The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe: Fit for the Future? 3030533476, 9783030533472

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The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe Fit for the Future? Edited by Jeroen Scheerder Hanna Vehmas Kobe Helsen

The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe

Jeroen Scheerder · Hanna Vehmas · Kobe Helsen Editors

The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe Fit for the Future?

Editors Jeroen Scheerder KU Leuven Leuven, Belgium

Hanna Vehmas University of Jyväskylä Jyväskylä, Finland

Kobe Helsen KU Leuven Leuven, Belgium

ISBN 978-3-030-53347-2 ISBN 978-3-030-53348-9 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53348-9

(eBook)

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover image: © Sergio Azenha/Alamy Stock Photo This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Measure

MEASURE was founded in 2010 by the KU Leuven (Belgium) and the Mulier Institute (The Netherlands). MEASURE is a network of social scientists and statisticians with an interest in sport participation issues. The letters in MEASURE stand for Meeting for European Sport Participation and Sport Culture Research. The reference to ‘culture’ expresses that the debates over sport participation within MEASURE are not restricted to share only data and statistics. It is understood that in order to be able to explain differences in sport participation, one needs to understand the position that sports hold within society at large and the broader culture of which sport is part and parcel. Analyses of these (sporting) cultures may include quantitative as well as qualitative methods, albeit that the former are generally more predominant than the latter within the MEASURE context. The objectives of MEASURE are to – Improve the access to reliable sport participation data and the possibility for researchers to exchange information; – Improve the quality of sport participation data;

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– Improve the understanding of difference in sport participation between countries and social groups; – Raise interest in sport participation research among policy makers. To reach these goals, the MEASURE network meets once or twice a year, often in combination with well-attended international conferences. In addition, a website (https://www.mulierinstituut.nl/measure-2/) is maintained to gather and disseminate relevant recent research reports and policy documents. The MEASURE network functions under the umbrella of the European Association for Sociology of Sport (EASS).

Contents

1

2

The Global Health and Fitness Industry at a Glance: Fast, Fit, Flexible, Functional, Funny, Fashionable and Fanatic Jeroen Scheerder, Hanna Vehmas, and Kobe Helsen The Weight of Numbers: Prevalence of Overweight, Sedentary Behaviour and Sport/Fitness Participation from a Comparative Pan-European Perspective Jeroen Scheerder and Kobe Helsen

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The (R)Evolution of the Flemish Fitness Industry Kobe Helsen, Joris Corthouts, Erik Thibaut, and Jeroen Scheerder

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Bulgarian Fitness Industry: Policies, Processes and Providers Ivan Sandanski and Vassil Girginov

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33 73

95

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Contents

5

Current Trends in the Fitness Movement in Cyprus Nicos Kartakoullis, Christina Loizou, Despina Georgiadou, and Michael Terezopoulos

6

Fitness in Denmark: A Unique Combination of the Commercial and Non-profit Sectors Bjarne Ibsen

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Engagement in Fitness Activities in England Andrew Spiers, Steven Osborne, and Monica Li

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Fitness in Finland: Department Stores of Healthy Life Styles Antti Laine and Hanna Vehmas

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Fitness in France: A Mature Sector Looking for Growing Markets and Segments Guillaume Routier, Bénédicte Vignal, and Guillaume Bodet

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Development of the Fitness Industry in Germany Sören Dallmeyer, Kirstin Hallmann, and Christoph Breuer

11 The Impact of the Economic Crisis on the Private Fitness Sector in Greece Kostas Alexandris, Theopistos Kenanidis, Panagiota Balaska, and Apostolia Ntovoli 12 The Shape of the Fitness Industry in Ireland Ann Bourke 13

Fitness in Italy: Body Culture, Well-Being and Active Lifestyles Antonio Borgogni, Simone Digennaro, and Giovanna Russo

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14 The Netherlands: Growing Market, Shifting Segments Paul Hover and Remco Hoekman 15

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Norwegian Fitness Industry: From Bodybuilding to a Public Health Partner Solfrid Bratland-Sanda, Tor Helge Vikøren Myhre, and Jan Ove Tangen A Growing Sector After the Impact of the Great Recession in Spain Ramón Llopis-Goig and Jorge Sánchez-Martín

17

Current Situation of Fitness Sport in Switzerland Claudia Klostermann, Markus Lamprecht, Hanspeter Stamm, and Siegfried Nagel

18

Fitness(-Related) Trends Within and Between Countries: Towards a Fit (in) Europe? Kobe Helsen and Jeroen Scheerder

19

Fitness: The New Black or Even a Religion? Hanna Vehmas and Jeroen Scheerder

Index

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327

349 373

389 437 457

List of Figures

Fig. 1.1

Fig. 1.2

Fig. 1.3 Fig. 2.1

Fig. 2.2

Fig. 2.3

Social status pyramids of sport activities among adults in Flanders, Belgium (1999) (Source Scheerder et al. [2013, 157]) Social status pyramids of sport activities among adults in Flanders, Belgium (2009) (Source Scheerder et al. [2013, 158; 2015b, 16]) Overview of participating countries Evolution and prospects of the world and EU28 population, 1950–2100, including EU28 share in total world population (in %) (Source Authors’ own calculations based on United Nations [2019]) Evolution and prospects of the proportion of people aged 65 years and over worldwide and in the EU28, 1950–2100 (in %) (Source Authors’ own calculations based on United Nations [2019]) Evolution and prospects of the proportion of people aged 15–39 years and people aged forty years and over in the EU28, 1950–2100 (in %) (Source Authors’ own calculations based on United Nations [2019])

18

19 24

39

40

41

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Fig. 2.4

Fig. 2.5

List of Figures

Evolution of insufficiently physically active adults (eighteen years and over), worldwide and in the EU28, 2010–2016 (in %, age-standardised data + country-related weighted calculations) (Sources CEBR/ISCA [2015]; Guthold, Stevens, Riley and Bull [2018]; World Health Organization [2019d], EU28 data concern authors’ own country-related weighted calculations based on World Health Organization [2019d]) Levels of (pre-)obesity, physical (in)activity, (club-organised) sports participation and fitness participation among fifteen years olds and over in EU countries during the first two decades of the 21st century (in %) (Note 1 2006–2009 data comprise sixteen EU member states [see footnote 1]; 2013–2015 data comprise all (previous) EU28 member states; 2002 data comprise the [previous] EU15 member states; 2004 data comprise the [previous] EU25 member states [excluding Bulgaria, Croatia and Romania]; 2009 data comprise the [previous] EU27 member states [excluding Croatia]; 2005, 2013 and 2017 data comprise all [previous] EU28 member states) (Note 2 pre-obesity equates BMI between 25 and 30; obesity equates BMI ≥ 30) (Note 3 *here, instead of the active membership of different organisations, the location or setting where one practices sport is used to define whether one participates in club-organised sports or in fitness respectively [see also section on methodology]) (Note 4 a, b, c numbers with different superscript differ significantly from one another [95% confidence interval]) (Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer [European Commission, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2010, 2014, 2018] and EHIS [Eurostat, 2019a, 2019b])

44

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List of Figures

Fig. 2.6a

Fig. 2.6b

Fig. 2.6c

Fig. 2.6d

Fig. 2.6e

Association between income inequality (2010–2016, quintile ratios) and rate of obesity (BMI > 30) among adults (2016, age-standardized estimates) in EU28 countries (Pearson correlation coefficient) (Sources Authors’ own calculations based on UNDP [2020] and World Health Organization [2019b]) Association between income inequality (2010–2016, quintile ratios) and rate of overweight (BMI > 25) among adults (2016, age-standardized estimates) in EU28 countries (Pearson correlation coefficient) (Sources Authors’ own calculations based on UNDP [2020] and World Health Organization [2019c]) Association between income inequality (2010–2016, quintile ratios) and rate of insufficient physical activity (< 150 minutes of moderate intensity physical activity or < 75 minutes of vigorous intensity physical activity per week) among adults (2016, age-standardized estimates) in EU28 countries (Pearson correlation coefficient) (Sources Authors’ own calculations based on UNDP [2020] and and World Health Organization [2019d, 2019e]) Association between income inequality (2010–2016, quintile ratios) and rate of physical inactivity among fifteen years olds and over (2017, age-standardized estimates) in EU28 countries (Pearson correlation coefficient) (Sources Authors’ own calculations based on UNDP [2020] and European Commission [2018]) Association between income inequality (2010–2016, quintile ratios) and rate of non-participation in sport among fifteen years olds and over (2017, age-standardized estimates) in EU28 countries (Pearson correlation coefficient) (Sources Authors’ own calculations based on UNDP [2020] and European Commission [2018])

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Fig. 2.6f

Fig. 2.6g

Fig. 2.7a

Fig. 2.7b

List of Figures

Association between income inequality (2010–2016, quintile ratios) and rate of non-participation in a sports club among fifteen years olds and over (2017, age-standardized estimates) in EU28 countries (Pearson correlation coefficient) (Sources Authors’ own calculations based on UNDP [2020] and European Commission [2018]) Association between income inequality (2010–2016, quintile ratios) and rate of non-participation in fitness among fifteen years olds and over (2017, age-standardized estimates) in EU28 countries (Pearson correlation coefficient) (Sources Authors’ own calculations based on UNDP [2020] and European Commission [2018]) Levels of physical inactivity among fifteen years olds and over in EU28 countries according to regional cluster (2005–2017, in percentages of total population). Data on physical inactivity are also available for 2002, but they only concern EU15 member states. As such, the 2002 data do not relate to countries from North Eastern and South Eastern Europe. Therefore, it is decided not to present the 2002 data in Fig. 2.7a. Contrary to the outcomes presented in Fig. 2.7a, the 2002 data are indeed included in Table 2.3, because in that section no analyses at the regional level are made (Sources Authors’ own calculations based on European Commission [2006, 2014, 2018]) Levels of sports participation among fifteen years olds and over in EU28 countries according to regional cluster (2004–2017, in percentages of total population) (Note Data comprise EU25 countries [excluding Bulgaria, Croatia and Romania]; 2009 data comprise EU27 countries [excluding Croatia]; 2013 and 2017 data comprise EU28 countries) (Sources Authors’ own calculations based on European Commission [2004, 2010, 2014, 2018])

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List of Figures

Fig. 2.7c

Fig. 2.7d

Fig. 2.8a

Levels of sports club participation among fifteen years olds and over in EU28 countries according to regional cluster (2004–2017, in percentages of total population) (Note 1 Data comprise EU25 countries [excluding Bulgaria, Croatia and Romania]; 2009 data comprise EU27 countries [excluding Croatia]; 2013 and 2017 data comprise EU28 countries) (Note 2 operationalization of sport club participation is different in 2004 compared to 2009, 2013 and 2017. The 2004 data make reference to the location of sport participation, whereas the 2009, 2013 and 2017 data refer to active membership of a sport club [see also part on methodology]) (Sources Authors’ own calculations based on European Commission [2004, 2010, 2014, 2018]) Levels of active participation in a fitness centre among fifteen years olds and over in EU28 countries according to regional cluster (2004–2017, in percentages of total population) (Note 1 data comprise EU25 countries [excluding Bulgaria, Croatia and Romania]; 2009 data comprise EU27 countries [excluding Croatia]; 2013 and 2017 data comprise EU28 countries) (Note 2 operationalization of fitness participation is different in 2004 compared to 2009, 2013 and 2017. The 2004 data make reference to participation in sport in a fitness centre, whereas the 2009, 2013 and 2017 data refer to active membership of a fitness centre [see also part on methodology]) (Sources Authors’ own calculations based on European Commission [2004, 2010, 2014, 2018]) Levels of active participation in a fitness centre among fifteen years olds and over in EU28 countries according to regional cluster and sex (2017, in percentages of total population) (Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer [European Commission, 2018])

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Fig. 2.8b

Fig. 2.8c

Fig. 3.1

Fig. 6.1

Fig. 7.1 Fig. 7.2

Fig. 8.1

Fig. 10.1

Fig. 10.2

List of Figures

Levels of active participation in a fitness centre among fifteen years olds and over in EU28 countries according to regional cluster and age group (2017, in percentages of total population) (Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer [European Commission, 2018]) Levels of active participation in a fitness centre among fifteen years olds and over in EU28 countries according to regional cluster and educational level (2017, in percentages of total population) (Note lowly educated = studied until the age of fifteen; middle-educated = studied until the age of sixteen to nineteen; highly educated = studied until the age of twenty or over) (Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer [European Commission, 2018]) Over- and under-representation of fitness facilities (n = 356) per municipality, compared to the average of the respective municipality (Belfius) type (Source Adjusted from Steeland and colleagues [2017]) The development in adult Danes physical activity (Source Repeated studies conducted by National Institute of Public Health, https://www.sdu.dk/en/sif) The ecological theory of human development (Source Bronfenbrenner [1974]) Comparison of change (indexed) in engagement between sport and keepfit and gym activities (Source Sport England, Active People Survey [2016a]) Population and the total number of fitness centres, gyms and weight training facilities by province in Finland 2018 Number of memberships in private sport clubs (2003–2017; in million) (Source Adapted by the authors based on DSSV [2003–2018]) Number of facilities from by private operators and development of total revenues (2005–2017; in million e) (Source Adapted by the authors based on DSSV [2005–2018])

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82

142 161

163

188

227

229

List of Figures

Fig. 10.3

Fig. 11.1 Fig. 14.1

Fig. 14.2

Fig. 14.3

Fig. 17.1

Leading fitness operators in Germany by number of members in 2017 (Source Adapted by the authors based on Deloitte [2018]) The Greek sport administration system (Source Alexandris and Balaska 2015) Fitness and sports participation (at least once a week) in The Netherlands, population of 12–79 years old, 2001–2016, in percentages (Source Health Survey/Lifestyle Monitor, Statistics Netherlands in cooperation with Dutch National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, 2001–2016, adapted by Mulier Institute [2018]) Fitness locations, fitness companies and sport clubs affiliated with NOC*NSF, in The Netherlands, 2007–2018, in numbers (Source Statistics Netherlands [2017], NOC*NSF [2017], adapted by Mulier Institute [2018]) Operating result of fitness companies in The Netherlands in 2015 compared with previous and actual year, in percentages (Source Statistics Netherlands [2017], adapted by Mulier Institute [2018]) Participation in fitness training/aerobics according to gender, age, language region, citizenship and household income (as a percentage of the Swiss population aged 15–74 year) (Data source Sport Switzerland [2014] [Number of respondents: 10,652; household income (net monthly equivalence income in Swiss Francs): the equivalence income indicates how much money is available per household members. The quartiles encompass for income groups that are identical in size: the first quartile includes the quarter of respondents with the lowest incomes, the second quartile the next quarter, etc.])

xvii

236 244

309

311

320

380

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Fig. 17.2

Fig. 18.1

Fig. 18.2

Fig. 18.3

List of Figures

Share of fitness centre members according to gender, age, language region, household income and citizenship (as a percentage of the Swiss population aged between 15 and 74 years) (Source Sport Switzerland [2014] [Number of respondents: 10,652; household income (net monthly equivalence income in Swiss Francs): the equivalence income indicates how much money is available per household member. The quartiles encompass for income groups that are identical in size: the first quartile includes the quarter of respondents with the lowest incomes, the second quartile the next quarter, etc.]) Evolution of the proportion of people aged 65 years and over among EU28 citizens according to country, 1950–2100 (in %) (Source Authors’ own calculations based on United Nations [2019]) Prevalence of overweight (BMI ≥ 25.0) among EU28 citizens aged eighteen and over according to country, 1975–2015 (in %, age-standardized) (Source Authors’ own calculations based on data [World Health Organization 2019]) Evolution of physically inactive adults among EU28 citizens aged eighteen and over according to country, 2002–2017 (in %) (Note Countries with less than 100 respondents in the sample of 2017 are left out for analyses for all waves. It could thus be the case that a country is still shown in the figure, while it has less than 100 respondents in the sample of other reference years. The reader must therefore be cautious when taking conclusions. Source Authors’ own calculations based on data [European Commission, 2003, 2006, 2014, 2018])

382

396

399

400

List of Figures

Fig. 18.4

Fig. 18.5

Fig. 18.6

Participation in sports among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country, 2004–2017 (in %) (Note Countries with less than 100 respondents in the sample of 2017 are left out for analyses for all waves. It could thus be the case that a country is still shown in the figure, while it has less than 100 respondents in the sample of other reference years. The reader must therefore be cautious when taking conclusions. Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer data [European Commission, 2004, 2010, 2014, 2018]) Participation in club-organised sports among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country, 2009–2017 (in %) (Note Countries with less than 100 respondents in the sample of 2017 are left out for analyses for all waves. It could thus be the case that a country is still shown in the figure, while it has less than 100 respondents in the sample of other reference years. The reader must therefore be cautious when taking conclusions. Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer data [European Commission, 2010, 2014, 2018]) Fitness participation among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country, anno 2017 (in %) (Note Countries with less than 100 respondents in the sample of 2017 are left out for analyses for all waves. It could thus be the case that a country is still shown in the figure, while it has less than 100 respondents in the sample of other reference years. The reader must therefore be cautious when taking conclusions. Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer data [European Commission, 2010, 2014, 2018])

xix

402

403

406

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List of Figures

Fig. 18.7

Fig. 18.8

Fig. 18.9

Fig. 18.10

Fitness participation among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country and sex, anno 2017 (in %) (Note Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta and Slovenia have less than 20 fitness participants after weighting and are therefore not included in this figure. Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer data [European Commission, 2018]) Fitness participation among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country and age group, anno 2017 (percentages of total population) (Note Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta and Slovenia have less than 20 fitness participants after weighting and are therefore not included in this figure Source: authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer data [European Commission, 2018]) Fitness participation among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country and educational status, anno 2017 (in %) (Note Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta and Slovenia have less than 20 fitness participants after weighting and are therefore not included in this figure. Legend: lowly educated = studied until the age of 15; middle-educated = studied until the age of 16–19; highly educated = studied until the age of 20 or over. Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer data [European Commission, 2018]) Fitness participation among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country and occupation, anno 2017 (in %) (Note Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta and Slovenia have less than 20 fitness participants after weighting and are therefore not included in this figure. Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer data [European Commission, 2018])

410

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List of Figures

Fig. 18.11

Fig. 18.12

Fig. 18.13

Fig. 18.14

Fitness participation among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country and marital status, anno 2017 (in %) (Note Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta and Slovenia have less than 20 fitness participants after weighting and are therefore not included in this figure. Legend: hh = household. Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer data [European Commission, 2018]) Fitness participation among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country and living environment, anno 2017 (in %) (Note Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta and Slovenia have less than 20 fitness participants after weighting and are therefore not included in this figure. Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer data [European Commission, 2018]) Fitness participation among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country and difficulty of paying bills, anno 2017 (in %) (Note Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta and Slovenia have less than 20 fitness participants after weighting and are therefore not included in this figure. Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer data [European Commission, 2018]) Fitness participation among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country and participating in sport for health reasons, anno 2017 (in %) (Note Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta and Slovenia have less than 20 fitness participants after weighting and are therefore not included in this figure and health motives include to improve health, to relax, to improve physical performance, to improve fitness, to control weight, to counteract the effects of ageing, and to improve physical appearance. Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer data [European Commission, 2018])

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418

420

423

425

List of Tables

Table 1.1 Table 1.2 Table 1.3 Table 1.4 Table 2.1

Table 2.2

Fitness and health club membership, global market and per region (2007–2017) Number of fitness and health clubs, global market and per region (2007–2017) Fitness and health club industry revenues (x 1 000 USD), global market and per region (2007–2017) 2017 top 30 of member penetration rates in fitness and health clubs, per country (2007–2017) Evolution of overweight (BMI ≥ 25), pre-obese (BMI ≥ 25 and < 30) and obese (BMI ≥ 30) adults (eighteen years and over), worldwide and in the EU28, 1975–2015 (in %, age-standardized country-related weighted calculations) Regional classification of EU28 member states according to their geographical location

4 5 6 7

43 55

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Table 2.3

Table 3.1

Table 3.2

Table 3.3 Table 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 4.3 Table 5.1 Table 5.2 Table 5.3 Table 5.4 Table 6.1

Table 6.2 Table 6.3 Table 7.1 Table 8.1 Table 8.2 Table 8.3

List of Tables

Levels of physical inactivity, sports participation, club-organised sports participation and fitness participation among fifteen year olds and over in EU28 member states according to eight background characteristics (2002–2017, in percentages of total population) Fitness participants compared to people who participate in (any) sport for gender, age, education and income Reasons why people take part in fitness, compared with (any) sport (average score of items on a scale from 1 to 7) Descriptive statistics of the structure of the Flemish fitness centres Typology of fitness providers in Bulgaria Leading operators (chains) in fitness industry in Bulgaria Classification of fitness centres according to average service prices Physical activity and age distribution (%) Sport activity and gender distribution (%) Adult members of SFA programmes––distribution by District Participation in fitness in Cyprus (Football Survey, 2018) (%) Share of adult population doing sports and fitness in a commercial organisation (centre etc.), and doing sports and exercise in general, divided by gender, age and educational level (percent) Turnover and number of employees in the commercial fitness sector in Denmark from 2013 til 2015 Number of fitness centres broken down by organisational form (February 2018) Engagement in selected sport and fitness activities Amount of gym participants in Finland in 1994–2010 Fitness facilities (TOL code 93130) in Finland in 2007–2016 Indoor fitness facilities (n) in Finland according their type and owner

62

79

80 85 101 106 111 126 126 128 130

144 145 146 165 184 186 186

List of Tables

Table 8.4 Table 9.1 Table 9.2 Table 10.1 Table 11.1 Table 11.2 Table 12.1 Table 12.2 Table 12.3 Table 12.4 Table 13.1 Table 13.2 Table 14.1

Table 15.1 Table 15.2 Table 15.3 Table 16.1 Table 16.2 Table 16.3 Table 16.4 Table 17.1 Table 17.2

The largest fitness facilities by revenue in Finland in 2016/2017 Scientific and poll institute surveys studying fitness in France Characteristics of commercial fitness operators in 2016 Key performance indicators by type of operator in 2017 Economic crisis and fitness clubs (n = 60) in Thessaloniki, Greece in 2009–2016 The profile of club members during the last 3 years Most popular physical activities and exercise (selected) Profile of consumers who currently use a gym, fitness club or leisure centre Top motivations and behaviours of fitness consumers—summary demographic details Typology of gym/fitness centres (selected cases) Largest for-profit companies operating fitness facilities (NACE code 93.13) in Italy in 2013 Distribution of the employees (full and part-time) in sport organizations Profile of fitness and sport participants (at least once a week), 2013–2016, population of 12–79 years old, in percentages Overview of data sources used in this chapter Trends in fitness centre activity participation in Norway from 2001 to 2015 Frequency of perceived important reasons for exercising in general and exercising at fitness centres The six sports practiced most in 2015 and their recent evolution Evolution of the number of private fitness centres Sociodemographic fitness practitioners (by type of centre and activity) and sports participants (2015) Characteristics of the main fitness centre companies Sports being practiced in fitness centres Numbers and proportions of fitness centres in Switzerland

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190 204 214 235 248 250 263 267 269 275 294 295

316 331 335 336 357 358 360 365 383 385

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Table 18.1

Table 19.1 Table 19.2

List of Tables

Participation in fitness among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country, 2009–2017 (in %) Fitness participation (%) among adults and position of fitness within other forms of exercise Number of fitness centres and health clubs in different European countries (N = 15)

405 443 446

Foreword by Remco Hoekman

In the last decades the fitness industry has evolved into an important player in the European sporting landscape. Fitness has become one of the most practiced sports in several societies and the fitness and health industry experienced a rapid growth in number of clubs, employees, members and revenues. However, despite the growth of the sector and the sociological relevance of fitness participation, this field is still relatively understudied. Within the community of the European Association for Sociology of Sport (EASS) the MEASURE network, being an expert group of sport participation researchers in Europe, has signalled this lacuna in research and started with success a book project on The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe. It is thanks to the dedication and hard work of the scholars within MEASURE and their broader network, that we are now provided an overview of fitness participation and a broader understanding of stratification patterns as well as an insight in the development of the fitness industry in Europe. In particular I would like to thank the editors of this volume who took the initiative and were able to include

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the perspectives of fifteen individual countries. In their concluding chapters they succeed in bringing the results of the countries together and provide a comprehensive overview of the current position and prospect of fitness in Europe. As president of EASS I am proud to see that within our association the closer cooperation and networking between experts dealing with social aspects of sport participation and with knowledge of the fitness industry in Europe has led to this book on The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe. Fit for the Future? The EASS is a forum stimulating research, publications and professional development in the area of sport and social sciences. The current scientific analysis of fitness participation and the growth of the fitness industry and with this the joint efforts to promote sociological research on this topic are fine examples of trajectories that originate from EASS conferences or gatherings. I would like to compliment the editors and the respective authors of the country chapters on their excellent work and their important contribution to the body of knowledge on the fitness industry and fitness participation in European societies. This book provides new theoretical and empirical insights and has the potential to stimulate debate and discussion on the sociological relevance of the fitness industry. I hope this book will inspire the work of researchers as well as practitioners in the years to come.

Foreword by Remco Hoekman

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Remco Hoekman President of the European Association for Sociology of Sport (EASS) Utrecht, The Netherlands

Foreword by Andreas Paulsen

At the doorstep of a new decade it seems reasonable to take a moment to consider the decade, which is now behind us, and to try to envision the opportunities and challenges of the ten years ahead. The 2010s undoubtedly reshaped the fitness and physical activity sector in Europe, in terms of diversity of business models, and perhaps particularly in terms of new budget offerings making fitness accessible to many more fitness consumers. And as this foreword is being written, Covid-19 has set in motion the tectonic plates beneath our sector, and it is a general understanding that we will not be the same sector when we exit the pandemic. Whether our sector’s businesses will be able to turn misfortune into success when coming out of the current difficulties is unlikely to be a question of consumer demand, but of digital adaptability, disruptively rethinking business models, and of course, inescapably, financial resilience. Consumer demand for fitness and physical activity offerings has never been higher, and it continues to grow steadily. Fitness has not only become one of the largest sports in Europe, our sector also leads the combat against physical inactivity of Europeans. There is still a relatively

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Foreword by Andreas Paulsen

large disparity across the continent when it comes to fitness and health club members as a percentage of the population, from below 10% in the South and East to around 20% in the North. But the numbers are rising in all parts of Europe, at a growth rate around 4% per year,1 which EuropeActive estimates will take us to approximately 100 mio. fitness and health club members in 2030 (from around 65 mio. today). This remarkable development in itself would turn the coming decade into ‘the roaring 2020’s’ of the fitness and physical activity sector. But at EuropeActive we naturally ask ourselves: How do we get there both better and faster as a sector? Our answer is twofold: we aim to ensure the facilitation of our sector’s skills and knowhow across European boarders, in order to speed up the growth of the physically active part of the population. Secondly, we want to motivate and inspire our industry to think beyond physical activity alone and the traditional fitness consumer. Across Europe we see innovative business models coming up, which are addressing social and mental health aspects as much as the physical, and which therefore appeal to consumers, who were not previously attracted by our fitness and exercise offerings. For example, we see many new services and products targeted at making senior-citizens and children physically active, and fitness businesses aligning with healthcare providers, who recognise the health benefits of regular physical exercise. With the growing external recognition of the potential and capability of the fitness and physical sector, in terms of improving public health through regular physical exercise, our sector generally began to recognise the need for solid occupational skills and evidence-based knowledge over the past decade. Sector associations like EuropeActive, ukactive and their partner associations implemented sector-wide regimes for occupational standards and accreditation, and with the clear objective to professionalise the sector they began collaborating with academia and scientific institutions. As the level of professional skills and knowledge of the industry grew significantly in the 2010s, and competition increased steeply, as a consequence of many new businesses and business models coming into the market, our consumers have generally never experienced 1

2020 European Health & Fitness Market Report—by EuropeActive and Deloitte.

Foreword by Andreas Paulsen

xxxiii

a better quality/price ratio, or value for money. At the doorstep of the 2020s, our sector is contributing impressively to both the health and to the economy of Europe. We should be recognisant of the significant results and maturing of our sector over the past decade, possibly even a bit proud of our entrepreneurs and pioneers, who paved the way. But coming back to the ten years ahead, we should of course never rest self-confidently. We must remain self-critical, humble, eager to learn and adapt and address existential challenges to our sector honestly and effectively. The critical impact of Covid-19 has revealed our sector’s being overly reliant, for a digital age, on traditional gym spaces, and many businesses, being focused on traditional physical fitness and a rather generic offering, have found it remarkably difficult to connect socially and mentally with consumers at home. Apart from digitalisation and rethinking our business models, products and services, a decisive factor for our sector’s prosperity in the coming decade will undoubtedly be evidence-based skills and knowledge. That is why I am genuinely excited and honoured to contribute with these few introductory remarks to The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe. Fit for the Future? I would like to conclude by thanking all the experts and authors of the different chapters, who by their individual contributions to this book play a crucial role in ensuring credible knowledge for our businesses and professionals.

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Foreword by Andreas Paulsen

Andreas Paulsen Acting President of EuropeActive Brussels, Belgium

About the Editors

Jeroen Scheerder (Ph.D., M.A., M.Sc.) has an educational background in Sport Sociology (Ph.D.), Social and Cultural Anthropology (M.A.), Movement and Sport Sciences (M.Sc.) and Marketing (FC). He is professor of sport policy and sport sociology in the Department of Movement Sciences at the KU Leuven (Belgium). He is the head of the Policy in Sports & Physical Activity Research Group, the promotorcoordinator of the Interuniversity Policy Research Centre on Sports financed by the Flemish Government, and the academic coordinator of the KU Leuven Sport Policy & Sport Management Program. He lectures in the fields of sport governance, sport policy/politics, sport sociology and leisure sciences. His research interests lie in policy-related, political and sociological aspects of sport and leisure-time physical activity. He is (co-)author of more than 85 articles in peer-reviewed journals and (co-)author of more than 25 chapters in international academic books. He is (co-)supervisor of sixteen doctoral theses. He was president of the European Association for Sociology of Sport (2014–2016), was visiting professor in sport sociology at the Faculty of Political & Social Sciences, Ghent University (Belgium), and co-founded both the

xxxv

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About the Editors

European MEASURE and POLIS Research Networks that focus on sport participation and sport policy/sport politics respectively. He is (co-)editor of Running across Europe: The Rise and Size of One of the Largest Sport Markets, Sport Policy Systems and Sport Federations: A CrossNational Perspective and Functions of Sports Clubs in European Societies: A Cross-National Comparative Study (Palgrave Macmillan/Springer). He was guest professor at the universities of Brussels, Cassino, Cologne, Jyväskylä, Kaunas, Nijmegen and Porto. Hanna Vehmas (Senior Lecturer, Ph.D.) has a background in Sociology (M.Sc. University of Turku) and Sport Sociology (Ph.D. University of Jyväskylä). Since 1999 she has worked as a lecturer and researcher in sport sociology and sport management at the University of Jyväskylä, Finland, mainly teaching international students in Sport Management and Health Promotion. Her research interests and activities focus especially on sport participation, the societal role of physical activity and private sport sector. She is also one of the responsible researchers of the Finnish part of the International Ipreschooler Surveillance Study Among Asians and otheRs (IISSAAR): A Comparison of Screen Media Use Among Preschool Children in Asia and Elsewhere. This international study investigates the screen media use among preschool children in more than 20 countries and is coordinated by the National Institute of Education of the Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Currently Dr. Vehmas acts as the Secretary General of the European Association for Sociology of Sport (EASS). Kobe Helsen (M.Sc.) graduated in 2017 as Master in Physical Education and Kinesiology (major in Sports Policy & Sports Management). Since 2017 he works as scientific researcher within the Policy in Sports & Physical Activity Research Group at the KU Leuven. He is involved in research projects focusing on governance and managerial issues concerning local football clubs and sport federations. Further, he investigates the societal impact of sports events.

Notes on Contributors

Kostas Alexandris (Ph.D., M.Ed., M.A.) is Professor in Sport and Leisure Management at Aristotle University of Thessaloniki and the Director of the ‘Sport, Tourism and Recreation Management’ Lab. He is Associate Editor of Managing Sport and Leisure and participates in the Editorial Boards of Sport Management Review, Sport Marketing Quarterly, Journal of Service Theory and Practice and Global Sport Management. He is also the co-author of the books Sport Consumer Behavior: Marketing Strategies (Funk, Alexandris and McDonald, 2016 by Routledge). Panagiota Balaska (M.S., Ph.D.) is an adjunct faculty member at Open University in Greece. Her Ph.D. and Post-Doctoral Education is in the area of sport management and event tourism. She has an extensive experience in sport administration positions in local authorities (currently working within the Local Authority of Evosmos). Guillaume Bodet is Professor of Sport Marketing and Management at UFR STAPS, University of Lyon 1 (France), where he leads the Masters

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Notes on Contributors

in Sport Management. He is member of the Laboratory on Vulnerabilities and Innovation in Sport. His research interests focus on the marketing and consumption of sport services, products, brands and events. Antonio Borgogni (Ph.D.) is Assistant Professor at the University of Bergamo (Italy), Department of Human and Social Sciences. His main research topics are active cities and participatory planning of public spaces, children’s autonomy and play, children’s rights in sport, sport governance and organizations. Ann Bourke (Ph.D.) is Senior Academic Advisor in the Institute of Banking in Ireland. Her main research and teaching interests are in International Business, Strategy, Services Management and Sports Governance. She advises sports bodies and organisations on governance and strategic matters and has presented at many international conferences. Solfrid Bratland-Sanda is Associate Professor at University of SouthEastern Norway, has a Ph.D. in physical activity and eating disorders from the Norwegian school of sport sciences. She is also a member of the Young Academy of Norway. Her area of research is physical activity and health, exercise physiology and compulsive exercise. Christoph Breuer is full Professor of Sport Management at German Sport University Cologne (W3-level). From 2006 to 2011 he was simultaneously research professor at German Institute for Economic Research (DIW Berlin). His main areas of research are sports clubs, sponsorship, and elite sports. Joris Corthouts has been working as a scientific researcher within the Policy in Sports & Physical Activity Research Group at the KU Leuven. Currently, he prepares a Ph.D. thesis with a focus on innovation within the non-profit sports sector as part of the Interuniversity Policy Research Centre on Sports 2017–2022. Sören Dallmeyer (M.Sc., German Sport University Cologne), is a Ph.D. student and lecturer at the Institute of Sport Economics and Sport Management. His research focuses on topics of health and labour economics in the context of physical activity.

Notes on Contributors

xxxix

Simone Digennaro is Researcher at the University of Cassino and Southern Lazio (Italy) and board member at the European Observatoire of Sport and Employment. His main research topics are: theoretical education vs practical education, body and education, sport employment and sport governance. Despina Georgiadou is a B.Sc. PE and Sports Science graduate, National and Kapodistrian University, Athens and M.Sc. Executive Masters in Sports Organisation Management, University of Lyon. Since 1989, she works at the Cyprus Sports Organisation as a Sports Administrator (Mass Sports, Competitive Sports, and Sports Facilities Management Departments) and since 2012 at the Inspection and Licensing of Private Gyms Department. Vassil Girginov is Reader in Sport Management at Brunel University London, UK and Visiting Professor at the Russian International Olympic University. He is also President of the European Association for Sport Management. His research interests, publications and industry experience are in the field of Olympic movement, sport development, comparative management and policy analysis. His most recent book is Rethinking Olympic legacy (Routledge, 2018). Kirstin Hallmann (Ph.D., German Sport University Cologne [GSU]), is a senior researcher and lecturer at the Institute of Sport Economics and Sport Management, GSU. Her research interests include volunteer management, sport consumer behavior, elite sports, and sport events and tourism. Remco Hoekman has an educational background in Leisure Studies (M.Sc.) and Sport Sociology and Sport Policy (Ph.D.). He is director of the Mulier Institute, a non-profit scientific sport-research institute, and affiliated with Radboud University, Department of Sociology. Furthermore, he is President of the European Association for Sociology of Sport (EASS). Paul Hover is Senior Researcher at the Mulier Institute in The Netherlands. His research focuses primarily on policy-related and

xl

Notes on Contributors

marketing/economic aspects of sports. He published books, book chapters and articles about the fitness industry. The Mulier Institute is knowledge partner of NL Active, the national trade association of fitness entrepreneurs. Bjarne Ibsen is affiliated with the University of Southern Denmark, Centre for Sports, Health and Civil Society, where he does research in civil society, associations and voluntary organizations, primarily in the field of sport but also in other areas of society. In addition, he also performs research in sports participation, the organization of sport and sports policy. Nicos Kartakoullis holds B.Sc. (Hons), Michigan State University, M.A. (Ed.), M.Sc., M.B.A. and Ph.D., University of Southampton, UK. He is currently the President of the Council, University of Nicosia and Vice-Chairman, Ethics and Safeguarding in Sports National Committee. His national/European research focuses on sports management, leisure sports and corruption in sports. Theopistos Kenanidis (M.Sc.) is a Ph.D. researcher at Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Science in the area of fitness and wellness tourism. He has an extensive experience as instructor, consultant and educator in the fitness industry. Claudia Klostermann is Lecturer at the University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland (School of Education) and a postdoctoral researcher. Her research focuses on determinants of sport and physical activity in different settings over the life span. Topic of dissertation: sports careers in adulthood—lifetime courses and contemporary historical analyses. Antti Laine is Lecturer and Researcher in Sport Sociology at the University of Jyväskylä, Finland. His research interests focus mainly on sport media, private sport sector and sport as a societal phenomenon. Dr. Laine has published numerous articles and acted as an editor in academic publications. Markus Lamprecht is Lecturer at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich and co-owner of L&S SFB a social research office in

Notes on Contributors

xli

Zurich that specializes in social change, sport and health and works for various public organisations. Markus Lamprecht has written numerous books and scientific articles on sport. Monica Li is Senior Analyst in the Data, Research and Evaluation team at Sport England. Her work focuses mainly on the Active Lives surveys particularly the Active Lives Children and Young People survey. Her experience to date has been in the fields of demography and transport planning. Ramón Llopis-Goig is Ph.D. in Sociology (1996) and Associate Professor at the University of Valencia (Spain), where he teaches Sociology of Sport and Social Research Methods. Previously he has occupied positions of responsibility in several marketing research companies. His substantive research interests include sport participation and consumption. Christina Loizou holds a B.A. Social Science, Middlesex University, UK (1984) and an M.A. in Sociology, Intercollege, Cyprus (2004). She is Head, Office of the President of the Council, University of Nicosia. Since 2000, her main sports research (national/European) focuses in leisure sports, football, athletes’ attitudes and corruption in sports. Siegfried Nagel is full Professor at the University of Bern and Director of the Institute of Sport Science. His main fields of interest are sport development and sport organization research, particularly sport club development, as well as participation and social integration in sport. From 2016–2018, he was the president of the European Association for Sociology of Sport (EASS). He has published numerous books and scientific articles on sport. Apostolia Ntovoli is a Ph.D. candidate at the Department of PE and Sport Science of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. She is a professional certified fitness instructor, with extensive experience in the private fitness industry in Greece. She is also an educator in the area of sport and fitness education in vocational and academic levels.

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Notes on Contributors

Steven Osborne has worked and volunteered in sport industry settings for over 25 years and has experience in management and strategic leadership functions within higher education, public and national social enterprises. Steven is currently chairing a pan European employability and entrepreneurship working group for the European Association of Sport Management. Guillaume Routier is Associate Professor in sociology and economics of sport at UFR STAPS, University of Lyon 1. He is a member of the Laboratory on Vulnerabilities and Innovation in Sport. His main research interests mainly deal with outdoors sport participation, focusing on participants’ commitment and disengagement in sports and specifically in dangerous outdoor sport activities. Giovanna Russo has a Ph.D. in Sociology and Political Sciences. She teaches Sociology of Wellness at University of Bologna—Italy. Her main research topics: wellbeing, wellness, practices of sport and physical activities, sport consumption and communication, disability, religion and migration. Last publication: 2018 (ed.), Charting the wellness society in Europe, Angeli, Milan. Jorge Sánchez-Martín is M.B.A. and expert in management of private sports centres. He collaborates with the Department of Social Sciences of the National Institute of Physical Education in Catalonia, where he researches in sports management issues and teaches in several master programs. Ivan Sandanski is Associate Professor in Sport Management at the National Sports Academy, Sofia. He has authored and co-authored 3 books, 5 sport management textbooks and numerous research articles published in national and international peer reviewed journals and presented at various scientific and sport industry conferences. He is also involved as a researcher in several Erasmus+ projects. Andrew Spiers is Sport England’s Strategic Lead for Data, Research and Evaluation. He joined Sport England in 1999. Oversight of the Active Lives Surveys (and prior to that the Active People Survey) is one of Andrew’s key responsibilities.

Notes on Contributors

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Hanspeter Stamm was a senior researcher at the University of Zurich. For over 25 years he has been heading his own research company, specializing on social inequality, health, sport and development issues and operating the Swiss Sport Observatory. His publications include several books as well as a large number of articles. Jan Ove Tangen is at the University of South-Eastern Norway. He has a dr.philos. degree in sociology from University of Oslo. Professor Tangen has an interest in sociological system theory. His has conducted research on inclusion/exclusion mechanisms in sport, doping in sport and fitness, sport politics and sport facilities. Michael Terezopoulos holds a B.Sc. degree in PE and Sport Science, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki (1998). Since 2002, he works at the Cyprus Sports Organisation, coordinating the Department of Inspection and Licensing of private gyms and the assessment committee of the modernization of the gym trainers’ qualifications project and participates in the ‘Development of Standards for Vocational Qualifications’ Committee. Erik Thibaut is a Doctor of Kinesiology. He published several papers on the determining factors of the time and money that is spent on sports participation in peer-reviewed journals. At the moment he is the coordinator of the Interuniversity Policy Research Centre on Sports and performs policy-related sports participation research. Bénédicte Vignal is Associate Professor in Sociology at UFR STAPS, University of Lyon 1. She is member of the Laboratory on Vulnerabilities and Innovation in Sport. She has managed the Y1 of the Master’s degree in Sport Management for fifteen years and She teaches sociology to future fitness educators. Her main research interests deal with the sociodemographic and analysis of sport participation, and the trajectories of innovations in sport. Tor Helge Vikøren Myhre holds a masters degree in sport sciences from University of South-Eastern Norway. He is currently working at AntiDoping Norway with prevention of use of doping in unorganized training environments. His research interest is fitness as a social system, with particular focus on personal trainers.

1 The Global Health and Fitness Industry at a Glance: Fast, Fit, Flexible, Functional, Funny, Fashionable and Fanatic Jeroen Scheerder, Hanna Vehmas, and Kobe Helsen

The Rise and Size of the Global Fitness and Health Club Industry Over the past half century, participation in fitness has developed as one of the fastest growing forms of physical activity, especially in economically advanced countries. Nowadays, participation in fitness is an integral part of contemporary lifestyle as for millions of people around the world fitness has become a common practice in their daily life. Accordingly, fitness and health services have expanded tremendously given the J. Scheerder (B) · K. Helsen Policy in Sports & Physical Activity Research Group, KU Leuven, Louvain, Belgium e-mail: [email protected] K. Helsen e-mail: [email protected] H. Vehmas University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 J. Scheerder et al. (eds.), The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53348-9_1

1

2

J. Scheerder et al.

high demand for fitness participation. Employees are catering to the needs of millions of fitness customers in many thousands of clubs and studios worldwide. The global fitness and health club industry, therefore, is considered to be one of the largest providers of sport and exercise opportunities, alongside, e.g. the market of running (see f.i. Scheerder, Breedveld, & Borgers, 2015a) and the more traditional branch of sports clubs, in which football clubs hold a dominant position (see f.i. Breuer, Hoekman, Nagel, & van der Werff, 2015). It has been shown that the fitness and health club industry is also one of the most significant business fields within the so-called private sports sector (Laine & Vehmas, 2017b). Moreover, it seems that the fitness and health club industry has not been affected by recent economic fluctuations, at least not to the same extent as was the case for both the public sports sector and the voluntary sports sector, or as for any other business field in the private sports sector, among which the sales of sporting goods (Laine & Vehmas, 2017a, 351). According to The Economist (2015) the fitness industry has remained robust after the 2008 recession, and apparently has even grown due to the increase in elites working out—the so-called upcoming aspirational class (Currid-Halkett, 2017; see further). Despite Foot and Stoffmans prediction (2000, 75, 99) that, based on a demographic shift, the heyday of the fitness club would be over and would be replaced by personal fitness, and home fitness in particular, the fitness and health club industry flourishes as never before. Neither the recent economic recession nor the demographic impact of the baby boomers posed a threat to this sector. Leisure-time institutions like fitness and health clubs offer sensual satisfactions and are called the chapels and cathedrals of our age serving to improve the body (Brooks, 2000, 200). Processes of transformation and innovation can be identified as being characteristic for the fitness boom. Fitness facilities have changed from ‘old-school bodybuilding gyms’ to trendy health and well-being centres that offer a wide range of physical activities. New types of fitness formulas have entered the scene, such as low-cost gyms, 24/7 accessible fitness clubs and ladies only fitness centres, and succeeded to attract specific groups of customers. Novel fitness businesses opened, focusing on international and vertical markets like hotels and spas

1 The Global Health and Fitness Industry at a Glance …

3

(Volkwein-Caplan, 2014, 50). Based on an annual survey that investigates worldwide fitness trends among health and fitness professionals, three distinct emerging themes standout, being (i) the use of technology (wearables such as heart rate monitors, smart watches, fitness trackers, etc.), (ii) the participation in group sessions (instructed and motivational in-group training programmes for different fitness levels), and (iii) the provision of fitness programmes for older adults (catering to the fitness needs of the Baby Boom and older generations) (Thompson, 2018). Thus, the fitness and health club industry seems to have successfully found its way to adapt to demographic, economic and social challenges as well as opportunities. As a result, it is clear that this business has an ever more important share in the global sports market. According to the International Health, Racquet & Sportsclub Association the global fitness and health club industry, in 2017, reached 174 million members in 65 markets (IHRSA, 2018). Between 2007 and 2017 the number of fitness and health club members increased by 67 million members (IHRSA, 2008, 2018), which implies an average yearly growth rate of five per cent. It is clear that this growth in membership is still on the rise. The global fitness and health club industry, in 2017, totalled an estimated $87.2 billion of revenues (e76.2 billion), generated at more than 201 000 club facilities worldwide that provide work to over more than two million employees (IHRSA, 2018). In Tables 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3 more details with regard to the evolution of fitness and health club membership, club count and industry revenues are presented, both globally and per geographical region. With combined shares of 73% and 52%, Europe and North America remain the largest fitness and health club markets in terms of club membership and club count respectively. Also, Europe and North America are the only two regions to exceed the average of 1,000 when it comes to the number of members per club. Although Latin America and Africa & Middle East turn out to be the strongest market growers during the past decade, these regions, in total, still represent stakes of less than twenty per cent of the global fitness and health club industry, concerning club membership, number of clubs as well as revenue size (see Tables 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3). At the level of country-specific markets, in 2017, three countries show a club member penetration rate of twenty per cent or over, namely

55,903,000

41,947,250 17,033,697 14,307,240

2,549,933

131,741,120

48,406,000

38,905,000 13,212,500 5,438,000

813,000

106,774,500

2012

174,045,374

5,182,474

59,981,000 22,480,000 19,921,400

66,480,500

2017

+63.0

+537.5

+54.2 +70.1 +266.3

+37.3

Trend 07-17 (%)

Notes AYGR = Average Yearly Growth Rate Source Authors’ adaptation based on IHRSA (2008, 2013, 2018)

North America Europe Asia-Pacific Latin America Africa & Middle East total

2007

+5.0

+20.3

+4.4 +5.5 +13.9

+3.2

AYGR (%)

0.8

36.4 12.4 5.1

45.3

Share 2007 (%)

Table 1.1 Fitness and health club membership, global market and per region (2007–2017)

1.9

31.8 12.9 10.9

42.4

Share 2012 (%)

3.0

34.5 12.9 11.4

38.2

Share 2017 (%)

22.0

9.9 54.6 8.6

4.9

Share in World Population (2016) (%)

4 J. Scheerder et al.

5

1 The Global Health and Fitness Industry at a Glance …

Table 1.2 Number of fitness and health clubs, global market and per region (2007–2017)

North America Europe AsiaPacific Latin America Africa & Middle East total

Share Share Share AYGR 2007 2012 2017 (%) (%) (%) (%)

2007

2012

2017

Trend 07-17

36,683

36,742

44,633

+21.7

+2.0

33.9

23.2

22.2

43,038 10,094

46,396 21,658

59,055 25,140

+37.2 +149.1

+3.2 +9.6

39.8 9.3

29.8 13.2

29.3 12.5

17,802

46,130

65,863

+270.0

+14.0 16.5

32.4

32.7

442

2,234

6,554

+1,382.8

+31.0 0.4

1.4

3.3

108,059 153,160 201,245 +86.2

+6.4

Notes AYGR = Average Yearly Growth Rate Source Authors’ adaptation based on IHRSA (2008, 2013, 2018)

Sweden, Norway and the United States (Table 1.4). In absolute terms, however, the largest fitness and health club market, by far, is the US (roughly 61 million members in 2017) followed at some distance by Germany, the United Kingdom and Brazil, which together account for less than half of the US club membership (approximately 30 million members in 2017, see Table 1.4 for more detailed figures). During the past decade, in general, Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian countries remain the leading regions in the business of fitness and health clubs, as they continue to have the highest market shares. It should be noted, however, that, in 2017, on the list of thirty highest ranked nations regarding the penetration rate of fitness participation, four Gulf countries (i.e. Kuwait, Bahrain, United Arab Emirates and Qatar) occupy a prominent position, marking their status as upcoming high-income economies. On the other hand, no African country can be noticed in this ranking, indicating the still insignificant place of the fitness and health club industry on this continent.

24,396,000 32,022,819 13,601,250 5,527,334 199,719 75,747,121

21,752,640 28,695,600 9,588,000 1,436,740 15,570

61,488,550

2012

87,234,079

32,568,722 28,812,568 16,826,000 6,009,000 3,017,789

2017

Notes AYGR = Average Yearly Growth Rate Source Authors’ adaptation based on IHRSA (2008, 2013, 2018)

North America Europe Asia-Pacific Latin America Africa & Middle East total

2007

+41.9

+49.7 +0.4 +75.5 +318.2 +19,282.1

Trend 07-17 (%)

+3.6

+4.1 +0.0 +5.8 +15.4 +69.3

AYGR (%)

35.4 46.7 15.6 2.3 0.0

Share 2007 (%)

32.0 42.1 17.7 7.9 0.3

Share 2012 (%)

Table 1.3 Fitness and health club industry revenues (x 1 000 USD), global market and per region (2007–2017)

37.3 33.0 19.3 6.9 3.5

Share 2017 (%)

6 J. Scheerder et al.

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

10

4 5 6 7 8 9

1 2 3

Sweden Norway United States Denmark Netherlands Finland Canada Australia United Kingdom New Zealand Germany Switzerland Austria Spain Ireland Kuwait Italy France Poland

6.8 6.7 4.8 14.6 9.8 NA 9.5 5.7 NA

10.7

8.5 16.4 9.6 15.0 19.5 11.8

14.3 11.8 16.0

5,600 500 397 6,585 400 NA 5,520 3,471 220

440

458 2,706 500 4,635 4,000 7,160

1,300 545 42,500

6,071 1,050 467 4,700 655 NA 8,300 2,982 750

360

582 1,800 600 5,047 2,827 5,714

922 476 850 1,401 611 NA 665 1,164 293

1,222

787 1,503 833 918 1,415 1,253

820 1,585 470 1,160 29,636 1,400

12.9 12.7 11.8 11.2 10.5 9.0 8.8 8.5 7.7

13.6

18.3 17.0 16.8 15.5 15.3 14.8

21.4 20.9 20.3

10,610 1,070 1,032 5,200 500 365 5,320 5,710 2,910

650

1,050 2,900 923 5,615 3,730 9,720

2,140 1,100 60,866

8,988 980 1,177 4,520 710 610 7,500 4,200 2,600

690

1,363 2,000 1,538 6,156 3,715 6,728

(continued)

1,180 1,092 877 1,150 704 598 709 1,360 1,119

942

770 1,450 600 912 1,004 1,445

1,620 1,321 1,129 974 38,477 1,582

Table 1.4 2017 top 30 of member penetration rates in fitness and health clubs, per country (2007–2017) Penetration Penetration rate 2017 Total # of Total Total # of Total rate 2007 (members (members members # of members # of as % of clubs Members/club as % of clubs Members/club 2007 2017 2007 2007 2017 2017 population) (x 1 000) population) (x 1 000) Rank Country

1 The Global Health and Fitness Industry at a Glance …

7

5.2 2.1 NA 3.0

5.9 NA

4.8 NA 2.9 5.2

550 3,948 NA 3,800

270 NA

500 NA 1,125 360

1,300 12,682 NA 2,541

118 NA

842 NA 4,500 200

NA

Total # of clubs 2007

423 311 NA 1,495

2,288 NA

594 NA 250 1,800

NA

5.2 4.6 4.3 3.3

5.8 5.7

7.1 6.8 6.8 5.9

7.3

Penetration rate 2017 (members Members/club as % of 2007 population)

Notes NA = not available Source Authors’ adaptation based on IHRSA (2008, 2018)

27 28 29 30

25 26

21 22 23 24

NA

NA

20

South Korea Belgium Bahrain Argentina Hong Kong Singapore United Arab Emirates Portugal Brazil Qatar Japan

Total # of members 2007 (x 1 000)

Table 1.4 (continued) Penetration rate 2007 (members as % of Rank Country population)

535 9,600 110 4,240

320 524

808 98 2,800 430

3,750

Total # of members 2017 (x 1 000)

Members/club 2017

1,000 34,509 235 4,950

600 825

850 175 7,910 180

535 278 468 857

533 635

951 557 354 2,389

6,590 569

Total # of clubs 2017

8 J. Scheerder et al.

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The Concept of Fitness As the fitness and health club industry has hugely grown in most parts of the world, and as its offerings have broadened and differentiated, also the definition of fitness calls for an update. There are no uniform definitions of fitness, although, as a result of globalisation and the tremendously growing visibility of the industry, fitness is nowadays perceived somewhat similarly, at least in most of the European countries. Traditionally, fitness has been defined as the whole of intentional physical activities with the aim of improving one’s personal condition and appearance. This definition stems, at least partially, from the idea of fitness centres representing the ‘old-school weight lifting gyms’ back in the 1970s and 1980s. As the industry has grown and has been further developed by the gymnastics-related health centres, especially with female consumers, also the definition of fitness has been modified, and more precisely extended from simple physical aspects into health, mental and bodily ideals. In both cases, however, the definition of fitness includes (i) individual training in which—often, but not always—different exercise equipment is used, (ii) group-based training, and/or (iii) relaxation exercises (see e.g. Kirkegaard, 2012). All of these forms have in common that the characteristic of sports-related competition is absent. The question what ‘fitness’ is about could even be more difficult to answer than the question what we mean by ‘sport’, in itself already a diverse and blurry concept that causes difficulties in order to be defined in a proper and unanimous manner. Though it is not our intention within the framework of this book to start an etymological nor semantic discussion, it is of course important to define what is meant when we use the concepts of ‘fitness’ and ‘fitness industry’. First of all, ‘fitness’ is defined in different ways depending on the scientific approach being used. In other words, disciplines such as biology, medicine and kinesiology/movement sciences make use of different interpretations and applications. In Darwinian terms the concept of fitness refers to reproductive success evolved by natural selection. Organisms prove to be biologically fit when they are able to survive and to reproduce in a particular environment. The biological definition of fitness is based on the evolution theory of the English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882)

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in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, and based on the principle of the ‘survival of the fittest’ as introduced by the English philosopher and biologist Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) in his The Principles of Biology (1864). In biomedical sciences, however, the concept of health-related fitness denotes a state of well-being and health that allows for performing physical activities, such as exercising and sports, in an efficient and effective way. Opposed to biological fitness, health-related fitness is defined in terms of morphological, muscular, cardiorespiratory, metabolic and motor components, among which strength, endurance, speed, flexibility, agility, coordination, aerobic capacity and oxidation characteristics (Bouchard, Blair, & Haskell, 2012). Health-related fitness is affected by genetic factors, lifestyle behaviour, psychological attributes and social and physical environment. In other words, health-related fitness is influenced by hereditary, personal and environmental factors, and is mutually linked to physical activity and health. Thus, when kinesiologists, kinanthropometrists or exercise physiologists refer to the concept of fitness, they usually make use of objectifiable, quantifiable and evaluable body parameters, such as strength, flexibility and cardiovascular endurance, relative to established norms. In short, biological fitness can be defined as the quality to adapt to a specific natural circumstance, whereas physical fitness implies the absence of illness or physical disorder. Moreover, physical fitness is a so-called biocultural phenomenon meaning that this concept needs to be investigated both from a biomedical as from a social, cultural or economic approach. The biocultural relevance of physical performances has been stressed by Malina (1972, 301) by stating that … Just as there is need for study at the biochemical level to supplement the evidence of body morphology and composition, there is likewise need for study of relationships within the complexities of the psycho-socio-cultural milieu in which the individual lives and performs. The biological data are fascinating as they stand; nevertheless, there is more to performance than sheer muscle and bone.

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Thus, fitness cannot only be perceived in terms of quantified standards. It is also associated with less tangible characteristics, namely societal norms, cultural features and aesthetic qualities, for example, looking a certain way or living up to social expectations (Smith Maguire, 2008, 1–2). Fitness can both be related to aspects of healthiness and wellness, as well as attractiveness and youthfulness. Consequently, it can be stated that fitness is a complex concept that needs to be studied from a multi- and preferably interdisciplinary perspective, because its objectives and criteria vary between groups of subjects as well as within individuals. Although most parts of this book consist of data that strive to explain the development and impact of the fitness movement in different European countries, the fitness industry cannot only be understood based on empirical analyses but needs to be studied from a sociohistorical and sociocultural perspective as well (Steenbergen & Middelkamp, 2014; Volkwein, 2000, 92). Fitness as a sociocultural and socio-economic phenomenon has caught the interest of social scientists, especially during the last three decades (see f.i. Andreasson & Johansson, 2014; Johansson & Andreasson, 2016; McConatha & Volkwein-Caplan, 2009; Sassatelli, 2010; Smith Maguire, 2008; Stokvis, 2006; Stokvis & Van Hilvoorde, 2008; Van Hilvoorde, 2008; Volkwein, 1998a, 2000). Social research in sports and physical activity has a strong tradition in investigating competitive sports but less in non-competitive physical activities, among which fitness training. This is changing, however, due to the growing interest in physical fitness and physical appearance. Moreover, social research in non-club organised and/or non-competitive physical activities, like recreational cycling, running, swimming and walking, has gained in importance during the last two decades (see f.i. Scheerder et al., 2015a; Waddington, 2000). So far, the concept of fitness has been described as a biological or physical characteristic. However, in this book ‘fitness’ is approached as a physical activity in which people partake, or as the organisational setting in which this activity takes place. When it comes to fitness as a participatory activity, it should be clear that fitness is considered as a general term embracing physical exercises, being either individual programmes (cardio, power, stretching, relaxation, etc.) or in-group classes (aerobics, body attack, spinning, zumba, etc.). These physical activities are provided

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and practised in a specific setting, usually a gym, fitness or wellness centre, or health club. At least three different ways to perceive fitness are common. First, fitness generally seems to refer to a range of several forms and variants of functional human movement that are practiced individually or collectively. Second, and more specifically, fitness is defined as an intentional physical activity with the aim of improving one’s physical and mental condition, health and/or performance. Third, the concept of fitness refers to the industry field, facilities and locations where fitness is exercised and operated. To open up the above towards the contributions included in this book, fitness is described as the range of intentional activities or body movements that are practised in indoor fitness and sometimes wellness centres, with the aim to train, develop and maintain the body and muscle groups in order to improve one’s physical condition, health and performance. Fitness includes different activities ranging from classic fitness variants, such as aerobics, spinning, cardio, strength and figure training, together with a number of relaxation activities variants like massage and yoga. Fitness can also be practised in the form of water exercises, such as aquarobics, water gymnastics and sauna treatments. Towards our time, fitness has further developed and transformed into being a means of holistic identity formation and lifestyle that requires some level of consumption of sport-related products and services. As a consequence, fitness is nowadays also associated with the idea of consuming wellness (physical well-being), mindfulness (mental well-being) and sometimes even self-branding (Grénman, 2019). This is illustrated by the exponential variety of different forms of fitness centres and membership packages together with product and service alternatives in the field. Nevertheless, the core of the definition of fitness still includes individual physical exercises in some kind of equipment-related facilities, and in most cases in a customer–vendor relationship. As a physical activity, fitness distinguishes itself from competitive and club-organised sports activities. Contrary to club-organised sports where amateurism and voluntarism still prevail, fitness has been mostly developed and organised in a commercial and professional manner from its very beginning (Stokvis & Van Hilvoorde, 2012, 21). It is also remarkable that neither the traditional sector of sports clubs nor the

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physical education curriculum at school succeeded in what the fitness movement fruitfully managed to achieve, namely both the massive awakening of interest and the active participation in physical exercising (Stokvis, 2004). Although fitness apparently developed in a different way compared to competitive and club-organised sports, the fitness sector is indeed part of the broader sports sector according to employment-based classifications (cfr. www.easesport.eu). Together with outdoor activities, fitness activities constitute the so-called sub-sector of ‘active leisure’, which in turn is a sub-set of the sports sector. Characteristic of this sub-sector is the fact that the services it offers are organised by companies or associations, which do not offer training for sports competition. The fitness industry can be considered as a market in which people, organisations and activities are related to the production, promotion, consumption and/or experience of fitness. As a result, the fitness industry involves people, services, goods, places and ideas related to health and active lifestyle. However, it is important to note that, according to the American College of Sports Medicine, the fitness industry comprises not only of commercial providers (usually for-profit companies), but also of clinical (medical fitness facilities), community-related (not-for-profit associations), and corporate divisions (Thompson, 2018, 10).

Roots, Global Spread and Popularity of the Fitness Industry Attitudes towards healthiness versus unfitness, or towards thinness versus fatness, and towards attractiveness versus ugliness, significantly differ from society to society and from generation to generation (Pitts-Taylor, 2008). Aspects of physical fitness and physical appearance are embedded in specific cultural codes and interpretations. Slimness, for instance, does not seem to be admired in all societies or at all times, as stoutness, embonpoint and corpulence have been fashionable, for example, in late nineteenth-century America and in late twentieth-century Indonesia (Hicks & Gwynne, 1994, 338–339). Although opinions on physical health and physical appearance unmistakably vary between different cultures, it is clear that the origin of the industrialised fitness culture

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lies in the Western world. More specifically, the roots of the modern fitness phenomenon, as we know it today, date back to the 1970s in the United States from where it successfully spread to other highly industrialised societies in the world (Black, 2013; Green, 1986; McKenzie, 2016; Volkwein, 1998b). Subsequently, fitness would develop itself worldwide and become a fast-growing and vital branch of the sports and leisure industry. According to Rose (2001) modern fitness is a complex of physical exercises constructed and stylised in the United States. However, already two previous fitness movements need to be identified (Stokvis & Van Hilvoorde, 2008; Tharrett & Rutgers, 2016; Van Hilvoorde, 2008; Volkwein-Caplan, 2014, 51–54). The early roots of the modern fitness industry are to be situated in the nineteenth century, a period generally known for the birth of modern sport and physical education at school. In response to processes of industrialisation, secularisation and urbanisation, renewed attention was given to a fit, healthy and beautiful body (Stokvis & Van Hilvoorde, 2008, 19–30; Van Hilvoorde, 2008, 1306–1311). Also, technological, communicative, scientific and medical developments paved the way for cultivation of a new physical culture. Frenchman Hippolyte Triat (1813– 1881) was one of the pioneering entrepreneurs to run large commercial gyms in Brussels, Liège, Liverpool and Paris. In order to systematically and voluntarily train their bodies in these fitness centres avant-la-lettre, people, being mostly high society members, were willing to pay entrance fees. A second fitness movement took place from the end of the nineteenth century and was strongly affected by the upcoming bodybuilding business (Stokvis & Van Hilvoorde, 2012, 23; Van Hilvoorde, 2008, 1314– 1315). Both in Europe and the United States, self-styled ‘strongmen’, as they were referred to, displayed feats of physical strength during public shows and circus performances, founded fitness schools and published books in which they explained their physical exercise programmes (Stokvis, 2006, 466). Protagonists like Louis Durlacher, alias ‘Professor Attila’ (1844–1924), Eugen Sandow (1867–1925), Bernarr MacFadden (1868–1955) and Angelo Siciliano, alias Charles Atlas (1892–1972) were body artists performing in variety shows (Black, 2013). At the same time, most of them also acted as commercial entrepreneurs through

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the marketing of their fitness products, e.g. magazines, advertisements, courses, etc. In this way they can be considered as the founding fathers of today’s fitness industry (Van Hilvoorde, 2008, 1316). Moreover, Sandow and MacFadden also organised and promoted large-scale bodybuilding competitions, being forerunners of the later Mr. Universe contests, in which the ‘most perfectly developed body’ was to be elected (Stokvis, 2006, 468–469). The current fitness boom took a start in the United States during the 1940s (Rose, 2001). More precisely, its original birthplace can be located at Santa Monica Muscle Beach in Los Angeles. Physical culture advocates like Victor Tanny (1912–1985) and Jack LaLanne (1914–2011) opened the first chain of weightlifting gyms and health clubs that would spread across the United States during the 1950s and 1960s. According to Black (2013, 49) the ‘Machine Age’ entered the fitness scene from the 1960s onwards, meaning that fitness centres from now on would be equipped with devices that targeted the specific training of unique body parts and muscle groups. In this period a real ‘fitness revolution’ took place, along with the first running boom (Scheerder et al., 2015a). Medical doctor Kenneth Cooper (°1931) pioneered the benefits of doing aerobic exercises for health improvement, James Fixx (1932– 1984) popularised the concept of ‘runner’s high’, and Jacki Sorensen (°1942) and Jane Fonda (°1937) introduced aerobic dancing. As a consequence, cardiovascular machines like treadmills and stationary bicycles appeared in fitness centres, alongside the traditional strength devices and dumbbells. This ensured the emergence of new types of fitness customers, in particular women and (upper-)middle class people. Also, fitness clubs became popular venues for social interaction (Black, 2013, 127). During the 1980s the role of umbrella organisations, such as the International Health, Racquet & Sportsclub Association (IHRSA) and the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), became a major factor in the further development of the fitness industry (Black, 2013, 136– 137). From this it may be concluded that this growing sector met both commercial interests and health-enhancing needs. The greater public awareness of the importance of physical exercise can be partly explained as a response to the current sedentary lifestyle behaviour in post-industrial societies. As a result of processes such as

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automation and robotisation, physical exertion is no longer a necessary and integral part of daily life for many people. Moreover, due to our eating and exercising habits obesity levels are rising around the world (Blair, 2009; Critser, 2004; Guthold, Stevens, Riley, & Bull, 2018; Kohl et al., 2012). As a consequence, more people are overweight than undernourished today which entails health risks on a large scale (Blair, 2009; Caballero, 2007; NCD Risk Factor Collaboration, 2017a, 2017b). According to Fresco (2015), the dramatic increase in the use of fitness centres is proof that the human species, nowadays, has so much food, and therefore energy, that this energy can be used for ‘non-productive activities’, such as voluntarily participating in fitness and jogging. From an evolutionary point of view, it is unique that people now systematically spend energy on controlling their weight by voluntarily partaking in physical exercise and other forms of sport. In order to make people believe that their desire to lose weight and to become fit and thin (again) can be met, a whole industry of ‘fit-makers’ has been created.1 This industry, thus, is sustained by the abundance of food—read: energy accumulation that results in obesity—on the one hand, and a lack of physical activity—read: energy consumption that should lead to lean and sportive bodies—on the other. The popularity of fitness, however, cannot merely be interpreted as a simple answer to the obesogenic society we live in (Volkwein-Caplan, 2014, 50). The mania of what one could call ‘the dictatorship of slenderness’ also has to be recognised as an unmistakable element of popular consumer culture in which the growth of leisure-time physical activities and sports forms, such as recreational cycling, running, swimming and walking along with practices like fitness, wellness and mindfulness, have been associated with a healthy and beautiful body (De Wachter, 1988; Featherstone, 1982, 1987; McConatha & VolkweinCaplan, 2009; Sassatelli, 2010; Smith Maguire, 2008; Stearns, 1997). According to Miller (2009, 128) the human body is a showcase of 1 In

two well-founded BBC documentaries, namely ‘The Men Who Made Us Fat’ (2012) and ‘The Men Who Made Us Thin’ (2013), investigative reporter Jacques Peretti respectively traces those responsible for revolutionising our eating habits and those making a fortune from people’s desire to become thin (see www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01k0fs0 and www.bbc.co.uk/ programmes/b038913v).

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fitness indicators, implying that by means of their physical appearance people demonstrate to be in good shape and health. The body is no longer hidden but it is displayed, resulting in a real appearance industry (Smith Maguire, 2001). It is an ‘exposure of flesh’ as Featherstone (1999, 3) coined this development. This process seamlessly fits to the culture of slenderness in which physical self-control, social prestige and sexual and economic competition are closely intertwined (Stearns, 1997; Waddington, 2000). The closer the actual body approximates to the idealized images of youth, health, fitness, and beauty, the higher its exchange value. Consumer culture permits the unashamed display of the human body. (Featherstone, 1982, 21–22)

According to Bourdieu’s (1984) distinction theory, fitness as a cultural manifestation can be seen as a ‘cultural field’. For Bourdieu, a field denotes an arena of (re)production and consumption of goods, services, status and knowledge, which can be exchanged and monopolised in order to gain different kinds of power resources (‘capitals’). The fitness phenomenon seems to be a field that is experienced mainly by people from particular social groups, primarily middle and upper-middle classes (Bakken Ulseth & Seippel, 2011; Scheerder, Vanreusel, Taks, & Renson, 2002; Volkwein, 1998b, X). From the so-called social status pyramid of sport (Scheerder et al., 2002; Scheerder, Vandermeerschen, Borgers, Thibaut, & Vos, 2013; Scheerder, Breedveld, & Borgers, 2015b) represented in Figs. 1.1 and 1.2, one can see that the participation in physical activities at a fitness centre, such as aerobics, cardio fitness and spinning, indeed is characteristic for (upper-)middle class people. However, some specific fitness-related activities like tae bo and yoga rather turn out to be practised by upper-class people, while zumba can be considered as a type of fitness activity that is democratised and thus practised to a greater or lesser extent by all social layers. Nevertheless, from a time-trend perspective, it is clear that the social status of fitness has hardly changed as almost no significant social mobility took place during the previous decades (Scheerder et al., 2002, 2013). Consequently, and contrary to the trickle-down theory which states that consumers from lower social

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Fig. 1.1 Social status pyramids of sport activities among adults in Flanders, Belgium (1999) (Source Scheerder et al. [2013, 157])

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Fig. 1.2 Social status pyramids of sport activities among adults in Flanders, Belgium (2009) (Source Scheerder et al. [2013, 158; 2015b, 16])

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classes try to emulate those with a higher social status (Solomon, 2007), a process of trickling-down did not seem to have taken place during the past decades with respect to fitness participation. Rather, a trickleacross effect can be discerned, as taking part in fitness-related activities has become more popular among upper and upper-middle class groups but hardly among lower(-middle) social layers. Though active partaking in physical exercises, like aerobics classes, cardio fitness and weight workouts, has become undoubtedly more popular over the past decades, a process of democratisation has not yet happened to date. Therefore, according to Bourdieu’s theory of social distinction, the fitness culture still seems to be a field where a symbolic struggle between social classes takes place. The idea of making a social distinction between different layers in society through participation in physical activities is not new in itself. In his social critique on America’s materialistic consumer culture of the nineteenth century, economist and sociologist Thorstein Veblen (1857–1929) already introduced the concept of conspicuous consumption. In his well-known The Theory of the Leisure Class, Veblen (1994[1899]) identified the members of the so-called leisure class as an elitist social group participating in ostentatious, time-killing and unproductive activities in order to show their exclusive social position, and thus distinguish themselves from other social groups. More than one hundred years after the publication of Veblen’s classic, Brooks (2000), Florida (2002) and Currid-Halkett (2017), among others, further elaborated on the insights provided by Veblen. In their analyses, however, the leisure class has been replaced by a new elite. Brooks (2000), Florida (2002) and Currid-Halkett (2017) call this new upper class the ‘bobos’, the ‘creative class’ and the ‘aspirational class’ respectively. Members of this new elite are highly educated professionals with a strong interest in fitness-related activities, physical appearance and the companionship of other upper-status persons. They belong to the so-called ‘active class’, being people who regularly partake in physical exercise, and individual sports such as fitness, jogging and swimming in particular (Scheerder et al., 2015b, 4). Members of this new class prefer perky, utilitarian, life-enhancing and often materialistic forms of leisure activities, but they do so in a subtle and experiential manner. Instead of buying luxury goods such as an expensive watch or

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car, the new elite prefers to have time for qualitative and healthy activities. Useful and life-enhancing exercises are celebrated, while unhealthy and dangerous pleasures are disdained (Brooks, 2000, 199). Sports that improve cardiovascular health, like fitness-related activities, thrive among this group of contemporary cultural and intellectual elites, whereas lessactive sports such as bowling and pooling are considered low class. Thus, social distinction and even moral superiority remain important when it comes to patterns of physical activity consumption. Choosing to be fit is a sign of higher social status. However, the social values and cultural tastes on which these consumer patterns are based significantly differ from the ones by previous upper(-middle) class generations.

Fit for the Future? The Paradoxical Realm of Fitness The contemporary fitness field appears to be characterised by a striking contradiction. On the one hand fitness has never been as popular as it is today, whereas on the other hand more people than ever before are physically inactive or obese. As Smith Maguire (2008, 198) states, the fitness and health industry is expanding alongside problems of physical inactivity and obesity. In fact, these two features can be considered as the two faces of the same phenomenon. This Janus-faced fact is a fundamental precondition for the existence of the world of fitness. Or in other words: the industry of fitness and health clubs is highly dependent on the obesity epidemic. In our everyday consumer culture fitness and fatness coexist. ‘Fit’ and ‘fat’ seem to be juxtaposed. These two dimensions keep each other in balance: being obsessed with a healthy body versus banning the obese body. Processes of adoration of the body versus alienation of the body apparently go hand in hand. The norm of slenderness seems imperative in this development. The so-called ‘slenderness ideal’—or the ‘beauty myth’ as coined by American feminist author Naomi Wolf (1990)—became widespread since the 1970s (Stokvis & Van Hilvoorde, 2008). This ideal can be considered as the styling and disciplining of the physical body by striving for control of both body shape and body weight. As such, this development can be identified as a process of strong

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formalisation of the body, which is in sharp contrast to the informalisation of social interactions and organisational structures, a process that took place during the 1960s (Wouters, 2007). Thus, on the one hand there seems to be an imposed coercion towards a manageable and docile body from which people can hardly escape, and on the other hand the setting in which this occurs can be described as being informal. The formal, highly disciplined treatment of the body is apparently embodied by the informal, casual way of interacting with each other. It is remarkable, however, that structural and social problems as physical inactivity and obesity, to a certain extent, seem to be addressed by individualised solutions. In order to overcome collective health problems, commercialised fitness is offered to people who individually and rationally can choose to partake. From a neoliberal perspective this is hardly surprising. The fitness culture perfectly matches with neoliberal norms and standards, such as self-control, self-discipline, self-improvement and self-responsibility. Discourses of fitness and health are increasingly framed through the ethos of neoliberal ideology. Laermans (1993) describes the pursuit of a healthy and fit body as a new civic duty. According to Smith (2010, 113) fitness centres, therefore, are hives of composite privacies rather than a forum for breezy civic congregation. Referring to the work of the French philosopher Michel Foucault, Smith perceives the gym as a parade ground of docile bodies, human beings who unknowingly and routinely obey the neoliberal laws of healthism as if they were operating in a colony of bondage or a house of correction (2010, 119–120). True, your labor in the gym has no output from which the state might benefit – except insofar as your increased health means a decreased strain on welfare – but as a building where your comings and goings are logged, your medical data stored, your deviation from the norm measured, the gym has become a state institution. (Smith, 2010, 120)

One may wonder how the quantified body will further develop in the future. As an answer to this question one finds a possible starting point in the recent work of Israeli historian Yuval Noah Harari and Italian writer Alessandro Baricco. In his Homo deus Harari (2017) indicates that, in

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the so-called dataised society, intelligent robots and algorithms are going to take a lot out of our hands. We are almost physically entangled with our smartphone and use apps that make every aspect of our life look like a game. From this regard, will fitness centres become redundant since their function is increasingly being replaced by fitness apps and physical activity trackers? Are we doomed to remain physically active steered and manipulated by robots? What will be left to man if everything is automated? Will living become a big digital game populated by digital natives as Baricco (2018) describes in his The Game? Or will we be protected against a dehumanised world of data and algorithms, and will we be saved by a game variant of fitness in the tradition of the Dutch historian Johan Huizinga (1970)? As a consequence, will fitness centres become humanised sites of spontaneous play as a form of physical exercising and compensating for the boring digital alternative?

Framework of the Book In this book fifteen country-specific chapters are included. For this, among others, mainly research fellows from the European MEASURE2 network were invited to contribute (in total 27). If interested, they were asked to prepare a contribution on the development, the size and/or the provision and structuration of the fitness industry in their respective country, based on existing data. Countries from different geographical angles in Europe positively responded, which implies that cross-national comparisons can be performed. Based on the condition of the availability of a minimum amount of substantiated data on the fitness sector in the respective country (some information on the supply as well as the demand side), eventually fifteen European countries (both within and outside of the EU) were included for this 2 MEASURE

stands for Meeting for European Sport Participation and Sport Culture Research. It is a network under the umbrella of the European Association for Sociology of Sport (EASS). It consists of social scientists and statisticians with an interest in sports participation issues, in particular the measurement and comparability of sports participation between countries and through different time intervals. MEASURE was founded in Leuven in 2010 by social sports scientists from both the KU Leuven and the Mulier Institute.

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book. Figure 1.3 provides a geographical overview of all fifteen countries involved in the present volume, namely: Belgium (Flanders), Bulgaria, Cyprus, Denmark, England, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain and Switzerland. Each of the country chapters thus presents an in-depth analysis of the fitness market in a specific European country. More precisely, the country-specific chapters include time trends at the demand and supply side of fitness, profiles of fitness consumers according to their sociodemographic and socio-economic background, and/or the provision and

Fig. 1.3 Overview of participating countries

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organisation of fitness centres. The advantage of using national data, in particular in Europe, is that a substantial number of countries can be included since most of them have relatively rich research material on sports (Scheerder et al., 2011). Moreover, national datasets take cultural, country-specific differences into account and usually also allow for making time-trend analyses at national level. Of disadvantage, however, are the facts that different national surveys most of the time make use of a different methodology and different definitions. As such, crossnational comparisons cannot always be executed in a proper and accurate way. In order to overcome this methodological gap, instruments that contain harmonised data are needed (Breedveld et al., 2013; Scheerder et al., 2011). Harmonisation in this context implies an internationallybased, standardised questionnaire that preferably allows for repeated measurements. Such instruments exist and—in the case of Europe— they allow to draw a pan-European picture. Moreover, they facilitate to make comparisons between different continents and countries, as well as across different periods of time. Therefore, in the following and the penultimate chapter we will make use of such available data and thus will be able to present additional insights from a cross-national and crosstemporal perspective. As will be explained further, Eurobarometer data are used in those two chapters since they allow to both cluster countries in different European regions, and perform analyses on a set of background characteristics (European Commission, 2010, 2014, 2018). In addition, the editors enriched the country chapters by adding fact sheets which are presented at the beginning of each of these chapters.3 These fact sheets present the geographical, demographical and economic situation as well as levels of overweight, physical inactivity, (club-organised) sports participation and fitness participation with regard to the respective countries. The fact sheets include, among others, data of a specific study on fitness participation which is both financially and economically oriented (Deloitte & EuropeActive, 2018). This enables to compare countries at a glance, and from different perspectives, on a number of 3 Most

of the datasets that were used for this purpose comprise EU countries. If the country does not belong to the EU, the respective indicator is left out of the fact sheet, or instead another (national) dataset is used to fill this gap. As all EU datasets relate to 2019 or earlier, the United Kingdom is still included.

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topics that are of relevance for the content of the book. Finally, the last chapter of the book aims to put together the most significant results from the different chapters, and concludes by taking a look at the future of fitness. This book is the third edited volume in a row published by Palgrave Macmillan, in which cross-national and cross-temporal comparisons are presented based on country-specific sports material. In 2015, Running across Europe (Scheerder et al., 2015a) was published which explored the rise and size of running as a societal phenomenon in eleven European countries. Hereafter, in 2017, Sport policy systems and sport federations (Scheerder et al., 2017) was issued. Here, the focus was on exploring the organisation and structure of national sports systems in thirteen (European) countries. Recently, similar cross-national comparisons have been performed by, among others, Breuer et al. (2015), Hallmann and Fairley (2018), Hallmann and Petry (2013), Laine and Vehmas (2017b) and Nagel, Elmose-Østerlund, Ibsen, & Scheerder (2020). Topics that were central to these publications implied sports clubs, sports volunteers, sports policy systems, the private sports sector and sports participation. All of these books have in common that they study aspects of sport from a cross-national approach. This line of research indicates that comparative sports studies are needed, both from an academic and policy perspective. Acknowledgements The authors are much indebted to Eric Vandenabeele, director of Fitness.be, who was so kind to provide the authors with the necessary material and publications in order to be able to create Tables 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4 included in this chapter.

References Andreasson, J., & Johansson, T. (2014). The fitness revolution: Historical transformations in the global gym and fitness culture. Sport Science Review, 23(3–4), 91–112.

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2 The Weight of Numbers: Prevalence of Overweight, Sedentary Behaviour and Sport/Fitness Participation from a Comparative Pan-European Perspective Jeroen Scheerder and Kobe Helsen

Introduction As indicated in Chapter 1, it is of relevance to investigate fitnessrelated activities from a societal perspective. Fitness, its industry and its consumers, cannot be disconnected from the social, cultural and economic realm in which this specific and popular form of physical activity develops. Therefore, in this chapter, we will consider some societal aspects that relate to the fitness market. More precisely, because an ageing trend is gradually taking place and because such a demographic shift has profound implications for our economic and social life, we will first look at some global and EU28-specific socio-demographic changes. Afterwards, trends with regard to health-related features will be J. Scheerder (B) · K. Helsen Policy in Sports & Physical Activity Research Group, KU Leuven, Louvain, Belgium e-mail: [email protected] K. Helsen e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 J. Scheerder et al. (eds.), The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53348-9_2

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presented, in particular data concerning obesity, overweight and physical inactivity, mainly among the EU28 population. Thereafter, evolutions concerning the participation in physical activity, (club-organised) sports and fitness will be discussed at EU28 level. We will first present the outcomes at the European level, including all (previous) member states of the European Union, followed by the presentation of the findings at the regional level. For the latter, a distinction between various geographical regions in Europe is made. Finally, analyses are presented in relation to some specific background characteristics, such as sex, age, education, occupation and financial situation. In this way, the socio-cultural and socio-economic setting of (non-)participants is taken into consideration as well.

