ion g r i t .

t i on i nt h el owe rN ene V a l ley , b u ti sn o tf r om ak nown s ou r ce . A f te r AD 2 50 .

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F igure 4 1 :T he Mor ta r ia a nd O the rC oa r se P o t te ry ( 1 :4 ) . 1 23

1 0 . T wo s h e rd s , n o tj o in ing , f r om ar eeded r immed mo r ta r i u m , 2 60mm i nd i ame te r , w i th a lmo s t h o r izon ta l f l ange w i th f i nge rd ep r e s s ion s pou t , i n as o f t ,f i ne t e x tu red , p i nk ( 5 YR 8 / 4 )f a b r ic ,n oe v idence o fa ny s u rv iv ing s l ip .S im i la rt o 9a bove a nd p r obab ly f r om t h es ame s ou rce .A f te r AD 2 50 .A l len ( 1 994 ) n o te st h a tt h e r ea r ev e s se l sf r om t h eA t te rm i re C ave a nd A t te r m i re C amp E a s tf r om t h es ame s ou rce .

G i l la rn ( 1970 )t y pe 7 8 , p robab ly s ame s ou r ce a s1 6 , l a te s e c o nd c en tu ry t oe a r ly t h i rd c en tury . 1 8 . Two c o jo in ing s he rd so fa ni nden ted b eak e ri n av e ry p a le b rown ( 10 YR 8 / 2 ) f a b r ic w i th ma t t t os l igh t ly l u s t rou s b l a ck ( 1 0 YR 2 / 1) c o lou r -coa t ; t h e re a r e t h ree b and s o fr ou le t t ing . C f .N ene V a l ley ( Howe e ta l . 1 980 )N o .5 2 ,p robab ly t h i rd c en t u ry .

1 . Mo r ta r ium , i n am icaceou s , p i nk ( 5 YR 7 / 4 ) f a b r ic w i th l am ina ted f r a c tu re a nd c l o se ly p acked ,f i ne a ngu la r ,b l a ck i r on

1 9 .F oo t r ing o f ab ow li n as l igh t ly s andy ,v e ry p a le b rown ( 10

s l ag t r i tu ra t ion g r i t . H eav i ly b u rn ta f te rb reakage a nd t h eb ead h eav i ly a b raded . C rambeck ,Y o rk s . C f . t ype 6 ,( Co rde r 1 937 ) ,

YR 8 / 2 ) f a b r ic , m uch a b raded a nd p robab ly o r ig ina l ly c o lou r c oa ted . L a te t h i rd o rf ou r th c en tu ry? A N ene V a l ley o rS wan p oo l p roduc t .

l a te rt h an AD 2 80 .

N o ti lu s t ra ted . Sma l l ,p la in b ody s he rd i n aw h i te ( N9 )f a b r ic ,

1 2 . Mo r ta r ium r im s he rd , d i ame te r i nde te rm ina te , s oo ted o n t h e b a se o fc o l la r , i n av e ry p a le b rown ( 10 YR 8 / 3 ) f a b r ic ,

w i th d a rk r e d ( 2 .5 YR 4 /6 ) c o lou rc oa t . T he r ough i n ne r s u r f a ce s ugge s t st h a tt h i ss he rd c ome sf r om c l o se t ot h eb a se o fa c l o sed v e sse l , p robab ly ab eake r .T he f a b r ic r e semb le s Swan -

w i th s ma l lq ua r tz a nd af ew r ed i n c lu s ion s . N ot r i tu ra t ion g r i t s u rv ive s .P robab ly C rambeck ,a nd l a te rt h an AD 2 80 .

p oo l ,L inco ln ( W eb s te r&B oo th 1 947 ) , b u t aN ene V a l ley o r i g i n wou ld a l so b ep o s s ib le . P robab ly f ou r th c en tu ry .

1 3 . Wa l l s ided mo r ta r ium , i n ah a rd , v e ry p a le b rown ( 10 YR 8 / 6 ) f a b r ic w i th f r equen t s ma l l q ua r tz i n c lu s ion s a nd r a re o r a nge -b rown a nd b l ack p a r t ic le s . O u te rs u r f ace s l ipped ( 10 YR 8 / 4 ) T r i tu ra t ion g r i t i sa ngu la r , b l ack a nd s ome r e di r on s l ag , e nd ing i n an ea tl i ne 2 0 mm b e low t h eb ead .T he v e s se li sp a in t e dw i th a cu te l a t t ice i nd a rk r ed b e low t h eb ead .S l igh t ly b u rn t o n t h e b o t tom o ft h e f l ange . C rambeck , EY o rk s . T he t y pe i s C o rde r( 1 937 )T ype 7 ,w i th c r o s s -ha tched d eco ra t ion ,m id la t e 4 t hc en tu ry .

O x id i sed w ar e s 2 0 . T r immed b a se o f ab ow l w i th f oo t r ing , i na n o x id ised , s moo th , m icaceou sf a b r ic w i th s ca t te red b r ick red i n c lu s ion s . T he c o re i sl i gh tg r ey ( 5Y 7 / 2 ) , w i th l i gh tr ed ( 1 0 R6 / 8 )o u te r s u r face , a nd r e d( 10 R 4 / 8 ) s l ip , much a b raded .V e ry l i t t le s l ip s u rv ive s o n t h e i n ne r s u r f ace , wh ich h a s t wo p i t s e r oded i n to t h e s u r f ace . O x fo rd Wa re ( Y oung 1 977 ) .

1 4 . Mor ta r ium , i n ah a rd , v e ry p a le b rown ( 10 YR 8 / 4 ) f a b r ic w i th o cca s iona l s ma l l q ua r tz a nd b r ick r ed p a r t ic le s t o l mm . T r i tu ra t ion g r i ti sc l o se ly s pa ced ,s ma l l ,b l ack ,o cca s iona l ly d a rk r e d ,a ngu la rc r u shed i r on s l ag t ow i th in 3 0mm o fr im .T he s u r f a ce i s much a b raded . As e cond , h eav i ly a b raded a nd b ur n t s h e rd i sp o s s ib ly t h eb a se o ft h i sv e s se l .C f .C rambeck ,E .Y o rk s . C o rde r( 1 937 )F ig . 3 ,T ype 8 ,p robab ly p o s t AD 3 50 .

2 1 .P a r to f ab a se w i th f oo t r ing , f a b r ic a s2 0 ;t h ei n ne rs u r f ace a ga in much a b raded . 2 2 . B a se o f ab ow l , f a b r ic a s 2 0 ; a l though a b raded , t h e s l ip r ema in si n ta c to nt h ei n ne rs u r f ace .

1 5 .S he rd f r om t h eb a se o f ab ow lo rp o s s ib ly amo r ta r ium i na h a rd v e ry p a le b rown ( 10YR 7 / 4 )f a b r ic ,w i th al am ina ted f r ac t u re , b ad ly a b raded i n s ide a nd o u ta nd p robab ly b u rn t . C ram -

2 3 . B a se o f ab ow l i n af a b r ic , s im i la r t o 2 0 , b u t l e s s m ica c eou s a nd l a ck ing ag r ey c o re , l i gh t r e d ( 2 .5 YR 7 / 8 ) f a b r ic , w i th ar ed ( 10 R 5 / 8 )s l ip .F oo t r ing a b raded ,b u ts l ip o t he rw i se i n tac t . As e cond e xamp le , i nt h e s ame f a b r ic a ppea r s t oh av e b een t r immed f o r u se a s ap a le t te , a l though much o ft h e s l ip r ema in s o nt h ei n ne rs u r f ace .

b eck ( Co rde r 1 937 ) ,l a te rt h an AD 2 80 .

O ther P o t tery ( P .C .B uck land ) C o lour c oa t ed v e s se l s

O xfo rd r ed s l ipped b ow l so ccu rs pa r ing ly o ns i te st h roughou t t h e n o r th o fE ng land ( Y oung 1 977 , F ig . 4 5 ) d u r ing t h e t h i rd

1 6 . S i xs he rd sf r om ar oughca s tb eake ri n af i ne ,l i gh tr ed ( 2 .5 YR 7 / 8 )f a b r ic w i th ac o lou r -coa tr ang ing f r om d a rk mode ra te r e dd i sh b r own ( 2 .5 R 4 /6 ) t or e d ( 10 R 5 / 8 ) o n t h eo u te rs u r -

a nd f ou r th c en tu ry , b u ti ti su nu sua l t of i nd f i ve t o ge the ro n a s ma l l r u ra l s i te .A l though t wo ( No s 2 0 &2 3 ) m ay h ave b een t r immed t ot h e i rp r e sen t s hape , t h e o t he r s s how n od e l ibe ra t e t r imm ing p a t te rn .

f a ce t ol i gh tr e d( 2 .5 Y 4 /6 )o nt h ei n s ide ,w i th f i ne g rog r ough c a s t ing .T h ree s he rd s , v e ry a b raded a f te rb reakage . C f . S ou th C a r l ton , L inco ln (W eb s te r 1 944 ) , b u t aC on t inen ta l o r ig in i s

2 4 .C a r ina ted b ow l ,s im i la rt os am ian f o rm 3 0 ,i n av e ry h a rd , s l igh t ly m ica ceou s ,l i gh tr ed ( 2 .5 YR 7 / 8 )f a b r ic w i th m ed ium

a l so p o s s ib le , c f . S ymond s ( 1990 ) . M id -second t oe a r ly t h i rd c en tu ry .

l i gh tg rey ( N6 )c o re ,a nd b ur n i shed r ed ( 5 R4 / 6 )s u r f ace .R ou -

1 7 . As ma l ls h e rd f r om t h er im o f ab eake r , i n as im i la rf a b r ic

1 977 ) F ig . 6 4 , t y pe C 81 . 1 ,C g 1 .2 , C g 1 .5 , b u t t h e f a b r ic s ug g e s t s ad if e ren ts ou rce , t h i rd— fou r th c en tu ry .

l e t ted u nde rt h er im a nd e i the rs i de o ft h ec a r ina t ion . As e cond s ma l l s he rd c ome s f r om a no the r v e s se l . c f . O xf o rd ( Y oung

a nd c o lou rc oa tt o1 6 , b u t w i th d a rke r ( 2 .5 YR 7 / 8 )c o re . C f .

1 24

37 38

36

40

50

43

, 4 1 42

44

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47

46

49

53

50

5 1

48

55

57

56

59

58 a

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60

)

62

6 1

64

63

65

66 68 \) 70 67

72 73

74

75

F igure 4 2 :C oa r se P o t tery ( 1 :4 ) . 1 25

F lagons 2 5 . Sma l l ,t wo -hand led f l agon ,w i th f l a t tened d i sc -shaped r im r unn ing i n to t h e t o p o ft h e g rooved h and le s . T he re i s as ha l l ow g roove a r ound t h ev e s se lb enea th t h eh and le s .P ink ( 5 YR 8 / 4 ) f a b r ic w i th s c a t te r ed r e d g rog i n c lu s ion s ,a nd t r ace s o fa r ed ( 5 R4 / 6 ) s l ip , a b raded , b u tb e t te rp r e se rved o n t h e s he rd f r om c l o se t ot h eb a se , wh ich i sl i gh tr ed ( 10 R 6 / 6 ) w i th r ed ( 10 R 5 / 8 ) s l ip ; t h is s he rd s how s e v idence o fb u rn ing a f te r b reakage . T he f a b r ic i ss im i la r t o Oxfo rd ( Y oung 1 977 ) , a l t h ough l e s so bv iou s ly m ica ceou s ;n oB r i t i sh p a ra l le l sh ave b een n o ted a nd t h e v e s se l h a s p o s s ib ly b een i mpo r ted f r om No r th A f r ica ( Mo re land ,p e r s . c omm . ) . F ou r th c en tu ry?

e xamp le s a r e p robab ly i mpo r ted ( S tead & R igby 1 986 , 2 49 ) , b u tl o ca l e xamp le so ccu r , s ome p e rhap sm ade i nY o rk .A n e x a mp le i n as andy g r ey f a b r ic f r om B lak e S t ree t ,Y o rk ( Mona g han 1 993 ,N o .2 925 )i sr ega rded a sT ra jan ic , a nd p i ece sf r om I l k ley ( Ha r t ley 1 966 , No .2 2 )a nd Mum r i l l s( G i l lam 1 96 1 ,N o . 6 0 ) s ugge s t t h a tt h e t ype c on t inued i n to t h eA n ton ine p e r iod . T h e V ic to r ia C ave v e sse l i sp robab ly aW i lde r spoo l p roduc t ( Cf . H a r t ley 1 981 , F ig . 2 9 . 1 ,N o . 2 1 ) , d a ted c . AD 10 -160 .

B ow l sa nd d i she s 3 1 .E leven s he rd so f af i ne ,t h in -wa l led s e gmen ta lf l anged b ow l w i th as ha l low b ead r im a nd c u rved f l ang e ,i na no x id i sed ,h a rd , l i gh tr e d( 2 .5 Y 7 / 8 )f ab r ic , w i th f r equen tt r anspa ren tt ot r an s l u cen tb rown , g r ey , a nd p ink i sh s ubangu la rq ua r tz g ra in s a nd i n f requen tr e di n c lu s ion s ; s ur f a ce s moo thed a nd b urn i shed o n

2 6 . T he n eck o f af l agon i na n o x id i sed , h a rd , l i gh tr ed ( 10 R 6 / 8 ) f a b r ic , w i th t r ans lucen tq ua r tz t empe r ; t h e s i ng le h and le h a s ad eep c en t ra lg roove .S ome c a lc i te d epo s i t ion o nt h eb ody a nd o ve rt h eb r eak s .S im i la rv e s se l sw e re m ade a tW i lde r spoo l ( c f . H a r t ley & Web s te r 1 973 , N o . 1 ) , b u t t h e f a b r ic s ugge s t s t h a tt h i si sp o s s ib ly a Y o rk p roduc t ,c f .P e r r in ( 1 990 ) No . 175 ,

t h ef l ange , a l though s eve ra l s he rd sa r eh eav i ly e r oded a nd p i t t e d ; t h e re i ss ome l ime sca le u pon t h es u r f ace . C f .L i t t le C he s t e r s , D e rby ( Bra s s ing ton 1 971) N o . 6 9 , 4 . AD 1 00 -130 ( + ) , t h ef a b r ic ,h oweve r ,i sc l o se rt oE bo r Wa r ef a b r ic 2( P e r r in 1 98 1 , 5 8 ) , a l though t h ef o rm i sn o td i rec t ly m a tched a tY o rk .

e a r ly t om id se cond c en tu r y . 2 7 .C omp le te r im o f as ma l l f l agon w i th c upped i n ne rr im a nd l i gh t ly i n c i sed g r oove so nt h en eck ,b roken a bove w he re ah an d l e may h ave j o ined , i n av e ry h a rd , v i t r if ied r ed ( 10 R 5 /6 ) f a b r ic ,w i th v e r yp a le b rown ( 10YR 8 / 4 )s l ipped s u r f ace ,? bu rn t t od a rk g r ey ( 1 0 YR 4 / 1) o n r im . P robab ly A n ton ine , a nd t h e s ame s ou r ce a s2 6a bove .

3 2 . T he f l ange a nd p a r tp rof i le f r om ab ow l i m i ta t ing s am ian f o rm 3 8 , i n aw h i te ( N8 ) f ab r ic w i th a b raded d a rk g rey ( N4 ) s u r f ace . AC rambeck p roduc t , c fC o rde r( 1 928 )N o .21 , f ou r th c en tu ry .A l len ( 1994 )n o te sa no the re xamp le f r om O ld ( G rea t e r ) K e lco C ave .

2 8 . N eck a nd p a r to ft h e h and le o f an eck ed f l agon i na n o x i d i sed l i gh tr e d( 2 .5 YR 7 / 6 )f a b r ic w i th s ca t te r ed b r ick r ed g rog a nd mo r ep l en t i f u ls ma l lq ua r tz t empe r , much a b raded ,b u tt h e re a r et r ace so f ap i nk ( 5 R8 / 4 )s l ip s u rv iv ing o nt h ei n s ide o ft h e r im a nd a s ad r ip d own t h ei n s ide . C f .Y o rk ( Pe r r in 1 990 ) No . I7 6 ,e a r ly t om id second c en tu ry .

3 3 . Sma l l , b ad ly a b raded b ead r im o f ad i sh ,d i ame te ri n de te r m ina te , i n as andy , g rey ( N6 ) f ab r ic , w i th w h i te ( N8 ) o u t e r z one c o re a nd t r ace s o f ad a rk g r ey ( N4 ) s u r f ace . N o tc l o se ly d a teab le , s e cond t of ou r th c en tu ry ,p o s s ib ly aS ou th Y o rk sh i r e k i ln p roduc t . 3 4 . D i sh i n BB1 , i n ag rey ( N4 -6 ) f a b r ic w i th g rey i sh r e d ( 1 0 R4 / 2 ) o u te r z one , b ur n i shed t od a rk t om ed ium g rey ( N3 -5 )

2 9 .R im o fr i ng -ne cked f l agon i n awh i te ( N9 )f a b r ic w i th t r ace s o fv e ry p a le b r own ( 10 YR 8 / 2 )s l ipped s u r f ace ,a nd r a re b r ick r e d p a r t ic le s o fg rog . C f . D onca s te r ( Buck land & Mag i l ton 1 986 ) N o . 2 40 ,a s soc ia t ed w i th t h ree BB Iv e s se l si n ab u r ia l , m id -second c en tu ry . P robab ly aM id land sp roduc t .

i n te rna l ly a nd g r ey ( N6 -7 ) o u t s ide , p e rhap s b urn t , d e s t roy ing mo s t o ft h e l a t t ice d eco ra t ion . As he rd f r om t h e s l igh t ly s a g g ing b a se a nd t h eu nde r s ide h a ss c r ibb led d eco ra t ion . C f . G i l l am ( 1 970 ) T ype s 3 07 -9 , AD 1 20 -200 , p o s s ib ly aR o s s ing ton B r idge p roduc t( Buck land , H a r t ley & R igby , i np rep . ) .

3 0 . E ve r ted r im a nd f ou r b ody s he rd s o f ag l obu la rj a r w i th b a rbo t ine d eco ra t ion ,i n ah a rd ,r a the rd en se ,p a le r ed ( 10 R 6 / 4 )t ol i gh tg r ey ( 1 0 YR 7 / 1 )f a b r ic w i th t h es u r f ace b ur n i shed . T he r im s he rd a ppea r st oh ave b een b u rn ta f t e rb r eakage .T h ree d eco ra ted b ody s he rd s a r e u nbu rn t a nd t h e f a b r ic i sa n o x i d i sed , h a rd ,l i gh tr ed ( 5 YR 7 / 8 ) w i th o cca s iona l s ma l l q ua r tz t empe r . B enea th t wo s ha l low s hou lde rg roov e s o n t h e s hou l d e r , as e r ie s o fc i rc le s w i th ac en t ra l r a i sed n i pp le h a s b een a pp l ied i ng r ey i sh p ink ( 5R8 / 2 ) t o wh i te ( N9 ) b a rbo t ine ; a s ma l le r s he rd f r om l owe rd own t h e v e sse l h a s t h e c en t ra l d o t s epa ra te f r om t h e s u r round ing c i r c le . J a r s o ft h i s f o rm w i th b a rbo t ine c i rc le d eco ra t ion a r ew ide sp read o nl a te f i r s tt om id s e cond c en tu r ys i t e si nE ng land i n ar ange o fw h i te ,r ed t og rey f a b r ics ( c f . R ichbo rough I V ( Bu she -Fox 1 949 ) n o . 3 98 ; L on d on ( G reen 1 978 ) F ig .5 .2 , N o . 9 ; B a ldock ( S tead & R igby 1 986 )N o .2 49 ; Ma rg idunum ( O swa ld 1 952 )P l .V ,4 ) .T he f i ne r

3 5 .A bou to ne t h i rd o f aBB1 f l a t r immed d i sh i n ag r i t ty b l a ck ( N i) f a b r ic , w i th d a rk g r ey t og r ey ( N3 -5 ) b ur n i shed s u r f ace . T he w a l l o ft h e v e s se l h a s c l o se a cu te l a t t ice d eco ra t ion ; t h e b a se i sb u rn i shed a nd u ndeco ra ted .P a r to ft h er im i sb u rn tt oa p a le r ed ( 10 R 6 / 4 ) .C f . G i l lam ( 1976 )N o .5 8 ,H ad r ian ic /m id s e cond c en tu ry , s e e a l so R o s s ing ton B r idge ( Buck land , Mag i l ton & D o lby 1 980 ) No . 1 0 , AD 1 35 -160 . 3 6 .R im s he rd a nd s l igh t ly s agg ing b a se o f aBB If l a t -r immed d i sh w i th l a t t ice d eco ra t ion ,i n ah a rd ,g r i t ty ,b l ack t od a rk g r ey ( N 13 ) f a b r ic w i th o cca s iona l a ngu la r f r agmen t s o f ? sha le ; d a rk g r ey ( N2 )b u rn i shed i n ne rs u r f ace a nd o n to e dge o fb a se . T he u nde r s ide h a s as e r ie so fb ur n i shed w avy l i ne s . C fG i l lam ( 1976 ) n o . 5 8 , e a r ly t om id s e cond c en tu ry . T he f a b r ic s ug g e s t s aD o r se ts ou rce .

1 26

3 7 . R im s he rd o f aBB1 d i sh w i th l a t t ice d eco ra t ion , 2 20mm i nd i ame te r , i n ag r i t ty g r ey ( N5 ) f a b r ic w i th d a rk g r ey ( N3 )

C ook ing p o t sa nd j ar s

b ur n i shed s u r f ace ,g r ey i sh r e d( 10 R 4 / 2 )o np a r to ft o po fr im . C f . G i l lam ( 1976 )N o .5 8 , e a r ly -m id s e cond c en tu ry .

4 6 .R im s he rd o f aBB 1c ook ing -po t , w i th w avy l i ne o nn eck , i n ad a rk g r ey ( N4 ) f a b r ic w i th v e ry d a rk g r ey ( N3 ) t ow eak r ed ( 10 R 4 / 2 ) b ur n i shed s u r f ace . C f . G i l lam ( 1 976 ) N o . 1 ,

3 8 .T h re es he rd sf r om as ha l low d i sh ,w hee lt u rned a nd d eep -

e a r ly t om id s e cond c en tu ry . P robab ly aD o r se tp roduc t .

l yu nde r cu t b e low t h er im , i n ah a rd , g r i t ty g r ey ( N5 ) f a b r ic w i th ad a rk g rey ( N3 -4 ) b u rn i shed u ndeco ra ted s u r f a ce . C f . G i l lam ( 1 970 )T ype 3 07 . AD 1 25 -160 .A l len ( 1994 )n o t e st h a t t h e se s h e rd sj o in o ne f r om J ub i lee C ave , f i gu red b yR a i s t r ick ( 1 939 , 1 44 ) t oge the rw i th ab a se w h ich n o l o nge r a ppea r s t o s u rv ive .

4 7 . R im a nd t wo s he rd s f r om aBB1 c ook ing -po t i n ag r i t ty , g rey ( N5 ) f a b r ic , w i th l i gh t r ed ( 10 R 6 / 6 ) i n ne r z one , d a rk g r ey ( N4 )o u te ra nd g r ey ( N3 )b ur n i shed s u r f a ce ;t r ace o fa cu te l a t t ice . C f . Mum r i l l s ( G i l lam 1 961) N o . 3 5 , b u t l a ck ing t h e w avy l i ne o nt h er im ,m id la te s econd c en tu ry .

3 9 .C ham f e red b a se o f al a t t ice d eco ra t ed B B1 b ow l ,i n ah a rd , g r ey ( N5 ) g r i t ty f a b r ic w i th l i gh te r( N6 ) o u te rz one a nd g r ey t od a rk g r ey ( N2 .5 -5 )b ur n i shed s u r f a ce .T he u nde r s ide o ft h e b a se h a s as c r ibb led p a t te r n a nd s how se v idence o fs oo t ing .A s e cond e xamp le i si n ag r i t ty m ed ium d a rk g rey ( N4 ) f a b r ic w i th d a rk g r ey ( N3 )b ur n i shed s u r f a ce .C f . G i l lam ( 1976 )N o . 3 9 , AD 1 40 -200 ,p o s s ib ly R o s s ing ton B r idge p roduc t s( Buck l a nd ,H a r t ley & R igby ,i np r ep . ) .

4 8 . S he rd f r om t h e s hou lde ro f aBB1 c ook ing -po ti n ag r i t ty , med ium d a rk g r ey f a b r ic , w i th g rey ( N6 )o u te rz one a nd g rey t ov e ry d a rk g r ey ( N5 -3 )b urn i shed s u r f a ce ;o b tu se l a t t ice d ec o ra t ion o nr e se rve z one ,d ema rca ted f r om b ur n i shed z one b y a b ur n i shed l i ne .G i l lam ( 1976 )s ugges t st h a tv e s se l sw i th a cu te l a t t ice a nd s co red l i ne a bove b e long t ot h e l a te t h i rd t om id f ou r th c en tu ry . 4 9 . B a se o f aB B1 c ook ing -po t i n ag r i t ty , g r ey ( N6 ) f a b r ic , w i th s im i la rb ur n i shed s u r f ace . Ano the rs he rd ,b u rn t ,i sp roba b ly f r om t h es ame v e s se l .T he re a r et wo f u r the r BB1 b a se s .

4 0 . B ow l ,w hee l t ur ned a nd u ndeco ra t ed ,i n al i gh tg r ey ( N7 ) f a b r ic w i th d a rk g rey ( N3 ) b ur n i shed s u r f a ce . T he t wo b a sa l s h e rd s a r eh eav i ly a b raded w i th l i t t le o ft h es u r f ace t r ea tmen t s u rv iv ing . S ome c a lc i t e d epo s i t ion o n i n ne r s u r f ace . S econd c en tu ry .

5 0 . R im o f aBB1 c ook ing p o t i n ag r i t ty g r ey ( N6 ) f a b r ic , w i th l i gh tg r ey ( N7 ) o u te rz one a nd t h in ,r e d( 10 R 5 / 6 ) l a ye r o ni n s ide o fr im w i th ad a rk g r ey ( N3 )t ow h i t e( N8 )b ur n i shed s u r f ace .C f . G i l lam ( 1970 )T ype 1 32 , AD 1 40 -220 .

4 1 . R im , f l ange a nd b a se o f af l anged b ow l , i n aw h i t e ( N8 ) f a b r ic w i th g rey ( N5 ) s u r f ace , s omewha t a b raded a nd w i th l i me sca le o n f l ange a nd i n s ide . T he b a se h a s as e r ie s o ff i ne ,

S i . R im o f aBB1 c ook ing -po t , i n ab l a ck ( N2 ) g r i t ty f a b r ic w i th b ur n i shed s u r f ace . T h r ee f u r the rs ma l lr im s he rd s , much

c oncen t r ic r i l l sa nd i ss oo ted . AC rambeck p roduc t ,c f .C o rde r ( 1 928 ) , N o . 1 0 , f ou r th c en tu ry .

a b raded , p robab ly c ome f r om t h e r im o ft h i s v e s se l . C f . G i l l am ( 1976 )N o . 1 0 , l a te t h i rd c en tury , b u ti n suf f i c ien tr ema ins t ob ec e r ta in .

4 2 . S t ra igh t -s ided f l anged b ow l , i n ag r ey ( 5Y6 / 1 ) , s l igh t ly m ica ceou s f ab r ic w i th l am ina ted l i gh tr e d ( 2 .5 YR 7 / 4 ) c o re a nd d a rk g r ey ( N4 )s u r f a ce ,b ad ly a b raded .O u t e rs u r f a ce p oo r ly f i n i shed ,r e ta in ing w hee lm a rk sa nd n oe v iden td eco ra t ion .O n t h ei n s ide ,i mmed ia te ly b e low t h eb ead o ft h er im i sa ni regu l a r w avy l ine p a t te rn . P robab ly aC rambeck p roduc t ( Co rde r 1 937 ,t y pe l b ) ,a l though t h ed eco ra t ion a l so o ccu r s mo r er a re l ya tT iro lam ( Co rde r 1 930 , No . 1 ) , f ou r th c en tu ry .

5 2 .R im o f ac ook ing p o t ,d i ame te ri nde te rm ina t e ,w hee lt ur ned , i n ah a rd , d a rk g r ey ( N5 ) f a b r ic w i th l i gh te r( N6 ) o u t e r z one a nd b ur n i shed ( N4 -5 ) s u r f ace . C f . G i l lam ( 1 970 ) T ype 1 34 , AD 1 60 -230 ,p robab ly aS ou th Y o rk sh i re k i ln p roduc t ,c f .C an t l ey ( Buck land , Mag i l ton & D o lby 1 980 )N o . 1 8 . 5 3 . R im o f aw hee l t u rned g r ey w a re c ook ing -po t r im , i na h a rd , l i gh t g r ey ( N7 ) f a b r ic w i th l i gh te r ( N8 ) o u te r z one a nd

B eak er s

g rey ( 5Y6 / 1 ) s u r fa ce . P robab ly aC rambeck p roduc t( Co rde r 1 928 ) ,l a t et h i rd o rf ou r th c en tu ry .

4 3 . R im a nd b ody s he rd o f as ma l lj a r o rb eake r , i n aw h i te ( N8 )f a b r ic w i th g r ey ( N5 )s u r f ace .P robab ly aC rambeck p rod u c t , C f . C o rde r( 1928 )N o .9 0 , f ou r th c en tu ry .

5 4 . Al a rge , a b r aded b ody s he rd o f as ma l lj a r , w hee l t u rned , i n ag r i t ty d a rk g r ey ( 5Y4 / 1) f ab r ic w i th g r ey t od a rk g r ey ( N3 -4 )s u r f a ce s a nd t r ace s o fl a t t ice d eco ra t ion .

4 4 . Much a b raded a nd b u rn ts he rd f r om as ma l lb eake ro fc ook i n g -po tf o rm , whee l -made ,i n ad a rk g r ey ( N4 )f a b r ic w i th g r ey ( 5 YR 6 / 1 )o u te rz one a nd f r agmen t s o f ad a rk g rey ( N4 )s u r -

T he re a r e2 9l a t t ice d eco ra ted s he rd so f am ax imum o f1 5v e s s e l s ,p lu ss he rd sf r om a tl e a s t 7g rey w a re c ook ing p o t s .

f a ce . 5 5 . T h r ee s he rd s f r om at a l l , w hee l t u rned j a ri n af i ne , w h i te ( N8 )f a b r ic w i th l i nea rb ur n i shed g rey ( N5 )s u r f a ce .F ive s ma l l s he rd s , s l igh t ly b ur n t may a l so b e long t ot h i sv e s se l . T he f a b r i c a ppea r st ob eC rambeck ( Co rde r 1 928 ) ,a l though t h ef o rm

4 5 . R im o f aBB1 b eake r , i n ag r i t ty , g r ey ( N5 ) f a b r i c w i th r e dd i sh b r own ( 5 YR 5 / 4 )o u te rz one a nd d a rk g rey ( N4 ) b u r n i shed s u r f ace ; as ca ro nt h es i de p robab ly i nd ica te s ah and le . C fG i l lam ( 1976 )N o .29 ,c .AD 1 40 -300 ,b u t mo re f r equen ti n t h es e cond t oe a r ly t h i rd c en tu ry .

i sn o t a mong t h o se p ub l i shed f r om t h ek i ln s i t e s ,t h i rd -e a r ly f ou r th c en tu ry . 1 27

5 6 . R im o f ab e l l -mou thed j a ri n ah a rd g r ey ( N6 )f a b r ic , w i th l i gh t g r ey ( N7 ) o u te r z one a nd g r ey ( N5 ) b u rn i shed s u r f ace . S ome l ime sca le o ni n s ide o fr im .C f .R ooke ry L ane k i ln ,L in c o ln (W eb s te r 1 960 ) No . 1 5 ,c . AD 3 00 -350 .