Materials and Methods As described by Scheerder et al. (2011) and as already notified in Chapter 1, two methodological approaches can be used to gain insight into fitness participation at pan-continental level, being the countryspecific method at the one side and the cross-national method at the other. Both methods will be applied in this book in order to provide the reader with a substantiated picture of people’s active involvement in Europe’s contemporary fitness industry. On the one hand, one can rely on existing data that are available from national surveys. This approach will be used in Chapters 3 through 17, in which country-specific analyses will be presented by guest authors. The advantage here is that, if available, country-detailed information is presented. On the other hand, data stemming from cross-national surveys can be used. Although, here, mostly less comprehensive data are available, the advantage of crossnational surveys lies in the fact that the data collection is based on harmonised questionnaires. The harmonisation of concepts and definitions facilitates a more accurate comparison between (clusters of ) countries. Therefore, the latter method will be employed in the current chapter as well as the penultimate chapter. For this, secondary analyses will be executed based on two available European datasets, i.e. (i) the European Health Interview Survey from Eurostat (EHIS, see Eurostat,

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2019a, 2019b), and (ii) the Eurobarometer survey from the European Commission (EB, see European Commission, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2010, 2014, 2018). The responsibility for all conclusions drawn from the EHIS data and the EB data lies entirely with the authors. The EHIS contains data on health-related matters, i.e. health status, healthcare use and health determinants. More precisely, thanks to the EHIS dataset we are able to present outcomes on the prevalence of obesity and overweight among adults from European countries. Data are collected between 2006 and 2009 among sixteen countries1 (first wave), and again between 2013 and 2015 among all EU28 countries2 (second wave). In order to calculate body mass indices (BMI) in the EHIS, selfreported height and weight figures are used. For more details concerning the EHIS instrument, its material and the methodology applied, we refer to Eurostat (2019a, 2019b) and European Parliament (2008). The EB data allow to analyse (evolutions of ) participation in physical (in)activity, (club-organised) sports and fitness among EU citizens aged fifteen years and older. Data are available for 2002, 2005, 2013 and 2017 as regards physical (in)activity, and for 2004, 2009, 2013 and 2017 as regards participation in (club-organised) sports and fitness. In order to define the number of physically active people, the following questions from the EB instrument are utilised for the analyses presented in this chapter: – In the last seven days, on how many days did you do vigorous physical activities like lifting heavy things, digging, aerobics or fast cycling? – In the last seven days, on how many days did you do moderate physical activity like carrying light loads, cycling at a normal pace or doubles tennis? (not walking) – In the last seven days, on how many days did you walk for at least ten minutes at a time?

1 Countries

included, are: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, France, Greece, Hungary, Latvia, Malta, Poland, Romania, Slovak Republic, Slovenia and Spain. 2 During the second wave, data have been collected for Iceland and Norway too. However, data from these two countries are not included in the analyses presented in this chapter.

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An individual answering one or more days on at least one of the three questions is classified as a physically active person.3 To determine the number of people being active in sports the following question is used: – How often do you exercise or play sport? Here, respondents who do not indicate ‘never’ or ‘don’t know’ are classified as being a sports participant.4 To discern the number of cluborganised sports participants as well as the number of fitness participants, the following question is posed: – Are you a member of any of the following clubs where you participate in sport or recreational physical activity? For this question, multiple answers are possible.5 When one indicates ‘sport club’, the individual is classified as being a club-organised sports participant. Note that for the current analysis respondents answering ‘socio-cultural club that includes sport in its activities’ are not considered as club-organised sports participants.6 When one indicates ‘health or fitness centre’, the individual is classified as being a fitness participant. Since the question regarding membership of a sports club/fitness centre is not part of the 2004 EB survey, the following question is used instead: – Where do you exercise/play sport that you do most often?

3The

answering possibilities ranked from zero to seven. answering possibilities included the following categories: (i) 5 times a week or more; (ii) 3 to 4 times a week; (iii) 1 to 2 times a week; (iv) 1 to 3 times a month; (v) less often; (vi) never; (vii) don’t know. 5The answering possibilities included the following categories: (i) health or fitness centre; (ii) sport club; (iii) socio-cultural club that includes sport in its activities (e.g. employees’ club, youth club, school- and university-related club); (iv) other (spontaneous); (v) no, not a member of any club (spontaneous); (vi) don’t know. 6 In their study, Scheerder, Helsen, Elmose-Østerlund and Nagel (2020) did consider both people being sport active in a sport club and people being sport active in a socio-cultural association as club-organised sport participants. 4The

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So, instead of investigating the active membership of a sports club/fitness centre, the location where one practises sport is measured.7 However, it should be stressed that, in the 2004 EB questionnaire, only one answer can be given to this question. As a consequence, it is likely that based on this question an underestimation of the number of fitness participants happens, at least in 2004, as respondents have no possibility to give multiple answers. This should be kept in mind when interpreting the findings represented in Figs. 2.5, 2.7c and 2.7d, as well as Table 2.3. Moreover, in Fig. 2.5, for 2009, 2013 and 2017, the outcomes based on this question are included too, separately from the findings based on the membership question. In the EB surveys of 2009, 2013 and 2017, however, multiple answers instead of one are possible. For more details concerning the EB instrument, its material and the methodology applied, we refer to European Commission (2003, 2004, 2006, 2010, 2014, 2018). Apart from the EB and EHIS data, we are also able to make use of relevant statistics provided by the World Health Organization (WHO, see World Health Organization, 2019a, 2019b, 2019c, 2019d, 2019e), by Eurostat (see Eurostat, 2019c) and by the United Nations (UN, see United Nations, 2019). The Eurostat and UN data concern European and world population prospects respectively, while the WHO data refer to material regarding worldwide prevalence of obesity, overweight and insufficient physical activity among adults.

Socio-Demographic Developments If we want to understand fitness participation and if we want to assess fitness prospects, having a notion of underlying socio-demographic features might be of relevance. Our consumer behaviour, after all, is largely affected by the specific phase of life in which we find ourselves (Martins, Yusuf, & Swanson, 2012). In other words, demographics shape

7The answering possibilities included the following categories: (i) in a fitness centre; (ii) in a club; (iii) in a sport centre; (iv) at school/university; (v) elsewhere (spontaneous); (vi) don’t know.

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the demand for goods and services, such as the consumption of fitness and health products. In order to assess opportunities for the positioning of new goods and services, it is important to identify and to quantify future market segments. As such, two main socio-demographic developments are of special interest in the framework of the present work, namely (i) the growth of the population, and (ii) the population’s ageing trend. Both population growth and ageing can be considered as major socio-demographic challenges for our contemporary society in general, and for the fitness market in particular. Instead of questioning whether a radical demographic shift will take place, the question is rather how to deal with the changes in the demographic structure of (European) society, as well as how to make profit out of this transition in the twentyfirst century since these changes will confront the fitness industry with future challenges. In 2019 approximately 513 million people were living in the European Union8 (Eurostat, 2019c). This number corresponds to less than seven per cent of the total world population. After 2025, however, it is assumed that the number of EU inhabitants will diminish considerably—more precisely from 513 million people in 2025 to 497 million in 2050—while the world’s population will further increase up to 9.7 billion people by 2050. From Fig. 2.1 we learn that, as a result, the EU’s share in the total world population will decrease and amount to around five per cent by 2050. Considering that the fitness market has become a worldwide industry (as discussed in the previous chapter), it is likely that Europe’s proportion in the global fitness market will decline accordingly. Based on the figures presented in the first chapter, it is apparent that this diminution has already started during the past decade, at least in terms of the share of club membership, the number of fitness clubs as well as the fitness industry revenues (see Tables 1.1 through 1.3 in Chapter 1).

8 When

references are made to the European Union in this chapter, all 28 member states that were part of the EU between 2013 and 2019 are included. Thus, also for the pre-2013 period and the post-2019 period, all 28 countries that were once part of the EU, are taken into account in order to make comparisons as complete as possible over time. The period of 2013– 2019 is determined by the fact that Croatia joined the EU as 28th member state in 2013 and that the United Kingdom left the EU at the beginning of 2020 due to the Brexit.

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12,000,000

16

14.9

14

10,000,000

12

11.1

8,000,000

10 7.9

6,000,000

8

6.3 5.1

4,000,000

4.4

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2,000,000

6 4 2

0

0 1950

1975

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world (x1000) EU28 (x1000) EU28 share in total world population (%) Fig. 2.1 Evolution and prospects of the world and EU28 population, 1950– 2100, including EU28 share in total world population (in %) (Source Authors’ own calculations based on United Nations [2019])

Moreover, by 2050 nearly 30% of the EU28 population will be 65 years of age or older, which implies a tripling in terms of percentage during a period of one hundred years (Fig. 2.2). Worldwide, however, the proportion of people being 65 years or older will only be just over fifteen per cent in 2050. The combination of low fertility rates and increasing life expectancy, especially in well-developed countries, leads towards a demographic shift, in particular towards an ageing population. Of course, this will impact society and public health since longevity will increase the demand for healthcare and medical treatment. Apart from a higher burden on the workforce and a higher retirement age that will result from this higher old-age dependency ratio, the demographic transition towards an ageing society will also create new challenges and opportunities for the fitness market since emergent, mostly older segments of consumers with their own specific features will present themselves. Currently, as will be discussed in more detail further on in this chapter (see Table 2.3), participation in fitness, in 2017, seems to be most

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35

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30 30 25

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13 10

9

10 5

6

1950

1975

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5 0 2000

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2050

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Fig. 2.2 Evolution and prospects of the proportion of people aged 65 years and over worldwide and in the EU28, 1950–2100 (in %) (Source Authors’ own calculations based on United Nations [2019])

popular among adolescents and people being in their twenties and thirties, since, in the EU28, 16.4% of the 15 to 39 years olds partake in fitness activities compared to 7.4% among people aged forty years and older (calculations made by the authors based on European Commission, 2018). However, the data in Fig. 2.3 unmistakably show a dwindling trend of the share of people minus forty years of age, in the EU but also globally. More precisely, in a period of one hundred years (1950– 2050), the share of the age group of 15–39 years olds will have decreased from more than one third towards just over a quarter of the total EU28 population. This demographic shift will imply a shrinking fitness market potential of this age group, and will also create a stronger competition between existing suppliers of fitness goods and services.

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70

47

50 40

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40 36

36 28

30

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26

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20 10 0 1950

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2000 15-39 years

2025

40 years and over

Fig. 2.3 Evolution and prospects of the proportion of people aged 15–39 years and people aged forty years and over in the EU28, 1950–2100 (in %) (Source Authors’ own calculations based on United Nations [2019])

Trends Regarding Overweight and Insufficient Physical Activity As indicated in the previous paragraph, ageing has an impact on society and public health as the demand for healthcare increases when people become older. Along with this socio-demographic development, also overweight affects the healthcare system. However, where ageing does not necessarily compromise the quality of life, this is clearly the case for overweight and in particular obesity. Obesity reduces social and emotional wellbeing (Talen & Mann, 2009), and it has been identified as one of the major risk factors for non-communicable and chronic diseases, including type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease and several cancers, that are the main cause for morbidity and mortality in Europe (Cuschieri & Mamo, 2016; Nyberg et al., 2018). It has been shown that obesity is a significant economic burden amounting to billions of euros on a yearly basis, including direct and indirect medical costs (Cuschieri & Mamo, 2016; Tremmel, Gerdtham, Nilsson, & Saha, 2017; Von Lengerke & Krauth, 2011). The OECD (2019) estimated that overweight will cost EU28

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countries on average USD PPP 195 annually per capita in health expenditure, between 2020 and 2050. This equates, on average, to eight per cent of the EU28 entire health budget on treating high body mass index and its related consequences. According to OECD (2019) overweight will also reduce life expectancy, reduce employment and labour force productivity, decrease GDP, and increase the overall tax rate in the next thirty years. The data presented in Table 2.1 indicate that the global share of overweight adults, including both pre-obese (BMI between 25 and 30) and obese (BMI of 30 or more) subjects, has increased from 22% in 1975 to 38% in 2015. In the EU28 countries this share has even rocketed from 39 to 59% in the same period of time. In 2015, more than one fifth of the adult population in the EU28 was considered to be obese, which equates to 93 million people (versus 30 million people in 1975). Compared to other continents, only North and South America present even higher obesity figures than the EU28. According to the World Health Organization (2019b) prevalence of obesity among adults in the Americas equalled 28% in 2015, whereas worldwide one out of ten adults suffers from obesity. Although high levels of obesity are more likely to be found in rich societies, it has been shown that obesity levels tend to be lower in countries where income differences are smaller (Wilkinson & Pickett, 2009). This is the case, among others, for the Scandinavian countries (see further). The previous findings show that levels of (pre-)obesity are dramatically on the increase globally, in particular in developed countries such as the EU28 member states. Furthermore, it is estimated that overweight rates will continue to grow in the future (Pineda et al., 2018; Sassi, Devaux, Cecchini, & Rusticelli, 2009). It is also clear that this increment will cause a severe impact on public health. Overweight can be both a cause and a consequence of a sedentary lifestyle and insufficient levels of physical activity, which in turn result in both a health and economic burden (Ding et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2012). The WHO physical activity guidelines state that adults are insufficiently active if they do not engage in at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity per week,

21.5 16.8 4.7 39.2 30.0 9.1

1975 23.1 17.8 5.3 42.0 31.5 10.5

1980 24.9 18.9 6.0 44.6 32.8 11.8

1985 26.7 19.9 6.8 47.2 33.9 13.3

1990 28.6 20.9 7.7 49.7 34.8 15.0

1995

30.8 22.1 8.7 52.1 35.5 16.7

2000

33.1 23.2 9.9 54.5 35.9 18.5

2005

35.7 24.5 11.2 56.7 36.3 20.5

2010

38.4 25.6 12.8 58.9 36.4 22.5

2015

Sources World Health Organization (2019b, 2019c), data on worldwide (pre-)obesity and EU28 data concern authors’ own country-related weighted calculations based on population numbers provided by United Nations (2019)

Overweight adults in the world (BMI ≥ 25) Pre-obese adults in the world (BMI ≥ 25 and < 30) Obese adults in the world (BMI ≥ 30) Overweight adults in EU28 (BMI ≥ 25) Pre-obese adults in EU28 (BMI ≥ 25 and < 30) Obese adults in EU28 (BMI ≥ 30)

Table 2.1 Evolution of overweight (BMI ≥ 25), pre-obese (BMI ≥ 25 and < 30) and obese (BMI ≥ 30) adults (eighteen years and over), worldwide and in the EU28, 1975–2015 (in %, age-standardized country-related weighted calculations)

2 The Weight of Numbers: Prevalence of Overweight …

43

44

J. Scheerder and K. Helsen

45 38

40

35 32 32

35 30

31

28 28 24 23

25

30

26 22

20 15 10 5 0 both sexes (world)

males (world)

females (world)

both sexes (EU28) 2010

males (EU28)

females (EU28)

2016

Fig. 2.4 Evolution of insufficiently physically active adults (eighteen years and over), worldwide and in the EU28, 2010–2016 (in %, age-standardised data + country-related weighted calculations) (Sources CEBR/ISCA [2015]; Guthold, Stevens, Riley and Bull [2018]; World Health Organization [2019d], EU28 data concern authors’ own country-related weighted calculations based on World Health Organization [2019d])

or 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity physical activity per week9 (World Health Organization, 2019d). According to the WHO (2019e) adults who are insufficiently physically active have an increased risk of 20 to 30% for all-cause mortality. From Fig. 2.4 we learn that global prevalence of insufficient physical activity remained stable between 2010 and 2016. Nevertheless, a large proportion (28%) of the world’s adult population is insufficiently physically active. In the EU28 member states, also, levels of insufficient physical activity did not improve during the previous decade. On the contrary, the situation in Europe even deteriorated: if the percentage of insufficiently physically active adults was 26% in 2010, the data in Fig. 2.4 show that six years later, in 2016, this number has increased to 35%, equating to 144 million adults. This thus implies that more than 9 For

children (aged five to seventeen years), the WHO physical activity recommendations imply at least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous intensity physical activity daily (World Health Organization, 2019d).

2 The Weight of Numbers: Prevalence of Overweight …

45

one third of the adult EU28 population does not meet the minimum standard of physical activity that is required in terms of health-enhancing goals. Moreover, the outcomes presented in Fig. 2.4 also make clear that women are less physically active than men, both globally and at EU28 level, and that this gender gap has not significantly diminished between 2010 and 2016. As has been indicated previously with regard to obesity levels, here again, it is clear that high-income societies are more likely to have a higher prevalence of insufficient physical activity (World Health Organization, 2019e). Changes in how people live in rich countries, among which the growth of sedentary jobs and the increase of motorised transport, unmistakably contribute to this development.

Prevalence of Fatness, Physical (in)Activity and (Club-Organised) Sports and Fitness Participation It has been shown that people with higher levels of fitness have significantly less chance of early death than people with lower fitness levels, even if the first is categorised as being (pre-)obese (Högström, Nordström, & Nordström, 2015; Wei et al., 1999). Therefore, health-wise it is better to be fat and fit than being thin but unfit. However, the trends described insofar regarding (pre-)obesity and insufficient physical activity suggest that even more challenging problems in the public health domain will arise in the future. In order to cope with health problems, such as obesity, cardiovascular diseases and cancer, it has been demonstrated that physical activity can be a preventive vehicle (Knight, 2012; Kruk, 2007; Van Dam, 2003). Thus, since weight-related data, such as the body mass index, are only one way to look at health issues, it would be good to focus on (different forms of ) physical activity too. Hereafter, we will present findings at the European level regarding evolutions in (pre-)obesity, but also as regards physical (in)activity, (club-organised) sports participation as well as fitness participation.

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13.7a 15.3b

obesity 2006-2009 obesity 2013-2015

34.9a 34.7b

pre-obesity 2006-2009 pre-obesity 2013-2015 10.2a 8.7b 9.8a 11.3c

physically inactive 2002 physically inactive 2005 physically inactive 2013 physically inactive 2017

89.8a 91.3b 90.2a 88.7c

physically active 2002 physically active 2005 physically active 2013 physically active 2017 59.5a 60.8b 57.9c 53.9d

sports participation 2004 sports participation 2009 sports participation 2013 sports participation 2017 club sport 2004* club sport 2009* club sport 2013* club sport 2017*

16.5a 10.6b 12.7c 12.9c

club sport 2009 club sport 2013 club sport 2017

12.3a 12.2a,b 11.6b

fitness participation 2004* fitness participation 2009* fitness participation 2013* fitness participation 2017*

15.0a 11.0b 15.1a 14.6a 9.0a 10.6b 10.6b

fitness participation 2009 fitness participation 2013 fitness participation 2017 0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

Fig. 2.5 Levels of (pre-)obesity, physical (in)activity, (club-organised) sports participation and fitness participation among fifteen years olds and over in EU countries during the first two decades of the 21st century (in %) (Note 1 2006– 2009 data comprise sixteen EU member states [see footnote 1]; 2013–2015 data comprise all (previous) EU28 member states; 2002 data comprise the [previous] EU15 member states; 2004 data comprise the [previous] EU25 member states [excluding Bulgaria, Croatia and Romania]; 2009 data comprise the [previous] EU27 member states [excluding Croatia]; 2005, 2013 and 2017 data comprise all [previous] EU28 member states) (Note 2 pre-obesity equates BMI between 25 and 30; obesity equates BMI ≥ 30) (Note 3 *here, instead of the active membership of different organisations, the location or setting where one practices sport is used to define whether one participates in club-organised sports or in fitness respectively [see also section on methodology]) (Note 4 a, b, c numbers with different superscript differ significantly from one another [95% confidence interval]) (Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer [European Commission, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2010, 2014, 2018] and EHIS [Eurostat, 2019a, 2019b])

2 The Weight of Numbers: Prevalence of Overweight …

47

From Fig. 2.5 we learn that the levels of obesity and physical inactivity are highest nowadays, indicating a significant increase during recent years. More precisely, it can be seen that fifteen and eleven per cent of the late-adolescent and adult EU28 population can be considered as obese and physically inactive respectively. Contrary, levels of preobesity and physical activity have slightly diminished over the past years and at present count for just over one third and less than nine out of ten people respectively. The number of people participating in (cluborganised) sports has even decreased to a higher extent. Nowadays, just over half of the European population is sports active. Moreover, only a minority of one out of ten European citizens aged fifteen and over is actively engaged in a sports club.10 Remarkably, however, is the fact that participation in fitness, on the other hand, is becoming more popular during the past decade. According to the Eurobarometer data, eleven per cent among those fifteen years and older living in the EU28 is actively participating in fitness. At least three comments must be made here. First, the outcomes presented in Fig. 2.5 are based on data from Eurobarometer and EHIS surveys. As already explained in the methodological section of this chapter, these datasets are made available by the European Commission (2003, 2004, 2006, 2010, 2014, 2018) and Eurostat (2019a, 2019b). Regarding the findings related to (pre-)obesity, the results differ from those presented in Table 2.1. For the latter WHO data are used. In the Eurobarometer and EHIS surveys data are collected by means of a harmonised, cross-national questionnaire, as we have mentioned previously. Here, body mass indices are calculated by means of self-reported data and thus rely on data given by the respondents. In its datasets the WHO, on the other hand, relies on country-specific data in which all sources are excluded that are solely based on selfreported height and weight (NCD Risk Factor Collaboration, 2017a, 2017b). In other words, WHO takes into consideration BMI data with an anthropometrically measurement component. The distinct methods 10 As

mentioned previously, contrary to people who are practising sport in a sport club, people practising sport in a socio-cultural association are not considered as club-organised sport participants in this study. However, as shown by Scheerder et al. (2020), even if this category of participants is identified as club-organised sport participants, a negative evolution in club-organised sport participation can still be detected over the years.

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used by Eurobarometer/EHIS and WHO, i.e. subjective versus objective data collection, might explain the difference in outcomes reported, since self-reporting tends to lead to underestimated assessments of obesity prevalence (see Maukonen, Männistö, & Tolonen, 2018). Second, since its inception in 1952 the former European Coal and Steel Community—the predecessor of the current European Union— expanded seven times11 so far. The enlargement of the European Union implies that in the Eurobarometer and EHIS surveys the number of member states varies. For more details we refer to the first note beneath Fig. 2.5. Of importance here is to verify whether significant developments in the outcomes presented in Fig. 2.5 can be attributed to the EU enlargements. For instance, the decrease in sports participation between 2004 and 2017 could potentially be related to the accession of new member states from Eastern Europe. Differences, indeed, show up when only EU25, or even only EU15 countries are included, resulting in higher scores for sports participation. This has been demonstrated previously by Hartmann-Tews (2006) and Scheerder et al. (2020). However, even if less member states are included in the analyses, still a significant diminishing trend can be observed. This is a clear indication that a downturn in sports participation does take place, regardless of enlargements within the EU. The same goes along for fitness participation. Here, opposed to the dwindling evolution in sports participation rate, a growth in the number of fitness participants occurs even if only EU25 member states are taken into account (data not presented). Thus, also without the most recent EU enlargements in 2007 and 2013, a significant popularisation of fitness participation can be observed within the primordial EU25 member states. Third, two types of outcomes are presented in Fig. 2.5 with regard to club-organised sports participation on the one hand and fitness participation on the other. This is because of different definitions being applied, 11 At the occasion of the fourth enlargement in 1995, the EU contained fifteen member states. Almost ten years later, in 2004, ten new member states joined the EU. A sixth and seventh enlargement took place in 2007 and 2013, when respectively Bulgaria and Romania on the one hand and Croatia on the other joined. From 2013 till 2020, the EU consisted of 28 member states. After the UK left the EU due to the 2020 Brexit, the EU shrank again to 27 member states.

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49

as stated previously. The Eurobarometer instrument allows for using two operationalisations of both participation in club-organised sports and participation in fitness. More precisely, in order to define whether someone participates in club-organised sports and/or fitness, either the location where one practises sport and/or fitness, or the active membership of a sports club and/or fitness centre can be used (see also section on methodology). From Fig. 2.5 it can be deduced that participation in a specific setting (sports club or fitness centre) generally results in higher participation outcomes compared to active membership of a sports club or fitness centre. This is especially the case among fitness participants. Although the majority of people participating in fitness prefers a membership, a certain amount of people, it seems, practises sport in a fitness centre without a strict fitness membership. Yet, further and more specific investigation is needed here.

Wealthy and Healthy? Or Are We Better off with Social Equality? It has been demonstrated that obesity can be considered as a civilisation disease, no longer in developed countries only but nowadays in developing countries too (James, 2008; Kopp, 2019). During the so-called epidemiologic transition, civilisation diseases have replaced infectious diseases as the main cause of death (McKeown, 2009). Diseases of civilisation—in addition to obesity, also acne, cancer, type 2 diabetes and heart disease—refer to chronic diseases that are related to the way people live their life. Among other factors, western diet and active lifestyle seem to play a key role in this development (Carrera-Bastos, FontesVillalba, O’Keefe, Lindeberg, & Cordain, 2011). Paradoxically, however, people who can afford to consume more food are less likely to suffer from obesity (Salmasi & Celidoni, 2017). Or in other words, obesity is more common among the poor. This indicates that obesity is a social class issue, implying that obesity tends to be more prevalent among disadvantaged socio-economic groups (Devaux & Sassi, 2011). As has been mentioned previously, Wilkinson and Pickett (2009) have shown

50

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in their leading book The Spirit Level that high levels of obesity are more likely to appear in rich societies, and more particularly in rich societies with a high-income inequality. A similar relationship between income inequality and physical inactivity has been found (Diez-Roux, Link, & Northridge, 2000; Pabayo, Fuller, Lee, Horino, & Kawachi, 2017). Thus, people living in unequal societies have higher risks to become obese and physically inactive. Or formulated otherwise, this indicates that income inequality contributes to the epidemics of obesity and sedentarism. Based on available data regarding state-level income inequality (see UNDP, 2020) on the one hand, and data regarding levels of obesity, overweight, insufficient physical activity, physical inactivity, non-participation in sport, non-participation in club-organised sports and non-participation in fitness (see European Commission, 2018; World Health Organization, 2019b, 2019c, 2019d, 2019e) on the other, we performed Pearson correlation analyses in order to verify whether such socially unequal patterns also exist at EU28 level. The results are presented in Figs. 2.6a–2.6g. 30 Malta United Kingdom

Obesity rate (%)

28

Hungary Lithuania Czechia Ireland Greece Bulgaria Croatia Latvia Poland Spain Finland Germany Luxembourg Romania Belgium Cyprus France Slovenia NetherlandsSweden Estonia Portugal Italy Slovakia Austria Denmark

25 23 20 18

rPearson = 0.18 (NS)

15 3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Income inequality (quintile ratio) Fig. 2.6a Association between income inequality (2010–2016, quintile ratios) and rate of obesity (BMI > 30) among adults (2016, age-standardized estimates) in EU28 countries (Pearson correlation coefficient) (Sources Authors’ own calculations based on UNDP [2020] and World Health Organization [2019b])

51

2 The Weight of Numbers: Prevalence of Overweight …

From the scatterplots presented in Fig. 2.6a and Fig. 2.6b one can learn that for obesity and overweight very weak and insignificant relationships occur with income inequality. Thus, the significant associations between income inequality on the one hand and both obesity and overweight on the other, as found by Wilkinson and Pickett (2009) for developed countries, among which EU28 countries, cannot be confirmed based on our analyses performed on EU28 countries only. Non-significance also shows up with regard to insufficient physical activity (Fig. 2.6c). It seems that significant relationships can only be detected when highly unequal and highly equal societies such as, respectively, the United States and Japan, are added as well to the analyses (see Wilkinson & Pickett, 2009). A different picture, however, appears regarding non-participation in physical activity (Fig. 2.6d), nonparticipation in sport (Fig. 2.6e) and non-participation in club-organised sports (Fig. 2.6f ). For all of these variables a significant relationship with income inequality exists. More precisely, it is clear that countries in northern and western Europe are more likely to be physically active and sports active (in a sports club) compared to Mediterranean and 70 68

Overweight rate (%)

Malta

65 United Kingdom Greece Hungary Bulgaria Spain Ireland Belgium Croatia Lithuania France Finland Italy Poland Cyprus Luxembourg Latvia Portugal Romania Netherlands Slovenia Germany Sweden Slovakia Estonia Denmark Austria

63

Czechia

60 58 55 53

rPearson = 0.19 (NS)

50 3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Income inequality (quintile ratio) Fig. 2.6b Association between income inequality (2010–2016, quintile ratios) and rate of overweight (BMI > 25) among adults (2016, age-standardized estimates) in EU28 countries (Pearson correlation coefficient) (Sources Authors’ own calculations based on UNDP [2020] and World Health Organization [2019c])

52

Rate of insufficient physical activity (%)

J. Scheerder and K. Helsen

50 45

Cyprus Germany

Malta

Portugal Italy

40

Bulgaria Greece

Hungary

35

Slovenia

30

Czechia

25

Belgium United Kingdom Slovakia Ireland Estonia Poland Croatia DenmarkAustria Latvia Luxembourg France Spain Netherlands Lithuania Sweden

Romania

rPearson = 0.26 (NS)

20 3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Income inequality (quintile ratio) Fig. 2.6c Association between income inequality (2010–2016, quintile ratios) and rate of insufficient physical activity (< 150 minutes of moderate intensity physical activity or < 75 minutes of vigorous intensity physical activity per week) among adults (2016, age-standardized estimates) in EU28 countries (Pearson correlation coefficient) (Sources Authors’ own calculations based on UNDP [2020] and and World Health Organization [2019d, 2019e])

East-European countries. The reason why is because the former concern more equal societies in comparison to the latter being more unequal societies. Nevertheless, participation in fitness does not seem to significantly correlate with income inequality (Fig. 2.6g). Although remarkable differences exist between European countries as regards fitness participation, they cannot be associated with differences in state-level income inequality. For further analyses regarding cross-national similarities and differences in fitness participation between European countries we refer to the penultimate chapter in this book.

53

2 The Weight of Numbers: Prevalence of Overweight …

Rate of physical inactivity (%)

60 Portugal Malta

50

Italy Bulgaria

Greece

40

Poland Cyprus Hungary Croatia Czechia Ireland France Austria United Kingdom Slovakia Estonia Latvia Slovenia Belgium Luxembourg Germany Finland Denmark

30 20 10

Netherlands

0 3

Spain Lithuania

rPearson = 0.60 (p1,000 m3 Satisfaction with current membership numbers (in %) Too little members Sufficient amount of members Too many members Membership turnover (in %)

FFP 2.0 2016

842 (1.9)

901 (1.8)

1.2 (229)

1.5 (471)

1.3 (500)

1.8 (850)

17.4 26.9 36.5 19.1

34.8 26.1 26.1 13.0

22.4 35.3 42.3 –

19.1 36.2 23.4 21.3

18.8

26.7

56.4 18.8 3.4 2.6

57.8 6.7 4.4 4.4

11.4 53.8 35.0

34.8 39.1 26.1

50.9 44.7 4.4

57.4 38.3 4.3 (continued)

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Table 3.3

K. Helsen et al.

(continued)

Strong decrease Moderate decrease Stabile Moderate increase Strong increase

FFP 1.0 2009

FFP 2.0 2016

2.7 14.2 35.4 37.2 10.6

9.3 30.2 34.9 20.9 4.7

Note: ° These numbers do not only concern Flanders, but also other communities in Belgium. Therefore, they relate to Belgium as a whole Source Adjusted from Borgers and Scheerder (2018)

is a tendency towards personal coaching, where the one-by-one relationship with the customer is becoming more popular (Borgers & Scheerder, 2018). Both FFPs (Borgers & Scheerder, 2018; Scheerder & Vos, 2010) investigated the size of the fitness centres, in terms of the total available company space (in m2 ) and membership rates. Concerning the former, as opposed to 2009, there is a tendency towards smaller fitness centres. Specifically, the share of fitness centres that has less than 250 m2 commercial space increased from 11.1% in 2009 to 34.8% in 2016. Subsequently, fitness centres with a commercial space between 250 m2 and 999 m2 , and those with more than 1,000 m2 space declined from 53.8 to 39.1% and 35.0 to 26.1%, respectively. This shift might be linked with the abovementioned tendency towards more single-person personal coaching fitness centres that do not need a lot of space to support their members. The number of members in the Flemish fitness centres follows the same tendency as their evolution in company space. More specifically, while in 2009 a share of 17.4% of the fitness centres had less than 200 members, that share has doubled today. Consequentially, the share of medium (500 to 999 members) and large (1,000 or more members) centres decreased from 36.5 and 19.1% respectively in 2009, to 26.1 and 13.0% in 2016. In the study of Borgers and Scheerder (2018), female members are significantly over-represented with a share of 63.9%. According to age, a strong over-representation exists of people between 36 and 55 years old (42.2%), followed by young adults (29.2%). Albeit to Flemish fitness centres’ efforts in reaching the young and elderly, both target groups account for the lowest share in the fitness centres’ members base.

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Both in 2009 and 2016, the panels gauged opinions of the representatives of the fitness centres about their firm’s membership rate. Even more than in 2009, most fitness centres indicated that their fitness centre had too few members, and 38.3% pointed out that their membership base was sufficient. Subsequently, only 4.3% of the fitness centres expressed that they reached their maximum capacity. In addition, more than a third of fitness centres expect a stable membership development. This amount did not change in 2016 compared to 2009. However, in 2016, the percentage of fitness centres that pointed out that their membership numbers had a strong or slight dip increased from 16.9% in 2009 to 39.5% in 2016 (Borgers & Scheerder, 2018). Notwithstanding, the fitness centres have optimistic expectations, as more than half of them expect an increase in the number of members (Borgers & Scheerder, 2018).

Accommodation in Fitness Centres Aside from the size of the fitness centres, it is also important to look at how fitness centres arrange their space. In this regard, Borgers and Scheerder (2018) distinguish five categories of fitness centres out of the 711 centres of Fitness.be. Fitness centres that exclusively provide (i) group lessons are distinguished from fitness centres that offer (ii) power and cardio training, (iii) power, cardio and group lessons. Additionally, (iv) omnivores, i.e. fitness centres that complement their power, cardio and group services with additional facilities, (v) other fitness centres, which have a supply that does not fall within the aforementioned scope are distinguished. In general, fitness centres that provide cardio, power and group lessons, omnivores and other fitness centres each account for approximately a quarter of the total population. To a lesser extent, fitness centres only render group lessons services (7.5%), or cardio and power facilities (1.8%). As depicted above, most fitness centres provide more than one facility for their members. Indeed, in line with Scheerder and Vos’ (2010) study, the largest share of the fitness centres indicated that they had cardio (72.2%) and power (69.4%) specific rooms in their accommodation

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(Borgers & Scheerder, 2018). In absolute numbers, fitness centres possess an average of fifteen types of cardio equipment and twenty powertrain apparatus. In addition, around half of the fitness centres have a specific room for weightlifting and dumbbell exercises, a space for group fitness, and a dance/aerobic room. There is a remarkable decline in the share of fitness centres with a specific spinning space. In comparison with the first fitness panel (65.8%; Scheerder & Vos, 2010), only 41.7% of the fitness centres indicated to have a spinning room (Borgers & Scheerder, 2018). To a lesser extent, the Flemish fitness centres provide spaces for new trends, such as CrossFit, functional, and virtual training. Apart from the facilities, the Flemish Fitness Panel also investigates which services are offered and also to what extent. The most prominent forms of individual sport and physical activity guidance that fitness centres offer are cardio fitness (75.7%), conditional training (73.0%) and power training (64.9%). These figures correspond more or less with the share of fitness centres that possess that specific room. Besides sport and physical activity supervision, fitness centres also offer therapeutic guidance. Particularly weight loss programmes (62.2%), nutritional advice (59.5%) and back prevention programmes (56.8%) are popular among Flemish fitness centres. Moreover, almost half of the fitness centres provide group lessons to their members in the form of conditional or BBB-training. Around 40% of the fitness centres in Flanders offer group lessons for aerobics, dance and spinning, which complements with the share of fitness centres that accommodate a spinning room.

Employment in the Fitness Industry In 2015, there were more than 11,000 listed active companies in the Flemish sports industry. In these companies, 11,554 people were employed. Only 499 of these companies are focused on the exploitation of fitness centres (which is 4.5% of the total sports sector). However, this sub-sector supplies 1,240 (which is 10.7% of the total sports sector) employees (Borgers & Scheerder, 2018). As mentioned earlier, it should be noted that the actual number is higher than this figure. After all,

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certain companies operate several fitness centres (fitness chains) and there are also small independents who run a fitness sector and are not listed. In addition, employment in companies focused on the exploitation of fitness centres between 2008 and 2015 had an average annual growth of 24.5% (Borgers & Scheerder, 2018). This strong development in recent years has already been shown in previous studies (Scheerder & Vos, 2010; Scheerder, Vos, Pabian, De Martelaer, Lefevre, & Philippaerts, 2011). Analyses of characteristics of employees show that approximately as many men as women are employed in a fitness centre (Borgers & Scheerder, 2018). In 2009 there was a slight over-representation of women (52.0%), in 2016 the other sex was slightly overrepresented (52.7%). Approximately one-third of the employees obtained a university education (31.4%), one-third obtained a higher non-university education (37.1%) and the remaining third obtained a secondary education (31.5%). The majority of employees came from a physical education programme (48.6%). Two-thirds of the employees (67.0%) followed an additional training/education. Three quarters (74.3%) of the employees work part-time.

Revenues in the Fitness Industry In 2015, companies in Flanders and the Brussels-Capital Region focusing on the exploitation of fitness centres realised a turnover of e210,840,000 (Borgers & Scheerder, 2018). This is about six per cent of the total turnover in the sports industry (e3.6 million). Between 2008 and 2015, this sector (exploitation of fitness centres) experienced a high average annual growth (31.1%). This is higher than the average annual growth of the sports sector, which in turn is higher than the average annual growth in the total economy (Borgers & Scheerder, 2017, 2018). These numbers confirm the strong growth (potential) of the Flemish fitness industry.

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Innovation: Communication—Social Media Our society today is characterised by rapid changes, not least contributable to the inimitable technological developments, which also affects the sports sector. In this respect, innovation is put forward to deal creatively with these changes. One of the technological developments that has become indispensable is social media. Today, for example, Facebook alone connects more than two billion people all over the world. In this regard, social media has become one of the key components of the relationship-marketing communication strategies of companies. However, Borgers and Scheerder (2018) found that the Flemish fitness centres prefer using email adverts, free trials or flyers as strategies for member recruitment, rather than employing social media. In general, 83.7% of the fitness companies of the sample of the FFP in 2016 (Borgers & Scheerder, 2018) makes use of technology for their communication purposes. Social media, such as Facebook, Instagram and Twitter are used by more than one-third (36.3%) of the Flemish fitness centres. Corthouts, Denys, Thibaut and Scheerder (2018) provide a more extensive overview of the use of social networking sites by sports organisations. Besides regional sports federations and local sports authorities, Corthouts and colleagues (2018) selected 118 Flemish fitness centres, based on the sample of Scheerder and Vos (2010). The findings show that 76.7% of the sample companies/fitness centres have a Facebook account, which is significantly less than the share of regional sports federations and local sports authorities. Secondly, the same conclusion holds true for the presence on Twitter; as 14.4% of the fitness centres are active on this platform, in comparison with 47.6 and 79.9% of the sports federations and local sports authorities. Thirdly, albeit fitness centres have relatively more Instagram accounts than sports federations, a significant higher proportion of local sports authorities employ this social networking site. From further (multiple linear regression) analyses, Corthouts and colleagues (2018) found which factors influence the ‘post popularity’, i.e. the number of likes per post, and thus increase the fitness centre’s

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online visibility. Notably, concerning the layout of a post, it is not beneficial for a fitness centre to share a post, or post a link. This might be explained by the fact that these types of layouts are impersonal and redirect people to other sources instead of their own Facebook page. In contrast, posting atmosphere photos/videos, innovative novelties, news or feel-good posts as content seem to increase the post popularity. The results of this study can guide communication managers of fitness centres into a (more) successful innovative marketing strategy.

Conclusion Fitness is the fourth most popular sports activity in Flanders after recreational cycling, walking and running. 16.4% of the sports active population participates at least once a year in fitness. Moreover, the popularity of fitness has increased over the years, both in absolute and relative figures when compared to other sports activities. People take part in fitness primarily because of health and condition arguments, while also body shape scores relatively high compared to overall sports participants. One of the reasons that the FFP is founded is to investigate this rapidly evolving sport. As a result, research about fitness will continue to be conducted in the future. Additionally, a consistent growth of fitness accommodations is observable. The rise of the supply can be attributed to the increase of small fitness centres. In comparison with the situation in 2009, the share of sole proprietary centres has become larger. As a consequence, taking into consideration people’s willingness to move, apart from the ‘Westhoek’ (i.e. the Western corner of Flanders; see number 1 in Fig. 3.1) everyone would have access to a fitness centre within a radius of nine kilometres. Especially within the centrum municipalities, the concentration of fitness centres is high. Notwithstanding the increase in the demand and supply of fitness in Flanders, many fitness centre owners feel that too little members are affiliated to their firms. Moreover, almost four out of ten fitness centres experience a decrease in their membership numbers. In order to solve this problem, almost four out of five fitness centres pursue an active member recruitment and/or retention policy, albeit the instruments employed

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(such as flyers) are traditional and obsolete. In this regard, it is a challenge for the Flemish fitness centres to seek and find creative new solutions to their challenges in the future, and thus to innovate. One way to do this is to make better use of technological innovations, such as social media. From the relationship-marketing point of view, social networking sites may serve as a good and profitable media to increase the popularity of the fitness centres. Flanders has a strong tradition in sports participation research. Data from 1969 onwards show the increasingly greater impact that sport has received in society. As this chapter shows, the fitness industry has had a large part in the growth of the Flemish sport during the last decade. Not only did the employment in the fitness industry grew faster than the sports sector in general, but also the average annual growth rate in turnover was greater in fitness compared to sport in general. Fitness continues to renew itself by, among other things, developing new variants of fitness exercises. CrossFit and Zumba are two examples of new variants that became very popular right from the start and thus immediately reached a very large target audience. The question is whether the fitness industry can keep track of itself and can continue to innovate in this rapid development.

References Borgers, J., & Scheerder, J. (2017). Belgium. The rise and size of the sport industry. In A. Laine & H. Vehmas (Eds.), Private sport sector in Europe. New York, Heidelberg, Dordrecht and London: Springer. Borgers, J., & Scheerder, J. With cooperation of Cokelaere, S. (2018). Trends en evoluties in de fitnesssector. Fitnessparticipatie en het aanbod van fitness in Vlaanderen. Resultaten van het Vlaamse Fitness Panel 2.0 (VFP2.0) [Trends and evolutions in the fitness sector. Fitness participation and the supply of fitness in Flanders. Results of the Flemish Fitness Panel 2.0]. Policy & Management in Sport Studies 45. Leuven: KU Leuven/Policy in Sports & Physical Activity Research Group. Claes, E., Scheerder, J., Willem, A., & Billiet, S. (2017). Belgium: Flanders–– Sport federations and governmental sport bodies. In J. Scheerder, A. Willem,

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& E. Claes (Eds.), Sport policy systems and sport federations: A cross-national perspective (pp. 41–64). London: Palgrave. Corthouts, J., Denys, A., Thibaut, E., & Scheerder, J. (2018). Like it or not? The differences between and success factors of sports providers’ use of social networking sites. The International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing, 19, 56–79. Deloitte & EuropeActive. (2018). European health & fitness market report 2018. Brussels: Deloitte. European Commission. (2018). Sport and physical activity (Special Eurobarome-ter 472/Wave 88.4). Brussels: European Commission/DG Education, Youth, Sport and Culture. Eurostat (2019a). Annual net earnings. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://app sso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=earn_nt_net&lang=en. Eurostat. (2019b). Area by NUTS 3 region. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https:// bit.ly/2ISCF2r. Eurostat. (2019c). Population on 1 January. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language= en&pcode=tps00001&plugin=1. Eurostat. (2019d). Real GDP per capita. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/refreshTableAction.do?tab=table&plu gin=1&pcode=sdg_08_10&language=en. IHRSA. (2018). 2018 IHRSA global report: The state of the health club industry. Boston, MA: International Health, Racquet & Sportsclub Association. Scheerder, J., Borgers, E., & Willem, A. (2015). Sportdeelname in Vlaanderen. De organisatorische context van sportbeoefening. [Sports participation in Flanders. The organisational context of sports participation]. In J. Lievens, J. Siongers & H. Waege (Eds.), Participatie in Vlaanderen 2. Eerste analyses van de Participatiesurvey 2014 [Participation in Flanders 2. First analyses of the Participation Survey 2014]. Leuven/The Hague: Acco, 251–281. Scheerder, J., Vandermeerschen, H., Borgers, J., Thibaut, E., & Vos, S. (2013). Vlaanderen Sport! Vier decennia sportbeleid en sportparticipatie [Sports participation in Flanders. Four decades of sports policy and sports participation] (SBS Series 5). Ghent: Academia Press. Scheerder, J. & Vos, S., m.m.v. Breesch, D., Lagae, W., & Van Hoecke, J. (2010). De fitnesssector in beeld. Basisrapportering over het Vlaamse Fitness Panel 2009 (VFP09) [The fitness sector in the picture. Report on the Flemish Fitness Panel 2009]. Policy & Management in Sport Studies 3. Leuven: KU Leuven/Policy in Sports & Physical Activity Research Group.

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Scheerder, J., Vos, S., Pabian, S., De Martelaer, K., Lefevre, J., & Philippaerts, R. (2011). Actieve vrijetijdssport in Vlaanderen. Trends, profielen en settings [Active leisuretime sport in Flanders. Trends, profiles and settings]. In Lievens J. & Waege H. (Eds.), Participatie in Vlaanderen 2. Eerste analyses van de Participatiesurvey 2009 [Participation in Flanders 2. First analyses of the Participation Survey 2009]. Leuven/Den Haag: Acco Academic, 43–82. Social Economic Council of Flanders [SECF] (2005). Beroepencluster fitness en groepsfitness [Occupation cluster fitness and group fitness]. Brussels: SERV. Statistics Flanders. (2007). VRIND 2007 Vlaamse Regionale indicatoren [FRI 2007 Flemish regional indicators]. https://www.vlaanderen.be/nl/public aties/detail/vrind-2007-vlaamse-regionale-indicatoren. Statistics Flanders. (2017). VRIND 2017 Vlaamse Regionale indicatoren [FRI 2017 Flemish regional indicators]. http://www.statistiekvlaanderen.be/sites/ default/files/docs/vrind2017-0-volledig-bladwijzers.pdf. Steeland, P., Scheerder, J., Vanden Broucke, L., Claes, E., Hoekman, R., & van der Poel, H. (2017). Naar een globaal sportinfrastructuurplan in Vlaanderen. Kaartenboek over- en ondervertegenwoordiging [To a global sports infrastructure plan in Flanders. Map book over- and under-representation]. Policy & Management in Sport Studies 32. Leuven/Bruges: KU Leuven/Policy in Sports & Physical Activity Research Group/wes research & strategy. Thibaut, E., Eakins, J., Vos, S., & Scheerder, J. (2017). Time and money expenditure in sports participation: The role of income in consuming the most practiced sports activities in Flanders. Sport Management Review, 20 (5), 455–467. Thibaut, E., & Scheerder, J. (2017). Gratis sporten bestaat niet: Uitgaven aan sporttakken op jaarbasis [Practicing sports comes with a cost: expenditures on sports branches on an annual basis]. Policy & Management in Sport Studies 43. Leuven: KU Leuven/Policy in Sports & Physical Activity Research Group. The World Bank. (2019). Urban population (% of total population). Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL. WHO. (2019). Prevalence of overweight among adults, BMI ≥ 25. Accessed at 30 July 2019 via http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.BMI25Cv?lan g=en.

4 Bulgarian Fitness Industry: Policies, Processes and Providers Ivan Sandanski and Vassil Girginov

Introduction Since 1989 Bulgaria has undergone significant political, economic and social transformations. The sport system has also been drastically restructured, and currently comprises 104 national sport-governing bodies including a network of some 5,000 voluntary clubs. It is dominated by a powerful state agency, the Ministry of Youth and Sport (MYS), which sets the main priorities, policies and strategies as well as provides resources. Fitness services are almost exclusively provided by the private sector, which subscribes to a market ideology and frames the consumption of fitness services as a matter of individual choice. Thus, I. Sandanski (B) Department of Sport Management, National Sports Academy, Sofia, Bulgaria e-mail: [email protected] V. Girginov Department of Life Sciences, Brunel University, London, UK e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 J. Scheerder et al. (eds.), The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53348-9_4

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our understanding of fitness, as an evolving phenomenon and its impact on individuals and society, cannot be separated from the wider economic, socio-cultural and political contexts. Country Facts Geographical, demographical and economic indicators Capital Geographical size (km2 ; 2014)a Population (2019)b Urbanisation rate (%; 2018)c GDP (euro per capita; 2018)d Annual net earnings average (Single person without children, 100% of AW, in euro; 2018)e EU membership since Health and sports related indicators Prevalence of overweight among adults (BMI ≥ 25, %; 2016)h Share of physical inactive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)i Share of sportive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)i Fitness related indicators Percentage of total population with fitness club membership (2012)f Percentage of population (aged 15 or older) with fitness club membership (2012)f Fitness club members (2012)g Numbers of clubs (2019)* Fitness and health club industry revenue (excl. VAT, million USD; 2012)g Average membership fee/month (incl. VAT, euro; 2012)f Average membership fee as percentage of disposable income (%; 2017)

Sofia 111,002 7,000,039 75.0 6,500 5,512.98 2007 66.3 7.8 32.8 0.83 0.97 4,000 700* 3.9 40 N/A

Notes Sportive population: share of population that did not indicate ‘never’ on the question: “How often do you exercise or play sport?” (Answering possibilities: 5 times a week or more, 3 to 4 times a week, 1 to 2 times a week, 1 to 3 times a month, less often, never); Physical inactive population: share of population that indicated at least one day on one of the following three questions: “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do vigorous physical activity like lifting heavy things, digging, aerobics or fast cycling?”, “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do moderate physical activity like carrying light loads, cycling at normal pace or doubles tennis? Please do not include walking.” and “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you walk for at least 10 minutes at a time?” (Answering possibilities: number of days a week or never); *The IHRSA Global Report 2013 revealed only 290 fitness clubs in Bulgaria (IHRSA, 2013b). However, the authors of this chapter pointed out that this number would be relevant for Sofia alone and that the actual

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number would be around 700 (I. Sandanski, personal communication, 15 and 25 September 2019); N/A = not available Sources a Eurostat (2019b); b Eurostat (2019c); c The World Bank (2019); d Eurostat (2019d); e Eurostat (2019a); f IHRSA (2013a); g IHRSA (2013b); h WHO (2019); i European Commission (2018)

Conceptual Framework Despite the rapid growth of the fitness industry in Bulgaria it has received virtually no research scrutiny. Existing scholarly writings have tended to focus mainly on methodological, physiological, psychological, aesthetical, nutritional, healthy and recovery aspects of the bodybuilding and fitness (Bojanov, 1998; Karabiberov, 1995, 2017; Nedelchev, 2013). According to Karabiberov (1995), the ultimate goal of fitness exercising is health-enhancement, vitality, improvement of functional abilities, optimal development of physical qualities and psycho-physiological balance achieved through diverse forms of physical activity. Some twenty years later he presented a more holistic concept of fitness as: ‘essentially a process of psycho-physical adaptation of human organism to diverse forms of physical activity and reaching out a state of “vibrationenergy harmony” with the wider environment’ (Karabiberov, 2017, 15). The specific activity that pioneered the marketing approach to fitness pursuits in the early 1980s was aerobics (Girginov & Bankov, 2002). It paved the way for what was to become commercial fitness offered by fitness centres, and sport for all providers. For instance, only in Sofia the number of clubs providing aerobics, ageing gymnastics, taebo, calanetics, yoga, Pilates and cross fit exceeds 70 and some of them are members of the Bulgarian Sport for All Association. Thus, fitness participation in the country has traditionally been perceived within the broader concept of Sport for All.

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Material and Method Given that no previous academic research and industry reports on fitness in the country exist, this chapter draws on two data sources: (i) a comprehensive literature review; and (ii) interviews with key fitness providers. The study thus, utilises an inductive qualitative methodology. The merits of such an approach to the fitness domain were also supported by Lagrosen and Lagrosen (2007).

Trends in Fitness Participation Changes in Popularity of Sport and Fitness The promotion of fitness activities until the early 1990s was undertaken mostly on an ad hoc basis. The new socio-economic conditions, however, necessitated a reorientation from predominantly collective forms of service provision and consumption to the individual needs and demands. Profit has become a driving force for managers of fitness centres, as their performance became measured by economic results. The beginning of the 2000s marked a significant diversification of fitness services designed to meet people’s increasing demands. An International Health, Racquet & Sportsclub Association’s report (2013a) defined Bulgaria as an emerging market in the fitness industry reaching e28 million, while member penetration rate is estimated to be as low as 0.83%, but these data should be interpreted with a caution as no extensive country-specific market research exists. Although over the past twenty-five years private clubs and fitness centres proliferated in the main cities, there is virtually no reliable information about their membership (Girginov & Sandanski, 2011). Large-scale surveys on people’s physical activity have been rare since mid-1980s and even less is known about the profile of fitness participants and their motivation and behaviour. Therefore, no reliable participation and/or membership figures exist, which renders analyses dealing with trends in fitness demand problematic. A rare national representative survey with 15–65 year olds revealed that 55% of the Bulgarians in active working age never done any sport

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at all and only a modest 6.9% participated in sport once a week. The rate of those doing sport regularly is about 13% (SovaHaris, 2011). The most popular forms of physical activity remain exercises at home (12%), followed by cycling (8%), sport games (6%) and fitness (5%) (Dimitrov, Tonchev, & Tsonev, 2011). The popularity of these activities is closely related to the availability of resources. Surveys reported similar data regarding sport equipment with an average of 45% people possessing sport apparel, 30% bicycle, 20% ball, and 17% home sport appliances. Fitness participation of 15–35 year olds has been increasing among school and university students (14% regular participants) (NCSSO, 2005) and 17% respectively (Mediana, 2008). The above and the ‘Youth in Action’ survey (NCSSO, 2005) have confirmed a well-established trend that higher education, disposable income and urban environment are associated with greater participation in sports activities. The interviews further unveiled that the 18–40 age group constitutes the main fitness consumers, while the principal incentives for exercising include good appearance, weight control, being fit, stress relief, social bonding and self-improvement. The image of a fit body is increasingly perceived as a mark of social recognition and ‘a convertible currency’ for social and economic success. Similar to the rest of Europe, fitness culture in Bulgaria appears to be an urban phenomenon. As the key mechanism for fitness provision and consumption is market-led, participation has become a function of one’s ability to pay. The concentration of commercial fitness centres in the capital and in a few economically and socially vibrant cities supports this observation. A recent survey reported that in 2016 a core of twenty leading economic regions is responsible for 86% of the country’s GDP. These regions accommodate 62% of the population and 75% of the workforce (Institute for Market Economics, 2017). This also partly explains why 90% of Benefit Systems’ customers (the biggest provider of multisport cards for company employees) work in Sofia and the largest businesses with budgets for social responsibility are positioned in the capital.

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Change in Types of Fitness Centres According to Girginov and Bankov (2002) until 1994 the number of fitness clubs in Sofia alone exceeded 400. Fitness providers in the country appear to be diverse in terms of their business model, revenue and membership. The antecedents of today’s fitness centres were small gyms established in basements and equipped with antediluvian and modest apparatuses. In the early 1990s such establishments were entitled bodybuilding clubs and run by former athletes. Most of them lacked any formalisation as their owners would be the manager, instructor, treasurer and cleaner at the same time. Interestingly, close to half of today’s fitness chains came to existence in the early 1990s and grew from a single facility to a network of centres (see Table 4.2). New entrants have also penetrated the fitness market alongside a small number of non-profit clubs with second hand equipment. Both types of organisations are very heterogeneous and imperfectly competitive (see Table 4.1). What is more, some non-profit clubs even pay a rent to bigger commercial centres to use their facilities. It is also a well-established practice for private centres owners to register as a not-for-profit club, thus taking advantage of preferential tax treatment (e.g., Orange Fitness and JK Fitness). Like their private commercial counterparts, many non-profit fitness clubs rely on income derived from selling nutritional supplements, beverages and ancillary services, such as personal training. In this regard, it is worth noting that the nutritional supplements market in Bulgaria is dominated by three companies—Sila BG, HealthStore and Sport Zona. However, the non-profit clubs are barred from distributing their net earnings or surpluses to individuals who exercise control over them. The key point here, to borrow from Rose-Ackerman (1990, 13), is that by engaging in pure commercial operations ‘non-profits should behave no differently than their for-profit competitors’. To gain competitive advantage both commercial and non-profit fitness centres/clubs often employ similar strategies which may result in replication. Indeed, as MacIntosh, Doherty, and Walker (2010, 446) explicated: ‘the practice of replication or imitation may be particularly common in the fitness industry, where clubs offer comparable fitness programming

For-profit

Non-profit

Non-profit

Public

Hotel fitness & SPA centres

School & university facilities

Military & police facilities Local authorities

For-profit

All-strata participants

Non-profit

Sport/fitness clubs

Intermediaries ( Benefit Systems, Sodexo)

Mixed; servants

For-profit (commercial)

Private fitness centres including chains

Companies’ employees

Mixed; hotel guests, all-strata consumers Mixed; students

Mixed; all-strata consumers

Mixed, women’s only; all-strata consumers

Legal status

Type of fitness provider/Variables

Type of fitness participants (gender & social status)

Table 4.1 Typology of fitness providers in Bulgaria

Corporate

N/A

Individual

Individual

Individually

Individually

Individually

Individually, group classes

Individual; Individually, corporate with personal trainer, group exercise classes Individual Individually, group exercise classes Individual Individually

Type of Form of membership consumption

On rent; small, middle1

Small, middle2

Small, Exclusive, Own facility; middle2 open small, middle, large1 Small2 Restricted Own facilities, external partnerships; small1 Small2 Restricted Own facilities; small1 Open Outdoor Small2 facilities (in parks, neighbourhoods) Selective Partnerships N/A

Open

Small, middle, large2

(continued)

Sale of all inclusive sports packages

Free of charge Free of charge

Free of charge

Paid services3

Membership fee

Paid services3

Accommodation Size (facilities (capacity/clients’ Mode of used) access comfort)

Open, On rent, own exclusive facility; small, middle, large1

Level of access

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Informal

Legal status All-strata clients

Type of fitness participants (gender & social status) N/A

Individually

Type of Form of membership consumption Exclusive

Level of access On rent

Small2

Paid services (personal trainings)

Accommodation Size (facilities (capacity/clients’ Mode of used) comfort) access

Notes 1 Small (up to 400 m2 ), middle (400–1000 m2 ), large (over 1000 m2 ); 2 Small (maximum 10–15 clients per hour), middle (16–50 per hour), large (over 50 per hour); 3 Pay-as-you-go, monthly and annual/seasonal subscription; N/A: not applicable

Independent personal trainers

Type of fitness provider/Variables

Table 4.1 (continued)

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and amenities’. Popular replication practices include offering comparable fitness services and equipment, sale of nutritional supplements, price policies, marketing strategies (e.g., advertising flyers and Facebook as the most preferred communication channel), introducing prepaid monthly and annual membership cards, and partnering with other major providers of subscription multisport cards for company employees— Benefit Systems and Sodexo. According to DiMaggio and Powell (1983), it is not only market competition that compels organisations to replicate similar actors in the same field of activity, but the necessity to deal with environmental uncertainty as well. To illustrate this point, a reference can be made to the regulatory tax framework within which fitness organisations operated in the period of 2004–2008. The then government enforced a patent tax that obliged fitness clubs to pay a levy ranging from e0.80 to e2 per square meter depending on the location and from e150 to e400 on a fitness machine. This type of institutional pressure forced many private clubs to change their legal form from for-profit to nonprofit. This partly explains why 117 out of 500 fitness clubs that existed at that time became members of the non-profit Bulgarian Bodybuilding and Fitness Federation (BBFF).

Provision and Governance of Fitness Provision of Fitness and Typology of Fitness Providers The current fitness provision landscape in Bulgaria is dispersed with diverse private, voluntary and public actors, and is not well-structured and consolidated. Table 4.1 presents a typology of fitness providers in the country. Some overlap in the classification of fitness centre/club type is possible according to the several concomitant criteria. The Trade Register indicates that there are over 2,000 businesses declaring the provision of ‘fitness services’ as a core activity. Under closer scrutiny, however, it becomes clear that many of them operate in multiple markets ranging from sales of nutritional supplements and fitness apparel and equipment to construction works. The interviews with key figures from the industry further revealed that currently a core of some 700

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private for-profit centres and clubs exists across the country, with about 300 (43%) located in the capital city Sofia. Membership composition of fitness providers varies, but they cater for both gender (with a few positioned exclusively in the women’s market) and for participants from different walks of life. While the large part of private fitness centres offers both individual and corporate membership, the rest are predominantly individually oriented. As seen from Table 4.1, commercial fitness centres also differ depending on whether they are accessible to the public or exclusive to their members only, as well as their resource availability and size. Another significant group of fitness providers falling under the commercial category comprises some 540 hotel and SPA centres (register of the Ministry of Tourism, 2018). Hotels and SPA facilities proved to be an important strategic territory penetrated by the fitness industry. Until recently, hotel owners have been paying little attention to their sport facilities and preferred to rent them out to external operators. This trend, however, has already been reversed with fitness facilities run by the hotel management to generate additional revenue. Most of the fitness organisations in the country are commercial businesses (90%). In addition, there are 140 non-profit (voluntary) fitness clubs, 67 of which are situated in Sofia (48%). Typically, they offer both bodybuilding and fitness programmes, with those affiliated with the BBFF also prepare athletes for competitions. Currently, 55 clubs are members of the BBFF with a total of 280 registered athletes. The second voluntary organisation that claims to represent the voice of fitness industry is the Bulgarian Association for Health and Fitness (BAHF). It has 44 affiliated members ranging from private commercial fitness centres and chains to providers of fitness equipment and supplements, and an educational establishment such as the National Sports Academy (NSA). Other non-profit providers operate on school, university, military and police and corporate facilities. Concerning schools and universities it is worth mentioning that fitness is included in the physical education curricula as an optional choice. For example, 88% out of 50 universities in the country offer a fitness module either at their own premises

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or in partnership with private fitness centres. Thus, educational establishments play an important role in shaping students’ fitness attitudes and behaviour. The list of diverse providers of fitness opportunities is complemented by local authorities. Since 2007 when Bulgaria became a full member of the European Union considerable EU funds have been invested in the country, with local authorities among the main beneficiaries. This has allowed for the installation of a great deal of outdoor fitness facilities throughout the country.

Leading Operators in Fitness Industry Currently, there are thirteen well-established fitness chains mostly based in Sofia. They manage 62 facilities in the capital and other fifteen facilities in different parts of the country, with a market share of 21 and 3% respectively (see Table 4.2).

Governance of Fitness Each fitness centre has its own governance practices and price policy. The BBFF has been playing a leading role in the regulation of fitness industry by introducing a set of common guiding standards concerning staff certification, service quality, customer safety and accommodation and the regime of sale and distribution of nutritional supplements. To that end, it submitted three consecutive proposals to the MYS in 2003, 2007 and 2014, but none was successful. Interestingly, the federation did not seek institutional legitimacy from the fitness actors themselves but approached the state, instead. Similarly, the BAHF has also been trying to lobby the state agency to enforce regulations and the impetus seems to emanate from some of the most influential private actors affiliated to the voluntary body. This serves to illustrate at least four indicative points with implications for the governance of the fitness industry: (i) a lack of strategic approach; (ii) unwillingness on the part of the state to delegate regulatory powers to any voluntary or private organisation; (iii) a deficiency of capacity for strategic steering by the private sector; and iv)

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Table 4.2 Leading operators (chains) in fitness industry in Bulgaria

Fitness chain JK Fitness Fitness 33 Atama Athletic Fitness Flais Sport City FitCurves (women’s only) Orange Fitness West Gym Pulse Fitness Benefit Systems Hammer Fitness PowerGym Total number

Year of establishment

Number of facilities operated

Facilities in Sofia

Facilities in other locations

1990 1991 1993 1994

6 3 2 11

5 3 2 7

1 – – 4

1994 2002 2009

11 6 6

11 6 4

– – 2

2007

2

1

1

2010 2013 2015

9 9 5

6 6 5

3 3 –

N/A

4

4

–

N/A 13

3 77

2 62

1 15

immature fitness market incapable of a collective self-regulation resulting in collective actions towards common rules and standards. Two recent developments, however, are supposed to significantly challenge the status quo in the sector. First, in 2015 a new powerful actor—Benefit Systems Bulgaria, owned by the Polish Benefit Systems International—has entered the fitness market and performs an intermediary function between corporate employees and sports providers. It has been extensively imposing a business model of selling multisport cards to companies. Usually, a company purchases corporate cards for its employees varying from e15 to e25 a month, which allows them unlimited use of various sport facilities throughout the country. There are already over 80,000 cardholders and their number continues to rise. The portfolio of sporting facilities is also expanding and at the time of writing these number 837 of which 465 (55%) are in Sofia. The fitness gyms remain dominant (321 of which 153 in Sofia), but there is an

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increasing number of places for group activities (e.g. 266 in aerobics, 38—CrossFit, 38—stretching). For a fitness centre to become a partner it must further reduce its prices. The intermediary’s presence on the fitness market has been perceived ambiguously by traditional players. Many see it positively as a mechanism for connecting major employers and fitness centres and bringing in new clients (i.e. connector); for employees, it opens up new opportunities, which were not previously available (i.e. enabler); while others believe that a monopoly is currently being created, which would destroy the relationship between fitness centres and their loyal clients (i.e. threat). Moreover, the company is intensively developing its own fitness network by acquiring other centres and investing in its own facilities. In this way, once the new player creates enough customer base as an intermediary it could easily steer the flow to its own facilities. The other competitor on the market since 2003, Sodexo who joined the BAHF in 2018, currently has sold more than 40,000 cards varying from e18 to e65 a month. Its more selective network comprises over 700 sports clubs of which 444 (63%) are in Sofia, with fitness centres being the most preferred—280 of which 126 in Sofia. Second, for the first time the MYS has expressed a serious intention to interfere in the regulation of the fitness industry in the form of two policies. The first policy concerns the sales and distribution of unclear products guised as nutritional supplements. As the National Anti-Doping Strategy (2015–2024) put it: ‘the taking of supplements with unclear content and potentially harmful effects by fitness participants and school students in particular is a widely disseminated practice in the country’ (p. 4). The document also identified the lack of control over the professional qualification and certification of fitness instructors who often advise and/or supply young participants with such products. A report by the European Health & Fitness Association indicated that 12.6% of fitness participants use performance and image-enhancing substances which ranks Bulgaria first (EHFA, 2011). Data from MYS commissioned survey of 16–54 year olds revealed that 21% have taken nutritional supplements while 39% shaped their decision after counselling with the instructor; 17% of fitness participants buy supplements

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from the fitness centre and 9% directly from their personal trainer (BluePoint, 2015). The second policy concerns the activity and education of the fitness instructors, who are to be registered in the national database of sports coaches within the MYS. They should also have a special training in sport nutrition and health prevention.

Accommodation in Fitness Centres Fitness organisations exist to satisfy a broad range of consumers’ needs and demands by providing ‘participant services’ where clients/members– company relationships develop on a regular and prolonged basis (Chelladurai, 2005). MacIntosh and Doherty (2010, 114) underlined the multidimensional nature of the fitness industry, that is: ‘committed to delivering a quality fitness service in a professional and interactive environment’. The struggle for more customers takes place not only across the fitness centres, but also among the manufacturers of fitness equipment. The market leaders in Bulgaria include four globally renowned brands, including Technogym, Panatta, Nautilius and Precor, as well as three local brands—Titan, Ivan and Body Sport. While the luxury fitness centres prefer global brands, the low- and middle-cost segments of the market work with Bulgarian manufacturers. For-profits also have stronger penetration in areas, such as sauna, steam room and equipment geared for measuring body composition. In terms of their capacity small fitness clubs can cater on average for 40–50 consumers a day; middle-sized for 100–150; and big centres for 300–400. Depending on the available floor space fitness centres can be categorised as small (up to 400 m2 ), middle (400–1,000 m2 ) and large (over 1,000 m2 ) (see Table 4.1). The largest fitness facility in the country, which is managed by Pulse Fitness, spans over 5,000 m2 . It would appear that boutique fitness studios and luxury private clubs rely heavily on personalised services, environment and equipment of highest quality to establish a point of differentiation. Conversely, the big fitness chains rest predominately on a wide range of offerings consumed

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by many clients for a relatively short period of time. In addition to traditional programmes and services there have been some recent changes that have not yet reached a full level of market adoption. These concern the use of wearables to support client training, virtual group exercise classes, event style classes, adventure training programmes and medical-based fitness programmes. Traditional private fitness centres in the country appear to be key players when it comes to adopting many of these emerging trends in their offerings. Apparently, private fitness centres can increase the range of offerings not because there is an actual need for a particular service, but because they will be perceived as fit only if they are able to offer the same benefits and services as their competitors.

Employment in the Fitness Industry The importance of fitness instructors and personal trainers in providing quality services is crucial. Competition among Bulgarian commercial fitness centres is premised on attracting qualified fitness instructors, who, in turn, bring their clients to the fitness centre. It follows that fitness centres compete not just for consumers and revenue, but for highly skilled staff as well. Chelladurai (2006, 25) classified the fitness trainers as ‘semi-professionals’ as they can be autonomous in relation to the clients, but not likely to experience such autonomy from their employer. Concrete figures on fitness instructors and other staff are considered confidential company information. Fitness centres usually attract staff from other centres within the same community and turnover among instructors is relatively high. Furthermore, many personal trainers and instructors are not on the payroll of one employer and migrate between fitness centres. In the absence of an industry-wide regulative code of ethics the current conjecture enables them to exercise a considerable bargaining power over clubs’ owners. The education of fitness instructors is delivered by three main establishments—NSA (the biggest public sport educational establishment in the country), Biofit professional private college (founded by the owner of the first fitness chain in Bulgaria, JK Fitness) and Fitness Academy Bulgaria (a private organisation founded by one of the long-standing

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fitness chains, Athletic Fitness). Since 2001 the NSA, in collaboration with the BBFF, has been delivering degree courses for fitness instructors leading to an EU recognised diploma for fitness instructor and a licence by the BBFF. During the last ten years some 880 fitness instructors graduated with 30% of them now working abroad. NSA also offers Bachelor and Master programmes in fitness and health. Between 2010 and 2017 some 110 students graduated with a Masters degree. The second educational establishment, Biofit, provides a certificate for professional fitness instructors. In the last few years it trained about 120 students. JK Fitness is also an exclusive owner of the rights for Europe over administering training courses for fitness instructors based on the US C.O.R.F.I.T. system. Some 600 fitness instructors graduated the programme. More than 90% of graduates have been working abroad. The third organisation, Fitness Academy Bulgaria, prepares personal trainers, instructors and group fitness instructors who obtain a certificate recognised by EuropeActive. It should also be noted that most of the fitness chains conduct their own staff training. The proliferation of training and degree courses is indicative for the greater ‘scientification’ of the sector, and its professionalisation.

Membership Fees and Revenues in the Fitness Industry As long as the majority of fitness centres operating in this highly competitive environment rely almost entirely on sales for their survival, satisfaction becomes critical for customer retention and loyalty. Specific figures on members and revenue are considered confidential company information, which is also indicative of a particular cultural predisposition shared by owners of commercial fitness centres in Bulgaria. Nonetheless, data from a recent BAHF’s own survey as of 2019 reveal that the fitness industry generates an annual turnover of nearly e46 million and engages over 50,000 employees. The investments in the sector exceed e50 million, while market penetration is nearly 5%. Depending on the category of the fitness centre, membership fees range from e10–20 a month for low-cost clubs to e40–60 for luxury centres (see Table 4.3).

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Table 4.3 Classification of fitness centres according to average service prices Type of service/price category

Pay-as-you-go

Monthly subscription

Annual subscription

Low-cost class Middle class Luxury class

e1–2 e2.50–4 e4.50–8

e10–20 e20–40 e40–60

e60–120 e120–400 e400+

The membership base is principally formed over a period of 3–4 years. The model of payment has also changed. While just ten years ago the one-off admission fee was the preferred way by consumers, now monthly and/or annual membership cards have become the norm. Indeed, while the low-cost segment of the market is indicating growth, cost-reduction leads in incentives for new consumers.

Innovation In responding to various social and economic pressures fitness providers need to innovate and offer new services and products all the time. Lagrosen and Lagrosen (2007, 47) highlighted the need for constantly innovating fitness organisations ‘because the continuous inclusion of new exercises and treatments is necessary to attract the interest of customers’. One of the most challenging responsibilities for fitness industry professionals is identifying important trends and exploiting them to create a competitive advantage. Technology and innovation in Bulgarian fitness industry is in an embryo stage. The exception is the use of social media, which is currently in its peak and is adopted widely. Most fitness centres run their own Facebook page as a primary marketing tool. Maintaining corporate websites is another way of communicating with customers, but regarding functionality and interactivity these are still in their infancy and are used primarily to inform about locations, facilities, services and prices, as well as to sell membership cards online. This observation speaks to the industry’s incremental adoption of technology as a valuable asset to meet the expectations of today’s fitness consumer whose lifestyles revolve around the use of both the Web platforms and mobile applications. It would appear that personalised and convenience-driven

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technology trends are typically led by small and middle size member fitness clubs than by large fitness centres. Technology-aided services include online scheduling and reservations, purchasing and training and nutritional counselling. Technology-driven innovations, such as Internet banner ads and member portals tend to be driven by bigger commercial fitness clubs in the country.

Conclusions Although in its current state the fitness industry in Bulgaria seems to be highly fragmented and lacking the level of formalisation and regulation, emerging processes urge impending transformations with policy and institutional implications. Politically, the state’s intention to regulate key segments of the sector is going to be a significant intervention. Structural changes concern the process of consolidation with the penetration of new powerful actors, who are expected to reshape the market in future. The institutionalisation of the fitness sector is marked by its increasing ‘scientification’ and the employment of scientific training and monitoring methods. The development of the fitness sector in the country is driven by the process of urbanisation and influenced by complex social, economic, cultural and technological factors. Various environmental forces urge the industry players to change their strategies and practices by constantly evolving, innovating and replicating each other. Consumers’ demands will continue to determine the modus operandi of fitness centres and the market trends. However, the lack of systematic codified knowledge not only impedes research but deprives fitness providers from realistic insights into the industry. This makes any strategic planning and delivery of fitness services challenging. At the same time fitness providers face three key challenges deriving from the rapidly changing reality. First, innovations ought to become indispensable part of their organisational culture, processes, standards and capabilities. These shall determine how the fitness centres position themselves, as well as their interactions with other players in the domain. Second, regarding consumers’ expectations and behaviour changes would impact on fitness organisations’ practices

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and performance related to services provided. Third, relevant rules and regulations are needed to ensure certainty and service quality in this still developing sector. Undoubtedly, these challenges are expected to stimulate further research and regulation of the fitness industry in the country.

References BluePoint. (2015). Ontoshenieto kam hranitelnite dobavki i stimulanti sred sportuvashtite [Sport participants’ attitude towards nutritional supplements and performance or image enhancing substances], Sofia. Bojanov, V. (1998). Enciklopedia na kulturizma [Encyclopedia of bodybuilding], Sofia. Chelladurai, P. (2005). Managing organizations for sport and physical activity: A systems perspective (2nd ed.). Scottsdale, AZ: Holcomb Hathaway. Chelladurai, P. (2006). Human resource management in sport and recreation (2nd ed.). Human Kinetics. DiMaggio, P. J., & Powell, W. W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collectiverationality in organization fields. American Sociological Review, 48, 147–160. Dimitrov, L., Tonchev, V., & Tsonev, S. (2011). Otnoshenieto kam sporta i sportnata aktivnost sred naselenieto v Bulgaria na vazrast ot 15 +[Attitudes towards sport activities of the Bulgarian population over 15 year olds], Sofia. European Commission. (2018). Sport and physical activity (Special Eurobarome-ter 472/Wave 88.4). Brussels: European Commission/DG Education, Youth, Sport and Culture. European Health & Fitness Association. (2011, November). Fitness against doping. Interim Report. Eurostat. (2019a). Annual net earnings. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https:// appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=earn_nt_net&lang=en. Eurostat. (2019b). Area by NUTS 3 region. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https:// bit.ly/2ISCF2r. Eurostat. (2019c). Population on 1 January. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language= en&pcode=tps00001&plugin=1.

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Eurostat. (2019d). Real GDP per capita. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/refreshTableAction.do?tab=table&plu gin=1&pcode=sdg_08_10&language=en. Girginov, V., & Bankov, P. (2002). Sport for All in Bulgaria––From a Way of Life to a Matter of Choice. In Da Costa, L. (ed). Worldwide experiences and trends in sport for all . Mayer & Mayer Sport. Girginov, V., & Sandanski, I. (2011). Bulgaria. In M. Nicholson, R. Hoye, & B. Houlihan (Eds.), Participationin sport: International policy perspectives. London: Routledge. IME. (2017). Ikonomiceskite centrove v Bulgaria [The economic centres in Bulgaria], Sofia. International Health, Racquet & Sportsclub Association [IHRSA]. (2013a). The European health club report: Size and scope of the fitness industry. Boston, MA: International Health, Racquet and Sportsclub Association. International Health, Racquet & Sportsclub Association [IHRSA]. (2013b). The IHRSA Global Report 2013. Boston, MA: International Health, Racquet & Sportsclub Association. Karabiberov, J. (1995). Fitness–fizichesko savarshenstvo i harmonia [Physical perfection and harmony], Sofia. Karabiberov, J. (2017). The Fitness. Sofia: Bio Fit sport college. Lagrosen, S., & Lagrosen, Y. (2007). Exploring service quality in the health and fitness industry. Managing Service Quality, 17 (1), 41–53. Macintosh, E., & Doherty, A. (2010). The influence of organizational culture on job satisfaction and intention to leave. Sport Management Review, 13(2), 106–117. Macintosh, E., Doherty, A., & Walker, M. (2010, September). Cross-sectoral variation in organizational culture in the fitness industry. European Sport Management Quarterly, 10 (4), 2010, 445–464. Mediana. (2008). Mladezta v stranata––sastojanie, problemi, promeni, tendencii, vazmozni parametri i nasoki za mladezka politika [Youth in the country–– status, issues, changes, trends, possible parameters and guidelines to youth policy]. MYS. (2015). Nacionalna Strategia za borba sreshtu upotrebata na doping v sporta 2015–2024 [National Anti-Doping Strategy 2015–2024], Sofia. NCSSO. (2005). Mladite v deistvie [Youth in Action], Sofia. Nedelchev, I. (2013). Lichnostni hararakteristiki na sportisti zanimavashti se s kulturizam i fitness [Personal characteristics of athletes doing bodybuilding and fitness], Unpublished PhD thesis, NSA.

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Rose-Ackerman, S. (1990). Competition between non-profits and for-profits: Entry and growth. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 1(1),13–25. SovaHaris. (2011). Nacionalno izsledvane i analiz na informiranostta i fizicheskata deesposobnost na horata na vazrast 18–65 [National survey and analysis on the awareness and physical fitness of 18–65 yearolds], Sofia. The World Bank. (2019). Urban population (% of total population). Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL. WHO. (2019). Prevalence of overweight among adults, BMI ≥ 25. Accessed at 30 July 2019 via http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.BMI25Cv?lan g=en.

5 Current Trends in the Fitness Movement in Cyprus Nicos Kartakoullis, Christina Loizou, Despina Georgiadou, and Michael Terezopoulos

Introduction Cyprus is an island in the East Mediterranean. Its strategic position has made it attractive to conquerors from antiquity until the present days. Physical activity was very much influenced by the ancient Greeks who conquered the island in the centuries preceding Christianity. Sporting N. Kartakoullis (B) · C. Loizou Department of Hospitality, Tourism and Sports Management, University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus e-mail: [email protected] C. Loizou e-mail: [email protected] D. Georgiadou · M. Terezopoulos Cyprus Sport Organization, Nicosia, Cyprus e-mail: [email protected] M. Terezopoulos e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 J. Scheerder et al. (eds.), The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53348-9_5

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culture after Christianity was related to that of the successive conquerors, who brought with them their sporting culture. Country Facts Geographical, demographical and economic indicators Capital Geographical size (km2 ; 2014)a Population (2019)b Urbanisation rate (%; 2018)c GDP (euro per capita; 2018)d Annual net earnings average (Single person without children, 100% of AW, in euro; 2018)e EU membership since Health and sports related indicators Prevalence of overweight among adults (BMI ≥ 25, %; 2016)f Share of physical inactive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)g Share of sportive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)g Fitness related indicators Percentage of total population with fitness club membership (2017) Percentage of population (aged 15 or older) with fitness club membership (2017) Fitness club members (2017) Numbers of clubs (2017) Fitness and health club industry revenue (excl. VAT, million euro; 2017) Average membership fee/month (incl. VAT, euro; 2017) Average membership fee as percentage of disposable income (%; 2017)

Nicosia 9,251 875,898 66.8 23,300 20,903.35 2004 60.8 27.9 46.7 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Notes Sportive population: share of population that did not indicate ‘never’ on the question: “How often do you exercise or play sport?” (Answering possibilities: 5 times a week or more, 3 to 4 times a week, 1 to 2 times a week, 1 to 3 times a month, less often, never); Physical inactive population: share of population that indicated at least one day on one of the following three questions: “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do vigorous physical activity like lifting heavy things, digging, aerobics or fast cycling?”, “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do moderate physical activity like carrying light loads, cycling at normal pace or doubles tennis? Please do not include walking.” and “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you walk for at least 10 minutes at a time?” (Answering possibilities: number of days a week or never); N/A = not available Sources a Eurostat (2019b); b Eurostat (2019c); c The World Bank (2019); d Eurostat (2019d; e Eurostat (2019a); f WHO (2019); g European Commission (2018)

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Cyprus gained its independence in 1960. Since then, sports have been developed and promoted through the establishment of the Cyprus Sports Organization (from hereon CSO), which is responsible for promoting sports both in the public and in the private sector. The work of CSO was disrupted by the Turkish invasion of the island in 1974, as it lost a substantial number of sports facilities; however, it continues to be responsible for the developing and promoting sports in Cyprus. The CSO has responsibility for the regulation of the operation of Private Gymnastic Centres (PGCs), which are the major providers of physical fitness programmes. In its effort to modernize the quality standards and evaluation of the operation of PGCs, the CSO commissioned two studies; one on Leisure Sports Participation in Cyprus (2012) and one on the modernization of Fitness Instructors Qualifications (2016). In this chapter, a presentation of the existing data on the fitness sector is presented. However, during this attempt, the following gaps were identified: (a) lack of substantial evidence and statistics in certain areas, like the current profile of people who exercise for fitness who are mainly fitness centres clients, (b) gaps in the CSO Law and the Regulatory legislation that need to be updated and modernized in order to correspond to the Organization’s 2020 strategy for the further development of the sector and to the relevant European Guidelines and (c) need for further research, especially with regards to the Gyms’ clientele.

Historical Background Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea at the crossroads of Europe, Asia and Africa (Sophocleous, 1985). Signs of life date back to the end of the 9th millennium BC. Ancient conquerors include settlers from Asia Minor, the Mycenaean Greeks, the Phoenicians, the Achaean Greeks, and the Romans and in the medieval times, the Byzantines, the Lusignans and Francs, the Venetians and the Ottomans. Great Britain bought the island from the Ottomans in 1878, as the ‘key to Western Asia’; its strategic position became extremely important after the opening of the Suez Canal (Tzermias, 2004). In 1960 Cyprus gained

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its independence from Britain; a problematic constitution led to bicommunal conflict between the Greek and the Turkish Cypriots. After a coup-d’état by the Greek Junta in 1974 against President Makarios, Turkey invaded the island. Since then, one third of the territory to the north is under Turkish occupation. Greek-Cypriots were displaced to the southern parts and Turkish Cypriots were transferred to the north. So far negotiations between the two sides for the reunification of the island, have no positive outcome. In 2004 Cyprus accessed the European Union, but the Acquis Communautaire is suspended in the areas occupied by the Turkish troops (EUR-Lex, 2003).