( 1 992 , n o . 4 6 ) .A l len ( I9 94 ) n o te s as im i la rf o rm i n aq ua r tz g r i t t ed f a b r ic f r om A t te rm i re C amp E a s t( AS400 ) ,b u tt h ef a b r i ci sw h i te ,p o s s ib ly d ue t ob ur n ing .

5 7 .P ede s ta lb a se i n ah a rd , o x id i sed l i gh tr ed ( 2 .5 Y 7 / 6 ) f ab r i c w i th p a le r e d ( 10 R 6 /2 ) c o r e . P o s s ib ly aC rambe ck p rod -

C a lc i t eg r i t t ed c ook ing p o t s

u c t( Co rde r 1 928 ) .

6 4 . C ook ing p o tr im i n ah eav i ly s h e l l g r i t t ed d a rk g r ey ( N3 ) f a b r ic w i th g r ey i sh b lack ( N2 ) t ob rown i sh g r ey ( 5 YR 5 11) s u r f ace , s oo ted o n t h e o u t s ide . C f K nap ton ( Co rde r & K i rk 1 932 )f i g .30 , n o .2 , t h i rd t oe a r ly f ou r th c en tu ry .

' W es tY ork sh ir eW ar e ' 5 8 . Al a rge r im /body s he rd o f ac ook ing p o t , h and made , i na

6 5 . U ng rooved r im s he rd o f ac ook ing p o t , i n ap a le r e d ( 5R 6 / 2 )t om ed ium d a rk g r ey ( N4 )f a b r ic w i th d a rk g r ey ( N3 )f a b r i c . T he f a b r ic i st h e s ame a st h e H un t c l if fj a r s , d a ted c . AD

c oa r se , q ua r t z g r i t ted f abr ic , p a le r ed ( I 0R 6 / 2 ) i nt h e c o re w i th r ough ,v e ry d a rk g rey ( N2 ) s u r f ace . We s tY o rk sh i r e Wa re ( Sump te r 1 990 , 1 44 ) .T he f o rm i sa k in t os ome c a lc i te -g r i t ted

3 55 -400+ ( Evan s 1 996 ) , a l though t h e u ng rooved v e r s ion a p p ea r se a r l ie r ,c fD a l ton P a r lou r s( Sump te r 1 990 ) ,n o .8 , AD 3 00 3 70 . R igby ( 1980 , n o .280 ) u se s t h e t e rm ` p ro to -Hun tc l if ff o r t h e se v e s se l s .

K nap ton w a r ej a r sf r om E a s tY o rk sh i re ( c f .C o rde r &K i rk 1 932 , N o . 8 ) , t h i rd t om id -f ou r th c en tu ry . 5 9 . Two c o jo in ing p i ece s o f aj a rr im i n aq ua r t z -g r i t ted me d i um d a rk g r ey ( N4 )f ab r ic w i th l i gh tr e d( 10 R 6 / 8 )o u te rz one a nd g r ey ( N5 )s u r face , s oo ted o ve rt h er im . As he rd p robab ly f r om c l o se t ot h eb a se o ft h i s v e s se li si na no x id i sed l i gh tr ed ( 10 R 6 /6 ) f a b r ic , s im i la r t ot h e L i t t le C he s te r s ( Bra s s ing ton 1 971) p rodu c t s . We s t Y o rk sh i re Wa re? c f . D a l ton P a r lou r s ( Sump te r , 1 990 )F ig .9 5 , t h i rd t om id f ou r th c en tu ry .

6 6 . U ng rooved r im s he rd o f aH un t c l if fc ook ing p o t ,i n ac a l c i te g r i t ted ,m ed ium g rey ( N5 )f a b r ic w i th d a rk g r ey ( N3 )s u r f a ce .F ou r th c en tu ry . 6 7 . U ng rooved r im o f ac ook ing p o t , i n am ed ium l i gh t g r ey ( N6 ) c a lc i te -g r i t ted f ab r ic w i th m ed ium d a rk g r ey ( N4 ) s u r f a ce s w i th e v iden tc a lc i te r homb s . T he s he rd , n ow b roken , i s e n t i r e ly c oa ted i n at h ick s t a lagm i te . ( P l . x ) S o -ca l led H un t c l if fc ook ing p o t s , b o th w i th a nd w i thou tg roove s , o n t h er im

1 4b ody s he rd sa r ep robab ly f r om t h e se v e s se l s .O ne i sl a be l led ( ? ) ' S0 ,2 c ave d i g .

o ccu r t o ge the r i nt h e R ud s ton w e l l ( R igby 1 980 ) , l a te f ou r th c en tu ry ; E van s ( 1 996 , 7 3 ) s ugge s t s t h a tt h eg rooved r im t y pe D a le sW ar e

h ad e me rged b y t h e m id -350 \ s ; a n u ng rooved e xamp le f r om Wome r s ley , W Y o rk s ( P ine 1 970 ) c on ta ined ac o in h oa rd d e p o s i ted i n AD 3 45 -6 .

6 0 . Ar im s h e rd o f aD a le s Wa re c ook ing p o t , r a the rh eav i ly a b raded ,s oo ted a nd b urn t , i n ad a rk g r ey ( N4 )t or e d( 10 R 5 / 6 )f o s s i l s h e l l t empe red f abr ic , w i th s ome s he l l d i s so lved o u t a nd ad a rk g r ey ( N4 ) s u r face . S ome l ime sca le d epo s i t ion o n

6 8 .U ng rooved r im o f ap ro to -Hun t c l if fj a r , 1 30 mm i nd i ame t e r ,i n ad a rk g r ey ( N3 )f a b r ic w i th b l a ck ( N 1 )s u r f a ce ; much o ft h ec a lc i te t empe rh a s b een d i s so lved o u t . F ou r th c en tu ry .

t h ei n s ide . Af u r the rr im s he rd i sp robab ly f r om t h es ame v e s s e l . Ab a se w i th ac en t ra li mp re s s ion ,p r e sumab ly f r om as p in d l e o f ap a le t te , a ppea r s c ha rac te r i s t ic o f t h e se v e s se l s . C f . L ough l in ( 1 977 ) ,l a te s econd t om id -fou r th c en tu ry .

6 9 .U ng rooved r im o f aH un tc l if fj a r , 1 50 n un i nd i ame te r ,i na m ed ium g r ey ( N5 )c a lc i te g r i t t ed f a b r ic a s6 7 .M id t ol a te f o u r th c en tu ry .

6 1 . D a le s Wa re r im i n ad a rk g rey ( N4 ) f o s s i l s he l lt empe red f a b r ic ,w i th s im i la rc o lou red s ur f ace .O ne s he rd h a s much c a l -

7 0 .R im o f aH un t c l if fc ook ing p o tw i th ad eep i n te rna lg roove , i n ad a rk g rey ( N4 ) c a lc i te g r i t ted f a b r ic w i th v e ry d a rk g r ey

c i te d epo s i t ion i n s ide a nd o u t s ide t h er im .A sa bove .

( N3 )t od a rk g r ey ( 5YR 4 / 1) s u r f ace .c .3 55 -400+ ( Evan s 1 996 ) . 6 2 .D a le s Wa r er im i n ag rey ( N4 ) f a b r ic a sa bove . F ou r s ma l l r im s he rd s , p lu s 8 1 b ody s he rd s , m ay b e long t o t h e se v e s se l s .

7 1 . R im o f aH un tc l if fc ook ing p o t , w i th mu ch o ft h e c a lc i t e t empe rd i s so lved o u t , i n aw eak r e d( 10 R 4 / 2 )f a b r ic w i th l i gh t r e d ( 1 0 R5 / 6 ) o u te rz one a nd v e ry d a rk g r ey t ob l a ck ( N2 -3 ) s u r f ace . c .3 55 -400+ ( Evan s 1 996 ) .

D a le s type W ar e

7 2 . G rooved r im a nd s eve ra l s he rd s f r om aH un t c l if fc ook ing

6 3 . Ar im s he rd f r om ac ook ing p o to fD a le s Wa r ef o rm , i na h eav i ly q ua r t zg r i t ted , ? burn tr ed ( 2 .5 R 6 / 6 )f a b r ic , g r ey ( N5 ) o n t h er im , s oo ted e x te rna l ly . P re sumab ly c on tempo ra ry w i th D a le s Wa re ,l a t es e cond t om id f ou r th c en tu ry ( Lough l in 1 977 ) , b u tp o ss ib ly aY o rk p roduc t ( Cf . t h ed i s to r ted v e s se l f r om t h e T ren tho lme D r ive c eme te ry ( G i l lam 1 968 ,f i g .24 ,13 )a nd Swan 1 28

p o t , i n al i gh t g r ey ( N7 ) c a lc i t e g r i t ted f a b r i c w i th d a rk g r ey ( N3 )s u r f ace . c . AD 3 55 -400+ ( Evan s 1 996 ) . 7 3 .G rooved r im o f aH un tc l if fc ook ing p o ti n ag r ey ( N5 )c a l c i te g r i t ted f ab r ic w i th d a rk g rey ( N4 )s u r f a ce .c .AD 3 55 -400+ ( Evan s 1 996 ) .

7 4 . G rooved r im o f aH un tc l if f c ook ing p o t , t wo c o jo in ing s h e rd sw i th i n c i sed w avy l i ne o ns hou lde r ,i n ad a rk g r ey ( N4 ) c a lc i t eg r i t ted f a b r ic w i th g r ey i sh b l a ck ( N2 )o u te rs u r f ace a nd l i me sca le o nt h ei n s ide . c . AD 3 55 -400 + ( Evan s 1 996 ) .

v e s se l f r agmen t s , e spec ia l ly b a se s , f o r m ix ing p igmen t s o r g r ind ing c o sme t ic s ( p e rhap s d e l ibe ra te ly a du l te ra t ed w i th t h e r e su l tan tp o t te ry d u s t )i sn o te spec ia l ly n o tewo r thy . I ti sp o ss ib le t h a tf u r the rp o t te ry s p ind le w ho r l s w e re f ound a t V ic to r ia C ave a nd h a ve b een l o s t a sR a i s t r ick ( 1 939 , 1 35 -6 )

7 5 . As he rd ,p robab ly f r om aH un t c l if fc ook ing p o t , i n ac a l c i t e -g r i t ted f a b r ic a sa bove , w i th i n c i sed w avy l i ne p a t te rn . c . AD 3 55 -400+ ( Evan s 1 996 ) .A l len ( 1994 )n o te st h a tt h i ss he rd i sa lmos t i d en t ica l t oo ne f r om J ub i lee C ave ( J 3 0 ) , a nd a l t h ough t h ey d on o tf i t ,t h ey w ou ld a ppea rt ob ef r om t h es ame v e s se l .

s t a te st ha tw ha th ec l ea r ly b e l ieved w e re f i red c l ay p l ano -con v ex s p ind le w ho r l s w e re f ound i nV ic to r ia C ave . H i s s ou rce f o rt h i si su nknown ,a nd n oa r ch ive e v idence h a sb een l o ca ted s ot h a t i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t h e w a s m i s taken , a sh e c l ea r ly w a s a bou tt h e w ho r l s l i s ted a bove w h ich h e t h ough t w e r e o ff i red c l ay n o tr e -u sed c e ram ic s ( Ra i s t r ick 1 939 , 1 36 ) .

6 7 s he rd sf r om c a lc i te g r i t ted v e s se l sp r e sumab ly d e r ive f r om t h ea bove r im s . T i le ( Pau lC .B uck land ) Ob jec t so fR e -U sed C eram ic s ( Mar t in J .D ea me a nd P au l

Among t h e ma te r ia lc l ea r ly l a be l led a sc om ing f r om t h ec ave ,

C .B uck land )

a r en i ne s ma l l a ngu la rf r agmen t so fR oman t i l e ,t h el a rge s t6 0 mm b y 5 0 mm . T wo h ave f i n i shed e dge s a nd b e long t of l a t t i l e s a pp rox ima te ly 1 5 mm t h ick . T he r e i ss ome v a r ia t ion i n f a b r ic , b u tt h em a jo r i ty a r ei na no x id i sed l i gh tr e d( 2 .5 YR 7 / 8 )f a b r ic ,t empe red w i th s ubangu la rq ua r tz a nd s c a t te red g rog ; o ne p i ece i n as l igh t ly l e s s t empe red f a b r ic h a s at h ick g rey ( N5 )c o re .A l though t i l ew ou ld f o rm as ub s t i tu te f o rr e do ch re f o r ma rk ing a n ima l s , n one o ft h e f r agmen t s s how s a ny e v i d ence o fg r ind ing o ro t he ru se .

7 6 .S he rd ,4 6 mm b y3 5 mm a nd 1 0 mm t h ick , p robab ly f r om ab a se ,a lmo s tf l a t ,w i th ac urv ing s ha l low g roove .F ou ro ff i ve e dge sr ounded .H a rd , mode ra te r edd i sh b rown ( 10 R 4 / 6 )f a b r i c , s l igh t ly s andy w i th i n c lu s ion s o fr ounded p ink i sh q ua r tz g r a in s . S ome c a lc i te d epo s i t ion o n to s u r f ace . C lea r ly u t i l i sed , p e rhap sa s ap a l le t te . 7 7 . ?P a le t te . S ee o x id i sed w a re sN o s2 0a nd 2 3 a bove . 7 8 .D i sc o rp a le t te ( Max . D iam .3 .93 c m ) .I r regu la r ,s ub -c i r cu l a r ,c oncavo -convex a nd r ough ly c h ipped f r om as am ian s he rd . ( Sam ian N o . 1 5a bove ) .

D i scu s s ion C on s ide r ing t h e r e la t ive ly c l o sed n a tu re o ft h e V ic to r ia C ave a s semb lage a nd e ven a low ing f o rt h ef a c tt h a t much m a te r ia l m ay h ave s l ipped d own a mong s tt h es t eep s c r ee s l ope i nf r on t o ft h e c ave , t h e r e a r e s u rp r i s ing ly f ew j o in s b e tween s he rd s , a nd i tm igh t b e q ue s t ioned w he the r many o ft h e p i ece s w e re

7 9 .D i t to ( D iam . c .1 . 55cm )C u tf r om as am ian s he rd .( I r regu l a ra nd s ub -c i rcu la r ) . 8 0 .D i t to ( D iam . c .4 . 15cm )C u tf r om aBB1 s he rd .

n o t a l r eady b roken s h e rd s w hen t h ey a r r ived a tt h e c ave . A s T om L o rd h a sn o t ed ( p e r s .c omm . ) ,J o seph J a ck son ' sd aybook f o r2 2nd J u ly , 1 870 , h a s t h ec ommen t ,

8 1 . S p ind le Who r l ( D iam . 3 . 32cm ) . F la t f o rm w i th s t ra igh t s l igh t ly o fc en t re 0 . 6cm d i am . p i e rc ing S ing le i n c i sed /wo rn l i ne a c ro s s( v e s se l 's )o u te rs u r f ace .E dge ss moo thed .C u tf r om t h e w a l l o f ag reywa re v e s se l w i th o range s u r f ace . F ound b y T o tL o rd i nt h e 1 930 s .

' f ragmen t so fc oa r se p o t te ry ( Romano -Br i t i sh )c ha r coa li n te r s pe r sed , s ome o ft h ep o t te ry c oa ted i n s ide w i th c ha r coa l ' . T he e n t ry r e f e r s t oe xcava t ion s ome 1 7m ( 56 -58 f t ) i n to t h e c ave , whe re t h er oo fi nt h eR oman p e r iod i sl i ke ly t oh ave b een l e s s t h an am e t re h i gh , a nd w he re t h e re w a s u n l ik e ly t oh ave

8 2 .D i t to ( D iam .o r ig ina l ly c .? 3 .52cm ) .F ragmen to f as p ind le w ho r lw i th s t ra igh tc en t ra lp i e rc ing c u tf r om a no x id i sed s he rd .

b een a ny n a tu ra ll i gh t .T he m any s he rd sw i th e v idence o fs oo t i n g , s eve ra l w i th b ur n ing a c ro s st h eb r eak , t h e re fo r ep robab ly r e f lec tt h e c a sua l u s e o fs he rd s t oc on ta in l i gh t s . I ft h i s i st h e c a se , t h ea s semb lage m igh tb es e en t ob eb i a sed t owa rd sl a rge s he rd s o fs l igh t ly d i shed f o rm , a nd t h e re i ss ome s ugge s t ion o ft h i s .T he n a tu re o ft h er e cove ry o ft h ec o l lec t ion ,a nd p rob a b le s ubsequen tl o s se s , h oweve r , u rge s c au t ion i ns u ch i n te r -

8 3 .D i t to ( D iam .c . 3 .52cm )F ragmen to f av e ry r ough ,f l a ts p in d l e w ho r l w i th s t ra igh t c en t ra l p i e r c ing a nd t wo v e ry r ough c oncen t r ic g roove s o n e ach f a ce ?C u t f r om as he rd i ng r ey b r own f ab r ic . F ound b yT o tL o rd i nt h e 1 930 s . N one o ft h e se o b jec t s c a l l f o r much c ommen t t ypo log ica l ly . T he s p ind le who r l sa r eo f af o rm e x t reme ly c ommon i ns eve r a lm a t er ia l s a nd t h e i rp roduc t ion f r om p o t te ry s he rd s i sw e l l

p r e ta t ion f o ra lp i ece s ,a nd t h es am ian ,e v en a low ing f o rb r eak a ge ,f o re xamp le ,d oe sn o ts e em t oc on fo rm t ot h i sp a t ter n .

a t te s ted o n many s i te s .I tmay b et h a tt h et h ree d i scs r e p re sen t f u r the ru nf in ished e xamp le s ,t hough t h eu se o fs am ian w a re i n p a r t icu la rm igh ti nd ica te t h a tt h ey h ad s ome o t he rf unc t ion a nd c ou ld h ave b een i n tended a sc oun te r s ,p a le t te s o re ven v e s se l s t oppe r s . T he p o s s ib le p a le t te s p rov ide f u r the r e xamp le s t o t h o se n o ted a bove i ns t one b u t a s w i th w ho r l s t h e r e -u se o f

A l though B ran igan a nd D ea rne ( 1 992 )o r ig ina l ly r e ga rded V ic t o r ia C ave a s ad ome s t ic a s semb lage o ff i nd s ,a nd C o l l ingwood a nd R ichmond ( 1 969 ) s ugge s t , p e rhap s f a ce t iou s ly , t h a t t h e c ave w ou ld h ave b een mo r e c omfo r tab le t h an c on tempo ra ry h u t s , t h e c e ram ic m a t e r ia l i ss uf i c ien t ly u nu sua l f o r ar u ra l 1 29

s i te i nn o r the rn E ng land t or a i se s ome d oub t s o ve rt h i s i n te r p r e ta t ion . E xcava t ion o fs ma l l r u ra l R oman s i te s i nt h e P en n i ne s a nd t h e i r h i n te r land r a re ly p roduce s mo re t h an af ew

T he a s semb lage i sq u i te l a rge e nough f o rt h e d a ta t ob e c om p a rab le w i th o the r s i te s . T hey a r e v e ry o dd , a nd c e r ta in ly n o t c on s i s ten tw i th at yp ica l ' r u ra l 'l ow s ta tu ss i te .T he s i te c o l lec t i on s pan s t h e s e cond t ol a te f ou r th c en tu r ie s , a nd s o s pan s a p e r iod w hen t h e f unc t iona l c ompo s i t ion o f n o r ther n p o t te ry a s semb lage sd oe sc hange a nyway .H oweve r ,j a rl e ve l sa r el ow , a nd e ven i ft h i sw a se n t i re ly as e cond c en tu ry g r oup ,t h i sc ou ld n o t f i t c omfo r tab ly i n to ar u ra l g roup o n i t sj a r l e ve l , b e ing

s he rd sf o ro ve r3 00 y ea r so fo ccupa t ion ( c f . Wh i t e 1 988 ) ,a nd t h e se g roup s o n ly o cca s iona l ly i n c lude mo r ta r ia a nd f l agon s . I na dd i t ion ,o x id i sed w a re so ft h e f i r s ta nd s e cond c en tu ry , a s n o ted b y E van s ( 1988 ) , a r e v e ry i n f requen t a way f r om m i l i t a ry s i te s .T he j a rf o rm N o . 3 0 , w i th i t s a pp l ied b a rbo t ine c i r c l e s , i nt h e n o r th a tl e a s t , w ou ld a l so f i tw i th in af o r t , r a the r t h an c i v i l ian a s semb lage . I ndeed , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e s ma l lt wo -hand led f l agon ,p e rhap so fN o r th A f r ican o r ig in ,N o . 2 5 ,a nd t h er e la t ive ly h i gh f r equency o fO xfo rd sh i r ew a r e s( No s 8 ,1 9 -23 ) ,t h eV ic to r ia C ave m a te r ia lp rov ide s as ub se to fw ha t m igh t b ee xpec ted f r om am i l i ta ry s i te i nt h e D a le s ,f r om , f o r e xamp le , R ibche s te r ( Edwa rd s & Web s te r 1 988 ) , B a inb r idge

mo re c ompa rab le w i th u rban a nd m i l i ta ry s i te s .T he t a b lewa re ( d i sh a nd b ow l ) e l emen t o ft h e a s semb lage , h oweve r , i sa l so o n t h e l ow s i de u n l ike mo s t u rban a nd m i l i ta ry g roup s . T he r e a l ly o dd f e a tu re o ft h e g roup i st h el a rge p ropo r t ion o f mo r t a r ia , 2 1 .5% , w he re 3% i st h e mo s tw h ich m igh tb ee xpec ted . F lagon sa t7 . 7% a nd b eake r sa t6 . 1% a r ea l so w e l lr ep re sen ted i nc ompa r i son w i th r u ra l s i te s , a l though t h e se a r e n o t e xcep t i ona ll e v e l sf o ru rban o rm i l i ta ry o ne s .A ssum ing t h a tt h is i sa

( Ha r t ley 1 960 )o rI l k ley ( Ha r t ley 1 966 ) . Wh i t e ( 1 988 )h a s a r g ued t h a t f i nd s f r om c ave s i nt h e D a le s a r e c oncen t ra ted i n p e r iod s w hen t h e re i so t he re v idence f o r u n re s t i nt h e N o r th a nd t ha t t h e c ave s c ou ld b e s een a s s u i tab le r e fuge s , y e t t h e V ic to r ia C ave p o t te ry r ange s f r om t h e l a te f i r s t c en tu ry t oa t l e a s tt h ee nd o ft h ef ou r th ,w i thou ts i gn if ican t om i s s ion sw hen c ompa red w i th f o r ta s semb lage s , a nd i ti sm o re l i ke ly t oh ave s e en c on t inuou s u sage f o rs ome p u rpo se t h rough t h e R oman p e r iod .T he s ugge s t ion o f am i l i ta ry c onnec t ion i nt h ep o t t e ry , a nd t h e p r e sence o fs ma l l g roup s o fb u i ld ing m a te r ia l i nt h e f r agmen t so ft i l ea nd ( w indow g la ss ) , p e rhap si mp ly s ome r i t u a l a s soc ia t ion , i nw h ich h ou seho ld ma te r ia l w a s d epo s i t ed w i th in t h ec ave . Wh ich g od , o rg od s , h oweve r , w e r ei n vo lved c an o n ly b e g ue s sed a t . D eep c ave s , d if i cu l t o fa c ce s s , i n to w h ich t h es upp l ican tc r aw led b yw ay o fi n i t ia t ion , a nd am i l i t a ry c onnec t ion , i ss ugge s t ive o fM i th ra s , y e tt h e r e mu s th av e b een many o t he r n ow l o s t , p u re ly l o ca l c and ida te s , a nd t h e p rob lem o fw hy s uch ar i ch a s semb lage e nded u pi n ac ave i n ar emo te Y o rk sh i r ed a le i sl i ke ly t or ema in u n re so lved .

r ep resen ta t ive a s semb lage , a nd n o t as t rong ly s e lec ted g roup , t h en i t sc ompo s i t ion s ugge s t sa nu nu sua l ,p robab ly ' r i tua l 'f a c t o r si ni t sd epo s i t ion . T he f i ne w a re l e ve lf r om t h ea s semb lage i sa l so h i gh ,s i xr im s , 9 . 2% , a t al e ve lc ompa rab le w i th t h eh i ghe re nd o fu rban a nd m i l i ta ry g roup s ,a ga in w e l la bove t h er a nge o f a' t yp ica l 'r u ra l s i te .A l lt o ld ,t h ea s semb lage ,i fs uch i ti s ,s eem st os how i n d i c a t ion s o fd e l ibe ra te s e lec t ion , r a the r t han b e ing r e p re sen ta t i ve o fa ny o t he rg ene ra l c l a s so fs i te .

T he V ic tor ia C ave A s semb lage :ac ommen tu pon v e s se l f r equency ( J .E van s ) T he t o ta lo f6 5r im s he rd sc an b eb roken d own a sf o l low s: D ish B ow l Mo r ta r ia B eake r F lagon J a r

6 1 0 1 4 4 5 2 6

9 . 2% 1 5 .4% 2 1 .5% 6 . 1% 7 . 7% 4 0 .0%

1 30

CHAPTER 1 9 : THE GLASS '

b y Mar t in J .D earne

* 19 .1

Me lon B ead ( Max .D i .3 .4cm ) .T ran s lucen td a rk b lue g l a s s .Al a rge ,h eavy b ead w i th s t ra igh tc en t ra lp i e r c i n g , o ne f l a t tened a r ea a nd t wen ty o ne r a the r v a r ia b l ys pa ced v e r t ica lg r oove s .V e ry h eav i ly w ea ra b rad e d , e spec ia l ly a tt h e e nd s , w i th al a rge c h ip a c ro s s a n e l onga ted b ubb le v o id a nd s e ve ra l a r ea s o f s u r f a ce p i t t ing a nd s c a r r ing . ( LC .B ) .

* 19 .2

D i t to ( Max .D i .2 .15cm ) . D i sco lou red b l ue f a ience . S l igh t ly e l l ip t ica l w i th c en t ra lc i r cu la rp i e rc ing a nd f o u r t een r a the r a ngu la r v e r t ica l g roove s . Wo rn , e s p ec ia l ly a to ne e nd o fp i e r c ing . ( LC .JK ) .

1 9 .3

D i t to ( D i .unknown ) .N od e ta i l s . K nown o n ly f r om a r o ugh s ke tch i nt h eL o rd M s s .F ound b yT o tL o rd o n t h el ef t( no r th ) o fC hambe rB . ( L . 'TL ) .

T h i ss e r ie so fs ma l lp i e rced d i sc s( p a ra l le led a to t he rl o ca lc a ve s ( Lo rd C o l lec t ion ; t ob e p ub l i shed ) ) a ppea r t ob e d r op le t s o f m e l ted g la s s d ropped o n to as u r f ace a nd p i e rced ( ? by am e ta l p o in t ) b efo re s o l id if ica t ion . T hey m igh t w e l l b e ' h omemade ' b ead s ,p re sumab ly f a l li n to G u ido ' s( 1 978 )c l a s s 6( ma in ly 6 i ib ) a nd m igh tb el o ca l ly p roduced .A tl e a s to ne w a sn o ted a tU sk , a bandoned N e ron ian / ea r ly F lav ian ( p e r s .comm . D r . J .P r ice ) t h ough t hey s eem t oc on t inue t h roughou t t h e R oman p e r iod a nd t h ey m igh t b e c ompa red w i th t h e b ead s o n a n A l la son J one s( 1989 )t ype 1e a r r ing f r om aD e rbysh i r ec ave ( o pc i t7 3 , N o .135 = B ran igan a nd D ea rne 1 991a , 9 7 No .3 .8 ) .

Me lon b ead sb e long t ot h e f i r s t a nd s e cond c en tu r ie s a nd a r e w ide sp r ead ( s ome p o ss ib ly w i th t a l i sman ic s i gn if i cance a nd o f t en a s so c ia t ed w i th m i l i ta ry s i t e s ) . 1 9 .1 w a sp r e sumab ly u sed o ni t so wn ( ? on at hong ) n o tw i th o t he rb ead sa nd w a sc l ea r ly d epo s i ted a f te r much w ea r . * 19 .4

* 19 .15 B icon ica lB ead ( D i .0 .55cm ) .T rans lucen td a rk b l ue . S t ra igh tc en t ra lp i e rc ing . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .15 .J 1 ) . S l igh t ly l a rge rt h an u sua lb u to ft h es ma l l b i con ica lb l ue b ead t y pe e xc lu s ive t ot h ef ou r th ( a nd f i f th )c en tu r ie s( Gu ido 1 978 , 9 7 ) .

? Bead ( D i .0 .77cm ) . O paque t u rquo i se . D i sco ida l w i th o fc en t re p i e r c ing , t a pe r ing f r om f r on tt ob a ck w i th i r regu la r ' c oun t e r s ink ing 'o nf r on t .T h ick en ing t owa rd st h e ( r ounded ) e dge f u r the s tf r om t h ep i e r c i n g .( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .15 .J I ) .

* 19 .5

D i t to ( Max .D i .1 .45cm ) . T ran s lucen t b l ue g reen . N ea r ly d i sco ida l w i th r ough f l a t b a ck a nd r ounded f r on t t h icken ing a way f r om a ' c oun te r sunk ' t a pe r i n gp i e rc ing . C ra cked . ( LC .BA ) .

* 19 .6

D i t to ( Max .D i .0 .85cm ) .T ran s lucen tp a le b l ue g reen .

* 19 .16 S egmen ted B ead ( L .0 .95cm ) .T rans lucen td a rk b l ue / g reen . T wo s egmen t s , s t ra igh t c en t ra l p i e r c ing a nd s p i ra lm a rk s ? f rom w ind ing r ound f o rme r . ( LC .V ) . * 19 .17 D i t to ( L .0 .83cm ) .T ran s lucen td a rk g reen .T wo ( a nd b rok en t h i rd )s egmen t s ,s t ra igh tc en t ra lp i e r c ing a nd c l ea r ly s p i ra l led r ound af o rme r . ( LC .V ) . Sma l l s egmen ted b ead s ( mo r e o f ten o paque t h an t r an s lucen t ) a r e w ide sp read , a ppa ren t ly a ppea r ing b y t h e s e cond c en tu ry b u tb ecom ing p a r t icu la r ly c ommon i nt h el a te t h i rd a nd f ou r th c en tu r ie s ( Gu ido 1 978 , 9 1-3 ) .

S im i la r .( LC .BA ) . * 19 .7

D i t to ( Max .D i .0 .96cm ) .T ran s lucen tp a le b l ue g reen . S im i la rb u tp i e rc ing r a the r mo re c en t ra l . ( LC .BA ) .

* 19 .8

D i t to ( Max .D i .0 .92cm ) . T ran s lucen t n a tu ra l g reen i s h .S im i la r . ( LC .BA ) .

* 19 .9

D i t to ( Max .D i .0 .89cm ) .T ran s lucen tc o lou r le s s .S im i l a r . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .15 .7 1 ) .

* 19 .18 C y l ind r ica l B ead ( L .1 .27cm ) . T rans lucen t c oba l t b lue . S t ra igh t c en t ra l p i e rc ing , s l igh t ly o va l s e c t ion a nd l o ng i tud ina ls t r ia t ion s . ( LC .V ) . At y pe c ommon t h roughou t s ou ther nB r i ta in , e spec ia l ly a f t e r t h e s e cond c en tu ry , b u t t h e s t r ia t ion s i nd ica te al a te r R oman d a te ( Gu ido 1 978 ,9 4 -5 ) .

1 9 .10 - ? D i t to ( D i s .u nknown ) .T wo ' b ead s 'o f a' b lue i sh t i n t ' 1 9 .12

1 9 .13 - ' Bead s '( D i s .u nknown ) .T wo mo re ' b ead s 'f o und i n 1 9 .14 t h e 1 840 s , a cqu i red b yt h e B r i t ish Mu seum ,b u tn o t c u r ren t ly i s o la teab le i nt h e i rc o l lec t ion .T he i rf o rm ( s ) a r eu nc lea rb u tm igh tb ea s1 9 .4 -19 .12 .( BM 1 848 .5 1 .15 .J I ) .

* 19 .19 ' T r inke t ' R ing S e t t ing ( D i .0 .77cm ) .

T ran s lucen t

a nd o ne p e rhap s c o lou r le s s ( s even ' a nnu la r b ead s '

g reen .C i r cu la ra nd h em i sphe r ica lw i th f l a tb a sa ls u r -

w e r e f ound i n 1 870 , t h e f ou r p r eced ing ma rked L C .BA i n c luded , a nd t h e t h ree l o s t w e re p robab ly

f a ce w i th s l igh t' r im 'a nd s ma l lr a i sed m a rk .( LC .V ) . V a r iou sR omano -Br i t i sh j ewe l le ry i t em sc a r r ied g l a s ss e t t ing s ,

o ft h es ame f o rm ) . ( L .BA ) .

o f t en i m i ta t ing mo re p rec iou sm a te r ia l s ,b u tt h ed imen s ion so f

1 3 1

•4

1 91 •5

•6

•7

• 8

•9

1 0 1 1 1

•2 1

„

•16

•15

•22 •18 •1 9

•23

0

3

•30 •3 5

C

F igur e4 3 : T he G la s s ( 1 :1 e xcep t 1 9 .4 -19 .19 a t2 : 1) . 1 32

t h i s p i ece i n d ica te t h a ti tc ame f r om a ' t r inke t 'r i ng o fC oo l ' s ( 1983 ) R ing G roup MIA w h ich i ss e cond t ot h i rd c en tu ry i n

a s , o r ig ina ted a to ro u t s ide R oman f o r t s ( P r ice 1 988 , 3 47 a nd p a s s im ) .

d a te .P a ra l le l sw i th g re en s e t t ing sc ome f r om Woodea ton ( K i rk 1 949 ,F ig .5 N o .10 ) ,S i lche s te r( Coo l 1 983 , 1 057 N o sX I I 1A34 5 ) , D o rche s te r ( o p c i t , 1 058 N o .X I I I A 39 ) a nd Wee t ing ( o p c i t , 1 059 N o .X I I IA 47 ) ;w h i le ac o lou r le s ss e t t ing i si na no th e rr i ng f r om S i lche s te r( op c i t , No .X I I IA 48 ) , awh i te o ne i na ? l a te t h i rd c en tu ry o ne f r om V e ru lam ium ( Co t ton a nd Whee le r 1 953 , F ig .1 N o .10 ) a nd o ne m i ss ing i t s s e t t ing a tS i lche s te r ( Co t ton 1 947 ,F i g .9 .5 =C oo l 1 983 , 1 057 ,N o .XI I3 6X )i sd a ted 1 90 -210 .

9 . 24 1 9 .25

W indow G la s s ( She rd L s c . 3 .2 a nd 4 . 4cm ) . Two p i ece so f ma t t -g lo s sy ,c a s tw indow g l a s sb o th r e ta in i n go ne b eve l led e dge . K nown o n ly f r om ab l ack a nd w h i te p ho tog raph i n t h e J ack son /Lo rd a r ch ive . ( L .JK ) .

V e s se lG la s s 1 9 .26 - B o t t le ( s ) .

* 19 .20 B ang le f r agmen t( L .3 .0cm ) .T ran s lucen tb l ue /g r een . Dt or ounded t r iangu la r s ec t ioned . V shaped l i nea r v o id a nd c h ip a to ne e nd . P robab ly p r ev iou s ly i l u s t r a ted b y Sm i th ( 1844 , p L .xxvm No .8 ) ; i ts hou ld b en o t ed t h a tt h e re i ss ome d oub ta bou tw he the rt h i s i l u s t ra t ion i so fV ic to r ia o rD owke rbo t tom H o le C ave f i nd s( a bove p 33 ) . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .14 .J I ) .

1 9 .27

Two w a l l s he rd s o f s qua re /p r isma t ic

b o t t le s k nown o n ly f r om ab l ack a nd w h i te p ho to g r aph i nt h e J a ck son /Lo rd a r ch ive . ( L .JK ) .

1 9 .28 - ? D i t to . Two f u r the rs he rd s o n t h es ame p ho tog raph , 1 9 .29 o ne w i th ap a r t ia l ? imp r e s sed , r i dge b ounded ma rk . I ti su nc lea rw he the rt h ey c ome f r om b o t t le so rw in d ow p anes . (L .JK ) .

* 19 .21 D i t to ( L .2 .67cm ) . O paque wh i te t ol i gh t t u rquo i se b l ue .R ounded t r iangu la rs e c t ion .A b raded .N .B .T h i s a nd t h ef o l low ing p i ece sa r en o ts p e c if i ca l ly r e co rd e di n Sm i th ( 1 844 ) s o aV ic to r ia r a the rt h an D owk e r bo t tom p rovenance s hou ld n o tb et a ken a sf i na l ly e s tab l i shed . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .13 .J I ) .

* 19 .30 C y l ind r ica lo rS qua re /P r i sma t ic B o t t le .F ragmen to f r e eded h and le a nd s hou lde r . B lue /g reen . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .11 .1 1 ) . 1 9 .31

S qua re o rP r i sma t ic B o t t le .U nab raded w a l ls he rd r e t a in ing r ounded c or ne r . B lue /g reen . ( BM 1 848 .5 1 .11 .1 1 ) .

* 19 .22 D i t to ( L .2 .39cm ) .O paque wh i te t og r ey i sh t u rquo i se b lue . R ounded t r iangu la r s e c t ion . A b raded . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .13 .J I ) .

1 9 .32 - ? Bo t t le s . Two f u r the rl o s ts he rd s o fe i the rb o t t le s o r 1 9 .33 w indow p ane s k nown o n ly f r om ab l ack a nd w h i t e p ho tog raph i nt h eS .C .E .C . a r ch ive . ( L .BA ) .

* 19 .23 D i t to ( L .1 .7 1cm ) .V e ry s im i la rb u ts l i gh t ly d a rk e ra nd w ide r . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .13 .J I ) .

1 9 .34 G la s s b ang le sh ave b een s t ud ied r epea ted ly , af o rme re mpha s i so nS co t t i sh f i nd sn ow b e ing b a lanced b yi n c r ea s ing r e sea r ch o nn o r the rn B r i t i sh o ne s( P r ice 1 988 ) ,t h ough t h ew e s te rn Y o rk -

C onvex b ody s he rd . B lue /g reen . E x te rna l t oo l ing ma rk s . P robab ly f i r s tt ot h i rd c en tu ry . ( LC .BA ) .

* 19 .35 R im a nd n eck o ff l a sk .B ad ly a b raded g reen t ob l ue . R im o u t sp layed a nd f o lded u pwa rd a nd i nwa rd g i v i n gi n ter na lb ead a ngu la r ly f l a t tened a tt o p .T ubu la r n e ck w i th c oncave s i de s .D ep r e s sed a r ea o nr im .P re v i ou s ly i lu s t ra t ed b y Sm i th ( 1 844 ,P L .>0 (VI IN o .9 ) . ( BM 1 848 .5 -11 .12 .J I ) .

s h i re ma te r ia l( i nc lud ing ma te r ia lf r om s eve ra lo t he rS e t t le a nd A rnc l if f ec ave s )h a sn o tb een a sf u l ly d i scu s sed i np r in ta st h a t f r om f u r the re a s t . A l l t h e V ic to r ia f r agmen t s ( i ft h e se d o i n d eed c ome f r om t h es i te n o tD owke rbo t tom H o le C ave )a r eo f t y pe 3 ,t h e i rr ounded t r iangu la rt oD -shaped ,r a the rt h an f u l ly t r iangu la r ,s e c t ion sm a t ch ing much e a s te rn Y o rk sh i r em a t e r ia l ( P r ice 1 988 , 3 49 ) . F ragmen t s 1 9 .21 -19 .23 b e long t ot y pe 3 A ,

P robab ly f r om al a rg i sh ' Me rcu ry ' f l a sk , s o c a l led f r om t h e n umbe rh av ing ar ep re sen ta t ion o ft h eg od o nt h eb a se ( I s ing s 1 957 , 1 00 -1 F o rm 8 4 ; a nd e . g . H a rden a nd P r ice i nC un l if f e 1 971 , 3 58 N o .87 ) . S econd / th i rd c en tu ry .

b y f a rt h e mo s tc ommon s ubd iv i s ion i ne a s t er nY o rk sh i re ( o p c i t ) , w h i le 1 9 .20 h a s l o s t ad if e ren t c o lou red g l a s s t r a i l m a r v e red f l u sh w i th i t ss u r f ace a nd w i th a( h e r er a the ra ngu la r ly ) h ooked t e rm ina l .I t sl o s sp r even t sp rec i se c l a s s if i ca t ion a ss e v -

1 9 .36

e r a lt y pe sh ave b l ue -g reen g round sw i th v a r iou sc o lou r ed t r a i l s . A l l t h e a rm le t s a r el i ke ly t od a te t ot h e l a t e f i r s t a nd p e rhap s v e ry e a r ly s e cond c en tu r ie s , t hough s ome e xamp le s s e em t o h ave r ema ined i nc i rcu la t ion f o r av e ry l o ng t i me ( P r ice 1 988 ,

R im a nd b ody s ha rd o fc y l ind r ica l o rh em i sphe r ica l c up . P a le g reen i sh , v e r y b ubb ly w i th s ome e x ter na l w hee l ma rk s . C u rved r im , e dge c r a cked o fa nd l e f t u neven w i th i nwa rd b eve l . S t ra igh t o rv e ry s l igh t ly f l a r ing b ody d e c rea s ing i nt h ickne s st owa rd st h eb a se . R im D i .6 .0cm . Af ou r th c en tu ry f o rm ( e .g . P r ice 1 984 , 18 N o .3 ) .

3 45 ) . T he f unc t ion s o fs uch b ang le s h ave b een much d eba ted a nd t h e i n te rna l d i ame t e r s o ft h e V ic to r ia p i ece s ( 40 -50mm ) m ean t h a ts ome s u ch a s1 9 .20 c ou ld h ave b een a rm le t s /ank le t s , a tl e a s tf o rc h i ld r en ,b u t mo re a mu le t ic f unc t ion s( e .g . a sr i ng p endan t s )a r ep o s s ib le a sm igh tb e af a s ten ing r o le ( ? ak in t oa mode rn s ca r fr i ng ) , o r ,a t t rac t ive ly , u se a sh a i rr i ng s ( c f . P r ice 1 988 ,3 54 w i th f u r the rp o s s ib i l i t ie s ) .I na ny e v en tt h e re i ss ome

N .B .T wen ty s i xf u r the rs he rd s( LC .V )a r e moder na nd i n c lude ac l ea r , t h in b ody s he rd ; an a tu ra l g r een i sh t h ick b o t t le b ody s he rd ;f o u r teen m id t od a rk o l ive ? bo t t le s he rd s( ma in ly d ev i t -

r e a son t ob e l ieve t h a ts ome g l a s sb ang le s , a tl e a s ti ns ome a r e -

r i f y ing ) ; o ne t h inne r d ev i t r i fy ing m id o l ive ? bow l s he rd ; f i ve 1 33

d a rk o l ive n i ne teen th c en tu ry w ine b o t t le s he rd s ;a nd f ou rj o in i n gs he rd sf r om t h eb a se o f av e ry d a rk o l ive /b rown n i ne teen th c en tu ry w ine b o t t le .

C ommen t I ti sr eg re t tab le t h a t s o much o ft h i s ma te r ia l i sn ow a tb e s t a s se s sab le o n ly f r om a r ch ive p ho tog raph sa nd t h a ts o much o f i td e r ive sf r om t h ef o rme rJ a ck son C o l lec t ion ,s ot h a ti t sp rov e nance i sn o ti n d i spu tab le . T he p e r cen tage o fk nown b u t l o s t g l a ss m igh ta l so r a i se t h eq ue s t ion o fh ow much mo re h a sb een l o s t b u t w i thou tr e co rd a nd s o f u r the r q ues t ion t h e r e p re sen t i v i ty o ft h ec o l lec t ion . H oweve r , w i th t h e se p rov i so s , o ne o r t wo o b se rva t ion s may b e m ade a bou t t h e c o rpu s . F i r s t ly , i ti s d om ina ted b yb ead sa nd o t he ra r tef ac t s ,n o tv e s se lf r agmen t s .

c i a l ly p roduced i t em s . T he v e s se l g l a ss , a sf a ra so ne c an a s c e r ta in , ma in ly c on s i s t s o fb l ue g r een b o t t le f r agmen t s o ft h e f i r s t / second c en tu r ie s ,o ne o ft h ec ommone s tv e s se lf o rm se n c oun te red , a nd o n ly t h r ee o t he rv e s se l s a r er ep re sen ted .T hu s , w h i l s tt h ep re sence o fa ny v e sse lg l a s s( and p a r t icu la r ly o ft h e ' Me rcu ry 'f l a sk ) a t ac av es i te i sn o tab le , o n ly as ma l l n umbe r o f ,o f t en r e la t ive ly c ommon , v e s se l sa r er ep resen ted .T he m o s t s u rp r i s ing i n c lu s ion i nt h e c o rpu s i sc er ta in ly t h ep r e sence o f b e tween t wo a nd s i xp i ece so fw indow g l a ss o ft h em a t t -g lo s sy ( f i r s t / second c en tu ry )t y pe . I tw a sp r e sumab ly i n t roduced i n to t h ec ave f r om a no the r( ? u rban /m i l i ta ry )s i te a nd w a sf u lf i l l ing s ome f unc t ion o the rt h an g l az ing .

F oo tno te

T he se , p robab ly m a in ly j ewe l le ry , i t em s r ange i nd a t e f r om 1 . T he a u tho ri sv e ry g r a tefu l t oD r .J enn if er P r ice f o ra dv ice

t h el a te rf i r s ta nd s e cond t ot h ef o u r th c en tu r ie s .T he b ead f o rm s a nd a rm le t s a l so a ppea r a to the r S e t t le C ave s ( mo s t n o tab ly

o n t h e i d en t if ica t ion p a r t icu la r ly o ft h e l o s t m a te r ia l ; a nd t oD r .H .E .M .C oo lf o rd i scu s s ing 1 9 .19 w i th h im a nd s ug g e s t ing t h ec i ted p a ra l le l s .A l lv i ew se xp r e s sed a r eh owev e rt h er e spon s ib i l i ty o ft h ea u tho r .

a mong s t t h e l a rge r u npub l ished g l a s s c o rpu s f r om A t tenn i r e C ave ) a nd t h e l a t te r a tD owke rbo t tom Ho le C ave ,A rnc l if f e , a nd r ep r e sen t am ix tu re o fp o s s ib ly ' h omemade 'a nd c omme r -

1 34

CHAPTER 2 0 : S CAND INAV IAN RUNES I NS ETTLE?

b y Ka ther ine Ho lman

T he s o -ca l led S e t t le r un ic s l a te w a s f ound i n 1 937 b eh ind a c ab ine ti nt h eG igg le sw ick S choo l Mu seum , w h ich c on ta ined f i nd sf r om V ic to r ia C ave ( Swan ton 1 969 ,2 11 ) .T he s ma l lp i ece o fs l a t e( 7 8 x8 8 x2 2mm ) w a s s ub sequen t ly i d en t if ied w i th a s t one r e f e r r ed t oi nJ o seph J ack son ' s ' d aybook 'r e co rd ing t h e 1 870 V i c to r ia C ave e xcava t ion s . J a ck son 's a ccoun tf o rS a tu r d ay 2 3 rd A p r i l 1 870 r e ad s : ' t h ree m en a tw o rk a l d ay a tt h e c ave ,f ound af l a ts t one ( s la te ) w i th g roove s s co red u pon i ti n v a r iou s d i rec t ion s . U nde r d a tum l i ne 1 2 i n che s d eep i nc ave e a r th ' . A s o n ly t e n o t he r i n sc r ip t ion s i nS cand inav ian r une s h ad t h en b een f ound i nE ng land , n one o ft h em i n We s tY o rk s h i re ,t h i ss l a te c on s t i tu ted as i gn if ican ta dd i t ion t ot h ec o rpu s a nd d i s t r ibu t ion map o fr un ic f i nd s .

D i scu s s ion o fI n scr ip t ion T he f i ve S cand inav ian r une s( s ee F igu re s4 4a nd 4 5 )i n sc r ibed o nt h es t one h ave b een r e ad i nt wo d if e ren tw ay sb yp rev iou s s c ho la r s :

I nt h ec a se o ft h i si n sc r ip t ion ,t h ei n te rp re ta t ion o ft h er une si s p e rhap so fl e s si n te r e s tt h an t h e i rs im i la r i ty t ot h er une s 1 5 19 ( o / f ram r ,Ö f ram r ) o fi n sc r ip t ion 1 7o nt h e w a l l o ft h ep r e h i s to r ic c hambe r t omb , Mae showe , i nO rkney ( s ee B a rne s 1 994 : i n sc r ip t ion 1 7 , 1 27 -35 ) .

Mae showe 1 7 U nl ik et h eo t he r Ma e showe i n sc r ip t ion s ,t h i si n sc r ip t ion ,c a rv ed b yo ne Ö f ram rS igu raa r son r ,i sn ol o nge ri ns i tu , h av ing f l aked o ft h e t omb w a l l d u r ing t h e n i ne teen th c en tu ry . S ev en f r ag men t so ft h i si n sc r ip t ion a r en ow i nt h eR oya l Mu seum o fS co t l a nd , E d inbu rgh , b u tt h ep a r to ft h e i n sc r ip t ion w i th t h en ame Ö f ram r o n i ti ss t i l l m i ss ing . T he o n ly e v idence w e h ave f o r t h i sp a r to ft h ei n sc r ip t ion a r en i ne teen th -cen tu ry d r aw ing s( Fa r r e r 1 862 ,P l . I X , N o . 1 ; P e t r ie , u npub l i shed S oc ie ty o fA n t i q ua r ie so fS co t land MS 4 87 ,p a r t 6a nd p a r to fp a r t 7( g iven a s I V , f6i nS wan ton ) ) . O n t h e b a s i s o ft h e se d r aw ing s a nd s u r v i v ing f r agmen t s , t h e Mae showe i n sc r ip t ion i st r an s l i t e ra ted

o / f ramr : m a le p e r sona l n ame , Ö f ram r ( Swan ton 1 969 , 2 12 1 3 ; B a rne s ,i np r ep . ) .

a nd t r an s la ted . . ra ei st r[ u ] n[ ax i a e s( a ) /r I[ o / f ram r sih ] ur a / r so n r ,` Öf ram r S igu röa r son r c a rved t h e se r une s ' ( Ba rne s 1 994 , 1 30 ; 1 33 ) .

a / f ra / l f r( o rp e rhap sa / f ra /u / f ro ra / f ra /u /U f r ) : ? ma le p e r son a ln ame i nc i lf ro rü lf r( Page 1 971 , 1 74 ) , a l though P age l a te r w r i te s : ' Id i sag ree w i th h im [ Swan ton ]i nt h ei d en t if i ca t ion [ a s aN o r se p e r sona ln ame ]b u ta g ree w i th h i sc onc lu s ion t h a tt h i s i s aN o r se l e gend ' ( Page 1 973 , 1 97 )

T he se d r aw ing sa l so s how many s im i la r i t ie sb e tween t h eS e t t l ei n sc r ip t ion a nd t h ec o r re spond ing p a r to f Mae showe 1 7( s ee F igu re 4 5 ) . S wan ton n o te s t h a t J ame s F a r r e r , w ho e xcava ted Mae showe i n1 86 1 ,l i ved n ea rS e t t le a tI ng lebo rough H a l l ,a nd h e d i scu s se s t h e p o ss ib i l i ty t h a t t h e s l a t e 's c onnec t ion w i th S e t t le i s mo r er e cen tt h an t h e med ieva lp e r iod ,n o t ing :

R une 1l o ok sl i k e al i ga tu re o rb ind rune o ft h ea s s rune ( t ran s l i t e ra t ed a se i the ra /o d epend ing o nt h ed a te o ft h ei n sc r ip t ion ) a nd f ,b u t t h e u ppe r s i de b ranch o ft h e a s s -rune m ay b e a n

' The s im i la r i ty n o to n ly o ft h ef o rm so ft h er une su sed a nd t h e e x ten tt ow h ich t h ey a r ec omp le te , b u ta l so o ft h ek i nd o fs l ab

a c c iden ta lc h ip ,g i v ing i n s tead t he b i nd -rune a / f . R une s 2a nd 5a r e u np rob lema t ic a nd c an b o th b er e ad a s r .I d en t if ica t ion o fr une s 3a nd 4 i sm ade d if i cu l t a s t h e i r t op s a r e m i s s ing a l ong t h eb rok en e dge o ft h e s l a te , wh ich a ccoun t si np a r tf o r t h et wo d if e ren ti n te rp re ta t ion so ft h ei n sc r ip t ion .B a rne sn o te s : ` . .wha tc an a ppea rt ob e ab ranch d e scend ing t ot h er i gh tf r om t h e t o p o ft h e v e r t ica l [ o fr une 3 ]i s mo re l i k e ly t ob e a n a s c end ing b r anch b e long ing t ot h ev e r t ica lo fr . 4( c f .t h a tb ranch a nd v e r t i ca lc r o s s ) '( Ba rne s ,i np rep . ) .T h i sw ou ld g i ve t h er e ad -

o n wh ich t h ey a r ec u t , make si tn o ti n conce ivab le t h a tt h eS e t t l ep i ece r e p r e sen t st h er e su l t so fa na t t emp tt or e s to r et h ef r ag men ta ry Ma e showe i n sc r ip t ion ' ( Swan ton 1 969 , 2 14 ) . '

i n g am f o rr une s 3a nd 4 ,w i th t wo s i de -b ranche s( r a the rt han t h en o rma lo ne s i de -b ranch )o nt h er i gh thand s i de o ft h ev e r t i c a lo ft h em rune .H oweve r ,r une s 3a nd 4may a l so b er e ad a s t h e b i nd rune a / 1 f o l lowed b y a n f rune . I ti sn o t p o s s ib le t o

S e t t le i n sc r ip t ion d oe s n o tc omp le te a l o ft h e b l ank s i n Ma e s howe 1 7 , a nd b ecause i tb reak s o fo n as t ra igh t e dge a tt h e e nd o f ' al e x ica l ly m ean ingfu l u n i t ' , w i th n oa t temp tt oc om -

Howeve r , S wan ton d i sm i s se s t h i s p o s s ib i l i ty o n t h e b a s i s o f ' s ign if i can t d i sc repanc ie s i nd e ta i l ' b e tw een t h e S e t t le s t one a nd b o th F a r re r ' se ng rav ing a nd P e t r ie ' sd r aw ing o f Mae showe 1 7 ( Swan ton 1 969 ,2 14 ; s ee F a r re r 1 862 ,P l .9 ;S oc ie ty o fA n t i qua r ie s o fS co t land , MS , i v ,f .6 ) . H ea l so a r gue s t h a t a st h e

p l e te t h ef o l low ing ( a l so m i s s ing )p a r to f Mae showe 1 7 ,t h a ti t t h e re fo re i su n l ik e ly t ob e ar e s to ra t ive c opy o ft h e l o s t p a r t s o f Mae showe 1 7( Swan ton 1 969 , 2 14 ) .

s a y i ft h es i de -b ranch t ot h e l e f t o fr une 4a l so j o ined r une 3 , a st h e s l a te i sb roken a tt h i s p o in t . T he t wo s i de -b ranche s o n t h e r i gh t -hand s i de o ft h e v e r t ica l r une 4a r e n o tj o ined t oi t , b u tr ough ly c o r re spond t ot h e s i de -b ranche so nt h ef i r s tb i nd -

H av ing d i sm is sed t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e S e t t le s l a te i n sc r ip -

r une .

t i on w a s c a rved i na n a t temp t t or e s to re t h e d amaged Ma e -

1 35

•

ä/o

U

i

a

s / s

•

I

R /y

F igure 4 4 : T he S cand inav ian R un ic A lphabe t .

1

2

3

4

5

a

I i

F igure 4 5 : a )T he S o -Ca l led S e t t le R un ic S l a te ; a nd b )C or re spond ing R une s i nF a r re r 's D raw ing o f Maeshowe 1 7 . 1 36

s h owe 1 7 ,S wan ton p roceed st od i scu s st h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a tt h i s i n sc r ip t ion i s amode rn f o rge ry . T h i s i sa l so d i scoun ted b y S wan ton ,a st h eS e t t le f r agmen td oe sn o ts e em r e levan tt oa ny k nown p h i lo log ica lc on t rove r sy , a nd b ecau se o ft h ec l ea rd i s c r epancy b e tween t h e f o rm o ft h e f i r s t r une i nt h e S e t t le i n s c r ip t ion a nd t h ec o r re spond ing r une i nd raw ing so f Ma e showe 1 7 .S wan ton t h u sa r gue st h a tt h eS e t t le i n sc r ip t ion w a sc a rved b yt h es ame man w ho c a rved Mae showe 1 7 ,a nd t h a th ec a rved h i s n ame i na lmo s t t h e s ame w ay a si n Mae showe . H e d oe s n o ta dd re s st h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a tt h eS e t t le i n sc r ip t ion i s am i s s i n gp a r to f Ma e showe 1 7 .

C ompar i son o fS e t t le S la te a nd Mae showe 1 7 I f ,a s Swan ton a r gue s , t h e r e a r e ' s ign if ican t d i sc repanc ie s i n d e ta i l 'b e tween Ma e showe 1 7a nd t h eS e t t le i n sc r ip t ion ( Swan t o n 1 969 , 2 14 ) , t h i s mu s tr u le o u tt h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a tt h ey a r e p a r t o f t h e s ame i n sc r ip t ion . Howeve r , a s m en t ioned a bove , t h eo n ly s ou r ce f o rt h er e levan tp a r to f Mae showe 1 7 ,a nd t h u s S wan ton ' s o b se rva t ion s , i sn ine teen th c en tu ry d raw ing s . T he d if e rence s n o ted b y Swan ton b e tween t h e S e t t le r une s a nd Ma e showe 1 7 a ppea rt ob eb a sed o n c ompa r i son b e tween t h e s l a te a nd t h ed r aw ing s a nd t hu sc anno tb es u s ta ined ( Swan ton 1 969 , 2 14 ) . My o wn c ompa r ison b e tween t h e e ng rav ing s i n F a r re r a nd t h e S e t t le i n sc r ip t ion a l so r e vea l s o n ly t h ree r e a l d i sc repanc ie s :t h ev e r t ica ls t em o ft h ef i r s tr une i smuch s hor t e ro n t h e S e t t le s l a t e , t h e l o op o ft h e f i r s tr rune d oe s n o tj o in

D i scu ss ion o fV ic tor ia C ave P rovenance

t h e ma in s t ave i nF a r re r 's e ng rav ing o f Mae showe 1 7a nd t h e p unc tua t ion ma rk f o l low ing t h er une si nF a r re r 's e ng rav ing i s

S wan ton w r i t e st h a tt h ee n t ry i nJ a ck son ' s ' d aybook 'c once rn i n gt h e d i scove ry o f ag rooved s t one ' a lmo s tc e r ta in ly 'r e f e r s t ot h i sr un ic s l a te ( Swan ton 1 969 ,2 12 ) .H oweve r , t h ed e sc r ip t i on ' g roove ss co red u pon i ti nv a r iou sd i re c t ion s 'd oe sn o ts ug g e s tr un ic l e t te r s .J a ck son may h ave b een u nf am il ia rw i th r une s , b u tt wo o ft h er une sa r er rune s ,i d en t ica lt oo u rc ap i ta lR .J a ck s on ' s ' g rooved s t one ' c o r re spond s r a the r b e t te r w i th ' t wo o r t h ree g rooved s l ab so fs and s tone . . .e v iden t ly . . ,u sed f o rr ound i n ga nd s ha rpen ing b one p i n s 't h a ta r ed e sc r ibed i nD awk in s ' a c coun t o f f i nd s f r om t h e e xcava t ions ( Dawk ins 1 874 , 9 2 ) . T homa sL o rd h a sb rough tt om ya t ten t ion t wo s t one sw h ich f i t b o th o f t h e se d e sc r ip t ion s p e r f ec t ly . I n a dd i t ion , D awk in s i s l a te rf ound a s ar e v iewe ro f ab ook a bou t Manx r une s( Dawk in s a nd B rad ley 1 886 ) ,a nd w ou ld p robab ly h ave r e cogn i sed r une s i fh eh ad s e en t h em . S im i la r ly , t h ec omm i t tee i nc ha rge o ft h e e xp lo ra t ion o fV ic to r ia C ave i n c luded J ame sF a r re r ,e xcava to r o f Ma eshowe , w ho w ou ld s u r e ly h ave b een i n fo rmed o fa ny r u n ic f i nd s .

n o t f ound o n t h e S e t t le s l a te ( s ee F igu re 4 5 ) . G iven t h a t t h e d r aw ing sw e re m ade i nt h ed ays b efo r ep owe r f u le l ec t r ic l i gh t i n g ,t h e se d if e rence sd o n o ta ppea rt ob ep a r t icu la r ly s i gn if i c an t .I ndeed ,o ne o fP e t r ie ' sd raw ing ss how st h ef i r s tr une w i th am uch s ho r te rv e r t ica lt h an i nt he F a r re re ng rav ing , a nd t h er r une i nh i sd raw ing i sa l so c l o se rt ot h a to nt h eS e t t le s l a te ( s ee B a rne s , i np rep . ) . S im i la r ly , ar ecen tp ho tog raph a nd ad raw i n g o ft h e s ur v iv ing f r agmen t s o f Mae showe 1 7 d o n o t s how t h e o t he r p unc tua t ion ma rk p i c tu red i nF a r re r 's d raw ing ( s ee p ho tog raph a nd d r aw ing i nB a rne s 1 989 ,F ig s 1a nd 2 ;B a rne s 1 994 ,P l s3 9a nd 4 0 ) . C ompa r ison b e tween F a r re r 's e ng rav ing a nd t h er ema in ing p i ece so f Mae showe 1 7( a nd P e t r ie ' sd raw i n g ) a l so d emon s t ra te s t h a t t h e r une s i nF a r r e r 's d r aw ing s a r e r a the rt i d ie rt h an t h e o r ig ina l s , p robab ly t h er e su l to fh ow t h e e ng rav ing s w e re p r epa red f o r p ub l ica t ion ( s ee B a rne s 1 994 , P i s3 8 ,3 9a nd 4 0 ;F a r re r 1 862 ,P l . D C ) .2 S wan ton w r i te s : ' On t h e S e t t le s t one t h e r unes a r e c u t mo re d eep ly a nd o n ar a the r s ma l le r s ca le ' ( Swan ton 1 969 , 2 14 ) . M ichae lB a rne sh a sr e cen t ly o b served t h a tw h i le t h e re i s : ' .no s i gn if i can td if e rence i nb read th o rd ep th o fc a rv ing ' b e tween t h eS e t t le s l a te a nd t h er ema in ing p i ece so f Mae showe 1 7 ,t h e

S wan ton w r i te s o ft h e a ppa ren t g eo log ica l a s soc ia t ion o ft h e s l a t ew i th V ic to r ia C ave : ' The S e t t le s t one i s at h in s l ab o fc a lca reou s mud s tone o f ak i nd c ommon n ea r V ic to r ia C ave . . . M ic ro scop ic e xam ina t ion o f mud r ema in ing i ns u r f ace i r regu la r i t ie s s how si tt ob e aw a sh o fc ave e a r th m ine ra log ica l ly i d en t i ca l w i th s amp le st a k en f r om V ic to r ia C ave ' ( Swan ton

S e t t le r une s a r e s l igh t ly s ma l le r t h an t h o se o f Mae showe 1 7 . H oweve r , g i ven t h e v a r ia t ion i nh e igh ta nd b r ead th o fc e r t a in r une s o n Mae showe 1 7 ' , t h e se a r e , ' . .no t . . . g r ea te nough t os how t h a t w e a r e d ea l ing w i th t wo s epa ra te i n sc r ip t ion s ' ( Ba rne s , i np rep . ) .