Sports Evolution in Cyprus Scenes depicted on ancient vessels, amphora, figurines and sarcophagi show that sports in Cyprus were known since the time of the Mycenaean and the Achaean Greeks who developed sports and sports sites on the island (Hadjivasiliou, 2004). Ancient sports included archery, weight lifting, boxing, wrestling, athletics, chariot racing and horse racing. Athletic games took place in a similar way as the Olympic Games in mainland Greece in most of the nine ancient kingdoms of Cyprus, some of which had gymnasia and palaestras (wrestling pits); athletics and other sports were played mostly by adolescents and young men. Hadjivasiliou (2004), notes that chariot racing was the most popular during the Roman occupation (until fourth-century AD). During the Byzantine (fourth century—twelfth-century AD) and the Lusignan/Francs eras (twelfth—fifteenth-century AD) sport was more associated with activities promoted by the knighthood, the major sport being hunting. The Ottoman rule, its oppression and heavy taxation brought a lot of poverty to the Cypriots, limiting sports to running and jumping. The most popular game was that of moving a rock, for which competitions were organized. The revival of the Olympic Games at the end of the nineteenth century coincided with the beginning of the British colonization of the island and brought sports back to life (Hadjivasiliou, 2004). Cypriot athletes participated in these Olympic Games with considerable success.

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During British rule, other sports were promoted, mainly based on the British culture, such as horse racing, tennis, shooting, cricket and polo; these did not manage to prevail, as they were not associated with the Cypriot culture. However, with the revival of Olympic Games, track-field and athletics became quite popular and were promoted in schools and cultural clubs for both genders. The British introduced football at the beginning of the twentieth century to their colonies including Cyprus; it is still the most favourite game for the Cypriots. Athletic events, mainly track-filed sports, were major social events in each community. After Cyprus became independent in 1960, the CSO was established by law under the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports, as a semi-governmental institution, with the help and association of the General Sports Authority in Greece (Neocleous, 1986). The CSO constructed stadia in all major towns and sports facilities around the island (e.g. swimming pools, tennis courts and track fields). A substantial number of these facilities were lost after the Turkish invasion of the island in 1974. The town stadia housed the corresponding athletics clubs and associations, which were the driving force for the development of sports and athletics in Cyprus. The Cyprus National Olympic Committee (CNOC) was established on 10 June 1974 (Cyprus National Olympic Committee website, 2017). It is a non-governmental, not-forprofit organization operating according to the Olympic Charter and under guidelines approved by the International Olympic Committee (member since 1979). The CSO is the umbrella of all the sports federations of the island and is responsible for developing and promoting sports outside schools.1 The CSO is responsible for the state’s sports strategy and implementation, based on the following four pillars (CSO, 2017): (a) Sports and Sport Development, (b) Sports Facilities and Infrastructure, (c) Financial Management of Sports, (d) Human Resource Management in Sports. Within its legislative framework the CSO is also responsible for registering and licensing PGCs, the main providers of Fitness Programs. Officially the first fitness centres appeared in the 1980s decade. According to

1The

Ministry of Education is responsible for Sports in Schools.

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the CSO’s most recent data, the number of Fitness centres in June 2018 was 480.

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework Cyprus’ Definition of Fitness In February 1995 a Regulatory Administrative Act, which was proposed by the CSO and voted by the Parliament, regulated the operating license of the Private Gymnastics Centres (The Republic’s Official Gazette, 1995). According to this Act, “Gymnastics” refers to the science and art of the physical exercise and education. “Gymnastics Centre” means a centre offering a wide range of physical activity and fitness centres. Physical Fitness Centres operate under this Act. Trainers of Physical Fitness Centres should own a Physical Education University degree or academic title or equivalent qualification. In 2012 the Amending Regulations on Private Gymnastics Centres were adopted by the CSO (The 2012 Amending Regulations on Gymnastics Private Centres, 2012).2 This amendment, which includes fitness, made a clear distinction between sports as a leisure activity and pre-competitive and competitive sports. According to the amendment, sports as a leisure activity is when participating people take part in sports and physical activities aiming to improve physical, spiritual and psychological health. Pre-competitive and competitive sports is when people take part in organized sports activities aiming to optimize their skills, as well as their rivals participating in sports events. However since 2012, no legislation or amendments have been voted by the parliament and, in the case of fitness, there seems to be a gap, both regarding a clear definition, as well as regarding the fitness sector as a whole. So, it is to be stressed that no clear definition of fitness is covered by any form of legislation so far, although within the new strategy announced by the CSO, the modernization of the legislative framework should also focus

2 Legislation

was provided by the Cyprus Sport Organisation.

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on definitions. The Ernst and Young Study mentioned below, which was commissioned by the CSO, seems to contribute towards this direction. According to the Ernst and Young (EY) study (2016), in the 1995 and 2012 regulations on Private Centres on Physical Education, Part IV–– Centre Personnel, the required qualifications for Physical Educators are defined as follows: The centre coaches (Physical Fitness) of any kind of physical activity (with weights, with music or simply for fitness) must have the following qualifications: University degree or title equivalent to Physical Education (EY study p.4)

According to the Study, the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (2015) define physical fitness as the capability of a person to perform everyday duties with vigour, vigilance, without unjustified fatigue, and with plenty of energy in order to be able to enjoy leisure activities and respond to emergency situations. Physical condition includes a series of components, which consist of aerobic power, endurance, muscular strength and energy, as well as flexibility, balance, movement velocity, reflection time and body composition. This definition of physical Fitness has been adopted by the CSO.

Materials and Methods In order to present trends regarding fitness in Cyprus, it is to be noted that a lot of sports activities are offered in public and private gymnastic centres that mainly sell sports services for fitness. Different sports activities are offered in gym centres, and the infrastructure includes fitness equipment, martial arts and swimming pools. The materials and the methodology provided in this chapter are findings from studies that either focus on leisure and fitness activities, or are parts of other studies that include questions on fitness.

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Methodology and Data Most of the methodology used in this chapter involves desk research with data provided by the CSO and (especially) surveys that have been commissioned about leisure sports including fitness. This refers mainly to two major studies, one by Ernst and Young (2016) on the Fitness Instructors and the other by the University of Nicosia (UNIC) on Leisure Sports Participation in Cyprus (2012).

Methodology of the Leisure Sports Participation Study This study was conducted in 2012 by UNIC on behalf of the CSO. The main findings were presented before the Ministers of Sports of the EU member States during the Cyprus Presidency. The purpose of the study was among others, to examine the leisure sports participation and the reasons to participate in sports (Kartakoullis, Webb, Karlis, Pouloukas, & Loizou, 2015). The methodology included a phone survey based on closed questionnaires and a desk research based on questionnaires that were sent to relevant stakeholders who provide sports services. Among the stakeholders, PGCs were included. The sample of the phone survey was a stratified random sample of 1000 Cypriots aged 15 years or more (0.2% of the population at the time) and results were weighted to the general population in terms of gender, age, place of residence (urban/rural) and district of residence.

The Ernst and Young (EY) Study The purpose of the EY study was the mapping of the current situation, the particularities, the problems and the prospects of the sector of the Physical Educator (including weights, music or pure physical fitness), as well as the suggestion of an action plan for the updating of qualifications. The CSO based on the Cyprus Sports Organization Regulations of 1995 and 2012, commissioned the survey to EY, recognizing the necessity to establish required qualifications for Physical Educators. The survey

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methodology was literature review and analysis, desk research on the legislation and the study of data provided by the CSO, evaluation of the legislation framework and interviews with Fitness instructors working in the field.

Trends in (a) Demand Side (= Participation), and (B) Supply Side (= Organizational/Structures) The EY study stresses that there was no market research on the profile of the sector’s clients. However, from the survey that was carried out on the mapping of the fitness instructors, and mainly from the instructor’s professional associations, it seems that people who exercise in PGCs or fitness centres cover an 18–65 range of ages and all the social strata. More data regarding leisure and fitness sport participation are provided below in the Leisure Sports Participation Study, the Children and Adolescence study and the Football Perceptions Study.

Numbers/Figures About Demand Side Profile and typology of fitness participants––Numbers of Participants in Fitness and Leisure Sports a. The Leisure Sports Participation study The study showed that 39.8% of the Cypriots exercised as opposed to 60.2% who never exercised. Findings showed that men engaged in sports and physical activities more than women, the percentage being 42.1% for males and 37.6% for females. As far age is concerned, figures in Table 5.1 show that the highest percentage of people who exercised were in the youngest age groups: more than half of the population of the 15– 24 age group exercise for leisure; percentages seem to gradually drop by age reaching a percentage of only around 32% in the ages over 60.

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Table 5.1 Physical activity and age distribution (%) Yes No

15–24

25–34

35–44

45–59

60+

55.8 44.2

38.5 61.5

38.8 61.2

34.7 65.3

31.9 68.1

Source Kartakoullis et al. (2015)

Figures also show that rural population exercises more than urban, since the corresponding percentages are 36.1% for urban and 47.1% for rural. As far as team sports are concerned, the majority of people were involved in football (13.2%). Other team sports were group dancing (5.0%), basketball (3.8%), volleyball (2.7%) and futsal (1.7%); the total of other team sports was 6.8%. Walking was the individual sports that most people engaged in (47.6%). Tennis was practised by 3.4% and cycling by 1.7% of the Cypriots. Various other individual sports activities were mentioned with less than one per cent frequency, totalling to 10.4% regarding fitness and gym training. The findings showed that many people exercised at a gym (26.4%) on the exercise equipment, or took aerobics courses or Pilates or, as most do, exercise on the treadmill. In swimming the frequency was 9.2%. Regarding the gender distribution of these activities, Table 5.2 below shows that women percentages as regards walking were almost double than those of men (60 and 36%, respectively) and that a lot more men played football than women (24% of the men and 2% of the women of the sample). As far as fitness and exercising at the gym, it seems that women preferred the gym than men, since 30% of the women Table 5.2 Sport activity and gender distribution (%) Sport

Men (%)

Women (%)

Walking Exercising in Gyms Football Swimming Jogging Group Dancing

36 23 24 9 6 2

60 30 2 9 6 8

Source Kartakoullis et al. (2015)

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engaged in fitness activities at the gym as compared to 23% of the men of the sample. Although maintaining good health was the major reason quoted for exercising with percentages reaching 60% for all respondents, other reasons for exercise were for leisure (45%), to keep fit and for weight control 21% and for looking good (appearance) 7.7%. Regarding gender, fitness was around the same percentage for both genders (23% for men and 20% for women) and weight control was more important for women than men (24% for women and 18% for men). The study also shows that there is a close cooperation between Sports Federations and the PGCs, as well as with the Sports for All programme, addressing all age groups. b. Children and Adolescents The following data has been provided by the Research and Training Institute of Child Health Cyprus (http://www.childhealth.ac.cy/) which is part of the European Programs IDEFICS and IFamily. This research of the Cyprus adolescents was conducted between February and April 2015. The adolescents sample was 1,398 secondary education students in Cyprus included in the Manual of Cypriot Children’s Physical and Mental Health published by the Ministry of Education and Culture of the Cyprus Republic in collaboration with the Research and Training Institute of Child Health Cyprus. The study showed that children 6–11 years old exercise outside school between 3–4 hours a week and adolescents between 12–17 years old exercise outside school on average 4.4 hours a week.3 Boys in the survey exercise more than an hour daily, to a higher percentage than girls (10% compared to 2% respectively). From unpublished empirical knowledge of the CSO, it seems that adolescents exercise mainly for fitness purposes. c. Sport and physical Activities, including fitness provided at state level

3 Data

provided by Dr. Michalis Tornaritis, Head, Research and Training Institute of Child Health Cyprus.

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The Leisure Sports Participation survey (Kartakoullis et al., 2015) shows that fitness programmes are also offered by the Ministry of Justice and Social Order in prisons as well as in the army, under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Defense. The CSO offers programmes for sports and physical activity that include fitness, through the Sport for All (SFA) programme since 1985 (Cyprus Sports Organization website, 2018). This programme encourages the healthy sports participation by citizens, for the promotion of happiness, well-being, entertainment, fitness and health. Currently 300 SFA Centres operate in Cyprus; it is estimated that 10,000 members of all ages participate in these centres. Eighty qualified physical education instructors serve the Sports/Fitness Centres on a national level. The SFA programme, among other sports, offers also gymnastics. The latest figures in Table 5.3 show that there are 4,152 adult members in the SFA programmes in the areas controlled by the Cyprus government who engage in sports and physical activity programmes which include gymnastics and physical activity.4 Additionally, according to the UNIC survey (Kartakoullis et al., 2015), many municipalities and local communities offer physical exercise programmes, mostly in collaboration with the SFA. Some of them offer programmes in their day centres, especially for elderly people, aiming at maintaining fitness and good health, but also at promoting and re-enforcing social relationships and social inclusion. Table 5.3 Adult members of SFA programmes––distribution by District District

Sport and Physical Activity

Swimming

Nicosia Limassol Larnaca Paphos Famagusta Total

1,248 1,349 852 624 79 4,152

498 302 411 0 0 1,211

Source SFA data (2017)

4 Data

provided by Ms. Efi Mouzourou, Head of the Sports for All program.

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d. Football Perceptions Survey—Fitness participation of respondents In the telephone survey (2018) respondents were asked about their physical activity participation for fitness purposes. Results showed that, out of 1,200 people aged 15+, 55.3% engage in fitness, one in four attending a gym. Women present a higher percentage in gym attendance than men, as 26.3% of those who keep fit, go to the gym, compared to 21.8% of the men (see Table 5.4).

Numbers/Figures About Supply Side (Provision and Governance of Fitness) Provision of Fitness by Private Market and by Others–Employment in Fitness Industry Physical fitness programmes in Cyprus are mainly provided by PGCs and are registered under the CSO. As mentioned above, the current number of these facilities is 480.5 According to the Auditor General’s 2015 report, until December 2016 there were 452 gyms.6 The report also notes that, based on the CSO data, and on the Registry of Physical Educators/Trainers, 573 people worked in the sector of PGCs, providing programmes with weights, music or simple physical fitness programmes. According to the EY study below (2016), around 761 fitness instructors worked full time in 4167 gyms. The number of instructors was estimated by EY to be much higher, but there is no substantial evidence to support this, as there is a lot of undeclared work in the field. Based on the research findings, 56% of the fitness instructors are men and 44% women.

5 Data

provided by the Cyprus Sport Organization. to the EY study. 7The number of facilities dropped as a result of economic crisis. 6 According

Yes

34.8 35.6

42.5 46.7

44.5 45.4

22 30.2 40.3 52.4 68.5

35

Dancing

44.7

No

21.8 26.3

24.1

Gym sports

7.9 10

9

Walking

Type of fitness activity (%)

Source Kartakoullis, Pouloukas and Loizou (2018)

Total 55.3 Gender Men 57.5 Women 53.3 Age 15–24 78 25–34 69.8 35–44 59.7 45–60 47.6 60+ 31.5 Area of Residence Urban 55.5 Rural 54.6

Category

Engage in Fitness activity (%)

9.8 7

8.4

Swimming

Table 5.4 Participation in fitness in Cyprus (Football Survey, 2018) (%)

10.3 0.8

5.4

Football

2.5 5.6

4.1

Pilates

4.8 1.3

3

Basketball

17.2 12.7

15

Other sports

130 N. Kartakoullis et al.

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Market Penetration The study also analysed data provided by the Cyprus Statistical Service, which concluded that, in 2009–2014, the total revenue from the sector in terms of the GDP contribution has generally dropped from e24,512,000 to e12,412,000 and a 6.5% decrease in sports facilities. However, based on the list of 416 PGCs provided by the CSO, EY concludes that the total GPV of the sector is e23.4 million, that is 0.14% of the GDP for 2016.

Typology of Fitness Centres In terms of the typology of Fitness Centres EY identified three categories under Private Organizations: 1. Gyms 2. Personal Studios 3. Freelancers The Public Sector Organisations include the Ministry of Education and Culture, the CSO and the Municipalities/Communities.

Conclusion Although there seems to be a decline in the revenue of the fitness sector from 2009 to 2014 in the GDP contribution, as mentioned in the EY study, this is being reversed. Based on the increasing number of the new PGCs registrations in the recent years, there seems to be an increase in the demand of fitness programmes provision, both in Leisure sports, as well as fitness. Thus, the CSO decided to commission the aforementioned study, in order to be able to set quality standards in the sector, mainly regarding the qualifications of the fitness instructors. Within this framework the mapping of the current situation in the sector became possible, as well as the suggestion of an action plan that is expected to

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bring results setting this quality standards and giving the CSO the opportunity to exercise better control and to regulate and assess the provision of fitness programmes in the attempt to modernize the existing system. The target is described in strategy 5 of the CSO 2020 Strategic Plan (CSO Strategic Plan, 2020, 2017), which provides the taking of actions and the implementation of the EU Guidelines on Physical Activity (2009). Based on the data analysed in the EY study and the need that arose for the CSO to commission the study, there is evidence that the fitness movement is rapidly growing in Cyprus. However, the Regulatory Legislation of the CSO in this respect is obsolete and it is not aligned to the current reality with new forms of fitness appearing. The current legislation was passed by the legislative bodies in 1995, which is more than 20 years ago and it has only been amended in 2012. Hence, there is an urgent need for updating a number of provisions of the Law regulating the fitness industry, starting with the definition of physical fitness and proceeding with the setting of the quality standards in the sector that will cover not only the facilities, but also the qualifications of the fitness instructors (human resources), as well as other professions/occupations associated with the industry. The ultimate objective is to safeguard quality and safety in fitness service provision. It will also contribute to the narrowing of the gap between education and the sports industry, to safeguarding the possibility of mobility of employees in the field within the EU countries for employment purposes according to ECVET and to the reduction of unemployment rates. The tertiary education institutions will have a chance to develop sports curricula that will correspond to the needs and demands of the labour market. Socialization through sports, from the functionalist perspective is related to individual’s ability, and personal development (Delaney & Madigan, 2015). Sports engagement gives the person the opportunity to be socialized, and to develop friendships and social networks. Commitment to rules can be a significant factor for enhancing individual’s potential for success, ultimately winning prestige and power. Presently in Cyprus there is a growing culture in all age groups, but especially in the youth, to seek for healthy lifestyles which include healthy nutrition and exercise. This also means that there is a growing tendency in reaching out for the physical fitness programmes that will help people reach their goals

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in terms of preventing obesity and metabolic disorders and preventing chronic illness and related diseases resulting from a sedentary lifestyle, in addition to the social benefits of exercising; that is social inclusion and gaining social status, as well as maintaining a healthy mental state. There seems to be an increasing demand for engaging in physical fitness, which is accompanied by correspondingly rapid increase in the growth of the industry, with an increase in the corresponding GDP contribution (CSO/EY study, 2016). This is a very positive development for Cyprus, since the public now realizes the value of keeping fit, both with regard to physical and mental health, but also for social reasons. However, the gaps that were identified, need to be filled, in accordance to the EU guidelines. These gaps are identified mainly in setting the necessary quality standards, a process that the CSO is currently engaged in, but they also have to do with the need to update or improve the current legislative framework. Another necessity/priority that has arisen from this attempt to study the current situation, is that there is still a lack of data and evidence. Information regarding the size of the industry, as well as the economic contribution of the sector in the GDP and the added value arising from this, needs to be obtained through new collection of data by the Cyprus Statistical Service. Moreover, judging from these needs that have been identified, as well as by the studies carried out in earlier days, there seems to be a need for further research, mainly in order to find out about the participation numbers of the population that use the fitness industry services in Cyprus, and to identify the needs of the participants and assess their level of satisfaction. Findings from such surveys could offer a valuable tool for the relevant bodies, as well as for the stakeholders involved in their strategic planning, so that the efforts to offer better quality services can be reinforced and better results can be achieved towards maximizing the benefits of physical activity, both as regards health and physical and mental condition, as well as in the contribution of the economy of the island in general.

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References Cyprus Sports Organization. (2016). EY Study on the updating of the qualifications of fitness instructors, as defined in the Private Gymnastic Centres Regulations of 1995 and 2012. Nicosia, Cyprus: Cyprus Sports Organisation. Cyprus Sports Organization. (2017). National strategy 2020. Retrieved from https://www.cyprussports.org. Cyprus Sports Organisation. (2018). Sports for all program. https://www.cyprus sports.org/en/activities/national-programs/sports-for-all.html. Delaney, T., & Madigan, T. (2015). The Sociology of sports: An introduction. North Carolina: MCFarland @ Company, Inc. Publishers. EUR-Lex Access to European Law. (2003). 12003T/PRO/10. Retrieved from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A1 2003T%2FPRO%2F10. European Commission. (2018). Sport and physical activity (Special Eurobarome-ter 472/Wave 88.4). Brussels: European Commission/DG Education, Youth, Sport and Culture. Eurostat. (2019a). Annual net earnings. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https:// appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=earn_nt_net&lang=en. Eurostat. (2019b). Area by NUTS 3 region. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https:// bit.ly/2ISCF2r. Eurostat. (2019c). Population on 1 January. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language= en&pcode=tps00001&plugin=1. Eurostat. (2019d). Real GDP per capita. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/refreshTableAction.do?tab=table&plu gin=1&pcode=sdg_08_10&language=en. Hadjivasiliou, A. (2004). History of Cyprus sports. Armida Publications. Kartakoullis, N., Pouloukas, S., Alexopoulos, A.‚ & Loizou, C. (2012). Leisure sport participation in Cyprus. Unpublished Report. Cyprus Sports Organisation. Kartakoullis, N., Pouloukas, S., & Loizou, C. (2018). Football survey: Data and perceptions (unpublished). Kartakoullis, N., Webb, E., Karlis, G., Pouloukas, S., & Loizou, C. (2015). Leisure sport participation in Cyprus. International Journal of Sport Management, Recreation and Tourism, 20 (2015), 40–57. Neocleous, K. (1986). Lefkoma June 1986 . Nicosia, Cyprus: The Cyprus Sports Organization.

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Sophocleous, A. C. (1985). An introduction to the geography of Cyprus. In C. P. Kyrris (Ed.), History of Cyprus (pp. 5–11). Nicosia, Cyprus: Nicocles House. Sports for All National Program. (2017). Cyprus Sport Organization. Retrieved from https://www.cyprussports.org/en/activities/national-programs/sportsfor-all.html. The Cyprus National Olympic Committee. (2017). Retrieved from http:// www.olympic.org.cy. The Republic’s Official Gazette no. 2956. (24 February 1995). Administrative Acts. Part 1 Number 38. The 1995 Private Centres of Gymnastics Regulations under the Cyprus Sports Organisation Law. Nicosia: The Cyprus Government Gazette. The World Bank. (2019). Urban population (% of total population). Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL. Tzermias, P. (2004). Cyprus: “Sweet land” history (Vol. 1). From Antiquity to the Accession to the European Union: I Sideris Publications, Athens. WHO. (2019). Prevalence of overweight among adults, BMI ≥ 25. Accessed at 30 July 2019 via http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.BMI25Cv?lan g=en.

6 Fitness in Denmark: A Unique Combination of the Commercial and Non-profit Sectors Bjarne Ibsen

Introduction Participation in sports and other kinds of exercise is high in Denmark and has been increasing for many years. However, the increase has mainly taken place in the field of self-organised outdoor activities such as running and cycling and in the field of fitness, especially offered by commercial actors. It has challenged the otherwise dominant association organised sports in Denmark, which has seen that although the number of sports clubs and members of the clubs has also grown, a growing proportion of the physical active citizens have chosen to exercise in other contexts.

B. Ibsen (B) Department of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 J. Scheerder et al. (eds.), The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53348-9_6

137

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Country Facts Geographical, demographical and economic indicators Capital Geographical size (km2 ; 2014)a Population (2019)b Urbanisation rate (%; 2018)c GDP (euro per capita; 2018)d Annual net earnings average (Single person without children, 100% of AW, in euro; 2018)e EU membership since Health and sports-related indicators Prevalence of overweight among adults (BMI ≥ 25, %; 2016)h Share of physical inactive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)i Share of sportive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)i Fitness-related indicators Percentage of total population with fitness club membership (2017)f Percentage of population (aged 15 or older) with fitness club membership (2017)g Fitness club members (2017)f Numbers of clubs (2017)f Fitness and health club industry revenue (excl. VAT, million euro; 2017)g Average membership fee fees/month (incl. VAT, euro; 2017)g Average membership fee as percentage of disposable income (%; 2017)g

Copenhagen 42,921 5,806,081 87.9 47,600 36,390.68 1973 59.2 5.4 76.0 18.3 22.0 1,050,000 1,363 368 33.2 1.7

Notes Sportive population: share of population that did not indicate ‘never’ on the question: ‘How often do you exercise or play sport?’ (Answering possibilities: 5 times a week or more, 3 to 4 times a week, 1 to 2 times a week, 1 to 3 times a month, less often, never); Physical inactive population: share of population that indicated at least one day on one of the following three questions: ‘In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do vigorous physical activity like lifting heavy things, digging, aerobics or fast cycling?’, ‘In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do moderate physical activity like carrying light loads, cycling at normal pace or doubles tennis? Please do not include walking’ and ‘In the last 7 days, on how many days did you walk for at least 10 minutes at a time?’ (Answering possibilities: number of days a week or never) Sources a Eurostat (2019b); b Eurostat (2019c); c The World Bank (2019); d Eurostat (2019d); e Eurostat (2019a); f IHRSA (2018); g Deloitte & EuropeActive (2018); h WHO (2019); i European Commission (2018)

Sports clubs in Denmark are organised in three—of each other independent—national organisations, but many sports clubs are members of both of the two major organisations: Sports Confederation of Denmark

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and DGI (Danish Gymnastics and Sports Association). Politically, the Ministry of Culture, is responsible for sports, but it is primarily the decentralised governmental level, i.e. the 98 municipalities the country is divided into, that support sports and physical exercise. It is particularly important for sports clubs that the municipalities are obliged to provide facilities free of charge for the activities of sports clubs (Ibsen, Østerlund, & Laub, 2015). The municipalities are not allowed to support sports and physical training, which is commercially organised. Unlike most other countries where a similar growth in commercially organised fitness has taken place, fitness has also become a major part of the association organised sports in Denmark. This article is particularly focused on describing and explaining this development.

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework Definition of Fitness in Denmark In the Danish context fitness exercise covers a broad range of intentional physical activities that are often motivated by health and bodily ideals. This includes individual training where different exercise equipment is used, group-based training and relaxation exercises (Kirkegaard, 2012; Steen-Johnsen & Kirkegaard, 2010). The term fitness is normally used when going to physical training in a gym or fitness centre where you can exercise one or more of the above-mentioned activities. In Denmark people usually do not name it as fitness if they run or bike or go to team gymnastics in a sports club, although a lot of team gymnastics can resemble team activities in a fitness centre. But as will be apparent later, this fitness centre can be both commercial and non-profit.

Theoretical Inspiration The organisational pattern in a specific social field can be explained by the combination of two meta-theoretical approaches (Bager, 1996). On

140

B. Ibsen

one hand, it seems that, across national boundaries, different organisational forms have their strength within different social areas. For example, the cooperative is the dominant organisational form within the dairy and slaughterhouse sector. The explanation for this according to Bager should principally be found in rational choice theory, that is, that efficiency factors determine which organisational form is dominant in a specific social area. On the other hand, these efficiency factors cannot explain why there is also a rather significant variation between relatively similar societies in the distribution of the different organisational forms in specific social areas. We find the same in sports and exercise, where the dominant organisational form across different societies is the voluntary organisation. But at the same time, there are great differences between countries in the relative dominance and nature of the voluntary organisation in the field of sports and exercise. According to Bager, these differences can best be explained by historical and sociological ‘new institutional theory’. The central assumption in historical institutionalism is that ‘history matters’. It argues that the specific characteristics of the organisational system can be explained by its historical origin. A key concept is path dependency: the historical track of a given institution or polity will result in a high degree of continuity of practices and organisational forms that may appear untimely and irrational. The central assumption in sociological institutionalism is that it is more rules (laws) as well as norms and values (logic of appropriateness) than rationality (logic of consequentiality), which affects how different tasks are performed and organised (Peters, 2011).

Material and Method The analysis of fitness in Denmark is based on different sources. The numbers of the population’s participation in fitness activities come from repeated surveys of adult participation in sports and exercise, which include questions about participation in activities, defined here as fitness (Asserhøj, 2013; Pilgaard, 2009; Pilgaard & Rask, 2016). The figures for the numbers of fitness centres come from a sports facility database

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that includes information about fitness centres (Bang, 2018). The figures for the commercial fitness sector’s turnover and employment come from Statistics Denmark. In addition to these sources, results from several studies of fitness in associations (Ibsen & Larsen, 2002; Jensen, 2006; Larsen, 2005; Møller & Ibsen, 2009; Østerlund & Kirkegaard, 2010) and a Ph.D. thesis on the history and development of the fitness sector are used (Kirkegaard, 2012).

Trends Popularity of Sports and Exercise Over the past 50 years, the proportion of adult Danes (sixteen years +) who ‘usually participate in sport or physical exercise’ has grown steadily from fifteen per cent in 1964 to 61 per cent in 2016. Over the last ten years, however, only a minor increase and perhaps even a decline the last years have been observed (Pilgaard & Rask, 2016). The latest EU barometer survey from 2017 of participation in sports and physical activity in EU countries showed that 12% of adults Danes ‘do exercise or play sport’ regular, 51% with some regularity and 37% seldom or never. The participation level is only higher in the other two Nordic EU countries: Finland and Sweden (Europe Commission, 2018). Other studies that have examined the physical activity levels of the population show that in the last 30 years there has been an increase in the proportion of the physically very active, while the proportion of the physically inactive during leisure has not changed (Fig. 6.1). Thus, there has been an increasing polarisation in the population between the groups that are highly physically active and groups that are not physically active at all (Christens, Davidsen, Ekholm, Pedersen, & Juel, 2014). The differences between Danish men and women and younger and older who participate in sports and exercise are relatively small, but there are still big differences between educational groups. The higher the educational level, the greater is the likelihood that the person participates in sports or other kinds of physical activity. During the same period there has also been a strong increase in the proportion going to sports in a

142 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

B. Ibsen

20.0

22.6

22.6

60.9

60.4

22.1

16.5

1987

1994

57.9

26.7

28.3

29.2

59.7

55.8

54.4

17.0

13.6

15.9

16.4

2000

2005

2010

2013

Sedentary activity at leisure

Less demanding physical activity

Moderate or hard physical activity

Fig. 6.1 The development in adult Danes physical activity (Source Repeated studies conducted by National Institute of Public Health, https://www.sdu.dk/en/ sif)

sports club, but the increase has been much greater in participation in commercial fitness centres (Pilgaard & Rask, 2016). The most popular sports activities in Denmark are running; strength training; walking; aerobics, Zumba and the like; non-competitive team gymnastic; swimming and spinning. Apart from team gymnastics, there has been a very strong increase in participation in these activities over the past twenty years and more than ten per cent of the adult population is practising each of these activities (Pilgaard & Rask, 2016).

Popularity of Fitness During the past twenty years, participation in fitness has grown very strongly in Denmark. The proportion of the adult population who participate in one or more fitness activities has more than doubled in this period. The share that exercises strength training has grown from eleven per cent in 1998 to 24 per cent in 2016 and is today—along with running—the most popular form of training (Pilgaard & Rask, 2016). In the same almost twenty years period the share that participate in aerobics

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and the like has increased from seven per cent in 1998 to twelve per cent in 2016. In addition, eleven per cent participates in spinning cycling in 2016. The proportion of the adult population practising one of the activities known as fitness (strength training, aerobics, spinning, cross fit and other kinds of fitness) has grown from 26% in 2007 to % in 2011 to 40% in 2016 (Bang, 2018). The latest survey of Danes’ sports and exercise habits showed that 39% of the adult population participated in sports in a sports club, which is almost the same as ten years earlier. Twenty-five per cent did exercise in a commercial organisation (primarily a commercial fitness centre), which is a significant increase since 2007, where eighteen per cent did exercise in a commercial setting. Six per cent participated in sports in an association linked to a workplace (company sports), and this has not changed the last ten years. However, the most common way to participate in sports is ‘on your own’ (self-organised) (Pilgaard & Rask, 2016). Fitness training takes place primarily in commercial fitness centres, and therefore the answers in the completed surveys regarding participation in sports and fitness in commercial centres are used to show the development of participation by gender, age and education. This also includes participation in other forms of sports and physical activity, which is not referred to as fitness (e.g. dance), but it represents a very small part of the overall commercially organised sports and fitness participation. Table 6.1 shows that from 2007 to 2016, during almost ten years, there has been an increase in the proportion of the adult population going to commercially organised sports and fitness from eighteen to 25%. Women are more active in commercially organised exercise activities than men, and this has not changed the last years. Young people between twenty and 29 years old are more active than younger and older people, but it’s noteworthy that there has been no increase in participation in the age group twenty to 29 years, while there has been an increase in participation among the younger (sixteen to nineteen years) and middle-aged and elderly. In the oldest age group (70+), the proportion of sports or fitness participants in the commercial field has doubled. Fitness is therefore not more primarily for the young but also for teens

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Table 6.1 Share of adult population doing sports and fitness in a commercial organisation (centre etc.), and doing sports and exercise in general, divided by gender, age and educational level (percent)

Participating in one of the activities known as fitness1 Fitness in a non-profit setting Sports and fitness in a commercial organisation Gender Men Women Age 16–19 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60–69 70+ Level of education Primary school (< 10 years) High / Vocational School (12–15 years) Short higher education Middle-long higher education Long higher education

Participation in fitness

Sports overall

2007

2011

2016

2016

26

35

40

61

18

20

7 25

15 20

17 22

22 27

61 62

21 33 21 18 15 13 10

23 32 20 19 19 15 12

27 32 28 27 23 17 19

61 61 57 62 62 66 61

8

14

12

47

15

16

23

59

21

17

19

64

24

28

68

24

31

72

Notes 1 Strength training, aerobics, spinning, cross fit and other kinds of fitness Sources Pilgaard (2009), Asserhøj (2013), and Pilgaard and Rask (2016)

and older people. Participating in sports and exercise in a commercial organisation is more common among higher educated people than among people with a short education and inequality has grown in recent years. But this also applies to participation in sports clubs and sports participation in general.

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The Organisation of Fitness In line with the growth in participation in fitness activities, there has been a strong growth in the number of fitness centres. The total number of fitness centres was 1,363 in the beginning of 2018, which is more than double compared to 2006 (Bang, 2018). In the same period, there has been an increase of more than 60% in the number of full-time paid employees in the fitness industry (full time equivalent) to 1,729 in 2018 (Brustad, 2018). The largest commercial fitness company is Fitness World with 158 centres in 2018. LOOP Fitness has (in the beginning of 2018) 83 centres and Fitness.dk has 45 centres. Every third of the commercial fitness centres belongs to one of the three largest fitness companies in Denmark (Bang, 2018). Table 6.2 shows that the total economic turnover in the commercial fitness sector was 161 million Euro in 2015 and the total number of full-time employed (FTEs) was 1,567. A growth of 7 and 12%, respectively, since 2013 (Statistics Denmark). This increase in the number of fitness centres is also found in many other countries, but Denmark differs from most countries, because a large proportion of the centres are associations or non-profit centres. In 2017 the fitness centres were distributed according to organisation form with 803 private, commercial centres; 497 associations or non-profit centres; 53 were owned by a municipality and ten organised or owned in another way (Table 6.3). However, the commercial fitness centres are on average considerably larger than those organised in an association or a non-profit organisation. While 25% of the adult population participates in fitness or other kinds of physical activity (dance, etc.) in a commercial organisation, seven per cent participate in it in an association-driven or Table 6.2 Turnover and number of employees in the commercial fitness sector in Denmark from 2013 til 2015 Turnover (million EURO) Number of employees Full-time employees (FTEs) Sources Statistics Denmark (2018)

2013

2014

2014

144 6,724 1,468

156 7,079 1,566

161 7,287 1,567

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Table 6.3 Number of fitness centres broken down by organisational form (February 2018) Organisational form

Number

Share (percent)

Commercial Association Nonprofit Municipal/public Other Total

803 335 162 53 10 1,363

59 25 12 4 1 100

Notes An association is like a commercial organization privately, i.e. formally independent of the public sector, but the association differs from the commercial organization in several ways: it’s non-profit, the decision-making structure is democratic; and volunteering is the dominant and crucial workforce and resource (Elmose-Østerlund, Ibsen, Nagel, & Scheerder, 2017; Ibsen, 1992). There are also non-profit organizations other than associations where a profit is not distributed among the owners as in for-profit organizations. In such organizations, members usually do not have a formal democratic influence on the organization. Municipal / public institutions are also non-profit, but they are politically determined and therefore, members have no formal influence on the most important decisions that members have in an association Source Bang (2018)

non-profit-driven organisation (Asserhøj, 2017). Fitness was the fourth largest activity in sports clubs in Denmark in 2017. Only surpassed by football, team gymnastics (non-competitive) and swimming. In the age group 25–59, it is the largest exercise activity in sports clubs (Fester & Gottlieb, 2018). Just over half of those participating in aerobics and four out of ten in weight training or spinning do it in a commercial centre. Other activities in which a relatively high proportion of the participants practice in a commercial centre are CrossFit and Pilates (Asserhøj, 2017). There is a clear correlation between urbanisation and the spread of different types of fitness centres. The commercial fitness centres are found mainly in large and medium-sized cities, while the associationbased fitness centres are located in less urbanised areas. In the most densely populated municipalities (one in three of all municipalities) the commercial fitness centres constitute 80% of all fitness centres. In the medium densely populated municipalities, they represent 56%. In the least populated municipalities, they account for only 43% (Bang, 2018).

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Why There Are so Many Fitness Associations in Denmark? On one hand, participation in commercially organised exercise activities—primarily fitness—has grown strongly in Denmark and private, commercial companies are the dominant organisational form in the field of fitness. This is in line with the development in many other countries. On the other hand, Denmark differs from other countries in that many associations also offer fitness activities. What can explain these two trends? Inspired by the new institutional theoretical approach, described above in the theoretical section, the predominantly commercial organisation of fitness can be explained by the fact that fitness does not require an association as most traditional forms of sports (for all) do. A common feature of the fitness activities is that they are practised with the aim of ‘body optimization’ with the purpose of gaining better fitness and strength or shaping of the body after certain aesthetic ideals. It is mostly very simple movements that most people can learn very quickly. The training consists mainly of many repetitions. And the goal is neither ‘achievement’ nor ‘moving skills’ that characterise traditional sports. Therefore, most of the activities do not depend on the trainer with special skills and competences in technique and tactics of a sport. For fitness participants, the association is therefore not the ‘necessary’ choice. For the commercial interests fitness is a possible profitable market, because fitness can be offered in ways that make the prices affordable and business profitable. Fitness activities do require special—often expensive—equipment, but they do not require large and expensive facilities that many sports activities do (for example outdoor facilities for football and track and field and indoor sports halls for handball). And the commercial providers do not need a large amount of professional trainers and team leaders, which is usually a prerequisite in a sports club, which, as a rule, do not cost a lot, because most of the coaches and managers work voluntarily and unpaid (Breuer, Feiler, Llopis-Goig, & Elmose-Østerlund, 2017). But what can then explain that every third fitness centre in Denmark is an association or non-profit organisation? Sports participation and citizens’ exercise settings are determined by the demand, that is people’s

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interests, motives and social backgrounds, and the opportunities for sports or exercise participation, for example, the opportunities to practise sports in an association and to exercise in a commercial fitness centre (Kägi, Klostermann, Hayoz, Schlesinger, & Nagel, 2017; Ulseth, 2007). As regards to the motives and interests, studies show that Danes in general are motivated by the same motives when they engage in sports and physical activity as participants are in other European countries (European Commission, 2018). The explanation must therefore rather be found at the societal level (European Commission, 2018). The new institutional approach may contribute to an explanation. Both that ‘history matters’, and that organisations—operating in the same area of society (e.g. fitness)—adapt to the dominant norms and rules in this area and therefore come to resemble each other. The first associations for fitness were established in Denmark in the early 1980s and they quickly became a success (Møller & Ibsen, 2004). But until the late 1990s relatively few associations were engaged in fitness. In two decades, the sports organisations in Denmark (Denmark has three umbrella organisations for sports) were very critical of the growing fitness wave, but in the long run the organisations could not ignore this trend. In 2003, one of the national organisations (DGI) decided that the organisation would support the creation of the association fitness centres. The goal was to create at least 100 new association fitness centres during 10 years. Five years later, the Sports Confederation of Denmark joined the initiative. Since then, the organisations have assisted and supported more than 150 associations to establish a fitness centre and the number of members of sports clubs who participate in fitness in an association is multiplied. In numbers it is only surpassed by football, gymnastics and swimming (Fester & Gottlieb, 2018). The sports organisations’ interest in activities, which today is referred to as fitness, was not new. In the 1980s, sports organisations chose to integrate workout and aerobics into the supply of courses—however many felt that it challenged the traditions and values of club sports. Slowly, more and more of the new forms of exercise fade into the associations, and in the late 1990s DGI introduced the concept of ‘targeted training’ with ideas for new activities in the associations, extensive course activity for trainers, etc. This interest in both sports clubs and national

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sports organisations to offer physical training that does not focus on sports in the traditional sense, is based on a strong tradition and culture for ‘sport for all’ in Denmark (Ibsen & Ottesen, 2003). The widespread of non-competitive team gymnastics in Denmark is due to a 150 years tradition of ‘popular gymnastic’ (in Danish: folkelig gymnastik) developed in the second half of the nineteenth century. This team gymnastics tradition was based on other goals and ideals than the Olympic sports (non-competitive, civic commitment and connected to liberal education ideals) and has had a major influence on the sports and exercise culture in Denmark—especially in the rural areas. Throughout the nineteenth-century gymnastic was central to the development of ‘sport for all’ movement that was constantly adapting and reshaping itself organisationally as it expanded and incorporated new activities. The overarching sports organisation for this branch of sports and exercise in Denmark today is DGI (Danish Gymnastics and Sports Association) founded in 1991 by the merger of two much older organisations (Ibsen & Ottesen, 2003; Ibsen, Østerlund, & Laub, 2015). This tradition of team gymnastics that does not aim for participation in sports competition is still very strong in Denmark. It is, as mentioned, the second largest association-based sports and exercise activity, every eighth sports club is a gymnastic association or has a gymnastics section, and most of these associations have team activities similar to team activities in commercial fitness centres. In comparison with other countries, many Danes therefore have a wider perception of and experience with what a sports club is or may be. A large proportion of sports clubs have a broader purpose than sporting success; and the national sports organisations have actively supported the establishment of fitness centres in associations.

Fitness: Commercial or Non-profit Service? A question arises about whether there is a difference between fitness taking place in an association or in a commercial centre. Sports clubs and their national organisations emphasise in particular two qualities of club sports, which is different from fitness in commercial centres. Firstly,

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it is argued that the social dimension has a greater role in the associations than in commercial organisations of exercise. Secondly, it is emphasised that the associations are organised according to democratic principles which give the members a direct influence. But is this more of an ideal than reality? One of the key ideals of associations is the fellowship or community. This means that individuals participate in sports together with others and meet with other members in the club before and after the training. It also means that the members are jointly responsible for the club and the fellowship and social relations extend beyond the activities in the club. Several studies show that the social element plays a lesser role for the participants in the commercial fitness centres than it does for members in non-profit sports clubs. A Norwegian survey (2000/2001) shows that members of sports clubs to a greater extent than customers in commercial fitness centres are together with those they exercise with, in other contexts than the sports context, and also get more new friends through the activities in the club (Ulseth, 2004). An analysis of the latest Danish sports and exercise habit survey (2016) also shows that members of sports clubs to a greater extent than customers in commercial fitness centres attaches importance to the social dimension of doing sports or exercise (Asserhøj, 2017). Studies have shown that there are major differences in the importance of community/fellowship between different sports and exercise activities (Østerlund, 2013). Therefore, the above comparisons cannot fully reveal whether it is the activity or the organisational form that makes the difference. A comparison between the participants in ‘gymnastics, aerobics, relaxation or strength training’ in an association with participants in the same types of activities organised in other organised contexts (primarily commercial fitness centre) shows, that the members of the association differ in particular from those active in the activities in other contexts, on two reasons for participation in sports or other kinds of physical activity. Firstly, the members of an association respond to a greater extent than they participate in one of these activities because it is ‘nice/fun’ and, secondly, because it ‘creates friendships’, and ‘for the sake of the community’. On all other motives (e.g. regarding health, performance and developing skills) there are only small and not significant differences

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between fitness participants in an association and fitness participants in a commercial centre (Ibsen & Larsen, 2002). Nevertheless, it is uncertain whether the participants choose the association over the commercial offer because of the social dimension, or because of the difference in the experience of the participants in exercise activities in different organisational forms. In a survey from 2010 on members of 22 association fitness centres, more than half of respondents responded that their enrolment in the fitness centre had nothing to do with the organisational form, that is whether it was an association or a commercial centre. Time, distance and flexibility are more important for the choice. Despite this, the vast majority consider themselves more as ‘member’ than ‘customer’ in the fitness association centre (Østerlund & Kirkegaard, 2010). However, it would be too simplistic to ignore the importance of the social dimension for the participants in commercial fitness centres. For most exercisers in a fitness centre, it is a different kind of community (Jensen, 2006). Participants in fitness centres seek to a lesser extent a community than the participants in an association do. But many go for fitness with friends and acquaintances they already know. New communities in the fitness centre are often based on informal and superficial acquaintances. According to Jensen (2006), the community in a fitness centre is more ‘late modern’ than the community in an association is (Jensen, 2006). These are typically short-term, temporary and demarcated communities that are detached from other life spheres. Training does not require a community in the sense that the activity requires a group (such as team play, for example). Therefore, one can train when and wherever it suits the individual. It is often about ‘serial’ activities—something that one does do with others, but more parallel than in the group. An individual is ‘forced’ to be with others like when you go to a supermarket. An individual recognises others and talks to them, but otherwise has nothing else in common. The community is not something the participant automatically joins in. Participants themselves must create it. While sports clubs to a great extent create new friendships, the fitness centres are rather a basis for maintaining friendships (Jensen 2006). Slightly simplified, new friends are found in the sports clubs but when people search for a fitness centre, it is with one

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or more of the friends we already have (Larsen 2005). Jensen quotes the Polish sociologist Zygmunt Bauman for this characteristic of the late modern communities. ‘… the joy of belonging without the discomfort of being bound ’ (Baumann, 2001, 69; Jensen, 2006). Regarding the democratic dimension of the voluntary associations, it is not relevant to compare association fitness centres with commercial fitness centres, because the participants in the commercial centres do not a have the formal opportunity to elect the leaders and influence decisions in the centre as the members of an associations fitness centre have. However, the Danish study (2016) shows that young members of the association fitness centres are less active in the democratic processes in the association than members in handball clubs and other types of youth associations are. But many do participate in the association democracy and many also volunteer in association fitness centres, and this is one of the reasons that it’s typically cheaper to do fitness in an association fitness centre than in a commercial fitness centre (Ibsen & Levinsen, 2016).

Conclusions In the Danish context fitness exercise covers a broad range of intentional physical activities that are often motivated by health and bodily ideals. This includes individual training where different exercise equipment is used, group-based training and relaxation exercises. During the past twenty years, the fitness sector has grown very strongly in Denmark. The proportion of the adult population who practise one or more fitness activities has more than doubled the last twenty years. During the last ten years, the number of fitness centres has doubled and the number of full-time employees in the sector has grown by 60%. This development has also been observed in other countries, but Denmark differs from most countries, as a large proportion of the fitness centres are run by associations or non-profit organisations. Every third fitness centre belongs to the non-profit sector. The increase in the commercial organisation of fitness, which we do not find in more traditional sports for all, can be explained by a rational choice logic. Fitness is a more profitable market than sports for all,

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because fitness can be offered in ways that keeps the prices affordable for fitness practitioners and enables financial profit making for the service providers. The relatively large role that the non-profit sector has in the fitness area in Denmark, can be explained by historical and sociological theory: An over 100-year-old tradition of non-competitive gymnastics, the development of an alternative exercise culture than sports and the existence of sports clubs across the country, based on this long-standing sports culture, where the fitness culture can be integrated. Comparative analyses of fitness in associations with fitness in commercial organisations show that organisational principles have little importance for the participants’ choice where to go to fitness (whether fitness is organised according to association principles based on democracy and voluntary work or not). However, studies also show that fitness participants in associations attach greater importance to the social dimension than fitness participants in commercial fitness centres do.

References Asserhøj, T. L. (2013). Danskernes motions- og sportsvaner 2011 (Danes exercise and sports habits 2011). Idrættens Analyseinstitut. Asserhøj, T. L. (2017). Danskernes fitnessvaner og brug af kommercielle idrætstilbud [Danes fitness habits and use of commercial sports opportunities]. Idrættens Analyseinstitut. Bager, T. (1996). Organisations in sectors. Denmark: South Jutland University Press. Bang, S. (2018). Antallet af fitnesscentre sætter ny rekord [The number of fitness centers sets new record]. Idrættens Analyseinstitut. www.idan.dk. Baumann, Z. (2001). Community: Seeking Safety in an Insecure World . Wiley. Breuer, C., Feiler, S., Llopis-Goig, R., & Elmose-Østerlund, K. (2017). Characteristics of European sports clubs. A comparison of the structure, management, voluntary work and social integration among sports clubs across ten European countries. Report from the EU-funded research project ‘Social inclusion and volunteering in sports clubs in Europe’. Centre for Sports, Health and Civil Society, University of Southern Denmark.

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Brustad, M. (2018). Fremgang i fitnessbranchen [Progress in the fitness industry]. Power Point presentation at the conference ‘Idrættens største udfordringer VI’. Idrættens Analyseinstitut. Christens, A. I., Davidsen, M., Ekholm, O., Pedersen, P. V., & Juel, K. (2014). Danskernes sundhed. Den nationale sundhedsprofil 2013 [Danes health. The National Health Profile 2013]. Sundhedsstyrelsen. Deloitte & EuropeActive. (2018). European health & Fitness market report 2018. Brussels: Deloitte. Elmose-Østerlund, K., Ibsen, B, Nagel, S. & Scheerder, J. (2017). Explaining similarities and differences between European sports clubs. An overview of the main similarities and differences between sports clubs in ten European countries and the potential explanations. Report from the EU-funded research project ‘Social inclusion and volunteering in sports clubs in Europe’. Centre for Sports, Health and Civil Society, University of Southern Denmark. European Commission. (2018). Sport and physical activity (Special Eurobarome-ter 472 / Wave 88.4). Brussels: European Commission/DG Education, Youth, Sport and Culture. Eurostat. (2019a). Annual net earnings. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https:// appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=earn_nt_net&lang=en. Eurostat (2019b). Area by NUTS 3 region. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https:// bit.ly/2ISCF2r. Eurostat (2019c). Population on 1 January. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language= en&pcode=tps00001&plugin=1. Eurostat (2019d). Real GDP per capita. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/refreshTableAction.do?tab=table&plu gin=1&pcode=sdg_08_10&language=en. Fester, M., & Gottlieb, P. (2018). Idrætten i tal. Status for foreningsidrætten i Danmark [Sport participation in numbers. Status of the association sport in Denmark]. Danmarks Idræts-Forbund. Ibsen, B. (1992). Frivilligt arbejde i idrætsforeninger [Volunteering i sports cubs]. PhD dissertation. Systime. Ibsen, B., & Larsen, K. (2002). Deltagelse i gymnastik og beslægtede aktivitetsformer [Participation in gymnastic and related actitivites]. Institut for Forskning i Idræt og Folkelig Oplysning. Ibsen, B., & Levinsen, K. (2016). Foreninger, unge og demokrati. Movements 2016: 3 [Associations, youth and democracy]. University of Southern Denmark.

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Ibsen, B., & Ottesen, L. (2003). Sport and welfare policy in Denmark: The development of sport between state, market and community. In Klaus Heinemann (Ed.), Sport and welfare policies. Six European case studies. Series club of Cologn Vol. 3. Schorndorf: Verlag Karl Hofmann. Ibsen, B., Østerlund, K., & Laub, T. (2015). Sports clubs in Denmark. In C. Breuer, R. Hoekman, S. Nagel, & H. van der Werff (Eds.), Sports clubs in Europe: A cross-national comparative perspective. Baltimore, MD: Springer. IHRSA. (2018). 2018 IHRSA global report. The state of the health club industry. Boston, MA: International Health, Racquet & Sportsclub Association. Jensen, J-O. (2006). Fællesskab, fitness og foreningsidræt. Kulturanalytisk studie af fællesskabsrelationerne i to danske idrætsmiljøer [Community, fitness and club sport. Cultural analysis of community relations in two Danish sports environments]. PhD thesis, Centre for Idræt, Aarhus Universitet. Kägi, J., Klostermann, C., Hayoz, C., Schlesinger, T., & Nagel, S. (2017). The impact of structural conditions in municipalities on sport participation of adolescents and young adults in Switzerland. Bern: University of Bern. Kirkegaard, K. L. (2012). Fitnesskultur.dk – mellem forening og forretning [Fitnessculture.dk—Between association and business]. PhD thesis, University of Southern Denmark. Larsen, K. (2005). Træning på hold og i motionscentre. Resultater fra en medlemsundersøgelse i 34 gymnastik- og idrætsforeninger i DGI Roskilde Amt. [Exercise on teams and in gyms]. Forskningsrapport, hæfte II, DGI. Møller, P. M., & Ibsen, B. (2009). Foreninger i forandring. Forskningsrapport, hæfte IV. [Associations in change]. DGI. Østerlund, K. (2013). Foreningsidrættens sociale kvaliteter. En social-kapital inspireret undersøgelse af danske idrætsforeninger og deres medlemmer [Social qualities of sport in associations]. PhD thesis, University of Southern Denmark. Østerlund, K., & Kirkegaard, K. L. (2010). Foreningsfitness – portræt af de aktive medlemmer. Træningsmotiver, tilfredshed og selvvurderet sundhed [Association fitness—Portrait of members. Exercise motives, satisfaction and self-assessed health]. Idrættens Analyseinstitut. Peter, B. G. (2011). Institutional theory in political science: The new institutionalism. London: Bloomsbury. Pilgaard, M. (2009). Sport og motion i danskernes hverdag (Sport and exercise in Danes everyday life). Idrættens Analyseinstitut. Pilgaard, M., & Rask, S. (2016). Danskernes motions- og sportsvaner 2016 [Danes exercise and sports habits]. Idrættens Analyseinstitut.

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Steen-Johnsen, K., & Kirkegaard, K. L. (2010). The history and organisation of fitness exercise in Norway and Denmark. Sport in society, Special Issue on Scandinavian Sport, 1/2010. The World Bank. (2019). Urban population (% of total population). Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL. Ulseth, A-L. B. (2004). Social integration in modern sport: Commercial fitness centres and voluntary sports clubs. European Sport Management Quarterly, 4 (2), 95–115. Ulseth, A-L. B. (2007). Mellom tradisjon og nydannelse. Analyser av fysisk aktivitet blant voksne i Norge [Between tradition and innovation. Analyzes of physical activity among adults in Norway]. PhD thesis, Institutt for sosiologi og samfunnsgeografi, Universitetet i Oslo. WHO. (2019). Prevalence of overweight among adults, BMI ≥ 25. Accessed at 30 July 2019 via http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.BMI25Cv?lan g=en.

7 Engagement in Fitness Activities in England Andrew Spiers, Steven Osborne, and Monica Li

Introduction The United Kingdom (UK) consists of four constituent countries: England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland (the home nations). Political power ultimately resides in the UK Government but some responsibilities have been devolved to home nation assemblies, community sport and recreation is one of these responsibilities. Whilst some of the information presented in this chapter refers to health and fitness across the UK, the main focus is on England (the major UK A. Spiers (B) · M. Li Sport England, London, UK e-mail: [email protected] M. Li e-mail: [email protected] S. Osborne Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, Wales, UK e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 J. Scheerder et al. (eds.), The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53348-9_7

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fitness market). In England, there are many different governing bodies responsible for managing specific sports, ranging from large organisations like the Football Association to smaller ones like England Handball. The nature and diversity of health and fitness means it does not have a single governing body but UK Active is a membership organisation that seeks to represent the fitness and activity sectors. Country Facts∗ Geographical, demographical and economic indicators Capital Geographical size (km2 ; 2014)a Population (2019)b Urbanisation rate (%; 2018)c GDP (euro per capita; 2018)d Annual net earnings average (Single person without children, 100% of AW, in euro; 2018)e EU membership Health and sports-related indicators Prevalence of overweight among adults (BMI ≥ 25, %; 2016)h Share of physical inactive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)i Share of sportive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)i Fitness-related indicators Percentage of total population with fitness club membership (2017)f Percentage of population (aged 15 or older) with fitness club membership (2017)g Fitness club members (2017)f Numbers of clubs (2017)f Fitness and health club industry revenue (excl. VAT, million euro; 2017)g Average membership fee/month (incl. VAT, euro; 2017)g Average membership fee as percentage of disposable income (%; 2017)g

London 248,527.8 66,647,112 83.4 32,400 34,049.79 1973–2020 67.2 11.1 60.3 14.8 17.9 9,720,000 6,728 5,084 46.0 2.4

Notes Sportive population: share of population that did not indicate “never” on the question: “How often do you exercise or play sport?” (Answering possibilities: 5 times a week or more, 3 to 4 times a week, 1 to 2 times a week, 1 to 3 times a month, less often, never); Physical inactive population: share of population that indicated at least one day on one of the following three questions: “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do vigorous physical activity like lifting heavy things, digging, aerobics or fast cycling?”, “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do moderate physical activity like carrying light loads, cycling at normal pace or doubles tennis? Please do not

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include walking” and “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you walk for at least 10 min at a time?” (Answering possibilities: number of days a week or never); ∗ Numbers for United Kingdom Sources a Eurostat (2019b); b Eurostat (2019c); c The World Bank (2019); d Eurostat (2019d); e Eurostat (2019a); f IHRSA (2018); g Deloitte & EuropeActive (2018); h WHO (2019); i European Commission (2018)

Covering a broad range of activities, there is no single, agreed definition of fitness activity in England. Sport England has adopted a broad definition covering activities undertaken in any setting with the intention of improving or maintaining an individual’s physical fitness. Although dominated by gym-based and instructor-led activities, Sport England’s definition also covers other forms of fitness activity. However, for consistency with other contributions to this book, the analysis focuses on fitness activities that take place either exclusively or predominantly in indoor fitness centres. On this basis, the UK private health and fitness club market is the second largest in Europe (Deloitte & EuropeActive, 2018), estimated to be worth between e3.7 billion (Mintel, 2018) and e5.2 billion (Deloitte & EuropeActive, 2018). UK Companies House (2018) data includes 7,053 registered health and fitness companies (SIC code 93130) actively operating across the UK, employing 57,000 health and fitness instructors (ONS, 2017 [SOC code - 3443]) and serving between 5.8 million (Mintel, 2018) and 9.7 million health and fitness members (Deloitte & EuropeActive, 2018). Despite varying estimates of its scale, the emergence of fitness as one of the most popular participation activities in the UK is clear. In the absence of a suitable UK wide dataset, national datasets from England are used to explore the nature of the health and fitness ecosystem and its consumers’ behaviours. Utilising the socioecological systems model (Bronfenbrenner, 1974) the chapter outlines trends in individual engagement in England and the nature and provision of the physical facilities before discussing how the broader policy domain has influenced the fitness industry.

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Theoretical and Conceptual Framework The socioecological systems model (Bronfenbrenner, 1974) is utilised to identify the agentic and structural factors that contribute to the current trends and patterns in health and fitness behaviours. It is a general system theory that facilitates understanding through a holistic approach to human development in context (Bronfenbrenner, 1974). Vélez-Agosto, Soto-Crespo, Vizcarrondo-Oppenheimer, Vega-Molina and García Coll (2017) argue that Bronfenbrenner’s model can both guide research and be incorporated in social policy and programme analysis to frame ways of thinking about how cultures operate in everyday activity to serve communities (Fig. 7.1). The model assumes individuals have a degree of agency over their lives but this is exercised within the constraining forces of social and organisational structures. It has influenced several areas of health research which seek to understand an individual’s role and behaviour in relation to the context surrounding them (e.g. Jason, Carr, Washington, Hilliard, & Mingo, 2017; King, Stokols, Talen, Brassington, & Killingsworth, 2002; Stokols, 1996) including the determinants of physical activity (Welk, 1999). The model has been used to identify key factors influencing physical activity, recognising the roles of the individual microsystem (e.g. sex, beliefs and attitudes and behaviours), the social environmental mesosystem (e.g. family, teachers and peers), the physical environmental exosystem (e.g. availability of equipment and facilities) and the overall societal cultural macrosystem (e.g. national and cultural norms, laws and rules) (McLeroy, Bibeau, Steckler, & Glanz, 1988). This chapter expands this research by relating interactions between individuals and their environment to fitness trends.

Material and Method The analysis uses data from two national surveys and a national facilities database. Analysis of behavioural change over time is based on data from Sport England’s Active People Survey (APS) with further analysis of the

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Fig. 7.1 The ecological theory of human development (Source Bronfenbrenner [1974])

current popularity, profile of participants and the nature of their engagement based on data from Sport England’s Active Lives Adult survey. To explore the physical environment, data from Sport England’s Active Places database is used for analysis of the supply of health and fitness facilities. APS is used for analysis of change over time because ten annual waves of the survey were completed between 2005/2006 and 2015/2016. The Active Lives Adult survey replaced APS and 2016/17 data provides the current picture of engagement in England. For both APS and the Active

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Lives Adult survey, the sample universe comprised all individuals aged 16+ living in England. Further information can be found in each survey’s technical report (Ipsos MORI, 2018; TNS BMRB, 2017). The measure of engagement used for the APS time series is the proportion of people taking part for at least 30 min on four or more occasions in the previous 28 days. This was the main measure of engagement used over the life of the survey. For the Active Lives analysis, the proportion of people taking part at least twice in the last 28 days is the main measure of activity-specific engagement. Methodological differences and different measures of engagement mean levels of engagement in activities recorded by the two surveys are not directly comparable. Analysis and discussion focuses on the relative differences between activities/groups and where relevant how these have changed over time. The Active Places database includes information on a wide range of sports facilities, including health and fitness facilities, in England. The database now holds data on 30,000 sites, and includes facilities owned and managed by the private, public and third sectors. The analysis uses Active Places database facility information from August 2017.

Trends in Demand The Growing and Changing Demand for Fitness The overall level of engagement in sport and engagement levels between different sport and fitness activities varies greatly. To enable meaningful comparison, relative change over time is sometimes presented and discussed alongside absolute levels of change over time. According to APS, the proportion of adults in England taking part in sport at least once a week increased from 34.6% in 2005/2006 to 36.1% in 2015/2016 (absolute change +1.5%, relative change +4%). Over the same period, there was a greater increase in the proportion of adults taking part in keepfit and gym activities from 12.6 to 16.0% (absolute change +3.4%, relative change +27%) (Fig. 7.2).

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1.30

1.20

1.10

1.00

0.90

0.80 2005/06 2007/08 2008/09 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 2015/16 All Sports

Keepfit & Gym Activities

Fig. 7.2 Comparison of change (indexed) in engagement between sport and keepfit and gym activities (Source Sport England, Active People Survey [2016a])

Within keepfit and gym, the two largest activities are gym sessions and fitness classes. Between 2005/2006 and 2015/2016, the proportion of adults in England taking part in gym sessions increased from 9.0 to 9.8% (relative change +9%). Over the same period, APS records a greater increase in the proportion of adults taking part in fitness classes from 1.7 to 3.5% (relative change +109%). As well as an extensive database of sport and exercise activities, APS allowed respondents to report other new or less well-known activities they had taken part in. These “other” activities were regularly reviewed and where new activities were reported often enough a new code was added to the database. Over the period, a striking feature of the survey was the addition of several new keepfit and gym codes. In 2010 a code was added for Zumba, the proportion of adults taking part in this activity increased to 1.2% in 2011/2012 making it equivalent in popularity to badminton. In 2014/2015 activity codes were added for CrossFit, High Intensity Interval Training and Bootcamp/Military Fitness. In 2016, these activities were participated in by 0.2, 0.1% of the population, respectively, making them equivalent in popularity amongst adults to gymnastics. The more rapid growth observed in levels of engagement in keepfit and gym activities compared to the wider sport activities grouping appears to reflect a combination of factors. At an individual level, fitness

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activities are high in convenience factors (individual in nature, time efficient, low skill requirements) (Spiers, Harris, Charlton, & Smale, 2015) making it an easier choice for many people. At the exosystem level, fitness activity is characterised by significant private sector provision and a stronger tradition of product development and innovation. The emergence of new activities reflects the higher level of market orientation fitness organisations have. The growth in popularity of keepfit and gym activities recorded by APS has been observed across a wide range of sociodemographic characteristics (gender, age group, disability, social grade, ethnicity). Given increasing engagement amongst under-represented groups (e.g. lower socio-economic groups, women) is a policy priority for sport in England (Cabinet Office, 2015; Sport England, 2016b) this growth is welcome. However, this success is qualified by greater increases in fitness activity amongst other groups meaning clear inequalities remain between: • People from lower socio-economic groups (whose engagement increased from 9.3% in 2005/2006 to 11.5% in 2015/2016) and people from higher socio-economic groups (whose engagement increased from 14.6% in 2005/2006 to 18.1% in 2015/2016) • Older people aged 55+ (whose engagement increased from 6.1% in 2005/2006 to 8.9% in 2015/2016) and young people aged 16–34 (whose engagement increased from 18.6% in 2005/2006 to 22.6% in 2015/2016) • Disabled people (whose engagement increased from 5.3% in 2005/2006 to 7.5% in 2015/2016) and non-disabled people (whose engagement increased from 13.9% in 2005/2006 to 17.7% in 2015/2016). This pattern highlights the continued need for policies and interventions that support future growth in ways that reduce inequalities in engagement supporting the explicit priority given to this in England by both government (Cabinet Office, 2015) and Sport England (Sport England, 2016b). The public and third sectors have a particular role to complement private sector providers ultimately motivated by increasing market share and profits rather than broadening the benefits of engagement to all.

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The Current Demand for Fitness Fitness activities make a significant contribution to overall levels of engagement in sport and physical activity. Active Lives Adult (2016/2017) recorded that 29.5% of the adult population in England took part in fitness activities at least twice in the last 28 days. Only walking for leisure (41.6%), walking for travel (32.3%) and the broad “sporting activities” activity grouping (34.7%) had higher levels of engagement. Within these broad categories we observe that particular fitness activities also have widespread popularity compared with other major sports and activities. Whilst more people take part in running (15.4%) than either fitness classes (14.6%) or gym sessions (12.0%) both these fitness activities are more popular than cycling for leisure (11.1%), cycling for travel (7.1%), swimming (10.2%) and football (5.0%) (Table 7.1). Table 7.1 Engagement in selected sport and fitness activities 2016/2017 Walking for leisure Walking for travel Cycling for leisure Cycling for travel Creative of artistic dance Fitness activities Fitness class Gym session Exercise machines Weights session Interval training session Other fitness training Sporting activities Football Cricket Tennis Swimming Running Golf Source Sport England, Active Lives Adult (2018)

41.6 32.3 11.1 7.1 2.1 29.5 14.6 12.0 8.4 4.6 5.4 4.4 34.7 5.0 0.7 1.9 10.2 15.4 2.2

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As well as the significant overall contribution fitness activities make, it is important to understand the distinctive demographic profile of this engagement. Overall engagement in sport and physical activity is characterised by some clear demographic patterns: • People in lower socio-economic groups engage less (67% for NSSEC6–81 ) than those from higher socio-economic groups (85% for NSSEC1–21 ) • Men (78%) are more likely to engage than women (76%), especially in particular forms of sport and physical activity • Levels of engagement decrease with age (81% for 16–34 year olds, 74% for those aged 55 years and over) • People with a limiting illness or disability are much less likely to engage (61%) than those without a limiting illness or disability (81%) • People from a South Asian (69%) or Black (70%) background are less likely to engage than those from a white British (78%) background. Some of these patterns are also evident in the profile of those taking part in fitness activities, engagement in fitness activity: • Is lower amongst those from lower socio-economic groups (21% for NSSEC6–8, 36% for NSSEC1–2) • Decreases with age (36% for 16–34 year olds, 23% for those aged 55 years and over) • Is lower amongst those with a limiting illness or disability (19% for those with a limiting illness or disability, 32% for those without a limiting illness or disability). However, there are also important differences:

1The National Statistics Socio-economic classification (NSSEC) is widely used in the UK in both official statistics and academic research. NSSEC measures employment relations and conditions of occupations as these are central to socio-economic positions in modern societies and help to explain variations in social behaviour and other social phenomena. NSSEC1–2 refers to managerial, administrative and professional occupations. NSSEC6–8 refers to semi-routine and routine occupations and those who have never worked or are long-term unemployed.

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• Women (32%) are more likely to take part in fitness activities than men (27%) • People from a South Asian (30%) or Black (31%) background are just as likely to take part as those from a white British background (29%). Within the broad category of fitness activities we also observe some interesting characteristics for more specific types of activity: • With 5.2% of people from NSSEC1–2 compared with 4.0% of people from NSSEC6–8, the extent to which engagement in weight training declines by socio-economic group is far smaller than for other forms of sport and physical activity • Women (20.9%) are much more likely to take part in fitness classes than men (7.9%) • With 15.3% of 16–34 year olds compared with 13.3% of people aged 55+, the extent to which engagement in fitness classes declines with age is far smaller than for other forms of sport and physical activity. The factors responsible for these distinctive patterns in engagement in fitness activities are varied and operate at different levels within the socioecological model. At the exosystem level, the recent growth of lowcost gym providers within the UK fitness market (Mintel, 2018) is likely to have been both a response to and also a driver of demand amongst people from lower socio-economic groups. Fitness class provision has a long tradition of providing dance-based activities (e.g. aerobics, Zumba) and classes (e.g. bums, legs and tums) specifically focused on addressing body image concerns more commonly held by women. Including popular activities such as yoga, Pilates and Tai Chi, the breadth of fitness class provision includes more suitable opportunities for engagement than other forms of sport and physical activity as people age. These characteristics should be of interest to policy makers seeking to address inequalities in engagement in sport and physical activity between demographic groups. Active Lives Adult builds a detailed picture of activity by collecting the frequency and duration of engagement in each activity the individual has

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taken part in. Comparison of each of these elements shows some interesting similarities and differences between fitness activities and a range of popular sports. Engagement in fitness activities is characterised by its high frequency and relatively short duration. Of those who take part in fitness activities, most (85%) did so on four or more occasions in the previous 28 days. This was higher than running (74%), football (63%), swimming (55%), golf (52%), tennis (49%) and cricket (48%). The typical time spent on each session of fitness activity (75% of sessions are 60 minutes or less) was amongst the shortest of the activities, only running had a higher proportion of sessions of 60 minutes or less (84%) whilst only swimming (76%) was comparable to fitness activities. The other activities had a lower proportion of sessions of 60 minutes or less (football 42%, tennis 41%, cricket 27%, golf 16%). It is noteworthy that fitness activities share characteristics with running and supporting the contention that, as has been observed of running (Spiers et al., 2015), fitness activities tend to be “convenience-rich” and, in line with the conclusions of Devereux-Fitzgerald, Powell, Dewhurst, and French (2016) that the specific nature of a physical activity may be key to its participation levels.

Trends in Supply The provision and availability of fitness spaces influence whether individuals participate in fitness activities (Wicker Breuer, & Pawlowski, 2009). Several studies have concluded that facility proximity influences individual physical activity level (e.g. Eriksson, Arvidsson, & Sundquist, 2012; Panter & Jones, 2008) and Mintel (2018) reports that proximity is a greater driver for fitness membership than price. The Active Places database (2017) shows there are 7,326 facilities operational in England with rapid growth since 2000. The Leisure Database Company (2018) reports that 83% of the UK population now live within 2 miles of a fitness facility. This scale of, and growth in, supply is consistent with the high and increasing levels of engagement in fitness activities. Wicker, Hallmann, and Breuer (2013) asserts that along with location the nature of accessible facilities influences an individual’s levels

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and type of participation. The Active Places database (2017) highlights that commercial organisations both own and manage the largest proportion of health and fitness facilities in England (44% ownership, 48% management) with education organisations and local government also owning a significant proportion (education 31%, local authorities 16%). It is also well documented that organisations involved in managing and sustaining publicly funded sport and leisure facilities within the UK have been under prolonged pressure to change due to an ageing municipal sport and leisure facility infrastructure (Audit Commission, 2006; Carter, 2005; Sport Scotland, 2001; 2006), a scarcity of state financial resources (Audit Commission, 2006; Andreff, 2009) and the increasing diversity of activity provision demanded by consumers. In response, as private sector provision has continued to grow publicly funded organisations have shown signs of retreat from direct provision (Leisure Database Company, 2018) and developed increasingly commercial and entrepreneurial approaches to ensure their sustainability and survival. Utilising a causal logic lens (development to meet consumer demand) it can be argued that the ongoing growth of fitness facilities is a systematic reaction to consumers’ needs and latent demand. Innovation, design and development of facilities and services is as a direct result high levels of market orientation (e.g. Agarwal, Krishna Erramilli, & Dev, 2003; Aldas-Manzano, Küster, & Vila, 2005) whereby consulting with and understanding the nature of how consumers wish to take part in physical activity organisations have responded by providing relevant products and services. For example, spaces and activities are designed to cater for common motivators such as social, health, achievement, enjoyment and fun and to overcome the most common barriers such as time, location and cost (e.g. Allender, Cowburn, & Foster, 2006; Baert, Gorus, Mets, Geerts, & Bautmans, 2011; Capel, Schnittert, Snow, & Vyas, 2015). In contrast, effectual logic (development that drives consumer choice) advocates that entrepreneurial action emerges from experimentation and ideation (Sarasvathy, 2001) in response to the available resources (e.g. human, social and manufactured capital) (Smolka, Verheul, & Burmeister-Lamp, 2015). For example, in recent years the health and fitness industry has benefitted from access to industrial/retail units

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through high street closures (Mintel, 2018) and a shift towards smaller fitness facilities with 65% of health and fitness facilities in England now having fewer than 50 stations (Leisure Database Company, 2018). As such, the continued growth in fitness activities can, in part, be attributed to commercially focused organisations engaged in service innovation (Berry, Wall, & Carbone, 2006) designing or repurposing spaces, activities and business models with the aim of directing physical activity habits to maximise the use and income potential of these spaces. Perry, Chandler, and Markova (2012) argue that causal and effectual logics should not be seen as two sides of a continuum and within the UK fitness industry it can be argued that organisations have applied both logics simultaneously (Sarasvathy, 2001). Not bound by the structures often associated with traditional sports, fitness organisations have had the freedom and commercial incentive to be creative in their service design and provision. The facility spaces and activities that have been conceived are therefore a direct result of higher levels of market orientation (e.g. consumer understanding) coupled with resource and business drivers. The resulting fitness business ecosystem is both able to respond to consumers’ needs but also direct and influence the activity behaviours of the population through the products and resources provided. The current supply of fitness activities in England has also found the prevailing policy and cultural domains conducive. It can be noted that the increasing importance of economic drivers in the last forty years has affected the climate of the UK sporting, health and fitness ecosystem. The actions of successive UK governments in introducing legislation such as Compulsory Competitive Tendering (1988) and Best Value (Armstrong, 1997) have opened sport and fitness services up to market competition and have subsequently refocused organisations’ objectives towards accountability, transparency and efficiency (Robinson, 2004). In response, organisations have had to prioritise income generation (Ravenscroft, 2004) and consumer-focused services. Sport and leisure facility providers have been exposed to an increasingly commercialised delivery environment (Smith & Stewart, 2010; Szymanski, 2009) resulting in a business ecosystem that is more independent, consumer focused and open to market forces. Societal-level factors and social norms may also affect physical activity (Bauman et al., 2012) where the policy climate

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has acted as a catalyst for broader social change in which consumers feel empowered to demand alternative forms of facilities and services. Within this broader context, fitness activities have been well placed to grow in popularity with both consumers and providers.

Conclusion In England, fitness activities have grown in popularity since 2005. The rate of growth has been faster than in other sports activities. This has further established their importance as a major form of engagement in sport and physical activity that can contribute to health, well-being and the economy. As well as their overall and growing popularity, fitness activities are of particular interest to policy makers because of their appeal to particular demographic groups that are under-represented in sport (e.g. women, people from black and Asian backgrounds) presenting opportunities to ensure the benefits of sport and physical activity are enjoyed more widely across the whole population. Socioecological systems are complex both in their nature and how they develop over time. It is probably neither possible nor fruitful to attempt to fully understand how the interplay of factors at different levels has led to the current position. However, the socioecological systems model (Bronfenbrenner, 1974) provides a useful framework to discuss both the overall level and specific characteristics of engagement in fitness activities and their provision. At the agentic levels of the model, the breadth and diversity of fitness activities means that from tai chi to HIIT and from kettlebells to inclusive fitness equipment there is “something for everyone”. This is complemented by a dynamic exosystem of private, public and third sector suppliers providing plentiful, convenient (proximity, opening times) and appealing opportunities to engage. At a structural level, the supply of fitness activities has developed a strong market orientation that is not only able to respond to consumers’ needs but also identify opportunities to shape them. A long-term shift in government policy has also facilitated the growth of the fitness industry in the public and third sector as well as the private sector.

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With the value of the UK fitness sector expected to grow to e4.0 billion by 2022 (Mintel, 2018), effective policies must be developed to not only ensure balanced resource flows and competitive dynamics that sustain the fitness industry and wider sporting business ecosystem (Aaldering, Leker, & Song, 2018) but also contribute to wider policy imperatives such as addressing inequalities in engagement.

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8 Fitness in Finland: Department Stores of Healthy Life Styles Antti Laine and Hanna Vehmas

Introduction Along with other countries in Europe and around the world, also in Finland the fitness sector has become one of the most visible forms of physical activity and sport participation of the citizens (Laine, 2017; Laine & Vehmas, 2017a, 2017b). Until the 1980s, fitness was mainly associated with traditional old school gym training and weight lifting. Nowadays, fitness comprises a growing sport and health industry that attracts a great number of sport participants.

A. Laine (B) · H. Vehmas University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland e-mail: [email protected] H. Vehmas e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 J. Scheerder et al. (eds.), The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53348-9_8

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Country Facts Geographical, demographical and economic indicators Capital Geographical size (km2 ; 2014)a Population (2019)b Urbanization rate (%; 2018)c GDP (euro per capita; 2018)d Annual net earnings average (Single person without children, 100% of AW, in euro; 2018)e EU membership since Health and sports-related indicators Prevalence of overweight among adults (BMI ≥ 25, %; 2016)h Share of physical inactive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)i Share of sportive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)i Fitness-related indicators Percentage of total population with fitness club membership (2017)f Percentage of population (aged 15 or older) with fitness club membership (2017)g Fitness club members (2017)f Numbers of fitness clubs (2017)f Fitness and health club industry revenue (excl. VAT, million euro; 2017)g Average membership fee/month (incl. VAT, euro; 2017)g Average membership fee as percentage of disposable income (%; 2017)g

Helsinki 338,435 5,517,919 85.4 36,600 30,805.87 1995 62.5 7.2 84.1 16.8 20.0 923,000 1,538 476 43.0 2.1

Notes Sportive population: share of population that did not indicate “never” on the question: “How often do you exercise or play sport?” (Answering possibilities: 5 times a week or more, 3 to 4 times a week, 1 to 2 times a week, 1 to 3 times a month, less often, never); Physical inactive population: share of population that indicated at least one day on one of the following three questions: “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do vigorous physical activity like lifting heavy things, digging, aerobics or fast cycling?”, “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do moderate physical activity like carrying light loads, cycling at normal pace or doubles tennis? Please do not include walking.” and “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you walk for at least 10 minutes at a time?” (Answering possibilities: number of days a week or never). Sources a Eurostat (2019b); b Eurostat (2019c); c The World Bank (2019); d Eurostat (2019d); e Eurostat (2019a); f IHRSA (2018); g EHFMR (2018); h WHO (2019); i European Commission (2018)

Fitness in Finland can be defined by using the following three indoor fitness facility subcategories, depending on the size and type of the facility: fitness centre, gym and weight training hall . Fitness centres are

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those facilities that have the most diverse supply of services (e.g. group exercise premises). Gyms are categorized as smaller fitness facilities that have more limited supply of services. Weight training halls are traditional gyms that are equipped for weightlifting and boxing. (Lipas, 2018a.) The increasing popularity of fitness training in Finland can be explained by a number of interrelated factors. The so-called healthyfication of the postmodern societies is evident also in Finland as in many other parts of the world nowadays. Health promotion, good looking appearance and counterbalancing the effects of ageing are important motives of sport participation for Finns (see European Commission, 2010, 2014, 2018). Healthy and physically active lifestyle has become a trend that is followed especially by citizens from higher socioeconomic groupings. Living healthy is a norm in the Finnish society, which is also seen in government initiatives and programmes. Moreover, healthy lifestyle is seen to contribute to creating a society with effective and productive employees who prolong their working careers and age actively and independently. These together with the commercialization of the sport participation, have had an impact in the development of the fitness industry especially since 1990s. The Finnish sport system consists of three major elements: firstly, voluntarism in sport clubs, secondly, public sector involvement with government subsidies of municipalities and thirdly, the private sector’s offering of sport-related business opportunities and support of professional sport. The voluntary sector, which is also known as the third sector or the civic sector or the non-profit sector, includes sport clubs and other voluntary organizations that organize physical activities for the citizens. The public sector on the other hand consists primarily of the state and municipalities, whose main responsibilities are to provide the citizens with sporting possibilities by subsidizing facility contraction and club activities. The private sector in turn comprises those persons and organizations who are seeking financial gain by offering sport products and services. (See Ilmanen, 2015; Laine, 2017; Vehmas & Ilmanen, 2017.) Historically the physical culture in Finland has been formed around the civic activities in which the non-profit sport clubs are major actors. At the same time the state has provided municipalities with public sport facilities. In recent years, however, the state and municipal economy have

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been in decline and because of that also municipal sport services have been forced to make cutbacks, making room for the market-based sport service production in the private sector. This has had obvious implications also to the growth of fitness industry (Laine, 2017). Despite the economic downturn, the sport industry has been in a strong upward trend for many years (Kosonen, 2014, 5−7). It seems that the production of sport services is to a large extent independent from the short-term cyclical fluctuations. Some explanations stem from the changes in the leisure consumption structure, tax-free sport vouchers, and a positive trend in consumer purchasing power. Sport vouchers are payment tools exempt from VAT that employers can obtain for their employees. The precondition for the voucher system, based on the Income Tax Act, is that the benefits must be organized by the employer and offered to the entire staff. (Lith, 2013, 2, 10.) Many employers feel that sport vouchers are more cost-effective than investing in their own sport facilities and simpler to operate than drafting bilateral agreements with service providers. From the employee’s point of view, the important benefit of the vouchers is that they provide variety in the options for engaging in physical activities. (Laine, 2017.) The position of the private sport sector has also been reinforced by the changes in the nature of voluntary activities. Voluntary work has started to obtain market-based and consumer-like features in Finland. Customer-oriented thinking has become more common. People do not commit to their activities in the same manner as before. The services that were previously produced by volunteers are currently settled by payments. (Laine, 2017.) In this change fitness clubs have succeeded in offering their “loose commitment” memberships at various price and contract levels and for versatile set of consumers.

Materials and Method In Finland, there are no so-called sport satellite accounts which collect statistics specifically on the economic and employment effects of sport. With the help of satellite accounts it is possible to measure the economic impact of such business sectors that are an amalgam of industries.

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Fitness is such business sector. There are, for example, various types of fitness facilities, fitness equipment industry, sport technological accessories, clothing industry and personal training. In this article main focus is on fitness facilities. Statistics about fitness facilities and their usage in Finland are fragmental. For this presentation three different statistical sources are utilized. These are Statistics Finland’s structural business and financial statement statistics; national sport facility database Lipas and company information database Voitto+. In addition some general statistics about Finland are utilized. Essential sources are also the European Health & Fitness Market Reports (EHFMR), produced annually since 2014 by EuropeActive1 and Deloitte. EHFMR contains current information on the main European health and fitness industry markets, the major club operators in Europe and their recent merger and acquisition activities, as well as a snapshot of the leading equipment manufacturers. Finland is one of the countries that have been examined in detail in EHFMR. The most consistent information about the numeric changes of the private fitness facility companies in Finland is offered by the structural business and financial statement statistics. All companies operating in Finland are compiled in the statistics according to their economic activity based on Standard Industrial Classification TOL 2008, which is the Finnish equivalent of the Statistical classification of economic activities in the European Community (NACE Rev. 2, 2008) (see Eurostat, 2018). One of the ten directly sport-related classes in TOL 2008 is Fitness facilities (code: 93130). From TOL 2008, it is possible to find the following statistical information of each categorized class: number of companies, turnover, total number of personnel and sum of salaries. However, some shortcomings in the statistics based on TOL 2008 need to be taken into account. What is central, is that many companies operate on several business fields, but are classified only to a certain business field. For example numerous fitness facilities are run by companies that have a wide range of sport businesses. Several companies are classified—instead of to class Fitness facilities—into another TOL 2008 1 EuropeActive,

formerly the European Health and Fitness Association (EHFA), is a non-profit organization representing the whole of the European health and fitness sector.