1 969 , 2 12 ) . H oweve r , p a r t o f Mae showe 1 7 a nd t h e S e t t le s l a t e h ave r e c en t ly b een e xam ined b y D r A . L iv ing s tone o ft h e N a t iona l Mu seum s o fS co t land G eo logy D epa r tmen t , a nd b o th p i ece s w e re s hown t ob e a r g i l la ceou s l am ina te w i th s im i la rm ine ra l o g ica l c ompo s i t ion . H e f u r the r n o te s t h a t t h i s t y pe o fl am i -

C onc lu s ion H oweve r ,f o l low ing ar e cen ta t temp tt op u tt o ge the rt h eS e t t le Ma e showe 1 7j i g saw p uzz le , M ichae l B a rne s w r i te s t h a t t h e s l a t e a nd f r agmen t Bo f Mae showe 1 7 ' s imp ly d o n o t f i tt o g e the r ' ( M ichae l B a rne s , p e r s .comm . ) . Wha t w e re p r ev iou s ly

n a t e t e nd s t ob e d a rke r i nc o lou r i nt h e S e t t le a r ea , a nd t h a t t h e r ei sn or e a son w hy t h et wo p i e ce ss hou ld n o tb ep a r to ft h e s ame s t one ( s ee B a rne s ,i np r ep . ) . I n d eed , wh i le G igg le sw ick S choo l Mu seum c e r ta in ly h ou sed o b jec t sf r om t h e 1 870 sw o rk a tV ic to r ia C ave , i ti sn o tk nown w ha t o the r o b je c t s o fu nce r ta in p rovenance w e re k ep t t h e re . T he r un ic s l a te may b e long t ot h i s l a t te r g roup o f a r t e f ac t s ,

a s sumed t ob et h et o p so ft h es i de -b ranche so fS e t t le r une 4o n f r agmen t Ba r et o ta l ly o u to fl i ne w i th t h ec o r re spond ing ( a nd a l so c omp le te )s i de -b ranche so nt h eS e t t le s l a te .T oge the rw i th t h em i s s ing p unc tua t ion ma rk a f te rr une 5o n t h e S e t t le s l a te ( b u ts e ea bove )a nd t h es l igh t ly s ma l le rs i z eo ft h eS e t t le r une s , B a rne s c onc lude s t h a t t h e s l a te i s mo s t l i ke ly t or ep re sen t a n i n nocen t c opy o f t h e i n sc r ip t ion , p e rhap s made b y F a r re r

a nd m ay t h e re fo r ea l so b e am i s s ing p a r to f Mae showe 1 7 .

( Ba rne s , p e r s .co rnm . ) . 3H oweve r , h e a l so n o te s : ' T o t h e r i gh t 1 37

o ft h e t o po f ro n t h e s ame p i ece [ Ma e showe 1 7 ] c an b e s een s eve ra l e x t raneou s l i ne s a nd i ti sq u i te c once ivab le t ha t o u r

F oo tno te s

" b ranche s" [ t ho se t ha td on o tf i tw i th r une 4o nt h eS e t t le s l a te ] a r e , a st h e se s e em t ob e , n o mo re t h an c a sua l s c ra tche s ' , a nd h ed oe sn o t` . ru le o u te n t i r e ly t h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a tt h et wo f o rm

1F a r r e rw a sa c tua l ly r e s iden ta tI ng lebo rough H a l la bou tf i ve m i le sn o r th -we s to fS e t t le ( Thoma sL o rd .p e r s .comm . ; s e e B a rne s . i np r ep . ) .

as i ng le i n sc r ip t ion ' ( Ba rne s ,i np rep . ) . G iven t h i s ,t o ge the rw i th t h es t rong s im i la r i t ie sb e tween t h e se t wo i n sc r ip t ion s , o u ri n ab i l i ty t or e cove ra ny c onv inc ing mo t i ve s f o r m ak ing ac opy o ft h i s p a r t icu la r p a r t o f Mae showe 1 7 , a nd t h ef a c tt h a tb o th f r agmen t s a r eg eo log ica l ly s im i la r ,I w ou ld i nde ed p r e f e rt os e et h e S e t t le s l a te a s ap i ece o f Mae s howe 1 7 .C e r ta in ly t h es l a t ec an n ol o nge rb ec on s ide red p a r t o ft h e s ma l lc o rpu s o f1 5S cand inav ian r un ic i n sc r ip t ion st h a t h ave b een f o und i nE ng land .

2T he e ng rav ing si nF a r re r1 862 w e re d r awn mo s t ly b yG eo rge P e t r ie o f K i rkwa l l a nd t h en c ompa red w i th t h e o r ig ina l s b yM rG ibb o fA be rdeen .T he d r aw ing sm ade b yG ibb w e r e c o l la ted t w ice w i th H en ry L a ing ' sc a s t so ft h ei n sc r ip t ion s i nt h eN a t iona l Mu seum o fA n t iqua r ie so fS co t land , E d in b u rgh ( Fa r re r 1 862 , i x -x ) . 3 1w ou ld l i ke t ot hank M ichae l B a rne s f o r k eep ing m e i n f o rmed a bou th i sa nd t h eR oya l Mu seum o fS co t land ' sw o rk o n t h e S e t t le i n sc r ip t ion , a nd f o r a low ing m e t or e ad h i s a ccoun to ft h i si n sc r ip t ion b efo re p ub l ica t ion .

1 38

CHAPTER 2 1 : D ISCUSS ION : THE RO MANO -BR IT ISH U SAGE OF V ICTOR IA CAVE

b y Mar t in J .D earne

Ad ef in i t ive d i scu s s ion o fV ic to r ia C ave 's R omano -Br i t i sh a r c haeo logy i sn o ty e t e n t i re ly p o s s ib le o rd e s i rab le . I t s f a una l m a te r ia lr ema in st ob ef u l ly e va lua ted o rp ub l ished ,f u r the rr e s e a r ch i n to t h ep r ovenance o ft h e ma te r ia lp ub l ished h e re may y e ta low s ome r ef inemen t st ob e made ,a nd an umbe ro fo t he r s i t e si nt h ei mmed ia te v i c in i ty ,w h ich a r el i ke ly t oh ave p l ayed ar o le i nt h e s i t e ' s u sage , o rr e p r e sen tp a ra l le ls f o ra c t iv i ty a t i t ,r ema in t ob ep ub l i shed . I np a r t icu la rA t term i re C ave ( s ) , l y i n g as ho r t d i s tance f r om V ic to r ia C ave , y i e lded al a rge a nd v a r ied a s semb lage o ff i nd si nm any w ays s im i la rt oV ic to r ia ' s w hen t h ey w e r ee xcava ted i nt h ee a r ly t wen t ie th c en tu ry .T h i s m a te r ia l ,a nd r e co rd so ft h ee xcava t ion s ,a r ee x tan ti nt h eL o rd C o l lec t ion a nd t h e ma te r ia l h a s l e s s o ft h e p rovenance p rob l em sa s soc ia t ed w i th t h a tf r om V ic to r ia C ave .I tmay t h e re fo r e p o t en t ia l ly s e r v et oi lum ina t ea spec t s o ft h e l ate r s i te . Al i t t l e s tud ied p a t t e rn o f o f t en u nda ted o pen s i te a c t iv i ty i nt h e v i c in i ty o fb o th c ave s i sa l so k nown a nd i n c lude s a tl e a s tt wo s i gn if ican ts e t t lemen t s k nown o rp re sumed t ob e o fR omano B r i t i sh d a te ( V i c to r ia C amp a nd A t te rm i re C amp E a s t ) ;o ne o r b o th may h av eh ad as i gn if ican tr e la t ion sh ip t oV ic to r ia C ave . T he a u tho r s o ft h e p re sen t v o lume h ope t op ub l i sh d e ta i l s o f t h er ema in ing V i c to r ia C ave f i nd s , a ccoun t s o fA t te rm i re a nd o t h e ru t i l i sed c a ve si nt h eS e t t le r e g ion a nd af u l le ra ccoun to f V i c to r ia C av e ' s P l e is tocene a r chaeo logy a nd t h e p rovenance o fi t sl a te rf i nd si ns ub sequen tw o rk s . T hu s , af u l l c on s ide ra t ion o fV ic to r ia C ave 's R omano -B r i t i sh a r chaeo logy i sr e se rved f o rt h e se p ub l ica t ion s .I ndeed ,t h ep r in c i pa l a im s o ft h ec u r ren t v o lume a r e t op re sen t ar e cons t ruc t i on o ft h e s i t ea nd i t s e xcava t ion h i s to ry , t oc o r rec t t h e m i s l e ad ing p i c tu r e o f i t s f i nd s s ome t ime s g iven b y t h e l im i ted a c coun t s p r ev iou s ly a va i lab le , a nd t op ub l i sh i nd e ta i l a l l t h e a r t e f ac ts c e r ta in ly o rp robab ly f r om i ta sp a r to f aw ide rp roc e s s o f mak ing p r ima ry e v idence a va i lab le t o aw ide r p ub l ic .

Aw a s h i gh e nough t os t and u p r igh t i no n ly f o r i t s f i r s t f ew m e t re s ; b eyond t h i s a c ce s s w ou ld h ave b een a tb e s to n h and s a nd k nee sa nd o f t en ad if icu l tc r aw l .O n ly b yc r awl ing t h rough ac on t rac ted s pace s ome w ay i n to C hambe r Aw a s a n a r ea ( Chambe rB )r e ached i n wh ich o ne c ou ld a ga in s t and u p r igh t . H e re ,i n al a rge c hambe rw i th p robab ly i mp re s s ive c a lc i te f o r m a t ion sa r t if ic ia ll i gh tw ou ld h ave b een e s sen t ia la nd t h ew a l l s a nd f l oo r may o f ten h ave b een s l ippe ry i fn o ti nt h el a t te rc a se c ove red w i th p oo l s o f w a te r . T he c ave s i te , c on s ide red a sa d i sc re te a c t iv i ty a r ea ,d i dn o t ,h oweve r ,c on s i s ts o le ly o ft h e se c hambe r s . Ap l a t eau ,p o s s ib ly a r t if i c ia l ,l a yo u t s ide t h ee n t rance t oC hambe r A , w a s s he l te red b y as pu r o fr o ck o n t h e n o r th a nd c l ea r ly s aw a c t iv i ty , a st os ome l im i ted d eg ree m ay h ave t h ea d jacen tA lbe r tC ave . T ha t a l l a r ea s o ft h e c ave , e xcep t p e rhap s t h e i n ne r p a r t s o f C hambe rB ,p lu st h ep l a teau w e re i nu se i ss ugge s ted b yw ha t f i nd d i s t r ibu t ion r e co rd s a r ea va i lab le .Av a r ie ty o fc oppe ra l l o y ,i r on , g l a ss ,j e t / sha le , w o rked s t one a nd w o rked b one /an t l e ro b jec t s , a sw e l l a sp o t t e ry a nd f a una l ma te r ia l , w a sr e cov e r ed f r om a l l a r ea s , e ven t h e i n ne rmo s t r e ce s se s o fC hambe r A . S ome c ou ld r e p r e sen t r e -depo s i t ion . Dog s a ppea rt oh ave b een a c t ive a tt h es i t ei nt h eR omano -Br i t i sh p e r iod a nd m igh t h ave moved f auna lm a t e r ia ld eepe ri n to t h ec ave ;r e pea ted h u m an e n t ry w ou ld t e nd t oh ave as im i la re f ec to na ny m a te r ia l l y ing o n t h e s u r f a ce ; a nd p e rhap s mo s t i mpo r tan t ly p o s t -Ro m an u se o ft h ec ave b ya n ima l ss u ch a sb adge r sa nd f ox e sc ou ld h ave l e d t os ome r e -wo rk ing o fd epo s i t s a nd s od i spe r s ion o f c l u s te red f i nd s a nd /o r m ovemen t o f ma te r ia l a l ong t h e c ave . H oweve r ,t h e se p roce s se sa r eu n l ike ly t oe xp la in a lo ft h ef i nd s m ad ei na r ea ss uch a sC hamb e rA b eyond t h ee n t r ance t oC ham b e r B , b e s ide s wh ich c ha rcoa l w a s n o ted a l t h e w ay t ob e y ond t h es ou the r ly t ur na tt h eb a ck o fC hambe rA . C e r ta in ly t hough t h e re i ss ome e v idence t os ugge s tt h a tt h e re w e re a r ea s w i th h i ghe ra r te f ac td i sca rd r a te s t h an o t he r s .T h e

N eve r the le s si ti sa pp rop r ia te h e r et or e -empha s i se s ome o ft h e c onc lu s ion s r e a ched a bove , e spec ia l ly a bou t t h e f o rm o ft h e s i t e , t oe xam in es ome o ft h ei mp l ica t ion s o ft h e f i nd s a sc a ta l o gued , a nd t op r ov i s iona l ly c on s ide r s ome p o s s ib le mode l s

w e s te rn e nd o fC hambe rB ,t oj udge f r om w ha tc an b er e con s t ruc ted o ft h ee a r l ie s tw o rk i nt h ec ave , m igh t h ave b een e s p ec ia l ly h eav i ly u sed ; a nd s ome c oncen t ra t ion o f f i nd s i n C hambe rA n ea rt h ee n t rance t oC hambe r Bs e em st oh ave b een f ound i n 1 870 . O the rc oncen t ra t ion s may h ave o ccu r red n ea r p a r t ia lb ou lde rb l ockage so fb o th c hambe r sa nd p e rhap sa tt h e ' n ew ' ( 1870 ) e n t rance t oC hambe rA ; b u ti ti sn o tab le t h a t i n t h eo ne a r ea w he re d ay l igh tp ene t ra ted a nd t h ec ave w a sh i gh

o fs i te u sage . V i c to r ia C ave ,t h ough s ome d e ta i ls o fi t s p re -excava t ion ( a nd s oR omano -B r i t i sh ) f o rm a r e n ow l o s t , w a s c l ea r ly d a rk a nd d i ff icu l t o fa c ce s s i n many a r ea s b u t i n c luded amuch mo r e s p a c ious c hambe r ( Chambe r B ) w i th i mp re ss ive s t a lagm i te f o rma t ion s a nd p o s s ib le d r ip a nd s t and ing w a te rf e a tu re s . E i -

e nough t os t and u pi n( t he f i r s tf ew m e t re so fC hambe rA )v e ry f ew f i nd s a r er e co rded a sh av ing b een made .

t h e ro ne o rt wo s ma l le n t rance sg ave a cce ss t oC hambe rAa nd p r ov ided t h e l i t t le n a tu ra l l i gh t t op ene t ra te t h e c ave s y s tem ; f u l ld ay l igh tw ou ld h ave b een r e s t r ic ted t ot h ef i r s tf ew m e t re s o ft h ec hamb e ra nd o n ly at w i l igh tc ou ld h ave p ene t ra ted e ven t h em idd le s e c t ion o fi t .T he i n ne rp a r to fC hambe rAa nd t h e

F ew l i ke ly s i gn if ican tv a r ia t ion si nt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fa r tef a c t s b y o b jec t t ype o rm a te r ia l c an b e d i sce rned i nt h e a va i lab le r e co rd s . T he o n ly r e a l ly n o tab le o ne s a re t h e n ea ra b sence o f b rooche so nt h ep l a teau c ompa r ed t ot h en umbe r sf o und w i th -

w ho le o fC hambe r Bw ou ld h ave b een e n t i re ly d a rk .C hambe r 1 39

i nt h e c ave a nd ap o s s ib le p r eponde rance o fp i e r ced s poon s w e l l i n to t h e c ave . H oweve r , b rooche s a tl e a s t a r e b e t t e r r e c o rded t h an a lmo s ta ny o the rc a tego ry o ff i nd sa nd i ti sp o s s i b l e t h a to the rs i gn if ican tp a t te rn s o fd epo s i t ion o r ig ina l ly e x i s ted . I ndeed , t h e p o s s ib le s i gn if icance o f t h e l e s s t h an c omp le te ly r e co rded s t onewo rk d i s t r ibu t ion i sn o ted b e low . T ak ing t h es i te ' sf i nd sa s as imp le a ccumu la t ion o fo b jec t sf r om o ne d i sc re te a c t iv i ty a r ea , h oweve r , an umbe r o f i n te r e s t ing o b se rva t ion sm ay b e made .F i r s tt h ough ,i ti si mpo r tan tt os t r e s s t h ev a ry ing r e l iab i l i ty o ft h e i rp rovenance s . O n ly t h em a t e r ia l i nt h e c a ta logue s m a rked w i th p rovenance / cu ra t ion c ode s J I , S , BA , a nd C ( a bou t 2 8% o ft h e c a ta logue s ) c e r ta in ly c ame f r om V ic to r ia C av e .A l lo ft h er e s tc ou ld h ave a nd t h e r ei sv e ry l i t t le d oub tt h a tv e ry much o fi td id .A tp re sen tt h ough i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t ob ec e r ta in o ft h ep rovenance o fa ny i n d iv idua li t em ma rked J K , Bo rV .D raw ing c onc lu s ion s b a sed o n ly o n s u ch i t em sw ou ld t h u sb ei n adv i sab le ,t h ough ,e spec ia l ly w he re t h ey a r en ume rou s , t h ey c an p robab ly b eu sed w i th c a re t os uppo r t c onc lu s ion s d rawn f r om d ef in i t e V ic to r ia f i nd s . T he v a l id i ty o ft h i s may b es uppo r ted b y t a b le s 2 1 .1 a nd 2 1 .2 w h ich s how a b so lu te a nd p e rcen tage v a lue s f o r t h e n on -ce ram ic /v i t reou s f i nd sb roken d own i n to t h ef unc t iona lc a tego r ie ss ugge s ted b y C rummy ( 1992 ) , w i th t h e a dd i t ion o f ac a tego ry f o rb u rn i sh i n gs t one s ( c a t ego ry 1 6a ) , ( a nd c oun t ing b one p i e rced s poon s i nc a tego ry 1 ;o b jec t s o fp e r sona l o rnamen ta nd d r e s s ) . C om p a r i son o ft h e se t a b le ss how st h a tt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fu nequ iv o ca l ly p rovenanced ( t ab le 2 1 .1) a nd o f t h e w ho le c o rpu s o f f i nd s ( t ab le 2 1 .2 ) i sv ery s im i la r . T hus , e ven i fs i gn if i can t a moun t so fn on -V ic to r ia C ave ma te r ia lh ave b een i n c luded i n t h e c a ta logue s t h ey s e em l i ke ly t oh ave d e r ived f r om s i t e ( s ) w i th s im i la rf i nd type p rof i le st oV ic to r ia 's .T h i si sn o te n t i re l ys u rp r i s ing a st h e ma in s i te w ho se f i nd s a r e l i k e ly t oh ave ' c on tam ina ted 't h e a s semb lage p ub l i shed h e r e i sD owke rbo t t om H o le , a no the r u t i l i sed c ave o n ly 1 0 m i le s a way , d ef in i te f i nd s f r om w h ich o f ten h ave p a r t icu la r ly c l o se p a ra l le l s f r om V ic to r ia C ave .

c onve r se ly b e long t ot h e ( l a te ) t h i rd a nd f ou r th c en tu r ies . I n v i ew o ft h ea moun to fm a te r ia l w i thou ti n con t rove r t ib le p rov e nance t og o f u r the r t h an t h i s o n a r tef ac tua l e v idence a l one w ou ld b eu nw i se .T he n um i sma t ic e v idence i so fr e la t ive ly l i t t l e h e lp h e re s i nce much c o in d epo s i t ion i sa sl i ke ly t oh ave r e f lec ted t r end si n money s upp ly a nd p rov inc ia le conom ic sa s s i te c i rcum s tance s . T he a b sence o f u sua l ly w e l l r ep re sen ted m id t ol a te f ou r th c en tu ry i s sue s i sn o tab le b u tt h e p o t te ry i n d ica te s a c t iv i ty a t t h e s i te d u r ing t h i s p e r iod , a nd i ndeed t h roughou tt h e s e cond t of ou r th c en tu r ie s . T he r e la t iv e p ropo r t ion s o fo b jec t s i nt h e d if e ren t f unc t iona l c a tego r ie s d e s igna ted i nt a b le s 2 1 .1 a nd 2 1 .2 d o t hough g i ve t h e s i t ea s semb lage ad i s t inc tc ha rac te r . F i r s t ly , a se a r ly e xca v a to r s n o ted , t h e ma te r ia li sd om ina ted b y o b jec t s o fp e r sona l o rnamen to rd r e ss .A dm i t ted ly , w i th in t h ef i gu re sa r ei n c luded t h eb one /an t le rp i e rced s poon s a nd ,t h ough ad eco ra t ive i n ten t o fs ome s o r ti sa ppa ren ti nm any , t h e i rf unc t ion i ss t i l ld eba ta b l e . H oweve r , e ven i ft h ey w e re t ob er e -c la s s if ied t h e p rom i n ence o fp e r sona l o rnamen t s a nd d r e s s i t em s w ou ld s t i l l b e a ppa ren t . I n deed , i th a s b een s hown t h a t t h e ( l a rge r ) c oppe r a l loy c omponen t o f t h e c a tego ry may u nde r r ep re sen t t h e ' b ronzewo rk ' p e r sona l o rnamen t s r e cove red f r om t h e s i te ( above p 38 ) . Numbe r so fg l a s s b ead s a nd a rm le t s a r e a l so n o t i n c luded i nt h ef i gu re s . T h i s h i gh p r opo r t ion o fc a tego ry 1o b jec t s i nt a b le s 2 1 .1 a nd 2 1 .2 i sn o tt h eo n ly n o tab le ' p eak 'i nt h ed i s t r ibu t ion b y f unc t i on . L owe r o ne s c e r ta in ly o ccu r i nc a tego r ie s 1 0 ( t oo l s ) a nd 1 ( f a s tene r sa nd f i t t ing s ) ,a sw e l l a s ,w hen t h ef u l lc a ta logued a s semb lage i sc on s ide r ed ,i nc a tego r ie s 3( t ex t i le / lea the rw o rk i ng i t em s ) , 1 6 ( bone /an t le r w o rk ing e v idence ) a nd p e rhap s 4 ( hou seho ld u t en s i l s / fur n i tu r e e l emen t s ) . Aga in c avea t s e x i s t s i nce c a t ego ry 1 i sl a rge ly c ompo sed o fb one t ogg le s wh ich m igh t a l t e rna t ive ly b e a r gued a sp e r sona l d re s s i t em s , w h i le c a tego ry 4 ' s p rom inence i se xagge ra ted b y al a rge g roup o f ? box s t ud s , m any o fw h ich p robab ly r e p r e sen t as i ng le o b jec t d epos i ted o u t s ide t h ec a ve . H oweve r , i ti se v iden tt h a tt h em a t e r ia l d epo s i ted i ns i gn if ican t q uan t i t ie s w a s n o t r e s t r ic ted t o d eco ra t iv ep e r sona li t em s . I ndeed ,t h er a nge o ff i nd c a tego r ie s

I ndeed , many o ft h e f e a tu re s d emon s t ra ted b y w ha t m ay b e t e rmed t h ec e r ta in f i nd s a r es ha red b y w ha tm ay b ec a l led t h e f u l l c a ta logued a s semb lage . I nd a te i nb o th i n s tance s ar a nge

p re sen ti sn o tab le ,o n ly c a tego r ie s 1 2( a g r icu l tu ra li mp lemen t s ) , 1 4 ( c lea r ly r e l ig iou s i t em s ) a nd 1 7 ( po t tery manufac tu r ing i t em s )b e ing u n rep r e sen ted . Mo reove r ,t h ep robab le d i sp ropo r t i ona te l o s s o fi r onwo rk f r om t h e s i te ( a bove p 38 ) a l low s o f t he p o s s ib i l i ty t h a tt h ea b sence o fc a tego ry 1 2i t em si si luso ry ( and p e rhap st h a tc a tego ry 1 0i t em sw e re mo re n ume rou st h an

f r om t h el a te f i r s t /ea r ly s e cond c en tu ry t ol a te t h i rd a nd f ou r th c en tu r ie si se v iden t .T he c e ram ic a nd g la ss e v idence ,s e em st o b e i na g reemen t w i th t h i s w i th v e s se l s r e p re sen t ing t h e s e c o nd , t h i rd a nd f ou r th c en tu r ie sa nd t h e Hun tc l if fc ook ing p o t s a nd s ome o the ri t em si nd ica t ing s i te u sage i n to t h es e cond h a lf o ft h e f ou r th c en tu ry .T hough t h e re i sa n a b sence o fi s sue s o f t h e m id t ol a te f ou r th c en tu ry , t h e c o in e v idence i sa l so c on -

i sn ow a ppa ren t ) .

s i s ten tw i th t h i s . Whe the ra c t iv i ty w a s s po rad ic o rc on t inuou s i sv e ry d if i cu l t t oj udge ( a nd t h e p o ss ib i l i ty o fs e a sona l u se c anno t b e a dd r e s sed u n t i l r e sea r ch i np rog re s s o n t h e f a una l ma te r ia li sc omp le ted ) , b u ti tw a se v iden t ly e x t ended .S i te u se s c ena r io se nv i sag ing as ma l ln umbe ro fv e ry w ide ly s e pa ra ted

C e r ta in c a t ego r ie sa r ea l so c ompo sed o ff i nd sw h ich w e re c l ea r l yo r ig ina l l yi n t end ed f o r ag i ven f unc t ion b u tw ho se p re sence i nt h ec ave c ou ld b eu n r e la ted t of unc t ion .T hu s ,i fo b jec t sw e r e s e lec ted f o r d epo s i t ion b ecau se o f a ppea rance n o t i n tended

b u r s t so fa c t iv i ty w ou ld b ev e ry d if i cu l tt o ma in ta in .

f unc t ion ,i tc ou ld e xp la in i t em sl i k e t h ee name l led s ea l b ox ( s ) c omp r i s ing c a tego ry 7 ,s ome o ft h e m i l i ta ry i t em s ( c a tego ry

R e la t ive f r equenc ie s o f a r tef ac t d epo s i t ion a r e a l so h a rd t o

1 3 ) a nd p e rhap s a ga in t h e s t ud s i nc a tego ry 1 . I fi t em s w e re p re sen tb ecau se o f , s a y , t h e i rs c rap v a lue , an umbe ro fc oppe r a l loy i t em s , e spec ia l ly t h e c u t a nd ? hamme red k ey h and le ( No .9 .85 a bove )m igh ts im i la r ly b ec i ted ;a nd mos ti mpo r tan t -

g auge a s many o b jec t s c anno t b e c l o se ly d a ted . N ume rou s b rooche s ,p i e r ced s poon sa nd b one /an t le ro b jec tt y pe sw i th I r on A ge o r ig in sm ay b ed a ted t ot h el a te f i r s ta nd p a r t icu la r ly s e c -

l yt h e a b sence o fc onven t iona l ly i d en t if ied ' r e l ig iou s ' o b jec t s n eed n o tr u le o u t ar i tua le l emen ti nt h ea r t ef ac tua la s semb lage .

o nd c en tu r ie s ; b u tn umbe r s o fb race le t s , p i n sa nd o t he ri t em s 1 40

1

2

2 9

3

B one /an t le re t c . 1 7

2

C oppe ra loy

3

4

5

1

6

7

1

2

F unc t iona lC a tego ry 8 9 1 0 1 1

1 2

1 5

1 3

1 4

1 5

1 6

1 6A

1 7

1 8 T o ta l

1

3

5 6

1

2

4 0

8

2 1

I r on L ead

S t one

5

5

2

6

2

5

3

3

O the r

1

1

T o ta l

4 7

6

7

6

1

1

2

2

1 2

1 5

2

3

3

3 7 .6

4 . 8

5 . 6

4 . 8

0 . 8

0 . 8

1 . 6

1 . 6

9 . 6

1 2 .0

1 . 6

2 . 4

2 . 4

P e r cen tage

1

3 1 3

1 20

1 0 .4 1 00

F unc t iona lc a tego r ie s : 1 :P e r sona la do rnmen t /d r e s s ;2 :T o i le t / su rg ica l /pha rmaceu t ica li t em s ; 3 :I t em sa s soc ia ted w i th t e x t i le / l e a the rw o rk ing ;4 :H ou seho ld u t en s i l sa nd f u rn i tu re e l emen t s ; 5 :O b jec t sa s soc ia t ed w i th r e c rea t ion ; 6 :O b je c t sa s soc ia ted w i th w e igh ing a nd mea su r ing ;7 :O b jec t sa s soc ia ted w i th w r i t ten c ommun ica t ion ; 8 :O b jec t sa s soc ia ted w i th t r an spo r t ;9 : O b je c t sa s soc ia ted w i th b u i ld ing sa nd s e rv ice s ; 1 0 :T oo l s ; 1 : F a s tene r sa nd f i t t ing s ; 1 2 : Ag r icu l tu ra li t em s ; 1 3 :M i l i ta ry i t em s ; 1 4 : R e l ig iou si t em s ; 1 5 : Me ta lwo rk ing e v idence ; 1 6 : B one /an t le rw o rk ing e v idence ; 1 6A : B u rn i she r s ; 1 7 : P o t te ry m anuf ac tu r i n gi t em s ; 1 8 : u n iden t if ied o b jec t s . T ab le 2 1 .1 :T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fc e r ta in ly p rovenanced n on -ce ram ic /v i t reous V ic to r ia C ave f i nd s( p rovenance / cu ra t ion c a tego r ie s BA , T La nd S )b y f unc t ion a nd m a te r ia l .

C oppe ra l loy I r on

1

2

3

4

9 3

1 0

3

1 3

3

5

6

7

4

2

F unc t iona lC a t ego ry 8 9 1 0 1

2

L ead

1 5

1

B one /an t le re t c .5 7

2

2 5

S t one

3

3

1 2

1 3

3

3 6

2

7

1

1

1 4

1 5

1 6

1 6A

1 7

2

1 8 T o ta l 2 3

1 91

3 6

6 5

1

2

5

3

2

6

1

1 0

2 4 4

1

7

1 0

1 35

1 2

4 0

O the r

1

1

3

1 5

T o ta l

1 64

1 6

3 2

2 0

3

5

2

3

1 7

2 6

3 7

4

6

2 5

7

8 1

4 48

P e r cen tage

3 6 .6

3 . 6

7 . 1

4 . 5

0 . 7

1 . 1

0 . 4

0 . 7

3 . 8

5 . 8

8 . 3

0 . 9

1 . 3

5 . 6

1 . 6

1 8 .1

1 00

F unc t iona lc a tego r ie s : 1 :P e r sona la do rnmen t /d r e s s ;2 :T o i le t / su rg ica l /pha rmaceu t ica li t em s ;3 :I t em sa s soc ia ted w i th t e x t i le / l e a the rw o rk ing ;4 :H ou seho ld u t en s i l sa nd f u rn i tu re e l emen t s ; 5 :O b jec t sa s soc ia ted w i th r e c rea t ion ;6 :O b jec t sa s soc ia ted w i th w e igh ing a nd mea su r ing ;7 :O b je c t sa s so c ia ted w i th w r i t ten c ommun ica t ion ; 8 :O b je c t sa s soc ia ted w i th t r an spo r t ;9 : O b jec t s a s soc ia ted w i th b u i ld ing sa nd s e rv ice s ; 1 0 :T oo l s ; 1 : F a s tene r sa nd f i t t ing s ; 1 2 : Ag r icu l tu ra li t em s ; 1 3 :M i l i ta ry i t em s ; 1 4 : R e l ig iou si t em s ; 1 5 : Me ta lwo rk ing e v idence ; 1 6 : B one /an t le rw o rk ing e v idence ; 1 6A : B u rn ishe r s ; 1 7 : P o t te ry m anuf a c tu r i n gi t em s ; 1 8 :u n iden t if ied o b jec t s . T ab le 2 1 .2 : T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ew ho le c a ta logued c o rpu so fn on -ce ram ic /v i t reou sf i nd sb y f unc t ion a nd m a te r ia l . 1 41

R i tua l s i gn if i cance i sn o t n ece s sa r i ly i mbued t oa n o b jec t b y i t sf o rm b u to f t en b yt h ea c to fd epo s i t ing i ti n as pec if ic c on t e x t a nd /o r r i tua l ly ' k i l l ing ' i t . T he r e i sn o i n d ica t ion o f t h e

t h o se u s ing t h ec ave w i th r e d i s t r ibu t ion c en t r e so pe ra t ing w i th in aR oman ma rke te conomy , a sd oi t em s ( s ome a tl e a s tu nque s t i onab ly f r om t h e s i te ) s uch a st h ej e t / sha le a nd a mbe rf i nd s , t h em a rb le p a le t te a nd s ome g l a s sf i nd s .A l lo ft h eb one /an t le r

l a t t e ra tV ic to r ia C ave b u tp e r sona l or namen t s ,c o in s ,m i l i ta ry i t em s ,r e la t ive ly h i gh s t a tus i t em s( l ik et h ek ey h and le ) ,e l abo r a te ly w o rked p i ece ss uch a ss ome o ft h ep i e r ced s poon s( wh ich i nt h em se lve sm igh th ave r i tua ls i gn if icance )a nd ' c u r io s '( l ike t h es t one s phe re sN o s 1 6 .37 a nd 1 6 .38 a bove )m igh tb et h ough t a pp rop r ia te ' of e r ing s ' .

m a te r ia l c ou ld h ave b een m ade o u t s ide am a rk e t e conomy ; c once ivab ly a tt h e s i te i t se lf . H oweve r , i fs ome o fi td i d n o t d e r ive f r om aR oman i sed s i te i tm ay w e l lh ave b een p roduced f o ro ne .T he b one i n lay ( a nd c oppe ra loy s t ud s ) f ound b yT o t L o rd o n t h e p l a teau i nf r on t o ft h e c ave a r e i t em s a s soc ia ted w i th b oxe so rf u rn i tu re w h ich w ou ld s e em t ob ee n t i re ly a l ien t o ac ave o rP enn ine o pen r u ra l s i te .

T h i s h av ing b een s a id t hough s ome c a tego r ie so ff i nd s a ppea r u n l ik e ly t oh ave b een d epo s i ted o t he rt h an b ecau se t h ey w e re

I ndeed , t h e c oppe r a l loy a s semb lage e spec ia l ly , e ven i fs ome e l emen t s o fi tc ou ld c once ivab ly h ave c ome f r om o n /nea rs i te o rl o ca l p roduc t ion , i se n t i r e ly o u to fk eep ing i nq uan t i ty a nd

t h er e qu i s i te so rb y -p roduc t so fo n s i te a c t iv i t ie s . Ac a se m igh t b em ade o u tf o rs ome o ft h et e x t i le w o rk ing i t em sb e ing s u i ta b l e f o r r i tua l d epo s i t ion a s t h ey w e re r ep re sen ta t ive o f c r a f t a c t iv i t ie s i mpo r tan tt oi nd iv idua l s o rg roup s . H oweve r , i t em s s u ch a su nf in i shed b one /an t le ro b je c t s ,c u ta nd s awn b one /an t le r r e p re sen t ing o n ly i n i t ia l r aw ma te r ia l p repa ra t ion , f r agmen t s o fc oppe ra l loy s hee t ing e t c . a r ev e ry d if i cu l t t ov i ew a so b j e c t sd e l ibe ra te ly s e lec ted f o rd epo s i t ion a so ppo sed t oc a sua l -

q ua l i ty w i th t h e u sua l f i nd s f r om n on -u rban /m i l i ta ry s i te s i n t h en o r th o fE ng land a si st h ep o t te ry . S ome p i ece s o fc oppe r a l loy , a s w e l l a s o ne o f i v o ry , u nque s t ionab ly d e r ived f r om m i l i ta ry p e r sonne l ; o ne b rooch a tl e a s t ( 8 .37 a bove ) w a s a l m o s t c e r ta in ly made i n s ou the rn E ng land , a nd o t he r s a r e o f t y pe s t h a tm igh t b e mo re e xpec ted a tu rban s i te s w he the rt h e

l yd i sca rded .T ha ts ome o ft h e se a r ej u s tt h es o r t s o ff i nd s n o t n o t ed i nt h es ou r ce sr e la t ing t ot h ep rovenance o fV ic to r ia C ave m a te r ia l ,a nd s on ow o fl e s st han c e r ta in p rovenance ,i sr eg re t t a b le b u td oe s n o ti n va l ida te t h ep o in t , b e s ide s w h ich c a tego -

C ro s sbow b rooch ( 8 .17 a bove )c ame f r om t h es i te o rn o t .I t em s s u ch a st h e k ey h and le , s ea l b ox , f i nge r r i ng s a nd c o sme t ic i t em s a l so a ppea ri n compa t ib le , e sp ec ia l ly i nt h en umbe r sr e c ove red , w i th s i te u se b y i n d iv idua l s n o t mo re i n teg ra ted i n

r i e s o ff i nd sl i k et h es t onewo rk n o td e r iv ing f r om t h eJ ack son

s ome w ay i n to R oman m a te r ia lc u l tu re t h an m o s tm embe r so f t h er u ra lp opu la t ion . Much t h es ame i st r ue o ft h eq uan t i ty a nd v a r ie ty o ft h ec o inage f r om t h ec ave a nd t h ep o t te ry ,i n c lud ing ag r a ff i to i mp ly ing l i t e racy a nd c on t inen ta l o r ig in s a mong s t t h o se u s ing t h e s i te , i sc ompa rab le t oa s semb lage s f r om f o r t s i nt h er e g ion .

C o l lec t ion d o a lmo s t c er ta in ly c ome f r om t h e 1 870 w o rk a t t h es i te ,e ven i ft h ey a r en o ti nd iv idua l ly d ocumen ted .T hough t h i sw ou ld ,f o ri n s tance , l e ave aq ue s t ion ma rk o ve rt h ep o s s i b l eg o ld t e s t ing b l ock ( No .16 .28 a bove ) i td oe si mp ly t h a tt h e s e ve ra l b u rn ish ing s t ones a nd p robab ly t h e ? p in b u rn ishe r ( No .16 .8 a bove ) a nd s ha rpen ing s t one ( No .16 .18 a bove ) c an b eu sed f a i r ly c onf iden t ly a ss i te f unc t ion e v idence .

I nc on s ide r ing t h eu se o fa l lc ave s u t i l i sed i nt h eR oman p e r i Wha teve rt h ed epo s i t ion c i rcum s tance so ft h eo b jec t si nf unc t i ona l c a tego r ie s 1 , 2 ,4 ,5 ,6 ,7 ,8 ,9 ,10 ,11 a nd 1 3 i ti st h e re fo re

o d i nB r i ta in t wo o f t h e p r e sen t v o lume a u tho r s p ropo sed a s e r ie s o ff unc t iona l mode l s a nd o u t l ined t h e s i te mo rpho logy a nd n a tu re o ft h ef i nd s t ob ee xpec t ed f o re ach ( B ran igan a nd D ea rne 1 992 , 1 5 -19 ) .T he re in V ic to r ia C ave w a sr e ga rded a sa d ome s t ic s i te ( op c i t , 6 4 )a l ong w i th o t he rS e t t le /G igg le sw ick C ave s i te s . H oweve r , t h i sj udgemen tw a sm ade o nt h eb a s i so f t h e v e ry l im i ted p ub l i shed a ccoun t s o ft h e f i nd s f r om t h e se s i te s a va i lab le a tt h e t ime a nd b ef o re t h e c ommencemen t o f t h er e sea r ch i n to t h eo r ig ina lf o rm o fV ic to r ia C ave p ub l i shed h e re . R e -exam ina t ion o ft h e mode l s i nt h e l i gh t o ft h e much

d if i cu l tn o tt ot a ke t h e ma te r ia l i nc a tego r ie s 1 6( bone /an t le r w o rk ing e v idence ) , p robab ly 3 ( t ex t i le / lea the r w o rk ing e v i d ence ) a nd 1 6A ( b urn ishe r s ) , a nd p o ss ib ly 1 5 ( me ta lwo rk ing e v iden ce ) , t h ough t h e e v idence i nt h e l a t te r c a tego ry i sv e ry l im i ted , t oi mp ly c r a f t a c t iv i ty a ts ome l e ve l i n , o ra tl e a s t o n t h ep l a teau i nf r on to f ,V ic to r ia C ave . G iven t h i s , i ti sa l so i m p or tan tt oe mpha s i se t h ep os s ib i l i ty t h a tp a r t s( t hough n o ta l l ) o ft h eb one /an t le ra s semb lage i np a r t icu la rc ou ld r e p re sen tn o t t h e d epo s i t ion o fu sed o b jec t s b u t o f o b jec t s b roken d u r ing

f u l le r c a ta logue s o f f i nd s a nd r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e s i te p ro v i ded a bove t h e re fo re s eem s a pp rop r ia te .

m anuf ac tu r eo rb e ing s t o red p r io rt os a le ; a nd i ti sp o s s ib le t o s e ea tl e a s t af ew c oppe ra l loy p i ece sa sp o ten t ia le v idence f o r s c rap m e ta ls t o rage a nd t he d i sca rd ing o fu nf in i shed o b jec t s .

A st a b le 2 1 .3 s how s , s even f unc t iona l mode l sw e re d ef ined i n B ran igan a nd D ea rne ( 1992 , 1 9a nd t a b le 2 . 2 ) a nd c ompa r ing t h e p red ic ted mo rpho log ica l a nd a r te f ac tua l p rof i le s s ugge s t e df o rt h em w i th wha ti sk nown o fV ic to r ia C ave i ti se v iden t t h a t s ome p o s s ib le f unc t ion s c an o n t h e se p r ed ic t ion s b e d i s m i s sed i mmed ia te ly . T he a b sence o fa ny s i gn i f ican t a moun t o fh uman s ke le ta l ma te r ia l( a t as i t ew he re b one s u rv ive sw e l l ) s e em st oe l im ina te t h es i te a s ab u r ia lp l ace .T he s i ze a nd v a r i e t yo fV ic to r ia C ave 's a r te f a c tua la s semb lage a nd i t sd ome s t ic p o t te ry e qua l ly a ppea rt or u le t h es i te o u ta s as he l te ro rh idea -

O ne a spec t o f t h e a r tefac tua l /po t te ry ( a nd c o in ) a s semb lage f r om V ic to r ia C ave t h a t d oe s n o t s e em t ob e i nd oub t i st h e u l t ima te o r ig in a nd s oc io -econom ic c onnec t ion so ft h ed epo s i t o r s o f many o ft h e f i nd s . A s D av id S ho t te r h a s p o in ted o u t a bove , much o ft h e c o inage f r om t h e s i te mu s t h ave d e r ived m o re o rl e s sd i rec t ly f r om t r ade a tt h em i l i ta ry v i c io u t s ide t h e f o r t si nt h er eg ion ( o rj u s tp o ss ib ly f r om t h ev i l la a tG a rg rave ) . Much t h e s ame c ou ld b e s a id o fa tl e a s t ap e rcen tage o ft h e o t he rf i nd s . T he p r e sence o fi mpo r t ed a nd d i s tan t ly p roduced p o t te ry ( Sam ian a nd c o lour c oa ted w a re s ,s ome o ft h e mo r ta rj a ,t h eO x fo rd r e ds l ipped b ow l s , ap o s s ib ly N .A f r ican f l agon a nd p e rhap st h eb a rbo t ine j a r )i n d ica te sc on tac to nt h ep a r to f

w ay u sed s po rad ica l ly a nd /o rf o r as ho r tp e r iod b ys u ch a ss h ep h e rd s ,t i nke r so rf ug i t ive s .T he p r e sence o fk nown o pen s e t t le m en t sn ea rby a dd st ot h ee v idence a ga ins tt h e se s c ena r io s .A n a na logou s r o le f o r t h e s i t e a s ab a se f o r b r igand s w ou ld b e

1 42

F unc t ion

A r tef ac t s

Mo rpho logy

L oca t ion

D om e s t ic

C ook ing , s t o rage a nd e a t ing v e sse l s ; f ood d eb r i s ; w ide r ange o f o the ra r tef ac t s .

S t and ing h e igh t ; d ry ; r e a sonab ly e ven f l oo r .

N ea rp a s tu r e / a r ab le /wa te r .

Wo rk shop

T oo l s /mou ld s /wa s te / r aw ma te r ia l s ; u n f inshed o r mu l t ip le p roduc t s .

S t and ing h e igh t ; n a tu ra lo ra r t if i c ia l l i gh ts ou r ce .

N ea rr aw m a te r ia l s ( e .g .

S t o re

No d ome s t ic ma te r ia l .

N o tt o od eep .

A cce s s ib le .

S he l t e r

F ew a nd r a ndom ; may i n c lude f ood d eb r i sb u tf ew c ook ing , / s to rage v e s se l s .

N or e qu i r emen t s .

D i s tan tf r om b a se s i te .

H ideaway

Sma l lq uan t i ty o f d ome s t ic ma te r ia l ; p o s s ib le w ea l th .

Sma l le n t rance ; w e l lc oncea led .

D if f i cu l to f a c ce s s / remo t e .

S h r ine

No d ome s t ic ma te r ia l ; u nu sua l g roup s / c l u s te r so fi t em s ; v o t ive se t c .

Maybe u nu sua lr o ck f o rma t ion s .

N or e qu i remen t s .

B u r ia l

H uman b one s ; p e r sona l o rnamen t s ; may b el ow a moun t s o fp o t te ry .

P o s s ib ly d eep ; s ome d ep th o fs o i l .

N or e qu i remen t s .

w ood a nd w a te r ) .

T ab le 2 1 .3 : P red ic ted mo rpho log ie s ,l o ca t ion sa nd a r te f a c tp rof i le sf o rm ode l so fc a ve u sage ( Af te rB ran igan a nd D ea rne 1 992 , T ab le 2 . 2 ) .

d if i cu l t t os uppo r tg i ven t h e w ide c h rono log ica l a nd a r te fac t t y pe r a nge o ft h em a te r ia l , a b sence o fa ny e v idence f o rh oa rd d epo s i t ion ,a nd w ide s pa t ia ls p read o ft h ef i nd s .T he mo rpho l -

m en t ion as i gn if i can tp o t te ry a s semb lage )i nt e rm so ft h es t o r a ge o fv a luab le s . Mo reove r ,i ts eem sv e ry u n l ike ly t h a tt h en ea r b yo pen s e t t lemen t sw e re p ro spe rou se nough t oa cqu i re a l t h e i t em sf o und a tt h es i te ,e spec ia l ly s i nce t h o se f ound w ou ld o n ly r e p r e sen t t h e p i ece s t h a t t h ey f a i led t or e cove r f r om s t o rage . C ave s ,h av ing p a r t icu la r ly s t ab le m ic ro -c l ima te sa r eo f ten i d e a lf ood s t o re s . H oweve r , t h e p robab le w e tne s s o fC hambe r B w ou ld m ake i tu n su i tab le f o rt h i s p u rpo se a nd t h el ow r oof o f a l lb u tt h ef i r s tf ew me t re s o fC hambe rAw ou ld e qua l ly s e em t om ake i tu se le s s f o rf ood s t o rage . T he s i ze a nd r a nge o ft h e a r te f ac tua l a s semb lage s eem s s im i la r ly t ob e i n exp l icab le i n t e rm s o fr e sou rce s t o rage a s d oe s as i gn if i can t p r opo r t ion o f t h ep o t t e ry .

o gy o ft h e s i t e w ou ld s eem t od i scoun t d ome s t ic o ccupa t ion e x cep ta tt h ee n t rance t oC hambe rA a nd o nt h ep l a teau i nf r on t o fi tt h ough t h ep r e sence o fq uan t i t ie so fc ook ing , s t o rage a nd f o od p r epa ra t ion v e s se l si sa ppa ren t ly a tv a r iance w i th t h i sa nd w i l lb er e tu rned t o .T h i sl e ave st h ree mode l s ;s t o re ,s h r ine a nd w o rk shop . As t o re may h ave o ne o ft wo f unc t ion s , t h e s t o rage o fv a lua b l e s o rt h e s t o rage o fr e sou rce s , t yp ica l ly f ood s tuf f s . V ic to r ia C ave , h av ing o ne o rt wo s ma l l e n t rance s t o al o ng a nd v e ry l ow ,c hambe rw h ich h ad t ob et r ave r sed b efo r ee n te r ing amuch l a rge rc hambe rm igh tb ea t t rac t ive a s av a luab le ss t o re ( s ay f o r n e a rby o pen s e t t lemen t s ) .H oweve r ,t h ep robab le v a lue o fs ome o ft h em a te r ia lr e cove red b e ing a dm i t ted ,a sw e l la st h ep roba b i l i ty t h a tt h e re w a s ac oncen t ra t ion o ff i nd si nC hambe rB , i t i sv e ry d if i cu l tt oa c coun tf o rt h er ange o fi t em sp r e sen t ,t h e i r d i s t r ibu t ion t h roughou tt h e who le c ave a nd o nt h ef r on t ing p l a -

Aw o rk shop f unc t ion f o rV ic to r ia C ave i s mu ch m o re a tra c t i ve ,b u td oe sn o ts e em t oe xp la in a l lo ft h es i te a c t iv i ty .A t ten t i on h a s a l ready b een c a l led t ot h e m a te r ia l s ugge s t ing b one / a n t le r w o rk ing , t e x t i le / lea the r w o rk ing a nd p o s s ib ly m e ta l w o rk ing . L i t t le o ft h ec ave i t se lf h ad s uf i c ien tn a tu ra l l i gh to r h e igh tt oa low s u ch a c t iv i t ies a nd t h e l i gh t ing o ff i r e s w i th in

t e au , a nd t h e n umbe r o f b roken a r tef ac t s r e cove red ( n o t t o

much o fi tw ou ld p robab ly h ave b een i mp rac t ica l b ecau se o f 1 43

s moke c hoke e f ec t s .H oweve r , t h ep l a teau i nf r on to ft h ec ave , s he l te red b y as pu ro fr ock ,c ommand ing w ide v i ew s ,e v iden t -

t h roughou tt h e c ave a nd o n t h ep l a teau i nf r on t o fi t ,t h e o n ly c l ea rd if e rence si nf i nd t y pe n ow a tl e a s tb e ing d e tec tab le b e i n gt h en ea ra b sence o fb rooche so n t h ep l a teau a nd t h ep o s s i -

l yf l a ta nd w i th t r ace s o ff i re s m igh th ave p rov ided a n a t t ra c t i ve s i te f o rc r a f ta c t iv i ty ; e spec ia l ly i ft h ec r a f t w o rke r s u sed i ts ea sona l ly o rs po rad ica l ly , p e rhap s w h i le k eep ing w a t ch o n

b l e c oncen t ra t ion o fp i e rced s poon s w e l l w i th in t h ec ave .T he p re sence o fp o t te ry t h roughou tt h e s i te , t hough d if e ren t ia t ion b e tween c oa r se a nd f i ne w a re si si mpo ss ib le ,a nd t h ep robab ly s im i la rd i s t r ibu t ion o ff a una lm a te r ia l( t hough t h i sd i s t r ibu t ion

f l ock s o rh e rd s g raz ing i nf i e ld s w e s to ft h e s ca r .T he c ave i t s e lf m igh t h ave a c ted a s s he l te r i nb ad w ea the r , s t o rage f o r r aw ma te r ia l sa nd s t ockp i led p roduc t s ,a nd c onven ien tr ubb i sh d ump f o rb y -p roduc t s a nd d i sca rded i n comp le te i t em s . I te v i d en t ly h ad aw a te r s upp ly ( t hough t h i s w a s r e la t ive ly h a rd t o r e a ch )a nd t h er aw ma te r ia l sf o rb one , a n t le r ,t e x t i le a nd l e a th -

i ss t i l l b e ing a s se s sed ) m igh t a l so b e d if i cu l t t oe xp la in i na r i tua l c on tex t . H oweve r ,a sE van sh a sn o ted a bove ,t h ep o t te ry i t se lf m ay r e p r e sen te v idence f o rr i tua l a c t iv i ty i nt h a tt h e c o rpu s m ay h ave b een d e l ibe ra te ly s e lec ted g i v ing a bno rma l ly h i gh l e ve l s o f

e rw o rk ing w e re a lmo s tc e r ta in ly a va i lab le w i th in t h el o ca la r ea , a si ndeed w e re m e ta l l ic o r e s .T he s i gn if i cance o ft h ec i s t l ik e s t ruc tu r ee v iden t ly b e low t h er oof a ven i nC hambe rA( a bov e

mo r ta r ia a nd o t he rw i se ac ompo s i t ion c ompa rab le t om i l i ta ry / u rban n o tr u ra l s i te sb u tw i th f ewe rd i she s a nd b ow l s . Mo reo v e r , t h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a t m any s he rd s may h av e a r r ived a tt h e

p 23 ) i sn ow i mpo ss ib le t og auge , b u t i tt o o c ou ld h ave h ad s ome s i gn if i cance f o rc r af ta c t iv i ty ( e .g . a s ac rude t a nk c on n ec ted t ol e a the rp repa ra t ion p roce s se s ,o rj u s t amo re a cce s s i -

c ave p r e -b roken ( t hough p e rhap s i ns ome c a se s t ob e u sed a s c rude l amp s )s hou ld b e n o ted .

b l ew a te rs t o re ) . T he f i na l ,a nd p e rhap s mo s td if i cu l tt oa s se ss ,p o ss ib le f unc -

A s h a sb een e mpha s i sed , b ea r ing i nm ind t h a td e ta i led a na ly s i s o ft h ef a una l a s semb lage f r om V ic to r ia C ave i sy e tt oa p -

t i on f o r V ic to r ia C ave i sa s as h r ine . T he f o rm o f t h e s i te i s a trac t ive i nt h i s c onnec t ion . C hambe r Be v iden t ly h ad w e l l d eve loped s t a la c t i te f o rma t ion s ,f l ow s tone w a l ld epo s i t s , p o s -

p ea r ,a nd t h a tr e sea r ch i n to o pen a nd o the rc ave s i t e st h a tm igh t

s i b ly d r ip w a te rp oo l s o n ac a lc i te f l oo r , a nd al a rge ' we l l ' a t t h e e nd o ft h e c hambe r i nw ha t mu s t h ave b een e f ec t ive ly a s epa ra t e ' h idden ' a r ea b eyond t wo l ow c r aw l s . Mo reove r , C hambe r Bw ou ld h ave b een c omp le te ly d a rk ,p robab ly e xag g e ra t ing i t ss i ze w hen s een o n ly b y t o r che s o rl amp s , a nd d i s t i nc t ly e r ie w i th w a te rd r ipp ing i n to p oo l s a nd c r ea t ing e ch o e sa nd s t a la c t i te st h row ing s hadow s . N o rw ou ld i th ave b een as imp le m a t te r t o g e t t oC hambe r B . Ac on s ide rab le c r aw l a l ong C hambe rA ,c a r ry ing a na r t if i c ia ll i gh ta nd a vo id ing r oo f i regu la r i t ie s a nd r oof f a l l b l ock s w ou ld b e i n vo lved b ef o r e c r aw l ing t h rough ac on t rac ted ,c once ivab ly a r t if i c ia l ly w a l led , a pe r tu re i n to C hambe rB . Mo reove r ,b ypa ss ing C hambe rB ,i t w ou ld h ave b een p o ss ib le t oc r aw l t ot h ev e ry b ack o fC ham b e rA , w h ich mu s th ave s e emed e n t i re ly r emo te f r om t h e o u t s i de w o r ld , a nd t h ence e ven p e rhap s a l ong t h e e x t reme ly l ow C hambe r Da nd b ack i n to t h es ou th s i de o fC hambe rAo ppo s i te t h ee n t r ance t oC hambe rB . N o f i nd s u sua l ly r ega rded s pec if i ca l ly a so fr e l ig iou s s i gn i f i c ance a r e t h ough r e co rded f r om V ic to r ia C ave , n o i t em s a p p ea r t oh ave b een r i tua l ly ' k i l led ' , a nd t h e re i sn oe v idence i n w ha tr e co rd sa r ea va i lab le f o ro b je c t sb e ing d epo s i ted a sh oa rd s . H oweve r , a sh a s a l ready b een n o ted ,t h e re a r eo b jec t s p re sen t t h a tm igh th ave b een s e lec ted f o rr i tua ld epo s i t ion a nd i ndeed t h e n umbe r s o f c e r ta in c l a s se s o f o b jec t s ( p ie rced s poon s , b rooche s ,e s pe c ia l ly t h eu nu sua ln umbe ro fr e pou ss6 d eco ra t e d p i ece s , a nd t o gg le s ) d o s e em t or e qu i re s ome s pec if ic e x p l ana t ion .B e s ide sw h ich s ome v a r ia t ion f r om t h en o rm o fc op p e ra l loy c ompo s i t ion s h a s b een n o ted b y D av id Dungwo r th ,

h ave i n te ra c ted w i th o rr e semb led i ti sc u r ren t ly i np rog re s s ,i t w ou ld b ep r ema tu re t od r aw f i rm c onc lus ion s a bou tt h e s i te 's f unc t ion ( s ) . H oweve r , t h e m o s t s a l ien t p o in t t oe me rge f r om t h ef o r ego ing b r ief d i scu s s ion may b e t h a tn o s i ng le mode l o f s i te f unc t ion a ppea r s t os u i t t h e o bse rved mo rpho logy , a r tef a c tua l a s semb lage a nd a r te f ac t d i s t r ibu t ion o fV ic to r ia C ave . T he mo s t p e r sua s ive s c ena r io may t h e re fo re b e t h a t t h e s i te s e rved m o re t h an o ne f unc t ion , b ei ta td if e r en tp e r iod s o rs i mu l taneou s ly .I fs o ac omb ina t ion o fw o rk shop a nd s h r ine f unc t i on sm ay b ee spec ia l ly a t t ra c t ive .T he f o rme rw ou ld b ed if i c u l tt od eny a sh av ing s ome r o le i nt h es i te 's a r chaeo logy a nd , t hough t h e l a t te ri sa lway s m uch mo re d if i cu l tt op rove t h an s ugge s t ,i th a s much t oc ommend i t .T he t wo f u nc t ion sa r en o t n ece s sa r i ly i n compa t ib le a nd m igh t i nt h e c a se o fw o rk shop a c t iv i ty h ave l e d t ot h e d epo s i t ion o f ma te r ia l n o t o bv iou s ly c onnec ted t oi t ,b u t r e su l t ing f r om l im i ted d ome s t ic a c t iv i ty o nt h ep a r to fc r a f two rke r s .T hu st h ep o t te ry a s semb lage m igh t p e rhap s b e s e en a sd i v ided b e tween f i ne r w a re s d epo s i ted i n c onnec t ion w i th r i tua l a c t iv i t ie s a nd c oa r se r , f u nc t iona l f ood s t o rage ,p r epa ra t ion , c ook ing a nd e a t ing v e sse l sd e r iv ing f r om p e r iod ic s t ay sa tt h es i te b ya r t if ice r s . I fV ic to r ia C ave d i dh ave aq ua s i re l ig iou s r o le c r a f t a c t iv i ty may h ave d e r ived ap o s i t i ve b enef i t b y l o ca t ing a tt h e s i te . T he a c t iv i ty , a nd t h u s i t s p roduc t s , m igh th ave b een ' s anc t if ied ' b y t ak ing p l a ce w he re i td id ,i nt u rn m ak ing i t sp roduc t s mo re d e s i rab le a nd c once iv a b ly v a luab le ; a nd t h e re m igh t h ave b een a n i n cen t ive i ne x p l o i t ing am a rke tc on s i s t ing o fv i s i to r st ot h es i te , b ei tam a r k e t f o r o b jec t s t o d epo s i t , ' s ouven i rs ' o rj u s t ' s anc t if ied ' p roduc t s .