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class, often to Operation of sport facilities (93110) or to Activities of sport clubs (93120). Another statistical shortcoming is that some companies are clearly classified into an incorrect TOL 2008 class, most likely because classification is usually based on companies’ own categorization of the economic activity. All companies are not well aware of this statistical classification. Or it might be also that the business activity of the company has changed since the company was established. In addition, from the perspective of this article, key limitation in the usage of those statistics is that only companies are included and the amount of business locations of each company is not registered. Despite these shortcomings and limitations, statistics according to TOL 2008 illustrate well the changes in the different business fields over the years. In this article the structural business and financial statement statistics data of fitness facilities are presented from the period of 2007−2016. Complete and current information about the number of all fitness facilities in Finland can be obtained from Lipas database. Lipas Liikuntapaikat.fi is a national database of Finland’s all open to general public 2 sport facilities, routes for outdoor activities and recreation areas. In Lipas, different sport facilities are categorized by their type. Database includes also additional information, for example about facilities’ location (e.g. province or municipality) and ownership (e.g. state, municipality, private limited company or registered association). Classification consists of eight main categories, out of which one is indoor sport facilities. This main category includes three indoor fitness facility subcategories, depending on the size and type of the facility: fitness centre, gym and weight training hall . (Lipas, 2018a.) Lipas data of those three fitness facility subcategories are presented in this article. Voitto+ is a business economics database that contains financial data of Finnish companies. Database is produced annually by a business and credit information company Suomen Asiakastieto (CD-ROM subject to charge). In this article Finland’s ten largest fitness facilities by revenue are presented according to companies’ latest available financial statements in Voitto+ 1/2018 (depending on the company 2016 or 2017 financial 2 Facilities

that are either free or that sell pay-per visits/memberships without requiring other purchases (e.g. room in hotel). Facilities are classified separately in the database, even though those would be part of other facility (e.g. a gym part of a swimming hall).

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statements). In addition to revenue, companies’ financial result, profitability and amount of business locations are examined. Financial figure that is used to measure companies’ profitability is EBITDA−%3 . Business location information has been searched from companies’ websites (August 2018) as it is not available in Voitto+. All the largest fitness facilities have been taken into account regardless to which TOL 2008 business field those are classified. It is mentioned separately if the company is not concentrating solely on fitness business. Fitness equipment companies are not included. Statistics are used in this article in a descriptive way. All the databases exploited are based on complete enumeration and statistical tests are thus not required.

Demand of Fitness in Finland Finns have long been considered as a physically active nation, ranking alongside other Nordic countries among the top sport participation countries in Europe for many years (European Commission, 2014, 2018; Gratton, Rowe, & Veil, 2011). The most popular forms of sport and physical activity among Finnish adults are walking, cycling, gym training, cross-country skiing and running. Especially gym training and running have increased their participants during this millennium (Kansallinen liikuntatutkimus 2009−2010, 2010). According to the latest Eurobarometer 17% of Finns reported to exercise at least five times each week and 52% between one and four times a week, both which are above the European averages (European Commission, 2018). Although sport participation among Finnish adults increased during the 1970s and 1980s, subsequent changes have been minimal and the earlier increases have stagnated. Simultaneously, daily physical activity among Finns has decreased, which indicates that although more Finns participate in sport and exercise, the population as

3 EBITDA

(Earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization) shows how much of the company’s revenue remains uncovered after the reduction of the company’s operating costs. EBITDA−% = 100 × EBITDA/revenue. EBITDA−% = EBITDA margin.

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a whole has become more sedentary in everyday life. Indeed, every fifth Finnish adult is totally sedentary during leisure. (Borodulin et al., 2015.) As far as fitness participation, in 2009–2010 gym training was the third most popular form of physical activity among Finnish adults (19– 65 yrs.). The share of adult exercisers using private sport facilities rose during the first decade of the 2000s from four to 15 per cent. Among children and youth gym training was the 13th most popular form of sport. Gym training is also frequently participated by the senior citizens (65+). Between 1994 and 2010 gym training had increased its adult participants by 89% and among children and youth by 174%. (Kansallinen liikuntatutkimus 2009–2010, 2010.) (See Table 8.1.) Unfortunately, this national sport survey has not been conducted after 2010. Nevertheless, there is other information available. Based on the Finnish Tax Administration, the number of fitness centre users has more than tripled in Finland in the 2000s (Lith, 2013, 2). This is supported also by European Health & Fitness Market Report (EHFMR), which indicates that Finland has been among the fastest growing fitness markets in Europe in recent years. The amount of health and fitness club members in the country was 630,000 in 2014, 680,000 in 2015, 735,000 in 2016 and 923,000 in 2017, which equals to 16.8% of the total population and 20.0% of the population aged 15 years and older. Thus, during the four-year period (2014−2017) the amount has increased by 46.5%. Out of the total population, health or fitness club membership penetration rate grew in the same period from 11.5 to 16.8%. In 2018 there were 1538 fitness clubs in Finland with 600 members per club. (EHFMR, 2018.) Table 8.1 Amount of gym participants in Finland in 1994–2010 3–18-yrs. 19–65-yrs. 66–79-yrs. Total

1994

1997–1998

2001–2002

2005–2006

2009–2010

23,000 377,000 n/a 400,000

38,000 341,000 n/a 379,000

35,000 359,000 n/a 394,000

50,000 524,000 69,000 643,000

63,000 713,000 69,000 845,000

Note n/a = not available Source Kansallinen liikuntatutkimus 2009–2010 (2010)

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A survey about adult Finns’ sport participation was published in May 2019 including the most recent information about fitness participation. According to this survey, in 2018, gym training was the second most popular sport activity with 709,000 participants. For women gym training was the second most popular physical activity after walking, and for men the third most popular physical activity after walking and cycling. In different age groups, gym training was the second most popular among 15–34 and 35–54-year-old Finns, and the third most popular activity among Finns 55+ years. Out of all fitness participants, 73% went to gym at least once a week, 16% 1–3 times a month and ten per cent less than once a month. Regarding the average duration of one exercise session 27% exercised 1–2-hours, 65% 30 to 60 minutes and eight per cent 30 minutes or less at a time. On average Finns participated in gym/fitness training one hours and 41 minutes per week. Commercial providers appear to be the most common places to participate, as 39% of the fitness, and 26% of the gym training takes place in private sector facilities. (Mononen, Blomqvist, Hakamäki, Laine, & Mäkinen, 2019.)

Supply of Fitness in Finland The overall number of sport industry companies and personnel in Finland has increased clearly between 2002 and 2011. In 2002 there were 3,952 companies in the sport sector, which employed 11,853 people. In 2011, the corresponding figures were 5,317 companies and 17,039 employees. (Gholamzadeh Fasandoz, 2016, 79–83.) Also the number of both fitness facilities and staff working in the facilities has grown hugely in Finland during this millennium. For example in 2007, the industry by the classification for fitness facilities (TOL 93130) covered 179 companies with the total revenue of 69.5 million euros. At that time, the companies employed 829 people. By 2016, both the number of companies (453) and the number of employees in those companies (2005) had approximately 2.5-folded. In the same period companies’ revenues had more than tripled to 217.5 million euros. (Laine, 2017; Statistics Finland, 2013, 2018a.) The data for 2007– 2016 has been summarized in Table 8.2. It is important to take into

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Table 8.2 Fitness facilities (TOL code 93130) in Finland in 2007–2016 Year

Companies

Staff

Revenue

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

(n) 179 219 267 285 314 337 353 388 426 453

(n) 829 1,045 1,244 1,368 1,507 1,487 1,677 1,631 1,807 2,005

(1000 e) 69,485 91,447 114,461 122,202 134,634 148,365 162,234 184,043 197,705 217,509

Source Statistics Finland (2013, 2018a)

consideration that in the same period of time Finland’s population grew only by less than four percentages, from 5.3 to 5.5 million (Statistics Finland, 2018b). According to Lipas database there are currently (August 2018) 427 fitness centres, 1,261 gyms and 128 weight training halls in Finland. This makes in total 1,816 indoor fitness facilities. (Lipas, 2018b.) In Table 8.3 those facilities are classified according to their ownership. Out of all indoor fitness facilities in Finland 47% are owned by private limited companies (n = 854), 43% by public sector (n = 779) and rest ten per cent (n = 183) by registered associations and other actors. Table 8.3 Indoor fitness facilities (n) in Finland according their type and ownera Owner Type of facility

Private

Public

Association

Other

Total

Fitness centre Gym Weight training hall Total

421 395 38 854

1 703 75 779

3 128 11 142

2 35 4 41

427 1,261 128 1,816

a Private

includes facilities where major owner is private limited company. Public includes facilities where major owner is state or municipality. Association includes facilities where major owner is registered association or foundation. Other includes facilities where owner is other than previously mentioned or where owner information is not available. Source Lipas (2018b)

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Almost all (98.6%) indoor fitness centres are owned by private limited companies. Around one third (31.3%) of the indoor gyms are owned by private limited companies (n = 395), 55.7% by public sector (n = 703) and 12.9% by registered associations and other actors (n = 163). Respective owner proportions for indoor weight training halls are 29.7% by private, 58.6% by public and 11.7% by associations and other actors. (See Table 8.3.) Fitness facilities are spread evenly across the country according to the population. Finland is divided into 19 provinces (including the autonomy region of Åland Islands). In the province of Uusimaa (most southern and most populated province) the difference between the proportion of population and the proportion of fitness facilities is largest in the country: 30.2% of the population lives in the province of Uusimaa and 28.9% of the country’s fitness facilities are located there. In all the other provinces corresponding difference is below that. (Lipas, 2018b; Statistics Finland, 2018c.) Figure 8.1 shows by province the population (colour on the map) and the total number of fitness centres, gyms and weight training facilities (number on the map) in Finland in 2018.

Business Activities of Fitness in Finland In 2017 the average monthly fitness club membership fee in Finland was 43 euros (incl. VAT), which was 2.1% of the disposable monthly income per person. Compared to three years earlier, average monthly membership fee has decreased by 8.5 euros (51.5 euros in 2014). The market volume in terms of total revenues in 2017 were estimated at 476 million euros (excl. VAT4 ), which was up 22.7% from 2013. The membership and total revenue growth as well as the decrease of the average monthly fee can be attributed primarily to the continued growth of the low-cost segment. In those facilities gross membership fees amount to 30 euros per month or less and the services offered mostly focus on pure fitness and are aimed at more price-sensitive customers. In the medium-cost segment 4The standard VAT rate in Finland is 24%, but a discounted rate of 10% applies to physical exercise service sector (e.g. fitness memberships).

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Fig. 8.1 Population and the total number of fitness centres, gyms and weight training facilities by province in Finland 2018

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fees are 30–65 euros per month and in the premium-cost segment more than 65 euros per month. (EHFMR, 2016, 108–109, 2017, 138–139, 2018, 136–137, 174.) However, it is difficult to categorize the service providers by a certain price segment. As competition in the field is tough, many fitness centres offer a variety of services and price packages. For example some of those facilities that used to be in the premium segment have had to cut prices and loosen their membership terms. On the other hand, profiling and specialisation is nowadays important as more expensive facilities have to separate their brand image from the low-cost segment. Most typically this is done by offering personal training, but also physiotherapy services, small group training and yoga studios. (See Lähteenmäki, 2017.) Finland’s largest fitness facilities (limited companies) are presented in Table 8.4. Companies are listed by revenue, according to their latest available financial statements (2016 or 2017) in Voitto+ business economics database (Suomen Asiakastieto, 2018). Subsidiaries have not been considered. For example, the figures of GoGo Liikuntakeskus Oy do not include the GoGo Express fitness centres, as they belong to a different company (GoGo Express Oy). In recent years, the growth in fitness business in Finland has concentrated around the industry’s largest players. In 2014, a “giant” was born when the major Nordic companies Sats and Elixia merged. With the merger, they are part of the Health & Fitness Nordic (HFN), which is owned by private equity investors.5 With 560,000 members in Sweden (215,000), Norway (285,000) and Finland (61,000) HFN was the largest fitness operator in the Nordic countries in 2017 and the seventh largest in the European market. The company ranked fourth in Europe in terms of revenues with 349 million euros. (See EHFMR, 2018, 38.)

5 HFN

(then including SATS, Fresh Fitness and Metropolitan brands) merged with Elixia Nordic. The private equity group Altor Equity Partners, previously the sole owner of Elixia Nordic, received 51% of HFN shares, while 49% remained with HFN’s previous owner, the Danish insurance group TryghedsGruppen. HFN which had previously been active in four Scandinavian countries, divested its Danish operations following the merger. The Danish business of Fresh Fitness was sold to market leader Fitness World in December 2014. (EHFMR, 2018, 38.) However, HFN went back to the Danish markets as Danish fitness chain fitness.dk became part of SATS in 2018.

Elixia, Elixia Base Fressi, Fressi24 Fitness24Seven GoGo Express Motivus GoGo Hukka Forever M&M Kuntotalo Forever Forever

SATS Finland Oy Fysioline Fressi Oy Fitness24Seven Oy GoGo Express Oy Kuntokumppanit Oy GoGo Liikuntakeskus Oy Hukka Oy Forever Helsinki Oy Nelipro Oy Forever Varisto Oy Forever Hiekkaharju Oy

33,674 20,652 12,094 4,605 4,020 3,728 2,916 2,489 2,408 2,357 2,066

Revenue (1000e)

EBITDA−% 5,9 9,4 15,8 43,7 2,1 18,2 14,1 15,2 16,9 30 14,2

Result (1000e) −1,652 +1,055 +1,336 +1,401 −45 +602 +136 +1 +252 +1 +1

29 29 45 8 3 3 3 3 3 1 1

Locations∗ (n)

93,110 93,130 93,120 93,130 93,130 93,120 93,110 93,130 93,130 93,130 93,130

TOL 2008 class

Sources Suomen Asiakastieto (2018); ∗ business location information from companies’ websites 8/2018

Brand

Company

Table 8.4 The largest fitness facilities by revenue in Finland in 2016/2017 2016 2016 2017 2016 2016 2016 2017 2016 2017 2016 2016

Year

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Before the above-mentioned merger Sats had made heavy losses in the Finnish market. From its founding year in Finland until the merger (2003–2014), it did not make profit in any single year. The losses that it managed to accumulate over ten years amounted to around 24 million euros. On the other hand, the profitability of Elixia in the Finnish market was very good. (Ojanen, 2014.) In other Nordic countries, especially in Sweden, the situation before the merger was an exact opposite: Elixia was much smaller and unprofitable, while Sats was larger and more profitable (Laine, 2015). At present, the brand of the company in Finland is Elixia, in Sweden Sats and in Norway SatsElixia. The merger of Sats and Elixia has not had desired economic effect in Finland. By revenue Sats Finland Oy is the largest fitness chain in Finland, but it has been unprofitable. In 2016 revenue was 33.7 million euros and result 1.65 million euros negative. However, after the merger, company’s EBITDA−% has turned to positive: in 2014 it was −27.0, in 2015 +2.3 and in 2016 +5.9. (See Table 8.3; Kuittinen, 2017; Suomen Asiakastieto, 2018.) Another of the largest fitness facilities called Motivus (company Kuntokumppanit Oy, founded already in the beginning of 1980s) has had serious economic problems recently. It closed two of its five business locations in 2018 and started re-organizing its activities. Before that its revenue had reduced by a fifth in five years. (Virtanen, 2018.) One of the key reasons for the difficulties of these companies is the growth of the low-cost segment. Elixias’ parent company, Health and Fitness Nordic, has tried to adapt to the situation by turning also to the low-cost markets. In 2018 it re-branded its Fresh Fitness chain and started a more affordable Elixia Base concept. Seven of the 29 Elixia business locations in Finland are Elixia Base centres at the moment. (See Elixia, 2018.) Despite the problems of the above-mentioned companies, many of the fitness centres have been profitable in recent years in Finland. Under the merger, Sats sold four of its business locations to a Finnish-owned Fysioline Fressi Oy, which is by revenue (20.7 million euros in 2016) the second largest fitness chain in Finland. It has made excellent financial results in several years. Since acquiring facilities from Sats, it has continued to expand with corporate acquisitions and has nowadays more affordable Fressi24 concept together with the premium concept.

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The clear difference between Elixia and Fressi is that Elixia is geographically more concentrated: 21 of the 29 Elixia centres in Finland are located in the metropolitan area (Helsinki, Espoo and Vantaa) and remaining eight in three other cities. Out of the 29 Fressi centres 12 are located in the metropolitan area and remaining 17 in 13 other cities. Concentration to the metropolitan area is natural since out of about 5.5 million inhabitants in Finland over 20% is currently residing there. The most widely spread fitness chain in Finland is AB LL International with its franchises LadyLine and EasyFit. There are 18 LadyLine centres for women only in equal number of cities and 38 low-cost EasyFit centres in 26 cities. In 2017 the total number of members in LadyLine and EasyFit centres was around 65,000 with total revenue of around 29 million euros (EHFMR, 2018, 38). However, as the centres are franchises the total figures are not comparable to the companies presented in Table 8.4. Largest of the low-cost operators in Finland is Fitness24Seven, founded in Sweden in 2003. The chain has grown rapidly in popularity and made excellent financial results. Fitness24Seven opened its first gym in Finland in 2012. In 2013 the company’s revenue in Finland was less than a million euros, and operation suffered from heavy losses (EBITDA−%−21.6), but since then numbers have turned to strong growth. Between 2014–2017 company’s revenue rose from 2.9 million euros to 12.1 million euros and each of those years the profitability was excellent (company’s EBITDA−% was 19.3 in 2014, 15.5 in 2015, 13.0 in 2016 and 15.8 in 2017). (Suomen Asiakastieto, 2018.) In 2018, there were 45 Fitness24Seven gyms in Finland. The popularity of sport and well-being services has recently brought another major player to the field. Pihlajalinna, one of the largest private social and healthcare service providers in Finland (revenue 424 million euros in 2017), has expanded its business operations to well-being services as it acquired the Forever fitness centre chain in the beginning of 2018. The Forever chain had before the acquisition 12 business locations, which operated fully or partly from franchise basis. (Pihlajalinna, 2018.) Franchising is also one reason why Forever can be found several times from the Table 8.4: centres of Forever’s parent company (FD-Group) were legally independent companies.

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The operations of some of the companies in Table 8.4 are not limited to fitness activities. For example, Liikuntakeskus Hukka Oy located in Oulu offers sport facilities also for ball and racquet sports. A similar operator is Esport, located in the metropolitan area, which advertises itself as the largest indoor sport centre in the Nordic countries. Its fitness centres (e.g. Esport Centre, Esport Arena and Esport Bristol) are among the largest in Finland. However, the financial data of Esport is not available and therefore not included in the Table 8.4. (See Laine, 2017.) Despite the presence of above-mentioned large fitness operators, the fitness branch typically consists of small-size businesses. Majority of the companies have only one location with a few employees. (Kiljunen & Niemistö, 2017.) According to the Statistics Finland’s Register of Enterprises and Establishments (based on TOL 2008) around 83% of the fitness centre locations employ 0–4 persons, approximately 15% employ 5–19 persons and only less than two per cent employ over 20 persons. (Statistics Finland 2018d.)

Conclusions Fitness industry has grown to be one of the most visible forms of physical activity in Finland. It is often linked with the trendy urban lifestyle that emphasizes good appearance and health. Yet, at the same time fitness activities are seen to contribute to prolonging working careers of the aged people, and enhancing the functional capacity of the senior citizens. The large number of fitness centres with a vast variety of pricing levels from premium to low-cost segments has enabled consumers with versatile backgrounds to become members of fitness clubs. Also the relatively good geographical coverage of the fitness providers across the sparsely populated country has contributed to the equal access to the fitness premises. Fitness is a global trend in sport participation at the moment, and Finland makes no exception. On the contrary, fitness industry has come to illustrate the growing significance of the commercial sport sector which traditionally has been marginal in Finland compared to the public and civic sport providers. Despite the visibility of the fitness industry, the

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amount of employment in the field seems relatively small. In addition, many of the small fitness facilities have not been as profitable as the visibility and image of the industry applies (see Kiljunen & Niemistö, 2017). Nevertheless, fitness has most certainly become an important industry segment that offers physical activity and health promotion services to a versatile set of needs and consumers, and at best creates business opportunities and employment in Finland.

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Eurostat. (2019a). Annual net earnings. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https:// appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=earn_nt_net&lang=en. Eurostat. (2019b). Area by NUTS 3 region. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https:// bit.ly/2ISCF2r. Eurostat. (2019c). Population on 1 January. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language= en&pcode=tps00001&plugin=1. Eurostat. (2019d). Real GDP per capita. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/refreshTableAction.do?tab=table&plu gin=1&pcode=sdg_08_10&language=en. Gholamzadeh Fasandoz, H. (2016). Sport as an Industry in Finland. Exploring the economic significance, contributions, and development of the sport sector as an industry. PhD thesis, University of Jyväskylä, Finland. Studies in Sport, Physical Education and Health 240. Gratton, C., Rowe, N., & Veil, A. J. (2011). International comparisons of sport participation in European Countries: An update of the COMPASS project. European Journal for Sport and Society, 8(1/2), 99–116. IHRSA. (2018). 2018 IHRSA global report. The state of the health club industry. Boston, MA: International Health, Racquet & Sportsclub Association. Ilmanen, K. (2015). Liikuntapalvelujen muutos 1800-luvun lopulta 2000luvulle [The change of sport services from the end of 19th century to 21st century]. In H. Itkonen & A. Laine (Eds.), Liikunta yhteiskunnallisena ilmiönä (pp. 19–37). Finland: Department of Sport Sciences, University of Jyväskylä. Studies 1/2015. Kansallinen liikuntatutkimus 2009–2010. (2010). [National sport survey 2009–2010]. SLU: n julkaisusarja 6/2010. Helsinki, Finland: SLU. Kiljunen, M., & Niemistö, J. (2017). Kuntosalibisneksessä vain harva yritys on rautaa [In fitness business only few companies rocks]. Tieto & Trendit October 16, 2017. Retrieved 16 August 2018 from http://www.stat.fi/tietot rendit/artikkelit/2017/kuntosalibisneksessa-vain-harva-yritys-on-rautaa/. Kosonen, H. (2014). Liikuntaliiketoiminnan ekosysteemin muutokset [Changes in the sport business ecosystem]. Tem raportteja 20/2014. Helsinki, Finland. Kuittinen, T. (2017). Suomen suurin kuntokeskusketju tehnyt kymmeniä miljoonia tappiota – johto vaihtui [The biggest fitness chain in Finland has made tens of millions losses—Management changed]. Talouselämä November 25, 2017. Retrieved 18 August 2018 from https://www.talous elama.fi/uutiset/suomen-suurin-kuntokeskusketju-tehnyt-kymmenia-miljoo nia-tappiota-johto-vaihtui/8be1ac09-5f1c-3cf0-8efe-ce9aadfcb9fd.

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Laine, A. (2015). Liikunta- ja urheilualan yrityskenttä [Sport business field]. In H. Itkonen & A. Laine (Eds.), Liikunta yhteiskunnallisena ilmiönä (pp. 77– 98). Finland: Department of Sport Sciences, University of Jyväskylä. Studies 1/2015. Laine, A. (2017). Finland: The importance of the Private sport sector has increased in the 2000s. In A. Laine & H. Vehmas (Eds.), The private sport sector in Europe (pp. 107–124). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. Laine, A., & Vehmas, H. (2017a). Getting a grip on the private sport sector in Europe. In A. Laine & H. Vehmas (Eds.), The private sport sector in Europe (pp. 1–16). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. Laine, A., & Vehmas, H. (2017b). Development, current situation and future prospects of the private sport sector in Europe. In A. Laine & H. Vehmas (Eds.), The private sport sector in Europe (pp. 343–357). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. Lähteenmäki, P. (2017). Halpasalit kiristävät kuntokisaa [Budget-friendly fitness facilities tighten fitness competition]. Talouselämä 1/2017, 34–35. Lipas. (2018a). Lipas-system. Retrieved 16 August 2018 from https://www.jyu. fi/sport/en/cooperation/lipas. Lipas. (2018b). Lipas database. Retrieved 16 August 2018 from http://lipas.cc. jyu.fi/lipas/. Lith, P. (2013). Urheilu- ja liikuntaklusteri. Raportti liikuntapalveluiden kysynnästä ja tarjonnasta, yritystoiminnasta ja yritysten taloudellisesta asemasta [Sport and exercise cluster. The report on supply and demand of sport services, sport business, and financial position of the companies]. Ilmiöselvitys 5/2013. Helsinki, Finland: Verohallinto, harmaan talouden selvitysyksikkö. Mononen, K., Blomqvist, M., Hakamäki, M., Laine, K., & Mäkinen, J. (2019). Liikunnan ja urheilun harrastaminen [Physical activity and sport participation]. In J. Mäkinen (Ed.), Aikuisväestön liikunnan harrastaminen, vapaaehtoistyö ja osallistuminen 2018 (pp. 8–27). KIHUn julkaisusarja nro 67. Jyväskylä, Finland: KIHU. Ojanen, L. (2014). Kuntobisnes sykkii vahvaa kasvua [The fitness business is bustling with strong growth]. Kauppalehti August 20, 2014. Pihlajalinna. (2018). Pihlajalinna to expand its service offering to wellbeing services—Acquires the Forever fitness centre chain. Stock exchange release published February 9, 2018. Retrieved 21 August 2018 from http://invest ors.pihlajalinna.fi/releases/pr-story?itemid=/139B8F4C762F1FE4.

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Statistics Finland. (2013). Yritykset toimialoittain 2007–2012 [Enterprises by industry 2007–2012]. Retrieved 15 August 2018 from http://pxnet2.stat. fi/PXWeb/pxweb/fi/StatFin_Passiivi/StatFin_Passiivi__zzz__syr__010_yr_ tol08/. Statistics Finland. (2018a). Enterprises by industry, 2013–2016 . Retrieved 15 August 2018 from http://pxnet2.stat.fi/PXWeb/pxweb/en/StatFin/StatFin__ yri__yrti/?tablelist=true. Statistics Finland. (2018b). Population according to age (1-year) and sex from 1970 to 2017 . Retrieved 16 August 2018 from http://pxnet2.stat.fi/ PXWeb/pxweb/en/StatFin/StatFin__vrm__vaerak/statfin_vaerak_pxt_001. px/?rxid=a8f739ef-1d4e-4f91-aaf4-10e8371bc8c7. Statistics Finland. (2018c). Preliminary population by month, sex and area 2018. Retrieved 16 August 2018 from http://pxnet2.stat.fi/PXWeb/pxweb/ en/StatFin/StatFin__vrm__vamuu/statfin_vamuu_pxt_001.px/?rxid=0ca aa2d2-1dbc-47e0-8f06-1a57d4b80541. Statistics Finland. (2018d). Toimipaikkalaskuri [Office counter]. Retrieved 16 August 2018 from http://pxnet2.stat.fi/PXWeb/pxweb/fi/Toimipaikkal askuri/. Suomen Asiakastieto. (2018). Voitto+ -yritystalouden CD 1/2018 [Voitto+ business economy CD 1/2018]. Helsinki: Suomen Asiakastieto. The World Bank. (2019). Urban population (% of total population). Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL. Vehmas, H., & Ilmanen, K. (2017). Finland: From steering to the evaluation of effectiveness. In J. Scheerder, A. Willem, & E. Claes (Eds.), Sport policy systems and sport federations. A cross-national perspective (pp. 113–134.) London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Virtanen, M. (2018). Kuntosali Motivus sulkee kaksi salia ja hakee pelastusta yrityssaneerauksesta—henkilöstö vähenee selvästi [Fitness centre Motivus closes two locations and seeks rescue from reorganisation—Staff decreases clearly]. Talouselämä March 27, 2018. WHO. (2019). Prevalence of overweight among adults, BMI ≥ 25. Accessed at 30 July 2019 via http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.BMI25Cv?lan g=en.

9 Fitness in France: A Mature Sector Looking for Growing Markets and Segments Guillaume Routier, Bénédicte Vignal, and Guillaume Bodet

Introduction The French model for sports relies on the principle that the promotion and development of sport and physical activities represent an objective of public interest to which the state, local authorities and actors from the civil society contribute. Thus, as reminded by Delorme (2017), sport is organised around three sectors: the public, the voluntary and the private sectors. The public sector is regulated at the national level by the Ministry of Sport, and aims to (1) develop sport for all, particularly for those who are distant from sport participation, (2) organise the elite sport system, (3) develop the prevention of health (e.g. obesity, cardiovascular G. Routier (B) · B. Vignal · G. Bodet Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France e-mail: [email protected] B. Vignal e-mail: [email protected] G. Bodet e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 J. Scheerder et al. (eds.), The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53348-9_9

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problems) and social (e.g. anti-social behaviours) issues through sport, protect sportspeople through the fight against doping, violence, racism, cheating and all forms of discrimination, (4) promote and develop sportrelated jobs.1 Moreover, the development and the structuration of the private sector were identified as recent key strategic priorities (Delorme, 2017). This sector also includes local public authorities from different levels that support elite sport and sport for all, and the construction of sport equipment and facilities. Country Facts Geographical, demographical and economic indicators Capital Geographical size (km2 ; 2014)a Population (2019)b Urbanisation rate (%; 2018)c GDP (euro per capita; 2018)d Annual net earnings average (Single person without children, 100% of AW, in euro; 2018)e EU membership since Health and sports related indicators Prevalence of overweight among adults (BMI ≥ 25, %; 2016)h Share of physical inactive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)i Share of sportive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)i Fitness related indicators Percentage of total population with fitness club membership (2017)f Percentage of population (aged 15 or older) with fitness club membership (2017)g Fitness club members (2017)F Numbers of clubs (2017)f Fitness and health club industry revenue (excl. VAT, million euro; 2017)g Average membership fee/month (incl. VAT, euro; 2017)g Average membershipfee as percentage of disposable income (%; 2017)g

Paris 633,186.6 67,028,048 80.4 32,800 28,109.80 1958 62.9 10.2 53.8 8.5 10.5 5,710,000 4,200 2,513 40.0 1.9

Notes Sportive population: share of population that did not indicate “never” on the question: “How often do you exercise or play sport?” (Answering possibilities: 5 times a week or more, 3 to 4 times a week, 1 to 2 times a

1 http://www.sports.gouv.fr/organisation/missions-organisation/Missions-11062/.

August 2018.

Accessed

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week, 1 to 3 times a month, less often, never); Physical inactive population: share of population that indicated at least one day on one of the following three questions: “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do vigorous physical activity like lifting heavy things, digging, aerobics or fast cycling?”, “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do moderate physical activity like carrying light loads, cycling at normal pace or doubles tennis? Please do not include walking”. and “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you walk for at least 10 minutes at a time?” (Answering possibilities: number of days a week or never) Sources a Eurostat (2019b); b Eurostat (2019c); c The World Bank (2019); d Eurostat (2019d); e Eurostat (2019b); f IHRSA (2018); g Deloitte & EuropeActive (2018); h WHO (2019); i European Commission (2018)

However, the growth and diffusion of sport and physical activities in France has mainly relied upon the initiatives of voluntary organisations, although the state has played an important role in this dynamic. Particularly, this voluntary initiative is based on the 1901 law and related association status according to which “an association is a convention through which two or more persons put in common, for a permanent period, their knowledge or activity for a goal that is other than sharing the benefits.2 ” Thus, it is in allowing the freedom of association for nonlucrative purposes that sport and physical activities were able to develop, be structured, and expand all over the French territory until achieving a relative massification level (Yonnet, 1985). It is only at the end of the 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s that other forms of organisations have emerged, under the form of private initiatives with commercial ethics and purposes (Defrance, 1985). This privatisation trend can be observed in numerous sport service sectors: for example commercial clubs, among which an important part is made of health and fitness clubs, and sport tourism agencies. The public and voluntary sectors have been historically dominant but the private sport sector has significantly evolved only during the last 30 years (Gayant, 2016). From 1971 to 2013, the gross domestic sport expenditure grew from 0.5% of France’s gross domestic product to 1.8% (Delorme, 2017). In 2014, the domestic sport expenditure increased by 0.4% to reach about 36.9 billion euros.3 The growth of 2 https://www.associations.gouv.fr/liberte-associative.html.

Accessed 23 July 2018.

3 http://www.injep.fr/article/le-poids-economique-du-sport-edition-2017-11631.html.

22 August 2018.

Accessed

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the gross domestic sport expenditure is also an indicator of significant trends that began around the end of the twentieth century in relation to the body and sport consumers’ expectations. Thus, the growing focus of French people for their health and well-being in general finds one translation in their interest to health and fitness activities. The commercial sector particularly has tried to take advantage of this trend, especially because participants of these activities have a relatively significant purchase power, and they have been essentially participating in structures from the voluntary sector that mainly focus on competition and performance, and usually offer basic quality levels. Nowadays the market is almost evenly shared between voluntary and commercial structures, and mainly developed by the latter that have to innovate and be aggressive in terms of marketing and communication to distinguish themselves in a sector that has probably reached its maturity. Although the chapter aims to integrate all three sectors, due to the lack of data about the fitness public and voluntary sectors, it thus mainly focuses on the private sector.

Conceptual Framework The emergence and evolution of the definition of fitness in France follow the stages of its arrival and structuration. From physical and body culture to fitness, via sporting gymnastics, gymnastic exercises, aerobic and health and physical activity, there have been about 50 years of evolution, which have started structuring the fitness sector since the 1970–1980s. The definition of the sector is centred on the French term “forme”, that simultaneously means shape and fit, and that is used in various expressions (“être en forme”, “mise en forme”, “remise en forme”), meaning being fit, going back to fit, creating a distance from its gymnastics origins, and Swedish gymnastics in particular. From the second half of the 1980s, new body relations and perceptions have appeared among women towards a body exhibiting less muscle. The goal is then to exhibit women shapes, and be attractive, muscles being associated with

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masculinity, and the values of well-being and pleasure became dominant. Exercises and methods also changed and diversified. Uncertainties in relation with economic and health crises at the beginning of the 1990s modified the consumption patterns and therefore relations to the body and fitness. Sweat, efforts and hard work were not anymore the only ways to achieve fitness goals. Techniques such as nutrition, cosmetics, electrostimulation and aesthetic surgery appeared as means to an end to relax and release tensions within a friendly environment. In 2000, Claude Chiocci and Remy Viallon offered a definition of fitness linked with the first national survey on the topic in France. One (study’s) aim was to elaborate a framework defining the perimeter of fitness activities from the professional, competences and education perspectives (Viallon, 2003). Fitness was defined as “all physical activities that concur to the achievement of objectives related to well-being, health and keeping or improving individuals’ physical conditions through three main domains: (1) cardio-vascular activation, (2) muscle strengthening and stretching, and (3) relaxation, within an environment favouring psychological and social fulfilment and personal autonomy”.

Material and Method The photography of the French fitness sector relies on various types of sources. Secondary data were gathered, compiled, and primary data from a survey conducted by Sport Management Masters’ students of the University of Lyon 1 under the direction of this chapter’s authors and in partnership with actors from the sector (FitMos, 2018) are also used. As seen in Table 9.1, only a small number of studies about fitness exist, and for many of them, data are not available. It is also necessary to note the important differences in terms of definitions and perimeters. Fitness does not always include muscle-building exercises, and is alternatively associated with dancing, boxing and gymnastics. There are also significant differences in terms of populations (i.e. general population versus commercial clubs’ members), and questions and criteria used (e.g. differences in terms of age categories) that make comparisons between studies and over time almost impossible.

Reference period September–December 2017

January–September 2017

Sources

Fitmos, 2018

IPSOS, 2017

All physical activities that contribute to the achievements of well-being and health objectives, via maintaining or improving individuals’ physical conditions through three domains that are cardiovascular activation, muscular strengthening and stretching, and relaxation Fitness is not defined. Fitness is associated with muscle building exercise, and included within a broader health and fitness category with dancing and combat sports

How is fitness defined

Table 9.1 Scientific and poll institute surveys studying fitness in France

Representative sample (n = 1,070) from France and French overseas territories

Convenient sample of members of commercial clubs (n = 608) from Lyon’s metropolitan area

Sample

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Reference period September–October 2015

2010

2014

Sources

Nomadéis and TNS Sofres, 2016

Burlot and Lefèvre, 2016

Bodet, 2005

Category: Dancing and fitness; Fitness is defined as a group of physical activities, often choreographed, aiming at improving physical condition and health for well-being purposes. Are specifically concerned: step, body attack, body combat, crossfit, zumba, Swedish gymnastics, and low impact aerobic No definition. Spontaneous answers from respondents. Fitness and wellness included in an overall gymnastics category No specific definition. Respondents were members of commercial health and fitness clubs, and gymnastic voluntary clubs

How is fitness defined

Convenient sample (n = 252) from Dijon’s Metropolitan area

Representative sample (n = 8,510) from France and French overseas territories

Representative sample of the French population (n = 3,845)

Sample

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Secondary Data The first level of secondary data is made of national surveys (e.g. Lefèvre & Thiéry, 2016) and reports produced by research and poll institutes (i.e. IPSOS, Nomadéis agency and TNS Sofres), that are either commissioned by the Ministry of Sport or representative organisations of specific industries (e.g. French Federation of Sport Goods Industry) where fitness represents only one sport activity among others. Along these broad national data, can be found specific data produced by the fitness industry useful to analyse the market’s supply-side. However, these studies’ data are never available and only key results are presented. Moreover, as fitness activities, according to the French definition, are self-organised, and delivered within the public, voluntary and private sectors, existing data appear often limited. For instance, Delorme (2017), cites an INSEE’s study which presented data for fitness facilities such as the number of companies, staff, revenues and average salary but this information only takes into consideration the private sector dimension. In terms of doctoral research, Olivier Bessy’s work (1990) on the spatial components of health and fitness participation and his later work focusing on their development is seminal and constitutes a strong basis for understanding the supply side’s early evolutions. Remy Viallon (2003) focused on the construction of professional identities of fitness sector’s employees from a comparative perspective between France and the United Kingdom. Two years later, Guillaume Bodet (2005) achieved a Ph.D. that focused on participants and customers’ satisfaction and loyalty in both commercial health and fitness and voluntary gymnastics clubs. Surprisingly, few specific scientific publications have been published since.

Primary Data The FitMos (2018) study was conducted by Year 1 Master students in Sport Management at the University of Lyon 1 (France). The study was sponsored by the University of Lyon 1’s Health and Fitness department and aimed at identifying the socio-demographic profile, the types of

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practice and exercise, the constraints as well as the consumption patterns of fitness participants in Lyon’s metropolitan area, the second largest French urban area. Specifically, a questionnaire-based survey comprised three main parts and was administrated face-to-face to participants in 42 health and fitness clubs. In total, 608 valid questionnaires were collected and constitute the sample upon which the analysis was conducted.

General Trends in Demand and Supply-Side During the first part of the 1980s, the sporty body became fashionable and the next goal to reach. Women particularly began to be expected to comply with these ideals. Health and fitness started to represent a new ideal to reach at the cost of much effort and hard work linked with the values of individualism and a cult for performance (Ehrenberg, 1991). More and more women participated in these activities (Travaillot & Haissat, 2007). From 1982, the TV programme “Gym-Tonic”, which proposed weekly aerobic sessions on Sunday mornings, truly epitomised this phenomenon. Véronique and Davina, the two presenters brought a new view on women and sport and physical activity (Raim, 2018). They both symbolised the emergence of fitness, its mediatisation and its commodification. Although criticised by fitness specialists because of its traumatising impacts on the body, the programme strongly contributed to the popularisation of this new form of gymnastics and the opening of new fitness structures in major French cities. This was the start of the development of a new market for fitness that truly developed from the middle of the eighties (Bessy, 1987). In 1985, 175 fitness structures were counted by the Paris’ departmental direction for youth and sport. They grew in number and in variety benefiting from a strong popularity (Bessy, 1987), especially from about 5 million of women. Although womenisation of sport and physical activities has represented a strong trend and was significant during the emerging phase of fitness, the dominance of this trend nowadays is reduced. If aerobics represented the arrival of fitness in France, fitness activities have not stopped diversifying since. Various reasons can explain this constant diversification, such as the competitive necessity to renew fitness

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formats in commercial structures to attract new members and keep the current ones loyal. These supposedly new formats are accompanied with aggressive marketing campaigns focusing on commercial innovations. Innovation and diversification mainly concern collective courses and classes essentially praised by women: e.g. step, low impact aerobic (LIA), and body pump, Zumba, pound fitness, fit’ball, Sh’Bam, body sculpt, aero and kangoo power. Concurring to diversification is hybridization that consists of mixing and combining various activities to create a new activity. This is for instance the case of Piloxing that combines boxing, dancing and Pilates. Hybridation seems constant and sometimes contradictory in the case for instance of Boxing Yoga (Raim, 2018). Within this trend, certain activities are delocalised and sometimes proposed outdoors or in water (e.g. aquabiking). Interestingly, although fitness activities first settled in France in austere and dusty places, the Pilates and CrossFit trends tend to emphasize on old methods, more authentic and less commercial places, which is not fully disconnected from a form of neo-Hebertism. Muscle-building areas have been also developing and benches, dumbbells and bars have been complemented with sophisticated and expensive equipment providing assistance and allowing more complex movements. Consistent with diversifications, this equipment is aimed to seduce participants who are not necessarily familiar with the basic bench and bar exercises that constitute the bodybuilding culture’s core. Elliptic bikes and treadmills with numerous programmes and screens spread epitomising the technologisation of sports (Pociello, 2015a). Consistent with a strong social differentiation and need for individualisation, personalised coaching services are massively offered within commercial structures, but also at home for the wealthiest. Nowadays, health appears to be the new wealth, and a healthy body seems to represent a factor of social distinction, in expressing a moral superiority through self-discipline, self-control and sometimes pain, as illustrated for instance by white collar boxing clubs (Raim, 2018). As previously mentioned, one important trend that benefited to fitness, was the sport and physical activities’ womenisation (Pociello, 2015b). It has been relying on various societal phenomena such as a wider women’s access to education and jobs that has progressively changed their place in the French society since the seventies. It allowed

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them re-appropriating their body and gave them more leisure time. A release of social control has allowed various aspirations to emerge some of which found an expression in sport and physical activities such as fitness in its various forms. Burlot and Lefèvre (2016) illustrated this when they identified that in 2010 about 72% of French individuals participating in fitness activities were female. However, this proportion has seemed to slightly decrease as female participants represented only 64% in 2017 (IPSOS, 2017). However, these figures should be taken cautiously, as the fitness definitions between the two studies were different. When focusing on commercial clubs’ members only, the distribution seems even balanced—52% of men in the Fitmos’ study (2018), which tends to indicate the very strong proportion of female participating outside commercial clubs (e.g. at home and in voluntary structures).

The Demand-Side General Data According to Lefèvre & Thiéry (2016), the trend for sport in France has remained high and about 65% of individuals aged more than 15 reported participating, at least once a week, in sport and physical activity over the past twelve months. Overall, 89% of the French individuals informed having participated at least once during the year, even occasionally like during holidays. Among them, well-being, health and keeping fit are the three main motivations to take part in sport and physical activities (respectively, 94, 90 and 84 of those who declared one activity in the year). In the overall French sport landscape, gymnastic activities4 contribute to a significant share gathering about 9.8 million participants in 2010 (about 18,5% of French population), and representing a five-point growth from 2010 (Burlot & Lefèvre, 2016). Regarding fitness, the 4 Defined

here as all sport and physical activities aiming at developing well-being: exercise and health gymnastics, fitness gymnastics, aqua-gym, fitness, gymnastics, relaxation, indoor biking, yoga and stretching.

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authors estimated the numbers of participants at 1.7 million representing 3.3% of the population. More recently, Nomadéis agency and TNS Sofres institute conducted a survey in 2015 evaluated this number at 3.7 million, so about 25% of the population (aged between 18 and 80 years old), and 17% of the French sport participant population.5 When using a broad definition (i.e. having participated in a health and fitness session at least once, during the last 12 months), the number of participants was estimated at 15 million in 2017 (12.7 million when excluding dancing and boxing)6 so about 35% of the population aged between 18 and 70 years old. This figure appears quite stable as the same institute estimated the population at 30% in 2015, but for individuals aged over 15 years old. As a reference, the rate was estimated at 25% in 2000, 28% in 2002 and 27% in 2005.7 Consequently, we can observe a ten-point increase between 2000 and 2017, with a stabilisation during the most recent years.

Participants’ Profile For Burlot and Lefèvre (2016), in 2010, participants in gymnastics activities in a broad sense were mainly women (77%), older than 50 years old (47%), educated as most of them held a baccalaureate (51%) with income corresponding to middle and upper classes. They were also mainly urban with 50% of them living in metropolitan areas of more than 100,000 inhabitants. Specifically, fitness attracts mainly young women (37% of them are less than 30 years old) coming from middle and upper socio-economic groups (31% of intermediary professions) with relatively high revenues (44% earning between e1501 and 3000 per month). In 2010, 40% of the fitness participants informed participating more than once a week inside a sports association or a commercial club (58%) and under supervision (58%). Consistent with the general motivation 5The comparison of these figures should be done with caution as the definitions and perimeters of the studies may not be exactly the same. 6 https://www.ipsos.com/fr-fr/la-france-adepte-du-fitness. Accessed 13 August 2018. 7 Ibid.

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trends for sport, fitness participants show motivations that are essentially centred on body well-being: they claimed participating for their overall well-being (99%), health (98%), relaxation (98%) and body exercise (98%). These elements are supported by the FitMos’ results (2018) that showed that maintaining their level of fitness was participants’ main motivation. Nevertheless, this motivation varies according to participants’ age: 100% for those older than 68 years old, 84% for those aged between 50 and 68 years old, 70% for those aged between 33 and 49, and 60% for those aged between 14 and 32 years old. Losing weight also appears as an important motivation, but it rather concerns younger participants (about 30% for those aged below 32 years old).

Participation Forms Fitness participants are distinct from other sport participants by their regular and committed participation. About 80% of the fitness participants claim participating at least once a week (Nomadeis & Taylor Nelson SOFRES, 2016), which confirms the figures found in 2010 (about 77% at least once a week). The FitMos (2018) study supports these figures as about 48% of the respondents reported participating about three to four times a week. Consistent with this frequency, participants tend to privilege relatively short sessions: 75% spend between 1.5 and 2 hours per session (20% less than one hour and five per cent more than two hours). The most popular activities within health and fitness clubs were muscle-building exercises and running (or more broadly cardiovascular activities). Male participants clearly favour the former: 65% favour muscle-building whereas 65% of female favour cardiovascular activities. Classes’ exercises, whether there are collective or interactive (e.g. body pump and body combat) are mainly exercised by female participants (between 80 and 90% depending on the type of activity) although free exercise, and particularly muscle building, remains predominantly a male activity (68%). CrossFit, a recent but popular activity, tends to be mixed in terms of gender. Overall, female participants seem to diversify their activities whereas males tend to focus on one or two activities at most.

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Consumption Very few data regarding health and fitness clubs’ choice are available. The FitMos (2018) enabled identifying a link between structure types and pricing, and participants’ social and economic status. Precisely, if all socio-economic categories are represented in low-cost commercial structures (less than e50 per month), workers, intermediary professions and job seekers cannot be found in structures with fees above e90 per month. Membership fees represent an important criterion but do not seem to be the most important for the FitMos (2018) survey participants (declared by 10% of respondents), and accessibility (60%) and proximity (55%) were the most important factors. Overall, 75% of the respondents were quite satisfied with their fitness structure (3.5 out of 4), which does not prevent from significant member turnovers. This is consistent with Bodet’s findings (2005, 2012) that showed an absence of direct link between member’s satisfaction and loyalty. Last, the main expectations from members remain welcoming, conviviality, time slots’ amplitude and material quality.

General Profiles Three main profiles are identified among fitness participants. First, the young sportsman, a 22 year old on average male student who regularly (four times a week) goes on his own to a commercial club, who mainly does muscle-building exercises, and cares about material and equipment’s quality. Second, the active woman, who is older (35 years old on average), with a middle and upper socio-economic status. She goes to the structure with friends or colleagues, often during the lunch period (12 a.m. to 2 p.m.). She favours cardio-training activities but remains open to other activities that are offered in the structure as long as they allow her keeping fit and/or losing weight. Third, older women (54 years old on average), retired or close to their professional career’s end, and who praise collective classes and individual coaching to remain active and pursue a global body fitness.

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The Supply-Side Before the 1970s, health and fitness structures remained limited in the number and size and quite confidential—no communication was truly implemented and structures were only known by a few (Bessy, 2002). From the 1980s, these structures and places significantly developed, quantitatively and qualitatively, and became modernised and diversified offering broader and richer services. To achieve this transformation, economic models had to evolve progressively from crafts to industrial and business mentality. Between the 1980s and 1990s, the industry was progressively organised around franchises mainly to reduce costs through economies of scales and maximise geographical expansion (Bessy, 2002); private sport clubs flourished (Bessy, 1990). The industry reached a mature stage in the 1990s characterized by the simultaneous arrival of new groups and brands attracted by the sector’s growth rate and the closure of numerous structures, mainly the smallest and independent ones, due to the competition intensity (Bessy, 2002). This competition level characterises the current commercial landscape consistent with a high number of mergers and acquisitions, and a steady growth of the sector, and a huge increase in major cities (Raim, 2018) In 2012, the Ministry of Sport estimated the number health and fitness structures at 10,000, with a majority of voluntary organisations.8 In 2017, the number of commercial structures was estimated at 40009 and if the number of independent owners remains very high (about 70% of commercial clubs in 201510 versus 95% in 201211 ), franchises dominate with 30% of the market.12 In 2017, nine out of the top ten main fitness brands were franchises. The three leading brands were L’Orange Bleue (368 clubs), Groupe Moving (200 clubs) and Keep Cool 8 http://www.sports.gouv.fr/guide-creation-entreprise/files/centre-de-remise-en-forme.pdf.

Accessed 3 May 2018. 9 https://fitness-challenges.com/le-fitness-en-france-un-marche-de-franchise/.

Accessed 21 August 2018. 10 Ibid. 11 http://www.sports.gouv.fr/guide-creation-entreprise/files/centre-de-remise-en-forme.pdf. Accessed 3 May 2018. 12 https://fitness-challenges.com/le-fitness-en-france-un-marche-de-franchise/. Accessed 21 August 2018.

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Table 9.2 Characteristics of commercial fitness operators in 2016 Variables

Numbers

Total participants Number of members Number of clubs Commercial clubs - Independent clubs - Chain clubs Number of companies Members/club Total employees Total revenues (all sectors) Total revenues commercial operators Revenues/Company Average monthly membership fee Average salary

14.9 million (2017) 5.5 million 10,000 (2012) 4,000 2,800 1,200 1,899 550 3,110 e 2.5 billion Ke 315,100 Ke 165.9 e 41 Ke 22.9

Sources Delorme (2017); IPSOS (2017); Nomadeis Sofres (2016); INSEE (2016)

(168 clubs).13 The market penetration rate14 of profit clubs is estimated (Table 9.2) at eight per cent.15 Although much information is available for the profit sector, very little is known about the voluntary sector that gathers many different actors from gymnastics, dancing and boxing clubs. Moreover, even if they are technically in competition, the nature and the level of the quality of services they offer are so different that it is difficult to consider they compete for the same consumer segments. Intense competition is mainly observed between commercial organisations, and secondarily between commercial and voluntary organisations for the older women segment. Consistent with a maturity stage, clubs and franchises focus on differentiation and positioning to offer clear specialisation. The current most popular positioning is the low-cost and lower-mediums offers (IPSOS16 ), and 145 of them opened in 2016 for a total of 649 of them in France. 13 Ibid. 14 i.e.

The amount of adoption or sales compared to the overall theoretical market. Accessed 3 May 2018. 16 https://www.ipsos.com/sites/default/files/ct/news/documents/2017-12/infog_fitness-def.pdf. Accessed 21 August 2018. 15 https://fitness-challenges.com/le-fitness-en-france-un-marche-de-franchise/.

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This positioning seems to be a steady trend and many observers estimate the membership fees will continue decreasing. Specialisation is also observed at the opposite end of the spectrum with premium offers (> e65 per month) that strongly focus on high-quality and luxury environments and personalised offers. For Raim (2018), the recent increase of high-end and luxury clubs, often located in Paris, have strongly contributed, alongside low-cost clubs, to the activity’s development. Many of these clubs aim to become living spaces with hairstylists, restaurants and bars, welcoming events such as art exhibitions, readings and parties (Raim, 2018). In 2016, the average fee for commercial clubs per month was e41, and e32 for medium and low-cost structures.17 When positioning is not directly based on the pricing, it is based on the types of the activities offered, and structures have tend to specialise themselves. This is for instance observed with the significant development of CrossFit, Pilates, biking, yoga or women only structures. If the segmentation was already observed in the past (Bessy, 1993; Bodet, 2005), the phenomenon has seemed to be accentuated reducing significantly the number of generalist clubs and presenting a majority of hyper-specialised structures. While it remains marginal in terms of participants, activities organised outside clubs and studios such as home and/or in public places, either individually or with personal coaches, have been developing and they represent an important potential of growth, and a potential threats for fitness structures. The development of technologies and connected objects seem to contribute to this trend: 51% of participants use one connected object, smartphones by a large majority, during their session.18

Conclusion Overall, and despite some claims from the industry, the managerial challenges for fitness organisations remain the same, indicating both

17 Ibid. 18 Ibid.

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a mature stage of the industry, characterised with an intense competition between commercial structures, and stability, or limited growth, in terms of structures and participants’ numbers. Although, innovation and loyalty seem to be the sector’s keywords, innovation often appears as simple makeup of existing or old practices, without producing truly new innovative activities. However, the new technologisation and particularly the app economy may have the potential to strongly change the industry’s landscape. In terms of loyalty, despite identifying this issue as a key strategic priority, members’ turnovers remain high, and many factors (e.g. work and family commitment, relocation and injuries) influencing members’ departure from or switch to another structure do not seem under managers’ control, which could explain that clubs’ marketing and communication strategies remain principally centred on attracting new members. In terms of trends, we can anticipate these issues to be amplified in the future because of the expansion of fitness activities at home, at work and in public spaces (e.g. parks and gardens) combined with the growth of connected objects and individual and independent coaches who can offer flexibility and relatively competitive prices. Moreover, fitness has also expanded in voluntary organisations, which did not traditionally offer these activities. Because of the potential profits, numerous national federations, such as the French handball and rugby federations, have developed new formats (e.g. HandFit, RugbyFit) and offers that can now be offered in local voluntary sport clubs. This development can represent an important change if they manage to appear as legitimate actors in the fitness market considering the very competitive fees they can propose.

References Andreff, W. (2012). Mondialisation économique du sport [Economic globalisation of sport]. Paris: De Boeck. Retrieved from https://halshs.archives-ouv ertes.fr/halshs-00681921. Bessy, O. (1987). Les salles de gymnastique: Un marché du corps et de la forme [Gymnastics facilities: A body and fitness market]. Esprit, 125 (4), 79–94.

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Bessy, O. (1990). De nouveaux espaces pour le corps. Approche sociologique des salles de mise en forme et de leur public. Le marché parisien [New spaces for the body. A sociological approach of health and fitness clubs and their publics]. Paris V. Bessy, O. (1993). Les stratégies des centres de remise en forme. [Strategies of health and fitness centres]. In A. Loret (Ed.), Sport et management (Vols. 1–Book, 1–Section, pp. 234–248). Paris: Dunod. Bessy, O. (2002). L’innovation dans les espaces marchands de la forme. [Innovation in commercial fitness spaces]. In O. Bessy & D. Hillairet (Eds.), Les espaces innovants [Innovative spaces]—TOME 2 : Nouvelles pratiques, nouveaux territoires: l’innovation dans les espaces marchands et mixtes [New practices, new territories: innovation in commercial and mixed spaces] (Vols. 1–Book, 1–Section, pp. 39–82). Lyons: Presses Universitaires du Sport. Bodet, G. (2005). Un enrichissement de la relation satisfaction - fidélité par le concept d’engagement. Une application dans les services sportifs récréatifs de forme [Improving the relationship satisfaction—Loyalty with the commitment construct. An application to health and fitness sport services]. Dijon: Université de Bourgogne. Bodet, G. (2012). Loyalty in sport participation services: An examination of the mediating role of psychological commitment. Journal of Sport Management, 26 (1), 30–42. Burlot, F., & Lefèvre, B. (2016). Les pratiques de gymnastique : gymnastiques, fitness et wellness [Gymnastics practices: Gymnastics, fitness and wellness]. In B. Lefèvre & P. Thiéry (Eds.), La pratique des activités physiques et sportives en France [Sport and physical activity participation in France]. Paris, France: Ministère de la ville, de la jeunesse et des sports. Defrance, J. (1985). Sociologie du sport. Paris: La Découverte. Deloitte & EuropeActive. (2018). European health & Fitness market report 2018. Brussels: Deloitte. Delorme, N. (2017). France: A market dominated by sport goods retailers. In A. Laine & H. Vehmas (Eds.), The private sport sector in Europe: A cross-national comparative perspective (pp. 125–140). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. Ehrenberg, A. (1991). Le culte de la performance [The cult of performance]. Paris, Éditions: Calmann Levy. European Commission. (2018). Sport and physical activity (Special Eurobarome-ter 472 / Wave 88.4). Brussels: European Commission/DG Education, Youth, Sport and Culture.

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Eurostat. (2019a). Annual net earnings. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https:// appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=earn_nt_net&lang=en. Eurostat. (2019b). Area by NUTS 3 region. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https:// bit.ly/2ISCF2r. Eurostat. (2019c). Population on 1 January. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language= en&pcode=tps00001&plugin=1. Eurostat. (2019d). Real GDP per capita. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/refreshTableAction.do?tab=table&plu gin=1&pcode=sdg_08_10&language=en. FitMOS. (2018). Etude de marché du fitness sur le territoire de la communauté urbaine de Lyon. Lyon France: Pôle Forme Université Lyon 1. Gayant, J. P. (2016). Economie du sport [Sport economics]. Paris: Dunod. IHRSA. (2018). 2018 IHRSA global report. The state of the health club industry. Boston, MA: International Health, Racquet & Sportsclub Association. INSEE. (2016). Caract´eristiques comptables, financi`eres et d’emploi des entreprises en 2013 [Accounting, financial and employment characteristics of the companies in 2013]. Retrieved September 15, 2016 from http://www. insee.fr/fr/statistiques/2020132?sommaire=2020369. Lefèvre, B., & Thiéry, P. (2016). La pratique des activités physiques et sportives en France [Sport and physical activity participation in France]. Paris: Ministère de la ville, de la jeunesse et des sports. Retrieved from http://www.sports.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/la_pratique_des_activites_physiq ues_et_sportives_en_france.pdf. Nomadeis, & Taylor Nelson SOFRES. (2016). Enjeux et perspectives des industries du sport en France et à l’international (Etudes Economiques) [Challenges and perspectives for sport industries in France and internationally]. Paris, France: Pôle interministériel de Prospective et d’Anticipation des Mutations économiques (Pipame). Retrieved from http://sports.gouv.fr/ organisation/organisation-du-sport-en-france/sporteco/observatoire-sportEco/Publications-11249/Etudes-achevees/article/Enjeux-et-perspectives-desindustries-du-sport-en-France-et-a-l-international. Observatoire du fitness UNION sport & cycle 2017 / Ipsos. (2017). La France adepte du fitness. Paris: Ipsos. Pociello, C. (2015a). Les cultures sportives: pratiques, représentations et mythes sportifs. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. Pociello, C. (2015b). Les tendances d’évolution des pratiques de loisirs sportifs. Essai de construction d’un modèle d’analyse prospective, Mappemonde, 2, 2–6.

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Raim, L. (2018). Jus détox et cardio-training, le nouvel esprit de la bourgeoisie [Detox juice and cardio-training, the new spirit of bourgeoisie]. Le Monde Diplomatique, aout, 18–19. The World Bank. (2019). Urban population (% of total population). Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL. Travaillot, Y. (2002). Le monde culturiste face aux gymnastiques aérobiques dans la première moitié des années 1980: les conceptions divergentes des acteurs du système d’offre [The bodybuilding world facing aerobics in the eighties’ first half: Divergent conceptions from supply actors]. STAPS, 57 (1), 39–52. https://doi.org/10.3917/sta.057.0039. Travaillot, Y., & Haissat, S. (2007). Corps sportifs : corps à la mode au féminin depuis les années soixante ? [Sporty bodies: Fashionable women bodies from the sixties] Corps, (2), 19–24. https://doi.org/10.3917/corp.002.0019. Viallon, R. (2003). Analyse comparée de la dynamique de construction des identités professionnelles dans le secteur du fitness en France et au Royaume-Uni [A comparative analysis of the dynamics of professional identify construction in the fitness sectors in France and in the United Kingdom]. Lyon 1. Retrieved from http://www.theses.fr/2003LYO10043. Yonnet, P. (1985). Jeux, modes et masses 1945–1985. Paris: Gallimard. WHO. (2019). Prevalence of overweight among adults, BMI ≥ 25. Accessed at 30 July 2019 via http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.BMI25Cv?lan g=en.

10 Development of the Fitness Industry in Germany Sören Dallmeyer, Kirstin Hallmann, and Christoph Breuer

Introduction According to the Association of Employers in the German Fitness Industry (DSSV, 2017), in 2016, the fitness industry in Germany recorded for the first time over ten million members putting it ahead of football, gymnastics, or tennis. Only informal sports, such as cycling, swimming, or running have higher participation rates (Breuer, Hallmann, & Wicker, 2011). This leading position marks the culminating point of an ongoing increase in the fitness sports’ popularity among Germans over last decades. In the 1980s, only around S. Dallmeyer (B) · K. Hallmann · C. Breuer Institute of Sport Economics and Sport Management, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany e-mail: [email protected] K. Hallmann e-mail: [email protected] C. Breuer e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 J. Scheerder et al. (eds.), The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53348-9_10

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300,000 people were members of a fitness club. This number increased to 4.38 million in 2003 and had more than doubled over the last 15 years to 10.61 million members in 2017. Today, Germany records the most members of all European countries, and the private fitness industry in Germany generates European’s highest revenues (Deloitte & EuropeActive, 2018). There are numerous reasons for this evolutionary process. First, in accordance with many other European countries, the health awareness and the level of health literacy has advanced considerably over the last decade (Kondilis, Kiriaze, Athanasoulia, & Falagas, 2008; Robert Koch Institute, 2014, Sørensen et al., 2015). Consequently the level of physical activity—an effective mechanism to improve health—has significantly increased across all age groups as well (Dallmeyer, Wicker, & Breuer, 2017). This trend can be primarily associated with private fitness clubs since the membership numbers of public sport clubs have only increased by 1.5% between 2000 and 2015 (DOSB, 2016). In accordance, fitness clubs have evolved simultaneously with higher quality standards and a more health-oriented focus of their offerings including tailor-made programmes taking into account the increasing heterogeneity of their fitness club members (DSSV, 2017). Another reason for the booming fitness industry is that more and more employers have recognised the potential of workplace-related health management and have increased their offerings for employees to become physically active in gyms or fitness clubs (AOK, 2014). Finally, this trend is enhanced by the digitisation, which has not only improved the customer relationship by assisting the operators communicating with its member but also by supporting the work-out with detailed documentation and efficient planning (DSSV, 2018). Country Facts Geographical, demographical and economic indicators Capital Geographical size (km2 ; 2014)a Population (2019)b Urbanisation rate (%; 2018)c GDP (euro per capita; 2018)d Annual net earnings average (Single person without children, 100% of AW, in euro; 2018)e

Berlin 357,340 83,019,214 77.3 35,900 30,474.04 (continued)

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(continued) Country Facts EU membership since Health and sports related indicators Prevalence of overweight among adults (BMI ≥ 25, %; 2016)h Share of physical inactive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)i Share of sportive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)i Fitness related indicators Percentage of total population with fitness club membership (2017)f Percentage of population (aged 15 or older) with fitness club membership (2017)g Fitness club members (2017)f Numbers of clubs (2017)f Fitness and health club industry revenue (excl. VAT, million euro; 2017)g Average membership fee/month (incl. VAT, euro; 2017)g Average membership fee as percentage of disposable income (%; 2017)g

1958 62.8 5.2 58.4 12.9 14.9 10,610,000 8,988 5,200 44.0 1.9

Notes Sportive population: share of population that did not indicate “never” on the question: “How often do you exercise or play sport?” (Answering possibilities: 5 times a week or more, 3 to 4 times a week, 1 to 2 times a week, 1 to 3 times a month, less often, never); Physical inactive population: share of population that indicated at least one day on one of the following three questions: “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do vigorous physical activity like lifting heavy things, digging, aerobics or fast cycling?”, “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do moderate physical activity like carrying light loads, cycling at normal pace or doubles tennis? Please do not include walking” and “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you walk for at least 10 min at a time?” (Answering possibilities: number of days a week or never) Sources a Eurostat (2019b); b Eurostat (2019c); c The World Bank (2019); d Eurostat (2019d); e Eurostat (2019a); f IHRSA (2018); g Deloitte & EuropeActive (2018); h WHO (2019); i European Commission (2018)

This chapter aims to shed light to different facets of the ongoing evolvement of the fitness industry in Germany over the last years including a detailed description of the status quo of the fitness market in 2017. Moreover, potentials and future challenges are highlighted. It is important to note that the chapter will only focus on the private sector of the German fitness industry. In Germany the sport system, in general, has a pyramid structure with the German Olympic Sports Confederations (DOSB) as the head organisation, 98 membership organisations

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of the DOSB representing the middle of the pyramid and the 91,000 non-profit sport clubs being the basis of mass sport provision (Petry & Hallmann, 2013). The private sport industry including the private fitness industry is not part of this structure. However, due to various societal changes, its importance has grown significantly over the last years (Breuer, Giel, & Hallmann, 2017). Especially the fitness market is currently dominated by private fitness clubs, although over the last years, public sport clubs have increased their offerings in this regard. Yet, according to Breuer and Feiler (2017), there are still only 3,200 nonprofit sport clubs (3.5% of all public sport clubs in Germany) who have an own fitness club which their sport club members can use. As a consequence, sufficient data are primarily available for private fitness clubs which is why this chapter focuses on this part of the fitness industry in Germany.

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework To describe the development and the current state of the private fitness industry in Germany, it is first essential to define the term “fitness” and outline how its meaning and interpretation have changed over the years. Furthermore, it is necessary to comprehensively elaborate on the term “private fitness clubs” and how it is utilised in this chapter.

Fitness With originally stemming from the English language, the term “fitness” has established itself also in the German language. Over the years the meaning of the word changed considerably. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the attribute “fit” has entered the German language first with its meaning changing from “suitable”, “appropriate”, to “wellprepared” (Dilger, 2008). Wedemeyer-Kolwe (2004) stated around this time that the noun “fitness” also found its way from the United States into the German language including its close association with the term

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“bodybuilding”. Fitness in the context of bodybuilding is often interpreted as physical training to improve strength and health but with the overarching objective to improve the overall appearance and reaching a certain level of beauty (Dilger, 2008). With the fitness movement in Germany starting in the 1970s, the element of improving health and the work-out as a form a social activity became more and more important. This was also fostered through installing fitness equipment in public parks in the 1970s (Petry & Hallmann, 2013). Today, it is primarily used as an umbrella term for different aspects of physical capabilities and wellbeing (Bös & Alfermann, 1998). As Dilger (2008) stated, the definition today is associated with health and being in shape, and stamina and often includes qualitative components. Discussing fitness as an activity, it is usually understood as a form of physical activity which is defined “as any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that requires increased energy expenditure above and beyond resting energy expenditure” (Ruetten & Pfeiffer, 2016, 22). Similar to sport activities, it is important that the bodily movement is executed with a certain self-purpose such as improving health or appearance. However, the element of competition which is crucial for many sport activities is not necessarily required for fitness activities. As a consequence, activities which are usually considered as fitness activities are endurance sports (e.g. running, cycling, swimming) or strength training which can be exercised indoors or outdoors. With this chapter primarily focussing on fitness in private fitness clubs indoor fitness activities (e.g. strenght training, fitness courses, yoga and aerobics) are most relevant.

Private Fitness Clubs The focus of this chapter is on private fitness clubs. Those can be defined as facilities offering customers the opportunity to participate in strength, cardiovascular, or aerobic training (Dilger, 2008). Unlike sport clubs which are non-profit oriented and responsible for most of the sports supply in Germany (Breuer & Feiler, 2017), the private fitness clubs are profit-oriented with only commercial purposes. Their main revenue stream is usually based on membership fees. Based on a classification

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introduced by the DSSV (2018), this chapter will differentiate between three types of private fitness clubs: single operators, chain operators, and micro-clubs. Single operators have between one and four facilities, all bigger than 200 m 2 . Chain operators include at least five facilities with a space that exceeds 200 m 2 and micro-clubs are all fitness operators where the functional area of the facilities is lower than 200 m 2 .1

Material and Method The following parts discussing the trend on both demand and supply side and as well as the description of the current status of the fitness industry in 2017 are based on several detailed reports published by different organisations. The data utilised for outlining the development of the private fitness industry in Germany over the last years stem from annual reports published by the DSSV, Deloitte, and the German University for Health and Prevention. The reports cover various aspects of the supply and the demand side and the annual structure allows identifying trends over the last 15 years. A survey among all private fitness clubs in Germany provides the data for the reports and covers both, the supply and the demand side. The survey is anonymous and usually starts in November. Since 2012, the individual and the chain operators were questioned with two different online surveys. The response rate differed over the years but ensured a sufficient level of representativeness for every year. On the supply side, the reports differentiate between individual operators, chainoperators and micro-operators. For the demand side, for some analyses such as the response rate the authors’ combined survey data with official statistics of the respective year. Overall, the data from the DSSV reports were utilised by comprising the data of the 15 years span. For outlining current aspects of the demand side in the German fitness industry, results from a survey questioning members of the fitness clubs were used. The survey was part of the DSSV report from the year 2013. 1 Only

since 2009 the DSSV has included data on private fitness clubs which have a functional area smaller than 200 m 2 .

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The survey was based on 10,000 telephone interviews of fitness clubs members in 2012. The respondents were asked to evaluate their motives and their satisfaction with various aspects of their fitness club. A report published by Deloitte (2018) is used to identify the leading fitness operators in the current German fitness market. The report is based on a similar database as the reports of the DSSV but is more operator-oriented.

Trends in (a) Demand Side (= Participation), and (b) Supply Side (= Organisational/Structures) Demand-Side Based on the evolving health literacy among the German population and demographic changes, the private fitness industry has enormously grown over the last 15 years. Figure 10.1 indicates the development of memberships in private fitness clubs in Germany for the period 2003–2017. 12.0 10.0

10.61 7.31

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Fig. 10.1 Number of memberships in private sport clubs (2003–2017; in million) (Source Adapted by the authors based on DSSV [2003–2018])

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It can be noted that the total number of memberships has constantly increased. In 2003, 4.38 million people were a member of a private fitness club. This number increased to 10.61 million in 2017 which represent an annual growth rate of 6.5% (DSSV, 2018). Today, 12.9% of all people in Germany are a member of a fitness club compared to 5.4% in 2003. In accordance, the socio-demographic profile of fitness participants has changed over time as well. In 2003, the average age of the members was at around 35.2 years. In 2017, it increased to 40.7 years, an increase of 15.6%. When looking at the last six years, the distribution by age groups changed. In 2011, 7.6% of all members were under 20 years compared to 9.1% in 2017. For the age groups 20–29 years, 30– 39 years and 40–49 years the proportions decreased slightly from 22.7 to 21.3%, from 21.4 to 19.7% and from 21.5 to 19.2% between 2011 and 2017. For the same period, an increase can be observed for the age group 50–59 years (14.8–18.2%) and for the age group over 59 years (12.0–12.5%).

Supply-Side The significant changes in the demand for fitness over the last decades have also led to changes and adjustments by the supply side. In line with the increasing number of memberships of private fitness clubs, the number of facilities has constantly grown over the years as well (Fig. 10.2). In 2005, according to the DSSV (2005), a total of 5,554 facilities were offering fitness sports. 83.0% of them were managed by single and 17.0% by chain operators.2 Twelve years later, a total of 8988 fitness facilities exist on the market. 54% belong to single operators, 25.2% are listed as micro-clubs, and 20.8% are operated by chains. When comparing the number of facilities for single and chain operators, a 5.3% increase from 2005–2017 can be observed for single operators and a 97.8% increase occurs for chain operators. Hence, the chain operators have clearly gained market power over the last decade. The number

DSSV changed in 2017 the terminology for operators with less than 200 m 2 from special interest to micro-clubs.

2The

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Fig. 10.2 Number of facilities from by private operators and development of total revenues (2005–2017; in million e) (Source Adapted by the authors based on DSSV [2005–2018])

of micro-clubs has also increased significantly. Between 2009 and 2017 they almost tripled the number of facilities from 819 to 2,265. Also Fig. 10.2 shows the development of the total revenues of the private fitness market. It has grown from e2.0 billion in 2005 to e5.2 billion in 2017, which marks a total increase of 156.2% and an annual growth rate of 8.2%. Although it has to be noted that the microclubs were not part of the DSSV report in 2005, it still emphasises the rapidly growing economic volume of the private fitness industry over the last years. In fact, when only looking at the revenues from single and chain operators, an increase from e2.0 billion in 2005 to e4.8 billion in 2017, which is an increase of around 140%, can still be observed. Thus, although the number of micro-club has increased significantly the proportion of total revenues is still relatively small with e0.43 billion (8.3% of total revenues).

Numbers/Figures About Demand Side As previously mentioned, in 2017, there were 10.61 million people as members of a private fitness club which equals to 12.9%of the total

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German population (DSSV, 2018). When looking only at the main target group of the fitness industry, people aged between 15 and 65 years, this number even increases to 19.3%, meaning that almost every fifth person aged in this range is a member of a private fitness club today (DSSV, 2018).

Socio-Demographic Profile of Participants Age and gender represent two of the most pivotal socio-demographic indicators as they determine to a large extent the frequency, intensity, and type of fitness activity people participate in. According to the DSSV report (2018), the average age of the fitness participants is 40.7 years. A closer look at different age groups reveals that 9.1% of all participants are under 20 years, 21.3% between 20 and 29 years, 19.7% between 30 and 39 years, 19.2% between 40 and 49 years, 18.2% between 50 and 59 years and 12.5% are over 59 years. In total 55.4% of all private fitness club members are female. Sport participation surveys confirm these results. For instance, Breuer et al. (2011) found that weekly fitness participation (i.e. exercising) is driven by high education, medium age, and female gender and that this profile differs to participation profiles of, for example, cycling, swimming, running and gymnastics.

Participants’ Motivation The latest data on the motivation of private sport club members stems from a report published by the DSSV (2013). Almost two-thirds of all members (65.2%) indicated that maintaining or improving the current level of health is their main purpose for their membership. This fitness and health focus is further emphasised by 20.2% who mentioned losing weight as their primal purpose and 17.0% described their goal as “improving health in general”. Only 16.3% said they are a member of a fitness club to lift weights and build up strength. Health insurances also promote participation in fitness (Petry & Hallmann, 2013) via setting extrinsic rewards such as monetary incentives for people.

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Participants’ Membership According to the recent report by the DSSV (2018), the average member is working out between one and two times a week (61.5%). Almost one fifth (18.3%) are active more than two times a week and 20.2% are working out less than once a week. Surprisingly, 5.7% of all members never train in their facility although they are member in fitness centre and are paying a membership fee whereas 3.4% of all members can be considered “heavy users” with participating in fitness activities more than five times a week. Overwhelmingly, 82.1% of all members said they were very likely to renew their membership at their current fitness club. This finding is most likely based on the fact that when asked to evaluate the staff, offerings and the equipment of their fitness club the respondents revealed overall a good level of satisfaction. 90.8% of the questioned members would rate the support delivered by the staff with good and 96.9% evaluated the competence of the staff members with at least good as well. Moreover, the clear majority of members rated the three different training areas (courses, muscle training and circuit training) with good and the sauna and wellness offerings were also described emphatically as satisfying. On the flip side, major reasons for withdrawal were lack of time (39.0%) and a change of the financial (14.0%) or health situation (13.2%).

Numbers/Figures About Supply Side (Provision and Governance of Fitness) The 10.61 million members can be broken down by the type of operator as follows: 5.23 million people are members of chain-operated fitness club, 4.79 million of a single-operated one and 0.59 million belong to micro-clubs (DSSV, 2018). The average member age is significantly lower for chain operators with 36.0 years compared to micro-clubs (44.4 years) and single operators (45.3 years). This is likely linked to the lower membership fees of chain operators as those are more appealing to younger people. The share of women is highest in micro-club (65.1%),

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single operators have 54.0% female members and only for chain operators, the number of female members is below 50%. Although single operators are responsible for most of the revenues and chain operators have the most members, the micro-clubs have gained much ground over the last years in terms of their number of facilities. In 2017, single operators have the most facilities with 4,856 but micro-clubs held the second place with around 2,265 facilities. Chain operators record only 1,867 members. However, the number of members per facility and revenues per facility are still best for chain operators compared to single operators and micro-clubs. By far the most jobs are generated by single operators with 145,700. Chain operators only have around 47,200 employees and micro-clubs 17,000. In order to provide some deeper insight into certain aspects of the supply side, in the following, some of the indicators are more closely examined.

Typology In addition to the already introduced differentiation by type of operator, there are numerous other ways to classify the private fitness clubs in Germany. First, the fitness clubs can be differentiated based on their membership fees. Deloitte (2018) classified private fitness clubs with membership fees lower than e26 as the discount segment, fitness clubs with fees between e26 and e66 as medium operators and operators with fees higher than e66 as the premiums segment. Moreover, private fitness clubs can be categorised based on their major purpose (e.g., training, lifestyle, health or wellness). Almost half of the fitness clubs are health-oriented (44.0%). Especially, single operators have dedicated to the purpose of health with 50.5%. For chain operators, this number is lowest with 32.1%. The second most frequent purpose was “training”, as 31.1% of all fitness clubs classified themselves as training-oriented. This applies in particular to chain operators with 41.6% whereas only 25.7% of all micro-clubs put their primary focus on training. 19.7% of all fitness clubs are lifestyle-oriented. For microclubs, this number even increases to 34.7% whereas for chain operators

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it is at 11.7%. The primary wellness focus can only be found at 5.6% of all fitness clubs. Another interesting typology can be based on the ownership structure of the fitness clubs. Only one-quarter of all fitness clubs (23.6%) is currently owned by the operator whereas 76.4% are rented. The specific ownership structure of a franchise system can be observed for 56.0% of all chain operators and 48.4% of all micro-clubs. Finally, it is possible to differentiate between fitness clubs which can only be accessed by women and the ones which allow mixed members. Overall, 11.4% of all fitness clubs are only for females. The number is highest for micro-clubs with 25.1% and significantly lower for single operators (8.4%) and chain operators (2.6%).

Accommodations A determining factor for a fitness club is the available functional space where people can work-out as it determines the number of members and hence indirectly the generated revenues. On average, the size of the facilities in Germany is approximately 1,219 m 2 (DSSV, 2018). There are considerable differences between the different operators. Chain operators have an average size of 2,127 m 2 , single operators of 1,388 m 2 and micro-clubs of 117 m 2 for their functional spaces. Those differences go in hand with the respective business models of the operators. Chainoperated fitness clubs have lower membership fees and compensate it by a higher number of memberships whereas micro-clubs have higher fees but aim to create a certain customer relationship build on privacy and personalised programmes. Further information on the different use of the available functional area was available for single operators. On average, 31.3% of the whole area is used for muscle training, 15.1% for group training, 13.3% for wellness offerings, 11.0% for cardiovascular training, 9.3% for special offers and 8.5% for catering.

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Revenues and Membership Fees The booming fitness industry has culminated in 2017 with a new high in total revenues of around e5.2 billion (DSSV, 2018). The highest share can be attributed to single operators with 54.6% (e2.84 billion) followed by chain operators with 37.1% (e1.93 billion), and microclubs with only 8.3% (e0.43 billion). For the whole market that translates to average revenues per facility of e578,000. Chain operators can almost double that mark with e1.03 million in revenues per facility whereas single operators are on a similar level as the total average with e585,000. Micro-clubs have by far the lowest number of revenues per facility with e188,000. Most important for generating revenues across all operators are the membership fees. Overall, the average fee is e44. Most of the fees are set between e46 and 65 (38.9%) or between e26 and 45 (24.9%). Only 10.7% offer a membership below e26 and only 7.4% have membership fees higher than e86. The average fee for chain operators is the lowest with e34. The fee for single operators is e53 and memberships in microclubs cost on average the most with e67. In addition to the membership fees, the fitness clubs can generate revenues with income sources such as massages, solarium, personal training or catering. Across all operators, 9.7% of all revenues can be attributed to those additional revenue sources (single operators: 11.5%, micro-clubs: 8.2% and chain operators: 7.9%)

Employment Overall, 209,900 people are employed in the private sports industry in Germany. By far the most jobs are generated by single operators with 69.4%. Chain operators accumulate 22.5% and micro-clubs for 8.1% of all jobs. Consequently, the average staff number is highest for single operators with 30.0. Chain operators employ on average 25.3 people and micro-clubs 7.5. The average of the total market is 23.4 employees. However, only 26.1% of all people have a permanent contract with 55.2% across all operators having between two and nine permanent jobs,

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Key performance indicators by type of operator in 2017

Members (in million) Average member age Female members (in %) Number of facilities Member/facility Monthly price (in e) Revenues (in billion) Revenue/facility (in million) Employees

Micro-clubs

Chain

Single

0.59 44.4 65.1 2,265 260 66.95 0.43 190 17,000

5.23 36.0 47.2 1,867 2,801 33.63 1.93 1,034 47,200

4.79 45.3 54.0 4,856 986 52.56 2.84 585 145,700

Source DSSV (2018)

24.0% having more than nine permanent jobs and 9.8% of all fitness clubs do not have any permanent member in their staff. The changing demand not only forced the private fitness clubs to increase the size of the staff but also to improve the level of qualification. The DSSV (2018) report states that almost half of the people have a coaching license (49.3%), 19.3% have a university degree, 23.4% did an apprenticeship and 8.0% have a medical qualification. The emphasis on highly qualified personnel is further underpinned by the fact that 95.7% of all private fitness clubs have invested in advanced training for their staff. The majority of those investments were focusing on training specific aspects, management and nutrition (Table 10.1).

Leading Operators To illuminate which are the leading operators in terms of popularity among fitness participants and market power, Deloitte did a market analysis in 2018. Starting with the memberships, McFit Group can cement its status as Europe’s biggest operator also in Germany with approximately more than 1.1 million members which equals to approximately 10.3% of all registered fitness club members in Germany. Second is the operator clever fit with 515,000 members and third ranks the relatively new operator Fitx with 340,000 members (founded in 2009). Figure 10.3 shows the top 17 operators based on the available information.

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1,200 1,000 800 600 400 200 0

Fig. 10.3 Leading fitness operators in Germany by number of members in 2017 (Source Adapted by the authors based on Deloitte [2018])

A closer look at the revenues reveals that the McFit Group is leading here as well with annual revenues of e240 million in 2017. However, the second place is held by Fitness First and by Injoy (Deloitte, 2018). Both are able to compensate their significantly lower number of members with higher membership fees. FitX , the operator with the third most members, only generated revenues of around 41 million in 2017 due to their low-price segment offerings.