a nd t h e p r e sen ce o ft i l e a nd w indow g l a s s a tt h e s i te i s mo s t

I ft h e s i t e h ad s u ch ad ua l f unc t ion p re sumab ly t h e f unc t ion s

u nexpec ted . T he f i nd d i s t r ibu t ion , a s f a r a s i tc an b e r e con -

w e re s pa t ia l ly s epa ra te : r i tua l a c t iv i ty i n t h e i n ne r p a r t s o f

s t ruc ted , i sr a the r a mb iguou s o ve r p o s s ib le r i tua l p a t te rn ing . O n t h e o ne h and t h e re w e re e v iden t ly f i nd c l u s te r s , t h e mo s t n o tab le p e rhap sb e ing i nC hambe r B( t hough mo s tl i ke ly a ti t s w e s te rn e nd a nd n o t ,f o ri n s tance ,i nt h ev i c in i ty o ft h e ' we l l ' ) a nd i ti sp o s s ib le t h a ts ome o ft h e se f i nd s h ad b een d epo s i ted i np oo ls . O n t h e o the r h and s ome f i nd s w e r e p re sen t a lmo s t

C hambe rAa nd e spec ia l ly C hambe rB ; a nd c r a f t , a nd l im i ted , p e rhap ss po rad ic a nd t empo ra ry , a s soc ia ted d ome s t ic a c t iv i ty , o nt h ep l a teau a nd i nt h eh i ghe rr oof ed i n i t ia lp a r to fC hambe r A . I ti st h e re fo re u nfo r tuna t e t h a tt h e p e rcen tage o ff i nd s , a nd e spec ia l ly o ff i nd sc l ea r ly r e la t ing t oc r a f ta c t iv i ty , t h a tc an b e c l o se ly p r ovenanced i sr e la t ive ly l ow a nd t h a t an umbe ro fe x 1 44

c ava t iona l b i a se s a r e i n he r en t i nt h e p rovenance i n f o rma t ion a va i lab le .I ti sa ppa ren tt h ough t h a t ' p o tb o i le r s 'o n ly s e em t o h ave b een f ound o n t h e p l a t eau a nd t h a t t h e i mp re s s ion o ne g a in s f r om 1 870 s s ou rce si st h a tt h ee v idence f o rh ea r th s w a s mo s t o f ten n o ted h e re ( t hough s ome c ha rcoa l w a s n o ted t h roughou t t h e c ave , p e rhap s d e r iv ing f r om t o r che s o rc r ude p o t t te ry s he rd l amp su sed i na c ce s s ing i t ) . T ha tw o rk ed /burn t s t one o b jec t s( t hough i n d iv idua li t em si nt h ec a ta logue c anno t u sua l ly b es pec if ica l ly m a t ched t or e co rded f i nd l o ca t ion s )a r e o n ly r e co rded f r om C hambe r Aa nd t h ep la teau m igh ta l so b e i mpo r tan t a s many o ft h o se c a ta logued a r e h one s , b u rn i she r s a nd t h e l i ke . C onve r se ly t h ec oncen t ra t ion , a tl e a s to fb rooch e sa nd p i e rced s poon sw i th in t h ec ave h a sa l ready b een n o ted . I fV ic to r ia C ave d id h ave ar i tua l f unc t ion , a tl e a s ti np a r t , t h e q ue s t ion o ccu r s a s t ow ha t f o rm o f r i tua l w a s i n vo lved a nd w he the ri tw a sc onnec t ed t o as pec if i c k nown d e i ty . O ne p o s s i b i l i ty t h a tp resen t s i t se lf i sM i th ra i sm . M i th raea d o i n deed g ene ra l ly i m i ta te c ave s ,t e nd ing t ob ep a r t ly s ub te r ranean ,p rob -

o fa r te f ac tc a tego r ie sa l so n eed t ob eb o rne i nm ind .T he b r a ided w i r e f o rm o fm any o ft h e V ic to r ia C ave b ra ce le t s c ou ld b e a c a se i np o in tf o rt w is ted /b ra ided t o r c s i na n I r on A ge c on tex t m ay w e l l h ave h ad al a rge ly ma le w ea re r sh ip , b e ing s ymbo ls o f l e ade r sh ip . T he i r t r ansfo rma t ion i n t h e R oman p e r iod t h rough m i l i ta ry a wa rd t o g ood l u ck s ymbo l ( A l la son Jone s 1 995 ,2 6 -7 )m ay h ave c a r r ied a l ong w i th i ta na pp rop r ia t ene ss f o r ma le w ea r . F rom t h e re i tm igh th ave b een b u t as ho r ts t ep t or e ga rd ing b r a ided b race le t s a s a pp rop r ia te ma le j ewe l le ry w he rea s , p e rhap s , o t he rb ra ce le tf o rm s w e re n o t . T hu s , w h i l s t t h eq uan t i ty a nd v a r ie ty o f ma te r ia la tV ic to r ia C ave t h a ts e em s , o na sy e tl e s st h an s a t i s f ac to ry e v idence ,t ob e mo re o f t en ,r a the r t h an e xc lu s ive ly ,l i nk ed t o women i nR oman B r i ta in d oe sm i t i g a te a ga in s tu se o ft h e s i te f o rM i th ra ic p u rpo se s , i td oe s n o t c a tego r ica l ly d eny i t . O the rs pec if i cd e i t ie sw h ich o ne m igh tp e rhap sc onnec tt ot h e s i te a r ea l so d if i cu l tt os ugge s ta sl i t t le i nt h ew ay o fp o s s ib ly s ymbo l ic a r te f a c tua l ma te r ia lh a sb een r e cove red a nd a st h e re i sl i t t le B r i t i sh e v idence f o r t h e w o r sh ip o f s pec if i c mo re o r l e s s R oman i sed C e l t ic d e i t ie s i n c ave c on tex t s . T he n ea re s t a pp roache s t ot h e l a t te r a r e ap o s s ib le g odde s s s t a tue t te f r om C u lve rH o le C ave ,G owe r( Bran igan a nd D ea rne 1 991 , 1 54 -5 )

a b ly r a the r d a rk , o b long s h r ine s a pp rop r ia te f o r t h e m y s te ry n a tu re o ft h e M i th ra s c u l t a nd r e ca l l ing t h e g od ' s b i r th f r om s t one /a c ave . M i th ra i sm i nB r i ta in w a sa ne xc lu s ive ly R oman p henomenon , e spec ia l ly l i nked t om i l i ta ry p e r sonne l a nd s o mo re c ommon ly e v idenced i nt h e n o r th a nd w e s t t h an e l se w he r e . T hu s , V ic to r ia C av e ' s f o rm , g ene ra l l o ca t ion a nd u se d a t e d on o tc on t rad ic ts uch as ugge s t ion . I ndeed , e v idence f o r ac onnec t ion w i th R oman ised s i te si nt h ea r ea ,a lmo s tc e r ta in -

a nd t h er o ck c u td ep ic t ion o f? Coc idu si n as ma l ln a tu ra lc ham b e r n ea r Y a rdhope m a rch ing c amp ( Cha r l ton a nd M i t che son

l yf o r t s a nd v i c i , i sp l en t ifu l a nd t h e r e i ss ome s pec if i c e v i d ence f o r am i l i ta ry c onne c t ion . T he l i ke l ihood t h a t M i th ra -

1 983 ) .N e i the ra r ev e ry i lum ina t ing a sp a ra l le l s a nd t h ep re s e nce o fo ne o rm o re s pea rhead sa nd a na r row h eaded s poon i n V ic to r ia C ave c an h a rd ly b e s i ng led o u t a nd u sed t os ugge s t w o r sh ip o fC oc idu so ra ny o the rw a r r io rg od .

i sm i n c luded r i tua l s ( one p e rhap s s ome th ing a k in t ob ap t i sm ) a nd i n i t ia t ion t e s t sm igh ts t r eng then t h ec a se ,f o re ven t or e ach

H oweve r ,t h a tt h e r ew e re many l o ca l i sed c u l t si nR oman B r i t a i nn ow a nonymou st ou si sa lmo s tc e r ta in s ot h a ti ti sp e rhap s u nnece s sa ry t ot r y a nd e s tab l ish t h a t aw ide ly a cknow ledged g od o rg odde s sw a sb e ing p rop i t ia ted .T he a b sence o fa ny I r on A ge e v idence d oe s t h ough i mp ly t h a t a ny w o r sh ip b egan , a t l e a s to nt h i ss i t e ,a f te rt h eR oman c onque s to ft h ea r ea a nd t h e R oman i sed n a tu re o f t h e s i te 's f i nd s p robab ly i n d ica te s t h a t a ny c u l t w a s a t t ra c t ive t ot ho se l i v ing s ome d i s tance a way i n f o r t sa nd v i c i .I fs oi ti sp o ss ib le t h a t ac u l tw i th s ome m y s te ry e l emen ti si n vo lved . Wh i l s tM i th ra i sm i t se lf m ay b e al e s sl i ke ly c and ida te f e a tu r e s s uch a s i n i t ia t ion t e s t s /o rdea l s r ema in a t t r a c t ive p o s s ib i l i t ie sa nd t he l i ke ly ' o the rw o r ld l ine s s 'o fa r ea s o ft h ec ave w ou ld b ei d ea l ly s u i ted t os uch ac u l t .

C hambe r Bw ou ld h ave b een d if i cu l t , l e t a l one t op ene t ra t e t h ei n ne rmo s tr e ce s se so ft h ec ave ;a nd ap robab ly i s o la ted p oo l e x i s ted d eep w i th in t h ec ave .H oweve r ,t h e r ei sn o th ing a mong s t t h e a r tef a c tua l ma te r ia l t h a t d i rec t ly p o in t s t oM i th ra i sm a nd p r e s s ing t h ep o t te ry c o rpu si n to s e rv ice t os ugge s ts om er i tua l m ea lw ou ld b eu ndu ly s pecu la t ive . Mo reove rM i th ra i sm i sb e l i eved t oh ave b een e xc lu s ive ly ama le c u l t a nd i sg ene ra l ly a s soc ia ted w i th s cu lp tu ra lr e p re sen ta t ion s o ft h e g od o ra s so c i a ted d e i t ie s .T he a b sence o ft h el a t t e r may n o tb et o os e r iou s a n o b jec t ion ; e spec ia l ly i ft h e s i te w e re n o t as h r ine s o much a s as i te o fr i tua l ss uch a si n i t ia t ion s , v i s i ted o n ly f o rt h a ts pe c i f i c p urpo se f r om ,s ay ,o ne o ft h el o ca lf o r t s .T he p r e sence o f j ewe l le ry , c o sme t ic i t em s a nd h a i rp i n s t hough s e em s t os ug g e s t t h a tw omen p l ayed ar o le i nt h e s i te ' s u sage , a sm ay t h e

F ina l ly , a nd l e av ing a s ide s pec if ic q ue s t ion s o ff unc t ion , i ti s n ece ssa ry t os ay s ome th ing a bou tV ic to r ia C ave 's w ide rc on t e x t .T hough h av ing g rown s i gn if ican t ly i nr e cen td ecade st h e e xp lo ra t ion o ft h e R omano -Br i t i sh c oun t ry s ide o ft h e u p land ' m i l i ta ry z one 'r ema in sf a rf r om c omp le te , o n ly at i ny s amp le o fs i te sh av ing b een p rope r ly e xcava ted .I nt h i si mpe r f ec ts t a te o fk now ledge t h ough V ic to r ia C ave s t and s o u t f r om t h e n o r m a l r un o f r e la t ive ly p oo r f a rm s tead s f r equen t ly e nv i saged , a l ong w i th i s o la ted f o r t s a nd v i c i a s mak ing u p t h e p r inc ipa l c omponen to ft h eR omano -Br i t i sh l a nd scape o f much o fn o r th

p r e sence o fi t em sc onnec ted w i th w eav ing . S uch i t em so ccu rt h roughou tC hambe r s Aa nd B a nd t h ep re s e nce o fa tl e a s t af ew j e ta nd a mbe ri t em s ,p e rhap sp a r t icu la r ly l i nked t ow omen , may a l so b e n o ted . H e r e t hough s ome c au t i on i sn ece s sa ry f o rt h e' s ex ing 'o fs ma l lf i nd si sb o th d if i cu l t a nd u nde rr e sea rched .A sA l la son -Jone s( 1995 )h a ss h own t h e re i sn oc a se f o r' s ex ing 'R omano -Br i t i sh b rooche so rf i nge rr i ng s , w h i le t h ee v idence f o re xc lu s iv e ly f ema le u se o fj ewe l le ry i t em s s uch a se a r r ing s ,b ra ce le t sa nd b one p i n s ,o ro fc o sme t ic i t em s , i si nf a c ta tb e s te qu ivoca l .T h i si se spec ia l ly t r ue o fb r a ce le t s , w h ich h ave b een f ound i nm a le g rave s , a nd c o sme t ic i t em s , w h ich o ccu ri nH ad r ian ' s Wa l lt u r re t s( op c i t , 2 7 -8 ) .T he p o s s i b le i mp l ica t ion so fg ende r spec if i ca r tef ac tu se b e ing s kewed

a nd w e s tB r i ta in . Wha ts e t s i ta pa r ti sn o ts o much t h a ti ti sa c ave ,f o rn umbe r so fc ave sw e re i nh uman u se i nt h ep e r iod i n s e ve ra la r ea s ,b u ti t sf i nd a s semb lage . Away f r om f o r t sa nd v i c i t h a ta s semb lage f i nd ss ome o fi t sb e s tp a ra l le l sw i th in t e nm i le s ( 1 6 1 cm )o fV ic to r ia C ave a nd i no the rc ave s .A re t h en t h eS e t t l e /G igg le sw ick /A rnc l if f eC ave sr e a l ly e xcep t iona lo rd o aw id -

b y n ow i n obv iou s r i tua l d i s t inc t ion s b e tween d if e r en t f o rm s 1 4 5

e rr ange o fn on -f a rm s tead s i t e sa wa i ti d en t if ica t ion? A s i gn if i c an t f e a tu r e o fc ave s i st h a t t h ey a r e p hy s ica l ly c ons t ra ined s paces .I ti sp o s s ib le t oe n t i re ly e xcava te t h em a nd b er e la t ive l ys u re t h a t a l t h e a r te f a c t s o nce p re sen t w i th in t h em , h ave b een r e cov e red . T h i s i s ap r opo s i t ion r a re ly i fe ve rt r ue o fa n o pen s i te w h e r e s i te b ounda r ie s a r e o f ten e n t i re ly a r t if ic ia l , i f i d en t if iab le , a nd w he re t h e r e a r en oc l ea rc u tr u le s a bou t h ow f a rf r om ap e r ce ived n uc leu so fa c t iv i ty r e la ted f i nd s may h ave b een d epo s i ted , o r s ub sequen t ly r edepo s i ted . E qua l ly n i ne t e en th c en tu r y c ave h un t ing a nd mode rn s pe leo logy t oge the r w i th o f t en l ow s ed imen ta t ion r a te s , al a ck o fv ege ta t ion , t h e f r equen tp r e sence o fb u r row ing a n ima l sa nd a b sence o fr epea t e d h uman u s ea l i n c rea se t h e c hance s o fc ave d i scove ry a nd t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o f R omano -Br i t i sh d epo s i t s w i th in c ave s . T hu sc ave sa r ep robab ly d i sp ropo r t iona te ly r e p re sen ted i na ny a s se ssmen to ft h en umbe ro fn on -u rban R omano -Br i t ish s i te s o r ig ina l ly p r e sen ti nu p land B r i ta in . I fo pen s i t e s w i th u nu sua l f i nd a s semb lage s i nd ica t ing n on f a rm s tead u s age d oe x i s t( a nd o ne m igh ts p ecu la te t ha t ar ange o f s uch s i t e s i n c lud ing s h r ine s a nd t h e v enue s f o r p e r iod ic ma rke t sa nd f a i r ss hou ld b ee xpec ted )t h ey m ay i ndeed n o tb e r e p re sen ted b ya r cha eo log ica l ly r e cove rab le t r a ce so fs t ruc tu re s o re ven n ega t ive f e a tu re s . E xcep t ing t h a tt h ey w e re i n ac ave t h e V ic to r ia C ave f i nd s s t and a l one a se v idence o ft h e a c t iv i t i e s a tt h e s i t e . C e r ta in ly t h e i r c on tex t i sv e ry i mpo r tan t f o r a s se ss ing w ha tt h o se a c t iv i t ie sw e re ; n i ne teen th c en tu ry i n te r p re ta t ion s o fr e fugee s f l ee ing t ot h e c ave f r om v i l la s a r e n o t ( i gno r ing t h e u n tenab le d a t ing g i ven t ot h e ma te r ia l ) s o v e ry i n compa t ib le w i th t h ee v idence u n t i l i ti sa pp r ec ia ted t h a tt h e f i nd sd id n o tc ome f r om ' ac ave 'b u tf r om as pec if ic c ave w i th

s pec if i c c on s t ra in t s t oi t s u se , i nt h i s c a se r oo f h e igh t s , l i gh t a va i lab i l i t ie s a nd p robab ly ah yd ro logy t h a t w ou ld p r ec lude d ome s t ic o ccupa t ion whe re t h e a r tef a c t s w e re p redom inan t ly f ound .B u tt h es ame f i nd sg roup o na no pen s i t ew i thou ts t ru c t u re sw ou ld s t i l li nd ica te s ome th ing o t he rt h an t h ep re sence o f as ma l lf a rm ing s e t t lemen ta nd i ti si mpo r tan tt h a tf i nd sg roup s w i thou t a s soc ia ted f e a tu re s a r e s ub jec ted t ot h e s ame d eg r ee o f a na lys i s , a nd p ub l ica t ion , a sf i nd s g roup s f r om e xcava t ed f a rm s tead s . I ti sl i ke ly t ob et h ed e ta i led p a t te rn ing o fa r te f a c t u a l ma te r ia la nd n o tt h eo ccu r rence o fs t ruc tu r e st h a tw i l li d en t i f y a ny o pen s i te e qu iva len t st oV ic to r ia C ave . I na ch iev ing t h i s , a sa tV ic to r ia C ave , i tw i l l b e n ece s sa ry n o t j u s tt ou se m a te r ia ly e tt ob ef ound b u tm a te r ia ll ong k nown ,i f o n ly t h rough o b scu re o ru npub l ished o l de rs ource s wh ich r e q u i re d e ta i led e va lua t ion b yt h o se f am i l ia rw i th t h e l o ca lc on t e x tw i th in w h ich t hey w e re o f ten p r epa red .T h i s empha s i se sa p e rhap s u n ique f e a tu re o fw o rk o nV ic to r ia C ave f o ri tr e p r e s en t s 1 60 y ea r s o fc o l labo ra t ion b e tween t h e a n t iqua r ian a nd a r chaeo log ica le s tab l i shmen t( ' p rof e s s iona l ' a r chaeo log i s t sa nd t h e i ra n t iqua r ian f o re runne r s )a nd t h ei n dependen t( a so ppo sed t o' ama teu r ') a r chaeo log i s ta nd c o l lec to r .F rom t h ef i r s tn o t ice o ft h e c ave 's d i scove ry b y C ha r le s R oa ch Sm i th a nd J o seph J a ck son , t h rough t h e c o -ope ra t ion b e tween A r thu r R a i s t r ick , J .W .J a ck son a nd S i rI an R ichmond w i th T o tL o rd ,t ot h ep r e sen t a u tho r s ' c o l labo ra t ion b o th g roup s h ave b een i n vo lved w i th t h e s i te .T he c omp l imen ta ry p e r spe c t iv e st h a tt h i sh a sb rough tt oi t s s t udy ,p a r t icu la r ly i nt e rm so fs e t t ing l o ng a nd d e ta i led s t udy o f t h er e co rd sr e la t ing t o af ew s i t e s i n as ma l la r ea b e s ide b r oade r p e r spe c t ive sd r awn f r om an umbe ro fs p ec ia l i s tf i e ld s ,h ope f u l ly d emon s t ra t et h ev a lue o fs uch c o -ope ra t ion .

1 46

B IBL IOGRAPHY

A l la son Jone s ,L . , 1 984 .T he s ma l lo b jec t s . I nS ew ing sh ie ld s , D .H a igh & M .S avage ,A r chaeo log ia A e l iana 5 t h s1 2 ,3 3 1 47 ,p p .7 4 -99 . A l la son Jone s ,L . , 1 985 . ' Be l l shaped s t ud s '? .I nT he P roduc t i on a nd D i s t r ibu t ion o fM i l i ta ry E qu ipm en t ,e d .M .C .B i sh o p . O x f o rd : B r i t i sh A r cha eo log ica l R epo r t s I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s2 75 ,p p . 9 5 -108 . A l la son Jone s ,L . , 1 988 . ' Sma l l f i nd s ' f r om t u r r e t s o n H ad r i a n 's Wa l l . I nM i l i ta ry E qu ipmen t a nd t h e I d en t i ty o fR o m an S o ld ier s ,e d .J .C . C ou l s ton . O xfo rd : B r i t i sh A rchaeo l o g ica lR epo r t sI n t e rna t iona lS e r ie s 3 94 ,p p . 1 97 -233 .

B ay ley , J .& S .B u t che r , F o r thcom ing . I r on A g e a nd R oman B rooches . B ay ley , J . , G . F oa rd & G . S imp son , 1 981 . A n I r on A ge d i sc b rooch f r om Wha r ram P e rcy . Y ork sh ir e A r chaeo log ica l J ourna l6 1 , 3 46 -9 . B ecken sa l l , S . , 1 976 . T he e xcava t ion o f ar o ck s h e l te ra tC o r b y 's C rag , E d l ingham . A r chaeo log ia A e l iana 5 t hs .4 ,1 1 6 . B idd le ,M . , 1 967 .T wo F l av ian b u r ia l sf r om G range R oad ,W in c he s te r .A n t iquar ie sJ ourna l4 7 , 2 24 -50 .

A l la son Jone s ,L . , 1 989 .E ar -R ing si nR oman B r i ta in .O xfo rd : B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica lR epo r t sB r i t i sh S e r ie s2 0 1 . A l la son Jone s , L . , 1 995 . ' S ex ing ' s ma l l f i nd s . I n T heor e t ica l R oman A r chaeo logy : S econd C onf er ence P r oc eed ings , e d . P .R u sh .A lde r sho t :A vebu ry ,p p . 2 2 -32 . A l la son Jone s , L . &M .C . B i shop , 1 988 . E xcava t ion s a tR o m an C orbr idge :T he Hoard .L ondon : E ng l i sh H e r i tage A r c haeo log ica lR epo r t7 . A l la son Jone s ,L .&R . M ik e t , 1 984 . T he C a ta logue o fS ma l l F i nd sf r om S ou th S h ie ld sR oman F or t . N ewca s t le : S oc ie ty o fA n t iqua r ie so fN ewca s t le U pon T yne . A l la son Jone s ,L . &B . Mckay , 1 985 . C oven t ina ' sW e l l .C he s t e r s Mu seum :T ru s tee so ft h eC lay ton C o l lec t ion . A l len , S . J . , 1 994 . R omano -Br i t i sh U sage o ft h e C ave sa tS e t t l e , Y ork sh ir e . U npub l i shed M .Ph i l . T he s i s , U n ive r s i ty o f Manche s t e r . A non , 1 855 .R oman c o in se t c . I nT he S e t t le C hron ic le ( New s p ape r ) ,i s t May 1 855 . A non , 1 927 . W i re b rooch o ft h e R oman p e r iod . A n t iquar ie s J ourna l7 ,6 4 -5 . A r thu r , P .& K . Wh i tehou se , 1 978 . R epo r t o n e xcava t ion s a t F u lham P a lace moa t 1 972 -1973 . T ransac t ion so ft h eL on d on a nd M idd le sex A r chaeo log ica lS oc ie ty 2 9 ,4 5 -72 . B a r f ie ld , L . , 1 977 . R oman b one i n lay f r om B ay s Meadow , D ro i tw ich .A n t iquar ie sJ ourna l5 7 , 3 32 -3 . B a rne s , F . , 1 970 . P reh i s to r ic p o t te ry f r om F u rne s s . T ran sac t i ons o ft h eC umber land a nd W e s tmor land A r chaeo log ica l a nd A n t iquar ian S oc ie ty 7 0 , 1 8 . B a rne s ,M .P . , 1 989 .T wo Mae showe r e d i scove r ie s .N y t to mr une r3 ,1 2 -13 . B a rne s ,M .P . , 1 994 . T he R un ic I n sc r ip t ions o fO rkney .U pp sa l a :R un rön 8 . B a rne s , M .P . , I np repa ra t ion . T he s t range c a se o ft h e S e t t le s t one .I n AF r i s ian a nd G erman ic M i sce l lany P ub l i shed i n H onour o fN i l s A rhammar o n h i s S ix ty -F if t h B ir thday , 7 A ugu s t1 996 . B a r re t t , J . C . , 1 979 . T he p o t te ry - d i scu ss ion . I nE xcava t ion o f t h e h i l l -f o r t o f Ma in T o r , D e rbysh ire , 1 965 -69 , D .G . C oomb s &F .H . T homp son , D erbysh ir e A r chaeo log ica l J ourna l9 9 ,7 -51 ,p p . 4 4 -7 . B a r re t t ,J . C . , 1 980 .T he p o t te ry o ft h el a te rB ronze A ge i nl ow l a nd E ng land . P r oceed ing s o ft h e P r eh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 4 6 ,

B idwe l l , P .T . , 1 985 . T he R oman F or to fV i ndo landa a tC he s t e rho lm , N or thumber land . L ondon : E ng l i sh H e r i tage A r c haeo log ica lR epo r t 1 . B idwe l l , P .T . , &S .S peak , 1 994 .E xcava t ion sa tS ou th S h ie ld s R oman F or t V o l . 1.N ewca s t le : S oc ie ty o f A n t iqua r ie s o f N ewca s t le u pon T yne Monog r aph 4 . B i shop , M .C . , 1 996 . F i nd sf r om R oman A ldbor ough . O xfo rd : O xbow Monog raph 6 5 . B i shop ,M .C . &J .C .N .C ou l s ton , 1 993 .R oman M i l i tar yE qu ip m en t .L ondon : B a t sf o rd . B i shop , M .C . &J .N . D o r e , 1 988 . C orbr idge , E x cava t ion s o f t h eR oman F or ta nd T own , 1 947 -80 .L ondon :E ng l i sh H e r i t age A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t8 . B i shop , M .C . &N .A . G r if i th s , 1 993 . S ome m i l i ta ry f i t t ing s f r om C ae rwen t( V en ta S i lun im ) . Anna 5 i i , 1 8 -20 . B oon ,G .C . , 1 974 .S i l che s t e r ;t h eR oman T own o fC a l le va . New t o nA bbo t . B oon ,G .C . &H .N .S avo ry , 1 975 . As i lve rt r umpe tb rooch w i th r e l ief d eco ra t ion , p a rce l g i l t , f r om C a rma r then ,a nd an o t e o n t h e d eve lopmen t o ft h e t y pe . A n t iquar i e s J ourna l 5 , 4 1-61 . B ramwe l l , D . , K . D a l ton , J . F . D r inkwa te r , M . H a s sa l l , K .L . L o r ime r & D .F . Ma c i c re th , 1 983 . E xcava t ion s a tP oo le ' s C ave rn ,B ux ton :a ni n te r im r e po r t .D erby sh ir eA r chaeo log i c a lJ ourna l 1 03 , 4 7 -74 . B ran igan ,K . , 1 980 .V i l la si nt h en o r th :c hange i nt h er u ra ll a nd s cape? . I nR ome a nd t h eB r igan tes , e d . K .B ran igan . S he f f i e ld : D epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy a nd P reh i s to ry , p p . 1 8 2 7 . B ran igan ,K . &M .J .D ea rne , 1 990 .T he R omano -Br i t i sh f i nd s f r om Wookey H o le : ar e -app ra i sa l .P roceed ing so ft h eS om e r se tA r chaeo log ica la nd N a tura lH i s to ry S oc i e ty 1 34 , 5 7 8 0 . B ran igan , K . &M .J . D ea rne , 1 99 1 . AG aze t t eer o fR omano B r i t i sh C ave S i t e sa nd T he ir F ind s . S he ff ie ld : D epa r tmen t o fA rchaeo logy a nd P reh i s to ry . B ran igan ,K . &M .J .D ea rne , 1 991a .T he s ma l lf i nd sf r om T h i r s t H ou se C ave , D eepda le : ar e -app ra i sa l . I nR ecen tD eve lop m en t si nt h eA r chaeo logy o ft h eP eak D i s t r ic t ,e d s .R .H odg e s&K . Sm i th . S hef f i e ld : S hef f i e ld A r chaeo log ica l Mono g raph 2 ,p p . 8 5 110 . B ran igan ,K . &M .J .D ea rne , 1 991b . R omano -Br i t ish u sage o f t h ec ave so fC hedda rG o rge .P r oceed ing so ft h e U n iver s i ty o fB r i s to lS pe leo log ica lS oc ie ty 1 9 ( 1 ) 1 9 -31 .

2 79 -319 .

B ran igan , K . &M .J .D ea rne 1 992 .R omano -Br i t i sh C avemen :

B a t e son ,J . D . &R .E .M .H edge s , 1 975 .T he s c ien t if i c a na ly s i s o f ag r oup o fR oman -age e name l led b rooche s .A r chaeom e t ry 1 7( 2 ) , 1 77 -90 .

C a ve U se i nR oman B r i ta in . O xfo rd : O xbow Monog raph 1 9 . 1 47

B ran igan ,K . ,M .J .D ea rne & J .G .R u t te r , 1 993 . R omano -Br i t i s h o ccupa t ion o fM inch in H o le C ave ,G owe r .A r chaeo lo g ia C ambr en s i s 1 42 ,4 0 -73 . B ra s s ing ton , M . , 1 971 . AT ra jan ic k i ln c omp lex n ea r L i t t le C he s te r , D e rby , 1 968 .A n t iquar ies J ourna l7 1 , 3 6 -69 . B reu i l , H . , 1 921/2 . O b se rva t ion s o n t h e p r e -Neo l i th ic i n du s t r ie s o fS co t land . P r oceed ing s o ft h e S oc i e ty o fA n t iquar i e so fS co t land 5 t h s8 ,2 6 1-81 . B rod r ibb ,A .C .C . ,A .R .H and s &D .R . Wa lke r , 1 968 ,c o r rec ted e d . 1 97 1 . E xcava t ion s a tS hakenoak F arm , n ear W i lco t e , O xf ord sh ir eP ar t1 :S i t e s Aa nd D . P r iva te ly P r in ted . B rod r ibb ,A .C .C . ,A .R . H and s &D .R . Wa lke r 1 973 . E xcava t i ons a tS hak enoak F arm , n ear V i lco t e , O xf ord sh ir e P ar t I V : S i te C .P r iva te ly P r in ted . B rown , G .H . , 1 896 . O nF oo tR ound S e t t le . S e t t le . B rown ,G .H . , 1 898 . T he T our i s ta tS e t t le . S e t t le . B rown , G .H . , 1 903 . V i c tor ia C ave : i t s H i s tor y a nd E xp lora t i on .S e t t le . B rown ,G .H . , 1 904 . T he T our i s ta tS e t t le ( 2nd e d . ) . S e t t le . B rown , G .H . , 1 907 . R em in i scences . S e t t le . R ep r in ted f r om L amber t ' sS e t t le A lmanac f o r 1 907 . B rown , G .H . , 1 908 . V i c tor ia C ave : i t s H i s tor y a nd E xp lora t i on ( 2nd e d . ) .S e t t le . B rown ,G .H . , 1 912 . T he T our i s ta tS e t t le ( 3 rd e d . ) . S e t t le . B rown ,G .H . , 1 92 1 . T he T our i s ta tS e t t le ( 4 th e d . ) . S e t t le . B rown , G .H . , 1 925 . V i c tor ia C ave : i t s H i s to ry a nd E xp lora t i on ( 3 rd e d . ) .S e t t le . B ruce , J . C . 1 867 . T he R oman W a l l( 3 rd e d . ) . N ewca s t le . B uck land , RC . , H a r t ley , K .F & R igby ,V . , I nP repa ra t ion . A r -

R eece . O xfo rd :B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica lR epor t sB r i t i sh S e r i e s4 ,p p . 3 7 -5 1 . C ha l l i s ,A .J . &D .W .H a rd ing , 1 975 .L a t er P r eh i s to ry f r om t h e T r en tt ot h e T yne . O x fo rd : B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica l R epo r t s B r i t i sh S e r ie s2 0 . C ha r l ton , D .B . &M .M . M i tche son , 1 983 . Y a rdhope , as h r ine t oC oc id iu s? .B r i tann ia 1 4 , 1 43 -53 . C la rke , G . , 1 979 . P r e -Roman a nd R oman W inches t er P ar t2 t h eR oman C eme t ery a tL ankh i l l s . O xfo rd . C o le s , J .M . , 1 987 . Mear e V i l lage E a s t . T he E xcava t ion so fA . B u l l e id a nd H . S tG eor ge G ray 1 932 -1956 . S ome r se tL ev e l sP ape r 1 3 . C o l l inge , W .E . , 1 935 . O n s ome s poon shaped f i bu lae i nt h e Y o rk sh i r e Mu seum a nd e l sewhe r e .P r oceed ing so ft h eY or k s h ir eP h i lo soph ica lS oc ie ty 1 935 , 1 4 . C o l l ingwood ,R .G . , 1 930 .R omano -Ce l t ic a r ti n No r thumub r ia . A r chaeo log ia 8 0 , 3 7 -58 . C o l l ingwood , R .G . &I .A . R ichmond , 1 969 . T he A r chaeo logy o fR oman B r i ta in .L ondon : Me thuen . C oo l , H .E .M . , 1 983 . AS t ud y o ft h e R oman P er sona l O rna m en t s Mad e o f Me ta l , E xc lud ing B r ooches f r om S ou thern E ng land . U npub l i shed P h .D .T he s i s , U n ive r s i ty o f Wa le s . C oo l , H .E .M . , 1 990 . R oman me ta l h a i r p i ns f r om s ou the rn B r i ta in .A r chaeo log ica lJ ourna l 1 47 , 1 48 -182 . C oo l , H .E .M . , G . L loyd -Mo rgan & A .D . H oo ley , 1 995 . F ind s f rom t h e F or tr e s s . Y o rk : C ounc i l f o rB r i t i sh A rchaeo logy / Y o rk A r cha eo log ica lT r u s tA r chaeo logy o fY o rk Sma l lF i nd s 1 7 / 10 . C oomb s ,D .G . &F .H .T homp son , 1 979 .E xcav a t ion o ft h eh i l l f o r to f Mam T o r ,D e rby sh i re , 1 965 -69 .D erby sh ir eA r chae o l og ica lJ ou rna l9 9 , 7 51 . C o rde r , P . , 1 928 . T he R oman P o t tery a t C r ambeck , C a s t le H oward .L eed s : R oman Ma l ton a nd D i s t r ic tR epo r t 1 . C o rde r , P . , 1 930 . T he R oman P o t t er ya tT hr o lam Ho lmeo n S pa ld ing Moor E a s t Y ork sh ir e . H u l l : R oman Ma l ton a nd D i s t r ic tR epo r t4 .

c haeo logy o fD onca s t er 3 .T he R oman P o t t e ry I ndu s t r ya t R o s s ing ton B r idge : E xcava t ions 1 956 -6 1 . B uck land , P .C . &J .R . Mag i l ton , 1 986 . T he A r chaeo logy o f Donca s t er 1 :T he R oman C iv i lS e t t lemen t .O xf o rd : B r i t i sh A rcha eo log ica lR epo r t sB r i t i sh S e r ie s 1 48 . B uck land , P .C . , J .R . Mag i l ton & M .J . D o lby , 1 980 . T he R o man p o t te ry i n du s t r ie s o fS ou th Y o rk sh i r e : ar e v iew . B r i t ann ia 1 , 1 45 -164 . B uck land ,W . 1 823 .R e l iquae D i luv ianae . B u rge ss , C .B . , 1 972 . G oa t sc rag : aB ronze A ge r o ck s he l te r c eme te ry i nn o r th N o r thumbe r land ,w i th n o te so no t he rr o ck s he l te r sa nd c r ag l i ne si nt h er eg ion .A r chaeo log ia A e l iana

C o rde r ,P . ,1 937 .A p a i ro ff ou r th c en tu ry R omano -Br i t i sh k i ln s a tC rambeck .A n t iquar ie sJ ourna l 1 7 , 3 92 -413 . C o rde r , P .& J . L . K i rk , 1 932 . T he R oman p o t te ry a tK nap ton . A pp end ix . I n AR oman V i l la a tL ang ton n ear Ma l ton E a s t Y ork sh ir e ,P .C o rde r &J . L . K i rk . O x fo rd ,p p . 9 6 -9 . C o t ton ,M .A . , 1 947 .E xcava t ion sa tS i lche s t e r1 938 -9 .A r chae o l og ia 9 2 , 1 21 -68 . C o t ton , M .A . & R .E .M . Whee le r , 1 953 . V e ru lam ium 1 949 . T r an sac t ions o ft h eS t .A lbans a nd H er tf ord sh ir eA r ch i t ec t u r a la nd A r chaeo log ica lS oc ie ty 1 953 , 1 3 -97 . C ra ckne l l , S .&C . Mahany , 1 994 . R oman A lces ter ; S ou the rn E x t ramura lA r ea 1 964 -1966 E xcava t ion sP ar t2 :F ind sa nd

4 th s5 0 , 1 5 -69 . B u rge s s ,C .B . , 1 986 . ` U rne so fn os ma l lv a r ie ty ' :c o l la r ed u rn s r ev iewed . P r oceed ings o ft h eP r eh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 5 2 , 3 39 5 1 . B u r row , J .H . , 1 863 . C ave s o f C raven . T he S e t t le C hr on ic le ( New spape r ) i s tJ an . 1 863 . B u lme r , W . , 1 938 . D ragone sque b rooche s a nd t h e i rd eve lop -

D i scu s s ion .C ounc i lf o rB r i t ish A rchaeo logy R e sea r ch R e p o r t9 7 . C raddo ck , P .T . , 1 996 . R oman N on -F err ou s Me ta l lurgy . L on d on : B r i t i sh Mu seum O cca s iona lP ape r 1 00 .

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C rummy ,N . , 1 979 .A c h rono logy o fR omano -Br i t i sh b one p i n s . B r i tann ia 1 0 , 1 57 -63 . C rummy ,N . , 1 983 .T he R oman S ma l lF ind sf r om E xcava t ions

B u tche r , S . 1 993 . B rooche s o f c oppe r a l loy . I n T he U ley

i nC o l che s t er 1 97 1 -9 .C o lche s te r :C o lche s te rA r chaeo logy

S h r ine s ,A . Woodwa rd & P .L each .L ondon :E ng l i sh H e r i t a ge A r chaeo logy R epo r t 1 7 , p p . 1 49 -57 . C a sey , P . J . , 1 974 . T he i n te rp re ta t ion o fR omano -Br i t i sh s i te f i nd s .I nC o in sa nd t h eA r chaeo log i s t ,e d s .P IC a sey & R .

R epo r t9 . C rummy , P . , 1 992 . E xcava t ions a t C u lver S t . , t h e G i lberd S choo l , a nd O ther S i t e s i nC o lche s t er 1 97 1 -85 . C o lche s t e r : C o lche s te rA r chaeo logy R epo r t6 . 1 48

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r i aC ave ,e xp lo red b y t h eS e t t le -cave -exp lo ra t ion c omm i t t e e .R epor to ft h e4 2nd Mee t ing o ft h eB r i t i sh A ssoc ia t ion f or t h eA dvancemen to fS c ience , 1 78 -80 . D awk in s ,W .B . &H .B rad ley , 1 886 .C anon T ay lo r 's a r t ic le o n Manx r une sr e v iewed . Manx N o te B ook 8 :2 7 1 64 -68 .

F a r re r ,J . , 1 862 .N o t ice o fR un ic I n sc r ip t ion sD i scover ed D ur i n gR ecen tE xcava t ion si nt h eO r kney s . P r iva te ly P r in ted . F a r re r ,J .& H . D enny , 1 866 .F u r the re xp lo ra t ion i nt h eD owk e rbo t tom C ave s ,i nC raven .P r oceed ing so ft h eG eo log ica l a nd P o ly t echn ic S oc ie ty o ft h e W e s tR id ing o fY ork sh ir e4 , 4 14 -22 . F eachem , R .W . d eF . , 1 951 . D ragone sque f i bu lae .A n t iquar i e s J ourna l3 1 , 3 2 -44 .

D eane ,M .J . , 1 990 .M i l i ta ry e qu ipmen tf r om R omano -Br i t i sh c ave s . An na 2 i i ,2 6 -8 . D ea rne ,M .J . , 1 996 .A spec t so fR omano -B r i t i sh b rooch t ypo l o gy a nd d i s t r ibu t ion i nt h eS ou th P enn ine s .D erby sh ir eA r -

F ea chem ,R .W . , 1 968 .D ragone sque f i bu lae .A n t iqua r ies J our n a l4 8 , 1 00 -2 . F euge re , M . , 1 983 . L 'equ ipmen t m i l i ta r i re r oma in d an s l e d epa r tmen td el aL o i r e .C ah ier sA r chgo log ique sd el aL o ir e 3 ,4 5 -66 . F i rman , R .J . , 1 978 . E p igene t ic m ine ra l iza t ion . I n T he G eo lo g y o ft h e L ake D i s t r ic t , e d . F . Mo se ley . L eed s : Y o rk sh i re G eo log ica lS oc ie ty .

c haeo log ica lJ ourna l 16 , 6 8 -76 . D ea rne ,M .J . , S .A nde r son & K .B ran igan , 1 995 .E xcava t ion s a tB rough F i e ld , C a r s ing ton , 1 980 . D erby sh ir eA r chaeo l o g ica lJ ourna l 15 , 3 7 -75 . D ea rne ,M . J . &J .P a r son s , 1 997 .R e cen tR omano -Br i t i sh m e ta l d e tec to rf i nd si nt h eS hef f i e ld a nd R o the rham museum c o l l e c t ion s a nd t h e i rr e la t ion sh ip t or u ra l s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s i nS ou th Y o rk sh i re . Y ork sh ir eA r chaeo log ica lJ ourna l6 9 , 3 9 -92 . 1 49

F ow le r , E . , 1 960 . T he o r ig in s a nd d eve lopmen t o ft h e p enan n u la rb rooch i nE u rope .P r oceed ings o ft h eP r eh i s tor ic S o -

G reep , S . J . , 1 986 .T he o b jec t so fw o rked b one .I nT he L eg ion a r yF or tr e s sB a th sa tC aer leon : IT he F ind s ,J .D .Z ien l c ie w icz . C a rd if f : N a t iona l Mu seum o f Wa le s ,p p .197 -2 12 . G reep , S . J . , 1 989 . O b jec t s o fw o rk ed b one a nd a n t le r . I n P r e s ta tyn 1 984 -5 :A nI r on A ge F arm s t ead a nd R omano -Br i t i s hI ndus tr ia lS e t t lemen t , K . B lock ley . O xf o rd : B r i t i sh A r c haeo log ica lR epo r t s B r i t i sh S e r ie s2 10 ,p p .111 -7 . G u ido , M . , 1 978 . T he G la s sB ead so ft h eP r eh i s tor ic a nd R o m an P er iod si nB r i ta in a nd I r e land .O xf o rd : S oc ie ty o fA n t i qua r ie s o fL ondon R e sea rch R epo r t3 5 . G u i lbe r t , G . &A . V ince , 1 996 . P e t ro logy o fs ome p r eh i s tor ic p o t te ry f r om Mam T o r . D erby sh ir eA r chaeo log ica l J our n a l 16 , 4 5 -59 .

c i e ty 2 6 , 1 49 -77 . F re re ,S . , 1 972 . V eru lam ium E xcava t ions V o l . 1 .O xfo rd : S oc i e t y o fA n t iqua r ie so fL ondon R e sea rch R epo r t2 8 . F re re , S . , 1 983 . E xcava t ions i nt h e S t . G eor ge ' sS t . a nd B ur g a t eS t .A r eas .C an te rbu ry :T he A rchaeo logy o fC an te rbu r y V o l . 7 . F re re , S . , 1 987 . B r i tann ia ( 3 rd e d . ) . L ondon : R ou t ledge a nd K egan P au l . F re re ,S .1 990 .R oman B r i ta in i n1 989 .S i te se xp lo red .B r i tan n ia 2 1 , 3 04 -64 . G a scoyne ,M . ,A .P .C u r ran t &T .C .L o rd , 1 981 .I p sw ich ian f a u n ao fV ic to r ia C ave a nd t h e ma r ine p a laeoc l ima t ic r e co rd .

H an son , W .S . , 1 987 .A gr ico la a nd t h e C onque s to ft h eN or th . N ew J e rsey : B a rne sa nd N ob le . H a r t ley , B .R . , 1 960 -The R oman F o r t a tB a inb r idge . E xcava t i on s o f 1 957 -59 . P r oceed ing s o ft h e L eed sP h i lo soph ica l a nd L i t erary S oc ie ty , L i t erary a nd H i s to r i ca lS ec t ion 1 , 1 07 -131 . H a r t ley , B .R . , 1 966 . T he R oman f o r ta tI l k ley . E xcava t ion s o f 1 962 . P r oceed ing s o ft h e L eed s P h i lo soph ica la nd L i ter -

N a tur e 2 94 , 6 52 -4 . G e r r i sh , E .J .S . , 1 983 . T he p r eh i s to r ic p o t te ry f r om Mam T o r : f u r the rc on s ide ra t ion s .D erby sh ir eA r chaeo log ica lJ ourna l 1 03 , 4 3 -46 . G ib son ,A .M . , 1 978 . B r on ze A ge P o t tery i nt h eN or th E a s to f E ng land . O xfo rd : B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica l R epo r t s B r i t i sh S e r ie s5 6 . G i lk s ,J .A . , 1 973 .T he N eo l i th ic a nd e a r ly B ronze A ge p o t te ry

a ry S oc ie ty ,L i t era ry a nd H i s tor ica lS ec t ion 1 2 ,2 3 -72 . H a r t ley , B . &L .F i t t s , 1 988 . T he B r igan te s . G louce s te r : S u t t o n . H a r t ley , K .F . &P .V . Web s te r , 1 973 . T he R omano -Br i t i sh p o t -

f r om E lbo l ton C ave , Wha r f eda le . Y ork sh ir eA r chaeo log i c a lJ ourna l4 5 ,4 1-54 . G i lk s , J .A . , 1 974 . E a r ly B ronze A ge b eake r s f r om P in H o le C ave ,C re swe l lC rag s ,D e rby sh i re .D erby sh ir eA r chaeo log i c a lJ ourna l9 4 , 8 15 . G i lk s , J .A . , 1 976 .E xcava t ion si n ac ave o nR aven S ca r ,I ng le t on , 1 973 -5 .T ran sac t ion so ft h eB r i t i sh C ave R e sear ch A s s oc ia t ion 3p t2 ,9 5 -99 .

t e ry k i ln s n ea r W i lde r spoo l . A r chaeo log ica lJ ourna l 1 30 , 7 7 -103 . H a r t ley , K .F . , 1 981 . P a in ted f i ne w a re s m ade i nt h e R ae t ian w o rk shop s n ea r W i lde r spoo l . I nR oman P o t t er yR e sear ch i nB r i ta in a nd N or th -W e s tE ur ope , e d s . A .C . A nde r son &

G i lk s ,J .A . , 1 985 .An o te o nt h ec o l la red u rn f r om F a i ry H o le s C ave , Wh i tewe l l , L anca sh i re . T ransac t ion s o ft h e L anca s h ir ea nd C he sh ir eA n t iquar ian S oc ie ty 8 3 , 1 88 -93 . G i lk s , J .A . 1 990 . T he p r eh i s to r ic p o t te ry f r om F i s su r e C ave a nd N ew C ave , H a r t le D a le , n ea r B radwe l l , D e rby sh i re . D erby sh ir eA r chaeo log ica lJ ourna l 10 , 6 -23 .

A .S .A nde r son .O x f o rd :B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t sI n t e rna t iona l S e r ie s 1 23 ,p p . 4 71-9 . H a t ta t t ,R . , 1 982 .A nc ien ta nd R omano -Br i t i sh B r ooche s .S he r b o rne : D o r se tP ub l i sh ing C o . . H a t ta t t ,R . , 1 985 .I r on A ge a nd R oman B r ooches .O x f o rd : O x b ow . H a t ta t t ,R . , 1 987 .B r ooche so fA n t iqu i ty .O xfo rd : O xbow . H a t ta t t , R . , 1 989 .A nc ien tB r ooche sa nd O ther A r t ef ac t s . O x f o rd : O xbow . H a t ta t t ,R . &G . Web s t e r , 1 985 .N ew l i gh to na d lo cu t io r e pou ss6 d i sc b roo che s .A n t iquar ies J ourna l6 5 ,4 34 -7 . H ave r f ie ld ,F . , 1 905 .R omano -Br i t i sh r ema in s .I nT he V i c tor ia H i s tor yo ft h eC oun t ie so fE ng land :D erby sh ir eV o l . 2 .L on d on : R oya lC omm i s s ion o nH i s to r ic Monumen t s ,p p . 1 912 64 . H aywa rd , L .C . , 1 982 . I l che s t er Mead R oman V i l la . I l che s te r a nd D i s t r ic tO cca s iona lP ape r3 1 . H en ig , M . , 1 974 . AC orpu s o fR oman E ngraved G em s tone s f rom B r i t i sh S i t e s . O x fo rd : B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epor t s B r i t i sh S e r ie s 8 .

G i lk s ,J .A . , 1 995 .L a te rN eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age p o t te ry f r om T haw H ead C ave ,I ng le ton , N o r th Y o rk sh i re . T ran sac t ion s o ft h e Hun t er A r chaeo log ica lS oc ie ty 1 8 , 1 11 . G i l lam ,J .R , 1 96 1 .T he c oa r se p o t te ry .I nE xcava t ion sa t Mum r i l l sR oman F o r t , 1 958 -60 , K .A .S t ee r s .P roceed ing so ft h e S oc ie ty o fA n t iquar ies o fS co t land 9 4 , 13 -129 . G i l lam ,J .R , 1 968 .C oa r se w a re . I nT he R omano -Br i t i sh C em e t er y a t T r en tho lme D r ive , Y ork , L .P . Wenham . L ondon : HMSO ,p p . 5 6 -86 . G i l lam , J .R , 1 970 . T ype so fR oman C oar se P o t t e ry V e s se l s i n N o r thern B r i ta in .N ewca s t le : O r ie lP re s s . G i l lam , J . P . , 1 976 . C oa r se f umed w a re i n n o r th B r i ta in a nd b eyond . G la sgow A r chaeo log ica lJ ourna l4 ,5 7 -80 . G oodbu rn ,R . , 1 976 .R oman B r i ta in i n1 975 .B r i tann ia 7 ,2 92 3 77 . G oodch i ld ,R .G . 1 94 1 . R omano -Br i t i sh d i sc b rooche sd e r ived f r om H ad r ian ic c o in type s .A n t iquar ie sJ ourna l2 1 , 1 8 . G rac ie , H .S . &E .G . P r ice , 1 979 . F roce s te rC ou r tR oman v i l l a : s econd r epo r t . T ran sac t ions o ft h eB r i s to la nd G louce s t e r sh ir eA r chaeo log ica lS oc ie ty 9 7 ,9 -62 . G reen , C . , 1 978 . F lav ian ' r i ng a nd d o t 'b eake r s f r om L ond in -

H en ig , M . , 1 995 . T h e A r t o fR oman B r i ta in . L ondon : B a t s f o rd . H inch l if f e , J . , w i th C .S . G reen , 1 985 . E xcava t ion s a tB ran c a s t er 1 974 & 1 977 .E a s tA ng l ian A rchaeo logy R epor t2 3 . H inch l if f e ,J . ,J .H .W i l l iam s &F .W i l l iam s , 1 992 .R oman W ar r i ng ton E xcava t ions a tW i ld er spoo l 1 966 -9 & 1 976 . Man c he s te r : B r i tann ia Monog raph 2 .

i um :V e ru lam ium f o rm 1 30 a nd a l l ied t ype s .I nE ar l yF ine W ar es i nR oman B r i ta in , e d s . P .A r thu r &G . Ma r sh . O x f o rd : B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t sB r i t i sh S e r ie s 5 7 .

H ob ley , B . , 1 969 . AN e ron ian -V e spa s ian ic s i te a t' The L un t ' , B ag in ton , Wa rw ick sh i re . T ran sac t ion sa nd P r oceed ings o f t h eB irm ingham A r chaeo log ica lS oc ie ty 8 3 , 6 5 129 . 1 50

H odde r ,I .& J .H edge s , 1 977 . Weav ing c omb s ,t h e i rt y po logy a nd d i s t r ibu t ion w i th s ome i n t roduc to ry r ema rk s o n d a te a nd f unc t ion .I nT he I r on A ge : AR ev iew ,e d .J .C o ll i s .S hef f i e ld : D epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy a nd P reh i s to ry . H o lb rook ,N . &P .T .B idwe l l , 1 991 .R oman F ind sf r om E x e t er . E xe t e r : E xe te rA r chaeo logy R epo r t4 . H o lme s ,E .F . , 1 976 . T h imb le s . ? London : G i l la nd Ma cm i l lan . H or n e ,W . , 1 894 /5 .T he e a r ly r a ce s i nY o rk sh i re . T ran sac t ion s o ft h eL eed sG eo log ica lA ssoc ia t ion 1 0 , 8 11 . H owe , M .D . ,J .R . P e r r in & D .F . Mack re th , 1 980 . R oman P o t t e ry f r om t h eN ene V a l le y : AG u id e . P e te rbo rough : P e te r b o rough C i ty Mu seum O cca s iona l P ape r2 . H ow son ,W . , 1 850 . A n I lu s tra t ed G u id e t ot h e C ur io s i t ie s o f C raven .L ondon : Wh i t take ra nd C o . H übene r ,W . , 1 972 . G le icha rm ige b üge l f ibe ln d e r Me row ing e r ze i ti n We s teu ropa . Mad r id er M i t t e i lung en 1 3 ,2 11-44 . H u l l , M .R . , 1 958 . R oman C o lches ter . O x fo rd : S oc ie ty o fA n -

K ing ,A . , 1 974 . Ar e v iew o fa r cha eo log ica l w o rk i nt h ec av e s o fn o r th -we s t E ng land . I n T he L ime s tones a nd C ave s o f N or t h W es t E ng land , e d . A .C . Wa l tham . N ew ton A bbo t : D av id & C ha r le s ,p p . 1 82 -200 . K ing ,A . , 1 985 . P r eh i s to r ic s e t t lemen ta nd l a nd u se i nC raven , N o r th Y o rk sh i re . I nU p land S e t t lemen ti nB r i ta in : T he S ec o nd M i l len ium B .C . a nd Af t er , e d s . D . S p ra t t &C . B u r g e s s . O x fo rd : B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica l R epor t s B r i t i sh S e r i e s 1 43 , p p . 17 -34 . K ing ,A . , 1 986 . R omano -Br i t ish f a rm sa nd f a rme r si nC raven , N o r th Y o rk sh i r e . I nA r chaeo logy i nt h e P enn ine s : S t ud ie s i nH onour o fA r thur R a i s tr ick ,e d s .T .G . Manby & P .T u r n b u l l .O x f o rd :B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t sB r i t i sh S e r ie s 1 58 , p p . 1 81 -93 . K ing , A . &H . Wa lke r , 1 966 . Two s t ray f i nd s f r om G igg le s w ick . Y or k sh ir eA r chaeo log ica lJ our r za l4 1 , 3 63 -5 . K i rk , J .R . , 1 949 . B ronze s f r om Woodea ton , O xon . . O xon ien s i a 1 4 , 1 45 . L ee ch , R . , 1 982 . E xcava t ion s a t C a t sgor e 1 970 -73 . B r i s to l : W e s t e rn A rchaeo log ica lT ru s t .

t i qua r ie so fL ondon R e sea r ch R epo r t2 0 . H u l l ,M .R . , 1 967 .T he N o r 'N ou rb roo che s .I nE xcava t ion so n N o r ' N ou r i nt h e I s le s o f S c i l ly , 1 962 -6 , D . D ud ley . A r c haeo log ica lJ ourna l 1 24 , 1 64 p p . 2 8 -64 . I s ing s , C . , 1 957 . R oman G la s sf rom Da t ed F i nd s . G ron ingen / D jaka r ta :J . B . Wo l te r s . J ack son ,J .W . , 1 938 .C en tena ry a ccoun to fV ic to r ia C ave ,S e t t l e . C ave sa nd C av ing 1 ,1 69 -74 & 1 93 . J ack son ,J .W . , 1 945 . Al a nce -po in to fU ppe rP a laeo l i th ic t ype f r om V ic to r ia C ave , S e t t le ,Y o rk sh i re .A n t iquar ies J ourna l 2 5 , 1 47 -8 . J ack son , J .W . & W .K . Ma t t in son , 1 932 . Ac ave o n G igg le s w ick S ca r s ,n ea rS e t t le ,Y o rk sh i re . T he N a tur a l i s tJ a n . 1 932 ,

L loyd -Mo rgan ,G . , 1 987 .P rof e s so rR obe r tN ews tead a nd f i nd s o fR oman m i l i ta ry m e ta lwo rk f r om C h e s te r .I nR oman M i l i t a ry E qu ipmen t : T he A ccou tr emen t so fW ar , e d . M . D aw s on . O x fo rd : B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica l R epo r t s I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s3 36 ,p p . 8 5 -97 . L loyd -Mo rgan , G . , 1 994 . C oppe r a l loy o b jec t s e xc lud ing b r ooche s . I n R oman A lces t er : S ou the rn E x tramura lA r ea P ar t2 :F ind sa nd D i scu s s ion ,e d s .S .C rackne l l &C . Mah a ny .C ounc i lf o rB r i t i sh A rchaeo logy R e sea rch R epo r t9 7 , p p . 1 77 -94 . L odew i jcx ,M . , LWou te r s ,W .V iaene ,J .S a lem ink , H . K ucha , M . W eve r s , &R . Wou te r s , 1 993 . At h i rd -cen tu ry c o l le c t i on o fd eco r a t ive o b jec t s f r om aR oman v i l la a t Wange ( c en t ra l B e lg ium ) : i s t i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry r epo r t . J ourna l o f R oman M i l i tar yE qu ipmen tS tud ie s4 ,6 7 -100 . L ongwor th , I .H . , 1 984 . C o l lar ed Ur n s o ft h e B r onze A ge i n G r ea tB r i ta in a nd I r e land .

5 -9 . J ack son , R . , 1 990 . C amer ton : T he L a t e I r on A ge a nd E ar ly R oman Me ta lwork . L ondon . J a r re t t ,M .G . &S . Wra thme l l , 1 981 . Wh i t ton :A nI r on A ge a nd R oman F arm s t ead i nS ou th G lamor gan .C a rd if f . J ohns ton , D .G . , 1 974 . T he R oman s e t t lemen t a tS andy , B ed f o rd sh i r e .B ed f ord sh ir eA r chaeo log ica lJ ou rna l9 ,3 5 -54 . J one s ,G .D .B . &S .G rea ley , 1 974 .R oman Manche s t er .A l t r in c ham . J one s ,G .D .B . &P .V . Web s te r , 1 968 . Med io lanum :e xcava t ion s a t Wh i tchu r ch , 1 965 -6 .A r chaeo log ica lJ our na l 1 25 , 1 93 2 54 . K aufmann -He in imann ,A . , 1 977 .D ie R om i schen B r onz en D er S chw e i z : IA ug s t . Ma inz . K e l le r ,E . , 1 971 .D ie S pä t röm ischen G rabf und ei nS üdbayern . Mun ich . K enyon ,K .M , 1 948 .E xcava t ions a tt h eJ ew r yW a l lS i t e ,L e ice s t e r .O x fo rd :S oc ie ty o fA n t iqu ar ie so fL ondon R e sea r ch R e -

L o rd , T .C . , 1 997 . AB iogr aph ica l S k e tch o fJ oseph J ack son ( 18 16 -1886 ) .T he F ir s tC ave A r chaeo log i s ti nt h eY or k sh ir e D a l e s . S e t t le : L owe rW in sk i l l A r chaeo logy C en t re O cca s i ona l Wo rkno t e4 . L ough l in ,N . , 1 977 .D a le sw a re : ac on t r ibu t ion t ot h es t udy o f R oman c oa r se p o t te ry . I n P o t t ery a nd E ar ly C ommer ce . C har ac t er i za t ion a nd T rad e i nR oman a nd L a ter C eram i c s , e d . D .P .S . P ea cock . L ondon :A cadem ic P re s s , p p . 8 5 1 46 . MacG r ego r ,A . , 1 985 .B one ,A n t le r ;I vo ry a nd Horn . T he T ech n o logy o fS k e le ta l Ma t er ia l sS ince t h eR oman P e r iod .L on d on : C room H e lm . Ma cG r ego r , A . , 1 985a . C o in b a lance s i nt h e A shmo lean Mu s e um .A n t iquar i es J ourna l6 5 , 4 39 -43 . Ma cG r ego r , A . &E .B o l ick , 1 993 . A shmo lean Mu seum , O x -

p o r t 1 5 . K i lb r ide Jone s , H .E . , 1 980 . C e l t ic C raf t sman sh ip i nB r on ze . L ondon :C room H e lm . K i lb r ide Jone s ,H .E . , 1 987 .R epou s s6 d i s cb rooche s : d a te a nd

f ord : AS umma ry C a ta logue o ft h e A ng lo -Saxon C o l l ec t i on s ( Non -F er r ou s Me ta l s ) . O xfo rd : B r i t i sh A rchaeo log i c a lR epo r t sB r i t i sh S e r ie s2 30 . Ma cG r ego r ,M . , 1 976 .E ar ly C e l t ic A r ti nN or th B r i ta in .L e ice s t e r :L e ice s te rU n ive r s i ty P re s s .

manu f a c tu re .A n t iquar ie sJ our na l6 7 , 1 29 -30 . K ing ,A . , 1 969 . AS t ud yo fE ar ly S e t t lemen ti nU pper R ibb les d a l ea nd t h eA d jacen tU p land s . Unpub l i shed M .A .T he s i s , Un ive r s i ty o fL ive rpoo l . K ing ,A . , 1 970 .R omano -Br i t i sh me ta lwo rk f r om t h eS e t t le d i s t r ic t o f We s tY o rk sh i r e . Y ork sh ir eA r chaeo log ica lJ ou rna l

Ma cb et h ,D . , 1 985 .B rooche sf r om R oman D e rby .D erby sh ir e A r chaeo log ica lJ ourna l 1 05 , 2 81 -99 .