Conclusions The Fitness industry in Germany is dictated by private operators who are responsible for the majority of the fitness offerings. Over the last decades, this industry has experienced constant growth. Based on the improved health literacy, the understanding of the importance of workrelated fitness opportunities and the digitisation fitness has become the most popular, membership-based active sport among the German population. New highs are reached almost every year in terms of number of memberships, total revenues or number of employees. This development is fostered by a considerable change of the socio-demographic

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profile of fitness participants. Today, people from all age groups are working out in a fitness club and fitness sport is almost equally popular for men and women. The supply side has adapted to those changes. In 2017, almost half of all fitness clubs are health-oriented and the accommodations and programmes of most operators are designed to suit the heterogeneous group of their members. In addition to the two types of main suppliers, chain and single operators, micro-clubs have emerged as a new important supplier on the market. Although their share of total revenues and members is still minor, their focus on specific target groups with customised programmes will strengthen their position over the next years. However, 94.4% of all members are still active in either a chain or single operated club who are also still responsible for 91.7% of all revenues. The most popular operators in the German market are chain operators with McFit having the leading position similar to many other European countries.

Future Outlook In the DSSV (2018) report, the operators were asked to give their opinion on future developments of the market and how the industry will adjust. The operators clearly indicated the willingness to continue the evolving process of the past years with 85.6% of them planning to make further investments in 2018. Investments in infrastructure, qualification of the personnel and digitisation were the most popular areas to invest. Overall, 80.6% of the operators are confident, the economic situation of the industry will continue to improve over the next 12 months and on average an increase of 3.5% for memberships is expected. Altogether, the future of the private fitness industry in Germany can be considered as mostly positive and promising. The stable economic situation in Germany and the demographic change resulting in more elderly people in need of health risk prevention should guarantee a future growth of the market. On the supplier side, specific work-out forms such as electromyostimulation (EMS) and cross-fit training accompanied by the ongoing digitisation will shape the future of the market. A potential threat to the private market may emerge if non-profit sport clubs

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decide to expand their offerings regarding fitness clubs as they receive public subsidies, which could allow them to offer cheaper options to their members.

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DSSV. (2007). Eckdaten der deutschen Fitnesswirtschaft 2007 [Key data on the German fitness industry 2007]. Hamburg: DSSV e.V. DSSV. (2008). Eckdaten der deutschen Fitnesswirtschaft 2008 [Key data on the German fitness industry 2008]. Hamburg: DSSV e.V. DSSV. (2009). Eckdaten der deutschen Fitnesswirtschaft 2009 [Key data on the German fitness industry 2009]. Hamburg: DSSV e.V. DSSV. (2011). Eckdaten der deutschen Fitnesswirtschaft 2011 [Key data on the German fitness industry 2011]. Hamburg: DSSV e.V. DSSV (2012). Eckdaten der deutschen Fitnesswirtschaft 2012 [Key data on the German fitness industry 2012]. Hamburg: DSSV e.V. DSSV. (2013). Eckdaten der deutschen Fitnesswirtschaft 2013 [Key data on the German fitness industry 2013]. Hamburg: DSSV e.V. DSSV. (2014). Eckdaten der deutschen Fitnesswirtschaft 2014 [Key data on the German fitness industry 2014]. Hamburg: DSSV e.V. DSSV. (2015). Eckdaten der deutschen Fitnesswirtschaft 2015 [Key data on the German fitness industry 2015]. Hamburg: DSSV e.V. DSSV. (2016). Eckdaten der deutschen Fitnesswirtschaft 2016 [Key data on the German fitness industry 2016]. Hamburg: DSSV e.V. DSSV. (2017). Eckdaten der deutschen Fitnesswirtschaft 2017 [Key data on the German fitness industry 2017]. Hamburg: DSSV e.V. DSSV. (2018). Eckdaten der deutschen Fitnesswirtschaft 2018 [Key data on the German fitness industry 2018]. Hamburg: DSSV e.V. European Commission. (2018). Sport and physical activity (Special Eurobarome-ter 472 / Wave 88.4). Brussels: European Commission/DG Education, Youth, Sport and Culture. Eurostat. (2019a). Annual net earnings. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https:// appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=earn_nt_net&lang=en. Eurostat. (2019b). Area by NUTS 3 region. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https:// bit.ly/2ISCF2r. Eurostat. (2019c). Population on 1 January. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language= en&pcode=tps00001&plugin=1. Eurostat. (2019d). Real GDP per capita. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/refreshTableAction.do?tab=table&plu gin=1&pcode=sdg_08_10&language=en. IHRSA. (2018). 2018 IHRSA Global report. The state of the health club industry. Boston, MA: International Health, Racquet & Sportsclub Association.

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Kondilis, B. K., Kiriaze, I. J., Athanasoulia, A. P., & Falagas, M. E. (2008). Mapping health literacy research in the European Union: A bibliometric analysis. PLoS ONE, 3(6), 1–6. Petry, K., & Hallmann, K. (2013). Germany. In K. Hallmann & K. Petry (Eds.), Comparative sport development: Systems, participation and public policy (pp. 75–86). New York, NY: Springer. Robert Koch Institute. (2014). Gesundheit in Deutschland aktuell 2012 [Health in Germany 2014]. Berlin: Robert Koch Institute. Ruetten & Pfeiffer. (2016). National recommendations for physical activity and physical activity promotion. Erlangen: FAU University Press. Sørensen, K., Pelikan, J. M., Röthlin, F., Ganahl, K., Slonska, Z., Doyle, G., … Falcon, M. (2015). Health literacy in Europe: Comparative results of the European health literacy survey (HLS-EU). European Journal of Public Health, 25 (6), 1053–1058. The World Bank. (2019). Urban population (% of total population). Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL. Wedemeyer-Kolwe, B. (2004). “Der neue Mensch”: Körperkultur im Kaiserreich und in der Weimarer Republik [The new human being. Body culture in the empire and the Weimar Republic]. Königshausen & Neumann: Würzburg. WHO. (2019). Prevalence of overweight among adults, BMI ≥ 25. Accessed at 30 July 2019 via http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.BMI25Cv?lan g=en.

11 The Impact of the Economic Crisis on the Private Fitness Sector in Greece Kostas Alexandris, Theopistos Kenanidis, Panagiota Balaska, and Apostolia Ntovoli

Introduction The sport industry in Greece, in total, is a small sector within the Greek economy, estimating that it contributes about 1.7% to the country’s GPD (Alexandris & Balaska, 2017). Greece is a country with a total population of 10,815,197 inhabitants (ELSTAT, 2011). It is the 15th largest economy in the 27-member European Union. Its economy is mainly based on the service sector (85%), industry sector (12%), and agriculture (3%) (Passport to Trade: A Bridge to Success, 2016). Tourism, which, as will be explained later, has some links with fitness, is one of the K. Alexandris (B) · T. Kenanidis · P. Balaska · A. Ntovoli Sport, Tourism and Recreation Management Lab, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece e-mail: [email protected] P. Balaska e-mail: [email protected] A. Ntovoli e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 J. Scheerder et al. (eds.), The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53348-9_11

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most important industries in Greece. It is estimated that Greece will host more than 30 million tourists in 2017; they will contribute 14.63 billion euro to the Greek economy (Bank of Greece, 2017). Country facts Geographical, demographical and economic indicators Capital Geographical size (km2 ; 2014)a Population (2019)b Urbanisation rate (%; 2018)c GDP (euro per capita; 2018)d Annual net earnings average (single person without children, 100% of AW, in euro; 2018)e EU membership since Health and sports related indicators Prevalence of overweight among adults (BMI ≥ 25, %; 2016)h Share of physical inactive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)i Share of sportive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)i Fitness related indicators Percentage of total population with fitness club membership (2012)f Percentage of population (aged 15 or older) with fitness club membership (2012)f Fitness club members (2012)g Numbers of clubs (2012)g Fitness and health club industry revenue (excl. VAT, million euro; 2012)g Average membership fee/month (incl. VAT, euro; 2012)f Average membership fee as percentage of disposable income (%; 2017)

Athens 132,049 10,722,287 79.1 17,800 15,671.35 1981 67.1 10.4 30.0 3.21 3.74 346,500 878 179 50 N/A

Notes Sportive population: share of population that did not indicate ‘never’ on the question: “How often do you exercise or play sport?” (Answering possibilities: 5 times a week or more, 3–4 times a week, 1–2 times a week, 1–3 times a month, less often, never); Physical inactive population: share of population that indicated at least one day on one of the following three questions: “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do vigorous physical activity like lifting heavy things, digging, aerobics or fast cycling?”, “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do moderate physical activity like carrying light loads, cycling at normal pace or doubles tennis? Please do not include walking” and “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you walk for at least 10 minutes at a time?” (Answering possibilities: number of days a week or never); N/A = not available

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Sources a Eurostat (2019b); b Eurostat (2019c); c The World Bank (2019); d Eurostat (2019d); e Eurostat (2019a); f IHRSA (2013a); g IHRSA (2013b); h WHO (2019); i European Commission (2018)

Since 2009 Greece has been suffering from a severe economic crisis, which has affected all the elements of life, business and society (Giannoulakis, Papadimitriou, Alexandris, & Brgoch, 2016). In May 2010, Greece was placed under the supervision of the EU, the European Bank and International Monetary Fund. The government was forced to sign the Economic Adjustment Program, which was revised in autumn 2010. This program was accompanied by severe austerity measures, cutbacks in salaries, pensions, public services and privatizations of state-owned properties and services (Kondilis et al., 2013). As an exchange, the IMF and the Eurozone lent to the Greek government 110 billion euros in May 2010 and an additional 130 billion euros in February 2012 to finance the country’s debt (Zavras, Tsiantou, Pavi, Mylona, & Kyriopoulos, 2012). This economic crisis had multiple negative implications on the Greek society, especially related to the public health status of citizens with lower socio-economic status and overall health equity (Zavras et al., 2012). Summarizing economic indicators, Theodorou (2015) reported that from the beginning of 2008 the country lost about 25% of its economic activities. In 2015 the GDP of the country was 176 billion euros and the GDP per capita 16,028 euros, compared to 2008, when the GDP of the country was 242 billion euros and the GDP per capita 22,500 euros. As expected these austerity measures influenced sport development as well. Papadimitriou and Alexandris (2018) reported that the government funds on elite sport had a 68% reduce over the period of 2007–2014. This resulted in a significant decline both in elite sport performance, as demonstrated by medal count in international sport events (e.g., Olympic Games), and the sport talent identification process. In June 2016 the Greek government reached an agreement with its creditors and 10.3 billion euros were lent to cover the upcoming debts in order to finance and support the Greek economy in the near future. As an exchange for this money more austerity measures were imposed by the Greek government. During 2017 and especially 2018 Greek economy shows signs of recovery. In 2017 the Greek economy grew 1.4%, while

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for the 2018 it is estimated that it will have a growth of 2.3% (Capital.gr, 2018). The Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports is responsible for developing the central government’s sport policy in Greece. It is in close co-operation with the General Secretariat of Sports, which is one of the four Secretariats of the Ministry. The other three Secretariats are The Secretariats of Tourism, Culture and Infrastructure. As seen in Fig. 11.1, sports federations are directed by the General Secretariat of Sports, which takes all decisions regarding the amount of financial support that the sport federations receive every year. Sport federations are non-profit organizations, which are managed by elected committees. Local authorities have also an important role in the delivery of sport in Greece, as they manage sport facilities and deliver “Sport for All” programs. These programs aim to promote public welfare by providing opportunities for local residents to participate (Alexandris & Balaska, 2015). It has to be noted that Fig. 11.1 presents the organizational structure of the Greek Administration System in a government level. Private fitness clubs obviously are not included in this system, since they are “commercial”

General Secreteriat of Sports

Sport Federations

Sport Clubs

Fig. 11.1 2015)

National Sport Facilities Stadiums

Local Authority Sport Departments

Local Authority "Sport for All" Programs

The Greek sport administration system (Source Alexandris and Balaska

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enterprises. The role of General Secretariat of Sports in their operation is limited to setting the rules and the laws for their operation.

Conceptual Framework: The Fitness Sector in Greece Fitness activities and programs in Greece are provided by: (a) private sport/fitness clubs, (b) public authorities, through their municipal— sport departments, (c) non-for-profit sport clubs; (d) professional instructors, through personal training; and (e) hotels and resorts. From all the above categories the private fitness clubs and public authorities/municipality sport departments are the major providers. Fitness includes indoor and outdoor activities and programs, or body movements with the aim to train, develop and maintain the body and the muscle groups in order to improve one’s physical fitness and contribute to an individual’s well-being. There are several activities which are provided by fitness clubs in Greece and are included within the “fitness concept”. Examples are aerobic activities, yoga, Pilates, TRX, CrossFit, physical conditioning and strength training, functional training and dancing activities. Exercise activities with new names and content, sometimes linked to specific sport equipment and brands (like TRX), are frequently introduced in the fitness market in Greece, following international developments and trends; some of these programs are developed and distributed by international sport agencies and they are trademark activities (e.g., CrossFit). While the majority of the fitness activities are delivered indoors, there has been recently a trend for fitness programs to take place outside, mainly in parks and seaside places. Indicative activities include yoga, Pilates and functional training. Fitness is also linked with wellness tourism, which is a fast developing market internationally. It is estimated that the world wellness tourism market creates an economic activity of about 440$ billion annually, which is about the 14% of the total tourism expenses. In Europe only there were 203 million trips linked with wellness tourism in 2012; these trips had an economic impact of 158.4$ billion (Didaskalou, 2017). According to the Global Wellness Institute

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(2015), Greece is in the 19th position in Europe in terms of the money spent for wellness, which obviously is a poor achievement. This market is a promising one for Greece and has to be targeted, attracted and developed. There are several fitness related programs, such as yoga retreats, Pilates sessions and programs associated with water sport, such as windsurfing and stand up paddle boarding (SUP), which are organized in hotels, resorts and camps during the summer. SUP has been recently linked with fitness since it is delivered in combination with yoga and Pilates sessions. Personal training is one of the areas within fitness industry, which is also fast developing in Greece. Personal training takes place within fitness clubs, exercise studios, outdoor, or at home. It is one of the new trends in Greece, which however has been criticized, because of the lack of professional qualifications and certifications of personal trainers. Since this is not a certified profession, the definition of who is a qualified personal trainer is still not clear. On closing this definition of the fitness market in Greece, it needs to be pointed out that there are several supporting services, which are provided by fitness clubs today, such as professional and therapeutic massage, nutrition advice, cardio and physical conditioning testing. These supporting services are considered as an important element of the “fitness product” today.

Material and Method There are no national published data related to the fitness market and its characteristics in Greece. The information and discussion that follows is based on two studies which were conducted in the Sport, Tourism and Recreation Management Lab of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki and on empirical information collected by small studies within the same lab. The first study is a quantitative study, with a sample of 60 fitness clubs in Thessaloniki, Greece. This study was conducted in 2016, with an on-line questionnaire. Since the sample is small and convenient, the results cannot be considered as representative of the whole market; they are, however, indicative and reveal some trends. The second study is a

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qualitative one, which was conducted in 2017; interviews were taken from 10 fitness club owners from different places in Greece. A judgmental sample was applied, aiming to interview club owners who have considerable experience, knowledge of the situation of the Greek fitness market and will be able to answer the interview questions. The interviews were conducted either face-to-face or through Skype. Both the studies included only in urban places.

Trends in (a) Demand Side (Fitness Participation), and (b) Supply Side (Fitness Clubs) The popularity of sport, in general, and fitness, in particularly, in Greece have shown a considerable increase during the last ten years. This is a trend that follows in all the providers of fitness programs (private, public and voluntary sectors). There are several factors that influence positively the increase in sport/fitness participation. First of all, the understanding of the health benefits of sport fitness participation. Previous studies have shown that education is positive correlated with sport participation (Alexandris & Carroll, 1997). Since education has been increased among the younger generations in Greece during the last twenty years, more educated individuals have a better understanding of the health benefits of sport participation. This is also associated with the changing life-style of Greeks, in terms of adopting a healthier and active way of living. A second important factor has been the provision of more and better sport facilities, especially in the private sector and the provision of sport/fitness services which appeal to all ages, and not just young individuals. This was followed by an adoption of a more professional approach, on behalf of those managing sport/fitness services. Finally, although unexpected, it seems that the economic crisis had a positive impact on sport participation, since for many Greeks sport and fitness was seen as an alternative to the stressful work conditions and the financial difficulties which face in their daily life.

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A notable trend in the fitness market has been the changing profile of the participants. University students and young individuals were traditionally the main target groups of fitness clubs in the past (Alexandris, Kenanidis, & Balaska, 2018). However, the average age of fitness participants has been recently increasing. In terms of aspect of consumer behaviour, club members today tend to be more demanding, as they are more experienced in fitness related services. So, they expect better quality of programs and services, despite the reduced fees that they pay when compared with the fees before the economic crisis. There is also a specific group, called the “loyal consumers”, who tend to exercise more frequently than in the past.

The Influence of the Economic Crisis and the Strategies Adopted to Alleviate Its Effects The results of the quantitative study showed that 43% of the fitness clubs had a reduction in the number of their members during the economic crisis, 33% had an increase and 24% reported no changes. From those reported a reduction, 8.7% reported that the reduction was between 5–10%, 65.7% between 10–20%, 4.3% was around 25%, 17.4% was almost 30 and 4.4% was more than 30% (Table 11.1). These figures show that the demand for fitness participation exists, and the market will further develop following the growth of the Greek economy, which, as it was noted in the Introduction, has already started. Table 11.1 Economic crisis and fitness clubs (n = 60) in Thessaloniki, Greece in 2009–2016 Variables

Decrease (%)

Increase (%)

No change (%)

The influence of economic crisis in the number of members of fitness clubs (2010–2016) The influence of economic crisis in the profit of health/fitness clubs

43

33

24

63

12

17

Source Alexandris and Balaska (2017)

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Results are different in terms of the profitability. The majority of fitness club owners (67%) reported that profitability was reduced, as a result of the economic crisis, 12% reported that there was a slight increase, and 17% reported that there was no change. As expected, in order to reduce the negative effects of the economic crisis the vast majority of the fitness clubs (97.7%) developed defensive strategies. These strategies included: reduction in the membership fees (87.5%), cutting costs (91.3%), reductions in the number of employees (68.9%), reductions in the salaries (68.2%). Some growth strategies were, however, reported as well, such as increases in promotions (73.9%), improvements in their fitness programs (80.9%), employee training (60.9%), and introduction of new exercise programs (87.5%). This was quite an optimistic approach discussed by some club owners. The low profitability was a result of the reductions in the monthly and annual membership fees. This was the major strategy adopted by the club owners in order to stabilize the demand and attract new members. Specific offers were also provided during periods of low demand, such as Christmas, Easter and summer. The membership fees in Greece today are very low, and this is one of the major problems in the fitness industry. It is very difficult for clubs to be profitable with such low fees, considering their operation costs and the high taxes, as they will discussed below. The reductions in the operating costs of the clubs was also a notable strategy. These reductions were mainly achieved through reduced salaries.

Changes and Trends in the Marketing of Fitness Clubs Some of the owners did not report any changes in the marketing and communication strategy of their clubs, in relation to the economic crisis or to current global trends in modern marketing and communication strategy. However, some of them talked about the increasing use of social media (Facebook and Instagram), which represents a major change in communication strategy today, and it is not obviously related to the economic conditions in the country. It has to be noted that the club owners did not talk a lot about marketing aspects of their clubs. It is clear that this is an area that requires improvement and a more professional approach on behalf of the managers/owners of the fitness clubs.

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Numbers/Figures About the Demand Side While there are no official data about the size and the development of the fitness market in Greece, it is estimated that about eight percent of the adult urban population in Greece are for some time within a year members of health and fitness clubs. It is estimated that there are about 1250 private health and fitness clubs in the country (A. Batrakoulis, personal communication, September 15, 2016). This brings Greece to the tenth place among the European countries. It is estimated that Greek private health and fitness clubs have about 625,000 members (Rodriguez, 2016). The total revenue of fitness/health related clubs (NACE Code 9604) is 89,104,000 euro (Alexandris & Balaska, 2017). However, those who do personal training at home are not included.

Profile of the Fitness Participants As seen in Table 11.2, women today are the majority of the fitness club members. It has to be noted that there are fitness clubs which are only for women (called “ladies fitness” clubs). The high proportion of women is due to provision of several aerobic related programs, which target women and in some cases the link between fitness and beauty/cosmetic services. Table 11.2

The profile of club members during the last 3 years

Gender Men Women Age 15–24 25–39 40–54 55+ Socio-economic status Working class Middle class Higher class Source Alexandris et al. (2018)

2015 (%)

2016 (%)

2017 (%)

35 65

35 65

40 60

25 30 28 17

25 30 25 20

25 30 25 20

30 50 20

30 50 20

30 50 20

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As previously discussed, the increase in the average age of the fitness club members has been a notable trend. Although the average age of health club members is still around 35 years old, more middle-aged individuals (e.g., 45+) become members of fitness clubs today. Still there is an underrepresentation of older individuals (e.g., 65+), and this is a challenge for fitness clubs mangers. As seen in Table 11.2, almost one fourth of the club members today belong to the 55+ group, which shows the expansion of the market towards older individuals. In terms of the socio-economic profile, the majority of members tend to belong to the middle socio-economic group (Table 11.2). However, fitness clubs appeal to all socio-economic groups today, depending of course on the type of the club, the membership fees and the services offered. It is a common situation, however, for some of the members to face difficulties paying the annual subscriptions, because of their low disposable income and high unemployment rate. This is a challenge for fitness club owners.

Information About the Supply Side (Fitness Clubs) The fitness clubs in Greece can be categorized as follows: (a) Typical health and fitness clubs: they offer indoor class activities, strength/ conditioning programs and facilities and several supporting services; (b) Exercise studios: they are smaller clubs in terms of the size of the facilities and the sport equipment; they mainly provide personal training sessions and rehabilitation programs; (c) Yoga studios: they are specialized in yoga and Pilates related programs, which run in small facilities; (d) CrossFit Clubs: this is a relatively new trend. These clubs do not invest on traditional fitness equipment and programs; they provide exercises facilities for CrossFit related activities and functional training; (e) Fitness clubs/wellness centres within hotels: almost all the five-star city hotels and resorts have today health/fitness clubs. Some of them are open to public (on top of the residents of the hotels), through annual subscriptions. As previously noted, some of these hotels organize during the summer wellness related activities.

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Membership Fees The average monthly fee of private fitness clubs today is about 20–25 euros. It can be even lower, if members sign an annual membership subscription. In this case, it can go as low as 15–20 euros per month. These low fees resulted from the economic crisis; as previously noted, many of the health and fitness clubs managers reduced their monthly and annually fees, as a defensive strategy to survive. To compare, the average monthly fee was 50 euros in 2013 (Ablondi, 2014). The average monthly fee in Greece, is among the lowest in Europe. This can be illustrated for example by a comparison with Switzerland, where the average monthly fee is 61 euros (Ablondi, 2014). In any case, however, the low Greek consumer power has to be taken into consideration. The unemployment rate of the country is today close to 24%, when back in 2008 it was 7.3% and the salaries have reduced considerably (Greece Economic Indicators, 2016). The membership fee in the Greek fitness clubs varies according to the type of the club and the services that they offer. For instance, personal training studios are generally more expensive. Also the location of the clubs has an impact on the fees. Clubs in Athens and Thessaloniki tend to be more expensive than in the other parts of the country. It is estimated that the economic activities produced by fitness clubs in Greece value approximately 187 million euros per year. This brings Greece into the last position among the European countries. It is still a small market when compared for example to the UK, which has the biggest market in Europe, worth 6.2 billion euros (Rodriguez, 2016). Nevertheless, it needs to be noted, that there are also economic activities related to the personal training services in Greece in which many of the services are informal. This implies that the activities are not always recorded (Alexandris & Balaska, 2017).

Problems that Fitness Clubs Face Today The most important problem reported in the quantitative study was the high tax (100%), followed by the reductions in the consumer power (95.9%), the lack of specialized exercise instructors (75.5%), the

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increased competition (93.9%), the negative economic climate (98%), the low membership fee (91.8%) and the limited marketing of their clubs (79.6%). In terms of the tax, it has to be noted that it is among the highest in the EU and the highest in Balkan Region (24%). It is clear that with such a high tax it is difficult for fitness clubs to have adequate profitability in order to adopt growth strategies, such as buying new sport equipment and extending their exercise facilities. It is interesting that some of the owners reported that the “bad” competition is also one of the main problems, referring to some exercise studios, which do not have a legal status. They all said that the law should be clear and should be reinforced by the government. One of the most worrying aspects revealed in the two studies was the negative club owners’ perceptions about the exercise professionals. All the club owners were dissatisfied by the quality of the exercise and fitness instructors. They reported that many fitness professionals do not have good knowledge of their subject; some of them also do not also a professional approach, and they do not seem to be motivated to work and further professionally develop. They did not, however, raise the issue of the low salaries, which is obviously a demotivating factor for employees.

The Future of the Fitness Industry Almost half of the club owners (46.9%) believe that the market will be growing the next years, which obviously is a promising approach. There is, however, a 27% of them who think that the market will be shrinking, while 26.1% of them think that it will be stable. The vast majority of fitness club owners were also positive about the number of the private fitness club members. Thus, 77.3% see that they will be increasing in the following years, while 22.7% believe that there will be no major changes. In terms of the market, they see opportunities to attract new target groups (e.g., old individuals and children programs); some of the owners also believe that the philosophy of exercise provision should be more linked to health, leisure and recreation. The link of fitness with rehabilitation is a promising area. It is a common belief among fitness

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clubs owners that doctors should start giving as prescriptions visits to fitness clubs, as it is the case in some other European countries. Finally, and this is a key point, professionalism will be the key to success. The market is competitive; club members have increased expectations and there will be no space for low quality services and amateurism.

Conclusions This chapter aimed to present the current situation in the Greek fitness market, discuss the influence of the economic crisis and present some future trends. It can be concluded that despite the economic crisis in Greece since 2009, the fitness industry has survived. The numbers of fitness club members were not significantly decreased, following a general trend for Greeks to adopt a more active lifestyle. Since the economy in Greece has shown signs of slow recovery, it is expected that the demand for fitness participation will continue to grow. Profitability of the clubs was however decreased because of the decreases in the monthly and annual membership fees, which were introduced by club owners in their effort to keep the consumer demand. The high taxes imposed to private organizations by the Greek government seem to be the main problem of the clubs today. The owners of fitness clubs expect that the growth of the economy will be associated with reductions in taxes. This will give the chance for higher profitability and growth in their operations. It seems that the changing profile of the fitness club members towards more middle-aged and older individuals is one of the opportunities for the fitness market, because this will give them the chance to expand and diversify their target groups. Greek fitness clubs follow the global trends with the adoption of new and worldwide popular exercise programs such as functional training, TRX, CrossFit and personal training. A final and probably the most worrying issue in the fitness market in Greece today is lack of high quality exercise professionals, at least as stated by fitness club owners. It is clear that better education and training is required, in order for professionals to be able to deliver high quality services. Obviously, the low salaries given to fitness club employees is one of the demotivating factors for their professional development.

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References Ablondi, J. (2014). The IHRSA global report 2014. Boston, MA: International Health, Racquet and Sport Club Association. Alexandris, K., & Balaska, P. (2015). Sport clubs in Greece. In C. Breuer, R. Hoekman, N. Siegfried, & H. van der Werff (Eds.), Sport clubs in Europe (pp. 209–220). Cham: Springer. Alexandris, K., & Balaska, P. (2017). The impact of economic crisis on the private sport sector. In A. Laine & H. Vehmas (Eds.), The private sport sector in Europe: A cross national comparative perspective (pp. 159–175). Cham: Springer. Alexandris, K., & Carroll, B. (1997). Demographic differences in the perception of constraints on recreational sport participation: Results from a study in Greece. Leisure Studies, 16, 107–125. Alexandris, K., Kenanidis, T., & Balaska, P. (2018). Working paper. Sport, Tourism and Recreation Lab. School of PE and Sport Studies, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece. Bank of Greece. (2017). Tourism statistics. Retrieved in April 2018 from https:// www.bankofgreece.gr/Pages/en/default.aspx. Capital.gr. (2018). 2.3% the growth in 2018. Retrieved in April 2018 from www.capital.gr. Didaskalou, E. (2017). The theoretical foundation of well-being tourism in Greece. In P. Lytras & P. Tsiartas (Eds.), Tourism and tourism development (pp. 332–339). Athens: Papazisis. European Commission. (2018). Sport and physical activity (Special Eurobarome-ter 472/Wave 88.4). Brussels: European Commission/DG Education, Youth, Sport and Culture. Eurostat. (2019a). Annual net earnings. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https:// appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=earn_nt_net&lang=en. Eurostat. (2019b). Area by NUTS 3 region. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https:// bit.ly/2ISCF2r. Eurostat. (2019c). Population on 1 January. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language= en&pcode=tps00001&plugin=1. Eurostat. (2019d). Real GDP per capita. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/refreshTableAction.do?tab=table&plu gin=1&pcode=sdg_08_10&language=en.

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Giannoulakis, C., Papadimitriou, D., Alexandris, K., & Brgoch, S. (2016). Impact of austerity measures on National Sport Federations: Evidence from Greece. European Sport Management Quarterly, 17, 75–97. Global Wellness Institute. (2015). The global wellness tourism economy. Retrieved in April 2018, from https://www.globalwellnessinstitute.org/ind ustry-research/. Greece Economic Indicators. (2016). Retrieved June 2, 2016 from http://www. tradingeconomics.com/greece/indicators. Hellenic Statistical Authority. (2011). Clusters of sport businesses in Greece. Retrieved July 6, 2016 from http://www.statistics.gr/. IHRSA. (2013a). The IHRSA European health club report—Size and scope of the fitness industry. Boston, MA: International Health, Racquet and Sportsclub Association. IHRSA. (2013b). The IHRSA global report 2013. Boston, MA: International Health, Racquet & Sportsclub Association. Kondilis, E., Giannakopoulos, S., Gavana, M., Ierodiakonou, I., Waitzkin, H., & Benos, A. (2013). Economic crisis, restrictive policies, and the population’s health and health care: The Greek case. American Journal of Public Health, 103(6), 973–979. Papadimitriou, D., & Alexandris, K. (2018). ‘Adopt an athlete for Rio 2016’: The impact of austerity on the Greek elite sport system. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 10 (1), 147–162. Passport to Trade: A Bridge to Success. (2016). Greek business culture. Retrieved December 7, 2016 from http://businessculture.org/southern-eur ope/business-culture-in-greece/. Rodriguez, M. (2016). The IHRSA global report 2016 . Boston, MA: International Health, Racquet and Sport Club Association. Theodorou, S. (2015). H Eλληνικ η´ Kρ´ισ η σ ε Aριθμoບ´ ς [The Greek crisis in numbers]. Retrieved June 1, 2016 from http://www.thetoc.gr/oikonomia/ article/wsj-i-elliniki-krisi-se-arithmous. The World Bank. (2019). Urban population (% of total population). Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL. WHO. (2019). Prevalence of overweight among adults, BMI ≥ 25. Accessed at 30 July 2019 via http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.BMI25Cv?lan g=en. Zavras, D., Tsiantou, V., Pavi, E., Mylona, K., & Kyriopoulos, J. (2012). Impact of economic crisis and other demographic factors on self-rated health in Greece. European Journal of Public Health, 23(2), 206–210.

12 The Shape of the Fitness Industry in Ireland Ann Bourke

Introduction The core principles of sport in Ireland are shaped by government policy in conjunction with National Governing Bodies (NGBs). From the government perspective, the emphasis is on fitness, well-being, forming social relationships and obtaining results in competitions at all levels. The organisation of individual sports is mainly facilitated and promoted through NGBs in conjunction with local community-based clubs, schools (state/private; secondary/primary), Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) and other key stakeholders such as the Olympic Federation of Ireland (OFI) and Student Sport Ireland (SSI). Sport in Ireland has two unique features: firstly, most sports are played on an amateur1 basis (Rugby Union and Golf being exceptions) and secondly, 1 Players

are not paid to play.

A. Bourke (B) School of Professional Finance, Institute of Banking, Dublin, Ireland e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 J. Scheerder et al. (eds.), The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53348-9_12

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there is intense competition among NGBs to recruit talented youngsters to their sport (Bourke, 2013). The ‘amateur’ status tag is somewhat misleading because in certain team sports (Gaelic Football,2 Hockey, Soccer) a ‘professional’ approach to coaching, health and fitness regimes is evident. This professionalism is also evident in the standard of club facilities, centres of excellence and the established links to professional fitness services. Ireland’s fitness industry is a related and supporting industry for sport providing inputs and processes critical for advances in sport performance (Porter, 1990). Country facts Geographical, demographical and economic indicators Capital Geographical size (km2 ; 2014)a Population (2019)b Urbanisation rate (%; 2018)c GDP (euro per capita; 2018)d Annual net earnings average (Single person without children, 100% of AW, in euro; 2018)e EU membership since Health and sports related indicators Prevalence of overweight among adults (BMI ≥ 25, %; 2016)h Share of physical inactive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)i Share of sportive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)i Fitness related indicators Percentage of total population with fitness club membership (2017)f Percentage of population (aged 15 or older) with fitness club membership (2017)g Fitness club members (2017)f Numbers of clubs (2017)f Fitness and health club industry revenue (excl. VAT, million euro; 2017)g Average membership fee/month (incl. VAT, euro; 2017)g Average membership fee as percentage of disposable income (%; 2017)g

Dublin 69,797 4,904,226 63.2 58,000 34,894.72 1973 63.6 11.1 64.7 10.5 13.4 500,000 710 297 49.1 2.9

Notes Sportive population: share of population that did not indicate ‘never’ on the question: ‘How often do you exercise or play sport?’ (Answering possibilities:

2The Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) founded in 1884 promotes and governs Ireland’s national games—Hurling, Football, Handball and Rounders.

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five times a week or more, three–four times a week, one–two times a week, one–three times a month, less often, never); Physical inactive population: share of population that indicated at least one day on one of the following three questions: ‘In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do vigorous physical activity like lifting heavy things, digging, aerobics or fast cycling?’ ‘In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do moderate physical activity like carrying light loads, cycling at normal pace or doubles tennis? Please do not include walking’ and ‘In the last 7 days, on how many days did you walk for at least 10 minutes at a time?’ (Answering possibilities: number of days a week or never) Sources a Eurostat (2019b); b Eurostat (2019c); c The World Bank (2019); d Eurostat (2019d); e Eurostat (2019a); f IHRSA (2018); g Deloitte & EuropeActive (2018); h WHO (2019); i European Commission (2018)

There is now a consensus that engaging in regular and appropriate physical activity and exercise across a lifespan can have a profound effect on health and well-being (De Lyon, Neville, & Armour, 2017). The widely held international standard (adopted in Ireland’s National Physical Activity Guidelines, 2009) recommends that adults should accumulate at least 30 minutes of moderate intensity activity on five or more days a week as a basis for good health. Despite various recommendations and advice with respect to the benefits of being active, according to the WHO (2010), physical inactivity is positioned as the fourth leading cause of death worldwide. In early 2016, the Irish government was warned about the level of inactivity in Ireland with the stark headline ‘Lancet study shows Ireland set to become most obese country in Europe by 2025 ’.3 Various government initiatives have been launched over the years to communicate the ‘Get Active’ message to key stakeholders (educators, parents, employers, health and social professionals etc.). The Get Ireland Active! The National Physical Activity Plan (NPAP) 2013–2025, launched in January 2016 is designed to make Ireland a more active place to live. The role of recreational walking in contributing to meeting the National Physical Activity Guidelines is frequently understated. By combining activity levels through participation in ‘sport’ and recreational walking, estimates of the proportion of the population who meet the National Physical Activity Guidelines using four categories: Highly Active, Fairly Active, Just Active and Sedentary is provided. In 2017, just over one third of the population (33%) were classified as highly active, 3 Obesity

Hub, Part of the Health Well, 2016, http://obesity.publichealthwell.ie/highight/lancetstudy-shows-ireland-set-become-most-obese-country-europe-2025.

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while at the other end of the spectrum, 13% are classified as sedentary (ISM, 2017). Younger males (up to the age of 24) are more likely to be more active than females of the same age, while among older age groups (55+), more females (64%) than males (58%) are active.

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework Leisure and fitness firms are service enterprises which deliver their service by integrating or outsourcing investments in numerous assets (e.g. buildings and infrastructure), processes (e.g. membership and advertising), people (such as personal trainers, receptionists and support personnel) and materials (e.g. fitness equipment, guidelines and codes of behaviour). Service products (e.g. entertainment and travel) are facilitated by goods that are often not physical entities but a combination of processes, people skills and materials which must be appropriately configured and coordinated to result in the planned or designed service (Goldstein, Johnston, Duffy, & Rao, 2002). When designing a service product, it is advantageous to set out the Service Concept. Heskett (1986) defines the Service Concept as the way the organisation would like to have its services perceived by customers, shareholders, employees and lenders, i.e. the organisation’s business proposition. For many ‘successful’ services firms (such as Ryanair, FLYEfit or Federal Express) the service concept is clear. The leisure and fitness market structure comprises a large number of small and independently owned enterprises, each producing a differentiated service (5 Star hotel Vs Low cost). Firms compete on price, quality and marketing and there are few entry and exit barriers. While information is freely available to all firms in the sector, it is not ‘perfect’, consequently the role of the decision maker (e.g. the CEO, manager or entrepreneur) is vital due to increased risks. In other words, competition is monopolistic, and firms’ success mainly stems from service design and effective use of differentiation, marketing and personnel.

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Ireland’s Definition of Fitness In the literature there are varying views on defining physical fitness. The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) 2018 refers to physical fitness as ‘the ability to carry out daily tasks with vigour and alertness without undue fatigue, and with ample energy to enjoy leisure time pursuits and respond to emergencies’, while Caspersen, Powell, and Christenson (1985) note that physical fitness is ‘a set of attributes that are either health or skill related’. There is no formal or commonly accepted definition of fitness in Ireland. The Irish Sport Monitor (ISM) uses the Sport Ireland Act definition of sport which is intentionally broad. In that context, sport includes activities undertaken for exercise, recreation and sport including personal exercise (gym-based activities), swimming or dancing, as well as other forms of sporting activity, indoor or outdoor whether undertaken in an organised or casual setting with family and friends. Activities such as gardening and housework are excluded while recreational walking is included but is analysed in a separate section of the report. For the purpose of this chapter the definition of fitness adopted by this author is as follows: ‘fitness is planned, casual or regular participation in physical activities or body movements, to improve or maintain physical fitness and mental well -being ’.

Material and Method The main sources used for this chapter include journals in the areas of sport, fitness, health and services; sport and fitness online publications; national newspapers and web pages and industry reports. Other useful sources include the Ireland Active Strategic Plan 2017–20 and various Irish Government policy documents. The reasons for drawing on the Irish Sport Monitor (ISM) and the Mintel 2016 report are explained briefly below. Sport Ireland: Irish Sports Monitor (ISM)—The Irish Sport Monitor is a large-scale population-based survey designed to measure physical and social participation in sport and other forms of exercise in Ireland. It was

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initiated by the Irish Sports Council (ISC) in 2007. To capture ‘sport’, physical activity and exercise information, the same methodology and questions are used consistently, and the survey is administered by telephone (landlines and mobile) every two years. Because ISM seeks to track participation as accurately as possible, it asks respondents about their sport behaviours over the last seven days, with monthly administration, which allows ISM to address seasonality issues around participation in sport and physical activity. On average, 8,000+ adults are interviewed for each ISM wave. ISM is widely used by researchers and policy makers in informing sport and fitness national policy, guidelines and industry research www.sportireland.ie/research. Mintel Report: Exercise and Fitness—Ireland, 2016 focuses on the marketplace for gyms and fitness centres on the Island of Ireland (IOI)—Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. This once-off industry report provides information for stakeholders on market developments, prospects and consumer trends within the sector focusing on gyms, fitness clubs and leisure centres. For the purpose of the Mintel Fitness Industry review, gym-goers are defined as not only those who visit a gym, but also those individuals who currently visit fitness clubs and leisure centres. The sample population comprised 1,000+ internet users in the Republic of Ireland aged 16+ who had used a gym or engaged in exercise www.mintel.ie.

Trends in (a) Demand Side (=Participation), and (b) Supply Side (=Organisational/Structures) Change in Popularity of Sports & Fitness Ireland endured a punishing seven quarters of economic contraction during 2008 and 2009 and dipped back into recession in late 2012 as the euro zone flirted with systemic collapse. The steep fall meant the economy returned to its pre-crisis size only in 2015—taking seven years to recover, compared with three years in the United States and

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five in the UK (Halligan, 2018). During this period, unemployment and emigration increased while consumer spending (measured by retail sales) declined. These factors had some impact on sport participation rates. Between 2007 and 2017 the proportion of the Irish population participating in sport increased from 33 to 43%, having peaked at 47% (equivalent to almost 1.7 million of Irish adults participating in sport on a regular basis) in 2015. Table 12.1 below details the popular physical activities among the Irish population. Recreational walking has always been a popular activity in Ireland, and in recent years this continues with greater attention given to advising walkers on how to reap the benefits from this activity with respect to posture, pace and duration. It is interesting to note the prominence of ‘individual’ sports rather than team sports on Table 12.1. The context for the above sporting activities (excluding recreational walking) is interesting. ISM 2017 reveals that 40 percent was undertaken alone, 32% in organised training, 25% casually with family/friends and 8% in organised competition. While the data suggests that most participate Table 12.1

Most popular physical activities and exercise (selected) All

Walking (recreational) Exercisea (personal) Swimming Running Cycling Soccer Dancing Golf Gaelic football Yoga Weights Pilates Hurling/ camogie

Males

Females

2011

2013

2015

2017

2015

2017

2015

2017

63.9

64.6

63.6

66.2

57.7

61.2

69.0

71.1

10.9 9.7 6.1 5.5 6.4 3.7 4.8 2.5 1.4 1.5 0.7 1.9

12.2 9.4 8.5 5.9 5.9 4.3 3.3 2.6 1.2 2.9 1.0 1.7

13.0 8.1 7.9 5.3 4.8 3.0 2.3 1.9 1.5 1.8 1.1 1.2

12.4 8.5 6.2 5.1 4.1 3.0 2.5 2.0 2.0 1.6 1.2 1.1

13.1 7.6 8.9 7.6 8.9 7.6 3.8 3.2 0.5 2.2 0.2 1.0

11.3 7.1 6.9 7.1 6.9 7.1 3.8 2.9 0.6 1.9 0.2 1.6

12.9 8.6 6.9 8.6 6.9 8.6 0.9 0.8 2.4 1.4 1.9 0.5

13.5 9.8 5.5 9.8 5.5 9.8 1.2 1.2 3.4 1.3 2.2 0.6

Source ISM (2017 and various) a Personal exercise comprises gym-type activities, fitness classes and exercise machines, it does not include yoga and Pilates (ISM, 2017)

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in activities categorised as ‘individual’ sports—when analysed further, it emerged that over a quarter (28%) do their ‘individual’ sports through organised training and 23% do it casually with family/friends (ISM, 2017).

Change in Number and Profile of Fitness Participants Recreational walking has increased in popularity among males and females with a more sizeable increase among 16–25-year old men (36– 52%). In fact, over the ten-year period (2007–2017), participation in recreational walking increased from 58 to 66.2 %.4 Participation in the 12 listed ‘sporting’ activities on Table 12.1 changed little during the past two years (2015–2017), the most noticeable change being in the proportion that engages in running with a decline of 1.7%. When reviewed along gender, the proportion of women engaging in personal exercise and swimming increased, with the reduced participation in running is evident among both men and women. Over the years apart from 2017, swimming has declined in popularity but has been subject to budget cuts—the Local Authority Swimming Pool Programme (LASPP) which delivers capital investment, decreased from e27.8 m in 2007 to e4.2 m in 2017.

Change in Percentage of Population with Fitness Club Membership It is estimated that membership of sports clubs (including gyms) between 2003 and 2015 increased from 30 to 36%, noting the differences in methodology,5 reference period used and age coverage between surveys, makes this an indicative comparison only. In 2015, out of 1.3 million

4 As

at 2017, almost 2.5 million people in Ireland participate in recreational walking regularly. 2003 and ISM 2015. The Survey on Sport and Physical Exercise (SSPE) 2003, was a baseline survey on sports participation conducted by the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRI) on behalf of the Irish Sports Council, using face to face interviews with 3000 participants aged 18+.

5 SSPE

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adults who were members of a sports club, approximately 490,000 reported being members of a gym.

Change in Types of Fitness Centres During the last five years, there have been many new entrants into the fitness sector in Ireland which is largely due to improved economic conditions and the increased emphasis on healthy living. While many new players employ a differentiation strategy using a membership business model to illustrate their unique service offerings, others (low-cost gyms) offer a no-contract option (pay as you go), which impacts on club membership statistics. The two most noticeable changes in the fitness industry in Ireland are the increased number of low-cost/no frills gyms (owneroperated/franchised), mainly from the UK, particularly in the Dublin area (Corcoran, 2017) and the growing number of hotels (not only the top 5 star), that incorporate leisure and fitness into their service package designed to differentiate further their service offerings. Other changes across the sector include: (a) advanced management and administration techniques, using technology and social media to manage members’ visits to the gym/fitness centre, fitness assessments and records (b) the incorporation of social media allowing members listen to music, watch a football match while exercising (c) the promotion of national standards of quality (White Flag, ISO) in the sector (d) the outsourcing of Local Authority gyms/recreation centres to independent management/service operators so that they can compete more effectively with private operators (e) the educational specifications and requirements for certain gym/fitness centre roles accredited by REPS Ireland based on those developed by the European Health and Fitness Association and (f ) an increased competitive market place/space which has led in some situations to an enhanced gym/fitness experience for the exerciser while in others to overcrowding particularly at peak times.

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Numbers/Figures About Demand Side Profile and Typology of Fitness Participants In profiling fitness participants, the variety of leisure and fitness facilities (hotels, gyms, wellness centres, etc.) is considered as set out in Table 12.2.

Overall Fitness-Participation ISM 2017 reveals that 12% of the population are members of an exercise club (predominately gym-type activities) with a further three percent being members of swimming (2%) or running (1%) clubs. These statistics exclude individuals who are members of GAA clubs (10%) some of which have in-house fitness/exercise facilities located in the club on in the county Centre of Excellence. As at 2016, one fifth (21%) of consumers in the Republic of Ireland use a private gym, fitness club or leisure centre (Mintel, 2016). The largest proportion (27%) of individuals using a gym live in Dublin, which is probably due to the fact that a higher proportion of gym/fitness clubs is located in the city and suburbs. Just over one third (33%) of Irish consumers typically visit the gym/fitness club/leisure centre three or more times a week; 31%, one–two times a week, while 12% visit a gym once every six months or less. ISM (2015) provides information on the intensity of exercise sessions undertaken by respondents using the FITT model. Over 70% of all exercise sessions are between 30 and 90 minutes long, while a little over one in ten sessions are less than 30 minutes. For men, the average session is approximately one hour, whereas for women, session duration is slightly shorter— 52 minutes on average. Irish consumers like to mix and match their fitness routines between in-gym equipment and activities outside or at home for example, running, cycling and hiking. The non-gym activities which are popular include jogging/running (31%), cycling (25%) and hiking/rambling (21%) (Mintel, 2016). A sizeable proportion (29%) indicated that they

Source Mintel (2016)

16.0

15.0

16.0 Separated/widowed/divorced

12.0 19,500–31,499

23.0 Single

28.0 Married/living with partner 20.0 Under 10,000

24.0 Leinster 19.0 Self-employed

19.0 35–44

Female

25.0 10,000– 19,499

24.0 Munster 19.0 Part-time

26.0 Dublin 27.0 Full-time

% Gross Annual Household Income e % 16.0

25.0 25–34

21.0 16–24

Male

22.0

31,500– 62,999

13.0 Connacht 17.0 Full-time education 27.0

45–54

All

Currently use a gym

% Age groups (years) % Location % Work status % Marital status

Profile of consumers who currently use a gym, fitness club or leisure centre

Table 12.2

33.0

63,000– 94,999

7.0

10.0 Ulster 17.0 Retired

55+

44.0

95,000+

13.0

Un-employed

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had not played or participated in any sport or activity outside the gym during the past year.

Differences According to Gender, Age, Socio-Economic Status A higher proportion of males (25%) than females (19%) currently use a gym or fitness club, with a larger proportion of males (42%) than females (30%) most frequently visiting a gym (three or more times a week). Within this gym user group, 28% are in full-time employment and 44% are in the highest income bracket (e95,000+ p.a.). With respect to the 18% who have never and do not plan to use a gym, 23% are male, and 15% are female. One fifth (20%) of the non-user group are retired (46%) or unemployed (20%) and are from outside Dublin (Leinster). Just over one third (35%) are separated, divorced or widowed and classified as ABC1 (14%) and C2DEF (21%) (upper/middle and non-manual/lower social class).

Motivation and Behaviour of Fitness Consumers According to Rhodes and Nigg (2011) motivating individuals to adopt and maintain general regular physical activity, is a major challenge for health professionals and facilitating physical activity via public health initiatives is considered of paramount importance. Table 12.3 presents summary data pertaining to the five most commonly identified motivations and activities and equipment used by consumers at gyms, fitness clubs or leisure centres. Given the Irish Government’s policy with respect to healthy living and being active, it is not surprising that 62% of consumers go to the gym to improve their general fitness/health while a slightly smaller proportion (60%) indicated that losing weight and toning up is a motivation factor. More females (63%) than males (59%) are motivated to improve their general fitness/health whereas the gender variation is further pronounced with respect to losing weight/toning up: females 64%, males 48%. Evidence suggests that men are more motivated to build

(Highest proportion) Behaviours (Most commonly identified) Gender All Male

Gender All Male Female Age group (yrs.) (Highest/lowest proportion) Work status 65.0 B Had a swim session in the pool 43.0 47.0

A Used cardio training equipment

45.0 49.0

Part-time

Self-employed

65.0

60.0 48.0 64.0 16–24 66.0/56.0

2. To lose weight/tone up (%)

62.0 59.0 63.0 25–34 65.0/58.0

1. To improve general fitness/health (%)

38.0 53.0

C Used weight training equipment

44.0

Self-employed

36.0 33.0 37.0 45–54 46.0/28.0

3. To relax or de-stress (%)

34.0 18.0

D Taken part in a group exercise/class

Full-time education 39.0

24.0 37.0 20.0 16–24 29.0/13.0

32.0 26.0 (continued)

E Used wellness facilities

Full-time education 43.0

24.0 27.0 23.0 55+ 38.0/19.0

4. To build 5. To improve muscle/strength cardio (%) vascular/fitness (%)

Top motivations and behaviours of fitness consumers—summary demographic details

Motivations

Table 12.3

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Source Mintel (2016)

54.0

60.0

Self-employed

FT education

(Highest proportion)

41.0 55+ 50.0

43.0 16–24 51.0

Female Age group (Highest proportion) Work status

2. To lose weight/tone up (%)

1. To improve general fitness/health (%)

(continued)

Motivations

Table 12.3

49.0

FT education

33.0 16–24/25–34 41.0

3. To relax or de-stress (%)

FT education; part-time 37.0

40.0 25–34 40.0

40.0

Retired

34.0 55+ 34.0

4. To build 5. To improve muscle/strength cardio (%) vascular/fitness (%)

270 A. Bourke

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muscle strength (37%) and improve cardio vascular/fitness endurance (27%) than women 20 and 23%, respectively. Cross-tabulating the five motivating factors with age groups, the age group most motivated to improve general health/fitness is the 25–34-year olds, while the 16–24 aged consumers are the most focused group on losing weight/toning up (66%) and building muscle strength (29%). This is hardly surprising given the increased emphasis on fitness in sport, particularly among the student population (second and third level) and the desire among millennials to look and feel ‘good’. Reviewing the motivating factors across age groups, the widest variation (19%) occurs with respect to improving cardio vascular/fitness endurance. Among 55+ year olds, 38% consider this factor an important motivational driver in keeping fit, while at the other end of the spectrum, just half (19%) of the 35–44-year olds concur. The most common fitness/training equipment used by Irish participants during visits to the gym is the cardio equipment (e.g. treadmills) with usage at 45%. Females (40%) are more likely to take part in group exercise classes than males (18%) as for some women going to the gym is a social activity. Cross referencing the behaviour and age group details, the highest proportion (51%) using the cardio training equipment was among the 16–24 age group. On the other hand, among the 55+ group, the highest proportion (34%) availed of the gyms/fitness clubs’ wellness facilities. It is interesting to note that for a large proportion (60%) of the self-employed swimming continues to be a popular element of their fitness routine, which is possibly due to their irregular employment hours.

Numbers/Figures About Supply Side (Provision and Governance of Fitness) Provision of Fitness by Private Market and by Others (Local Authorities, Sports Clubs, Partnerships …) The private market comprises gyms, fitness clubs and leisure centres which operate on a commercial basis, some of which are independently owned (estimated to account for 80% of the total club base)

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and small-sized, while others are chains or franchise arrangements. Local Authorities (LA) in Ireland continue to be involved in the provision of fitness and recreation facilities. But these tend to be less visible as in some instances the operations and management of such centres has been outsourced to project/service management providers such as Aura and Coral Leisure, while in others they operate under a different name, for example Swan Leisure was ‘created’ by Dublin City Council. The LA gyms/recreation centres target a slightly different market segment to that of fitness centres—their service remit is broader (incorporates fitness and selected sports—soccer, tennis, running and athletics) with improved administration, facilities and equipment due largely to government grants provided to promote and foster an active culture among the local population. The distinguishing feature of Local Authority fitness provision is its pricing strategy—it is generally lower than that of similar commercial enterprises, but a disadvantage is that the facility opening hours are normally more restricted than those of their commercial counterparts. It is difficult to get precise details in relation to the number of gyms/fitness centres, as listings like that of www.gym.ie are incomplete and understated.

Market Penetration The location of gyms and fitness centres are now more concentrated in urban centres (Dublin, Cork, Limerick, Galway). During the four year period (2011–2015), the proportion of gyms located in city areas has risen from 13 to 17%. With regard to the proportion located in towns and villages, the former has increased by two percent (12–14%) and the latter by three percent (11–14%). As expected, there is a much lower market penetration in isolated areas (9–10%).

Number of Clubs and Members/Club Approximately, 500,000 people in Ireland are members of 710 health and fitness clubs, which is equivalent to 10.5% of the population. Their average membership fee (including VAT) is e49 per month (McCluskey,

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2018) which is equivalent to 2.9% of disposable income. Ireland’s members/club ratio is low driven by the fact that a large number of independently owned gyms are estimated to account for 80% of the total club base and generally have a lower member average than chain operators.

Partnerships with Other Sport Actors The proportion of participants who exercise and play other popular team sports (e.g. soccer, Gaelic football, hurling/camogie or rugby) is relatively small across each age group. Among school and college students (16–19 age group) approximately 17% play soccer and engage in exercise while a smaller proportion (12%) combine exercising with Gaelic football. Evidence points to many partnerships between fitness clubs and leisure centres and other sports, particularly education/work-based gyms/leisure centres. For example, University College Dublin (UCD) fitness has a long association with Leinster Rugby, which utilises the university’s top-quality gym and fitness facilities. The Mardyke Arena in Cork has close ties with University College Cork (UCC) sports clubs and with several National Governing Bodies (NGBs). Such partnerships also exist at community level: NRG gyms in Galway are associated with the Galway County Hurling and Football teams and have a partnership with the National Centre for Youth Mental Health.

Typology of Fitness Centres The typology of gyms, fitness centres identified by Ireland Active is: a. b. c. d.

Hotel-attached Privately owned (excluding hotel-attached) Local/Public Authorities Education/College-based.

The largest proportion (42%) of these facilities is privately-owned, one third (33%) hotel-attached, 22 percent Local Authority owned (includes a small number of charity and community-based centres) and just under

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three percent are Education/work based. Fitness centres/gyms may also be classified according to their competitive strategy—low-cost leadership, differentiation or focus (Heskett, 1986). Ben Dunne Gyms, Energie are examples of enterprises that pursue a low-cost leadership strategy, with emphasis on self-service and little or no contact with service personnel. Membership fees are low and flexible ensuring clients get a basic experience which adds value, targeting customers who are willing to do without frills and serve themselves. Many hotel-attached gyms/fitness centres pursue a differentiation strategy which emphasises the unique aspects of the service. In some instances, the uniqueness is via the hotel brand (Adare Manor, Intercontinental Hotel), or it might be by making the intangible tangible—reminding guests of their stay by providing complementary toilet/spa items with the hotel name prominently affixed. A Focus strategy is built around servicing a particular target market very well by addressing specific customers’ needs. The Breaffy House Resort Sports Arena focuses on a narrow market segment i.e. sports’ training camp and team bonding (https://www.breaffyhouseresort.com).

Accommodation in Fitness Centres (Activities/Infrastructure) Significant sums of money need to be invested to build, maintain and operate leisure and fitness facilities. The accommodation infrastructure varies across the types of fitness/leisure centres as illustrated in Table 12.4. For example, the hotel-attached facilities vary considerably from those offered by the low-cost gyms (Ben Dunne). In certain cases, membership includes classes (hotel-attached, Local Authority, Ben Dunne), while in most cases the equipment provided is generally good quality and up-to-date. The opening hours for most gyms are relatively flexible and designed to meet customer needs, the exception being LA centres—Friday and week end opening hours are somewhat restrictive. The privately owned gym (Westwood) offers kids packages, while the Education-work based (Mardyke Arena) allows members to bring guests for a fee per visit.

Number and location/s

1 Outside Dublin

3 Dublin

G1 Hotel-attached: The Breaffy Club & Spa

G2 Privately-owned: Westwood Club Cardio, resistance, free weights gyms; spa, climbing wall, tennis, Pool (50 m)

Gym (cardio, bikes, steppers etc.); Pool, Sauna, Jacuzzi, Studio Sports arena for team sports; parking

Facilities No joining fee

No details on the web page

e25–e75 depending on the package (no quote on the web). Can use other branches

Joining/cancelling

Yearly (up front), monthly (direct debit), fees not listed on web-page

Membership fees

Typology of gym/fitness centres (selected cases)

Type

Table 12.4

11 free in membership; Discounts on classes/attend pay as you go

Classes included

(continued)

Free 4-day trial pass; Mbr’ship packages includes kids; Info not freely available on web

Free trial for gym; Free fitness assessment & follow up for all members; White Flag

Daily: 06.30– 21.45 Weekends: 08.00– 17.45

Daily: 06-23.00 Sat/Sun: 08.00–21.00

Other (pros/cons)

Opening hours

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9 Outside Dublin

1 Cork University College, (UCC)

G4 Education /Work based Mardyke Arena

Number and location/s

(continued)

G3 Local Authority /community: Coral Leisure

Type

Table 12.4

Pool, Steam Room, Sauna, fully equipped gym, studio, climbing wall, plus UCC student sports facilities

Gym, Pool, Steam Room, Jacuzzi, Tennis Courts

Facilities

Packages available, discounted rates for UCC staff, graduates,

Packages available: yearly, half-yearly, pay as you go, gym only etc.; Discounts /offers available

Membership fees

No joining fee

None Annual direct debit – rolling contract

Joining/cancelling

Fitness induction /classes (1st come 1st served basis) Discounted class rates for members

Up to 35 classes included in membership

Classes included

Daily 07.00–22.30 Weekends Sat 09.00– 19.00 Sun 10.00– 19.00

Daily: 07.00–22.00 Need to check each centre times

Opening hours

Members can bring guests for e10 each; Children U17 with family free, pool only ISO

LA owned facilities Managed by Coral Leisure – family owned; White Flag

Other (pros/cons)

276 A. Bourke

10 7 Dublin 3 o/s Dublin

11 9 Dublin 2 o/s Dublin; 4 new gyms planned

G5 Chain: Owner operated Ben Dunne

G6 Chain: Franchise Fit4less rebranded as Energie Fitness

Source Compiled by this author

Number and location/s

Type

Fully equipped gym; Equipment varies across individual gyms; car park, personal training, studio, changing rooms

Fully equipped gym No Wi-Fi

Facilities Joining fee e25; Cancel - 2 weeks’ notice re cancellation

e29.99 admin fee (no joining fee); 3-month min; 30 days’ notice re cancellation

e24.99 per month e279 per year Can use other branches

Joining/cancelling

Monthly & annual fees; vary across locations Can’t use other branches

Membership fees

Fitness programme included in membership

Classes are free; Personal training e25+ per session

Classes included

Daily: 06.30–22.00 Closes at 5 pm Saturday & Sunday

Daily 06.00–22.00

Opening hours

Kids allowed ISO

Low cost, budget, no frills. FAQs on web page – aim to cover every possibility

Other (pros/cons)

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Employment in Fitness Industry Approximately, 9,500 people are employed in the leisure and fitness sector in Ireland which is 0.03% of the total number of employed persons in Ireland (https://tradingeconomics.com/ireland/employed-per sons). The roles assumed range from duty managers to swimming teachers, coaches, personal trainers, fitness instructors and those who support and manage operations within the sector. Ireland Active compiles and oversees the register of Fitness Professionals in Ireland (REPs) ensuring that personnel have the necessary qualifications and Continuous Professional Development (CPD) as established by the European Health and Fitness Association (EHFA). The majority of personal trainers are self-employed (the business relationship is between instructor and client) across the fitness sector, job security is not on offer! In 2016, FLYEFit employed an average of 50 workers in its Irish operation, which is an increase on the 2015 figure. Its wages and salaries bill for the year was worth about e22,290 per head (O’Hagan, 2018).

Leading Operators in Fitness Industry Given the large number of small players in Ireland’s fitness sector, there are a few leading operators, but no dominant ones. In terms of the number of locations, Club Vitae, Aura, Coral Leisure might be considered leading operators. However, the service offering is different in that Club Vitae has unique arrangements within the hotel sector to appeal to guests and the local population, while Aura and Coral Leisure are familyowned companies operating and managing leisure facilities on behalf of various Local Authorities. FLYEFit operates in Ireland on a franchise basis whereby owners agree a template, get supports but also bear the risk. As many operators in the sector are private companies, gaining access to year-end financial accounts can be problematic.

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Membership Fees and Revenues in Fitness Industry Total spending by consumers in the Republic of Ireland (ROI) on gyms, fitness centres and club memberships for 2015 was e690 million. It was estimated that the annual revenue will further increase to e705 million for 2016 (Mintel, 2016). Membership fees and terms and conditions vary across gyms and leisure centres as shown in Table 12.4. For 2017, the total revenue (excluding VAT) for gyms and leisure centres was e297 million (McCluskey, 2018). Brief financial details for FLYEfit are available for 2016 during which the group made a profit of just over e1.6 m, down slightly on the 2015 figure (O’Hagan, 2018). The group earned just over e8.7 m in membership fees and ancillaries. Ben Dunne Gyms financial accounts up to May 2016 reveal that combined group revenue topped e12 m, with an operating profit totalling e3.2 m and net profits of e1.4 m (Deegan, 2017). In 2011, the Irish government introduced a reduced VAT rate of nine percent for the leisure sector (down from 13.5%). This rate applies to gym membership, swimming pool admission and renting sports halls. In the Government Budget 2018 this rate has been increased to 13.5% which will further impact on the cost of gym membership in Ireland (average of e49 per month) which is reported to be the second highest in Europe (Ireland Active 2018).

Extras Innovation The e-Services market segment comprises two product categories (i) portable, connected fitness devices (Wearables) and (ii) digital fitness and nutrition applications for use with a smartphone or tablet (Apps). Pedometers (18%), GPS Devices (14%), Tools to Measure Heart Rate/Calories Burned (13%) and Apps to plan the workout routine (8%) are the most commonly used types of technology among Irish consumers. There is little difference in usage by males (29%) and females (27%), with much wider usage in higher income (54%) households than

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lower income (14%) households. Those who no longer use the technology stopped because they got bored using the device, were injured, were not exercising as often, didn’t need it anymore and, in some cases, the technology was considered too much hassle.

Conclusion This chapter has focused on sport, exercise and fitness practices among the Irish population and the changing characteristics, structure and shape of the fitness industry. Many existing players (hotels) have revised their service concept, by more closely integrating and aligning their fitness and leisure centre services with the hotel core business—accommodation and events. The greatest growth area in the fitness industry over the last five years is in the low-cost/no frills gyms. Several new entrants emerged, some of which are small and locally focused while others are franchise or gym chains. These providers have a strong appeal to the younger age groups (16–34 years), consequently several industry players for example, FLYEfit, RAW Fitness promptly respond to the millennials’ enthusiasm and introduce new features, classes and services as required. The membership processes and requirements are now much smoother across the sector with more effective use made of technology and social media for management and communication purposes. The fitness industry in Ireland appears to be thriving, but the lack of more complete and reliable data makes it difficult to complete a detailed review and analysis and project its future. It is a risky business—should Ireland experience another economic downturn, it is then likely that one of the first cut-back areas for the majority of people will be exercise, fitness and leisure. It is difficult to gauge the extent to which quality standards are promoted and monitored. While some gyms and leisure centres adhere to the White Flag or ISO standards, evidence suggests that for many others, membership numbers are key. It is not clear to this author as to how deviations from certain quality standards are handled apart from members/clients engaging in a complaint process. Given that

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many industry players are independent and operate on a for-profit basis, it is not clear what or which agency has oversight for the sector.

References American College of Sport Medicine. (2018). Health-related physical fitness assessment manual . New York: Wolters Kluwer. Bourke, A. (2013). Ireland. In K. Hallmann & K. Petry (Eds.), Comparative sport development, systems, participation and policy (pp. 101–117). London: Springer. Caspersen, C., Powell, K., & Christenson, G. (1985). Physical activity, exercise and physical fitness: Definitions and directions for health-related research. Public Health Reports, 100 (10), 126–131. Corcoran, S. (2017, January 15). Pulling power of gyms sets pulses racing. Sunday Times. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/pulling-power-of-gymssets-pulses-racing-wsspvsr8x. Accessed April 16, 2018. Deegan, G. (2017, May 4). Ben Dunne gym revenues set to top e10m this year. Irish Examiner. https://www.irishexaminer.com/business/ben-dunnegym-revenues-set-to-top-10m-this-year-449296.html. Accessed March 25 2018. Deloitte & EuropeActive. (2018). European health & fitness market report 2018. Brussels: Deloitte. De Lyon, A. T. C., Neville, R. D., & Armour, K. (2017). The role of fitness professionals in public health: A review of the literature. Quest, 69 (3), 313– 330. European Commission. (2018). Sport and physical activity (Special Eurobarometer 472/Wave 88.4). Brussels: European Commission/DG Education, Youth, Sport and Culture. Eurostat. (2019a). Annual net earnings. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https:// appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=earn_nt_net&lang=en. Eurostat. (2019b). Area by NUTS 3 region. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https:// bit.ly/2ISCF2r. Eurostat. (2019c). Population on 1 January. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language= en&pcode=tps00001&plugin=1.

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Eurostat. (2019d). Real GDP per capita. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/refreshTableAction.do?tab=table&plu gin=1&pcode=sdg_08_10&language=en. Goldstein, S. M., Johnston, R., Duffy, J., & Rao, J. (2002). The service concept: The missing link in service design research? Journal of Operations Management, 20, 121–134. Halligan, L. (2018, January). Ireland in danger of turning boom to bust again. The Irish Times. https://www.irishtimes.com/business/economy/ire land-in-danger-of-turning-boom-to-bust-again-1.3345062. Accessed March 24, 2018. Heskett, J. L. (1986). Managing in the service economy. Boston: Harvard Business School. IHRSA. (2018). 2018 IHRSA Global report: The state of the health club industry. Boston, MA: International Health, Racquet & Sportsclub Association. McCluskey, C. (2018). Ireland—Market insights. www.irelandactive.ie. Accessed August 10, 2018. Mintel. (2016). Exercise and Fitness - Ireland . https://store.mintel.com/exerciseand-fitness-ireland-september-2016. Accessed February 24, 2018. O’Hagan, B. (2018, January 19). Low-cost gym chain Flyefit has worked out a huge increase in revenue. The Journal . http://www.thejournal.ie/flyefitgroup-profit-3-3818808-Jan2018/. Accessed March 24, 2018. Porter, M. (1990). The competitive advantage of nations. New York: The Free Press. Rhodes, R., & Nigg, C. R. (2011). Advancing physical activity theory: A review and future directions. Exercises and Sports Sciences Reviews, 39 (3), 113–119. Sport Ireland. (2017). Irish Sport Monitor (various). https://www.sportireland. ie/Research/Irish%20Sports%20Monitor%202017%20-%20Half%20Y ear%20Report/Irish%20Sports%20Monitor%202017.pdf. Accessed August 18, 2018. The National Guidelines for Physical Activity in Ireland. (2009). http://health. gov.ie/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/active_guidelines.pdf. Accessed April 3, 2018. The World Bank. (2019). Urban population (% of total population). Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL. World Health Organization [WHO]. (2010). Global recommendations on physical activity for health. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO. World Health Organization [WHO]. (2019). Prevalence of overweight among adults, BMI ≥ 25. Accessed at 30 July 2019 via http://apps.who.int/gho/ data/view.main.BMI25Cv?lang=en.

13 Fitness in Italy: Body Culture, Well-Being and Active Lifestyles Antonio Borgogni, Simone Digennaro, and Giovanna Russo

Introduction In Europe sport and physical activity represent nowadays a strategic tool for public policies that aim to promote the well-being of population and, at the same time, represent an important economic sector. The spread

This paper is the result of a shared work among the authors. In particular A. Borgogni conceptualised the chapter, supervised the writing, authored the Introduction and the Conclusions; S. Digennaro wrote the paragraph on Materials and methods and on the Supply side; G. Russo authored the Theoretical and conceptual framework and the paragraph on Demand side. The authors jointly revised the drafts of the chapter.

A. Borgogni (B) Department of Human and Social Sciences, University of Bergamo, Bergamo, Italy e-mail: [email protected] S. Digennaro Department of Social Sciences, Society and Health, University of Cassino and Southern Latium, Cassino, Italy e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 J. Scheerder et al. (eds.), The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53348-9_13

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of physical activities among the population is an indicator of a sociocultural change showing how sport and wellness industry is one of the fastest-growing sectors in the world economy (Rutgers et al., 2018). Country facts Geographical, demographical and economic indicators Capital Geographical size (km2 ; 2014)a Population (2019)b Urbanisation rate (%; 2018)c GDP (euro per capita; 2018)d Annual net earnings average (Single person without children, 100% of AW, in euro; 2018)e EU membership since Health and sports related indicators Prevalence of overweight among adults (BMI ≥ 25, %; 2016)h Share of physical inactive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)i Share of sportive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)i Fitness related indicators Percentage of total population with fitness club membership (2017)f Percentage of population (aged 15 or older) with fitness club membership (2017)g Fitness club members (2017)f Numbers of clubs (2017)f Fitness and health club industry revenue (excl. VAT, million euro; 2017)g Average membership fee/month (incl. VAT, euro; 2017)g Average membership fee as percentage of disposable income (%; 2017)g

Rome 302,073 60,359,546 70.4 26,700 21,461.52 1958 64.1 21.9 42.9 8.8 10.2 5,320,000 7,500 2,245 39.0 2.2

Notes Sportive population: share of population that did not indicate “never” on the question: “How often do you exercise or play sport?” (Answering possibilities: 5 times a week or more, 3–4 times a week, 1–2 times a week, 1–3 times a month, less often, never); Physical inactive population: share of population that indicated at least one day on one of the following three questions: “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do vigorous physical activity like lifting heavy things, digging, aerobics or fast cycling?”, “In the last 7

G. Russo Department of Education Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy e-mail: [email protected]

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days, on how many days did you do moderate physical activity like carrying light loads, cycling at normal pace or doubles tennis? Please do not include walking” and “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you walk for at least 10 minutes at a time?” (Answering possibilities: number of days a week or never) Sources a Eurostat (2019b); b Eurostat (2019c); c The World Bank (2019); d Eurostat (2019d); e Eurostat (2019a); f IHRSA (2018); g Deloitte & EuropeActive (2018); h WHO (2019); i European Commission (2018)

Italy has developed a dynamic and efficient sport system. Especially in top-elite sports, it represents one of the most successful nations in terms of Olympic medals and victories in international competitions. Since the establishment of the Italian Republic, after the end of the Second World War and the collapse of the Fascist regime, the Italian sport system has been shaped in a peculiar way. In fact, the overwhelming role played since 1914 by the Italian Olympic Committee (Comitato Olimpico Nazionale Italiano, here and henceforth CONI) has defined an almost unique form of governance. CONI acts de facto as Ministry of Sport in a fragmented legislation based on laws promulgated by the twenty Regions in the absence of a National Sport’s Act. CONI is also ruling Sports Federations and plays a role of control, through funding and legislation, over Sport for All Organisations (Enti di Promozione Sportiva) that represents some of the most innovative experiences of sport for all organisations in Europe. Sports clubs play a fundamental role in the current system, which is strongly underpinned by these voluntary-based associations (Borgogni, Digennaro, & Sterchele, 2015). Nowadays, “keeping fit” has become a fundamental goal for people willing to take care of their body, with a consequent increase in consumption of goods and services in fitness and wellness industry. This transformation is the result of a sport culture that, spreading since the ’70s, tends to replace the competitive ideal with the pleasure of experiencing different sensations: as a consequence, the aesthetic dimension prevails over the agonistic one. An epistemological turn point linking both body practices and researches. According to Le Camus (1984), this change is associated with the social movements of the previous decade and with the influence of Far-East philosophies and holistic disciplines that provided the body with a power of speaking. A multiplicity of differentiated bodily and sport practices is asserted (e.g. fitness, open air sports, soft gymnastics) referring to the value of being fit while enjoying the practice. Fitness

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translates a work on the body that combines training and pleasure of leisure. Nowadays the sport participation in Italy brings out a concept of sport as a means for remaining healthy, improving one’s physical situation and being in contact with others. Thus, sporting practice goes beyond the competitive dimension towards the goal to enhance quality of life. In this framework, fitness in Italy develops as a rational model of body culture, aesthetic dimension and consumption. Fitness culture supports both an idea of a body incessantly under physical preparation and a project of Self on one’s own body emphasising hedonistic aspects of desire and fun. The athletic body, in good health, aesthetically beautiful, expresses today both the influence of a hegemonic culture and a strong commercial interest (Russo, 2011). Fitness in Italy encompasses a wide range of meanings capable to include the well-trained body/muscles purpose.

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework: Fitness Cultural Background Fitness culture attracted interest since the 80s, when exploded as a mass phenomenon. In short it has become a sort of “must” for contemporary societies, due to the growing interest of media and its commercial appeal (Markula, 1995; Sassatelli, 2010; Smith Maguire, 2002, 2008; SteenJonsen, 2007). However, the commercial glamour of the increased interest in physical exercise is only the most superficial indicator of the cultural transformation taking place around and within gyms, not just organised physical space, but a place of values and ideals that have become models of behaviour for sporting people (Sassatelli, 2010). The world of fitness expresses dynamism, energy and positive feelings, representing a common aspiration for people on the edge of the new millennium. In the line of the European Union definition, fitness is an indispensable component of people’s well-being. In Italy, the meaning of the concept of fitness, and its definition, refers both to the training in the gym and to the physical condition due to the training: “a body in shape” (Sassatelli, 2003). Therefore, the ISTAT data in Italy provides

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trends about those specific activities that belong to the term “fitness”, as following: gymnastics, powerlifting, CrossFit, bodybuilding (as specified later). Fitness develops qualities that go beyond performing the exercises: the possibility of modelling the body dominates physical exercise. For many customers (consumers), this positivity becomes the main goal and the transformation of body qualifies fitness more than other sport. Emphasis is put more on pleasure, on satisfaction: a time for oneself to enjoy and relax while the fitness centre is a place where you can improve your body and have fun. Fitness is an example of what Pierre Bourdieu (1978) defines as health-oriented sport: in order to keep fit, this is a discipline whose aim is to increase the universal usefulness of body. It becomes an instrument of Self, where it is trained in a correct and virtuous way to the stimulation and maintenance of one’s own abilities. As a consequence, the body’s culture is flanked by the evolution of gyms that, from specific places to perform physical activity, become a symbol of the culture of consumption at the end of the twentieth century. Body-care takes on the appearance of pleasure for a consumer looking for new experience. The “post”-modern gym is configured as a flexible dimension, with commercial purposes on one hand, and hedonistichealth on the other. A “wellness supermarket” is the prevalent image of gym, in which the customer–consumer can choose from a variety of services. Nevertheless, the idea of health itself is undergoing changes: from the perspective of the fitness industry, public health expressed by a body symbolising social status becomes a lifestyle issue. The body expresses the sign of a personal status obtained through pleasure and fun. The growth of the fitness phenomenon in the last decades shows a change in the relationship between body and lifestyle. The success of fitness is part of the progressive growth of all the goods and services related to the improvement and transformation of body. Those who practice fitness expect from physical activity gratification and wellness (Russo, 2011, 2018). A paradigmatic example of the transformation of the concept of fitness is represented by the change of the name of the main event in Italy. Rimini Wellness is advertised as the largest wellness event in the world.

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Born in 1989 as “Fitness Fair” in Rimini, changed its name in 2006 becoming Rimini Wellness. The change of the name represented the turning point of an ongoing process aimed to enlarge the perception of fitness “embodying” several adjacent areas of interests and settings in an all-encompassing body-trade exhibition. The 2018 edition accounted for 268,120 visitors and 400 companies in an exhibition area of 174,000 square meter expanded to a 20 km “on the move” coast for other events (Rimini Wellness, n.d.) The event is hosted in Rimini, a city on the coastline of Romagna area, which is the headquarter of Technogym, world leader in production and selling of fitness and wellness apparatuses and products. Romagna, south part of the Emilia-Romagna Region, already characterised for mass tourism and good food, is branded as Wellness Valley, a competitive district hiring 9,000 workers and 2,500 enterprises (Vesentini, 2018) and promoted by a dedicated foundation under the patronage of the Emilia-Romagna Region (Wellness Valley, n.d.). Thus, as we argue in the conclusions, even if in the public opinion the fitness concept and activities are still related with gyms, apparatuses and bodyimprovement, the attempt is to enlarge the area of pertinence including from one side “softer” activities like Yoga or Pilates, from the other side more demanding practices like bodybuilding and weightlifting.

Materials and Methods The Italian National Statistics Office represents the main source of information for the analysis of the fitness sector in Italy. In particular, the micro-data concerning the multipurpose survey “Aspect of daily life” were analysed and commented. “Aspects of daily life” is a large annual sample survey covering the resident population in private households, by interviewing a sample of 20,000 households and 50,000 people (P.A.P.I.

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technique1 ). It is a part of an integrated system of social surveys— The Multipurpose Surveys on Household—and it collects fundamental information on individual and household daily life. The survey provides information about the citizens’ habits and for the particular purpose of this paper, the part describing the leisure time of the citizens was analysed. As no systematic data collection is devoted specifically to the fitness industry in terms of occupations and economic activities, the provided statistics were derived from the Labour Force Survey of the Italian National Statistics Office. The methodology for the design and the implementation of the LFS is based on the one proposed by the final report of the European Statistical System Network on Culture (ESS-Net Culture Report 2012) which takes into account two reference classifications: the NACE (“Nomenclature générale des Activités économiques dans les Communautés Européennes”), which classifies the main economic activities, and the ISCO (“International Standard Classification of Occupations”), which classifies occupations. Concretely, all workers recorded under the NACE rev.2 code 93.1 (Sports activities) and/or ISCO-08 code 342 (Sports and fitness workers) were taken into consideration. More in particular: employment in fitness includes the working population employed in the following occupational fields: Sport-related occupation in the sport sector (ISCO 342*NACE 93.1); Non-sport occupation in the sports sector (NACE 93.1); Sportrelated job (ISCO 342) outside the sports sector. Considering the specific feature of the sector, both the first and the second fields were considered (persons with more than one job). Data concerning ISCO 3421-Athletes and Players were subtracted from the total because not relevant for the purpose of the research. A further refinement of the information, derived from the analysis of the micro-data, was possible via a literature review of the relevant research papers from our area of interest (Digennaro, Borgogni, in writing). 1 P.A.P.I.

stands for “Pencil and paper interview” and it is one of the techniques of collecting data in a social research. The interviewer proceeds by question after question according to the questionnaire and the respondent answers. The interviewer records the answers to the questionnaire. In order the answers are representative, the respondents should be selected as a random sample.

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Finally, intensive individual interviews with a small number of stakeholders from the Italian fitness industry were conducted with the view to triangulate data coming from the analysis of the micro-data and the literature review. The interviews offered in particular the opportunity to capture rich, descriptive data about people’s behaviours, attitudes and perceptions of the fitness experience.

Trends in (a) Demand Side and (b) Supply Side Evolution in Sport and Fitness. The Demand Side in Italy In the last decades, Italians have changed their relationship with sport and physical activity. The numbers of sport practitioners have indeed increased considerably in all age groups, in both genders and in all Regions. From 2013 to 2016, 2.519 million Italians (+4.2 points) approached the sporting practice. Overall, the active population in Italy is composed of 35.593 million individuals who perform one or more sports or some physical activity in their free time (ISTAT, 2017). In specific, a long-term tendency to participate more in sport seems to emerge: in 1982 the share of participants aged over 6 was only 15.4%. This increase affects both men and women and, although in a differentiated manner, all age groups. Nevertheless, the number of sedentary citizens remains very high over time: after a decrease between 2006 and 2010 (from 42.0 to 38.8%), since 2010 the share of inactivity is stable at around 39%. According to Alleva (2017), in 2015 there were 20.2 million people aged over 3 practising one or more sports (34.3% of the population) in their spare time, of which 24.4% with continuity and 9.8% occasionally. On the other hand, the 26.5% of the population, while not practising a sport, carry out physical activities such as walking, swimming, cycling or others (15.64 million). The inactive people are 23.05 million (39.1% of the population).

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The attitudes to participate in sport are not homogeneous across the different Regions of the country. This is also due to a different availability of organised structures, habits and cultures. In the North-East there is the highest rate of people practising sport (40.4%), followed by the NorthWest (39.5%) and the Centre (35.3%). In the South and in the Islands the rate of sport participation is 26.2%. The participation in sport is the highest for the age group 11–14 (70.3%, of which 61% regularly and 9.3% occasionally) and tends to decrease with the age. Predominantly, Italians participate in sport and physical activity for passion or pleasure (60.3%), to keep fit (54.9%), for leisure (49.5%) and to reduce stress (31.6%). A strong gender difference emerges: participating in sport and physical activity for passion or pleasure is more common among men (67.8% vs. 49.6% of women), as well as considering it as a source of leisure (50.8% vs. 47.7%). In specific, keeping fit, reducing stress and improving physical appearance are the motivations privileged by women (59.8%, 32.6% and 22.3% vs. 51.4%, 30.9% and 17.4%, respectively). Moreover, while women attribute greater value to the therapeutic potential of sport and fitness (15.9% vs. 8.8% of men), the values that sport transmits and the contact with nature are motivations declared above all by men. Motives of sport participation vary considerably by age. The youngest primarily perceive sport as a pleasure (76.9% in the age group 11–14 and 75.7% among those aged 15–17. Children and adolescents underline the socialising aspect (more than a quarter of the boys six-nineteen practice sport to “stay with others”) and the importance of the values (over 26% between three and fourteen). Young people over the age of twenty consider sport linked to playfulness and pleasure, but the desire to maintain a good physical shape, indicated by over 65% of people aged between 25 and 44, appears the most important motivation. People between 35 and 44 indicate a decrease in stress (44.5%) as a major motivation. The therapeutic traits of sport are related with ageing: it acquires value from the age of 45 to become prevalent over 75.

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These data show a growing awareness of the importance of physical activity and sport as a tool for health and well-being even if not yet transformed into a lifestyle while data on inactivity remains high. In this framework, the practice of fitness is evolving. In the last years, fitness—together the group including gymnastic, aerobic and body building—involves the 25.2% of the active population (5.97 million people; 38.7% females, 15.6% males). In particular it represents the first sporting activity (23%, 4.642 million people) in the rank overcoming football as most participated sport since 2006.

Profile and Typology of Fitness Participants As specified in conceptual framework, the most performed discipline is the Fitness as Gymnastics2 accounting for the 26% of the activities. Especially women in Italy are interested in fitness practices (38.7% of sporting people) and its philosophy; men pay more attention to the agonistic aspect or on the methodology of training.3 The prevalent motivation for doing fitness follows the same trend of Italian sporting people (see paragraph before). The attendance is higher in the North (56%), followed by the Centre (25%) and by the South (19%). The Regions counting the highest percentage are Lombardia (19%) ahead of Veneto (11%), EmiliaRomagna and Lazio (10%) (Pikler, 2018). In general, fitness centre in Italy is chosen by the seventeen percent of sporting people. For fitness there is an inverse relation between participation and age: the 32% of participants are aged between eighteen and 25, the 27% between 26 and 35 followed by the 14% (36–45) and 6% (56–65). The 41% of fitness “population” is single, 54% married or engaged, the five percent divorced or separated. The phenomenon affects both genres, different generational cohorts, albeit with different motivations (Vesentini, 2018). Furthermore, its importance emerges also by the growing expense of Italian families for sport and physical activities. Since 2015, an average monthly spending for sport and fitness practices of about 2That 3 As

includes a lot of specialities: calisthenics, Pilates, Zumba, aerial silk… crossfit, powerlifting, bodybuilding etc.

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48 euros par family is done. In general, the total annual expenditure of Italian families for activities dedicated to sport, well-being and the physical state is 22 billion euros, equal to 2.3% of total consumption (Anief, 2017).

Discussion on the Most Recent Numbers of Supply Turnover The fitness sector counts on an economic turnover of about ten billion euros a year (Vesentini, 2018). The economic value of the sector is mainly based on the services provided by non-for-profit organisations accounting for the 88% of the entire turnover (Rutgers et al., 2018). A further confirmation of the stable growth of the sector comes from the data of the cashless purchases: in the first four months of the 2018, in fact, it amounted to 330 million e (+12% compared to the same period of the previous years). Broadly the trend was positive with a yearly growth of +24.5% (e 894 million) (Pikler, 2018).

Companies, Clubs and Attendance At the end of 2013 there were 5,000 fitness clubs located throughout Italy, attended by 4.7 million people which corresponded to 7.8% of the total population and 9.1% of the age groups over fifteen; in 2017 the attendance became 5.3 million, with a market penetration around nine percent. Each club in 2013 was on average frequented by 933 members, compared to 823 estimated at the end of 2012, a variation denoting an increase in the total number of members equal to 13%. Most of the Italian fitness/wellness clubs (about 70%) are medium size: they develop on a surface of less than 1,000 square meters—distinguishing themselves from the majority of the European countries (Rutgers et al., 2018). According to government data based on the companies’ registration list, there had been a significant growth of the number of fitness gyms and wellness centres from 2012 to 2017 (+11.9% and +11.8%) accounting for 8,781 in 2017 (4,750 gyms, 4,013 wellness centres and

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others) (Infocamere, 2017). The growth went with a parallel increase of the number of employees in the gyms as is demonstrated by the data available in the Labour Force Survey carried out by the Italian National Statistics Office (see below for further details). The market is very fragmented, dominated by independent clubs, where the largest for-profit operators control just three percent of the total number of clubs.

Leading Operators Virgin Active Italia S.p.A. was the leading fitness company operating in Italy in 2013. Virgin generated revenues of 96.7 million euros employing 871 staff members. The company was incorporated in Italy in 2002 and based in Milan. The second ranked company in this field is Healthcity Italia S.p.A., established in 2000, also based in Milan. In 2013, Healthcity Italia S.p.A. produced an income of almost 13.6 million euros employing 140 people. The other leading companies operating in this field had smaller dimensions: their revenues were 6.4–2.2 million euros and the number of staff members varied between two and 73 people (Table 13.1). Table 13.1 Largest for-profit companies operating fitness facilities (NACE code 93.13) in Italy in 2013 Company

Revenue (1000 e)

Staff (n)

Virgin Active Italia S.p.A. Healthcity Italia S.p.A. Aria di Fitness SSDaRL Peperoncino Verde S.r.l. Club Milano Corso Como S.r.l. Primefitness SSDaRL Grand Hotel Parker’s S.r.l. Il Gladiatore S.r.l. Orange Torino SSDaRL La Wellness SSDaRL

96,725 13,583 6,392 6,345 5,257 4,368 3,479 2,877 2,784 2,284

871 140 2 73 2 n/a 73 2 13 13

Source Borgogni et al. (2017) based on Bureau van Dijk (2016), modified

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Employment Over 100,000 employees are estimated working in almost 35,000 businesses linked to the entire sport sector. From 2008 to 2015, the number of employees in the sport sector increased by four percent in the sector of services, which also includes gym and fitness activities. In 2013 the Italian sport industry achieved an added value estimated at 4.5 billion euros and a total turnover of 14 billion (ISTAT, 2017) In 2016, the total number of people employed under the ISCO code 3 423 (Fitness and Recreation Instructors and Programme Leaders) were 57, 667 (8,602 as second occupation). The distribution of those employed in sport organisations relevant for the fitness industry is represented in Table 13.2. The total amount of the employees in the fitness sector is 85,791; however, these official data are complemented by the unofficial (according to our interviews) presenting around 120,000 employees including wellness and estimating a hidden part of people without specific or official contracts. The current skills policy about fitness instructors is centred on the need to drive up qualification obtainment and make the system more employer-led. More and more individuals with a university degree in sport sciences work in the fitness industry. However, they also have a refinement of their skills and knowledge through vocational training (VT) provided by private training providers. In the drive to make the workforce skills adaptable to the changes of the sectors, the VT system is more “demand-led” with the view to more actively engage individuals in developing and deploying skills to meet business priorities in the Table 13.2 Distribution of the employees (full and part-time) in sport organizations

93.11 Operation of sports facilities 93.12 Activities of sport clubs 93.13 Fitness facilities

First occupation value in units

Second occupation value in units

Total

33,334

1,583

34,917

20,461

2,651

23,112

23,307

4,455

27,762

Sources elaboration on Microdata ISTAT

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fitness industry. In this light, many major employers allocate significant resources to developing staff at the outset of their employment in order to deliver against the expectations of their membership base (Digennaro & Borgogni, 2017). In Italy there are no statutory requirements for fitness instructors to have a specific qualification. However, during the last ten years many Regions in Italy have adopted a specific law requiring the fitness centres to employ at least one person holding a bachelor’s degree in sport sciences.4 In parallel, trained specialists have been employed to perform a range of organisational and, above all, administrative activities. The combination of these two processes has contributed, especially for the clubs operating in the Northern part of the country, to facilitate the process of professionalisation of the centres. It also fosters the horizontal differentiation within the organisations as a result of task differentiation and functional specialisation (Slack, 1997). In this light, we expect a growth in the number of fitness professionals holding a degree, particularly instructors, managers and administrators. The weakness of the sector is represented by the high proportion of part-time employment. A large part of staff of fitness centres are employed on a casual or part-time basis. The sector sees also a consistent proportion of the workforce falling into the black economy as also explained by the difference between official data and unofficial inferences. The State has acted to contrast this issue by introducing forms of job contracts giving special benefits to a part of the sport occupations (coaches falls entirely outside the scope of taxations with annual salary up to 10,000 euros).

Typology of Fitness Centres The fitness centres in Italy are primarily driven by the private sector. The contribution of the public organisations is relatively small. The commercialisation of the fitness sector has determined a form of cohabitation between an “associative” logic based on the ideology of the voluntary 4 For

a better understanding of this phenomenon is useful to know that the recognition of the Degrees in Sport Sciences as full University Degrees was only achieved in 2000.

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service and a diffused “managerial” logic giving more attention to the profit and the effectiveness of the organisational performance. The offer is based on numerable small and micro centres operating at local level without belonging to a specific chain. They represent the backbone of the fitness industry considering that an estimate of only ten percent of fitness centres belong to the above-mentioned chains, and they are located especially in the northern part of Italy and in the big cities (Rome, Milan, Naples, etc.). Generally, small and micro centres are set as voluntary associations. The board is composed of an average number of 5 volunteers’ members directly involved in the management of the organisation. The sport staff is employed, for a large part, with fixed-term contracts and this contributes to determine a high level of turnover. Recruiting and retaining high-quality fitness staff continues to be a consistent and recurring challenge faced by employers in this sector (Digennaro, Colella, Morano, Vannini, & Borgogni, 2012). The growth of the fitness industry is, however, implying a change in the organisation of the centres. The demand to introduce professional management practices has increased in recent years. In order to survive, small and micro centres are obliged to make a shift towards a more professional service delivery. This transition is affecting a large number of small centres—in the big cities in particular—that are losing a share of the market for the effect of the competition with the big chains, the diversification of the requests from the customers and the change of the rules and the laws (Borgogni, Digennaro, Vannini, & Manzo, 2013). Despite the good performances of the fitness industry over the past 5 years (roughly 2–3% per annum), with increases in overall total revenue for the sector based on rising levels of membership, the number of fitness centres is stable and, in some Italian Regions, decreasing. This has been linked with a sensible reduction of the micro centres either merged with other to survive in a challenging market or disappeared as effect of the competitions with the big chain. A significant increase in the number of fitness members was also driven, during the last years, by the low-cost sector in which the key operators, largely in the big cities, progressed through significant development programmed. There are several longer-term socioeconomic and demographic factors likely to provide significant opportunities for the fitness industry for

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further growth. These principally relate to trends in the population incidence of obesity, especially among children, and Italy’s ageing process. It is expected, in fact, that the industry will continue to play an important role in improving the health and well-being of the population.

Conclusions: Innovations and Directions As mentioned in the description of Rimini Wellness, a clear tendency is represented by the attempt to include diverse sectors or lifestyles not previously embraced. The first concerns several disciplines, whose appeal have been dropped in the last decades, which have been renovated and re-branded in the so called “steel” area. “Steel” gathers “disciplines with a more traditional conception of physical activity—through weights and overload training and a specific nutrition, and the disciplines such as combat sports and martial arts” in the “hardest, roughest and toughest activities that can be done in gyms and fitness centres” (Rimini Wellness, n.d.). Body building, weightlifting, martial arts, combined with food supplements, have become a new frontier thus enhancing the variety of bodies: the augmented and “rough”, in fact, is joining the trained and “hard” (fitness, water activities, dance, indoor cycling), and the perceptive and “soft” (Pilates, yoga), The second sector is that of nutrition in which the challenge is to legitimise food supplements, functional food and “nutraceuticals” as natural healthy food dealing “with concepts linked to meals ‘on the move’, in the street, on the spot, in the car, food for the silver generation” (Rimini Wellness, n.d.). A vibrant way to build a new world of intake specifically designed for the “on the move” people, willing not to lose time but searching for specific functional ingredients and diet escaping the idea of quick, unhealthy meals. The third aspect touches the rehabilitation area making the injuries’ rehabilitation and prevention an iconic and, once more, up-to-theminute way to keep the body sound; a reassuring section in which “on the move” people can be confident that, if something goes wrong, a professional staff of doctors and physiotherapist can fix the affected parts of the body.

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The fitness in Italy, above all in some areas of the country, has been completing the transformation in wellness-through-fitness becoming an all-encompassing concept—driven by companies—thus pretending to move towards a “healthization” the, narrower, concept of fitness driven by aesthetics motivations. This process is taking place through a threefold development. The first two directions are strictly linked and refer to the abovementioned trends through which the fitness has been able to attract almost dismissed practices, like body building, transforming them in socially approved performances. The gathering of these fields originally having diverse concepts of the body (Porro, 2001) is, in fact, occurring also thanks to the—fabricated—proximity with a trendy rebranded rehabilitation, active tourism, and healthy food, embedded in the well-known Italian cuisine tradition. The third is represented by the reversing of the process of “indoorization” firstly studied by Risse (1921) and then by several authors (see Bale, 2002, among the others). Even in a country with one of the highest levels of inactive people in Europe, the confined space of the gym is invading the public space through outdoor practices and equipment, a relatively novel frontier for manufacturers. When reaching the public space, the shaped bodies of the fitness culture meet the ordinary bodies, with their large range of “normalities” but, also, the undisciplined bodies of the post-modern practices, thus opening the field, actual and metaphorical, to a reciprocal contaminating visibilitygame dealing with a bodily democracy (Eichberg, 2010) open to new paradigms and contaminations. Acknowledgements We wish to thank Dr. Paolo Adami, President of the Federazione Italiana Aerobica e Fitness for the precious contribution and the information delivered during the interview.

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European Commission. (2018). Sport and physical activity (Special Eurobarometer 472/Wave 88.4). Brussels: European Commission/DG Education, Youth, Sport and Culture. Eurostat. (2019a). Annual net earnings. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https:// appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=earn_nt_net&lang=en. Eurostat. (2019b). Area by NUTS 3 region. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https:// bit.ly/2ISCF2r. Eurostat. (2019c). Population on 1 January. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language= en&pcode=tps00001&plugin=1. Eurostat. (2019d). Real GDP per capita. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/refreshTableAction.do?tab=table&plu gin=1&pcode=sdg_08_10&language=en. IHRSA. (2018). 2018 IHRSA Global report: The state of the health club industry. Boston, MA: International Health, Racquet & Sportsclub Association. Infocamere. (2017). Retrieved from https://www.infocamere.it/documents/ 10193/90282173/Benessere%2C+il+business+della+bellezza+sfida+la+crisi/ 6ad70836-592b-4f98-9ba6-663706f36f30?version=1.0. Last access 20 June 2018. ISTAT. (2017, October). La pratica sportiva in Italia, «I cittadini e il tempo libero» [The sport participation in Italy, “citizens and leisure time”] (see: http://www.istat.it/it/archivio/204663; and http://dati.istat.it/. Le Camus, J. (1984). Pratiques psychomotrices [Psychomotor practices]. Bruxelles: Mardaga. Markula, P. (1995). Firm but shapely, fit but sex, strong but thin: The postmodern aerobicising female bodies. Sociology of Sport Journal, 12(4), 424–453. Pikler, T. (2018, June 3). Rimini wellness. Per fitness e benessere 10 miliardi di fatturato [Rimini Wellness. 10 billion euros for fitness and wellness]. Il sole 24 Ore, p. 14. Porro, N. (2001). Lineamenti di sociologia dello sport [Introduction to sport sociology]. Rome: Carocci. Rimini Wellness. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://en.riminiwellness.com/. Last access 24 September 2018. Risse, H. (1921). Soziologie des Sports [Sociology of sports]. Berlin: Reher Verlag. Russo, G. (2011). La società della Wellness [The wellness society]. Milan: Franco Angeli.

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Russo, G. (Ed.). (2018). Charting the wellness society in Europe: Social changes in sport, health, consumption. Milan: Franco Angeli. Rutgers, H., Hollasch, K., Menzel, F., Lehmkühler, B., Gausselmann, S., & Rump, C. (2018). European Health & Fitness Market Report 2018. Bruxelles: EuropeActive and Deloitte. Retrieved from https://www2.deloitte.com/ content/dam/Deloitte/de/Documents/consumer-business/European%20H ealth%20and%20Fitness%20Report_2018_extract.pdf. Last access 24 June 2018. Sassatelli, R. (2003). Beyond health and beauty: A critical perspective on fitness culture. In G. Boswell & F. Poland (Edss), Women’s minds, women’s bodies: Interdisciplinary approaches to women’s health. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Sassatelli, R. (2010). Fitness culture: Gym and the commercialization of discipline and fun. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Slack, T. (1997). Understanding sport organisation: The application of organisation theory. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Smith Maguire, J. (2002). Body lesson: Fitness publishing and the cultural production of the fitness consumer. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 37 (3–4), 449–464. Smith Maguire, J. (2008). Fit for consumption: Sociology and the business of fitness. Abingdon, Oxon and New York: Routledge. Steen-Johnsen, K. (2007). Globalized fitness in the Norwegian context: The perfect meets the popular. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 42(3), 343–362. Sterchele, D., Ferrero Camoletto, R., Digennaro, S., & Borgogni, A. (2017). Undisciplined spaces: Lifestyle sports and sport-for-all policies in Italy. In D. Turner & S. Carnicelli-Filho (Eds.), Lifestyle sport and public policy (pp. 43– 60). Abingdon, Oxon and New York: Routledge. The World Bank. (2019). Urban population (% of total population). Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL. van Dijk, B. (2016). Company level data NACE classification (Data file). Retrieved from AIDA database https://aida.bvdinfo.com/version-2016727/ home.serv?product=aidaneo. Last access 24 June 2018. Vesentini, I. (2018, June 2). Sport e benessere, in Italia lavorano 120 mila persone. A Rimini Wellness 400 aziende [Sport and wellness, in Italy 120,000 employees. 400 companies at Rimini Wellness]. Il sole 24 Ore. Retrieved from http://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/moda/2016-06-02/sporte-benessere-italia-lavorano-120-mila-persone-rimini-wellness-400-aziend e–105246.shtml?uuid=ADfv7dU. Last access 18 June 2018.

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Wellness Valley. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.wellnessvalley.it/index.php? chLan=eng. Last access 24 June 2018. WHO. (2019). Prevalence of overweight among adults, BMI ≥ 25. Accessed at 30 July 2019 via http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.BMI25Cv?lan g=en.

14 The Netherlands: Growing Market, Shifting Segments Paul Hover and Remco Hoekman

Introduction The Netherlands is internationally known for its numerous voluntary sport clubs that form the core of the Dutch sport system (Van der Werff, Hoekman‚ & Van Kalmthout, 2015). Although voluntary sport clubs still are the main sport providers, the provision by commercial parties is rapidly increasing and of particular relevance in the Dutch sport infrastructure. The fitness sector has grown rapidly in the past decades (Hover, Hakkers‚ & Elling-Machartzki, 2012). Nowadays fitness is the most practiced sport in The Netherlands. Fitness in The Netherlands is largely rooted in the commercial sector. NL Actief is the national P. Hover (B) Mulier Institute, Utrecht, The Netherlands e-mail: [email protected] R. Hoekman Radboud Social and Cultural Research (RSCR), Department of Sociology, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 J. Scheerder et al. (eds.), The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53348-9_14

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association of recognised sport and movement centres, it was previously named Fit!vak. Centres that are affiliated with NL Actief have been inspected and certified and represent a specified service level. Country facts Geographical, demographical and economic indicators Capital Geographical size (km2 ; 2014)a Population (2019)b Urbanisation rate (%; 2018)c GDP (euro per capita; 2018)d Annual net earnings average (Single person without children, 100% of AW, in euro; 2018)e EU membership since Health and sports related indicators Prevalence of overweight among adults (BMI ≥ 25, %; 2016)h Share of physical inactive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)i Share of sportive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)i Fitness related indicators Percentage of total population with fitness club membership (2017)f Percentage of population (aged 15 or older) with fitness club membership (2017)g Fitness club members (2017)f Numbers of clubs (2017)f Fitness and health club industry revenue (excl. VAT, million euro; 2017)g Average membership fee/month (incl. VAT, euro; 2017)g Average membership fee as percentage of disposable income (%; 2017)g

Amsterdam 41,540 17,282,163 91.5 41,500 35,863.46 1958 62.6 4.5 66.1 17.0 20.3 2,900,000 2,000 1,346 37.3 1.9

Notes Sportive population: share of population that did not indicate ‘never’ on the question: ‘How often do you exercise or play sport?’ (Answering possibilities: 5 times a week or more, 3–4 times a week, 1–2 times a week, 1–3 times a month, less often, never); Physical inactive population: share of population that indicated at least one day on one of the following three questions: ‘In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do vigorous physical activity like lifting heavy things, digging, aerobics or fast cycling?’, ‘In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do moderate physical activity like carrying light loads, cycling at normal pace or doubles tennis? Please do not include walking’ and ‘In the last 7 days, on how many days did you walk for at least 10 minutes at a time?’ (Answering possibilities: number of days a week or never) Sources a Eurostat (2019b); b Eurostat (2019c); c The World Bank (2019); d Eurostat (2019d); e Eurostat (2019a); f IHRSA (2018); g EuropeActive (2018); h WHO (2019); i European Commission (2018)

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In this chapter we will illuminate how the fitness sector is organised and governed, and in addition focus on the characteristics of the participants of fitness. Attention is drawn to the current state of play and to trends and developments in the past decades and its implications for the future.

Conceptual Framework For this study we define fitness participants as those who based on selfreporting participate in fitness (cardiovascular and/or strength) weekly. We note that the interpretation of the respondent of the concept of the practice of fitness might have evolved over time. For example, it is possible that participants in gymnastics called their activity ‘gymnastics’ in the 1990s, but ‘fitness’ at the present time. We define fitness providers as organisations that are registered as such at the Dutch Chamber of Commerce. Habitually a fitness club—frequently referred to as a ‘gym’, ‘fitness centre’ or ‘fitness operator’ as well—is described as a facility that contains a health and fitness area with resistance training and cardiovascular equipment, and the facility must be open to the public on either a payand-play or membership basis (Middelkamp, 2017). As for today this description of a fitness provider and its products can be regarded as a narrow definition. After all, for participating in fitness one is not bound to visiting a fitness centre because fitness can be practised nearly everywhere, for example at home and in public spaces such as forests, beaches and in city centres. In addition, fitness nowadays is much more than exercising with weights, on resistance training machines (‘strength’) and cardiovascular equipment (‘cardio’). Participating in fitness and consequently training your body and working on your own ‘fitness’ corresponds with current discourses on healthy and active lifestyles, and taking responsibility for one’s own health and wellbeing and the social appreciation of a slim or muscular body (Hakim, 2010; Smith Maguire, 2008; Stokvis & Van Hilvoorde, 2008). In addition, we note that this fits within the ‘healthification’ of sport policy (Stuij & Stokvis, 2015). Consequently, fitness as a sport

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practice and the fitness industry at large have become important parts of the Dutch sporting landscape.

Material and Method Secondary data were analysed to describe developments on both the supply and demand side of the industry. This concerns data from the National Sports Survey of the Mulier Institute, data from the National Health Survey of Statistics Netherlands and the Dutch National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, data from the Dutch Chamber of Commerce and data from the national fitness association NL Actief. In addition, a literature study has been carried out.

Trends in Demand and Supply Rise of Participation Level Before the 1990s the fitness sector hardly existed, although there was a modest supply of providers for weight lifting, largely aimed at servicing male bodybuilders. Swimming and soccer were the most popular types of sport around 1960 and 1970, but currently overtaken by fitness participation, as well as by the participation in other individual types of sport such as running and walking (Breedveld, 2014). Since the beginning of the 1990s the participation in fitness grew rapidly. Fourteen percent of the population, aged 12–79 years, practised fitness weekly in the period of 2001–2004, and this has risen in the consecutive periods to 22% in 2013–2016 (Fig. 14.1). This roughly corresponds with three million weekly fitness participants between 12–79 years in the period 2013– 2016. The increase in fitness participation however levelled off in recent years. If one looks more closely on the development of the frequency of fitness participation for the period 2001–2016, it appears that participants participate in fitness more often in the period 2013–2016 in comparison with 2001–2004. Consequently, this leads to the conclusion

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80 70 60

55

54

54

52

50 40 30 20

14

18

22

21

10 0 2001-2004

2005-2008

Sport participation (weekly)

2009-2012

2013-2016

Fitness participation (weekly)

Fig. 14.1 Fitness and sports participation (at least once a week) in The Netherlands, population of 12–79 years old, 2001–2016, in percentages (Source Health Survey/Lifestyle Monitor, Statistics Netherlands in cooperation with Dutch National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, 2001–2016, adapted by Mulier Institute [2018])

that the market of fitness participation grew both in terms of the number of participants and in terms of the frequency of the fitness participation per participant.

Rise of the Fitness Sector: From Colleagues to Competitors The fitness sector in The Netherlands was born out of a mix of different initiators (athletes, doctors and pedagogues) and exercises (remedial gymnastics, physiotherapy and bodybuilding) (Stokvis & Van Hilvoorde, 2012; Van Hilvoorde, 2008). The fitness industry distinguishes itself from the (non-commercial) supply of sports in The Netherlands, the largely volunteer-led sport clubs. While sport in general was struggling with the transition from amateurism to professionalism, the fitness sector became professional and commercial right from its birth. Nowadays, the major image of the Dutch fitness sector is that of a still expanding and

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innovative industry which is aimed at helping customers achieving a healthy lifestyle and a socially valued body shape (Meijeren, 2018). In the 1990s, Dutch fitness entrepreneurs considered each other as colleagues since there was hardly any competition (Middelkamp, 1999; Van Es & Luttikhuis, 2003). In the following years the market continued to develop, expanding its types of supply and reaching more practitioners (e.g. Lucassen, Van Schendel, Breedveld, Van Kalmthout, & De Jong, 2008). The Netherlands is one of the leading countries in the European fitness market in terms of fitness participation and business (Rutgers & Middelkamp, 2012). As regards business: Dutch-based BasicFit belongs to the top 3 operators in Europe in terms of members and well-known hardware supplier Life Fitness chose The Netherlands for the establishment of their Europe, Middle East and Africa headquarters. Figure 14.2 indicates that the market share of fitness centres compared to that of voluntary sport clubs has increased over the years. The number of voluntary sport clubs are in decline, while the fitness companies as well as the number of fitness locations show an increase (a fitness company can have multiple fitness locations or fitness centres). In ten years’ time, from 2007 to 2017, the number of voluntary sport clubs has decreased from 26,878 to 23,870 (−11%). The number of fitness locations grew from 1,005 to 1,735 registered locations (+73%). Furthermore, the number of affiliated fitness locations of NL Actief grew as well. According to this national fitness association the number of affiliated fitness locations grew from 668 in 2007 to 976 in 2017 (+46%). As a result of the rise of the number of fitness locations the fitness centres are relatively close to the population in The Netherlands. Geographical analyses have illustrated that the average distance for a Dutch citizen from the residential location to a fitness centre is 1.5 kilometres (Van der Poel et al., 2016). Compared to other sport facilities this is relatively nearby. To illustrate, the average distances to a football facility (1.6 km), a field-hockey facility (4.4 km), a sports hall (1.6 km) and a swimming pool (2.3 km) are higher. Furthermore, fitness centres are well represented in low socioeconomic status neighbourhoods (Hoekman, Breedveld‚ & Kraaykamp, 2016). More or less in line with the rise of the number of fitness locations we notice an increase in the number of fitness companies in the past decade.

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27,500

2,000

27,000

1,750

26,500 1,500

26,000 25,500

1,250

25,000 1,000 24,500 750

24,000 23,500

500

23,000 250

22,500

0 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Fitness locations (left Y-axis)

Fitness companies (left Y-axis)

22,000

Sport clubs (right Y-axis)

Fig. 14.2 Fitness locations, fitness companies and sport clubs affiliated with NOC*NSF, in The Netherlands, 2007–2018, in numbers (Source Statistics Netherlands [2017], NOC*NSF [2017], adapted by Mulier Institute [2018])

With regard to these fitness companies, Basic-Fit is the market leader in terms of number of clubs (e.g. locations), with 161 clubs, followed by the SportCity/Fit For Free conglomerate (114 clubs) and Anytime Fitness (71 clubs) (Deloitte, 2019). It is expected that these three companies are also the top-3 of largest clubs in terms of memberships. With regard to the club structure, the ten leading regular operators in The Netherlands comprise 23% of the total number of clubs and 37% of the total membership base (Deloitte, 2018). The ten leading Dutch companies are David Lloyd Leisure, HealthCity, Trainmore, Big Gym, Optisport, LACO, Fitland, Anytime Fitness, SportCity/Fit For Free and Basic-Fit.

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Low-Cost Operators A prominent game changer of the Dutch fitness market is the rise of lowcost operators, like Basic-Fit and Fit for Free. A low-cost operator does not only compete on price. It is more an all-embracing organisational philosophy (Algar, 2011). These centres take advantage of mass market locations and pricing that creates new consumer demand. Although evidence is scarce, it is frequently heard that low-cost centres serve a substantial number of people who have never previously been members of a fitness centre. A result of the rise of the low-cost centres and a solid high end market segment, is that the centres in the middle segment are forced to reconsider their business case (Sikken, Pijpers‚ & Breedveld, 2012).

Boutiques Another noticeable trend is the recent upsurge of boutique studios: ‘small is big’ (Algar, 2017). These are small fitness locations, not seldom in former retail locations in a city centre (regularly 250–500 m2 ), aimed at niches in the market and use of technology. The customers of these studios generally ask for more intimacy, better trainers and high intensity workouts. The leading boutique operator in The Netherlands is Fit20 and offers high intensity personal training for 20 minutes per week. Fit20 increased its number of clubs from 84 in 2016 to 125 in 2018, but it remains relatively small overall with 13,800 members (Deloitte, 2019). Huete (2017) indicates that Fit20 has a retention rate of a whopping 80%.

Retention High retention rates are one of the central challenges of the Dutch fitness industry. Too many newcomers lose focus and motivation, frequently after six to eight weeks. The average retention percentage in The Netherlands is about 70% (Lucassen & Van der Roest, 2009; Van der Roest & Wolfhagen, 2012; Van Zanten, Montijn, De Boer, Van der Veen, &

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Lokerman, 2010). Middelkamp (2017) analysed data of former members of Basic-Fit and HealthCity and concluded that ten percent demonstrated regular attendance behaviour and that nearly one out of five never attended the club in 24 months. A possible solution for the retention dilemma can be sought in what is called ‘relationships beyond memberships’ (Les Mills, 2016): building stronger bonds between fitness participants and between fitness operators and participants. This implicates that it is important to shift the focus somewhat from the functional to the social value.

Collaboration During the past decade an increasing number of fitness providers explored opportunities for collaboration, for example with sport clubs, informal running groups and physicians and physiotherapists. NL Actief stimulates fitness providers to embrace the concept of ‘fitness 2.0’. The objective of this concept is to stimulate sports participation for adults with health challenges, by putting together a suitable sport offer through a so-called ‘local sports menu’. This local sports menu is co-created by local fitness providers and other sport providers, typically sports clubs.

Integration of Technology When taking a glance in the future of the Dutch fitness industry one can expect a further growth of the integration of technology, especially by the wealthy largest operators. This can result in more investments in the ‘fun factor’ of fitness, like equipping treadmills and indoor cycles with Netflix and games for gamified fitness training. Another possibility are beacons in fitness clubs, which make contact with mobile phones of customers and monitor the member’s movements. This can be used for interaction with the customer (automated personal advice about their progress). Lastly, artificial intelligence, robotics and virtual reality can offer new extraordinary fitness experiences.

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Demand Side Characteristics Between 2001 and 2016 the participation of both men and women grew. Weekly participation of men went up from twelve percent in 2001–2004 to 21% in 2013–2016. As for women these proportions are sixteen and 23%. The overrepresentation of women is worth mentioning as most of the types of sport in The Netherlands are more practised by men than by women. As regards age, the largest relative growth was realised by the oldest age group of 65 years and older. Between 2001–2004 and 2013– 2016 the weekly participation grew from five to fifteen percent. From the perspective of educational level, it was the group with the lowest educational level which demonstrated the largest relative growth: from nine percent in 2001–2004 to fourteen percent in 2013–2016.

Organisational Context Fitness can be practised in different organisational contexts. As for the period 2013–2016 more than seven out of ten fitness participants did their workout in the context of a fitness centre or other commercial sports supplier. Roughly one out of ten practised fitness at a voluntary sport club, most likely this includes athletics and soccer clubs.1 The proportion of fitness participants who did their workout in the context of a fitness centre or other commercial sport supplier has not significantly changed during the past decade. Nearly two thirds of the people who participate in fitness also participate in another type of sports (Hover & Pulles, 2016; see also EHFA, 2011). Frequently these are types of sports that can be participated individually, namely running (21%), walking (17%) and swimming (17%). More than a third of fitness practitioners who combine fitness with another sport consider fitness as his or her main sport (most practised sport). This applies to both men and women (Hover & Pulles, 2016). 1

It is not possible to describe this for other periods due to a lack of data.

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Participation When it comes to sports participation it is well established that sports participation is more common among the higher educated than the lower educated. Furthermore, sports participation tends to decrease with age (Breedveld, 2014). Generally, people with a better health are more likely to practice sport than those with a lower self-reported health or higher BMI. To a large extend similar patterns can be observed when considering the participation in fitness (Table 14.1). The lower educated are underrepresented in the group of fitness participants with an overrepresentation of the higher educated. Differences in composition relate to gender, with a larger share of women among fitness participants. Although people with BMI related overweight are underrepresented among fitness participants compared to the general profile of the population, they are more common in the group of fitness participants than in the group of sports participants.

Motives Studies indicate that the motives of the Dutch fitness participants to some extend differ from those of participants in other types of sport. Whereas physical exercise and the contribution to one’s health are generally the most mentioned motives, there are significant differences related to other motives. For starters, the fun factor is a less predominant reason to participate in fitness compared to other types of sports. Furthermore, weight loss is a much more dominant motive for participants in fitness compared to other types of sports (Elling & Ferez, 2007; Elling-Machartzki & Hakkers, 2012; Meijeren, 2018).

Injuries According to VeiligheidNL (2017) there were 1,100–2,500 first aid visits in The Netherlands in connection with an injury sustained during fitness participation. Most fitness injuries were caused by a fall (often spraining), by contact with an object (often a dumbbell), or by acute physical (over)

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Table 14.1 Profile of fitness and sport participants (at least once a week), 2013– 2016, population of 12–79 years old, in percentages Sport Fitness Dutch participation participation population (weekly) (weekly) Participates in fitness Does not participate in fitness

22 78

40 60

100 0

Complies with Dutch standard for health and exercise Does not comply with Dutch standard for health and exercise

57

67

72

43

33

28

Men Women

50 50

51 49

48 52

12–34 year 35-49 year 50-64 year 65-79 year

34 25 25 16

41 25 21 12

41 25 22 11

Single Married couple/permanent partners Couple with child Couple with 2 children Couple with 3 children or more Other

18 30

17 28

19 29

13 19 10

13 22 10

14 20 8 11 18

10

10

28 41

18 40

42

31

42

40

Living in urban environment Living in moderately urban environment Living in rural environment

51

52

56

18

19

19

30

29

25

BMI: underweight BMI: good

4 45

5 56

2 54

Educational level low Educational level middle Educational level high

(continued)

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Table 14.1

317

(continued) Dutch population

Sport participation (weekly)

Fitness participation (weekly)

BMI: overweight

50

39

43

Judgment own excellent Judgment own very good Judgment own good Judgment own moderate Judgment own bad Judgment own do not know

health

21

27

23

health

30

35

34

health

38

32

34

health

9

5

8

health

1

0

1

health

1

1

1

Source Health Survey/Lifestyle Monitor, Statistics Netherlands in cooperation with Dutch National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, 2013–2016, adapted by Mulier Institute (2018)

load. The number of first aid visits related to fitness is comparable with those visits as regards another popular sport, namely running (1,200– 2,700 first aid visits), but is low compared to soccer (35,800 first aid visits).

Supply Side Manifestations of Supply of Fitness The manifestations of fitness nowadays are numerous and some forms are branded with catchy names. Examples include aqua fitness, fighting fit, calisthenics, street workouts, bootcamp, FunXtion, Zumba, CrossFit, self defense, bodycombat, bodystep, bodypump, bodyjam and bodybalance. With the increased supply of small group training zones in fitness centres and the surge of personal accompaniment one is not necessarily

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dependent on themselves as there are plenty of opportunities to exercise together. There are fitness programmes which focus on creating a supportive community, like CrossFit (Dawson, 2017).

Service Level and Market Segments Partly as a result of the objective to differentiate from competitors in the market, fitness centres offer meaningful additional services (Woolf, 2008). Supporting services can include food and beverage, massage, beauty services, nutritional coaching, personal training and tanning beds. An analysis of data of Statistics Netherlands learns that catering facilities (in 42% of the centres) and wellness and beauty facilities (in 41% of the centres) are most common in Dutch fitness centres. Less ubiquitous are day care (16%), squash courts (8%), a sports shop (7%) and a swimming pool (6%). Frequently a typology based on service (and price) level of fitness providers is made, resulting in a high-market, mid-market and a lowmarket segment. In 2008 the indicative growth of these segments was, respectively nineteen, 57 and 24% (Lucassen et al., 2008). Current figures are lacking, but in 2018 it is estimated that the market share of the low-market (Basic-Fit, Fit for Free) has swelled, at the expense of especially the high-market.

Employment In 2012, the Dutch fitness sector offered employment for 6,000 fulltime equivalents (Lucassen & Van Heel, 2012). This implicates that in terms of employability, the fitness sector was the third ‘employer’ in the labour market within sport and exercise, after education and government. Human capital is a continuous challenge in the fitness industry (McCarthy, 2007; Rutgers & Middelkamp, 2018). What emphasizes the need for maintaining qualified people and offering them enough career opportunities is that a sound human resources policy is positively related with the financial result of the fitness centre (Doorenbosch, 2011).

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The number of personal trainers has increased in the past years. These trainers can be on the payroll of a fitness centre, but they can also have their private company. Gronau (2018) estimates that there are 4,075 personal trainers in The Netherlands, which compares to 24 personal trainers per 100,000 inhabitants. Compared to fourteen other European countries this density is relatively high. Gronau (2018) found the highest density in the United Kingdom (41 per 100,000 inhabitants) and the lowest in France (2), where fitness is a growth market.

Prices and Pricing Strategy According to NL Actief the average one-off registration fee for fitness participation is approximately 27.50 euros. The average fee for a membership for unlimited participation is 42.50 euros per month. Around 50% of the memberships cost between 31.00 euros and 45.00 euros per month. As for other types of sports participation, the price tag of fitness can be a threshold for participating in fitness, especially for disadvantaged socioeconomic groups. In addition, the costs related to fitness can be a driver for drop-out. In The Netherlands it is estimated that in approximately a quarter of the fitness drop-outs, the price is the reason (Elling-Machartzki & Hakkers, 2012; see also Nuviala, Pérez-Ordás, & Tamayo-Fajardo, 2013). This can be in conjunction with a limited degree of usage and as such a limited value for money. The price of fitness participation is a vital aspect of the marketing mix. On the supply side of the Dutch market one frequently sees price differentiation and inventive pricing models. The Dutch company TrainMore uses a concept where every workout is rewarded with 1 euro discount (TrainMore, 2018). Basic-Fit offers its members a transferrable family membership for family members living at the same address. It is estimated that 25% of the members uses this option (Huete, 2017). From a pricing strategy point of view it is also interesting to gain insight in the extent to which Dutch fitness participants with a fitness membership are willing to pay an additional amount of money for their membership. This is called the willingness to pay. A central question in a

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study of Hover, De Boer, Van der Maat, & Van den Heuvel (2017) was which share of the members of fitness clubs were willing to pay more for their current membership. It appeared that 47% of the Dutch members of fitness clubs were willing to pay more. This proportion is relatively low compared to the willingness to pay of members of voluntary sport club (64%).

Turnover

Operating result compared with previous year

Operating result coming year compared with this year

In 2012, the Dutch fitness sector created a total turnover one billion euro (Sikken et al., 2012). The fitness companies in The Netherlands are moderately positive on the operating results for the upcoming year (2016; Fig. 14.3). Fifty percent expect the operating result for the upcoming year to be better than the current year. Only fourteen percent of the companies anticipate a worse operating result in the upcoming year. When the fitness companies compare the operating results of the current year with the previous one, then 27% of the fitness companies conclude that the results are worse than the previous year. However, 43% states that the results have improved compared to the previous year. Margins are under pressure and the revenue model is becoming Worse than this year

14

Similar to this year

37

Better than this year

50

Worse than previous year

27

Similar to previous year

30

Better than previous year

43 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Fig. 14.3 Operating result of fitness companies in The Netherlands in 2015 compared with previous and actual year, in percentages (Source Statistics Netherlands [2017], adapted by Mulier Institute [2018])

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more capital intensive as customers ask for high service levels, a memorable experience and high quality equipment (Sikken et al., 2012). The standard VAT rate in The Netherlands is 21%; for fitness services, a discounted rate of six percent applies.

Conclusions Over the past decades, the Dutch fitness industry has undergone a rapid development. From the start, fitness was organised on professional and commercial bases. Fitness entrepreneurs in the sport industry are still at the forefront of their sales policy. Combined with increased social awareness and attention to an attractive body shape (slim, muscular) in the past decades, the fitness sector in 2018 has grown into a significant segment of the Dutch sports sector. Looking back at its development, the Dutch fitness industry acted as the chameleon of the Dutch sports sector: suppliers continuously developed new types of fitness supply that matched market demand and societal developments (Hover & Van Eldert, 2019). Because of the widespread supply of fitness and its popularity, the fitness sector is important for the Dutch national sport policy. The government values sport and exercise as the basis for a healthy and active lifestyle, where freedom of choice is paramount for each individual. The ambition is that a suitable, safe and accessible sport supply is available and nearby for every Dutch citizen. However within sport policy most attention is dedicated to voluntary sport clubs. Commercial providers, such as fitness centres remain on the margins. The number of Dutch people participating in fitness somewhat increased in recent years, which raises the question whether the fitness industry is approaching its ceiling. On the one hand there are inhibitory factors for the future. In the pursuit of a healthy way of life, the fitness industry feels insufficiently supported by governments that approach the volunteer-led sport clubs differently from the fitness sector. In addition, there is the ‘retention-dilemma’ (Middelkamp, 2017; Middelkamp & Rieger, 2013). The financial challenges of fitness centres, especially for those in the mid-segment, will most likely pursue in the near

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future. Lastly, compared to other types of sport, fitness is not frequently associated with fun. Consequently, people might be less intrinsically motivated, hence explaining the relatively high drop-out rate. On the other hand, there are plenty of opportunities to give the fitness participation a (new) impulse. Physicians and physiotherapists can refer patients more often to (qualified) fitness professionals, expertise of fitness professionals can be used more outside the fitness sector, personal training is a young field in development, outdoor fitness can continue to grow and virtual fitness gives more opportunities to participate in fitness in more places and under health expert supervision. In addition, the fitness industry offers flexible time schedules which meet the needs for those with a busy lifestyle. Last of all, the continuous innovation of new products can meet the needs of fitness innovators and early adopters. Is the Dutch fitness industry in good shape? The current market situation, with a lot of competition and pressure on turnover, especially in the mid-segment, can be seen as a new aptitude test for the industry. Although there will undoubtedly be sacrifices a sunny future for the industry as a whole seems to be ahead.

References Algar, R. (2011). Global low-cost gym sector report: A strategic investigation into a disruptive new segment. Brighton: Oxygen Consulting. Algar, R. (2017). The emergence of boutique studios and why they are resonating with people. In J. Middelkamp & H. Rutgers (Eds.), Customer engagement and experience in the fitness sector (pp. 52–65). Brussels/Den Bosch: EuropeActive/BlackBoxPublishers. Breedveld, K. (2014). Sportparticipatie: uitdagingen voor wetenschap en beleid [Sports participation: Challenges for science and policy]. Nijmegen: Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen. Dawson, M. C. (2017). CrossFit: Fitness cult or reinventive institution? International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 52(3), 361–379. First Published June 30, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1177/1012690215591793.

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Deloitte. (2018). European health & fitness market report 2018. Brussels: EuropeActive. Deloitte. (2019). European health & fitness market report 2019. Brussels: EuropeActive. Doorenbosch, H. (2011). Kritische succesfactoren voor fitnessketens tijdens een periode van groei [Critical success factors for fitness chains during a period of growth]. Business School NCOI MBA. EHFA. (2011). Becoming the Hub: The health and fitness sector and the future of health enhancing physical activity. Brussel: EHFA. Elling, A., & Ferez, S. (2007). Fitnesscentra als vluchtige gemeenschappen [Fitness centres as volatile communities]. Nieuwegein/’s-Hertogenbosch: Arko Sports Media/WJH Mulier instituut. Elling-Machartzki, E., & Hakkers, S. (2012). Kenmerken van fitnessbeoefenaren [Characteristics of fitness practitioners]. In P. Hover, S. Hakkers, & K. Breedveld (Eds.), Trendrapport fitnessbranche 2012 (pp. 55–70). Utrecht/Nieuwegein: Mulier Instituut/Arko Sports Media. EuropeActive. (2018). EuropeActive and Deloitte publish European Health & Fitness Market Report 2018. Retrieved 19 June 2018, from http://www. europeactive.eu/blog/europeactive-and-deloitte-publish-european-health-fit ness-market-report-2018. European Commission. (2018). Sport and physical activity (Special Eurobarome-ter 472/Wave 88.4). Brussels: European Commission/DG Education, Youth, Sport and Culture. Eurostat. (2019a). Annual net earnings. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https:// appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=earn_nt_net&lang=en. Eurostat. (2019b). Area by NUTS 3 region. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https:// bit.ly/2ISCF2r. Eurostat. (2019c). Population on 1 January. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language= en&pcode=tps00001&plugin=1. Eurostat. (2019d). Real GDP per capita. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/refreshTableAction.do?tab=table&plu gin=1&pcode=sdg_08_10&language=en. Gronau, N. (2018, April). Training Europe. Health Club Management, 256, 82–85. Hakim, C. (2010). Erotic capital. European Sociological Review, 26 (5), 499– 518.

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Hoekman, R., Breedveld, K., & Kraaykamp, G. (2016). A landscape of sport facilities in The Netherlands. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 8(2), 305–320. Hover, P., De Boer, W. I. J., Van der Maat, K., & Van den Heuvel, M. (2017). Consumentenuitgaven aan sport 2016 [Consumer spending on sport 2016]. Utrecht: Mulier Instituut. Hover, P., Hakkers, S., & Elling-Machartzki, A. (2012). Fitness in cijfers [Fitness in numbers]. In P. Hover, S. Hakkers, & K. Breedveld (Eds.), Trendrapport fitnessbranche 2012 (pp. 31–54). Utrecht/Nieuwegein: Mulier Instituut/Arko Sports Media. Hover, P., & Pulles, I. (2016). De klant in beeld: de vraag [The customer in the picture: The demand]. In J. Middelkamp & P. Wolfhagen (Eds.), Fitness markt & trend rapport 2014-2016-2018 (pp. 80–95). ‘s-Hertogenbosch: BlackBoxPublishers/Life Fitness Benelux. Hover, P., & van Eldert, P. (2019). Fitnessbranche in Nederland | 2018: kerncijfers vraag- en aanbodzijde [Fitness sector in The Netherlands | 2018: Key figures supply and demand side], factsheet 2019/1. Utrecht: Mulier Institute. Huete, L. (2017). Customer engagement and experience in the fitness sector: Challenges and strategies. In J. Middelkamp & H. Rutgers (Eds.), Customer engagement and experience in the fitness sector (pp. 16–31). Brussels/Den Bosch: EuropeActive/BlackBoxPublishers. IHRSA. (2018). 2018 IHRSA Global report: The state of the health club industry. Boston, MA: International Health, Racquet & Sportsclub Association. Les Mills. (2016). Creating relationships beyond memberships. Les Mills. Lucassen, J., Van Schendel, M., Breedveld, K., Van Kalmthout, J., & De Jong, M. (2008). De fitnessbranche in beeld - 2008: resultaten van de nationale fitnessmonitor [The fitness industry in the picture - 2008: Results of the national fitness monitor]. Nieuwegein/’s-Hertogenbosch: Arko Sports Media/WJH Mulier Instituut. Lucassen, J. M. H., & van der Roest, J. (2009). Inzetten op klantenbehoud loont!: onderzoek nationale fitnessmonitor naar retentiebeleid bij fitnesscentra [Investing in customer retention pays off: Research national fitness monitor into retention policy at fitness centers]. ‘s-Hertogenbosch: W.J.H. Mulier Instituut. Lucassen, L., & van Heel, J. (2012). Werkgelegenheid en professionalisering [Employment and professionalisation]. In P. Hover, S. Hakkers, & K. Breedveld (Eds.), Trendrapport fitnessbranche 2012 (pp. 125–142). Utrecht/Nieuwegein: Mulier Instituut/Arko Sports Media.

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15 Norwegian Fitness Industry: From Bodybuilding to a Public Health Partner Solfrid Bratland-Sanda, Tor Helge Vikøren Myhre, and Jan Ove Tangen

Introduction The fitness industry in Norway has undergone an enormous transformation and development during the past 60 years. In the late 1950s, it started out in small, hidden facilities, with a selected sub-population, solely strength training and a bad reputation. Today, 30% of the physically active adults in Norway report that fitness centres are their primary arena for exercise (Thidemann & Rekedal, 2017). There are more than 1,100 fitness centres in Norway, with a heterogeneity regarding size, facilities, types of exercise and services, competencies and numbers of S. Bratland-Sanda (B) · T. H. Vikøren Myhre · J. O. Tangen Department of Sports, Physical Education and Outdoor Studies, University of South-Eastern Norway, Telemark, Norway e-mail: [email protected] T. H. Vikøren Myhre e-mail: [email protected] J. O. Tangen e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 J. Scheerder et al. (eds.), The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53348-9_15

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employees, and types of members. Despite the large rural areas in Norway, more than 90% of the population have a fitness centre in their local area (Thidemann & Rekedal, 2017). In this chapter, we will elaborate on the development of the fitness industry in Norway, descriptive statistics from the industry will be provided and discussed, and we will provide interpretations of the industry’s standing in Norway in light of the Nordic welfare model. Country facts Geographical, demographical and economic indicators Capital Geographical size (km2 ; 2014)a Population (2018)b Urbanization rate (%; 2018)c GDP (euro per capita; 2018)d Annual net earnings average (Single person without children, 100% of AW, in euro; 2018)e EU membership since Health and sports-related indicators Prevalence of overweight among adults (BMI ≥ 25, %; 2016)h Share of physical inactive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017) Share of sportive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017) Fitness related indicators Percentage of total population with fitness club membership (2017)f Percentage of population (aged 15 or older) with fitness club membership (2017)g Fitness club members (2017)f Numbers of clubs (2017)f Fitness and health club industry revenue (excl. VAT, million euro; 2017)g Average membership fee/month (incl. VAT, euro; 2017)g Average membership fee as percentage of disposable income (%; 2017)g

Oslo 385,170 5,295,619 82.2 69,600 45,076.43 No membership 61.7 N/A N/A 20.9 25.5 1,100,000 1,129 520 35.8 1.5

Notes N/A = not available Sources a Wikipedia (2019); b Eurostat (2019b); c The World Bank (2019); d Eurostat (2019c); e Eurostat (2019a); f IHRSA (2018); g Deloitte & EuropeActive (2018); h WHO (2019)

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In Norway, sport is politically organized within the cultural sector where the government’s role is to facilitate through economic resources. The exercising of sport is based on volunteer work through the non-governmental organization Norwegian Olympic and Paralympic Committee and Confederation of Sports (NIF), and via self-organized sport activity (Bergsgard & Tangen, 2011). This is in contrast to the commercialized fitness industry. As physical inactivity is seen as one of the major public health challenges of the twenty-first century, both NIF and the fitness industry are viewed as important partners for increasing physical activity level in the general population (HOD, 2014). We will therefore elaborate on the positioning of the fitness industry as a public health partner. Furthermore, we will discuss how such a partnership requires action by the fitness industry regarding common health challenges such as eating disorders and use of doping.

Conceptual Framework Both sport and fitness are conceptualized as intentional physical activities with the aim of improving physical fitness and hence performance. Fitness centre activities lack the competitive element which is central in sport, and they are characterized by individual or group training where enjoyment, shaping/building bodies and identities, and promotion of health and well-being are central (Bjørn Barland, 1997; Steen-Johnsen & Engelsrud, 2002). The European trade organization for fitness centers, EuropeActive, use the terms “health and fitness sector” to define this industry. In Norway, the term fitness is closely linked and associated with the sport fitness. This sport consists of various disciplines with competition in physique, appearance, aesthetics, body shape and tone. It is associated with preoccupation of body weight and shape (Mathisen & Sundgot-Borgen, 2019), use of doping and higher risk of eating disorders (Mathisen et al., 2020), and therefore the fitness centre industry in Norway does not want to be associated with this sport. The industry markets itself as a public health ambassador, and they therefore use terms more associated with physical activity, exercise, health and wellness. We

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therefore deviate from the proposed description of fitness in this book by adding mental1 fitness and well-being to the motives of fitness.

Evolution of the Fitness Industry in Norway Historically sport participation took place in local sports clubs. Today, NIF is an umbrella and voluntary organization (NGO) which organizes all national sport federations in Norway. However, in the end of the 1950s, the first descriptions of the fitness industry appeared in Norway (Virke Trening, 2016b). In 1984, The Norwegian Gym Federation was established with a focus on strength training and body building (Brynestad, Klund, & Bragelien, 2016). In 1998, the Norwegian Aerobics Federation and The Norwegian Gym Federation were merged into the Norwegian Fitness Centre Federation (Virke Trening, 2016a). Throughout the 1990s and the 2000s the industry developed into more professional fitness centres, and the centres went from organization in a federation into the establishing of the trade organization Virke Trening in 2011. Virke Trening now organizes approximately 400 fitness centres with more than 600,000 members, covering approximately one third of all Norwegian fitness centres. Now, the industry has developed into a heterogenic industry with exercise, health and wellness as a focus. The national health authorities suggest that the fitness industry should be an important partner for local public health work by offering exercise in both preventive and therapeutic manners (HOD, 2014). However, there are some challenges with such collaboration because there is no formal agreement on, for example the expected level of competencies among fitness industry employees such as personal trainers and group fitness instructors, and there are no incentives from the authorities to fitness centres who focus on low-threshold, public health services.

1 Personal

communication with CEO in the trade organization Virke Trening.

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Material and Method The data used in this chapter are collected from four main sources (Table 15.1).

Ipsos MMI Ipsos MMI, previously Norsk Monitor, is a nation-wide dataset that are collected through biannual surveys in a representative sample of Norwegians aged fifteen years or older. The samples range from 2,200 and up to 4,000 respondents, answering items on, among others, physical activity and exercise behaviour (Breivik & Rafoss, 2017). The same items have been used from 1985, with an expansion of the items on physical activity and exercise from 1999, and this creates a unique time-series to survey the development of exercise behaviour over time.

Virke Trening Reports Virke Trening, which is the trade organization for fitness centres in Norway, publish annual reports. These are reports both on the supply and on the demand side. Virke Trening hires Opinion Perduco, a market analysing company, to conduct a telephone survey of exercise habits among a nation-wide, representative sample of 2,000 respondents aged eighteen years or older. Data for the supply side is collected from internal databases from Virke Trening, and from publicly available information about fitness centres, bankruptcy registers, etc. Table 15.1 Overview of data sources used in this chapter Data Fitness centre Organization Structures Participation Motivation sources members Ipsos X MMI Virke X trening KAN SBB

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X X

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KAN-Study For the description of trends in participation in fitness centre activities, we also included data from the KAN-study (Anderssen, 2009). The KAN-study is a nation-wide cross-sectional study of physical activity habits in a randomly selected, representative sample from adults and elderly in Norway in 2008 and 2009 (n = 3,464, response rate: 32%).

Statistics Norway The Statistics Norway living conditions survey (SSB, 2017) is an annual survey conducted with different topics and it is carried out as part of the European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (With, Revold, & Isungset, 2017). The data sources are collected through structured interview from randomly selected, representative samples from the population aged 16 years or older (n = approximately 11,500 individuals each year) (With et al., 2017). Items related to physical activity habits and behaviour were collected in 2004, 2007, 2013 and 2016, with planning of new data collection in 2019 (https://www.ssb.no/kultur-og-fri tid/statistikker/fritid).

Trends in (a) Demand Side, and (b) Supply Side Popularity of Fitness In the thirty-year period from 1985 to 2015, there has been a shift in exercise arenas from sports federations to fitness centres (Breivik & Rafoss, 2017; SSB, 2017; Vaage, 2015). Data collected in 2008 showed that eleven to sixteen percent of male and female respondents participated in organized sport on a weekly basis, whereas the same numbers for fitness centres were 28 and 39%, respectively. During the same thirty-year period, the level of exercise seems relatively stable but the daily physical activity level has decreased in both children, adolescents and adults (Breivik, 2013; Dalene et al., 2018). Today, only 30% of

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the adult population and 50% of the adolescent population meet the physical activity recommendations from the American College of Sports Medicine (Dalene et al., 2018; Helsedirektoratet, 2016). Change of exercise behaviour and to get more people to meet the physical activity recommendations are therefore challenges that fitness centres can help to solve. It is believed that the flexibility, the facilities and the various activities provided by the fitness centres are more in accordance with modern families than the sport federations (SSB, 2017). Also, the various sport federations in Norway aim at children and adolescents, and often lack offers to adults who are not elite level athletes. Almost 90% of children aged eight to ten years old in Norway are involved in organized sport, and mean age for dropout from sport was at sixteen (Breivik, 2013). Reasons for quitting sport vary, but a common reason is that they may feel excluded or what organized sport has to offer does not fit their expectations and/or requirements of the adolescents (Ødegård, Bakken, & Strandbu, 2016). The majority of teams in Norwegian youth sport are led by volunteer coaches without formal competence in sport and exercise sciences, and it can be speculated that the level of competency experienced in fitness centres also make the arena preferable to the organized sport.

Number of Fitness Centres In 2017, there were 1,129 registered fitness centres registered in Norway, with approximately 50% being organized as chain centres. This indicates a growth in numbers of fitness centres of more than 136% from 2008 to 2017 (Thidemann & Rekedal, 2017). After a massive growth in the industry with expansion in numbers of fitness centres and members during the 2000s, there was a reduction in the growth rate from 2013 to 2016 (Thidemann & Rekedal, 2017). During this period, the bankruptcy rate was stable and low compared to other sectors and industries. From 2016, there was a growth rate of four percent compared to 2015, and the total revenue in 2016 was 4.85 billion NOK (approximately 500 million EUR). Average revenue for each fitness centres was

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4.5 million NOK (approximately 460,000 EUR) in 2016, with higher revenue for the chain centres (Thidemann & Rekedal, 2017).

Memberships and Members There have been a large increase in members in fitness centres over the past 30 years. The data from Ipsos MMI shows that the frequency of the respondents who had exercised in fitness centres in the past twelve months had increased from 8.5% of the total adult population in 1989 to the top level with 46% in 2011, and with reduction to 42% in 2015 (Breivik, 2013; Breivik & Rafoss, 2012, 2017). From 1999 to 2015, the numbers of fitness centre members who exercised at the centre on weekly basis increased from eighteen to 34% (Breivik & Rafoss, 2017). A report from Virke trening presenting data collected at the same time as Breivik and Rafoss showed that 32% reported to perform exercise within fitness centre settings (Virke Trening, 2015). The most recent report from Virke trening showed that the numbers were reduced to 30% (Thidemann & Rekedal, 2017). No absolute numbers of memberships exist, but Virke Trening’s centres had an estimate of 800,000 members in 2013, and 600,000 members in 2017 (Thidemann & Rekedal, 2017; Trening, 2013b). Despite this reduction, there is optimism due to increased number of centres and lower bankruptcy rates in 2017 than in previous years (Thidemann & Rekedal, 2017). Table 15.2 shows the trends in monthly fitness centre activity participation in the general adult population, and such activities are most popular among women, young adults and those with a high socioeconomic status. The highest levels of sedentary behaviour are found among elderly and among those with low socio-economic status (Anderssen, 2009). The fitness centres should therefore aim to increase members among these groups in order to function as a public health partner.

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Table 15.2 to 2015

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Trends in fitness centre activity participation in Norway from 2001

Gender Men Women Age 15–24 25–39 40–54 55+ Socio-economic status Working class Middle class Higher class

20011 (%)

20112 (%)

20153 (%)

18 25

42 50

39 45

47 30a 15b 8

72 50 41c 30d

68 51 34c 28d

N/A N/A N/A

31 35 40

27 38 50

Notes a Age range 25–34. b Age range 45–54. c Age range 40–59. d Age range 60+. N/A: Not available Source 1 Vaage (2015); 2 Breivik and Rafoss (2012); 3 Breivik and Rafoss (2017)

Numbers/Figures About Demand Side Participation in Fitness Centre Activities The studies by Ipsos MMI show similar rates in fitness centre participation between men and women (Table 15.2), although there are gender differences with regards to types of activities (Thidemann & Rekedal, 2017). The majority of male fitness centre members perform individual types of training such as strength training (SSB, 2017; Vaage, 2015). For female fitness centre members, group fitness activities including aerobics, indoor cycling and yoga have been most prevalent (Vaage, 2015). Interestingly, figures from 2017 showed an increase in numbers of female members who perform strength training (SSB, 2017). This indicates that there has been a small shift in activity modalities among women, while men still are relatively conservative with their choice of activities.

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Motives for Exercise Participation at Fitness Centres The most frequently reported motive for exercising in fitness centre settings is attractive facilities, whereas the most frequently reported motive for exercise in general is physical and mental well-being, preventing illness and reducing stress (Table 15.3). Further analyses showed that self-realization and enjoyment were more frequent in the younger age groups, a higher frequency of women compared to men exercised to improve health (Breivik & Rafoss, 2017). Interestingly, body weight regulation and appearance-related motives had a more than 50% increase from 1989 to 2015 (Breivik & Rafoss, 2017). This is in accordance with findings from other studies that show an increase in body dissatisfaction and dieting in especially males (Ingolfsdottir, Asgeirsdottir, Gunnarsdottir, & Bjornsson, 2014), and that exercise for body weight and appearance-related reasons are equally important in women regardless of the presence of eating disorders (Bratland-Sanda et al., 2010). The importance of body weight and appearance in the Western culture is also largely present in Norway. A nation-wide survey of body, appearance and physical activity in adolescents showed that 91% of Norwegian eighteen-nineteen-year olds perceived fitness centres as an arena for achieving the ideal body shape (Barland & Tangen, 2009). It also showed that persons with overweight experienced a larger social pressure of exercising in fitness centres compared to normal weight persons (Miller & Miller, 2009). Table 15.3 Frequency of perceived important reasons for exercising in general and exercising at fitness centres Reasons for using fitness centres as exercise facilities1

Perceived important reasons for exercising in general2

Facilities

53%

Availability Money value Competent instructors

47% 40% 25%

Improve quality of life/health Self-realization Enjoyment Seek challenge

Sources 1 Thideman and Rekedal (2017); 2 Breivik and Rafoss (2017)

86% 56% 45% 19%

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Numbers/Figures About Supply Side (Provision and Governance of Fitness) Location and Coverage More than 90% of Norwegian inhabitants have one or more fitness centres in their local community (Thidemann & Rekedal, 2017). People in urban areas are more frequent users of the fitness centres compared to people living in rural areas (Breivik, 2013). This makes the fitness centre industry more of an urban phenomenon.

Type of Fitness Centres There has been a development from the small gyms with simple equipment for strength training only, to larger centres with a variety of facilities. Also, there has been a shift in focus from exercise only to a broader term of wellness. Today’s fitness centres can be divided into four segments: full assortment and services (74% of the fitness centres), compact centres (four percent of the fitness centres), low price centres (fifteen percent of the fitness centres) and niche centres (seven percent of the fitness centres) (Trening, 2013a). The full service and assortment centres provide all types of individual training, personal training and group training, and they have facilities such as staffed reception, babysitting, solarium, sauna and some also have other wellness and relaxation facilities (Trening, 2013b). The compact centres and the low price centres are centres with less volume, less staff and often with key card solutions for the members. This reduce the cost of such centres, and hence provide cheaper membership fees (Trening, 2013b). The niche centres are centres with a focus on, e.g. one specific activity such as yoga, CrossFit, Pilates or combat sports (Brynestad et al., 2016). Membership fees vary from approximately 249 NOK per month2 for the low price centres such as Fresh Fitness, and to approximately 929 NOK per month2 for full assortment and service centres such as Satselixia. The 2 Prices

collected from the websites www.freshfitness.no and www.satselixia.no on July 31, 2018.

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latter price includes babysitting, no lock time for the contract and free entrance to all Satselixia centres in the Nordic countries.

Accommodation Activities In the survey of living conditions by Statistics Norway, 40% of the respondents had participated in strength training the past twelve months (SSB, 2017). This activity type that has increased by 67% from 2004, whereas participation in group training activities including aerobics and yoga has been stable with participation rates of sixteen percent throughout this time period (SSB, 2017). In 2016, exercise using indoor cycling, treadmill or other exercise apparatus was included as an alternative for the first time. A total of 34% had participated in such activity types for the past twelve months (SSB, 2017). With regards to frequency of participation in various fitness centre activities, the respondents were asked how many times they had participated in the past twelve months. Strength training was the most frequently performed activity with 32% of the respondents having 25 sessions or more in the past twelve months. The same numbers for indoor cycling, treadmill or other exercise apparatus were 24%, and ten percent participated in 25 or more sessions with group training the past twelve months (SSB, 2017). Although these categories are not adequate to cover all aspects and diversity of activity types in fitness centres, it provides an indication of overall activity preferences. It must also be emphasized that strength training as an activity can occur outside fitness centres. The enormous increase in strength training participation among women can be seen in view of the somewhat changed western, female body ideal from a skinny body to a more athletic and muscular, yet toned, body (Bozsik, Whisenhunt, Hudson, Bennett, & Lundgren, 2018). Although strength training in males seems more stable, there has been a development of muscular body ideals and increased body dissatisfaction among males during the past decades (Pope, Olivardia, Gruber, & Borowiecki, 1999; Rysst, 2010). It can be argued that “strong is the new skinny” is shown in a way that still provides unrealistic and unreachable body ideals (Tiggemann & Zaccardo, 2016). Together with social

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media hashtag trends such as #fitspiration that promotes appearance, dieting and excessive exercise (Tiggemann & Zaccardo, 2016), concerns regarding possible unhealthiness of strength can be raised.

Market Penetration It is estimated that approximately 1,000,000 Norwegians are members in one of the approximately 1,100 fitness centres (Virke Trening, 2015). However, only 49% of the fitness centres are organized in the national trade association where 600,000 Norwegians train regularly (Thidemann & Rekedal, 2017). With some variations during the last years (Table 15.2), approximately 30% of the Norwegian adult population participate in fitness centre activities on a weekly basis. This is the largest market penetration in Europe (Breivik & Rafoss, 2017). The largest fitness centre chain in Norway, Sats Elixia, has 27% of market, the second (Fresh fitness) and third (Stamina) largest fitness centre chains have 5.5% of the market each, whereas the independent fitness centres have 30% of the market (Thidemann & Rekedal, 2017).

Fitness Centre Employment and Competence A frequent reason for exercising in fitness centres is the competent instructors (Table 15.3). However, the exercise-specific education among personal trainers is in our opinion inadequate as 24% only have shortterm courses and education without credits (Virke Trening, 2016a). Although 76% have exercise-specific higher education, only thirteen percent of the personal trainers have exercise-specific bachelor’s degree, while three percent have an exercise-specific master’s degree (Virke Trening, 2016a). Among group fitness instructors, there are 48% with higher exercise-specific higher education (Bratland-Sanda & SundgotBorgen, 2015). It can therefore be questioned whether the fitness centre have the adequate level of competency that is expected from the members.

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Extras Even if the fitness industry is global, national politics and policies play a role in how the fitness industry can act and market their products. As mentioned earlier, we will point at two ways this surface in the Norwegian context.

Norwegian Fitness Industry as Public Health Work Partner In a report from the Norwegian Ministry of Health, the government acknowledge the role of fitness centres as facilitators of physical activity and exercise in public health work (HOD, 2014). The report from Virke Trening showed that 35% of inactive female respondents and 21% of the inactive male respondents were interested using fitness centre activities if they were about to start exercising (Thidemann & Rekedal, 2017). Among young adults, 45% of inactive respondents aged up to 35 years reported that they would join a fitness centre if exercising, and this shows the great public health potential in fitness centres as an arena for establishing new exercise behaviour. In the Norwegian welfare model, with its focus on equality and health, there is a void with regards to having a partner that can both motivate and train the population to be more physically active. The part of the fitness industry that is organized in Virke Trening, have tried hard to legitimate their activities and their business on a public health argument. In the social-democratic welfare states of Scandinavia in general, and in Norway in particular, a principle of universalism based on citizenship, grants equal access to education, work and culture (Tangen & Møller, 2017). The state’s distribution of the benefits and services to improve the health of the population is also an important trait of the Nordic and Norwegian welfare model. The connection of health, exercise and sport is of particular interest here (Schmidt & Kristensen, 2003). Participation in exercise and sport was partly considered as a cultural good in its own right that all citizens should have equal access to; partly an obligation to ensure the health of children,

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adolescents and adults. For a long time, organized sport was considered the best ally in bringing physical activity and health to the population. Both whitepapers, governmental reports and policy documents establish an understanding that sport is beneficial for the population’s health (Government, 2004; Kulturdepartementet, 2012; Stmeld, 2000). However, recent research has cast doubt whether organized sport delivers health as well as the authorities wishes (Rafoss & Tangen, 2017). The fitness industry, increasingly aware of the governmental need for new partners on the field of physical activity and health as well as observing the large increase of members in their fitness centres, saw their chance for being an important partner for public health work. As mentioned above, the first positive responses have been written in a white paper from the government (HOD, 2014). More binding commitments from both the authorities and the fitness centre industry may follow. As an example, Virke Trening (2016a) have already suggested rules and regulations to increase and ensure competency of the employees in the business, although such regulations have not been implemented yet.

Health Challenges of the Fitness Industry: Disordered Eating and Use of Doping Although the potential of the fitness industry as a public health work partner is huge, it is important to acknowledge some challenges in the industry. Two well-known challenges are the use of doping and the prevalence of disordered eating among both members and employees. Surveys from the general population and from fitness centre members and/or employees show that the prevalence of doping use in fitness centres is approximately two to eight percent (Barland & Tangen, 2009; Stubbe, Chorus, Frank, de Hon, & van der Heijden, 2014). Surveys also show prevalence of disordered eating of up to 50% in members (Almeida, Vieira Borba, & Santos, 2018) and thirty percent in group fitness instructors (Bratland-Sanda, Nilsson, & Sundgot-Borgen, 2015). In Norway, the government and the fitness industry has taken action upon these findings, and the fitness centres organized in Virke Trening has collaboration with the Norwegian Anti-Doping Agency (NADO)

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regarding identification and management of use of doping. In 2013, the Norwegian Parliament decided to make use of doping illegal, thus positive doping tests in fitness centre settings can lead to police investigation. This illegalizing of doping, collaboration with NADO and its’ possible consequences for the fitness centres has not been properly evaluated yet. Several studies have shown that both personal trainers and group fitness instructors are uncertain on how to identify and approach concerns regarding disordered eating (Bratland-Sanda & SundgotBorgen, 2015; Håman, Lindgren, & Prell, 2017). Virke Trening and an NGO for eating disorders has developed procedures and guidelines for identification and management of eating disorders in fitness centre settings (Bratland-Sanda & Sundgot-Borgen, 2015). To our knowledge, these guidelines were among the first worldwide, although the ethics of eating disorders and exercise in fitness centre settings have been debated previously (Giordano, 2005). As of today, there is still a lack of international consensus on how to approach such concerns in fitness centre settings. It is therefore time to develop these guidelines at an international level. Furthermore, it is important to explore how such guidelines are implemented, and if there has been changes to the employees’ competence and self-confidence in managing these issues.

Conclusions The fitness industry has been through an enormous growth and has developed into an important arena for exercise in Norway. Its potential as an arena for public health work is greater if the industry further enables inactive members to increase and sustain physical activity at least to the recommended level by ACSM and the Norwegian authorities (Helsedirektoratet, 2014). To be fit for the future and to further act as a public health work partner, we believe that there is a need for a political regulation of this industry. Also, more incentives must be provided for the fitness centres in order to fully utilize this public health partner potential.

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16 A Growing Sector After the Impact of the Great Recession in Spain Ramón Llopis-Goig and Jorge Sánchez-Martín

Introduction Fitness is an activity sector with an extraordinary capacity for renewal and change, and it has experienced a surprising evolution in the past three decades. In Spain, in spite of this continuous evolution, the term is associated with the range of intentional activities, physical exercise or body movements practiced with the aim to train and transform the body in order to improve one’s physical fitness and to maintain an active and healthy lifestyle.

R. Llopis-Goig (B) Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain e-mail: [email protected] J. Sánchez-Martín National Institute of Physical Education of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain © The Author(s) 2020 J. Scheerder et al. (eds.), The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53348-9_16

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Country facts Geographical, demographical and economic indicators Capital Geographical size (km2 ; 2014)a Population (2019)b Urbanisation rate (%; 2018)c GDP (euro per capita; 2018)d Annual net earnings average (Single person without children, 100% of AW, in euro; 2018)e EU membership since Health and sports-related indicators Prevalence of overweight among adults (BMI ≥ 25, %; 2016)h Share of physical inactive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)i Share of sportive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)i Fitness-related indicators Percentage of total population with fitness club membership (2017)f Percentage of population (aged 15 or older) with fitness club membership (2017)g Fitness club members (2017)f Numbers of clubs (2017)f Fitness and health club industry revenue (excl. VAT, million euro; 2017)g Average membership fee/month (incl. VAT, euro; 2017)g Average membership fee as percentage of disposable income (%; 2017)g

Madrid 505,970 46,934,632 80.3 25,000 21,199.08 1986 67.2 9.0 52.0 11.2 13.2 5,200,000 4,520 2,235 39.4 2.5

Notes Sportive population: share of population that did not indicate “never” on the question: “How often do you exercise or play sport?” (Answering possibilities: 5 times a week or more, 3–4 times a week, 1–2 times a week, 1–3 times a month, less often, never); Physical inactive population: share of population that indicated at least one day on one of the following three questions: “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do vigorous physical activity like lifting heavy things, digging, aerobics or fast cycling?”, “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do moderate physical activity like carrying light loads, cycling at normal pace or doubles tennis? Please do not include walking”, and “In the last 7 days, on how many days did you walk for at least 10 min at a time?” (Answering possibilities: number of days a week or never) Sources: a Eurostat (2019b); b Eurostat (2019c); c The World Bank (2019); d Eurostat (2019d); e Eurostat (2019a); f IHRSA (2018); g Deloitte and EuropeActive (2018); h WHO (2019); i European Commission (2018)

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After the disappearance of the traditional gyms that were abundant in the 1980s, in which bodybuilding activities were almost exclusively practiced in small facilities with simple technological equipment, the current fitness centres are characterised by much larger spaces and top of the line technology. In addition, they offer a wide range of activities that are developed through diverse approaches and methodologies. This transition has witnessed mutations, such as the one that occurred in the 1990s when gyms and fitness centres began to be considered an attractive economic activity, leading to the entrance of various multinational companies with ambitious expansion plans throughout the country. This would involve the emergence of centres whose offerings are significantly broader than the products and services traditionally offered by gyms. However, this dynamic was strongly altered at the end of 2007 when a period of economic-financial crisis began whose effects were felt in the Spanish society for more than a decade. In fact, shortly after the beginning of the crisis, in 2009, a new type of centre appeared in Spain, referred to as low-cost gyms. These gyms would have a strong influence on the development of the sector, including the emergence of fitness boutiques or studios that specialise in only one sports-physical activity. The purpose of this chapter is to present an analysis of the fitness sector in Spain, reporting on both the significance of this term and its evolution over time, as well as the main characteristics and dimensions of the existing supply and demand in the country. To address this task, the first section offers a presentation of the evolution of the changes and transformations experienced by gyms and fitness centres in the past four decades. Next, a brief section is included that explains the limitations of the data used to characterise the fitness sector. The following section contains an analyses of the main trends in demand-side and supplyside, based on the latest surveys on sports participation and on the DBK reports on the Gym sector in Spain, respectively. The next section focuses on the sociodemographic profile of the practitioners of those activities that fall into the category of fitness as well as the profile of the users of these types of centres, both private and public. Then, a section is provided with the aim of presenting how fitness fits into the triple structure of the Spanish sports system (private, public, and volunteer sectors)

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and which are the most offered activities by these centres. Finally, the last section of the article summarises the main facts and arguments of the text, and a series of conclusions are formulated.

Conceptual Framework The Spanish sport system is an outcome of the collaboration between the public, voluntary and private sectors. Public institutions make up a coherent network of organisations, and play a predominant role in the sport system. The voluntary sector is associative by nature, and it includes the Spanish Olympic Committee, sport federations, sport clubs, the groupings of clubs and sport federations, sport promotional entities, and professional leagues. The private sector encompasses sport service companies, professional sport clubs, gyms and fitness centres. In the private sector, the antecedents of fitness date back to the 1980s, when a considerable increase took place in the number of existing gyms. These gyms were specialised and offered limited activities and services (basically bodybuilding or martial arts). In the mid-1980s, the first fitness centres emerged, with a much more extensive offer of activities—physical training, various modalities of aerobics—and services—longer hours, loaning towels, and amenities in dressing rooms (Sánchez Martín, 2011). The new fitness centres experienced considerable growth in the 1990s, which signified the disappearance or transformation of the majority of the traditional gyms. Thus, there was an increase in competition between fitness centres, resulting in the need to innovate and update their facilities and activities (Reverter & Barbany, 2007, 61). The main difference between gyms and fitness centres is that the objective of the former was the development, strengthening and flexibility of the body through the practice of certain exercises, whereas the latter had a much broader objective because they included physical strength, but also emotional control, healthcare education, correct dietary practices, and medical control and supervision (Reverter & Barbany, 2007, 62). With regard to the public sector, its antecedents date back to the 1990s. The previous municipal sports policies had focused mainly on

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the access to sports competition. From that moment on, these policies became more open, which made it possible to develop facilities and programmes specifically designed for fitness in order to increase the number of users, thus enhancing their economic attractiveness. In this way, the centres could be put out to tender, and private companies could bid on their management in an administrative concession regime. This management modality was the one preferred by Barcelona after the Olympic Games of 1992 to profit from the facilities built for the Games. Later, this system was extended throughout the national territory to increase the profitability of municipal sports facilities that had been built in the 1980s and 1990s. In the first decade of the twenty-first century, large multinational companies that managed fitness centres joined the Spanish market, such as Holmes Place, Fitness First, Esporta and LA Fitness. They had ambitious expansion plans that included the entire national territory, leaving behind family gyms or small chains of gyms from previous years, where the activities were rather reduced and often limited to bodybuilding. This signified the emergence of centres that—along with the traditional services of gyms—offered a larger number of group classes and services such as cafeterias, hair salons, physical therapy, nutrition or childcare (de Cámara, 2015, 47), in addition to trying to involve the user in the centre through social relations, thematic activities and celebrations (Dorado, 2006). In the middle of this decade, the first low-cost fitness centres appeared in Spain, led by both multinational (McFit), and national (Altafit) companies. The wager of these centres was focused on offering basic aspects for sports-physical practice at a low-price. During the same time period, specialised micro-centres also arose that were restricted to a specific physical activity and would later develop into fitness boutiques. The Great Recession that began at the end of 2007 meant the closing of a large number of fitness centres—those that were already at the threshold of their profitability. However, at the same time, it facilitated the expansion of business models more adapted to the new economic situation, such as smaller low-cost centres that required less initial investment. A decade later, the economic recovery is clearly expressed in the

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increase in the rental price of commercial space, producing the mutation of many low-cost centres—with membership costs of less than 20 euros/month—into low-price centres—with membership costs of 30 euros/month–, as well as a resurgence in the opening of fitness boutiques. Considering the monthly fee, it is common to distinguish between low-cost centres (less than 20 euros/month), low-price centres (20– 30 euros/month), medium centres (30–60 euros/month), premium centres (60–100 euros/month) and luxury centres (more than 100 euros/month). In this vein but taking into account the services offered by the fitness centres as well, Sánchez Martín has distinguished between low-cost centres, municipal sports centres, fitness centres, wellness centres and specialised micro-centres, although the latter ones have evolved strongly in the past years giving rise to the fitness boutiques (Sánchez Martín, 2013, 29–31). Much more convoluted is the typology used by the LifeFitness annual report where a distinction is made between sports clubs, personal training study, 24 hours gym, gym boutiques, municipal private gym, municipal public gym, low-cost private gym, mid-market private gym and premium private gym (LifeFitness, 2018, 8). It is not easy to provide a unique typology of the fitness centres in Spain since this sector has increased its offer and complexity in the past years including proposals that vary considerably in terms of dimensions, such as: (1) the size of the centre: from centres located in commercial spaces with 200 m2 to macro-centres that occupy a surface of more than 10,000 m2 ; (2) the number of activities offered: from fitness centres with only one activity to those with a generic offer of activities and services; (3) the technological system: from centres that offer training systems based on natural movements to sports electro-stimulation centres; (4) the membership price: from 19.90 euros per month in low-cost centres to more than 240 euros per month for the most elitist wellness centres; (5) the time schedule: from centres with restricted hours that only allow the user access to the session for which s/he is enrolled to centres that remain open 24 hours a day seven days a week; and (6) the payment system: from centres with monthly payments (direct debit) to centres

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with pay-as-you-go (or pay-per-use) systems. All this is a clear illustration of the great dynamism and the current changes that the sector is experiencing, most likely because the business prospects are sufficiently attractive to encourage the entry of new investors.

Material and Method The data presented in the following sections come from different statistical and documental sources. With regard to the demand, the Sports Habits Survey is used, which has been carried out every five years since 1980 by the Consejo Superior de Deportes (Superior Sports Advisory of the Government). The latest edition was carried out in 2015 and had a sample size of 11,018 interviews of the Spanish population of 15 years old or more residing in family homes in the entire Spanish territory. The analysis of the demand was performed based on the data provided by this survey (García-Ferrando & Llopis-Goig, 2017), although at times previous surveys were used. The data related to the supply come from a more varied number of sources. It should be clarified that the official data provided by the National Statistics Institute (INE) related to the employment or firms’ characteristics do not offer information that is sufficiently broken down for the objectives of this study. For this reason, to perform the analysis of the supply, market studies were used that were performed periodically by specialised companies such as DBK or Valgo. Thus, it is important to be extremely cautious with the data collected because there is not always an exact correspondence in the operative definitions and objectives of their studies. The DBK report on the Gym sector (DBK, 2017) only includes private sports centres, so that it does not include municipal sports centres managed by private companies in an administrative concession regime or fitness activities offered by some sports clubs and associations in their own facilities. Along with this source, other resources used were the studies published periodically by the specialised sports press (CMDSport, 2017, 2018a, 2018b; LifeFitness, 2018; Palco23, 2018) which in recent years have been building their own databases based on the information they have collected from sports companies. Finally, a summary of the

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main findings of the 2018 National Survey of Fitness Tendencies was also used with regard to the offer (Valgo, 2018). This source was developed by the Valgo consulting firm based on the model proposed by the American College of Sport Medicine (ACSM).

Trends in Demand-Side and Supply-Side Trends About Fitness Demand-Side To situate the practice of fitness in Spanish society, it is necessary to start with a brief approach to the evolution of sports participation in recent decades. As mentioned in a recent study (García-Ferrando & LlopisGoig, 2017, 30–32), the percentage of the population that regularly perform a sports-physical activity has gone from 25% in 1980 to 46% in 2015. Various change factors can explain this extraordinary growth, including the increase in activities that would be encompassed within fitness. The modalities practiced in 2015 are physical and gymnastic exercise,1 carried out by 37.6% of the population that practices a sports-physical activity; running at 23.0%; cycling at 22.2%; swimming at 18.2%; bodybuilding—which includes a series of activities also performed in fitness centres—at 17.7%; and football at 14.2% (see Table 16.1). In fact, physical and gymnastic exercise and bodybuilding are the two activities that showed the most growth in the period analysed. The former goes from being the fourth activity, with 22.0% in 1980, to holding the first position, with 37.6% in 2015, whereas the latter climbs from the 10th position in 2005, with 6.8%, to the fifth position in 2015, with 17.7%. The increases experienced by running and cycling are also significant, with the former going from 17.0 to 23.0% and the latter from 11.8 to 22.2% in the same period. Swimming and football, however, experienced a clear decline in their positions within the Spanish 1The category of physical and gymnastic exercise encompasses the majority of the directed activities, with or without a musical base and from smooth to intense, that fitness centres offer such as: pilates, aerobic, spinning, body power, aqua aerobic, aqua fitness, aqua gym, gym-jazz, belly dance, hip hop, capoeira, yoga, tai chi, aikido, elliptical bike and keep-fit gymnastics.