6 2 , 4 10 -17 . K ing , A . , 1 970a . E ar ly P enn ine S e t t lemen t . C lapham : D a le s man P ub l i sh ing C o . . 1 51

Ma ck r e th ,D . , 1 986 .B rooche s .I nS e t t lemen t , R e l ig ion a nd I n d u s t ry o nt h eF en -Edge ;T hr ee R omano -B r i t i sh S i t e si nN or f o lk , D .G u rney . E a s tA ng l ian A rchaeo logy 3 1 ,p p . 6 1 -7 . Manby , T .G . , 1 971 . N eo l i th ic p o t te ry . I nE xcava t ion s a tF ox H o le C ave ,H igh Whee ldon , 1 96 1-1970 ,D .B ramwe l l .D er b y sh ir eA r chaeo log ica lJ ourna l9 1 , 1 3 -16 .

e d t o Dor o thy W h i t e lock , e d s . P .C lemoes & K . H ughe s . p p . 1 65 -81 . P age , R . I . , 1 973 .A nI n t r oduc t ion t oE ng l ish R une s .

Mann ing ,W .H . , 1 976 . C a ta logue o fR omano -Br i t i sh I r onwor k i nt h e Mu seum o fA n t iqu i t i e s ,N ewca s t l e -u pon -T yne .N ew -

P e rne t ta , J .C . , 1 966 . R epo r t o n t h e f i nd ing s a tE tche s ' C ave , D owe l D a le , D e rby sh i re . P eak land A r chaeo logy S oc ie ty N ews le t ter 2 1 , 1 -16 & 2 5 .

P a in te r ,K . &M . S ax , 1 970 .T he B r i t ish Mu seum c o l lec t ion o f R oman h ead s tud b rooches .B r i t i sh Museum Q uar t er l y3 4 , 1 53 -74 .

c a s t le :D ep t .A rchaeo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o fN ewca s t le . Mann ing , WH . , 1 985 .C a ta logue o fR omano -Br i t i sh I r on T oo l s , F i t t ing sa nd W eapon si nt h eB r i t i sh Mu seum .L ondon :B r i t i s h Mu seum . May ,T . , 1 9 11 .T he R oman f o r t s a tE l s la ck . Y ork sh ir eA r chae o l og ica lJ ourna l2 1 , 13 -67 . Mayhew , N .J . , 1 975 . A t umb re l a tt h e A shmo lean Mu seum . A n t iquar ies J ourna l5 5 , 3 94 -6 . Meadow s ,I . D . , 1 992 .T h r ee R oman s i te si nN o r thamp ton sh i r e : e xcava t ion sb yE .G reenf ie ld a tB ozea t ,H igham F e r re r sa nd G r ea tO ak ley b e tween 1 96 1 a nd 1 966 . N or thamp tonsh ir e A r chaeo logy 2 4 , 7 7 -94 .

P e r r in , J .R . , 1 981 . R oman P o t t e ry f r om t h e C o lon ia : S k e ld er g a t e a nd B i shoph i l l .Y o rk : C ounc i l f o r B r i t i sh A r cha eo lo g y /Yo rk A rchaeo log ica lT ru s tA rchaeo logy o fY o rk 1 6 /2 . P e r r in , J .R . , 1 990 . R oman P o t t e ry f r om t h e C o lon ia :2 . L on d on : C ounc i lf o rB r i t i sh A rchaeo logy .Y o rk A r cha eo log ica l T ru s tA rchaeo logy o fY o rk 1 6 /4 . P h i lp ,B . , 1 981 .T he E xcava t ion o ft h eR oman F or t so ft h eC la s s i sB r i tann ia a tD over ,1 970 -1977 .D ove r : K en t Monog raph S e r ie sR e sea rch R epo r t3 . P h i lp ,B . ,K .P a r t in ,J .W i l l son ,M .D u t to & W .W i l l iam s , 1 991 . T he R om an V i l la S i te a tK es ton , K en t . i s tR epor t( E xcava -

Mea te s , G .W . , 1 987 . T he R oman V i l la a tL u l l ing s tone , K en t . V o l . I : T he W a l l P a in t ing s a nd F ind s . K en t A r chaeo logy S oc ie ty Monog raph 3 . M ike t , R . , 1 983 . T he R oman F or ta tS ou th S h ie ld s : E xcava t i on so ft h eD ef ence s 1 977 -1981 . N ewca s t le . Monaghan ,J . ,1 993 .R oman P o t t e ry f r om t h eF or t r e s s : 9B lak e S t r ee t .Y o rk :C ounc i lf o rB r i t i sh A r chaeo logy /Y o rk A rchae o l og ica lT ru s tA rchaeo logy o fY o rk 1 6 /7 .

t i on s1 968 -1978 ) . D ove r :K en t Monog raph S e r ie sR e sea r ch R epo r t6 . P i ne , E . , 1 970 . AC on s tan t in ian c o in h oa rd f r om Wome r s ley , W . R . Y ork sh ir eA r chaeo log ica lJ our na l4 2 , 1 27 -9 . P o t te r , T .W . , 1 979 . R oman s i nN or th W es tE ng land . K enda l l : C umbe r land a nd We s tmo r land A rchaeo log ica l a nd A n t i q ua r ian S oc ie ty R e sea r ch S e r ie sN o . 1 . P o t te r ,T .W . &S .D .T row , 1 988 .P ucker idge -Braugh ing ,H er t -

Moo r e ,D .T . , 1 978 .T he p e t ro logy a nd a r chaeo logy o fE ng l i sh h one s tone s .J ourna lo fA r chaeo log ica lS c ience 5 ,6 1-74 . Mo r r i s ,C .A . , 1 990 . Wooden o b jec tf r om e nc lo su r eI ,p i t2 604 . I nD a l ton P ar lour s I r on A ge S e t t lemen ta nd R oman V i l la , S . Wra thme l l &A . N icho l son . We s tY o rk sh i re A r chaeo lo g y S e rv ice ,p p . 1 46 . Mo r r i son ,W . , 1 870 / 1 . O n t h e e xp lo ra t ion o ft h e S e t t le c ave s , Y o rk sh i r e . T ran sac t ion s o ft h e P lymou th I n s t i tu t e 4p t2 , 1 08 -110 . Mun se l l 1 992 . Mun se l l S o i l C o lor C har t s . N ewbu rgh N .Y . : Ma cbe th .

f ord sh ir e : T he E rm ine S t r ee t E xcava t ions , 1 97 1 -1972 = H er tf ord sh ir eA r chaeo logy 1 0 . P ou l ton , E .B . , 1 881 . Ap r e l im ina ry a ccoun to ft h ew o rk ing o f D owke rbo t tom C ave , i nC raven , d u r ing Augu s t a nd S ep t embe r , 1 881 .P r oceed ing so ft h eG eo log ica la nd P o ly t ech n i cS oc ie ty o ft h e W e s tR id ing o fY ork sh ir e7 ,3 51 -68 . P r ice ,J . , 1 984 .T he o b jec t so fg l a s s .I nS i lches ter E xca va t ion s o n t h e D ef ence s 1 974 -80 ,M . F u lfo rd . L ondon : A lan S u t t on B r i tann ia Monog raph 5 ,p p . 16 -8 . P r ice ,J . , 1 988 .R omano -Br i t ish g l a s sb ang les f r om E a s tY o rk s h i re . I nR ecen tR e sear ch i nR oman Y ork sh ir e ,e d s .J .P r ice &P .R . W i l son w i th C .S . B r igg s &S . J . H a rdman . O xfo rd :

Mu sson , R . , 1 947 . AB ronze A ge c ave s i te i nt h e L i t t le B o l l a nd a r ea o fL anca sh i r e .T ran sac t ion so ft h eL anca sh ir ea nd C he sh ir eA n t iquar ian S oc ie ty 5 9 , 1 6 1 -70 . N ea l , D .S . , A . Wa rd le & J .H unn , 1 990 . E xcava t ion s o ft h e

B r i t ish A r chaeo log ica lR epo r t sB r i t ish S e r ie s 1 93 ,p p . 39 6 6 . R ad ley ,J .& L .C oope r , 1 966 .A no ccup ied c ave o ft h eB ronze a ge ,B unke r 's H i l l Wood ,B ee ley .D erby sh ir eA r chaeo log i c a lJ ou rna l 8 6 , 9 3 -8 . R a i s t r ick ,A . , 1 936 .E xcava t ion sa tS ewe l l ' sC ave ,S e t t le , We s t Y o rk sh i re . P r oceed ing so ft h e U n iver s i ty o fD urham P h i l o soph ica lS oc ie ty 9 ,1 91-204 . R a i s t r ick ,A . , 1 937 .P reh i s to r ic c u l t iva t ion sa tG ra s s ing ton , We s t

I r on A g e ,R oman a nd Med i eva lS e t t lemen ta tG orhambu ry , S t .A lban s .L ondon :E ng l i sh H e r i tage A r cha eo logy R epo r t 1 4 . O lden s te in , J . , 1 976 . Z u r a ü s ru s tung r öm i sche r a ux i l ia re in h e i ten .B er ich td er R öm i sch -Ge rman i schen K omm i s s ion 5 7 , 5 1 -284 . O 'Ne i l , H . , 1 952 . Wh i t t ing ton C ou r t R oman v i l la , Wh i t t ing -

Y o rk sh i re . Y ork sh ir eA r chaeo log ica lJ ourna l3 3 , 1 66 -74 . R a i s t r ick , A . , 1 939 . I r on A ge s e t t lemen t s i n We s t Y o rk sh i r e . Y ork sh ir eA r chaeo log ica lJ ou rna l3 4 , 15 -50 .

t on , G louce s te r sh ir e . T ransac t ions o f t h e B r i s to l a nd G louc e s t er sh ir eA r chaeo log ica lS oc ie ty 7 1 , 1 3 -87 . O swa ld , F . , 1 936 /7 . I nd ex o fF igur e T ype so n T er ra S ig i l la ta .

R awe s ,B . , 1 991 . Ap r eh i s to r ic a nd R omano -Br i t ish s e t t lemen t a tV ineya rd sF a rm ,C ha r l ton K ing s ,G louce s te r sh i r e .T r an s -

U n ive r s i ty o f L ive rpoo l A nna l s o f A r chaeo logy a nd A n t h ropo logy S upp lemen t .

a c t ions o ft h e B r i s to la nd G louce s ter sh ir eA r chaeo log ica l S oc ie ty 1 09 , 2 5 -90 .

O swa ld ,F . , 1 952 . E xcava t ion so f aT raver se o f Marg idunum . N o t t ingham : U n ive r s i ty o fN o t t ingham . P age ,R . I . , 1 971 .H ow l ong d i dt h eS cand inav ian l a nguage s u r v i ve i nE ng land ? T he e p ig raph ic e v idence . I n E ng land B ef or et h e C onque s t : S t ud ies i nP r imar yS our ce sP r esen t -

R eece , R . , 1 974 . N ume r ica l a spec t s o fR oman c o in h oa rd s i n B r i ta in . I n C o in sa nd t h eA r chaeo log i s t , e d s . P . J . C a sey & R . R eece . O x fo rd : B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica l R epo r t s B r i t ish S e r ie s4 ,p p . 7 8 -94 . 1 52

R igby ,V . , 1 980 . T he c oa r se p o t t e ry . I nR ud s ton R oman V i l la , I .M . S t ead . L eed s : Y o rk sh i re A r chaeo log ica l S oc ie ty , p p . 4 5 -94 . R ound , A .A . , 1 990 / 1 . E xcava t ion s o ft h e man s io s i te a t Wa l l ( Le toce tum ) S t af f s . 1 972 -78 ( W a l l e xcava t ion s r epo r t n o . 1 4 ) . T ransac t ion s o ft h e S t af f ord sh ir eA r chaeo log ica la nd

S ymond s , R .P . , 1 990 . T he p rob lem s o fr oughca s tb eak e r s a nd r e la ted c o lou r -coa ted w a re s .J our na lo fR o m an P o t t e ry S t ud i e s3 ,1 17 . T iddeman , R .H . , 1 872 . D i scove ry o fe x t inc t mamma l s i nt h e V ic to r ia C ave , S e t t le .N a tur e7 ,1 27 -8 . T iddeman ,R .H . , 1 873 .T he o lde rd epo s i t si nt h eV ic to r ia C ave ,

H i s tor ica lS oc i e ty 3 2 , 1 78 . R ah t z , P .A . &E .G r eenf ie ld , 1 976 . E xcava t ion sa tC hew V a l l e yL ake S omer se t .L ondon : HMSO D epa r tmen to ft h eE n v i romen tA rchaeo logy R epo r t8 . S heppa rd ,T . , 1 907 . N o t es o n aC o l lec t ion o fR oman A n t iqu i t i e sf r om S ou th F er r iby i nN or th L inco ln sh ir e . H u l l : H u l l Museum P ub l ica t ion sN o s3 8 &3 9 . S ho t te r ,D .C .A . , 1 990 .R oman C o in sf r om N or th W es tE ng land .

S e t t le ,Y o rk sh i re . G eo log ica l Magaz ine 1 0 , 1 -16 . T iddeman , R .H . , 1 875 . S econd r epo r to ft h ec omm i t tee . a p p o in ted f o r t h e p u rpo se o fa s s i s t ing i nt h e e xp lo ra t ion o f t h e S e t t le c ave s ( V ic to r ia C ave ) . R epor to ft h e 4 4 th Mee t i n go ft h eB r i t i sh A s soc ia t ion f or t h eA dvancemen to fS c i e nce , 1 33 -8 . T iddeman , R .H . , 1 875a . T he w o rk a nd p rob lem s o ft h eV ic to r i a C ave e xp lo ra t ion . P roceed ing s o ft h e G eo log ica l a nd

L anca s te r . S ho t t e r , D .C .A . , 1 993a . C o in lo s s a nd t h eR oman o ccupa t ion o fN o r th -W e s tE ng land .B r i t i sh N um i sma t ic J ou rna l6 3 , 1 1 9 . S ho t te r , D .C .A . , 1 993b . R oman s a nd B r i ton s i nN or th -W es t E ng land .L anca s te r :C en t r ef o rN o r th -W e s tR eg iona lS tud i e s , U n ive r s i ty o fL anca s te r . S ho t t e r ,D .C .A . , 1 995 .R oman C o in sf r om N or th -W e s tE ng land : F i r s tS upp lemen t .L anca s t e r . S ho t t e r ,D .C .A . ,F o r thcom ing .R oman N o r th -W e s tE ng land :t h e p roce s so fc onque st T ran sac t ions o ft h eH i s tor ica lS oc ie ty o fL anca sh ir ea nd C hesh ir e . Sm i th , H .E . , 1 865 . T he l ime s tone s a nd c ave s o fC raven a nd t h e i ra nc ien ti n hab i tan t s .T ran sac t ion so ft h eH i s tor ica lS o c i e ty o fL anca sh ir ea nd C he sh ir en .s .5 ,1 99 -230 . Sm i th ,C .Roa ch , 1 844 . C o l lec tanea A n t igua V o l . I . Sm i th , C .Roach & J .J a ck son , 1 842 . R oman r ema in s d i scov e r ed i nt h ec ave sn ea rS e t t le i nY o rk sh i re .A r chaeo log ia 2 9 , 3 84 -5 . S nape ,M .E . , 1 993 .R oman B rooche sf rom N or th B r i ta in . O x f o rd :B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica lR epo r t sB r i t i sh S e r ie s2 35 . S omme r ,C .S . , 1 984 . T he M i l i ta ry V i c ii nR oman B r i ta in . O x f o rd :B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica lR epo r t sB r i t i sh S e r ie s 1 29 . S pa rey G reen , C . , 1 987 . E xcava t ions a tP oundbu ry , D or ches t e r ; D or se t1 966 -1982 V o l . 1 :T he S e t t l emen t s .D o r se tN a t u r a l H is to ry a nd A rchaeo logy S oc ie ty Monog raph 7 . S t ead ,I .M . , 1 980 .R ud s ton R oman V i l la . L eed s :Y o rk sh i re A r c haeo log ica l S oc ie ty . S t ead , I .M . &V .R igby , 1 986 . B a ldock . T he E xcava t ion o fa R oman a nd P r e -Roman S e t t l emen t , 1 968 -72 . L ondon : S o c i e ty f o rt h eP romo t ion o fR oman S tud ie sB r i tann ia Mon o g raph 7 . S t ead , I .M . &V .R igby , 1 989 . V er u lam ium : T he K ing H ar ry L ane S i t e .L ondon : E ng l i sh H e r i tage /Br i t i sh Mu seum . S ump t e r ,A .B . , 1 990 .R oman p o t te ry ( f rom c on tex t so t he rt h an w e l l 1 ) . I n D a l ton P ar lour s I r on A ge S e t t l emen ta nd R o m an V i l la , e d s . S . Wra thme l l &A . N icho l son . We s tY o rk s h i re A r chaeo logy S e rv ice ,p p . 1 35 -46 .

P o ly t echn ic S oc ie ty o ft h e W es tR id ing o fY ork sh ir e n .s .2 , 7 7 -92 . T iddeman ,R .H . , 1 876 .T h i rd r epo r to ft h ec omm i t tee . . .a ppo in t e df o rt h ep u rpo se o fa s s i s t ing i nt h ee xp lo r a t ion o ft h eS e t t le c ave s ( V ic to r ia C ave ) . R epor t o ft h e 4 5 th Mee t ing o ft h e B r i t i sh A ssoc ia t ion f or t h e A dvancemen to fS c ience , 1 66 7 5 . T iddeman , R .H . , 1 877 . F our th r epo r t o ft h e c omm i t tee . . . a p p o in ted f o r t h e p u rpo se o fa s s i s t ing i nt h e e xp lo ra t ion o f t h e S e t t le c ave s ( V ic to r ia C ave ) . R epor to ft h e4 6 th Mee t i n g o ft h eB r i t i sh A s soc ia t ion f or t h eA dvancemen to fS c i e nce , 15 -8 . T iddeman , R .H . , 1 878 . F i f th r epo r t o ft h e c omm i t tee . a p p o in ted f o r t h e p u rpo se o fa s s i s t ing i nt h e e xp lo ra t ion o f t h e S e t t le c ave s ( V ic to r ia C ave ) . R epor to ft h e4 7 th Mee t i n go ft h eB r i t i sh A s soc ia t ion f or t h eA dvancemen to fS c i e nce , 2 15 -20 . T iddeman , R .H . , 1 878a . O nt h ea ge o fH yaena -bed a tt h eV ic t o r ia C ave , S e t t le a nd i t s b ea r ing o n t h e a n t iqu i ty o f man . J ourna l o ft h e A n thr opo log ica l I n s t i tu t e o fG r ea t B r i ta in a nd I r e land 7 i i , 1 65 -73 . T iddeman , R .H . , 1 879 . S ix th r epo r t o ft h e c omm i t tee . a p p o in ted f o r t h e p u rpo se o fa s s i s t ing i nt h e e xp lo ra t ion o f t h e S e t t le c ave s ( V ic to r ia C ave ) . R epor to ft h e4 8 th Mee t i n go ft h eB r i t i sh A s soc ia t ion f or t h eA dvancemen to fS c i e nce , 3 77 -80 . T i l son , P . , 1 973 . AB e lg ic a nd R omano -Br i t i sh s i te a tB romh am .B ed f ord sh ir eA r chaeo log ica lJ ourna l8 ,2 3 -66 . T o l l , P . , 1 949 . T he E x cava t ions a tD ur a E uropo s : F ina l R e p or tI V ,p tI V ,f a sc . 1 ,T he F ibu lae .Y a le U n ive r s i ty P r e s s . V i l ly ,F . , 1 9 11 .O nt h eR oman s i te a tK i rk S i nk ,G a rg rave ,n ea r S l c ip ton ; t o ge the rw i th s ome r ema rk s o n t h e R oman r e l ics f r om t h ec ave s o fC raven . B rad f ord A n t iqua ry n . s . 3 ,3 53 6 8 . V i l ly ,F . , 1 923 .A n o te o nt h eR oman f o r t if ica t ion sa tL ong P r e s t on . Y ork sh ir eA r chaeo log ica lJ ourna l2 7 ,4 10 -12 . V ine r , L . , 1 982 . O b jec t s o f c oppe r a loy . I n R omano -Br i t i sh C eme t e r i e sa tC ir ence s t er ,A . Mc Wh i r r ,L .V ine r &C . We l l s . C i rence s te r :C i rence s te rE xcava t ion C omm i t tee ,p p .F iche B 8 -004 .

S u t c l if f e ,A .J . , 1 960 .J o in tM i tno rC ave ,B uck f a s t le igh .T ran s a c t ion s a nd P r oceed ing s o ft h e T orquay _Na tur a l H i s tor y S oc ie ty 1 3 , 1 26 . S wan ,V . , 1 992 . L eg io V I a nd i t sm en : A f r ican l e g iona r ie s i n B r i ta in .J ourna lo fR oman P o t t e ry S tud ies 5 ,1 34 . S wan ton ,M .J . , 1 969 . Ar une s tone f r om V ic to r ia C ave ,S e t t le , Y o rk sh i r e . Med ieva lA r chaeo logy 1 3 ,2 11 -14 .

Wache r ,J . S . , 1 969 .E xcava t ions a tB r ough -o n -H umber ,1 958 6 1 .O xf o rd :S oc ie ty o fA n t iqua r ie so fL ondon R e sea r ch R e p o r t2 5 . Wa che r , J . S . &A .D . Mc Wh ir r , 1 982 . E ar ly R oman O ccupa t i on a t C ir ence s ter . C i rence s te r : C i rence s te r E xcava t ion C omm i t tee . 1 53

Wade , W .V . , 1 9 52 /5 . T he R oman f o r ta tB a inb r idge . P r oceed i ng so ft h eL eed sP h i lo soph ica la nd L i tera ry S oc ie ty 7 ,1 1 9 &1 54 -66 . Wae lken s , M . , N . H e rz & L . Moen s , 1 992 . A nc ien t S tones : Q uar ry ing , T rad e a nd P r ovenance . L euven :A c ta A rchae o log ica L ovan ien s ia 4 .

G louces t er sh ir e . O xfo rd : S o c ie ty o f A n t iqua r ie s o f L on d on R e sea rch R epo r t9 . Whee le r ,R .E .M . &T .V . Whee le r , 1 936 . V er u lam ium : AB e lg ic a nd T wo R oman C i t ie s . O x f o rd : S oc ie ty o fA n t iqua r ie s o f L ondon R e sea r ch R epo r t 1 . Wh i te , R .F . , 1 988 . AP enn ine g ap? T he R oman p e r iod i nt h e n o r th Y o rk sh i re d a le s . I nR ecen tR e sear ch i nR oman Y or k s h i r e ,e d s . J .P r ice & P .R .W i l son . O x fo rd : B r i t i sh A r chae o l og ica lR epo r t sB r i t i sh S e r ie s 1 93 , p p . 1 97 -2 17 .

Wa rd le , P . , 1 992 . E ar l ier P r eh i s tor ic P o t t ery P roduc t ion a nd C eram i cP e t ro logy i nB r i ta in .O xfo rd :B r i t ish A rchaeo log i c a lR epo r t sB r i t ish S e r ie s2 25 . Web s te r , G . , 1 9 44 . A R oman p o t te ry a tS ou th C a r l ton , L in c o ln sh i r e .A n t iquar ie sJ ourna l2 4 , 1 30 -143 . Web s te r , G . , 1 960 . AR omano -Br i t i sh p o t te ry k i ln a tR ooke ry l a ne ,L inco ln .A n t iquar ie sJ ourna l4 0 , 2 14 -220 .

W ick enden , N .P . , 1 992 . T h e T emp le a nd O ther S i t e s i nt h e

Webs te r , G . &N . B oo th , 1 947 . T he e xcava t ion o f aR omano B r i t i sh p o t t e ry k i ln a t Swanpoo l ,L inco ln .A n t iquar ie sJ our n a l2 7 ,6 1 -79 .

W i l l iam s ,R .J . &R .J . Z eepva t , 1 994 .B ancr of t : AL a t eB r on ze A g e / I r on A ge S e t t l emen ta nd R oman V i l la a nd T emp le -Mau s o l eum . V o l . 2 :F ind sa nd E nv ironmen ta lE v id ence . B uck i n gham sh i re A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty Monog raph 7 . Woodwa rd , A .M . , 1 926 . T he R oman f o r t a tI l k ley . Y ork sh ir e A r chaeo log ica lJ ourna l2 8 , 2 94 -30 1 .

N or th -Ea s tern S ec tor o fC ae sar omagu s . C he lm sfo rd A r c ha eo log ica lT ru s tR epo r t9 /Counc i l f o rB r i t i sh A rchaeo l o gy R e sea rch R epo r t7 5 .

Web s te r , J . , 1 981 . Me ta lwo rk : 1t h e b ronze s . I n Wh i t ton , A n I r on A ge a nd R oman F arm s t ead i nS .G lamo rgan , M .G . J a r re t t &S . Wra thme l l .C a rd if f ,p p . 1 63 -88 . Web s te r ,J . ,1 9 86 .R oman b ronze sf r om Ma rypo r ti nt h eN e th e rha l lc o l lec t ion .T ransac t ion so ft h eC umber land a nd W e s t mor land A r chaeo log ica la nd A n t iquar ian S oc ie ty 8 6 , 4 9 7 0 .

Woodwa rd , A . &P .L ea ch , 1 993 . T he U l ey S hr ine s . L ondon : E ng l i sh H e r i tage A r chaeo logy R epo r t 1 7 . Woodwa rd , P . J . , S .M . D av ie s &A .H . G raham , 1 993 . E xcava t i on s a t t h e O ld Me thod i s t C hape l a nd G r eyhound Y ard , D or ches t er 1 98 1 -1984 .D o r se tN a tu ra lH i s to ry a ndA r cha e o l ogy S o c ie ty Monog raph 1 2 . Wra thme l l ,S . &A .N icho l son , 1 990 .D a l ton P ar lour sI r on A ge S e t t l emen ta nd R oman V i l la . We s tY o rk sh i re A r chaeo logy S e rv ice . Y oung , C .J . , 1 977 . T he R oman P o t t e ry I ndu s t ry o ft h e O xf ord

Web s te r ,J . ,1 989 .B ronze a nd s i lve r .I nC aer sw sV i cu s , P owy s , E xcava t ion sa tt h e O ld P r ima ry S choo l , 1 985 -86 , J .B r i t n e l l .O x f o rd :B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t sB r i t ish S e r ie s 2 05 ,p p .5 4 -70 . Web s te r , J . , 1 989a . O b jec t s o fc oppe r a l loy . I n P en tr e F arm , F l in t 1 976 -81 , T . J . O 'Lea ry w i th K . B lock ley & C . Mu s s on . O x f o rd :B r i t ish A r chaeo log ica lR epo r t sB r i t ish S e r ie s

R eg ion . O xfo rd : B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica l R epo r t s B r i t i sh S e r ie s4 3 .

2 07 ,p p . 6 4 -8 . Wed lake ,W .J . , 1 958 .E xcava t ions a tC amer ton . B a th : C ame r t on E xcava t ion C lub . Wed lake ,W .J . , 1 982 . T he E xcava t ion o ft h eS hr ine o fA po l lo a tN e t t l e ton , W i l t sh ir e , 1 956 -197 1 . O xfo rd . S oc ie ty o fA n t i qua r ie so fL ondon R e sea rch R epo r t4 0 . Whee le r , R .E .M . , 1 932 . R epor to n t h eE xcava t ion o ft h eP r e h i s to r ic , R oman a nd P os t -Roman S i te i n L ydney P ark ,

Z adok s -Josephu s , A .N . , J .T .W . J i t ta & P .A .M . Wh i t teveen , 1 977 . R oman b ronze l u nu lae f r om t h e N e the r land s . O ud h e id kund ige Med ed e l ingen u i th a tR i jk smuseum v on o ud h ed en t eL e id en 5 8 , 1 67 -95 . Z ienk iew icz ,J .D . , 1 986 .T he L eg iona ry F or t r e s sB a th sa tC aer l e on : IT he F ind s .C a rd if f :N a t iona l Mu seum o f Wa le s .

1 54

PLATES

P la te 1 :P ho tog raph o ft h e S e t t le E xcava t ion C omm i t tee a tt h e m ou th o ft h ec ave , 1 5 th J u ly 1 870 .

E xp lana t ion o fP l a te 1 . 1 57

P la te 2 :P ho tog raph t a ken f r om w i th in C hambe rAl o ok ing o u to fi t se n t rance , c . 1895 . 1 58

P la te 3 :T he s ou th w a l lo fC hambe rAc . 6 -9m f r om i t se n t rance ,p ho tog raphed d u r ing t h e 1 870 e xcava t ion s a nd s how ing s t a lag m i te w a l lf o rma t ion sa tt h ep r e -excava t ion f l oo rl e ve l . 1 59

E n t rance

L ong H and led H amme r

P la te 4 :T he e n trance f r om C hambe r Ai n to C hambe rB , p ho tog raphed d u r ing t h e 1 870 e xcava t ions . 1 60

P la te 5 : Membe r s o f aL anca sh i re a nd C he sh i re A n t iqua r ian S oc ie ty o u t ing t o V ic to r ia C ave i nA ugus t 1 897 p ho tographed w i th in t h ee xcava ted c hambe rA . 1 6 1

P la te 6 :T he e x te r io r o fV ic tor ia C ave p ho tog raphed o n 2 5 th Ma r ch 1 870 , f ou r d ay s a f te r t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e 1 870 s e xcava t i ons . 1 62

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E xp lana t ion o fP la te 6 1 63

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P la te 7 :As e lec t ion o ft h ec u t ,s p l i ta nd s awn b one a nd a n t le r( Chap te r 1 3N umbe r s 1 3 .130 -13 .145 ) . 1 64

Plate 8: Raking light photograph of the utilised edge of the stone ?pin burnisher (Chapter 16 Number 16.8).

165

P la te 9 :C oa r sewa re v e s se l6 7 s how ing s t a lagm i te c oa t ing . 1 66