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Table 16.1

357

The six sports practiced most in 2015 and their recent evolution 1980

2000

2005

2010

2015

PGE

(4th) 22.0

(3rd) 25.5

(3rd) 26.3

(1st) 34.6

Running

(3rd) 17.0

(8th) 11.0

(6th) 11.1

(5th) 12.9

Cycling

(7th) 11.8

(4th) 22.2

(4th) 19.1

(4th) 19.8

Swimming

(1st) 50.0

(1st) 39.2

(1st) 32.6

(3rd) 22.9

Body building

NA

NA

(10th) 6.8

(12th) 4.3

Football

(2nd) 33.9

(2nd) 30.1

(2nd) 26.6

(2nd) 24.6

(1st) 37.6 (2nd) 23.0 (3rd) 22.2 (4th) 18.2 (5th) 17.7 (6th) 14.2

Notes In parentheses is the position of each modality in the ranking, and next to it is the percentage registered from the population that practices a sportsphysical activity PGE = Physical & gymnastic exercise. NA = not available Unit: percentage. Base: population 15 years old or more that practice some sport activity weekly Source: Elaborated by the authors based on García-Ferrando and Llopis-Goig (2011, 87; 2017, 79)

sports system, although it should be noted that the decrease is only in relative terms, since both have grown in recent years in absolute terms (CSD, 2017).

Trends About Fitness Supply-Side The Great Economic Recession that began at the end of 2007 affected the private fitness centre sector. Although initially there was only a slowing of growth, from 2009 on, growth began to be negative (see Table 16.2). The negative growth rates were maintained until 2014, and in 2016, for the first time since the Great Recession began, positive growth returned. This six-year negative impact meant a reduction in the number of centres, which dropped from 4,700 in 2008 to 3,900 in 2014. The year of the greatest decline was 2012, the year when, in addition to the effects of the economic crisis, there was an increase in the VAT from 8 to 21% by governmental decree. In most cases, its cost was assumed totally or partially by the companies in order to avoid a possible loss of

4,500 3.0 1,000 8.7 0.222 5.6

2006 4,630 2.9 1,050 5.0 0.227 2.1

2007 4700 1.5 1,065 1.4 0.227 – 0.1

2008 4,600 – 2.1 980 – 8.0 0.213 – 6.0

2009 4,450 – 3.3 920 – 6.1 0.207 – 3.0

2010

Source Elaborated by the authors based on data from DBK (2017)

0.211

920

4,370

2005

Evolution of the number of private fitness centres

Centres (n) Variation (%) Income (Me) Variation (%) Inc./cent. (Me) Variation (%)

Table 16.2 4,300 – 3.4 865 – 6.0 0.201 – 2.7

2011 4,100 – 4.7 800 – 7.5 0.195 – 3.0

2012 3,950 – 3.7 785 – 1.9 0.199 1.9

2013

3,900 – 1.3 800 1.9 0.205 3.2

2014

3,900 0.0 850 6.3 0.218 6.3

2015

3,910 0.3 900 5.9 0.230 5.6

2016

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clients, leading to an inevitable reduction in the margin of profits and the closing of those centres that already had economic difficulties. In the last two years for which there are data available (2015 and 2016), there was an inflection in the decreasing growth tendency and a slight recovery began, both in the number of centres and in the income of the sector. In fact, the mean income per centre registered in 2016 was the highest of the whole series. This was true in spite of the great increase in the number of low-cost centres in recent years, which brought a decline in the mean price of membership fees. In Spain, these fees were situated between 39.4 euros (LifeFitness, 2018, 3) and 39.3 euros/month, therefore below the European average of 41.9 euros/month (Palco23, 2018, 7). According to the European Health & Fitness Market report by Deloitte—which offers some numbers of the fitness sector in Spain as a whole—in 2017 this was formed by 4520 centres, it had over 5.20 million subscribers and it brought in a consolidated turnover of 2,335 million euros (quoted by LifeFitness, 2018, 3).

Numbers About the Demand-Side The practice of physical and gymnastic exercise is more present among women and presents high rates—above 15%—in all the age groups except people over 65 years old. It is also quite present in the different work situations, although it is especially frequent in people who work and study. Regarding the education level, people with university studies are, with a large difference, those who perform this activity the most. On the other side, bodybuilding is practiced much more by men than by women. Its practitioners are mainly between 20 and 24 years old, although they are also numerous before this age and until the age of 45. In addition, people with occupational training and secondary education are especially represented. Finally, people who study stand out. The 2015 survey also revealed that private gyms are used by 11.6% of the whole Spanish population 15 years old and over, whereas in the case of public gyms, the percentage reaches 6.5%. Women have a higher rate of gym membership than men: reaching 12.2% in private gyms and 7.4% in public gyms compared to 10.8% and 5.5% of men, respectively

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(see Table 16.3). With regard to age, in general, younger people present higher rates of membership in both types of gyms. Moreover, in both cases, a negative linear relationship is detected, according to which the proportion of members or users declines as the age increases. However, beyond these two general impressions, other types of considerations can be made that point to the greater presence of younger people in private Table 16.3 Sociodemographic fitness practitioners (by type of centre and activity) and sports participants (2015) Type of centre Private gyms Sex Men Women Age 15–19 years 20–24 years 25–34 years 35–44 years 45–54 years 55–64 years 65–74 years 75 and up Education Secondary (1st stage or less) Secondary (2nd stage) Occupational training University education Work situation Works Unemployed Retired Student Housework

Type of activity

Sports participants

Public gyms

PGE

Body building

10.8 12.2

5.5 7.4

12.9 23.7

11.4 3.9

50.4 42.1

15.7 24.2 19.5 14 10.4 7.4 4.9 1.1

9.1 10.4 7.8 7.3 6.4 5.8 5.3 1.9

21.8 29.7 24.8 21.9 17.9 16.3 13.7 5.3

14.5 21.5 14.8 9.7 4.5 3.1 1.9 0.2

81.5 71 62.5 54 44.9 37.4 27 9.6

6

4.8

11.4

4.9

33.4

13.2

7

20.8

10.4

53.7

18.1

8.8

24.6

11.1

62.6

21.8

9.6

30.7

9.9

64.8

15.4 9.7 3.4 20.3 4.9

7.3 5.9 3.8 10.4 5.1

22 16.6 10.1 26.5 14.7

9.2 7.8 1.6 17.7 1.8

55.9 45.2 20.4 78.2 24.7

Notes PGE = physical and gymnastic exercise Unit: percentage of weekly practice. Base: population 15 years old or more Source Elaborated by the authors based on García-Ferrando and Llopis-Goig (2017, 88 and 137)

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gyms. In them, people from 20 to 24 and 25 to 34 years old reach percentages of 24.2 and 19.5%, respectively which is four times the rate presented by people 65 years old or more—4.9 and 1.1%. A higher level of education is accompanied by a greater probability of being a user or member of either of the two types of gyms. In the case of private gyms, people with university studies register a membership rate that is almost four times that of people with primary studies or below (21.8 and 6.0, respectively). In public gyms, the statistical relationship maintains the same direction, but with less intensity. Thus, people with a higher level of education register a rate of 9.6%, compared to 4.8% of those who indicate a lower level of studies. In the case of the work situation, the profiles with the greatest presence of users and members are people who work and students, especially the latter, with membership rates in private and public gyms of 20.3 and 10.4%, respectively. In addition, people who work reach percentages of 15.4% in private gyms and 7.3% in public gyms.

Numbers About the Supply-Side This section addresses the analysis of the various aspects related to the supply of fitness centres in Spain. First, an explanation is provided of how the fitness centres fit into the Spanish sports system. Next, the main data available about the centres are presented. Finally, information is provided about the most frequently offered activities and the tendencies identified.

Structure and Organisation of the Fitness Supply-Side The Spanish sports system is a result of the collaboration of the public, voluntary, and private sectors, and this articulation is also reflected in the configuration of the fitness sector. The private sector has a market orientation and includes companies that manage fitness, wellness and other types of centres. The public sector also participates in the supply of

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fitness activities, both through directly managed municipal sports facilities and when these activities are included in other public social entities (civic centres, retirement centres). Finally, the volunteer sector integrates NGOs that offer fitness activities in the facilities they manage. The private fitness sector in Spain is composed of sports services companies, fitness and wellness centres, and other business models. It is a very dynamic sector that is currently experiencing numerous transformations. The first is the alliances and links between some centres and sports product companies like Reebok. This is the case of the Reebok Sport Club La Finca (in Pozuelo de Alarcón, Madrid), the RSC centre in Madrid, or the CrossFit boxes. It is also worth mentioning the shop that Cabberty—a commercial distribution company of sports products— inaugurated recently in Málaga, which has an indoor cycling room and swimming pool (Jiménez, 2018). Second, some centres are linked to activity sectors that have nothing to do with sports, such as the Supera and Supera 24 Fitness centres, which belong to the business group Sidecu owner of various supermarket chains. Third, there are many examples of companies and capital risk funds that are acquiring participations in proprietorship societies of fitness centres, such as Civis Corporation— main shareholder in the O2 Centro Wellness centres—; or in managers of municipal sports facilities with administrative concession regimes, such as Atlas Capital, which participates in ServiOcio, a company that manages eight municipal facilities under this brand. Fourth, there are many cases of concentric diversification, where a company manages different sports centre brands with different positionings. Examples would be the aforementioned ServiOcio, which manages eight municipal sports facilities with this name, two with the name Aquafit and twentytwo BeOne centres; the Altafit Group, which manages the Altafit centres (low-cost segment) and is the owner of the Myst Gym Club centres (premium segment); and the DiR group, owner of fitness centres with this name, is also the owner of the brands YogaOne, BoxDiR, JamBox and DiRebel, four specialised fitness boutiques. Fifth, various professional footballers have ties to fitness centres, whether as owners or serving as their public image: Fernando Torres, former player of Atlético de Madrid, is the majority partner of Nine Fitness, which has two centres, located in Madrid and Pinto (Madrid); and Cristiano Ronaldo, until

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recently a Real Madrid player, is the image for the American chain Crunch Fitness in Spain. The public sector is characterised by a decentralised political structure and the distribution of functions at the territorial level (national, regional and local). At the local level, the city hall has competences to reserve the necessary land for the construction of sports facilities in the urban plans; to build (in collaboration with other public administrations) and manage the local sports facilities; to develop sports promotion programmes for people of all ages; and to help the sports clubs located in its territory. According to a recent report of the journal Palco23 (2018, 8), 30% of the network of sports centres in Spain are publicly owned. Although some city halls, especially small ones in terms of the population and equipment, directly manage the sports facilities, a growing number put out the management (and in many cases, the construction) of the sports facilities out to tender in an administrative concession regime. The latest data provided by Palco23 (2018, 8) shows a 79.6% increase in the tendering of public works contracts of sports facilities between 2016 and 2017. In any case, whether the management is direct or indirect, they all tend to include fitness activities in their offer. The volunteer sector performs an important activity by offering fitness activities and services that are organised in many different ways. First, one example would be the alliance of the Association of Basketball Clubs—composed of the clubs that participate in national official professional competitions—with the business group Áccura, owner and manager of various fitness and wellness centres, to manage the ACBAviva! centres in the cities of Zaragoza and Málaga. Second, another example would be the case of professional sports clubs that have included fitness centres in their facilities. This is the case of the written agreement between the Valladolid Basketball Club and the Rock Gym group for the construction of the Rock Gym Village City of Basketball in municipal facilities managed by the club in an administrative concession regime (Palco23, 2015). Third, many sports clubs, both socio-recreational and competitive, have spaces available to offer fitness activities for their members. Fourth, some associative entities can be mentioned that join forces to manage a municipal sports facility in an administrative concession regime, such as the Horta Esportiva, a non-profit society made

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up of Unió Esportiva Horta and Unió Atlètica Horta that takes care of managing the Municipal Sports Centre of Horta in the city of Barcelona. All of this is clear proof of the large variety of possibilities and articulations in terms of the entities that offer fitness activities.

Characteristics of the Main Fitness Centre Companies The fitness centre sector is characterised by considerable atomisation. Although the main operators show a sustained tendency to increase their joint market share, whether by opening new centres or acquiring them from other chains and independent operators, according to the latest report on the sector elaborated by DBK in reference to the year 2016 (DBK, 2017), the five first operators had 23% of the market value, and the first ten had 36.7%. In addition, taking into account that they respond to different business models, their characteristics are quite different, not only in relation to the activities and services offered, but also in their size and number of employees. The data included in Table 16.4 reflect this. When comparing the characteristics of the six main management companies of the municipal sports facilities—in an administrative concession regime—with the main low-cost and non-low-cost operators of private centres, some interesting aspects are observed. For example, the centres with an administrative concession regime have larger spaces and more members. However, a crossed analysis of the available data reveals at least the three following conclusions. First, the number of members per m2 is higher in low-cost centres, whereas it is the lowest in centres with an administrative concession. This circumstance is surely related to the fact that the latter have larger facilities and in most cases include spaces such as multi-sports courts, swimming pools, and even large fields. Second, the administrative concession centres have the lowest number of employees per m2 , possibly for the same reason mentioned above, whereas the private low-cost centres present the highest number. Third, the most favourable relationship between the number of members and the number of employees (an aspect related to the quality of client care)

Total members

Members

Members per centre Members per m2 16,143.12 12,268.97 5,450.48 10,500.00 25,000.00 6,857.27 4,545.00 4,561.65 3,600.00 6,285.00 5,500.00 4,047.00

2,832.88

99,990 91,233 72,000 56,565 49,500 52,611

135,978

m2 per centre

274,433 355,800 168,965 199,500 250,000 75,430

Total m2

Size

920

611

430

550

1,144 1.190 800

960 1,160 1,096 836 550 447

Total employees

Employees

Characteristics of the main fitness centre companies

Administrative concession Go Fit 211,631 12,448.88 0.77 Supera 190,000 6,551.72 0.53 ServiOcio 149,466 4,821.48 0.88 Forus 105,000 5,526.32 0.53 Santagadea 100,000 10,000.00 0.40 Duet Sport 50,000 4545.45 0.66 Private centres (excludes low-cost centres) Metropolitan 81,290 3,695.00 0.81 DiR 77,879 3,893.95 0.85 Holiday 60,000 3,000.00 0.83 Gym O2 Centres 45,000 5,000.00 0.80 Wellness Paidesport 40,500 4,500.00 0.82 Centre Holmes 40,170 3,090.00 0.76 Place Low-cost private centres Viva Gym 200,000 4,166.67 1.47 Group*

Table 16.4

19.17

47.00

47.78

61.11

52.00 59.50 40.00

56.47 40.00 35.35 44.00 55.00 40.64

Employees per centre

0.007

0.012

0.009

0.010

0.011 0.013 0.011

0.003 0.003 0.006 0.004 0.002 0.006

Employees per m2

217.4

65.7

94.2

81.8

71.1 65.4 75.0

220.4 163.8 136.4 125.6 181.8 111.9

48

13

9

9

22 20 20

17 29 31 19 10 11

Number of centres

(continued)

Members per employee

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2,195.12

2,649.63 2,084.44 5,000.00 1,690.48

84,788 75,040 70,000 35,500

Members per centre

90,000

Total members

Members

(continued)

NA 0.96 1.64 0.99

1.43

Members per m2

NA 78,200 42,800 36,000

63,000

Total m2

Size

NA 2,172.22 3,057.14 1,714.29

1,536.59

m2 per centre

250 377 238 250

370

Total employees

Employees

7.81 10.47 17.00 11.90

9.02

Employees per centre

NA 0.005 0.006 0.007

0.006

Employees per m2

339.2 199.0 294.1 142.0

243.2

Members per employee

Notes *Includes Fitness Hut. **Includes Myst Gym Club. NA = not available Source Elaborated by the authors based on data from CMDSport (2017, 2018a, 2018b) and Palco23 (2018)

Grupo Altafit ** Basic-Fit McFit Dream Fit DeporOcio

Table 16.4

32 36 14 21

41

Number of centres

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is found in the private non-low-cost centres, whereas the worst is registered in the low-cost centres, reaching the figure of one employee for every 340 members.

Most Offered Activities of Fitness Centres in Spain This section offers a summary of the main findings of the 2018 National Survey of Fitness Tendencies (Valgo, 2018). The objective of this study was to identify the most widely offered activities and fitness tendencies after consulting the professionals in the sector in Spain. The results show that, among the ten most offered activities, there are four training systems commercialised by certain companies (Zumba, CrossFit, and two activities of Les Mills), as well as another activity that could also be considered one (indoor cycling, which could be Spinning), which indicates the growing importance of these types of activities often called social fitness. Along with them, other activities also form part of the topten, such as functional training, Pilates, abdominal and gluteal activities, and toning. The developmental tendencies identified do not differ from those detected in the previous study; in fact, 17 of the 20 activities pointed out a year before are repeated. Thus, only three are different: apps for smart phones, multidisciplinary work teams and group classes. The tendency that appeared first had to do with the need to have qualified professionals, which also occurred in the previous survey. The five tendencies that appeared next were the same ones as the previous year: functional training, exercise and weight loss, high-intensity interval training, personal training, and, finally, bodyweight training (Valgo, 2018, 14).

Conclusions This chapter has offered an analysis of the evolution of fitness in Spain from the 1980s to today, addressing both social and management aspects and trying to offer a broad and comprehensive perspective of its basic elements across four decades.

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Although its antecedents date back to the traditional gyms that arose in the 1980s, whose activities were limited to bodybuilding and martial arts, fitness centres began to emerge in the mid-1980s with an offer of activities related to physical conditioning and aerobics. The progressive disappearance of the traditional gyms and the arrival of multinational companies to the sector increased the competition and obligated fitness centres to develop and innovate their activities and services. All of this occurred in a period in which the modernisation of the country and the sports policies put into practice with the restoration of democracy fostered an increase in the sports habits of the population that began to become evident in the second half of the 1990s, after the celebration of the Olympic Games in Barcelona in 1992. This same period witnessed the incorporation of fitness sports with a strong social demand into the municipal sports centres, by outsourcing their management to private companies in an administrative concession regime. As a result of all this, the sports participation of Spaniards has not only grown extraordinarily in the past forty years, but it has also moved significantly towards a culture of fitness. Evidence of this is the fact that the first and fifth activities most practiced by Spaniards are physical and gymnastic exercise—practiced by 37.6%—and bodybuilding—practiced by 17.7%. The supply and demand of fitness activities was already completely consolidated in Spanish society before the strong economic crisis began in 2007, which would have profoundly negative effects on the economic and social life of the country for almost a decade. The so-called Great Recession provoked the closing of numerous fitness centres, but at the same time it favoured the emergence of others with business models much more adapted to the new economic moment: low-cost centres. After a period of five years of negative growth (between 2009 and 2013), the fitness sector returned to a growth path that has even been translated into a slight increase in the number of existing private centres. The income per centre in 2016 returned to what it was in 2007, even though the mean membership fee has declined significantly in the past few years due to the increase in low-cost centres. The configuration of the sector points to greater complexity and plurality due to the opening

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of fitness boutiques and the transformation of low-cost centres into lowprice. It is not likely that this complexity will be reduced in the future if the sector continues to be such an efficient synthesiser of the cultural and economic tendencies of the society.

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European Commission. (2018). Sport and physical activity (Special Eurobarometer 472/Wave 88.4). Brussels: European Commission/DG Education, Youth, Sport and Culture. Eurostat. (2019a). Annual net earnings. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https:// appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=earn_nt_net&lang=en. Eurostat. (2019b). Area by NUTS 3 region. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https:// bit.ly/2ISCF2r. Eurostat. (2019c). Population on 1 January. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language= en&pcode=tps00001&plugin=1. Eurostat. (2019d). Real GDP per capita. Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/refreshTableAction.do?tab=table&plu gin=1&pcode=sdg_08_10&language=en. García-Ferrando, M., & Llopis-Goig, R. (2011). Ideal democrático y bienestar personal: Encuesta sobre los hábitos deportivos en España 2010 [Democratic ideal and personal wellbeing: Survey on sports participation in Spain 2010]. Madrid: CIS. García-Ferrando, M., & Llopis-Goig, R. (2017). La popularización del deporte en España: Encuestas de hábitos deportivos 1980 –2015 [The popularization of sports in Spain: Surveys of sports participation 1980–2015]. Madrid: CIS. IHRSA. (2018). 2018 IHRSA Global report. The state of the health club industry. Boston, MA: International Health, Racquet & Sportsclub Association. Jiménez, E. (2018, May 17). La experiencia de la primera tienda con gimnasio en España [The experience of the first store with gym in Spain]. CMDSport. Available at https://www.cmdsport.com/esencial/cmd-fit nessgym/la-experiencia-la-primera-tienda-gimnasio-espana/. LifeFitness. (2018). El mercado del Fitness en España. LifeFitness Zoom Mercado 2018 [The Fitness market in Spain. LifeFitness Zoom Market 2018]. Available at www.lifefitness.es/zoom-mercado-2018. Palco23. (2015, May 15). El CB Valladolid se alía con Rock Gym para garantizar su viabilidad [The CB Valladolid aligns with Rock Gym to ensure feasibility]. Palco23. Available at: https://www.palco23.com/clubes/el-cb-val ladolid-se-alia-con-rock-gym-para-garantizar-su-viabilidad.html. Palco23. (2018). Los Reyes del Fitness 2018 [The Kings of Fitness 2018]. Available at: https://www.palco23.com/publicaciones/dossier.html. Reverter, J., & Barbany, J. R. (2007). Del gimnasio al ocio-salud. Centros de fitness, Fitness Centers, Fitness and Wellness, Spa, Balnearios, Centros de Talasoterapia, Curhotel [From the gym to leisure-health. Fitness centres,

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Fitness Centres, Fitness and Wellness, Spa, Spas, Thalassotherapy centres, Curhotel]. Apunts. Educación Física y Deportes, 90, 59–68. Sánchez Martín, J. (2011). Business & Fitness: El negocio de los centros deportivos [Business & Fitness. The business of sports centres]. Barcelona: UOC. Sánchez Martín, J. (2013). La fidelización de los centros deportivos [The customer loyalty of sports centres]. Barcelona: UOC. The World Bank. (2019). Urban population (% of total population). Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL. Valgo. (2018). Informe divulgativo de la Encuesta Nacional sobre tendencias en fitness 2018 [Informative report of the National Survey on trends in fitness 2018]. Available at: https://valgo.es/recursos/informes-estudios. WHO. (2019). Prevalence of overweight among adults, BMI ≥ 25. Accessed at 30 July 2019 via http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.BMI25Cv?lan g=en.

17 Current Situation of Fitness Sport in Switzerland Claudia Klostermann, Markus Lamprecht, Hanspeter Stamm, and Siegfried Nagel

Introduction Sport and fitness participation have become a highly differentiated social phenomenon in Switzerland during the last decades. Sport participation rates of the Swiss population have increased continuously and rank among the highest throughout Europe (Stamm & Lamprecht, 2011). C. Klostermann (B) School of Education, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Windisch, Switzerland e-mail: [email protected] M. Lamprecht · H. Stamm Lamprecht und Stamn Sozialforschung und Beratung, Zurich, Switzerland e-mail: [email protected] H. Stamm e-mail: [email protected] S. Nagel Institute of Sport Science, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 J. Scheerder et al. (eds.), The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53348-9_17

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In 2014, 69 percent of the Swiss population exercised at least once a week. In this context, being fit is an important motive for regular sport activities, fitness activities such as fitness training, aerobics and gymnastics are among the top ten of the most popular sport activities in Switzerland and their popularity has risen continuously since 2000 (Lamprecht, Fischer, & Stamm, 2014). Sports in Switzerland is mainly organised by the private sector except for sport at public schools. Traditionally, sports clubs as non-profit organisations are the main players in the (private) sports sector. However, during the past decades for-profit organisations, such as fitness centres, have become more and more important. Country facts Geographical, demographical and economic indicators Capital Geographical size (km2 ; 2014)a Population (2019)b Urbanisation rate (%; 2018)c GDP (euro per capita; 2018)d Annual net earnings average (Single person without children, 100% of AW, in euro; 2018) EU membership since Health and sports-related indicators Prevalence of overweight among adults (BMI ≥ 25, %; 2016)g Share of physical inactive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)h Share of sportive population (aged 15 or older) (%; 2017)h Fitness-related indicators Percentage of total population with fitness club membership (2017)e Percentage of population (aged 15 or older) with fitness club membership (2017)f Fitness club members (2017)e Numbers of clubs (2012)e Fitness and health club industry revenue (excl. VAT, million euro; 2017)f

Bern 41,285 8,542,323 73.8 59,400 N/A No membership 57.9 8.9* 74.2*

12.7 14.9 1,070,000 980 866

(continued)

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(continued) Country facts Average membership fee/month (incl. VAT, euro; 2017)f Average membership fee as percentage of disposable income (%; 2017)f

66.2 2.7

Notes *Compared to the other country fact sheets and the Eurobarometer data, these indicators are operationalised somewhat differently. Available national datasets are used to render the results comparable. Physical inactivity is operationalised as follows by the following two questions: “Do you work up a sweat due to physical activity such as running, cycling or exercising sports at least once a week?” (Answering possibilities yes and no) and “Now, it is a matter of less intensive physical activity without sweating but getting out of breath. For example: walking (quickly), dancing, gardening. On how many days do you practice such physical activities?” (Answering possibilities: never or numbers of days a week). A person was defined as physically inactive if the answer on the first question was “no” and the answer of the second question was “never”. Sport population is operationalised by the following question “Do you practice gymnastics, fitness training or sports?” (Answering possibilities were yes and no) Sources a Presence Switzerland (2019); b Eurostat (2019a); c The World Bank (2019); d Eurostat (2019b); e IHRSA (2018); f Deloitte & EuropeActive (2018); g WHO (2019); h BFS (2019)

This chapter gives an overview of the current situation of the fitness sport in Switzerland and its development during the past years. The increasing interest in fitness activities is examined under different perspectives. On the one hand, we look at the fitness sport in Switzerland from an institutional and organisational point of view. Some general features of the providers in the fitness sector such as numbers, their distribution and their main fields of supply will be described. On the other hand, we take a closer look at fitness participants with the data of the national sport participation survey “Sport Switzerland” (Lamprecht et al., 2014).

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework Sport in general has become more and more differentiated in recent years. This is confirmed by the diversity of sport and fitness activities, as well as by the growing diversity of providers of sports and fitness facilities. One major approach to explain the increasing diversity in modern sport

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and fitness is the individualisation thesis (Beck, 2002; Bette, 1999). The expansion of the welfare state and social services in the twentieth century reduced the authority of traditional social roles thereby broadening individual action opportunities. As a consequence, individuals must assume personal responsibility for their lives and identity. In this individual identity negotiation, the body plays an increasing role, up to the social ideal of “perfect” bodies. Fitness activities are often practised with this aim to train, develop and maintain the body and the muscles accordingly to subjective body images. Although, fitness is a commonly used term and often mentioned as a motive or purpose of sport activities, its definition is vague and difficult. However, there is a consensus that fitness includes a physical dimension. In the sense of total fitness emotional, cognitive and social dimensions can also be contained. In the everyday understanding in Switzerland, a relatively large range of activities are closely related to fitness: from workout with specific fitness equipment, weight training and bodybuilding to group fitness such as aerobics, Zumba and aquafitness, up to relaxation activities like yoga, Tai Chi as well endurance activities like jogging, running, cycling or swimming. In the light of this broad understanding of fitness, these activities can be practised not only in commercial fitness centres, but also self-organised or in sport clubs. Although commercial fitness centres can be regarded as specified providers for all these fitness activities, in Switzerland also gymnastics clubs supply fitness activities for all age groups. Most of them were founded in the nineteenth century after German gymnastics were introduced into Switzerland and since the very beginning they have seen themselves as a setting to improve fitness in all of its dimensions (Stamm, Fischer, Nagel, & Lamprecht, 2015). Nowadays, gymnastic clubs are still among the most important sports clubs in Switzerland, in terms of the number of clubs and the number of active members (Stamm et al., 2015). And they offer a broad range of fitness activities for their members. According to the recent theoretical discourse about sport participation, we draw on a multilevel model of fitness participation with the main assumption of a reciprocal interconnection between fitness activity and structural conditions (e.g. Downward, 2007; Downward & Rasiute,

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2010; Wicker, Hallmann, & Breuer, 2012). On the one hand, fitness activities are depending on the fitness providers and their offers and the demand is influenced by the existing supply in fitness sport. On the other hand, through an increased demand for fitness activities more services are offered in this field and the number of fitness suppliers grows. Therefore, factors on the individual level as well as on the organisational and societal level have to be considered in order to describe the current situation of the fitness sport in Switzerland and its development. Although fitness is a rather popular activity among the Swiss population, little is known about which companies and clubs are providing fitness activities and who are the people participating. Therefore, we will analyse in the following sections both the commercial fitness centres in Switzerland in terms of their numbers, their distribution and their supply priorities and the fitness participants in terms of sociodemographic factors.

Material and Method In Switzerland, there are several data sources available with regard to sport and physical activity: e.g. the Swiss Health Survey, and the national sport participation survey “Sport Switzerland”. However, data sources on the provision of fitness are quite limited and no time series data is available. The following data sources are used to analyse the current situation of the fitness sport in Switzerland and its development during the past years.

Sport Switzerland 2014 In the framework of the Sport Switzerland 2014 survey, a representative sample of the Swiss population aged between 15 and 74 (n = 10,652) was interviewed regarding their sport participation (Lamprecht et al., 2014). In order to operationalise sport participation in a broad sense, the following questions were asked: “Do you practice gymnastic, fitness training or sport?” If yes: “Which kind of activities do you practice?” (up

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to five activities could be mentioned) and “how often do you practice gymnastics, fitness training or sport?” The same questions were asked in the survey “Sport Switzerland 2008”, too. Therefore, we can compare the data of both surveys in order to analyse the development during the last ten years.

Commercial Fitness Providers In 2012, Balthasar and colleagues gathered data about fitness providers based on two different internet portals (http://www.fitness.ch/ and http://www.die-fitnesszentren.ch). All in all, they found 1,013 different fitness centres (Balthasar et al., 2012). For comparison we repeated these analyses in May 2018. However, with this search strategy, we could only detect 293 different fitness centres. Therefore, we used the Swiss commercial register (www.zefix.ch) to gather current data about the commercial fitness centres in Switzerland. The search was based on the following key words: fit, fitness, training, crossfit, gym, Pilates, yoga, Tai Chi, dance, aerobic, aquafit. All in all, with this search strategy we found 3,374 fitness providers. After elimination of duplicates, sports clubs and non-fitness providers, the sample included 2,144 different fitness centres. However, it has to be noted that no standardised statistics exist for fitness centres and no data source was available about the demand and the supply side for the same time period. Therefore, the results, particularly the developments over time have to be interpreted cautiously.

Fitness Participants in Switzerland Of the Swiss population aged between 15 and 74 years 69 percent participate in “Sport, Fitness or Gymnastics” at least once a week. 44 percent claim to participate in sport several times per week for a total duration of at least three hours. Only 26 percent of the population state that they do not participate in sport. These as well as the figures in the following sections have been taken from the national sport participation

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survey “Sport Switzerland” (Lamprecht et al., 2014; Lamprecht, Fischer, & Stamm, 2015). The most popular sports in Switzerland are hiking, cycling, swimming, (downhill) skiing and jogging. On sixth position we find fitness training and aerobics, followed by gymnastics. The heading “fitness training and aerobics” includes a multitude of different kinds of fitness training and group fitness from aerobics to Zumba. Twenty percent of the respondents of “Sport Switzerland” claim that they participate in at least one of these activities. Fourteen percent of the respondents state, that they practice fitness training without any specifications. Different forms of aerobics and group fitness (e.g. step and dance aerobics or Zumba) are done by three percent of the population. Further three percent of the respondents report other forms of fitness training, such as workout, ergometer training or cross trainer. Between 2008 and 2014 the increase of participants amounted to seven percentage points. The majority of participants engages in fitness training once to three times per week for about an hour per training session. As a result, the total number of hours spent in fitness training per year amounts to about 110 million hours in Switzerland. Figure 17.1 shows that women engage somewhat more often in fitness and aerobics than men, and that participation continually declines with age. Persons with an over-average household income participate in fitness training more often than persons with a lower household income. There is no correlation with citizenship, i.e. Swiss citizens and foreigners do not differ when it comes to fitness training, but there is a substantial difference between the German and French-speaking parts of Switzerland, on the one hand, and the Italian speaking part, on the other hand. Fitness centres are the most important locations for fitness training: 59 percent of all respondent who claim to engage in fitness training/aerobics do so in a fitness centre. Six percent do their fitness training in the framework of a sports club and ten percent in another organisational setting. The remaining 25 percent are unaffiliated, as most of them train at home. Whereas fitness training is mainly done in a fitness centre, gymnastics is usually done in sports clubs. Only four percent of all respondents that participate in gymnastics claim to do so in a fitness centre.

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Total

19.8

Men

17.8

Women

21.7

15-24 years

27.2

25-39 years

23.0

40-54 years

17.6

55-74 years

12.4

German-speaking part of Switzerland

20.6

French-speaking part of Switzerland

18.5

Italian-speaking part of Switzerland

13.1

Swiss citizenship

19.8

Foreign citizenship

19.9

Low income (1st quartile)

17.0

Lower middle income (2nd quartile)

17.3

Upper middle income (3rd quartile)

23.3

High income (4th quartile)

25.3 0

10

20

30

Fig. 17.1 Participation in fitness training/aerobics according to gender, age, language region, citizenship and household income (as a percentage of the Swiss population aged 15–74 year) (Data source Sport Switzerland [2014] [Number of respondents: 10,652; household income (net monthly equivalence income in Swiss Francs): the equivalence income indicates how much money is available per household members. The quartiles encompass for income groups that are identical in size: the first quartile includes the quarter of respondents with the lowest incomes, the second quartile the next quarter, etc.])

Apart from fitness training, the Sport Switzerland survey recorded weight training and bodybuilding, Yoga, Tai Chi and Pilates separately. Out of the Swiss population seven percent mention Yoga, Tai Chi and Pilates as their sports. Since 2008 the increase of participants amounted to three percentage points. On average, these sports are done once a week for about an hour which translates into a total of about 22 million

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hours per year. Yoga, Tai Chi and Pilates are a lot more popular with women (12%) than men (2%), and the vast majority of participants are aged between 30 and 60 years and have a slightly over-average household income. 15 percent of the respondents who engage in Yoga, Tai Chi and Pilates do so in a fitness centre, 11 percent in a sports club, 52 percent in another setting (typically a Yoga studio) and 22 percent practice their sport outside of any formal setting. Six percent of all men and four percent of all women aged fifteen to 74 years participate in weight training and bodybuilding. As fitness training and Yoga, Tai Chi and Pilates, weight training has also become more popular over the past few years. In 2008, three percent of the Swiss population engaged in weight training, until 2014 this figure had risen to five percent. Weight training is usually done about two times per week for 30–60 minutes. Thus, the yearly total of hours in weight training amounts to 21 million hours. As in the other fitness sport, respondents with an over-average household income are over-represented in weight training. Weight training is mainly done in fitness centres (58%). Sports clubs (2%) and other settings (4%) appear to be nearly irrelevant, but 36 percent of all participants do their weight training at home.

The Use of Private Fitness Centres Traditionally, sports clubs have been very important settings for sport in Switzerland. In the course of the past few decades private fitness centres have become a further important supplier of sport opportunities. According to the “Sport Switzerland 2014” survey, sixteen percent of the Swiss population are members of a private fitness centre. This figure has increased slightly since 2008 (14%). As opposed to sports clubs that have a considerably higher share of male members, women hold a slight majority in fitness centres (see Fig. 17.2). As age increases, membership figures decline: The percentage of fitness centre members in the two youngest age groups (15–24 and 25–39 years) is almost the double of that in the oldest group (55–74 years). Conversely, the likelihood of a fitness centre membership increases with income: a quarter of

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0

5

10

Total

15

Men

17.1

19.2

25-39 years

21.5

40-54 years

16.1 11.4

German-speaking part of Switzerland

16.9

French-speaking part of Switzerland

15.0 13.3

Swiss citizenship

16.3

Foreign citizenship

16.4

Low income (1st quartile) Lower middle income (2nd quartile) Upper middle income (3rd quartile) High income (4th quartile)

30

15.5

15-24 years

Italian-speaking part of Switzerland

25

16.3

Women

55-74 years

20

11.0 13.2 19.7 24.8

Fig. 17.2 Share of fitness centre members according to gender, age, language region, household income and citizenship (as a percentage of the Swiss population aged between 15 and 74 years) (Source Sport Switzerland [2014] [Number of respondents: 10,652; household income (net monthly equivalence income in Swiss Francs): the equivalence income indicates how much money is available per household member. The quartiles encompass for income groups that are identical in size: the first quartile includes the quarter of respondents with the lowest incomes, the second quartile the next quarter, etc.])

all persons in the highest income group hold a fitness centre membership whereas the corresponding number in the lowest income group is 11 percent. In addition, the differences according to household income are more pronounced in fitness centres than in sports clubs. In the latter, there is a difference between Swiss citizens and foreigners that cannot be found in fitness centres, however.

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The most popular sports in fitness centres are fitness training/aerobics, weight training/bodybuilding and Yoga/Tai Chi/Pilates that have already been discussed above (see Table 17.1). Twelve percent of the Swiss population (roughly 730,000 persons) engage in fitness training in a fitness centre. The corresponding figures for weight training/bodybuilding and Yoga/Tai Chi/Pilates are three percent and one percent, respectively. Apart from these three sports, gymnastics, swimming, aqua-fitness, running, cycling, dancing and martial arts are sometimes practised in fitness centres. However, less than half a percent of the Swiss population use fitness centres to do each of these sports. According to their members, advantages of a fitness centre membership include a high degree of flexibility (mentioned by 22% of all members), the lack of formal obligations (21%), longer opening hours (15%) and a better or different offer (10%). Further aspects, such as a good service and supervision (9%), the infrastructure (6%) or the accessibility (2%) are mentioned less frequently. Whereas men stress the Table 17.1

Sports being practiced in fitness centres

Fitness training, aerobics, group fitness weight training, bodybuilding Yoga, Tai Chi, Pilates Gymnastics, stretching Swimming Aqua-fitness Jogging, running Cycling Dancing Martial arts, self-defense

Participation in fitness centres as a percentage of the population aged 15–74 years

Estimate: number of persons participating in the respective sports in a fitness centre

11.8

728,926

2.8

176,116

1.1 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2

65,772 22,139 16,915 16,879 14,651 14,583 12,372 10,600

Source Sport Switzerland (2014)

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lack of formal obligations and the service quality somewhat more often, flexibility and opening hours are particularly important for women.

Commercial Fitness Centres in Switzerland As stated above, the majority of the fitness participants exercises in fitness centres. Since 2012, the number of fitness centres has considerably increased: from 1,013 fitness centres in 2012 (see Balthasar et al., 2012) to 2,144 fitness centres in 2018. Despite this increase, their proportion of all sports providers is still rather low. For example, there are over 20,000 sports clubs in Switzerland offering about 150 different sports for its roughly 1.6 million active members (Stamm et al., 2015). With 25 clubs per 10,000 inhabitants there are currently ten times more sports clubs than fitness centres in Switzerland (see Table 17.2). Notwithstanding that dominance of sports clubs in Switzerland, their number have continuously decreased by circa 28% percent since 1996 (Lamprecht, Bürgi, Gebert, & Stamm, 2017), whereas the number of fitness centres has grown considerably during the last ten years. Whereas the density of sports clubs is higher in rural regions (Lamprecht et al., 2017), fitness centres are primarily located in densely populated regions in Switzerland (Balthasar et al., 2012). The rate of fitness centres per 10,000 inhabitants is higher in regions as well as cantons with higher population density (see Table 17.2). However, there are some exceptions: on the one hand, Geneva has the second highest population density and the rate of fitness centres in this canton are located on rank nineteen of 26 cantons in the last third. One the other hand, the canton Schwyz has the second highest rate of fitness centres and a lower population density (rank 16). Table 17.2 also illustrates a correlation between the rates of fitness centres and the gross domestic product (GDP) of the canton. However, this relation seems to be lower and more exceptions can be identified (see Table 17.2). The majority of the fitness centres in Switzerland are single operator (ca. 86%) and only fourteen percent are chain operators. The biggest chain operator in Switzerland runs circa 100 fitness centres. The fitness centres make different offers. The majority of the fitness centres (ca.

17 Current Situation of Fitness Sport in Switzerland

Table 17.2

385

Numbers and proportions of fitness centres in Switzerland

Local distribution of the fitness centres

CH Cantones Basel Geneva Zurich Zug Basel District Aargau Solothurn Thurgau Lucerne Vaud Schaffhausen St Gallen Neuchâtel Appenzell Outer-Rhodes Fribourg Schwyz Nidwalden Bern Ticino Appenzell Inner-Rhodes Jura Obwalden Valais Glarus Uri Grisons

Number

Rate of fitness centres per 10,000 inhabitants (rank of 26 cantons)a

Population density in 10,000 inhabitants pro km2 (rank of 26 cantons)a

GDP in CHF (rank of 26 cantons)a

2,144

2.54

21.05

85,121

70 96 499 58 84 160 62 60 106 180 19 130 38 14

3.6 1.9 3.4 4.7 2.9 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.6 2.3 2.4 2.6 2.1 2.6

(3) (19) (4) (1) (5) (10) (13) (15) (6) (14) (11) (7) (17) (9)

522.5 (1) 199.1 (2) 89.6 (3) 59.8 (4) 55.2 (5) 47.6 (6) 34.1 (7) 31.4 (8) 28.2 (9) 27.8 (10) 27.1 (11) 25.8 (12) 24.9 (13) 22.6 (14)

168,891 (1) 98,436 (3) 96,613 (4) 152,708 (2) 68,730 (12) 61,689 (19) 66,024 (16) 60,409 (21) 66,220 (15) 68,257 (13) 86,478 (6) 72,479 (9) 87,582 (5) 56,527 (24)

69 61 11 237 62 2

2.2 3.9 2.6 2.3 1.8 1.3

(16) (2) (8) (12) (22) (24)

19.6 (15) 18.3 (16) 17.6 (17) 17.6 (18) 12.9 (19) 9.3 (20)

59,407 59,867 70,259 76,897 82,479 61,570

(23) (22) (11) (8) (7) (20)

6 5 63 4 7 41

0.8 1.3 1.9 1.0 1.9 2.1

(26) (23) (21) (25) (20) (18)

8.7 7.8 6.5 5.9 3.4 2.8

63,477 66,019 53,383 68,116 53,347 71,240

(18) (17) (25) (14) (26) (10)

Source a Federal Statistical Office 2018 Swiss commercial register www.zefix.ch (2018)

(21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26)

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73%) offers a variety of fitness activities, such as group fitness, aerobics and weight training. Approximately thirteen percent of the fitness centres put emphasis on relaxation activities, such as Yoga, Tai Chi or Pilates. Furthermore eight percent of the fitness centres are specialised in dancing activities. The percentage of specialised aqua-fitness providers is quite small in Switzerland.

Summary and Conclusion We can conclude that fitness sport—in contrast to most traditional sport (e.g. gymnastics) has gained in importance in Switzerland over the last decade. An increase can be identified on the demand as well as on the supply side. On the demand side, twenty percent of the respondents of “Sport Switzerland 2014” claim that they participate in at least one fitness activity mostly exercising in fitness centres (59%). In the time period from 2008 to 2014, the proportion of fitness participants and fitness centres members has grown by circa seven percentage points for fitness participation and by circa two percentage points for membership, whereas the number of sports clubs and their memberships have slightly decreased. The typical fitness participant and member of a fitness centre can currently be characterised as female, at a younger age, with a higher income and living in the German-speaking part of Switzerland. The most popular sports exercised in fitness centres are fitness training/aerobics, weight training/bodybuilding and Yoga/Tai Chi/Pilates. On the supply side a considerable rise of fitness centres can be observed in the last six years (from 2012 to 2018) and they are primarily located in densely populated regions in Switzerland. In the private fitness sector, supply and demand appear to be balanced: the most popular sports practised in fitness centres are the ones most frequently offered. Altogether, the demonstrated rise of the fitness sector as well as fitness activities can be interpreted as part of the differentiation and individualisation in modern society where flexibility, lifestyle and service orientation have gained in importance considerably.

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Stamm, H. P., Fischer, A., Nagel, S., & Lamprecht, M. (2015). Sport clubs in Switzerland. In C. Breuer, R. Hoekman, S. Nagel, & H. van der Werff (Eds.), Sport clubs in Europe. A cross-national comparative perspective (pp. 401–417). Heidelberg: Springer. Stamm. H. P., & Lamprecht, M. (2011). Swiss sports participation in an international perspective. European Journal for Sport and Society, 8(1 + 2), 15–29. The World Bank. (2019). Urban population (% of total population). Accessed at 22 July 2019 via https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL. WHO. (2019). Prevalence of overweight among adults, BMI ≥ 25. Accessed at 30 July 2019 via http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main.BMI25Cv?lan g=en. Wicker, P., Hallmann, K., & Breuer, C. (2012). Micro and macro level determinants of sport participation. Sport, Business and Management: an International Journal, 2, 51–68.

18 Fitness(-Related) Trends Within and Between Countries: Towards a Fit (in) Europe? Kobe Helsen and Jeroen Scheerder

Introduction The fitness industry is a very important, strong and healthy business (Laine & Vehmas, 2017). This is apparent from the enormous increases in fitness and health club memberships (+63.0%), number of fitness and health clubs (+86.2%), and fitness and health club industry revenues (+41.9%) between 2007 and 2017 in the global market (IHRSA, 2008, 2013, 2018; see Tables 1.1–1.3 in Chapter 1). In addition, on an overarching level these increases do not seem to be as badly affected by economic fluctuations compared to other sectors (such as the banking sector during the 2008 global financial crisis; Laine & Vehmas, 2017). K. Helsen · J. Scheerder (B) Policy in Sports & Physical Activity Research Group, KU Leuven, Louvain, Belgium e-mail: [email protected] K. Helsen e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 J. Scheerder et al. (eds.), The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53348-9_18

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However, when delving deeper, two problems arise. First, regional differences occur. Fitness and health club industry revenues in Europe increased with only 0.4 per cent between 2007 and 2017, whereas, these revenues increased with almost twenty thousand per cent in Africa and the Middle East in the same period (see Table 1.3 in Chapter 1). In addition, even within Europe, past research showed a higher and more diversified (in terms of participation of social groups) sports participation in Northern and Central (as well as Western) European countries compared to Southern and Eastern European countries (see Fig. 2.7b in Chapter 2 and also Scheerder et al., 2011; Van Bottenburg, Rijnen, & Van Sterkenburg, 2005). The sports sector in Northern and Central (as well as Western) Europe can be characterised by a strong civic sector (non-profit sports organisations) complemented with an ever-increasing interest of commercial providers (Laine & Vehmas, 2017). This sector pursues the Sport for All ideology. The sports sector in Southern and Eastern Europe can be characterised as mainly former Eastern Bloc (communist) countries, with an accompanying highly dominant state sector. After the communist regime, this sports sector was faced with a very fast evolution towards a sport that was run by private organisations. The sports industry in those regions, however, was not yet ready for such a rapid evolution, resulting in lower participation rates (Laine & Vehmas, 2017; Scheerder et al., 2011; Van Bottenburg et al., 2005). In addition to general sports participation rates, regional differences can be observed as well among fitness penetration rates within Europe (e.g. 21.4 and 20.9% in Sweden and Norway, 17.0 and 12.9% in The Netherlands and Germany, 5.2% in Portugal; IHRSA, 2018). Second, contemporary problems such as the ageing of population and the increase of sedentary behaviour and associated increases in overweight and obesity challenge the fitness industry to a large extent (see Chapter 2 and also Breuer & Orlowski, 2014). Increasing life expectancies, amplified with decreasing fertility rates, are putting pressures on the composition of the population. People get older, but the share of older individuals within the total population increases as well. This can cause serious problems, as healthcare costs increase as one gets older. In addition, numbers show that older individuals are less active in sports and fitness compared to their younger counterparts (Downward,

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Lera-López, & Rasciute, 2014; Hover, Romijn, & Breedveld, 2010; Hover & Van Eldert, 2019; Jenkin, Eime, Westerbeek, O’Sullivan, & Van Uffelen, 2016; Scheerder, Vandermeerschen, Borgers, Thibaut, & Vos, 2013; Van Bottenburg et al., 2005; Vandermeerschen, Scheerder, & Borgers, 2016; Van Tuyckom & Scheerder, 2010). The fitness industry thus needs to find ways to attract the ever-increasing segment of older individuals, but at the same time remain attractive for younger individuals. In addition, the current population gains more insight and understanding in healthy behaviour, and values both health and wellbeing to a large extent. People are more aware of regular exercise and the fact that a physically active lifestyle can contribute to this, for example by being moderately-active during 30 min for five days a week (European Union Working Group on Sport & Health, 2008; Van Mechelen, Van der Ploeg, & De Vries, 2014). Current trends on for example social media show that many people exercise and that not being active is an exception rather than the rule (Scheerder, Breedveld, & Borgers, 2015). Nevertheless, the average inhabitant of the EU is significantly less active than before and more than half of the EU population suffers from overweight (see Fig. 2.5 and Table 2.3 in Chapter 2). Despite the current trend that people gain more insight and understanding in healthy behaviour, they still not adjust their behaviour. The large availability of motorised transport, as well as the consumption of increasingly less active leisure time, could partially declare this trend (e.g. CSO Ireland, 2016; US Census Bureau, 2016). Chapter 2 presented trends of contemporary issues such as the ageing of population, overweight and sedentary behaviour, as well as (cluborganised) sports and fitness participation on a global and EU level by using a pan-European comparative perspective, based on harmonised data. Chapters 3–17 analysed the sports and fitness market in fifteen European countries (12 EU countries1 ), both from the participatory as 1 As

was the case in Chapter 2, all analyses in the current chapter relate to EU28 countries. The European Union is defined as all countries that were part of the EU between 2013 and 2019. All 28 European countries are included for calculations on data outside this time interval. Even when a country did not belong to the EU on the moment of data collection. The period of 2013–2019 is determined by the fact that Croatia joined the EU as 28th member state in 2013 and that the United Kingdom left the EU at the beginning of 2020 (see also Chapter 2).

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well as from the supply side, by using a national perspective, based on national data of the respective countries. However, although cultural differences can be taken into account, national data can hardly be used when comparing countries as different methodologies are at stake (Scheerder, Helsen, Elmose-Østerlund, & Nagel, 2020; Scheerder et al. 2011; see also Chapter 2). Therefore, the goal of this penultimate chapter is to enrich all preceding chapters by investigating trends within and between EU28 countries, by using harmonised data2 (see also Downward et al., 2014; Hover et al., 2010; Lera-López & Marco, 2018; Scheerder et al., 2011, 2020; Van Tuyckom & Scheerder, 2010). This approach enables to make reliable comparisons as the same methodology for data collection is used. This chapter will allow to further extend the results that are presented in Chapters 3 through 17, by adding a pan-European perspective. It analyses differences within and between EU countries over time and is organised as follows. First, it sheds light upon some contemporary challenges such as the ageing of population, the prevalence of overweight and sedentary behaviour. Further, trends in (club-organised) sports participation and fitness participation are investigated. Then, more in-depth analyses are executed on fitness participants by using eight different background characteristics. Based on this chapter, the reader will be able to position fitness participation within general physical activity behaviour, both within and between EU countries.

Materials and Methods As has already been described in Chapter 2 and earlier in the current chapter, two approaches can be used to get an insight in cross-national differences. Because harmonised surveys allow to make comparable statements on a country level for all EU28 countries, secondary analyses will

2 In

Chapter 3 through 17, we included Flanders (as part of Belgium) and England (as part of the United Kingdom). For the EB analyses we used Belgium and the United Kingdom as a whole.

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be executed on three different harmonised datasets.3 First, population data published by the United Nations enable to determine the proportion of the ageing population (i.e. ratio of population aged 65 years and over to the total population) between 1950 and 2100 (United Nations, 2019). Second, the World Health Organization publishes data on the prevalence of overweight among adults (aged 18 and over) between 1975 and 2016. Overweight is classified as having a Body Mass Index (BMI) of 25.0 and over (World Health Organization, 2019). Third, the Eurobarometer (EB) surveys enable to calculate physical inactivity, (club-organised) sports participation and fitness participation among samples of EU citizens aged 15 and over. Six different waves covering a period of fifteen years are used for this purpose4 (European Commission, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2010, 2014, 2018). As physical activity has a broad understanding (multiple locations, multiple purposes, multiple intensities, etc.), an average score of three questions is calculated as a proxy to define the concept. The following questions are used for this purpose: (i) In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do vigorous physical activities like lifting heavy things, digging, aerobics or fast cycling; (ii) In the last 7 days, on how many days did you do moderate physical activity like carrying light loads, cycling at a normal pace or doubles tennis (not walking); (iii) In the last 7 days, on how many days did you walk for at least 10 minutes at a time. A physically active individual is classified as an individual who answered one or more days on at least one of the three questions.5 Sports participation is defined by the following question: How often do you exercise or play sport. People who did not indicate ‘never’ are classified as being a sports participant.6 Club-organised sports participation and fitness participation are defined by the following question: Are you a 3The responsibility for all conclusions drawn from the data in this chapter lies entirely with the authors. 4 Not all EU countries are represented in the different surveys as the number of countries that are a part of the EU have enlarged in recent years. In the 2002 survey, the EU15 countries are represented. In the 2004 survey, the EU25 countries are represented (excluding Bulgaria, Croatia and Romania). In the 2009 survey, the EU27 countries are represented (excluding Croatia). In the 2005, 2013 and 2017 surveys, all EU28 countries are represented. 5 Answering possibilities are numbers from zero to seven. 6 Answering possibilities are: (i) 5 times a week or more; (ii) 3–4 times a week; (iii) 1–2 times a week; (iv) 1–3 times a month; (v) less often; (vi) never; (vii) don’t know.

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member of any of the following clubs where you participate in sport or recreational physical activity. For this question, multiple answers are possible. When someone indicated ‘sport club’, the individual is classified as being a club-organised sports participant. When someone indicated ‘health or fitness centre’, the individual is classified as being a fitness participant.7 In the current chapter, trends are observed within and between EU countries over time by making use of so-called radar charts. These radar charts present the results in a clear way. As regards the ageing of population and prevalence of overweight, secondary analyses are executed on raw data (mean scores) that are retrieved from the United Nations and World Health Organization (United Nations, 2019; World Health Organization, 2019). By taking a look from different perspectives, trends between 1950–2100 (ageing of population) and 1975– 2015 (overweight) are observed. As regards the prevalence of physical activity, (club-organised) sports participation and fitness participation, secondary analyses are executed on EB data (European Commission, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2010, 2014, 2018). A more in-depth analysis of background characteristics is only presented for fitness participation (European Commission, 2018; for more in-depth analyses of physical activity and (club-organised) sports participation, we refer to Table 2.3 in Chapter 2 of this book and Helsen & Scheerder, 2020). Weight coefficients that correct for differences in the country samples are provided in the original EB datasets and are therefore included. Sex, age and education are very often used as independent variables when executing research regarding sports (e.g. Van Bottenburg et al., 2005; Van Tuyckom & Scheerder, 2010). This chapter adds five more independent variables to provide unique insights as regards sports participation research (particularly as regards fitness). Significances are only calculated for trends of overall fitness participation8 to improve the readability of the current

7 Answering

possibilities are: (i) health or fitness centre; (ii) sport club; (iii) socio-cultural club that includes sport in its activities (e.g. employees’ club, youth club, school- and universityrelated club); (iv) other (spontaneous); (v) no, not a member of any club (spontaneous); (vi) don’t know. 8 As the number of respondents per country is sometimes low, one needs to be careful by making decisive statements. The authors have already partly responded to this by omitting some of the results. If the sample of the country is lower than 100 respondents in 2017, the

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chapter. Chi-squared (χ2 ) tests are used for this purpose (95% confidence intervals). These tests evaluate whether observed differences are real (and could not be attributed to chance; see also Scheerder et al., 2020). Significance analyses are thus not carried out for the background characteristics.

Population Prospects and Shifting Segments To get a grip on fitness participants, we need to consider sociodemographic developments. Not all citizens participate in fitness to the same extent after all (see Table 2.3 in Chapter 2 and also further in the current chapter). Moreover, the society as a whole is faced with some contemporary issues. Two major socio-demographic developments are of particular interest when considering sports and, more particularly, fitness participation. On the one hand, the world is becoming more and more populated (than ever) (see Fig. 2.1 in Chapter 2). At least, this is apparent in other regions. Between 2020 and 2100, the world population will increase with almost 40 per cent (from 7.8 billion to 10.8 billion), while the population in the EU will decrease with almost fourteen per cent (from 513 million to 442 million; United Nations, 2019). On the other hand, the number of people aged 65 years and over will increase all over the world (see Fig. 2.2 in Chapter 2). This trend of the ageing of population will be a challenge for the EU market in particular. In 20 EU countries a decrease in the population is expected between 2020 and 2100 (mainly among Eastern and Southern European countries) and largest decreases are expected in Bulgaria, Croatia, Lithuania and Latvia (with each a decrease of more than 40% of the total population). On the other hand, only five countries experience an absolute decrease in the number of people aged 65 and over, results of that specific country are left out for further analyses for all waves (regarding physical inactivity, sports participation, club-organised sports participation and fitness participation; European Commission, 2018). As 2017 is used as a reference year, it could be that a country is still included in the analyses, but has less than 100 respondents in other years after all. For the in-depth analyses of background variables among fitness participants, countries which have less than twenty respondents (fitness participants) are left out for further analyses. Nevertheless, the reader must be careful when interpreting the data.

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Finland Sweden 50 Estonia Denmark Latvia United Kingdom Lithuania 40 Ireland

Poland

30

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Slovakia

20

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10

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Germany

Croatia

France

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Czech Republic Austria Portugal

Bulgaria Greece Cyprus Malta

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1950 2000 2050 2100

Italy

Fig. 18.1 Evolution of the proportion of people aged 65 years and over among EU28 citizens according to country, 1950–2100 (in %) (Source Authors’ own calculations based on United Nations [2019])

being Bulgaria, Croatia, Latvia, Lithuania and Romania. This means that fifteen EU countries experience both a decrease in the total population and increase in the elderly population (65 years and over) between 2020 and 2100, corresponding to a large increase in the ratio between elderly to total population (e.g. Finland, Germany, Italy, Spain). As this segment of the population will experience enormous increases, the fitness industry needs to find ways to attract these potential consumers. Figure 18.1 shows that the ageing of population is a phenomenon that has been known for some time, but is especially apparent in current society. The largest increase in the proportion of ageing population is expected between 2000 and 2050, with largest increases in Poland, Slovakia, Cyprus and Ireland (each more than 150%9 ) and smallest 9 Percentage

increase or decrease is calculated as the relative increase or decrease of percentages. For example, a 150 percentage increase corresponds to an increase of 10 per cent of the population being 65 years and over in 2000 towards 25 per cent of the population being 65 years and over in 2050 by using the following formula: [((x 2 /x 1 )−1)*100].

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increases in Sweden, the United Kingdom and Belgium (each less than 60%). Five countries are expected to show a (small) decrease in the proportion of the ageing of population between 2050 and 2100, being Spain, Greece, Slovenia, Portugal and the Czech Republic (with largest decrease of 4.5%). Generally, this means that great pressures are exerted on pensions and healthcare systems as the share of older individuals will rapidly increase in the future (see Fig. 18.1 and also Fig. 2.2 in Chapter 2). The proportion of the group that raises money for pensions and healthcare decreases at the expense of the group that enjoys the pensions and healthcare. These trends will further put pressures on government spending (healthcare and pensions), and will be a challenge throughout the EU, in the future.

Sedentary Behaviour: Prevalence of Overweight and Physical Inactivity As indicated in the previous paragraph, the fitness industry needs to find ways to attract older segments in the population. The amount and variety of individuals in these segments will increase enormously in the future and numbers show that only a small part of older individuals is active in sports or fitness at this very moment (see Table 2.3 in Chapter 2). If (fitness) participation of this target group is not encouraged in the future, this will have detrimental consequences, such as a rise in healthcare costs. Another trend that will have an impact on healthcare costs is the prevalence of overweight. After all, overweight and obesity have been described as being an important risk factor for chronic diseases, such as heart diseases, hypertension, diabetes and a variety of cancers (Haugen, Ommundsen, & Seiler, 2013; Park et al., 2011; Soares-Miranda, Siscovick, Psaty, Longstreth, & Mozaffarian, 2016; Stein & Colditz, 2004). These diseases are accompanied with huge economic burdens (Müller-Riemenschneider, Reinhold, Berghöfer, & Willich, 2008). Although there is a healthy mindset apparent in current society, it appears that the majority of the EU population suffers from overweight (58.9% in 2015; World Health Organization, 2019). The population’s knowledge on what is healthy and what is not increased the

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past years. Unfortunately, the numbers show that this does not pay off in practice (yet). The prevalence of overweight is not the same throughout the EU. Over the years these differences have diminished, but unfortunately, they still remain. In 1975, the difference between the highest and lowest proportion of adult population with overweight between EU28 countries was 18.3 percentage points10 (ranging from 49.2% in Malta to 30.9% in Portugal). This number slightly dropped to 13.7 percentage points in 1995 (58.0% in Malta and 44.3% in Portugal), and 12.2 percentage points in 2015 (66.1% in Malta and 53.9% in Austria) (World Health Organization, 2019). Although, the differences between EU countries have slightly diminished, an increase in the prevalence of overweight has taken place in all EU countries between 1975 and 2015 (albeit not to the same extent in each country; as shown in Fig. 18.2). This increase was largest in Cyprus (26.8 percentage points: from 32.0% in 1975 to 58.8% in 2015), Ireland (26.2 percentage points) and Portugal (26.1 percentage points). The smallest increases are found in Estonia (11.9 percentage points), Latvia (13.9 percentage points) and the Czech Republic (15.6 percentage points). Additional analyses show that this increase mainly took place in the current millennium as the increase in the proportion of overweight population was larger between 1995 and 2015 than the increase between 1975 and 1995 in each EU country (World Health Organization, 2019). Despite more knowledge and understanding about healthy behaviour among the current population, the proportion of the adult population that is suffering from overweight keeps increasing (Fig. 18.2). Moreover, scientists argue that overweight and physical inactivity are interrelated as they are both cause and effect for each other (e.g. Stein & Colditz, 2004; Van Mechelen et al., 2014). As a part of the healthy mindset, people know that the pursuit of a healthy diet and regular physical activity will lead to multiple advantages (better sleep, higher concentration, better appearance, etc.). In addition, regular participation in sport or physical exercise among older individuals significantly increases the health and 10 Percentage point is the absolute difference between two percentages (e.g. 18.3 percentage points is the difference between 49.2 and 30.9%).

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Finland Sweden 80 Denmark 70 United Kingdom 60 Ireland 50 40 Netherlands 30 20 Belgium 10 Luxembourg 0

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Estonia Latvia Lithuania Poland Slovakia Hungary

1975 1980 1985

Germany

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Croatia

1995

Romania

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2000 2005

Czech Republic Austria Portugal

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Fig. 18.2 Prevalence of overweight (BMI ≥ 25.0) among EU28 citizens aged eighteen and over according to country, 1975–2015 (in %, age-standardized) (Source Authors’ own calculations based on data [World Health Organization 2019])

self-care of elderly which in turn leads to a decrease of healthcare costs for elderly. Results show that the EU citizen still does not adjust his/her behaviour in relation to its healthy mindset (yet). However, this is highly dependent on the country. Figure 18.3 shows that eighteen out of 24 EU countries experienced an increase in physical inactivity between 2005 and 2017. Especially the Eastern European countries experience this increase: thirteen, twelve and nine percentage points for Poland, Slovakia and Romania, respectively. All Central European countries experienced a (small) increase in the share of physically inactive population as well. Only one country experienced a decrease of more than three percentage points in the share of the physically inactive population, being Spain. As regards these results one has to consider the actual share of physically active population as well. Since some countries already have a large share of the population being physically active (such as Sweden, Latvia, The

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Finland Sweden 30 Denmark 25 United Kingdom 20

Ireland

Estonia Latvia Lithuania Poland

15

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10 Belgium

Hungary

5

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0

Germany

Croatia

France

Romania

Czech Republic Austria Portugal

Bulgaria Greece Cyprus Malta

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Italy

Fig. 18.3 Evolution of physically inactive adults among EU28 citizens aged eighteen and over according to country, 2002–2017 (in %) (Note Countries with less than 100 respondents in the sample of 2017 are left out for analyses for all waves. It could thus be the case that a country is still shown in the figure, while it has less than 100 respondents in the sample of other reference years. The reader must therefore be cautious when taking conclusions. Source Authors’ own calculations based on data [European Commission, 2003, 2006, 2014, 2018])

Netherlands, Denmark and Germany with each more than 95% of their population being physically active), it is quite difficult for these countries to capture the physically inactive (less than) five per cent. Nevertheless, Sweden, Latvia and Denmark still can record an increase in the share of physically active citizens between 2005 and 2017. It is not very remarkable that in most of these countries the Sport for All ideology and strong civic sector are at stake. When looking at evolutions between 2002 and 2017, numbers show that eight out of fourteen countries experienced a decrease in the prevalence of physical inactivity (thus an increase in physical activity). Belgium and the United Kingdom experienced largest decreases in physical inactivity. The South European countries Portugal and Italy are faced with a large increase in physical inactivity (increases of more than 10 percentage

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points; see Fig. 18.3). In addition, Portugal and Italy have less than eight out of ten citizens being physically active in 2017. As they both experienced (large) increases in the share of physically inactive population in recent years, they still have a long way to go.

Participation in (Club-Organised) Sports Partly related to the above-mentioned trends in overweight and physical inactivity is the trend in participation in sport, as well as club-organised sports participation. After all, and particularly in the past decades, the boundary between the concepts of sport and physical activity has gradually been blurred. Sports participation increased significantly throughout the second half of the twentieth century in Europe, albeit not to the same degree in all countries (Scheerder et al., 2011, 2013; Van Bottenburg et al., 2005). Sport became a very popular leisure time activity which was practised in an organised manner, often in sports clubs. Gradually, more informal, flexible and non-organised ways of practising sport became more popular (e.g. running, see Scheerder et al., 2015). In addition, new variants of sport were introduced and it was uncertain whether those variants had to be classified as sport or physical activity (e.g. Hover & Van Eldert, 2019). For those reasons, among other things, the boundary between the concepts of sport and physical activity blurred. Consequently, the concepts of ‘sport and physical activity’, or ‘sport and exercise’ are now often pronounced in one breath, because of a lack of boundary between the two. Fortunately, some databases (e.g. Eurobarometer) allow to make concrete differences between the concepts based on definitions (see also section “Materials and Methods” of the current chapter). Research shows that, participation in sport seems to be stagnating or even declining in the last years of the past millennium and this continued in the current millennium (see Table 2.3 in Chapter 2 and also Scheerder et al., 2011; Thibaut, Scheerder, Pauwels, & Verschueren, 2019; Van Bottenburg et al., 2005). This is not only the case in EU28 countries, but as well in other parts of the world (e.g. NSGA, 2019). Between 2004 and 2017, eighteen out of 24 EU countries experienced a decrease in

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the proportion of sports active citizens (Fig. 18.4). Largest decreases are found in France, Slovakia and Greece (each more than ten percentage points). Unfortunately, these countries do not report high sports participation rates in the first place, meaning that these low numbers are further declining. Belgium, Lithuania or Slovenia can be used as exemplary countries as they show an increase between 2004 and 2017 (Fig. 18.4). Similar findings can be observed, when looking at club-organised sports participation (Fig. 18.5). Fifteen out of 24 EU countries experienced a decrease in the proportion of citizens who are active in club-organised sports between 2009 and 2017. This decrease is mainly apparent in South Eastern and Southern European countries such as Finland Sweden100 Denmark United Kingdom 80 Ireland

Poland

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Estonia Latvia Lithuania

Slovakia

40

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Germany

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France Czech Republic Austria Portugal

Bulgaria Greece Cyprus Republic Malta

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2004 2009 2013 2017

Italy Fig. 18.4 Participation in sports among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country, 2004–2017 (in %) (Note Countries with less than 100 respondents in the sample of 2017 are left out for analyses for all waves. It could thus be the case that a country is still shown in the figure, while it has less than 100 respondents in the sample of other reference years. The reader must therefore be cautious when taking conclusions. Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer data [European Commission, 2004, 2010, 2014, 2018])

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Finland Sweden 30 Denmark 25 United Kingdom 20

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Estonia Latvia Lithuania Poland

15

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10 Belgium

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Italy Fig. 18.5 Participation in club-organised sports among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country, 2009–2017 (in %) (Note Countries with less than 100 respondents in the sample of 2017 are left out for analyses for all waves. It could thus be the case that a country is still shown in the figure, while it has less than 100 respondents in the sample of other reference years. The reader must therefore be cautious when taking conclusions. Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer data [European Commission, 2010, 2014, 2018])

Latvia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Portugal, Spain and Italy. Four out of seven Central European countries (where the Sport for All ideology and civic sector prevail) report increases in the proportion of citizens active in club-organised sports (Belgium, Germany, The Netherlands and Czech Republic).

Fitness Participation Despite the fact that a decline in general sports participation and club-organised sports participation is established, more people prefer fitness activities (European Commission, 2010, 2014, 2018; Helsen &

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Scheerder, 2020; Scheerder et al., 2020; for further analyses see also Chapter 2 of this book). It seems that the more traditional civic sector loses popularity in favour of other informal and flexible forms of being sports (and/or physically) active (see Table 2.3 in Chapter 2 and also Borgers, Seghers, & Scheerder, 2016). This trend is apparent in all global regions (see Table 1.1 in Chapter 1; Figs. 2.7c and 2.7d in Chapter 2; Table 19.1 in Chapter 19). Even in countries as The Netherlands where traditional club-organised sport is rather popular, a decrease in the number of individuals with a sports club membership is observed (Tiessen-Raaphorst & De Haan, 2008). However, based on EB data this trend seems to have stabilised in recent years (Fig. 18.5). In addition, whereas, other industries were largely affected by the recession, this was not the case for most parts of the fitness industry (Laine & Vehmas, 2017; see also Chapters 11 and 12 of this book). All preceding chapters confirm the strong existence of fitness throughout Europe at this very moment. Moreover, in 2007, fitness11 was present in the top three of most popular sports in 28 out of 35 countries (Hover et al., 2010). Between 2009 and 2017, three out of 24 EU countries experienced a decrease in fitness participation: Latvia, Italy and Germany (Table 18.1; Fig. 18.6). This is quite remarkable as Germany was considered the largest and strongest fitness industry of Europe in 2017 according to the International Health, Racquet & Sports club Association (IHRSA, 2018). Between 2013 and 2017, a decrease in fitness participation rates can be observed in ten out of 24 EU countries. Surprisingly, Nordic countries Finland and Denmark (which are known for their flourishing sports industry) as well as the strong fitness industries of the United Kingdom and Germany belong to this group (IHRSA, 2018). In 2017, more than one out of ten EU citizens (10.6%) can be considered as being a fitness participant. However, as Fig. 18.6 shows, this fitness participation is not evenly distributed throughout Europe (represented by the irregular shape of the figure). The radar chart is skewed to the left and upper parts, meaning that fitness participation is high 11 In

the study by Hover et al. (2010) fitness includes aerobics, machine training and bodybuilding.

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Table 18.1 Participation in fitness among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country, 2009–2017 (in %) Country

2009

2013

2017

Chi-square

Sweden Luxembourg Denmark Netherlands Ireland Austria United Kingdom Finland Cyprus Germany Greece Spain Portugal Belgium Czech Republic Slovakia Hungary Italy Poland Lithuania Slovenia Croatia Bulgaria France Romania Estonia Malta Latvia

20.2a

33.1b

41.3c

3.6 a 19.8a 19.8a 14.2a 12.5a 14.0a 8.4a 11.4a 12.6a,b 8.3a 4.2a 6.8a,b 7.0a 6.0a 5.2a 2.2a 14.5a 2.7a 1.8a 4.7a N/A 3.3a,b 1.9a 2.8a 1.6 a 8.7 a 11.4a

9.1a 24.6a 19.5a 14.7a 16.1a 17.9b 14.7b 8.0a 14.3b 11.4a 10.4b 5.9b 11.3b 11.6b 9.0a 5.0b 5.9b 6.0b 3.1a,b 5.0a 8.5a 2.3b 4.1b 4.6a,b 4.3a 4.2a 3.7a

24.0a 23.0a 22.0a 18.2a 17.1a 16.8b 13.9a,b 12.1a 11.0a 10.6a 10.3b 9.8a 9.7a,b 9.5a,b 9.0a 9.0c 7.4c 6.9b 6.6b 6.4a 6.3a 5.3a 5.0b 4.8b 4.8 a 3.8 a 3.6a

53.378*** 5.469 2.213 2.014 1.759 4.301 19.590*** 6.442* 0.518 21.083*** 3.326 84.375*** 7.126* 6.467* 11.929** 4.084 26.225*** 172.973*** 45.390*** 6.829* 0.403 0.972 6.448* 47.840*** 7.796* 1.082 0.673 7.899

Note ***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05; a,b,c Numbers with different superscript differ significantly from one another; N/A = not available; countries in italics have less than 100 respondents in the sample of 2017. Thereby, these countries are not discussed in the text. It could thus be the case that a country is still shown in the table, while it has less than 100 respondents in the sample of other reference years (2009, 2013). The reader must therefore be cautious when taking conclusions Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer data (European Commission, 2010, 2014, 2018)

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Italy Fig. 18.6 Fitness participation among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country, anno 2017 (in %) (Note Countries with less than 100 respondents in the sample of 2017 are left out for analyses for all waves. It could thus be the case that a country is still shown in the figure, while it has less than 100 respondents in the sample of other reference years. The reader must therefore be cautious when taking conclusions. Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer data [European Commission, 2010, 2014, 2018])

in Northern (28.7%), Western (16.9%) and Central (10.1%) European regions (following the Sport for All ideology; see Fig. 2.7d in Chapter 2). Especially the (both North and South) Eastern (bloc) countries represent lower shares of fitness participants. Sweden, by far, takes the lead in terms of fitness participation. More than four out of ten Swedish citizens have a fitness membership. Denmark and The Netherlands (with each more than a fifth of the population having a fitness membership) follow at some distance. Ireland (18.2%) and Austria (17.1%) complete the top

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five. Past research partly confirms the popularity of fitness in these countries. Hover and colleagues (2010) used the ISSP12 dataset of 2007 to conclude that fitness was most popular in Sweden (18%), followed by The Netherlands (16%) and Norway (15%).13 The popularity of fitness in Western European countries, however, was somewhat lower in 2007, meaning that these countries experienced a strong growth of fitness the past decade (which is confirmed by Table 1.4 in Chapter 1). Figure 18.6 and Table 18.1 show that all Northern, Western and four out of seven Central European countries make out the top ten countries as regards fitness participation (with only one Southern European country on place 10, being Greece). Some remarkable results can be found. For example, in Finland where 13.9 per cent of the population has a fitness club membership, placing it far behind the other Nordic countries. After all, previous research showed a geographical structure between countries, where the Nordic countries achieved a high and similar score regarding sport(s participation) (e.g. Scheerder et al., 2011). A second remarkable result can be found in France (as a Central European country) which is placed at the 22nd place (out of 24 EU countries in total) when looking at fitness club membership. Only five per cent of the French population has a fitness centre membership, placing it far behind the other Central European countries (the Czech Republic as last but one Central European country representing 9.5% of the total population having a fitness centre membership). These two latter examples are somewhat surprising given the figures that are presented earlier in this book (20 or 17% fitness participation in Finland, and 25 or 9% fitness participation in France; see Table 1.4 in Chapter 1, Chapters 8 and 9 and Table 19.1 in Chapter 19). This is probably due to the different methodologies used in the countries, i.e. the Eurobarometer survey and other databases. For example, fitness is nowadays the second most popular form of physical exercise in Finland (based on population surveys; Mononen, Blomqvist, Hakamäki, Laine,

12 International

Social Survey Programme. is not represented in the ISSP dataset of 2007 and thus no conclusions can be drawn for this country. On the other hand, Norway is not represented in the Eurobarometer surveys.

13 Denmark

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& Mäkinen, 2019). However, the results of the current chapter take a look at fitness from a perspective of a membership of fitness centres. All nine Eastern European countries are ranked as the lowest eleven countries when looking at fitness memberships. Their fitness participation rates are nine per cent (in Slovakia and Hungary) or lower. Latvia has the lowest fitness participation rate, with a share of less than four per cent of the country population being a fitness participant.

Background Characteristics of Fitness Participants Past research shows that sports participation is socially stratified, meaning that participation is higher among particular groups in comparison with others. The relationship between sport and sex, age or educational status has been investigated in different settings. Women, elderly and lower educated subjects have lower participation rates in sport in general (e.g. Scheerder et al., 2020; Van Bottenburg et al., 2005; Van Tuyckom & Scheerder, 2010). Profession and income are less investigated as it is generally accepted that these show a relationship with the educational status (Scheerder & Pauwels, 2002). Because of the availability of some background characteristics in the EB survey, the following variables are presented in this chapter to identify social patterns among fitness participants: (1) sex; (2) age; (3) educational status; (4) occupation; (5) marital status; (6) living environment; (7) whether the respondent has difficulties in paying bills; and (8) whether the respondent participates in sport for health reasons. In the past, the relationship between other characteristics and (club-organised) sports participation have been investigated as well. Some examples include the frequency or intensity of (club-organised) sports participation, past sports participation of parents, past sports participation of respondent, past participation in school-organised sports, past experiences with club-organised sports, etc. (Scheerder et al., 2013; Thibaut, Eakins, Vos, & Scheerder, 2018; Vandermeerschen et al., 2016). To the knowledge of the authors, the relationship between fitness participation and background characteristics has not yet been investigated.

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Sex Past research shows that (club-organised) sports participation has historically been a male business (see Scheerder et al., 2011; Van Bottenburg et al., 2005; Van Tuyckom & Scheerder, 2010). In the past decades, the gender gap between the two sexes as regards sports participation has decreased considerably, but unfortunately it has not yet been fully closed. Although fitness was mainly a male matter as well in its early years, the popularity of fitness among women skyrocketed the past decades because of the fitness revolution and among others the introduction of aerobic dancing (see also Chapter 1). Where sport in general and club-organised sports in particular have not succeeded in closing the gender gap, fitness has. Nowadays, on average, more women participate in fitness compared to men (10.7 vs. 10.6%). Numbers show, however, that (club-organised) sports participation remains a male business (60.2 vs. 48.0% and 15.6 vs. 7.8%; see Table 2.3 in Chapter 2). Sweden (41.1%), Austria (22.0%) and The Netherlands (20.1%) report the highest participation rates among men (Fig. 18.7). The lowest rates can be found in France (4.3%), Poland (4.5%) and Romania (4.8%). As regards women, Sweden again takes the lead as well with over four out of ten women participating in fitness (41.6%), followed by Denmark (26.9%) and The Netherlands (23.8%). Bulgaria reports the lowest participation rate for women (4.1%) preceded by Romania (4.9%) and France (5.6%). In half of twenty EU countries a positive gender gap is at stake, meaning that men participate more in fitness compared to women. This is especially the case in Austria and Bulgaria where fitness participation rates among men are almost two times larger compared to women (1.8 times). On the other hand, a negative gender gap is at stake in the other half of twenty EU countries, meaning that women participate more in fitness than men. This is especially the case in Poland (where fitness participation rates among women are two times larger compared to those of men). The two Northern countries Finland and Denmark have a large negative gender gap as well (fitness participation rates that are 1.8 and 1.4 times larger among women compared to men; similar numbers are found in Chapter 6 of this book). Based on the Eurobarometer survey

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Slovenia Croatia

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male female

Italy Fig. 18.7 Fitness participation among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country and sex, anno 2017 (in %) (Note Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta and Slovenia have less than 20 fitness participants after weighting and are therefore not included in this figure. Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer data [European Commission, 2018])

of 2017, it can be concluded that Italy has the most equal fitness participation rates (with 7.5% of men and 7.4% of women participating in fitness).

Age Four age groups, as proposed in the Eurobarometer surveys, are used for further analyses (European Commission, 2018). Just as is the case with overall sports participation and club-organised sports participation, fitness participation declines with age (see Table 2.3 in Chapter 2 and Van Bottenburg et al., 2005). Almost one fifth (18.4%) of the youngest age group (15–24 years) participates in fitness. Slightly less people being

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25–39 years of age (15.3%) are fitness participants. Less than ten per cent of people aged 40–54 years (9.9%) and 55 years and over (5.8%) can be considered as being a fitness participant. From 2009 onwards, fitness participation increased for all age groups. However, relatively speaking, the largest increase was among individuals being 55 years and over (see Table 2.3 in Chapter 2). Fitness participation among the youngest age group is exceptionally high in Sweden with six out of ten people being 15–24 years of age participating in fitness (Fig. 18.8). At some distance, but also quite high, are Denmark and Ireland with a fitness participation rate of 31.0 and 30.0 per cent, respectively. Further, in the United Kingdom, Austria, Finland, The Netherlands and Greece fitness participation rates between Finland Sweden 60 Denmark 50 United Kingdom 40

Ireland

Poland

30

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Estonia Latvia Lithuania

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20 Belgium

Hungary

10

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0

Germany

Croatia 15-24 years

France

Romania

Czech Republic Austria Portugal

Bulgaria Greece Cyprus Republic Malta

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25-39 years 40-54 years 55 years and over

Italy

Fig. 18.8 Fitness participation among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country and age group, anno 2017 (percentages of total population) (Note Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta and Slovenia have less than 20 fitness participants after weighting and are therefore not included in this figure Source: authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer data [European Commission, 2018])

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20 per cent and 30 per cent can be found for this age group. Two countries report participation rates of less than ten per cent for this age group, being Romania (6.5%) and France (9.2%). As regards the people aged 25–39 years, a similar order can be found. Sweden takes the lead with a 57.3 per cent fitness participation rate. Denmark (27.9%), Austria (25.0%) and The Netherlands (22.2%) follow at some distance. The lowest numbers are found in France (7.2%), Bulgaria (10.3%) and Poland (11.5%). For the age group 40–54 years, the same conclusions can be made. Sweden takes the crown (39.8%), followed by The Netherlands (22.7%), Denmark (20.3%) and Austria (20.1%). Romania (2.4%), Bulgaria (2.7%) and France (4.5%) close the line with each less than five per cent. Concerning the oldest age group, only four countries have a fitness participation rate of more than ten per cent (Sweden, The Netherlands, Denmark and Ireland of 27.6, 21.1, 20.2 and 13.6% respectively). Two countries have a fitness participation rate of less than one per cent for this age group (Romania: 0.0% and Bulgaria: 0.5%). Some interesting results can be found when looking at the popularity of fitness between age groups in a particular country (see also Fig. 18.8). Quite remarkably, there is only one country where the age group of 40–54 years has the highest participation rate. In The Netherlands, fitness is not the most popular in the youngest (22.4%) or second youngest (22.2%) age group, but the age group of 40–54 years prevail (22.7%). Further, there are four countries where fitness is most popular among people aged 25–39 years (Portugal, Czech Republic, Germany and Romania). In all but one country, the age group of people being 55 years and over has the lowest fitness participation rate. This is the case for Germany where that age group does not have the lowest participation rate (9.6%), but the people being 40–54 years of age have (8.3%). Finally, the age gap is considered. Results show that fitness participants aged 15–24 years in Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Poland are much more likely (more than ten times) to participate in fitness compared to the older individuals aged 55 years and over. The Netherlands can be seen as the most equal country when looking at the age of fitness participants, because of very small differences between age groups (22.7%

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for participants aged 40–54 years and 21.1% for participants 55 years and over, corresponding with people aged 40–54 years having a fitness participation rate which is only 1.08 times larger). Denmark follows at some distance with the younger individuals (15–24 years) having a fitness participation rate that is 1.5 times larger than the older ones (55 years and over).

Educational Status The educational status, the current profession and income of an individual are often interrelated (Scheerder & Pauwels, 2002). Past research found a positive relationship between these variables and the extent to which an individual participates in sport (Hover et al., 2010; Scheerder et al., 2013; Van Bottenburg et al., 2005). Further, results show that this does not only hold true for overall sports participation, but for club-organised sports participation and fitness participation as well (see Fig. 18.9 and Table 2.3 in Chapter 2). Because the educational systems within EU countries differ to some degree, the age at which the respondent finished his/her education is used as a proxy to determine the degree of education of respondents (European Commission, 2018). Lowly educated individuals are represented by the people that studied until they were 15 years old, which corresponds to the termination of primary school. Middle-educated individuals studied until they were between 16 and 19 years old, which corresponds to the termination of secondary school. The highly educated individuals were 20 years old or over when they ended their education, corresponding to a higher education. A fourth category is also used, as some people are still studying. Since they are still obtaining their degrees, it would not be rectified to classify them in the lowly or middle-educated group. More than fifteen per cent of highly educated individuals in the EU participate in fitness activities (15.6%). This number diminishes (enormously) when descending on the educational stairs (8.2% for middle-educated and 3.4% for lowly educated individuals). One fifth of the individuals who are still studying participate in fitness (20.4%). This

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Germany France

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lowly educated middle-educated highly educated still studying

Fig. 18.9 Fitness participation among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country and educational status, anno 2017 (in %) (Note Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta and Slovenia have less than 20 fitness participants after weighting and are therefore not included in this figure. Legend: lowly educated = studied until the age of 15; middleeducated = studied until the age of 16–19; highly educated = studied until the age of 20 or over. Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer data [European Commission, 2018])

is consistent with the findings from the age paragraph of this chapter (see also Table 2.3 in Chapter 2). Younger individuals, who are often still studying, have higher participation rates (Fig. 18.8). Fitness participation is 4.6 times larger among higher educated individuals compared to their lower educated counterparts. Two countries have a rather high fitness participation rate for lowly educated individuals. The Netherlands and Denmark have, respectively, 15.0 per cent and 14.3 per cent of their lowly educated individuals participating in fitness. The opposite holds true for the South Eastern countries Romania, Bulgaria, Slovakia, but also the Central European countries France and the Czech Republic where less than one per cent of the lowly educated individuals participate in fitness. When looking at highly educated individuals, the highest fitness participation rates can be

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found in Sweden, Austria and Ireland with each more than a quarter of individuals participating in fitness (42.5, 26.9 and 25.8% respectively; see Fig. 18.9). In four countries, participation is highest among the highly educated individuals (The Netherlands, Spain, Romania and France). In France and Romania, the fitness participation rate among highly educated individuals is more than ten times greater compared to the participation rate among lower educated individuals, whereas, this number equals 1.6 in The Netherlands (which still shows an imbalance). In all other countries, the individuals who are still studying have the highest fitness participation rates. Large educational gaps are found in all countries. Subjects who are still studying in Greece, Italy, Sweden and Portugal (as well as Slovakia, Bulgaria, and Czech Republic) have a participation rate which is more than ten times greater compared to lower educated individuals. The lowest gap is found in Denmark. However, subjects who are still studying still have a fitness participation rate which is 2.6 times higher than lower educated individuals.

Occupation As it is quite cumbersome to take every individual’s job into account, different categories are created in the Eurobarometer dataset to simplify analyses. Based on the large variety of current occupations of respondents, each individual is classified in one of three categories: selfemployed,14 employed15 or not working16 (European Commission, 2018). Throughout the European Union in general, the highest fitness participation rates are found among people who have a job. More than one 14 Self-employment

consists of the following occupations: (i) farmer; (ii) fisherman; (iii) professional (lawyer, etc.); (iv) owner of a shop, craftsmen, etc.; (v) business proprietors, etc. 15 Employment consists of the following occupations: (i) employed professional (employed doctor, etc.); (ii) general management, etc.; (iii) middle management, etc.; (iv) employed position, at desk; (v) employed position, travelling; (vi) employed position, service job; (vii) supervisor; (viii) skilled manual worker; (ix) unskilled manual worker, etc. 16 Not working consists of the following categories: (i) responsible for ordinary shopping; (ii) student; (iii) unemployed, temporarily not working; (iv) retired, unable to work.

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out of ten individuals who are self-employed (13.8%) or are employed (12.9%) have a fitness club membership. The fitness participation rate for the people who are not working is somewhat lower (8.1%), represented by the smaller surface in Fig. 18.10. In five countries, the fitness participation rate for self-employed people is higher than 20 per cent. In Austria, 42.9 per cent of the self-employed individuals practice fitness. In Sweden, this number equals 37.9 per cent. Denmark (28.6%), The Netherlands (23.1%) and United Kingdom (23.0) follow at some distance. For five countries, the fitness participation rate for self-employed people is lower than ten per cent (Romania 1.6%, Hungary 3.6%, Bulgaria 6.5%, France 6.7% and Italy 9.0%). Similar figures can be found for the employed people. Sweden takes the crown with almost half of the employed people practising fitness Finland Sweden 50 Estonia Denmark Latvia United Kingdom Lithuania 40 Ireland

Poland

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Fig. 18.10 Fitness participation among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country and occupation, anno 2017 (in %) (Note Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta and Slovenia have less than 20 fitness participants after weighting and are therefore not included in this figure. Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer data [European Commission, 2018])

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(47.5%). Three other countries have a participation rate of twenty per cent or more (The Netherlands 23.3%, Denmark 22.2% and Ireland 20.4%). Seven countries have a participation rate of less than ten per cent for employed individuals, among which Bulgaria and France. Resembling figures can be found for the people who are not working. In nine of the twenty EU countries, fitness participation rates among self-employed individuals are highest compared to employed individuals or individuals who are not working. In the other eleven EU countries, the employed people practice fitness the most. There is no country where the people who are not working have the highest participation rates. A clear trend could not be observed (Fig. 18.10). As regards the occupational gap, the number of employed (sum of employed and self-employed) people are compared with the number of people who are not working. Four countries show a gap of more than five, meaning that employed people have a fitness participate rate which is at least five times greater compared to the individuals who are not working (Romania, Austria, the Czech Republic and France). In Ireland, employed people have a fitness participate rate which is 1.7 times greater compared to the people who do not work. This number equals 2.2 in Denmark, 2.3 in The Netherlands and 2.5 in Sweden and Germany.

Marital Status Regarding the marital status, a distinction is made between having a single (single, divorced, widow) or multiple (living with partner or (re)married) household. In addition, whether or not children are living at home is taken into account (European Commission, 2018). In the EU in general, individuals in a single household practice slightly more fitness compared to individuals living in multiple households. The presence of children in the household has a contrary effect on fitness participation in single or multiple households. When living in a single household, having children leads to a slightly lower fitness participation compared to having no children (11.0 vs. 11.8%). The opposite holds true for multiple households (10.3% with children vs 9.6% without children).

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The highest fitness participation rates—each more than 20 per cent—for single households without children can be found in Sweden, Denmark and The Netherlands (see Fig. 18.11). The lowest rates are found in France, Romania and Poland. The highest fitness participation rates for single households with children can be found in Sweden, Denmark and The Netherlands as well. The lowest rates for this category are found in Romania, Ireland and Italy. As regards the multiple households without children, the highest participation rates can be found once again in Sweden, The Netherlands and Denmark. The lowest rates in Bulgaria, Romania and Poland. The highest fitness participation rates among multiple households with children are found in Sweden, Austria and Denmark. The lowest rates in Bulgaria, France and Romania. Finland Sweden 50 Denmark United Kingdom 40 Ireland

Poland

30

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Estonia Latvia Lithuania

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20

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10

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0

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Germany

Croatia

France

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single hh without children single hh with children multiple hh without children multiple hh with children

Fig. 18.11 Fitness participation among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country and marital status, anno 2017 (in %) (Note Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta and Slovenia have less than 20 fitness participants after weighting and are therefore not included in this figure. Legend: hh = household. Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer data [European Commission, 2018])

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When comparing the participation rates of the different groups, results show that in seven countries the highest participation rates can be found in single households with children (e.g. United Kingdom, Greece and Italy). This holds true for six countries when considering the single household without children (e.g. Denmark, Finland, Portugal and Germany). Three countries have their highest participation rates among multiple households without children (Ireland, The Netherlands, and France). Finally, the fitness participation rate among multiple households with children is highest in four countries (Austria, Sweden, the Czech Republic and Poland). In addition, a relation between the popularity of fitness in different marital status groups and the country or region can be observed (Fig. 18.11). Having children has a positive effect on fitness participation rates in Northern Europe. In Eastern European countries, the individuals in single household practise more fitness compared to their counterparts in multiple households (with varying influence of having children) (except for Romania). This is also the case in Southern European countries. The opposite is found in most Central European countries as individuals living in multiple households show higher fitness participation rates (except for Germany and Belgium). In Western European countries a common relationship with marital status cannot be observed. As regards the marital status gaps, the fitness participation rate among single households is two times larger compared to multiple households in Bulgaria. The opposite is true for Ireland. Further, households without children have a fitness participation rate, which is two times larger compared to the participation rate among households with children in Ireland as well. Further, no notable gaps are found.

Living Environment Rising population numbers and the trend of informalisation and individualisation put more pressure on the living environment of subjects. Governments are taking initiatives to design movement-friendly living environments and to provide sporting facilities in the proximity for all their citizens. After all, research shows a relation between the presence

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of facilities and physical activity (Van Bottenburg et al., 2005). In addition, almost eight out of ten EU citizens agree with the statement that the area where one lives offers many opportunities to be physically active (European Commission, 2018). This means, however, that more than two out of ten EU citizens have the opinion that not enough opportunities to be physically active are provided. Additional analyses show that this number even increases for people living in rural areas or village (European Commission, 2018). Fitness participation rates are higher the more densely populated an area is. Less than ten per cent of people living in a rural area participate in fitness (8.4%) (Fig. 18.12). This number increases to just more than ten per cent of people living in small/middle-sized towns (10.3%). This number further increases towards almost fifteen per cent of people Finland Sweden 60 Estonia Denmark Latvia 50 United Kingdom Lithuania 40

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Poland

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10

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Germany

Croatia

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rural area or village small/middle town large town

Fig. 18.12 Fitness participation among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country and living environment, anno 2017 (in %) (Note Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta and Slovenia have less than 20 fitness participants after weighting and are therefore not included in this figure. Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer data [European Commission, 2018])

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living in large towns (13.9%). In addition, an increasingly large share of the world population lives in urban environments, almost six out of ten nowadays (Worldometer, 2020). As was indicated earlier in Chapter 3 (Flanders), 8 (Finland), 13 (Italy), 15 (Norway) and 17 (Switzerland), fitness is an urban phenomenon and thus fitness centres are more present in populated areas. This results in a higher participation for these areas, and thus clearly indicates that fitness is an urban activity. The highest participation rates in rural areas are found in Northern, Western and some Central European countries. Seven countries have a fitness participation rate of more than ten per cent (Sweden 28.0%, The Netherlands 20.8%, United Kingdom 15.7%, Ireland 15.0%, Denmark 13.5%, Austria 12.8% and Finland 11.1%). Contrary, the lowest participation rates in rural areas are found in mainly Eastern European countries Romania (3.2%), Bulgaria (3.7%) and Hungary (4.7%). Comparable figures are found for the small/middle-sized towns, with eleven countries having a fitness participation rate of ten per cent or more with Hungary (3.5%), Bulgaria (4.7%) and France (4.9%) representing the bottom three countries (each less than five percent). As regards the large towns, similar figures can be found as well. Now, fourteen countries have a fitness participation rate of more than ten per cent (with a remarkable increase in Hungary to place 9 out of 20 countries). France (5.5%), Romania (6.2%) and Spain (6.3%) close the row of lowest participation rates in large towns. The largest part of EU countries (18 out of 20) have their highest fitness participation rate in the group of large towns. Only two EU countries have their highest fitness participation rates in the group of small/middle-sized towns (Spain and Portugal). No country has its highest participation rate in rural areas. When looking at the gaps in fitness participation between large towns and rural areas or villages, results show that people who reside in large towns have a fitness participation rate that is more than two times larger in Hungary, Portugal, Germany, Greece, Denmark and Slovakia (3.6, 2.9, 2.6, 2.5, 2.1 and 2.1 respectively). There is only one country which has a higher participation rate in rural areas compared to large towns. In Spain, people living in rural areas have a fitness participation rate which is 1.5 times larger than people living in large towns.

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Difficulties Paying Bills As fitness centres are mostly organised in a private and/or commercial way, membership fees are accordingly. Despite the very recent trend towards low-cost gyms (see Chapters 4, 8, 9, 12–14 and 16), the price is still a decisive factor for many people. After all, it is much more expensive to practice fitness compared to practice running on your own on public roads. Therefore, as membership of a fitness centre is not an uncostly issue, the difficulty of paying the bills is incorporated in this chapter as seventh background characteristic. Past research showed that people with a higher educational background have better jobs and their earnings are accordingly (see part Educational status of the current chapter, Table 2.3 in Chapter 2 and also Hover et al., 2010; Scheerder et al., 2013; Van Bottenburg et al., 2005). In addition, results show that the increase in fitness participation rates of the past decades is not due to people who have difficulties paying bills, but rather to people who get around easily (see Table 2.3 in Chapter 2). In the EU in general, only six per cent (5.5%) of people who have financial difficulties most of the time have a fitness membership. This number increases as people are more likely to get the ends meet. Eight per cent (7.7%) of people who have financial difficulties from time to time and thirteen per cent (12.5%) of people that (almost) never have financial difficulties participate in fitness (Fig. 18.13). Six EU countries show high shares (more than ten per cent) of people with financial difficulties most of the time having a fitness membership, being Germany (17.4%), Hungary (17.2%), The Netherlands (12.5%), Austria (11.8%), United Kingdom (11.6%) and Poland (10.3%). In five countries, less than two per cent of this group has a fitness membership (Romania, Sweden, Denmark, Italy and France). As regards the fitness membership among people with less to none financial difficulties, percentages are high (more than fifteen per cent) among Northern (Sweden and Denmark), Western (Ireland and United Kingdom) and some Central (The Netherlands and Austria) European countries. These percentages are low among Eastern (Bulgaria, Romania, Poland and Hungary) European countries and France.

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Finland Sweden 50 Denmark United Kingdom 40 Ireland

Estonia Latvia Lithuania Poland

30

Netherlands

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Slovakia

20

Belgium

10

Hungary

Luxembourg

0

Slovenia

Germany

Croatia

France

Romania

Czech Republic Austria Portugal

Bulgaria Greece Cyprus Republic Malta

Spain Italy

most of the time from time to time almost never/never

Fig. 18.13 Fitness participation among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country and difficulty of paying bills, anno 2017 (in %) (Note Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta and Slovenia have less than 20 fitness participants after weighting and are therefore not included in this figure. Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer data [European Commission, 2018])

When observing the gaps between groups in one country, the inequalities appear. Five countries show a participation rate among people without financial difficulties which is more than three times larger compared to people with difficulties most of the time (Sweden, Denmark, Romania, Italy and Greece). Only three countries (being Hungary, Germany and Poland) have a higher participation rate among people with financial difficulties most of time, compared to people without financial difficulties.

Health Motives Men and women participate in sport for different reasons. Whereas, women use sport to improve self-esteem, men are more likely to use sport for integration (Downward et al., 2014). Therefore, it is not groundless

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to state that people in different countries participate in sport or fitness for different reasons. Especially when taking into account the specific societal context of countries. Fitness and health are two words that are often used in one and the same sentence. They are inextricably connected. The importance of health in fitness activities was emphasised in other chapters (e.g. Chapter 1). Besides participating in sport for social reasons (e.g. to meet new people), a lot of people participate in sport and in particular fitness for health reasons. In the interest of this chapter the degree to which people participate in fitness because of health reasons is analysed. The following seven health-related motives are taken from the EB survey to combine in one health category: (i) to improve health, (ii) to improve fitness, (iii) to relax, (iv) to control weight, (v) to improve physical performance, (vi) to counteract the effects of ageing, (vii) to improve physical appearance (European Commission, 2018).17 The improvement of health and fitness are the most important motives, the counteracting of the effects of ageing and the improvement of physical appearance are the least important health motives to practice sport among fitness participants. Almost seventeen per cent of the total EU population practising sport for (one of those seven) health reasons has a fitness membership (and can thus be considered a fitness participant). Figure 18.14 shows that these are not evenly distributed among EU countries. Large shares can be found in Northern (excl. Finland), Western, two Central (The Netherlands and Austria) and some Southern (Portugal, Greece and Spain) European countries. The shares of fitness participants among people who practise sport for health reasons is remarkably lower for (both North and South) Eastern European countries, France and Belgium.

17The

original question is: Why do you engage in sport or physical activity. Multiple answers are possible and other motives include: (i) to have fun; (ii) to be with friends; (iii) to make new acquaintances; (iv) to meet people from other cultures; (v) to improve your self-esteem; (vi) to develop new skills; (vii) for the spirit of competition; (viii) to better integrate into society (European Commission, 2018).

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Finland Estonia Sweden 50 Latvia Denmark Lithuania United Kingdom 40 Ireland

Poland

30

Netherlands

Slovakia

20

Belgium

10

Hungary

Luxembourg

0

Slovenia

Germany

Croatia

France

Romania

Czech Republic Austria Portugal

Bulgaria Greece Cyprus Republic Malta

Spain Italy

Fig. 18.14 Fitness participation among EU28 citizens aged fifteen and over according to country and participating in sport for health reasons, anno 2017 (in %) (Note Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta and Slovenia have less than 20 fitness participants after weighting and are therefore not included in this figure and health motives include to improve health, to relax, to improve physical performance, to improve fitness, to control weight, to counteract the effects of ageing, and to improve physical appearance. Source Authors’ own calculations based on Eurobarometer data [European Commission, 2018])

Discussion More than half of the EU countries are confronted with both a declining population and increasing share of older (65 years and over) individuals in the upcoming decades. This will put high pressures on healthcare and pensions as the share of people that pay for this healthcare and pensions decreases and the share of people who consume it, increases. In addition, the share of overweight population increases in all EU countries. Although differences between EU countries diminished between 1975 and 2015, they still persist (see Fig. 18.2). Associated with this is

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the increase of physical inactivity, which is observed in eighteen (especially Eastern) EU countries, and a decrease of sports participation, as well among eighteen countries. Unfortunately, this decrease in sports participation is observed in countries that already report low numbers. Coherent with the decrease in overall sports participation is the decrease in club-organised sports participation. A decrease can be observed in fifteen (mainly Southern and South Eastern) EU countries. The popularity of the traditional, civic sector decreases in favour of other more flexible and informal forms of sports participation. Fitness is a popular leisure time activity and its popularity has increased during the past decade. Nowadays, more than one out of ten citizens of the EU (10.6%) can be defined as fitness participants. From the seventies onwards, fitness (and all its different kinds of derived activities) has become (very) popular. This increase in popularity already started right from its beginning some decades ago (see Chapter 1) and continued to increase until today (see Chapter 2). Just as is the case for participation in sport, some geographical differences can be found for fitness as well (Hover et al., 2010; Scheerder et al., 2011). The Northern, Western and to a lesser extent Central European countries have higher fitness participation rates, compared to Southern and Eastern European countries (see Fig. 2.7d in Chapter 2). Sweden by far takes the lead with over four out of ten Swedish individuals participating in fitness. Latvia and Romania are last in row (less than five percent) with a participation rate eight to ten times smaller than that of Sweden. Where both overall and club-organised sports participation are considered as being a male leisure time activity, fitness can be considered as being a female leisure time activity. In half of the twenty EU countries a negative gender gap is observed, which means that fitness participation is higher among women compared to men. This is especially the case in Northern European countries. The opposite can be found in Austria. Italy can be considered as a country with a very equal distribution among the sexes, as the fitness participation rate is (almost) equal for men and women. When considering the age of the fitness participants, results show that fitness participation declines with age. Younger individuals (15–24 years) have participation rates which are three times larger compared to their

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older counterparts (55 years and over). After all, in more than two thirds of the EU countries the youngest age group represents the highest participation rate (an exception is Germany), and in all but one country the people being 55 years and over have the lowest participation rate. The decline of fitness participation as one gets older starts quickly in some countries (e.g. Ireland), but in other countries this decline is postponed to a later age (e.g. Austria, Greece, Italy, Poland). As regards to age, The Netherlands can be considered as a best practice. When looking at the age of fitness participants, the country shows a very similar participation in all age categories. The opposite is found in Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Poland where older individuals have a fitness participation rate which is more than ten times smaller compared to their younger counterparts. Past research showed that less educated individuals are less likely to participate in sport compared to higher educated individuals (e.g. Hover et al., 2010; Scheerder et al., 2013; Van Bottenburg et al., 2005). Unfortunately, this relation is reinforced when looking at fitness participants. Fitness participation among higher educated individuals is 4.6 times larger compared to lower educated individuals (this discrepancy is larger compared to overall sport participation). Fitness participation is even 6.1 times larger among individuals who are still studying compared to lower educated individuals. No country reports its highest fitness participation rate among lowly or middle-educated individuals. However, some countries are doing rather well for lower educated individuals, with fitness participation rates of more than ten per cent (e.g. The Netherlands and Denmark). Although the Dutch country chapter reports that lower educated individuals are indeed less likely to be a fitness participant, this group did demonstrate the largest relative growth in recent years, compared to their higher educated counterparts (see Chapter 14). Then again, some other countries report small differences between lowly and highly educated individuals. But when looking at individuals who are still studying in those countries, fitness participation increases enormously (e.g. Bulgaria and Poland), thus an imbalance can be observed after all. Fitness participation is 3.3 times larger among employed individuals compared to those that are not working (e.g. students, unemployed, retired, etc.). On top of that, fitness participation is slightly higher for

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self-employed individuals compared to ‘normally’ employed individuals. A more flexible use of time for self-employed individuals may be the basis for this. In addition, there is no country where people who are not working have the highest fitness participation rate. This is remarkable as this group should have the most spare time. An interesting effect of the household situation (or marital status) can be observed. In general, results show that living together with children has a negative effect on fitness participation for single households, but a positive effect for multiple households. Only seven out of twenty EU countries report a higher fitness participation among single households with children compared to single households without children. For multiple households, this number is twelve out of twenty EU countries. Most EU countries (13 out of 20) report higher fitness participation rates among single households compared to multiple households (especially in Eastern and Southern European countries). The opposite is found in most Central European countries. Fitness participation increases the more populated an area is. This trend confirms the statement that fitness is an urban phenomenon (see also Chapters 3, 8, 13, 15 and 17). The largest share of EU countries reports highest participation rates in large towns (18 out of 20 countries). Quite remarkable is the large increase of fitness participation of people living in large towns compared to people living in rural areas or small/middle-sized towns in Hungary (as can also be observed in Fig. 18.12). This could be due to the fact that there is a higher offer of fitness centres in the more populated areas. However, more in-depth analyses are required to make such conclusions. In recent years, there is a trend towards low-cost gyms (see Chapters 4, 8, 9, 12–14 and 16 and also Laine & Vehmas, 2017). A membership for a fitness centre is not that cheap and with the rise of these low-cost gyms other target groups are addressed for fitness participation as well. Nevertheless, results show that people without financial difficulties have a fitness participation rate that is twice (2.3 times) as high compared to people who have financial difficulties most of the time. In fifteen out of twenty EU countries the highest fitness participation is observed in the group of individuals who (almost) never have financial difficulties. When looking at the gaps between different groups with highest

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and lowest participation, these seem to be remarkably large in Northern European countries (especially Sweden and Denmark). Although Eastern and Central European countries report smaller fitness participation rates, their rates are more equally balanced between groups. Finally, results show that fitness and health are interconnected. Almost seventeen per cent of people who practise sport for health reasons have a fitness membership. These shares are remarkably lower for Eastern European countries, as well as France and Belgium.

Conclusion The relevance of the present chapter lies in the differences that are observable between this chapter that uses harmonised data, and the country specific chapters (3–17) that make use of national data. In Chapter 6 for example, a fitness participation rate of around 40 per cent is presented for adult Danes. In the current chapter, however, results show that about 21 per cent can be defined as a fitness participant. This difference can be the result of the quite broad definition of fitness that is used in Chapter 6. In the Danish chapter, fitness exercises ‘cover a broad range of intentional physical activities that are often motivated by health and bodily ideals’. Therefore, it is not necessarily linked to a specific location. After all, the results also included ‘participation in other forms of sport and physical activity, which is not referred to as fitness (e.g. dance)’. Another example is found in Chapter 9 (France). The authors report fitness participation rates up to 35 per cent of the population of eighteen years and older. Results based on the Eurobarometer, however, show that only six per cent of the French population (fifteen years and over) can be defined as fitness participants. In the French chapter, a broad definition was used as well, as ‘activities like dancing and boxing are included ’. The definition is ‘not linked to a specific location, but to three physical conditions’. As these two examples show, differences between studies can occur because of different definitions and samples. Therefore, the results of this chapter are important to enrich the results of other chapters and provide insights from a different, comparative perspective. After all, there are much data on sports participation, but too little knowledge about

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the more profound background thereof (Van Bottenburg et al., 2005, 181). Using harmonised surveys can offer solutions, but therefore more in-depth comparative research is needed. The current chapter brings together several societal problems that allow positioning the fitness industry in a more encompassing perspective. The population is ageing to a large and rapid extent in many EU countries, which puts high pressures on healthcare systems. This is reinforced with overall trends of overweight and physical inactivity. Both matters expand to a large and rapid extent as well, both for the general population, but particularly for older individuals (see Table 2.3 in Chapter 2). The share of people aged 55 years and over are more overweight and are more physically inactive (see Table 2.3 in Chapter 2). Combined with the former trend of increasing shares of older individuals in the total population, the prospects are not that good. Luckily, the fitness industry can offer relief. Although fitness participation is not popular for elderly, results show that the increase of participation among this age group was highest of all in the past decade (see Table 2.3 in Chapter 2). In addition, fitness offers other advantages such as being a safe environment to be active, health advantages on short and long term, flexible opening hours making it possible to work out every day and all day long, etc. Therefore, the fitness industry possibly needs to reshape its activities (subscription fees, variety of offer, etc.) to welcome elderly besides the younger individuals in the future. If managed well, the fitness industry is able to tackle its challenges and shape them into opportunities. The comparable Eurobarometer data show that fitness is a popular leisure time activity and that more people started practising fitness (see Table 2.3 in Chapter 2). Fitness is especially popular among the Northern and Western European citizens. Central European citizens have average fitness participation rates. Individuals living in Eastern and Southern European countries score below average. However, we may not be obsessed with these high numbers in the Northern countries. After all, results show that this high participation is not present for all social layers of the population. Although the Northern countries present a negative gender gap (women participate more compared to men) as concerns fitness, rather large differences are observed between lowly and

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highly educated individuals, people living in rural areas or large towns, and people with or without financial difficulties. One country, however, namely The Netherlands, stands out as being a country with a rather equal distribution among different social layers. With an overall fitness participation rate of 22 per cent (ranked 3th out of 20 EU countries), the country combines a relatively high fitness participation with a very similar representation among all layers of the population. Almost all different age groups are represented to the same extent in the fitness participation. After all, approximately 22 per cent of each age group has a fitness membership. This is also the case as regards the occupation. Participation rates among employed Dutch fitness participants are only slightly larger compared to the Dutch people who are not working (2.3 times). This is one of the smallest differences among EU countries (top 3). Therefore, The Netherlands can be considered as a best practice in many ways. However, each best practice also has some weaknesses where it can improve. A large difference can be observed between fitness participation rates of people with or without financial difficulties. Therefore, The Netherlands can observe and learn something from Hungary, Germany and Poland on that specific aspect. This chapter contains some limitations. First, the results show that fitness participation declined with age as well as the urbanisation rate. It could be the case, however, that young people more often live in populated areas and that differences in the living environment of subjects are not due to the type itself, but to for example the age (the same holds true for educational level and occupation). Second, there are two ways to define fitness in the Eurobarometer datasets (as a membership on the one hand or as a location on the other hand; for more information see Chapter 2). The authors of this chapter prefer to define fitness as having a membership of a fitness centre as it most represents the reality. Third, the significance of differences is calculated, but not for all numbers presented here. Therefore, it could be that, for the numbers without significances, some differences that are observed are due to coincidence and not to real differences. In addition, the reader needs to pay attention for the numbers that are presented with significances as sometimes the number of cases was low.

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The current chapter shows that both country specific studies as well as harmonised studies are important. National, country specific surveys (/studies) are necessary to explore specific topics in more detail and create rich datasets with a precision of data. Cultural differences are taken into account by using this approach (Scheerder et al., 2011, 2020). However, these country specific studies are very difficult to compare between countries because of the different methodologies used. Therefore, these country specific studies should be enriched with data that are collected by harmonised research. The comparison of both allows to bring together different perspectives and interpret findings from different angles. In that way, sports organisations in EU countries possess data from different sources and can make useful conclusions for further policy initiatives. Both ways of collecting data are therefore necessary and it should be encouraged in the future to continue executing both ways of data collection. As regards sport in general, harmonised data are already quite extensively available with some studies collecting sports specific data (e.g. Eurobarometer, International Social Survey Programme, etc.). As regards fitness in particular, steps can still be taken as the Eurobarometer is the only dataset containing specific questions related to fitness at this very moment.

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19 Fitness: The New Black or Even a Religion? Hanna Vehmas and Jeroen Scheerder

Introduction This book has outlined the significance of the fitness industry in fifteen European countries, including Flanders in Belgium and England in the United Kingdom. All of these countries and regions follow nowadays the basic principles of the liberal market economy, where the legal and political restrictions for the sport business industry to emerge, develop and grow are minimal. However, as history has shown, in many of the European countries, sport and physical culture have developed around the idea of voluntarism and amateurism during the last ca 100 years. This means that, in general, the commercial sports sector has been in H. Vehmas (B) University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland e-mail: [email protected] J. Scheerder Policy in Sports & Physical Activity Research Group, KU Leuven, Louvain, Belgium e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 J. Scheerder et al. (eds.), The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53348-9_19

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the margins in providing physical activity services. Thus, unlike in many other parts of the world, the Anglosphere in particular, the profit-making sports industry in the European countries has begun to develop much later (see e.g. Laine & Vehmas, 2017). It is also worth mentioning that out of the fifteen countries in this book, most clearly Bulgaria has a different path in its sports and physical culture development, referring to the fact that Bulgaria is the only representative of the former Soviet bloc countries. Thus, when making comparisons between the fitness sectors in Europe it is necessary to understand the differences in the historical, political and social systems of the countries. It is also important to notice that the sports sector in general, and the fitness industry in particular, in some countries, for example Greece, Ireland and Spain, have been strongly affected by the economic recession, especially between 2007 and 2009. It appears that the recession had an impact in the fitness industry, both in the forms of the general decline in the sports and exercise consumption, and in the emergence of the so-called low-cost fitness centres that started to emerge and offer memberships at moderated price levels as a result of the economic downturns. The latter, in fact, has been evidenced later in the industry more broadly, and more precisely, shaped and influenced the supply side of the fitness sector. Keeping fit has become a fundamental goal for people willing to take care of their body, with a consequent increase in consumption of goods and services in the fitness and wellness industry. It seems that fitness has indeed become a universal model of the usefulness of bodies in line with the process of globalisation when more people and cultural phenomena have spread to all habitable corners of the planet. Fitness certainly includes elements from the surroundings and societies where it is exercised, but at the same time it illustrates the synthesis of the existing cultures by producing a homogenous cultural experience (Houlihan, 2003, 2016). The influence of the Eastern physical culture and the holistic body views, together with the rational of profit-making and Western beauty ideals and the influence of media serves as examples of the globalisation of fitness. Fitness industry has gone through a surprising evolution during the last few decades. Especially the first two decades of the current century have evidenced a remarkable growth. The industry and the body culture

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around it have evolved from traditional ‘old school’ body building gyms of the 1970s and 1980s into differently sized and increasingly smaller sized, high-technology equipped health centres that sell services and products to customer segments with high variety. Fitness centres today are in many aspects like supermarkets of wellness, and they also reflect and illustrate the diversification of contemporary physical culture. Alongside with the enormous growth of the industry, the shift of the providers in the field has clearly moved from non-profit sport organisations to the for-profit commercial private sector operators. Although fitness is still seen to serve the functions of the public health policy in many countries, and is as a consequence supported by the states, the providers of the fitness field do not come from the public and nonprofit sectors as often as earlier (see e.g. Laine & Vehmas, 2017). There are several reasons for that, and one of the most obvious factors is the ageing of the population, which has resulted to the diminishing of the tax revenues, and thus decreased the state subsidies for the welfare services. This then has forced many traditionally strong welfare states and social market economies (see e.g. Breuer, Giel, & Hallmann, 2017) to encourage the private sector to fill in the market gaps of the health industry. With the above notes in mind, it can be summarised that the countries in this book comprise West-European welfare societies in which sport, physical exercise and fitness are important parts of the contemporary lifestyle. England/UK, France, Germany and the Netherlands, as being among the most populated nations in Europe, obviously report the clearest visibility of fitness, both in terms of the providers and participants. Denmark, Finland and Norway on the other hand, are less populated Nordic countries, in which various forms of outdoor activities have traditionally ‘competed’ with indoor exercise, but which as economically prosperous societies and physically active nations in general (see e.g. European Commission, 2014, 2018) report also high demands and supply in fitness. Nordic sport participation often highlights the ‘protestant’ individual responsibility of well-being (see e.g. Koski, Lehtonen, & Vehmas, 2019). This can also at least partially explain the high numbers of fitness involvement in Switzerland. Greece, Italy and Spain, together with Cyprus are Mediterranean countries that have traditionally ranked

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lower in sports participation compared to their North-European counterparts, but who also report an increasing popularity in fitness. It appears then that fitness as a form of contemporary body culture is breaking its path through the traditional behaviour patterns in sport participation. It also seems that particularly in the South-European countries fitness participation tends to be associated with the trendy youth culture and as a means to produce social and symbolic capital (see e.g. Gomes, 2008). In some ways, fitness culture is a ‘must’ that is advertised in media with commercial appeals. Finally, Flanders/Belgium and the Netherlands report high numbers on popularity regarding fitness. Fitness is the most popular sport in the Netherlands. In Flanders, fitness is ranked at the fourth place, behind recreational cycling, walking and running (which can also be seen as some form of fitness). Moreover, recent numbers confirm the strong growth of sport in Flanders, but the even stronger growth of fitness in particular when taking into account the revenues and employment of the industry. The enormous popularity of fitness participation in contemporary societies raise questions of why and for which particular reasons this form of leisure-time activity has become so popular and trendy. Obviously, there are plenty of explanations for the popularity of fitness, and at least some of them relate to the sedentary lifestyle and consequent health problems in the postmodern global society. Health promotion and illness prevention with the means and practices of fitness is proven to work for individuals of all ages and backgrounds. At the same time there is a growing influence of the neo-liberal market economy that has provided new commercial possibilities, especially in the field of physical culture. ‘Healthification’ has become a fashion, in which individuals and consumers are fed with needs that they seek to fulfil. What has happened in contemporary societies is the so-called technocratic solution that has transferred the cultural spheres of communicative life world, such as physical activities into commodities that have become colonialised and exploited as an added value (Habermas, 1989). By the same critical token, and in Bourdieu’s conceptual framework, fitness illustrates different forms of capital, especially economic and symbolic, which create power in the fields of social action (Bourdieu, 1985).

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From the functionalist point of view, fitness participation and memberships of fitness centres can be seen to create new forms of community spirit and belonging that have otherwise decreased in postmodern societies, at least in some traditionally perceived ways. Family, religion and work for example do not necessarily provide channels of social unity in contemporary society as often as they used to in modern and in early phases of postmodern societies. Leisure choices, such as fitness can be then observed as paths of social identification and group dynamics that may be reactions to otherwise boundless and even ‘anomie’ nature of postmodern societies. People seek belonging through leisure memberships (Durkheim, 1985; Stebbins, 1992, 1997). These memberships are, however, different from the traditional sport club memberships, which are often described as too binding and overwhelming for individuals to commit themselves to. Instead, fitness memberships that are also customer relations provide individuals with joy of leisure without the discomfort of being bound. Bauman (2002) describes this as ‘liquid modernity of loose and flexible memberships’. In their analysis of the current popularity of mass running, Scheerder, Breedveld, and Borgers (2015) have referred to this phenomenon by means of the concept of ‘light sports communities’, implying informal, rather small groups of sport participants (see also Borgers, Pilgaard, Vanreusel, & Scheerder, 2018 and Van Bottenburg, Scheerder, & Hover, 2010).

Trends and Motives of Fitness Participation Based on the contributions of the fifteen countries in this book, fitness activities are defined as urban phenomena that usually take place in a constructed sporting environment, i.e. a fitness centre or health club. It appears then, that most fitness offerings take place in cities, towns and other urban centres, and as a consequence, the more rural the environment, the fewer the supply of fitness is proportionally. Fitness appears to be also associated with individual’s ability to pay, even though the range of fitness supply covers nowadays from low-cost facilities to exclusive boutique studios. In many countries, especially in

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those that suffer most from economic downturns at the moment, citizens’ ability to pay even for the least expensive membership fees of the fitness centres seem to have become an obstacle for participating in fitness. Based on the data included in this book, it also appears, with some exceptions that the fitness industry has evolved in a relatively similar speed and manner in all of the countries involved. Especially since the 1980s the Western/American fitness boom with aerobics and other similar variants of commercial group exercises started to appear in the fitness centres alongside the old school weight lifting gyms. This obviously was a turning point in the growing development of the fitness industry and the health boom in general. As far as the demand and participation rates in fitness among the countries in this book, it seems that on average approximately 20– 25% of the citizens engage in fitness at least with some regularity. This percentage is obviously dependent on the database, definition of fitness activity and whether the whole population or only some cohorts such as adults are taken into consideration. With these country specific limitations in mind, the highest rates are represented by Denmark and Norway, and the lowest in Bulgaria (see Table 19.1). The lowest participation rates are reported from countries that also generally report lower sport participation rates. There are also differences in the definition of fitness, which makes the country comparisons somewhat difficult. For example, in Spain, the broader fitness definition including physical gymnastic exercises results to a 37.6% participation rate, but when merely body building is measured, the participation rate equals to 17.7%. On the other hand, in Greece for example fitness participation has been reported only by university students among whom fitness seems to have a growing interest. As far as absolute participation figures, out of all European countries, fitness participation is the highest in Germany where 12.9% of the total population are members of a fitness club. In many of the countries in this book, fitness belongs to the five most popular physical activities (Table 19.1). In Italy, Spain and the Netherlands, for example, fitness is the most practised sport that is rooted in the commercial sector. In Denmark fitness, along with running, is also the

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Table 19.1 Fitness participation (%) among adults and position of fitness within other forms of exercise Country/region

Fitness participation (%)

Position of fitness

Flanders/Belgium Bulgaria Cyprus Denmark England/UK Finland France Germany Greece Ireland Italy Norway Spain Switzerland The Netherlands

16.4 5 24.1 40 29.5 20 25 19.3 NA 21 26 30 17.7 (body building)/37.6 (PGE) 19.8 22

4 4 2 1 (with running) 4 3 NA 1 ? 2 1 N/A 1 6 1

Notes NA = not available PGE = Physical and Gymnastic Exercise

most popular form of physical activity as 24% of the population participates in it. In Flanders/Belgium, and the UK fitness is the fourth most popular physical activity after recreational cycling, walking and running, and in Switzerland fitness is the sixth most popular form of physical exercise. There are, however, differences between the countries, depending on the various databases. Despite these limitations, it is somewhat surprising how similar the demand rates and participation profiles look in all of the countries. Women tend to be more active fitness participants than men in most of the countries. This supports the trend of fitness being transformed from weight lifting to holistic health centres. Exceptions are made by a slight difference for men (78% vs. 76% among women) in England, and more clearly in Ireland where the traditional family structure is assumed to still prevent women from participating in leisure activities as freely and frequently as men. The gender differences can be also explained by the offerings of the fitness clubs, which are targeted and marketed especially to female consumers. However, in societies where the family roles are still more traditional in keeping young adult and middle age females at

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home, the likelihood of women to be involved in outside home leisure activities may be smaller. Levels of fitness engagement decrease with age. Thus, fitness seems to be most popular among young adults and students. This is an obvious finding as appreciation of good looks and appearance together with freedom of leisure choices are assumed to be of importance especially to young consumers. Therefore, for example children and youth on one end, and elderly consumers on the other end of the consumer continuum are not the most active fitness participants. However, with the ageing of the population together with the idea of approaching fitness (again) with the physical emphasis (‘exercise as medicine’), and as a means to obtain and maintain good muscle strength and functional capacity, fitness industry is predicted to have an increasing significance also among elderly citizens. As for sport participation in general, also fitness engagement is associated with higher socio-economic backgrounds of the individuals, although the spread of fitness globally (not just in Europe) implies that fitness is indeed becoming a form of exercise that is exceeding the traditional structural boundaries of sport participation. Despite that we can still claim that in the first place fitness is a manifestation of the leisure culture in advanced societies, where the basic needs of the individuals are being fulfilled, and where there are enough resources—being economic, cultural or social—left for other life activities (see e.g. Inglehart, 1977). When people need to struggle for basic needs in life, to find food, work and shelter, they are not expected to be concerned about fitness (industry). However, having said that, and using, for instance, football as a comparable example, we might ask whether people in contemporary global world are also willing to prioritise trendy life style to the basic needs. The spread of fitness globally alludes that this is the case at least in some parts of the world. It has become evident, however, in the contributions of this book that although not too dramatically, still clearly enough, fitness seems to be most popular among individuals with higher socio-economic backgrounds. This is in line with the background factors of sports participation in general. Individuals who have the economic, cultural and social capacities tend to be more active in leisure. Fitness participation is

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connected with monetary possibilities, freedom of leisure choices, knowledge of the health benefits of exercise and social appreciation of the community spirit and networks that participation offers. Urbanisation rate, and thus proximity to fitness facilities, also explain regional and country specific differences. Most fitness centres are located in central cities and municipalities. For example, in Flanders/Belgium the average distance travelled between the member’s domicile and the fitness centre was calculated six kilometres, and the willingness to move to a fitness centre was nine kilometres. In some countries, there are obvious differences in fitness participation rates at regional level. In Italy for example, people are more active in the north than in the south of the country; in Switzerland, inhabitants of the German-speaking regions are more active compared to the French-speaking and Italian-speaking regions; and in Finland, a very sparsely populated country, fitness centres are clearly closer to the urban areas than to the countryside. Despite this, in Norway, another sparsely populated country, 90% of the population has a fitness centre in their local area. Based on the contributions of the fifteen European countries in this book, it is clear that the fitness industry has multiplied both in demand and especially in supply since the beginning of the millennium. In the 1990s fitness hardly existed in many countries, whereas, nowadays it is one of the most—if not the most—visible field of physical activity outside of the top-level sports sphere. Also, during the previous two decades, a significant diversification of fitness services and products has been marketed to meet people’s increasing demands. The motives of fitness participation seem to follow the recreational sport participation motives in general. Good health, weight control, willingness to keep fit by building muscle strength and improving cardiovascular fitness are among the most frequently reported fitness motives in this book. Good appearance, fun factors and enjoyment, relaxation and distressing together with self-realisation and challenge-seeking are also motives that seem to keep individuals in participating in fitness. Sometimes, motives for fitness are related to the economic aspects as individuals may perceive fitness as a personal investment in good exercise facilities and competent training, and thus in one’s own health and well-being.

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Supply of Fitness Centres and Health Clubs As it was mentioned earlier fitness industry supply can be in many ways described as contemporary supermarkets of welfare, because the amount of fitness facilities and their offerings represent a ostentatiously visible part of today’s consumer society. Depending on the size and population of the country, the amount of fitness centres and health clubs in this book varied from several hundred to several hundreds of thousands of fitness facilities (Table 19.2). The German fitness market is clearly the largest in Europe. According to the fitness market study by the Deloitte Sport Business Group (Deloitte, 2015), the German fitness market counts for nearly 20% out of the overall 50.1 million fitness centre members in Europe in 2014, and reaching over 10 million fitness club members in 2017. The Netherlands on the other hand, has more members relatively to its population in the fitness facilities (see Deloitte, 2015). Despite the amount of fitness facilities and club members it became clear in this book that the visibility of fitness sector operators was evident in all of the respectful countries. Table 19.2 Number of fitness centres and health clubs in different European countries (N = 15) Country/region

Number of fitness centres and health clubs

Flanders/Belgium Bulgaria Cyprus Denmark England/UK Finland France Germany Greece Ireland Italy Norway Spain (2014) Switzerland (2018) The Netherlands (2017)

901 (whole of Belgium) 750 480 1,363 7,053 (whole UK) 1,816 8,000 9,000 1,250 710 5,000 1,129 3,900 (private) 2,144 locations (1,735), companies (1,335), sport clubs (23,870)

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It is difficult to provide a specific typology of the fitness centres, because generally the market is very fragmented and dominated by independent clubs. In most cases fitness services are, however, consumed and utilised in commercial fitness centres, in sport clubs or at home. Moreover, the largest profit-making operators only control a small percentage of the total amount of clubs. In line with the findings from the private sports sector in Finland (Laine & Vehmas, 2017), however, it became evident also from the contributions in this book that fitness in Europe is mainly provided by commercial profit-making organisations. Nevertheless, for example in the Nordic countries such as Denmark, Finland and Norway, fitness is also offered by non-profit organisations. This can be explained by the traditionally strong civic sporting culture and the relatively young idea of physical activity as a commercial commodity. In general, the Nordic countries have followed the welfare model, which emphasises the common good and the possibilities of all citizens, in spite of their purchasing power to have access to physical activities. Therefore especially in these countries the idea of commercialisation of sport and exercise is relatively new. Sport and exercise have been a visible part of the Nordic welfare models and political agendas of these countries. Regarding the form of operations of the fitness centres, fitness clubs usually operate either at profit-making chains, single companies or the so-called micro-clubs/self-employment companies. Moreover, fitness centres are typically identified as health and fitness centres, exercise studios, yoga studios, hotel-attached gyms and other wellness centres, and nowadays for example CrossFit clubs. Furthermore, fitness facilities can be classified into fitness centres, gyms and weight training halls. A general trend is the diversification of the fitness clubs according to the needs of different customer segments with the proportional increase of the smaller sized and low-cost operators. What generally matters when fitness clubs are classified, is the size of the centre, number of activities offered, the application of technological systems, the membership fees, time schedules, supporting services (such as accommodation, nutrition guidance) and payment formulas. The average European health and fitness club membership penetration rate in the 2017 EHFMR survey that consisted of nineteen countries, was 9.7%. Differences between countries were considerable. For example

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Finland and other Nordic countries that took part in the EHFMR have high fitness club membership penetration rates. Sweden tops the list with 21.4% of the total population holding a health or fitness club membership, followed by Norway (20.9%) and Denmark (18.3%). Finland’s penetration rate is the fifth largest in the EHFMR, slightly after the Netherlands (17.0%). High penetration rates in most North-European and Central-European countries are partly offset by lower market penetration in many of the Southern and Eastern European fitness markets (EHFMR, 2018). High penetration rates in holding a health or fitness club membership in the Nordic countries underline the relatively high proportion of physically active people in the population, the high urbanisation rate and the presence of the large fitness operators in these countries (see EHFMR, 2018, 11; Laine, 2017). As Laine and Vehmas (2017) pointed out, the fitness industry has not been affected by the economic fluctuations as badly as some other sport business fields lately. There is a tendency to believe that the fitness businesses have found manageable ways to adapt to the new economic situation. What has been characteristic to the fitness boom in many parts of Europe, is that the companies in the field have been able to reshape their activities in order to adapt themselves to the changes and needs of the market (Laine & Vehmas, 2017). What is also typical in the fitness business more broadly is that, partly due to the economic recession in Europe in the 2007–2009 period, the pricing and business opportunities in this field were altered. As a result, new types of budget-friendly fitness centres, also known as ‘low-cost gyms’, started to emerge in many parts of Europe. These are offered both to consumers with lower economic solvency, and to those well-earning customers who prefer to have the flexibility in choosing the training hours and services.

Employment in Fitness The growth of the fitness sector has obviously had an impact also on the employment in the field. In addition to the vacancies in the operations and management of the fitness centres, one visible form of employment

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has been created by the fitness trainers, or personal trainers, PT’s as these professionals are nowadays widely called. Fitness trainers can be defined as ‘semi-professionals’ who are relatively autonomous in relation to their clients, although they may not be likely to experience such autonomy from their employer (Chelladurai, 2005, 25). In many European countries, still, there are no statutory requirements for personal trainers or other fitness instructors. However, initiatives have been made recently in various countries to set up some formal qualification criteria for personal trainers in order to secure and standardise the quality assessment of the clients and customers in the fitness sector, and the working conditions of the instructors. Concrete figures on the number fitness instructors and other staff members vary in between the countries of this book. In the Flemish sport (in Belgium) ca 500 companies are focused on fitness centres (which is 4.5% of the total sports sector) and employ 1,240 individuals. This is 10.7% of the total sports sector employment (see Borgers & Scheerder, 2018). In Cyprus, on the other hand, there are 573 people who work as physical educators or trainers in the private gymnastic centres (PGC’s). According to the EY study (Cyprus Sports Organization, 2016) in Cyprus there were around 761 fitness instructors who work full-time in 416 gyms, of which 56% are men and 44% are women. Furthermore, in Denmark, the fitness sector employed in total 7,287 individuals in 2014 out of which 1,567 worked full-time in the sector. In Finland there were around 2,000 employees working in 453 fitness companies. However, these were only in fitness facilities that are compiled in the statistics under the TOL code 93,130. When all fitness facilities in Finland are taken into account in the Lipas database (2018) the total number of fitness facilities is 1,816 (Lipas 2018). In France fitness industry employed 3,110 people in about 8,000 companies, and In Italy, the fitness sector employed in total some 28,000 people, in which around 23,000 are first occupations. In Germany, the fitness sector in total (with micro-clubs, chains and single operators) employed as many as around 210,000 people in approximately 9,000 fitness facilities, which obviously positions the German fitness sector as the largest in Europe. Also in Italy the fitness sector plays a significant role as an employer. In 2016 there were nearly 58,000 people

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employed by the fitness sector (to ca 8,600 fitness was the second occupation). The UK shows similar figures as in 2017 the number health and fitness instructors in the UK was 57,000. In Ireland, about 9,500 people are employed by the fitness sector which is about 0.03% of the total number of employees. In the Netherlands the fitness sector employed (2012) 6,000 full-time employees, which implicates that fitness is the third largest employer in the sport and exercise labour market after education and government. It is also worth mentioning that in Norway only 24% of the PT’s have some training at the moment. It is typical that personal trainers and instructors are not on the payroll of one employer, and thus migrate between fitness centres. As it came out from the private sport sector (Laine & Vehmas, 2017), the ratio between the number of staff and companies’ revenues indicates that the fitness field comprises small companies that employ a relatively large amount of people. This, however, might be explained by the high number of parttime workers, because what is also seen increasingly in this field is the introduction of the budget-friendly facilities which often employ a very low number of people in their premises.

Membership Fees Due to the great variety of the fitness centres, also the participation costs differ to a great deal in between and within the countries. The differences of the monthly payments between the countries and between the low-cost, middle class and luxury centres range several ten, and sometimes even hundreds of euros. For example in Bulgaria, one of the least expensive countries, the monthly subscription of a low-cost centre was ten euros, whereas, some of the boutique-style fitness clubs in Spain charged as much as e240 per month. On average, it can be deducted from the contributions in this book that the monthly fees of the fitness club memberships were approximately e30–e40. In Germany, the membership fees range from about e33 to e67 per month; in Ireland the average membership fee is e49 per month; in the Netherlands the average monthly fee is ca e27.5; in Spain ca e25 per month (range e20–e240), in Greece ca e20–e25 per

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month and in Finland the average fee was e43 in 2017. Fitness clearly demonstrates the growth of the private sport sector whose survival logic is based on economic profit making. In countries where sport services have traditionally been offered as part of the common good and social amenities, the pricing of the exercises possibilities obviously raise questions about the equality in physical activity and leisure opportunities more broadly. Sport participation is seen as sphere of life in which the gap of the consumer possibilities of the lower and higher socio-economic grouping is increasing (see e.g. Hakamäki et al., 2014; Port & Kulbin, 2017; Puronaho 2014).

Future of Fitness Fitness facilities as a single niche market of sport are perceived as a significant sports business field that has showed a strong growth during the 2000s and 2010s. Alongside with the aspects already mentioned earlier, health awareness, new forms and opportunities for work place exercise, together with the digitalisation explain the popularity of fitness and the growth of the business field. Fitness illustrates the increasing ‘control’ over and holistic view of the individual well-being, in which different forms of capital are sought through fitness club memberships. Today’s fitness boom is connected with a holistic self-care ideology where people’s bodies and minds have become at the same time channels and targets of consumption. Along with the ideas of ‘disneysation’, fitness clubs illustrate the contemporary dependences between different forms of consumption, such as club memberships with interconnected services like food catering services, hair salons, physical therapy, nutritional consultation and day care facilities. Moreover, today’s fitness is increasingly linked to medical treatments, as physicians prescribe fitness and other forms of exercise for health promotion and illness prevention (Bryman, 2004; de Cámara, 2015; Laine & Vehmas, 2017). In line with Bourdieu’s theory of social distinction, fitness participation can be observed as forms of capital seeking. First, economic and physical capitals are gained by approaching fitness and exercise as medicine and forms of health enhancement that produce individual

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strength and thus, power for the challenges in various fields of life, such as the labour market. Active leisure with physical challenges has become a trendy and almost socially normative way of life in contemporary societies (see e.g. Vehmas, 2010). Second, social capital is obviously achieved via memberships, networks and other forms of community action and belonging. Third, fitness provides cultural capital by increasing the knowledge and awareness of the health issues and bodily skills. Finally, fitness is attached to the search for the symbolic power that is illustrated in fashion, outlook and jargon. Fitness is definitely fashionable and trendy. The question then arises for how long will this last. Is there enough of fitness for it to become the new black? Or even more—a new religion? Contemporary societies have lost many of the traditional sources of social unity. This was already stated by Emile Durkheim, one of the founding fathers of sociology. Durkheim wrote about the threats of modernity in which societies loose community spirit and thus, members of the societies lose their sense of belonging. This according to Durkheim creates anomiè, a feeling of meaninglessness and lack of community spirit on a global scale. Football, for instance, has been perceived as a postmodern religion, which indeed creates community spirit. How about fitness? Does it also have what it takes to fill in the gap of meaninglessness within the contemporary societies?

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19 Fitness: The New Black or Even a Religion?

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Index

A

Active leisure 13, 391, 452 Active Lives Survey 161, 162 Active People Survey (APS) 160–164 Active Places database 161, 162, 168, 169 Aerobics 10–12, 15, 17, 20, 76, 88, 97, 107, 123, 126, 142–144, 146, 148, 150, 167, 202, 205, 207, 225, 245, 250, 292, 335, 338, 352, 356, 368, 374, 376, 378–380, 383, 386, 393, 404, 409, 442 Ageing 38, 41, 64, 97, 169, 179, 291, 298, 424, 425, 430 population 390–397, 439, 444 society 39, 41 Ageing trend 33, 38

American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) 13, 15, 261, 333, 342, 356 Appearance industry 17 Aspirational class 2, 20 Association of Employers in the German Fitness Industry (DSSV) 221, 222, 226–231, 233–235, 237 Automation 16 Average yearly growth rate (AYGR) 3–6

B

Basic Fit 81, 84 Baumann, Zygmunt 152 Belfius index 83 Benefit Systems 99, 101, 103, 106 Biocultural phenomenon 10

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 J. Scheerder et al. (eds.), The Rise and Size of the Fitness Industry in Europe, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-53348-9

457

458

Index

Body building 2, 14, 15, 97, 100, 103, 104, 208, 225, 287, 288, 292, 298, 299, 309, 330, 351–353, 356, 357, 359, 360, 368, 376, 380, 381, 383, 386, 404, 439, 442, 443, 445 -care 287 culture 202, 286, 438, 440 ideal 338 in shape 286 Mass Index (BMI) 42, 45, 393 optimization 147 shaping 147, 329 Bourdieu, Pierre 17, 20, 287, 440, 451 Boutiques 108, 312, 351, 353, 354, 362, 369, 441, 450 Bronfenbrenner, Urie 159–161, 171 Bulgarian Association for Health and Fitness (BAHF) 104, 105, 107, 110 Business strategy 265

C

Cardio training 76, 87, 269, 271 Chain operators 226, 228, 229, 231–234, 237, 273, 384 Changes 2, 17, 33, 38, 45, 67, 90, 98, 103, 109, 111, 112, 160–163, 169, 171, 180–183, 203, 208, 216, 224, 227, 228, 231, 236, 237, 249, 253, 264, 265, 284, 285, 287, 290, 295, 297, 333, 342, 349, 351, 355, 356, 448

Children and Adolescence study 125 Chi-squared test 395 Chronic diseases 41, 49, 397 Civic sector 179, 390, 400, 403, 404, 426 Civilisation disease 49 Club-organised sports 12, 13, 36, 46–51, 55, 57, 58, 60–65, 393–395, 401–404, 408–410, 413, 426 CMDSport 355, 366 Coaching 86, 208, 212, 235, 258 Collaboration 110, 127, 128, 313, 330, 341, 342, 352, 361, 363 Commercial 12, 14, 15, 75, 86, 97, 99–101, 104, 109, 110, 112, 137, 139, 142–153, 169, 170, 193, 201, 202, 204–206, 208–210, 212– 216, 225, 244, 271, 272, 286, 287, 305, 309, 314, 321, 354, 362, 376–378, 385, 422, 440, 442, 447 providers 13, 97, 104, 147, 185, 321, 378, 390 sector 15, 141, 145, 193, 202, 305, 437, 439, 442 Commercialisation 296 Community 63, 73–75, 80, 109, 121, 150, 151, 157, 257, 273, 318, 337, 452 Community spirit 441, 445, 452 Comparative 26, 153, 206, 391, 429 research 26, 430 Concept of fitness 9–12, 97, 286, 287, 299 Conquerors 117–119 Consejo Superior de Deportes 355

Index

Conspicuous consumption 20 Consumers 9, 16, 17, 20, 21, 24, 33, 37, 39, 67, 99, 101, 108, 109, 111, 112, 159, 169–171, 180, 193, 194, 202, 214, 248, 252, 254, 262, 263, 266–269, 271, 279, 287, 312, 396, 440, 443, 444, 446, 448, 451 Country-specific 3, 23–26, 34, 47, 68, 98 CrossFit 88, 92, 107, 146, 163, 205, 208, 211, 215, 245, 251, 254, 287, 292, 317, 318, 337, 362, 367, 447 Cross-national 23, 25, 26, 34, 47, 52, 392 Cross-temporal 25, 26 Cyprus Sports Organisation (CSO) 119, 121–125, 127–129, 131–133, 391, 449

D

Danish Gymnastics and Sports Association (DGI) 139, 148, 149 DBK 351, 355, 358, 364 Deloitte 25, 75, 138, 159, 181, 201, 222, 223, 226, 227, 232, 235, 236, 259, 285, 311, 312, 328, 350, 359, 375, 446 Demand 2, 23, 24, 38, 39, 41, 91, 98, 108, 112, 131–133, 147, 167, 169, 171, 183, 207, 209, 226–229, 235, 247–250, 254, 262, 283, 288, 290, 297, 308, 312,

459

314, 321, 331, 332, 351, 355, 356, 368, 377, 378, 386, 439, 442, 443, 445 Demand Changes 228 Demographic shift 2, 33, 38–40, 66 Dependency ratio 39 Diabetes 41, 49, 397 Differentiation 108, 208, 214, 232, 260, 274, 296, 319, 386 Differentiation strategy 265, 274 Digitisation 222, 236, 237 Doping 200, 329, 341, 342

E

Eating disorders 329, 336, 342 Ecological theory 161 Economic Crisis 129, 243, 247, 248, 249, 252, 254, 357, 368. See also Recession Ecosystem 159, 170, 172 Education 13, 14, 34, 79, 89, 99, 104, 108, 109, 122, 127, 128, 132, 143, 144, 149, 169, 203, 208, 230, 247, 254, 267, 269, 270, 273, 274, 276, 318, 339, 340, 352, 359–361, 394, 413, 450 Emilia-Romagna 288, 292 Employees 2, 3, 36, 88, 89, 99, 101, 103, 106, 107, 110, 132, 145, 152, 179, 180, 185, 193, 206, 214, 222, 232, 234–236, 249, 253, 254, 260, 294, 295, 328, 330, 341, 342, 364–367, 394, 449, 450

460

Index

Employment 13, 42, 89, 92, 112, 132, 141, 166, 180, 194, 234, 268, 271, 289, 295, 296, 318, 355, 415, 440, 448, 449 E-services market segment 279 Esping-Andersen, Gøsta 55 EU Guidelines Harmonisation 132, 133 Eurobarometer (EB) 25, 35–37, 46–49, 55, 58, 65–67, 183, 375, 392–394, 401– 411, 414–416, 418, 420, 423–425, 429–432 EuropeActive 25, 75, 110, 138, 159, 181, 201, 222, 223, 259, 285, 306, 328, 329, 350, 375 European comparison 25 differences 48, 52, 55, 392 fitness differences 52 European Commission 25, 35, 37, 40, 46, 47, 50, 53–59, 64– 67, 75, 97, 118, 138, 148, 159, 178, 179, 183, 201, 223, 243, 259, 285, 306, 350, 393–395, 400, 402, 403, 405, 406, 410, 411, 413–418, 420, 423–425, 439 European Health & Fitness Market Report (EHFMR) 178, 181, 184, 189, 192, 359, 447, 448 European Health Interview Survey (EHIS) 34, 35, 37, 46–48 European Union (EU) 23, 25, 34, 35, 38, 40, 46, 48,

57, 74, 96, 105, 110, 118, 120, 124, 132, 138, 141, 158, 178, 200, 223, 241–243, 253, 258, 284, 286, 306, 328, 332, 350, 374, 391–399, 401, 402, 404, 407, 409, 413, 415, 417, 420–422, 424–428, 430–432 Eurostat 34, 35, 37, 38, 47, 75, 97, 118, 138, 159, 178, 181, 201, 223, 243, 259, 285, 306, 328, 350, 375 Exercise 2, 9–12, 14–16, 20, 21, 75, 88, 92, 99–101, 109, 111, 119, 122, 125–128, 132, 137, 139–144, 146–153, 163, 165, 179, 183, 185, 187, 202–204, 207–209, 211, 212, 245, 246, 248, 249, 251–254, 259, 261– 264, 266, 269, 271, 273, 280, 286, 287, 309, 315, 318, 321, 327, 329–334, 336–340, 342, 349, 352, 356, 357, 359, 360, 367, 368, 374, 384, 386, 391, 398, 401, 407, 429, 438, 439, 442–445, 447, 450, 451 Exercise industry 12, 246, 329, 330, 438 Expenses 80, 245, 292, 318, 397

F

Fatness 13, 21, 45 Financial Management of Sports 121 Finnish sport system 179

Index

Fitness activities 11–13, 17, 20, 21, 33, 40, 76, 88, 98, 123, 127, 130, 140, 142, 145, 147, 152, 159, 162, 164–168, 170, 171, 193, 202, 203, 206–209, 216, 225, 230, 231, 245, 295, 335, 355, 362–364, 368, 374–377, 386, 403, 413, 424, 441, 442 and health club 1–7, 9, 15, 21, 74, 96, 118, 138, 158, 178, 200, 223, 242, 258, 284, 306, 328, 350, 374, 389, 390, 446 as all-encompassing concept 299 boom 2, 15, 222, 234, 442, 448, 451 business Trends 2, 5, 81, 170, 183, 189, 448 centre 2, 9, 12, 14–17, 22, 23, 25, 36, 37, 49, 59, 64–67, 75–77, 81–92, 97–101, 103–105, 107–112, 119, 121, 122, 125, 128, 131, 139, 140, 142, 143, 145–153, 159, 178, 184, 186–189, 191–193, 231, 262, 265, 272–275, 279, 287, 292, 296–298, 307, 310, 312, 314, 317–319, 321, 327–342, 351–354, 356–358, 361–365, 368, 374, 376–379, 381–386, 394, 407, 408, 421, 422, 428, 431, 438, 439, 441, 442, 445–448, 450

461

centres typologies 78, 84, 125, 131, 273, 275, 354, 447 chains 81, 84, 89, 100, 104–106, 108–110, 189, 191, 192 classes 163, 165, 167, 263 club membership 38, 74, 96, 118, 138, 158, 178, 184, 187, 200, 223, 242, 258, 264, 279, 284, 306, 328, 350, 374, 407, 416, 447, 448, 450, 451 clubs profile 2, 15, 24, 38, 96, 98, 100, 103, 104, 108, 112, 159, 166, 180, 193, 201, 205, 207, 211, 212, 222, 224, 226–228, 230–235, 237, 238, 245–254, 262, 266–268, 271–273, 293, 307, 313, 316, 320, 442, 443, 447, 450, 451 clubs survey 110, 143, 185, 204, 207, 226, 409 companies 90, 145, 159, 310, 311, 320, 449 concept 288 culture 13, 20, 22, 99, 153, 286, 299, 440 customers profile 2, 15, 85 demand 98, 356 development 11, 15, 65, 68, 97, 112, 141, 179, 207, 226, 227, 229, 250, 308, 328, 442 facilities 2, 13, 82, 104, 105, 108, 161, 162, 168–170, 178, 179, 181–183, 185–187, 189–191, 194, 206, 228, 266, 273, 274, 294, 295, 375, 445–447, 449, 451

462

Index

industry 2, 9, 11, 13–15, 23, 34, 38, 66, 76, 89, 92, 97, 98, 100, 104–108, 110–113, 129, 132, 133, 145, 159, 169–172, 179–181, 193, 206, 221–224, 226, 227, 229, 230, 234, 236, 237, 246, 249, 254, 258, 262, 265, 278–280, 287, 289, 290, 295–297, 308, 309, 312, 313, 318, 321, 322, 327–330, 340–342, 389– 391, 396, 397, 404, 430, 437, 438, 442, 444–446, 448, 449 instructors 81, 107–110, 124, 125, 129, 131, 132, 159, 253, 278, 295, 296, 449, 450 management changes 297 movement 11, 13, 14, 132, 225 organisation 75, 104 participants 36, 37, 48, 49, 78– 80, 98, 101, 102, 107, 125, 143, 147, 151, 153, 185, 207, 210–212, 228, 230, 235, 237, 248, 264, 266, 292, 307, 308, 313–315, 319, 375, 377, 378, 384, 386, 392, 394, 395, 404, 406, 408, 410–412, 414, 416, 418, 420, 423–427, 429, 431, 443, 444 participation 2, 5, 20, 25, 34, 37, 45, 46, 48, 52, 58–60, 62–65, 68, 79, 97, 99, 129, 143, 184, 185, 206, 230, 247, 248, 254, 308–310, 315, 319, 322, 373,

376, 386, 391–395, 403, 404, 406–408, 410–423, 425–431, 440–445, 451 participation motives 79, 179, 291, 315, 330, 424, 445 participation reasons 65, 124, 150, 152 providers 98, 100–104, 111, 112, 193, 307, 313, 318, 377, 378, 386 revenues 3, 38, 89, 104, 110, 131, 182, 190, 229, 234, 250, 279, 333, 390, 450 revolution 15, 409 sector 13, 23, 68, 85, 89, 112, 119, 122, 131, 141, 145, 152, 172, 177, 181, 202, 203, 206, 245, 265, 278, 288, 293, 295, 305, 307, 309, 318, 320–322, 351, 359, 361, 362, 368, 375, 386, 438, 446, 448–450 services 95, 98, 103, 108, 112, 132, 170, 247, 258, 321, 445, 447 services trends 123, 201 sports’ popularity 221 supply 321, 357, 361, 441 trends 3, 160 Flanders 18, 19, 24, 73, 75–78, 81–84, 88, 89, 91, 92, 392, 421, 437, 440, 443, 445, 446 Flemish Fitness Panel (FFP) 77, 84–86, 88, 90, 91 Flexible 84, 274, 287, 322, 401, 404, 426, 428, 430, 441 For-profit organisations 374 Fragmented market 294, 447

Index

G

Geographical difference 426 position 82 regions 3, 34 Global financial crisis 389. See also recession fitness industry 38, 193, 340 fitness market 38 regions 404 trend 249, 254 Globalisation 9, 438 Greek Sport Administration 244 Group fitness instructors 110, 330, 339, 341, 342 Group session 3 Gym 2, 9, 12, 14, 15, 22, 100, 106, 119, 123, 126, 127, 129–131, 139, 162–165, 177–179, 182–188, 192, 222, 262, 264–268, 271– 277, 279, 280, 286–288, 293–295, 298, 299, 307, 311, 337, 351–354, 356, 359–361, 365, 366, 378, 428, 439, 442, 447, 449 Gym participation 129, 142, 149, 184, 210, 307, 379 Gym sessions 163

H

Harari, Yuval Noah 22 Harmonised 34, 47, 432 data 25, 391–393, 429, 432 survey 392, 430 Health

463

and fitness 3, 157–162, 169, 170, 181, 184, 191, 201, 202, 206, 207, 210–213, 250–252, 258, 261, 272, 307, 424, 447, 450 awareness 222, 451 boom 442 club 2–7, 9, 12, 15, 21, 74, 96, 118, 138, 158, 178, 200, 242, 251, 258, 284, 306, 328, 350, 374, 389, 390, 441, 446 motives 60, 61, 64, 423–425 or fitness centre 36, 394 trends 2, 33, 160, 179 Healthcare system 41, 397, 430 Healthification 307, 440 Healthization 299 Historical institutionalism 140 Human Resource Management 121 Hybridization 208

I

Income inequality 50–54, 57, 60 Independence and Sports 119 Individualisation 208, 376, 386, 419 Industrialisation 14 Injuries 216, 280, 298, 315 Innovation 2, 90, 92, 111, 112, 164, 169, 170, 208, 216, 279, 298, 322 International Health and Racket Sport Association (IHRSA) 3–6, 8, 15, 75, 81, 85, 96, 97, 138, 159, 178, 201, 223, 243, 259, 285, 306, 328, 350, 375, 389, 390, 404

464

Index

International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) 407, 432 Ireland Active 261, 273, 278, 279 Irish Sport Monitor (ISM) 260–264, 266, 273 ISCO classification 289

K

Keepfit 162–164

L

Labour Force Survey 289, 294 Language regions 380, 382 Late Modern 151, 152 Legislation 122, 125, 132, 170, 285 Leisure 2, 14, 20, 76, 122–125, 127, 131, 141, 165, 169, 170, 180, 184, 209, 253, 260– 262, 265–268, 271–274, 276, 278–280, 286, 289, 291, 311, 401, 426, 430, 441, 443–445, 451 class 20 Sports Participation Study 124, 125 Levels of Physical Activity 42 Life Fitness annual report 354 Life style 1, 10, 12, 13, 15, 42, 49, 81, 111, 132, 133, 179, 193, 232, 254, 287, 292, 298, 307, 310, 321, 322, 349, 391, 439, 440, 444 Lipas database 182, 186, 449 Living environment 408, 419, 420, 431

Local authorities (LA) 101, 105, 169, 199, 244, 265, 271–274, 276, 278, 353 Losing weight 79, 80, 211, 212, 230, 268, 271 Low budget 84 -cost 110, 111, 187, 189, 191– 193, 212, 214, 215, 260, 265, 274, 277, 280, 297, 353, 354, 362, 364, 365, 438, 441, 447, 450 centres 312, 353, 354, 359, 364, 365, 367–369, 450 operators 312 -cost gyms 2, 167, 265, 274, 351, 422, 428, 448 Loyalty 110, 206, 212, 216

M

Market 2–6, 13, 24, 33, 38–40, 67, 98, 100, 103–109, 111, 112, 125, 132, 147, 152, 158, 159, 164, 167, 169–171, 181, 184, 187, 189, 191, 202, 206, 207, 213, 214, 216, 223, 224, 227–229, 234, 235, 237, 245–248, 250–254, 260, 262, 265, 271, 272, 274, 294, 297, 309–312, 318, 319, 321, 322, 329, 331, 339, 340, 353, 355, 361, 364, 389, 391, 395, 437, 439, 445–448, 450–452 Marketing Strategy 91 Market penetration 110, 131, 214, 272, 293, 339, 448

Index

Massification 201 MEASURE network 23 Members 3, 5, 7, 8, 14, 20, 34, 36, 38, 42, 44, 46, 48, 55, 56, 64, 74, 75, 81, 83–88, 90, 91, 96–98, 103–105, 108, 110, 112, 118, 121, 124, 128, 137, 138, 146, 148, 150–152, 158, 159, 178, 184, 189, 192, 193, 200, 203–205, 208, 209, 212, 214, 216, 221–224, 226–233, 235–238, 242, 248–254, 258, 265, 266, 272–276, 280, 284, 293, 294, 297, 306, 310, 312, 313, 319, 320, 328, 330, 331, 333–335, 337, 339, 341, 342, 350, 360, 361, 363–367, 374, 376, 380–384, 386, 391, 394, 442, 445, 446, 449, 452 Membership 3–5, 12, 36, 37, 46, 49, 58, 59, 64, 74, 77, 84, 86, 87, 91, 96, 98, 100–104, 111, 118, 138, 158, 168, 178, 187, 189, 200, 222, 223, 230, 231, 234, 242, 252, 258, 260, 264, 265, 274–277, 279, 280, 284, 296, 297, 306, 307, 311, 319, 320, 328, 350, 354, 359–361, 374, 381, 383, 386, 404, 406–408, 422, 424, 428, 429, 431 Membership fees 74, 96, 110, 118, 138, 158, 178, 187, 200, 212, 214, 215, 223, 225, 231–234, 236, 242, 249,

465

251–254, 258, 272, 274, 279, 284, 306, 328, 337, 350, 359, 368, 375, 422, 442, 447, 450 Microdata 295 Ministry of Youth and Sport (MYS) 95, 105, 107, 108 Motives 60, 61, 64, 79, 148, 150, 179, 227, 291, 315, 330, 336, 374, 376, 424, 445 Mulier Institute 23, 308, 309, 311, 317, 320 Multi-level model 376 Municipal sports policies 352

N

NACE 181, 250, 289, 294 National data 25, 206, 392, 429 Governing Bodies (NGBs) 257, 273 physical activity guidelines 259 survey 25, 34, 160, 203, 206, 367 Survey of Fitness Tendencies 356 Neo-Hebertism 208 New institutional theory 140 NL Actief 305, 306, 308, 310, 313, 319 No frills gyms. See Low, -cost gyms Non-club fitness participants 80 Non-profit organisations 145, 152, 181, 374, 447 Non-profit sector 137, 152, 153, 179, 439 Nordic model 340, 447 Nordic welfare model. See Nordic model

466

Index

Nutritional supplements 100, 103, 105, 107

O

Obesity 16, 21, 22, 34, 35, 37, 41, 42, 45–51, 67, 133, 199, 259, 298, 390, 397 Olympic Games of 1992 353 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 41, 42 Overweight 16, 25, 34, 35, 37, 41–43, 50, 51, 67, 74, 96, 118, 138, 158, 178, 200, 223, 242, 258, 284, 306, 315, 328, 336, 350, 374, 390–394, 397–399, 401, 425, 430

P

Palco23 355, 359, 363, 366 Pan -continental 34 -European 25, 55, 68, 391 -European perspective 392 Participation 1, 3, 13, 17, 20, 23, 34, 35, 39, 47–49, 52, 55, 57, 59–61, 64–66, 68, 98, 99, 129, 130, 133, 137, 140–145, 147–150, 159, 168, 169, 211, 221, 230, 259, 261, 262, 264, 291, 292, 308, 314, 315, 319, 331, 332, 334, 335, 338, 340, 362, 379, 380, 383, 390, 395, 397, 398, 401–405, 408, 409, 412,

414, 415, 417–419, 421, 423, 426–428, 430, 431, 442, 443, 445, 450 Path dependence 140 Pearson correlation 50–54 Penetration rate 3, 5, 7, 8, 98, 184, 214, 390, 447, 448 Personal trainers 101, 102, 108–110, 246, 260, 278, 319, 330, 339, 342, 449, 450 Physical activity 1, 10–12, 16, 21, 23, 33, 34, 37, 42, 44, 45, 47, 50–52, 61, 64, 88, 96–99, 117, 122, 123, 126, 128, 129, 132, 133, 141–143, 145, 148, 150, 160, 165–171, 177, 183– 185, 193, 194, 202, 207, 209, 222, 225, 259, 262, 268, 283, 287, 290–292, 298, 329, 331–333, 336, 340–342, 351, 353, 356, 357, 377, 392–394, 398, 400, 401, 420, 438, 443, 445, 447, 451 Physical inactivity 21, 22, 25, 34, 47, 50, 56, 57, 60–64, 67, 68, 259, 329, 375, 393, 395, 398–401, 426, 430 Policy 26, 75, 91, 105, 107, 108, 112, 159, 160, 164, 167, 170–172, 244, 257, 262, 268, 295, 307, 318, 321, 341, 432, 439 Popular gymnastic 149 Popularity of fitness 16, 77, 84, 91, 142, 179, 332, 407, 409, 412, 419, 440, 451 Population growth 38

Index

Postmodern religion 452 Potential 40, 61, 67, 89, 132, 170, 215, 216, 222, 223, 237, 291, 340–342, 396 Power training 75, 76, 88 Premium centres 354 Prevention programmes 88 Pricing strategy 272, 319 Private and Public Fitness services 245, 351, 361 fitness clubs 159, 222, 224–230, 232, 235, 244, 245, 252, 253 sector 95, 105, 119, 164, 169, 171, 179, 180, 185, 199, 200, 202, 206, 223, 247, 296, 352, 361, 374, 439 sport sector 180, 201, 447, 450, 451 Privatisation 201 Processes 2, 14, 15, 21, 112, 152, 258, 260, 280, 296 Professionalisation 110 Profit 38, 98, 100, 101, 103, 146, 153, 164, 191, 214, 216, 248, 279, 281, 294, 297, 353, 359, 363, 451 Public health 39, 41, 42, 45, 243, 268, 287, 308, 329, 330, 334, 340–342, 439 Public sports sector 2

R

Radar chart 56, 65, 394, 404 Rational choice theory 140 Recession 2, 262, 357, 368, 404, 438, 448

467

Recreational walking 259, 261, 263, 264 Regional level 34, 55, 56, 445 Regulation 105, 107, 112, 113, 119, 122–124, 336, 341, 342 Related and supporting industry (RSI) 258 Replication practice 103 REPS Ireland 265 Retention 91, 110, 312, 313 Rimini wellness 287, 288, 298 Robotisation 16 Roots of fitness 14 Running 2, 11, 16, 26, 78, 91, 120, 137, 142, 165, 168, 183, 211, 221, 225, 230, 263, 264, 266, 272, 308, 313, 314, 317, 356, 357, 376, 383, 401, 422, 440–443 Running boom 15

S

Santa Monica Muscle Beach 15 Satisfaction 2, 85, 110, 133, 206, 212, 227, 231, 287 Scientification 110, 112 Secularisation 14 Sedentary behaviour 334, 390–392, 397 Segmentation 215 Service concept 260, 280 Services 1, 12, 13, 17, 38, 40, 81, 84, 87, 88, 95, 98, 100, 105, 108, 109, 111–113, 123, 124, 133, 153, 169–171, 179, 180, 187, 189, 192, 194, 201, 208, 213, 214, 241, 243, 246,

468

Index

248, 250–252, 254, 260, 261, 265, 272, 274, 278, 280, 285, 287, 293, 295, 297, 306, 318, 321, 327, 330, 337, 340, 351–354, 362–364, 368, 376, 377, 383, 386, 438, 439, 447, 448, 451 Shape 17, 21, 37, 79, 80, 91, 107, 171, 202, 225, 237, 257, 280, 285, 286, 291, 299, 310, 321, 329, 336, 404, 430, 438 Single operators 226, 228, 231–234, 237, 384, 449 Social class 20, 49, 268 media 90, 92, 111, 249, 265, 280, 339, 391 pattern 60, 408 status pyramid of sport 17 Socially stratified 408 Socio -cultural 10, 34, 36, 47, 60, 96, 284, 394 -demographic development 37, 38, 41, 395 -ecological system 159, 160, 171 -economic 24, 34, 49, 60, 83, 98, 166, 179, 210, 212, 243, 250, 251, 310, 334, 335, 444, 451 -economic differences 61 Spanish sport system 352 Specialisation 189, 214, 215, 296 Spinning 11, 12, 17, 76, 88, 142–144, 146, 356, 367 Sport(s) club participation 58, 59

clubs 2, 12, 26, 36, 37, 47, 49, 51, 107, 137–139, 142–144, 146, 148–151, 153, 179, 182, 213, 216, 222, 224, 225, 227, 230, 237, 245, 264, 265, 273, 285, 295, 305, 309–311, 313, 321, 330, 352, 354, 355, 363, 374, 376, 378, 379, 381, 382, 384, 386, 401, 404, 446, 447 Confederation of Denmark 138, 148 development 121, 243 England 159–161, 163–165 evolution 120 facilities 104, 106, 179, 180, 182, 184, 193, 244, 247, 310 flanders 75, 83 for All 51, 97, 127, 128, 147, 149, 152, 199, 200, 244, 285, 390, 400, 403, 406 Habits Survey 355 infrastructure 305 Ireland 257, 261 management 203, 206 participation 25, 26, 45, 46, 48, 57, 58, 60, 61, 64, 68, 76, 92, 124, 125, 128, 144, 147, 177, 179, 183, 185, 193, 199, 230, 247, 263, 286, 291, 309, 313, 315, 319, 330, 351, 356, 368, 373, 375–378, 390, 392–394, 401–403, 408–410, 413, 426, 427, 429, 439, 440, 442, 444, 445, 451 Switzerland-Survey 375, 377–381

Index

vouchers 180 Standardised questionnaire 25 Suggested Action Plan on Fitness Industry 124, 131 Supply 23, 24, 77, 81, 84, 87, 91, 107, 148, 161, 168, 170, 171, 179, 206, 225, 226, 228, 232, 237, 308–310, 317, 319, 321, 331, 351, 355, 361, 368, 375–378, 386, 392, 438, 439, 441, 445, 446 Supply Changes 228, 237

T

Team gymnastic 139, 142, 146, 149 Technologisation 208 Technology 3, 90, 111, 112, 265, 279, 280, 312, 313, 351, 439 Theory of social distinction 20, 451 Traditional gyms 179, 351, 352, 368 Trends 3–6, 24, 33, 40, 45, 48, 67, 88, 98, 99, 104, 109, 111, 112, 123, 148, 159, 160, 179, 180, 193, 201, 202, 207–209, 211, 215, 216, 222, 226, 245–249, 251, 254, 262, 287, 292, 293, 298, 299, 307, 312, 332, 334, 335, 339, 351, 391, 392, 394, 395, 397, 401, 404, 417, 419, 422, 428, 430, 443, 444, 447, 452 Trickle -across effect 20 -down theory 17

469

24/7 2 Typology 55, 101, 103, 131, 232, 233, 273, 275, 292, 296, 318, 354, 447

U

United Nations (UN) 37, 39–41, 43, 67, 393–396 Urban 99, 124, 126, 130, 193, 207, 210, 247, 250, 272, 337, 363, 421, 428, 441, 445 Urbanisation 14, 74, 96, 118, 138, 158, 178, 200, 222, 242, 258, 284, 306, 328, 350, 374, 431, 445, 448

V

Valgo 355, 356, 367 Veblen, Thorstein 20 Virtual 88, 109, 313, 322 Voitto+ database 181, 182 Voluntary sports sector 2

W

Wellbeing 41, 171, 192, 283, 286, 292, 307, 336, 391 Wellness centre 12, 251, 266, 293, 354, 362, 363, 447 supermarket 287 -through-fitness 299 valley 288 Willingness to move 83, 91, 445 Womenisation 207, 208 Workplace health 222

470

Index

World Health Organization (WHO) 37, 42–45, 47, 50–52, 75, 97, 118, 138, 159, 178, 201, 223, 243, 259, 285, 306, 328, 350, 375, 393, 394, 397–399

Z

Zumba 11, 17, 76, 92, 142, 163, 167, 205, 208, 292, 317, 367, 376, 379